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4^ /tf^#
THE
ELEMENTS
OF
LATIN GRAMMAR,
FOR THE
USE OF SCHOOLS.
BY RICHARD HILEY,
AUTHOR OP '<AN ENGLISH GRAMMAR,"
ETC. ETC.
THIBD EDITION, CONSIDEBABLT IMPROVED.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
LONGlVLiN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,
PATEBNOSTER-EOW.
1849-
The late Rev. James Tate, Canon Residentiary of St. PauVs, London,
in a letter to the Author at the commencement of his labours, states,
** I consider the common Eton Latin Grammar (notwithstanding some
recent improvements) adisgrace to our National Literature, Hence, the
necessity of another written de novo,**
The present Grammar, which ii written In English, embraces all that is really
Taluable in the Eton, with a selection from Zumpt, Kiihner, Krebs, Scheller, Crombie,
Ruddiman, and Adam, of the most important rules and observations whicli may be
required by advanced students. These have been condensed, illustrated, and arranged
in such a manner, as materially to assist the memory in the acquisition and permanent
retention of them.
The late learned Dr. Samuel Butler, formerly Head Master of
Shrewsbury Grammar School, and afterwards Lord Bishop of Lichfield
and Coventry, — to whom the first edition of this Grammar was, by
permission, dedicated, — was pleased to honour the work by the following
opinion : —
" I think your book, wherever I have examined it, done with care and ability; it is
short, clear, and well selected, and likely to be very useful.**
Dr. Alexander Crombie, the eminent author of the " Gymnasium^**
passes an equally flattering opinion : —
" I have read your volume," says the Doctor, ** and shall have no hesitation in
recommending it as an excellent compendium of the principles of Latin Grammar.
It contains much useful matter, well arranged, and comprised in a small compass.
It does equal credit to your industry and your judgment.*'
The Head Master of the Camberwell CoUegiate School, London, ex-
presses himself to the same effect: —
" It is only recently that I have become acquainted with your Latin Grammar ; and
after a careral comparison of its contents and system of arrangement with those of other
Latin Grammars, and particularly of that which had hitherto been used in this insti-
tution, I am fully convinced of its superiority as a Manual for Boys, and have accord-
ingly introduced it into this school. I have deemed it right to give vou this information
as a slight tribute due to your intelligence and industry, as well as to the very con-
siderable service which you:have thereby rendered to the profession; I have likewise
adopted your English Grammar and Exercises for my classes."
London :
Spottiswoodb and Shaw,
New-street- Square.
ADVERTISEMEiVT
TO
THE THIRD EDITION.
In this Third Edition the Author has carefully revised
the whole, and introduced such additional remarks and
illustrations as experience suggested would be advan-
tageous to the Classical Student in the advanced stages
of his scholastic career.
Leedsy November ^ 1848.
A 2
PREFACE
TO
THE SECOND EDITION.
The present edition has undergone a most careful revision ; several
portions, in -which the Rules and Definitions appeared to admit either
a more natural arrangement, or a greater compactness and 'perspicuity
of expression, have been entirely rewritten. Much additional matter
has likewise been incorporated, and the few typographical errors exist-
ing in the former edition have been rectified. The work has now-
assumed its permanent form, and may, irith propriety, be said to
possess the following characteristics.
1. Comprehensiveness of Plan, — Numerous Hules, essentially ne-
cessary for understanding and correctly rendering even the easier
Classics, are entirely omitted in the common Latin Grammars. Such,
for instance, are the proper use of Moods and Tenses, the proper
Connexion of Tenses, Arrangement of Words, &c. A knowledge of
these, if acquired at all, is acquired under great disadvantages. The
faithful Tutor, therefore, will be most judiciously consulting the real
and solid improvement of his papils, by using a comprehensive digest
of the leading principles of Latin composition.
2. A lucid and natural Arrangement. — In thie adjustment of the
different portions of the work, great attention has been paid to what
appeared the natural development of each subject, so that the general
principle should form the prominent parent of all its branches. It is
scarcely possible to overrate the advantages arising from a felicitous
arrangement, as the mind, by this means, is materially assisted in the
acquisition and application of knowledge. Nor are these advantages
confined to mere boyhood ; but, in maturer age, the additional Rules
which may be suggested in the course of reading, need not be evanescent,
nor allowed to bewilder by their multiplicity, but may be classified ac-
cording to their specific nature, and amalgamate with preceding stores,
ready to be applied as occasion may require.
PBEFACE TO THE SECONl) EDITION. Y
3. Perspicuity combined wiik conciseness of Expression* — In the
enunciation of Grammatical Definitions, some instructors either mis-
apply or lay too much stress on the well-known sendment of Horace :
** Quidquid praecipies, esto brevis ; ut cito dicta
Percipiant animi dociles, teneantque fideles.'*
However applicable this advice may be to Poetry, it requires consi-
derable modification in a didactic treatise ; for no individual can accu-
rately comprehend what is inadequately expressed. A Definition, to
be correct, must be comprehensive ; a Rule, to be useful, must be com-
plete ; otherwise, by labouring to be brief, we may'become obscure, —
" Brevis esse laboro, obscurus fio.'* In the construction, therefore, of
the Rules and Definitions throughout this work, whatever conciseness
perspicuity would admit, has been carefully observed. Such portions
as required peculiar care in the construction of the sentences were
read to several sensible youths, in order that the perspicuity of the
sentences might be fully tested.
4. Accuracy as to the Knowledge communicated. — In adopting any
Rule, the authority on which it rests has been carefully weighed. In
determining in eases of difficulty, the author was not entirely guided
by the opinions of even the most distinguished Philologists, but sedu-
lously consulted the original writers themselves, and deduced such
conclusions as a careful comparison seemed to suggest. This process
frequently entsdled a wearisome toil j but, as truth and utility were his
object, he felt bound to persevere. Instances of this careful scrutiny
/mU appear in the portion on the Perfects and Supines. Our common
Grammars, without the slightest comment, frequently assign to Verbs,
Perfects and Supines which either do not exist, or are used on very
doubtful authority.
5. T^c work is printed on beautiful paper, and in two different
types,-^ the larger intended to be faithfully committed to memory, and
the smaller to be carefully read, and rendered familiar to the mind.
The illustrations and additional facts given in the smaller type, instead
of being thrown, as is too commonly the case, to the foot of the page,
are here placed under their appropriate heads, that their intimate con-
nexion may be obvious, and the information more easily acquired and
retained.
Leeds, July, 1842.
PREFACE
TO
THE FIRST EDITION.
The object which the Author has had in view, in publishing the
present manual, is to furnish the classical student, at a trifling ex-
pense, with a good First and Second Latin Grammar.
Instead of considering Grammar, as is too commonly the case, as
a mere necessary evil — a something to be endured for an ulterior ad-
vantage — he has, on the contrary, regarded it as a. positive goodf — the
basis of all sound scholarship. In this light it is held by the Germans;
and perhaps, to this circumstance alone, is to be attributed their supe-
riority over us in Classical Literature.
True it is, that in several of the most respectable Schools and
Academies, the introductory compendium is succeeded by the perusal
of some larger work on the subject ; but as there seldom exists any
connexion between the two, the different Rules are not easily retained
and, consequently, time is wasted, and little advantage derived. But
with respect to the vast majority of Schools, no other work than the
common Grammar is adopted or even known. In such instances, the
pupil, in preparing his lessons, has to encounter so many idioms and
peculiarities of construction unexplained in his Grammar, that he is
rarely enabled, after years of toil, to translate ^ith even tolerable cer-
tainty, much less with facility. By an attentive application, however,
of the information contained in the present treatise, he will be mate-
rially assisted both in translation and composition, as most of the pe-
culiarities of construction occurring in the Authors usually read in
Schools are here explained under appropriate heads.
The greatest attention has been paid throughout, both to the De-
finitions and to the Classification of the different Rules. In the for-
mer, brevity has been studiously combined with perspicuity; and in the
latter, an arrangement has been adopted which appeared most conducive
to facilitate the retention and ready application of the whole.
In closing these remarks, the Author most cheerfully acknowledges
great obligations to the works of Kenrick's Zumpt, Walker's Scheller,
Crombie, Grant, Valpy, Ruddiman, and Adam.
Leeds, February, 12. 1836.
CONTENTS.
I. OETHOGEAPHY.
Letters
Syllables
Abbreviations
Page
1
2
3
II. ETYMOLOGY.
Parts of Speech ...
Substantives . .
First Declension . .
Second Declension .
Third Declension .
Fourth Declension -
Fifth Declension - - ■
Greek Nouns
Irregular Substantives
Gender of Nouns - -
Adjectives ....
NumerMs ...
Comparison . - -
Pronouns - -
Verbs - - - -
Moods and Tenses - • -
Gerunds, Supines, Participles
Conjugation of the Verb Sum
Formation of the Tenses >
Active Voiced ...
■ First Conjugation
■ Second Conjugation -
■' ■ Third Conjugation -
Fourth Conjugation -
Passive Voice ...
■ ' First Conjugation
I Second Conjugation •
■ Third Conjugation .
Fourth Coi^ugation >
Capio - - - *
Deponents conjugated
Formation of the Perfects and Supines
Deponents
Redundants ...
Irregular Verbs . - -
Defectives - ' - -
Impersonals ...
4
5
7
8
9
14
14
15
17
18
22
25
26
29
34
36
36
38
40
40
41
44
46
48
50
51
54
56
58
60
61
63
78
79
80
86
88
YUl
CONTENTS,
Adverbs
Prepositions -
Coqjunctions -
Interjections - *
Table of Concord
Table of Government
Page
• 89
. 89
. 92
. 93
. 94
. 95
m. SYNTAX.
Syntactical Definitions^ . • •
Nominative and Verb - - - -
Substantive and Adjective • . •
Relative and Antecedent ...
A Noun with a Noun . . - -
Pronouns -----'
Interrogative Sentences . . »
Government of Substantives . . -
■ A(Ji)ectives -
Comparison - - - - -
Government of Verbs : Accusative
■ — — Nominative
-I ^ — Genitive
■ — — Dative - - , *
, .~~ Ablative
Passive, Neuter, and Impersonals -
Participles, Gerunds, Supines
I Time, Space, Measure -
^^— Adverbs . - -
■ Prepositions '-
Conjunctions and Inteijections
Use of the Moods : Indicative -
. Imperative - - -
. Potential - - -
^ Subjunctive - - -
._ Form of Direct and Indirect Discourse
. Government of Q.ui^ quaCt quod
. Infinitive Mood
Use of the Tenses
_ Succession of Tenses -
Arrangement of Words ...
English Particles . - - -
Figures of Speech - - - -
- 98
. 100
. 102
. 104
- 106
- 107
- 110
. 112
. 114
. 118
. 119
- 120
. 121
. 124
- 127
- 130
. 131
. 134
- 137
- 138
. 140
- 141
- 142
. 143
- 143
- 148
. 148
- 151
- 154
- 158
- 159
. 161
• 164
IV. PROSODY,
Quantity of First and Middle Syllables -
Derivative Words -
Final Syllables
Scanning
Figures of Scanning -
Different Kinds of Verse
Roman Calendar
Parsing Table
- 169
- 170
. 173
- 174
- 175
- 176
- 179
- 180
LATIN GRAMMAB.
1. a. Latin Gbammab is a methodical collection of those
rules of inflection^ construction, and pronunciation of the
words in the Latin Language, which were observed by the
best Latin authors.
b. It is divided into four Parts ; namely, Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
I. ORTHOGRAPHY.
2. Orthography treats of letters, syllables, and the just
method of spelling words.
3. a. Letters are marks or characters used to represent
the elementary sounds of a language.
h. The letters of the Latin language, called the Latin
Alphahety are twenty-Jive in number ; namely, A, a ; B, b ;
C,c; D, d; E, e; F, f ; G,g;H,h; I, i ; J, j ; K, k; L,l ;
M, m; N, n; 0, o; P, p ; Q, q ; R, r; S» s; T, t; U, u;
V, V ; X, X ; Y, y ; Z, z.
c. In Latin there is no W. The smaller y occurs only in words derived flrom the Greek.
J and V were written by the Latins with the same letters as the vowels^ and u,
namely J and F, but were distinguished in pronunciation.
4. a. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants.
b, A vowel is a letter that forms a perfect sound when
uttered alone ; as, a, e, o.
c, A consonant makes only an imperfect sound of itself;
as, 5, c, dy which cannot be distinctly articulated unless joined
to a voweL
2 LATIN GRAMMAR. ^Orthography.
d. The vowels are a, e, «, o, u, y. The consonants are b^
c, d,f, g, h,jy k, /, wi, n, p, q, r, *, ty v, x, z.
e. The consonants are sometimes divided into fnutes and semivotoels. The mutes are
thd^e letters which entirely, and at once, obstruct the sound of the vowel, and prevent
Jts continuation ; they are b, d, Ar, p, q, /, and c and g hard.
/. The semivowels., or half-vowels, are those letters which do not entirely obstruct the
voice, but whose sounds may be continued at pleasure, and thus they partake of the
nature of vowels. The semivowels are/, /, m, n, r, «, «, and c and g soft.
g. Four of the semivowels, namely, /, m, n, r, are called liquids, because, after a mtcf^,
their sound is in some measure liquidated or diminished, so as easily to unite with a
mute in the same syllable.
h. J,x,z are called double letters. J stands tor dg; X stands for cs or gs; and Z
for ds or is.
L C, before e, i, and y, is' pronounced like s ; before a, o,
and Uy and before consonants, like k. Ch is pronounced like k.
j. C was anciently pronounced like k, before all vowels.
k. Gy before e, i, andy, is pronounced likey,* before a, o,
and Uy and before consonants, it is hard, as in the word gone,
I. In some Hebrew words, g is pronounced hard before e and t ; as in GethsfmSne,
Gideon ; so also in Greek words, before y, as, Gyges^ gymnasium, gypsum j and in
some few Latin words, as, gibber, gibbus, &c.
971. Gu, before a vowel in the same syllable, is sounded like gw, as, lingua. Ph is
sounded like our /, as in pharStra ; Rh as simple r, as in Rhea ; Qu like kio, as in
aqua ; 5tt before a vowel like sw, as in suadeo ; sch like sk, as in schola. Ti, before a
vowel, is sounded like shi, as in actio ; but in U long the hissing sound disappears, as
in totius. Also in tti, sti, xti, and in Greek words, ti is pronounced without the hissing
sound ; as in Attius, ostium^ mixtio, Miltiddes, tiara / and also when it is followed by
the termination of the infinitive passive er, as in nUier.
5. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound.
There are eight diphthongs ; ae, at, au, ei, eu, oe, oiy ui.
The diphthongs ae and oe are generally pronounced as the vowel e, and are some-
times joined and written thus : M,k; CE, oe. Ui is sounded like i long, as in Autc s ex
as a diphthong occurs in only a very few words.
6. a. A syllable is one distinct sound, consisting either of
one letter, as, /; or, of two or more letters pronounced at
once, as, mincyjust
b. In Latin there are as many syllables in a word as there are vowels or diphthongs
in it ; as, do-num, Ae-ne-as. When u, with any other vowel, comes after g, q, or s, as
in lingua, quia, suades, the two vowels are not reckoned a diphthong. In these in-
stances, u has the sound of u;.
7. Words are articulate sounds, used as signs to convey
our ideas. A word of one syllable, is termed a monosyllable;
a word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three sylla-
bles, a trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a
polysyllable.
8. Spelling is the method by which we express a word by
its proper letters, and rightly divide it into syllables.
Abbreviations.']
ORTHOGRAPHY.
3
9. RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.
Mule 1. A single consonant between two vowels must be
joined to the latter, as, ma-ter; except the letter ar, which
must be joined to the former vowel, as, rex-it.
Rule 2. Two consonants between two vowels must be
separated ; as, «7-/e, an-nus. But those consonants which
can together begin a word, may be joined to the latter vowel ;
as, tr in pa-trisy br in li^bris.
Rule 3. C9mpounded words must be divided so as to keep
the elementary parts distinct ; as, inteveram, and not intC'
reram, because the word is compounded of inter and eram.
When d is inserted to prevent an hiatus, it goes with the
former vowel ; as, red-eo, prod-eo.
10. a. The measure of time in pronouncing a syllable is
termed its quantity ; if the syllable is long, it is marked
thus ", as in amdre ; or sometimes with a circumflex accent
thus *, as in amaris; if short, it is marked thus *', as in
omnibus,
b. A syllable having this mark ' over it, shows that It is accented, as, mi in amicus.
Words of two syllables have the accent or stress of the voice on the first syllable, as,
do in d6num j words of three or more syllables, on the last syllable but one when it is
long, as, gis in master ; and on the last but two, when the last but one is short, as ,
ie in Ugixe.
c. The last syllable but one in a word is called the penuUima j tb« last but two is
called the antepenultima.
The most common Abbreinations,
A. Aulus.
A.C. Ante Christum.
A.D. Anno Domini.
a.d. ante diem.
A.M. Ante Meridiem ; Anno Mundi.
Ap. or App. Appius.
A . R. C. Ante Romam condltam .
A.U.C. Ab iirbe conditio.
Aug. Augus|.us.
B.V. Bene^vale.
C. Caius.
Cal. Calendae, Calendis.'
€1. Claudius ; Cn. Cnaeus or Cneius.
Cos. Consul.
Coss.* Consullbus, Cpnsules, &c.
CD. Consul designatus.
