Education in the various states. Education of the colored race. Slater fund and education of the Negro

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION.

CHAPTERS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

Foe 1894-95.

EDUCATION IN THE VARIOUS STATES.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION
OF THE NEGRO.

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1 8 0 G .

UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION.

CHAPTERS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION

Fob 1K94-05.

EDUCATION IN THE VARIOUS STATES.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION
OF THE NEGRO,

WASHINGTON:

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1 6 9 G .

CHAPTER XXX.
EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES.

ALABAMA.

[Letter of Dr. J. L. M. Curry to the gubernatorial candidates of Alabama.]

Washington, D. C, May 21, 1896.
To the Hon. Joseph F. Johnston and Hon. Albert T. Goodwyn.

Dear Sirs : I address this open letter to you as the accredited representatives of
the two great parties seeking to control the government of the State. I need make
no apology for my interest in Alabama or the cause which I seek to bring before
you.

With the issues which divide the parties I have no concern in this letter. The
subject of this communication is higher, far more important, more paramount than
all the issues, Federal and State, which divide parties, local or national. It involves
vitally every county, neighborhood, family, and citizen. It is not of temporary,
but of permanent interest. It affects the people individually, socially, intellectually,
and materially. All patriots should combine and labor incessantly until there be
permanently established and liberally sustained the best system of free schools for
the whole people, for such a system would soon become the "most effective and
benignant of all the forces of civilization." Such a cause should enlist the best and
most practical statesmanship, and shourd be lifted above and out of mere party
polities, which is one of the most mischievous enemies of the public school system.

Mr. Jefferson is quoted by both parties on liscal and currency and constitutional
questions. Let us hear what he says on the education of the people. In 1786 he
wrote to George Wythe: "I think by far the most important bill in our whole code
is that for the diffusion of knowledge among the people. No surer foundation can
be devised for the preservation of their freedom and happiness." To Washington
he wrote: "It is an axiom in my mind that our liberty can never be safe but in the
hands of the people themselves, and that, too, of the people of a certain degree of
instruction. This it is the business of the State to effect and on a general plan."

The best test of a country's civilization is the condition of public instruction,
said a French statesman. Tested by that standard, what is the rank of Alabama
among civilized people? The total population of Alabama over 10 years of age by
the last census is 1,069,545, and of these 107,355, or 18.2 per cent of the white people
are illiterate, and 331,260, or 69 per cent of the negroes are illiterate. Of 540,226
children between 5 and 18 years of age 301,615, or 55 80 per cent are enrolled in
schools, leaving only two States in this particular below her. In 1891-92 the per-
centage of school population (5 to 18 years) in attendance was 33.78 per cent with
four States below. The average school term or session was seventy-three days,

1277

1278 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95.

Tins diagram shows graphically the rank of each State and Territory according to
the rates of illiteracy in 1890:

Nebraska 3. 1_

Wyoming 3. ■!„=.

Iowa 3. 0

Kansas 4. 0

Oregon 4. 1 ■

South Dakota 4. 2

Washington 4. 3 ■

Idaho 5- 1

Colorado 5- 2

Illinois 5-?

Ohio 5.2

Connecticut 5. 3 t

Oklahoma 5. 4

Maine 5-5'

Montana 5. 5_=

New York 5.5—

Utah 5.6—=

Michigan 5. 9.

Minnesota 6. 0,

North Dakota 6. 0

Massachusetts 6-2

Indiana •*■ *

New Jcres y G- 5-

Vermont 6- 7

"Wisconsin 6. 7

New Hampshire 6. 8,

Pennsylvania G. 8

California 7.7

Missouri 9. 1

Rhode Island 9. 8,

Nevada 12. 8

District of Columbia 13.2=

Delaware 14. 3.

West Virginia 14. 4,

Maryland 15. 7.

Texas 19 "■

Kentucky 21.6,

Arizona 23.4

Arkansas 26,

Tennessee 26. 6,

Florida 27.8.

Virginia 30.2,

North Carolina 35. 7.

Georgia 38. 9<

Mississippi 40. 0,

Alabama 41. 0.

New Mexico 41. 5.

South Carolina 45. 0,

Louisiana 45

This beggarly array does not fill np the dark outlines of the picture. These short
schools are in many cases inefficient and inadequate, and the graduates of high
schools, even, are three years behind the German graduates in the amount of knowl-
edge acquired and in mental development. This inferiority is largely attributable
to the shorter terms of school years, to the want of professional teachers, and to the
small enrollment. In Prussia, under a compulsory law, 91 per cent are instructed m
the public elementary, or people's schools, or only 915 of the children subject to tue
law were unjustly withheld from school. It is lamentable that in many cases a
teacher in primary schools need not know much more than he is required to teach,
and that knowledge may be confined to the text-book. This deficiency in teacher
training is, with political and sectarian influence, the most vulnerable point in our
school system. The lack of proper supervision and inspection of schools is traceable
to this 'same pestiferous influence, and hence the officers charged with this duty
remain too short a time in their places to be qualified for their work. Eotation in

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1279

office, narrow partisanship, inefficiency, are tbe direct fruits of making school offices
not places of trust, but spoils of political victory. Our system of public instruction
has acquired such dimensions, ramifies so minutely into every family and neighbor-
hood, concerns so greatly every interest of the State, that its administration should
bo vested in careers of the highest intelligence and patriotism, of administrative
skill and ability, of thorough acquaintance with school and educational questions.
The state superintendent should remain in office long enough to be thoroughly
familiar with the duties of his exalted position, and should be an expert, capable
of advising executive and legislature, and school officers and teachers, and in full
and intelligent sympathy with the educational problems that are so important and
numerous. Greatly blessed is a State and are the children who have at head of
school affairs such men as Mann, Sears, Dickinson, Draper, White, Euffner, and our
peerless Harris.

The statistics of defective schools and consequent illiteracy teach their own sad
lessons. The calamities which, in the inevitable order of events, must result from
having so largo a portion of the people in ignorance, need not be elaborated, but
they should fill every patriot with alarm and impel to the adoption of early and ade-
quate remedies as au antidote for what is so menacing to free institutions and to
general prosperity. While ignorance so abounds, how can we hope for purity in
elections and safety from demagogism, immorality, lawlessness, and crime? " What-
ever children wo suffer to grow up among us we must live with as men; and our
children must he their contemporaries. They are to be our copartners in the rela-
tions of life, our equals at the polls, our rulers in legislative halls, the awarders of
justice iu our courts. However intolerable at home, they can not be banished to any
foreign land; however worthless, they will not be sent to die in camps or to be slain
in battle ; however flagitious, but few of them will be sequestered from society by
imprisonment, or doomed to expiate their offenses with their lives."

Perhaps the argument most likely to reach the general public is the close relation
between public free schools and the increased productive power of labor and enter-
prise. The political economy which busies itself about capital and labor, and revenue
reform and free coinage, and ignores such a factor as mental development, is snpreui-
est folly ; for to increase the intelligence of the laborer is to increase largely his pro-
ducing power. Education creates new wealth, develops new and untold treasures,
increases the growth of intellect, give3 directive power and the power of self-help;
of will and of combining things and agencies. The secretary of the board of educa-
tion of Massachusetts in his last report makes some valuable statements and sugges-
tions. No other State is giving as much for education, and yet each inhabitant is
receiving on an average nearly seven years of two hundred days each, while the aver-
age given each citizen in the whole nation is only four and three-tenths of such years.
While the citizens of Massachusetts get nearly twice the average amount of education,
her wealth-producing power as compared with other States stands almost in the same
ratio. This increased wealth-producing power means that the 2,500,000 people pro-
duce $250,000,000 more than they would produce if they were only average earners.
And this is twenty-live times the annual expenditure for schools. The capacity to
read and write tends to the creation and distribution of wealth, and adds fully 25
per cent to the wages of the working classes. It renders an additional service in
stimulating material wants and making them more numerous, complex, and refined.
We hear on every hand louder calls for skilled labor and high directive ability. It
is a lack of common business sagacity to flinch from the cost of such a wealth-
producing agency. This question is not, How can we afford to do it? but, Can we
afford not to do it?

All experience shows only one means of securing universal education. Private and
parish schools educate only about 12 per cent of the children, and if they could edu-
cate all there would remain insuperable objections to them in the way of management,
classification, efficiency and support. Our institutions and rights demand free schools
for all the people, and they must be established and controlled by the State, and for
their support combined municipal, county, and State revenues are needed. Eighty-
seven per cent of the children of the Union are now in public schools. In 18!l0 the
entire costs for school purposes were estimated at $1-13,110,218, toward the payment
of which the local school tax contributed $97,000,000. While furnishing education
is a legitimate tax on property, whether the taxpayer takes advantage of the public
schools omot, the history of education iu the United States shows that with State
revenues should be combined local taxation. This insures immediate interest in the
schools, better supervision, greater rivalry, and, on the whole, better results.

The schools in Alabama are handicapped by a clause in the constitution limiting
local taxation to an extremely low figure. If by gen era! agreement among the friends
of education the removal of this restriction could bo separated from party politics,
and local taxation could be brought to the support of schools there would soon bo
an era of educational and material prosperity. What a aornmeutary it would bo on
the capacity of our people for self-government, on their catholic patriotism, on the

1280 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

subordination of private wishes to the public good, if, under the advice and leader-
ship of those selected as iittest persons for the executive chair, the whole subject of
free and universal education should be elevated to the plane of organic law, and be
as sacred and irremovable as any of the fundamental muniments of liberty.
Yours, truly,

J. L. M. Curry.

CALIFORNIA.

EDUCATING GIRLS.

[ ( lommunicated to the Boston Sunday Journal by President David Starr Jordan, of the Leland Stan-
ford Junior University.]

The subject of the higher education of youn»- women at present usually demands
answers to these three questions:

1. Shall a girl receive a college education?

2. Shall she receive the same kind of a college education as a boy?

3. Shall she be educated in the same college?

First. Shall a girl receive a college education?. The answer to this must depend
on the character of the girl. Precisely so with the boy. What Ave should do with
either depends on his or her possibilities. "Wiso parents will not let either boy or
girl enter life with any less preparations than the best they can receive. It is true
that many college graduates, bo; s and girls alike, do not amount to much after the
schools have done the best thej can with them. It is true, as I have elsewhere
insisted, that "you can not fasten a $2,000 education to a 50-cent boy," nor to a
50-cent girl, either. But there is also great truth in these words of Frederic Denni-
eoil Maurice: "I know that nine-tenths of those the university sends out must be
hewers of wood and drawers of water. But if we train the ten-tenths to be so, then
the wood will be badly cut and the water will be spilt. Aim at something noble;
make your system of education such that a great man may be formed by it, and
there will be manhood in your little men of which you do not dream."

It is not alone the preparation of great men for great things. Higher education
may prepare even little men for greater things than they would have otherwise found
possible. And so it is with the education of women. The needs of the times are
imperative. The noblest result of social evolution is the growth of the civilized
home. Such a home only a wise, cultivated, and high-minded woman can make.
To furnish such women is one of the noblest missions of higher education. No
young women capable of becoming such should lie condemned to a lower destiny.
Even of those seemingly too dull or too vacillating to reach any high ideal of wis-
dom, this may be said, that it does no harm to try. A few hundred dollars is not
much to spend on an experiment of such moment. Four of the best years of one's
life spent in the company of noble thoughts and high ideals can not fail to leave
their impress. To be wise, and at the same time womanly, is to wield a tremendous
inlluence, which may be felt for good in the lives of generations to come. It is not
forms of government by which men are made or unmade. It is the character and
influence of their mothers and wives. The higher education of women means more
for the future than all conceivable legislative reforms. And its influence does not
stop with the home. It means higher standards of manhood, greater thoroughness
of training and the coming of better men. Therefore, let us educate our girls as
well as our boys. A generous education should be the birthright of every daughter
of the Republic as well as of every son.

Second. Shall we give our girls the same education as our boys? Yes and no. If
we mean by the same an equal degree of breadth and thoroughness, an equal fitness
for high th'inkinj;' and wise acting, yes, let it be the same. If we mean to reach this
end l>y exactly the same course of studies, then my answer must be no. For the
same course of study will not yield the same results with different persons. The
ordinary "college course-' which has been handed down from generation to genera
tion is purely conventional. It is a result of a series of compromises in trying to
lil the traditional education of clergymen and gentlemen to the needs of men of a
different social era. The old college course met the special needs of nobody, and
therefore was adapted to all alike. The great educational awakening of the last
twenty years in America has come from breaking the bonds of this old system. The
essence of the new education is individualism. Its purpose is to give to each young
man that training which will make a man of him. Not the training which a cen-
tury or two ago helped to civilize the masses of boys of that time, but that which
will civilize this particular boy. One reason why the college students of 1895 are
ten to one in number as compared with those of 1875, is that the college training now
given is valuable to ten times as many men as could be reached or helped by the
narrow courses of twenty years ago.

In the university of to-day the largest liberty of choice in study is given to the

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1281

student. Tin' professor advises, tho student chooses, and the dcxibility of the
courses makes it possible for every form of talent to receive proper culture. Because
the college, of to-day helps ten times as many men as that of yesterday could hope
to reach, it is ten times as valuable. The difference lies in the development of special
lines of work and in the growth of the elective system. The power of choice car-
ries the duty of choosing rightly. The ability to choose has made a man out of the
college boy. and transferred college work from an alternation of tasks and play to
its proper relation to the business of life. Meanwhile, the old ideals have not risen
in value. If our colleges were to go back to threshing the cut straw of mediaeval-
ism — in other words, to their Avork of twenty years ago — their professors would speak
to empty benches. In those colleges which still cling to those traditions these
benches are empty to day or tilled only with idlers. This to a college is a fate worse
than (hath.

The best education for a young woman is surely not that which has proved unlit
for the young man. She is an individual as well as he, and her work gains as muck
as his by relating it to her life. But an institution broad enough to meet the varied
needs of varied men can also meet the varied needs of the varied woman. Intellec-
tual training is the prime function of the college. The intellectual needs of men
and women are not different in many important respects. The special or profes-
sional needs so far as they are different will bring their own satisfaction. Those
who have had to do with the higher training of women know that the severest
demands can be met by them as well as by men. There is no demand for easy or
"goody-goody" courses of study for women except as this demand has been made
or encouraged by men.

There are, of course, certain average differences between men and women as stu-
dents. Women have often greater sympathy, greater readiness of memory or appre-
hension, greater fondness for technique. In the languages and literature, often in
mathematics and history, women are found to excel. They lack, on the whole, origi-
nality. They are not attracted by unsolved problems, and in the inductive or ' ' inex-
act " sciences they seldom take the lead. In the traditional courses of study, tradi-
tional for men, they are often very successful. Not that these courses have a special
fitness for women, but that women are more docile and less critical as to the purposes
of education. And to all these statements there are many exceptions. In this, how-
ever, those who have taught both men and women must agree. The training of
women is just as serious and just as important as the training of men, and no training
i- adequate for either which falls short of the best.

Third. Shall women be taught in the same classes as men ? This is, it seems to me,
not a fundamental question, but rather a matter of taste. It does no harm whatever
to either men or women to meet those of the other sex in the same class rooms. But
if they prefer not to do so, let them do otherwise. Considerable has been said for and
against tho union in one institution of technical schools and schools of liberal arts.
The technical character of scientific work is emphasized by its separation from gen-
eral culture. But I believe better men are made where the two are not separated.
The devotees of culture studies gain from the feeling reality and utility cultivated
by technical work. The technical students gain from association with men and
influences whose aggregate tendency is toward greater breadth of sympathy and a
higher point of view.

A woman's college is more or less distinctly a technical school. In most cases its
purpose is distinctly stated to be such. It is a school for training for the profession
of womanhood. It encourages womanliness of thought as something more or less
different from the plain'th inking which is often called manly.

The brightest work in women's colleges is often accompanied by a nervous strain as
though the students or teachers were fearful of falling short of some expected stand-
ard. They are often working toward ideals set by others. The best work of men
is natural and unconscious, the normal product of the contact of the mind with the
problem in question. On the whole, calmness and strength in woman's work are
bi st reached through coeducation.

At the present time the demand for the higher education of women is met in three
different ways:

1 . In separate colleges for women, with courses of study more or less parallel with
those given in colleges for men. In some of these the teachers are all women, in
some mostly men, and in others a more or less equal division obtains. In nearly all
of these institutions the old traditions of education and discipline are more prevalent
Than in colleges for men. Nearly all of them retain some trace of religious or denom-
inational control. In all of them the Zeitgeist is producing more or less commotion,
and the changes in their evolution are running parallel with those in colleges for
men.

2. In women's annexes to colleges for men. In these, part of the instruction given
to the men is repeated to the women, in different classes or rooms, and there is more

ED 95 41

1282 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

or loss opportunity to use tlio same libraries and museums. In some other institu-
tions the relations are closer, the privileges of study being similar, tlio differences
being mainly in the rules of conduct by which the young women are hedged in, the
young men making their own regulations.

It seems to mo that the annex system can not bo a permanent one. The annex stu-
dent does not get the best of the institution, and the best is none too good for her.
Sooner or later she will demand it, or go where the best can be found. The best stu-
dents will cease to go to 'the annex. The institution must then admit women on
equal terms or not admit them at all. There is certainly no educational reason why
women should prefer the annex of one institution if another institution equally good
throws its doors wide open for her.

3. The third system is that of coeducation. Iu this relation young men and young
women are admitted to the same classes, subjected to the same requirements, and
governed by the same rules. This system is now fully established in the State insti-
tutions of the North and "West, and iu most other colleges of the same region. Its
effectiveness has long since passed beyond question among those familiar with its
operation. Other things being equal, the young men are more earnest, better in
manners and morals, and in all ways more civilized than under monastic conditions.
The women do their work in a more natural way, with better perspective and with
saner incentives thanAvhen isolated from the influence and society of men. There is
less of silliness and folly when a man ceases to be a novelty. There is less attraction
exerted by idle and frivolous girls when youug men meet also girls industrious and
serious. In coeducational institutions of high standards frivolous conduct or scau-
dals of any form are unknown. The responsibility for decorum is thrown from the
school to tho woman, and the woman rises to the responsibility. Many professors
have entered Western colleges with strong prejudices against coeducation. These
prejudices have in no case endured the test of experience. "What is well done has a
tonic effect ou tho mind and character. The college girl has long since ceased to
expect any particular leniency because she is a girl. She stands or falls with the
character of her work.

It is not true that the standard of college work has been in any way lowered by
coeducation. Tho reverse is decidedly the case. It is true, however, that untimely
zeal of one sort or another has rilled our AVestern States with a host of so-called col-
leges. It is true that most of these are weak, and doing poor work in poor ways. It
is true that most of these are coeducational. It is also true that tho great majority
of their students are not of college grade at all. In such schools often low standards
prevail, both as to scholarships and as to manners. The student fresh from the coun-
liy, with no preparatory training, will bring tho manners of his home. These are
not always good manners, as manners are judged in society. But none of these
defects are derived from coeducation, nor are any of these conditions in any way mado
worse by it.

A final question: Does not coeducation lead to marriage? Most certainly it does,
and th is fact need not be and can not be denied. But such marriages are not usually
premature. And it is certainly true that no better marriages can be made than those
founded on common interests and intellectual friendships.

A college man Avho has known college women i3 not drawn to women of lower ideals
and inferior training, lie is likely to bo strongly drawn toward the best he has
known. A college woman is not led by mere propinquity to accept tho attentions of
inferior men. Among some thirty college professors educated iu coeducational col-
leges, as Cornell, Wisconsin, Michigan, California, whose records are before me, two-
thirds have married college friends. Most of the others have married women from
other colleges, and a few chosen women from their own colleges, but not contempo-
rary with themselves. In all cases the college man has chosen a college woman, and
in all cases both man and woman are thoroughly happy with the outcome of coedu-
cation. It is part of the legitimate function of higher education to prepare women
as well as men for happy and successful lives.

CONNECTICUT.

THE TENDENCY OF MEN TO LIVE IN CITIES.

[Address of President Kingsbury, of the American Social Science Association. Head September 2,

1895.]

Two or three years since I wrote this title as a memorandum for a paper which I
wished to prepare when I should find time sufficient to make some necessary inves-
tigations, statistical and otherwise. I knew of nothing, or almost nothing, written
on the subject, except by way of occasional allusion. I made many inquiries iu
various directions, personally and by letter, of those who would, I thought, be likely
to give me information ; I examined libraries and catalogues — and all this with very
trilling results. To-day, when I again take up the theme, so much has been written

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1283

on the subject that the question has almost passed from the stage of generalization
to that of specialization and detail.

In the April number of the Atlantic Magazine of the present year an article com-
menting on Dr. Albert Shaw's recent work, entitled "Municipal government in
Great Britain," says:

"The great fact in tho social development of the white race at the close of the
nineteenth century is the tendency all over the world to concentrate in great cities."

Doubtless this is true; but it is not a new, or even a modern tendency, although,
as wo shall see, there is much in modern civilization which tends to increase and
accentuate it. Still, when the earliest dawn of authentic history sheds itspalo light
on the impenetrable darkness which lies beyond, it shows us cities as large, as mag-
nificent, as luxurious, as wicked, and apparently as old as any that the world has
since known. The books speak of Babylon as the largest city the world has ever
seen; but it was by no means the first, and may not have been the greatest even
then. Nineveh, its great rival, Memphis, Thebes, Damascus, claiming to be the
oldest of them all, Eome, in a later time, with its two or three millions of inhabi-
tants, are but representatives of other cities by tho thousands, perhaps larger anil
older than tho largest and oldest here named, and are certainly sufficient to show
that a tendency in men to live congregated together in largo numbers is as old as
anything that wo know about the human race.

In our earliest literature, too, we find, apparently well fixed, some of the same
prejudices against the city as a place for men to dwell iu that now exist. These
prejudices must have been already existing for a long time, and their influence must
have been the subject of observation before even tho possibly somewhat prejudiced
people who did not live in cities should have arrived at such firmly settled con-
clusions in regard to their deleterious intluence. Curiously enough, the prejudice
appears iu one of our earliest writings. These is no doubt that the writer of tho
Book of Genesis had what might be called an unfriendly feeling toward Cain. He
gives him a bad character in every respect. He holds him up to the universal con-
tempt of mankind, and visits him with the severest judgments of God. And, after
he has said about him nearly every bad thing that he can think of, he adds as a
climax to his enormities, "And Cain buildcd a city." Now, whether he meant to be
understood that cities, having been first built by such au infamous scoundrel, had
turned out to be very much what you might expect, or whether, the general char-
acter of cities having been already settled in his mind, it was adding one moro black
mark to Cain to mention this fact, is by no means clear; but this much is certain,
that the writer was no admirer of cities, and that neither Cain nor cities were
intended to derive any credit from his statement. From that day to this they have
had their severe critics. They have been regarded as the breeding places of vice
and tho refuge of crime. Our own Jefferson — that is, Thomas, not Joseph — is said
to have called them " ulcers on the body politic." Dr. Andrew D. White, in his
address as president of this association delivered in 1891, says, "Our cities are the
rotten spots in our body politic, from which, if we are not careful, decay is to spread
throughout our whole country; for cities make and spread opinions, fashions,
ideals." The poet Cowley says, " God the first garden made, and the first citjT Cain."
And other writers with the same feelings have used language of a similar import,
dictated by tho warmth of their temperament, the range of their vocabulary, and
the power of their rhetoric.

Prof. Max Nordau, Avho has lately shown us in a large octavo of 6-30 pages how
we aro all hastening on to certain destruction — a conclusion which I am not dis-
posed to combat — or perhaps I might more modestly say, as the late President Wool-
sey is reported to have said to Daniel A. Pratt, tho great American traveler, when
he laid before him some rather startling propositions, that I would rather give him
a dollar than to attempt to point out the fallacy in his argument — Mr. Nordau, after
quoting high authority to show how the human race is poisoning itself with alcohol,
tobacco, opium, hasheesh, arsenic, and tainted food, says:

"To these noxious influences, however, one more may be added, which Morel [the
authority ho has just quoted] has not known or has not taken into consideration;
namely, residence in large towns. The inhabitant of a large town, even the richest,
who is surrounded by the greatest luxury, is continually exposed to unfavorable
influences which diminish his vital powers far more than what is inevitable. He
breathes an atmosphere charged with organic detritus; he eats stale, contaminated,
adulterated food; he feels himself in a state of constant nervous excitement, and
one can compare him without exaggeration to the inhabitant of a marshy district.
The effect of a large town on tho human organism offers the closest analogy to that
of tho Maremma, and its population falls victim to the same fatality of degeneracy
and destruction as the victims of malaria. The death rate in a largo town is more
than a quarter greater than the average for the entire population. It is double that
of the open country, though in reality it ought to bo less, since in a large town tho
most vigorous ages predominate, during which the mortality is lower than in infancy

1284 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

and old age. And the children of large towns who are not carried off at an early
age suffer from the peculiar arrested development which Morel has ascertained in
the population of fever districts. They develop more or less normally until they are
14 or 15 years of age, are up to that time alert, sometimes hrilliantly endowed, and
give the highest promise. Then suddenly there is a standstill. The mind loses its
facility of comprehension; and the hoy, who only yesterday was a model scholar,
hecomes an obtuse, clumsy dunce, who can only be steered with the greatest diffi-
culty through his examinations. With these mental changes bodily modifications
go hand in hand. The growth of the long bones is extremely slow or ceases entirely,
the legs remain short, the pelvis retains a feminine form, certain other organs cease
to develop, and the entire being presents a strange and repulsive mixture of uneom-
pleteness and decay. Now, we know hosv in the last generation the number of
inhabitants of great towns increased to an extraordinary degree. At the present
time an incomparably larger portion of the whole population is subjected to the
destructive influences of large towns than was the case fifty years ago. Hence
the number of victims is proportionately more striking, and continually becomes
moro remarkable. Parallel with growth of large towns is the increase iu the number
of the degenerate of all kinds, criminals, lunatics, and the higher degenerates of
Maguau ; and it is natural that these last should play an ever more prominent part
in endeavoring to introduce an ever greater element of insanity into art and litera-
ture.''

Many people think Nordau like the patient iu the asylum. He thinks everybody
crazy except himself. But Dr. Walter B. Piatt, in a paper read before this associa-
tion in 1887, points out certain dangers to the constitution to which every dweller
in cities is of necessity exposed from physical causes, specially mentioning disuse of
the upper extremities, the exposure to incessant noise and its cumulative effect on
the whole nervous system, the jarring of the brain and spinal cord by a continual
treading upon unyielding pavements. And he adds that good authorities assert
that there are very, few families now living in London who with their predecessors
have resided there continuously for three generations; but he excepts from the
operations of these deleterious influences those whoso circumstances are such as to
enable them to spend a considerable portion of each year in the country.

Dr. Grace Peckham, in a paper read before this association in 1885, says: "How-
ever it was arrived at, the census of 1880 shows that the infant mortality of cities in
this country is twice as great as that of the rural districts.'''

Everyone who has taken an interest in Mr. Charles Loring Brace's great work in
the city of New York knows that his firm belief was that the salvation of the city
poor depended on gettiug the surplus into country homes; and few men have been
more competent to judge or more ready to look at all sides of a case than he. The
literature of the slums is full of every human horror; and it would seem as if any
change must be for the better.

Dr. Josiah Strong, in that vigorous presentation of the dangers of our American
civilization entitled Our Country, says: "The city has become a serious menace to
our civilization, because in it each of our dangers is enhanced and all are localized.
It has a peculiar attraction for the immigrant. In 1880 our fifty principal cities
contained 39.3 per cent of our German population and 45.8 per cent of our Irish.
Not only does the proportion of the poor increase with the growth of the city, but
their condition becomes more wretched. Dives and Lazarus are brought face to face."
Speaking of Dives and Lazarus, has Dives had what you might call quite fair play?
Even Judas has had his apologists, but I do not remember ever to have seen any
speculation as to what would have become of Lazarus if he had not been fed from
Dives's table. Doubtless he preferred that to the poorhouso or even to tramping;
and from all accounts, he was not exactly the sort of person you would choose for a
parlor boarder. This, however, is a mere passing comment, and, I trust, will not
involve me in any theologic discussion ; but I do like to see even the devil have his
due.

The feature of cities which is perhaps at present attracting more attention than
any other is their misgovernment. Dr. Strong begins a paragraph thus: "Tho gov-
ernment of the city is by a 'boss' who is skilled in the manipulation of the 'machine,'
and who holds no political principles except 'for revenue only.'" If a foreigner were
to read that sentence he would infer that "boss" was the English for the chief mag-
istrate of a city, but we know so well just what it means that it scarcely attracts our
attention. * * *

One would think after reading all this about the evils of cities from the time of
Cain to the last New York election, or, rather, let us say, to the last but one — and
especially when we must admit that we know everything that is said to be true, and
that even then not the half nor the tenth part has been told, and we are almost driven
to the conclusion that nothing short of the treatment applied to Sodom and Gomorrah
will meet the necessities of the case — that every sane man and woman should flee
without stopping for the open country; and the women especially should be careful

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1285

how they look behind them, and be sine fco remember Lot's wife, aud nothing should
induce them to turn their faces cityward again.

Now, in spite of all this precisely the reverse is true, and, while there has always
been a strong tendency in humanity cityward, this nineteenth century sees it intensi-
fied beyond all former experience. Statistics do not make interesting public reading,
but from Dr. Strong's valuable work, where there ore many, we take a few in support
of our position:

"The population of this country as divided between city and country was, in 1790,
omitting fractions, country 97 per cent, city 3 per cent; in 1840, country 111 per cent,
city 9 per cent ; in 1890, country 71 per cent, city 29 per cent ; and the rate of increase
is itself all the while increasing."

In 1856 Chicago had a population of 90,000. In 1895 it is supposed to have 1,500,000,
with several outlying districts not yet heard from. In this classification, which is
taken from the United States census, towns of 8,000 and over rank as cities, while the
rest is country. Of course a line must be drawn somewhere for the purpose of sta-
tistics, but many think it might more properly have been drawn at 5,000, which would
largely increase' the city percentage. Dr. Strong also quotes this statement : That in
the°rural districts of Wayne County, N. Y., there are 400 unoccupied houses, and much
other valuable statistical information of a similar character. Professor Nordau also
has many statistics of various European countries, all to the same purport. But the
general fact of the enormous increase of the city at the expense of the country is so
notorious that it needs no proof. Let us consider some of its causes.

It is well to notice, and perhaps here as well as anywhere, that, while in all coun-
tries the influence of the city has been great, it has not been equally great in all.
Rome was the Roman Empire. Carthage was Phoenicia. Paris to-day is France.
But London, big as it is, is not England; Madrid is not Spain, and, certainly, Berlin
is not Germany. In all these cases there is a power and a public opinion, a consensus
of thought, a moral, political, and social influence in the country as a whole, which
does not look to nor depend upon the city as its maker, leader, and guide. It is easier
to see and feel this fact than to analyze and explain it. Probably the same reasons
or kinds of reasons do not apply in every case, but each has its own, some of which are
easy to find and others too deep and elusive to be discovered. Accidents of early his-
tory, geographical relations, the temper and idiosj'ncrasies of a people, and othi r
influences, some broader and some more subtle, all combine to fix the relative posi-
tion and importance of the great city and the country or the lesser town. Speaking
of Constantinople, Mr. Frederic Harrison says :

''There is but one city of the world of which it can be said that for fifteen centu-
ries and a half it has been the continuous seat of empire under all the changes of
race, institutions, customs, and religions. And this may be ultimately traced to its
incomparable physical and geographical capabilities."

Iu England more than in any other country, as it seems to me, country life is
regarded as the normal condition of a fully developed man ; and even then it is only
those who keep themselves polished by frequent attrition with city life that accom-
plish much for themselves or their fellow-men. But probably the lesson to be drawn
is that a life where both the city and country have a part develops the highest form
of manhood and is the end to be striven for.

Ancient cities owed their existence to a variety of causes. Probably safety aud
convenience were, at the bottom, the reasons for aggregating the population; but
any special city frequently owed its existence, so far as appears, to the mere caprice of
a ruler as a passing fancy— though he may have had his reasons— sometimes, doubtless,
to Military considerations, and sometimes perhaps to accident, or to migration, or the
results of natural causes, geographical or commercial. It was not until the Middle
Ages that the industrial town was evolved. But the modern town seems wholly indus-
t rial in its raison d'etre ; it is therefore governed by the laws which govern industrial
progress.

Buckle says: "Formerly the richest countries were those in which nature was
most bountiful. Now the richest countries are those in which man is most active."
(He also adds, although perhaps it has uo special significance in this connection, that
"it is evident that the more men congregate in great cities the more they will become
accustomed to draw their material of thought from the business of human life aud
the less attention they will pay to those proclivities of nature which are a fatal
source of superstition.")

Aside from all questions of mutual defense and protection and mutual helpfulness
in various ways and industrial convenience, doubtless one of the very strongest of
forces in the building of the city is the human instinct of gregariousness. This under-
lies ancient as well as modern, military as well as industrially founded aggregations,
and the hamlet or the village as well as the city. But there is always a craving to
get where there are more people. The countryman, boy or girl, longs for t he village,
the villager for the larger town, and the dweller in the larger town for the great city ;
and, having once gone, they are seldom satistied to return to a place of loss size,

1286 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

In short, whatever man may have been or may be in bis prognathous or troglodyte
condition, ever since we have known much about him he has been highly gregarious,
even under unfavorable conditions.

As long ago as 1870 Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted, in a paper read before this asso-
ciation, said, " There can be no doubt that in all our modern civilization, as in that
of the ancients, there is a strong drift townward;" and he quotes the lauguago of
an intelligent woman whose early life had been spent in one of the most agreeable
and convenient farming countries in the United States: "If I were offered a deed of
the best farm I ever saw, on condition of going back to the country to live, I would
not take it. I would rather face starvation iu town."

The life of the great city would seem to bear hardest of all on the very poor, and
the country, or at least suburban, life to present the strongest attraction, by con-
trast, to this class. Pure air, plenty of water, room for children to play, milk on
which to feed them, room to sleep, wholesomo food for adults — these things, almost
impossible to the poor in the city, are nearly all of easy attainment iu the country;
yet the overmastering desire for a city life seems to be stronger with this class than
with any other. Perhaps you are familiar with the story of the kind lady who found
a widow with a great family of children living in the depths of poverty and dirt in
the city, and moved them all to a comfortable country home where, with a moderate
amount of exertion, they were sure of a living. At the end of six weeks her country
agent reported that the family had suddenly disappeared, no one knew where. Going
back to the neighborhood of their old haunts, she found them all reestablished there
in the same circumstances of dirt aud destitution as of old. "Why did you leave
that comfortable home and come back here?" was her astonished inquiry. "Folks
is more company nor sthoomps, anyhow/'' was the answer. Poor food, and little of
it, dirt and discomfort, heat and cold — all couut as nothing in competition with this
passion of gregariousness and desire for human society, even where that means more
or less of a constant fight as the popular form of social intercourse.

Doubtless one of the most potent factors in the modern growth of cities has been
the immense improvement in the facilities for travel, which has been such a marked
characteristic of the last half century. But, after all, what is this but saying that
it has been made easier for people to go where they wished to be? Facilities for
travel make it as easy to get from city to country as from country to city; but the
tide, except for temporary purposes, all sets one way. Nevertheless, there is no
question that this ease of locomotion has been availed of to a surprising extent in
transporting each year iu the summer season a very large portion, not of the rich
alone, but of nearly every class, not only from our great cities but from our mod-
erately large towns, to the woods and lakes and seashore for a time. The class of
people who, fifty years since, lived in the same house the year round, without thought
of change, now deem a six or twelve weeks' residence in the country a vital neces-
sity ; and this fact is a great alleviation and antidote to some of the unfavorable
influences of city life.

All modern industrial life tends to concentration as a matter of economy. It has
long been remarked that the best place to establish or carry on any kind of business
is where that business is already being done. For that reason we see different kinds
of manufactures grouping themselves together — textiles in one place, metals in
another; and, of the textiles, cottons in one place, Avoollens in another; and of the
metals, iron in one place, copper in another, and so on. The reason of this is obvious.
In a community where a certain kind of business is carried on the whole population
unconsciously become, to a certain extent, experts. They know a vast deal more of
it than people who have had no such experience. Every man, woman, and child in
a fishing village is much superior in his or her knowledge of fish, bait, boats, wind,
and weather to the inhabitants of inland towns. This is true of all the arts, so that,
besides the trained hands which may bo drawn upon when needed, there is a whole
population of half-trained ones ready to be drawn upon to fill their places. Then,
every kind of business is partly dependent on several other kinds. There must be
machine makers, blacksmiths, millwrights, and dealers in supplies of all sorts.
Where there is a large business of any kind these subsidiary trades that are sup-
ported by it naturally ilock around it; whereas in an isolated situation the central
establishment must support all these trades itself or go a considerable distance when
it needs their assistance. Fifty or sixty years ago small manufacturing establish-
ments in isolated situations and on small streams were scattered all through the
Eastern States. The condition of trade at that time rendered this possible. Now
they have almost wholly disappeared, driven out by economic necessity; and their
successors are in the cities and large towns.

If you will examine any city newspaper of fifty or sixty years ago, you will find
frequent advertisements for boys as clerks in stores; and almost always they read
"one from the country preferred.'' Now you never see this. Why is it? I think
mainly because the class of boys which these advertisements were expected to
attract from the country are no longer there. This was really a call for the

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1287

well-educated boys of tho well-to-do farmers of native stock, who thought they could
better themselves by going to a city. They went, and did better themselves; and
those who stayed behind fell behind. The country people deteriorated, and tho
country boy was no longer for business purposes the equal of the boy who had been
trained in city ways. Country boys still go to the city; but they arc not advertised
for. and havo'to find their own way.

Out great civil war compelled ns to find out some way in which to replace the pro-
ductive power of a million men sent into the field and suddenly changed from pro-
ducers into consumers. Their places had to be filled in the lines of agriculture and
of all the mechanic arts, in the counting room, in the pulpit, at the bar, and every-
where else where a soldier was to be found. A hundred thousand of these places,
more or less, in shops, in mechanic industries, in counting rooms, in the medical pro-
fession, even at the pulpit and the bar, were filled with women; and the deficit left
by the remainder of the million was supplied by newly invented machinery to do
their work. The result was that when the war was over a million of men, or as many
as came back, found their places filled. They were no longer needed. In all rural
occupations this was especially tho case; and, being driven out the country by want
of work, they flocked to the city as the most likely place to find it. The disturbing
influence in financial, economic, and industrial matters of this sudden change of a
million men from producers to consumers and back agaiu to producers, followed as it
was soon after by the disturbing influences of the Franco-Prussian war, have never
been given their due weight by students of sociology.

Wo must remember, too, that cities as places of human habitation have vastly
improved within half a century. About fifty years ago neither New York nor Boston
had public water, and very few of our cities had either water or gas, and horse rail-
roads had not been thought of. When we stop to think what this really means in
sanitary matters, it seems to me that the increase of cities is no longer a matter of
surprise.

A few years since the great improvement of the lift or elevator added probably 10
per cent actually, and much more than that theoretically, to the possibilities of
population on a given amount of ground; and now within a very recent period three
new factors have been suddenly developed which promise to exert a powerful influ-
ence on the problems of city and country life. These are tho trolley, the bicycle,
and the telephone. It is impossible at present to foresee just what their influence
is to be on tho question of the distribution of population ; but this much is certain,
that it adds from 5 to 15 miles to the radius of every large town, bringing all this
additional area into new relations to business centers. Places 5 or 10 miles apart
and all the intervening distances are rendered accessible and communicable for all
the purposes of life as If they were in the next street. Already the bicycle has done
more toward directing attention and effort to the improvement of ordinary highways
than all that has been done before since the days of Indian paths. It is affecting
the legislation of the country on the subject of roads. When we think of what
this minimizing of distance means we can not help seeing that its influence must
be immense, but just what no man can foretell. It is by such apparently unimpor-
tant, trifling, and inconspicuous forces that civilization is swayed and molded in
its evolutions and no man can foresee them or say whither they lead.

Cities, as desirable places of human habitation, seem to have touched low-water
mark — as did almost everything else — in that miserable period of comparative cessa-
tion in human progress known to us in European history as the ''Dark" or "Middle
Ages." Babylon had its gardens and its perennial streams of pure water running
through its streets ; Damascus, its wonderful groves and gardens. Old Rome had its
mighty aqueducts traversing the country like lines of pillared temples and bringing
the fuilflowof the mountain streams into the heart of the city, where it irrigated the
great gardens and pleasure grounds of the wealthy nobles, and sported in fountains
for everybody, and furnished baths for the benefit of tho mass of the people. And
many other large cities on both shores of the Mediterranean were but a duplicate of
Rome. But, when the people had in some way lost their grip, either through luxury
or gluttony or the idleness which came of having no great wars on hand, or whatever
it may have been, their waterworks fell out of repair, their baths went to ruin, the
Goths came and finished up the job, and tho last state of that peoplo was worse,
very much worse, than tho first. London, which had its rise and great growth in
these days of ignorance and darkness, was a great straggling village, without a
vestige of sanitary appliances, without decent roads, infested by robbers, and alto-
gether such a place as pestilence delights in and only fire can purify. Mr. Frederic
Harrison is so impressed with this that ho seems to think the Christianity of those
days largely responsible for the increase of dirt that was contemporaneous with its
early growth, and that, in its stern repression of luxurious living and care for the
body, it affords a very unfavorable contrast to the cleanlier and more sanitary ways
of the earlier time. Probably this is not without much truth : but there were other
forces at work affecting alike both s:iints and sinners. Yet in these mediaeval cities,

1288 . EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

miserable places as many of tliein often were for human dwellings, there were cer-
tain forces at work which have clone as much for humanity, and for modern civiliza-
tion as any that can he named. Cities have always been nurseries of freemen.

Tho Rev. Dr. James W. Cooper, in a recent address, says :

"It is a significant fact that in the development of society productive industry
and political liberty have always gone together. There has been no manufacturing
or trading people known to history, from the ancient Tyrians to the ruedkoval Flor-
entines and the modern English, which has not also been a free people. Business
enterprise demands freedom and developes it. Men must have liberty if they are to
combine in business ventures, and through such combinations they learn also to
unite their interests in other than mere business ways for the common weal. There
is a close connection between the private fortune of each and the property of all, if
it can only be discerned ; and practical, pushing men are ordinarily the first to dis-
cern it."

"If you go back to the fourteenth or fifteenth century, you will find the seeds of
modern civilization in the little towns and free cities which were just then beginning
to develop an independent life all over England and on the Continent. * * * With
the introduction of manufactures came the town, and with the town there came
insistence on personal rights, a self-respecting, self-governing, compact community
was developed, the castle was defied, the old feudal system of the Middle Ages gave
way before the new civilization, and the modern era was ushered in. This was
accomplished by the towns. It is the habit just now to praise the country and decry
the town. We quote Cowper, and say, 'God made the country, man made the town.'
I suppose this is true. But God also made man who made the town, * * and,

while the beginning of things was a garden in the paradise of Eden, the end of
things, as prophesied in the Book of Revelation, is a city, magnificent and popu-
lous, the new Jerusalem."

In a paper read before this association in 1885 on city and country schools, Mr.
W. M. Beckner says: "Cities have played a noble part in tho struggle for light and
progress. Iu Europe they were the first to rebel against the feudal system. In
England, London always led the fight against tyranny." Indeed there is plenty of
historical proof of this fact. "The ordering of secnlax matters appertaineth not to
the Pope," said the burghers of London in the year 1215, a time when the Pope him-
self and a great many other people thought that the ordering of everything that was
worth ordering appertained to him. I find also the following in a book of parlia-
mantary usages: "At the first meeting of a new Parliament the members for the city
of London, in court dress or uniform, take seats on the treasury bench, which are
afterwards vacated for the ministers of the day. This privilege is accorded to them
in commemoration of the part taken by the city in 1642 in defense of the privilege
of Parliament and the protection given to the five members who took refuge in
the city when their arrest had been attempted by King Charles. This usage was
observed," it says, " at the meeting of Parliament in April, 1880." London and
Bristol were the sympathizers and stanch friends of America in our own Revolution.

It is remarked, too, 1 think, by Mr. J. R. Green, that the important part in all public
matters played by the trade guilds, which were only found in cities, and their influ-
ence as a whole toward freedom, although at times despotic within themselves, is too
well known to need any lengthy reference.

Prof. George Burton Adams, in his History of Mediaeval Civilization, says : " It is in
Italy, however, that the most revolutionary changes which mark the new age are to
bo seen. There Frederick found himself opposed by an entirely new and most deter-
mined energy — the cities."

And in the history of freedom the very names of Utrecht, Dort, Haarlem, Leyden,
Magdeburg, Hamburg, Bruges, Wittenberg, Eisenach, and Worms, of Padua, Bologna,
and Florence, of Warsaw, Prague, and Buda-Pesth, to which maybe added London,
Bristol, and Boston, ring with the story of popular rights and human liberty.

Frederic Harrison says: "The life that men live in tho city gives the type and
measure of their civilization. The word 'civilization' means the manner of life of
the civilized part of the community — that is, of the city men, not of the countrymen,
who are called rustics, and were once called pagans (pagani), or the heathen of the
villages." And another says: "A great and beautiful city surely draws to her tho
observant and thoughtful souls from every district, and, if she does not keep them,
sends them home refined and transmuted."

Some modern woman is quoted as saying that, if one has to run the gauntlet of
two or three hundred pair of sharply scrutinizing eyes, the consciousness of a Paris
dress is worth any amount of moral principle. And Sappho, who sang six or seven
hundred years before the Christian era, says:

What country maiden charms thee,

However fair her face,
Wlio knows not how to gather

Her Ureas with artless grace?

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1289

If they "didn't know everything down in Judee," it is clear that in Lesbos they
knew two oi* three.

In contrast with the statements of Nordau and of others in regard to the unfavor-
able sanitarv conditions of city life, it must be noticed that it is always in cities
that those who can afford it get the best food; and, if you are living in the country,
you are largely dependent on the city for your supply. The summer seashore visitor
usually finds, if he takes the trouble to investigate, that his fresh fish comes from
the nearest great city, also his meat, and quite likely his butter and eggs, and nearly
everything except perhaps his milk. To be sure, they came from the country first in
many cases; but they seek the best market, and are to be best found at it.

It is also only in great cities, as a rule, that the best medical skill can be obtained.
There wo all go or send to have our most serious diseases treated and our most criti-
cil surgical operations performed. It is almost wholly owing to the unsanitary
condition among the children of the very poor that the city death rate is so high.

Mr. C. F. "Wingate, in a paper read here in 1885, quotes Dr. Sargent as saying that
"life in towns is, on the whole, more healthful than in the country ; " also Sir Charles
i »ilke, in speaking of recent sanitary improvements in England, as saying that "the
exceptions are mostly found in the rural districts." This apparent discrepancy
between these statements and some of the others is doubtless to be accounted for by
tho fact that the former had in mind the very poor, while the latter doubtless referred
to the better conditioned.

I have been fairly familiar with the streets of New York and Boston for the last
fifty years, and there is no fact in that connection with which I have been more
impressed than the physical improvement which has taken place in both men and
women during that period. The men are more robust and more erect, the women
have greatly improved both in feature and carriage; and in the care and condition
of the teeth in both sexes a surprising change has taken place. In Boston streets
and street cars it seems to me that you see a hundred good-looking women where
you formerly saw one. Whether this would hold good in the slums and low parts
of the town may be doubted, but there of course one looks for the refuse and cast-off
material of society.

A few years since I stood by the grave of a prominent man in one of our rural
towns. By my side stood a man who had achieved a reputation both in literature
and law. He said to me, "Who is that man opposite?" calling my attention to a tall,
line-looking man. "That," I replied, "is General H." "Ah !" said my friend, with
accents of "enthusiasm, "one needs to come into the rural districts to see the finest
specimens of manhood." I said, "Look about, and see if you find any more." He
-did not find them. Then I said, "You have picked out the one man here who is in
no sense a rural product. It is true this is his home, but his life is metropolitan or
cosmopolitan; and those prematurely old, bowed, rheumatic, decrepid, and uniuter-
esl ing people who make up most of the gathering are the true representatives of our
rnral population." I think I shattered an ideal, but the logic of facts was too strong
to be resisted.

IVrhaps this is as good a place as any to remark that when any occupation or
calling in life or in a community becomes relatively less remunerative than the aver-
age, there begins at once, by natural selection, a process of personal deterioration
of those engaged in it. In other words, success is the stepping stone to improvement.
And in the rural districts of the Eastern States this deterioration has been going on
now for fifty years.

Rev. Dr. Greer has recently said, speaking of clerical work in city and country:

"I think I should say that the difficulties~in the country are greater than those in
the city. There is more, I think, in common village life to lower and degrade and
demoralize than in the city. Take the matter of amusements in the city. There are
good ones, and we can make a choice. In the country one can not make a choice. If
a theatrical company comes to a village, it is a poor company. If a concert is given,
it is a poor concert. The entertainment is of a poor character. Then, again, there is
a loueliness, an isolation in the country life; and this tends to lower and depreciate
that life. I believe statistics show that a large contingent of the insane in our asy-
lums come from the farms. That hard drudgery of struggle with the clod and the
soil from early morning to evening twilight is a lonely and bitter struggle. There
is a want of idealism."

I think it is Dr. Strong who says: "When population decreases and roads deterio-
rate, there is an increasing isolation, with which comes a tendency toward demoral-
ization and degeneration. The mountain whites of the South afford an illustration
of the results of such a tendency operating through several genei'ations. Their
heathenish degradation is not due to their antecedents, but primarily to their isola-
tion." He also mentions communities in New England where like causes have pro-
duced a similar result. I think isolated rural life, where people seldom come in
contact with dwellers in large towns, always tends to barbarism. I beliove that

ED 05 41*

1290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

poorer people in our'cities, if planted in isolated situations in the country, would
deteriorate and grow barbaric in habit and thought, even though they might be
physically in better condition. What very unattractive people most of our rural
population aro!

It is to be noted that the attrition and constant opportunity for comparison which
city life makes possible, and even compulsory, tend to make all the people who aro
subjected to its influence alike. They do and see and hear and smell and eat the
same things. They wear similar clothes, they read the same books, and their minds
are occupied with the same objects of thought. In the end they even come to look
alike, as married people are sometimes said to do, so that they aro at once recognized
when they aro seen in some other place; Avhile people who live isolated lives think
their own thoughts, pursue different objects, and aro compelled to depend upon their
own judgments and wills for the conduct of their daily lives. The consequence is
that they develop and increase peculiarities of character and conduct to the verge
of eccentricity, if not beyond it, and present all that variety and freshness of typo
which wo call originality or individuality. They aro much more dramatic, pictur-
esque, and interesting in literature, perhaps not always in real life. I mention this
in passing, without any attempt to estimate fully the value of either development.
Doubtless something is lost and something gained in cither case, and probably much
could be said in favor of each. Many persons have a great desire to get, as they say,
"back to nature," while others prefer mankind in the improved state, even with somo
sameness.

The ideal life, time out of mind, for all who could afford it, has been the city for
action, the country for repose, tranquillity, recuperation, rest. When Joab, tho
mighty captain of J.udea, quarreled with King David, he retired to his country seat,
in what was called the ''Wilderness." When Cicero tired of the excitement of
Rome, he found rest and quiet in Tusculum. When things went badly with Cardinal
Wolsey, he sought refngo and repose in the Abbey of Leicester. Prince Bismarck
retires' from tho frown of young Kaiser Wilhelm to Friedrichsruhe. The country is
a good place to rest in, especially if one can control his surroundings. The quiet,
the calm, the peace, the pleasant color, the idyllic sights and sounds, all tend to allay
nervous irritation, to tranquilize the soul, to repress the intellectual, and to invig-
orate the animal functions in a very remarkable degree. But this is not rastic life;
it is only the country life of tho city resident. But the tranquil appearance of a
country town, tho apparent simplicity and serenity of rural life, the sweet idyllic
harmony of rural surroundings are, as everyone must know who has much experi-
ence, very deceptive. I remember in one of Dickens's stories a man who lives the
life of a traveling showman, one Dr. Marigold, says, in substance, that temper is bad
enough anywhere, but temper in a cart is beyond all endurance. The small jealousies
and rivalries, the ambitious, the bickerings and strifes of a small rural community,
are greatly intensified by the circumscribed area in which they find their vent, and
compared with the same human frailties in a larger sphere have all the drawbacks
of temper in a cart.

Mr. (Lacon) Colton says: "If you would be known and not know, vegetate in a
village. If you would know and not be known, live in a city." But to this it may
be added that those who are known in a city are very much more widely known
than they can be in tho country. A happy fitness between the size of the person and
the size of the place is doubtless productive of the most desirable results.

Mr. Shaw says:

'•'I am not willing to deduce any pessimistic conclusions from this general tend-
ency, whether exhibited in England, in Germany, or in America. I do not for a
moment believe that modern cities are hastening on to bankruptcy, that they aro
becoming dangerously socialistic in tho range of their municipal activities, or that
the high and even higher rates of local taxation thus far indicate anything detri-
mental to tho general welfare. It all means simply that the great towns are remak-
ing themselves physically, and providing themselves with the appointments of
civilization, because they have made tho great discovery that their new masses of
population are to remain permanently. They have in practice rejected the old view
that the evils of city life were inevitable, and have begun to remedy them and to
prove that city life can bo made not tolerable only for workingmen and their fam-
ilies, but positively wholesome and desirable."

It would seem then (1) that for economic reasons a large part of the work of the
world must be done in cities, and the people who do that work must live in cities.
(2) That almost everything that is best in life can be better had in the city than
elsewhere, and that, with those Avho can command the means, physical comforts and
favorable sanitarv conditions are better obtained there. (3) That a certain amount
of change from city to country is desirable; and is also very universally attainable
to those who desire' it, and is constantly growing more so. (4) That the city is grow-
ing a better place to live in year by year; that in regard to the degenerate portion
of mankind, the very poor, the very wicked, or the very indifferent, it is a question

EDUCATION IX THE SEVERAL STATES. 1291

whether they arc bettor off in die country ; hut, whether they arc or not, their gro-
garious instincts will lead them to the, city, and they must he dealt with there as
part of the problem. (5) That efforts to relieve the congested conditions of the city
poor hy deportation of children to tlio count rj are good and praiseworthy, hut only
touch tho surface of things, and that city degeneration must mainly bo fought on its
own ground.

Perhaps, too, the country needs some of our sympathj- and care. It appears clear
that hero is a constant process of deterioration. Deserted farms and schools and
churches mark tho progress of ignorance and debasement, and threaten to again
make tho villagers pagani, as they wero in the days of old. And improvement hero
is not tho hopeless thing it might seem; but it must be on economic, and not on
sentimental, lines.

The problems hero discussed have but recently attracted general attention, and
doubtless much is yet to bo learned, but tho progress already made is by no means
small and all the signs are signs of promise.

GEORGIA.

[Address delivered October 81, 1893, by Hon. J. L. M. Curry, general agent of the Peabody and

Slater funds, in response to an invitation of the general assembly of Georgia.]

Mr. President, Mr. Speaker, Gentlemen of the Senate and House of Representatives of the
General Assembly of Georgia:

I appreciate, I trust properly, the distinguished compliment of being invited to
speak to you upon what tho president of the senate has well characterized as the
paramount subject of your deliberations. I count myself happy in appearing, also,
in this magnificent hall of this magnificent capitol, which has, I understand, the
rather exceptional merit of having been completed within the original appropriation,
and of having been completed without stain or smirch resting upon anyone connected
with it. I have tho honor of appearing before men of distinguished ability, engaged
in the most responsible work of lawmaking. Lawmaking is the attribute of sover-
eignty, and it is of the highest human honor and responsibility to be invested Avith
this attribute. It would !e carrying coals to Newcastle forme to say in this presence
that the proper fulfilment of this function demands intelligence, patriotism, integrity,
general acquaintance with law, political economy, and a thorough knowledge, not
so much of what people desire or clamor for, as of what may be best for the people's
needs and welfare. Divine law is the expression of omniscience and omnipotence;
human law is the condition of civilization. Under the provocation of atrocious
crimes, communities, aroused to indignation, have sometimes violated law. Some-
times, tinder the experiences of the law's delay and cheated justice, and burning
with a desire to take vengeance upon odious malefactors, they have summarily, and
sometimes with savage ferocity, deprived a suspected or guilty person of his life
under the process of what is known as "lynch law." In pioneer and frontier life,
communities have sometimes been compelled, forself-protection, to organize vigilance
committees and take the law into their own hands. Such an extreme exigency does
not exist at tho South, nor excuse the illegal proceedings with which the papers are
too often too full. Tho race of these criminals has not the possession of the govern-
ment and is not charged with any of its functions. Tho white people, the race
wronged and outraged, are in power, and control the legislative, executive, and judi-
cial departments. As they are the judges, jurors, and executioners there is not the
remotest possibility of ou,e of these criminals, under just operation of law, going
unwhipped of justice. A mob is a sudden revolution. It i3 enthroned anarchy. It
is passion dominant, regnant. It usurps all the functions of government. It con-
centrates in itself all the rights and duties of lawmaker, judge, jury, counsel, and
sheriff. A mob does not reason, has no conscience, is irresponsible, and its violence
is unrestrained, whether it burns down an Ursuline convent, as in Massachusetts, or
tortures a ruffian in Paris, Tex. A mob of infuriated men, or of hungry, enraged
women, will violate all law, human and divine, and Avill be guilty of torturing, of
quartering, of burning, of murder — enormities hardly surpassed by the most atrocious
crimes. Life, property, person, character, perish as stubble before the flame, in the
presence of a conscienceless, unthinking, aroused multitude. A rape is an individual
crime, affecting disastrously, incurably, the person or the family; a mob saps tho
very foundations of society, ujiroots all government, regards not God nor man, is
fructiferous of evil. The progress of mankind is to bo found only along tho lines of
the higher organization of society. Our free institutions can not survive except on
the condition of the union of enlightened liberty and stable law. Lawlessness and
violence are tho antipodes of liberty and social order. Obedience to the constituted
authorities, to law, is of tho essence of true freedom, of self-control, of civilization,
of happiness, of masterful development. There probably is not a neighborhood in
the United States which would not have summarily arrested and executed, without

1292 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

a day's waiting, the fiend of Paris. But that infliction of merited punishment,
coupled with vengeance, is not defensible, but is fruitful of manifold evils. To its
disregard of law may be traced whitecapism in the West and South, in which self-
constituted bauds mercilessly execute their unauthorized judgments as to martial
rights and obligations, political economy, personal duties, etc. It is a very grave
error that democracy means the right of the people anywhere and everywhere, and
in any way, to execute their passionate will. Ours is a representative government.
Our representatives are not chosen because the people can not assemble en masse to
legislate, adjudicate, and execute; but because the people ought not to assemble en
masse to execute these functions of a complex government. I can fortify mvself
before a Georgia audience by quoting the expression of the Chief Justice of the
Supreme Court, who said before the bar association of this State : " The people have
no hands for unlawful work. Justice is in the hands of the people only when it is
in the hands of their organized tribunals."

I think it but a natural transition from these preliminary remarks to say that there
is a wrong estimate of the power and effects of legislation. Too much is often
expected of the general assemblies, as if the legislature were a sort of second-hand
providence ; and I suspect that not a few of you heard when you were candidates,
or when you were about to leave for Atlanta, such inquiries as "What are you going
to do for us ? What will you do for us when you get to Atlanta V I heard this very
often when I was in public life. The world is governed too much. Some political
thinker has said that the best government is that which governs the least. I
would not altogether subscribe to the "let alone" theory, because it may be pushed
to extremes. There are two great factors of modern, progressive, civilized life.
They are wise social organizations and proper individual development. Bearing
these two factors in mind, I think you will not fail to see the relativity of my intro-
ductory remarks to what will follow. In cases of commercial distress, agricultural
depression, financial crisis, national bankruptcy, we are too prone to seek for legis-
lative cures and political nostrums, but all the legislation that you could pass from
now until next Christmas would not increase one iota the real returns of agriculture.
There are some knaves — not in Georgia, I hope — more demagogues, and a good many
fools, who are trying to find a short cut to national and individual prosperity by
treating wealth as if it were a thing that could be created by statute without the
intervention of labor, forgetting that the products of labor represent all that there
is of wealth in a country. Now, there are some universally established truths in
political and legislative economy. Great changes, new systems of finance and trade,
are not to bo ordered as if you were to order a new suit of clothes according to a
certain pattern. History condemns South Sea bubbles, John Law schemes of finance,
shin-plaster, and fiat currency. Building Chinese walls around your country and
erecting barriers against foreign trade never made a nation prosperous any more than
the absurd notion, revived in recent times, that what makes one nation rich impov-
erishes the other, what one gains another loses. Now, we have serious agricultural
depression in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and in all the Southern States. The
abolition of slavery was a gigantic revolution. Did it ever occur to you that there
is not in the annals of history anything comparable to it in its unprecedented mag-
nitude and suddenness? This, with other effects of the war, paralyzed Southern
industries and produced individual and general impoverishment.

African slavery was a great economic curse. I am not speaking of it politically,
socially, or morally, but it brought upon the South the curse of ignorant, compulsory,
uninventive labor, undiversified products of agriculture, and sparse population. It
was an interdict effectual upon invention, thrift, development of varied resources,
diversity of employments, large and profitable use of machinery, improvement of
soil, construction of good country roads, establishment of free public schools. These
were the results of African slavery as an economic force. Curse as it was, it suggests
a remedy for its evils. What are we to do? We must increase and make more val-
uable and diversified our products, and we must improve our country roads. What-
ever facilitates exchange of products is a blessing. It will not be worth while to
produce unless we can exchange what is beyond our own consumption. What do
you need in Georgia? You need intelligent, skilled labor. Many of your laborers
are ignorant, stupidly so, of every element of art and science. I spoke to a negro
the other day at a railway station about his future. His reply was characteristic:
"I ain't gotnothing, and I don't want nothing." What is the worth of a system
which produces such men? What you want is an alliance of brains and hands, with
habits of thrift and cleanliness, and increased capacity of production.

Now, Mr. President, I affirm that no ignorant people were ever prosperous or happy.
You may measure the growth, the progress, development, and the prosperity of a
people by their advance in culture, in intelligence, in skill; and you can measure
the decline of a people by their decline iu culture, intelligence, and skill. In the
United States there are twenty millions of horsepower at work, lowering the cost of
production, cheapening the necessaries of life, giving to toil a larger reward. Much

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1293

of what handiwork did has been displaced by labor-saving machinery. Guiding the

plow with the hand, mowing- grass with the scythe, cutting grain with the cradle —
this is fast disappearing from enlightened communities. The steam harvester and
thrasher have rendered the work of saving the grain crops more rapid and less
arduous. Science has found practical application, and ceases to he mere theory; it
has allied itself with the useful arts. Machinery has released thousands from a
weary struggle for supply of mere animal wants, and has permitted them to take up
other pursuits, such as mining, manufactures, mechanical arts, gardening, fruit rais-
ing, etc., but this wealth-creating industry demands intelligence, -thrift, and saving.
Industry has thus received great benefit; the people have gained hope, inspiration,
and life from the applications of the principles of science, have gained, finally, com-
mand of all of the resources of nature and have had opened for themselves the
highest rewards of intelligent industry.