D. Declmus, Divus.
D.D.D. Dat, dicat, ded\cat.
Des. Designatus ; Dess. DesIgnatL
D.O.M. Deo optlmo Maximo.
e. g. or ex. gr. exempli gratift.
etc. et csetera.
F. Filius.
Id. IdOs, Idlbus, &c.
i.e. id est.
Imp. Imperator ; Impp.' Imperatores.
LO.M. Jovi optlmo Maximo.
Kal. Kalendae, Kalendis, &c.
Ii. Lucius.
M. Marcus;
M'. Manius ; Mam. Mamercus.
N. Numerius.
Non. Nonae, Nonis, &c.
P. Pablius, Pater.
P.C. Fatres Conscripti.
P.M. Post Meridiem.
P.M. Pontlfex Maxlmus.
P.R. Populus Romanus.
Proc. Proconsul.
av. or q.v. quod vide.
[. Qumtus, Quirltes, Quaestor.
R.P. Respublica.
S. Sestertium or Sestertius.
S. or Sex. Sextus.
S. SalQtem, in epistles.
Sc. Scilicet.
S.C. Senates Consultum.
S.P.Q.R. Senatus Populasque Romanus.
Sp. Spurius.
S. V.B.E.E.V. Si vales, bene est, ego valeo.
T. Titus, TuUlus.
Ti. or Tib. Tiberius.
* Doubling the last letter of the contraction denotes the plural ; as, Coss. Impp-.
Augg. consules, imperatores, Augnstl.
B 2
LATIN GRAMMAR. [Parts of Speech.
II. ETYMOLOGY.
11. Etymology treats of the classification, inflection, and
derivation of words.
Classification is the arrangement of words into their dif-
ferent sorts, called parts of speech.
Inflection is the change of termination which words undergo
to express their various relations.
Derivation is that part which treats of the origin and pri*
mary signification of words.
12. a. There are, in Latin, eight classes or sorts of words,
called parts of speech ; namely,
h. The Substantive or Noun, the Adjectiv-c, and the Pro-
noun, declined ; and the Verb, which is conjugated.
c. The Adverb, the Preposition, the Conjunction, and the
Literjection, undecUned.
d. In Latin, there is no Artide. A word is said to be* decUned when it undergoes
any phange, particularly in the end, or, as it is usually calleid, the termination. Gram-
matical Accidewts denote the changes made on words. Accidence denotes the Rudi-
ments, or the Orthography and Etymology of Grammar.
13. 1. A Substantive or Noun is the name of anj person,
place, or thing; as, puer^ a boy; scholar a school; liber^ a
book; spes, hope.
2. An Adjective is a word which expresses the quality,
size, shape, colour, number, quantity, or any other property
or accident of a noun to which it is joined ; as, " a good
man ; " "a bad heart ; " " a large hill ; " "a square table ; "
" the green grass ; " " twenty horses ; " " much noise ; "
« this hat."
3. A Pronoun is a word used to supply the place of a
noun ; as, '' When Csesar had conquered Gaul, he turned his
arms against his country."
4. A Verb is a word which affirms or expresses the state,
action, or suffering of some person or thing ; as, " I am ; "
^< I teach ; " " I am taught,*^ It is also used to command,
exhort, request, or ash a question ; as, " Be silent ; " " Study
diligently ; " " Spare me ; " " Lend me the book ; " " Have
you written the letter ? "
5. An Adverb is a word which qualifies a verb, an adjec-
tive, or another adverb, by expressing some circumstance of
time, pUice, or manner respecting it ; as, " He writes cor-
iVoiin*.] ETYMOLOGY. 5
rectly ; ** "A remarkably diligent boy ; " *•' He speaks very
fluently."
6. A Preposition is a word placed before nouns and pro-
nouns to show the relation which they bear to each other, or
to some verb ; as, " He w&ntfrom London to York ; " " She
is ahove disguise ; " " They are instructed by him."
7. A Conjunction joins words and sentences together ; as,
" One and one make two ; " " He and I must go."
8. An Interjection expresses a sudden passion or emotion
of the mind ; as, ah I vae ! !
SUBSTANTIVES OR NOUNS.
14. a. A Substantive or Noun is the name of any person,
place, or thing ; as, puer, a boy ; schola, a school ; liber, a
book ; spesy hope.
b. Substantives ai*e either common or proper.
c. Common nouns are the names given to a whole class or
species, and are applicable to every individual of that class ;
as, homo, a man ; urbs, a city ; arbor, a tree.
d. Proper nouns are the names given only to individuals ;
as the particular names of perbons, places, seas, rivers, moun-
tains, &c. ; as, Georgius, George ; Britannia, Britain ;
Tamesis, the Thames.
e. A Patronymic noun is derived from a proper substantive, ilgnifying one*i extrac-
tion ; as, PHdtfOdeSy the son of Prilimus.
/. A Patrial or Gentile noun is derived from a proper substantive, signifying one's
country ; as, 7ro«, a Trojan.
g. A Dftnitmiive noun is derived from another, signifying a diminution or lessening
of its signification ; as, libeUtUt a little book, from liber. Diminutives generally end
in /tM, la, or turn.
h. The properties belonging to substantives are, gender,
number, person, and case.
15. a. Gender is the distinction of nouns either with re-
gard to sex or the want of sex. There are three genders ;
the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter.
b. Properly speaking, there can be only two genders, the masculine and the feminine.
The neic/er means neither sex nor gender. — Particular Rules on this subject will be
given hereafter.
16. a. Number is the inflection of a noun, to indicate one
Qbject, or more than one.
b. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural.
B 3
6 LATIN GRAMMAR. [iVb«iM..
The singular denotes one object, as, pomum, an apple ; the
plural denotes more objects than one, as, poma^ apples.
17. Nouns have three jocr^ow* ; the first, the second, and
the third. The Jirst person is the speaker ; as, " I, John
Thompson, do promise.*' The second person is the person
spoken to ; as, " Boys, attend to your lessons.** The third
person is the person spoken of; as, *' That girl is diligent."
18. a. Case is the form or state of a noun or pronoun, to
express the relation which it bears to another word.
b. Case from comm, a falling, so called, because cases were supposed to fall or decline
from the nominative or first forro» called the upright (rectus). All the forms of the
noun, except the nominatlTe, were called cases or casus obUqui^ oblique cases.
•
c. There are six cases; the Nominative, the Genitive,
the Dative, the Accusative, the Vocative, and the Ablative.
19. 1. The Nominative case is that form of the noun
which simply expresses the nam£ of the person or thing
denoting the subject; and is generally placed before a verb.
2. The Genitive is that form which expresses origifi, cause,
or ownership ; and generally has the sign of.
3. The Dative is that form which expresses acquisition,
loss, or for what end; and has the signs to, for, against*
4. The Accusative is that form which expresses the direct
object or effect of an action ; and is governed by a verb or
preposition denoting the action.
5. The Vocative is the form used in addressing persons
or things ; and seldom differs from the Nominative.
6. The Ablative is the form which denotes the cause,
agent, means, instrument, or manner, removing, liberating^
and various other modes of circumstance ; and is always
governed by some preposition expressed or understood.
When the preposition is not expressed, its most frequent
signs are, by, from, in, than, with.
Nominative comes from nomino to name ; Genitive from gigno, to produce ; Dative
from do, datum, to give ; Accusative ft'om accuso^ to accuse ; Focative, from voco, to
call ; Ablative Arom attferOt ablatum, to take away.
1st Declension.']
ETYMOLOGY.
DECLENSIONS OF SUBSTANTIVES.
20. a. Declension is the varying of a noun in its cases and
numbers.
b. There are five Declensions, distinguished from each
other by the ending of the genitive case singular.
c. The first Declension makes the genitive singular in ae,
the second in t, the third in is, the fouith in us, the fifth in
ei,
d. A Tabular View of the Terminations of the Five Declefisions*
First Declen.
Sing. Plu.
N. a. ae.
G. ae. arum.
D. ae. is.
Ac. am. as.
V. a, ae.
Ab. A. is.
Second Declen.
Sing. * Plu.
r,u8,um. i, a.
i. orum.
o. is.
um. 08, a.
r, e, um. 1, a.
o. is.
Third Declen.
Sing. Plu.
various es, a, ia.
is um.ium.
i ibus.
em, im. es, a, ia.
like Nom. es, a, la.
e, i. ibus.
Fourth Declen.
Sing. Plu.
us. us.
(lB.9 uum.
ui. ibus.
um. us.
* us. us.
u. ibus.
Fifth Declen.
Sing. Plu,
es. es.
ei. erum.
el. ebus.
em. es.
es. es.
e. ebus.
FIRST DECLENSION.
21. a. Nouns of the first Declension end in a, and are
generally of the feminine gender, except the names of men
or male beings.
Singular,
N. Mens-a, a table.
G. Mens-ae, of a table,
D. Mens-ae, to or for a table.
Ac. Mens-am, a table,
V. Mens-a, table!
Ab. Mens-a, by, from, in,
with a table.
Plural.
N. Mens-ae, tahles.
G. Mens-arum, of tables.
D. Mens-is, to or for tables,
Ac. Mens-as, tables,
V. Mens-ae, O tables I
Ab. Mens-Is, by, froniy in,
with tables.
b. That part of a word which undergoes no yariation may be called the radix or root
of a word. To decline a word is to affix to the root Us several terminations ; thus, in
the word mtiM, a muse, tnut is the root, and a, a^, &c. the terminations.
c. The Poets frequently make the genitive singular in at for ae ; as, auiat, aurai, for
aulae, aurae. The noun familia generally malces as In the genitive case, when Joined
to pateTf mater, JUiuSy JUia ; thus, in the singular, pater-familieu, the father of the
family; patris-^amiliaSt of the fatiier of the family, &c. ; plursiy patres-familioit fathers
of the familv, &c. The regular forms, /amt/t'oe in the genitive singular, wad/amiliarum
in the genitive plural, are, however, not uncommon.
d. The genitive plural in the first, as well as in the second and third declensions, is
frequently contracted by the Poets ; as, terrigenUm for terrigenarum, De6m for Deorumt
serpentHm for $erpentium. This contraction is uncommon in prose.
e. AninMy the soul, the life, asina, a she-ass, dea, a goddess, domina, a lady, eq%M, a
mare, Jatnula, a maid-servant, JiUa^ a daughter, Uberta, a freed-woman, ffm/a, a she-
mule, fur/a, a daughter, terva, a female-slave, socia^ a she-companion, frequently malce
the dative and ablative plural in dbu$, to distinguish them from animis, asinis, deis, &c.
the masculines in us of the second declension. When the distinction is clear ft'om the
context, or from having the a4}ective8 duabuty ambabus annexed, the termination m ia
more common, MtJUii* duabus.
B 4
8
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[2nd Declenaioiu
SECOND DECLENSION.
22. Nouns of the second Declension end either in er, us^
or um. Nouns in er and us are generallj masculine ; those
in um are neuter.
23. Nouns in er generally reject, sometimes retain, the e
before r.
Singular,
N. Magist-er, a master.
G. MB^ist-Ti, of a master.
D. Magist-ro, to a master.
Ac. Magist-rum, a master.
V. Magist-er, O master !
Ab. Magist-ro, by a mobster.
Singular.
N. Piier, a boy.
G. Puer-i, of a boy.
D. Puer-o, to a boy.
Ac. Puer-um, a boy.
V. Puer, boy!
Ab. Puer-o, by a boy.
Plural.
N. Magist-ri, masters.
G. Magist-rorum, o/*ina«fer«,
D. Magist-ris, to masters.
Ac. Magist-ros, masters.
V. Magist-rij O masters I
Ab. Magist-ris, 6^ masters
Plural.
N. Piier-i, doy^.
G. Puer-orum, ofbqys.
D. Puer-is, to boys.
Ac. Puer-6s, boys.
V. Puer-i, O boys!
Ab. Puer-is, by boys.
24i. a. 'The nominative and vocative are alike in both num-
bers ; except nouns in tes of the second declension, which make
€ in the vocative ; as, dominus, domine. Also, Proper
names in ius, with these common nouns, genius, a genius,
and^lites, a son, form the vocative in i by dropping tes of
the nominative ; as, Virgilius, Vtrgili ; filius, genius, fili,
geni. Other common nouns in ius have e in the vocative ;
as, gladie.
b. Proper nouns used as a^iectives, make e in the toc. ; as, Ddie ; also proper nouns
in hUf from the. Greek upst as in AriuSt Arte,
Singular.
N. Domin-us, a lord.
G. Domin-i, of a lord.
D. Domin-o, to a lord.
Ac. Domin-um, a lord.
V. Domin-e, lord!
Ab. Domin-o, by a lord.
Plural.
N. Domin-i, lords.
G. Domin-orum, of lords.
D. Domin-is, to lords.
Ac. Domin-6s, lords.
V. Domin-i, O lords!
Ab. Domin-is, by lords.
e. Detu, God, is thus declined : —
Situndar.
N. Deus.
G. Dei.
D. Deo.
Ac. Deam.
v. O Deus I
Ab. Deo.
Plural.
N. Dei,Dii, DI.
G. Deorum, DeAm.
D. Deis, Diis, Dls.
Ac. Deos.
v. Del,Dii, Dl.
Ab. Deis, Diis, Dif .
3rd Declension,']
ETYMOLOGY.
25. Nouns in ujUy and all other neuter nouns, of whatever
declension they may be, have the nominative, accusative,
and vocative cases alike in both numbers ; and in the plural
these cases end in a.
Singular.
N. Bell-um, a war.
G. Bell-i, of a war.
D. Bell-o, to a war.
Ac. Bell-um, a war.
V. Bell-um, war I
Ab. Bell-o, bf/ a war.
Plural.
N. Bell-a, wars.
G. Bell-orum, of wars.
D. Bell-is, to wars.
Ac. Bell-a, wars.
Y. Bell-a, wars!
Ab. Bell-is, bi/ wars.
2G. NoTB. a. The nouns that retain the before r in the genitire and the other oblique
cases are the following : —puert a boy ; adulter, an adulterer ; weer, a father-in-law^
genett a son-in-law ; LUter, Bacchus ; MuMbert Vulcan ; presbyter, an elder ; UKn^
children ; veiper, the evening. Iber and Celflber make the e long ; as, Iberi, CelOberu
The compounds offero and gero retain the e ; as, Lucifer, the morning star ; furdfer,
a knave ; frugifer, bearing fruit : armiger, an armour-bearer ; coruiger, a bull, &c.
All other nouns in er reject the e in the oblique cases ; as, ager, agri, agro, ftc.
b. Vir, a man, and its compounds, retain the • before r ; as. Gen. viri, of a man;
leviri, of a brother-in-law.
c. The Poets sometimes make the vocative of nouns in us like the nominative ; as,
Ofimnus, Latinui, for Ofluvie, Latine. This sometimes, but more rarely, occurs
in prose. The Poets also sometimes change er into us j as, K. Evander or Evandrus,
v. Evander or Evandre.
•
d. The genitive of words in Am and mm was originally formed in i'; as, TuUi, man-
dpi. Later writers use ti. The Poets frequently contract ii of the genitive singular
into I for the sake of euphony, as inghU, for jngenii.
e. The genitive plural of some words, in poetrr, as well as those which denote value,
measure, and weight, is frequently contracted into (km instead of orum ; as, DeUm,
TeucrUm, for Deorum, Teucrorum; and nummdm, sestertiUm, modi&m, for num'
morum, &c.
THIRD DECLENSION.
27. a. Nouns of the third Declension have various endings.
They form the genitive plural either in um or ium,
h. Nouns increasing * in the genitive case generally make
um in the genitive plural.
SSrmo, a speech, masculine.
Singular.
N. Sermo, a speech.
G. Sermo-nis, of a speech.
D. Serm5-ni, to a speech.
Ac. Sermo-nem, a speech.
V. Sermo, speech!
Ab. Sermo-ne, by a speech.
Plural.
N. Sermo-nes, speeches.
G. Sermo-num, of speeches.
D. SermS-nibus, to speeches,
Ac. Serm5-nes, speeches.
V. Serm5-nes, Q speeches!
Ab. Sermo-n!bus, bi/ speeches.
* In this declension, many nouns increase in the genitive case singular ; that is, they
have more syllables In the genitive than in the nominative case ; thus, lapis, lapHdis,
has two in the nominative and three in the genitive. When the number of syllables is
the same both in the nomipatlve and genitive cases, the noun is said not to increase;
as, N. nubest G. nubis,
B 5
10
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Srd Declension,
Lapis, a
Singular.
N. Lap-is, a stone.
G. Lap-idis, of a stone.
D. Lap-idi, to a stone.
Ac. Lap-idem, a stone.
V. Lap-is, stone !
Ab. Lap-ide, by a stone.
Opus,
N. Op
G. Op
D. Op
Ac. Op.
V. Op.
Ab. Op
Singular.
•us, a work.
•eris, of a work.
■eri, to a work.
.us, a work.
•us, work !
■ere, by a work.
stone, masculine.
Plural.
N. Lap-ides, stones.
G Lap-idum, of stones.
D. Lap-idibus, to stones.
Ac. Lap-ides, stones.
V. Lap-ides, stones I
Ab. Lap-idibus, by stones.
a work, neuter.
Plural.
N. Op-era, works.
G. Op-erum, of works.
D. Op-eribus, to works.
Ac. Op-era, works.
V. Op-era, O works !
Ab. Op-eribus, by works.