It needs to be repeated and emphasized that national wealth is not the result of
chance, or fraud, or legislative hocus-pocus, or stockjobbing manipulations or adroit
dealing in futures. It is the result of honest, intelligent labor. The elements of
wealth exist in nature in manifold forms, but must be fitted for human wants by
labor. Through all transitions from natural condition to finished and useful artifi-
cial state, each successive process adds to the value. To utilize the powers of nature,
the elements of property and wealth, is, in beneficent results, proportionate to the
intelligence employed. The value created is almost in the direct ratio of the skill
of the worker. Labor is not spontaneous nor self-willed, but must have behind it
an intelligent control. Stupid labor is confined to a narrow routine, to a few, simple
products. Unskilled labor is degraded necessarily to coarser employments. What
makes work honorable, productive, remunerative, what elevates a man above a brute,
is work directed by intelligence. The best method of applying power might be
illustrated by such common processes as turning a grindstone, shoveling manure,
harnessing a horse, driving a nail. Among the aristocracy of the old world and the
Bourbons of the new is. a current theory that it is best for the lower classes, themud-
sills of society, the common laborers, to remain in ignorance. I have no patience
with men who say that education for the ordinary occupations of life is a wasted
investment, or who deny the utility or the feasibleness of furnishing to wage earners
and breadwinners an education suited to the industries of real life. Will our
impoverished people never see that ignorant labor is terribly expensive, that it is a
tax, indirect but enormous, bringing injury to the material worked, to the tools or
implements employed, wasting force and lessening and making less valuable what is
produced ?

The president has declared wrhat was intended as the burden of my address.
While there are local interests and concerns that may interest you, there is one
question, overtopping all others, that goes into the very household, that concerns
every individual, that is allied to every interest; and that is how to furnish cheaper
and more efficient means of education for the boys and girls of the State. When I
speak of this being the paramount subject of legislation, I mean to say that the
duty of the legislator is not only to look after education in Clarke County, in Cobb
County, but to have the means of education carried to every child, black and white,
to every citizen within the limits of the State. I mean universal education; free
education; the best education; without money and without price. The great mis-
take in legislators and people is that, while they profess to be friends of education,
and satisfy themselves that they are, they are talking and thinking of the public
schools as poor schools for poor children, and not as good schools, the best schools,
for the education of all. Here is field and scope for the exercise of the highest
powers of statesmanship. This universal education is the basis of civilization, the
one vital condition of prosperity, the support of free institutions. All civilized
governments support and maintain schools. In semicivilized countries there is no
recognition of the right to improvement, nor of the duty of the government to sup-
port universal education. William Ewart Gladstone is the greatest statesman of
this century. Financier, scholar, orator, with marvellous administrative capacity,
even to the minutest details of departmental and governmental work, and shows
his appreciation of education by giving to the vice-president of the council of edu-
cation a seat in his cabinet, and he is the only British prime minister who has so
honored education. Last year I was reading brief biographical sketches of the
candidates of the Republican and Democratic parties of Massachusetts for the
various State offices — governor, attorney-general, etc. — and every one of them, with
one exception, had been trained in the common schools of the State, and, therefore,
when in office, they would understand what people were talking about when they
advocated common schools, and would feel as Emerson said, that if Massachusetts
had no beautiful scenery, no mountains abounding in minerals, yet she had an inex-
haustible wealth in the children of the Commonwealth. None of you, perhaps, were
educated in the public schools. How many times do you visit the public schools?
How many times in the last year have you gone into a public school nnd sat down

120-4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-05.

on the roar bench and watched the teacher teaching-, in order to know what is being
done in thcso great civilizing agencies of the State?

A few years ago the King of Prussia, through Bismarck, issued a call for an edu-
cational "conference, and he took part with educators and scholars in the discussions.
In my journeys through the South, pleading for the children, I have found one gov-
ernor from whom I never fail to receive a sympathetic response to every demand or
argument that I may present for higher or general education. In days that are to
come, when you shall record what Rabun did, what Troup, what Clarke, what Mc-
Donald, Avha't Johnson, what Gilmer, what Jenkins, what Brown, what Gordon, what
Stephens, and what other governors of Georgia have done, there will be no brighter
page, none more luminous with patriotism, broad-minded, honest, intelligent, benefi-
cent patriotism, devotion to the highest interests of the State, than that which
shall record the fact that the great school governor of the South was Wilhain J.
Northern [Great applause.]

The most interesting and profitable changes that have been made in the ends of
modern education is the incorporation of manual training in the curriculum, so as to
bring education into contact with the pursuits of every day. Tho three r's, reading,
'riting, and 'rithmetic, used to be the standard. Wo should add the three h's, and
develop, pari passu with the three r's, the hand, head, and heart, so that wo may
develop tho child intellectually, physically, and morally, and so have the completest
manhood and womanhood. Oh! it is a sad spectacle to see the ordinary graduate
from one of our colleges, with an armful of diplomas, standing on the platform
receiving bouquets, and ready to step across tho threshhold and enter the arena of
active life. You congratulate him because ho has acquired knowledge in tho school-
room. But what can he do? What can he produce .' What wealth can ho create?
What aid can he render civilization ? He may be a lawyer. Alawyer never yet made
two blades of grass grow where only one grew before. [Laughter.] Now, you show
that you agree with what I am saying. [Laughter.] I have no sympathy, however,
allow me to say it, with the vulgar, ignorant, stupid prej udico that some people have
against lawyers. None in the world. [Applause.] You may trace the history of
free government hi all the struggles for right and liberty, you may study with pro-
foundest admiration the constitutions, the embodiments of political wisdom, and
every page of that history you will find illuminated by the wisdom of lawyers. Bat
I say of lawyers what I say of doctors. Doctors do not add one cent to the wealth
of the community. Neither do preachers. They are valuable ; you can not do with-
out them. But the lawyer, tho doctor, the preacher, the editor, do not add one cent
to the assessed value of the property in Georgia. Wealth comes from productive
labor, and wealth is in proportion to the skill of the labor. It is the mechanic, the
farmer, the miner, the manufacturer, the fruit grower, who add wealth to the com-
munity and to the country. Tho others are indispensable in the distribution of tho
products of labor, in the transactions of business between man and man, and in a
thousand ways, but they do not create wealth.

Let me come back to what I was saying, that tho graduate of your college is
educated to be a clerk, doctor, lawyer, preacher. You may turn him out of college
and he will tramp the streets of your cities, of Atlanta, Augusta, Savannah, to find
some place in the bank, or some place in a doctor's or lawyer's office. He has been
educated away from business, from ordinary productive pursuits, and has a distaste
for labor. If his natural bent had been followed, if he had been taught tho applica-
tion of science to business, made familiar with tools and constructive machinery, ho
would have turned out, in very many cases, something more useful than he will bo
after having entered one of tho learned professions.

I wish some of you would stop over some time on your way to New York at Wash-
ington or Philadelphia and go through tho public schools. You would see that from
the kindergarten to the high school there is no schoolroom where the pupils can not
be taught the application of scientific principles to everyday life, and from which
they can not come with a knowledge of the common tools and their uses. England
learned that in order to hold tho markets of the world she had to teach her children
in industrial schools. She discovered that her trade was slipping away from her
because of the lack of industrial training on tho part of her working people. Franco
gives manual training to both sexes.

Saxony, a manufacturing country, had in 1889 115 trade or industrial schools, it
being discovered that "a thorough professional education alone can aid the trades-
man in his struggle for life." Statistics show a constant improvement of economic
conditions. Tho flourishing orchards, with their world-renowned wealth of fruit,
in Austria, Hungary, Bavaria, and Oldenburg, are directly traceable to the intro-
duction of practical instruction iu the school gardens. Prussia has introduced into
the normal schools instruction in the culture of fruit and forest trees, and "tho
admirably managed forests and vast orchards of Prussia owe their existence and
excellent yield in no small degree to the unostentatious influence of the country school-
master who teaches his pupils in school and tho adult villagers in agricultural clubs."

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1295

As much as wo may boast of our free institutions wo arc far behind the rest of the
w orb L iu industrial education, in tbe application of scientific principles to daily life.
We abuse Russia, but Russia has 1,200 technological schools: Belgium has 1^5,000
pupils iu her trade schools; Denmark, 6,000; Italy, 16,000. Georgia has no trade
school for white children. She has, fortunately, one noble technological school,
which I commend to your support and your encouragement. The other day I went
to Newport News, which, as you know, is at the mouth of James Kiver, on Hampton
Bay, in the State of Virginia. The largest shipbuilding works and the largest dry
dock in the United States are at Newport News, They recently received contracts
for the construction of United States vessels, and are prepared to do all such work
in the best possible manner. I went through the works. I had an old Confederate
soldier to pilot me. AVhcn I asked about the improvements iu the place his heart
rejoiced. I was there when the dinner hour arrived. From the shops and works
men came in great numbers, until it seemed there must have been 1,000. I said to
my friend, "Whero do these men come from?" He replied that they came from
various parts of the world. "Are there any from the South?" said I. "Oh, yes,"
said he. "What do you pay these men?" I asked. "From one dollar a day up to
eight or ten." "Do any of these old Confederates get the eight or ten?" With a
deep sigh and with a tear in his eye, he said: "No; no Confederate among them.
The Confederate soldiers," ho continued, "and the negroes get a dollar a day; the
Northern and European laborers get the sis or ten dollars a day." "Why is this .'"
I asked. "Because," said he, "they have had industrial training at home. They
come from their shops and from their training schools, and they put intelligence into
their work, and they get for it the best wages."

And yet, when I stand here and appeal to Georgians for manual-labor schools, you
say that man is a theorizer ; he is taking up the time of the legislature, which should
be passing an act to declare Goose Creek a highway, or to build a road across Possum
Swamp, or a bridge over Terrapin Hollow ! [Laughter.]

Last year, Mr. President, I was in Asia Minor. If any of you have read The
Prince of India you will remember some account of the town of Brusa, southeast of
Constantinople. I saw there hundreds of donkeys and women with loads of mul-
berry leaves. A few years ago the silk trade seemed likely to become extinct, because
of an insect that was destroying the mulberry trees and attacking the cocoons.
Thousands of trees were cut down. The people are now replanting the mulberry
trees, and trade is springing up again. It is because Pasteur, the great curer of
hydrophobia, subjected the cocoons to a microscopic examination, discovered the
insect and applied a remedy. He applied scientitic knowledge to the work of saving
the silk trade. A school of sericulture has been established, the mulberry trees are
being planted, and the people are growing prosperous again.

When you came here you took the oath to support the Constitution, and it says
that there shall be a thorough system of common schools, free to all children, for
education in the elementary branches of an English education. This mandate
requires general, or State, and local supervision, neat and healthy houses, grading
and classifying of the pupils, adequate local and State revenues. A valued friend
said to me last night that Georgia is spending too much money for public schools.
Let us see how this is. Agricultural depression is more serious and more harmful in
Mississippi than in any other State, because it is so exclusively agricultural, having
few manufacturing interests, little commerce, and no big cities. And yet Mississippi
pays for her public schools $7.80 on every thousand dollars of the taxable value of
property; Illinois pays $14.40; Texas, $4.80; Nebraska, $18.70; Massachusetts, $3.80;
New York, $4.50. Georgia's educational tax proper for the support of the public
schools is $1.40 on the thousand dollars ! What do you say to that? Can you expect
to equal other States in school advantages unless you increase the revenues going to
the public schools ? Let it be borne in mind that outside the cities, the local or extra-
State revenues are very meager. The Southern States raise on an average about 36
cents per capita of population.

But you need not only to increase the revenues supporting the common schools —
you need promptly and properly paid teachers. Tbe worst thing that I have ever
heard about my native State, Georgia, is that she has permitted the teachers in her
public schools — poorly paid as they are — to go month after month without receiving
the pittance of their hard-earned salaries! [Applause.] If I were the legislature I
would not let the sun go down before I wiped away this crime against the teachers
of the State. I only echo what yon will find in the governor's message, in the report
of Captain Bradwell, and in the lamentations of the teachers.

The training of the teachers is implicitly contained in the compulsory establish-
ment of schools. By making education an integral part of the government you are
under strongest obligation to provide good schools. The teacher is the school. You
can not have a thorough system of common schools without good teachers. You can
not have good teachers without paying them promptly their salaries and without
training them to teach. Unfortunately our normal schools are handicapped by the

1296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

unpreparedness of tlie pupils to be taught how to teach. Thorough general training
should precede professional training, and is its best preparation for it. Take a
school of medicine or of law and combine it with elementary education. It would
be absurd. Ibis none the less absurd to combine elementary instruction with pro-
fessional training for teaching. Teachers should know the history of education and
of educational methods, and practical and definite application of the principles of
education; and these things should not be dead rules. The teacher goes from the
concrete to the abstract; from special to general; from known to unknown; from
ilea to the word; from thought to clear expression; and these should be applied
habitually, unconsciously, and govern spontaneously every act and element in teach-
ing. Students can become habituated to best methods by being kept in the true
path, under the guidance of those familiar with the right methods and principles.

I went to Milledgeville the other day to see and inspect the Normal and Industrial
College. It is a most remarkable school. It has been in existence only three years,
and has 322 girls ; 121 engagedin preparing themselves for teaching school. Although
in its infancy, it has sent out 100 teachers to teach in Georgia. I went into the differ-
ent departments. I wish you could see Professor Branson's teaching in the normal
department; it would do you good. You could not do a better tiling than to spend
a day in going through the school and seeing what they teach there. If you do not
go yourselves, send your committees and let them see how the thing is done.

Here is a map. which is an object lesson. It shows the normal schools in the
United States. It is not accurate in all its details ; yet the general facts are correctly
stated. In the States that are most wealthy and most advanced there are the greater
number of these black dots, which represent normal schools. The person who made
the map did not recognize the fact that in Georgia you have an excellent normal
school at Milledgeville. It is industrial and normal, and the work done is excellent.
The Peabody fund gave $1,800 last year to this school. I wish I could persuade you
to establish coeducation of the sexes at Milledgeville. In the name of patriotism,
why do not you teach the boys as well as the girls how to teach school?

Teaching — good teaching, I ought to say — has much of the persuasive power of
oratory. It is a glorious sight to see a live teacher — not one of these old moss-back
teachers, who has not learned anything since the flood, but a live teacher, who
appreciates his vocation — standing before his classes! How it arouses enthusiasm,
fortifies the will, inspires the soul; and what a criminal waste of time and money
and labor and energy it is to put an incompetent teacher before a class of boys and
girls! We see sometimes a picture of Herod murdering the innocents. How we
grieve over it ! I went into a school the other day in the mountains. There sat the
teacher, ignorant, stolid, indifferent, incapable, with the boys and girls gathered
around him, studying the a-b, ab; b-a, ba, k-e-r, ker, baker; and I thought then,
Mr. President, that we ought to have another painter to draw another picture of the
murder of the innocents. It is not the teachers who ought to be painted in that
picture; it is the legislatures who are murdering the innocents, when they refuse to
establish normal schools tor the proper training of teachers. 11 ow docs the old hymn
go? " How tedious and tasteless the hour'' — some of you have sung it. How unut-
terably tedious are the hours spent in such schools, poring over lessons day after day.
Some are mechanics when they ought to be artists, for these teachers have no plan
nor method, no inspiration nor striving to teach and stimulate all the many sides of
a child's nature to higher attainments, higher thoughts and more vigorous action.
Time does not permit me to speak of secondary schools, of rural schools, of six-months
schools. Some one in writing about me in the paper said that I was growing old.
That may be true as to years, but not in thought, not, in patriotism, not in loyalty
to the South, not in loyalty to the Union, not in loyalty to this country of ours, and
to the Stars and Stripes. I am not growing old in my interest in the cause of educa-
tion. And yet when I hear that your people are about to celebrate the semicenten-
nial of Atlanta, it recalls to mind the time when I used to pass this place and there
was no city here, nothing but old Whitehall Tavern. That was in 1811-12. During
that period a town was started which was called Marthasville. I used to ride through
this section of the country, by Decatur and Stone Mountain, on my wayr from my
home in Alabama to the college at Athens. It then took me five days to make the
journey. Now I can go the distance in six hours. What a mighty change! From
Marthasville in 1842 to Atlanta in 1893! Five days of travel cut down to six hours;
five days on horseback or in stage coach to six hours in a Pullman palace car ! Steam
has revolutionized the business and travel of the world. We have gone from the
stage coach to the steam car, and the sails of the old ships have been superseded by
the ocean steamships. The telegraph and telephone and steam have brought the
continents into one neighborhood and given solidarity to the business of the world.
The merchant can telegraph to China or to Japan for a bill of goods; and before ho
goes to bed to-night word comes from the other end of the world that the goods havo
been delivered to the ship anil they will leave in the morning. What a revolution
has been wrought in our methods of business. Improved machinery of transportation

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1297

has reduced freight expenses from 2f cents per ton per mile to about one-half ( ent
per ton per mile. Civilization creates new hinds of property. In Africa the inhab-
itants know nothing about bills of exchange, promissory notes, choses inaction —
nothing about the modern methods of business. Just in proportion as yon grow in
civilization, and advance in the scale of education and intelligence, you have more
hinds of property. It is because of diffused education, because of the work of intel-
ligence, because the forces of nature have been harnessed to the business of life.
Science and religion are both evangels of democracy. Wherever these go shackles
fall oft", tyranny ceases, and the great masses are lifted up to the recognition of their
rights and their privileges. Prerogative of mental development is no longer confined
to the few, but is conceded to all who bear the image of the Son of Man.

Only one more remark. I said awhile ago that I was a Georgia boy. I am a native
of Lincoln County — the dark corner of Lincoln. I graduated from the University
of Georgia, growing up in my college days with such men as Tom Cobb, Linton
Stephens, Ben Hill, Jud Glenn, and others. In my political life I associated on
terms of intimacy with such men as Stephens, Toombs. Hill, and Cobb. I come to
yon as a Georgian, appealing for the interests of the children of Georgia, and appeal-
ing to the representatives of the State. How inspiring it is to deeds of noble states-
manship to read the names of the counties you represent. Some of them recall in
imperishable words the names of founders of the State, of men who stood for her
rights, of men who bore the brunt of the Revolutionary struggle, such as Oglethorpe,
Richmond, Burke, Chatham, Wilkes, and Camden; Jefferson. Madison. Franklin,
Carroll, Sumter, Putnam, Jasper, Greene, the German He Kalb, Hancock, Lincoln;
to them add the names of the men of the days succeeding the Revolution, Calhoun,
Webster, Clay, Lowndes, Polk, Pierce, Douglas, Randolph, Taylor, and Quitman —
men from other States, but allied to you in close sympathy. Not these only, for
your own great men have their names linked with the destinies of your counties.
What an inspiration it must be to represent the county of Berrien, or Bartow, or
Cobb, or Clayton, or Dawson, or Dooly, or Dougherty, or Forsyth, or Gilmer, or
Hall, or Jackson, or Johnson, or Lumpkin, or McDuffie, or Miller, or Meriwether, or
Murray, or Troup, or Walton. I think that if I were a representative from such a
county, with such a name, I should be inspired with patriotism to do something
hi.uh and useful, and to help the State I lived in to bear worthily the name of the
"Empire Stace of the South." [Applause.] I. appeal to you for the common schools
of (Uorgia, for the future men and women of the State The women of the State
touch my heart very deeply. My grandmother, mother, daughter-in-law, grand-
daughter, Georgia born, names suggestive of holiest affection and tenderest memo-
ries, which make me, not less than my nativity, a Georgian. In all of womankind,
whether or not history has recorded or romance described or poesy sung her virtues,
there has been no type of female excellence, no example of purity or loveliness or
heroism more exalted and noble than that furnished by Georgia mother or wife, fit
representatives of the unsurpassed southern matron. In their names I plead.

Mr. President, a friend told me of a girl in the northern part of the State, not
prince-begotten nor palace-cradled, growing up in glad joyousness and innocency,
amid the rich, virgin growth of wild trees, who was seen plowing an ox on rolling
hillside to earn subsistence for an invalid father, a bed-ridden Confederate soldier,
who lay helpless in an adjacent log cabin. Touched by such heroism and filial
fidelity, a gentleman sent her to school, and last year at the examination one thou-
sand people, who had come from the mountains to show their interest in the educa-
tion of the children, saw that girl, who had labored for the support of herself and
her bed-ridden father, stand on the platform and take the prize offered for the best
essay. Refusing to abandon her old father during vacation, she went back to her
mountain home and to labor, but she is now teaching in the school which brought
to light her latent powers. There are thousands of Georgia boys, in the wire grass
and middle Georgia and in the mountains, who, if educated, would, like Stephens,
be patriotic and honored servants of the State. There are thousands of young maid-
ens, who, like our heroine, require but the helping hand of the State and the warmth
of generous culture to emerge from humble homes of obscurity and poverty to places
of usefulness and honor. [Long applause.]

LOUISIANA.

THi: ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM IN LOUISIANA.

[Paper prepared for Louisiana Educational Association, by John R. Ficklen, professor of history in

Tulane University.]

" If I had as many sons s Priam, I would send them all to the public schools." — Daniel Webster.

Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen: It seems eminently wise that the Louis-
iana Educational Association at this period of its honored career should devote a por-
tion of its time and attention to the origin and development of the public-school

1298 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

system within the borders of this State; for we are now entering upon a new era in
the history of our schools, and wo need, in particular at such a time, to study both the
present and the probabilities of the future in the light of the past. As student and
teacher I have always laid great stress upon this study of the historical development
of our institutions as one of prirne importance. We do not thoroughly understand
the present until we know how and why it has become what it is. Moreover, from
the accumulated experience of those who have youe before us we may learn to avoid
a, thousand errors; where they garnered only "barren regrets," Ave may reap a boun-
tiful harvest of good results.

As the individual must live over in miniature the life of the whole human race, so
those Avho would reform institutions must investigate the history of those institu-
tions and understand the causes that led to failure or to. success. AVithout this
knowledge their labors will be short sighted and unfruitful, and to their hands no
wide powers should be intrusted.

Let us trace, then, as briefly as possible, the origin and development of our public-
school system. From such a study I hope something profitable and something inter-
esting may be gleaned together. Clearness of treatment will be promoted if wo
divide the whole subject into three periods.

I. From the beginning of this century to the framing of the second constitution
in 1845.

II. From 1815 to the civil war.

III. From the civil war to the present time (1894).

Before the opening of the nineteenth century, as you doubtless know, public free
schools did not exist in Louisiana. The Ursuliue Nuns, ever since they were brought
over by Bienville, had devoted themselves to the education of young women, and
there were some private schools in New Orleans, but the policy of the Government
had provided no system of public instruction. The truth is that monarchical gov-
ernments in that day were unfavorable to the education of the masses. Knowledge
is power, and it was not considered desirable that the people should have much
power.

In the year 1803, however, the great Territory of Louisiana, Jefferson's fine pur-
chase, was formally transferred to the commissioners of the American Union. As
you know, Louisiana then embraced a vast tract of country, from which many rich
and prosperous States have since been carved. For nine years the southern portion
was called the Territory of Orleans; but, finally, in 1812, much to the delight of its
60,000 inhabitants, it was erected into the State of Louisiana — one of the fairest
sovereignties that go to constitute the American Union.

During the early period of its territorial government, there are to be found fre-
quent references to the subject of public education. But many years were to elapse
before educational views crystallized into any kind of system of free schools. Nor
was this tardy recognition of the value of common schools peculiar to Louisiana.
It was equally the case in the early history of all the Southern and most of the
Northern States. It would be interesting to trace the development of public schools
in the United States at large ; to show how the enduring system established in Massa-
chusetts by the old Puritans of the seventeenth century was modeled after the sys-
tem of schools Avhich they had learned to know during their sojourn in Holland— a
system in which Holland at that time led the world. It would be interesting to
showtbat the main object of the Puritans was to keep out "that old deluder, Satan,"
by teaching all the children to read the Bible, thus preparing them to exorcise the
evil spirits that eA'er torment the ignorant. It would be still more interesting to
shoAv Avhy that old royalist, Governor Berkeley, feared the rise of public (I bad
almost said republican)' schools, and devoutly thanked God that there were none in
Virginia. Such themes, however, while they would be fruitful of suggestions as to
the progress of our American civilization, would occupy far more time than has
been allotted to this Avhole paper. I can not forbear, howeA'er, mentioning one fact
which may make our Louisiana teachers rejoice that they Ha'c in this day and gen-
eration rather than in theXew England of the seventeenth century. In an old New
England town book (date 16G1) the duties of the schoolmaster are laid down as
folloAA-s: (1) To act as court messenger; (2) to serATe summonses; (3) to conduct
certain ceremonial serArices of the church; (4) to lead the Sunday choir; (5) to dig
thegraAres; (6) to take charge of the school; (7) to ring the bell for public worship;
(8) to perform other occasional duties. With these manifold functions to discharge,
it is easy to understand the importance attached, in early New England, to the office
of schoolmaster.

But to return to Louisiana. No sooner bad the- United States taken possession of
Louisiana than the enlightened policy of our first American goATernor, W. C. C.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1299

Claiborne, &poke out in no uncertain accents on tho subject of public education.
I quote from bis address to tho territorial council in 1804, just ninety years ago: "In
adverting to your primary duties,'7 be says, ■• I have yet to suggest one than which
nono can be more important or interesting. I mean some general provision for tho
education of youth. If wo revere science for her own sake or for the innumerable
benefits she confers upon society, if we love our children and cherish the laudable
ambition of being respected by posterity, let not this great duty be overlooked.
Permit mo to hope, then, that under your patronage, seminaries of learning will
prosper, and means of acquiring information be placed within the reach of each
growing family. Let exertions bo made to rear up our children in the paths of
science and virtue, and impress upon their tender hearts a love of civil and religious
liberty. My advice, therefore, is that your system of education be extensive and
liberally supported.''

These were noble sentiments, but if we may judge by the words of the same gov-
ernor some years later, they found as yet only a feeble echo in the hearts of the people.
For in 1809 wo find Claiborne lamenting the general ••abandonment of education in
Louisiana.'' It is true that in 1805 the College of Orleans was established — a college
in which the honored historian of Louisiana, Charles Gayarre, was a pupil; but
though it lingered on till 1826, it was never in a flourishing condition, and the legis-
lature finally concluded to abolish it and appropriate its funds to tho establishment
of one central and two primary schools. In the constitution of 1812, under which
Louisiana was admitted to the Union, there is no mention of a system of public
education; it was perhaps intended that the whole matter should be left to legisla-
tive action. During the ensuing war of 1812-15 with England, in which Louisiana
bore so glorious a part, the people were too much absorbed in the defense of their
soil to make any provision for education.

According to the annual message of Governor A. B. Roman (in 1831), it was the
year 1818, just one hundred years after tho founding of New Orleans, that witnessed
the enactment of the first law concerning a system of public schools. The governor
doubtless means the first effective law; for teu years previously (1808), an act was
passed to establish public schools, but it was rendered nugatory by the proviso that
the school tax should bo collected only from those who were willing to pay it. Begin-
ning in 1818, however, tho legislature made comparatively liberal appropriations for
educational purposes, the amounts increasing from $13,000 in 1820 to $27,000 in 1824.
Little attention wa3 paid to elementary instruction, but it was proposed to establish
an academy or a college in every parish in the State. Lottery schemes — not peculiar
to Louisiana, but used freely for educational institutions at this })eriod, both in the
North and in the West — were set on foot to raise funds for the College of Orleans
and for an academy recently established in Rapides Parish. In addition, one-fourth
of tho tax paid by the gaming houses of New Orleans was presumably sanctified by
its appropriation to the cause of education.

In spite, however, of all these efforts the message of Governor Roman in 1831
makes patent the fact that the system of public instruction in Louisiana has been a
failure. The main cause of tho failure was recognized by this enlightened Creole
and be sets it forth in the clearest and strongest language. It may be summed up
in a few words. The schools had not been wholly free. In every academy estab-
lished and in every primary school provision was made to receive without tuition
fees a certain number of indigent pupils. In tho two primary schools of New Orleans,
for instance, gratuitous instruction was given only to children between the ages of
7 and 14, and preference was to be shown to at least 50 children from the poorer
classes. Thus a certain number of poor children, marked with tho badge of charity,
were to be admitted to the schools and there associate with others that paid. Such
a system of public schools could not be successful. The pride of the poorer classes
was hurt. One of the parishes refused to take the money appropriated for public
schools, while in many others the parents, though living near the schoolhouses,
would not send their children because it was repugnant to their feelings to have
them educated gratuitously.

In twelve years, declares Governor Roman, the expenditure for public schools had
amounted to $354,000, and it was doubtful whether 354 indigent students had
derived from these schools the advantages which the legislature wished to extend
to that class. In conclusion the governor uttered these significant words, words
which should be engraved over the portals of our legislative halls: "Louisiana will
never reach the station to which she is entitled among her sister States until none
of her electors shall need the aid of his neighbor to prepare his ballot."

Thus we see that the necessity of a new system was beginning to be felt — a system
under which the schools should be absolutely free, under which the sons and daugh-
ters of the rich and poor should sit side by side, and know no distinction except that
which is created by superior abilities. Unless the schools could be raised to a
higher level in public esteem, there was no hope of their suc< i

1300 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

There were other causes of failure which perhaps did not escape Governor Roman,
hut which he fails to mention. There was, first of all, the sparseness of the country
population, which in Louisiana, as elsewhere in the South, made the problem of
educating the people a far different matter from what it was in Massachusetts. In
the South large plantations and the absence of towns tended to make the progress
of public schools slow and uncertain; while in Massachusetts the fact that tho
whole population was grouped first iu settlements around the churches and then in
regular townships, made the organization of public schools a comparatively easy
task. In discussing tho backwardness of the South in educational facilities, this
important consideration is too often omitted. If, with the increase of the popula-
tion at the present day, it has less significance, it certainly had a great deal before
the war.

In the second place, among the old Creoles of Louisiana, the education of young
children was regarded as a matter that concerned not the State but the family.
Exception must be made in favor of enlightened men like Governor Roman, hut the
fact remains that for many years the scheme of free public schools was looked upon
as a useless innovation. As late as 1858, says De Bow's Review, every Louisiana
planter had a school in his own house to educate his children.

From other sources we know that when children were ready for higher instruc-
tion their parents, if they were prosperous, most often sent them to Northern colleges
or to France. This feeling agaiust the public schools arose partly from what Mr.
Lafargue has called the aristocratic and somewhat feudal social system of that day,
and partly from the force of custom — a custom that dates back to the eighteenth
century — when Etienne de Bore", the first successful sugar planter in Louisiana,
received his education first in Canada and then in France.

Last of all it has been claimed with some justice that slavery impeded the progress
of the public schools, as that institution impeded the rise of the white laboring
classes from whose ranks theso schools have always drawn the largest number of
pupils. This was certainly true of the country parishes; but to a far less extent
of New Orleans where all classes of society were duly represented.

All these causes were more or less operative to hinder the progress of the free
school system until the civil war came and radically changed the conditions of
Southern life.

From 1835 to 1845 Louisiana continued to make generous appropriations for the
cause of education, but instead of establishing what was especially needed for the
mass of the people, a good system of elementary instruction, the public funds were
expended iu founding a number of pretentious academies and colleges. These were
required to give free instruction to a small number of indigent pupils, but how many
such pupils were actually received it is impossible to say.

The student who examines the early records of the State is amazed at the number
of these transitory institutions, many of which hardly survived the generous dona-
tions made for their support. As far as I know, the only ones now remaining of some
twenty odd which were once scattered through the various parishes of the State are
Centenary (once the College of Louisiana), now administered by the Methodists;
Jefferson College, now under control of the Marist Fathers, and the Louisiana State
University, which was once the Seminary of Learning in Alexandria.

To illustrate the preference in that early period for these higher institutions, none
of which gave free tuition except to a few indigent pupils, it will suffice to say that
in 1838 the amount appropriated for public schools was $45,633, while during the
same year the subsidies to colleges and seminaries were $126,000. During the period
of which we are about to speak, however, far less was given for the support of these
institutions. Many of them being found superfluous had doubtless already disap-
peared.

II.

We now enter upon our second period, 1845-1860. During the year 1845 Louisiana
received a new constitution. In it full expression was given to the democratic ten-
dencies of the day. The Whigs had yielded to the Democrats, and the latter pro-
ceeded to grant the people many privileges which had been previously denied. The
privilege of choosing the governor from the two candidates receiving the highest
number of votes was taken from the legislature, and the right to vote was no longer
restricted to owners of property. But best of all its democratic measures this con-
stitution provided for a system of public schools under the care and supervision of
a superintendent of education, to be appointed by the governor, and of parish super-
intendents, to be elected by the people. The importance of this departure can not
be exaggerated. Up to this time such schools as had existed iu the State had been
under the care of the secretary of state, whose other official duties were too numerous
for this additional burden. From this time on we are to see a superintendent of

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1301

education devoting Lis time and energies to the establishment of an extensive sys-
tem of public free schools and making regular reports to the general assembly.1

The constitution of 1845, and the laws passed by the legislature to carry out its
provisions, created a new era in the history of education in Louisiana. Up to 1845,
although large sums in proportion to the educable population had been expended,
the system had been a failure, and the secretary of state had declared it should be
consigned to "an unhonored grave." Let us see what were the provisions for the
organization and support of the new system. In the first place the schools were to
be absolutely free to all white children. Of course, as it was one of the corollaries
of the institution of slavery that it was dangerous to educate the slaves, no provision
was made for the education of the negro until he had been emancipated.

For the support of the new system, the constitution declared that the proceeds of
all lands granted by the United States Government for the use of public schools, and
of all estates of deceased persons falling to the State, should be held by the State as
a loan, and should be a perpetual fund, on which annual interest at 6 per cent should
be paid for public schools, and that this appropriation should remain inviolable.
The lands referred to were the public lands which the Federal Government had
retained when Louisiana was made a State, and which that Government was now
granting to the State for educational and other purposes. In 1847 these land grants
amounted to 800,000 acres, and in many instances proved to be very valuable. More-
over, there are many references in these old acts of the legislature to the location of
the sixteenth sections in townships for school purposes and to the sale of these sec-
tions. For the further support of the schools it was now provided by an act of the
legislature that every free male white over 21 years of age should pay a poll tax of
$1, and that a tax of 1 mill should be levied on all taxable property. As early as
1842 the police jurors2 were authorized to levy a tax for schools not to exceed one-
half the annual State tax. Provision was now made that whenever a parish raised
not less than $200 the governor should authorize the State treasurer to pay over to
said parish double the amount so assessed.

Certainly no happier choice for State superintendent of education could have been
made throughout the extent of Louisiana than was made in 1847 by Governor Isaac
Johnson. The man he chose was a ripe scholar. He had been trained in all the learn-
ing of that day. First under a private tutor and then in Georgetown College he had
saturated his mind with all that was best in classical literature, and he had caught
an inspiration which made him one of the great teachers of his time. A brilliant orator,
he spoke and wrote with convincing eloquence whenever the sacred cause of education
was at stake. Such a man was Alexander Dimitry, the first superintendent of educa-
tion, whom Louisiana honors and reveres as the organizer of her system of public
schools.

Both the reports of Mr. Dimitry, which are generally supposed to be lost, are to be
seen in the Fisk Library of New Orleans. The first was rendered in 1848 and the
second in 1850. To the student of our educational progress both are interesting and
instructive.

The first describes how the 47 parishes had been divided into school districts by
the police jurors, assisted by the parish superintendents. The services of these super-
intendents, who were elected at a salary of $300 a year, were very efficient, but the
schools in the parishes were not generally welcomed, and Mr. Dimitry declared that
he viewed them rather in the li<i'ht of an experiment. It was only natural that he
should hold this opinion; for when the free schools were first established in New
Orleans, during the years 1841 and 1842, the announcement, says Mr. Dimitry, was
received by some with doubt, and by others with ridicule, if not hostility. "When
the schools in the second municipality were opened personal appeals and earnest exhor-
tations were made to parents, and yet such were the prejudices to be overcome that
out of a minor population of 3,000 only 13 pupils appeared upon the benches." For-
tunately, public sentiment in the city gradually changed, and in 1848 Mr. Dimitry
was able to declare that thousands were blessing the existence of the city schools, for
in 1849, out of an educable population of 14,248, the number attending the free schools
was 6,710, or nearly 60 per cent. In the country parishes his labors were soon rewarded
with more than anticipated success, for out of an educable population in 37 parishes
of 28,941 the number attending in 1849 was 16,217, or more than 50 per cent.

In his last report Mr. Dimitry complained of the opposition shown by many to the
new Bystem, and especially to a portion of the law which prescribed the levying of a
district tax for the schools. But he had reason to congratulate himself on having

1 Mr. R. M. Lusher, formerly State superintendent of education, and a noble worker in that office,
■wrote a sketch of the public school system in Louisiana. In this sketch he makes the curious error
of stating that all the reports of the State superintendents from 1847 to 1860 were burned during the
war. In the Fisk Library of New Orleans may be t'.>mnl nearly every one of the reports which lie
supposed to he destroyed, beginning with that of Alex. Diraitryin 1

2 County officers in Louisiana

1302 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

created a sentiment in favor of the free schools and in obtaining an attendance of
more than 50 per cent of the educable population — a per cen*t, it is to be remembered,
far higher than that of the year 1894, when 70 per cent of our educable population
are not receiving any instruction either in public or private schools. (Estimate
made by the Times-Democrat.)

Throughout this period (1848-1850) moreover, the State was prosperous, and the
sums appropriated to the public schools in 1849 amounted to nearly one-third of a
million dollars, a higher ratio per educable youth than at the present day. Such
was the condition oi' the public schools during Dimitry's able administration. By
annual visits to the different parishes, he kept himself in touch with his superin-
tendents, and inspired the State at largo with much of his own zeal and enthusiasm.

In the years 1851 and 1852 important changes were made in the administration of
the schools. First of all, the State superintendent was no longer to be appointed by
tho governor, he must be elected by the people. Then followed an act of the legis-
lature which proved to be extremely unwise. That body in a fit of economy abol-
ished the office of parish superintendent and substituted iu each parish a board of
district directors who were to receive no salary. Moreover, the salary of tho State
superintendent was reduced to $1,500 a year, and he was relieved from the duty of
an annual visit to each parish. The effect of these changes upon tho schools in'tho
country parishes is abundantly shown in the reports of the State superintendents,
Robert C. Nicholas, in 1853, Dr. Samuel Bard, in 1858, and Henry Avery, in 1861.
They all declare that the system outside of New Orleans had been seriously crippled ;
that the district directors took no interest in their work, and that often it was
impossible to find out who were directors in a parish. Loud complaints, moreover,
came from many of the parishes that the teachers appointed were not only incom-
petent, but often drunkards and unprincipled adventurers. It is not, therefore, sur-
prising to learn that many parents demanded and actually obtained their children's
quota of the public-school funds, which they used in part payment of the salaries of
private tutors and governesses. Such a method of appropriating the public money,
however, not only produced general demoralization, but worked great injustice to
the poorer classes.

In spite of complaints and appeals, the legislature failed to restore the parish super-
in'.endents and to reform the abuses just mentioned. Hence a pessimistic writer iu
De Bow's Review for 1859, taking up an annual report of the State superintendent,
gives a gloomy account of education in Louisiana. He even goes so far as to conclude
that the New England system of forcing education on the people was not adapted to
Louisiana; that such a law was theoretical and void of practical results. He then
continues in the following strain: "If a law were passed by the State of Louisiana
appropriating $300,000 a year to furnish every family with a loaf of bread more than
half the families would not accept it. The report of the superintendent for 1859
proves that more than half the families in Louisiana will not accept tho mental food
which the State offers their children. Some parishes will not receive any of it.
Tensas, for example, which is taxed $16,000 for the support of public schools has not
a single school. The truth is the government does more harm than good by inter-
fering with the domestic concerns of our people."

This Jeremiah then proceeds to detract as much as possible from the merit of tho
public schools in New Orleans, though he admits that these schools were regarded as
very successful.

I have quoted the words of this critic quite fully because, while they contain some
grains of truth, I believe they also contain a great deal of error. Luckily the reports
from 1856 to 1861, from which he forms his conclusions, are still in existence, and
they do not justify his statement that at this period the people were opposed to the
public schools because "they did not wish to accept tho mental food offered them by
the State." On the contrary, here is an extract from the report of 1859 which throws
much light on the condition of affairs in many of the parishes: "Under the present
law nearly every wealthy planter has a school at his house and draws tho pro rata
share out of the public treasury. The poor children have not the benefit of these
schools, and in this parish, which pays about $14,000 in school tax, there is conse-
qxiently not enough in the treasury to pay the expense of a single school at the parish
seat, where it ought to be."

This extract shows what pernicious custom lay at the root of the failure. The
money was misappropriated in favor of the private schools ; so that where public
schools were established, cheap and worthless teachers had to be employed, who
soon brought their schools into disrepute. The inefficiency of the school directors
followed as a matter of course. Seeing that the rich planters were satisfied, tho
legislature simply did nothing but appropriate ample funds, which often never
reached the schools for which they were destined. Under these circumstauces it is
even remarkable that in 1858, according to Dr. Bard's report, the number of pupils
attending public schools in the country parishes was 23,000 out of an educable popu-
lation in the whole State of 60,500.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1303

Let us turn to New Orleaiis. Daring this period tlio city was divided into four
school districts, with a board of directors and a .superintendent tor each district.
This arrangement insured most efficient management. The attendance in 1858 was
20,000 — nearly as many as in all the country parishes — and I >r. Samuel Bard, after an
examination of the city schools during this year, reported to the general assembly
that "the discipline was admirable, the attainments of the scholars unexpectedly
extensive, and the teachers of raro ability." Hon. William O. Rogers* who did
splendid work for the schools at this period, and who later became city superintend-
ent, has often in my presence corroborated the testimony of Dr. Bard.

It was at this very time, also, that an important advance was made in educational
methods. As early as 1853 Superintendent Nicholas had recommended the establish-
ment of a normal school, declaring-, however, that there was none in the United
States and only one in Canada. Finally in 1858, largely through the exertions of
Mr. Rogers, a normal school, the iirst in Louisiana, Avas opened in New Orleans.
Unfortunately its career of usefulness was soon cut short by the rapidly approaching
civil war.

Mankind has often been accused of viewing the past through a roseate haze, which,
while it lends a new charm to that which was already beautiful, also clothes with
its own light even that which was dark and uubeautiful. It will not be wise, there-
fore, in looking back over the period of fifty-six years which we have just reviewed
to speak too favorably of the system of public schools in Louisiana. Certainly,
however, the State in 1860 had great reason to congratulate herself on the advance
that had been made over the period previous to 18-15. Up to that date, as we have
seeu, the school system was not organized at all; for the schools were not under
proper supervision and outside of New Orleans they were not free except to a small
class of indigent pupils. With the new constitution and the advent of Alexander
Dimitry, Louisiana entered upon a new era of educational progress, especially iu
New Orleans. In the country parishes down to 1860 it must be admitted that the
success of the system was only partial — a result that was duo to the size of the
plantations, the too conservative character of the old planters, the abolition in
1852 of the office of parish superintendent, and especially to the appropriation of
public funds for the benefit of private schools.

III.
PUBLIC SCHOOLS DURING AND SINCE THE WAR.

During the great civil war it was but natural that the public schools of Louisiana,,
especially in the country parishes, should languish, for men were engaged in a strug-
gle which left little time for the consideration of the educational problem. In most
of the parishes the schools for several years were entirely closed. One of the school
directors wrote that from his parish there were no reports to make except war reports.
In New Orleaus, however, and iu the neighboring parishes, which were in the posses-
sion of the Federal troops, many schools were kept open, and provision was made
by the Freednicn's Bureau of Education to give instruction to the newly emancipated
slaves. Under these new conditions there was a strong effort to onen schools in which
the two races should be educated together. But this policy, so repulsive to Southern
sentiments, ended in failure and it was abandoned.

The history of our State after the war is too well known to need repetition here. In a
few years the public debt ol Louisiana was increased by the sum of $40,000,000. More-
over, in 1872, the Government sold at public auction the whole free-school fund, which
had been invested in State bonds, and which had been repeatedly declared a sacred
and inviolable trust for the benefit of the public school. This fund, derived from the
sale of public lands, amounted to more than $1,000,000. After it had been accom-
plished there followed a period of " storm and stress" — a tierce struggle for suprem-
acy, which, during the year 1877, ended in the triumph of the more conservative
elements of the State, under the leadership of Francis T. Nicholls.

We can point with pride to one of the first acts of the legislature under this new
administration. It was as follows:

"The education of all classes of the people being essential to the preservation of
free institutions, wo do declare our solemn purpose to maintain a system of public
schools by an equal and uniform taxation upon property as provided in the consti-
tution of the State, and which shall secure the education of the white and the col-
ored citizens with equal advantages.

"Louis Busrr, Speaker.

"Louis A. Wiltz, Lieut Governor.

"Francis T. Nicholls, Governor."

It is to be noted here that the State assumed formal charge of the education of
the freedman, pledging him the same advantages as the whites. This pledge has
been faithfully kept; the number of colored pupils has gradually increased until
there are now enrolled in the public schools of the State more than 60,000.

1304 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

In March, 1877, a few months before the act above quoted, the general assembly
had established a State board of education, consisting of the governor, the lieutenant-
governor, the secretary of state, the attorney -general, the State superintendent, and
two citizens of the United States, residents for two years in Louisiana.

As you know, this board was reorganized some years later, so as to contain one
representative from each Congressional district — a change most wisely made.1

The most important step, however, in the reorganization of the public school sys-
tem was taken in the constitution of 1879. This is the constitution under which we
are now living, but which Ave all hope to see radically amended in the near future.
It provided for the appointment of parish boards, and declared that these boards
might appoint at a fixed salary a parish superintendent of public schools.

Thus, after the lapse of twenty-seven years, Louisiana restored the office of parish
superintendent — an office which under Alexander Dimitry was found to be all impor-
tant, and which since 1879 has proved essential to the very existence of public
schools in Louisiana. May the parish superintendent, one of the strongest pillars of
public education in our State, be a perpetual institution among us, and may his
office in the future receive that meed of respect and remuneration which his zeal and
devotion so richly deserve.

While the constitution of 1879 is entitled to our gratitude for the reinstatement of
the parish superintendents, one is forced to admit that it made no adequate provi-
sion for the support of the public schools. It is true that the free-school fund, the
bonds of which were sold in 1872, was placed among the perpetual debts of the State,
but the interest to be paid was reduced from 6 to 4 per cent, and it was further
declared that this interest and the interest due on the seminary and the agricultural
and the mechanical funds should be paid, not out of the general revenues of the State,
but out of the tax collected for public education. This was a wholesale "robbing
of Peter to pay Paul."

Moreover, though provision was made for a supplementary tax to be levied for
public schools by the police juries of each parish, even this was not obligatory, and
if it were levied it was to be kept within very narrow limits.

These unwise articles of the constitution have received such repeated and such
hearty condemnation from every superintendent of education that it is not necessary
for me to add my own opinion. I would only remind you that when that constitu-
tion was adopted in 1879 the State had just passed through the period of recon-
struction, her finances were in a prostrate condition, and some constitutional
limitation of taxation seemed absolutely necessary. Those conditions no longer
exist, and it is to be hoped that the amendments recently proposed by the board of
education will be unanimously adopted.

It may be added that the constitution of 1879 ended its provisions for the public
schools with one article that has received universal approval and should be widely
acted upon. It declares that women over 21 years of age shall be eligible to any
office of control or management under the school laws of Louisiana. This is simply
an act of justice to that sex which furnishes so large a proportion of our teachers
throughout the State.

The history of the public schools since 1879 is so well known that I can not pretend
to any knowledge which this audience does not already possess. A simple outline,
therefore, will suffice to refresh your memories.

The first result of the insufficient support granted by the constitution, you will
remember, seemed to be the ruin of the public school system.

In spite of the splendid efforts of Hon. R. M. Lusher, a devoted and untiring worker
in the cause of public education, the school receipts for 1882 allowed only 45 cents
for each educable child in the State ; and the Louisiana Journal of Education for that
year gloomily but forcibly declared that the public school system was as "dead as
I lector." The teachers even in New Orleans were often unpaid, many schools had
been closed, and the double obligation of educating both whites and blacks seemed
too great a burden for the State to bear. But the exertions of Lusher, Easton, and
Jack, together with the efficient aid received from the parish superintendents and
the State board, were not without avail. Defeat was at last changed into victory,
and the record of the past decade, illuminated by the labors of these men, is a most
interesting chapter in the history of our educational progress. The school fund,
especially in the country parishes, has been largely increased, and so has the attend-
ance. Not only has public sentiment, without which laws avail naught, been brought
over to the side of education, but the teachers themselves, though often receiving
scanty remuneration, have shown greater ability and greater enthusiasm than ever
before in the history ef the State. This I attribute largely to the splendid work
done in the Normal School of New Orleans under Mrs. Mary Stamps and in the State
Normal of Natchitoches under President Boyd. I am sure you will believe that lack

'In 1S70 the Republicans had established a State hoard of education, consisting of the State super-
intendent and six "division superintendents.'' The State was divided into six: districts under these
"division superintendents."

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1305

of space, and not lack of appreciation, Las prevented my giving a detailed account
of the valuable aid rendered to this normal work by the Peabody fund. A tribute
to Dr. Curry's wise administration of this fund is certainly due from anyone who
writes the history of public education in Louisiana. Lack of space must also be
my plea for omitting the history of the McDonogh fund, to which New Orleans owes
its array of splendid school buildings.

It may safely be declared, therefore, that the year 1894 records progress in every
direction, but I can not do more than name some of the chief influences at work for
the advancement of the public schools. They are the Association of Parish Super-
intendents; the State Teachers' Association, with its reading circle and its official
journal; the State and parish institutes for teachers, the Louisiana Chautauqua;
and last, but not least, the Louisiana Educational Association. Surely this is a
goodly list — one that any State might be proud of.

In glancing over the incomplete sketch of public education in Louisiana, the
progress of which I have traced through ninety years, I am struck with the fact that
the State has followed what is called the general trend of education. This trend,
as laid down by Dr. William T. Harris, is as follows: First, from private, endowed,
and parochial schools there is a change to the assumption of education by the State.
"When the State takes control, it first establishes colleges and universities; then
elementary free schools, and then it adds supplementary institutions for the afflicted ;
then institutions for teachers, together with libraries and other educational aids.
In the meanwhile increasing attention is paid to supervision and methods. Schools
are better graded. In class work there is more assimilation and less memorizing.
Corporal punishment diminishes, and the educational idea advances toward a divine
charity." Such, amid a thousand difficulties and vicissitudes, has been the history
of public education in Louisiana. I am persuaded that we are on the right path.

The question still remains, however, Is Louisiana abreast of the other States of
the Union in her provision for the education of her youth? The highest authorities
declare that she is not. Let us for a moment examine the conditions as they exist.

In 1848 the educable youth of the State numbered only 41,500; in 1894, with the
addition of the colored pupils, they numbered more than 378,000. Of these only
115,000 attend any school, either public or private. What is the consequence? I
answer that in seven of our prosperous parishes, out of 13,000 voters, it is stated that
6,858 white voters, more than 50 per cent of the whole number, can not read and
write; and it is a well-known fact that Louisiana now leads all the Southern States
in illiteracy. What shall wo do to remove this lamentable condition of things?

Evidently, though we now spend nearly $1,000,000 a year for our public schools,
that sum, in view of the increased population, is grossly inadequate. We need
higher salaries for our teachers, better remuneration for our parish superintendents,
and longer sessions for our schools. The machinery of our public school system, as
far as the officials and their relations to each other are concerned, is excellent. But
what we require above everything is the privilege of local taxation beyond the pres-
ent constitutional limitation. We have reached a point in Louisiana where local
pride has been aroused. We are beginning to feel that however grateful we may be
for the beneficent work of such funds as the Peabody, we must first of all help our-
selves; we must demand our independence— the most glorious privilege granted to
man.

MASSACHUSETTS.

Mary Hemenway.

[At a meeting held by the Boston public school teachers at the Old South Meeting
House May 2, 1894, in honor of the memory of Mrs. Mary Hemenway, warm and
loving tribute was paid to her personal character and worth, her services in the
cause of education were reviewed, and the reforms instituted by her recalled to
remembrance by those who had been her associates and coworkers and who were
specially qualified to re p resent the different phases of her activity. The addresses
made upon this occasion were afterwards incorporated into a memorial volume, under
the editorial supervision of Dr. Larkin Dunton, head master of the Boston Normal
School From this volume the following extracts have been made to illustrate her
life and work. They are succeeded by a more detailed account of the Old South
work from another source.]

[From the introductory remarks by Dr. Dunton.]

Mrs. Hemenway was born in the city of New York December 20, 1820, and died at
her home in Boston March 6, 1894. She was the daughter of Thomas Tileston, from
whom she seems to have inherited her remarkable business ability. She married
Mr. Augustus Hemenway, a great shipping merchant. Several years before his death
his health had so failed as to throw much of the oversight of his immense business
upon Mrs. Hemenway. By this means was developed that remarkable talent for the

1306 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

directing of affairs which subsequently proved so useful in carrying on ner great
benevolent enterprises. She certainly possessed business ability of a high order.

Her insight into the causes of suffering among the people, far and near, present
and future, and into the remedies for this suffering, was wonderful. Her breadth of
view was only equalled by the warmth of her heart. It was the generosity of her
nature that so endeared her to the teachers of Boston. They came to know her as a
fellow-worker for the good of the people. Pride, haughtiness, and condescension,
which too often accompany the possession and even the distribution of wealth, Avere
so conspicuously wanting in her nature that every teacher who was brought into con-
tact with her in her benevolent work felt only the presence of a great heart beating
in sympathy with all mankind.

Her beneficent plans were never set on foot and then left to the management of
others. She not only followed her work with her thought and her kindly interest,
but she stimulated and cheered her coworkers with her inspiring personality. It
was her clear head, her warm heart, and her cheerful presence that gained for her
admiration and affection.

[Resolutions presented by Robert Swan, master of tbe "Winthrop School, and adopted by tho meeting.]

"Whereas it is fitting, at the close of Mrs. Mary Hemenway's useful life, that the
Boston public school teachers, assembled in the Old South Meeting House, which
she loved so well and did so much to save, should place on record their profound
appreciation of the noble work she has accomplished for tho practical education of
the children under their care, by which tho pupils, and through them tho homes
from which many of them come, havo been elevated both mentally and morally:
Therefore be it

Resolved, That through her wise foresight and long perseverance in tho introduc-
tion of a systematic training in sewing, by which girls in the public schools are
made proficient in needlework, tho first step toward manual training, now acknowl-
edged by all to be an essential part of our school programme, she exhibited an almost
intuitive sense of tho needs of the community, and enabled the children to relieve
their mothers of many weary hours of labor.

Resolved, That by tho introduction of the kitchen garden and, later, tho school
kitchen — a long step in progress — she accomplished by this wise provision of her
studious care an inestimable benefit to the city, the children being thus taught not
only to cook intelligently and economically, but also to buy understandingly the
various articles required, by which the manner of living has been changed, health-
ful food and proper service displacing uncomfortable and unhealthful methods.

Resolved, That by the introduction of the Ling system of gymnastics, in which
Mrs. Hemenway's liberality and care for the physical development of the children
wero the principal factors, tho city is greatly indebted for another advance in
education.

Resolved, That by the establishment of the Normal School of Cooking and the
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, furnishing qualified teachers to inaugurate
the Avork in other cities, by Avhich the full advantage of Boston's experience is
reaped, her beneficial influence has made instruction in these branches national
instead of local.

Resolved, That by her contribution in money and intelligent helpfulness in pro-
moting the Boston Teachers' Mutual Benefit Association in the days of its inception
much Avas done to insure tho success of tho enterprise.

Resolved, That by the purchase of Dr. John D. Philbrick's library and its presenta-
tion to tho Boston Normal School she has made easily accessible to the pupils the
choicest Avorks on educational subjects, thus making the valuable information
acquired a part of their equipment for their chosen profession.

Resolved, That by her prizes for essays on subjects connected with American his-
tory, awarded to graduates of the Boston high ochools on Washington's Birthday in
the Old South Meeting House, she has caused a thorough research into our colonial
and national life that can result only in inspiring patriotic ardor which must con-
duce to tho best citizenship.

Resolved, That by these and many other acts which can not be enumerated at this
time her name is justly entitled to rank with the names of Pratt and Drexel, Avho
have established institutes in Brooklyn and Philadelphia that will confer incalcula-
ble benefits on tho people of this country.

Resolved, That Mrs. Hemenway, in these A^aried interests, gave what is infinitely
more important than money — her constant sympathy in and enthusiasm for tho work,
which is an iiiA'aluable memory to all who were blessed with her assistance.

Resolved, That in tendering these resolutions to the family of Mrs. Hemenway we
desire to express our deep sympathy in their bereavement.

[Address by Edwin T. Seaver, superintendent of schools.]

How the Old South Meeting House Avas saved from threatened destruction is a
well-known story that needs not now to be repeated. Mrs. Hemenway's interest in

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1307

that patriotic enterprise did not end with her giving a large share of the purchase
money. That generous gift was hut the beginning of a larger enterprise, the pre-
lude to a nobler history.

These ancient Avails had heen saved. What should ho done with them? They
might have heen allowed to stand as mute witnesses to the events of a glorious past.
They might have heen used merely as a shelter for curious old relics, which anti-
quarians love to study and passing visitors cast a glance upon. And so the old
meeting houso might have stood many years more — a monument to religion and free-
dom, not unworthy, indeed, of its purpose, but yet a silent monument.

The plans of Mrs. Hemenway were larger and moro vital. The old building should
be not only a relic and monument of the past, but a temple for present inspiration
and instruction. The thoughts and the hopes that aforetime had thrilled the hearts
of men assembled in this house should live again in the words of eloquent teachers.
Here should young people gather to learn lessons of virtue and patriotism from the
lives of great men whose deeds have glorified our nation's annals. What has now
become known throughout the country as "the Old South work" is the outgrowth
of this fruitful idea. Let us briefly review the particulars of this ''Old South work/'
keeping in mind as we do so its main purposes, which are first to interest young peo-
ple in American history, and then, through that interest, to inspire them with a love
of their country, and to instruct them wisely concerning the duties and privileges of
citizenship under a free government. Can any instruction more vital to the public
good bo thought of?

First, we may notice that Washington's Birthday has been appropriately celebrated
in this house every year from 1879. Other national holidays have been celebrated
likewise, or may hereafter be celebrated, for the idea is a growing one.

Next should be noticed "the Old South lectures." As early as 1879, and in the two
years following, courses of lectures on topics of American history were delivered in
this house by Mr. John Fiske, who has since become so well known as a brilliant
writer on historical subjects. That these lectures would be intensely interesting to
the adult portion of the audiences was naturally enough expected at the time, but
it was hardly foreseen that the young people would be so thoroughly fascinated as
they were with a lecturer who had been known chiefly as a writer on deep philo-
sophical subjects. Mr. Fisko has been a frequent lecturer on this platform from 1879
down to the present time.

In 1883 "the Old South lectures," properly so called, were organized on a definite
and permanent plan. Each year the work to be done is laid out in a systematic
manner. A general topic is chosen, and particular topics under this are assigned to
different speakers, who are invited because their special knowledge of the topics
assigned them gives great interest or importance to what they may have to say.
The great interest awakened by these lectures has led to the repetition of many of
them in other cities.

"The Old South leaflets" are an interesting auxiliary to the lectures. A practice
was early adopted of providing iu printed form the means of further studying the
matters touched upon by the lecturer of the day. The leaflets so provided contained
not merely an outline of the lecture, but the texts of important historical docu-
ments not otherwise easily accessible, and references to authorities with critical
note ; thereupon, and other interesting special matter. These leaflets have proved
to bo so useful to teachers in their school work that the directors of "the Old
South work" haA*e published a general series of them, which are to be continued,
and are supplied to schools at the bare cost of paper and printing.

Perhaps " the Old South essays "touch the Boston public schools more immediately
than does any other part of "the Old South work." Every year, beginning with
1881, have been offered to high school pupils soon to become graduates, and also to
recent graduates, four prizes, two of $40 and two of $25 each, for the best essays on
assigned topics of American history. The usual objection to the plan of encourag-
ing study by the offer of prizes, that many strive and few win, so that the joy of
victory in the few is more than offset by the disappointment of failure in the many,
was met in tho present case with characteristic wisdom and liberality; for every
writer of an essay not winning a money prize has received a present of valuable
books in recognition of his worthy effort. Tho judges who make tho awards of
prizes state that crude essays, betraying a want of study and care on the part of the
writers, are extremely rare. On the other hand, there are often so many essays of
the highest general excellence that the task of making a just award is a difficult one.

Some of these essays have been printed in the New England Magazine and in
other periodicals. Some have been published in pamphlet form, and have received
the favorable notice of historical scholars. It is now tho custom to invite at least
one of the prize essayists each year to deliver one of "the Old South lectures."

Among the more distinguished of the essayists may be named Mr. Henry L. South-
wick, a graduate of the Dorchester High School, whose prize essay of the year 1881,
entitled "The policy of the early colonists of Massachusetts toward Quakers and

1308 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

« fliers whom they regarded as intruders," attracted much attention; Mr. F. E. E.
Hamilton, a graduate of the English High School, and since an alumnus of Harvard
College: Mr. Robert M. Lovett, a graduate of the Boston Latin School, who led his
class at Harvard College; Miss Caroline E. Stecker, who took prizes in two succes-
sive yeirs; and Mr. Leo R. Lewis, of the English High School, now a professor in
Tufts College. Others there are who may be expected hereafter to distinguish them-
selves in the line of work for which the writing of their essays was the beginning
of a preparation.

The whole, number of Old South essayists is now over 100. About 20 of these
have been or still are students in colleges, some proceeding thither in regular course
from the Latin schools, but others in less easy ways, being impelled to the effort
undoubtedly by a desire for higher education that had grown out of their historical
studies for their essays. But among the essayists who have not become college stu-
dents, the interest in historical studies has been no less abiding. The Old South
Historical Society, formed about two years ago, is composed of persons who have
written historical essays for the Old South prizes. Quarterly meetings are held for
the reading of papers and for discussion on historical subjects. This society may
well be regarded with peculiar interest by our teachers, because it represents the
best historical scholarship of successive years in the high schools of Boston. It may
soon become, if it be not already, one of the most importaint learned societies in
this city.

But historical study and writing are not for the many, nor are they enough to
satisfy the few. A broader influence may touch the hearts of all through music.
Out of this thought has grown the society known as " The Old South Young People's
Chorus."

At many of "the Old South lectures" there has been singing of national patriotic
hymns by large choruses of boys and girls from the public schools, three or four hun-
dred often taking part. On the Washington's Birthday celebrations there has always
been singing by the public-school children. These interesting exercises have led to
a more permanent organization for the practice of patriotic music, which flourishes
now under the name of "Young People's Chorus."

Finally, let us note the extension of "the Old South work" to other cities, as Provi-
dence, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Indianapolis, Chicago, Madison, Milwau-
kee, and others. Everywhere the idea of bringing our national history homo to the
minds and hearts of young people through an awakened interest in monuments and
memorials of the past has been enthusiastically received. Philadelphia, no less than
Boston, has her shrines of freedom. There is no city or town in the land that does
not possess something interesting as a memorial of past events — events which the
national historian may regard as of no more than local importance, but which, by the
very circumstance of being local, best show the child the stuff out of which the fabric
of our national history is woven. Everywhere, therefore, the materials for "the Old
South work" are at hand, and the plan of this work is so simple that it can be
adopted everywhere. * * *

[From the address by James A. Page, master of the Dwight School. 1

Of the public-spirited woman in whose honor we are met it may he said, in the
language of Sydney Smith, that she was three women, not one woman.

Practical as a business man, she was yet tender and generous to many different
sorts of people. Expecting always faithful and loyal service, she was considerate
of those carrying forward her great plans. She delighted to spend money, as she was
spending it, for lofty purposes. She had strength— the strength of opposite qualities,
the strength that fits for public service. The city was fortunate that at such a time,
or at any time, such service was to be had.

The woman who gave this service saw very surely that any institution, to be last-
ing, must be firmly founded ; and her motto therefore in this, as in other things, was
"Go slowly." We had had "systems" of gymnastics before, and they had vanished.
We had had "fads" of this kind, and they had perished one by one. The thing to
be done now was to secure a plan that should be workable, and yet should be based
on well-ascertained physiological and psychological data.

She gave her mind to this. In 1888 the cooperation of twenty-five teachers was
secured, and the work was carried on for a considerable time in rooms at Boylston
Place. After much experience had been gained and circumstances had seemed to
justify it, larger rooms were obtained, and in 1889 the masters of the schools were
invited to interest themselves in the movement and to take part in the exercises.
They responded to the call without an exception, I believe, and the work took on a
wider scope. It was in this year also (1889) that the Conference on Physical Train-
ing- took place under the auspices of this school, and the advocates of many different
systems were invited to take part, and each to show by example and on the stage the
special excellencies of his own school of work. The German pupils, those of the Chris-
tian associations, of i)elsar.te, of the colleges, of the Swedish, and of some private

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1309

schools took the stage successively, and had ample opportunity to demonstrate th3
value of their several systems. A brilliant reception was given in the evening.

It was determined, I think, at this time by a very general consensus of opinion that
for the public schools of this city as a whole, and with all their limitations, the Swedish
system was the best adapted.

From this time, convinced it was on the right track, the Boston Normal School of
Gymnastics has continued a constantly growing power and success. Under the same
firm but fostering hand as at the beginning it outgrew its quarters in Park street, and
since 1890 has been located in more commodious rooms at the Paine Memorial Build-
ing. It has graduated th'-ee classes, that of 1891 consisting of 12 students, that of
1892 also of 12, and that of 1895 consisting of 43 students, and this with a constantly
advancing standard as to conditions of admission. In addition to these regular grad-
uates 30 pupils have received one-year certificates, and some of them are now doing
good work as teachers.

The school has at its head Miss Amy Morris Homans and in its staff such men as
Dr. Enebuske, the professor of philosophy at Harvard University, the dean of the
Harvard Medical School, and the professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology.

It is not strange, then, that the services of pupils trained in such a way should be
in demand in all parts of the country. Two have gone to the Drexel Institute of
Philadelphia; 2 have gone to Smith College, Northampton; 2 to Radcliffe College,
Cambridge; 1 to Bryn Mawr, Pa.; 4 to different State normal schools in Massachu-
setts; 1 to Oshkosh, Wis.; 1 to Denver, Colo.; 1 to the Normal College, Milledge-
ville, Ga. ; and 1 each to Gloucester, Lynn, Lawrence, Dedham, Cambridge, and
Pawtucket.

The aggregate salaries paid to the young ladies of the three classes already grad-
uated are not less tban $50,000, the highest single salary reaching $1,800, and the
average being slightly less than $1,000.

These statements give but a faint idea of the work of the school — its fineness, its
scope, its far-reaching quality. But we can see that the bread cast on the waters is
beginning to return. These centers throughout the country are already established.
Imagine them, as the years go by, multiplied a thousand fold, making a better and
happier, because a stronger, people, and then bring the threads back to this place
and connect them with the deed of one noble, public-spirited woman.

The counterpart of this picture is the one of 60,000 children taking the Swedish
exercises daily in our own city schools, under the direction of teachers acquainted
with the system from actual contact with it, and under the supervision of an expert
like Dr. Hartwell. Who that saw the exposition of it at the English High School
on Saturday last can hesitate in his hearty Godspeed or forget the one whose initi-
ative made it all possible?

[From the address of Dr. Larkin Dunton, head master of the Boston Normal School.]

If a man has wisdom and money, but no heart, he does nothing for his fellow-men.
If his purse is full and his heart is warm, yet, if he lacks wisdom to guide his efforts,
he is as likely to harm as to help. But happy is it for the world when wisdom, love,
and wealth are the joint possession of one great soul. They then constitute an irre-
sistible force. Mrs. Mary Heruenway possessed them all in largest measure. Let us
note briefly the comprehensiveness of view and kindness of heart that are shown in
the wrork of this grand woman.

She was allowed to grow up, as she said, without learning to do things; and she
noticed that girls who were efficient workers were happy. She felt that she had
been deprived of her birthright. This was her first inspiration for teaching girls to
sew; though she saw also the effect of a knowledge of this work in their future
homes as well as in helpfulness to their mothers. Through her efforts sewing was
introduced into the schools of Boston. But she was too wise to allow this branch
of instruction to depend upon the life of any one person. She began at once to inter-
est the school committee and teachers in the work, to the end that it might be incor-
porated into the regular programme of the schools, be given to all the girls, and,
more than this, be made perpetual by being put under the fostering care of the
immortal city. The example of Boston has been widely copied, so that the influence
of the work thus unostentatiously begun, but so wisely managed, has extended and
will extend to millions of children and millions of homes.

A legitimate result of the introduction of this new branch of instruction has been
the creation of a department of sewing in the Boston Normal School, so that here-
after sewing is to be taught by women as able and as well educated as those, who
teach arithmetic or language, and is, therefore, to take its place as an educational
force in the development of our girls.

Through various experiments in vacation schools in summer Mrs. Hemenway came
to see that it would be possible to raise the standard of cooking in the homes of the
people by teaching the art to the children in the public schools. This, she thought,

1310 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

would not only raise up a stronger race of men and women, but would make their
homes happier and more attractive, and so would lesson the temptation of fathers
and sons to spend their evenings at the saloon. And thus good cooking came to
stand in her mind as the handmaid of temperance.

But she was wise enough to see that the realization of her ideal, namely, the uni-
versality and perpetuity of good cooking, depended upon two conditions — iirst, that
the work must he under the care and support of an abiding power ; and second, that
the instruction must be given by competent teachers. Hence she set herself to work
to demonstrate the feasibility of the plan to the school authorities, to the end that
they would undertake it for all the girls of the city. At the same time, seeing that
there were no suitable teachers for this new branch of education, sho established a
normal school of cooking, which she has maintained to the present time.

This normal school has not only supplied the school kitchens of Boston with com-
petent teachers, but has supplied other cities with teachers, so that other centers of
like influenco could be created. This institution has also shown the authorities hero
the necessity of training teachers for this kind of school work, and a department of
cooking has been provided for in the city normal school. So the continuation and
improvement of the work are secured.

"When Mrs. Hemenway's attention was called to physical training as a means of
improving the health, physique, and graceful bearing of the young, she immediately
began experimenting with various systems of gymnastics for the purpose of ascer-
taining which was best adapted to the needs of American children.

She soon became so favorably impressed with the Swedish system that she invited
25 Boston teachers to assist her in making her experiment with it. Their judgment
of the result was so favorable that she made an oiler to the school committee to train
a hundred teachers in the system, on condition that they be allowed to use the exer-
cises in their classes in case they chose to do so. The offer was accepted, and the
result proved a success.

Mrs. Hemenway saw at the outset that what she could do personally was but a
trine compared to what ought to be done, so she decided to start the work in such
a way that it would become as broad as Boston and as lasting. Hence she began at
once to sharo the responsibility with the city and to train the teachers for the work.

She soon gained such a broad view of the possibilities of the system that she
decided to make it more generally known. This led to the great Conference on
Physical Training in Boston in 1889, which did so much to arouse an interest in the
subject and to create a demand for teachers specially trained for the work. But it
was not enough to create a demand for teachers; the demand must bo met; so she
established the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics for the education and training
of teachers of gymnastics.

Mere imitators would not do for this work. She believed the body to be the temple
of God, and that it should be guarded and adorned by those who knew it so well as
to believe in its possibilities and its sacredness. This school has done much to qualify
the teachers of Boston for conducting the Swedish exercises, and it h;is sent its
graduates into many other cities, which in turn have become centers of inspiration
and help along the same line. Mrs. Hemenway, through this school, will improve
the physical power, health, and morality of millions of our children.

But she was not satisfied with all this. She saw that to make this work perpetual
in Boston the education of teachers of gymnastics must be made perpetual : it must
not depend upon one frail life; so she furnished the best equipped teacher that sho
could procure to give instruction in the theory and art of gymnastics in the Boston
Normal School till a woman could be educated for the place. When this was done
and the school committee had appointed a competent teacher, Mrs. Hemenway's
influence was gradually withdrawn, so that now every graduate of our normal
school goes out prepared to direct intelligently the work in gymnastics, and all is
done that human foresight could devise to make instruction in this subject perpetual.

Her work in connection with the Old South had the same general aim. It was to
improve the morals of the people by teaching patriotism widely and perpetually.
She once said : " I have just given $100,000 to save the Old South, yet I care nothing
for the church or the corner lot; but if I live, such teaching shall bo done in that
old building and such an influence shall go out from it as shall make the children of
future generations love their country so tenderly that there can never be another
civil war in this country." This sentiment accounts for her support of Old South
summer lectures and Old South prize essays for the development of patriotism in the
young.

Mrs. Hemenway spent $100,000 in building up the Tileston Normal School, in "Wil-
mington, N. C. When asked Avhy she gave money to support schools in the South,
she replied : "When my country called for her sons to defend the flag, I had none to
give. Mine was but a lad of 12. I gave my money as a thank offering that I was
not called to suffer as other mothers who gave their sons and lost them. 1 gave it
that the children of this generation might be taught to love the flag their lathers
tore down.-'

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1311

TIIK OLD SOT'TII WoUIC.

[By Edwin I). Mead.1]

* * * The extent of the obligation of Boston and of America to Mrs. Hemcn-
way lor her devotion to the historical and political education of our young people
is something which wo only now begin to properly appreciate, when she has left us
and we view her work as a whole. I do not think it is too much to say that she lias
dono more than any other single individual in the same time to promote popular
interest in American history and to promote intelligent patriotism.

Mary Hemenway was a woman whose interests and sympathies were as broad as
the world; hut she was a great patriot — and she was preeminently that. She was
an enthusiast ic lover of freedom and of democracy, and there was not a day of her
life that she did not think of the great price with which our own heritage of freedom
had been purchased. Ilcr patriotism was loyalty. Sho had a deep feeling of per-
sonal gratitude to the founders of New England and the fathers of the Republic.
She had a reverent prido in our position of leadership in the history and movement
of modern democracy, and she had a consuming zeal to keep the nation strong and
pure and worthy of its best traditions, and to kindle this zeal among the young
people of the nation. With all her great enthusiasms, she was an amazingly prac-
tical and definite woman. She wasted no time or strength in vague generalities,
either of speech or action. Others might long for the time when the kingdom of
God should cover the earth as the waters cover the sea — and she longed for it; but
while others longed she devoted herself to doing what sho could to bring that corner
of God's world in which sho was set into conformity with the laws of God — and this
by every means in her power, by teaching poor girls how to make better clothes and
cook better dinners and make better homes, by teaching people to value health
and respect and train their bodies, by inciting people to read better books and love
better music and better pictures and be interested in more important things. Others
might long for the parliament of man and the federation of the world — and so did she ;
but while others longed sho devoted herself to doing what she could to make this
nation, for which she was particularly responsible, litter for the federation when it
comes. The good patriot, to her thinking, was not the worse cosmopolite. The
good state for which she worked was a good Massachusetts, and her chief interest,
while others talked municipal reform, was to mike a better Boston.

American history, people used to say, is not interesting; and they read about Ivry
and Marathon and Zaina, about Pym and Pepin and Pericles, the ephors, the t: ibun< *,
and the House of Lords. American history, said Mrs, Hemenway, is to us the most
interesting and the most important history in the world, if we would only open our
eyes to it and look at it in the right way — and I will help people to look at it iu the
right way. Our very archaeology, she said, is of the highest interest; and through
the researches of Mr. Cnshing and Dr. Fewkes and others among the Znnis and the
Moipiis, sustained by her at the cost of thousands of dollars, she did an immense
work to make interest in it general. Boston, the Puritan city — how proud sho was
of its great line of heroic men, from Wiuthrop and Cotton and Eliot and Harvard to
Sumner and Garrison and Parker and Phillips! How proud she was that Harry
Vane once trod its soil and here felt himself at home! How she loved Hancock and
Otis and Warren and Revere and the great men of the Boston town meetings — above
all, Samuel Adams, tho very mention of whose name always thrilled her, and whoso
portrait was the only ono save Washington's which hung on the oaken walls of her
great dining room! Tho Boston historians, Prescott, Motley, Parkman ; the Boston
poets, Longfellow, Lowell, Emerson — each word of every one she treasured, she
would have enjoyed and would have understood, as few others, that recent declara-
tion of Charles Francis Adams, that the founding of Boston was fraught with conse-
quences hardly less important than those of tho founding of Rome. All other Boston
men and women must see Boston as she saw it — that was her high resolve; they must
know and take to heart that they were citizens of no mean city; they must bo roused
to tho sacredness of their inheritance, that so they might be roused to tho nobility
of their citizenship and the greatness of their duty. It was with this aim and with
this spirit, not with the spirit of the mere antiquarian, that Mrs. Hemenway inaugu-
rated the Old South work. History with her was for use — tho history of Boston, the
history of New England, tho history of America.

In tho first place sho saved the Old South Meeting House. She contributed
$100,000 toward the fund necessary to prevent its destruction. It is hard for us to
realize, so much deeper is the reverence for historic places which the great anniver-
saries of these late years have dono so much to beget, that in our very centennial
year, 1876, the Old South Meeting House, the most sacred and historic structure in
Boston, was in danger of destruction. The old Hancock house, for which, could it bo

1 Reprinted from the Journal of Education, August 30-Septeaiber 13, 1SD4.

1312 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

restored, Boston would to-day pour out unlimited treasure, had gone, "with but feeble
protest, only a dozen years before; and but for Mrs. Hemeuway the Old South Meet-
ing House would have gone in 1876. She saved it, and, having saved it, she deter-
mined that it should not stand an idle monument, the tomb of the great ghosts, but
a living temple of patriotism. She knew the didactic power of great associations;
and everyone who in these fifteen years has been in the habit of going to the lectures
and celebrations at the Old South knows with what added force many a lesson has
been taught within the walla which heard the tread of Washington, and which still
echo the words of Samuel Adams and James Otis and Joseph "Warren.

The machinery of the Old South work has been the simplest. That is why any
city, if it has public spirited people to sustain it, can easily carry on such work.
That is why work like it, owing its parentage and impulse to it, has been undertaken
in Providence and Brooklyn and Philadelphia and Indianapolis and Chicago and
elsewhere. That is why men and women all over the country, organized in societies
or not, who are really in earnest about good citizenship, can do much to promote
similar work in the cities and towns in which they live. We have believed at the
Old South Meeting House simply in the power of the spoken word and the printed
page. We have had lectures and. we have circulated historical leaflets.

What is an Old South lecture course like? That is what many of the teachers and
many of the young people who read the Journal of Education, and who are not con-
versant with the work, will like to know. What kind of subjects do wo think will
attract and instruct bright young people of 15 or 16, set them to reading in American
history, make them more interested in their country, and make better citizens of
them? That question can not, perhaps, be better answered than by giving the Old
South programme for the present summer. This course is devoted to " The Founders
of New England," and the eight lectures are as follows : "William Brewster, the elder
of Plymouth," by Rev. Edward Everett Hale; "William Bradford, the governor of
Plymouth," by Rev. William Elliot Griffis; "John Winthrop, the governor of Massa-
chusetts," by Hon. Frederic T. Greenhalge; "John Harvard, and the founding of
Harvard College," by Mr. William R. Thayer; "John Eliot, the apostle to the Indi-
ans," by Rev. James de Normandie; "John Cotton, the minister of Boston," by Rev.
John Cotton Brooks; "Roger Williams, the founder of Rhode Island," by President
E. Benjamin Andrews; "Thomas Hooker, the founder of Connecticut," by Rev.
Joseph H. Twichell.

It will be noticed that the several subjects in this course are presented by repre-
sentative men — men especially identified iu one way or another with their special
themes. Thus, Edward Everett Hale, who spoke on Elder Brewster, is certainly our
greatest New England "elder" to-day. Dr. Griffis, whose book on "Brave Little
Holland" is being read at this time by many of our young people, is an authority in
Pilgrim history, having now in preparation a work on "The Pilgrim Fathers in Eng-
land, Holland, and America." It was singularly fortunate that the present governor
of Massachusetts could speak upon Governor Winthrop. Mr. Thayer is the editor
of the Harvard Graduates' Magazine, and a special student of John Harvard's life
and times. Mr. De Normandie is John Eliot's successor as minister of the old church
in Roxbury. Rev. John Cotton Brooks, Phillips Brooks's brother, is a lineal descend-
ant of John Cotton, and has preached in his pulpit in St. Botolph's church at old
Boston, in England. President Andrews, of Brown University, is the very best per-
son to come from Rhode Island to tell of that little State's great founder. Mr.
Twichell, the eminent Hartford minister, was the chosen orator at the celebration of
the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Connecticut, in 1889.
With such a list of speakers as this, this course upon "The founding of New Eng-
land'' could not help being a strong, brilliant, and valuable course; and so it has
proved.

The Old South lectures — thanks to Mrs. Hemenway's generosity, still active by
provision of her will — are entirely free to all young people. Tickets are sent to all
persons under 20, applying in their own handwriting to the directors of the Old
South studies, at the Old South Meeting House, and inclosing stamps. Older peo-
ple can come if they wish to — and a great many do come — but these pay for their
tickets; it is understood that the lectures are designed for the young people. We
tell our lecturers to aim at the bright boy and girl of 15, and forget that there is
anybody else iu the audience. If the lecturer hits them, he is sure to interest every-
body ; if he does not, he is a failure as an Old South lecturer. We tell them to be
graphic and picturesque— dullness, however learned, is the one thing which young
people will not pardon; we tell them to speak without notes — if they do not always
satisfy themselves quite so well, they please everybody else a great deal better;
and we tell them never to speak over an hour — we pardon fifty-nine minutes, but
we do not pardon sixty-one. Persons starting work like the Old South work in
other cities would do well to remember these simple rules. Any persons looking in
upon the great audience of young people which, on the Wednesday afternoons of
summer, fills the Old South Meeting House, will quickly satisfy themselves whether
American history taught by such lectures is interesting.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1313

For tho Old South lectures are summer lectures — vacation lectures — given at 3
o'clock on Wednesday afternoons. They begin when llio graduation exercises and
the Fourth of July aro well behind, usually on the Wednesday nearest August 1.
For one reason we find this a little late — it carries tho last lecture or two beyond
the opening of tho schools in September; and such courses of lectures in vacation
might well begin as early as the middle of July.

Our lectures aro not meant for idlers; we do not aim to entertain a crowd of
children for an hour in a desultory fashion ; our lecturers do not talk baby talk.
The Old South work is a serious educational work; its programmes are careful and
sequential, making demands upon tho hearers; it assumes that the young people
who como are students, or want to be — and by consistently assuming it, it makes
them so. Dr. Hale, who has addressed these Old South audiences oftener, perhaps,
than anybody else, remarked at tho opening of tho present course upon the notable
development in the character and carriage of the audiences in these years of the
work; it is no longer safe, he said, to say 1603 at the Old South, when vou ought to
say 1602.

Last year, when the people of the whole country were assembling at Chicago, the
capital of tho great West, the lectures were devoted to the subject of "Tho opening
of the West." The subjects of the previous ten annual courses were as follows:
" Early Massachusetts history,'' " Representative men in Boston history," " Tho war
for the Union," " The war for independence," " The birth of the nation," "The story
of tho centuries," "America and France," " The American Indians," "The new birth
of the world," " The discovery of America."

*******

The Old South Leaflets are prepared, primarily, for circulation among the young
people attending the Old South lectures. The subjects of the leaflets are usually
immediately related to the subjects of the lectures. They are meant to supplement
tho lectures and stimulate reading and inquiry among the young people. They are
made up, for the most part, from original papers of the periods treated in the lec-
tures, in the hope to make the men and the lifo of those periods more clear and real.
Careful historical notes and references to tho best boo"ks on the subjects are added,
the leaflets usually consisting of 16 or 20 pages. A single instance more will suffice
to show tho relation of the leaflets to the lectures. The year 1889 being the centen-
nial both of the beginning of our own Federal Government and of the French revo-
lution, the lectures for the year, under the general title of "America and France,"
were devoted entirely to subjects in which the history of America is related to that
of Fiance, as follows: " Champlain, the founder of Quebec," "La Salle and the
French in tho Great West," "The Jesuit missionaries in America," "Wolfe and
Montcalm. The struggle of England and Franco for tho Continent," " Franklin in
France," "Tho friendship of Washington and Lafayette," "Thomas Jefferson and the
Louisiana purchase," "The year 1789." The corresponding leaflets were as follows:
" Verrazzano's account of his voyage to America," "Marquette's account of his dis-
covery of the Mississippi," "Mr. Farkman's histories," "The capture of Quebec,
from Farkman's ' Conspiracy of Pontlac ; ' " " Selections from Franklin's letters from
France," "Letters of Washington and Lafayette," "The Declaration of Independ-
ence," "The French declaration of the Eights of Man, 1789."

* * * * * * *

The virtue of the Old South Leaflets is that they bring students into first hand,
instead of second hand, touch with history. That, indeed, may describe the Old
South work altogether. It has been an effort to bring the young people of Boston
and America into original relations with history; and it has been, we think, the
foremost effort of the kind in the country. This is why it has won tho atten-
tion and commendation, so gratifying to us, of tho educators of the country. Our
joy in the Old South work has been the joy of being pioneers, and the joy of know-
in ir that we were pioneers in the right direction. We should have known this if
others had not known it; but Ave do not deny that the warm words of the histor-
ical scholars and teachers of the country have been very grateful and very helpful
to us. The Old South work is "in exactly tho right direction," John Fiske has
said. It is a pleasant thing to remember that it was at Mrs. Hemenway's instance
and at her strong solicitation that Mr. Fiske first turned his efforts to the field of
American history; and almost everything that has appeared in his magnificent sories
of historical works was first given in the form of lectures at the Old South. In his
new school history of the United States, * * the Old South Leaflets aro con-

stantly commended for use in connection. "The publication of these leallets," he
says, "is sure to have a most happy effect iu awakening general interest, on tho part of
young students, in original documents." To the same effect writes Mr. Montgomery,
whose text-books in history aro so widely used in the schools. James MacAlister,
the president of the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia, writes: "I regard the. Old

ED 95 42

1314 EDUCxYTION REPORT, 1891-95.

South -work as one of the most important educational movements ot recent times."
ill-. Herbert Welsh, of Philadelphia, wrote a special tract about the Old (South work
and Bjauead it broadcast in Philadelphia, lie had lieeu deeply impressed by the Old
Sou i h work when he came to lecture for us a little while before. " The secret of the
BOoeeBS of the Old South plan," he said, "is that it teaches history from a living and
I practical standpoint. It is the application of the best that our past has given
to the brain and heart of the youth of the present." " Why should not this simple
and effective plan be made use of in Philadelphia?' he asked; andlast year < >hl South
work was inaugurated in Philadelphia, the lectures to the young people being given in
the id • tate basse, where the Declaration of Independence was signed and the Con-
stitution framed. President Andrews, of Brown University, Prof. Herbert Adams, of
Johns HopkinB. Professor Hart, of Harvard, Prof. Woodrow Wilson, Mr. Horace E.
Seudder, and others have written in the same warm way. Mr. Tetlow, the master
of the Boston Girls' High School, and masters all over the country, unite in welcom-
ing the leaflets. ' ' To teach history by the study of original documents,'' writes one,
"lias been the dream of the best instructors, but this dream may now be realized
through the inexpensive form in which these originals are presented." u The edu-
cational world/" writes Miss Coinan, the professor of history at Wellesley College,
"is coming to recognize the value of teaching history, even to young people, from
the original records, rather than from accounts at seconder third hand. I rejoice
that these documents have beenmade accessible to the children of our public schools."
"We may talk about such documents all Ave please," says Mr. Haling, the master of
the Cambridge High School, " and little good will be done ; but when the pupil reads
one of these for himself, he is indeed a dull fellow if he does not carry away a definite
impression of its place in history." "I wish," writes Mr. Belfield, the principal of
the Chicago Manual Training School, who has done more than anybody else to pro-
mote the Old South movement in the West, "that the series could be brought to the
attention of every school superintendent, high-school principal, and teacher of United
States history in the country." "The Old South Leaflets/' says Professor Folwell,
the professor of history in the University of Minnesota, "ought to be scattered by
millions of copies all over our country."

It is a satisfaction to be able to quote such words from such persons, for they are
surely a great reenforcement of our commendation of this missionary work in good
citizenship to the attention of the country. For that is what the Old South work
is — a missionary work in good citizenship — and feeling it to be that, we " commend
ourselves." We wish that societies of young men and women might be organized in
a thousand places for historical and political studies, and that our little Old South
Leaflets might prove of as much service to these as they are proving to our Old
South audiences and to the schools.

But the Old South work is not simply a means of doing something for the young
people of Boston; it is also a means of getting something from them and setting
them to work for themselves. Every year prizes are offered to the graduates of the
Boston high schools, graduates of the current year and the preceding year, for the
best essays on subjects in American history. Two subjects are proposed each year,
and two y>rize3 are awarded for each subject, the first prize being $40 and the second
$25. The subjects aro announced in June, just as the schools close, and the essays
must bo submitted in the following January. The prizes are always announced at
the Washington's birthday celebration, which is one of the events of the Old South
year. The subjects proposed each year for the essays are always closely related to
the general subject of the lectures for the year, our aim being to make the entire
work for the year unified and articulate, each part of it helping the rest. The sub-
jects for the essays for the present year, when the lectures are devoted to " The
founders of New England," are (1) "The relations of the founders of New England
to the universities of Cambridge and Oxford," (2) "The fundamental orders of Con-
necticut and their place in the history of written constitutions."

1 think that some of your readers would lie surprised at the thoroughness and gen-
eral excellence of many of these essays written by pupils just out of our high schools.
The first-prize essay for 1881, on "The policy of the early colonists of Massachusetts
toward Quakers and others whom they regarded as intruders,'" by Henry L. South-
wick, and one of the first-prize essays' for 1889, on "Washington's interest in educa-
tion,'' by Miss Caroline C. Sleeker, have been printed, and can be procured at the
Old South Meeting House. Another of the prize essays, on "Washington's interest
in education," by Miss Julia K. Ordway, was published in the New England Maga-
zine for May, 1890; one of the first-prize essays for 1890, on "Philip, Pontiac, and
Tecumseh, "by Miss Caroline C. Stecker, appeared in the New England Magazine for
September, 1891; and one of the first-prize essays for 1891, on "Marco Polo's explo-
rations in Asia and their influence upon Columbus," by Miss Helen P. Margesson, in
the New England Magazine for August, 1892. The New England Magazine, which is
devoted preeminently to matters relating to American history and good citizenship,
has from the time of its founding, five years ago, made itself an organ of the Old

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1315

South work, publishing many of the Old South essays and lectures, and always notic-
ing in its editor's table everything relating to the progress of the movement.

The young people who have competed for these Old South prizes are naturally the
In st students of history in their successive years iu the Boston high schools. They
now number more than 100, and they have recently formed themselves into an < >ld
South Historical Society. Many of the Old South essayists have, of course, goneon
into college, and many aro now scattered over tho country; but more than half of
their number, not a few of them teachers in tho schools, are to-day within Bound of
the Old South bell, and the quarterly meetings of the little society, which by and by
will bo a big society, aro very interesting. There is always -i>nie careful historical
paper read by one of the members, and then there is a discussion. We have the
beginning of a very good library in the essayists' room at the Old South, and this we
hope will grow and that the society's headquarters will by and by become a real
seminary. The society is rapidly becoming an efficient factor in the general Old
South work. It has recently formed three active committees — a lecture committee,
an essay committee, and an outlook committee — and its leading spirits aro ambitious
for larger service. The members of the lecture committee assist in the distribution
of tickets to the schools and in enlisting the interest of young people in the lectures.
Tho members of tho essay committee similarly devote themselves to enlisting the
interest of the high schools in the essays. They will also read the essays submitted
each year, not for tho sake of adjudging the award of prizes — that is in other hands —
but that there may always be in the society scholarly members thoroughly cognizant
of the character of tho work being done and of the varying capacity of the new
members entering tho society'. The office of the outlook committee is to keep itself
informed and to keep the society informed of all important efforts at home and
abroad for the historical and political education of young people. It will watch the
newspapers; it will watch the magazines; it will watch the schools. It will report
anything it finds said about the Old South work and about its extension anywhere.
At tho next meeting I suppose it will tell tho society about Mr. Fiske's new school
history and about any new text-books in civil government which have appeared. I
hope it will tell how much better most of the series of historical readers published
in England for tho use of the schools are than tho similar books which we have in
America. It is sure to say something about the remarkable growth of the Lyceum
Leagues among our yonng people lately, and it is sure to report the recent utterances
of President Clark and other leaders of the Christian Endeavor movement uj>on the
importance of rousing a more definite interest in politics and greater devotion to the
duties of citizenship among the young people in that great organization. Especially
will it notice at this time the Historical Pilgrimage, that interesting educational
movement which suddenly appeared this summer, full grown — a movement which
would have enlisted so warmly tho sympathies of Mrs. Hemenway, who felt, as
almost nobody else ever felt, the immense educational power of historical associa-
tions. It will tell the society what Mr. Stead has written about historical pilgrim-
ages in England, and Mr. Powell and Dr. Shaw in America; it will speak of the
recent reception of the pilgrims at the Old South; and it may venture the inquiry
whether the Old South Historical Society might not profitably make itself a center
for organizing such local pilgrimages for tho benefit of the young people of Boston —
pilgrimages, one perhaps each year, to Plymonth and Salem and Lexington and Con-
cord and old Rutland and NcAvport and Deerfield and a score of places. That thought,
I know, is already working in the minds of some of the more enterprising members
of the society.

Many societies of young people all over the country might well take up such his-
torical studies as those in which tho Old South Historical Society interests itself.
They should also interest themselves in studies more directly political and social.
Wo have in Boston a Society for Promoting Good Citizenship. This is not a con-
stituent part of the Old South work; but it is a society in whoso efforts some of us
who have the Old South work at heart are deeply interested, and its lectures are
given at the Old South Meeting Houso. Its lectures deal with such subjects as
qualifications for citizenship, municipal reform, tho reform of tho newspaper. Last
season the lectures were upon "A more beautiful public life,'' the several subjects
being: "The lessons of the white city," "Boards of beauty," "Municipal art," "Art
in the public schools," "Art museums and the people," 'and "Boston, the City of
God." These subjects, and such as these, young men and women might take up in
their societies, with great benefit to themselves and to their communities. Our young
people should train themselves also in tho organization and procedure of our local
and general government, as presented in the text-books on civil government, now
happily becoming so common in the schools. Tho young men in one of our colleges
have a House of Commons ; in another college — a young woman's college — they have a
House of Representatives. Our Old South Historical Society has talked of organizing
a town meeting for tho discussion of public questions and for schooling in legislative
methods. WThy should not such town meetings be common among our young people ?

1316 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Why, too, will not our young- people everywhere, as a part of their service for good
citizenship, engage in a crusade in behalf of better music? Good music is a great
educator. Bad music is debilitating and debasing. That was a wise man whom old
Fletcher quotes as saying: " Let me make the songs of a people and I care not who
makes the laws." How many of the youug men and women in the high schools have
read what Plato says about strong, pure music in education, in his book on The
Laws? Indeed, it is to bo feared that not all the teachers have read it. I wish that
a hundred clubs or classes of young people would read Plato's Laws next winter, and
his Republic the next, and then Aristotle's Politics. Do not think they are hard,
dull books. They are fresh, fascinating books, and seem almost as modern, in all
their discussions of socialism, education, and the rest, as the last magazine — only
they are so much better and more fruitful than the magazine ! They make us ashamed
of ourselves, these great Greek thinkers, their peaching is so much better than our
practice; but it is a good thing to be made ashamed of ourselves sometimes, and we
need it very much here in America in the matter of music. We are suffering in our
homes, in our schools, in our churches, our theaters, everywhere, from music of the
trashiest and most vulgar character. Let us go to school to Plato ; let us go to school
to Germany and England. We aim to do something in behalf of this reform at the
Old South. Our large choruses from the public schools at many of our celebrations
have sung well; but we wish to do a real educational work, not only as touching
patriotic music strictly, but as touching better music for the people generally. If
in some future the ghosts of some of the groat Greeks stroll into the Old South
Meeting House wo hope they may find it the center of influences in behalf of pure
and inspiring music, which shall be as gratifying to them as the devotion to the State
which has been inculcated there in these years would surely be.

THE OLD SOUTH LEAFLETS.

The Old South Leaflets, which have been published during the last thirteen years,
in connection with theso annual courses of historical lectures at the Old South
Meeting House, have attracted so much attention and proved of so much service,
that the directors have entered upon the publication of the leaflets for general cir-
culation, with the needs of schools, colleges, private clubs, and classes especially in
mind. The leaflets are prepared by Mr. Edwin D. Mead. They are largely repro-
ductions of important original papers, accompanied by useful historical and biblio-
graphical notes. They consist, on an average, of 16 pages, and are sold at the low
price of 5 cents a copy, or $4 per 100. The aim is to bring them within easy reach
of everybody. The Old South work, founded by Mrs. Mary Hemenway, and still
sustained by provision of her will, is a work for the education of the people, and
especially the education of our young people, in American history and politics; and
its promoters believe that few things can contribute better to this end than the wide
circulation of such leaflets as those now undertaken. It is hoped that professors in
our colleges and teachers everywhere will welcome them for use in their classes, and
that they may meet the needs of the societies of young men and women now happily
being organized in so many places for historical and political studies. Some idea of
the character of these Old South Leaflets may be gained from the following list of
the subjects of the first sixty-four numbers, which are now ready. It will bo
noticed that many of tho later numbers are the same as certain numbers in the
annual series. Since 1890 they are essentially the same, and persons ordering the
leaflets need simply observe the following numbers:

No. 1. The Constitution of the United States. No. 2. Tho Articles of Confedera-
tion. No. 3. Tho Declaration of Independence. No. 4. Washington's Farewell
Address. No. 5. Magna Charta. No. 6. Vane's "Healing Question." No. 7. Charter
of Massachusetts Bay, 1629. No. 8. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1638.
No. 9. Franklin's Plan of Union, 1754, No. 10. Washington's Inaugurals. No. 11.
Lincoln's Iuaugurals and Emancipation Proclamation. No. 12. The Federalist, Nos.
1 and 2. No. 13. The Ordinance of 1787. No. 14. Tho Constitution of Ohio. No.

No. 16.
's Vovage,
>'hts; '1689.

No. 20. Coronado's Letter to Mendoza, 1540. No. 21. Eliot's Brief Narrative of the
Progress of the Gospel among the Indians, 1670. No. 22. Wheelock's Narrative of
the Rise of the Indian School at Lebanon, Conn., 1762. No. 23. Tho Petition of
Rights, 1628. No. 24. The Grand Remonstrance. No. 25. The Scottish National
Covenants. No. 26. The Agreement of the People. No. 27. The Instrument of
Government. No. 28. Cromwell's First Speech to his Parliament. No. 29. Tho Dis-
covery of America, from the Life of Columbus by his Son, Ferdinand Columbus.
No. 30. Strabo's Introduction to Geography. No. 31. Tho Voyages to Vinland, from
the Saga of Eric the Red. No. 32. Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java, No. 33.
Columbus's Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the First Voyage and Discovery.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1317

No. 34. Amerigo Vespucci's Account of his First Voyage. No. 35. Cortes's Account of
the City of Mexico. No. 36. The Death of Do Soto, from the " Narrative of a Gentle-
man of Elvas." No. 37. Early Notices of the Voyages of the Cabots. No. 38. Henry
Lee's Funeral Oration on Washington. No. 39. De Vaca's Account of his Journey
to New Mexico, 1535. No. 40. Manasseh Cutler's Description of ( >hio, 1787. No. 41.
Washington's Journal of his Tour to the Ohio, 1770. No. 42. Garfield's Address
on the Northwest Territory and the Western Reserve. No. 43. George Rogers Clark's
Account of the Capture of Vincennes, 1779. No. 4 4. Jefferson's Life of Captain Meri-
wether Lewis. No. 45. Fremout's Account of his Ascent of Fremont's Peak. No.
46. Father Marquette at Chicago, 1673. No. 47. Washington's Account of the Army
at Cambridge. 1775. No. 48. Bradford's Memoir of Elder Brewster. No. 49. Brad-
ford's First Dialogue. No. 50. Winthrop's "Conclusions for the Plantation in New
England." No. 51. " New England's FirstfFruits," 1643. No. 52. John Eliot's "Indian
Grammar Begun."' No. 53. John Cotton's "God's Promise to his Plantation." No. 54.
Letters of Roger Williams to Winthrop. No. 55. Thomas Hooker's "Way of the
Churches of New England." No. 56. The Monroe Doctrine : President Monroe's Mes-
sage of 1823. No. 57. The English Bible, selections from the various versions. No.
58. Hooper's Letters to Bulliuger. No. 59. Sir John Eliot's "Apology for Socrates."
No. 60. Ship-money Papers. No. 61. Pjyn's Speech against Stratford. No. 62. Crom-
well's Second Speech. No. 63. Milton's "A Free Commonwealth." No. 64. Sir Henry
Vane's Defence.

Title pages covering Nos. 1 to 25 (Vol. 1) and 26 to 50 (Vol. II) will be furnished
to any person bnying the eutire series and desiring to bind them in volumes.
Address Directors of Old South Studies, Old South Meeting House, Boston.

WOMEN AXD MEN — THE ASSAULT ON PRIVATE SCHOOLS.
[Contributed by T. W~. Higginson to Harper's Bazaar.]

When Matthew Arnold, who had spent much of his life as an inspector of schools
came to this country, he found with surprise that our public schools were not what
he had supposed. He had thought them schools to which all classes sent their chil-
dren; but ho found it otherwise. In cities, he said, they seemed to be essentially
class schools — that is, the more prosperous classes avoided them, sending their sons
rarely to them, their daughters never. What then became of the talk of our orators
in favor of these schools as the most democratic thing in the whole community? In
the country it might be so, but population was tending more and more to the cities,
tending away, that is, from the public schools. All the alleged danger to our system
from religious interference seemed to him trivial compared with this silent social
interference, which was going on all the time.

Matthew Arnold was in many ways, for a man so eminent, curiously narrow and
even whimsical, but his perceptions on this one point were certainly acute. As one
evidence of it we see a movement brought forward in the newspapers, from several
different quarters, to crush this particular evil, by one sweeping measure, with the
absolute prohibition of all private schools. Either abolish them all and force every
child into the public schools, or else place all private schools under direct public
supervision and allow at their head only publicly trained teachers. There is little
chance that any such measure will ever be seriously brought forward. The amount
already invested in private or endowed schools and colleges — and the plan, to be
consistent, must include colleges — is too immense to allow of its being very strongly
urged. But it presents some very interesting points and is worth considering.

To begin with, it has the merit, unlike the attacks on merely denominational
schools, of being at least logical. Those attacks in some parts of our land have
needed almost no probing to show a hopeless want of logic. They always turned
out to be aimed, not at denominational schools in themselves, but at some particular
denomination. At the East this was naturally the Romau Catholic body, and to
some extent the Episcopalian. In certain Western States it was the Roman Cath-
olics and Lutherans. But these attempts to prohibit sectarian schools invariably
fell to pieces when it appeared that most of the opponents had not the slightest
objection to denominational schools if they only belonged to the right denomination —
that is, their own — and only objected to them in the hands of some other religions
body. The crowning instance of this was when the late Rev. Dr. Miner, an excel-
lent and leading clergyman of the Univeisalist order, appeared every winter before
the Massachusetts legislature to urge the utter prohibition of parochial schools ; and
yet spent one of the last days of his life in giving out diplomas at an academy of
his own sect, and, moreover, provided for several similar schools in his will.

Now no such inconsistency stands in the way of those who would prohibit, with-
out distinction, all denominational and all private schools. Unwise they may be,
but not illogical. Indeed, the step they propose is only following out consistently
what the others urged inconsistently. If it is right to coerce one mother, who takes

1318 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

her children from the public school through anxiety for their souls, we should cer-
tainly do the same for another, who withdraws hers for the sake of their bodies;
or perhaps, after all, only out of regard for the welfare of their clothes. There are
several prominent religious bodies which believe that religious edncation of their
own stamp is absolutely needful for children. Most of the early public schools in
this country were on that basis, and began instruction with the New England Primer.
We may say that this motive is now outgrown; but it is certainly as laudible as
when a daughter is taken from one school and sent to another, that she may bo
among better-dn -sed children or make desirable acquaintances.

Grant these reasons frivolous — and they are not wholly so — there are ample reasons
why the entire prohibition of private schools would be a calamity to the educational
world. The reason is that they afford what the public schools rarely can, a place
where original methods may be tried and individual modes of teaching developed.
Private schools are the experimental stations for public schools. A great public
school system is a vast machine, and has the merits and defects of machinery. It
usually surpasses private institutions in method, order, punctuality, accuracy of
training. It is very desirable that every teacher and every pupil should at some time
share its training. " In these respects it is the regular army besides militia. Butthis
brings imitations. The French commissioner of education once boasted that in his
office in Paris he knew with perfect precision just what lesson every class in every
school in the remotest provinces of France was reciting. We do not reach this, but
it is of necessity the ideal of every public system. It has great merit, but it kills
originality. No teacher can ever try an experiment, for that might lose 1 per cent
in the proportion of the first class able to pass examination at the end of the year.
The teacher is there to do a precise part; no less, no more. Under this discipline
great results are often achieved, but they are the results of drill, not of inspiration.

Accordingly every educational authority admits that the epoch-making experi-
ments in education — the improvements of Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, Froebel — were
made in private, not public schools. Like all other experiments, they were tried at
the risk of the inventor or his backers, and often to the impoverishment of all con-
cerned. Mr. A. Bronson Alcott's school was starved out, in Boston, half a century
ago, and he himself dismissed with pitying laughter. Yet there is no intelligent
educator who does not now admit the value of his suggestions; and Dr. Harris, the
national superintendent of education, is his admiring biographer. His first assist-
ant, Miss Elizabeth Peabody — esteemed throughout her beneficent life a dreamer of
the dreamers — yet forced upon American educators Froebel's kindergarten. He
began it with a few peasant children in Germany, and now every city in tho United
States is either adopting or discussing it. In many things the private school leads,
the public school follows. Every one who writes a schoolbook involving some
originality of method knows that the private schools will take it up first. If it suc-
ceeds there, the public schools will follow. To abolish or impair these public schools
would be a crime against the State ; to prohibit private schools an almost equal crime.
It would be like saying that all observatories must be sustained by the State only, and
that Mr. Percival Lowell should be absolutely prohibited from further cultivating
his personal intimacy with the planet Mars.

Humane Education.

The objection of the American Humane Society, as stated by its president, Georgo
T. Angell, 19 Milk street, Boston, is "to humanely educate the American people for
the purpose of stopping every form of cruelty, both to human beings and tho lower
animals."

For the accomplishment of this worthy purpose it seeks to enlist the aid of public
and private school teachers, the educational, religious, and secular press, and tho
clergy of all denominations, "in order to build up in our colleges, schools, and else-
where a spirit of chivalry and humanity which shall in coming generations substi-
tute ballots for bullets, prevent anarchy and crime, protect the defenseless, maintain
the right, and hasten the coming of peace on earth and good will to every harmless
living creature, both human and dumb."

t This work of this society should commend itself to all well-disposed persons.
- One phase of the society's activity is its pronounced opposition to the vivisection
or the indiscriminate dissection of animals in the public schools. It is felt that such
practices have an unfavorable effect on young and undeveloped minds — tend to blunt
the edge of their finer sensibilities.

The agitation of this subject in Massachusetts led to the enactment of a law in
1891 prohibiting the vivisection of animals in tho public schools, or the exhibiting
of any animal upon which vivisection had been practiced; also regulating the
dissection of dead animals.

The States of Maine and Washington require their teachers to spend at least ten
minutes each week in teaching kindness to animals.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1319

MISSISSIPPI.

WHY EDUCATE? WHAT is THE PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION"?

[An addn eredal the second annual commencement of Millsaps I rackson, Miss., Jane

12, 18D4, by Hon. William H. Sims, of Mississippi.]

Gentlemen of the Faculty and Student Body of Milhapa College, Ladies, and Gentlemen:

My appreciation of the honor of occupying this place to-day, in an institution
whose success is very near my heart, will not, I trust, be measured by the modest
contribution of thought and learning which I am able to bring to this occasion, but
rather, let me ask, by the willingness I have shown to obey the summons of this
faculty in coming a thousand miles to discharge a duty which the invitation of a
Mississippi college imposes upon a Mississippian.

■ In appearing before you in this beautiful new home, the thought very naturally
arises in my mind. Why was this building built ! Of course, its dedication to present
uses and the tame which has gone abroad concerning its origin would seem suffi-
ciently to answer the inquiry. And yet, it has occurred to me that it may be useful
in presenting what I have to say to-day to endeavor to center your attention upon
what tho answer to that question involves. Why was this building built ? Do you
imagine that this inquiry will have more of interest to a beholder of this structure
a few centuries hence, as perchance he may look upon its venerable Avails, stained
by the mold and decay of time, when its architectural design may have become
antiquated and obscured, amid the changeful fashions of later days; when its
mission, then in part fulfilled, its history or many of its chapters written, the good
that it shall have accomplished then made manifest, the seed that shall have been
winnowed within these walls and distributed to the sowers scattered across the face
of the land, yielding a fruitage excellent and a harvest abundant? And, may I ask,
is there no good to be gained from such presuppositions ? Does the forecasting of the
possible outcome of a great benefaction to mankind inspire thoughts less of interest
and of protit than the looking back upon the good already accomplished ? Is it better
to seek inspiration from the things of the past than from the hopes of the future?
Is it better that our eyes be turned to the setting than the rising sun; to tho gold-
crowned summit of Solomon's Temple; to the land of promise which has been tra-
versed, or to the shining pinnacles of glory which gleam ahead beyond the rugged
hilltops and invite to the sun-burst splendor of the New Jerusalem?

But think on this as wo may, I invito you back to the qirestion suggested: Why
was this building built? Did not its founder know before the work was begun why
it was to be begun? Did not an intelligent benevolence conceive the object of its
erection before its foundations were laid? Would the noble benefactor of his day
and generation, whose name it bears and without whose munificent generosity its
existence was not possible, have parted with his great endowment and led others to
emulate his example without a detinite object and what seemed to him a wise end in
view, carefully and deliberately considered, which lay back of the giving of the gifts ?
Those who know him well and those who know the manner of men from whom large
charities habitually come will answer, nay — verily!

What was that purpose? Why was this building built ? I answer: It was built for
the noblest of human purposes; for the highest earthly object this side of heaven
for which any building can be built. It was built for a schoolhouse; for a college
to enlarge the opportunities of Mississippi boys for high education, for sound, broad,
conservative mental training, along the lines of Christian ideals.

And was this a wise investment of a great sum of money? Let us consider this:

Why educate? What is the philosophy of education?

Around these suggestive inquiries I purpose to group the facts and reflections
which I have collected as my opportunities permitted to present to you to-day.

The student of nature and her wonderful methods is continually impressed by the
wise adaptation of tho means she employs to the ends designed. Throughout all
the vast departments of creation, wherever scientific investigation has been rewarded
with the discovery of what nature intended to effect in any particular case, this
perfect adaptation of method to design is to be found. So certain is the intelligent
mechanical inventor of the correctness of nature's plans that when he has been able
to employ one of her devices in constructing his machine he looks forward to its suc-
cessful operation with unwavering confidence, because he know3 that no better con-
trivance is possible; and it may be always assumed that where this law of adaptation
is not apparent it is not because of its absence but because nature's true purpose has
not been discovered.

This prelude, I trust, will acquit me of seeming irreverence when I further say
that no animal being on earth seems to have been less prepared for his natural envi-
ronments, according to our knowledge of his introduction on this earth, than man.

1320 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

From the very beginning of his existence on this mundane sphere he has commenced
life the most dependent and the most helpless of all the animal kingdom. So far as
we know, no other animal at birth is so poorly equipped for the life thrnst upon
him. The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air were furnished by nature
with bodies suited to their environments, without need of artificial coverings, while
man has needed bodily protection from the cradle of his being. All other animals
except man were endowed at birth with natural instincts so perfectly adapted to
their necessities that they correctly guided them in their selection and accumula-
tion of food and the preparation of their several habitations with an exactness that
left nothing to be desired for their well being.

Primitive man, however, we are left to suppose, was not so happily conditioned.
Ho was at birth given no unerring inward impulse to safely guide him in the early
days of his being amid the perils which surrounded him, no instinct to meet tho ani-
mal necessities which soon beset him. Unlike other animals, ho had no ready-made
clothing for his vesture, no ready-made law for the government of his daily life, and
like the Son of Man himself, when incarnated, "had not where to lay his head,"
though the foxes had holes and the birds of the air had nests.

It would be a shallow thinker, however, who would argue from these premises
that nature's plummet slipped wheu man was made and placed on earth amid condi-
tions unadjusted to his necessities. On the contrary, I maintain that all the grand
philosophy of man's creation and being turns on this pivotal point. While seem-
ingly the most helpless and most dependent of mortal beings at the start, and with
the smallest provision ready-made to supply his animal wants, man was, notwith-
standing, invested with such potential powers as not only marked him as nature's
favorite, but as the crowning work of "Nature's God." Other animals, while they
were under tho special guidance of nature's law of instinct, were yet the slaves of
the very laws that guided them and Avhich fixed their conditions as mere animals in
appointed grooves as long as the species should last; while man, endowed with mind
and reason and soul like unto tho spiritual image of God himself, possessed powers
which, though feeble at first, were perforce of man's self-activity to be so developed
by the friction of his environment and the free direction of his immortal personality
as to make him tho regnant king of all the kingdoms of nature, the Avatar of earth.

Thus armed with reason and self-determining purpose, unfettered by his Creator,
man entered upon his career with capacity " to grow in knowledge and wisdom and
holiness forever." His civilization is the measure of his progress toward complete
development. His history is the record of his experience along tho way of that
progress. The lessons of that experience and the learning and wisdom he has accu-
mulated and left to us are man's great educational capital. "As heirs of all tho ages,"
each is entitled to share in this capital. The business of teaching is to so distribute
the inheritance to tho young heirs who seek it that they may be helped along their
several ways of development and progress. The partiality and selfishness, however,
with which this distribution has been made from remote eras by those whom power
had set in authority is alike interesting and instructive, and the effort of benevo-
lence in recent times, whether of individuals or of government, to ameliorate the
condition of mankind and work out the problem of man's development has been
most profitably directed to widening tho avenues to learning and instruction, so that
all may seek the portals of their temple with such freedom of thought and action
as the good of society permits.

In contemplating the winding stream of educational development through the
long years of recorded history, it is interesting to observe its tortuous course, its
unequal volume, and tho restricted boundaries of its channel, influenced and con-
trolled, as it has been, by those who shaped the life and destiny of humanity. Sel-
dom was it permitted to dash along with the impulse of nature into the cascades
and waterfalls that set in motion the mills that ground the mental pabulum of tho
poor and lowly ; rarer still to accumulate into great lakes and reservoirs of learning
about which the multitude could congregate and slake their thirst for knowledge;
and still rarer did it overflow the barriers made to confine it, and, like the generous
Nile, spread its beneficent fertilization amid the desert about it, enriching and quick-
ening the common mind. Its eddies were the whirlpools of fanatical ignorance
maddened by wrongs. Its lakes were stagnant lagoons of brutish superstition,
where darkness brooded and the vampire made its home. Its overflows were the
fiery billows of religious wars consuming the youth and virtue of tho nations. And
yet this educational stream even in the ante-Christian period, was not without
instances where it flowed through the untaught masses pure and strong and deep,
like the Jordan through the body of tho Dead Sea.

Glancing at educational conditions in the Orient, wo find that from time immemo-
rial they have been created and maintained by the government, or the ruling classes,
for the narrowest and most selfish of purposes. It is to be noted, however, that far
back in the centuries, the Chinese Government enforced general education, but of a
/igid and stereotyped character. Its fundamental purpose was obedience to the

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1321

regnant authority ; its ideal end, to the family. Profound reverence for parents and the
aged, and a religious homage for the Emperor as the great father of all the families
of the realm, were ahsolutely enforced. These, the precepts of their philosophers,

Confucius and Meneius his follower enjoined, and the price of disobedience was
death.

The Imperial Government was an aristocracy of scholars, all of its officers, from
tho highest to the lowest, were selected by competitive examinations from among
those whose minds had been saturated with such teachings of reverence and whose
memories were found best stored with the maxims and phrases, to tho very letter, of
the infallible philosophy of their classics. In their written examinations the betrayal
of any thought of their own, or expression not based upon such authority, was fatal
to the seeker of official trust. All independence of ideas was suppressed ; all indi-
viduality pruned away by these procrustean methods. And thus the oldest and most
populous nation of earth for centuries stood in its wooden shoes upon the same
intellectual dead level, yielding tho humblest obeisance to the supreme authority
of the Empire and to tho absolutism of prescribed thought crystallized in the max-
ims, laws, and standards handed down by their teachers of religion and philosophy.
Is it wonderful that such education made hundreds of millions of intellectual dwarfs
and automatons, who, though toilsome, sober, economical, peaceful, and skilled in
many arts, have for centuries dwelt in the supreme contentment that they had noth-
ing more to learn, and that all change was treason to state and religions?

Passing from China to ancient India, wo leave popular education behind us, and
high mental cultivation for tho few and none for the many. Here the Brahmins, by
a rigid religious tenure, monopolized all education. Impassable boundary lines
divided society into the distinctive castes of Brahmin, ami warrior, and merchant,
or hand worker and slaAro. In these several castes they were born and lived and
died. No interchange of tho positions of the social strata was possible under tho
n ystic dominion over mind and soul exercised by the sacred Brahmins. As juiesta
set apart by their subtle religious philosophy, they were Mono permitted to read and
teach and interpret the books of tho Vedas, the fountains of knowledge from which
all tlieir wisdom came. Hedged about with mystery and the profoundest reverence,
their mental and moral sway was so absolute, that, although enjoying no official
authority of state, their decisions of questions brought before them had the force
and effect of law. Tbey were regarded so nearly infallible that they could commit
no crime worthy of corporal punishment. Their exclusive possession of all the real
learning of the nation invested them with such awe and unquestioned superiority
as to make it possible for them to maintain their supremo influence over all other
classes. How this state of things was brought about it is difficult to trace; but
undoubtedly the control of education perpetuated their power.

For just experience tells in every soil

That tboso that think must govern those that toil.

In Egypt as in ancient India, tho molding of the national education was in the
hands of a sacerdotal order. The children of the people were the recipients from
their fathers of crude instruction in reading and writing, but the priests, who,
through their religious potencies, ruled the ruling powers of state, kept within their
unyielding grasp all superior instruction and dispensed it for their own ends and
purposes. No development of the masses was possible under such conditions and the
mysterious sphinx, tho sleeping mummy in its staid cerements, and the immobile
pyramids are just symbols and types of their motionless national life.

While tho end of education in both ancient India and iu Egypt was to subordinate
the toiling millions to the absolute control and dominion of the priests, the educa-
tional purpose of the ancient Persians was to make soldiers. The State drew to it- e!f
all individual life for that object. The boy was born and trained and die 1 not to
achieve his own destiny, not to advance his own status or that of his family, but
that he might efficiently serve the government in its armies. In short, no account
was taken of tho individuality of the citizen, his rights, his preferences, his tastes,
his talents. Ho was a mere atom, whose existence was merged into the army of a
Xerxes for the benetit of his kingdom. This weobserveto be the operative principle
underlying all oriental education. Tho tyranny of some power whether of caste
among the Hindoos or of priests among the Egyptians and, we may add, among the
ancient .lews or of government amoug the Chinese and the Persians, so proscribed
the intellectual development of the people that it was everywhere more than ignored;
it was repressed and molded by the ruling of the sacerdotal classes to tlieir own
ends and uses.

In striking contrast to the foregoing, Sparta excepted, was the philosophical aim
of education among tho Greeks, among whom " we liud the most splendid types of
intellectual culture the world has yet known." The education of the Spartans, as
of the Persians, was the education of tho State, by the State, and for the State, to
make the most perfect human lighting machines which breeding and selection and

ED 95 42*

1322 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-95.

rigid discipline could accomplish with a band of iron. Perhaps the human animal was
never before ox since so systematically and perfectly developed in a race. The healthy
child was taken, the weakling was cast to the "wild beasts of the forests. The chosen
one was left in tho care of the mother who gave her maternal service strictly to tho
purposeof this training. At 7 tho boy "went from her bosom to the bosom of tho com-
monwealth, to bo the mother's boy no longer. He was pnt in charge of a special magis-
trate as his trainer, by whom ho was schooled in hardships and developed in strength
and cunning and courage through years of assiduous attention. His sinews became
as steel, his limbs practiced to fatigue and endurance, his art with arms perfect, his
will obedient to the discipline of Avar, his eye true, his spirit daring and audacious and
unconquerable. Of such were the three hundred who died with Leonidas at Ther-
mopylae, and these were only the types of eight thousand comrades in arms, every ono
of whom would have done tho same thing.

In another part of Greece, however, alongside of the Spartan, there grew up at
Athens a system of education of broader scope and more ennobling purpose. With
equal devotion to the supremacy of tho state and her need for invincible soldiers, the
Athenian conception was to so educate her free-born citizens by promoting and
developing rather than by restraining and cramping their individuality of character
that they might not only be soldiers, but far more. The aim was to accomplish
them not only for war but for the civic pursuits of peace. Not by the authority of
law, as at Sparta, but by tho force of public opinion. Not for the sole use and
beneiit of the body politic, but for the development and exaltation of the citizen first.
and the glory of Athens afterwards. The fruits of this conception were educational
results never before equaled and perhaps never since surpassed. The harmonious
training of mind and body were supplemented by an a-sthetic culture. Their ideals,
though not heaven sent and though not inspired by the contemplation of the Son
of Righteousness, were born of a reverent love of goodness and beauty with which
they had invested tho most perfect of their mythological deities. Their unfettered
freedom of thought shone through tho marble drapery of their statues, and tho soul
of immortal longings inspired their canvas, while grace and lofty daring sat upon
their persons and declared a character that despised all that was mean and ignoble.
Tho result of Grecian education and culture did not end with her citizens. It was
embalmed in»hcr literature, and whispers its lessons of truth and beauty to-day
through the galleries and labyrinths of the mind of every student and scholar whom
its language has reached. It has clung to the very Avords of that language, audits a iry
grace has given it the Avings of the thistle down and disseminated it all OA'er the
earth.

Further toward tho setting sun, on shores AAashed by tho same Mediterranean
Sea that embraced the Peninsula of Hellas, arose a later ciAdlization under the
dominion and intluence of Koine. This civilization, by reason of a A'alor, nursed by
a stern spirit of independence and a patriotism born of the robust A'irtues of her
people in the early days of the Republic had extended her empire across a populous
region 3,(100 miles in length by 2,000 in breadth. The genius of her people av::s con-
quest and their education Avas for that purpose, and to make the self-respecting
freeman Avhose proudest boast was that ho Avas a Roman citizen. 0\"er his free
spirit, howeATer, the State exercised no educational coercion, but alike as at Athens,
the sway of public opinion was the moulding factor of his culture, and the love
of country the high incentive. His indomitable Avill did not expend its energies, as
did the Greeks, in interpreting and subduing nature, but in conquering proA'inces:
not in creating ideals after the gods of Olympus, but in marshaling legions on tho
Held of Mars. War he considered tho chief business of his life, and education in
letters he ranked as a pastime. Each his language itself embodied this spirit of
bis liA'ing, since exercitus (the army) meant business, and Indus (the school) meant
diversion.

Unlike the Grecian, the real and the practical, rather than the speculative and tho
aesthetic employed his thoughts, and while Rome Avas speading her eagles of eon-
quest from tho Thames to the Euphrates, her internal improvement in material pros-
perity, her wealth, her institutions, her laA\-s, her public works, alike attested tho
greatness of her utilitarian education. And this continued her distinctive charac-
teristic cveu after the cultured captiAres that returned Avith her A'ictorious columns
from Grecian conquest, introduced into Rome the refinements and subtleties of the
Athenian schools of thought, and tilled her Forum with the discussions of sophists
and philosophers. Thus leading up to and into the Christian era, tho sturdy char-
acter of Roman education in its truenessand depth and practical purpose resembled
tho modern Christian education. Tho Greeks formed intellectual and aesthetic
ideals and standards. Tho Romans formed physical or practical ideals and stand-
ards. The Christians formed ethical or moral ideals and standards.

In this partial though somewhat tedious review of the scope and purpose of educa-
tion, as illustrated in the typical civilizations of history, it is perhaps more clearly
revealed to us why the ancients did not educate than why they did educate. Wo

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1323

have seen that the personal and individual development of tho people was of small
concern to the ruling powers and was seldom the end aimed at. Indeed, with tho
single exception of China, popular education, as Ave now use that term, had no
national existence, nor did it prevail anywhere until modern times. We need not
look far to discover a reason for this, especially when we consider that for centuries
as small account was taken of the right of the people to individual liberty as to
individual education. Knowledge then, as in later days, was regarded as a power,
and it was truly conceived that the ignorant masses could be more easily kept in
subjection to tho rule of absolutism than a body of intelligent citizens. Absolute
governments had no place for educated subjects except in numbers limited to tho
necessities of enforcing authority. Tho province of tho subject was to toil and
to obey. Even in tho case of general education in China, to which Ave have referred,
the system of education was so ingeniously guarded in its philosophical conception
and application that it subserved rather than violated the principle of subjection;
for, as remarked by that great scholar and philosopher, l)r. W. T. Harris, of our
National Bureau of Education, concerning this Chinese system : "It is one of tho
most interesting deA'ices in the history of education — a method of educating a peo-
ple on such a plan that the more education the scholar gets tho more conservatiA'o
ho becomes."

The thought occurs here, would not such a system as the Chinese be serviceable
to-day in the regulation of the now world-wide disturbers of social order, the
anarchists, the socialists, and their kindred brood f I answer, that only under Chinese
conditions of liberty would such education be practicable, and under no conditions
of liberty acceptable to modern ciA'ilized manhood could it possibly bo enforced.
Tho Avorld, in its ideas of freedom of thought and of action, has moA-ed far away
from such tyranny in governments. The diATine right of kings or of oligarchies has
no footing in Western civilization. It has cost hecatombs of human lives and seas
of blood to reach our present estate of human freedom. But the socalist and
anarchist can not permanently harm American institutions and organized society.
Those Avho haA*e so apprehended have not carefully considered the basis of their
fears. Tho nihilistic agitations in Europe will doubtless operate to sweep aAvay
some of the remains of the feudal fetters imposed on liberty of living, but this
"goAerment of the people, for the people, and by the people" has*notking to fear
from such agitations. Tho social vagaries and economic delusions Avhich are
preached to the unemployed wage worker to ferment society will haA~c local expres-
sion in sporadic violence, but the disturbances can not, in our day and generation,
niount up to tho proportions of roA'olution. The anarchists submit no propositions
which can engage such general local interests as to array State against State or
section against section — as in the late ciA'ilwar; and as long as State autonomy
remains to us, the State governments can take care of their internal disturbances,
especially when backed by the power of the General Government. Until tho great
body of the people lose their balance and common sense, they may be safely trusted
to adhere to the tradition that any government is better than no government at all.

But even the sovereign authority of the people, with Avhich tho States and General
GoA'ernment haA'o been invested, Avill not long haA~e to contend with anarchistic ele-
ments which haA-e come to us from abroad under the false pretense of enjoying and
upholding our established institutions of freedom, if we so legislate as to stop the
crevices in our naturalization laws, through Avhich tho wild, untrained, fanatical
represeutatiAres of European red republicanism find entrance into our body politic.
And, again, Ave may hope to increase tho volume of our now mighty current of popular
education until every precinct in every county in eA'ery State shall have the full
benefit of its quickening and enlightening influence, and until eA'ery child in all the
land, native and foreign, white and black, Indian and Chinaman, shall be possessed
of the modern triA'ium of education, "the three R's," the three keys to knowledge, aa ith
which ho can gain access to tho immense treasury of learning whieh the centuries
have piled up for us, and to Avhich they have fallen heirs. This accomplished, and
the plea of the anarchist will find few sympathizers among our people. It is not too
much education that makes tho vicious, but tho lack of it. Tho anarchist hero with
us i3 not too much educated; as may be supposed, he is too badly educated or too
wrongly trained and educated by the factors of tho environment from which he came
to us to bo adjusted into any niche of American freedom. We may not be able to
educate and assimilate into good citizenship all the Herr Mosts and A'icious cranks
that Europe can empty upon us, but wo can restrain their coming and so educate
the children of those already hero as to make them cobelpers in good government.