28- The following nouns make ium in the genitive plural : — -
1. a. Nouns in es and is, not increasing in the genitive
singular, have ium in the genitive plural.
b. Except canity a dog ; juvt^nU^ a young man ; mugUis, a sea-mullet ; opes (plural),
riches; panis^ bread; strigUis^ a scraper; tirues^ a heap; vates, a prophet; which
make urn in the genitive plural. Apt* and volucria generally make um^ sometimes
imn. Senex makes senum.
Singular.
N. Nub-es, a cloud.
G. Nub-is, of a cloud.
D. Nub-i, to a cloud,
Ac. Nub-em, a cloud,
V. Nub-es, O cloud!
Ab. Nub-e, by a cloud.
Plural.
N. Nub-es, clouds.
G. Nub-ium, of clouds.
D. Nub-ibus, to clouds.
Ac. Nub-es, clouds.
V. Nub-es, O clouds 1
Ab. Nub-ibus, by clouds.
2. Nouns in er, not increasing, make the genitive plural
in ium, as, imber, imbrium; but pater, mater, f rater, and
accipiter, make the genitive plural in um.
3. Nouns of one syllable in a^, is, as, ma^, lis; or in
s OT X after a consonant, as, mons, arx; have ium in the
genitive plural.
But lynx and other words of Greek origin have generally um; Mtlynx^lifncum:
ArabSt grt/pSt Arabum^ gryphtun.
Those ending in x, preceded by a vowel, have um ; except
Sre? Decknswn.^
ETYMOLOGY.
11
faux, the jaws, nix, snow, nox, night, and strix, a groove,
which have turn.
"Words of one syllable ending in 5, preceded by other
vowels than « or t, generally have um ; except cos, a whet-
stone, dos, a dowry, fraus, fraud, muSy a mouse, and os,
ossis, a bone, which make ium.
4. Nouns of two or more than two syllables in tw, rs,
(and as, genitive dtis,) generally make iumf but frequently
nm ; as, cliens, a client, clientium or clientum. Also those
which are properly participles; as, adolescens, adolescentium,
or adolescentum,
Penates, optimates, and the names of nations in a^, as,
Fidenas, Arpinas, have tt^m.
Mons, a mountain, masculine.
Singular.
N. Mons, a mountain,
G. Mon-tis, of a mountain.
D. Mon-ti, to a mountain.
Ac. Mon-tem, a mountain.
V. Mons, mountain !
Ab. Monte, hy a mountain.
Plural.
N. Mon-tes, mountains,
G. Mon-tium, of mountains.
D. Mon-tlbus, to moMntoms.
Ac. Mon-tes, mountains.
V. Mon-tes, mountair^ I
Ab. Mon-tlbus, 5>y mountains*
5. The following nouns also make ium in the genitive
plural: —
Caro, flesh.
Cor, the heart,
Lar, a household
god.
Quiris, a Roman.
Samnis, a Samnite,
The component parts of uncia and as have likewise ium;
as, septunx, seven ounces, septuncium; sextans, two ounces,
sextantium.
6. Neuters of the third declension in «, a^ and ar, have t in
the ablative singular, ia in the nominative, accusative, and
vocative plural, and ium in the genitive.
But these words, — haccar, an herb called lady's glove,
far (farris), corn, hepar {hepdtis), the liver, juhar (Jubd'
ris), a sunbeam, nectar (nectaris), nectar, sal, salt, and
towns in e, as, Praeneste, have e in the ablative. Sal
{salis) has no neuter plural, but makes N. sales, G. salium.
Far makes N. plural /arra, Qc.farrum. Hepar, juhar, and
nectar, have no plural. Par has ablative singular pare,
and genitive ^\\xx9X parium, like the adjective*
B 6
12
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Srd Declension.
Singular*
N. Ret-e, a net
G. -Ret-is, of a net,
J). Bet-i^ to a net
Ac. Ket-e, a net,
V. Ret-e, O net I
Ab. Ret-i, b^ a net.
FluraL
N. Rst-ia, nets,
G. Ret-ium, of nets,
D. Ret-ibus, to nets,
Ac. Ret-ia, nets,
V. Ret-ia, O nets !
Ab. Ret-lbus, by nets.
Irrbgulabs op thb Thibd Declension.
29. a. Genitive Singular. Cicero, and other writers .of the best age, sometimes form
firom Greek proper names in et, and especially from those in des, a genitire in /, instead
of is; as, Achiui^ Themittodi. In nouns m t> (idltt), the Poets frequently use the
Greek termination o$ for iM; as, DapknU^ DapktOdos, Bnt the Greek form is not
common in prose.
b. The Dative Singular. The dative shigular anciently ended in e.
Accusative Singular.
30. 1. The regular ending of the accusatire singular is em. But the following are
exceptions ; —
2. The following nouns in iM form the accusative in An : — .
Amussis, f. a nuuon*i rule.
Basis, f. a base.
Buris, f. the beam qf a ploughs
Cann&bls, f. hemp.
Cuciirais, m. a cucumber,
Gummis, f. gum.
Mephitis, t./oul air.
Paraphr&sis, f. a paraphrase.
PoSsis, f. the art qf poetry.
Ravis, f. a hoarseness.
Sinapis, f. mustard.
Sitis, f. thirst.
TuBsis, f. a cough.
Vis, f. strength.
3. Proper namte in is hare im in the accusative; as— Jir'rs/, Names of cities and
other plaoes ; as, BWUiS, f. a city in Spain ; SyrtiSt f. a quicksand on the coast of
AiHca.
Secondly^ Names of rivers ; as, TU^MSt m. the Tiber ; Baetis, m. the Guadalquiver.
Thirdly t Names of Gods ; as, An&biSt m. Osiris^ m. iEgyptian deities.
The preceding noons have sometimes in in the accusative; as, BUbitin^ T&erin,
Anubin.
4. The following nouns in is have em or ^ns in the aocosative: —
Aquilis, m. a water-poi.
Clavis, f. a key.
Cuds, f. the skin.
Febris, f. a/ever.
Lens, f. lentil.
Navis, f. a sh^.
Pelvis, f. a basin.
Puppis, f. the stem qf a ship.
Restis, f. a rope.
SecQris, f. an axe.
Sementfs, f. a sowing.
Strigllis, £ a curry-comb or scraper.
Turris, f. a Uncer,
FebriSt peMSt puppis, restis, secUris, and turris, have much more frequently ^j the
others have commonly em,
5. Nouns which have been adopted fk-om the Greek sometimes retain a in the
accusative ; as, heroSt m. a hero, heroa. This form, however, is seldom employed by
the best prose writers, and is chiefly confined to oroper names, except in aSr, m. the
atr ; aether^ m. the sky ; delphin, m. a dolphin ; and Panj which commonly make aero,
aethSra, delphma, and Pana.
Ablative Singular.
31. 1. The regular ending of the ablative singular is in e. But nouns in is which
have im in the accusative have i in the ablative ; as, vis, vim, «•'.
3rd Declension.'] ETYMOLOGY. 1 3
But canndbiSf Baetts, smapis^ and T^is, have e or i'; alio, Greek words which hare
idis in the genitive have e in the ablative.
2. Noans in ^, which have em or im in the accusative, have ^ or ^ in the ablative ;
as, naviSf nave^ or navi.
But cutis and restis have e only ; tecuriSy sementiSt and sirigUfSt have seldom e.
3. The following nouns, which have £»n in the accusative, have e or i in the ab-
lative: —
Amnis, m. a river.
Anguis, m. and f. a make.
Avis, f. a bird.
Civis, c. a citizen.
Classls, f. a fleet.
Finis, m. and f. an end,
Fostis, m. a staff.
Ignis, m. aflre.
Imber, m. a shower.
Mugllis„m. a seu'inutlet.
Occiput, n. the ^ind part of the head.
Orbis, m. a circle.
Pars, f. apart.
Fostis, m. a door-post,
Pugil, c. a pugilist.
Rus, n. the country.
Sors, f. a lot.
Supellex, {.furniture.
Unguis, m. a nail.
Vectis, m. a lever.
Vesper, m. evening.
Finis, mugilis, occiput^ pugil, rus, supellex, and vectis, have indifferently eori; but
the others have mucli more frequently e. Sure means from the country ; ruri, in the
country.
4. Names of towns, when they denote the place in or at which any thing is done,
take e, sometimes i/ as, Carthagine, Carthagini.
CandUs, m, or f. a water-pipe, has canali only.
5. Names of months in is or er have the ablative in t ; as, Aprilis, September, Jprili,
Septembrt : and those nouns in is which were originally adjectives ; as, aediUs, tffflnis,
bipenniSffamiiidris, soddhs, volucris, &c. When such adjectives become proper names,
they always make the ablative in e ; as, Juvenile. Rudis, a rod, and Juvents, a youth,
have e only.
Genitive, Dative, and Accusative Plural.
32. a. Genitive. All nouns that end in i, or in e or t , in the ablative, make the genitive
plural in ium. Bos, an ox, makes the genitive plural in boiim. The noun ales, and
the plural noun coetUes, make um and uum in the genitive plural. The genitive of
festivals in alia in the nominative plural, is ium or orumj as, Bacchanalia, BacchanO'
Hum, Bacchanaliorum.
b. Greek nouns have generally um ; as, Macedo, MacedSnum. But those which have
a or «M in the nominative singular, sometimes form the plural in on ; as, epigramma,
epigrammatum, or epigrammaton, an epigram ; metamorphosis, ium, or e&n.
33. a. Dative. See observations under Dative of the Third Declension in Greek
Nouns.
b. Bos makes the dative and ablative in b(^nts or bttbusj sus has svUbus or stAtu.
34. a. Accusative, Nouns which have ium In the genitive plural formed the accusa-
tive originally in is, also written eis, instead ofesi as, accusative plural, partes, parteis,
or partis.
b. If the accusative singular ends in a, the accusative plural ends in as; as, lampas,
lampadem or lampada, lampades, lampadas. This form, however, is rarely used in
prose.
35. a. Jupiter is thus declined : N. Jupiter, O. Jovis, D. Jovt, Ac. Jovem, V . Jupiter,
Ab. Jove,
b. Vis, bos, andjus-jurandum, are thus declined : —
Singular.
N. Vis, bos, jus-jurandum.
G. Vis, b5vis, juris-Jurandi.
D. Vi, bovi, juri-juranda
Ac. Vim, bovem, jus-jurandum.
V. Vis, bos, jus-jurandum.
Ab. Vi, bove, jure-jurando.'
Plural.
N. Vires, boves, jura-juranda.
G. Virium, bo(im, jurum-jurandorum.
D. Viribus [bubut;] Juribus-jurandls.
Ac. Vires, boves, jura-juranda.
V. Vires, boves, jura-juranda.
Ab. Viribus, {bubus,'] juribus-jurandis.
u
LATIN GRAMMAR. [Ath and 5th Declensuma*
FOURTH DECLENSION.
36. a. Nouns of the fourth Declension end in us or u.
b. Nouns in tis are generally masculine, but sometimes
feminine.
Singular.
N. Grad-iis, a step,
G. Grad-us, of a step.
D. Grad-iii, to a step.
Ac. Grad-um, a step.
V. Grad-fts, O step I
Ab. Grad-u, bt/ a step.
Plural.
N. Grad-iis, steps.
G. Grad-tium, of steps.
D, Grad-ibus, to steps.
Ac. Grad-us, steps.
V. Grad-iis, steps !
Ab. Grad-ibus, by steps^
c. Nouns in u are neuter, and are undeclined in the sin-
gular, except in the genitive case ; in the plural they follow
the rule of neuters ; as.
Singular.
N. Corn-u, a horn.
G. Corn-US or m*^ of a horn.
D. Corn-ii, to a horn.
Ac. Corn-ti, a horn.
V. Corn-u, horn !
Ab. Com-u, by a horn.
Plural.
N. Corn-iia, horns.
G. Corn-iium, of horns.
D. Corn-ibus, to horns,
Ac. Corn-ua, horns.
V. Corn-ua, O horns !
Ab. Corn-ibus, by horns.
37. a. lesus or Jesta makes, in the accusative, lesum or Jesum ; and lesu or Jesu in
all other cases.
b. Sometimes the genitive ended in i, as in the second declension. Us is a con-
traction of uis, the original genitive.
c. The dative singular is sometimes, by the Poets, contracted into u, and frequently
in Csesar; as, equitatu.
d. ActUf a needle, arcuSt a bow, arttu, a joint,^t», a fig, locus, a lake, partus, a birth,
pecu, cattle, quercus, an oak, ntecus, a den, tribus, a tribe, and veru, a spit, make the
dative and ablative cases plural in Ubus. Genu, the knee, porttu, a harbour, tonitru,
thunder, make ibus or ubus.
38. a. Domus, a house, is partly of the second and partly of the fourth declension ;
thus.
Sing. N. Domus, — G. DomiUs or mi, — D. Domui or mo,--Ac. Domum, — V. Domus,
~>Ab. Domo.
Plu. N. DomQ8,--G. Domuum or 5rura,— D. Domlbiis,— Ac. Domds or os, — V. Do-
mQs,— Ab. Domlbus.
b. Dom&s, in the genitive, signifies of a houses and domi is used only to signify at
home or qfhome,
39. a. These are feminine : acus, anus, domus, manus, nurus, socrus, pordcus, tribus,
quercus, idus, quinquatrus, and ficus.
b. The fourth declension is merely a contraction of the third: thus, N. Fructus;
G. FructutStfrudt&sj D. Fructui; Ac. Fructuem, fructum; V. Fructus j Ab. Frudue,
fruciu; N. P. Fructues, fructus, &c. Hence us is long in all the contracted cases.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
40. a. Nouns of the fifth Declension end in es ; and are all
feminine except dies, which is common in the singular, and
masculine in the pluraL
* Both Zuropt and Kuhner give ia and « for the gen. sing, of comu and other
neuters.
Greek Noun8S\
ETYMOLOGY.
15
Plural,
N. Di-es, days,
G. Di-erum, of days.
D. Di-ebus, to days,
Ac. Di-es, days,
V. Di-6s, O days !
Ab.Di-6bus, by days,
and
Singular,
N. Di-es, a day.
G. Di-ei, of a day,
D. Di-ei, to a day,
Ac.Di-em, a day,
V. Di-es, O day !
Ab.Di-e, by a day,
b. Three nouns, Jides^ faith, res, a thing, and spes^
hope, make the genitive singular in ei short.
c, DieSy res, and species, are the only nouns of the fifth
declension which are complete in both the singular and
plural ; acies, effigies, fades, series, and spes, are complete in
the singular, but have only the nominative, accusative, and
vocative, in the plural ; the other nouns have no plural.
41. a. Meridies, the mid-day or noon, is masculine, and does not otcur in the plurai.
b. The Poets frequently make the genitive, and more rarely the dative, end in e.
c. ReS'publica is thus declined :
Sing. N. & V. Res-pubiica, G. Rei-publicae,
Ac. Rem-pablicam, Ab. Re-pablidL
Plur. N. & V. Res-publlcae, G. Rerum-publicarum,
Ac. Res-poblicas, Ab. Rebus-publlcis.
DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS.
FIRST DECLENSION.
42. a. Greek words of this declension end in as, e, es, and^are declined in the plural
like mentaj but in the singular, according to'the following examples : —
D. Rei-publicae,
D. Rebus-publicis,
Sing, N. Aeniof,
G. Aeneotf,
D. Aeneas,
Ac. Aeneam or on,
V. AeneJ,
Ab. Aenea.
Fenel&pe,
Penelopes,
Penelope,
PenelopeB,
Penelope,
Penelope.
Anchlsef,
Anchisoe,
Anchiso^,
Anchisen or em,
Anchi8£,
Anchlse.
b. To the termination in es belong patronymics in des ; as, Pelides, the son of Peleus,
with the following proper names : — Acestes, Achates, Agyrtes, Aniiphdtes, Bootes, Butes,
Laertes, Leucdtes, Menaetes, Pkiloctetes, Polites, Procrustes, Thersites, Thvestes, Zetes.
Add names of jewels and wines ; as, achates, aromatites. Other names in es belong
to the third declension.
c. It is a general rule, that all Greek nouns in s form the Tocative by dropping that
letter. Nouns in es have sometimes d in the vocative, and more rarely a. Nouns in
stes hare sta in the vocative. They also sometimes.form the accusative in em, and the
ablative in a.
SBCOND DECLENSION.
43.0. Greek nouns in os and on are generally Latinised in us or um; yet they fre-
quently, especially among the Poets, retain one or more cases from the Greek : thus.
N. Andr6-g£d8,
G. Andro-geo or gel,
D. Andro>geo,
Ao. Andro-gedn,
V. Andro-geSs or geo,
Ab. Andro-geo.
rPan-thum,7
i Pan-thun, J
Pan-thu,
Pan-tbo.
Peli-on or um,
Peli-i,
FelUo,
Peli-on or um,
Peli-on or um,
Peli-o.
Pa.phSs, Pan-thas,
Fa-phi, Pan-thi,
Pa-pho, Pan-tho,
Paphfin,
Pa-phe,
Pa-ph5.
b. In the vocative,' choru^ has chore or chorus \ chads and Athos have cheu)s and
Athos. When Greek nouns of this declension have a plural, it is declined like Latin
nouns of this declension. The genitive plural of neuters is sometimes in on / as, ge-
orgica, georgieon.
e. Greek proper names in tnt, contracted from Mt, end in Latin either in ditf or «* ;
AldnHus, PanthOs. The vocative is in «. Athos, Ceos, Cof, Teos, are either declined
N. Athos, G. and D. Atho, Ac. Atho and Athon, or take the Latin form.
16
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Greek Nouni,
44. a. Greek nouni in eia (uv) are declined two ways. Either the ««« ii pronounced as
one syllable, and then the declension belongs to the third ; or else eus is pronounced as
SUs, two syllables, and the manner of declining is like that of Latin nouns in us. In
both modes of inflecting, however, the vocatiTe ends in at. Thus,
N.
Orpheus,
Orpheus,
Oediptw,
Gen.
6i.
Sos,
5dls,
{^
Dat.
So,
V.
eu.
Ab.
eS; of the second.
Ac.
fSon, 7
C. £um,3
Si, Sa, eu,
o, um, u,
6di, 5dem, u,
b. Proper names in es of the third declension sometimes take this form ; as,
K.Achilles, I G. Achillis, AchUleos ; I oi the third.
Achilleus, 1 Achillei ;
£5; ot the third.
o; of the second.
6de; of the third.
of the second.
THIRD DECLENSION.
45. a. Nouns increasing impure^ that is, such as have a consonant before is or os ot the
genitive ; as, Latnpas, Gen. lampddiSt Poetna, Gen. poemdtis j are declined as below.
So also are Minos, 'TroSt and heros, though, increasing pure^ that is, in is after a
vowel ; as, Minos, Minois.
CPan, delphin, 'der, aether, have generally a.
3 Men's names in is have I'm, in, or idem,
1 Women's have ida or idem (never im or ^») ; so also chlamffs.
C Cities have im, ida, idem.
Gen. Dat. Ac.
Sdum,
In the accusative,
N.
Sing. Lampi'as,
Phs. Lamp-&des,
Sing. Tro-as,
Plu. Tro-&des,
Sing. Tros,
Sing. Pan,
Sing. Par-is,
Sing. Hec-tor,
Sing. Phyll-is,
Sing. Chlam-ys,
Sing. Aul-is,
{&d08, i
Sdum,
Troi's,
Panos,
Idis or Idos,
t5ros,
Idis or Idos,
j^dis or J^dos,
Idis,
Dat.
ftdi,
&dlbus,
&di,
C&dlbus,
( ftsi or &sin,
Troi,
Pani,
Idi,
t&ri.
Idi,
ydi.
Idi,
fMcs,y
X Sdas,
f &dem, )
{Ma, i
Mas.i
CTroem,
iTroa,
Pana,
rim, in, \
\ Idem, 3
t&ra.
Idem or Ida,
fdem or j^ da,
im, Ida, Idem,
]
V.
as,
Mes,
as,
Mes,
Tros,
Pan,
i.
tor,
i or is
&.
Ab.
&de.
Mlbus.
Me.
Cftdibus.
( &si or &sin.
Troe.
Pane.
Ide.
t6re.
Ide.
j^de.
Ide.
Gen.
Dat.
Ac.
V.
Ab.
is, ios, eos.
i,
im, in.
i.
i.
ium, eon.
esi.
es.
es.
esi.
yis or yos
yi,
ym, or yn,
y.
yeory.
b. Nouns which have is in the genitive, of the same number of syllables as the
nominative, are declined in the following manner ; also, those which increase pure ; the
names of cities in polis, as, Pentdpdlis ; and also, Atys, basis, ciddris, crisis, Gkpt,
metamorphosis, syntaxis, synthSsis. Thus,
. N.
5tii|^. Haeres-is,
Plu. Haeres-es,
Sing. Cap-ys,
e. Nouns ineus (monosyllable) have in the genitive eos, and in the accusative ea; as,
Tyd-eus, Thes-eus, Gen. Tydeos, Ace. Tyd^a.
d. In the genitive plupaT, Greek nouns have um or on. Nouns in is, increasing pure,
have ium, sometimes eon.
e. The dative and ablative plural are in bus, or follow the Greek form si before a con-
sonant, or sin before a vowel ; as, Trodsi or Troasin, for TVoddibus. The termination
in St' or sin, is rarely used except by the Poets.
/. Nouns in ma, as poema, have tis rather than ttbus in the dative and ablative plural
because the ancient Latin writers used them as if of the first declension ; tibus is,
however, used.
g. The vocative singular is commonly, in Greek, the same as the nominative, as in
Latin. But words in is and ys, which in Greek reject s in the vocative, do so ailso in
poetry in Latin ; as, N. Thais, V. Thai.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
46. Nouns of this declension are thus declined ; N. Manto, G. MantOs, D. Manto, Ac.
Manto, y . Manto, Ab. Manto. Dido is both of the third and fourth declensions ; thus,
N. Dido, G. Diddnis or Didas. D. Didoni or Didd, &c.
Defectives,']
ETYMOLOGY.
17
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE SUBSTANTIVES.
47. An Irregular noun is one that is not declined accord-
ing to the rules. •
48. a. A Defective noun is one that has not all the cases
or numbers.
b. Those defectives which have onlj one case, are called
Monoptotes ; as, noctUy by night.
c. Those which have only two cases, are called Diptotes ;
as. Gen. spontisy Ab. sponte, a will.
d. Those which have only three cases, are called Triptdtes ;
as, Dat. preciy Ace. precem, Ab. prece^ a prayer. This, how-
ever, and many of the same kind, have all the cases in the
pluraL
49. a. Some nouns have no plural, such as most proper
names ; names of arts^ herbs, liquors, metals, virtues, vices ;
different kinds of grain ; and abstract nouns.
b. Proper names have a plural, when it is necessary to denote persons of a similar
name or character ; as, Catilinae, the Catilines. Also, nouns denoting the states of
weather, are pluralised to express the repetition of the phenomena ; as, nivety falls
of snow.
c. Some nouns have no singular, particularly such as
include several separate things under one name ; as, arma,
divitiae.
d. The following, among many others, have no singular: calendaCt nonae^ idus; the
names of festivals and solemn games ; as, /tidi, Bacchanaikit Ftoralia^ Saturnalia^ with
nupiia,spotualiatnaUUitia J many names of cities, as, AtAenaCtBactra {orum)^ Tkebne.
60. In some words the plural has a different meaning from
the singular ; as. Sing, aedes, a temple ; Flu. aedes, a house.
Ptural.
Aquae, medicinal springs.
Awtilia, auxiliary troops.
Bona, property.
CarcireSt the barriers of a race course.
Castra, a camp,
Comiifat assembly for election.
Copiae, troops.
Fortunae, goods of fortune.
Hortt\ pleasure-grounds.
Literae, an episUe.
Opet, power, wealth.
M»eratf, worlimen.
FarteM (commonly), a party.
Bostra, the raised place from which the
orators spoke.
SaleSf witticisms.
51. a. Some nouns which have different declensions either
throughout, or in some of their cases, are called Heteroclites;
as, laurus, a laurel, 2nd and 4th declensions, G. lauri and
Singular.
Aqua, water.
AuJtilium, help.
Bonum, something good.
Career, a prison. ,
Castrum, a fort.
ComUium, a part of the Roman forum.
Copia, abundance.
Fortuna, fortune.
Hortus, a garden.
Liiera, a letter of the alphabet.
i0p$, obsol.) Opis, help.
OperOf labour.
Parr, a part.
Bottrumy a beak of a ship.
Salt >aH.
18 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Gender of Nouns,
lauruSy D. laurOy Ace. laurum, Y. laurcy Ab. lauro and
lauru.
b. Others have not only different declensions, but also dif-
ferent genders^ and are thus called Heterogenea ; as, jocusy a
joke, masculine in the singular ; joci and jocay masculine and
neuter in the plural.
GENDEE.
52. a. In Latin, there are two ways of distinguishing the
gender ; first, by the signification, and secondly by the ter-
mination. The gender of living beings is principally deter-
mined by the signification ; but that of inanimate things^ by
the termination.
b. In English, all inanimate objects are neuter ; bat in Latin, on the contrary, they
may be masculine, feminine, or neuter, either according to the termination of the
genitive, or according to their declensioui thus, a stone, a cloud, a war, are neuter ia
English ; but In Latin, lapiM, a stone, is masculine ; wubet, a cloud, feminine ; and beUum,
a war, neuter ; according to the subjoined rules.
RULES TO FIND THE GENDER OF NOUNS.
GENERAL RULES ACCORDING TO THE SIGNIFICATION.
53. a. Masculine, The names of Males, and nouns de-
noting the employments of men, are masculine ; as, pater, a
father ; scriba, a scribe. The names also of ivinds and months,
rivers and mountains, are masculine.
b. There are some nouns which, though applied to persons, are, on account of their
termination, always neuter ; as, tnancipiunif servitium, a slave. So, operae, slaves or
day-labourers ; vigiliae, watches by night ; excubiae, watches by day or night ; noxiae,
guilty persons ; copiae^ troops ; though applied to men, are always feminine, on account
of their termination.
c. Many names of rivers and mountains take their gender flrom the special rules ;
thus, AUnda, ^na, are feminine ; Plemmjfriutn, Soractet are neuter.
54. a. Feminine, The names of Females are feminine ;
as, mater, a mother; vacca, a cow. Also the names of
countries, islands, cities or towns, jewels, poems, trees, herbs,
and ships, are feminine.
b. Exceptions. I. Of the names of Cotmtriet, those in «m, and the plurals in a, as,
Latium, Bactra, are neuter, according to their termination. Bosporus, Pontus, Hetles-
pontus, are masculine 2. Of Islands, some ending in urn, and tne Egyptian Delia^wn
neuter. Pharos is either masculine or feminine — 3. Of Towns, the following are mas-
culine : all plurals in i, as, VHi, Delphi; so also Croto, Hippo, Narbo Martius, Frusino,
Sulmo, Tunes (Tunetis). The following are neuter: those in um; as, T^culum:
Jlurals in a, genitive orum; as, Susa, Arbela, Leuctra: indeclinables in t and jv ; as,
lliturgi, AsHf: the towns Argos, Anxur, Gadir, Tuder, Nepet, Hispal (Slis gen.).rtMfr;
the names of Italian towna in «, as Praeneste, are used sometimes as feminines, and
sometimes as neuters. — 4. Of Jewels, the following are masculine : carbunculus, pyro^
pus, opiUus, beryllus, smaragdus.—b. Of Trees: stgrax, pinaster, and oleaster, are
masculine ; larix, lotus, rubus, c%mressus,ATe doubtful, the first two are rather feminine ;
nouns In er of the third declension, as acer, sder, suber, and those ending in um, are
Gender of Aomtw.] ETYMOLOGY. 1 9
neuter* and also rd»ur and fAtM.'— 6. Of Herbt: intybuSy hellSbdruf, raphdnutt are
generally masculine, rarely feminine ; qfttstu is generally masculine. In botany, the
names of plants take their gender from the special rules.
55. a. Common. Names which signify an office or quality,
that may belong either to man or woman, are of the common
gender, that is, either masculine or feminine ; as, parens, a
father or mother.
h. The following lines comprehend nearly all the nouns of
the Common Gender :
Conjux atque parens, infans, patruelis et heres,
Affinis, y index, judex, dux, miles et hostis,
Augur et antistes, juvenis, con viva, sacerdos,
Muni^rweceps, vates, adolescens, civis, et auctor.
Gustos, nemo, comes, testis, sus, bos^t^^, canis^ue,
Interpresj'we, cliens, princeps, praes, martyr et obses,
Atque index, hospes, quels adde satelles et exul.
To these may be added, contubernalisy artifex, incdla, and
praesuL
e. AntisteSj cUeniy and kospeSt frequently change their termination to express the
feminine ; thus, antiaeUOy dienia, notpita. There are some nouns which, though
applicable to both sexes, admit only of a masculine a4JectiTe ; as, advenot a stranger,
agricota^ a husbandman, &c.
d. Some nouns in tor form the feminine in irixj as, victor ^ victrix. Others in tu or
er form their feminine in a; as, coqmUt coqua; magittert magistra.
56. a. Epicene. The names of vnld-beasts, birds, ^hes,
and insects, are said to be of the epicene gender, because
they have only one termination to express both sexes ; thus
passer, a sparrow, both male and female. When any parti-
cular sex is intended, the word mas, mascula, or femina, is
usually added; as ma^ passer, a male sparrow; femina passer,
a female sparrow.
h. Words belonging to this gender usually follow the gender of their termination ; thus,
paster i» masculine because nouns in er are masculine ; and aquila, an eagle, is feminine,
because nouns in a, of the first declension, are feminine.
57. Doubtful. Some few words are of the doubtful gen-
der ; that is, they are used either as masculine or feminine,
without regard to the sex ; as, anguis, a snake ; dama, a deer.
58. Neuter. Thenamesoflettersarewew^cr/as, O(longum).
Also, indeclinable substantives, as, gummi; and all infinitives,
imperatives^ adverbs, and other particles, used substantively,
are neuter.
20 LATIN GRAMMAR. IGender of Nouns.
SPECIAL RULES FOR THE GENDER ACCORDING TO
THE TERMINATION.
THE FIRST SPECIAL RULE.
59. a. Nouns not increasing in the genitive ; as, nubeSy
nubis, are feminine.
Exceptions.
b. Masculines. — Nouns in nis are masculine : — ,. .
Cum callis, cassis, caulisque, cometa, planeta.
Axis, cenchris, collis, follis, fascis, equdlis,
Fmtis, mensis, piscis, postis, sentis et emis,
OrbiSy torris, vectis, vepres, vermis et unguis.
To these may be added, — Adria, the Adriatic sea; nouns
from the Greek in cls and es ; as, tiaras, acinaces ; the com-
pounds of as, as, centussis.
*
c. Nouns in er and us are masculine. But these are fe-
minine: —
Vannus, acus, Jicus(\}iQy colus(\yxe, domus, manus, idus,
Carbasus, atque tribtis, portums, alvus, humus.
With many words of Greek origin ; as, abyssus, anttdotusy
atomus, dialectus, diphthonguSy eremus, exodusy methoduSy
periodus, pharus, synddus, and several others.
d. Neuters. — Nouns in e of the third declension are
neuter.
Nouns in um and nouns undeclined are neuter.
Virus and pelagus are neuter. Vulgus, neuter, sometimes
masculine. Specus, masculine, feminine, and neuter.
Cacoethes, hippomanes, nepentheSy panaceSy chaos, melos,
epos, are neuter.
e. Doubtful.— These are doubtftil, that is, masculine or feminine: angm's, m. btt-
lUnuSy barbUoSt candlis^ m. ciuniSt m. corbiSt f. cptUus, m. datna, f. finis^ m. (/Snet,
borders or territories, is always masculine,) grouus, Untery f. pamptntu^ m. ^nut,
pkasekttt m. iorquit.
Those words to which tn is annexed are used in the masculine in preference to the
feminine; and those to which /is annexed are feminine rather than masculine.
the second special rule.
60. a. Nouns increasing long in the genitive, as, virtuSy
virtHtiSy Bxe feminine.
Exceptions.
b. Masculines. — Nouns in er, or, and os, are masculine,
except cos and dos, which are feminine.
Gender of Nouns.] ETYMOLOGY. ' 21
Nouns of more than one syllable in w, ens, (as, genitive
antis,) and the names of numbers and substances in o, are
masculine. Add,
Sol, ren, splen,fons, mons, pons, mus, as, hesc^Q, meridies,
His dens, sermo, lebes, magnes, ^Aoraaique, to/?e*que.
Likewise the fractional parts of the Koman as or pound ;
as, guadrans, dodrans.
c. Neuters^ — Nouns of more than one syllable in al and
ar are neuter. Add,
Crits,jus, pus, rus, thus, f el, mel, vas-vasis et alec,
JEs, spinther, cor, lac, far, ver, os (oris et pssis).
<f. Doubtful. — These are doubtful : arrhabot m. bubo^ m. ccdx, m. a heel or end,
caix^ f. lime, limaXf f. Ifftix, f.perdix^ f. mdenSt m. serpens^ sttrps, the trunk of a tree.
Dies is doubtful in the singular, masculine in the plural. Amnuttu is of all genders.
THE THIRD SPECIAL RULE.
61. a. Nouns increasing short in the genitive, as, sanguis,
sanguinis, are masculine.
Exceptions.
h. Feminines. — Nouns of more than two syllables in do
and go are feminine.
All nouns in as, gen. adis^ and in is, gen. idis, except lapis,
which is masculine.
Junge pecu^ (pectidis), coxendix, trabsque, supellexqne, •
Appendix, crux, fax, nex, nix, nux, pixque, filix, strix,
Grando, jftdes, compes, forceps, seges, arbor, hi/emsque,
Scobs, carex,forfex, res, spes, sandt/xque, tegesque.
These also are feminine : tomex, wis, a cord ; merges, ttis
a handful of com ; smila.x, ads, a yew tree, or herb. Sal
(salis) is masculine, sometimes, though rarely, neuter. Sales
(plural) always masculine, and signifies witticisms.
c. Neuters. — Nouns in a, ar, en, put, ur, us, and names
of plants in er, are neuter, except pecten 2ltA furfur, which
are both masculine.
His quoque, marmor, ador, neutris, jungasque, cadaver.,
His aequor, tuber, verber et uber, iter.
Tuber, a kind of apple-tree, is feminine ; but tUber, the
fruit of this tree, is masculine.
d. DouBTFUL.—These are doubtful ; adeps^ m. ciniSf m. cortex^ m. grus^ f. hystrix^ f.
imbrex t margo^ m. natrix, f. obex, m. onyx, m. puivitt m.pumex, m. rumex, m. sardS-
nyx, scrobs, m. silex, f. varfx, m.