Wo are told in tho Greek reader that Aristotle, when asked in what way the edu-
cated differed from tho uneducated, replied, "As the living differ from the dead."
Compare the lowest typo of the barbarian Avith the highest type of the Greek in Aris-
totle's day (aud tho comparison is just as good in ours) and you can appreciate the
force of this remark.

Carlyle, tho great Scotchman, said: ''An educated man stands as it Averc in tho

1324 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

midst of a boundless arsenal and magazine filled with all the weapons and engines
-which man's skill has been able to devise from the earliest time, and ho works
accordingly with the strength borrowed from all tho ages. How different is his
state who stands on the outside of the storehouse and feels that its gates must bo
stormed or remain forever shut against him? His means are tho commonest; tho
work done is in no measure of his strength. A dwarf behind his steam engine may
remove mountains, but no dwarf will hew thorn down with his pickaxe, and ho must
be a Titan that hurls them abroad with his arms."

These illustrations from two great thinkers, who spoko more than two thousand
years apart, each standing upon the very apex of culture of his day and time, do
not contrast too strongly the conditions referred to. In both the wholly uneducated
is set over against the fully educated man; the savage against the scientist and the
scholar. The distance between them is measureless, and we can not say that 1he chasm
will ever bo bridged. Leaving aside tho consideration of racial inequalities, about
which there is now little dispute, tho natural mental inequalities of men must long
postpone, if it ever reaches this consummation. The leveling process muse encoun-
ter obstructions by this inequality which is one of natures unwritten laws. This
inequality is the uneseapable consequences of action — the necessary predicate of
human progress. In this progression the individual speed is unequal; all can not be
in the front line. Few can be abreast with Newton or Bacon or Gladstone. That
education, however, under conditions seldom favorable, has raised tho general aver-
age of mankind from century to century, tho history of civilization attests, and this
progress of civilization is but tho progress of education.

A learned English scholar recently wrote concerning tho history of education:
" It would comprehend the transforming of crude nature of the savage man, which
chiefly concerns itself with mere animal wants and desires, into the higher nature
of a being who looks behind to gather the fruits of experience; avIio looks before to
utilize them for the benefit of those who aro to succeed him, who explores tho
remote and the distant as well as the near, who reflects and thinks with the view to
the general good of the commonwealth, and this, while it is the problem of civiliza-
tion, is also the problem of education."

But, let me ask, what is the modern conception of education? What is education
in its true intent and meaning— not in tho widest amplitude with which it may be
regarded, but in the sense it is accepted in the schools? Considered in tho light of
its derivative Latin sy uonym, Educe/re, it means to lead forth, to unfold tho powers
of the mind. And while it means this, it is obvious that it means far more than this.
The unfolding of tho powers of tho mind, I conceive, might be accomplished by an
artificial system of mental gymnastics, without acquiring any useful knowledge and
without being provided with any of the instruments of self teaching, the arts of
reading and writing. Those instruments must in themselves constitute tho most
important part of education, and, as we aro told by a philosophic writer: "Tho child
may learn to read and write, and by it learn the experience of the race through
countless ages of existence. He may by scientific books see the world through the
senses of myriads of trained specialists devoting whole lives to the inventory of
nature. What is immensely more than this, he can think with their brains and
assist his feeble powers of observation and reflection by the gigantic aggregate of
the mental labors of the race."

And so it is that education does not merely contemplato tho unfolding of tho
mental powers, but demands moreover that such process of unfolding shall bring to
the mind of the pupil thelargest amount of important and useful knowledge. Just
here however, let mo say, that I do not rashly venture in this presence to assume the
educator's task of suggesting howT to educe or unfold the powers of tho mind, or what
material should be put before the mind in its progress toward development, to enable
it to reach tho full measure of education. The first should he determined by tho
teacher, as ho looks into the face, and studies the capacity of each pupil. Tho latter
is appointed after wise consideration in the curriculum chosen by every school of high
education. As all nature is a schoolhouse for him who seeks education, and all his-
tory, with its " philosophy teaching by examples," is his text-book, so all thought is
an educational factor. There aro many roads to knowledge, but only one to educa-
tion, and that is through the gateway of self-help, which the earnest 6eeker of edu-
cation affords to his own mind. Indeed, it has been wisely said that there is no real
education that is not self-education. Whatever of knowledge is assimilated and
appropriated, becomes education. It is tho exercise of man's self activity at last
that sets in motion his powers of observation; the orderly classification of tho
things observed; the determination of the scientific principles uuderlying these
classes, and the great philosophical unity that unites all the sciences, and links man
to The Great first Cause; this, I take it, to be in its last analysis, the true philosophy
of education.

The greatest teacher can do littlo more than lift the latch and point the way.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1325

PENNSYLVANIA.
THE PUBLIC EDUCATION ASSOCIATION" OF PHILADELPHIA.

[From a pamphlet by Lewis R. Harley, Ph. I>.|

The desirability of improving the school system of Philadelphia lias given rise to
a number of voluntary associations, which have been actively engaged for several
years in urging reforms and promoting the development of tlio schools in various
ways. Among the most active of these organizations has been the Public Education
Association of Philadelphia, founded in 1881.

This association, like some of its predecessors, grew out of charity work. Its source
vras the Committee on the Care and Education of Dependent Childr* n of the Society
for Organizing Charity.

It is the object of this association to promote the efficiency and to perfect the sys-
tem of public education in Philadelphia, by which term is meant all education
emanating from, or in any way controlled by, the State. They purpose to acquaint
themselves "with the best results of experience ami thought in education, and to
render these familiar to the community and to their official representatives, that
these may be embodied in our own publ c-school system. They seek to become a
ceuter for work and a medium for the expression of opinion in all matters pertaining
to education, as, for instance, the appointment of superintendents; tlie compilation
of school laws; the kindergarten in connection with public education; manual
instruction — how much is desirable, and what it is practicable to introduce into the
public-school system; the hygiene of schools; the adequate payand the better qual-
ification of teachers; and, above all, to secure, as far as possible, universal educa-
tion, by bringing under instruction that large class, numbering not less than 22,000
children, who are now growing up in ignorance in this city.

These objects the association hope to attain through appeals to the local authori-
ties and to the legislature, and by such other means as may be deemed expedient.

The officers of the association in 1895 were Edmund J. James, chairman; Miss E.
W. Janney, treasurer; William W. Wiltbank, recording secretary.

The Public Education Association has had a busy career of fifteen years. It has
been a constructive period in educational work in Philadelphia, and the association
has seen the following results accomplished:

I. The institution of the department of superintendence, with the increase of
force by which the efficiency of this department has been largely augmented and
thoroughly organized.

II. The selection of a superintendent.

III. The introduction of sewing into the curriculum of the Normal School, and
its more recent introduction, based upon the success of the earlier experiment, into
the lower grades of schools, by which 25,000 girls were, in 1887, receiving regular,
systematic instruction in needlework.

IV. The universal acknowledgment that the most complete and satisfactory exhi-
bition of this work ever made in the country was the exhibit of the sewing done in
the public schools of Philadelphia made in the spring of 1886, at the Industrial
Exhibition at New York.

V. The institution of the Manual Training School.

VI. The reorganization of the schools under supervising principals.

VII. The introduction of cooking classes iu the Normal School.

VIII. The exhibition of school work in Horticultural Hall.

IX. The assumption by the board of education of the kindergarten schools.

X. The establishment of the chair of pedagogy in the University of Pennsylvania.

XI. The lectures iu pedagogy in the Summer School of the Extension Society.

XII. The separation of the gills' high and normal schools and the material improve-
ment of the courses in the former.

XIII. The passage of the compulsory school law.

The association encouraged and assisted all of these movements; it initiated and
completed some of them. There are still other tasks for the association. The new
compulsory school law will render a school census necessary. The school accommo-
dations of the city will be inadequate to meet the requirements of the law, and the
enforcement of the law itself will depend upon public sentiment. In all these mat-
ters the society can be of assistance.

The department of education should be reorganized. The association has already
made strenuous efforts to have the sectional boards abolished, and it seemed at
times as if the measure would pass the legislature. The agitation should bo con-
tinued until the department of education is placed beyond the reach of politics.
The administration of the city schools should be committed to a single body. The.-;e
are some of the subjects which should receive the attention of the association. The

1326 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-95.

■work of tlio Public Education Association is uot completed. The educational wel-
fare of so largo a municipality as Philadelphia will require the continued aid of
this influential organization, which in the past has accomplished so much for the
advancement of tho schools.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

[Address delivered December 13, 1894, by lion. J. L. M. Curry, in response to an invitation of the general

assembly of South Carolina.']

Sexatous axd Representatives : It has been said that among the best gifts of
Providence to a nation are great and good men, who act as its leaders and guides,
who leave their mark upon their age, who give a new direction to affairs, who intro-
duce a course of events which come down from generation to generation, pouring
their blessings upon mankind. Public men are the character and conscience of a
people. Respect for the worth of men and women is tho measure of progress in
civilization. On the 16th of November, 189-1, passed away one of America's purest
and noblest men, one of the last links which bound the present with the better days
of tho Republic. For South Carolina ho cherished a great affection, and sought to
rekindle and keep alive the memories and fraternity of tho Revolutionary period,
when Massachusetts and South Carolina were struggling together for the establish-
ment of our free institutions. Deeply touched and very grateful was he that South
Carolina honored him so highly, by attaching his name in perpetuity to one of her
most beneficent institutions of learning. Tho watchward of his life was the wor-
ship of truth and devotion to the Union. He saw clearly that "whoever would
work toward national unity must work on educational lines." Wo may well pause
to drop a tear over the £rave of author, orator, philanthropist, patriot, statesman,
Christian gentleman. Governor Tillman said last May, at the laying of tho corner
stone of the college at Rock Hill: "On one thing the people of South Carolina are
certainly agreed — in their love for Robert C. Winthrop and the new college that
bears his name."

I have said that he was a Christian statesman. Christianity and democracy have
revolutionized tho ideas and institutions of the world in reference to man, his rights,
privileges, and duties. The arrival of democracy, says Benjamin Kid, is the fact
of our time which overshadows all other facts, and this arrival is tho result of tho
ethical movement in which qualities and attributes iind tho completest expression
ever reached in the history of the human race. Kings and clergy, as having superior
access to God and command of the.Divine prerogatives, have been relegated to tho
background. Man's attainment to an enjoyment of privileges aud i^ossibilitics
depends on the development of latent, original, God-given powers. Families,
churches, and States recognize and provide for the unfolding of these capacities.
"Education, a debt due from present to future generations," was the idea and
motive which permeated Mr. Peabody's munificence, and the sentiment is tho legend
for the official seal of the Peabody Education Fund. Free schools for the whole
people should be the motive and aim of every enlightened legislator. South Caro-
lina incorporates the duty into her organic law. Thero can be no more legitimate
tax on property than furnishing the means of universal education, for this involves
self-preservation. Tho great mass of the people are doomed inevitably to ignorance,
unless tho State undertake their improvement. Our highest material, moral, and
political interests need all tho capabilities of all the citizens, and then there will bo
none too much to meet life's responsibilities and duties. As the people are sovereign,
free schools are needed for all of them. Wo recognize no such class as an elect few.
It is desirable that citizens should read tho laws they are to obey. A governor onco
put his edicts above the heads of the people; we sometimes, practically, do the sanio
by keeping the people in ignorance. When all must mako laws as well as ohey, it
is essential that they should be educated. The more generally diffused the educa-
tion the better the laws; the better are they understood and tho better obeyed.
The highest civilization demands intelligent understanding of tho laws and prompt,
patriotic, cheerful obedience.

1 Extract from the journal of the house of representatives of the State of South Carolina, Thursday,
December lo, 18'J4 :

JOEST ASSEMBLY.

The senate attended in tho house at 11 a. m. to hear the address of the Hon. iT. L. "SI. Curry.

The president of tho senate presented Senator Tillman, who introduced the Hon. J. L. M. Curry,
who entertained the general assembly for some time in an eloquent and able address on education.

Mr. Manning offered the following resolution:

"Re^oli-pd, That the general assemblv of South Carolina bas heard with pleasure and the deepest
interest the eloquent anil instructive address of the Hon. J . L. M. Curry, and t lie heartfelt thanks of
this bodv aro hereby extended to him for his address, and we wish to assure him that his words on
behalf o'f tin- advancement of tho educational interests of the Suite have fallen on ears that are alive
to those interests, and that wo hopo for tho best results upon the educational institutions of tho
State."

Which was considered immediately and unanimously adopted.

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 13-7

"When schools arc established, what trill perfect thorn? The first need is sufficient
money, to bo attained through State ami local revenues. In no instance shonltl this
money bo appropriated for sectarian purposes. In England, Bince the free education
act, thero lias been a determined effort to quarter denominational schools npon the
rates. In the United States ;i persistent effort is made to subsidize from general
revenues certain sectarian schools in States and among the Indians. During the
nine years — 1886-1S94 — our Government gave for education of t he Indians •'t t,277,r< 10,
and of this appropriation one church received $2,738,571. The remainder was dis-
tributed among fifteen various schools and organizations. Another requirement ia
efficient local and State supervision, divorced from party politics, and controlled by
civil servieo principles. If education be of universal and vital concern, it needs for
its administration the highest capacity. The system of common schools reached its
preeminent usefulness in ?dassachusetts under the administration of such remarka-
ble men as Mann, Soars, and Dickinson. Pupils should be graded so as to economize
time, utilizo teaching talent, and secure systematic progress. At. last all depends on
good teaching, and children, with all their possibilities, deserve the best. Thero is
often a criminal waste of time, talent, opportunities, and money, because of incom-
petent teachers. There is sometimes a distressingly small return for niony and labor
expended upon schools. It is not well-organized school systems, nor excellent text-
books, nor systematic courses of study, nor wise suiiervisiou, however important,
that make the good school. It is the teacher, not mechanical iu method and the
slave of some superficial notion of the object and the process of the work, but a
thorough master of the profession, widely knowledged and cultured, able to interest
the pupils, to develop tho highest power and efficiency. A good teacher will make
a good school in spite of a thousand hindrances. One able to awaken sluggish intel-
lect, give a mental impulse running through after life, who understands child nature,
fe] e laws of mental acquisition and development, whose mind has been expanded
and enriched by a liberal education, who has accurate scholarship and a love for
sound learning, who can awaken enthusiasm, mould character, develop by healthful
aspirations, inspire to do duty faithfully, Avill have a good school. Andrew D. White
called Dr. Yv'a viand tho greatest man who ever stood in tho college presidency, and
such men as Mark Hopkins, M. B. Anderson, Drs. McGuffey and Broadna show the
valuo of high qualifications in teachers. In our pnblic schools are thousands of
men and women, doing heroic work, noiselessly and without ostentation, who deserve
all the praise which is lavished upon less useful laborers in other departments. As
the state has undertaken the work of education, it is under highest obligations to
have tho best schools, which means tho best teachers.

How shall South Carolina meet these imperative obligations? Your schools aver-
age four and seventh-tenths months, but no school should have a term shorter than
eight months, and the teachers, well paid, should be selected impartially, after
thorough and honest examination. All should have unquestioned moral character,
sobriety, aptitude for the work, desire and ahility to improve. It has been suggested
that if only one law were written above tho door of every American schoolroom, it
ought to be, No man or woman shall enter here as teacher whoso life is not a good
model for tho young to copy. The experience of most enlightened countries has
shown that these teachers should be trained in normal schools; and by normal
schools I do not mean an academy with deeeptivo name and catalogue, and the
slightest infusion of pedagogic work. Teaching is an art, based on rationally
determined principles. The child grows and runs up the psychic scale in a certain
order. The mind has laws, and thero is no true discipline except in conformity to
and application of these laws. Acquaintance with and application of these laws
come not by nature, not spontaneously, but by study and practice. Thereal teacher
should be familiar with tho history, the philosophy, and the methods of education.
He will best acquire and accomplish the technical and professional work if ho have
a well-balanced mind, fine tastes, and "'tho faculty of judgment, strengthened by
the mastery of principles, more than by the acquisition of information." We have
professional schools for the lawyer, the doctor, the engineer; why not for the
teacher? His ahility to teach should not be picked up at haphazard, by painful
experience, and with the sacrifice of the children. A signboard near my residence
reads, "Horses shod according to humane principles of equine nature." It conveys
a true principle and suggests that children should be instructed according to the true
principles of mental science.

President Eliot, in one of his excellent papers, enunciates six: essential constituents
of all worthy education.

(«) Training the- organs of sense. Through accurate observation we get all kinds
of knowledge and experience. The child sees the forms of letters, hears the sound
of letters and words, and discriminates between hot and cold, black and white, etc.
All ordinary knowledge for practical purposes, and language as well, are derived
mainly through the sens* s.

(&) Practice iu comparing and grouping different sensations and drawing inferences.

1328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

(c) Accurate record in memory or in written form.

(d) Training the memory ; and practice in holding in the mind the record of observa-
tions, groupings, and comparisons.

(c) Training in the power of expression, iu clear, concise exposition; logical set-
ting forth of a process of reasoning.

if) Inculcation of the supreme ideals through which the human race is uplifted
and ennobled. Before the pupil should be put the loftiest ideals of beauty, honor,
patriotism, duty, obedience, love.

Teachers are greatly helped by teachers' institutes, when those who assemble get
the wisdom and experience of many minds on the difficult problems of the profession.
The work should bo practical, systematic, logica', continuous from year to year, and
a course of professional reading should be prescribed, so as to increase the intelli-
gence and culture of the profession.

We very often lose sight of the true end of education — it is, or should be, efifectivo
power in action, doing what the uneducated can not do, putting acquisition into
practice, developing and strengthening faculties for real everyday life. The only
sure test is the ability to do more and better work than could be done without it.
The average man or woman with it should be stronger, more successful, more useful,
than the average man or woman without it. It is the human being with an increase
of power which makes one more than equal to a mere man. It is not so much what
is imparted, but what is inwrought; not what is put in, but what is got out. It is not
so much what we know as what we are and can do for productive ends. The object
of Christianity is to make good men and good women here on earth. The object of
education is to make useful men and women, good citizens. And here comes in the
nerd of manual training, which is not to fit for special trades, but to teach the rudi-
ments of mechanics, those common principles which underlie all work. The pupil
can acquire manual dexterity, familiarize himself with tools and materials, bo
instructed in the science without a knowledge of which good work can not be done.
The object of this industrial instruction is to develop the executive side of nature,
so that the pupil shall do as well as think. This introduction of manual training
into schools has been found to be very helpful to intellectual progress. Gentlemen
need not reject it as something chimerical and Utopian ; it is not an innovation; tho
experiment is not doubtful ; it has been tried repeatedly; it is comparatively inex-
pensive, and has been and is now in very successful operation. It is not wiso state-
smanship, nor even good common sense, to forego for many years what other peoples
are now enjoying the advantages of. In a quarter of a century trade schools, techni-
cal schools, manual training, the kindergarten, will have nearly universal adoption.
Why, during this period, should a State rob her children of these immense benefits?

As population increases the struggle to maintain wages becomes more severe, tho
pressure being the hardest upon the unskilled, and less severe on each higher rank
of laborers. Every possible facility for education should bo put within the reach of
laboring men, to increase their efficiency, to raise the standard of life, and to augment
the proportion between the skilled and the unskilled. Dr. Harris, our wisest and
most philosophical educator, says: "Education emancipates the Laborer from the
deadening effects of repetition and habit, the monotony of mere mechanical toil, and
opens to him a vista of new inventions and more useful combinations." Our indus-
trial age increases the demand for educated, directive power. Business eombinations,
companies for trade, transportation, insurance, banking, manufacturing, and mining,
demand, as essential conditions of success, intelligent directive power. Production
is augmented by skill. An indispensable condition of economic prosperity is a largo
per capita production of wealth. Socialism, as taught by some extremists, would
sacrifice production to accomplish distribution, and means annihilation of private
capital, management by the State of all industries,' of production and distribution,
when Government would bo the solo farmer, common carrier, banker, manufacturer,
storekeeper, and all these would bo turned into civil servants, and be under the con-
trol and in the pay of tho State, or of a party.

States may have ideals as well as individuals, and embody the noblest elements of
advanced civilization. Agriculture, manufactures, mining, mechanical arts, give
prosperity when allied with and controlled by thrift, skill, intelligence, and honesty;
but what is imperishable is tho growth and product of developed mind. Greece and
Rome live in their buildings, statuary, history, orators, and poems. Plinysaid: ''To
enlarge the bounds of Roman thought is nobler than to extend the limits of Roman
power." The founders of tho great English universities centuries ago builded Aviser
than they knew, and opened perennial fountains of knowledge and truth from which
have unceasingly flowed fructifying streams. All modern material improvements
are the outgrowth of scientific, principles applied to practical life. If you would
legislate for tho increased prosperity and glory of South Carolina, be sure not to
forget that this is the outcome of tho -infinite capacities of children. Hamilton said
thero was nothing great in the universo but man, and uothiug great in man but

EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATE?. 1329

mind. "No serious thinker," says Drurriinond, "can succeed in lessening to his own
mind the infinite, distance between the mind of man and overs tiling in nature." Fi.sk
says: " On earth there will never l>o a higher creation than man." Evolutionists
say that the series of animals comes to an end in man, that ho is at once the crown
and master and the rationale of creation. What you know and admire in South
Carolina is what has been done by cultivated men and women. What other country
can show sueh a roll of immortal worthies as your 1'inckncys and Rntledges, your
Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, your Harper, Johnson, O'Neill, your Fuller and Thorn-
well, your MeDumoand Wayne, Legate and Petigru, and, toweri.ig above all contem-
poraries, peerless in political wisdom, metaphysical subtlety, ignited logic, the great
unrivaled American Aristotle, John C. Calhoun?

CHAPTER XXXI.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

Keferences to preceding reports of the United States Bureau of Education, in which
this subject lias been treated : In annual reports — 1870, pp. 61, 337-339; 1871, pp.
6, 7, 61-70; 1872, pp. xvii, xviii; 1873, p. lxvi; 1875, p. xxiii; 1876, p. xvi; 1877,
pp. xxxiii-xxxviii; 1878, pp. xxviii-xxxiv; 1879, pp. xxxix-xlv; 1880,]). lviii;
1881, p. lxxxii; 1882-83, pp. liv, xiviii-lvi, xlix, 85*; 1883-84, p. liv; 1881-85, p.
Ixvii; 1885-86, pp. 596, 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 790, 874-881 ; 1887-88; pp. 20, 21, 167,
169,988-998; 1888-89, pp. 768, 1412-1439; 1889-90, pp.620, 621,624,634,1073-1102,
1388-1392, 1395-1485 ; 1890-91, pp. 620, 624, 792, 808, 915, 961-980, 1469 ; 1891-92, pp.
8, 686, 688, 713. 861-867, 1002, 1234-1237; 1892-93, pp. 15, 442, 1551-1572, 1976;
1893-94, pp. 1019-1061. Also in Circulars of Information— No. 3, 1883, p. 63; No.
2,1886, pp. 123-133; No. 3, 1888, p. 122; No. 5, 1888, pp. 53,54,59,60,80-86; No. 1,
1892, p. 71. Special Report on District of Columbia for 1869, pp. 193, 300, 301-400.
Special report, New Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470, 775-781.

This chapter and the one which follows contain a largo amount of matter relating
to the advancement of the colored race in the United States. The very creditable
exhibit made at the Atlanta Exposition in 1895 by the more progressive element
among the negroes aroused new interest in all parts of the country in their educa-
tional advancement. In responso to tho general demand for information on this sub-
ject a special effort was made by this Bureau to collect statistics from all the colored
schools of the South. It waa no easy task on account of the indifference manifested
by many of those in charge of private schools. Of the 162 schools of secondary and
higher grade known to this office fewer than half the number responded to the first
request for information. Even after tho fifth request had been sent out a few of the
schools had failed to respond. Many of the reports received contained but meager
information. Such statistics as could be obtained will be given in detail in succeed-
ing pages of this chapter.

The statistics of public common schools for the negroes are given in connection
with the statistics of white schools in tho beginning of the first volume of this
annual report. On the next pago is preseuted a table whicli contains in condensed
form the more important items of information relating to tho number and .attend-
ance of colored pupils in the common schools of each of the former slave States. In
these sixteen States and the District of Columbia the estimated number of persons
5 to 18 years of age, the school population, was 8,297,160. Of this number 5,573,440
were white children and 2,723,720, or 32.9 per cent, colored. The total enrollment in
tho white schools was 3,845,414 and in the colored schools 1,441,282. The per cent
of white school population enrolled was 69 and tho per cent of colored school popu-
lation enrolled was 52.92. The whites had an average daily attendance of 2,510,907,
or 65.30 per cent of their enrollment, while the average attendance of tho blacks
was 856,312, or 59.41 per cent of their enrollment. There were 89,276 white teachers
and 27,081 colored teachers in the public schools of the South in 1895.

An accurate statement of the amounts of money expended by each of the Southern
States for the education of tho colored children can not be given for the reason that
in only two or three of these States are separate accounts kept of tho moneys
expended for colored schools. Since 1870 tho Southern States have expended about
$383,000,000 for public schools, and it is fair to estimate that between $75,000,000 and
$80,000,000 of this sum must have been expended for the education of colored chil-
dren. In 1895 the enrollment of colored uupils was a little moro than 27 per cent of

1331

1332

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

the public school enrollment in tho Southern States. It is not claimed that they
received the benefit of 27 per cent of the school fund and perhaps no one would say
they received less than 20 per cent. It is a fact well known that almost the entire
burden of educating the colored children of the South falls upon the white property
owners of the former slave States. Of tho more than $75,000,000 expended in the
past twenty years for the instruction of the colored children in Southern public
schools but a small per cent was contributed by the negroes themselves in the form
ol taxes. This vast sum has not been given grudgingly. The white people of the
South believe that the State should place a common-school education within the
reach of every child, and they have done thus much to give all citizens; white and
black, an even start in life.

Commo)i-8chool statistics classified by race, 1SD4-95.

State.

Alabama a

Arkansas

Delaware b

District of Columbia

Florid a a

Georgian

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

North Carolina a

South Carolina

Tennessee a

Texas a

Virginia

West Virginia

Total

Estimated number

of persons 5 to 18

years of age.

"White.

Colored.

327, 400
321, 100

39, 850
44,:i00
84, 230
357, 800
550, 900
203, 400
250, 100
212, 700
804, 500
379, 940
171,000
466, 900
693, 800
337. 320
267, 600

5, 573, 440

280, 600

124, 500

8, 980

24, 370

66, 770
335, 900

94, 300
216, 700

72. 200
309. 803

52. 600
227, 800
288, 100
157, 600
212, 500
210,000

11, 000

2, 723, 720

Percentages of
the whole.

"White. Colored.

53.85
72.06
81.00
64.51
55.79
51.59
85.38
48.42
77.62
40.71
94.26
62. 52
37.34
74.77
76.55
58.43
90. 04

67.15

46.15
27.94
18.40
35.49
44.21
48.41
14. 62
51.58
22.38
59. 29

5.74
37.48
62. 66
25.23
23.45
41.57

3.96

32. 85

Enrolled in the
public schools.

White.

190, 305

216. 863

28, 316

26, 903

59, 503

262, 530

394, 508

92,6)3

161,252

162, 830

612. 378

242, 572

103,729

381,632

463, 888

235, 533

210,059

Colored.

115, 709

82, 429

4, 858

14,654

37, 272

174, 152

73, 463

03,313

43, 492

187, 785

32, 199

128,318

119,292

101,524

134, 720

120, 453

7,649

Per cent of per-
sons 5 to 18
years enrolled.

White. Colored.

3,815,414 1,441,282

58.13
67. 54
71.06
60.73
70.64
73.37
71.61
45.53
64.48
76. 55
70.84
63.84
60.45
81.74
66.86
69. 82
78.50

69.00

41.24
66.21
54.10
60.13
55.82
,51.85
77.90
fc9. 22
(i'J. 24
60. 61
61.21
G6. 33
41.41
64.42
63. 40
50.19
69.54

52.92

State.

Alabama a

Arkansas

Delaware 6

District of Columbia

Floridaa

Gcorgiaa

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

North Carolina a

South Carolina

Tennessee a

Texas a

Virginia

West Virginia

Total

Average daily
attendance.

White.

Colored.

cl!2,
126,
cl9,

20,

38,
157,
243.

67,
103,

99,

c406,

154,

74,
277,
334,
137,
135,

800
820
746
446
752
626
703
887
031
048
180
361
359
678
884
830
756

2, 510, 907

c 72, 300
48, 120
c 2, 947
10,903
25, 386

104, 414
28, 663
41,548
18,531

103, 635

c 20, 430
75, 940
84, 895
65, 986
83, 185
64, 700
4,729

Per cent of
enrollment.

White.

59. 27
58.48
69.73
76. CO
65. 13

60. 04
61.77
73. 30
63. 89
60.83
66.33
63. 64
71.69
72. 76
72.19
58. 52
6i. 63

Colored.

62. 48

58.38
60.66
74.40
68.11
59. 96
39.02
65.62
42.61
55.19

63. 45
59. 18
71.17
65.00
61.75
53. r, 1
01.83

856,311

65.30

59.41

Number of
teachers.

White.

4,412

5,124

734

660

2,151

5, 827

8, 578

2,506

3,797

4,591

13, 750

5, 285
2, 096

6, 928
9, 960
6,211
6,066

89, 270

Colored.

2,196

1,796

106

331

772

8, 206

1,373

015

716

3,264

737

3,075

1.S69

1,909

2,502

2,081

233

27, 081

a In 1893-94.

b In 1891-92.

c Approximately.

ILLITERACY OF THE COLORED POPULATION.

What have the negroes themselves accomplished to justify the generosity of the
white people of the South and the benevolence of the people of the North? It may
be said that in 1860 the colored race was totally illiterate. In 1870 more than 85 per
cent of the colored population of tho South, 10 years of age and over, could not read
and write. In 1X80 the per cent of illiterates had been reduced to 75, and in 1890
the illiterates comprised about 60 per cent of the colored population 10 years of aj^e
and over. In several of the Southern States the percentage is even below 50 per

EDUCATION OP THE COLORED RACE.

1333

cent. The comparative statistics for 1870, 1880, and 1800, showing the illiteracy of
the colored race, aro given for each of the Southern States in the following table:

Illiteracy of the colored population 10 years of age and over.

State.

Alabama

Arkansas

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

North Carolina

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

"West Virginia

Total

1890.

Popula-
tion 10
years of
ago and

over.

479, 430

217, 454

21,(508

01,041
119, ('"4
GOO, 023
197, 089
392, 042
161, 100
51G, 929
114, 100
392, 589
470, 232
309. 800
330, 154
455. 082

24, 737

Illiterates.

Number.

331. 200

116. 655

10, 602

21, 389

60. 204
404,015
110,530
283, 2-!5

8J, 72 i
314, 858

47, 502
235, 981
301. 2112
167, 971
176,484
260, 678

10, 902

Per

cent.

09. 1
53.0
49.5
35.0
50.0
67.3
55. 9
72.1
50. 1
00.9
41.7
00.1
04.1
54. 2
52. 5
57.2
.14.4

4,870,910 2,934,441 j 00.2

I.S.-.O.

Popula-
tion 10
years of
ago and

over.

399, 058

137,971

19, 245

45, 035

85, 513

479, 803

190,223

328, 153

151,278

425, 397

104, 393

351.145

394, 750

271,386

255, 265

428, 450

18,446

Illiterates.

Number.

321. 680

103, 473

11,068

21,790

60, 420
391, 482
133, 895
259, 429

90, 172
319, 753

58, 244
271,943
310, 071
194,495
192. 520
315,060 i

10, 139 |

Per
cent.

1870.

80.0
75. 0
57. 5
48.4
70.7
81.6
70.4
79.1
59. 6
75. 2
53. 9
77.4
78.5
71.7
75.4
73.2
55.0

4,085,571 3,064,234

75.0

Popula-
tion 10
years of
a<ro and
over.

328, 835

85, 249

16. 570

33, 833

62, 748

373,211

156. 483

262, 359

127, 708

305, 074

83, 393

272, 497

289, 969

225, 482

169, 965

302, 624

12, 905

1 [literates.

Number.

2!io, 05:;

69, 244

11,820

23 843

52, 899

343, 654

131,099

225.409

88. 707

205. 282

60. 048

231,293

235, 212

185, 970

150.808

322, 355

9, 907

3,108,905 ,2,609, 193

Tor
cent.

88.1
81.2
71.3
70.5
84.1
92. 1
83.8
85.9
09. 5
87.0
72.7
84.8
81.1
82. 4
88.7
88.9
77.4

85.2

In thirty years 40 per cent of tho illiteracy of the colored race Lad disappeared.
In education and in industrial progress this race had accomplished more than it could
have achieved in centuries in a different environment without the aid of tho whites.
The negro has needed the example as well as the aid of the white man. In sections
where the colored population is massed and removed from contact with the whites
the progress of the negro has been retarded. He is an imitative being, and has a con-
stant, desire to attempt whatever ho sees the white man do. He believes in educat-
ing his children because he can see that tin increase of knowledge will enable Ihem
to better their condition. But segregate the colored population and you take away
its object lessons. Tho statistics exhibited in tho following table in a ineasuro con-
firm the truth of this position:

Colored population and illiteracy in 1S00 compared.

State.

West Virginia

Missouri

Kentucky

Delawaro

Maryland

Texas

Tennessee

Arkansas

District of Columbia

North Carolina

Virginia

Florida

Alabama

Georgia

Louisiana

Mississippi

South Carolina

Colored
population

2

32
150
208

28.
215
489.
430.
309.

75,
502,
635.
106.
679,
858,
560,
744,
089,

717
720
173
427
897
588
881
427
697
565
858
473
299
996
192
749
141

Per cent
to total.

4.3
5.0
14.4
16.9
20.7
21.9
24.4
27 4
32. 9
34 8
38.4
42.5
44.9
40.8
50.1
57.8
59.9

Per cent
>f colored

illiteracy.

44.4
41.7
55.9
49.5
50.1

52. 5
54.2

53. 6
35. 0
00 1
57.2
50.6
69. 1
07.3
72.1
00.9
04. 1

Per cent
of white
illiteracy.

13.0

7.1

15.8

7.4

7.0

10.8

17.8

10.3

2.7

17.9

13.9

11.3

18.2

16.3

20.1

11.9

17.9

Here it is shown that in tho States where the colored population is greatest in
proportion to the total population, or where such colored population is massed, as
in the " black belt" of Sunt li Carolina, Georgia-, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana,
there the per cent of illiteracy is highest. In this table the ISouthern States are

1334

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

arranged with reference to their proportion of colored population, West Virginia
standing first with only 4.3 per cent, and South Carolina at the foot of the list with
59.1) per cent colored population. The per cent for each State is shown in the third
column. Leaving out of the count the District of Columbia, in which there is a
perfected system of city schools, tho percentages of illiteracy in column 4 seem to
bear a close relation to the percentages of population in column 3. Tho eight States
having less than 3J per cent of colored population have, with a single exception,
less than 55 per cent of colored illiteracy. Tho eight States having more than 30
per cent of colored population have, with twTo exceptions, more than GO per cent of
illiteracy. In the fifth column the per cent of whito illiteracy is given for each
State.

SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION.

There are in the United States, so far as known to this Bureau, 162 institutions for
the secondary and higher education of the colored race. Six of these schools are
not located within the boundaries of the former slave States. Of the 1G2 institu-
tions. 32 are of tho grade of colleges, 73 aro classed as normal schools, and the
remaining 57 are of secondary or hi.uh school grade. While all these schools teach
pupils in the elementary studies, they also carry instruction beyond the common
school branches. State aid is extended to 35 of the 162 institutions, and 18 of these
are Avholly supported by the States in which they are established. The remaining
schools are supported wholly or in part by benevolent societies and from tuition fees.

Detailed statistics of tho 162 institutions will be found in this chapter. In these
schools were employed 1,549 teachers, 711 males and 838 females. The total number
of students was 37,102; of these, 23,420 were in elementary grades, 11,724 in second-
ary grades, and 1,958 wero pursuing collegiato studies. Tho following table shows
for each State the number of schools and teachers and the number of students in
elementary, secondary, and collegiato grade.!) :

Summary of teacher* and students in institutions for the colored race in 1SD4-9'.

32

o
o

EC

o

6

Teachers.

Students.

6
3

6

"3

a

a
o
H

Elementary.

Secondary.

Collegiate.

State.

6
3
3

fa

a

"3

o
H

6
"3
3

6
"3

S

o

"3

o

6
"3

6
"3

a

O

H

TotaL

ii

6
1

4
6

21
1
2
7
7
5
9
5
1

26
1
1

12

12
9

13
2

92
20

3
74
18
66

1

3
30

5
13
37
19

2
102
10
11
36
69
34
53

7

91
19

0

29

26

130

1

3
37
19
17
30
19

3
99

8

0
64
90
47
96

4

183

45

3

103

44

196

2

0
67
24
30
67
38

5

201

18

11

100

165

81

149

11

1,218
279

1,431
385

2,649
664

625

171

13

238
93

592

7

33

186
67
70

277

139

15

1,077

37

544
135
2
543
156
732

21

00
333

8"i
192
229
130

17
1,086

77

1, 1C9

306

15

781

249

1,324

28

93

519

152

262

500

275

32

2,103

114

58

26

10

327

14
5
4
5

72

31

14

332

3,890

1,001
29

District of Columbia

125
231

1,518

154

270

2,332

279

507

3,850

1,392
756

167

Gl

228

5,402

23

45

485

161

67

G31

125

5

1, 203

77

52

916

206

156

572

96

5

1,699

63

97

1,401

367

223

1, 203

221

10

2,902

140

190

101
50
64
96

7

26

0

13

15

0

127
50
77

111

7

2,047

569

562

1, S20

503

42

North Carolina

Ohio

151
43

107
63

121
62
85

69

8

0

49

35

53

3

220
51
167
112
156
115
88

5,285
305

167

1,071

1,210

556

923

45

1,107

1, 703

882

1,356

54

2,178
2,913
1,438
2,279
99

301
576
281
424
50

500
641
325
574
Gl

801
1,217
606
998
114

3,091

4,286

Texas

2, 159

3, 305

213

Total

162

711

838

1,549

im

13, 445 23 490

5,272

G, 452

11, 724

1,508

360

1,958

37, 102

a Two schools not reporting.

Of the 13,682 students in secondary and higher grades there were 990 in classical
courses, 811 in scientific courses, 295 in business courses, and 9,331 in English courses.
The distribution of these students by States, the classification by courses of study,
and the apportionment by sex can be seen by consulting the following table (p. 1335).

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

133

0

Classification of colored students, by courses of study, lSD4-0">.

State.

Alabama

Arkansas

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana

Kentucky

Louisiana

Warj land

Mississippi

Missouri

New -Jersey

North Carolina

Ohio

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

AW st Virginia

Total

Students in

classi-

cal courses.

Male.

Fe-
male.

Total.
11

8

3

10

(i

16

0

0

0

17

4

21

0

0

0

•14

5

49

0

0

0

33

GO

93

29

23

52

68

19

87

0

1

7

30

5

35

13

G

19

5

7

12

105

29

134

00

4

26

48

42

90

138

111

249

6

1

7

23

41

64

9

9

18

614

37G

990

SI uilcnts in Bcien-
i ifio cour: i

15
5

10
3
0

56
0
0

91

21
6
2

41
0
57
15
17
26
12
17
0

Fe-
male,

8
9
4
0

0
25

0

0

157

17

1

2
71
10
45

7
10

4
10
37

0

94 417

Total.

23

14

14

3

0

81

0

0

248

38

7

4

112

10

102

22

27

30

22

54

0

Students in Knglish
course.

Male

499
48
13

71

148

628

7

0

26
318

58
1GG

40

5

305

77
327
451
244
578

77

811 4, 08G 5,245

Fe

male.

501

78

2

117

2G8

991

21
0

34
249
104
205

30

0

293

G2
513
GIG
2S7
7S0

94

Total.

1,000

L20

15

188

41G

1,619

28

0

60

567

162

371

70

5

598

139

840

1 , 0G7

531

1, 358

171

9,331

Students in busi-
ness course.

Male.

16
9
0

6G
0
0
0
0
2
0
0

47
9
0

33
9
0
0
0
0
0

191

Fe-
male.

0
41
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
25
7
0
0
6
0
0
0
0
0

104

Total.

25

17

0

107

0

0

0

0

10

0

0

72

16

0

33

15

0

0

0

0

0

295

There were 4,514 colored students studying to become teachers, 1,902 males and
2, Oil' females. Many of these studi nts were included among those pursuing tho
English and other courses noted in tho foregoing table.

The number of students graduating from high school courses was 649, tho number
of males being 282 and the number of females 3G7. There were 84 t graduates from
normal courses, 357 males and 187 females. The number of college graduates was
188, the number of males being 151 and tho number of females 35. The distribution
of graduates by States, as well as the number of normal students, can bo found in
the following table:

Number of normal students and graduates in 1894-95.

State.

Alabama

Arkansas

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

( reorgia

Illinois

Indiana

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

North Carolina

Ohio

Pennsylvania

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

West Virginia

Total

Students in nor-

Graduates of high

Grad

nates of nor-

Graduates of col-

mal course.

sch

ool coarse.

m

al course.

legiate course.

MalojmaTe.

Total.

Male.

Fe-
male.

Total.

Male.

Fe-
male.

Total.

Male.

Fe-
male.

Total.

426

359

785

58

56

114

81

81

1G2

10

0

10

17

10

27

2

5

7

1

4

5

13

14

27

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

24

71

93

0

0

0

24

41

65

4

2

6

30

48

78

0

0

0

4

2

6

0

0

0

117

303

420

30

34

64

7

41

48

6

3

9

0

5

5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

7

14

0

0

0

0

0

0

27

55

82

12

19

31

10

29

39

0

0

0

30

50

86

10

11

21

16

13

29

3

0

3

38

37

75

3

17

20

6

8

14

1

0

1

122

124

246

27

16

43

1G

14

30

13

1

14

64

36

100

2

3

5

7

2

9

1

0

1

359

434

793

25

34

59

69

60

129

27

1

28

50

57

107

5

9

14

7

8

15

4

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

38

0

38

105

1(11

2G6

28

54

82

25

48

73

8

8

16

212

.';.")'(

565

35

30

65

35

30

65

17

5

22

35

159

191

4

2

6

2

30

32

5

1

6

196

280

47G

32

70

102

41

74

115

1

0

1

50 G4

114

2

0

2

6

2

8

0

0

0

1,902

2,612

4,514

282

367

649

357

487

844

151

35

l.-,i;

There were 1,166 colored students studying learned professions — 1,028 males and
138 females. Of the professional students 585 were studying theology, .".10 medicine,
55 law, 45 pharmacy, 25 dentistry, and 8 engineering. The 138 female students were
receiving professional training for nurses. There were 42 graduates in theology, 67
in medicine, 21 in law, 2 in dentistry, 16 in pharmacy, and 25 in nurse training. Tho
following table (p. 1336) gives, the distribution of professional students and graduates
by States.

1336

EDUCATION

REPORT, 1894-95.

Colored prof 'essional students and graduates in 1S94-95.

State.

Alabama

A rkansas

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

New .1 ersey

Noi th Carolina

Ohio

Pennsylvania

South Carolina

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

Total

Students in pro-
fessional courses.

3

130

12

251

4

94

26

48

9

12

5

0

128

10

40

7

170

17

65

1,028

s

o
p4

16
0

34
0

40
0
0
0

25
0

O

2
15
0
0
0
4
0

140

12

285

4

134

26

48

9

37

5

2

130

25

40

7

170

21

G5

Professional students and graduates.

Theol-
ogy-

w

121
12
73

4

92
26
20

9
12

5

0
42
10
40

7
30
17
Go

138 1,160 585 42

12
0
8
0

10
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
3
7
0
2
0
0

Law.

0
0

33
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0

14
0
0
0
6
0
0

o

Medi-
cine.

/.

5

0

119

0

0
0

28
0
0
0
0

56
0
0
0
102
0
0

55 21 310 67 25

Den-
tistry.

0
0

13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

12
0
0

Phar-
macy.

2
0

13
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

16
0
0
0

14
0
0

2 45 16

Nurse
train-
ing.

16
0

34
0

-tu
0
0
0

25
0
2
2

15
0
0
0
4
0

138 25

Me-
chanical
or elec-
trical
engi-
necrin<r.

-a
a
u

cs

Tbo importauco of industrial training is almost universally recognized by teachers
of tbo colored race, ami the negroes themselves are beginning to see its value. This
feature of colored education was treated at some length in the Education Report for
1893-94. More complete statistics aro presented this year. Eor the first time tbe
number of students in each industrial branch has been ascertained. Of the 37,102
students in the 1G2 colored schools nearly one-third, or 12,058, were receiving indus-
trial training. Of these, 1,06L were learning farm and garden work, 1,786 carpentry,
235 bricklaying, 202 plastering, 259 painting, 67 tin and sheet-metal work, 314 forg-
ing, 200 machine-shop work, 147 shoetnaking, 706 printing, 1,783 sewing, 5,460 cook-
ing, and 1,017 were learning other industries. An exhibit of the industrial side of
colored education is made in the following table:

Industrial training of colored students in 1S94-95.

State.

Ala bama

Arkansas

Delaware

District of Columbia.

Florida

Georgia

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

New Jersey

North Carolina

Ohio

South Carolina

Tennesseo

Texas

Virginia .
West Vir

una .
Total....

Pupils receiv-
ing industrial
training.

a

,159,1,278

105 62

21

77

09

489

143

281

58

189

94

20

659

50

480

208

159

365

59

0

87

152

1,455

217

211

156

28E

Iff!

22

1, 142

5

548

408

301

765

114

o
H

2, 437

167

21

164

221

1,944
360
492
214
474
201
42

1,801
107

1,034
616
460

1, 130
173

Students trained in industrial branches.

a

U^4

a*

u

43

a

a

ft

u
O

225

28' i

15

20

7

21

25

20

64

39

143

30

12

79

122

58

16

293

136

*

40

6

20

89

291

43

54

208

20

101

21

120

105

71

44

,061

1,786

M

FM

33 31

v

0
2
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0
13
0
0
0
3
0
0

48 27

0 0

118 118

o! 0

16
5

(i

ft

A

MS

to

a

DC "*
r—*

o-g

fcb

a

a c
!3 £

P

3
a

a

So

o

o

•a

a S

u
o

cj

o

ft

H

l=H

A

4<;

29

13

66' 16

0

0

20

15

0

4

0

3

5

0

0

12

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

14

30

40

0

5

0

0

0

o

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

0

6

23

o

71

0

27

0

0

20

25

0

2

0

0

0

0

47

4

0

50

42

0

0

0

0

. . . .

126

0

70

77

6

0

6

0

6

0

7

1

2

0

1

7

1

15

6

14

0

0

2

0

0

259

67

314

200

147

0 102
76 1, 325

0 62
43

0
32

9
17
99
24
86
87
42
38

9

198 292
62 0

196

15

0

119

84

0

191

94

2

107

0

0

22

0

0

750

538

25

63

44

180

536

117

0

365

55

11

185

666

191

10o

40

0

0

147 706 5,460 1,783 1,017

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

1337

Colored institutions received benefactions in 1X91- !)."> amounting to if ."04-, 822. They
received State and municipal aid amounting- to $188,93(3; from productive funds.
$98,278; from tuition fees, $101, lib', and from other sources and unclassified sums
amounting to $534,272. The latter figure includes the sums received by colored agri-
cultural and mechanical colleges from the United States. The income of the colored
institutions, so far as reported, amounted to $922,632. In the Libraries of the 162
colored schools there, were 175, 788 volumes, valued at $357,549. The value of grounds,
buildings, furniture, and scientific apparatus was $6,475,590, and the value of other
property and endowments was $2,381,748. The following table summarizes the
financial reports received from tho 162 colored institutions:

Financial summary of the 162 colored schools.

State.

2 4

m 3 t.

2 o 2
"3 -*> c
>

Alabama

Arkansas

Delaware

District of Columbia.
Florida

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maryland

Mississippi

Missouri

Now Jersey

North Carolina .

Ohio

Pennsylvania. . .
South Carolina. .

Tennessee

Texas

Virginia

West Virginia. -

$64,
2,

903

894

0

0

27, 888

o -

Be
~^>

o

>

15,

U.
9,

23,

8,

145
344

055
500
200
427
568
COO

5,

95,

4,

COO
347
428
122
401

Total 304,822

15,212

4,450

281

16, 350

1,866

24, 865

125

250

8,556

10, 227:

2, 200

11,200

831!

500

12, 670

5, 000;

15, 000'

6,050

15, 482

5, 023

14, 150

5,500

175, 788

a
• — i

$11,350

5,125

400

1,475

13, 560

250

500

0, 265

5,854

300

10,205

925

150

0,490

2,000

2 'a s

cm a a

3 '3 - q

$383, 269
132, 200

20, 700
670, 000

74, 300
973, 959

&

%-. o

O H

ft

"J

$150, 303
35, 500

200, 000
555, 000

4,730

240, 990

33, 330

10, 150

3,500

10, 000
193, 220
474, 422

64, 000
345,000
162, 125

10, 000
444, 995
200, 000
212,000
180, 300
629, 100
273, 000
938, 000

85, 000

103, 825

98, 750

4, 500

163,575

357, 549 6, 475, 590

5, 000

39, 500
25, 000

394, 800

41, 350

30, 000

500

504, 085
30, 000

2, 381, 74S

C3
ft

o a

-a a
g e

- ■—

® H

73 ©

o >

h'S

S 2

tfl

s* o

m

sa„

CI

o c -

a

Sec

73 h
© ©

© -^
© _
qj o
h

nap
sot:
° u 2

— W Q

<5

tS en

2SS

O ^
© M
C cs
.« ©

£ o

o-a

$14, 500 $13, 276 $9, 008 $112, 709

6,000

29, 500

2,800

3,860'

7,987
657

2,819 13,573

3,000
7,500
0, 500
4,321

05, 000
3, 000
7,618

12,500

2,450

8,500

13, 304

0,356 4,264
7,120

3,906 1,117

3.941 5,679

l,367i 1,284

2,150

3,430

298

15,000

3, 000

8, 496 920
3, 500 2, 300

22,409

7,958 1,000

11,644 1,227

2,681

3, 276 22, 603
1,488 2,093

2,594

4, 000

11,541

12, 019

52, 257

188,930 101,146 98,278

4, 176

32,475

22,190

36, 238

50

500

22, 644

8,700

11,271

36, 668

39, 309

4,300

117, 301

3,270

534, 272

$149, 613
14,01)4
4,000
57, 528
15,476
81,953

17, 796
47, 095
33, 773
50, 179
67, 701

3,500
39, 678
27, 000
33, 740
47, 776
55, 610

7,279
158, 180

9,851

922, 632

Beginning on tho next page is a table giving in detail tho statistics of the 162
colored schools so far as reported to this Bureau.

In the concluding pages of this chapter are printed two addresses in which are
presented two views of the education of tho colored race. The first was delivered
at Brooklyn, X. Y., in January, 1896, at the dinner iu honor of Alexander Hamilton
by Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Insti-
tute. The second was delivered before the American Baptist Homo Mission Society,
at Asbury Park, N. J., May 26, 1896, by Edward C. Mitchell, D. D., president of
Leland University, New Orleans, La. Mr. Washington pleads for the industrial as
well as the intellectual training of the negro, while Dv. Mitchell advocates tho higher
education.

1338

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Statistics of schools for the education of the

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

12
13
14
15
1G
17

IS

19
20
21

22

2-1
25
20

27

28

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49

Stato and post-
office.

ALABAMA.

Athens

Calhoun

Huntsville

Mariou

Montgomery.

Normal

Sehua

do

Talladega

Tuscaloosa ..
Tuskegee

ARKANSAS.

Arkadelphia.

do

Little Bock..

do

Pine Bluff...
Southland ...

DELAWARE.

Dover

DIST. COLUMBIA.

Washington .

do

do

do

FLORIDA.

23 Jacksonville.

do.

Live Oak

Ocala

Orange Park.

Tallahassee..

GEORGIA.

Athens

....do

....do

Atlanta

....do

do

do

do

do

Augusta

do

do

College

La Grange

Mcintosh

Macon

Roswell

Savannah

South Atlanta .
Thomas ville...
Waynesboro...

ILLINOIS.

50 Cairo .

Name of school.

Trinity Normal School*

Calh oun Colored School

Central Alabama Academy

Lincoln Normal School

si &1 e Normal School for Cold Students

Stato Normal and Industrial School

Barrell School

Selnia University

Talladega College

Stillman Institute

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute

Religious
denomina-
tion.

Teachers.

White.

S

Cong

Nonsect .

M.E

Cong

Shorter University

Arkadelphia Academy

Arkansas Baptist College

Philander Smith College

Arkansas Normal College

Southland College and Normal Institute.

State College for Colored Students .

Howard University

Normal School, 7th" and 8th divisions.
High School, 7th and 8th divisions*..
Way land Seminary

Cookman Institute

Edward Walters College *

Florida Institute *

Emerson Home

Orange Park Normal and Manual Train-

ing School.
State Normal and Industrial College for

Colored Students.

.Terual Academy

Knox Institute

West Broad Street School

Atlanta Baptist Seminary

Atlanta University

Gammon School of Theology

Morris Brown College

Spclman Seminary

Storrs School

Haines Normal and Industrial School.

Paine Institute

AValkor Baptist Institute

Georgia Stale Industrial College

La Grange Academy

Dorchester Academy

Ballard Normal School

Eos well Public School *

Beach Institute

Clark University

Allen Normal and Industrial School...
Haven Normal Academy *

Nonsect ..

Cong ,

Bapt

Cong

Presb

Nonsect .

A.M

Bapt

Bapt

Meth
Nonsect .
Friends . .

Isonsect ..

Nonsect .
Nonsect .

Bapt.

M.E

A. M. E . .

Bapt

M.E

Cong

Nonsect

Bapt .

Cong

Sumner High School

* Statistics of 1S93-94.

Bapt

Nonsect

M.E

A.M. E

Bapt

Cong ...
Presb. . .
Meth
Bapt

Bapt.
Cong
Cong

M.E.

Cong

12

40
0

0

4

2

12

2
10
0
0
34
7
2
1
0
0

Colored.

3

6
12

12

18
1
4
0

41

2
3
3
1

7 8

1
4
2
0
3
2
4
11
2

8
13

2
3

1

25

0
7
2

0
10

1

4
0
2

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

1339

colored race, 1S94-D5 — Detail table, Part I.

Pupils enrolled.

Students.

( ; radu i : -

Total.

Ele-
mentary
grades.

Second-
ary
grades.

Colle-
giate
classes

Clas-
sical
courses

Scien-
tific

courses

Englisli
course.

Nor-
mal

course.

Busi-
ness

course.

High
school

tfor

null

course.

Colle-
giate

6

■a

9

50
125

53

50
120
199
135
100
258

31
180

09
26
70
123
123
89

23

393

2

197

98

103

96

55

0

49

21

68

85

196

150

78

84

203

0

75

130

99

36

201

69

175

125

143

d
"3

a

<D

Ph

1!)

118

146

77

90

433

208

141

118

323

0

329

43

00
80
189
69
90

6

194

24

421

63

144
63
81
50
57

37

56
159
2G1
0
139
0
281
491
147
262

82

55
0

87
250
275
146

J

i— «
-

11

36

125
53

5'i
293

50
126

65
204

a

o

w

12

102

116
77
90

294
42

133
83

305

d
3

13

14

d

3

a

H

14

16

d

3
15

d
3

a

0

16

d

"3
17

d
3

a

IS

d
3

1.)

d

3

z

20

d

CO

21

d
3

a

<s
R

22

d

3
23

d

3

a

c

R

24

d

3
25

a

3
3

R

26

d

3

27

d

3

o
R

28

d
a
P,

20

d

3

a

o
R

SO

d

3

31

®

3

3
o

R

32

1

125

14G

?

0

3

1

4

127

143

9

35

48

31

218

13
11
21
20
80
26

13

30
2

197
9

28
22
25
0
11

7

21
2
70
50
44

145

165

8

35

18

0

157

12
20
16
17
49
21

2

96

24

421

2

33
19
46
41
8

9

21

6

131

0

4

127
13
10

145
13
25

9
9
0

10

13

0

5

0

1

0
0
2
6

"6

0
3
0

199

113

35

0
27

208

129

18

0

0

16
0

9
0

0

3

55

0

0

56

0

0

6

9

8

7
8

8
2

o

6

0

6

0

6

0

0

0

40

40

0 9

10
11

210

19
15
55
88
43
59

159

31

40

58

171

20
G5

52

7

13

0

270
8

170

7

17

15

5

1

31
17

43
35

2

13

4

8

1
1

1
4

13

O

CI

2

6

6

1

4

"l3

14

14

15

1

15

16

4

10

327
0

4

4

5

0

3

0

17
0

3

0

4
0

1

10

3
0

1

4

0
0

9

0

22
2

3

0

47
24

17

13

71
0

2

117

0

0

0

0

G6

0

0

0

41

0

8
2

0

10
24

0

4
0

0

2
0

18

36

0

93

0

19

90

'1

S9

75
74
30
0
38

14

48
83
126
72
64

01

111

44

35

9

49

28

34

153

130

0

85

14

7

">'?

84

129

91

?4

21
0
3

6
0

40
0
3

5
°

"5

0

0

0

0

0

0

0
49

15

20
83

50

57

32

18
153

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

26

0

0

0
0

0

0

0
0

0
2

0
2

4
0

2
0

*>8

0

0

0
1
1
3
10

0
0
3
0
3

0

0

29
30

0

1
0

0
0
6

'11

23
13
84
24
0
0

0
7
0
29
23
0

0

0

50

0

6

0

o

83

0

0

■;■',

2

2

33

34

155

o

75

11 i

28

22:;
416
147
142

■

24

0

0

20

66

36

91

5

11

15

32

29
52

0

120

52

55

0

0

6

r,i)

37

3
0

0

0

24
0

0
3

1 55
0

223
52

0
0

29

14

0

0

0
0
0
2
9
2

4
7
0
8
1
1

0
0
0
2

4
2
0
8

0
0

0
0

35

37

48

3

0

38

5
0
9
0

2
0
0
0

4
0

1

0

39

0

22

0

0
0

0

0

25

0

0
0
0

0
13

64

175
10

0
0

87
250

30

0
10

5
16

2

0
0
0
15
8

0

0

0

0

4 1
•11

101
64
164
110
111

0

87

244

225

109

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

42
43

0

0

0

0

5

20

0

0

1

5

1

5

0

0

4t
45

40

160

45

105

181
130

1G7

21

116
35
50

130

112

67

40
10
55

7

51

18

100

21

4
0

0
0

19
0

5
0

20

0

53

0

48

6

100

5

2

1

14
2

47

0

0

10

18

0

0

1

2

0

0

48
49

0

0

0

0

0

0

7

21

0

0

50

1340

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored

51
52

53
54
55
50
57
58
59

CO
Gl
G2
03
04
05
00

70

71

72
73
74
75
70
77
78
79
80

81
82
83
84
85

State and post-
office.

Name of school.

Evansville Governor High School.

New Albany ' Scribner High School .

KENTUCKY.

Berea Berea College

Frankfort i State Normal School for Colored Persons

Lebanon St. Augustine's Academy*

Lexington Chandler Normal school* .

Louisville Christian Bible School

do Central High School

Paris Paris Colored High School

LOUISIANA.

Alexandria —

Baldwin

New Iberia

New Orleans...

do

do

do

MARYLAND.

Teachers.

Religious
denomina-
tion.

White.

Nonsect

Nonsect ..
Nonsect . .
R. C

Cong

Christian .
Nonsect ..
Nonsect . .

ir.

Alexandria Academy a

Gilbert Academy and Industrial College

Mount Carmel Convent a

Lelar.d University

New Orleans University

Southern University

Straight University

07 Baltimore .

68 do

09 Hebbville.

Melvale

Princess Anne

MISSISSIPPI.

Clinton

Edwards

Holly Springs

do

Jackson

Meridian

Natchez

Tougaloo

"Westside

MISSOURI.

Hannibal

Jefferson City .
Kansas City ...

Mill Spring

Sedalia

NEW JERSEY.

86 Bordentown

87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94

NORT1I CAROLINA.

Ashboro

Beaufort

Charlotte

Clinton

Concord

Elizabeth City
Fayettevillc . .
Friinklinton . .

Baltimore City Colored High School

Morgan College

Baltimore Normal School for Training of
Colored Teachers. *

Industrial Home for Colored Girls

Princess Anne Academy

M.E.

Bapt....
M. E....

Nonsect
Cong . . .

Mount Hermon Female Seminary *

Southern Christian Institute. ..'.

Rust University

State Colored Normal School

Jackson College

Meridian Academy

Natchez College *

Tougaloo University

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege,

Douglass High School '

Lincoln Institute

Lincoln High School ..

Bale's College

Geo. R. Smith College.

M. E....

Nonsect

Christian

M.E

Nonsect .

Bapt

M.E

Cong

Nonsect .

Colored Normal and Industrial School.

Ashboro Normal School

"Washburn Seminary

Biddle University

Clint cm Normal institute*

Scotia Seminary

State Colored Normal School

State Colored Normal School

Albion Academy, Normal and Industrial
School,
do Franklinton Christian College

Nonsect
M.E....

Nonsect

Nonsect
Presb. . .

Presb...
Nonsect
Nonsect
Presb. ..

Christian

Colored.

6

0

2

18

15
0

in

6

o

1!

2
l1

0
11
1
1
2
2
5

10
0

9 17
4 6

0 0

1 1
1 ....

15 0

'Statistics of 1893-94.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED HACK.

1341

race, 1894-95 — Detail table, Part T — Continued.

Pupils enrolled.

Students.

Graduates.

Total.

Ele-
mentary
grades.

Second-
ary
grades.

Collo- Clas-
giate sical

classes courses

Scien-
tific
courses

English

course.

Nor-
mal
course.

Husi-

I!( ss

course.

Hi-li
school

course.

Nor-
mal
course.

Collc-
giato

course.

3
!»

21
CO

248

4a

0

o

20
2 -'J
173

.2
3

6
a

10

44
05

212
G2
70

d

3
11

d
i— i
ei

a

©
Eh

12

d

3
13

21
12

64
19

©
3

e

©
14

44

16

66
27
41

d

3
15

©
t—t

g
S

1G

d

OS

17

21
12

17

©

'3
S

©

Ph
18

44
16

5

6
"3

19

d

3

a

20

©

r— 1

21

6
3

a

22

d

3
23

d
»— t

a
©

24

d

3
25

....

d
•— i
C3

a

o
20

d

3

27

4
3

3

©
3

a
©

28

3
4

0

©
-3

29

©

3

0
-

30

d
3

31

0

d

3

2
©

32

0

51

45

139
24

52

132
35
35

238

5?

45

14

39

11

0
19

4

27

0
1

4
0

53

....

54

55

.......

....

56

(1

26

0

57

524
163

232

90

386
90

50
53

138
61

50
2

138
8

6

2

10

8

6

3

16
3

3

16
3

58

30

12

12

18

26

34

2

8

59

00

95

75

68

63

15

6

12

6

12

6

1

0

114

27

1

2

fil

6?

200
250
118
255

40
103

7

,1

78

35

113

83

80

57

50

201

298

21

111

30

48

4."

20

100
79

2G0

25

0

5 ii

42

104

72

239 1

187
:;io
1 58
206

20
31
12
67

40
2

39
34
28
85

100
1

10
7
8

50

13
0
4
0

18
33

5

8

0

0

190

200

13
5

1
10

13

26

3

12

3
6

1

3
6
2

3
3
1
9

3
4

2

4

1
1
0

1

0

1

0
0
0
0

0
0

63

353
190

212

~9S

....