22
LATIN GRAMMAR.
{_Adjective8,
ADJECTIVES.
62. An Adjective is a word which expresses the quality^
size, shape, colour, number, quantity, or any other property
or accident of a noun to which it is joined ; as, a good man ;
a bad heart ; a large hill ; a square table ; the green grass ;
twenty horses ; much noise ; this hat.
63. In Latin there are three sorts of adjectives: — 1. Of
three terminations ; as, dur-us, dur-a, dur^um, hard; — 2.
Of two terminations ; as, dulcis, dulce, sweet ; — 3. Of one
termination ; BS,felix, happy.
ADJECTIVES OP THREE TERMINATIONS.
64. a. When there are three terminations in a case, the
first is masculine, the second feminine, and the third neuter.
Singular.
PlUT
al.
m.
/.
n.
m.
/.
n.
N. Dur-us,
a,
um.
N. Dur^i,
ae.
a.
G. Dur-i,
ae.
•
1.
G. Dur-orum,
arum,
orum.
D. Dur-o,
ae,
0.
D. Dur-is,
is,
is.
Ac. Dur-um,
am,
um.
Ac. Dur-os,
as.
a.
V. Dur-e,
a,
um.
V. Dur-i,
ae.
a.
Ab. Dur-o,
a,
0.
Ab. Dur-is.
is.
is.
Singular,
Plural,
m.
/.
n.
m.
/.
n.
N. Lib-er,
era,
erum.
N. Liber-i,
ae.
a.
G. Liber-i,
ae,
•
1.
G. Liber-orum
, arum
, 5rum.
D. Liber-o,
ae.
0.
D. Liber-is,
is.
is.
Ac. Liber-um,
am,
um.
Ac. Liber-OS,
as.
a.
V. Lib-er,
Sra,
erum.
V. Liber-i,
ae,
a.
Ab. Liber-o,
^
0.
Ab. Liber-Is,
is,
is.
Singular.
Plural.
tn.
/.
n.
m.
/.
fi.
N. Nig-er,
ra,
rum.
N. Nigr-i,
ae.
a.
G. Nigr-i,
ae.
•
1.
G. Nigr-orum,
arum
,orum.
D. Nigr-o,
ae,
0.
D. Nigr-is,
is.
is.
Ac. Nigr-um,
am.
um.
Ac. Nigr-os,
as.
a.
V. Nig-er,
ra,
rum.
V. Nigr-i,
ae.
a.
Ab. Nigr-o,
A
a.
0.
Ab. Nigr-is,
is.
is.
b. Aeger, dteft creber, gldher^ integer, iudicer, tnacer^ nigerjipiger^ pulcher^ rvbevt
sacer^ scaber^ sinister, taeter, vc^tr, reject e before r in the declension. Dexter some-
times retains the e and sometimes rejects it. Miser and the rest retain the e.
c. The masculine andZneuler genders of adjectives of three terminations are declined
like nouns of the second declension ; and the feminine gender like nouna of the first
declension.
Adjectives,']
ETYMOLOGY.
23
65, a. The following adjectives of three terminations form
the genitive in itiSy and the dative in t : — UrniSt one ; ullttSy
any ; nulltiSy none; solvLSy alone; totiLSy the whole; as, geni-
tive unius, dative uni,
al-ter, era, erum, -| - . ' - gen. alterttis, dat. alteri,
' ' I one oj two, J ^ '
iit-er, ra, rum,
neut-er, ra, rum,
ali-us, a, ud,
genitive rius, dative n.
either,
neither,
(another, i.e, ... ,, j ^. ,..
{of several, | genitive a/ti«, dative aZw.
b, Untu has no plural, unless it be joined to a noun that has not the singular ; as,
unae literae, a letter ; una moenia, a wall. AUerUter, the one or the other, is commonly
unchanged in the first part, as, alterutrutn; but sometimes in the genitive we fiad
aUerius-utrhu. Uterque, uterttbet^ ulerviSt &c. follow the same rule as titer.
66. Ambo, ambae, amho, both, and duo, duae, duo, two, are
thus declined : —
m.
/.
n
N. Amb-o,
ae,
0.
G. Amb-orum,
arum.
orum.
D. Amb-obus,
abus,
obus.
Ac. Amb-os or o.
as,
0.
V. Amb-o,
ae,
0.
Ab. Amb-obus,
abus,
obus.
ADJECTIVES OP TWO TERMINATIONS.
67. a. Adjectives of two terminations end in is, e, or in er,
ris, re, and have the first termination masculine and feminine,
and the second, neuter. They form the ablative singular in
i; the genitive plural in ium; the nominative, accusative, and
vocative neuter plural in ia ; as.
Singular.
m. f. n,
N. Dul-cis, dul-ce.
Plural.
fn, f, fi.
N. Dul-ces, dul-cia.
G. Dul-cis,
dul-cis.
G. Dul-ciiim,
dul-cium.
D. Dul-ci,
dul-ci.
D. Dul-cibus,
dul-cibus. .
Ac. Dul-cem,
dul-ce.
Ac. Dul-ces,
dul-cia.
V. Dul-cis,
dul-ce.
V. Dul-ces,
dul-cia.
Ab. Dul-ci,
dul-ci.
Ab. Dul-cibus,
dul-cibus.
h. TJie following adjectives, — acer, sharp; alacer, brisk;
campester, belonging to a plain ; celer, swift ; celeher, re-
nowned ; equester, belonging to a horse ; paluster, marshy ;
pedester, on foot; puter, putrid; saluher, wholesome; Syl-
vester, woody ; terrester, terrestrial ; volucer, swift of wing,
— have three terminations in the nominative and vocative
24
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^Adjeelwes.
singular, but are declined like dulcis in all the other cases ;
as.
_ m.
N. A-cer,
G. A-cris,
D. A-cri,
Ac. A-crem,
V. A-cer,
Ab. A-cri,
c. Of these adjectiTes er is more frequently masculine than is in proie.
68. Comparatives end in or and tis^ and make is or i in
the ablative singular (but e preferably to t), um in the geni-
tive plural, and a in the nominative, accusative, and vocative
neuter plural ; as.
Singular.
m.f.
, acris,
n.
acre.
I, acris,
acris.
acri.
acri.
n, acrem,
acre.
acris.
acre.
acri.
acri.
Plural
t
„ m.f.
n.
N. A-cres,
acria.
G. A-crium,
acrium.
D. A-cribus,
acribus.
Ac. A-cres,
acria.
V. A-cres,
acrla.
Ab. A-cribus,
acribus.
n.
m^i-iis.
Singular.
m.f.
N. Meli-or,
G. Meli-oris, meli-oris.
D. Meli-ori, meli-ori.
Ac. Meli-orem, meli-us.
V. Meli-or, meli-us.
Ab. Meli-ore or i,meli-6re or i.
Plural.
m. f. M.
N. Meli-ores, mSli-ora.
G. MSli-orum, meli-orum.
D. MSli-oribus, meli-oribus.
Ac. Meli-ores, meli-onu
V. Meli-ores, meli-ora.
Ab. MSli-oribus, meli-5ribus.
ADJECTIVES OF ONE TERMINATION.
69. "When there is but one termination, it includes all
genders. The ablative of adjectives of one termination gene-
rally ends in e or f, the genitive plural in ium, the nominative,
accusative, and vocative neuter plural in ia ; as,
Singular.
Plural.
m.f.
n.
m.f.
M.
N.
Fel-ix,
i^l-ix.
N. Fel-ices,
fel-icia.
G.
Fel-icis,
fel-icis
G. Fel-icium,
fel-icium.
D.
Fel-ici,
fel-ici.
D. Fel-icibus,
fel-icibus.
Ac.
Fel-icem,
fel-ix.
Ac. Fel-ices,
fel-icia.
V.
Fel-ix,
fel-ix.
V. Fel-ices,
fel-icia.
Ab.
Fel-ice or i.
fel-ice or i.
Ab. Fel-icibus,
fel-icibus.
70. The Ablative Singttlar. Participles used as adiectives make the ablative in e or
if but only e when used as participles.
b. Of the following adjectives, i' is preferable to et—^mceps^ duplex^ infmu, memor,
praeeeps, simple* ^ volucriSt triplex ^vetus^ par and its compounds eompar, dSspartimpart
separ; also, auda*^ atrox, diseors, hebes^ iners, inops, pervicax, pertinax^ repens, reeenSy
and teresy when used in prose. Artifex, consorst nutrix^ ultrix, victrix, wnen used as
adjectives, have i in the ablative.
e. The following have only e in the ablative :—coelebs, unmarried ; compos, master of ;
dives, rich ; hospes, strange ; tmpos, unable ; impQbis, beardless ; Juvinis, young; paU'
pert poor ; pubis, marriageable ; senex, old ; sospes, safe ; superstes^ surviving : also
the compounds of cdlor, corpus, euspis, and pesi as, concdlor, of the same colour; tri-
corpoTt three-bodied; tricuspis, three-poiuted ; tripes, three-footed.
Adjectives.']
ETYMOLOGY.
25
71. a. Nmter Pkeral. Adjectives and participles having t, or e and i, in the ablative,
have ia in the neuter plural, except comparatives.
b. Vetus makes Vetera j plures^' ptura (sometimes plurid); complures^ comphtra and
complwia; dives malces ditia; victrix, ultrix, and ntUrix, though properly feminine
substantives, have a neuter in the plural as well as a feminine ; as, victrices, victricia.
c. All those adiectives that have e only in the ablative, have no neuter plural : also,
adjectives of one termination in er, ««, »r, os, and /», whether tlie ablative ends in f,
or e and i, have seldom a neuter plural ; as, puber^ degener^ vber; ales, locuples^ deses,
resesj memory concolor, bfcorpor; compos, impos, exos ; artifex, &c. ; also comis, con-
sort, exors, inops, parlieeps, princeps, pubis^ impuhis, redux, sons^ insons, supplex, and
friga.
72. a. The Genitive Plural.
the genitive plural.
Adjectives having tVi in the neuter plural have turn in
b. But adjectives that have only e in the ablative, or have no neuter plural, make um
in the genitive plural ; with these, dives, quadruplex, vetus, uber, and the compounds
of captUt capiOy facto, genus, and color j as, anceps, praeceps, artifex, degeher, concolor.
c. Caeter or eaetSrus, the rest, is rarely used in the nominative singular masculine.
d. Plus is neuter in the singular and a substantive ; in the plural it is an adjective ,
and of all genders.
Sing. N. v. Plus ; G. Pluris ; D. is wanting ; Ac. Plus ; Ab. Plure.
Plu. N. V. Plures, plura, seldom pluria ; G. Plurinm ; D. Pluribus ;
Ac. Plures, plura, seldom pluria ; Ab. Pluribus.
NUMEBAIi ADJECTIVES.
73. Numeral adjectives are of several kinds. The Cardinal express a number abso-
lutely (how many, quot),and are, as it were, the Atng^cupon which the others turn ; as,
unuSf one ; duo, two. The Ordinal numbers (In which order, quotus f) denote the
order or succession in which any number of persons or things is mentioned ; as, primus,
the first. The Distributive denote how many to each (quotenif) ; as, temi, three at a
time. The Multiplicative signify how many fold (quofuplex f) ; as, triplex, threefold.
The Prowrtioncu signify how many times more (quotuplusP) ; as, duplo, by twice as
much. The Adverbial numerals answer to the question. How many times (quotiesf) ;
as, ter, three times.
74. a.
A List of Adjective and Adverbial Numercds.
Cardinal.
One, two, 8;c.
I I Unus
II 2 Duo
III 3 Tres
IV 4 Qufttuor
V 5 Quinque
VI 6 Sex
VII 7 Septem
VlII 8 Octo
IX 9 KSvem
X 10 D6cem
XI 11 Undecim
XII 12 Du6d«c1m
XIII 13 TrSd^lm
XIV 14 Qu&tudrdecim
XV 15 Quind«cim
XVI 16 Sed6cim
XVII 17 SeptendScim
XVIII 18 OctodScim
XIX 19 NovemdScim
or Undeviginti
XX 20 Viginti
XXX 30 Triginta
XL 40 Quadraginta
L M Quinquaginta
LX GO Sexaginta
LXX 70 Septuaglnta
L^XX SO.Octoginta
XC 90Nonaginta
Ordinal.
First, second, SfC.
Primus
S^undus
Tertius
Quartus
Quintus
Sextus
Septimus
Octavus
Nonus
DScImus
Undecimus
Duodecimus
TertiuS'
Quartus-
Quintus-
Sextus-
Septimus
Oct&vus-
Nonus-
n
3
6
Viceslmus
Tricesimus
Quadrageslmus
Quioquageslmus
Sexagesimus
Septuagesimus
Octogesimus
Nonagesimus
C
Distributive.
One by one, ^e.
Singuli
Bin!
Temi
Qufiterni
Qulni
Seni
Septeni
Oct5ni
N6veni
Deni
Undeni
Duodeni
Temi
Quatemi-
Quhii-
Seni.
Septeni
Octoni-
Noveni-
Vlcenl
Triceni
Qudragini
Quinquageni
^iexageni
Septuageni
Octogeni
Nonageni
cu
Adverbial.
Once, twice, S[C.
SSael
Bis
Ter
Quftter
Quinquies
Sexies
Septies
Octies
N5vies
D£cieft
Undecies
Duodecies
TrSdecies
Quatuordecies
Quindecies
Sedecies
Decies et septies
Duodevlcies
Undevicies
Vicies
Tricies
Quadratics
Quinquagies
Sexagies
Septuagies
Octogies
Nonagies
26
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Adjectives^
Cakdinal.
Obdinal.
DlSTSIBUnVB.
Adverbial.
IC 99 Undecentum
Undecenteslmus
Undecenteni
Undecentles
C 100 Centum
Centesimus
Centeni
Centies
CC 200DuceDti,«fle,a
DuceDtesimus
DucentenI
Ducenties
CCC 300Trecenti
Trecentesimus
Trecenteni
Trecentiet
CCCC 400 Quadringenti
Quadringentesimus
QuadriDgenteni
Quadringenties
' D or 13 500 Quingenti .
QuiDgentesimus
Qulngenteni
Quingenties
DC 600 Sexcenti
Sexcentesimna
Sexcenteni
Sexcenties
DCC 700 SeptiBgenti
Septingentesimus
Septingenteni
Septingenties
DCCC 800 Octlngenti
Octingentetimus
Octingenteni
Occingentiea
DCCCC 900 Noningenti
Noningentesimiu
Millesnnut
Nongenteni
Noningentiea
M or CI3 1000 Mtlle
Milleni
Millies
MM or CI0CI3 2000 duo xnillia or bis miile, 100 5000 quinque mlllia, CCIOO 10,000.
CCCIOOO 100,000 centum millia ; centies millesimus, centena millia, centies milUes.
b. The C (centum) reversed thus (0> is called apostrophus, and with a perpendicular
line preceding it (10), or drawn together as D, signifies 500. In every multiplication
with ten a fresh apostrophus is added; thus I^pssMXX), 1030=50,000. When a
number is to be doubled, as many C*8 are put before the horizontal line as there are O's
behind it thus lOO^SOOO ; CCI3Osl0,000.
c. In the combination of cardinal numbers, fWnn twenty to one hundred, the smaller
with etf or the larger without et^ precedes ; as, qtuttuor et vtgmtt\ or viginti qnaiuor.
Above one hundred, the larger number precedes, with or without etj as, cetUutn et
ttticM, or centum unut, centum et duo, centum duo. From 11 to 19 the smaller number
is placed first without etj as, duodecimo sedechn^ &c.
d. Unde and du6de are joined to most even numbers increasing by tens, to express
one or two less ; as, undeviginti for 19 ; duodetriginta for 28 ; undequadrt^inta{ioT 39.
e. Mille^ one thousand, is indeclinable ; as com mille militibus : but^the plural nu'Uia
(always of more than one thousand) is a neuter noun of the third declension, aqd is
followed by a noun in the genitive case ; as, *' Tria millia kominum," ** cum tribus
millibus militum.**
COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES.
75. There are two degrees of comparison ; the comparative
and the superlative,
76. The positive state expresses the simple quality; as,
duruSf hard ; brevis, short.
77. a. The comparative degree expresses a greater degree
of the quality than the positive ; as, durior, harder ; bretnoTy
shorter.
b. The comparative is used to denote the superioritvof one person or thing over an-
other person or thing, or over several, whether belonging to the same class or to dif-
ferent classes. When different classes are meant, the comparative is followed, in Engtisn,
by than: as, ** The Greeks were braver than the Persians.** When the tame class
is intended, the comparative is followed by qfi as, ** The wiser qf the two.
c. The comparative is formed from the first case of the
positive that ends in t, by adding or for the masculine and
.feminine, and us for the neuter ; as,
DuruSy G. duri, Comparative, durior, durius.
Brevis, D. brevi. Comparative, brevior, brevius,
78. a. The superlative expresses the highest degree of the
quality; as, durissimus, the hardest; brevissimtts, the
shortest.
b. The superlative compares one thing or aggregate with, at least, two others be-
longing to the same class.
* A shorter form also occurs ; thus, duceni,* 200 ; treceni, 300 ; quadringSnl, 400 ;
quingeni, 500 ; sexceni, 600 ; septingSni, 700 ; octiogeni, 800 j nongentl, 900.
Adjectives.]
ETYMOLOGY.
27
c. The superlative is formed from the first case of the
positive that ends in t, by adding ssimuSy a, um ; as,
Gen. Duriy Superlative, duri-ssimusy a, «»», hardest.
Dat. Brevi, Superlative, brevissimus, a, uniy shortest.
79. The following are exceptions from this rule : —
1. Adjectives in cr, form the comparative in the regular
manner, but the superlative by adding rtmtLS to the nomina-
tive; as, pulchery fair, pulchri-OTy fairer, pulcherrtmus,
fairest.
2. Some adjectives in lis form the superlative in limus,
as.
a, um ;
Hum^, low,
humUlimus,
ImbeciutSf weak, < . , .„. .
^ tmbeeiUtsnmus
SimUiSf like, simillimus.
JDifficUiSf difficult, difficillimus,
DisstmUis, unlike, dissimiUimus.
FdcUis, easy, facUKmus.
GrdcUiSf slender, graciUimus,
The other adjectives in lis form the comparative and super-
lative in the regular manner.
3. Adjectives in dicus, ftcuSy loqutiSy and voluSy form the
comparative in entior, and the superlative in entissimus ;
as, maledtcus, maledicentiory maledicentissimtis. But mirifi-
cissimtiSy from mirifictis, is also found in ancient writers.
Veridtcus has no comparison.
But those in dictu (t long) are compared regularly ; as, pudtcuSt hashtaly pudic-ior ,
pudiC'Usimus.
4. The following adjectives are regular in the comparative,
but irregular in the superlative : —
Dexter, right,
Exter, outward,
Inf erus, low,
Maturus, ripe,
Posterns, behind.
Sinister, left,
Superus, high,
dexterior,
exterior,
inferior,
maturior,
posterior,
sinisterior,
superior.
dextimus.
extremus or extimus.
infimus or imus.
maturrimus or maturissimus.
postremus or postiimus.
sinistimus.
supremus or summus.
5. The following are compared irregularly : —
Bonus, good,
Dives, rich,
Egenus, needy,
Magnus, great,
Malus, bad,
Multus, much,
Nequam, wicked.
Parvus, little,
mSlior better,
ditior,. richer,
egentior, needierf
major, greater,
pejor, worse,
plus (neut.), more, '
nequior, more wicked,
minor, less,
c 2
optimus, best
ditissimus, richest,
egentissimus,
neediest.
mA:dm\is,greatest,
pessimus, worst,
plurimus, most,
nequissimus, most
wicked,
minimus, least.
28
LATIN GRAMMAB.
\^Adjectives*
6. The following are compared by magix and maxime .*
— ^Adjectives in us pure, that is, in itf with a Towel before
it ; as, arduus, difficult, magis arduuSy more difficult, migcinie
arduuSy most difficult. But adjectiYes ending in quus^ and
also these words — assiduus, exigutu, sirenuuSy are formed in
the regular manner ; as, anfiquus, anHquiorj anHquissimus,
A high degree of excesi or defect is denoted by lot^i, mmUdi as, mmUd doctior.
QMdnt before the superlatiTe signifies as mmck a* pow'bfe.
Tlie comparative maj frequendy be r endere d in English hj too, very, wmutuaify ;
as, *' Qn5d et tiberhu TiT^ni,*' because be was living Ico extraTagantlj-.
Adjectives defective in Comparison,
7. The following adjectives have no positive : —
Citerior^nesiTeT, citimus, firom
citra.
Deterior, worse, deterrimus.
Interior, more inward, inti-
mus, firom intra.
Odor, swifter, ocissimus.
Prior, former, primus, from
prae. I
8. The following have no comparcttive : —
Potior, more powerful, potis-
simus.
Propior, nearer, proximus,
finom prope.
Ulterior, farther, ultimus,
from ultra.
Bellvs, spruce, bellissimus.
Diversus, different, diversis-
simus.
Palsus, false, falsissimus.
Fidus, faithful, fidissimus.
Inclttus, renowned, inclitissi-
mus.
Invictus, invincible, invictissi-
mus.
Invisus, unseen, invisissimus.
Invitus, unwilling, invitissi-
mus. ^ [mus.
Merttus, deserving, meritissi-
Novus, new, novissimus.
Nupems, late, nuperrimus.
Par, equal, parissimus.
Persuasus, persuaded, per-
suasissimus.
Sacer, holj, sacerrimus.
Vetus, old, veterrimus.
9. The following want the superlative : —
Adolescens, young, adolescen-
tior.
AgUis, nimble, agilior.
Arcanum, secret, arcanior.
Caecum, blind, caecior.
Declivis, downward, declivior.
Diuturnus, lasting, diutumior.
Deses, idle, desidior.
Docilis, teachable, docilior.
Ingens, great, ingentior.
Juvenis, young, junior.
Longinquus, distant, longin-
quior.
Opimus, rich, opimior.
Proclivis, down-hill, procli-
vior. [pronior.
PronuSf inclined downwards,
Propinquus, near, propin-
quior. [rior.
Salutaris, wholesome, saluta-
Satur, full, saturior.
Senex, old, senior.
Pronouns,']
ETYMOLOGY.
29
Likewise adUectives ending in dliSf iliSy and verbals in M/t«, have no superlative ; as
regaUSt etvUis^JUWis,
To supply the superlative ofjuvenit or adolescetUt we say, tnfnimu$ natu, the youngest;
and of senex, maximut natu, the oldest.
10. These have only a comparative : an/^or, former; sa<tor,.better; seqtuor^wone.
80. Many adjectives admit of no comparison ; as,
a. Adjectives whose signification cannot be increased or diminished : Participles In
nu anddfaw, and adjectives ending in bundtts, dicus, imtcs, inus, ivua, orut, ster, and
plex i as, omatQrtu, amandus, vagabundutt modicus^ legMmtu, mai&tinuSj fugitivuit
canortu, campester, supplez ; but simple* has both a comparative and superlative.
Tempeithnu has a comparative, and/estivus both degrees.
b. Adjectives compounded of nouns and verbs ; as, versicolor, degeners — the com-
pounds of /rro and gero { sm, firug^fer, comiger j oi animus, Jugum, somnut, artaa i
as, magnanimus, bijugis, tiuomnM, inermis ; ofprae and perj as, praedtves, perdoctusj
except praestans, praeclarus.
c. Diminutives which, in themselves, involve a sort of comparison ; as, parvUltts,
very small Possessives ; as, paternus^ mtUiebris. Gentile adjectives ; as, Romanus,
Poenus. Many other adjectives are not compared ; as, aUjus, almus, apricus, cicur,
canus, claudua, crispus, dispar,JeJUntu, memor, mirtu, mutus, muOhu, nrfastus, prae-
cox, sospes.
d. The comparison of some words is supplied by words of a kindred meaning ; as,
vetus, vetustior ; egenus, egentior, egentissimtu.
PRONOUNS.
81. A Pronoun is a word used to supply the place of a
noun ; as, " When Csesar had conquered Gaul, he turned his
arms against his country."
82. a. In Latin, pronouns are generally divided into
1. Personal.
Ego, /.
tu, thou,
Biri, of himself.
2. Demonstrative,
iste, that,
is, he,
idem, the same,
3. Possessive.
meus, 9ny.
tuus, thi/,
suus, his,
noster, our.
vester, ^our.
4. Gentile or Patrial.
nostras, of our country.
vestras, oft/our country.
cujas, of what country f
5. Relative.
qui, who.
6. Interrogative.
quis, who?
cujus, whose ?
hie, this.
ille, he.
ipse, himself.
b. Personal pronouns are substitutes for nouns ; demon-
stratives point out some person or thing ; possessives denote
possession ; gentiles or patrials denote one's country ; rela-
tives refer to something going before ; interrogatives are
employed in asking questions.
c. Ego, tu, suiy are used for substantives, the rest are pro-
perly adjectives.
d. Four only have a vocative, — tu, meus, noster, nostras.
e. Hie, ille, ipse, aliqw's, quicunque, quilibet, quisque, are, in some instances, found
in the vocative. ^
c 3
90
LATIN GRAMMAB.
83. Fronomis bare two numbers^ like ]ioim% and Aree
persons in each number, namelj,
Simffmlar,
Ego, I, the first person, represents the speaker.
TiLy thouj the second person, represents the person sp<^en to,
lUcj ilia, Ulud, the third person, represents the person or
thing spoken (ff,
FfuraL
Nos, we, is the first person.
Vos, ye or yov, is the second person.
im, they, is the third person.
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
84. a. Singular,
N. Ego,/.
Gr. Mei, of me,
D. Mihi, tome.
Ac Me, me,
V. wanting.
Ab. Me, yrom or by me.
FluroL
N. Nos, we,
Gr. Nostrum, vel -i, of us,
D. Nobis, to t».
Ac. Nos, us,
V. wanting.
Ab. Nobis, /rom or by us.
b. Noitr6m and vettritm are contractions for nosirorum, mosirdrum^ and vestrortan,
vestrarwn. Nostri and ve^ri signify bdongmg to, or towards us j nostrum and veHr&nt
mean amonest ur ; as, quis nostrum, which of us ? NoUrkm and veatr6m are gene-
rally ttfted after partitiTes, numerals, comparatirei:, and superlatives ; uosiri and vestri
Sifter Owher words. Mihi is sometimes coutr«icCed mto mi by tiie Poets.
85. Singular,
N. Tu, thou.
G. Tfii, of thee,
D. Tibi, to ^Aee.
Ac. Te, thee.
Y. O ! Tu, thou !
Ab. Te, with thee.
Plural,
N. Vos, you,
Gc, Vestrum, or -i, of you.
D. Vobis, to yoM.
Ac. Vos, you.
V. O! Vos, Oyou!
Ab. Vobis, WTiVA you.
86. a. Sill, o/* himself herself^ itself themselves, has no
nominative or vocative case, and is thus declined : —
Singular and Plural,
G. Sul, of himself
herself itself themselves.
D. Sibi, to himself
Ac. Se, himself
Ab. Se, &y himself
b. To the cases of these three pronouns (except the genitive plural and the nomina-
tive tu) met may be added, to express the English se{fi as, Egomety I myself, meimet,
mihitnet, memet, notmet, Ac. The pronoun ipse is also frequently added ; as, mihimet
ipsi^ &c. The nominative tu does not admit met, tute being used for tumet.
c. The accuaative and ablative singular have a reduplication in the same sense ; as,
'"/if, srte. Cum, with, ii affixed to the ablatives me, te^ se^ nobis, vobis, quo, quS,
' at, mecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, &c.
JFronouns.'l
ETYMOLOGY.
31
87. a. Singular.
N. mc,this,
G. Hi\jus,
D. Huic,
Ac. Hunc,
V. wanting.
Ab. Hoc,
n.
hoc.
haec,
hujus, hujus.
hulc, huic.
hanc, hoc.
hac, hoc.
m.
n.
Plural,
N. Hi, these, hae, haec.
G. Horum, harum, horum.
his, his.
has, haec.
D. His,
Ac. Hos,
V. wanting.
Ab. His,
his, his.
b. The force of the demonstrative Ate, is strengthened by the aflSxes ce 'and cine; aa,
hiaXt haecce^ hocce ; hiccine, haeccine^ koccine. Of the former, those cases only are in
common use which end in c or « before ce: and of the latter, only the nominative, ac-
cusative, and ablative singular are in use ; and the neuter plural, haecdne^ which is rare.
Oiistic and illic^ declined istU:, istttec, isioc (or istuc) ; t'Uic, illaec^ iiloc (or iUuc\ only
those cases which end in c, namely, the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular
are in use ; and the neuter plural istaec (or itthaec), and iUaec.
88. ai Ille, he, illay she, illud, it, that, and iste, that, are
thus declined : —
Singular.
Plural.
m. f.
n.
tn. J, n»
N. Ille, ilia.
iiiiid.
N. nil, illae, ilia.
G. Illius, illius.
illius-
G. Elorum, illarum, illorum.
D. Illi, iUi,
illi.
D. lUis, illis, illis.
Ac. Ilium, illam.
illud.
Ac. 1115s, illas, ilia.
V. Ille, ilia.
iUM.
V. HIT, iUae, ilia.
Ab. Hlo, iUa,
illo. .
Ab. Illis, illis, illis.
b. For tlii and illiSt we sometimes find oUi and oUi*. lUe has a voc. according to
Zurapt.
c. In the same manner is declined, ipse, he himself, ipsa^
she herself, ipsum, itself, except that the nominative anci
accusative cases singular make ipsum in the neuter gender.
Plural.
fit, J, n,
N. li, the^, eae, ea.
G. Eorum, earum, eorum-
D. lis or eis (in all genders).
Ac. Eos, eas, ea.
V. wanting.
Ab. lis or eis (in all genders).
b. Idem, eadem, idem, the same, is a compound of is, ea,
id, and is thus decUned : —
89. a. Singular.
m. f.
n.
N. Is, he, ea, she,
id, it
G. Ejus, ejus.
ejus.
D. Ei, ei.
ei.
Ac. Eum, earn.
id.
V. wanting.
Ab. Eo, ea.
e5.
m.
n.
Singular.
/.
N. Idem, eadem, idem.
G. Ejusdem, ejusdem, ejiis-
dem.
D. Eidem, eidem, eidem.
Ac. Eundem, eandem, idem.
V. wanting.
Ab. fiddem, eadem, eodem.
c
m.
n.
Plural.
'L
N. lidem, eaedem, eadem.
G. fiorundem, earundem, eo-
rundem.
D. lisdem or eisdem ( aii gen.)
Ac. Eosdem, easdem, gadem*
V. wanting.
Ab. lisdem or eisdem ( aii gen.)
32
LATIN GRAMMAR.
IPhmouns.
90, a. Metis, tuus, suus, noster, vester, are declined like
durta ; but meus, in the vocative, makes mi, mea, meum,
Noster has a regular vocative, noster, nostra^ nostrum; but
tuns, suus, and vester, have no vocative.
b. Fu is affixi>d to the ablative of these possessiTes, to denote own j as, suaple numUy
with hit own hand.
c, Cujus, cuja, cujum, whose, is used only in the nomina-
tive and accusative singular.
d. CuJ&t ablative singular, and cujact nominatire plural, are found only among old
writers. ,
e. Nostras, vestras, and cujas, are declined, nominative
nostras, genitive nostrdtis, hkefelix.
91. Singular.
tfi. f. n.
N. Qui, who, quae, quod.
G. Ciijus, ciijus, ciijus.
D. Cui, cui, cui.
Ac. Quem, quam, quod.
V. wanting.
m.
FluraL
/. n.
N. Qui, quae, quae.
G. Quorum, quarum, quorum.
D. QuibuS or quels (m all gen.)
Ac. Quos, quas, quae.
V. wanting.
Ab. Quibus or quels ( «u gen.)
Ab. Quo, qua, quo or qui
Qui is of all genders.
92, a. Quis, quae, quid or quod, who, which, what ? is
declined like qui, quae, quod; but such of its compounds as
end m quis, except quisgiiis, have qua in the feminine
singular arid neuter plural; while those which only begin
with quis, as quisnam, have quae and not qua,
m
b. ZuinDt*(I36) gives both qua and quae in the fem. sing, and neut. plur. of com-
pounds ending in quis.
c. SiquiSf nequis, numquiSj are frequently used separately ; thus, si quis, ne quis,
num quis.
d. In quidam and quisquam, the m is changed into n
before d and q ; as in the accusative quendam, quenquam.
e.
Compounds of qui and quis.
Mas.
Fem.
Neut.
K. Quidam,
quaedam.
quoddam or quiddam .
G. Cujusdam.
N. Quivis,
quaevis.
quodvis or quidvis.
G. Cujusvis.
N. Quicunque,
quaecuiique,
quodcunque.
G. Cujuscunque.
N. Quilibet,
quaelibet.
quodlibet or quidlibet
G. Cujuslibet.
N. Aliquis,
aUqua,
aliquid or aliquod.
G. Alicujus.
N. Ecquis,
N. Qufsnam,
ecqiia,
ecquid.
G. Eccujus.
quaenam,
quidnam or quodnam.
G. Cujusnam.
N. Quisquis,
quaequae,
quidquid or quicquid.
G. Cujuscujus.
N. Quisque.
quaeque.
quodque or quidque.
G. Cipjusque.
N. Quisquam,
quaequam,
quidquam or quodquam.
G. Ciijusquam.
N. Quisplam.
quaepiam.
quodpiam, ^uidpiam, >
or quippiam. y
G. Cujuspiam.
N. Unusquis-?
que. i
unaquaeque,
unumquodque or 7
unumquidque. S
G. Uniuscujus-
que.
/. The compounds of qm\ namely, quidam^ quiifis, quicunque, quilibet, have generally
Quibus, and not queis, in the dative and ablative plural.
'^tod, both in the simple and compounds, is used as an adjective agreeing with a
^; but ^tti'rf as a substantive governing the.' genitive : m, aliquod v/num, any
'iquid vini, something of wine.
Pronouns.]
ETYMOLOGY.
33
93. Dedension of difficult Pronoun* combined with Substantives,
Singular,
Idem vir.
Ejusdem Tiri.
Eidem yiro.
Eundem virum.
N.
G.
D.
Ac
V.
Ab. Eddem viro.
b.
N. Eidem puella.
G. Ejusdem puellae.
D. Eidem puellae.
Ac. Eandem puellam.
V.
Ab. EAdem puellA.
c.