...

64

0

20

1
16

65

314 1

5

o

14

22

66

100
57
10

1G0
44

114
47

117
84
82

112

2
0

11
0

67

46

50

55

6

5

2

68

7

10

69

0
21

78
28
56
32
0
40

90
16

114

40
71
39
0
86

:"-'

159
5

4

67

0

5

2n

5

20
77
0
46
268
40

0

28

70
21

0
58

CO
44

70

9

7

6

1

6

1

31

27

1

G

1

G

0

0

71

7?

4
49
28
80
17
26
28
45

15
41
36
43

4

15

75

10

172

6

0

32

42

91

4

4

48
24
82
26
28
17
0

20
26
G4
20
6

17

70

7

0

4

15

62

64

111

12

3

6

34

3

0

10

1
22

7

1
4

°

2

2

....

0

0

0
2

4

0
2
1

0
2
4

0
0

1

73

56

71

33
67

44
63

74

32

25

75

80
30

82
52

3

10

1
15

76

8

10

77

86 24

78

176

7

24
94
04
25
35

22

!iu

84
0

50
283
114

64
131

90

173
200

6

64
0
5

50

5

25

G9
19
19
0
14

22

17

2

1

79

53

2

15

0

14

0

7

0

80

81

7
0
0

0
0
0

9
0
0

4

5

0
0
0

,;

7

39
0

25

26

0

10

7
0
0

2
0
0

1
0
0

0
0

0

83

36

0

5

0

04

0
7

10

0

0

40

5

18
10
30

0

0

30

0

9
7
0

0
4
5

0
0

7

§

3

0

83

84
85

86

87

0
09

0

0

0
69

0

0

0

10

30

6

0

7

0

4

15

0

30

0
0

0

0

u
30
G
0
0

6

0
4

7
0

0
13

0

0

88
89

on

0

8

0
0

4
0

9
0

0

0

91

5

11

91

93

15
66

18
80

c

4

04

2

"

4

9

T.

a No

rcpo

rt.

1342

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored

96
97
98

99
100
101
102

103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112

i
113

114

115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126

127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138

139
140
141
142
143

144

State and post-
otlice.

NORTH CAROLINA-

continued.

Franklinton

Goldsboro

Greensboro

....do

Kings Mountain .

Lumberton

Pee Dee

Plymouth ...

Raleigh

do

lleidsville . . .
Salisbury —

do

Warrenton .
Wilmington .

Windsor

Winton

OHIO.

Wilberforce

PENNSYLVANIA.

Lincoln Univer-
sity.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Aiken

Beaufort

....do

Camden

Charleston..

....do

Chester

Columbia . . .

....do

Frogmore...
Greenwood .
Orangeburg.

TENNESSEE.

Jonesboro . . . .

Knoxvillc

....do

Maryville

Memphis

....do

MorristOTvn . . .
Murfreesboro.

Nashville

do

....do

.do

TEXAS.

Austin . ..
Brenham .
Crockett..,
Galveston
Hearne

Marshall.

Name of school.

State Colored Normal School

do

Agricultural and Mechanical College for
the Colored Race.*

Bennett College*

Lincoln Academy

Whitin Normal School

Barrett Collegiate and Industrial Insti-
tute.

State Colored Normal School

Shaw University

St. Augustine's School

City Graded School (colored)

Livingston College

State Colored Normal School

Shiloh Institute

Gregory Normal Institute

Kan kin-Richards Institute

Waters Normal Institute

Wilberforce University .

Lincoln University*

Schoficld Normal and Industrial School .

Beaufort Academy *

Harbison Institute

Browning Industrial Home and School. .

Avery Nomial Institute

WaUingford Academy *

Brainerd Institute

Allen University

Benedict College

Penn Industrial and Normal School

Brewer N< >rmal School

Clatlin University aud Agricultural Col-
lege and Mechanics' Institute.

Warner Institute

Austin High School

Knoxville College

Freedmen's Normal Institute .

Hannibal Medical College

Le Moyne Normal Institute * .
Morristown Normal Academy '

Bradley Academy'1'

Central Tennessee College

Fisk University

s High School

Roger Williams University . . .

Tillol son College

East End High School *

Mary Allen Seminary * ,

Central High School'

Hearne Academy and Normal and In-
dustrial Institute.
Bishop College

* Statistics of 1893-94.

Religions
denomina-
tion.

Nonsect

Meth ....

Cong

Nonsect .
Nonsect .

Nonsect .

Bapt

P.E

A M.E.Z
Nonsect . .

Bapt

Cong

Nonsect . .
Bapt

A. M. E .

Presb.

Nonsect

Presb .
M.E..
Cong .

Presb...
A.M....
Bapt....
Nonsect
Cong . . .
Nonsect

Cong

Nonsect .
U. Presb.
Friends..

Nonsect .

M. E.

M.E....
Cong ...
>. on sect
Bapt....

Cong

Nonsect
Bapt....

B3pt

Teachers.

White.

12
2

9

11

4
10

0 0

1 11

Colored,

2
8
5
2
11
3
2
0
2
2

5
20

3, 10

4

0

14

13 18

0; 11

0 31
8' 12

1 16

0
1

13
2
2;

6: 1 181

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

1343

race, 1S9-1-95— Detail table, Fart I— Continued.

Pupils enrolled.

Students.

Graduates.

Total.

Ele-
lIlrlUal'Y

grades.

Second-
ary
grades.

Colle-
elasses

Clas-
sical
courses

Scien-
tific

courses

English

course.

Nor-
mal
course.

Busi-
ness
course.

Hi jjli
school

course.

Nor-
mal
course.

Colle-

giate

coarse.

o
9

6
75

a

a

to
10

cu

11

a

cd

to

12

6

75

IS

CD
73

g

o
to

11

6

75

15

6
73

a

CD
to

10

73
17

CD

75

a

CD

to
18

CD

19

CD

73

a

CD

to
•20

CD

21

CD

73

a

CD

to
22

CD

73
23

CD

73

a

CD

to
21

CD

73
25

6
73

a

CD

to
26

o"
73

•27

CD

73

s

to
28

CD

73
29

6

73

a

CD

to
30

6
73

31

d

73

!

to
32

140
30
37

97
62
38

50

02

194

79

450

79

50

40

135

35

91

175

107

74
185

;.:;

55
135

73

74
131

59
136
108
342

50
300
146
128
6
223
141
136
157
212
219
110

95

203

0

90

35

179

116

75
26

106

136

43

85

118

168

139

361

G9

51

55

225

75

120

130

19

20

26

1-71

90
31
19

106

5

26

32

73
S5
23
51
27
14
29
60
25
45

77

11

6

21

7

96

79

71

90

3

3

5

17

96

44 10

97

30

92
14

94

7

7

98

5
57
12

20

20
70
54
420
37
43
15
95
25
64

77

0

122

19

3

5

24

14

42

90

12

14
26
18

73
85

99

3

0

4

2

0
0

2
0

7

0
3

1

100

0

17

0

14

0
4

0
3

0
19

0
12

0

7

0
9

0
1

0
0

101

30 22

45 42

59' 90

111' 18

310 30

38 26

37 7

26 25

165 40

50' 10

68 44

10

12

3

0

102
103

30
7

28
5

0

0

3

2

20

30

0

0

0

0

1

1

104
105

0

0

106

16

0

4
0

16
0

5

4
0
8

0
7
5

0

14

8

0
43

5

0

37

8

26
3

2
20

27
1
2

35

0
0

0
0

10
0
3
6

7
0
5

7

3

0

107

0
3
6

0
5

7

108

109

110

:::::

111

91

77

120
62

9

50

23

57

0
5

2
9

11?

63

37

43
167

0

8
0

0

22

4

15

7

9

6

7

8

4
38

0

0
0

0

113
114

149

203

52

95

275
148

77
122

76
118
123
228

61
320
171
125

1
447
149
206
169
327
365
117

98
245
232
122

41

189

25

184

46

40

91

0o

65

52

0

121

101

286

41

298

82

51

O

191
39

131
57
83

176
58

71

185

0

73

22

112

35

196

45

30

158

112

70

50

0

104

120

187

50

300
104

62

1

386

51
187

58
138
283

83

82
216
112

104
29

158

49

1

7

25

44

13

9

33

59

15

7

39

7

10

46

71

3

32

102

5

64

156

43

34

22
18

0
17
13

49

114

7

7

55

117

36

7

29

76

14

3

35

13
12
62
60
0
01
98
19
94
107
82
33

18
29

120

18

12
16

0

0

0

0

49

114

8

1

10

7

0

0

1

9

1

9

115

116

2
1

4

3
2

21

117

65
34

85
99

5
4

20

21

1
4

2

21

118

0

0

10

18

0

0

0

0

119

1?0

8
1
4
0
0
25

0

0
0
5
0
0
19

0

1

7

9

43

o

15

0

20

2

7
43

o

14

o

39
6

4

3

VI

46
0
0
0

17

0

43
0
0
0
6

0

2
0
0
0
15

0

0
0
0

o

10
0

6

9

m

55
15

108

71

14

123

26

1
9

0
0
9

10o

0
9

2

o

8

T>3

!

0
0

2
0
9

•

0

0
0
4

1

0
0
8

0
0
8

124
125

1°6

48

56

1°7

1*>R

18
3

5
3

15

0

5
0

3
3

0
3

0
G4

0
75

13
64

11

50

9
7
0
3

8

8
4
0
6
1

1

0

1°9

0

0

130

1

1

1

1

131

06
31

113
42

13'

:::i::

133

134

36
46

17
9

27
38
43
15

0

14
9

82

1

0

9
8

1

0

105

119

23

3

33

79

1
1

3

7

3

8

2

135

0

0

18
2
5

1

3
9
5

1

136

176
58

91

283
83

88

137

18
0

1
0

3
4

0
0

10
22

1!)
18

1
1

5
1

4

0

0

0

138

0

0

139

140

0

0

120
0

0
0

25

0

141

0

0

0

0

0

0

0
13

0

0
12

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

142
143

19

14

0

0

4

0

0

0

0

0

3

1

144

1344

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored

145
146
147

148
149

150
151
152

153
154
155

150

157
158
159
160

161
162

■State and post-
oflice.

Name of school.

TEXAS— cont'd.

Marshall j Wiley University .

Prairie View ' Prairie View State Normal School*

Waco j Paul Quinn College

VIRGINIA.

Burke ville.
Hampton . .

Lawrenceville

Longtield

Mauassas

Religious
denomina-
tion.

M.E.

A.M.E.

Presb...
Nonsect

Epis

Manchester.

Norfolk

Petersburg .

do

do

Richmond ..
do

Staunton .. .

WEST VIRGINIA.

Farm

Harpers Ferry

Ingleside Seminary

Hampton Normal' and Agricultural In-
stitute.

St. Paul Normal and Industrial School . .

Curry College* Bapt

Manassas Industrial School for Colored Nonsect
Touth.

Public High School, colored Nonsect

Norfolk Mission College U. Presb

Bishop Payne Divinity and Industrial Epis
School.

Peabody School

Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute.

Hartshorn Memorial College

Richmond Theological Seminary

Valley Training School-

"West Virginia Colored Institute.
Storer College

Nonsect . .
Nonsect ..

Bapt

Bapt

Nonsect
Bapt

Teachers.

"White.

Colored

3

13 35

0 0

11
5
2

0

2

f.S

10
4
4

8
14

12

12

9

4

3

- Statistics of 1893-94.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED KACE.

1345

race, 1894-95 — Detail tabic, Part I — Continued.

i'upils enrolled.

Students.

Grades.

Total.

i-:i.

incut ary
grades.

Second-
ary

grades.

Colic

giate

classes

Clas ( Scicn-

sical ' tific
courses courses

English
course.

Nor-
mal

course.

Busi-
ness
course

High

sell, mi]

course.

Nor-
mal
course.

Colle-
giate
course.

"3

9

130
115

GO

0
430

112
52
37

28

248

10

297

142

1

50

19

34
CI

"3

a

10

154

10i>

05

111
377

145
43
40

22

438

0

450
179

96
0

32

44

74

o
"3

o

"3

a

IS

Ph

"3

6

"3

a
PH

6
"3

c3

"3

a

Ph

o
"3

17

5

"3

IS

0

i— i
a

1!)

a
"3

a

20

"3
21

100

"3

a

a

128

o

"3
23

13

©
3

a

24

21

25

S

a

4)

26

6
"3

27

c5

3

S

Ph
28

o

3

29

1

4>
H

a

P4

30

«>

4)
«

31

3

©

3

a

41

PH

32

0

11

30
23

40

0
201

32
42
37

12

225

0

280

25

0

12

59
63
59

50
205

60
38
40

14

397

0

413
31
22

13

70
92

14

69
43

15

33

16

23

145

110

10

16

1

1

4

4

40

• 0
175

78

59

111

112

85

0

0
6

1

26
14

4

2

1

117

175

80

10

0

6

23

0

17

102
1

55
112

85
5
0

7

41

0

37

140

74

0

9fi

0
9

26

14

14fl

0

0

0

0

0

0

41 39

1
78 85

1

149

150

151

o

10

0
1

0

0

0

0

0
28

0
22

0 0

0

0

0

7

11

0

3

2

0

&

0
10

1

0

■I

0

0
8

0

9

10

0

0

11

0

0

152
153

23
0

0

41

0

0

14

0

0
53

°4

151

10

0
15

0

0
2

o

17

o

37

0
297

0
450

o
o

94

0
0

0
0

0

0

0

155

156
157

....

158

50

0

1-.9

9

25
20

20

29
25

10

-

12

15
49

10

9
41

12

15
49

100

0
0

0
0

0
9

0
9

0
0

0
0

25

52

29
65

0

0

0

0

0
6

0
2

161

2

0

16?

ED 95-

-43

1346

EDUCATION

REPOET, 1891-95.

Statistics of schools for ihc education of the

Xame of school.

Students
in pro-
fessional

courses.

Pu

ails re-

Students trained in industrial branches.

industrial
training.

3

u

o

-p

a
o

H

c3
M

o

a

u

fa

O

ft

u
O

tb

H

3

o
'u

tb

.5

'u
o

fa

tb

a
'■£
_d

'3

fa

•—
-

~.

a

-
—

u
o
a

tb

a

"tb
o
fa

3

o

P

ft
o

,4
EC

6

c

o
03

3

tb

0

3

a
E
o
o
.3
M

tb
.9

a
'u

fa

tb

0

'%

a

m

ti

ij

o
o

o

■-,
-t-i

o

6

6

=
fa

a
o

6
•■'oa

o

a
fa

c3

o
H

1

■2 3

4

5

<!

7

8

9

10

11

12

1 *»

u

15

16

17

18

19

'20

1

ALABAMA.

•■

79

15

91

10

170
25

09

2

39
10

4
G

58
7

•>

Central Alabama Academy.

4

■S

State Normal School for
Colored Students.

State Normal and Indus-
trial School.

Burrell School

250

1G9

48

300
279

44

550

448

92

36

75
53
48

200

100

44

200
56

135

6

7

2 16 18

o
0

0
0

7
0

0
0

29
8

0
0

27
0

15
0

g

Hi 0 10

9

3r. 0 35
31

118

22.".

343

10

75

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

135

8 11

10

11
12

Tnskegee Normal and In-
dustrial Institute.

ARKANSAS.

52

0

52

480
0

329
18

809
18

108

38

31

31

22

13

29

16

19

44

93

18

35

G8

n

1 1

12
38
40
15

21

77

12

0

20

12

0

64

24

38
60
27

21

141

24

15

Philander Smith College...
Arkansas Normal College. .

12 o

12

0

38
2

5

0
35

18

0

0

0

15

7

15
5

21

25

20

15

...

17

15

0

64

8
0

0
5

IS

mal Institute.

DELAWARE.

2

0

4

0
12

3

5

0

19

Students.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

Howard University

Normal School, 7th"and 8th

divisions.
High School, 7th and 8th

divisions. a
Way-land Seminary

FLORIDA.

217

34

"-,1

20

21

22

34
4

0
0

34

4

....

23

30

23
30

23
15

15

°3

24
25

26

0

0

0

0
49

20

50
57

15

50
106

35

0

20

0

49

15

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3u
57

20

...

27

Orange Park Normal and
Manual Training School.

State Normal and Indus-
trial College for Colored
Students.

GEORGIA.

28

29
30
31

32
33

34
35
36

37

0

85

85

85

West Broad Street School

Atlanta Baptist Seminary. .

...

...

...

10

0

10

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

0

0

2

1 1 a innioi: Schoolof Theology
Morris Brown College

84

10
0

0

0

32

84

in
32

8

0

0

10

17
240
130
262

25
240
130
272

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

7
37

17

inn

5

125

0

10

0

6

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

5

0 130
6 262

38

0

8

8

trial School

* Statistics of 1893-94.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

1347

colored race, 1894-95— Detail table, Part II.

Chief sources of support.

21

A.M. A

l'n edition's Aid AT. E. Cli.

C3

22

$15, 07G

23

H3 oj

o a

3
O -

Si ©

£§•

o.-S
o a

leg

24

500

© ©

■=> a

©

=-

«M

o o

a

25

n

a

;-.

o

SI'S

en "3

o

2G

"^ d

=
p
o

27

$10,

$451

400

c
h
P.

SI

£ ©

«^

o

28

3

.3

si

© «

n
3
o

a

29

700

$98

03
©

©

O

H

30

$54!)
1,100

7

8

9

10

11

State and I". S.

Amer. Miss. Assn ,

Aiu. Bapt. H. M. S

Amer. Miss. Assn

Ch. and contributions..
State and contributions

3,089

A. M.E. Con. in Ark.
A. B. Homo Miss. S..
Popular collection ..

46, 738

1, 9S5

500

500

6,200

1,000

4, 527

30, 142 $9, 009

$7, 500

I I

4, COO

2, 500 10, 000
32, 698 36, 698

0

5, 000

3, 000

128,617 141,354

1,500

215,000 3,000 9,096 1,250

0

870

350

1, 503

50

7,068

600

1,500

State andU. S

Society of Friends.

U.S.

U.S.
U.S.

150

100

700

3,500

281

5,000
10. 000

1,200!
30, 000
00, 000
26, 000,

20, 700

35, 500

0 13,000 600,000

350

0

300
256

500

350

6, 000 300 ....
0 2,504 2,100

3, 004
3, 000
8, 508'
3, 500'
59, 401

000
700

200, 000 29, 500
0 0

7,987
0

8,500
0

1,294

4,000

11,541

0

3,880
3,400

17, 139
3,500

73, 347

9001 12

1,306
500

13
14

15

6, 300; 16
5, 898 17

4,000

18

57.52S 19
0 20

21
22

23
24
25
26
27

28

29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38

A m. Bapt. H. M.S.

rreedmen's Aid S. M. E. Cli

3,000

1,000

70, 000

30, 000

461

1,800

2,261

A. B. II. M

H. M. S. M. "E. Ch

Am. Miss. Assn .

State and U.S.

J cruel B. Ai and A. B. H. M. S .

Am. Miss. Assn

City

Am. Bapt.H.M. S

Tuition and benevolence

Endowment funds

A.M.E.Cb

W. A. H. M.S. Slater Fund....

Tuit ion and benevolence

Presb. Board Miss, lor I'recd-
nien.

648

5

402

22, 234

0
2,804

150

200

516

75

200

150

2,000

7,548

9, 000

25, 000
19, 300

5, 275
5,000

1,200

50, 000

252, 000

100, 000

0

30,000

1,200; 75,000

2,500 150,000

150 20, 000

120 20, 000

500, 000
0

0

0

2, 800

84
112

286

2.019
0
0

36

455

1,551

357

1, 335
'J. 130
1.312

2, 615

0

1.250

580

8,000

0

0

•J 19
0

io, ooo

6G2

0

4,820

123

2,000

4,000

L6.850

a No report.

303
0

12, 912

94 .^

2,
G,
2

io!

5,

18,

1,

2,

060
525
254
357
335
980
312
645

1348

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored

Name of school.

Students

in pro-
fessional
courses.

Pupils

re-
ar

Students trained in industrial branches.

industrial
training.

u

o

f*

a

0)

"3

u
c-J
M

u
O

a

u
cj

>>
u

"5

cd
P.

6

tb

.5

o
"u

rM

10

fcb

a

a

CO

5
n

fcb

n

a
"a

12

u
o

~a

©
□

o

CD

<C
U

o

_g
13

if

a

u

a

14

u

o

£

P.

o
.a

GO

cc

_a

CJ
CJ

15

c'f.

a

CJ

o

.3

OS

16

B
Ph

17

it

.5
'S

CD

CO

18

a

c
o
O

19

CO

CD

5
U

u

6

20

CD

3

6

a

"3
o
H

3

6
"3

a

CO

"c3
o
H

7

1

2

3

4

5

G

8 9

33

Georgia — continued.

40

Walker Baptist Institute . .
Georgia State Industrial

College.
Dorchester Academy

0

141

30

100

55
0

115

55
141

145

55

41

9 33

24 20

0 70

13

13

13

30 30

49

115

275

2
25

16
30

43

250 35l)

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

■1 I

45

4I>

47

48

41

Allen Normal and Indus-
trial School
Haven Normal Academy a.

ILLINOIS.

»••

...

...

160
30

181
120

341

150

... 20
0 o

0

0

1
0

"6

10
0

"o

6

16
0

136
150

16

15

244
0

fin

|

51

INDIANA.

*>">

r>1

KENTUCKY.

50
43

30
62

80
105

54

State Normal School for
Colored Persons.

t

30 19

62

62

...

15

|

56

50

125

175

57

Christian Bible School

26 n

26

5tf

51

fiO

LOUISIANA.

HI

Gilbert Acad-mv and In-
dustrial College.

..'.

...

...

120

30

150

30

10

5

15

15 ..

fi*>

63

0
36

0
0

0
36

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

°

0

0

64

New Orleans University ...

65

an

72

00
115

155

4P

40
72

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

66

0

0

60

MARYLAND.

Baltimore City Colored

lligh School.
Morgan College

12

6

12

187

3811

fi7

68

9

0

9

0

0

0

n

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

.

0

0

0

fit

Baltimore Normal School
for Training of Colored
Teachers, a

Industrial Home for Col-
ored Girls.

Princess Anne Academy . . .

MISSISSIPPI.

Mount Hcrmon Female Sem-
inary, a

Southern Christian Insti-
tute.

Itust University

1

7n

0
58

112
44

112
102

44

40

0
0

71
72

0

0

0

58

16

0

0

0

•

.

0

6

0

73
74

8

0

8

4
27

0
00

4

87

4

0
16

0

0

„

0

0

0

0

0

11

0
30

i

O :

* Statistics of 1893-94.

EDUCATION OF TD.E COLORED RACE.

1349

race, 1894-95 — Detail tabic, Part II— Continued.

Chiii' sour< ea of support.

o

w •

J 3

o o

GO

«~ 2

C 3
C

o2

13

H

Volumes in library.

Value of grounds, buildings,
furniture, and scientific

apparatus.

ft

O
-

ft*:

t, p

o 2

l.s.

rt o

"S '-

O o

■s >>

o »

PH

3

«i

Amount of State or munici-
pal aid.

'5

+a

a
o

£ .

r— ' 00

> —

o a

CJ o

c — .

t. -*—

B

o

Amount received from pro-
ductive funds.

Amount received from other
sources.

Total income for the year
1894-95.

2 J

2-2

23

24

25

20

27

28

29

S. Col. m. E. Ch

502

55

205

300

300
0

$14, 484
5,000

$25, 000

0
$500

$159

289

$1, 003
11

$6, 304
1,002

£8, 126
1,802

30

Am. 15. 11. M.S

State and U. S

40
41

Benevolence and tuition

Am. M. Assn. and tuition

State

$1,020

150

25

013

500
50

1,800
0

3,452
4,500

24

4 065

19

25, 000
1,000

0
0

0
300

6, 800 43

374 H
611

45

46

F. A. and S.Ed. S. M. E. Ch

500

2.30, 000

1,855

8,515

10 370

47

43

49

State

25

50

51

250

7,000
631

10, 000

132, 656
20, 504

5?

14, 145
1,000

100, 400

0
3,000

3, 265

2, 900

4,071!

1

145

7, 483
5,901

51

Stato and U. S

51

5")

A.M. A

56

i ' n. Christ. Miss. Con

0

450
185
290

0
20, 000
20, 000

3, 425

0

0

190

4,031

4,221

57

City.

58

City

191

191

5<»

60

Church

1,000

40, 000

01

6?

Endowment

E.A., S. K.I.S. M.E.Ch.andS.I'.
IT. S. and State

962
3. 000
2.882
4,500

1 , 000
5,000

727
2,500

200

2. 000

100,000

100. 000

49. 422

125, 000

92, 750

0

480

3,410

4.827
5. 3011

5, 307

8,740

19.048

14, 000

G3

nt

6,000

7,500
0

0

3,200

0 11.518

O'i

A in. Miss. Assn

10, 800

67

City

07

M. E. Ch. endowment

9, 055

50, 000

0

2,800

1, U7

13 156

17, 373

68

'

69

3,500
1,000

6, 500

0

4,900
3,834

11,400
5,000

70

C. S. and K. A. and S. Ed. So. . .

0

14,000

1, 166

71

79

Christian Ch

1,000

1,000
3,000

25, 000
90, 000

0

0

■too

1,631

0

! 9,338

400
10, 909

73

Freedmen's Aid and S. Ed. So.

74

a Xo report.

1350

EDUCATION REPORT, 189-1-95.

Statistics of schools for fhc education of the colored

Name of school.

Students 1
in pro-
fessional
courses.

Pupils re-

Students trained in industrial branches.

industrial
t raining.

3
u

o

is

a
©

u

3

iB

r-t

a

a

3

-

8

a

©

3
o

0

.a

-
.0

o

Ph
11

_a
'3

12

2

Eh

o

©

a

©
©

u

fl
13

To

u

s

11

3
o

o

.S
©

!3

IS

13

fcJD

a

3

a

a

o
o

.a
/.

16

ti;

.2
_a

P-i
17

a

'$

a

tc
IS

75

fcb

i
-

19

1

©

a
u
■**
u
©

.a

+3

o

20

1

6
3

3

"3
H

d
"3
3

o
"3

a
©

3
-*^
o
H

1

2

S

4

5

0

G

75

7
75

Mississippi— continued.
State Colored Normal School

io

70
77

78
71)
80

81
82
83

84
85

80

87
88
89
90
01
92

93

94

95

90

97

98

93
100
101
102

103

104
105
100

1117

Tougaloo University

Alcorn Agricultural and
Mechanical College.

MISSOURI.

4

25

29

158

150

308

30
259

83
37

45

26

80

70

2

3

23

27

21

85

80

105

...

40

20

25

...

80

Hale's College

5

0

5

0
9

20

0
27

22

0
36

42

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0
9

17

0

27

22

0

0

NEW JEP.SEY.

Colored Normal and Indus-
trial School.

NORTH CAROLINA.

0

2

2

6

20

2

0
172

49

49
172

0

0
41

0
23

0
9

0

0

0

0

0
29

0

50

49

0

0
25

0

283

283

283

283

...

State Colored formal School
(Elizabeth City).

State Colored Normal School
( l'ayetteville).«

Albion Academy, Normal
and Industrial School.

Franklinton Christian Col-
lege.

State Colored Normal School
(Franklinton).

State Colored Normal School
(Goldsboro).

5

o

7

80
126

29
103

109
229

53

46
89

25

10
6

2

4

1
3

18

28

...

5

103

ical College for the Col-
ored Race, a

17

131

153

:

118

32

...

...

Barrett Collegiate and In-
dustrial Institute.

State Colored Normal School
(Plymouth).

Shaw University

9

1 C

S

50

35

85

25

2s

20

12

...

,H

0

[llC

100
79

11
13!

2H

218

0

10

100

9

C
. . .

0

2

40
1

0

0

50

0

0

110
55

110
55

0

City Graded School, Colored

15

33

48

4

3

8

21

12

108

109
110
111

112
113

State Colored Normal School
(Salisbury).

20

225

21."

Ran kin -Richards I n s t i -

t ute. a
Waters Normal Institute ..

OHIO.

"Wilberforce University. . .

A
1C

c

. 15

4
21

50

57

107

'.-■-

43

24

5;

44

180

Statistics of 1893-94.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

1351

vine, 1S94-95 — Detail table. Part IT — Continued.

Chief sources of support.

u
0

co •

a ">

13

rt co
<•-. r-t

§.2
° 2

03

b a

c 3

c<

© o>

"3
!>

u

h

.3

CO
CB

1— 1
O

>

Valufe of grounds, buildings,

furniture, and scientitie
apparatus.

0
u

u a

_ :

•** a

z z
P

=> CO

a

a

rj

U

O .

a) r3
~a"a

M^

'="

a

0
S
<

a
0

is

a
3
0
a

<

6

U

a

:.=
c>

13 —
U O

*>£

a-3

3

0

a

u

0
3
0

* .
B -

3 3
0 O
c; CO

Ih

a
0

a

r.

>.

0
A

*-»

u ■

Co
1

a M

0 1-1
0

a

"3

0

H

21

22

23

24

25

2G

27

28

29

30

$1,500

300

25

$10, 000

35,000

2,500

0

$2, 000

$240

$2, 240

75

70

U E Ch

1; 1,1

$300

900

77

78

Am. Miss. Assu

$1, 500

2,500
2, 875

80, COO
102, 500

$103, 575

0
2,321

1,000
70

$5, 679

15,000
11,600

16, 000
19, 670

79

80

81

31

800

500

81, G25

18,000

2,500

00, 000

10,000

65,000

167

1,084

60, 251

R?

State

0

0

200

7,427

83

0

0

0
1,200

84

U. S. and S. Ed. So. of M. E. Ch .
Staii' and private

200

50

500

1,450
3,500

85

5,000

3,000

80

87

Am. Miss. Assn 0

0

3,000

0

152

83

0

0

235

88
89

Citv

31

1,000

0

300

0

900

50
0
0

0
0

50
0
0

400
900

an

Freedmen's 2C. Presb. Cbr

State

11, 150
0

00, 000

0

4,500

91
9:1

93

Presb. l>r. and State

5,000

1,100
219

1,500
300

15, 000

1,500
1, 400

1,500
I. 326

94

11.000

150

320

0

2,770

,:.

6,000
2,000

4,000
0

100 0

1,400 1 820

96

State and Peabodv F

150

1,500

0

150

1,650

97

State

98

1". A. andE. S

•

09

A in. Miss. Assn

100

10

978

200

150

1,000

25J

2,000

111
0

111
195

3.0SO

100

1 . 000

180
3,080

°

15

101

Equations and tuition

8,000

10?,

State

103

Ain. 15. II.M. So *.-. ...

200, 0C0

30,000

0

2, 172

8,497

10,669

104
105

200

3, 000

920

100
700

100

A.M. E Z.Cl'i

3, 500

0

180

110,000
0

6,135

12, 000

1,000 - -

503

0

250

" 0110

200

0

50
200

5,800

0

210
" 300

ti. 500
1,480

510

4, 500

107

State and Peabody F

0

1,480

108

Shiloli Bapt. Assu

109

It ion

0

0

110

1

111

Ain.r.apt. IL M. S

A. M. E. Cb. and State

8,000

5,000

10, 800

200, 000

25, 000

175
12, 500

181
3,500

1,440
8,701)

1,802

27,001)

112
113

<i -\.> report.

1352

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored

Name of school.

Students
in pro-
fessional
courses.

Pupils

re-

(T

Students trainod in industrial tranches.

industrial
training.

3
u
o

a

£
te

o

g

a
o

'rH

ej

o

tin

a

>>
ea

tab

.9

'u

o

c3
5

a

"3
'3

J4

u

o

r- <
d

o

a

©

u

o

H

'Sc

M
O

u
c

ft
o

6
.9

ti
3

s

o
o

02

16

to

.9

la

(5
17

*
tc

a

'■":
o
aj

18

tii
a

o
o
O

19

09

O

U

at

o

20

6
"3

6
3

a

CO

o
H

6
"3

6

a

a

o

"3
O

H

1

2

o
o

4

5

c

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

114

PENNSYLVANIA.

Lincoln University *

SOUTH CAROLINA.

Schofleld Normal and In-
dustrial School.

40

0

40

115

40

20

60

8

20

6

114

20

...

116

117

118

Browning Industrial Homo

and School.
Avery Normal Institute.. -

0
0

75
0

75

0

75
0

25

0

0

119

i?n

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

i°i

36

30

06

36

11

8

0

0

30

30

...

199

Allen University

7

0

7

T>3

28
103

'279
10

50

81

123
169

61

78
184

123

448

71

"6

0
10

10

21
86

0
70

1

7
0

0

70

6

0

50
17

0
7

124

125
l?fi

Penn Industrial and Nor-
mal School.

Brewer Normal School

Claflin University and Ag-
ricultural College and
Mechanics Institute.

TENNESSEE.

0
0

0
0

0
0

0

0
118

0

0
118

0

0
US

0
0

0

0
70

81

123
113

Gl

0

20
22

20

0

0

1?7

19«

Austin High School

v'o

2
0

0
0

2
0

50

0

90
0

140
0

6

0

12
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

!

0
0

0
0

0
0

15
0

108
0

12
0

0

130
131

Frecdmen's Normal Insti-
tute.
Hannibal Medical College..

IT'

Lo Moyue Normal Insti-
tute, a

Morristown Normal Acad-
emy.*

in

I'M

•

135
Iffi

Central Tennessee College.
Fisk University

165
3

0
0

165 59
3 67

83
128

142
195

4

22
52

0

0

0

6

0

0

0

40
22

52
100

3

20

6

137

138

Ko^er Williams University.

22
91

40
84

08
• 175

5

14
91

10
0

44
84

0

0

139

TEXAS.

0

4

4

0

0

n
O

0

1

0

0

140

East End High School a

141

Mary Allen Seminary*

142
143

Central High School'

Hcamo Academy and Nor-
mal and Industrial Insti-
tute.

Bishop College

0

0

0

0
13

52
2

0
12

128
75

0
25

180

77

0
13

1

0

0

0

0
2

2

I

0

0 0

0

1

0

0
4

8
30

0
12

14
75

0

12
31

0
0

1J4

12
5

0
0

12
5

28

16

4

1

k.. .

1

0

115

, Wiley Universitv

14fi

Prairie View State Normal

School a
Paul Quinn College

1

147

1

0
250

60

2

111
191

35

3

111
441

95

2

1

148

VIRGINIA.

Inglosido Seminary

111

104

23

111

149

Hampton Normal and Agri-
cultural Institute.

St. Paul Normal and Indus-
trial School.

46

22

22
12

0
5

1

5

5
2

1

13 6

G

25 100

150
151

b

0

5

2

...

8

12

4

...

Statistics of 1893-94.

a No report.

EDUCATION OV THE COLORED RACE.

1353

race, ■' — Detail table, Part II — Continued.

Chief sources of support.

o

m •

(3(5

.23

0 OS

B.S

1 -r.

tn

v, £

oS

5.

>

u
a

a

3

0

~o

« -

2 ffl

"2 "3
.2

of r2
•s a

p <a

O -11

J-. ® —

u z ~

S3 i

i>

o
u

u a
o o

n

H

O o

a

<

'5
a
S

u
o

- -s

c "r.

o

a

0

2
<l

Amount received from tui-
tion fee i.

Amount received from pro-
ductive funds.

Amount received from other
sources.

u

a

V

k,

<2«

a

•—>
a

o

H

21

•22

-.•::

24

25

2G

27

28

29

30

15,000*5119! nnn

$394, 800

$22, 469
1,000

$11,271
5,000

$33, 740
6,300

114

000

33, 000

$150

$150

115

116

N. Presb.Ch

50
300

500
500

c,666

222

400

2, 800
336

222
400

5,300
1.800

117

M.E. Ch

118

0

25, 000
1,300
10, 000
40, 000
50, 000
5,000

10, 000

8,000

10, 000

100, 000

0

n

0
0

2,500
1,464

110

0 o

1°0

0

1,000

40, 000

350

T>1

A. M. E. Ch

$600 . -

1,050

3,950

5,000

199;

Am. Bapt. H.M. So

1,500
300

200
1,800

50

in

1,000

n n

0

1,000

1,000

1°4

Am. M. Assn. Cong. Ch

0 0

125

U.S., State.SlaterandPeabody
runds, F. A. and S. E. So.

0
60

0

2,000
350

3,000
100

22, 754

500

27, 754
950

126
197

City

305

i,goo

T>K

Church and Miss. Society

New Eng. Y. M ".

13, 000
0

' ()

3,000

500

0

9,500

13, 000

129

no

Donations and tuition

300

1,100

0

80 21 5

80

34

409

131

A.M. A

139,

F. A . and S. Ed. S

877

0, 275

7,152

IT*

134

F. A. So. M . E. Chr

1,087
COO

4, 00,)
:>, 227

110,000
400, 000

5 000 0 4 KR7

247
900

7,000
10, 000

11,914
22,185

135

Am. Mi 83. Assn

25, 000

0

5,285

136

( ' i I v

137

Am. Bapt. H. M. So

10, 000
191

4,000
1,400

138

60, 000

0

0

1,181

0

2,500

3,681

139

140

300
48

50, 000
18,000

1,800
0

1,800

0

298

141

City

0

*J9S

0

°

1f>

Am. Liapt. H.M. So

1,237

113

Am. Bapt, IT. M. So

875
2,000

75, 000

144

F. A. and S. Ed. So. M. E. Ch

145

146

A. M.E.Ch

4,000

5. 000
C. 500

400

400
7, 332

70, 000

3,000
:.72. 000

40, 000

500

1,500

1,500

147

Presb. Church

1 18

U. S

424, 085
*

ii i>

22, 203

07. 477

119,680

149

150

151

ED 95-

-43 =

1354

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-9:..

Statistics of schools for Jhc education of the colored

Name of school.

Students
in pro-
fessional
courses.

Pupils re-
ceiving

industrial
training.

Students trained in industrial branches.

£

o

s

CI

u

W)
u

o

B

u
a

u

a
<o

ci
O

tio

a

-

3

'u

fci

_n

'Eh

V

in

a

s

tic

a

"a
Ph

3
u

o

r— 1

a

CD

S
s>

H

O

H

t'c

a
'Ho
o

3
-
o

?

ft
o

6

g

3

o
cj

ti

g

3

c3

3

©
o
,d
■f.

fci,
.S
_g
'£

Ph

tio

'%■

CJ

fcio

r:

3

o
o

<s

3

=
20

'a

s

C3

o

<d

a

o

cS

o
H

1

o

8

4

5

c

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1C

17

18

19

152
153

Virginia— continued.

Manassas Industrial Scliool

for Colored Youth.
Public High. School, Colored.

0

0

0

37

40

77

37

37

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

40

40

0

154

18
0

240
0

258
0

18
0

240
0

0

0

1B5

Bishop Payne Divinity and
Industrial School.

1

0

10

0

0

o

0

0

0

0

0

0

157

Virginia Normal and Colle-
giate Institute.

Hartshorn Memorial Col-
lege.

Richmond Theological
Seminary.

Valley Training School a. . .

0

148

148

148

11

.__

158

ir.o

50

0

50

ifin

1G1

in?

WEST VIRGINIA.

West Virginia Colored In-
stitute.
Storer College

0
0

0
0

0
0

34

25

44
70

78
95

...

32
12

0
0

0
0

0
0

0

2
0

0
0

0
0

4
5

40

0

a No report.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE.

1355

race, 1894-95— Detail tabic. Part II— Continued.

0

P<

o
u

'3

'3

6

Pi

-a

43

-
a
a

a >o

O S5

2 .°

n 9

9

a

a

o
a

o

*J5 1

>>
u

a

of ^3

li

o

^3 —

o

p£ CO

Chief sources of support.

Z •"

t a
a <a

g a
a o

a a

cc a

1 5.

IS t»

|2

a> a

1

23

5

2 = §

— B *

og

o

».2

§53

oM

° a

m

-» >>

+3

4a

*> 5

43

o<

5;

O— £

P-&

a

a

a w

a

• 1-1

© o

a

2 5ft

a

a

a

a

a-3

3

o "

O

o

o

o

a

a

o

1 — a

a

a

2

a

a

-r^»

>

>

t>

<

<

-3

-3

<

H

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

2!)

30

$3, 180

150

68
1,000

$10, 000

3,000
50, 000

IV

State

153

1". Presh. Church

$2, 004
0

$7, 571
50

$9, 575
450

154

50

200

10, 000

0

0

$400

1S5

156

State

175, 000

$15 000

908

8, 389

24, 297

157

45, 000

$20, 000
60, 000

158

Endowment andAni.B.H.M.S.

5,000

30, 000

0

364

3,814

4,178

159

160

TT.S. and. Slate

0
4,401

500
5,000

25, 000
60, 000

0
30, 000

3,000

750

738

0
2,093

3,000
270

6,750
3,101

161

162

1356 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OF THE BLACKS.1

It hardly seems fitting for you to associate my history and thought with those of
Alexander Hamilton, one of the great men not horn to die. And yet it may not
seem immodest in me to suggest that the great and lowly, the rich and poor, the
white and hlack, tho ex-master and the ex-slave, have this in common, that each in
his own way, and in his own generation, can put forth his highest efforts to serve
humanity in tho way that our country most needs service; in "this all of us can he
equal — in this all can he great. If any of you have the faintest idea that I have
come hero in the capacity of an iustructor along any lino of education I wish you to
part with such an impression at once. My history and opportunity have not fitted
me to he your teacher; the most that I can do is to givo you a few facts out of my
humble experience and leave you to draw your own conclusions.

I was horn a slave on a plantation in Virginia, in 1857 or 1858, I think. My first
memory of life is that of a one-room log cabin with a dirt floor and a hole in the
center that served as a winter home for sweet potatoes, and, wrapped in a few rags
on this dirt floor I spent my nights, and, clad in a single garment, about the planta-
tion I often spent my days. The morning of freedom came, and though a child, I
recall vividly my appearance with that of forty or fifty slaves before the veranda of
tho " big house" to hear read the documents that made us men instead of property.
"With the long prayed for freedom in actual possession, each started out into the
world to find new friends and new homes. My mother decided to locate in West
Virginia, and after many days and nights of weary travel we found ourselves among
the salt furnaces and coal mines of West Virginia. Soon after reaching West Vir-
ginia I began work in the coal mines for tho support of my mother.

AVhile doing this I heard in some way, I do not now remember how, of General
Armstrong's school at Hampton, Va. I heard at the same time, which impressed me
most, that it was a school where a poor boy could work for his education, so far as
his board was concerned. As soon as I heard of Hampton I made up my mind that
in somo way I was going to find my way to that institution. I began at once to save
every nickel I could got hold of. At length, with my own savings and a little help
from my brother and mother, I started for Hampton, although at the time I hardly
knew where Hampton was or how much it would cost to reach the school. After
walking a portion of the distance, traveling in a stage coach and cars the remainder
of the journey, I at length found myself in the city of Richmond, Va. I also found
myself without money, friends, or a place to stay all night. The last cent of my
money had been expended. After walking about the city till midnight, and growing
almost discouraged and quite exhausted, I crept under a sidewalk and slept all that
night. The next morning, as good luck would have it, I found myself near a ship
that was unloading pig iron. I applied to the captain for work, and he gave it, and
I worked on this ship by day and slept under tho sidewalk by night, till I had
earned money enough to continue my way to Hampton, Avhere I soon arrived with a
surplus of 50 cents in my pocket.

I at once found General Armstrong, and told him what 1 had come for, and what
my condition was. In his great hearty way ho said that if I was worth anything
he would givo mo a chance to work my way through that institution. At Hampton
I found buildings, instructors, industries provided by tho generous; in other words,
the chance to work for my education. AVhile at Hampton I resolved, if God permitted
me to finish the course of study, I would enter tho far South, the black belt of the
Gulf States, and give my life in providing as best I could the same kind of chance for
self-help for the youth of my race that I found ready for me when I went to Hamp-
ton, and so in 1881 I left Hampton and went to Tuskegee and started tho Normal
and Industrial Institute in a small church and shanty, with 1 teacher and SO students.

Since then the institution of Tuskegee has grown till we have connected with the
institution 6!i instructors and 800 young men and women, representing 19 States;
and, if I add tho families of our instructors, wo have on our grounds constantly a
population of about 1,000 souls. The students aro about equally divided between
the sexes, and their average is I8i years. In planning the course of training at Tus-
kegee we have steadily tried to keep in view our condition and our needs rather than
pattern our course of study directly after that of a people Avhoso opportunities of
civilization have been far different and far superior to ours. From the first, industrial
or hand training has been made a special feature of our work.

This industrial training, combined with the mental and religious, to my mind has
several emphatic advantages. At first few of the young men and women who came
tons would be able to remain in school during the nine months and pay in cash the
$8 per month charged for board. Through our industries we givo them the chance

•An address delivered by Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskepec (Ala.) Normal and
Industrial Institute, at tho dinner in lionor of Alexander Hamilton, Brooklyn, N. Y., January, 189G.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1357

of working out a portion of their board and the remainder they pay in cash. Wo
find by experience that this institution can furnish labor that has economic value to
the institution and gives the student a chance to learn something from the labor
within itself. For instance, we cultivate by the labor of our students this year about

600 arris of land. This land is not only cultivated in a way to bring in return to our
boarding department, but the farm, including stock raising, dairying, fruitgrowing,
etc., is made a constant object lesson for our students and the people in that section
of the South. A three-story brick building is now going up, and the bricks for this
building are manufactured at our brick yard by students, where we have made
1,500,000 brick this season. The brick masonry, plastering, sawing, sawing of luni-
her, carpenters' work, painting, tinsmithing, in fact everything connected with tho
erection of this building is for permanent use, and the students have tho knowledge
of the trades entering into tho erection of such a building. While the young men
do this, tho girls to a largo extent make, mend and laundry their clothing, and in
that way are taught these industries.

Now, this work is not carried on in a miscellaneous or irregular manner. At the
head of each industrial department we have a competent instructor, so that the stu-
dent is not only learning tho practical work but is taught as well the underlying
principles of each industry. When tho student is through with brick masonry he
not only understands tho trade in a practical way, but also mechanical and archi-
tectural drawing to such an extent that he can become a leader in this industry.
All through the classroom work is dovetailed in the industrial — the chemistry teach-
ing mado to tell on the farm and cooking, the mathematics in the carpentry depart-
ment, the physics in tho blacksmishing and foundrying. Aside from tho advantage
mentioned, the industrial training gives to our students respect and love for labor —
helps them to get rid of the idea so long prevalent in the South that labor with the
hands is rather degrading, and this feeling as to lahor being degrading is not, I
might add, altogether original with the black man of the South. The fact that a
man goes into tho world conscious of tho fact that he has within him the power to
creato a wagon or a house gives him a certain moral backbone and independence in
tho world that he would not possess Avithout it.

While friends of tho North and elsewhere have given us money to pay our teachers
and to buy material which wo could not produce, still very largely by tho labor of
tho students, in the way I have attempted to describe, wo have built up within
about fourteen years a property that is now valued at $225,000; 37 buildings, count-
ing large and small, located on our 1,400 acres of land, all except three of which are
the product of student labor. Tho annual expense of carrying on this work is now
about $70,000 a year. The whole property is deeded to an undenominational board
of trustees, who have control of tho institution. There is no mortgage on any of
the property. Our greatest need is for money to pay for teaching.

What is the object of all this? In everytning done in literary, religious, or indus-
trial training the question kept constantly before all is that the institution exists for
the purpose of training a certain number of picked leaders who will go out and
reach in an effective manner masses by whom wo are surrounded. It is not a prac-
tical nor desirable thing for the North to educate all the negroes in the South, but
it is a perfectly practical and possible thing for the North to help the South edu-
cate the leaders, who in turn will go out and reach the masses and show them how
to lift themselves up. In discussing this subject it is to be borne in mind that 85 per
cent of tho colored people South live practically in the country districts, where they
are difficult to reach except by special effort. In some of the counties in Alabama,
near Tuskegee, the colored outnumber tho whites four and five to one.

In an industrial sense, what is the condition of these masses? Tho first year our
people received their freedom they had nothing on which to live while they grew
their first cotton crop; funds for the first crop were supplied by tho storekeeper or
former master, a debt was created; to secure the indebtedness a lien was given on
tho cotton crop. In this way we got started in tho South what is known as tho
mortgage or crop lien system — a system that has proved a curse to the black and
white man ever since it was instituted. By this system tho farmer is charged a rate
of interest that ranges from 15 to 40 per cent. By this system you will usually find
three-fourths of the people mortgage their crops from year to year, as many deeply
in debt and living in one-roomed cabins on rented land. By this system debts and
extravagances are encouraged, and tho land is impoverished and values fall.

Tho schools in the country districts rarely last over three and ono-half months in
the year, and are usually taught in a church or a wreck of a log cabin or under a
brush arbor. My information is that each child entitled to attend tin1 public schools
in Massachusetts has spent on him each year between $18 and $20. In Alabama
each colored child lias spent on him this year about 71 cents, and the white; children
but a few cents more. Thus far in my remarks I have been performing a rather
ungracious task in stating conditions without suggesting a remedy. What is tho
remedy for the state of things I have attempted to describe?

1358 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

If the colored people got any good out of slavery it was the habit of -work. In
this respect tbo masses of the colored people are different from most races among
Avlioin missionary effort is made, in that tho negro as a race works. You will not
find anything like that high teusion of activity that is maintained here; still tho
negro works, whether the call for labor comes from the rice swamps of the Carolinae,
the cotton plantations of Alabama, or tho sugar cane bottoms of Louisiana, tho
negro is ready to answer it — yes, toil is tho badge of all his tribe, though he may do
bis work in the most shiftless and costly manner, still with him it is labor. I know
you will find a class around railroad stations and corners of streets that loaf, just as
you will find among my people, and we have got some black sheep in our flock, as
there are in all Hocks, but the masses in their humble way are industrious.

The trouble centers here: Through tho operations of the mortgage system, high
rents, the allurements of cheap jewelry and bad whisky, and the gewgaws of life,
the negro is deprived of tbo results of his labor. Unused to self-government,
unused to the responsibility of controlling our own earnings or expenditures, or
even our own children, it could not bo expected that wo could take care of ourselves
in all respects for several generations. The great need of the negro to-day is intel-
ligent, unselfish leadership in his educational and industrial life.

Let me illustrate, and this is no fancy sketch : Ten years ago a young man born in
slavery found his way to the Tuskegeo school. By small cash payments and work
on the farm he finished the course with a good English education and a practical
and theoretical knowledge of farming. Returning to bis country home where five-
sixths of the citizens were black, he still found them mortgaging their crops, living
on rented laud from hand to mouth, and deeply in debt. School had never lasted
longer than three months, and was taught in a wreck of a log cabin by an inferior
teacher. Finding this condition of things, tho young man to whom I have referred
took the three months public school as a starting point. Soon ho organized the older
people into a club that came together every week. In these meetings the young
man instructed as to tho value of owning a home, the evils of mortgaging, and the
importance of educating their children. He taught them how to save money, how
to sacrifice — to live on bread and potatoes until they could get out of debt, begin
buying a home, and stop mortgaging. Through the lessons and influence of these
meetings, the first year of this young man's work these people built up by their
contributions in money and labor a nice frame schoolhouse that replaced the wreck
of a log cabin. The next year this work was continued and those people, out of
their own pockets, added two months to the original threo months' school term.
Month by month has been added to the school term till it now lasts seven months
every year. Already fourteen families within a radius of 10 miles have bought and
are buying homes, a large proportion have ceased to mortgage their crops and are
raising their own food supplies. In the midst of all was the young man educated
at Tuskegee, with a model cottage and a model farm that served as an example and
center of light for the whole community.

My friends, I wish you could have gone with me some days ago to this community
and have seen the complete revolution that has been wrought in their industrial,
educational, and religious life by the work of this one teacher, and I wish you could
have looked with me into their faces and seen them beaming with hope and delight.
I wish you could have gone with me into their cottages, containing now two and
three rooms, through their farms, into their church and Sunday school. Bear in
mind that not a dollar was given these people from the outside with which to make
any of theso changes; they all came about by reason of the fact that they had this
leader, this guide, this Christian, to show them how to utilize the results of their
own labor, to show them how to take the money that had hitherto been scattered
to the wind in mortgaging, high rents, cheap jewelry and whisky, and to concen-
trate in the direction of their own uplifting. My people do not need or ask for
charity to be scattered among them; it is very seldom you ever see a black hand in
any part of this country reached forth for alms. It is not for alms we ask, but for
leaders who will lead and guide and stimulate our people till they can get upon their
own feet. Wherever they have been given a leader, something of the kind I have
described, I have never yet seen a change fail to take place, even in the darkest
community.

In our attempt to elevate the South one other thing must be borne in mind. I do
not know how you find it here, but in Alabama we find it a pretty hard thing to
make a good Christian of a hungry man. I think I have learned that wo might as
well settle down to tho uncompromising fact that our people will grow in proportion
as Ave teach them that the way to have the most of Jesus, and in a permanent form,
is to mix in with their religion some land, cotton, and corn, a house with two or
three rooms, and a little bank account; with these things interwoven with our
religion there will bo a foundation for growth on which we can build for all time.
What I have tried to indicate are some of the lessons that we are disseminating into
every corner of the black belt of the South, through the work of our graduates and

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1359

through the Tuskegee negro conference, that brings together at Tuskegee once a
year 800 of the representatives of the black yeomanry of the South to lay plans, to
get light and encouragement, and thus add the strength of mothers and fathers to
the Btrength of the schoolroom and pulpit. More than anything else Tuskegee is a
great college settlement dropped into the midst of a mass oi* ignorance that is grad-
ually but slowly leavening tho whole lump.

( M' this you can bo sure that it matters not what is said the black man is doing or
is not doing, regardless of entanglements or discouragements, the rank and file of
my race is now giving itself to the acquiring of education, character, and property
in a way that it has never done sinco tho dawn of our freedom. Tho chance that
wo ask is, by your help and encouragement, to be permitted to move on unhindered
and unfettered for a few more years, and with this chance, if the Bible is right and
God is true, there is no power that can permanently stay our progress. Neither
hero nor in any part of the world do people corao into close relations with a race
that is to a large extent empty handed and empty headed. Ono race gets close to
another in proportion as they are drawn in commerce, iu proportion as the one gets
hold of something that the other wants or respects — commerce, we most acknowl-
edge, in the light of history, is tho great forerunner of civilization and peace.

Whatever friction exists between tho black man and white man in the South will
disappear in proportion as tho black man. by reason of his intelligence and skill, can
(•rente something that the white man wants or respects; can make something, instead
of all the dependence being on the other side. Despite all her faults, when it comes
to business pure and simple, tho South presents an opportunity to the negro for busi-
ness that no other section of the country does. Tho negro can sooner conquer South-
ern prejudice iu the civilized world than learu to compete with the North in the
business world. In field, in factory, in the markets, the South presents a better
opportunity for the negro to earn a living than is found in the North. A young man
educated in head, hand, and heart, goes out and starts a brickyard, a blacksmith shop,
a wagon shop, or an industry by which that black boy produces something in the
community that makes tho white man dependent on the black man for something —
produces something that interlocks, knits the commercial relations of tho races
together, to the extent that a black man gets a mortgage on a white man's house
that he can foreclose at will; well, the white man won't drive tho negro away from
the polls when he sees him going up to vote. There are reports to the effect that in
some sections the black man has difficulty in voting and having counted the little
white ballot which he has the privilege of depositing about twice in two years, but
there is a little green ballot that he can vote through the tiller's window three hun-
dred and thirteen days in every year, and no ouo will throw it out or refuse to count
it. The man that has tho property, tho intelligence, the character, is the one that is
going to have tho largest share in controlling tho Government, whether he is white
or black, or whether in the North or South.

It is important that all the privileges of tho law be ours. It is vastly more
important that we be prepared for the exercise of these privileges. Says the great
teacher: "I will draw all men unto me." How? Not by force, not by law, not by
superficial glitter. Following in the tracks of the lowly Nazarine, we shall con-
tinue to work and wait, till by the exercise of tho higher virtues, by the products
of our brain and hands, we make ourselves so valuable, so attractive to the American
nation, that instead of repelling wo shall draw men to us because of our intrinsic
worth. It will be needless to pass a law to compel men to come into contact with a
negro who is educated and has $200,000 to lend. In some respects you already
acknowledge that as a race we are more powerful, have a greater power of attraction,
thau yonr race. It takes 100 per cent of Anglo-Saxon blood to make a white Ameri-
can. The minute that it is proved that a man possesses ono one-hundredth part of
negro blood in his veins it makes him a black man; he falls to our side; we claim
him. The 99 per cent of white blood counts for nothing when weighed beside 1 per
cent of negro blood.

None of us will deny that immediately after freedom we made serious mistakes.
We began at the top. Wo made these mistakes, not because wo were black people,
but because wo were ignorant and inexperienced people. We have spent time and
money attempting to go to Congress and State legislatures that could have better
been spent in becoming the leading real estate dealer or carpenter in our own county.
"We have spent time and money in making political stump speeches and in attending
political conventions that could better have been spent in starting a dairy farm or
truck garden and thus have laid a material foundation, on which we could have stood
and demanded our rights. When a man eats another person's food, weal's another's
clothes, and lives in another's house, it is pretty hard to tell how ho is going to vote
or whether ho votes at all.

Gentlemen of tho club, the practical question that comes home to you. and to mo
as an humble member of an unfortunate race, is, how can we help you iu working
out the great problem that concerns 10,000,000 of my race, and CO, 000,000 of yours.

1360 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

We are here; you riso as wo rise; you fall as wo fall; wo are strong when you are
strong ; you are weak when we are weak ; uo power can separate our destinies. The
negro can afford to ho wronged in this country; the white man can not afford to
wrong him. In the South you can help us to prepare the strong, Christain, unselfish
leaders that shall go among the masses of our people aud show them how to tako
advantage of the magnificent opportunities that surround them. In the North you
can encourage that education among the masses which shall result in throwing wide
open the doors of your offices, stores, shops, and factories in the way that shall giro
our black men and women the opportunity to earn a dollar. * Let it ho said

of all parts of our country that there is no distinction of race or color in the oppor-
tunity to earn an honest living. Throw wide open the doors of industry. "We aro
an humble, patient people ; wo can afford to work and wait. There is plenty of room
at the top. Tho workers up in the atmosphere of goodness, love, patience, forbear-
ance, forgiveness, and industry arc not too many or overcrowded. If others would
bo little, we can bo great; if others bad, we can bo good; if others try to push us
down, we can help to push them up.

Men ask mo if measures like thoso enacted in South Carolina do not hurt and dis-
cotirago. I answer, Nay, nay ; South Carolina and no other State can make a law to
harm the black man in great measure. Men may mako laws to hinder and fetter
tho ballot, but men can not make laws that will bind or retard the growth of
manhood :

Fleecy locks and black complexion

Can not forfeit Nature's claim ;
Skins may differ, but affection

Dwells in white and black the same.

If over there was a people that obeyed the scriptural injunction, "If they smite thee
on one cheek, turn the other also," that people has been the American negro. To right
his wrongs the Russian appeals to dynamite, Americans to rebellion, tho Irishman to
agitation, the Indian to his tomahawk ; but the nogro, the most patient, the most uure-
sentful and law abiding, depends for the righting of his wrongs upon his songs, his
groans, his midnight prayers, and an inherent faith in tho justice of his cause, and if
wo judge the future by the past who may say that the negro is not right? Wo went
into slavery pagans, wocamo out Christians. We went into slavery a piece of prop-
erty, we came out American citizens. Wo went into shivery without a language, we
came out speaking the proud Anglo-Saxon tongue. We went into shivery with the
slave chains clanking about our waists, we came out with tho American ballot in
our hands. Progress, progress is the law of nature ; under God it shall ho our eternal
guiding star.

HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE NEGRO.1

That education is tho strength of our Republic, the source of its prosperity, the
chief guarantee of its perpetuity, needs no discussion here. Is it necessary to defend
in this presence the proposition that higher education, tho work of colleges and uni-
versities, is indispensable to the existence of any education among any people?
What educated nation exists or ever has existed upon the earth without colleges of
higher learning? Did common schools ever mako an intelligent nation? Did com-
mon schools ever exist in any nation excepting as the fruit of higher learning? Should
we ever have had our common-school system but for our colleges?

To ask these questions is to answer them. The intelligence of the old world has
all come down from her universities. Tho brighter civilization of America, with all
her common-school system, has grown out of Harvard and Yale, Brown and Columbia,
and William and Mary, Dartmouth and Williams, each of which was founded before
tho public school. The college is the fountainhcad of all learning, and tho only pos-
sible sourco of supply for all secondary and primary schools of instruction. Tho
colleges aro more. They aro tho only developers of complete manhood. Thero can
bo no well-rounded, thoroughly balanced minds, capable of dealing with principles,
measuring forces, comprehending relations, grasping and handling the great ques-
tions of public life and human leadership, without tho broad culture and thorough
discipline which years of life in college alone can insure. Exceptional cases of
remarkable genius or of abnormal growth do not vitiate this general rule. It has
become an axiom in America, aud our 500 colleges have grown out of it.

Said Dr. Shedd, fifty years ago: "The common information of society is nothing
more nor less than the fine and diffusive radiance of a more substantial and profound
culture. This light penetrating in all directions is like a globe of solid lire. Allthis
general and practical information which distinguishes from a savage (or although
civilized yet. ignorant) state of society — which distinguishes England and the United
States from Africa and South America — did not grow up spontaneously from the earth,

1 An address delirered beforo the American Baptist Home, Mission Society, at Asbury Park, N. J".,
May '20, 1895, by Edward C. Mitchell, D. D., president of Leland I'niversity,Xew Orleans, La.

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1361

is not tho effect of a colder climate or a harder soil. It has been exhaling for centu-
ries from colleges and universities — it lias been distilling for ages from the alembic
of the scholar's brain." The history of the last Gfty years has been accumulating
evidences of this great truth, and all nations have been furnishing illustrations of it.

A new nation has now come upon the stage. Eight millions of i eople have been
thrust info tho center of our civilization. They have been endowed with citizenship,
with all its responsibilities, with all its possibilities for good or evil. They consti-
tute about one-eighth part of onr body politic. Among them is over one-third of tho
Baptist denomination of this country. Shall they he; educated.' Can wo afford to
leave one stono unturned, one agency unemployed, which might lead this mighty
force out of the slough of ignorance and poverty and vice up into the, plane of Chris-
tian manhood and useful citizenship? There can be but ono answer to this question.
1 f wo have any love for our country ; if wo havo any regard for our brethren in Christ
.le>us: if we have any loyalty to our great Baptist brotherhood, ayo can not with-
hold any possible facility for that self-improvement of which, through no fault of
their own, they havo for centuries been deprived.

It goes without saying in this audience that education is what they need — educa-
tion, moral, intellectual, physical. Providentially tho moral education is uot with-
out a substantial basis. Tho spirit of God has not been absent from this people in
their long night of bondage. With all their ignorance and even superstition at times,
none cau doubt tho genuineness of their love to tho Divino Master; and, to this day,
religion among them is a very potent influence, and is very widespread iu its exten-
sion. From the census of 1890 it appears that the proportion of white Baptist com-
municants to tho whole white population of the .South is about 8 per cent (or 1 in
12). while tho proportion of negro Baptist communicants to tho whole negro popu-
lation is 20 per cent (or 1 in 5). Moreover, the moral and religious training of the
negro in tho days of slavery was by no means altogether neglected. They enjoyed

Hue advantages which havo now passed away from them. A largo proportion of
them not only received a religious training from members of white Christian families,
but they were regular attendants upou white churches, and thus intelligently taught
the Word of God. That they no longer enter white churches is athingto beexpected
under present circumstances; nor can it be regretted if only a proper leadership, out
of themselves, can ho raised up for them. It is evident, however, that what they
need in religions things is not so much the spiritual as the intellectual. It is a better
intelligence to guide their religious proclivities which is the onething lackiug in
many localities.

This brings us to the question : What should be tho intellectual training of this
people ?

If negroes are men and women, members of the human family, endowed with
similar capacities and tendencies which appear in other races, theu our question is
already answered by what wo said in tho beginning. If the experience of five hun-
dred years has taught us any wisdom in regard to tho processes of human develop-
ment; if we, in onr American republic, have learned anything in the last two cen-
turies as to what constitutes education, and what means and appliances aro best to
make it effective, then hero and now we have a grand opportunity to employ this
wisdom for tho elevation of a new race. There is nothing for us to do but to put
into operation tho same agencies by which we ourselves have been educated, taking
advantage of all the improvements which modern science has invented, or our past
mistakes havo suggested.

To imagine that the negro can safely do without any of tho institutions or instru-
mentalities which were essential to our own mental advancement is to assume that
tho negro is superior to the whito man in mental capacity. To deprive him of any
of these advantages, which ho is capable of using, would be to defraud ourselves, as
a nation and a Christian church, of all tho added power which his developed manhood
should bring to us. It docs not seem to be necessary in this audience to discuss the
proposition that intelligence is power, and that the only road to intelligence is
through mental discipline conducted under moral influences.

What now have wo been doing for our brother in black to help him in bis life
struggle? The work began somewhat as in the days of our fathers. The John Har-
vards and the Elihn Yales of Pilgrim history found their counterparts iu General
Fiske, Dr. Phillips, Seymour Straight, and Ilolbrook Chamberlain, who founded
colleges, even before it was possible for many to enter upon tho college course, but
with a wise forecast for the need that would eventually como and is now actually
upon us.

A little later, about 1870, the people of the South organized public schools. In
nearly all tho Southern States t he same proportionate provision is made for tho negro
as for the whites, an I this is and must ever ho tho main dependence of tho elevation
of the negro. With all the honor which is due, and which is cheerfully rendered to
Northern benevolence, for tho splendid fonndations of higher learning, it should not
be forgotten that more than ten times as much money has been appropriated by the
South for nesrro education.

1362 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

It is true that this provision is inadequate for hoth races. In about one-third of
the States an average of only four months per annum of instruction is given. This
is not from want of will, hut of means. The poverty of the South is yet very great.
We of the prosperous North can not understand it. If wo did, wo should better
appreciate the pluck and energy and uncomplaining self-sacrifice with which they
adjust themselves to their new conditions and bear their heavy burdens. President
Dreher, of Roanoke College, Virginia, has shown by reliable statistics that with all
tho apparent inferiority of the South in her appointments for education, yet in pro-
portion to her means she is doing even more than the North for this purpose.

But what shall we teach the negro? Shall wo give him anything beyond the three
li's .' By "we,"' of course, is meant, ''wo white folks,'' but Southern whito folks
have long ceased to teach the negro the common branches at all. This work has all
been relegated to negro teachers. Let us take for example Mississippi, which, hith-
erto, has shared with Louisiana the unenviable distinction among States of having
the greatest amount of illiteracy. The State superintendent of public instruction,
Mr. J. R. Preston, wrote for the New York Independent last year, in reply to some
inquiry : "There is not a white teacher in the colored schools of the State," and this
is substantially true of every State of the South. Your Northern friend, who desires
to teach the three P's, might travel from Mason and Dixon's line to the Gulf, and ho
would find every situation preempted. He would have to adopt for himself tho
Shakespearian lamentation, "Othello's occupation's gone.*' Tho only place whero
ho would find primary instruction given by white teachers would be in our own so-
called universities. According to the last report from Washington, the white teachers
of public schools in the South aro in the proportion of 1 to every 42 white pupils,
and the colored teachers of 1 to every 51 colored pupils. The entire public-school
system for the negro is carried on by negro teachers.

And this not only in the lower grades of instruction. Superintendent Preston
informs us that in Mississippi there are over 600 colored teachers who hold first-grade
certificates. Now a first-grade certificate, in most States, means that tho teacher
has passed an examination in algebra, physics, physiology, chemistry, geometry,
Latin, civil government, psychology, pedagogy ; or, in other words, with the excep-
tion of Greek, he is fitted to enter the freshman class in any Southern college. And
Superintendent Preston says: "These teachers aro examined by a white board.
They have just the same questions that the white teachers have. I make them out
and I know. And the board was just to them and gave them all they earned, but it
is not likely to err on tho side of mercy." It is not probable that any Southern State
is behind Mississippi in the proportionate number of its colored teachers. Virginia
reports 700. North Carolina 761, Arkansas 500; Texas has a different method of clas-
sification, but reports 1,900 as "higher than third grade." As regards the kind and
amount of education which Mississipjii's colored people have received, Superintend-
ent Preston says: "The other day I was conducting an institute where there were
19 colored teachers in attendance, and I found that 18 of them were college grad-
uates. I went right over into an adjoining county, and took a white institute with
37 in attendance, and found only about one-fourth were college graduates." By col-
lege graduates normal graduates are doubtless meant, and, in the case of colored
teachers, the normal colleges of our missionary schools.

What, then, I again ask, shall we teach tho negro? The answer seems to be as
plain as the logic of common sense can make it. Let us teach what our colleges and
universities were founded to teach. Let us teach the only thing left for us to teach.
Let us teach the only thing that the negro can not do as well for himself. Let us
teach the thing which the experience of all the ages and the matured judgment of
all true educators has decided to be essential for the full development of manhood.
Let us teach tho negro who he is and what ho is as God made him in his physical
and mental structure. Let us teach him what the world is that God has made for
him, with all its elements and powers and forces. Let us teach him the history of
races and of civilizations, with tho laws of that progress. Let us teach him to
become master of his own tongue by studying its sources in the ancient world and
in classic literature, and master of himself by analyzing the structure and workings
of his own mind. In short, let us give him such glimpses of the whole range of
science as shall tax his powers to the utmost, while it takes tho conceit out of him
and brings him nearer to that supreme discovery of Socrates that he "knows
nothing."

As Commissioner Harris has well said : " Education, intellectual and moral, is the
only means yet discovered that is always sure to help people to help themselves.
It produces that divino discontent which goads on the individual and will
not let him rest."

But has the negro the capacity for mental training? Is that a question to-day?
I am almost ashamed to discuss it in this presence, but my apology is that I have
been requested to do so. It will bear examination from any and every point of view.
It is vital to the whole subject before us. If anybody doubts, he should inform

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1363

himself. If color lias anything to do with intellect, it should appear when the two
colors or races arc brought into contact and competition. The best source of infor-
mation, therefore, is a study of tho negro at school. We have seen, however, that

the common-school teacher is now ruled out of court as an interested party. To find
white teachers wo must go to the colleges. I have recently asked presidents of
fifteen colleges these three questions: ( 1 ) About what proportion of your pupils aro
full-blooded negroes I (~) What difference, if any, have you perceived in the aver-
age ability of full-blooded negroes as compared with those of mixed Mood J (3) What
difference, if any, is manifest between your pupils as a whole in intellectual ability
and those of white schools under similar conditions? The replies to these questions
are befoTO me. The substance of them is this: Not more than one-fifth of all the
pupils are full-blooded negroes. The rest are of all degrees from quadroon to blonde.
In the second place, there is no difference of mental ability (dearly traceable among
them ; if there be any, it is in favor of the full-blooded negro. Thirdly, as compared
white pupils, there is no perceptible difference, Avhen their environments are taken
into account. Of course, there is some difficulty in measuring tin- forceof environments.

This consensus of opinion among Southern educators coincides with my own obser-
vations. Having been a teacher for over thirty years, over twenty of which were
spent in theological schools in tho North and in Europe, I havo now spent ten years
in the South, and in daily contact with so-called negro pupils, and I can truly say
that I find no appreciable difference in original capacity. If they have come from
ignorant districts and dark surroundings, their vocabulary is limited, and their first
exhibitions of intelligence are inferior to those who come from cultivated homes,
though often their greater eagerness to learn counterbalances this disability. We
must not, however, be misled by an assumption that the American negro is merely a
transplanted savage. Two centuries of life in the midst of the foremost civilization
of tho world is a long way from savagery. There were intelligent Christian men
and women in daily contact with the American bondsmen; they were able Christian
ministers, from whose lips they received their doctrine. Though schools were for-
bidden, there were lovely Christian daughters, white angels, who defied the law in
their loving sympathy for the lowly. Lite in many a Southern family was an educa-
tion inferior only to that of their master's children. Only by the intellectual bright-
ness of Southern people, and the Christian character which illuminated Southern
homes, can Ave account for the mental development of thousands of negroes, as they
came out of the war too old to come into our schools, but constituting, nevertheless,
the present influential leaders of the people.

And it must bo in part the memories of those refining influences which are blos-
soming out all over tho South in the neat, attractive homes which these people aro
building for themselves. The Southern negroes are not all living in one-room
cabins, of which wo havo heard much recently. There are better homes than mine
owned by negroes in New ( )rleans. There are plenty of ex-slaves in Louisiana who
are richer than their former masters. There are over 300,000 homes and farms owned
by negroes in the South without encumbrance. Six years ago Southern negroes
were paying taxes on nearly $300,000,000. The whito Baptists of the South had a
church property worth $18,000,000, the accumulation of two hundred years. The
negro Baptists at the same date (twenty-six years out of slavery) had acquired a
church property of over nine millions. There must have beeu an ante bellum civili-
zation behind all this.

Said Rev. A. D. Mayo, at the Mokouk Conference in 1890 : ''It has never been real-
ized by the loyal North what is evident to every intelligent Southern man, what a
prodigious change had been wrought in this people during its years of bondage,
and how, without the schooling of this era, the subsequent elevation of the emanci-
pated slave to a full American citizenship would have been an impossibility.
In that condition he learned the three great elements of civilization more speedily
than they were ever learned before. He learned to work, he acquired tho language
and adopted the religion of the most progressive of peoples. Gifted with a marvel-
on i aptitude for such schooling, he was found in 1865 farther out of the woods of
barbarism than any other people at the end of a thousand years."

The scholastic education of the negro began in earnest only about twenty yearsa^o,
1876 being tho date of the complete inauguration of tins public school system of the
South. This is too short for us to expect great results. The educated generation
are not yet fairly out of school, but there have already appeared some isolated cases
which show signs of promise. In tin; class of 18*8 at Harvard University were two
negroes, one of whom was selected by tho faculty to represent his class on com-
mencement day, as being the foremost scholar among his 250 classmates; the other
was elected by the class for the highest honor in their gift by being made their orator
on class day. The circumstance reflects honor not merely on him, but on the demo-
cratic spirit ((four oldest university, which recognized merit without regard to color.
Boston University has also yielded first honors toanegro. A negro professor of the-
ology at Straight University at New Orleans is a graduate of Vermont University,

1364 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

who afterwards took tlio prize for traveling scholarship from Yale Theological Sem-
inary, and spent a year in Germany upon it. Professor Boweu, of the Gammon
Theological Seminary, delivered at the Atlanta Exposition opening an address which
in classic linish will bear comparison with the test orations of Edward Everett.
The principal of one of onr auxiliaries, Mr. E. N. Smith, a perfect gentleman and
an excellent teacher, is a fnll-hlooded negro, a graduate from Lincoln University and
Newton Theological Institution, and pronounced by Dr. Hovey one of the' best
scholars that have been educated there.

Said President Merrill E. Gates, of Amherst College (The Independent, Dec. 5, 1895) :
" My observation leads me to believe that the proportion of truly successful men,
tried by the highest standards of success, among the colored men who study in our
Northern colleges, is quite as great as is the proportion of successful men among the
whites who have the same, or equally good, opportunities for an education."

We might multiply examples — they are not necessary. There seems to bo nothing
better established than the essential manhood of the negro. Intelligent men of the
South do not question it. Their recent cordial response to our proposal for coopera-
tion is a good illustration of this.

There are two points of importance to which I wish to call your attention before
leaving this subject — one relates to the continued use of our colleges in the South
for giving primary instruction, the other is the relation of industrial training to the
education of the negro.

Wo have seen that the public schools of the South are fairly equal in quality for
both races, and that negro schools are taught by negro teachers. There is a truth
beyond that. In the present deficiency of provision for common-school instruction,
the colored people are ready and willing, with proper encouragement, to supplement
these with schools supported by themselves. There are twelve such institutions
already established in Louisiana. Now, if this be so — if the negro, with the help
of the State, is providing his own primary education, and doing it successfully, what
propriety is there in our continuing to furnish college endowments aud employ col-
lege teachers to do primary work? It is a first principle of true beneficence to do
nothing for any man which he can bo led to do for himself. Certainly we ought not
in any way by rivalry to discourage the work of self-education. It has been well
said by the Hon. J. L. M. Curry : "An educational charity would sadly fail of its pur-
pose if the least impediment were placed in the path of the free school. In so far as
these institutions not under State control impair the efficiency of or divert attend-
ance from the public schools, they are mischievous, for the great mass of children,
white and black, must, more in the future than at present, depend almost exclusively
upon the State schools for the common branches of education."

In the United States statistics of 1893 and 1894 it appears that in the 158 private
schools designed for the secondary and higher education of colored people in the
South, there were 18,595 primary pupils, while only 13,262 belong to the secondary
or high-school class, and 940 were in collegiate classes. As these schools of higher
education arc situated for the most part in larger towns and cities, where the best
provision for public schools is usually made, it is fair to presume that those 18,000
pupils are drawn from the free schools by the attractive name of "college" or "uni-
versity," which veils their low grade of standing, and that these learned faculties of
1,320 professors must be largely engaged in rudimentary instruction. Would it not
be far better for these pupils to set before them the prize of admission to the college,
at least as far as the normal grade, as a motive for excellence in the common schools,
and would it not bo better for the professors to be allowed to confine their work of
instruction to those higher branches for which they are specially fitted?

Of course, the change of policy here recommended would considerably diminish
the show of numbers in our so-called colleges, but it would greatly improve the effi-
ciency and thoroughness of their legitimate work, and directly help and stimulate the
free schools to better attainment. Said Commissioner Harris, in his discussion of
the education of the negro in the Atlantic Monthly for June, 1892: " It is clear from
the above consideration that money expended for the secondary and higher educa-
tion of the negro accomplishes far more for him. It is seed sown where it brings
forth an hundredfold, because each one of the pupils of these higher institutions is
a center of diffusion of superior methods and refining influences among an imitative
and impressible race. State and national aid, as well as private bequests, should
take this direction first. There should be no gift or bequest for common or elemen-
tary instruction. This should be left to the common schools, and all outside aid
should be concentrated on the secondary and higher instruction."

There is an important reason for this wise counsel of Dr. Harris which now presses
itself upon our attention. We have reached a crisis in the progress of negro educa-
tion. The work of the common school now carried on by the people themsidves has
created all over the South a new generation of educated youth, wiser than their
parents, wiser than their ministers, approaching manhood and womanhood, ready
soon to take control of affairs and of public sentiaient. They already know the

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1365

difference between learning and ignorance, between religion and superstition. They
Lave no knowledge of shivery. They are a new generation of free-born people.
Their improvement is phenomenal, but no corresponding improvement has come to
the ministry. Thai the ministry has greatly improved during this twenty years no
one who has visited their chnrches or attended their associations can doubt. Con-
sidering their advantages, they are a very ablo body of men. Some of them rank
among the best preachers of the South. Many of the younger of them have had
more or less training in our colleges. The Richmond, Atlanta, and Gammon theo-
logical seminaries have sent out a small quota. But as yet not a thousand in all the
Sonth have had oven a college education. Nearly the whole educational machinery
thus far has been occupied in supplying the great deninnd for teachers, and the Avhole
force of educated talent has been drawn to the schools.

The fact mentioned a while since that less than 1,000 in the whole South are at
this moment engaged in collegiate study is to bo accounted for not by want of
capacity for higher studies, but for want of motive. Education costs them a great
deal. Nearly every one earns every dollar which ho pays for his learning. With
most it has been a great struggle to reach the point of normal graduation, and then
the best salary for teaching at present available is open to them. Every influence
urges them to stop hero and reap the fruits of their hard-earned attainment. More-
over, the influences around them all tend to discourage higher attainment. Some
have brothers and sisters to educate, and must stay at homo to earn the money.
Others have mothers and fathers who are struggling with poverty and debt, and
who now claim their services to help them out. All their neighbors say, "You
know enough now, since you have been teaching the whole neighborhood." To
break away from all this requires higher incentive and a stronger pressure than
comes to most of them. Meanwhile, the old people and their ministers go on in the
ruts of ignorance and superstition. Tho uneducated ministers (however good and
gifted with natural ability) are unable to keep pace with the young'people in intel-
ligence or to retain their influence over them. A breach is growing. A moral drift
away from religion is beginning to manifest itself. There is danger ahead for which
no adequate provision is in sight. What shall that provision be? Ministers' insti-
tutes? Some helpful suggestions can be doubtless made to the existing ministry by
their educated white brethren. Rut he must have great faith in tho receptive pow-
ers of the average negro who supposes that a mature man can be transformed from
ignorance to erudition by a week or ten days annually of lecturing. Shall we take
them into our colleges? It is too late. They are too old to begin a course of study.
They are ashamed to expose their ignorance. Many have families. Gladly as wo
would help them in their conscious need, and deeply as our hearts are stirred by
their struggle, the problem is insoluble in that direction. The only hope for a min-
istry which will really lead and properly teach tho next generation of the colored
race is through the legitimate methods of education.

How shall this be reached? How shall we bridge this chasm between an educated
people and an ignorant ministry? To meet this crisis wisdom and generalship are
needful. It is our duty as their friends to point out the danger and to provide tho
remedy. The motive which is lacking should be somehow supplied. Six hundred
years ago illiteracy in England well-nigh approached that of the negro American of
to-day. It is said that only five of the twenty-five barons who signed tho Magna
Charta could write their names. Her Christian philanthropists saw tho evil, and
established prizes, denominated "bursaries," "scholarships," and "fellowships," to
stimulate high attainments in study. Tho accumulation of these prizes by tho wise
forecast of our English ancestors really constitutes tho basis of tho universities of
Oxford and Cambridge.

The duty of the hour for us toward our Southern brethren is not only to endow
the colleges which we have established, but to offer to those who by their own exer-
tions have attained tho rank of college students a prize sufficient to enablo and
stimulate them to go on to the full stature of intellectual manhood. Here is an
opportunity for tho use of consecrated wealth. AVho will avail himself of it, as
Daniel Hand has done for the American Missionary Association?

What shall we say, now, about the relation of industrial training to our problem?
Industrial training is good and useful to some persons, if they can afford time to
take it. But in its application to the negro several facts should he clearly understood:

1. It appears not to be generally known in tho North that in the South all trades
and occupations are open to the negro, and always have been. Before the war slaves
were taught mechanics' arts, because they thereby became more profitable to their
masters. And now every village has its negro mechanics, who are patronized both
by white and colored employers, and any who wish to learn the trade can do so.

2. It is a mistake to suppose that industrial educat ion can be wisely applied to the
beginnings of school life. Said the Rev. A. I >. Mayo, than whom no man in America is
better acquainted with the condition and wants of the South: "There are two spe-
cious, un-American notions now masquerading under the taking phrase, " industrial

13 GO EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

education;" First, that it is possible or desirable to train large bodies of youth to
superior industrial skill without a basis of sound elementary education. You can
not polish a brickbat, and you can not make a good workman of a plantation negro
or a white ignoramus until you first wake up his mind, and give him the mental
discipline and knowledge that comes from a good school; * * second, that it

is possible or desirable to train masses of American children on the European idea
that the child will follow the calling of his father. Class education lias no place in
the order of society, and the American people will never accept it in any form. The
industrial training needed in the South must be obtained by the establishment of
special schools of improved housekeeping for girls, with mechanical trainimg for
such boys as desire it. * * And this training should be given impartially to

both races, without regard to the thousand and one theories of what the colored man
can not do."

3. Industrial training is expensive of time and money, as compared with its results
as a civilizer. When you have trained one student you have simply fitted one man
to earn an ordinary living. When you have given a college education to a man with
brains you have sent forth an instrumentality that will affect hundreds or thousands.

Said Chauncey M. Depew, in his address at the tenth convention of the University
of Chicago, in April, 1895: "I acknowledge the position and the usefulness of the
business college, the manual training school, the technological institute, the scien-
tific school, and the schools of mines, medicine, law, and theology. They are of
infinite importance to the youth who has not the money, the time, or the opportunity
to secure a liberal education. They are of equal benefit to the college graduate who
has had a liberal education in training him for his selected pursuit. But the theo-
rists, or rather the practical men who are the architects of their own fortunes, and
who are proclaiming on every occasion that a liberal education is a waste of time
for a business man, and that the boy who starts early and is trained only for his
one pursuit is destined for a larger success, are doing infinite harm to tho ambitious
youth of this country.

''The college, in its four years of discipline, training, teaching, and development,
makes the boy the man. His Latin and his Creek, his rhetoric and his logic, his
science and his philosophy, his mathematics and his history, have little or nothing to
do with law or medicine or theology, and still less to do with manufacturing, or min-
ing, or storekeepiug, or stocks, or grain, or provisions. But they have given to tho
youth, when he has graduated, the command of that superb intelligence with which
Cod has endowed him, by which, for the purpose of a living or a fortune, he grasps
his profession or his business and speedily overtakes the boy who, abandoning
college opportunities, gave his narrow life to the narrowing pursuit of the one thing
by which he expected to earn a living. The college-bred man has an equal opportu-
nity for bread and butter, but beyond that he becomes a citizen of commanding
influence and a leader in every community where he settles."

4. Industrial training is liable to divert attention from the real aim and end of
education, which is manhood. Tho young scholar can not serve two masters. It
requires all the energy there is in a boy to nerve him to the high resolve that in spite
of all difficulties he will patiently discipline himself until he becomes a man. This
is one reason why our northern colleges, which in many cases began as manual-labor
schools, have abandoned it. Ought we to insist on "putting a yoke upon the necks"
of our brethren in black "which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear?"

Finally, experience seems to show that industrial education does not educate, even
in trades.

In the report of the Bureau of Education for 1889-90 is a full statistical table of
the lines of business in which the graduates of 17 colored schools are employed. In
all these schools industrial instruction is given, such as carpentry, tinning, painting,
whip making, plastering, shoemaking, tailoring, blacksmithing, farming, gardening,
etc. ( hit of 1,243 graduates of these schools there are found to be only 12 farmers,
2 mechanics, 1 carpenter. Tho names of the universities are Allen (S. C); Atlanta
(Ga.); Berea (Ky.); Central Tennessee (Tenn.); Clallin (S.C.) ; Fiske (Tenn.) ; Kuox-
ville (Tenn.) ; Livingstone (N. C.) ; New Orleans (La.) ; Paul Quins (Tex.) ; Philander
Smith (Ark.); Roger Williams (Tenn.); Rust (Miss.); Southern, Ncav Orleans, La.;
Straight, New Orleans, La.; Tuskegee (Ala.); Wilberforee (Ohio).

The employments of the graduates were : Teachers, 693 ; ministers, 117; physicians,
163; lawyers, 116; college professors, 27; editors, 5; merchants. 15; farmers, 12; car-
penter, 1; United States Government service, 36; druggists, 5; dentists, 14; book-
keepers, 2; printers, 2; mechanics, 2; butchers, 3; other pursuits, 30,

Tho money appropriated to these schools by the Slater fund from 1884 to 1894 was
$439,98L7&

CHAPTER XXXII.

I ] ! B SLATEE FUXD AKD THE EDUCATION OF THE XE( i BO.

Compiled from Occasional Papers published by the trustees of the John F. Slater fund, Xos. 1 to C.1]

Contents. — I. Difficulties, complications, and limitations connected with the educa-
tion of tbo negro. II. Education of the negroes since 1860. III. Occupations
of tlie negroes. IV. A statistical sketch of the negroes in the United States.
V. Memorial sketches of John F. Slater. VI. Documents relating to the origin
and -work of tbo Slater trustees: (a) Charter from the State of New York;
(&) letter of the founder; (c) letter of the trustees accepting the gift; (d) the
thanks of Congress; (c) by-laws; (/) members of the board; (g) remarks of
President Hayes on the death of Mr. Slater.

DIFFICULTIES, COMPLICATIONS, AND LIMITATIONS CONNECTED WITH

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

[By J. L. il. Curry, LL. D., secretary of the trustees of the John F. Slater fund.]

Civilization certainly, Christianity probably, has encountered no problem which
surpasses in magnitute or complexity the negro problem. For its solution political
remedies, very drastic, have been tried, but have failed utterly. Educational agen-
cies have been very beneficial as a stimulus to self-government and are increasingly
hopeful and worthy of wider application, but they do not cure social diseases, moral
ills. Much has been written of evolution of man, of human society, and history
shows marvelous progress in some races, in some countries, in the bettering of habits
and institutions, but this progress is not found, in any equal degree, in the negro
race in his native land. What has occurred in the United States has been from
external causes. Usually human development has come from voluntary energy, from
self-evolved organizations of higher and higher efficiency, from conditions which are
principally tbe handiwork of man himself. With the negro, whatever progress has
marked his life as a race in this country has come from without. The great ethical
and political revolutions of enlightened nations, through the efforts of successive
generations, have not been seen in his history.

When, on March 4, 1882, our large-hearted and broadminded founder established
this trust, ho had a noble end in view. For mar thirteen years the trustees have
kept the object steadily before them, with varying results. Expectations have not
always been realized. If any want of highest success has attended our efforts, this
is not an uncompanioned experience. As was to have been foreseen, in working
out a novel and great problem, difficulties have arisen. Some are inherent and per-
tain to the education of the negro, however, and by whomsoever undertaken, and
some are peculiar to the trust. Some are remedial. In this, as. iu all other experi-
ments, it is better to ascertain and comprehend the difficulties so as to adopt and
adjust the proper measures for displacing or overcoming them. A general needs to

'Annmmcc mail to the series,— The trustees of the John I\ Slater fund propose to publish from timo
to time papers that relate to the education of tin- eelored rare. These pa pars are designed to furnish
information to those who are Concerned in the administration of schools, and also to those who by
their official stations are called upon to act ox to advise in r< sped to t he care of such insl it utions.

The trustees believe that the experimental period in the education of the blacks is drawing to a
cle e. Certain principles that wen- doubted thirty yeare ago new appear to be generally recognized
and. In the n-'xt thirty years hotter systems « ill undoubtedly prevail, and the aid of the sep-
arate States is likely to be more and more foeely bestowed. There will also be abundanl room for
continued generosity on the part oi individuals and associations. It is to encourage and assist the
workers and the thinkers that these papers will be published.

I'.mIi paper will be the utterance of the writers hose name is attached to it, t ! es disclaiming

in advance all responsibility for the statement of facta and opinions.

1367

1368 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

know the strength and character of the opposing force. A physician can not pre-
scribe intelligently nntil ho knows the condition of his patient.

The income of tho fund is limited in amount, and tho means of accomplishing "the
general object" of tho trust aro indicated in Mr. Slater's letter and conversations
and by 1ho repeatedly declared policy of the board — as teacher training and indus-
trial training. Ho specified "the training of teachers from among tho people re-
quiring to be taught and the 'encouragement of such institutions as are most effectu-
ally useful in promoting this training of teachers." No one, in tho least degree
familiar with the subject, can deny or doubt that tho essential need of the race is a
higher and better qualified class of teachers. Tho fund does not establish nor con-
trol schools, nor appoint teachers. It cooperates with schools established by States,
by religious denominations, and by individuals. Mr. Slater did not purpose "to
bestow charity upon the destitute, to encourage a few exceptional individuals, to
build churches, schoolhouses, or asylums." Aided schools may accept money to carry
out the specific purposes of the trust, but they often have other and prescribed
objects, and hence what the trustees seek is naturally, perhaps unavoidably, sub-
ordinated to what are tho predetermined and unchangeable ends of some of these
schools.

The most obvious hindrance in the way of the education of the negro has so often
been presented and discussed — his origin, history, environments — that it seems super-
fluous to treat it anew. His political status, sudden and unparalleled, complicated
by antecedent condition, excited false hopes and encouraged the notion of reaching
per saltum, without the use of tho agencies of time, labor, industry, discipline, what
tho dominant race had attained after centuries of toil and trial and sacrifice. Edu-
cation, property, habits of thrift and self-control, higher achievements of civiliza-
tion, aro not extemporized nor created by magic or legislation. Behind the Cau-
casian lie centuries of the educating, uplifting influence of civilization, of tho
institutions of family, society, the churches, the state, and tho salutary effects of
1 ciedity. Behind the negro aro centuries of ignorance, barbarism, slavery, super-
stition/idolatry, fetiehism, and tho transmissible consequences of heredity.

Nothing valuable or permanent in human life has been secured without the sub-
stratum of moral character, of religious motive, in the individual, the family, the
community. In this matter the negro should be judged charitably, for his aboriginal
people were not far removed from the savage state, where they knew neither house
nor home and had not enjoyed any religious training. Their condition as slaves
debarred them tho advantage of regular, continuous, systematic instruction. The
negro began his life of freedom and citizenship with natural weaknesses uncorrected,
with loose notions of piety and morality and with strong racial peculiarities and
proclivities, and has not outgrown tho feebleness of tho moral sense which is common
to all primitive races. Ouo religious organization, which has acted with great lib-
erality, and generally with great wisdom, in its missionary and educational work
anions the negroes, says: "Of tho paganism in the South, Dr. Behrends has well
said that tho noto of paganism is its separation of worship from virtue, of religion
from morals. This is the characteristic fact of the religion of tho negro." Tho Plan-
tation Missionary, of this year, a journal edited and published for the improvement
of the "black belt" of Alabama, says, "five millions of negroes aro still illiterate,
and multitudes of them idle, bestial, and degraded, with slight ideas of purity or
thrift." The discipline of virtue, tho incorporation of creed into personal life, is
largely wanting, and hence physical and hysterical demonstrations, excited sensi-
bilities, uncontrolled emotions/transient outbursts of ardor, have beeu confounded
with tho graces of the spirit and of faith based on knowledge. Contradiction, nega-
tion, paradox, and eccentricity aro characteristics of tho ignorant and sui>erstitious,
especially when they concern themselves with religion.

The economic condition is a most serious drawback to mental and moral progress.
Want of thrift, of frugality, of foresight, of skill, of right notions of consumption
and of proper habits of acquiring and holding property, has made the race tho vic-
tim and prey of usurers and extortioners. The negro rarely accumulates, for he
does not keep his savings, nor put them in permanent and secure investments. He
seems to be under little stimulus toward social improvement, or any ambition except
that of being able to live from day to day. "As to poverty, 80 per cent of tho wealth
of the nation is in the North and only 20 per cent in the South. Of this 20 per cent
a very small share, indeed, falls to tho seven millions of negroes, who constitute by
far the poorest element of our American people." (American Missionary, November,
1894, p. 390.) " While it is true that a limited number of the colored people aro becom-
ing well-to-do, it is also equally true that the masses of them have made hut little
advance in acquiring property during their thirty years of freedom. Millions of
them are vet in real poverty and can do little more than simply maintain physical
existence." (Home Missionary Monthly, August, 1894, p. 318.) No trustworthy state-
ment of the property held by negroes is possible, because but few States, in assessing
property, discriminate between the races. In Occasional Papers, No. 4 (see p. 1404) Mr.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 13G9

Gannett, in discussing the tendency of population toward cities, concludes that " the
negro is not fitted, either by nature or education, I'm- those vocations for the pursuit
of which men collect in cities," and that as tho inclinations of tins race "tend to
keep it wedded to the soil, the probabilities aro that the great body of tho negroes
will continue to remain aloof from the cities and cultivate tho soil as heretofore."
The black farm laborers hire to white proprietors, work for wages or on shares, give
a lien on future earnings for food, clothing, shelter, and the means for cultivation of
the crops. The meager remainder, if it exist at all, is squandered in neighboring
stores for whisky, tobacco, and worthless "goods." Thus tho negro in his industrial
progri ss is hindered by his rude and primitive methods of farming, his wastefulness
and improvidence. Tho manner of living almost necessarily begets immorality and
degradation. Mr. Washington, in his useful annual conferences, has emphasized
the need of improved rural abodes and the fatal consequences of crowding a whole
family into one room. Tho report already quoted from ( Home Monthly, p. 22) says :
"On the great plantations (and tho statement might bo much further extended) there
has been bur little progress in thirty years. The majority live in one-room cabins,
tabernacling in them as tenants at will."' Tho poverty, wretchedness, hopelessness
of tho present life aro sometimes in pitiable contrast to the freedom from care and
anxiety, the cheerfulness and frolicsomcness, of ante-bellum days.

Tho average status of tho negro is much misunderstood by some persons. The
incurable tendency of opinion seems to be to exaggerated optimism or pessimism, to
eager expectancy of impossible results or distrust or incredulity as to future prog-
ress. It is not easy to form an accurate judgment of a country, or of its popula-
tion, or to generalize logically, from a Pullman car window, or from snatches of
conversation with a porter or waiter, or from the testimony of one race only, or
from exceptional cases like Bruce, Price, Douglass, Washington, Revels, Payne, Siin-
mons, etc. Individual cases do not demonstrate a geueral or permanent widening of
range of mental possibilities. Thirty years may test and develop instances of per-
sonal success, of individual manhood, but are too short a time to bring a servile race,
as a whole, up to equality with a race which is tho heir of centuries of civilization,
with its uplifting results and accessories. It should bo cheerfully conceded that
some negroes have displayed abilities of a high order and have succeeded in official
and professional life, in pulpit and literature. Tho fewness gives conspicuousuess,
but docs not justify an a priori assumption adverse to future capability of tho race.
Practically, no negro born sinco 1860 was ever a slave. More than a generation has
passed sinco slavery ceased in tho United States. Despite some formidable obsta-
cles, the negroes have been favored beyond any other race known in the history of
mankind. Freedom, citizenship, suffrage, civil and political rights, educational
opportunities and religious privileges, every method and function of civilization,
have been secured ami fostered by Federal and State governments, ecclesiastical
organizations, munificent individual benefactions, and yet the results have not been,
on tho whole, such as to inspire most sanguine expectations, or justify conclusions
of rapid development or of racial equality. In some localities there has been
degeneracy rather than ascent in tho scale of manhood, relapso instead of progress.
The unusual environments should have evolved a higher and more rapid degree of
advancement. Professor Mayo-Smith, who has made an ethnological and sociological
study of tho diverse elements of our population, says: "No one can as yet predict
what position the black race will ultimately take in the population of this country.''
He would bo a bold speculator who ventured, from existing facts, to predict what
would bo tho outcome of our experiment with African citizenship and African
development. Mr. Bryce, tho most philosophical and painstaking of all foreign
students of our institutions, in tho last edition of his great work, says: "There is
no ground for despondency to anyone who remembers how hopeless the extinction of
Bla> ery seemed sixty ov even forty years ago, and who marks the progress which tho
negroes have made sinco their sudden liberation. Still less is there reason for im-
patience, for questions like this have in some countries of the Old World required
ages for their solution. Tho problem which confronts tho South is one of the great
secular problems of the world, presented hero under a form of peculiar difficulty.
And as ilm present differences between the African and the European aro the prod-
uct of thousands of years, during which one race was advancing in the temperate,
and tho other remaining stationary in the torrid zone, so centuries may pass before
their relations as neighbors and fellow-citizens have been duly adjusted." It would
be unjust and illogical to push too far the comparison and deduce inferences unfair
to tho negro, but it is an interesting coincidence that Japan began her entrance into
the family of civilized nations almost contemporaneously with emancipation in tho
United States. In 1858 I witnessed the unique reception by President Buchanan, in
tho east room of the White House, of the commissioners from Japan. With a
rapidity without a precedent, she has taken her place as an equal and independent
nation, and her rulers demand acknowledgment at the highest courts, and her min-
isters are officially tho equals of their colleagues in every diplomatic corps. By

1370 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

i

internal development, without extraneous assistance, Japan Las reached a degree of
self-reliance, of self-control, of social organization, of respectable civilization, far
beyond what our African citizens have attained under physical, civic, and religious
conditions by no means unfavorable. It is true that Japan for a long time had a
separate nationality, while the freedmen have been dependent wards, but the
Oriental nation, without tho great etnieal and pervasivo and ennobling and energiz-
ing inlluenceof Christianity (for the propagandise of the daring Jesuit mission-
aries of the sixteenth century has been eft'aced) has recorded her ascents by monu-
ments of social life and dramatic events in history. Her mental culture and habits
and marvelous military success are witnesses of her progress and power. We have
been accustomed to think of the whole Orient, that " fifty years of Europe were
better than a cycle of Cathay,-' but within a quarter of a century Japan has trans-
formed social usages and manners, arts and manufactures, and in 1889, when we
were celebrating the centennial of our Constitution, she adopted a constitution,
with a limited monarchy and parliamentary institutions.

Much of the aid lavished upon the negro has been misapplied charity and, like
much other almsgiving, hurtful to the recipient. Northern philanthropy, "disas-
trously kind,'' has often responded with liberality to appeals worse than worthless.
Vagabond mendicants have been pampered; schools which were established without
any serious need of them have been helped; public-school systems upon which the
great mass of children, white and colored, must rely for their education have been
underrated and injured, audschools of real merit, and doing good work, which deserve
confidence and contributions have had assistance legitimately their due diverted into
improper channels. Reluctantly and by constraint of conscience this matter is men-
tioned, and this voice of protest and warning raised. Dr. A. D. Mayo, of Boston, an
astute and thoughtful observer, a tried friend of the black man, an eloquent advo-
cate of his elevation, who for fifteen years has traversed the South in the interests
of universal education, than whom no one has a better acquaintance with the schools
of that section, bears cogent and trustworty testimony to which I give my emphatic
endorsement:

"It is high time that our heedless, undiseriminating, all-out-doors habit of giving
money and supplies to the great iuvadiug army of Southern solicitors should come
to an end. Whatever of good has come from it is of the same nature as the habit of
miscellaneous almsgiving which our system of associated charities is everywhere
working to break up. It is high time that we understood that the one agenc}- on
which the negroes and nine-tenths of the white people in the South must rely for
elementary instruction and training is tho American common school. The attempt
to educate 2,000,000 colored and 3,000,000 white American children in tho South by
passing around tho hat in the North; sending driblets of money and barrels of sup-
plies to encourage anybody and everybody to open a little useless private school; to
draw on our Protestant Sunday schools in tho North to build up among these people
the church parochial system of elementary schools which the clergy of these churches
arc denouncing — all this and a great deal more that is still going on among ns, with,
of course, the usual exceptions, has had its day and done its work. The only reliable
method of directly helping the elementary department of Southern education is that
our churches and benevolent people put themselves in touch with the commons hool
authorities in all the dark places, urging even their poorer people to do more, as they
can do more, than at present. The thousand dollars from lloston that keeps alive a
little private or denominational school in a Southern neighborhood, if properly applied,
would give two additional months, better teaching and better housing to ail the
children, and unite their people as in no other way. Let the great Northern schools
in the South established for tho negroes bo reasonably endowed, and worked in coop-
eration with the public-school system of the State, with the idea that in due time
they will all pass into the hands of the Soutlicrn'people, each dependent on its own
constituency for its permanent support. I believe in many instances it would be the
best policy to endow or aid Southern schools that have gro\yi up at home and have
established themselves in the confidence of the people. While more money should
every year be given in the North for Southern education, it should not bo scattered
abroad, but concentrated on strategic points for the uplifting of both races."

After the facts, hard, stubborn, unimpeachable, rcgretable, which have been given,
we may well inquire whether much hasty action has not prevailed in assigning to
the negro an educational position, which ancient and modern history docs not war-
rant. The partition of the continent of Africa by and among European nations can
hardly be ascribed solely to a lust for territorial aggrandizement. The energetic
races of the North begin to realize that tho tropical countries — the food and the
material producing regions of the earth — can not. for all time to come, be left to
the unprogressive, uncivilized colored race, deficient in the qualities necessary to tho
development of the rich resources of the lands they possess. The strong powers seem
unwilling to tolerate the wasting of the resources of the most fertile regions through
the apparent impossibility, by the raco in possession, of acquiring the qualities of

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1371

efficiency "which exist elsewhere. The experiment of the Congo Free State, one of the
richest and most valuable tracts in Africa, established and fostered nnder propitious
circumstances by the King of Belgium, seems likely to be a barren failure and to
prove that African colonization is not a practicable scheme, without State subvention,
or the strong, overmastering hand of some superior race. It requires no superior
insight to discover that human evolution has come from the energy, thrift, discipline,
social and political efficiency of peoples whose power is not the result of varying
circumstances, "of the cosmic order of things which we have no power to control."1
The negro occupies an incongruous position in our country. Under military
necessity slaves were emancipated, and all true Americans accept the jubilant
eulogium of the poet, when ho declares our country

A later Eden planted in the wilds,

With not an inch of earth within its hounds

But if a slave's foot press, it sets him free.

Partisanship and an altruistic sentiment led to favoritism, to civic equality, and
to bringing the negroes, for the first time in their history and without any previous
preparation, "into the rivalry of life on an equal footing of opportunity." The
whole country has suffered in its material development from the hazardous experi-
ment. The South, as a constituent portion of the Union, is a diseased limb on the
body, is largely uncultivated, neglected, unproductive. Farming, with the low
prices of products, yields little remunerative return on labor or money invested,
and, except in narrow localities and where "trucking" obtains, is not improving
agriculturally, or, if so, too slowly and locally to awaken any hopes of early or
great recovery.2 Crippled, disheartened by the presence of a people not much
inferior in numbers, of equal civil rights, and slowly capable of equal mental devel-
opment or of taking on the habits of advanced civilization, the white peoplo of the
South are deprived of any considerable increase of numbers from immigration and
any large demand for small freeholds, and are largely dependent on ignorant, undis-
ciplined, uninventive, inefficient, unambitious labor. Intercourse between tho Slavs
and the tribes of tho Ural-Altaic stock, fusion of ethnic elements, has not resulted in
deterioration, hut has produced au apparently homogeneous people, possessing a
common consciousness. That- the two diverse races now in the South can ever per-
fectly harmonizo while occupying tho same territory no one competent to form an
opinion believes. Mr, Bryco concludes that the negro will stay socially distinct, as
an alien element, unabsorbed and unabsorbable. That the presence in the same
country of two distinctly marked races, having the same rights and privileges, of
unequal capacities of development — one long habitated to servitude, deprived of all
power of initiative, of all high ideal, without patriotism beyond a mere weak
attachment — is a blessing is too absurd a proposition for serious consideration.
Whether the great resources of the South aro not destined, under existing condi-
tions, to remain only partially developed, and whether agriculturo is not doomed to
barrenness of results, aro economic and political questions alien to this discussion.

As trustees of tho Slater fund, wo aro confined to the duty of educating tho lately
emancipated race. In Occasional Papers, No. 3 (see p. 1374), the history of education
sinco 1860, as derived from the most authentic sources, is presented with care and
fullness. " The great work of educating the negroes is carried on mainly by the
public schools of the Southern States, supported by funds raised by public taxation,
and managed and controlled by public school officers. The work is too great to be
attempted by any other agency, unless by tho National Government; the held is too
extensive, the officers too numerous, tho cost too burdensome." (Bureau of Educa-
tion Report, 1891-92, p. 867.) Tho American Congress refused aid, and upon the
impoverished South the burden and tho duty were devolved. Bravely and with
heroic self-sacrifice have they sought to fulfill the obligation.

In tho distribution of public revenues, in tho building of asylums, in provision
for public education, no discrimination has been made agaiust tho colored people.
The law of Georgia of October, 1870, establishing a public school system, expressly
states that both races shall have equal privileges. The school system of Texas,
begun under its present form in 1876, provides " absolutely equal privileges to both

1 Sinco this paper was prepared, Bishop Turner, of Georgia, a colored preacher of intelligence and
respectability, in a letter from Liberia, May 11, 1895, advises the reopening of the African slave trade
and says that, as a result of such enslavement for a term of years by a civilized tare, " millions and
millions of Africans, who are now running around in a state of nudity, fighting, necromancing,
masquerading, and doing everything that God disapproves of, would bo working and benefiting tho
world." Equally curious and absurd is the conclusion of the editor of the Globe Quarterly Review
(July, 1895, .New York), a Northern man, that " nothing but some sort of reenslavement csm make tho
negro work, therefore he must be reenslaved, or driven from the land." Could anything he more sur-
prising than these utterances by a former slave anil by an abolitionist, or sbowmore clearly 'tlio
difficulties, complications, and limitations" which environ the task and t lie duty of "uplifting the
lately emancipated race?"

2 The last assessment of property in Virginia, 1800, shows a decrease of $8,133,374 from last year's
valuation.

1372 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

■white and colored children." In Florida, under the constitution of 1868 and the law
of 1877, both races share equally in the school benefits. Several laws of Arkansas
provide for a school system of equal privileges to both races. Under the school sys-
tem of North Carolina there is no discrimination for or against either race. Tho
school system of Louisiana was fairly started only after the adoption of the consti-
tution of 1879, and equal privileges are granted to white and colored children.
Since 1883 equal privileges are granted in Kentucky. Tho school system of West
Virginia grants equal rights to the two races. The system in Mississippi was put in
operation in 1871 and grants to both races " equal privileges and school facilities."
Tho same exact and liberal justice obtains in Virginia, Alabama, and Tennessee.

In 1893-91 there were 2,702,410 negro children of school age — from 5 to 18 years —
of whom 52.72 per cent, or 1,424,710, were enrolled as pupils. Excluding Maryland,
Kentucky, and Missouri, the receipts from State and local taxation for schools in the
South were $14,397,569. It should bo borne in mind that there aro fewer taxpayers
in the South, in proportion to population generally and to school population espe-
cially, than in any other part of tho United States. In the South Central States
there are only 65.9 adult males to 100 children, while in the Western Division there
aro 156.7. In South Carolina, 37 out of every 100 are of school age; in Montana, only
18 out of 100. Consider also that in tho South a large proportion of the compara-
tively few adults are negroes with a minimum of property. Consider, further, that
tho number of adidt males to each 100 children in New Hampshire, Massachusetts,
and Connecticut is twice as great as in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, and Mississippi. In view of such and other equally surprising facts, it is
a matter of national satisfaction that free education has made such progress in tho
South. (Bureau of Education Report, 1890-91, pp. 5, 19, 21, 24.)

It is lamentable, after all the provision which has been made, that tho schools are
kept open for such a short period, that so many teachers aro incompetent, and that
such a small proportion of persons of school age attend the schools. This does not apply
solely to the colored children or to the Southern States. For the whole country the
average number of days attended is only 89 for each pupil, when the proper school
year should count about 200. AVhilo the enrollment and average attendance havo
increased, "what the people get on an average is about one-half an elementary edu-
cation, and no State is now giving an education in all its schools that is equal to
seven years per inhabitant for the rising generation. Somo States aro giving less
than three years of 200 days each." (Annual Statement of Commissioner of Educa-
tion for 1894, p. 18.) It is an obligation of patriotism to support and improve these
State-managed schools, because they aro among tho best teachers of tho duties of
citizenship and tho most potent agencyr for molding and unifying and bindiiig hete-
rogeneous elements of nationality into compactness, unity, and homogeneity. We
must keep them efficient if wo wish them to retain public confidence.

In No. 3 of Occasional Papers (see page 1379) is described what has been undertaken
and accomplished by different religious denominations. Tho information Avas fur-
nished by themselves, and full credit was given for their patriotic and Christian
work. These schools are of higher grades in name and general purpose and instruc-
tion than the public schools, but unfortunately most of them are handicapped by
high-sounding and deceptive names and impossible course v of study. There aro 25
nominal "universities" and "colleges," which embrace primary, secondary, normal,
and professional grades of instruction. These report, as engaged in "collegiate"
Btudies, about 1,000 students. The work done is in some instances excellent; in
other cases it is as defectivo as one could well imagine it to bo. This misfortune is
not confined to colored schools. Tho last accessible report from the Bureau of Edu-
cation gives 22 schools of theology and 5 each of schools of law and of medicine, and
in the study of law and medicine thero has in the last few years been a rapid increase
of students.

A noticeable feature of the schools organized by religious associations is tho pro-
vision made for industrial education. In tho special colored schools established or
aided by tho State of higher order than the public schools, such as those in Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, manual training is required for both sexes. As few
white schools of the South aro provided with this necessary adjunct of education, it
would be unjust to criticise too severely what is being done along industrial lines in
colored schools. It is rather a matter for rejoicing that the schools have even been
started in this most hopeful direction, and especially' as tholong-wishcd-for industrial
development seems to be dawning on tho South. Whatever may bo our speculative
opinions as to tlio progress and development of which the negro may be ultimately
capable, there can hardly bo a well-grounded opposition to tho opinion that tho
hope for tho race in tho South is to bo found not so much in tho high courses of uni-
versity instruction or in schools of technology as in handicraft instruction. This
instruction, by whatever name called, encourages us in its results to continued and
liberal effort. What such schools as Hampton, the Spelman, Clafiin, Tuskegee, Toug-
aloo, and others have done is the demonstration of the feasibility and the value of

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1373

industrial and mechanical training.1 The general instruction heretofore given in the
schools, it is feared, has been too exclusively intellectual, too little of that kind
which produces intelligent and skilled workmen, and therefore not thoroughly
adapted to racial development nor to fitting for the practical duties of lifo. Per-
haps it has not been philosophical nor practical, but too empirical and illusory iu
fitting a man for "the conditions in 'which ho will bo compelled to earn his livelihood
and unfold his possibilities." The effort has been to fit an adult's clothing to a child,
to take the highest courses of instruction and apply them to untutored minds. Mis-
guided statesmanship and philanthropy have opened '• high schools and universities
and offered courses iii Greek and Latin and Hebrew, in theology and philosophy, to
those who nerd the rudiments of education and instruction in handicraft." This
industrial training is a helpful accompaniment to mental training, and both should
be based on strong moral character. It has been charged that the uegrops have had
too strong an inclination to become preachers or teachers, but this may be in part
due to the fact that their education has bceu ill adjusted to their needs and surround-
ings, and that when the pupils leave school they do so with orft having been prepared
for the competition which awaits them in the struggle for a higher life.

Whatever may be the discouragements and difficulties and however insufficient
may be the school attendance, it is a cheering fact that the schools for the negroes
do not encounter the prejudices which were too common a few years ago. In fact,
there may almost be said to bo coming a time when soon there will bo a sustaining
public opinion. The struggle of man to throw off fetters and rise into true man-
hood and save souls from bondage is a most instructive and thrilling spectacle,
awakening sympathetic enthusiasm on the part of all who love what is noble.
Having gathered testimony from many of the leading colored schools of
the South in answer to these direct questions, "Is there any opposition from the
white race to your work in educating the negroes? If so, does that opposition
imperil person or property?" I group it into a condensed statement:

1. CONGREGATION ALISTS.

Storrs School, Atlanta, says : "There is no aggressive opposition to our work among
the negroes." Fisk University, Nashville: "There is no sjiecial manifestation of
open opposition to our work on the part of the white people; indeed, the better cit-
izens have a good degree of sympathy with our work and take a genuine prido in the
university." Talladega College, Alabama: "I do not know of any opposition from
the white race to our work. * * We have more opposition from the very people

for whom wo are especially laboring than from the other race." By act of incorpora-
tion, February '28, 1880, the college may hold, purchase, dispose of, and convey prop-
erty to such an amount as the business of the college requires, and so long as the
property, real or personal, is used for purposes of education it is exempt from taxa-
tion of any kind. Kuoxville College: "No opposition from the white race disturbs
us." Leach Institute, Savannah, Ga. : " There seems to be here no active opposition
to our work in educating tho negroes." Straight University, New Orleans: "There
is no opposition from tho white race." Ballard Normal School, Macon, Ga. : " We
meet now with no opposition from the whites."

2. METHODISTS.

From Philander Smith College, Little Rock, Ark. : " No opposition that amounts to
anything." Cookman Institute, Jacksonville, Fla. : "There is no active opposition
from the white raos to our work, as far as 1 know." Claflin University, Orangeburg,
S. C. : " 'there is no opposition to it on the part of tho white race." Central Tennes-
see College, Nashville, Tenn. : " On the part of the intelligent whites there is none;
on tho contrary, they bave nearly always spoken well of it and seem to rejoice that
their former slaves and their children are being educated. Having been here over
twenty-seven years, 1 feel quite safe." Bennett College, Greensboro, N. C, gives an
emphatic negative to both questions. New Orleans University: "No opposition
from white people to our work."

3. PRESBYTERIANS.

From Biddlo University, Charlotte, N. C. ; "No opposition from the white race;
on tho contrary, very pleasant neighbors."

1 Principal "Washington, of Tnskegeo Institute, aa the representative of Ilia race, made an address
atthe opening of the great Atlanta Exposition which elicited high commendation from President
Cleveland and. the press of the country. for its practical wisdom and its broad, catholic, and patriotic
sentiments. Tho Negro Building, with its interesting exhibits, shows what progress has been made
by the race in thirty years and excites strong hopes for tin: future. The special work displayed by
tho schools of Hampton and Tuskegeo received honorable recognition from tho jury of awards.

1374 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

4. BAPTISTS.

Bishop College, Marshall, Tex.: "We have experienced opposition from certain
classes of white people to the extent of threats and assaults, yet such have come
from those who were entirely unacquainted with the real work being done, and I
think that now sentiment is changing." Leland University, New Orleans, La.:
" There is not to my knowledge, nor ever has been since I came in 1887, any opposi-
tion from the white race to our work." Spelman Seminary, Atlanta, Ga. : "Wo are
not aware of any opposition from the white race to our work." Shaw University,
Raleigh, N. C. : "It gives us pleasure to say the feeling for our work anion;,' the
whites seems of the kindest nature and everything is helpful." Roger Williams
University, Nashville, Teun. : "No opposition meets us from any sources; on the
contrary we are generally treated with entire courtesy." Selma University, Ala-
bama : "There is no opposition to our work from the white race. So far as I know
they wish us success."

5. NONDENOMINATTOXAL SCHOOLS.

Tnskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Alabama; "I am glad to state that
there is practically no opposition on the part of the whites to our work: on the con-
trary, there are many evidences of their hearty approval." Hampton Normal and
Industrial Institute, Virginia: "This school meets no opposition to the work from
the white race, and, with occasional individual exceptions, has never met any, but
receives for itself and its graduate teachers a great amount of practical sympathy,
and is glad of this and every opportunity to acknowledge it."

CONCLUSIONS.

I. It follows that in addition to thorough and intelligent training in the disci-
pline of character and virtue, there shouid be given rigid and continuous attention to
domestic and social life, to the refinements and comforts and economies of home.

II. Taught in the economies of wise consumption, the race should bo trained to
acquire habits of thrift, of saving earnings, of avoiding wasto, of accumulating
property, of having a stake iu good government, in progressive civilization.

III. Besides the rudiments of a good and useful education there is imperative need
of manual training, of the proper cultivation of those faculties or mental qualities
of observation, of aiming at and reaching a successful end, and of such facility and
skill in tools, in practical industries, as will insure remunerative employment and
give the power which comes from intelligent work.

IV. Clearer and juster ideas of education, moral and intellectual, obtained in
cleaner home life and through respected and capable teachers in schools and churches.
Ultimate and only sure reliance for the education of the race is to be found in the
public schools, organized, controlled, and liberally supported by the State.

V. Between the races occupying the same territory, possessing under the law equal
civil rights and privileges, speculative and unattainable standards should be avoided,
and questions should be met as they arise, not by Utopian and partial solutions, but
by the impartial application of the tests of justice, right, honor, humanity, and
Christianity.

II.

EDUCATION OE THE NEGROES SINCE 1860.
[By J. L. M. Curry. LL. D.. secretary of the trustees of the John F. Slater fund.]

INTRODUCTION.

The purpose of this paper is to put into permanent form a narrative of what has
been done at the South for the education of the negro siuce 1860. The historical and
statistical details may seem dry and uninteresting, but we can understand the sig-
nificance of this unprecedented educational movement only by a study of its begin-
nings and of the difficulties which had to be overcome. The present generation, near
as it is to the genesis of the work, can not appreciate its magnitude, nor the great-
ness of the victory which has been achieved, without a knowledge of the facts which
this recital gives in connected order. The knowledge is needful, also, for a compre-
hension of the future possible scope and land of education to be given to the Afro-
American race. In the field of education we shall be unwise not to reckon with such
forces as custom, physical constitution, heredity, racial characteristics and possibili-
ties, and not to remember that these and other causes may determine the limitations
under which we must act. The education of this peoplo has a far-reaching and com-
plicated connection with their destiny, with our institutions, and possibly with the
Dark Continent, which may asenme an importance akin, if not superior, to what it

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1375

bad centuries ago. The partition of its territory, the international questions which
are springing up, and the effect of contact -with and government by a superior race,
mnst necessarily give an enhanced importance to Africa as a factor in commerce, in
relations of governments, and in civilization. England will soon have an unbroken
lino of territorial possessions from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope. Germany,
France, Portugal, Italy, Spain, possibly Russia, will soon have such footholds in
Africa as, whatever else may occur, will tend to tho development of century-para-
lyzed resources.

' What other superior races have done, and are doing, for tho government and
uplifting of tho inferior races, which, from treaty or conquest, have been placed
under their responsible jurisdiction, may help in the solution of our problem. Italy
had a grand question in its unification; Prussia a graver one in the nationalization
of Germany, taxing tho statesmanship of Stein, Bismarck, and their colaborers;
Great Britain, in the administration of her largo and widely remote colonial depend-
encies with their different races; but our problem has peculiar difficulties which
have not confronted other governments, and therefore demands tho best powers of
philanthropist, sociologist, and statesman.

The emergence of a nation from barbarism to a general diffusion of intelligence
and property, to health in the social and civil relations; tho development of an
inferior race into a high degree of enlightenment; tho overthrow of customs and
institutions which, however indefensible, have their seat in tradition and a course
of long observance; the working out satisfactorily of political, sociological, and
ethical problems — aro all necessarily slow, requiring patient and intelligent study
of tho teachings of history and tho careful application of something more than mere
empirical methods. Civilization, freedom, a pure religion, aro not the speedy out-
come of revolutions and cataclysms any more than has been the structure of the
earth. They aro the slow evolution of orderly and creative causes, tho result of law
and preordained principles.

The educational work described in this paper has been most valuable, but it has
been so far necessarily tentative and local. It has lacked broad and definite general-
ization, aud, in all its phases, comprehensive, philosophical consideration. An aux-
iliary to a thorough study and ultimate better plans, the Slater fund, from time to
time, will have prepared and published papers bearing on different phases of the
negro question.

I. The history of the negro on this continent is full of pathetic and tragic romance,
and of startling, unparalleled incident. The seizure in Africa, the forcible abduc-
tion and cruel exportation, tho coercive enslavement, the subjection to environments
which emasculate a race of all noble aspirations and doom inevitably to hopeless
ignorance and inferiority, living in the midst of enlightenments and noblest civili-
zation and yet forbidden to enjoy tho benefits of which others were partakers, for
four years amid battle and yet, for the most part, having no personal share in the
conflict, by statute and organic law and law of nations held in fetters and inequality,
and then, in tho twinkling of an eye, lifted from bondage to freedom, from slavery
to citizenship, from dependence on others and guardianship to suffrage and eligibility
to office — can bo predicated of no other race. Other peoples, after long and weary
years of discipline and struggle against heaviest odds, have won liberty and free
government. This race, almost without lifting a hand, unappreciative of the boon
except in the lowest aspects of it, and unprepared for privileges and responsibilities,
has been lifted to a plane of citizenship and freedom, such as is enjoyed, in an equal
degree, by no people in the world outside of tho United States.

Common schools in all governments have been a slow growth, reluctantly conceded,
grudgingly supported, and perfected after many experiments and failures and with
heavy pecuniary cost. Within a few years after emancipation, free and universal
education has been provided for the negro, without cost to himself, and chiefly by
the self-imposed taxes of those who, a few years before, claimed his labor and time
without direct wage or pecuniary compensation.

II. Slavery, recognized by the then international law and the connivance and pat-
ronage of European sovereigns, existed in all the colonies prior to the Declaration
of Independence, and was reeu forced by importation of negroes from Africa. In
course of time it was confined to the Southern States, and the negroes increased in
numbers at a more rapid rate than did the whites, even after the slave trade was
abolished and declared piracy.

For a long time there was no general exclusion by law of the slaves from thopriv
ileges of education. The first prohibitory and punitive laws were directed against
unlawful assemblages of negroes, and subsequently of free negroes and mulattoes,
as their influence in exciting discontent or insurrection was deprecated aud guarded
against. Afterwards legislation became more general in the South, prohibiting
meetings for teaching reading and writing. The Nat Turner insurrection in South-
ampton County, Ya., in 1831, awakened tho Southern States to a consciousness of the
perils which might environ or destroy them from combinations of excited, inflamed,
and ill-advised negroes.

1376 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

As documents and newspapers tending to inflame discontent and insurrection were
supposed to have been the immediate provocation to this conspiracy for murder of
whites and for freedom of the blacks, jaws were passed against publishing and cir-
culating such documents among the colored population, and strengthening the pro-
hibitions and penalties against education.

Severe and general as were these laws they rarely applied, and were seldom, if
ever, enforced against teaching of individuals or of groups on plantations or at the
homes of the owners. It was often true that the mistress of a household or her
children would teach the house servants, and on Sundays include a larger number.
There wero also Sunday schools in which black children were taught to read, notably
the school in which Stonewall Jackson was a leader. It is pleasant to find recorded
in the memoir of Dr. Boyco, a trustee of this fund from its origin until his death,
that as an editor, a preacher, and a citizen he was deeply interested in the moral
and religions instruction of the negroes.

After a most liberal estimate for the efforts made to teach the negroes, still the fact
exists that as a people they were wholly uneducated in schools. Slavery doomed
tho millions to ignorance, and in this condition they were when the war began.

III. Almost synchronously with the earliest occupation of any portion of the
seceding States by tho Union army efforts wero begun to givo the negroes some
schooling. In September, 1861, under the guns of Fortress Monroe, a school was
opened for the "contrabands of war." In 1862 schools were extended to Washing-
ton, Portsmouth, Norfolk, and Newport News, and afterwards to tho Port Royal
islands on tho coast of South Carolina, to Newborn and Roanoke Island in North
Carolina. Tho proclamation of emancipation, January 1, 1863, gave freedom to all
slaves reached by the armies, increased tho refugees, and awakened a fervor of reli-
gious and philanthropic enthusiasm for meeting the physical, moral, and intellectual
wants of those suddenly thrown upon charity. In October, 1863, General Banks,
then commanding the Department of the Gulf, created commissioners of enrollment,
who established the first public schools for Louisiana. Seven w7ere soon in opera-
tion, with 23 teachers and an average attendance of 1,422 scholars. On March 22,
1864, he issued General Order No. 38, which constituted a board of education "for
tho rudimental instruction of tho freedmen" in the department, so as to "place
within their reach the elements of knowledge."

Tho board was ordered to establish common schools, to employ teachers, to acquire
school sites, to erect school buildings where no proper or available ones for school
purposes existed, to purchase and provide necessary books, stationery, apparatus,
and a well-selected library, to regulate the course of studies, and "to have the
authority and perform the same duties that assessors, supervisors, and trustees had
in tho Northern States in the matter of establishing and conducting common schools."
For the performance of the duties enjoined the board was empowered to "assess
and levy a school tax upon real and personal property, including crops of planta-
tions." These taxes were to bo sufficient to defray expense and cost of establishing,
furnishing, and conducting the schools for the period of ono year. When tho tax
list and schedules should be placed in the hands of the parish provost-marshal he
was to collect and pay over within thirty days to the school board. Schools pre-
viously established wero transferred to this board; others wero opened, and in
December, 1864, they reported under their supervision 95 schools, 162 teachers, and
9,571 scholars. This system continued until December. 1865, when tho power to levy
the tax was suspended. An official report of later date says: "In this sad, juncture
the freedmen expressed a willingness to endure and even petitioned for increased
taxation in order that means for supporting their schools might be obtained."