N. Idem tempus.
G. Ejusdem temp&rls.
D. Eidem temp6ri.
Ac. Idem tempus.
V.
Ab. Eddem tempdre.
Singular.
N. Quod m&re.
G. Cmus maris.
D. Cui marl.
Ac. Quod mare.
V.
Ab. Quo mari.
a. Idem vir^ the same man.
Plural.
N. Ildera viri.
G. Eorundem yirdrum.
D. Ilsdem vlrls.
Ac. Eosdem viros.
Ab. lisdem viris.
Eddem pueUa^ the same girl.
N. Eaedem puellae.
G. Barundem puellarnm.
D. Elsdem puellis.
Ac. Easdem puellaa.
V.
Ab. Eisdem puellis.
Idem tempus, the same time.
N. E&dem tempfira.
G. Edrundem temp6rum.
D. Ilsdem temporlbus.
Ac. E&dem temp6ra.
V.
Ab. Usdem temporlbus.
d. Quod mdre, which sea.
PlureU.
N. Quae mirla.
G.
D.
Ac.
V.
Ab. Qulbus roarlbus.
Quonun marlum.
Qulbus marlbus.
Quae marl&
Singular..
N. Quaedam pars.
G. Cti^usdam partis.
D. Cuidam parti.
Ac. Quandam partem.
V.
Ab. QuAdam parte.
Singular.
K. Aliqua mulTer.
G. Alicuuus muliSris.
D. Alicui mulieri.
Ac Aliquam muUerem.
V.
Ab. AliquA muliere.
e, Quaedam pars, a certain part.
PluraL
N. Quaedam partes.
G. Quarundam partlum.
D. Quibusdam partlbus.
Ac. Quasdam partes.
V.
Ab. Quibusdam partlbus.
/. Aliqua mulier, any woman.
Plural.
N. Aliquae mulieres.
G. Aliquarum muliSram.
D. Aliqulbus mulierlbus.
Ac. Aliquas mulieres.
V.
Ab. Aliqulbus mulierlbus.
Singular.
N. Quodnam genus.
G. Cujusuam genfiris.
D. Cuinam generi.
Ac. Quodnam genus.
Ab. Quonam genere.
g* Quotfnam gentff, what race?
Plural.
N. Quaenam genfira.
G. Quorumnam genfirum.
D. Quibusnam genfirlbus.
Ac. Quaenam genera.
V.
Ab. Quibusnam generibus.
Singular.
N. Quodque offlcium.
G. Cujusque officii
D. Cuique officio.
Ac. Quodque offlcium.
V.
Ab. Quoque officio.
h. Quodque qfflcnim, eirerj duty.
G 6
Plural.
N. Quaeque officia.
G. Quorumque offlclorum.
D. Qutbusque offlcils.
Ac. Quaeque officia.
V.
Ab QtUbusque officiis.
34 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Verbs.
VERBS.
94. A Verb is a word which affirms or expresses the state,
action^ or suffering, of some person or thing ; as, I am^ I
teach, I am taught. A verb is also used to command, exhort,
entreat, request, or ask a question; as, " Be silent;" " Study
diligently;" " Spare me;" " Lend me the book ;" *' Have
you written the letter ? "
95. Verbs have two Voices, the Active ending in o, and
the Passive in or.
96. Verbs in o are either transitive or intransitive.
a. A Transitive verb expresses an action passing from
an agent or cfoer to some object ; as, " Praeceptor me docet^
the master teaches me.
Here praeceptor is the agent, and me the object in the accusative case.
b. An Intransitive verb expresses either action confined to
the agent ; as, Curro, I run : or neither action nor suffering,
but simply existence or the state of the nominative ; as, Svan,
I am ; Sto, I stand.
97. a. A Passive verb ends in or, and generally implies,
that the nominative is the object or receiver of an action
done by some agent expressed or understood ; as, *' Johannes
a prseceptore docetur,^ John is taught by the master.
b. Transitive verbs have a regular passive voice, but in-
transitive verbs are used only impersonally in the passive.
98. a. A Deponent verb is that which, under a passive
form, has either a transitive or an intransitive signification :
as, Sequor, I follow ; Glorior, I boast.
A Deponent verb is so called, because it has deposed or Itiid aside the passive sense.
b. A Defective verb is one that is used only in some of
the moods and tenses.
c. An Impersonal verb is one that is used only in the
third person singular.
d. Nettter-passtves are so called from having a passive perfect tense'; as, Audeo,
ttusus suntf to dare. ^
e. Some neuter verbs have participles with a passive form but active signification ; as,
jprannw, one who has dined. Exo$u» and perosus are active and transitive. Pertaenu
IS used as an impersonal ; as, pertaesum est.
f. Frequentatives express the repetition of the act or state denoted by the primitive,
' and end in ito s as, Clamito^ I cry frequently, from damot I cry.
f . Inchoatives or inceptives express the beginning of an act or state, and end ia scoi
as, Gxlesco, 1 grow warm, from cakOt I am warm. Some words end in sco that are not
inchoatiyes | as, disco, I learn.
Verbs.] ETYMOLOGY. 35
h. Denderativei end in unto and express desire ; as, Esurio, I desire to eat. I hunger;
but some verbs in urio, of the first and fourth conjugations, are not desideratives.
t. Dimmuiives end \niUo, and denote a trifling insignificant action; as, CanHUOy
I hum, from cantare.
j. The properties of Verbs are — Mood, Tense, Number,
and Person.
Of Moods.
99. The Mood of a verb is the particular form which it
assumes, in order to express the manner in which the being,
action, or passion, is represented.
100. There are generally reckoned jive moods ; the In-
dicative^ the Imperative, the Potential^ the Subjunctive, and
the Infinitive,
1. The Indicative mood affirms in a direct and positive
manner respecting an action or event ; as, Ille docet, he
teaches ; or it asks a question ; as, Docet ille ? does he
teach ?
2. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, entreats, or
requests ; as, Ite, go ; Studete, study; Parce mihi, spare me ;
Eamusy let us go.
3. The Potential mood implies the possibility, liberty,
power, will, or duty, to do or suffer an action, and is known
by the signs — may, can, might, could, would, should; as,
Amem, I may love, &c.
4. The Subjunctive mood has the same terminations as the
Potential, but generally the signification of the Indicative.
It is subjoined to another verb in the same sentence, with
which it is connected by some conjunction or indefinite word,
expressed or understood ; as, '^ Eram miser cum amd,rem,^*
I was miserable when I loved,
6. The Infinitive mood simply expresses the action, suffer-
ing, or state of being, without any number, person, or nomi-
native case, and is generally known, in English, by the sign
to ; as, Audire, to hear.
Tense, Numbers, and Persons,
101. Tense is a term used to distinguish the time in which
an action or state is represented.
102. There are six tenses ; the Present, the Imperfect,-
the Future Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect or Pa^st
Perfect, and the Future Perfect
c 6
36 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Verbs.
1. The Present tense speaks of what is doing or going
on in present time ; as, Scrihoy I write, am writing, or do
write.
2. The Imperfect tense represents an action or event which
was going on and not completed^ at a certain time past ; as,
Scribebam, I was writing.
3. The Future Imperfect represents an action or event
which is yet to come ; as, Scribam, I shall or will write.
4. The Perfect tense represents an action or event either
as just finished, or as finished some time ago ; as, Scripsi, I
have written, or I wrote.
5. The Pluperfect expresses an action or event which was
past before some other past action or event specified in the
sentence, and to which it refers; as, Scripseram, I had
written*
6. The Future Perfect denotes that a future action or
event will be completed at, or before another future action
or event ; as, ScripserOy I shall have written.
103. Verbs have fM?o numbers, the ^iw^wZar and the p/^ra^
agreeing with a noun or pronoun expressed or understood.
104. In each number there are three persons ; as.
Singular.
First Pers. Ego amo, / hve.
Second Pers, Tu amas, thou lovest
Third Pers. Ele amat, he^ she, or
it loves.
Plural.
Nos amamus, we love.
Vos amatis, you or ye love.
mi amant, they love.
Gerunds, Supines, and Participles.
105. a. Gerunds and Supines are a kind of verbal nouns.
b. The active voice has three gerunds, ending in di, do,
dum ; as, amandi, of loyiug ; amando, for, by, in loving;
amandum, to love.
c. The Gerunds are considered as the cases of a Verbal Substantive of the second
declension, neuter gender, having no plural nor vocative singular. The gerund in di
is considered as the genitive case, the gerund in <fo, as the dative or ablative, and the
gerund in dunit as the nominative or accusative. The gerunds are so called, because
thej represent an action in gerundo (gerendo) as being carried on.
106. a. There are two supines; one active, ending in um;
as, amdtum, to love ; the other generally passive, ending in
u ; as, amatu, to be loved.
h. Supines are Verbal Substantives of the fourth declension, having only the accusa-
tive and ablative cases singular. The supine in sim is the accusative, and that in « the
Verbs.] ETYMOLOGY. 37
ablative. The supine is a noun, so named, perhaps, from its being always under govern-
ment, having no nominative case.
^ 107. A Participle is derived from a verb, and while it
shows that the action or state implied by the verb is either
continuing or finished, it has gender, number, and case, like
an adjective.
108. Each voice has two participles ; the Active has a
present B.nd future ; the Passive has 2i, perfect vxid future,
1. The Active Present ends in ans or ens, and shows that
the action is going on ; as, amans, loving ; docens, teaching.
2. The Active Future ends in rtis, and signifies a likelihood
or design of doing a thing ; as, amaturus, to love, or about
to love.
109. 1. The Passive Perfect (or Present); as, amatus,
being loved, or having been loved.
2. The Passive Future ends in dus, and signifies the neceS"
sity, possibility^ or certainty of something to be done ; as,
amandusy to be loved.
This Participle is also called the Gerundive,
110. a. The Present Active Participle is declined like
felix, all the other participles like durus.
b. Active and Neuter Participles have, in Latin, no perfect tense ; consequently, we
6uinot express literally the English perfect participle, having loved, &c. ; we must use
a conjunction and the pluperfect of the subjunctive in Latin, or some other tense, ac-
cording to its connexion with the other words of a sentence ; as, he having loved, gtftfiii
amavisset, &c.
c. Verbs deponent YMve k perfect participle with an a<^ive signification; as, locQUts
having spoken.
CONJUGATION.
111. a. Conjugation^ in Grammar, denotes the regular
arrangement of a verb in all its variations of mood, tense,
number, and person.
b. The principal parts of a verb, from which the other
tenses may be obtained, Bx^four; the present, perfect^ supine,
and infinitive^
c. The first person of the Present of the Indicative is called the Theme or Root of the
▼erb, because from it the other three principal parts are formed.
d. The letters of a verb which always remain the same, are called rotftca/ letters; as,
am in atno. The rest are called the termination} as, dbdmui in amabamut. All the
letters which come before are, ere, ire, or ire, of the in6nitive, are radical letters. By
putting the radical letters before the terminations, all the parts of any regular verb may
be readily formed, except the compound tenses.
38
LATIN 6RAMMAB.
IVerbs.
THE VERB SU3f.
112. a. The verb Sum^ I am, is irregalar, and is thus coi^-
jagated: —
The Prmcipal Farts — Smn, fui, esse, to be,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
FBBSBNT TSHSE.
S. *Stiin, / am.
Es, thou art
Est, he is,
P.Siimus, we are,
Estis, you are.
Sunt, they are,
IMPERFECT TENSE.
S. £rani, / wa^.
Eras, thou wast,
Erat, he was.
P. Eramus, we were.
Eratis, you were,
Erant, they were,
FUTUBE OfPEBF. TENSE.
S. £ro, / shall or tcUl be.
Eris, thou shalt or wilt be.
Erit, he shall or vnll be,
P.Erimus, we shall or wUl be.
Eritis, you shall or unll be.
Erunt, they shall or will be.
PERFECT TENSE.
S. Fui, / have been,
Fuisti, thou hast been,
Fuit, he has been.
P. Fuimus, we have been,
Fuistis, you have been,
Fuerunt t76/fuere,<Vy ha»e been.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
S. Fiieram, / Iiad fieen,
Fueras, thou hadst been.
Fuerat, he had been,
P. Fiieramus, we had been,
Fueratis, you had been,
Fuerant, they had been,
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
S. Fii&ro, / shall have been,
Fueris, thou wilt have been.
Fuerit, he toUl have been,
P. YueriuiM&yWeshaUhavebeen,
Fueritis, you will have been.
Fnerint, they will have been.
S. £s, esto, be thou.
Esto, let him be.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
P. Este, Estote, be you,
Sunto, let them be.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — TTUiy^ Can.
S. Sim, j" / m^y or can be.
Sis, thou mayst or canst be.
Sit, he may or can be.
P.Simus, we may or can be.
Sitis, you may or can be,
Sint, they may or can be.
PERFECT TENSE, — may hoLToe.
S. Fiierim, I may have been.
Fueris, thou mayst have been.
Fuerit, he may have been.
P. Fiierimus, wemayhavebeen,
¥ueTitis,youmay have been,
Fuerint, they may have been.
* It may BOmetimes be serrlceable for the learner to prefix the pronouns to the verbs;
thus, ego sum, I am ; to es, thou art ; tile est, he is ; no$ sumus, we are ; vot estU, you
are; aU sunt, they are.
t Sim is also used as an imperative for let me be^ and nmu$, for leiuibes sif, let hfan
^^^ • iintt let them be.
Verbs.]
ETYMOLOGY,
39
IMPEBFECT TENSE, — mighty
could, wovJd, should,
S. Essem vel forem, / "| ^
Esses vel fores, thou
Eeset vel foret, he
P. Eissemiist7.fGremusw?e
Essetis vel foretis,yoM
Essent vel forent,^Aey^
«5:
5.5
PLUPBR FECT TEN8S, — might,
couldj would, should have.
S. Fiiissem, / might,
Fuisses, thou mightst,
Fuisset, he might,
P. Fuissemus, we might,
Fuissetis, you might,
Fuissent, they might,
is
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated in the same manner
as the Potential, but the signification varies according to the
conjunction prefixed ; as.
PRESENT TENSE.
Si Sim, tflbe^ or ffiay, or should be,
Cdm Sim, since I am.
WPBaPBCT TBNSB.
Si Essem vel forem, if I ufere^ or mighty
anUdL, would^ or should be,
Cdm Essem, since I was.
PERFECT TENSE.
Si Fuerim, if I have been.
CClm Fuerim, since I was, or have been.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Si Fuissem, if I had been, or might, 4fc.
have been.
Ctxa Fuitsero, since I had been.
Instead of a Subjunctive Future, the participle /u/urtM is used witii sim; as, "Si
futurus Sim." If I may be about to be.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT & IMPEBF. TENSE.
Esse, to be.
FUTURE IMPEBFECT.
Fdre vel fUttkrum esse, to be
ahout to be.
PEBFECT AND PLUPEBFECT*
Fuisse, to have been.
FUTUBE PEBFECT.
Fiiturum fuisse, to have been
ahout to be.
PARTICIPLE.
FuTUBE. — Futiirus, a, um, ahout to be.
b. From the participle /tt<«n<« and sum, a new coqjugatlon Is formed ; thus, fitturus
sumyfuturus eram, &c.
c. The compounds, absum, adsum, desum, insum, iniersum, obsum, praesum, suhsum,
supersum, are conjugated liliLe sumj except that insum and subsum have no perfect nor
tenses formed fVom it. Prosum also takes a d in those persons which In sum begin with
an ej as, es, prodes, proderam.
THE CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS.
113. There are four Conjugations of Verbs, distinguished
by the vowel before re in the Infinitive Mood.
The First Conjugation makes are long ; as, amare.
The Second Conjugation makes ere long ; as, monere.
The Third Conjugation makes ere short ; as, regere.
The Fourth Conjugation makes ire long ; as, audire.
40 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Formatkm of Taues.
Formation t^ike Tenses in the Active Voice.*
CTDieATlVC
114. a. The Imperfect is formed from the Present by
changing o, in the 1st conjugation into abam^ in the 2nd into
bam^ in the 3rd and 4th into ebam,
b. The Future imperfect is formed from the Present bj
changing o, in the 1st conjugation into aboy in the 2nd into
bOy in the 3rd and 4th into am.
c. The Pluperfect is formed from the Perfect by changing
i into eram,
d. The Future perfect is formed from the Perfect by
changing i into ero.
1 15. a. The Imperative is formed from the Present Infini-
tiye by taking away re.
b. "E^cai tUeo, diioo,/aeio, aadfero, vhidi make die, due, fae, and far; and in their
c ompuuu di, except those compounds of faciOj whidi change a into i ; as, omi/Scw, con-
fiu.
TOTESTIAIj.
116. a. The Present is formed from the Present Indicative
by changing Oy in the 1st conjugation into em, in the 2nd9
3rd, and 4th into am.
b. The Imperfect is formed from the Present Infinitive by
adding m.
c» The Perfect is formed from the Perfect Indicative by
changing i into erim.
d. The Pluperfect is formed from the Perfect Indicative
by changing i into issem.
iNFnirnyE.
117. a. The Present is formed from the Present Indicative
by changing o, in the 1st conjugation into arcy in the 2nd
and 4th into re, in the 3rd by changing o or io into ere,
b. The Future imperfect is formed from the Supine by
changing m into rum and adding esse.
c. The Perfect is formed from the Perfect Indicative by
changing i into isse,
d. The Future perfect is formed from the Supine by
changing m into runiy and adding yt/me.
e. The Gerunds are formed from the Participle present
by changing i into diy do, and dum.