On December 17, 1862, Col. John Eaton was ordered by General Grant to assume a
general supervision of freedmen in tho Department of Tennessee and Arkansas. In
the early autumn of that year schools had been established, and they wero multiplied
during 1863 aud 1864. In the absence of responsibility and supervision there grew
tip abuses and complaints. By some "parties engaged in tho work" of education
"exorbitant charges were made for tuition," and agents and teachers, "instead of
making common cause for the good of those they came to benefit, set about detract-
ing, perplexing, and vexing each other." "Parties and conflicts had arisen."
" Frauds had appeared in not a few instances — evil-minded, irresponsible, or incom-
petent persons imposing upon those not prepared to defeat or check them." "Bad
faith to fair promises had deprived the colored people of their just dues."1

On September 26, 1864, the Secretary of War, through Adjutant-General Thomas,
issued Order No. 28, in which ho said: "To prevent confusion and embarrassment
the general superintendent of freedmen will designate officers, subject to his orders,
as superintendents of colored schools, through whom he will arrange the location of
all schools, teachers, occupation of houses, and other details pertaining to the educa-
tion of the freedmen." In accordance with this order Colonel Eaton removed his

'See report of Chaplain "Warren, 1804, relating to colored schools.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1377

headquarters from Vicksburg to Memphis. On October 20, 1864, ho issued sixteen
rules and regulations for the guidance of superintendents and teachers of colored
schools in his supervision. These instructions to subordinates were wise and pro-
vided for the opening of a sufficient number of schools, for the payment of tuition
fees from 25 cents to $1.25 per month for each scholar, according to the ability of the
parents; for the admission free of those who could not pay and the furnishing of
clothing by the aid of industrial schools, for the government of teachers in connec-
tion with the societies neediug them, etc. The " industrial schools" were schools in
which sewing was taught, and in which a largo quantity of tho clothing and mate-
rial sent from the North was made over or made up for freedmen's use, and were
highly •• useful in promoting industrious habits audin teaching useful arts of house-
wifery." Tho supervision under such a competent head caused great improvement
in tho work, but department efforts were hindered by some representatives of the
benevolent societies who did not heartily welcome the more orderly military super-
vision. An assistant superintendent, March 31, 1865, reports, in and around Vicks-
burg and Natchez, 30 schools, 60 teachers, and 4,393 pupils enrolled; in Memphis,
1,590 pupils, and in the entire supervision, 7,360 in attendance.

General Eaton submitted a report of his laborious work, which is full of valuable
information. Naturally, some abatement must be made from conclusions which
were based on the wild statements of excited freedmen, or the false statements of
interested persons. "Instinct of unlettered reason " caused a hegira of the blacks to
camps of the Union army, or within protected territory. The "negro population
floated or was kicked about at will." Strict supervision became urgent to secure
"contraband information" and service and protect the ignorant, deluded people
from unscrupulous harpies. "Mental and moral enlightenment" was to be striven
for, even in those troublous times, and it was fortunate that so capable and faithful
an officer as General Eaton was in authority.

All the operations of the supervisors of schools did not give satisfaction, for the
inspector of schools in South Carolina and Georgia, on October 13, 1865, says : " The
bureau does not receive that aid from the Government and Government officials it
had a right to expect, and really from the course of the military officials in this
department you might think that the only enemies to the Government are the agents
of the bureau."

IV. By act of Congress, March 3, 1865, the Freedmen's Bureau was created. The
scope of its jurisdiction and work extended far beyond education. It embraced aban-
doned lands and the supply of the negroes with food and clothing, and during 1865
as many as 148,000 were reported as receiving rations. The Quartermaster and Com-
missary Departments were placed at the service of the agents of the bureau, and, in
addition to freedom, largesses were lavishly given to "reach the great and impera-
tive necessities of the situation." Large and comprehensive powers and resources
were placed in the hands of the bureau, and limitations of the authority of the Gov-
ernment were disregarded in order to meet the gravest problem of the century.
Millions of recently enslaved negroes, homeless, penniless, ignorant, were to be saved
from destitution or perishing, to be prepared for the sudden boon of political equal-
ity, to be made self-supporting citizens and to prevent their freedom from becoming
a curse to themselves and their liberators. The commissioner was authorized "to
seize, hold, use, lease, or sell all buildings and tenements and any lands appertain-
ing to the same, or otherwise formally held, under color of title by the late Confed-
erate States, and buildings or lands held in trust for the same, and to use the same,
or appropriate the proceeds derived therefrom to the education of the freed people."
He was empowered also to "cooperate with private benevolent associations in aid of
the freedmen." The bureau was attached to the War Department, and was at first
limited in duration to one year, but was afterwards prolonged. Gen. O. O. Howard
was appointed commissioner, with assistants. He says he was invested with "almost
unlimited authority," and that, the act and orders gave "great scope and liberty of
action." "Legislative, judicial, and executive powers were combined, reaching all
the interests of the freedmen." On June 2, 1865, the President ordered all officers of
the United States to turn over to the bureau "all property, funds, lands, and records
in anyway connected with freedmen and refugees." This bestowment of despotic
power was not considered unwise because of the peculiar exigencies of the times and
the condition of the freedmen, who, being suddenly emancipated by a dynamic pro-
cess, were without schools, or teachers, or means to procure them. To organize the
work a superintendent of schools was appointed for each State. Besides the reg-
ular appropriation by Congress the military authorities aided the bureau. Trans-
portation was furnished to teachers, books^ and school furniture, and material aid
was given to all engaged in education.

General Howard used his large powers to get into his custody the funds scat-
tered in the hands of many officers, which could be made available for the freed-
men. Funds bearing different names were contributed to the work of "colored

ed 95 44

1378 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-95.

education."1 During the war some of the States sent money to officers serving in the
South to buy substitutes from among the colored people to fill up their quota under
the draft. A portion of the bounty money thus sent, by an order of General B. F.
Butler, August 4, 1864, was retained in the hands of officers who had been superin-
tendents of negro affairs, and by the President's order of June 2, 1865, was turned
over to the disbursing officers of the Bureau of Freedmeu. After the organization
of the bureau, General Howard instructed agents to turn money held by them over
to the chief disbursing officer of the bureau. This was in no sense public money,
but belonged to individuals enlisted as contraband recruits to fill the State quotas.
What was unclaimed of what was held in trust under General Butler's order was
used for educational purposes.

In tho early part of 1867 the accounting officers of the Treasury Department ascer-
tained that numerous frauds were being perpetrated on colored claimants for boun-
ties under acts of Congress. Advising with General Howard, the Treasury officials
drew a bill which Congress enacted into <a law, devolving upon the commissioner
tho payment of bounties to colored soldiers and sailors. This enlarged responsi-
bility gave much labor to General Howard, in his already multifarious and difficult
duties, and made more honorable the acquittal which ho secured when an official
investigation was subsequently ordered upon his administration of the affairs of the
bureau.

Tho act of Congress of July 16, 1866, gave a local fund, which was expended in
the district in which it accrued, and besides there were general appropriations for
tbe support of the bureau, -which were in part available for schools.

Mr. Ingle, writing of school affairs in tho District in 1867 and 1868, says:

" Great aid was given at this period by the Freedmen's Bureau, which, uot limit-
ing its assistance to schools for primary instruction, did much toward establishing
Howard University, in which no distinction was made on account of race, color, or
sex, though it had originally been intended for the education of negro men alone."

The monograph of Edward Ingle on ''The negro in the District of Columbia,"
one of the valuable Johns Hopkins University studies, gives such a full and easily
accessible account of the education of the negroes in the District, that it is needless
to enlarge the pages of this paper by a repetition of what ho has so satisfactorily done.

Tbe bureau found many schools in localities which had been within tho lines of the
Union armies, and these, with the others established by its agency, were placed
under more systematic supervision. In some States schools were.carried on entirely
by aid of the funds of the bureau, but it had the cooperation and assistance of vari-
ous religious and benevolent societies. On July 1, 1866, Mr. Alvord, inspector of
schools and finances, reported 975 schools in 15 States and tho District, 1,405 teachers,
and 90,778 scholars. He mentioned as worthy of note a change of sentiment among
better classes in regard to freedmen's schools, and that the schools were steadily
gaining in numbers, attainments, and general influence. On January 17, 1867, Gen-
eral Howard reports to the Secretary of War $115,261.56 as used for schools, and the
Quartermaster's Department as still rendering valuable helj). Education "was
carried on vigorously during the year," a bettter feeling prevailing, and 150,000
freedmen and children "occupied earnestly in tho study of books." The taxes, which
had been levied for schools in Louisiana, under the administration of T. W. Conway,
had been discontinued, but $500,000 were asked for schools and asylums. In 1867
the Government appointed Generals Steedman and Fullerton as inspectors, and from
General Howard's vehement reply to their report — which the War Departmentdeclines
to permit an inspection of — it appears that their criticisms were decidedly unfavor-
able. Civilians in tho bureau were noAV displaced by army officers. In July, 1869,
Mr. Alvord mentions decided progress in educational returns, increasing thirst for
knowledge, greater public favor, and the establishment of 39 training schools for
teachers, with 3,377 pupils. Four months later General Howard says, "hostility to
schools and teachers has in great measure ceased." Ho reported tho cost of tho
bureau at $13,029,816, and earnestly recommended "tbe national legislature" to
establish a general system of free schools, "furnishing to all children of a suitable
age such instruction in the rudiments of learning as would Jit them to discharge
intelligently tho duties of free American citizens." Solicitor Whiting had previously
recommended that the head of the Freedmen's Bureau should be a Cabinet officer,
but this was not granted, and the bureau was finally discontinued, its affairs being
transferred to the War Department by act of Congress, June 10, 1872. It is apparent
from the reports of Spraguo, assistant commissioner in Florida, and of Alvord in
1867 and 1870, that the agents of the bureau sometimes used their official position
and influence for organizing the freedmen for party politics and to control elections.
A full history of tho Freedmen's Bureau would furnish an interesting chapter in
negro education, but a report from Inspector Shriver, on October 3, 1873, says the
department has "no means of verifying the amount of retained bounty fund;" and

1 See Spec. Ed. Rep.. District of Columbia, p. 259.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1379

on December I, 1873, tho department complains of "the incomplete and disordered
condition of the records of tho late bureau." (Seo Ex. Doc. No. 10, Forty-third Con-
gress, first session, and House Mis. Doc. No. ST. Forty-second Congress, third session.)
= That no injustice may be done to anyone, the answer of tho ''Record and Tension
Offieo, War Department."' .May 21, 1894, to my application for statistics drawn from
the records, is embodied in this paper. So far as tho writer has been able to inves-
tigate, no equally full and official account has heretofore been given.

Tho following consolidated statement, prepared from records of superintendents
of education of tho Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, shows
the number of schools, teachers, and pupils in each State, under control of said
bureau, and tho amount expended for schools, asylums, construction and rental of
school buildings, transportation of teachers, purchase of books, etc. :

Tear.

Schools.

1865-66

1867...

1868...
1869...
1870...

1, 264
1,673
1,739
1,942
1,900

Teachers.

1,795

2,032
2,104
2,472
2,376

Pupils.

111,193
109, 245
102, 562
108, 485
108, 135

Expended

by

bureau.

$225, 722. 94
415,330.00
909, 210. 20
591, 267. 56
480, 737. 82

Received

from
freedmen.

$18, 500. 00
17, 200. 00
42, 130. 00
85, 726. 00
17, 187. 00

Received
from benev-
olent asso-
ciations.

$83, 200. 00
65, 087. 00

154, 736. 50

27, 200. 00

4, 240. 00

"This statement or statistical table is made up from the reports of the superin-
tendents of education of the several States under tho control of tho bureau from
1865 to 1870, when Government aid to tho freedmen's schools was withdrawn. It
embraces the number of schools established or maintained, the number of teachers
employed, the number of pupils, and tho amount expended for school purposes in
each St ate and the District of Columbia. The expenditures also include the amounts
contributed by the bureau for the construction aud maintenance of asylums for the
freedmen, which can not bo separated from the totals given.

"Tho table is based upon the reports of the school superintendents, and has been
prepared with great care. The results thus obtained, however, differ in some mate-
rial respects from tho figures given by the commissioner of tho Freedmen's Bureau
in his annual reports. These discrepancies, which this department is unable to
reconcile or explain, will be seen by a comparison of the table with the following
statement made" from the reports of the commissioner:

Tear.

1866
1867
1868
1869
1870

Schools.

975
1,839
1,831
2,118
2,677

Teachers

1,405
2,087
2,295
2,455
3,300

Pupils.

90, 778
111,442
104, 327
114, 522
149, 581

Disbursements for school purposes.

By benovo-
By bureau, lent associ-
ations.

$123, 659. 39
531,345.48
965, 896. 67
924, 182. 16
976, 853. 29

$82, 200. 00
65, 087, 01

By freed-
men.

$18, 500. 00
17,200.00

700,000.00 \a 360, 000.00
365,000.00 a 190,000.00
300,000.00 a200,000.00

Total.

$224, 359. 39

613, 632. 49

2, 025, 896. 67

1, 479, 182. 16

1, 536, 853. 29

a Estimated.

"It has been found impracticable to ascertain the amounts expended by the Freed-
men's Bureau for Howard and Fisk Universities, and the schools at Hampton,
Atlanta, and New Orleans, the items of expenditure for these schools not being sep-
arated in the reports from the gross expenditures for school purposes."

A committee of investigation upon General Howard's use of tho bureau for his
pecuniary aggrandizement were divided in opinion, but a large majority exonerated
him from censure and commended him for tho excellent performance of difficult
duties. An equally strong and unanimous verdict of approval Avas rendered by a
court of inquiry, General Sherman presiding, which was convened under an act of
Congress, February 13, 1874.

V. It has been stated that tho bureau was authorized to act in cooperation with
benevolent or religious societies in tho education of the negroes. A number of these
organizations had done good service before the establishment of the bureau and con-
tinued their work afterwards. The teachers earliest in the field were from the
American Missionary Association, Western Freedmen's Aid Commission, American
Baptist Home Mission Society, and tho Society of Friends. After the surrender of
Vicksburg and the occupation of Natchez, others were sent by the United Presbyte-
rians, Reformed Presbyterians, United Brethren in Christ, Northwestern Freedmen's

1380 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1894-95.

Aid Commission, and the National Freedmen's Aid Association. The first colored
6chool in Vicksburg was started in 1863 by the United Brethren in the basement of
a Methodist church.

The American Missionary Association -was the chief body, apart from the Govern-
ment, in the great enterprise of meeting the needs of the negroes. It did not
relinquish its philanthropic work because array officers and the Federal Government
were working along the same line. Up to 1^66 its receipts were swollen by "the
aid of the Free Will Baptists, the Wesleyans, the Congregationalists, and friends in
Great Britain." From Great Britain it is estimated that "a million of dollars in
money and clothing were contributed through various channels for the freedmen."
The third decade of the association, 1867-1876, was a marked era in its financial his-
tory. The Freedmen's Bureau turned over a large sum, which could be expended
only in buildings. A Congressional report says that between December, 1866, and
May, 1870, the association received $243,753.22. Since the association took on a more
distinctive and separate denominational character, because of the withdrawal of
other denominations into organizations of their own, it, along with its church
work, has prosecuted, with unabated energy and marked success, its educational
work among the negroes. It has now under its control or support —

Chartered institutions 6

Normal schools 29

Common schools 43

Totals :

Schools 78

Instructors 389

Pupils 12,609

Pupils classified:

Theological 47

Collegiate 57

College preparatory 192

Normal ". 1,091

Grammar 2, 378

Intermediate 3, 692

Primary 5, 152

Some of these schools are not specially for negroes. It would be unjust not to
give the association much credit for Atlanta University and for Hampton Normal
and Industrial Institute, which are not included in the above recapitulation, as the
Litter stands easily first among all the institutions designed for negro development,
both for influence and usefulness. During the war and for a time afterwards the
school work of the association was necessarily primary and transitional, but it grew
into larger proportions, with higher standards, and its normal and industrial work
deserves special mention and commendation. From 1860 to October 1, 1893, its expend-
itures in the South for freedmen, directly and indirectly, including church extension
as well as education, have been $11,610,000.

VI. In 1866 was organized the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Society of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church. Under that compact, powerful, well-disciplined, enthusi-
astic organization more than $6,000,000 have been expended in the work of education
of negroes. Dr. Hartzell said before the World's Congress iu Chicago that Willier-
force University, at Xenia, Ohio, was established in 1857 as a college for colored
people, and "continues to be the chief educational center of African Methodism in
the United States." He reports, as under various branches of Methodism, 65 insti-
tutions of learning for colored people, 388 teachers, 10,100 students, $1,905,150 of
property, and $652,500 of endowment. Among these is Meharry Medical College, of
high standard and excellent discipline, with dental and pharmaceutical departments
as well as medical. Near 200 students have been graduated. The school of mechanic
arts in Central Tennessee College, under the management of Professor Sedgwick,
has a fine outfit, and has turned out telescopes and other instruments which com-
mand a ready and remunerative market in this and other countries.

VII. On April 16, 1862, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia. By
November 13,000 refugees had collected at Washington, Alexandria, Hampton, and
Norfolk. Under an unparalleled exigency, instant action was necessary. The lack
of educational privileges led Christian societies to engage in educational work — at
least in the rudiments of learning— for the benefit of these people, who were eager
to be instructed. Even where education had not previously been a part of the
functions of certain organizations, the imperative need of the liberated left no
option as to duty. With the assistance of the Baptist Free Mission Society and of
the Baptist Home Mission Society, schools were established in Alexandria as early
as January 1, 1862, and were multiplied through succeeding years. After Appo-
matox the Baptist Home Mission Society was formally and deliberately committed
to the education of the blacks, giving itself largely to the training of teachers and

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1381

preachers. In May, 1892, the society had under its management 24 schools with 216
instructors, 4,801 pupils, of whom 1,756 were preparing to teach, school property
worth $750,000 and endowment funds of $156,000. Probably not less than 50,000
have attended the various schools. Since I860 $2,451,859.56 have been expended for
the benefit of the negroes. The superintendent of education says: "The aggregate
amount appropriated for tho salaries of teachers from the time the society com-
menced its work until January, 1883, was : District of Columbia, $59,243.57; Vir-
ginia, $65,254.44; North Carolina, $11,788.90; South Carolina, $29,683.71; Florida,
$3,164.16; Georgia, $26,963.21; Alabama, $4,960.37; Mississippi, $6,611.05; Louisiana,
$39,168.25; Texas, $2,272.18; Arkansas, $150; Tennessee, $57,898.86; Kentucky,
$1,092.54; Missouri, $300. The following gives the aggregate amount appropriated
i'ov teachers and for all other purposes, such as laud, buildings, etc., from January,
1883, to J anuary, 1893 : District of Columbia, $103,110.01 ; Virginia, $193,974.08 ; North
Carolina, $142,861.95; South Carolina, $137,157.79; Florida. $55,923.96; Georgia,
$314,061.48; Alabama, $35,405.86; Mississippi, $86,019.' 0; Louisiana, $33,720.93;
Texas, $131,225.27; Arkansas, $13,206.20; Tennessee, $164,514.05; Kentucky, $49, 798.56;
Missouri, $6,543.13. Until January, 1883, the appropriations for teachers and for
lands, buildings, etc., were kept as separate items. I have already given the appro-
priations for the teachers up to that date. For grounds and buildings $421,119.50
were appropriated." In connection with the Spelman Seminary and the male school
in Atlanta, there has been established, under intelligent and discriminating rules,
a first-class training department for teachers. A new, commodious structure, well
adapted to the purpose, costing $55,000, was opened in December. At Spelman
there is an admirable training school for nurses, where the pupils have hospital
practice. Shaw University, at Raleigh, has the flourishing Leonard Medical School
and a well-equipped pharmacy.

VIII. The Presbyterian Church at the North in May, 1865, adopted a deliverance
in favor of special efforts in behalf of the "lately enslaved African race." From
the twenty-eighth annual report of the Board of Missions for Freedmen it appears
that, besides building churches, special exertions have been put forth "in establish-
ing parochial schools, in planting academies and seminaries, in equipping and sup-
porting a large and growing university." The report mentions 15 schools — 3 in
North Carolina, 4 in South Carolina, 3 in Arkansas, and 1 in each of the States of
Texas, Mississippi, Virginia, Georgia, and Tennessee. One million two hundred and
eighty thousand dollars have been spent. "In the high schools and parochial
schools we have (May, 1893) 10,520 students, who are being daily molded under Pres-
byterian educational influence." The United Presbyterian Church reports for May,
1893, an enrollment in schools of 2,558. The Southern Presbyterians have a theo-
logical seminary in Birmingham, Ala., which was first opened in Tuscaloosa in 1877.

IX. The Episcopal Church, through the Commission on Church Work among the
Colored People, during the seven years of its existence (1887-1893) has expended
$272,068, but the expenditure is fairly apportioned between ministerial and teaching
purposes. The schools are parochial, "with an element of industrial training," and
are located in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama; but
the "reports" do not give the number of teachers and scholars. The Friends have
some well-conducted schools, notably the Schofield in Aiken, S. C. They have
sustained over 100 schools and have spent $1,004,129. In the mission work of the
Roman Catholic Church among the negroes school work and church work are so
blended that it has been very difficult to make a clear separation. Schools exist in
Baltimore, "Washington, and all the Southern States, but with how many teachers
and pupils and at what cost the report of the commission for 1893 does not show.
A few extracts are given. " We need," says one, " all the help possible to cope with
the public schools of Washington. In fact, our school facilities are poor, and unless
we can do something to invite children to our Catholic schools many of them will
lose their faith." Another person writes : " Next year we shall have to exert all the
influence in our power to hold our school. Within two doors of our school a large
public-school building is being erected; this new public-school building will draw
pupils away from the Catholic school unless the latter be made equally efficient in
its work."

X. On February 6, 1867, George Peabody gave to certain gentlemen $2,000,000 in
trust, to be used "for the promotion and encouragement of intellectual, moral, or
industrial education among the young of the more destitute portions of the South-
western States of our Union." This gift embraced both races, and Dr. Barnas Sears
was fortunately selected as the general agent, to whom was committed practically tho
administration of tho trust. In his first report he remarked that in many of the cities
aided by the fund provision was made for the children of both races, but said that
as the subject of making equal provision for the education of both races was occupy-
ing public attention, he thought it the safer and wiser course not to set up schools
on a precarious foundation, but to confine help to public schools and make efforts in
all suitable ways to improve or have established State systems of education. Still,

1382 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

.

in some localities aid was judiciously given, and tlio United States superintendent of
education for the negroes in North. Carolina gave testimony that hut for the Peahody
aid many of the colored schools "would he closed. "Our superintendents have aided
largely in distributing the Peabody fund iu nearly all the States." "Great good has
thereby been accomplished at very little added expense." The Peahody fund bent
its energies and directed its policy toward securing the establishment of State sys-
tems of education which should make adequate aud permanent provision for universal
education. State authorities would have more power and general influence than
individuals or denominational or private corporations. They represent the whole
people, are held to a strict accountability, protected "from the cbarge of sectarianism
and from the liability of heing overreached by interested parties." State systems,
l>esides, have a continuous life and are founded on the just principle that property
is taxable for the maintenance of general education. The fund now acts exclusively
with State systems, and continues support to the negroes more efficiently through
such agencies.

XI. Congress, by land grants since 1860, has furnished to the Southern States sub-
stantial aid in the work of agricultural and mechanical education. On March 2, 1867,
the Bureau of Education was established for the collection and diffusion of informa-
tion. This limited sphere of work has heen so interpreted and cultivated that the
Bureau, under its able Commissioners, especially under the leadership of that most
accomplished American educator, Dr.W. T. Harris, has become one of the most efficient
and intelligent educational agencies on the continent. To the general survey of the
educational field and comparative exhibits of the position of the United States and
other enlightened countries have been added discussions by specialists and papers on
the various phases of educational life produced by the incorporation of diverse races
into our national life or citizenship. The annual reports and circulars of information
contain a vast mass of facts and studies in reference to the colored people, and a
digest and collaboration of them would give the most complete history that could be
prepared.

The Bureau and the Peahody education fund have heen most helpful allies in mak-
ing suggestions in relation to legislation in school matters, and giving, in intelligible,
practical form, the experiences of other States, home and foreign, in devising and
perfecting educational systems. All the States of the South, as soon as they recov-
ered their governments, put in operation systems of public schools which gave equal
opportunities and privileges to both races. It would be singularly unjust not to con-
sider the difficulties — social, political, and pecuniary — which embarrassed the South
in the efforts to inaugurate free education. It required unusual heroism to adapt to
the new conditions, hut she was equal in fidelity and energy to what was demanded
for the reconstruction of society and civil institutions. The complete enfranchise-
ment of the negroes and their new political relations, as the result of the war and
the new amendments to the Constitution, necessitated an entire reorganization of
the systems of public education. To realize what has been accomplished is difficult
at best — impossible, unless we estimate sufficiently the obstacles and compare the
facilities of to-day with the ignorance and bondage of a generation ago, when some
statutes made it an indictable offense to teach a slave or free person of color. Com-
parisons with densely populated sections are misleading, for iu the South the sparse-
ness and poverty of the population are almost a preventive of good schools. Still
the results have been marvelous. Out of 448 cities in the United States with a
population each of 8,000 and over, only 73 are in the South. Of 28 with a popula-
tion from 100,000 to 1,500,000, only 2 (St. Louis being excluded) are in the South.
Of 96, with a population between 25,000 and 100,000, 17 are in the South. The
urban population is comparatively small, and agriculture is the chief occupation.
Of 858,000 negroes in Georgia, 130,000 are in cities and towns and 728,000 in the
countrv; in Mississippi, urban colored population 42,000, rural 700,000; in South
Carolina, urban 74,000, rural 615,000; in North Carolina, urban 66,000 against 498,000
rural ; in Alabama, 65,000 against 613,000; iu Louisiana, 93,000 against 466,000. The
schools for colored children are maintained on an average 89.2 days in a year, and
for white children 98.6, but the preponderance of the white over the black race in
towns and cities helps in part to explain the difference. While the colored popula-
tion supplies less than its due proportion of pupils to the public schools, and the
regularity of attendance is less than with the white, yet the difference in length of
school term in schools for white and schools for black children is trifling. In the
same grades the wages of teachers are about the same. The annual State school
revenue is apportioned impartially among white and black children, so much per
capita to each child. In the rural districts the colored people are dependent chiefly
upon the State apportionment, which is by law devoted mainly to the payment of
teachers' salaries. Hence, the schoolhouses and other conveniences in the country
for the negroes are inferior, but in the cities the appropriation for schools is gen-
eral and is allotted to white and colored, according to the needs of each. A small
proportion of the school fund comes from colored sources. All the States do not

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NECRO.

1383

discriminate in assessments of taxable property, but in Georgia, where the owner-
ship is ascertained, the negroes returned in 1892 $14,869,575 of taxable property
against $1 1S,S81.959 returned by white owners. The amount of property listed for
taxation in North Carolina in 1891 was, by white citizens, $231,109,508; by colored
citizens, $8,018,446. To an inquiry for official data, the auditor of the State of Virginia
says : "The taxes collected in 1891 from white citizens were $2,991,6 16.24 and from tho
colored $163,175.67. The amount paid for public schools for whites, $588^564.87; for
negroes, $309,364.15. Add $15,000 for colored normal and $80,000 for colored lunatic
asylum. Apportioning tho criminal expenses between the white and the colored peo-
ple in the ratio of convicts of each race received into the penitentiary in 1891, and
it shows hat the criminal expenses nut upon tho State annually by the whites are
$55,749.57 and by tho negroes $204,018*99."

Of the desire of tho colored people for education the proof is conclusive, and of
their capacity to receive mental culture there is not the shade of a reason to support
an adverse hypothesis. The Bureau of Education furnishes the following suggestive
table :

Sixteen former slave States and the District of Columbia.

Tear.

Common-school en-
rollment.

Expendi-
tures (both
races).

Tear.

Common-school en-
rollment.

Expendi-
tures (both

White.

Colored.

White.

Colored.

races) .

1870-77

1, 827, 139

2, 034, 946
2, 013, 684
2 215, 674
2, 234, 877
2, 249, 263
2,370,110
2, 546, 448
2, 676, 911

571, 506
675, 150
685, 942
784, 709
802, 374
S02, 982
817, 240
1,002,313
1, 030, 463

$11, 231, 073
12,093,091 !
12, 174, 141
12, 678, 685
13,656,814

15, 241, 740

16, 363, 471

17, 884, 558
19, 253, 874

1886-87

1887-88

18S8-89

1889-90

1890-91

1891-92

1892-93

1893-94 *

2, 773, 145 1, 048, 659
2,975,773 1 1,118,556
3,110,606 1,140,405
3,197,830 . 1,213,092
3,402,420 1.296.959

.$20, 208, 113
20, 821, 969
21,810, 158

, :l .•

1S79 80

23, 171, 878

1880-81

24, 880, 107

1881-82

1882-83

3, 570, 624
3, 607, 549
3, 697, 899
3, S35, 593

1,329.549
1, 354, 316
1, 367, 515
1, 424, 995

26, 690, 310

27, 691, 488

1883 84

28, 535, 738

1884-85

29, 170, 351

Approximately.

Total amount expended in 18 years, $353,557,559.

In 1890-91 there were 79,962 white teachers and 24,150 colored. To tho enrollment
in common schools should be added 30,000 colored children who are in normal or sec-
ondary schools. Tho amount expended for education of negroes is not stated sep-
arately, but Dr. W. T. Harris estimates that there must have been nearly $75,000,000
expended by tho Southern States in addition to what has been contributed by mis-
sionary and philanthropic sources. In Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas annual grants are made for
the support of colored normal and industrial schools.

The negroes must rely very largely upon the public schools for their education,
and so they should. They are and will continue to be the most efficient factors for
uplifting the race. The States, at immense sacrifice, with impartial liberality, have
taxed themselves for a population which contributes very little to the State reve-
nues, and nothing could be done more prejudicial to the educational interests of tho
colored people than to indulg»in any hostility or indifference to or neglect of these
free schools. Denominations and individuals can do nothing more harmful to the
race than to foster opposition to the public schools.

XII. A potential agency in enlightening public opinion and in working out the
problem of the education of the negro has been the John F. Slater fund. " In view
of the apprehensions felt by all thoughtful persons," when the duties and privileges
of citizenship were suddenly thrust upon millions of lately emancipated slaves, Mr.
Slater conceived the purpose of giving a large sum of money to their proper educa-
tion. After deliberate reflection and much conference, ho selected a board of trust
and placed in their hands $1,000,000. This unique gift, originating wholly with him-
self, and elaborated in his own mind in most of its details, was for "the uplifting of
the lately emancipated population of the Southern States and their posterity, by
conferring on them tho blessings of Christian education." "Not only for their own
sake, but also for the sake of our common country," he sought to provide 'the
means of such education as shall tend to make them good men and good citizens,"
associating the instruction of the mind "with training in just notions of duty toward
.God and man, in the light of the Holy Scriptures." Leaving to the corporation the
largest discretion and liberty in the prosecution of the general object, as described
in bis letter of trust, he yet indicated as "lines of operation adapted to the condi-
tion of things" the encouragement of "institutions as are most effectually useful in
promoting tho training of teachers." The trust was to be administered "in no par-
tisan, sectional, or sectarian spirit, but in the interest of a generous patriotism and

1384

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

an enlightened Christian spirit." Soon after organization the trustees expressed
very strongly their judgment that the scholars should he "trained in some manual
occupation, simultaneously with their mental and moral instruction," and aid was
confined to such institutions as gave "instruction in trades and other manual occu-
pations," that the pupils might ohtain an intelligent mastery of the indispensahle
elements of industrial success. So repeated have heen similar declarations on the
part of the trustees and the general agents that manual training, or education iu
industries, may he regarded as an unalterahle policy; hut only such institutions
were to he aided as were, "with good reason, believed to he on<a permanent hasis."
Mr. Slater explained "Christian education," as used in his letter of gift, to be teach-
ing, "leavened with a predominant and salutary Christian influence," such as was
found in "the common school teaching of Massachusetts and Connecticut," and that
there was " no need of limiting the gifts of the fund to denominational institutions."
Since the first appropriation near fifty different institutions have been aided, in
sums ranging from $500 to $5,000. As required by the founder, neither principal nor
income is expended for land or buildings. For a few years aid Avas given in buying
machinery or apparatus, but now the income is applied almost exclusively to pa\ ing
the salaries of teachers engaged in the normal or industrial work. The number of
aided institutions has been lessened, with the view of concentrating and making
more effective the aid and of improving the instruction in normal and industrial
work. The table appended presents a summary of the appropriations which have
been made from year to year.

Cash disbursed by John F. Slater fund as appropriations for educational institutions.

To—

Amount.

To—

• Amount.

August 13 1884..,

$24, 881. 66
30,414.19

38, 724. 98

39, 816. 28
46, 183. 34
43, 709. 98
41, 560. 02

April 30, 1891

$50, 650. 00
45,816.33

April 30 1885

April 30, 1892

April301886

April 30, 1893

37, 475. 00

April 30, 1887

Anril30 1888

April 30, 1894

40, 750. 00

Total

April 30 1889

439, 981. 7&

April 30, 1890

III.

OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES.

[By Henry Gannett, of the United States Geological Survey.]

The statistics of occupations used in this paper are from the census of 1890, and
represent the status of the race on June 1 of that year. The census takes cognizance
only of "gainful" occupations, excluding from its lists housewives, school children,
men of leisure, etc. Its schedules deal only with wage earners, those directly engaged
in earning their living.

GENERAL STATISTICS.

In 1890, out of a total population of 62,622,250, 22,75^,884 persons, or 34.6 per cent,
were engaged in gainiui occupations. Of the negroes, including all of mixed negro
blood, numbering 7,470,040, 3,073,123, or 41.1 per cent were engaged in gainful occu-
pations. The proportion was much greater than with the total population, This
total population, however, was composed of several diverse elements, including,
besides the negroes themselves, the foreign born (of which a large proportion were
adult males), and the native whites. The following table presents the proportions
of each of these elements which were engaged in gainful occupations:

Per cent.

Total population 34. 6

Whites 35.5

Native whites 31.6

Foreign born 55. 2

Negroes 41.1

The diagram No. 1 sets forth these figures in graphic form. The total area of the
square represents the population. This is subdivided by horizontal lines into rec-
tangles representing the various elements of the population, and the shaded part of
each rectangle represents the proportions engaged in gainful occupations.

The proportion was greatest among the foreign born because of the large propor-
tion of adults, and particularly of males, among this element. Next to that, the
proportion was greatest among the negroes, being much greater than among the
whites collectively, and still greater than among the native whites.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1385

Classifying the wage earners of tlio country in respect to race and nativity, it
appears that 64.5 per cent were native whites, 22 per cent were of foreign birth, and
13.5 per cent were negroes.

Analyzing the statistics of occupation by sex, it is discovered that the proportion
of native white males who had occupations was 53.4 and of females 9.4 per cent.
The corresponding proportion of male negroes was 56.3 per cent and of female negroes
26 per cent. The male negroes were slightly more fully occupied than were the
native whites, while ainongfemalesthe proportion of wage earners was much greater.
The difference between native whites and negroes in the proportion of waj;e earners
was, therefore, due mainly to the fuller occupation of women. To put it in another
form: Out of every 100 native whites who pursued gainful occupations, 85 were males
and 15 were females; of every 100 negroes, 69 were males and 31 were females.
Indeed, a larger proportion of women pursued gainful occupations among negroes
than in any other class of the population.

CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS.

The primary classification of occupations made by the census recognized five great
groups, as follows: (1) Professions, (2) agriculture, (3) trade and transportation,
(4) manufactures, (5) personal service. These titles are self explanatory, with the
possible exception of the last class, which is mainly composed of domestic servants.

The following table shows the proportion of the negro wage earners engaged in
each of these groups of occupations. In juxtaposition, for comparison, are placed
similar figures for the native white and the foreign born :

Professions

Agriculture

Trade and transportation

Manufactures

Personal service

Total

Native
white.

Foreign
born.

Per cent. Per cent.
5. 5 2. 2

41.0
17.0
22.9
13. 0

25.5
14.0
31.3

27.0

Negro.

Per cent.
1.1

57.2
4.7
5.6

31.4

. 100. 0

100.0

ioo.o

Similar facts are shown by diagram No. 2. In this the total area of the square
represents the number of persons in the country pursuing gainful occupations. This
is divided into rectangles by horizontal lines, the rectangles being proportioned
respectively to the numbers of the native whites, the foreign born, and the negroes.
The subdivision of these rectangles by vertical lines indicates the proportion in
each group of wage earners.

The most striking facts brought out by this table and diagram are that only a
trifling proportion of the negroes were in the professions, that much more than one-
half were farmers, and nearly one-third were engaged in personal (mainly domestic)
service. Indeed, over seven-eighths of them were either farmers or servants. The
proportions engaged in trade and transportation and in manufactures were very
small. In respect to the farming class, they contrasted sharply with the foreign
horn. In trade and transportation and in manufactures the contrast was even
greater, in the contrary direction. The foreign born contained a much larger pro-
portion of professional men.

Comparing the negroes with the native whites, equally interesting contrasts
appear. Professional men were much more numerous among whites than among
negroes. The proportion of the farming class, although much smaller, was nearer
that of the negroes than was the same class among the foreign born. In trade and
transportation and in manufactures the native whites had much greater proportions,
while in personal service the proportion was much less than that of the negroes.

MALE AND FEMALE WAGE EARNERS.

It will be interesting to analyze these figures further. The following table clas-
sifies negro wage earners by occupation and by sex, giving for. each sex the percent-
age engaged in each group of occupations :

Professions

Agriculture

Trade and transportation ..

Manufactures

Personal service

ed 95 44*

1386

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Diagram No. 1. — Proportion of the population and its elements, tvhich were engaged in

gainful occupations in 1890.

HABE- EARNERS.

Diagram No. 2. — Classification of the wage-earners by race and nativity and by occu-
pations.

PROFESSIONS

AGRICULTURE

TRADE AND TRANSPORT
I AT ION.

MANUFACTURES
PERSONAL SERVICE.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1387

These figures are also illustrated by diagram No. 3, tlio area of "which represents
all negro wage earners. The two rectangles into which it is divided represent tho
males and females; each of these is subdivided intorectangles representing tho num-

jro wage earners, more than

ber in each group of occupations. Of tho male

three-fifths were farmers and a little less than one-fourth were servants.

classes jointly accounted for nearly 85 per cent of all.

The two

DIAGRAM No. 3.— Classification of negro wage-earners by sex and occupation.

PERSONAL SCKV/CE.

TRADE AND

TRANSPORTA TION

Of the females, considerably less than one-half were farmers and more than one-
half were servants — the two classes together accounting for 95 per cent of all. This
large proportion of female negro farmers was doubtless made up in the main of
women and female children employed in the cotton fields.

1388

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-S5.

Xl'MliEH OF WAGE KAHXEIIS.

The following table, abstracted from the census publications, shows the number
of negroes in all occupations and in each of the live great groups of occupations by-
sex and by States and Territories :

State or Territory.

The United States.

Alabama

Alaska

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

Now Hampshire

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina

North Dakota

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsylvania

Khode Island

South Carolina

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

Washington

West Virginia

AYisconsin

Wyoming

All occupations.

Males. Females.

2, 101, 233 971, 890

Agriculture, fisher-
ies, and mining.

Males. Females.

1, 329, 584 I 427, 835

192,322 ; 101,085

140, 361 I 66, 123

Professional service.

Males. Females.

25, 171

1,471

8,829

491

1,

86,

4,

2,

4,

9,

21,

46,

246,

19,
14,
3,
13,
76,
159,

63,

7,

5,

1,

198,

43,

3,

16,

23,
148,

28,

37,

2.

186,

121,
123,

169,
11,

091
861
301
765
004
334
238
302
913
83
270
648
615
889
411
180
409
166
593
065
719
531
940
971
741
130
242
143
888
272
370
146
085
958
536
534
337
714
284
016
395
298
322
343
902
478
855
563

71

30, 115
1,041

792
1,964
3,016

18, 770

19, 071
122, 352

23

4,713

4,210

730

3,400

31, 255
83, 978

145

32, 642
3,435
1,329

383

105, 306

16, 715

140

959

22

107

7,738

156

13,664

68, 220

23

7,791

125

99

15, 704

1,362

102, 836

43

44,701

46, 691

51

109

71, 752

153

2,623

205

75

29

68, 219

1,084

180

879

4,157

553

23, 690

172, 496

16

4,323

3,273

973

4,171

38, 456

111, S20

104

29, 510

601

1,458

72

167, 995

15, 757

41

242

41

60

4,166

163

3,031

106, 493

35

6,201

635

106

4,602

270

149, 915

33

72,316

85, 824

21

112

93, 745

250

4,790

168

141

19, 069

14

4

1

34

16

7,629

54, 073

1

134

37

11

110

1,013

49, 428

2

743

4

45

2

77,925

324

3

1,226

86

75

61

97

390

776

2,122

486

330

78

357

1,406

1,251

8

640

162

115

57

1,970

897

25

63

5

287

10

571

1,619

7

617

22

23

584

38

1,543

1

1,736

2, 031

1

3

238

21

13

10

32

335

223

958

116

126

11

69

420

355

2

275

57

39

13

775

337

4

7

82

135
565

246
3

5
197
18
506
2
592
563

1,654

911

16

2

166

63

27

11

58

1

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1389

Tabic showing the number of negroes in all occupations, etc. — Continued.

State or Territory.

The "United States.

Alabama

Alaska

Arizona

Arkansas

California

Colorado

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Idaho

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

Domestic and per-
sonal service.

Males. Females

457, 002

25, 426

505, 898

33,380

Trade, and transpor-
tation.

Males.

143, 350

9,147

Females.

2, :;'.i'.i

140

Manufacturing and
mechanical indus-
tries.

Male ..

14G, 126

9,917

Females.

26, 929

951

Louisiana.

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts. ..

Michigan

Minnesota

Mississippi

Missouri

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire.

New Jersey

New Mexico

New York

North Carolina ..
North Dakota . . .

Ohio

Oklahoma

Oregon

Pennsyl van ia

Rhode Island

South Carolina . .

South Dakota

Tennessee

Texas

Utah

Vermont

Virginia

"Washington

West Virginia...

Wisconsin

Wyoming

1,
11,

2,

1,

1,

3,

12,

13,

39,

10,

7,

1,

6,

22,

31,

21,

4,

2,

1,

17,

18,

2,

7,

13,

20,

14,

22.
1,

18,

25,
23,

39,
3,

034
226
316
702
925
631
680
229
294

57
865
950
966
898
649
609
174
014
296
495
286
209
899
815
743

67

81
715
651
151
580

90
814
231
328
505
161
554
115
606
360
248
143
425
480
515
481
313

67

10, 506

897

715

1,781

2,878

16, 734

10,421

65, 025

21

4,061

3,849

672

3,077

28, 916

31, 292

128

30, 406

2,914

1,102

315

25, 729
15, 614

122

881

18

84

7,339

150

12, 445

31, 393

22

6,955

102

81

14, 297

1,169

26, 213

35

30, 333

24, 840

48

102

55, 941

134

2,462

161

71

13

2,787

457

406

634

633

4,776

4,106

16, 397

8

1,994

1, 426

289

1,148

7,381

6,045

68

7,538

1,402

• 448

216

5,671

4,862

45

323

17

24

2,111

40

4,231

7,564

10

3,027

28

42

5,213

546

6,860

121

10, 954

6,386

14

33

15, 655

69

2,080

74

31

27

3

5

7

21

195

52

372

41

23

1

20

66

129

2

144

34

6

5

74

44

1

4

1

25

54

106

40
1

1
104

3
188

1

125

69

1

253

12

3,403

358

402

565

816

2,839

4,501

16, 604

2

1,602

1,669

309

1,315

6,519

8,455

55

4,458

1,132

549

88

5,686

3,525

45

370

5

72

1,864

24

2, 288

12, 114

4

3,426

42

37

4,630

322

9,842

14

10, 404

5,794

14

31

18, 864

87

927

105

20

4

275

106

55

165

51

1,490

746

1,924

1

361

175

35

124

840

2,774

11

1,074

426

137

48

803

396

13

64

2

23

263

3

1,005

2,360

1

442

2

10

1,077

170

2,341

4

1,141

461

2

6

4,483

15

41

28

1390

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Diagram No. 4. — Proportion of negro wage-earners to negro population.

Per cent.

0

10

20

SO

40

SO

60

70

SO

Arizona

Montana _.

Wyoming ....

Washington ,.

Nevada

South Dakota

Utah.... ...

Colorado _

Minnesota

Ney/ Hampshire

New York .

Oregon '_..

Idaho

Nebraska

District cf Columbia..

New Jersey.

Nev/ Mexico. -

Massachusetts...

Pennsylvania _.

Rhode Island ...

Connecticut.

California .

Maine

North Dakota

Maryland.. __

Delaware

Louisiana r

Vermont.

Alabama

Georgia —

West Virginia

Wisconsin

Indiana

Michigan ...

Ohio _.

South Carolina „

Mississippi _,

Missouri , _.

Florida. J

Illinois.

Iowa. _

Kentucxy. - —

Worth Carolina.

Tennessee

Virginia.

Arkansas

Oklahoma.......

Kansas _

Texas

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SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 131)1

Diagram No. 5. — O-rouping of the States and Territories.

Diagram NO. 6.— Proportions of male and female toageeamers.

Percent 0 10 20 30 %Q SO 60 70 SO 90 10&

Northeastern
Southeastern,
North Central
South Central
Western-

Males.

1392 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

PROPORTION OF WAGE EARNERS TO POPULATION.

The foregoing diagram No. 4 shows by the length of the hars the proportion which
the negro wage earners bore in 1890 to the negro population of each State. This
proportion was greatest in the States and the Territories of the West. Following
these are the Northeastern States, while the lower part of the column is made up of
the States in the Upper Mississippi Valley and those of the South.

OCCUPATIONS BY GROUPS OF STATES.

The distribution of wage earners among the five occupation groups differed widely
in different parts of the country. To study it, it will be sufficient to group the
States and analyze the statistics of each group.

The groups which will be used here are those which have been in use in the last
two censuses, namely, the Northeastern and Southeastern, North Central and South
Central, and Western groups. The States and Territories of which each grouxi is
composed are shown in map No. 5.

Examination of the States forming the above groups will show that the groups are
in many respects very characteristic. The Southeastern and South Central groups
contain nine-tenths of the negroes of the country. These States may be said to
constitute the home of the negro, while in the Northern and Western States he is an
immigrant.

OCCUPATIONS BY SEX AND STATE GROUPS.

Diagram No. 6 shows the distribution by sex and by groups of States of the negro
wage earners. It appears that in the Northeastern, Southeastern, and South Central
groups two-thirds of the wage earners were males and one-third were females, while
in the North Central and Western groups about five-sixths were males and one-sixth
only were females. This is in part due to the disproportionate number of males in
these parts of the country.

Diagram No. 7 shows the distribution of the negro wage earners, classified by sex,
among the five occupation groups and by groups of States. The length of each bar
represents 100 per cent, and each bar is divided proportionately among the different
occupation groups. Thus from it we read that in the Northeastern States 15 per
cent of the male wage earners were engaged in agriculture, 56 per ceut in personal
service, 16 per cent in trade and transportation, 12 per cent in manufactures, and 2
per cent in the professions.

It is seen that a far larger proportion of male wage earners were engaged in agri-
culture in the Southern States than in the Northern and Western States, the propor-
tion in the two groups of the former States being 64 and 71 per cent, while in the
Northeastern States only 15 per cent were engaged in agriculture, in the North Cen-
tral States 26 per cent, and in the Western States 17 per cent.

In trade ancl transportation the highest proportion was found in the Northeastern
States, where it was 16 per cent ; in the North Central States it was 14, and in the
Western States 10 per ce*ut, while in the Southeastern States it was 7 per cent and
in the South Central States 7 per cent.

Of course, the magnitude of the proportion in the Northeastern States is due to
the fact that this is the commercial and manufacturing section of the country, where
a large proportion of all the population is engaged in these avocations. The same
is the case, though in less degree, in the North Central States, while the Southern
States are almost purely agricultural. The figures relating to manufacturing occu-
pations show similar characteristics. It will be noted that in the Northern and
Western States the occupations of the negroes were more diversified than in the
Southern States. Agriculture and personal service in the Northeastern States occu-
pied but 71 per cent of all wage earners, in the North Central States they occupied
75 per cent, and in the Western States 81 per cent, while in the Southeastern States
these two occupation groups comprised 84 per cent and in the South Central 88
per cent of all.

The diagram shows in a similar manner the distribution of the female negro wage
earners. There were engaged in agriculture in the Northern and Western States but
a trifling proportion of negro women, while in the Southern States as a whole nearly
one-half of the female negro wage earners were engaged in that avocation. On the
other hand, personal service occupied fully nine-tenths of the female wage earners
in the Northern and Western States, while in the Southern States less than one-half
were engaged in it. Indeed, 94 per cent of the female wage earners of the West were
engaged in personal service, 91 per cent in the Northeastern States, and 87 per cent in
the North Central States. In trade and transportation the proportion was trifling
and in manufactures it was small, although much larger in the North and West than
in the South.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1303

Diagram No. 7. — Distribution of occupations by sex and sections of the country.

Percent. 0 10 20. 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

^^Professions.

\\\\\Asriculture.
\Manufactures.

Trade and Transportation.
Personal Service.

Diagram No. 8. — Proportions of males and females among the negro wage-earner.

Per cent.

0 10 20 30 40 50 SO 70 80 SO 100

West Virginia _

II:!' !i||! '1 1 1 ■■ -I-:-).-

— r — r

Delaware...

' ! Ill i 'ist

Arkansas.

j

1 lllll 1

Missouri.

'I'li i i ' ' 1 lit nil

1 H 'IN H lllliiHnr

Tennessee

Texas

1 1 111

Kentucky.

mmm

Florida

i '' [jijifjij i irpptij ■■ Hii

North Carolina

Ulllllllll

Georgia'.

(::f::i':^ ::

Maryland

1 1 1 1 . §§2111

Louisiana.

j ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ffi

South Carolina.

linn i "i iiiiiiiiiiini

Mississippi.

i "■''■' :

Alabama

j 1 |i|ji|j[|mfl

District of Columbia

i ,1 1 iiii::|: .: i "■■

[Males..

Females.

1394 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Hero also we seo that agriculture and personal service occupied nearly all wage
earners — 91 per cent in the Northeastern States, 96 per cent in the Southeastern
States, 89 per cent in the North Central States, 97 per cent in the South Central States,
and 95 per cent in the Western States. Occupations were slightly more diversified
in the North and "West than in tho Southern States, as was the case with the males.

OCCUPATIONS BY STATES.

It will now bo of interest to extend this study in detail by States, but in doing so
tho study will bo confined to the Southern, the former slave States, which are in a
sense the home of the negro and in which more than nine-tenths of them live. Iu
most of tho Northern States tho number of negroes is so small that any conclusions
drawn from statistics regarding them are worthless and are likely to bo misleading.

Diagram No. 8 shows the distribution by sex of the negro wage earners of these
Southern States. The total length of the bar represents iu each case all the wage
earners, the white portion representing the males and the shaded portion tho females.

This diagram shows that the greatest proportion of female wage earners is in the
District of Columbia, where it is nearly one-half of all negro wage earners, and tho
least in West Virginia, where it is less than one-fifth of all. Inmost of the cotton
States it ranges from one-fourth to one-third of all negro wage earners.

Diagrams Nos. 9 and 10 present tho proportion of male and of female negro wage
earners who are engaged in agriculture, personal service, and other occupations in
the Southern States.

The lirst of these diagrams, representing male wage earners, shows that agriculture
and personal service accounted for from 63 to 91 per cent of all male wage earners.
Indeed, excluding the District of Columbia from consideration, from 73 to 93 per
cent were accounted for by these two occupations.

Again, excluding the District of Columbia, which is not a farming community, the
male wage earners who were farmers constituted in the different States proportions
varying from 36 per cent in Missouri to 85 per cent in Mississippi. The proportion of
farmers was highest in the cotton States and decidedly less in the border States. On
the other hand, the proportion of males engaged in personal service was least in the
cotton States and increased decidedly in those farther north.

The second diagram, illustrating the occupations of female wage earners, has cer-
tain features in common with that relating to males, but these features are more
accented. In the cotton States a largo proportion of the female wage earners worked
in the fields and was therefore reported as engaged in agriculture, while in the bor-
der States but a small proportion was found there. On the other hand, domestic
service claimed nearly all female wage earners in the border States, but in tho cotton
States a relatively small proportion.

Both the diagrams, and especially the first, show an important feature. In tho
cotton States wage earners were almost entirely either farmers or those engaged in
personal service, but in the States farther north these classes were relatively smaller
and occupations wero somewhat more varied.

OWNERSHIP OF FAP.MS AXD HOMES.

The statistics of farm and home ownership and of mortgage indebtedness of tho
Eleventh Census throw some light upon tho pecuniary condition of tho negro race.

The total number of farms and homes in the country in 1890 was 12,690,152, of
which the negroes occupied 1,410,769, or 11.1 per cent. The proportion of negroes to
the total population was at that time 12.20 per cent, showing a deficiency in the pro-
portion occupying homes and farms when compared with the population.

The number of farms in the country was 4,767,179. Of these 549,642, or 11.5 per
cent, were occupied by negroes, being a proportion greater than that of farms and
homes combined.

The number of homes, as distinguished from farms, in the country was 7,922,973,
of which 861,137, or 10.9 per cent, were occupied by negroes, being a proportion less
than that of farms and homes combined.

Of the 549,632 farms in tho country occupied by negroes 120,738, or 22 per cent,
wero owned by their occupants. The corresponding proportion for whites Avas 71.7
per cent. Of course, as regards tenants, the reverse was the case, the proportions
being for whites 28.3 per cent and for negroes 78 per cent. More than three-fourths
of the farms occupied by negroes were rented ; in other words, more than three-
fourths of the negro fanners were tenants, while less than one-fourth of the white
farmers were tenants.

Of tho farms owned by negroes 90.4 per cent wero without incumbrance. Of those
owned by whites 71.3 were without incumbrance, showing a much larger projjortion
incumbered than among those owned by negroes.

Of 861,137 homes occupied by negroes in 1890, 143,550 were owned by their occu-
pants and 717,587 were rented, tho proportions being 19 per cent and 81 per cent.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1395

Diagram No. 9.

-Proportions of male negro wage-earners engaged in agriculture, personal
service, and other occupations.

Per cent. .

10

20

30 40

SO

CO

70

SO

90

Mississippi

South Carolina

Arkansas

Alabama

North Carolina

Georgia.

Louisiana

Texas

Tennessee

Virginia

Florida

Kentucky.

Maryland

Delaware

West Virginia.-^

Missouri

D i str ict of Columbia

Agriculture;,

Other Occupations.

100

Diagram No. 10. — Proportions of female negro ivage-earners engaged in personal service,

agriculture, and other occupations.

Per cent:

10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 SO SO 100

Delaware <._

Missouri

West Virginia

Maryland.

Kentucky.

District of_Colum8ia._.

Virginia. .

Tennessee

Florida

Georgia.

Texas

North Carolina

Louisiana

Arkansas!

Alabama!

South Carolina —

Mississippi

mmmmmmmm

mwmm\mwmwmmm\\\\

■

H«p mm

\mm$kw\m

msmmsm

mmmww

\Personal Service.

Other Occupations,

1396

EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95.

Corresponding proportions for "whites were 39.4 per cent and 60.6 per cent. Of the
houses owned hy negro occupants 126,264, or 87.7 per cent, were free, and 12.3
incumbered. Corresponding figures for whites were 71.3 and 28.7 per cent, showing,
as hefore, a much greater proportion of free holdings among negroes than among
whites.

Diagrams Nos. 11 and 12 summarize the ahove facts in graphic form. The total
areas of the squares represent the number of farms and homes, respectively, thoso
occupied by whites and negroes, respectively, being represented by the rectangles
into which the squares are divided by horizontal lines. The vertical lines subdivide
these rectangles into others proportional to the numbers occupied by owners without
and with incumbrance, and by renters.

The male negroes occupied in agriculture numbered, in 1890, 1,329,584. Of theso
510,619 occupied farms, the remainder, 818,965, being presumably farm laborers.
The negro fanners — i. e., occupants of farms — constituted 38.3 per cent of the male
negroes engaged in agriculture, leaving 61.7 per cent of the number as laborers. The
corresponding figures for whites were 60.4 per cent and 39.6 per cent. The propor-
tion of negroes engaged in agriculture who were farmers — i. e., occupied farms — was,
therefore, much smaller than that of the whites. In spite of this low comparative
showing, however, it must be agreed that, considering all the attendant circum-
stances, the proportion of negro farm occupants — more than one-third of all negroes
engaged in agriculture — is unexpectedly large.

Summing up the salient points in this paper, it is seen that in the matter of occu-
pations the negro is mainly engaged either in agriculture or personal service. He
has, in a generation, made little progress in manufactures, transportation, or trade.
In these two groups of occupations males are in greater proportion engaged in agri-
culture and females in domestic service. They have, however, during this genera-
tion, made good progress toward acquiring property, especially in tho form of homes
and farms, and, in just so far as they have acquired possession of real estate, it is
safe to say that they have become more valuable as citizens. The outlook for them
is very favorable as agriculturists, but there is little prospect that the race will
become an important factor iu manufactures, transportation, or commerce.

IV.
A STATISTICAL SKETCH OF THE NEGROES IN THE UNITED STATES.

[By Henry Gannett, of the United States Geological Survey.]

From the time of the earliest settlement upon theso shores the United States has
contained two elements of population, the white race and the negro race. Theso
two races have together peopled this country, increasing partly by accessions to their
numbers from abroad and partly by natural increase, until to-day (1894) the white
race numbers probably 61,000,000 and the negroes 8,000,000. _ The history of the lat-
ter race, thus brought into close association with a more civilized and stronger people
for two and three- fourths centuries, is one of surpassing interest. Unfortunately,
however, this history, for the earlier part of the period, is, with the exception of a
few fragments, utterly lost. For the last century, however, since the year 1790, the
date of the first United States census, wo have, at ten-year intervals, pictures of the
distribution of the race and considerable information regarding its social condition.

SLAVE TRADE.

The slave trade flourished actively up to the close of the last century, and indeed
it did not entirely cease until the year 1808. It was mainly in the hands of the
English, including their North American colonies. It was a large and flourishing
business for the shipowners of New England.

Of the number of slaves brought from Africa to this country, either directly or by
way of the West India Islands, we have very little information. Prior to 1788 there
are no records, and since that time the records of the slave trade do not distinguish
between the slaves brought to the United States and those to other parts of America.

Of the number of slaves in this country in colonial times the information is almost
equally scanty, consisting of lit tie more than estimates by different historical writers.
Of these, Bancroft's are perhaps as reliable as any. His estimates of the number of
negroes at different times are as follows :

1750 220, 000

1754 260, 000

1760 310, 000

1770 462, 000

1780 562,000

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO,

1337

Diagram No. 11. — Farms.

Diagram No. 12. — Homes.

OIYNED BY OCCUPANTS WITHOUT INCUMBRANCE.

OWNED WITH INCUMBRANCE.

RENTED.

1398

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

NUMBERS OF EACH RACE.

Iii 1790 wo have the first reliable data regarding the number and distribution of
the negroes. The total number of each race at this and each succeeding decennial
enumeration is shown in the following table :

Census year.

White,

Negro.

Census year.

White.

ZSTe gro. •

1700

3, 172, 006
4,306,446
5, 8G2, 073
7, 862, 166
10, 537, 378
14, 195, 805

757, 208
1, 002, 037

1. 377, 808
1,771,656

2, 328, 642
2, 873, 648

1850

19,553,008
26, 922, 537
33, 589, 377
43, 402, 970
54, 983, 800

3, 638, 808

1800..

1860

4,441,830

1810

1870

4, 8S0, 009

1820

1880

6, 580, 793

1830

1890

7, 470, 040

1810

From this it appears that the whites have increased in a century from a little over
3,000,000 to nearly 55,000,000, and the negroes from three-fourths of a million to
about 7,500,000. The whites were in 1890 nearly eighteen times as numerous as in
1790, the negroes nearly ten times as numerous.

The diagram constituting Plate I presents the samo facts in graphic form. In
each case the total length of the bar is proportional to the total population in the
year indicated. The white portion of each bar represents the white population of
the country, while the shaded portion represents the negro population.

The tables and diagram illustrate the rapid growth of the country in population,
both of its white and its negro element.

PROPORTIONS OF EACH RACE.

The following table shows the proportions in which the total population was
made up of these two elements at each census, expressed in percentages of the total
population :

Census year.

White.

Negro.

Census year.

White.

Negro.

1790

80.73
81.12
80.97
81.61
81.90
83.16

19.27
18. 88
19.03
18.39
18.10
16.84

1850

84.31
85.62
87.11
86.54
87.80

15.69

1S00

1860

14.13

1810

1870

12. G6

1820

1880

13.12

1830

1890

11.93

1840

This table and Plate II show that on the whole the negroes have diminished
decidedly in proportion to the whites. In 1790 they formed 19.27 per cent, or Aery
nearly one-fifth of the whole population. At the end of this century they consti-
tuted only 11.93 per cent, or less than one-eighth of the population. At the end of
the century their proportion was less than two-thirds as large as at the beginning.
Moreover, this diminution in the proportion has been almost unbroken from tho
beginning to the end of the century. Tho proportion of the negroes has apparently
increased in only two out of eleven censuses, namely, in 1810, immediately after tho
cessation of the slave trade, and in 1880. I say apparently, because in the latter
case the increase is only apparent, due to a deficient enumeration of this race in tho
census preceding, namely, that of 1870.

RATES OF INCREASE.

The following table and the diagram accompanying it show tho rates of increase
of the negroes during each of tho ten-year periods for the last century, and placed
in juxtaposition therewith for comparison are tho rates of increase of the whites of
the entire country :

Decade.

Percentage of in-
crease.

Decade.

Percentage of in-
crease.

White.

Negro.

White.

Negro.

1790 to 1800..

35.76
36.12
34.12
34.03
34.72

32.33
37.50
28.59
31.44
23.40

1810 to 1850

37.74
37.69
24.76
29.22
26.68

26.63

1800 to 1810 .

1850 to 1860

22. 07

1810 to 1820

1860 to 1870

9.86

1820 to 1830

1870 to 1880

34.85

1830 to 1840

1880 to 1890

13.51

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF TIIE NEGRO.

1399

This tabic and diagram shew that, with the exception of two ten-year periods,
namely, those from 1800 to 1810 and 1870 to 1880, the negro element has in every case
increased at a less rapid rato than tho white element, and in many cases its rate of
increase lias been very nmeh smaller.

Thus a comparison of the numerical progress of tho negroes with that of tho whites
in tho country, as a whole, shows that tho former have not held their own, hut have
constantly fallen behind. They have not increased as rapidly as tho whites.

It may be said that this is clue to tho enormous immigration which certain parts
of tho country have received, an immigration composecbentirely of whites. This sug-
gestion can easily bo tested. "White immigration on a considerable scale began about
1847. Prior to that time it was not of importance. Wo may then divide tho century
into two equal parts and contrast tho relative rates of increase of tho races during
those half centuries. Between 1790 and 1840 the whites increased 4.5 times, tho
negroes 3.8 times. Tho latter element had diminished in relative importance in this
half century from about one-fifth of the population to one-sixth.

In the succeeding fifty years tho whites had increased 3.9 times, and tho colored
2.6 times only. In other words, tho greater increase of the whites has not been
dependent upon immigration, since their rate of increase was greater than that of
the negroes before immigration set in.

Mates of increase of white and negro population.

P£R Cent.

jo:

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1780-1800
I800-I8IO
I8I0-18Z0
1820-1830
I830-I84O
1840-1850
1350-1860
1860-1870
1870-1880
1880-1890

These figures, and tho conclusions necessarily derived from them, should set at
: s forever all fears regarding any possible conflict between the two races. We
have before us the testimony of a century to show us that the negroes, while in no
danger of extinction, while increasing at a rate probably more rapid than in any
other part of the earth, are yet increasing less rapidly than tho Avhito people of tho
country, and to demonstrate that the latter will become more and more numerically
tho dominant race in America. Whether tho negro will, through an improvement in
his social condition, become of greater iinportaneo relatively to his numbers is a
matter to be discussed later.

CESTTKK OF POPULATION.

The center of population, as it is called, may bo described as the center of gravity
of the inhabitants as they are distributed at the time under consideration, each
inhabitant being supposed to have the same weight and to press downward with a
force proportional to his distanco from this center.

The center of population of all the inhabitants of the United States has been com-
puted for each census. At tho time of the first census, in 1790, the center of popu-
lation was found to bo in Maryland, on tho eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, nearly
opposite Baltimore. Tho general westward movement of population has caused a
corresponding westward movement of this center, such movement following very

1400

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95

Plate I. — Total population and white and negro elements.

10 10 50

Plate II. — Proportion of the negro element to the total population.
0 10 20 Percent

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1401

nearly tholino of tlio thirty-ninth parallel of north latitude. In 1880 the center of
tho total population was found on the south hank of the Ohio River, nearly opposite
Cincinnati, and in 1890 it was found in southern Indiana, 20 miles east of Columbus,
in latitude 39° 12' and in longitude 85° 33'.

The center of tho negro population has been computed in 1880 and in 1890. At the
first of these dates it was found in latitude 34° 42' and in longitude 84° 58'. This
position is iu the northwestern corner of Georgia, not far from Dal ton. In 1890 it
was found to have moved southwestward into latitude 34° 26' and longitude 85° 18',
being not far from tho boundary between Alabama and Georgia and a few miles west
of Rome, Ga. The longitude of the center of the negro population was very nearly
the same as that of the total population, but in latitude it was nearly 5 degrees, or
more than 300 miles, south of it. The positions of the center of total population and
of the negro population in 1880 and in 1890 are shown upon the map which consti-
tutes Plate VI.

Tho movements of the center of population are the net resultant of all the move-
ments of population. During the past decade the negroes have moved in all direc-
tions, north, south, east, and west; but, as indicated by tho movement of the center,
the net resultant of their movements has been toward the southwest. As a whole
this element moved in a southwesterly direction a distance of about 25 miles.

FREE NEGROES AND SLAVES.

Prior to 1870 the negro element, as returned by tho successive censuses, was made
up of two parts, free negroes and slaves. The proportions of these elements differed
at different times, as is shown by the following table :

1790.

1800.

1810.

1820.

1830.

1840.

1850.

1860.

Per cent -which free negroes bore to all negroes

Per cent of all free negroes found in former slave
States

8

55
45

11

56
44

13.5

58
42

13

57
43

14

57
43

13

56
44

12

55
45

11
54

Per cent of all free negroes found in free States

46

From this it appears that the free negroes constituted in 1790 only 8 per cent of all
negroes, that the proportion increased rapidly to 1830, when they constituted not less
than 14 per cent, and from that time the proportion diminished, until in 1860 they
constituted. 11 per cent of all negroes.

Moreover, the proportions of the free negroes found within the slave States and
the free States differed at differeut times. More than half of the free negroes were
found within the former slave States and less than one-half within the free States,
and the proportion of free negroes found in the former slave States ranged from 54
per cent in 1860 to 58 per cent iu 1810.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NEGRO ELEMENT.

Tho negroes are distributed very unequally over the country. While they are
found in every State and Territory and in almost every county of the land, the vast
body of them are found in the Southern States, in those States lying south of Mason
and Dixon's line, the Ohio River, tho northern boundary of Missouri, and westward as
far as Texas and Arkansas. The two maps on Plate III illustrate their distribution,
State by State, over the country. One of these maps shows their density — that is,
the average number in each square mile. It is an absolute measure of their numbers
in different parts of the country. It is seen that they are the most plentiful in
Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina, and Mississippi, and secondarily in North Caro-
lina, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana. On the other hand, in nearly all
the Northern and Western States they are very sparsely distributed, there being in
these States, with scarcely an exception, less than four of them to a square mile, while
in many of them there is less than one to a square mile.

The other map shows the proportion which the negro element bears to the total
population, State by State. This is a measure of its importance relative to the whites.
From this map it is seen that in three States, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Caro-
lina, more than half the people are negroes. Indeed, in South Carolina three out of
every five of tho inhabitants are of this race. It is seen further that in all the States
along the Atlantic and Gulf, from Virginia to Louisiana, together with Arkansas,
more than one-fourth of the people are negroes, while, on the other hand, throughout
the entire North and West the proportion of negroes is less than 5 per cent, and in
many of the States it is less than 1 per cent of the total population.

1402

EDUCATION KEPOET, 1894-95.

PROPORTION OF THE NEGROES IN THE SLAVE STATES.

Tbo distribution of the negro race may be still more closely cbaracterized by the
statement that in 1890 tbere Avere found in tbo former slave States not less tbau 92
per eent of all negroes. Tbis proportion bas differed at different times during the
last century, as is shown in the following table :

Proportion of total negro element comprised informer slave Stales.

Tear.

1700
1800
1810
1820

Per cent.

91
91

P2
93

Tear.

1830
1840
1850
1860

Per cent.

93
94
95
95

Tear.

1870
1880
1890

Percent.

93

From this table it will bo seen that at the commencement of tbis history the former
slave States contained 91 per cent of tbe negroes of the country. As time wore on
tbis proportion increased, until in 1850 and 1860 tbey comprised 95 per cent, or nine-
teen-twentietbs of all, while since that date,i. e., during tbe period of freedom of tbo
race, it bas sbown a sligbt tendency northward, the proportion in the former slavo
States having become reduced, as above stated, to 92 per cent.

THE NEGROES OF THE .SLAVE STATES.

In the above pages the history of tbo negroes has been traced in a broad, general
way, and compared with that of the entire population and tbe white element of the
country. The history is more or less complicated with the results of immigration,
and with other disturbing factors, which have affected mainly the North and West.
"We may now, without serious error, confine our study of the race to tbo Southern
States, the former slaveholding States, in which are found more than nine-tenths of
the whole number of the negroes. The movement of these people from the South
into the North has been inconsiderable, and there has been but little movement of
the whites in either direction across the boundary line between tbe sections. The
South has received little immigration either from tho North or from Europe, and the
emigration from it has been unimportant. So far as emigration and immigration are
concerned, it has been throughout our history almost isolated from the rest of the
w^orld. So we may, without serious error, study tho relations of the whites and blacks
of this region by itself, without reference to other parts of the country.

PROPORTIONS OF THE RACES.

The following table and accompanying diagram (PL IV) show tho proportions in
which the population of this part of the United States was composed at each census
for the past hundred years.

Proportions in which the population of forma- slave States was made up.

Census year.

White.

Negro.

Census year.

AVMte.

Negro.

1790

65
05
63
63
63
C3

1

35
35
37
37
37
37

1850 .
18fi0 .

1870.
1880.
1890.

64
66
68
67
69

36

1800

34

1810

32

1820

3.;

1830

...

1840

It appears from tbe above table that a century ago tbe population of the South
was made up of whites and negroes in the proportions of 65 and 35 per cent, and that
in 1890 the proportions were 69 and 31 per cent. The proportion of negroes increased
from 1780 to 1810, when it reached 37 per cent, leaving only 63 per cent as the pro-
portion of tbe whites, and remained practically stationary for three decades. Since
1840 the proportion of negroes has diminished.

RATES OF INCREASE.

The following table, showing the rates of increase of tho two races for each ten-
year period during the past century, leads to a similar conclusion — that is, that for a
half century the negroes increased more rapidly than the whites, while during the
last half century they have increased less rapidly.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1403

Plate III. — Proportion of negroes to total population in '

White less than 5% I ' 5-25 PI 25-50 W Over 50

1 f ■ i..y/.'YjJ tvtv^^i

Density of negro population in 1S90.

Less than i to sq. m

1404 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Rates of increase of white and negro elements of former slave States.

From-

1790 to 1800
1800 to 1810
181 0 to 1820
1820 to 1830
1830 to 1840

White.

34
30
28
29

27

Negro.

33
39
30
32
24

From-

1840 to 1850
1850 to 186 I
1860 to L870
1870 to 1880
1880 to 1890

White.

34
30
17
33
24

Negro.

27
22
8
34
13

THE NEGROES IN CITIES.

It is well known that as the population of a State or country increases such
increase goes in constantly rising proportion into its cities; in other words, that
urban population increases at a more rapid rate than the total population, especially
after the population Las passed a certain average density. This country presents an
excellent example of this tendency of population toward the cities. At the time of
the first census only 3J per cent of the total population was in cities of 8,000 inhab-
itants or more, while in 1890, a century later, the proportion in cities had increased
to over 29 per cent. The total population of the" country had become very nearly
16 times as great, while its urban element had become 139 times as great. The latter
had increased more than 8 times as rapidly as the former.

Having thus illustrated the general tendency of the people toward cities, it will
be instructive to see how the negroes have behaved in this regard. In measuring
their appetency for urban life I shall consider only the population of the former
slave States, and shall contrast the negro with the white element of those States in
this regard. I shall follow the practice of the Census Office also in considering as
urban the inhabitants of cities of 8,000 or more.

In cities of 8,000 inhabitants or more there were found in 1860 only 4.2 per cent of
the negroes of these States, while of the whites 10.9 per cent were found at that time
in these cities. The violent social changes attendant upon the war produced, among
other results, an extensive migration of negroes to the cities, so that in 1870 the pro-
portion of them found in cities had more than doubled, being no less than 8.5 per
cent, while of the whites there were found 13.1 per cent. In 1880 the proportion of
negroes in cities had diminished to 8.4 per cent, while that of the whites had also
diminished, being 12.4 per cent.

The census of 1890 shows a decided increase in the proportion of each race in the
cities, that of the negroes being 12 per cent, and that of the whites being 15.7 per
cent.

Thus it is seen that the proportion of the negroes in the cities has in every case
been less than that of the whites, but that they have gained upon the whites in this
regard. This gain is, however, very slight and is probably not significant. While
the negro is extremely gregarious and is by that instinct drawn toward the great
centers of population, on the other hand, he is not fitted either by nature or educa-
tion for those vocations for the pursuit of which men collect in cities — that is, for
manufactures and commerce. The inclinations of this race, drawn from its inher-
itance, tend to keep it wedded to the soil, and the probabilities are that as cities
increase in these States in number and size, and with them manufactures and com-
merce develop, the great body of the negroes will continue to remain aloof from them
and cultivate the soil as heretofore.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The geographical environment of the negro has been made a subject of careful
study by the Census Office, and many interesting facts regarding its distribution with
reference to topOgraphv, altitude, rainfall, and temperature have been developed.

It is found that more than 17 per cent of them live in the low, swampy regions of
the Atlantic Coast and in the alluvial region in the Mississippi Valley. This pro-
portion contrasts sharply with that of the total population, of which only 4 per
cent are found iu these regions. Upon the Atlantic plain the proportion of negroes
is also much greater than that of the total population, and, generally speaking, it
may be said that they seek low, moist regions and avoid mountainous country. This
peculiarity of their distribution is brought out more forcibly in their distribution
with reference to elevation above sea level. At an altitude less than 100 feet above
the sea there are found nearly one-fourth of the negroes, while only about one-sixth
of the total population is in these regions. Below 500 hundred feet are found seven-
tenths, while nearly two-fifths of the total population are found at this altitude.
Again, below 1,000 feet there are found 94.5 per cent of all the negroes of the country,
while of the total population there are found only 77 per cent below that altitude.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1405

Plate IV. — Proportion which negroes of former slave states bore to population of those

States.

0

1790 |S

1800 ■

isio m

1820 p~

1830 y

mo m

1850 m

1860 m

10

Per cent
20

1870 |

1880

1890

Plate Va. — Proportion of negroes to total population in 1890.
Per cent. 0 10 20 30 JO 50

1406 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

It is, of course, well known that the negroes prefer higher temperatures than the
white race. A measure of this is given hy the statement that while the total popu-
lation lives, on an average, under a mean annual temperature of 53° F., that under
which the negro lives is, on an average, 61°, or not less than 8° higher. The great
body of the negroes live where the mean annual temperature ranges from 55° to 70°,
very nearly 85 per cent of this element being found within the region thus defined.

Nothing perhaps more sharply characterizes the difference in the habitat of the
negroes and the element of foreign birth than the difference in temperature condi-
tions under which they are found, a difference which may bo characterized by the
following statement : In those regions where the annual temperature exceeds 55- are
found seven-eighths of the negroes. On the other hand, in those regions where the
temperature is less than 55° are found nine-tenths of the foreign born.

Those who are acquainted with the relations between the distribution of popula-
tion and rainfall over the surface of the country are aware that the great body of the
negroes is found in regions of heavy rainfall. Indeed, more than nine-tenths of their
numbers are found where it exceeds 40 inches annually, and more than three-fifths
where it exceeds 50 inches. These figures are greatly in excess of those concerning
the total population.

HISTORY Or TUK NEGRO IX EACH SLAVE STATE.

Thus far the distribution and history of the race have been considered broadly.
It will now be of interest to take up each of the former slave States individually and
trace the history of the race within its limits. This is summarized in the following
table and group of diagrams (PI. V), which present in each of the former slave
States the proportion which the negro element bore to the total population at each
census.

For economy of space the black bars representing the proportions in the diagrams
are not extended to their full length, so the lengths of the bars do not represent the
absolute percentage which the negroes bear to the total population. Since we are
interested mainly in the relative lengths of the different bars of each State, and not
in comparing those of one State with those of another, this is a matter of no
consequence.

In Delaware the proportion of negroes in 1790 was about 22 per cent. This pro-
portion increased gradually until 1840, when it was 25 per cent. Since then it has
diminished, and in 1890 Avas about 17 per cent. In Maryland over one-third of the
population were negroes in 1790. The proportion increased and reached a maximum
in 1810, when it was 38 per cent. Since then it has diminished, and in 1890 was but
21 per cent. In the District of Columbia the proportion of negroes in 1800, the first
year of record, was about 29 per cent. It reached its maximum with 33 per cent in
1810, and from that time steadily diminished until the opening of the civil Avar. In
1860 the proportion was 19 per cent. During the war large numbers of negroes took
refuge within the capital, increasing the proportion to about one-third of the total
population, which ratio has been maintained.

In Kentucky one-sixth of the population were negroes in 1790. The proportion
increased until 1830, when it was about one-fourth of the population, since which
time it has diminished and is at present but 14 per cent.

In Tennessee only one-tenth of tbe population were negroes at the time of the
first census. That proportion steadily increased for 90 years, reaching its maximum
in 1880, when it slightly exceeded one-fourth of the population. In the last ten
years it has diminished a trifle.

The first report of population regarding Missouri was made in 1810. At that time
about one-sixth of the inhabitants were negroes. In 1830 the proportion was slightly
greater. Since then it has diminished rapidly, and in 1890 the negroes constituted
less than 6 per cent of the population.

In the State of Virginia the negroes constituted in 1790 not less than 41 per cent
of the inhabitants, and their proportion increased slightly for twenty years, reach-
ing a maximum in 1810 of over 43 per cent. Since that time it has diminished
steadily, and in 1890 constituted but 27i per cent, taking the States of Virginia and
West Virginia together.

All the above are border States, and all, with the exception of Tennessee and tbe
District of Columbia, show a similar history. They show an increase in the propor-
tion for two, three, or four of the earlier decades, and then a constant and great
diminution in the proportion. The other States show a very different history.
North Carolina, starting with 27 per cent, has increased slowly and with some Blight
oscillations up to 1880, when the proportion reached 38 per cent. In the last decade
it has diminished. South Carolina, starting with 44 per cent, increased her propor-
tion until 1880, when more than three-fifths of the population were negroes. Since
then there has been a trifling diminution. Georgia started with 36 per cent, and with

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGKO.

1407

some Blight oscillations continued to increase until 1880. Within the last ten years
there has been a slight reduction. In Florida the oscillations have been consider-
able. The history commenced with 1830, "when 17 per cent of the population wero
negroes. It reached a maximum of 19 percent at the next census, followed by a
diminution for two decades. Then in 1870 it rose again to 49 per cent, since which
time it has diminished rapidly, especially during the decade between 1880 and 1890.
The history of Alabama commenced in 1820, when one-third of her people were
negroes. The proportion increased tip to 1870, and since then has diminished.
Mississippi's history began in 1800, when 41 percent of her people were nogroes, and
with some slight oscillations the proportion has increased up to the present time.
The history of Louisiana commenced in 1810, when 55 per cent of her population
were negroes. Her history has been a diversified one, the maximum proportion of
this race being reached in 1830, with 59 percent. Since that time it has, on the
whole, diminished, aud in 18H0 half the people of the State were negroes. The
history of Texas began in 1850, when 28 per cent of her people were negroes. Tho
proportion increased for two decades, when it reached 31 per cent. Since that time
it has diminished rapidly, owing largely to immigration to tho central parts of the
State. The history of Arkansas begins in 1820, when a little less than one-eighth
of its people were negroes. Tho proportion has increased almost continuously from
that time to tho present, and in 1890 tho negroes formed 27 per cent of tho total
population.

Thus it is seen that in the cotton States tho proportion of the negro element has in
nearly all cases increased until a very recent time. Indeed, in two or three of them
it has increased up to tho time of tho last census, while in most of them tho only
diminution in tho proportion has occurred during the last ten years. All this indi-
cates in the most unmistakable terms a general southward migration of this race.
As compared with the whites, tho border States have lost in proportion of negroes
for tho past half century, while tho cotton States have continued to gain until very
recently.

Percentage of negroes to total population.

State.

1890.

1S80.

1870.

1860.

1850.

1840.

1830.

1820.

1810.

1800.

1790.

16.85
20.69
32. 80
14.42
24.37
5.61

27.51
34.67
59.85

46.74
42. 40
44.84
57.58
49.99
21.84
27.40

18.04
22.49
33.55
16.46
26.14
6.70

30.85
37.96
60.70
47.02
47.01
47.53
57.47
51. 40
24.71
26.25

IS. 23
22. 40
32.96
16.82
25.61
6.86

31.84
36.56
58.93
46.04
48.84
47.09
53.65
50.10
30.97
25.22

19.27
21.91
19.07
20.44
25.50
10.03

34.39
36.42
58.59
44.05
44.03
45. 40
55.28
49.49
30.27
25.55

22.25
28.32
26.59
22.49
24.52
13.20

37.06
36.36
58.93
42. 44
46.02
44.73
51.24
50.05
27.54
22.73

25.00
32.30
29.87
24. 31
22. 74
15.58

40.23
35. 64
50.41
41.03
48.71
43.26
52.33
55.04

24. 95
34.88
30.81
24.73
21.43
18.33

42.69
35.93
55.63
42. 57

47.06
38.48
48.44
58.54

24. 01
36.12
31.55
22.95
19.00
15.78

43.38
34.38
52. 77
51.41

23.82
38. 22
33.07
20.24
17.52
17.23

43.41
32.24

48.40
42. 40

22.44
36.66
28.57
18. 59
13.16

21.64

34.74

District of Columbia.

17.03

Tennessee

10.59

Virginia and Wesi

41.57

2.i. :;:>
43. 21
37.11

40.86

North Carolina

South Carolina

26.81
43. 72
35.93

Florida

33. 19
44.10
52.01

Mississippi

42. 94
55.18

41.48

20.91

15.52

11.76

DETAILS OF MOVEMENTS OF NEGROES BETWEEif 13S0 AND 1890.

The map ou PI. VI shows the movements of this race in detail during tho ten years
between 1880 and 1890, within tho former slave States. The northern part of Mis-
souri and western Texas arc not represented upon this map, inasmuch as the number
of negroes in these regions is not large.

Tho areas upon this map which have tho darkest shade are thoso in which the
number of negroes has absolutely diminished during the decade in question. Tho
areas in the lightest tint are. those in which tho negroes have increased, but at a rate
less than the increase of the same element in tho country at large. The areas of
medium tint are thoso in which the negroes have increased more rapidly than in tho
country at large.

It is seen at once that the areas in which tho negroes have decreased are mainly
comprised in the northern of theso States, principally in Delaware, Maryland, Vir-
ginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and secondarily in Tennessee and North Carolina.
There are also areas of decrease in Texas aud small areas in the other States, but
these are of little importance in comparison with the great areas of the border
States in which tho number of negroes has actually diminished.

1408

EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95.

Per cent. 0

1790

Per cent. 30
1790

Per cent. 20
1790

Plate V. — Percentage of negroes to total population in
.10 20 30 40

Missouri.

40 40

Kentucky. Virginia & West Virginia.

SO 30 40

Arkansas

exas.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1409

each of the Southern States at each census, 1790 to 1S90.
JO 20 30 20 30 JO

Percent
1790

Louisiana,

Mississippi.

ED 95 45

1410

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

/or

99J

97"

95*

93°

91°

89"

\ Marshall \ f \ o .

ftnafaoo Council Bluffs

67

41

N

E B R

ASK

o Brchen 2) out

o Cu/bertson.

°dh7r'?7h'

Plaffsmnuthy

Nebrashc i .

oJ3eczfrice\

Ottumwa

2 faksburg /pe„[ria

I _B„rUnpl°>i0,' I ^-J Sloom"'9ion

V I JcuJtsonviUe \^

» Jfautej

39°

MAP
OF THE FORMER SLAVE STATES

SHOWING INCREASE AND DECREASE

OF

NEGRO POPULATION.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1411

1412

EDUCATION REPORT,, 1894-95.

On tho other hand, the areas in which the negroes have increased more rapidly
than in the country at largo are found mainly in tho southern parts of South Carolina,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and eastern Texas, with nearly all of Arkansas and
Florida. In other words, the most rapid increase of the raco has been in tho south-
ern and western parts of the region under consideration. There does not appear to
ho any decided movement into the "Black Belt," which traverses the central part of
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Indeed, tho heaviest increase

is south of this region

CONJUGAL CONDITION.

Tho conjugal condition of tho negroes is set forth for the tirst time in the reports
of the Eleventh Census. With the exception of the matter of divorce, it is sum-
marized in the following diagram (PI. VII). This shows the proportion of males and
females at various ages who were single, married, or widowed. It shows that under
1 he age of 15 there are practically no marriages among the race. Between 15 and 20
a small proportion, perhaps about 1 per cent, of males were married and 14 per cent
of tho females. At ages between 20 and 25 a third of the males and nearly three-
lifths of the females were married, and with advancing age a constantly increasing
proportion of both sexes is either married or widowed. It is evident, however, that
the women marry much younger than men. The proportion of widowed first becomes
appreciable between the ages of 20 and 25 years. It increases much more rapidly
among females than among males, and altogether the proportion of widows is many
times greater than that of widowers, showing that many more widowers remarry
than widows, and that they marry largely unmarried women.

Comparison of conjugal statistics of the negroes with those of the whites develops
two points of difference: First, that tho negroes marry younger than the whites;
second, that the proportion of widows at most ages is greater than among whites.
The first of these facts is in accord with the shorter life period of the race; the sec-
ond is a result of the greater death rate of the race.

Statistics of divorce show more frequent severance of conjugal relations among
the negroes than among the whites. The proportion of divorced persons to married
persons in the United States at large among the native whites was 0.59 of 1 per cent,
while among the negroes it was 0.67 of 1 per cent.

MORTALITY.

There is no question but that the rate of mortality among the negro population is
considerably greater than among the whites. It is not easy, however, to obtain an
accurate measure of the relative death rates of the two races. The census statistics
upon this subject are unreliable, since the returns from which they are derived are
by no means complete. "Were the omissions uniformly distributed between the two
races wo might still derive a comparison from them regarding the death rates of the
two races, but unfortunately there is every probability that the omissions are much
greater proportionally among the negroes than among the whites. It is only in a
few large Southern cities which maintain a registration of deaths that reliable figures
are to be had. In these cities the relative death rates during the census year (1890)
are shown in the following table :

Death rate per 1,000.

Total pop-
ulation.

Native
whites.

Negroes.

19
25
28
26

22

17
22
22
19

18

35

Baltimore

36

New Orleans

37

Washington

38

Louisville

32

From these figures it appears that in the large cities the annual death rate of the
negroes is very nearly if not quite double that of tho native whites. It is probable
that in the rural districts the disproportion among the death rates is not as great,
since it is probable that a rural environment is better suited to the negroes than the
environment of a large city. However this may be, there is no reasonable question,
as stated above, that the death rate of the negroes is much larger than that of the
whites.

CRIMINALITY.

The proportion of criminals among the negroes is much greater than among the
whites. The statistics of the last census show that the white prisoners of native
extraction confined in jails at the time the census was taken were in the proportion
of 9 to each 10,000 of all whites of native extraction, while the negro prisoners were

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1413

in the proportion of 33 to each 10,000 of tho negro population. Thus it appears that
the proportion of negroes was nearlj four times as great as for the whites of native
extraction. It should bo added, however, that the commitments of negroes are for
petty offenses in much greater proportion than among the whites.

PAUPERISM.

Iii respect to pauperism, the investigations of tho census have been confined to
paupers maintained in almshouses and have not been extended to those persons
receiving outdoor relief, either permanent or temporary. Tho number of white
paupers of native extraction in almshouses was found to be in the proportion of 8
to every 10,000 whites of native extraction, while the negro paupers were in the
same proportion. Lest these figures should mislead, however, it must be added to
this statement that in the South but little provision is made in the form of alms-
houses for the relief of tho poor, this provision being confined almost entirely to the
northern part of the country, a fact which in itself explains the small proportion of
the negro paupers in almshouses. On the other hand, it is a matter of common
knowledge to any resident of a Southern city that the negroes form a disproportion-
ately large element of the recipients of outdoor charity.

ILLITERACY AND EDUCATION.

Of the progress of the negro race in education, the statistics are by no means as
full and comprehensive as is desirable. Such as we possess, however, go to indicate
a remarkably rapid progress of the raco in the elements of education. During the
prevalence of slavery this race was kept in ignorance. Indeed, generally, through-
out the South it was held as a crime to teach the negroes to read and write, and
naturally when they became freemen only a trifling proportion of them were
acquainted with these elements of education. In 1870, five years after they became
free, the records of the census show that only two-tenths of all the negroes over 10
years of ago in the country could write. Ten years later the proportion had increased
to three-tenths of the whole number, and in 1890, only a generation after they were
emancipated, not less than 43 out of every 100 negroes, of 10 years of ago and over,
were able to read and write. These figures show a remarkably rapid progress in
elementary education.

In 1860 the number of negroes who were enrolled in tho schools of the South was
absolutely trifling. Since the abolition of slavery the number has increased with
the greatest rapidity. This is shown in the following table, which relates only to
the inhabitants of former slave States. The first column shows the proportion which
the number of white children enrolled in the public schools bore to the white popu-
lation, and the second column the proportion which the number of negro children
"in the public schools bore to the total negro population of these States.

White.

Negro.

13.50
18.33
21.92

3.07

1880

13.07

1890

18.71

It is seen from the above table that in 1870 the white pupils constituted 13.5 per
cent of the white population, and that in 20 years this proportion increased to nearly
22 per cent. On the other hand, the negro school children constituted in 1870 only
3 per cent of all negroes, but that in 20 years it has increased to nearly 19 per cent
of all negroes. The proportion of negro school children increased at a far more
rapid rate than that of the white school children, and in 1890 had nearly reached it.

The following table shows the proportion of such enrollment to population in 1890
in each of these states :

Per cent of school enrollment to population in 1S90.

State-

Delaware

Maryland

District of Columbia

Virginia

West Virginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia

Florida

White.

19.12
17.(13
15.24
21.59
25. :•■<
19.79
19.49
21.40
24. 37

Negro.

1G.38
16.69
17.61
19.20
20.04
20.80
16.46
15.51
21.85

Stair.

Kentucky.
Tennessee.
Alabama..
Mississippi
Louisiana .

Texas

Arkansas .
Missouri . .

White.

22.27
•J6. 49
22. 40
27.71
13.43
21. 06
19.98
23.24

Negro.

20.40
23. 58
17.10
24.60

8.82

19. 22
21.76

1414

EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

8

g

<5

S

5

a

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO.

1415

An examination of this table shows that in the District of Columbia, North Car-
olina, and Texas tho proportional enrollment of negroes was greater than that of
the whites, -\vhilo in other States it was less.

The following table shows the rate of increase in tho enrollment in each of those
States from 1880 to 1890 :

State.

!)•. Laware

Maryland

District of Columbia

Virginia

West V irginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

:ia

Florida

White.

r,r cent.
10.75
20.07
27.62
44.44
33.68
29.51
45.64
39.09
98.07

Negro.

Per cent.

108. 42
35.78
67. 34
78.77
59.72
22.97
55.33
53.81

132. 71

State.

Kentucky.
Tennessee.

Alabama . .
Mississippi
Louisiana .

Texas

Arkansas .
Missouri . .

Whit

0.

rer cent.

34.

41

53.

88

66.

99

30.

75

61.

72

179. 30

101.

0?

27

18

Negro.

Per cent.
89.20
05. 5G
53. 52
50.66
42. £6
143.-5
121.29
36.42

From this table it appears that in all excepting four States, namely, North Caro-
lina, Alabama, Louisiana, and Texas, the enrollment of negro children in the public
schools has increased more rapidly than that of the whites.

Summing Tip this article in a paragraph, the following conclusions may be stated:
The negroes, while increasing rapidly in this country, are diminishing in numbers
relative to the whites. They are moving southward from the border States into
those of the south Atlantic and the Gulf. They prefer rural life rather than urban
life. Tho proportion of criminals among the negroes is much greater than among
the whites, and that of paupers is at least as great. In the matter of education, the
number of negro attendants at school is far behind the number of whites, but is
gaining rapidly upon that race.

Only one generation has elapsed since the slaves were freed. To raise a people
from slavery to civilization is a matter, not of years, but of many generations. Tho
progress which the race has made in this generation in industry, morality, and edu-
cation is a source of the highest gratification to all friends of the race, to all except-
ing those who expected a miraculous conversion.

MEMORIAL SKETCH OF JOHN F. SLATER.

John Fox Slater, of Norwich, Conn., who gave a generous fund to promote the
education of tho freedmen, was a quiet, thoughtful, well-trained man of business,
who rose by industry, sagacity, and prudence to the possession of a fortune. His
chief occupation through life was tho manufacturing of cotton and woolen goods in
Connecticut and Rhode Island. In recent years, as his means increased, he was
interested in many enterprises, some of them established iu New York and others in
tho West. He was a close observer of the social, political, and religious progress
of the country, and a frequent, unostentatious contributor to benevolent undertak-
ings, especially such as were brought to his attention in the town where ho resided
and in the church which he attended. From all positions which made him conspic-
uous ho was inclined to withdraw himself, and ho probably underrated the influence
which ho might have exerted by tbe more public expression of his opinions; but
Avhenever he did participate in public affairs he showed the same independence,
sagacity, and resolution which marked the conduct of his business. Under these
circumstances the story of his life is simply that of a privato citizen who was faith-
ful to the responsibilities which devolved upon him, and who gradually acquired
the means to contribute liberally toward tho welfare of others. Notwithstanding the
well-known unwillingness of Mr. Slater to attract the attention of the public, those
who are concerned in the administration of his trust desire to put on record the
characteristics of his long and useful life.

For three generations tho Slater family has been engaged, either in England or the
United States, in the improvement of cotton manufactures. Their English home
was afc Belper, Derbyshire, where William Slater, a man of considerable property,
the grandfather of John F. Slater, resided more than a hundred years ago, until his
death in 1782. At Belper and at Mil ford, not far from Helper, Jedediah Strutt was
engaged as a partner of Sir Richard Arkwright, in the business of cotton spinning,
then just becoming one of the great branches of industry in England.

Samuel Slater, fifth son of William Slater, was apprenticed to Mr. Strutt, and near
the close of his service was for some years general overseer of tho mill at Milford.
Having completed his engagement he came to this country in 1789, and brought with

1416 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

4

him such an accurate knowledge of tlio business of cotton spinning, that without
any -written or printed descriptions, without diagrams or models, he was able to
introduce tbe entire series of machines and processes of the Arkright cotton manu-
facture in as perfect a form as it then existed in England. He soon came iuto rela-
tions with Moses Brown, of Providence, and through him with his son-in-law and
his kinsman, William Almy and Smith Brown. With the persons last named ho
formed the partnership of Almy, Brown & Slater. For this linn Samuel Slater
devised machinery and established a mill for the manufacture of cotton, at Paw-
tucket, R. I., in the year 1790, but as this proved an inadequate enterprise, he con-
structed a larger mill at the same place in 1793.

A few years later, about 1804, at the invitation of his brother Samuel, John Slater,
a younger son of William, came from England and joined his brother in Rhode
Island. The villago of Slatersville, on a branch of the river Blackstone, was pro-
jected in 1806, and here until the present time the Slaters have continued the manu-
facture of cotton goods.

John F. Slater, son of John and nephew of Samuel, was born in the village just
named, in the town of Smithfield, R. I., March 4, 1815, and received a good educa-
tion in the academies of Plainfield, in Connecticut, and of Wrentham and Wilbra-
ham, in Massachusetts. At the age of 17 (in connection with Samuel Collier) he
began to manage his father's woolen mill at llopeville, in Griswold, Conn., and there
he remained until he became of age. In 1836 he took full charge of this factory,
and also of a cotton mill at Jewett City, another villago of the same town, where he
made his home. Six years later he removed to Norwich, with which Jewett City
was then connected by railway. Here he married, May 13, 1844, a daughter of Amos
H. Hubbard, and here his six children were born. Only two of them, the eldest aud
the youngest, a daughter and a son, survived the period of infancy, and of these the
son alone is living. Norwich continued to be Mr. Slater's home until ho died there,
at the beginning of his seventieth year, May 7, 1884.

Before his last great gift, Mr. Slater made generous contributions to religious and
educational enterprises. He was one of the original corporators of the Norwich
Free Academy, to which he gave at different times more than $15,000. To the con-
struction of the Park Congregational Church, which he attended, ho gave the sum
of $33,000, and subsequently a fund of $10,000, the income of which is to keep the
edifice in repair. At the time of his death he was engaged in building a public
library in Jewett City, which will soon be completed, at a cost of $16,000. His pri-
vate benefactions and his contributions to benevolent societies were also numerous.
During the war his sympathies were heartily with the Union, and he was a large
purchaser of the Government bonds when others doubted their security.

Some years before his death, Mr. Slater formed the purpose of devoting a large
sum of money to the education of the freedmen. It is believed that this humane
project occurred to him, without suggestion from any other mind, in view of the
apprehensions which all thoughtful persons felt, when, after the war, the duties of
citizenship were suddenly imposed upon millions of emancipated slaves. Cert^;aly,
when he begau to speak freely of his intentions, he had decided upon the u^iount of
his gift and its 6cope. These were not open questions. He knew exactly what ho
wished to do. It was not to bestow charity Tipon the destitute, nor to encourage a
few exceptional individuals; it was not to build churches, schoolhouses, asylums, or
colleges; it was not to establish one strong institution as a personal monument; it
was, on the other hand, to help the people of the South in solving the great problem
which had been forced upon them, how to train, in various places and under differ-
ing circumstances, those who have long been dependent, for the duties belonging to
them now that they are free. This purpose was fixed. In respect to the best mode
of organizing a trust, Mr. Slater sought counsel of many experienced persons — of
the managers of the Peabody educational fund in regard to their work; of lawyers
and those who had been in official life, with respect to questions of law and legisla-
tion ; of ministers, teachers, and others wrho have been familiar with charitable and
educational trusts, or who were particularly well informed in respect to the condi-
tion of the freedmen at the South. The results of all these consultations, which
were continued during a period of several years, wTere at length reduced to a satis-
factory form, and were embodied in a charter granted to a board of trustees by the
State of New York, in the spring of 1882, and in a carefully thought-out and care-
fully written letter, addressed to those who were selected to administer the trust.

The characteristics of this gift were its Christian spirit, its patriotism, its munifi-
cence, and its freedom from all secondary purposes or hampering conditions. In
broad and general terms, the donor indicated the object which he had in view; the
details of management he left to others, confident that their collective wisdom and
the experience they must acquire would devise better modes of procedure, as the
years go on, than any individual could propose in advance. * * *

On the 18th of May, 1882, Mr. Slater met the board of trustees in the city of New
York and transferred to them the sum of $1,000,000, a little more than half of it

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1417

beino- already invested, and the remainder being cash, to be invested at the discre-
tion of the board. On that occasion the trustees addressedhim a letter acknowl-
edging his generosity, and they invited him always to attend their meetings ; hut he
never met with them again, and deelined to guide in any way their subsequent

action. . „ ., , „

The gift of Mr. Slater was acknowledged by expressions of gratitude ironi every
part of'the country, and especially from those who were watching with anxiety the
future of tho blacks. The echoes of gratitude came also from distant lands.
Henceforward, in the annals of Christian philanthropy, the name of John F. Slater
will bo honored among those who have given wisely, freely, aud in their lifetime,
to enlighten tho ignorant and to lift up the depressed.

MEMOIR.

[By Rev. Dr. S. H. Howe, pastor of the Park Church, Norwich, Conn.]

Mr. John Fox Slater, founder of the fund that bears his name, was born in Rhode
Island. March 4, 1815. His family came a generation before from England, and was
identiiied with manufacturing interests in the countries both of its birth and its
adoption. He who was to be associated in the public mind with industrial education
amono- one of tho races on the continent was born to the inheritance of a name which
has held high eminence for its relation to industrial progress. One of his near rela-
tives has been called the ''father of American manufactures." Family tradition and
family prominence along these lines early determined for him the career of a manu-
facturer, by which ho laid the foundations of the fortune which he ultimately
amassed. Ho early developed rare business aptitudes, as was evidenced by the
intrustment to him of one of the mills of his father at the age of 17. From this early
period he continued in tho career of a manufacturer until his death, maintaining and
enlarging the plant covered by his sole ownership not only, but also identified with
other large manufacturing corporations as shareholder and director. Starting from
the solid foundation of a good academical education, he found in business life a train-
ing and discipline which fitted him to grapple, with the hand of a master, with the
largest questions in business and finance, and to achieve success where others failed.
Hehad largo experience in business life, and developed rare powers for the grasp of
its intricate problems. His business successes were not due to the chances of trade,
or the fluctuations of values, or to the daring and the ventures of speculation, but
were the fruit of the sagacious and alert use of the opportunities which were in his
own as in other men's reach. He possessed profound insight and exhaustive knowl-
edge of affairs and men, with mental grasp and business training, some have believed,
sufficient to have wisely controlled the financial interests of a nation. His judgment
and counsel were sought by great corporations in the management of enterprises and
industries which represented large investments and a vast outlay of capital. It is
not strange that his ventures were so largely successful, and that his failures and
losses were exceptioual and rare.

Then his sagacity in business, which amounted to genius, was allied to honorable
methods aud to inflexible business integrity. Few men have had an aversion so
severe and uncompromising to unfairness and to doubtful practices. His opportuni-
ties for speculation were many, but ho carefully held himself aloof from all but the
legitimate channels of trade. He gathered fortune by honorable methods — a fact of
some significance to those who handle his munificent trust, and a significant fact to
those who are helped to manhood and culture by it. The hands which created this
noble foundation were clean hands.

Mr. Slater, as may be inferred from what has been said, was a man of wide intelli-
gence, peculiarly receptive and hospitable to truth. To his strong Puritan sense of
right and devotion to principle, he added that larger interest in the world and the
age in which he lived, which gives scope and' breadth to thought, and defends against
mere local and provincial sympathies. And yet he was a public-spirited citizen in
his adopted city, jealous of its good name, generous toward its charities. Toward
his country he was patriotic and loyal, interested in its politics and its legislation.

He was a man of strong, pronounced personality; of fine fiber and of genuine
manliness — a gentleman by instinct and training and habit; reserved and self-
respecting, though genuinely sympathetic toward and accessible to all classes of
men. He was sensitive concerning and deeply averse to that adulation which goes
after great fortune for its own sake. It is the testimony of a friend who saw him
most frequently through a long period of years and shared his confidence in a larger
sense than others that in all his intercourse with him he had not heard a sentence
that suggested the pride of fortune. He wished to be estimated for what he was
and not for what he possessed. And this rule governed him in the estimate which
he placed upon others. He was modest and unostentatious to the last degree. While

ED 95 45*

1418 EDUCATION REPORT, 1804-95.

lie was touched and gratified by tlio honor which came to him in connection with
his great gift to benevolence, ho did nothing to invoke it or to stimulato it. Ho
remained amidst it all the same quiet, reserved, unostentatious citizen. He was to
those who knew him well a most delightful and resourceful conversationalist. Ilia
breadth of view, his versatility, his familiar acquaintance with affairs and men, with
questions of finance, politics, and religion, his taste for art, his knowledge of the
world gained from travel, made his companionship delightful to those who shared it.

His interest in and gifts to benevolence antedated his later beneficence. Great
gifts are never a bit of pure extemporization. Great things are not done on the
spur of the moment. Those who develop unexpected resources on great occasions
or show themselves capable of conspicuous sacrifices or services havo had in advance
their rehearsals. The noblest philanthropies are not extemporized or wrung forcibly
from their authors by the stern importunity of death. Even legacies havo generally
a background of practical benevolence. Mr. Slater has given wisely and generously
to objects that commended themselves to him. Many of these gifts were in the
public eye, but it is the testimony of his nearest friends that ho gave with larger
liberality than the public could bo aware of, with simplicity, and without ostenta-
tion, responding to cases of distress and suffering generously, but in such fashion as
to conceal the giving hand.

But the conspicuous act of his life with which the public had most concern is of
course the creation of the foundation for industrial education among the freedmen.
Much that had gone before in his life had been leading up to this princely gift. He
had always manifested a profound interest in education, had given largely, and had
projected generous measures for educational work in the community, which, how-
ever, were yielded in tho interest of his larger purpose. His interest in local educa-
tion has been most worthily commemorated by tho splendid memorial building
erected in his honor by his son in connection with tho Norwich Freo Acatlemy. Mr.
Slater realized, and as his fortune grew was oppressed with, the sense of the respon-
sibility of wealth, and planned long in advance to give in bulk to some worthy object
of benevolence; and he resolved to executo this purpose in life rather than by
bequest. The issues of the great civil war which unloosed the fetters of the slave,
but which did not qualify him for the responsible duties of citizenship, gave Mr.
Slater his great opportunity. He thought this problem through. He had been
loyal, patriotic, and generous in his gifts when the struggle was upon the nation,
and he rejoiced in the successful outcome ; but here was a new field and an unlimited
opportunity which ho resolved to appropriate. His plan originated wholly and
without suggestion from others with himself, and was elaborated to its minutest
detail in advance of its publicity. Standing at this distance and looking through
the experimental test of more than a decade of its working, it is impossible to resist
the conviction that it was statesmanlike, patriotic, and Christian in its conception
and spirit. Mr. Slater was wise to see what we have been learning, that tho exigent
want for tho emancipated race was practical and industrial education. The higher
education has its offices to take in exceptional instances, but for the masses of the
race, so long submerged and held down to the low levels of intelligence where
emancipation found it, the wisest, most practical, and resnltful plan for its elevation
was that devised by the founder of this educational fund. It was the instinct of
patriotism and of practical statesmanship to go to the weakest spot in the body
politic to strengthen it, as it was the impulse of Christian thought to place tho
ladder of ascent within reach of the foot of tho lowest man, who waa most hopeless
of self-recovery. Perhaps this is occasion for surprise. Mr. Slater might have been
patrician in his sympathies, exclusive and reserved in his associations. Ho had
aptitudes and opportunities for aloofness from other than the privileged classes; ho
might havo been exclusive iu his sympathies rather than inclusive. But his sym-
pathies swept him around to the opposite pole from that on which he stood. Ho
crossed the whole diameter of society to find the lowest groove in our social and
national life that he might do this conspicuous act of beneficence to the poorest of
this nation's poor. Such examples of wise beneficence, which express the sympathy
of the privileged for the unprivileged classes, do much to lighten tho strain of self-
government iu a nation like ours. They do much to allay tho antagonisms of society
and to bridge tho chasm which opens between those zones of enormous wealth ou
the one hand and a, degrading poverty which are drawn across the map of our modern
life. When wealth consents after this fashion to reach out helping hands toward
the nation's poor and gives aid toward self-help, then many of the perplexing prob-
lems of modern socialism will be solved.

The wisdom of this foundation in its iuteut and aim can not easily be overstated.
Not to create the conspicuous institution, that by concentration of forces focuses
the public eye upon the giver, but rather and more wisely to distribute aid over a
wide area, among a score or more of institutions; not to do the premature thing of
providing foundations for university training for which the race has and for gener-
ations will have such scant preparation, but rather to make provision for training

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1419

along those practical and industrial Hues, which is the exigent need, in order to self-
help toward the creation of tlio home and an ordered life in the- social community.
The verdict of his fellow- workers in this held of philanthropic effort, after watching
the experiment for a decade, is "Well done, good and faithful servant," and wo may
well believe that in these words we hear a higher verdict than man's.

The reflex influence of Mr. Slater's beneficence, we are persuaded, has been great.
We can not estimate the good wo do when wo do good. The effect of this splendid
beneficence in stimulating philanthropic enterprise, passing as it has into the cur-
rency of popular thought as a quietening inspiration, its impetus to the noble army
of workers for the uplifting of tho race, has been enormous. Its inspiration and
influence upon this greatest decade of giving in all the history of the world has been
immense we are confident. Other millions have gotten into tho wake of this one;
and we believe other men to whom God has given great wealth, and into whoso
hearts the passion of the cross has been poured, are to be moved by it to the break-
ing of their costly boxes of alabaster in tho presence of tho world's Christ. Such
men are and are to be the saving and tho enduring forces of the world. They may
disappear from tho eye; they ccaso to bo seen as visible personalities, but they be-
come immortal in tho world as quickening influences. They walk in uncrowned
regality through the ages. Their gifts, their lives, will bo reduplicated as they
spread* by contagion the spirit of philanthropy among men; passing for a sort of
fresh incarnation into the minds and hearts of others, Avho catch their spirit, and go
to spread it and give it fresh forms and embodiments. Over such lives even death
can have no power.

Mr. Slater only lived to see tho genesis of the work ho did, and of tho forces he
started in the world. His great gift, at that time almost an unprecedented one,
awakened wide-spread interest. Tho news spread over the land and was borne
across the sea. Hundreds of letters congratulatory and appreciative poured in upon
him. His friends gave expression to their admiration. His city, to whose name his
beneficence had imparted a fresh eminence and fame, made him aware of her appre-
ciation of the honor he had bestowed upon her; but amid it all ho remained the
same unostentatious, quiet citizen — grateful and appreciative of the honor which
had come to him, but accepting it rather as an unreckoned-upon accompaniment of
his unselfish act. Ho remained in the routine of his accustomed business, and in tho
fellowship of friends and neighbors, as if he had only done a duty or accepted a
privilege which lay in the path of his accustomed living. Two years later the fatal
disease laid its hand upon him, when in the faith of a Christian ho girded himself
to go unto his Father's house. To many of us it was the summons to the presence
of Him who was and is ever the Supremo Friend of tho poor aud the lowly, to hear
His commendation: "In as much as ye have done these things unto tho least of these,
ray brethren, ye have done them unto me. Enter into tho joy of thy Lord."

VI.

DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE ORIGIN AND WORK OF THE SLATER

TRUSTEES, 1882 TO 1894.

Charter from the State of New York, approved April 28, 1882.
AX ACT to incorporate the trustees of the Jolm P. Slater fund.

Whereas Messrs. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, Morrison R. Waite, of the Dis-
trict of Columbia, William E. Dodge,*of New York, Phillips Brooks, of Massachu-
setts, Daniel C. Oilman, of Maryland, John A. Stewart, of New York, Alfred II.
Colquitt, of Georgia, Morris K. Jesup, of New York, Jame3 P. Boyce, of Kentucky,
and William A. Slater, of Connecticut, have, by their memorial, represented to the
senate and assembly of this State that a letter has been received by them from John
F. Slater, of Norwich, in the State of Connecticut, of which the following is a copy:

[Hero tho letter printed below is inserted.]

And whereas said memorialists have further represented that they are ready to
accept said trust and receive and administer said fund, provided a charter of incor-
poration is granted by this State, as indicated in said letter; now, therefore, for tho
purpose of giving full effect to the charitable intentions declared in said letter;

The people of the State of New York, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as
follows :

Sec. 1. Rutherford B. Hayes, Morrison R. Waite, William E. Dodge, Phillips
Brooks, Daniel C. Oilman, John A. Stewart, Alfred H. Colquitt. Mollis K. .Jesup,
James P. Boyce, and William A. Slater are hereby created a body politic and cor-
porate by the name of Tho Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, and by that name
shall have perpetual succession ; said original corporators electing their associates

1420 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

and successors, from time to time, so that the whole number of corporators may be
kept at not less than nine nor more than twelve.

Said corporation may hold and manage, invest and reinvest, all property which
may be given or transferred to it for the charitable purposes indicated in said letter,
and shall, in so doing, and in appropriating the income accruing therefrom, conform
to and bo governed by the directions in said letter contained; and such property
and all investments and reinvestments thereof, excepting real estate, shall, while
owned by said corporation and held for the purposes of said trust, be exempt from
taxation of any .and every nature.

Sec. 2. Rutherford B. Have-;, of Ohio, shall be the first president of the corpora-
tion, and it may elect such other officers and hold such meetings, whether within or"
without this State, from time to time, as its by-laws may authorize or x>rescribe.

Sec. 3. Said corporation shall annually file with the librarian of this State a printed
report of its doings during the preceding year.

Sec. 4. This act shall take effect immediately.

Letter of the founder.

To Messrs. Rutherford R.Hayes, of Ohio; Morrison R. "VVaite, of the District of
Columbia; William E. Dodge, of New York; Phillips Brooks, of Massachusetts;
Daniel C. Oilman, of Maryland; John A. Stewart, of New York; Alfred A. Col-
quitt, of Georgia; Morris K. Jesup, of New York; James P. Boyce, of Kentucky,
and William A. Slater, of Connecticut.

Gentlemen : It has pleased God to grant me prosperity in my business, and to put
it into my power to apply to charitable uses a sum of money so considerable as to
require the counsel of wise men for the administration of it.

It is my desire at this time to appropriate to such uses the sum of $1,000,000; and
I hereby invite you to procure a charter of incorporation under which a charitable
fund may be held exempt from taxation, and under which you shall organize; and
I inteud that the corporation, as soon as formed, shall receive this sum in trust to
apply the income of it according to the instructions contained in this letter.

The genera] object which I desire to have exclusively pursued, is the uplifting of
the lately emancipated population of the Southern States, and their posterity, by
conferring on them the blessings of Christian education. The disabilities formerly
suffered by these people, and their singular patience and fidelity in the great crisis
of the nation, establish a, just claim on the sympathy and good will of humane and
patriotic men. I can not but feel the compassion that is due in view of their pre-
vailing ignorance, which exists by no fault of their own.

But it is not only for their own sake, but also for the safety of our common country
in which they have been invested with equal political rights, that I am desirous to
aid in providing them with the means of such education as shall tend to make them
good men and good citizens — education in which the instruction of the mind in the
common branches of secular learning shall be associated with training in justnotions
of duty toward God and man, in the li.nht of the Holy Scriptures.

The means to be used in the prosecution of the general object above described I
leave to the discretion of the corporation, only indicating as lines of operation
adapted to the present condition of things, the training of teachers from among the
people requiring to be taught, if, in the opinion of the corporation, by such limited
selection the purposes of the trust can be best accomplished ; and the encouragement
of such institutions as are most effectually useful in promoting this training of
teachers.

I am well aware that the work herein proposed is nothing new or untried. And
it is no small part of my satisfaction in taking this share in it that I hereby asso-
ciate myself with some of the noblest enterprises of charity and humanity, and may
hope to encourage the prayers and toils of faithful men and women whohaAre labored
and are still laboring in this cause.

I wish the corporation which you are invited to constitute to consist at no time of
more than twelve members, nor of less than nine members for a longer time than
may bo required forthe convenient filling of vacancies, which I desire to be filled by
the corporation, and, when found practicable, at its next meeting after the vacancy
may occur.

I designate as the first president of the corporation the Hon. Rutherford B. Hayes,
of Ohio. I desire that it may have power to provide from the income of the fund,
among other tilings, for expenses incurred by members in the fulfillment of this
trust and for the expenses of such officers and agents as it may appoint, and, gener-
ally, to do all such acts as may be necessary for carrying out the purposes of this
trust. I desire, if it may be. that the corporation may have full liberty to invest
its funds according to its own best discretion, without reference to or restriction by

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1421

any laws or rules, legal or equitable, of any nature, regulating the mode of invest-
ment of trust funds; only I wish that neither principal nor income be expended in
land or buildings for any other purpose than that of safe and productive investment
for income. And I hereby discharge the corporation and its individual members, so
far as it is in my power so to do, of all responsibility, except for (he faithful admin-
istration of this trust according to their own honest understanding and best judg-
ment. In particular, also, I -wish to relieve them of any pretended claim on tho
part of any person, party, sect, institution, or locality, to benefactions from this
fund that may be put forward on any ground whatever, as I wish every expenditure
to bo determined solely by the convictions of the corporation itself as to the most
useful disposition of its gifts.

I desire that the doings of tho corporation each year be printed and sent to each
of the State libraries in the United States, and to the Library of Congress.

In case the capital of the fund should become impaired, I desire that a part of the
income, not greater than one-half, be invested, from year to year, until the capital be
restored to its original amount.

I purposely leave to the corporation the largest liberty of making such changes in
tho methods of applying the income of the fund as shall seem from time to time best
adapted to accomplish the general object herein denned. But being warned by the
history of such endowments that they sometimes tend to discourage rather than
promo'te effort and self-reliance on the part of beneficiaries; or to inure to the
advancement of learning instead of the dissemination of it; or to become a conven-
ience to the rich instead of a help to those who need help, I solemnly charge my
trustees to use their best wisdom in preventing any such defeat of the spirit of this
trust, so that my gift may continue to future generations to be a blessing to the poor.

If at any time after the lapse of thirty-three years from the date of this foundation
it shall appear to the judgment of three-fourths of the members of this corporation
tli.it, by reason of a change in social conditions, or by reason of adequate and equi-
table public provision for education, or by any other sufficient reason, there is no
further serious need of this fund in tho form in which it is at first instituted, I
authorize the corporation to apply the capital of the fund to tho establishment of
foundations subsidiary to then already existing institutions of higher education, in
such wise as to make the educational advantages of such institutions more freely
accessible to poor students of the colored race.

It is my wish that this trust be administered in no partisan, sectional, or sectarian
spirit, but in the interest of a generous patriotism and an enlightened Christian faith ;
and that the corporation about to be formed may continue to be constituted of men
distinguished either by houorable success in business, or by services to literature,
education, religion, or the State.

I am encouraged to the execution in this charitable foundation of a long-cherished
purpose by the eminent wisdom and success that has marked tho conduct of the
Peabody education fund in afield of operation not remote from that contemplated
by this trust. I shall commit it to your hands, deeply conscious how insufficient is
our best forecast to provide for the future that is known only to God, but humbly
hoping that the administration of it may be so guided by divine wisdom as to be in
its turn an encouragement to philanthropic enterprise on the part of others, and an
enduring means of good to our beloved country and to our fellow-men.
I have the honor to be, gentlemen, your friend and fellow-citizen,

John F. Slater.

Norwich, Conn., March 4, 1882.

Letter of the trustees accepting the gift.

New York, May 18, 1882.
John F. Slater, Esq., Norwich, Conn.:

The members of the board of trustees whom you invited to take charge of the
fund which you have devoted to the education of the lately emancipated people of
the Southern States and their posterity, desire, at the beginning of their work, to
place on record their appreciation of your purpose, and to congratulate you on hav-
ing completed thiswise and generous gift at a period of your life when you may hope
to observe for many years its beneficent influence.

They wish especially to assure you of their gratification in being called upon to
administer a work so noble and timely. If this trust is successfully managed, it
may, like tho gift of (.'eorge Feabody, lead to many other benefactions. As it tends
to remove the ignorance of large numbers of those who have a vote in public affairs,
it will promote the welfare of every part of our country, and your generous action will
receive, as it deserves, the thanks of good men and women in this and other lands.

Your trustees unite in wishing you long life and health, that you may have the
satisfaction of seeing the result of your patriotic forecast.

1422 EDUCATION REPORT, 1S94-95.

The thanks of Congress.

JOIXT EESOLITTIOX of the Senate and ITouso of Representatives of the United States, approved

February C, 1883.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Rcjireseniativcs of the United States of America in
Congress assembled, That the thanks of Congress be, and they hereby are, presented
to John F. Slater, of Connecticut, for his great heneheence in giving the largo sum
nt -1,000,000 for the purpose of "uplifting the lately emancipated population of tlio
Sim t hern States and their posterity by conferring on them the blessings of Christian
education."

Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of tho President to cause a gold medal to be struck
with suitable devices and inscriptions, which, together with a copy of this resolu-
tion, shall bo presented to Mr. Slater in the name of the people of the United States.

JOIXT RESOLUTION" of the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, approved

April 9, 1S9G.

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United Stales of America in
Congress assembled, That the sum of one thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may
be needed, is hereby appropriated out of any moneys in tho Treasury not otherwise
appropriated, to delray the cost of the medal ordered by public resolution numbered
six, approved February sixth, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, to be presented to
John F. Slater, of Connecticut, then living, but now deceased.

Sec. 2. That said medal and a copy of the original resolution aforesaid shall bo
presented to the legal representatives of said John F. Slater, deceased.

By-laws adopted May IS, 1882, and amended from time to time.

1. The officers of the board shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary, and
a treasurer, chosen from tho members. These officers shall serve until death, resigna-
tion, or removal for cause, and vacancies, when they occur, shall be filled by ballot.

2. There shall be appointed at each annual meeting a finance committeo and an
executive committee. The finance committee shall consist of three, and the execu-
tive committee of five, the president of the board being, ex officio, one of the live.

3. There shall also be an educational committeo consisting of six persons, three of
whom shall be appointed by tho board and three of whom shall bo ex officio members,
to wit, the president, the treasurer, and the secretary of the board.

4. Tho annual meeting of the board shall be held at such place in the city of New
York as shall be designated by tho board, or the president, on tho second Wednesday
in April in each year. Special meetings may bo called by the president or tho execu-
tive committee at such times and places as in their judgment may be necessary.

5. A majority of the members of the board shall bo a quorum for the transaction
of business.

G. In case of the absence or disability of the president, the vice-president shall
perform his duties.

7. The secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of tho board, which shall
be annually published for geueral distribution.

8. The executive committee shall be charged with the duty of carrying out the
resolutions and orders of tho board as the same are from time to time adopted. Three
shall constitute a quorum for business.

9. The finance committeo, in connection with the treasurer, shall have charge of
the moneys and securities belongiug to the fund, with authority to invest and reinvest
tho moneys and dispose of the securities at their discretion, subject, however, at all
times to tho instructions of tho board.

All securities belonging to tho trust shall stand in the name of "the trustees of
the John F. Slater fund," aud bo transferred only by the treasurer when authorized
by a resolution of the finance committee.

10. The secretary of tho board shall be, ex officio, secretary of tho executive
committee.

11. In case of the absence or disability of tho treasurer, the finance committee
shall have power to fill the vacancy temporarily.

12. Vacancies in the board shall be filled by ballot, and a vote of two-thirds of all
the members shall be necessary for an election.

13. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual or special meeting by
a vote of two-thirds of all the members of the board.

SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEG

1423

Members of the board.

Name.

APPOINTED.

Rutherford B.Hayes, of Ohio

Morrison R. Waite, of the District of Columbia..

William E. Dodge, of New York

Phillips Brooks, of Massachusetts

Daniel C. Oilman, of Maryland

John A. Slew art, of New York

Alfred H. Colquitt, of Georgia

is K. Jesup, of New York

James 1'. Boyce, <o' Kentucky

"William A. Slater, of Connecticut

ELE'

William E.Dodge, jr., of New York

Melville W. Fuller, of the District of Columbia..

,T(i!ni A. Broadus, of Kentucky

Henry C. Potter, of New York

J. L. M. Carry, of the District of Columbia

"William J. Northen, of Georgia

Ellison Capers, of South Carolina

C. B. Galloway, of Mississippi

Alexander E.'Orr, of New York

1882

1882
1 882
1882

1882

1882
1882

1SS3

1880
1880
1891
1894
1894
1894
1895

].'< igned

or died.

I 388
*1883

i 1 -IS:)

L894
V1888

a 895

11895

*Died in office.

t Resigned.

Prom 1882 to 1891 the general agent of the trust was Eev. A. G. Haygood, D. D.,
of Georgia, who resigned the office when lie became a bishop of the Methodist Epis-
copal Church South. Since 1891 the duties of a general agent have been discharged
by Dr. J. L. M. Curry, of "Washington, D. C, chairman of tho educational com-
mittee.

Remarks of I' re-si dent Hayes on the death of Mr. Slater.

Gentlemen of Hie Board of Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund :

Our first duty at this the fifth meeting of the trustees of the John F. Slater fund
for the education of freedmen is devolved upon us by tho death, since our last meet-
ing, of the founder of this trust.

John F. Slater died early Wednesday morning, tho 7th of May last, at his homo in
Norwich, Conn., at the ago of 69. Ho had suffered severely from chronic complaints
for several months, and his death was not a surprise to his family or intimate friends.

Two of the members of this board of trustees, Mr. Morris K. Jesup and myself,
had the melancholy privilege of representing the board at the impressive funeral
services of Mr. Slater at his home, at tho Congregational Church, and at the cemetery
in Norwich, on tho Saturday following his death.

"When ho last met this board, his healthful appearance and general vigor gave
promise of a long and active life. It was with great confidence that wo then ex-
pressed to him our conviction that his wise and generous gift for the education of
the emancipated people of the South and their posterity was made at a period of
his life when ho might reasonably hope to observe during many years its beneficent
influence. But in the providence of God it has been otherwise ordered, and the life
which we fondly wished would last long enough to yield to him tho satisfaction of
seeing the results of his patriotic forecast has been brought to a close.

He had a widely extended and well-earned reputation for ability, energy, integrity,
and success as a manufacturer and as a man of affairs, lie was a philanthropist, a
patriot, a good citizen, and a good neighbor. Ho was a member of tho Park Con-
gregational Society in Norwich for many years and was warmly and strongly attached
to the denomination of his choice. His church relations did not limit his sympa-
thies, nor narrow his views of duty. In his letter establishing this trust is the fol-
fowiug clause : •

"'] ho general object which I desire to have exclusively pursued is tho uplifting
of the lately emancipated population of the Southern States, and their posterity,
by conferring on them tho blessings of Christian education."

When asked the precise meaning of tho phrase "Christian education," he replied
that '"'the phrase Christian education is to be taken in the largest and most gen-
eral sense — that, in tho sense which ho intended, the common-school teaching of

1424 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95.

Massachusetts and Connecticut was Christian education. That it is leavened -with a
predominant and salutary Christian influence. That there was no need of limiting
the gifts of the fund to denominational institutions. That, if tho trustees should ho
satisfied that at a certain State institution their beneficiaries would l>e surrounded
by wholesome influences such as would tend to make good Christian citizens of them,
there is nothing in the use of the phrase referred to to hinder their sending pupils
to it."

I forbear to attempt to give a full sketch of Mr. Slater. Enough has perhaps been
said to liring to your attention the great loss which this trust has sustained in the
death of its founder, and the propriety of placing on our records and giving to the
public a worthy and elaborate notice of his life, character, and good deeds.