* Rules for the principal parts of Terbs are given under the formation of the Perfect
and Supine.
1st Conjugation,]
ETYMOLOGY.
41
f. The Participle present is formed from the Present
Indicative by changing o, in the 1st conjugation into anSy in
the 2nd into nSy in the 3rd and 4th into en^,
g. The Participle future is formed from the Supine by
changing m into rus,
h. When there is no Supine there is no Participle future.
t. Verbs defective in the Perfect have no Supine.
118.
A Tabular View of the Formation of the Tenses.
1. FROM THE PRESENT.
Pres.
1. Am-o.
2. Mone-o.
3. Reg-o.
4. Audi-o.
Indii
Imp.
abam.
bam.
ebam.
ebam.
jative.
Fut. Imp
abo.
bo.
am.
am.
•
Potential.
Pres.
em.
am.
am.
am.
Participle.
Pres.
ans.
ns.
ens.
ens.
Gerunds.
andi.
ndi.
endi.
endi.
2. FROM THE PERFECT.
1. Amav-i
2. Monu-i.
3. Rex-i.
4. Audiv-i.
Indie
Pluper.
eram.
eram.
eram.
eram. .
jative.
Fut. Perf.
ero.
ero.
ero.
ero.
Potei
Perf.
erim.
erim.
erim.
erim.
Qtial.
Pluperf.
issem.
issem.
issem.
issem.
Infln.
Perf.
isse.
isse.
isse.
isse.
3. FROM THE SUPINE.
Supine.
1. Amatu-ra.
2. Moultu-m.
3. Rectu-m.
4. Audltu-m.
Fut. Imp. Infln.
rum esse,
rum esse.
rum esse,
rum esse.
Fut. Perf. Infin,
rum fuisse.
rum fuisse.
rum fuisse.
rum fuisse.
Fut. Part,
rus.
rus.
rus.
rus.
4. FROM THE PRESENT INFINITIVE.
Pres. Inf
1. Amare.
2. Monere.
3. Reggre.
4. Audlre.
initive.
Imper
ama
roon
rege
audi
at
•
e.
•
•
ive.
Ii
nperf. Potential,
amarem.
monerem.
regSrem.
audlrem.
ACTIVE VOICE,
119. a. THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Amo, amavi, ^Lmatum^ amare, to love,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — am, do,
(I love, am loving, or do love.)
S.Am-0, I love,
Am-as, thou lovest,
Am-at, he loves,
P.Am-amiis, we love,
Am-atis, 1/ou love,
Am-ant, thet/ love,
PERFECT TENSE, — hove, did.
(I loved, did love, or have loved.)
S.Am-avi, I loved,
Am-avisti, thou lovedst
Am-avit, he loved,
P.Am-avimus, we loved, ^ «5
Am-avistis, i/ou loved,
Am-averunt 1 they
vel avere, J loved,
o
42
LATIN GRAMMAR;
[\8t Conjuffoium.
IMPESFECT TENSE, — VXU.
S. Am-abam, Twos loving,
Am-aba8, thou wast loving.
Am-abat, he was loving,
P. Am-abamuSyWewere loving.
Am-abatis, pou were loving.
Am-ahejit, they were loving.
FUTUBE IMPERFECT TENSE,
shall, toill.
S. Am-abo, / shall
Am-abis, thou shalt
Am-abit^ he shaU
P. Am-abimus, we shall
Am-abitis, you shall
Am-abunt, they shall
o
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — had.
S.Am-avSram, I had loved.
Am-avSras, thou hadst loved.
Am-ayerat, he had loved*
P. Am-av^amus, we had loved.
Am-^averatis, you had loved.
Am-averant, they had loved.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE,
sluxU or wUl have.
S.Am-avero, I shall
Am-averis, thou wilt
Am-avSrit, he vnU
P. Am-avSrimiis, we shall
Am-averitis, you will
Am-averint, they will
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Am-a, am-ato^ hve thou.
Am-ato, let him love,
Plur. Am-atS, am-atotS, hve you or ye.
Am-anto, let them love.
This mood has uoftnt person singular or plaral, the first persons, sing, and plur. of
the potential present are used instead ; thus, let us lo^e, amemus. The third persons
sing, and plur. of the potential present, are also sometimes used for the imperative.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — may, can
S. Am-em, I may or
Am-es, thou mayst or
Am-et, he muy or
P. Am-emiis, we may or
Am-etis, you may or
Am-ent, they may or
IMPERFECT TENSE, nught,
cotdd, woidd, should.
S. Am-arem, / might,
Am-ares, thou mightst,
Am-9ret, he might,
P. Am-aremus, we might,
Am-aretis, you might,
Aon-arent, they might, ^
ft
ft
• o
"1
Cb
ft
.PERFECT TENSE, — may have.
S. Am-av erim, I may
Am-av6ris, thou mayst
Am-avSrit, he may
P. Am-avferimiis, we may
Am-avferitis, you may
Am-averint, they may ^
The sign can is not used in the perfect tenu.
PLUPERFECT TENSE, might,
could, would, should have.
S. Am-avissem, I might, "1 |
Am-B,yis8es,thoumightst ^^
Am-avisset, he might, S |
P. Am'SiYissemu8,wemight f-J
Am-avissetis, you might ^ |
Am'B.YisaGnt,th€y might] |
Ist Conjugation,']
ETYMOLOGY.
43
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the conjunction prefixed.
PRESENT TEMSB.
Si Amem, ifllove, or mt^ love.
CQm Amem, since, or token I love.
IMPERFECT TBMSB.
Si Amarem, iflloved, or shtnUd love,
CClm Amarem, since, or when I loved, or
was loving.
PERFECT TENSE.
Si Amavgilm, if I loved, or have loved.
C\lm Amaverim, since, or when I loved.
PLUPERFECT TBN8B.
Si Amavlssem, (f J had loved, or should
have loved.
Cikm Amavissem, Wincff, or when I had loved.
mFINITIVE MOOD.
FKESENT & IMPEBF. TENSE.
Am-are, to love,
FUTTJRE IMPERFECT.
Am-aturum esse, to be about
to love.
PEBFECT AND PLUPBBFECT.
Am-avisse, to have loved.
FUTUBE PEBFECT.
Am-aturum £mBse,to have been
about to love.
GERUNDS.
Genit. Am-andi, of loving.
D.&Ab. Am-ando,ybr, iy, in
loving.
Ac. & N. Am-andum, to love.
SUPINE.
Am-atum, to love.
PARTICIPLES.
PBE8ENT.
Am-ans, antis, loving.
FUTUBE.
Am-aturus,* a, um, about to
love.
b. Tfae tenses of the verb Sum, when joined with the participle in rus, denote that a
person has a mind to do, or is upim the point qf doing something. Hence arises a new
conjugation called Periphrastic.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pass. Am.atOrus (a, um) sum, / am tibout
to love, or / have a mind to love.
Imperf. Am-atQrus eram, / was about to
love.
FuT. Imp. Am-atQrus ero (not ftiero), /
jshall be about to love.
Ferf. Am-atQrus fui, / was, or have been
about to love.
Plupbrf. Am-atQrus fueram, / had been
aboiU to love.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Prbs. Am-atQrus sim, / may be ttbottt to
love.
Impbrp. Axti.tiXfijnueuem,Imight be about
to love.
Perf. Am-atQrus fuerim, I may have been
about to love.
Plupbrf. Am-atQriis fuissem, J might have
been about to love.
The^Subjunctive is conjugated like the PotentiaL
infinitivb mood.
Prb& Am-aturum esse, to be about to love. \ Perf. Am-aturum ftilsse, to have been
about to love.
» Amaturtcf is used with a masculine, amatura with a feminine, and amaturtim with
a neuter Boun.
44 LATIN GRAMMAR. [2rJ Qmjvgation.
120. a. THE SECOND CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parte — Monte, mopdi, mdnltum, monere,
to admse.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SE, — am, do. fzbfect tense, — have, did.
S. Mon-€o, / advise,
MoQ-es, thou advisest,
Mon^et, he advises,
P. Mon-emBs, we advise,
Mon-etis, you advise,
Mon-ent, thet/ advise.
S.Mon-ebam, I was
Mon-ebas, thott teas
Mon-ebat, he was
P. Mon-ebamiis, we ici
Mon-ebatis, you we
Mon-ebant, they we
S.MoDiil, I advised, ~i ,
'M.oB-uiati,thouadvisedst I !
Mos-uit, he advised, 1 I
P.Moii-iiimaB, we advised, i ',
M.oa-mstiBi you advised, [ |
Mon-Qerunt 1 ihey '•
velMon&erfi, j advised, J '
S. Mon-fiSram, / had
Mon-ueras, thouhadit s
Mon-uerat, he had \
P. Mon-ueramus, we had ' |
Mon-uSratis, you had S
Mon-uerant, they had
2nd Conjugation.]
ETYMOLOGY.
45
IMPEBFECT TENSE, — ' might,
cotddt wovid, shotdd.
S. Mon-erem, / mighty
Mon-eres, thou mightst,
Mon-eret, he might,
P. Mon-eremus, we might,
Mon-eretis, i/ou might,
Mon-erent, they might,
PLUPERFECT TENSE, might
cotdd, woidd, shotdd have.
S.Mon-iiissem, I might,
Mon-uisses, thou mightst
Mon-uisset, he might,
P. Mon-uissemus,w;e /wz^A^
Mon-uissetis, you might,
Mon-tlissent,^Ae^ might.
if
2-*
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the conjunction prefixed.
PRESENT TENSE.
Si Moneam, if I advise ^ or may advise.
Cilm Moneam, since^ or when I advise.
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Si Monerem, if J advised, or should advise.
Ciim Monerem, since^ or when I advised^
or was advising.
PERFECT TENSE.
SlMonuSrim, if I advised, or have advised,
cam Monuerim, since, or when I advised.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Si Monuissem, if I had advised, or should
have advised.
Cilm Monoissem, since, or when J had ad-
vised.
mrmiTIVE MOOD.
PRESENT & IMPEBF. TENSE.
Mon-ere, to advise,
FUTURE IMPEBFECT.
Mon-iturum esse, to be about
to advise.
PEBFECT AND PLUPEBFECT.
Mon-iiisse, to have advised,
FUTUBE PEBFECT.
Mon-iturum fuisse, to have
been about to advise.
GERUNDS.
Genit. Mon-endi, of advising.
D.&Ab.Mon-endo,ybr, by, in
advising.
Ac.&N. Monendwaifto advise.
SUPINE.
Mon-itum, to advise.
PARTICIPLES.
PBESENT.
Mon-ens, entis, advising.
FUTUBE.
Mon-iturus, a, um, about to
advise*
b. The tenses of tiie verb Sum, when joined with the participle in rus, denote that a
person has a mind to do, or is upon the point qf doing something. Hence arises a new
conjugation called Periphrastic.
Indicative 3foocf.— Present Tense. Moniturus sum, &c.
46
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[3rd Conjugation.
121. a. THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Rego, rexi, rectum, regere, to rule,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PBBFECT TEN8S, — AaO«, did,
(I ruled, did rule, or have ruled, >
S.Rex-i, I ruled
FBESBNT TENSE, — «?», do,
(I rule, am ruling, or do rule.)
S. R6g-6, / rwfe,
Rgg-is, thou rulesty
RSg-it, he rules,
P.R^g-imus, we rule,
RSg-Uis, yoM rule,
Reg-unt^ they rule.
o
IMPEBFECT TENSE, — WOS,
S.RSg-ebam, I was ruling.
Reg-ebas, thou wast ruling.
Reg-ebat, he was ruling,
P. Reg-ebamiis,w7C were ruling.
Reg^ebatis,^ot^ were ruling.
Reg-ebant, thet^ were ruling.
rUTUBB IBfPEBFECT TENSE, —
shaU or luiU.
S.Reg-am, I shall
Reg-es, thou shalt
Reg-fit, he shall
Reg-emus, we shall
Reg-etis, you shall
Rfig-ent, they shall
o
•^
s
^
Rex-isti, thou ruledst
Rex-it, he ruled
P.Rex-imus, we ruled
Rex-istis, you ruled
Rex-erunt, 1 they
t7c/Rex-ere, I ruled
PLUPEBPBCT TENSE, had.
S.RSx-firam, I had ruled.
Rex-firas, thou hadst ruled.
Rex.era1^ he had rtded.
P. Rex-firamus, we had ruled.
Rex-eratis, you had ruled.
Bex-erant, they had ruled.
FUTUEE PBBFECT TENSE,
shall or ivill have.
S.Rex-6ro, I shall
Rex-eris, thou wilt
Rex-erit, he will
P. Rex-erlmus, we shall
Rex-erltis, you will
Rex-erint, they will
g
IMPERATTVE MOOD.
Sing. Reg-6, reg-ito, rule thou.
Reg-ito, let him rule.
Plur. Reg-ite, reg-itote, rule you.
Reg-unto, let them rule.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PBESENT TENSE, — may or can
S. Reg-am, I may
Rfig-as, thou mayst
R^g-at, he ntay
P. Reg-amus, we may
Reg-atis, you may
Reg-ant, they may
o
PBBFECT TENSE, — may have.
S.Rex-erim, I may
Rex-eris, thou mayst
Rex-erit, he may
P. Rex-erimus, we may
Rex-firitis, you may
Rex-erint, they may
3rd Conjugation.']
ETYMOLOGY.
47
IMPERFECT TENSE, — might,
coidd, would, should,
S.'Reg-erem, I might, -]
Reg-6rgs,fAoM mightst,
Iteg-eret, he might,
P. 'Et^g-eremuSfWe might,
Reg-eretis, t/ou might,
Reg-firent, the^ might,
ft
It
PLUPBEPBCT TEKSE, — might,
cotdd, wotdd, or should have.
S. Rex-issem, I might,
Rex-risses, thoumightst,
Rex-isset, he might,
P. Rex-issemus,i£7eme^A^,
Rex-issetis, you might,
Rex-issent, they might.
I"?
li
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the conjunction prefixed.
PRESENT TENSE.
Si Regam, iflrtde, or may rttie.
CClm Regain, since, or when I rule,
IBIPEBFECT TENSE.
SI Regerem, if I ruled, or should rule.
Cilm Regerem, since, or when J ruled, or
was ruling.
PERFECT TEN9E.
SI Rexerim, if I ruled, or have ruled.
Cilm Rexerim, since, or when I ruled.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
Si Rexissem, if I had ruled, or should have
ruled.
Ciim Rexissem, since, or when I had ruled.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PBESENT & IMPEBF. TENSE.
RSg-ere, to rule.
FUTURE IMPESFECT.
Rec-tiLrum esse, to be about to
rule.
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.
Rex-isse, to have ruled.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Rec-turum fuisse, to have been
about to rule.
GERUNDS.
Genit. Reg-endi, of ruling.
D.&Ab.Reg-endo, for, by, in
ruling.
Ac.&N.Reg-endum, to rule.
SUPINE.
Rec-tun\, to rule.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT.
Reg-ens, entis, riding.
FUTURE.
Rec-turus, a, um, about to
rule.
b. The tenses of the verb Sum, when joined with the participle in rus, denote that a
person has a mind to do, or is upon the point qf doing someUiing. Hence arises a new
conjugation called Periphrastic.
Indicative JVood— Present Tense. RectUrus sum, &c.
48
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[4M Conjugation.
122. a. THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Audio, audivi, audltum, audire, to hear.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — am, do,
(I hear, am hearing, or do hear.)
S.Aud-i6, I hear,
Aud-Is, thou hearest^
Aud-it, he hears,
P.Aud-imus, we hear,
Aud-itis, you hear,
Aud-iunt, they hear.
IMPERFECT TENSE, — WaS.
S. Aud-iebam, I was
Aud-iebas, thou wast
Aud-iebat, he was
P. Aud-iebamus, we were
Aud-iebatis, you were
Aud-iebant, they were
o
i
FUTURE IMPERFECT TENSE, —
shall or wiU,
S.Aud-ian), I shall
Aud-ies, thou shalt
Aud-iet, he shall
P. Aud-iemus, we shall
Aud-ietis, you shall
Aud-ient, they shall
PERFECT TENSE, haVC, did,
(I heard, did hear, or have lieard.)
S.Aud-Ivi, I heard,
Aud-ivisti, thou heardst,
Aud-Ivit, he heard,
P. Aud-ivimus, we heard,
Aud-ivistis, you heard,
Aud-iverunt \ they
vel Aud-ivere, J heard, -*
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — kod.
S. Aud-iv^ram, I had
Aud-Iveras, thou hadst
Aud-Iverat, he had
P. Aud-iveramus, ice had
Aud-Iveratis, you had
Aud-iverant, they had
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE,-
sJiall or wiU have.
S.Aud-Ivero, I shall
Aud-Iverls, thou wilt
Aud-lvSrit, he will
P.Aud-iverimus, we shall
Aud-Iveritis, you will
Aud-iverint, they will
a
n
a.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Sing. Aud-i, aud-ito, hear thou.
Aud-ito, let him hear.
Plur. Aud-ite, aud-itote, hear you.
Aud-iunto, let them hear.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — may, can
S. Aad-iam, 1 may
Aud-ias, thou mayst
Aud-iat, he may
P. Aud-iamus, we may
Aud-iatis, you may
Aud-iant, they may
o
PERFECT TENSE, — may have.
S. Aud-Iverim, I may
Aud-iveris, thou mayst
Aud-Iverit, he may
P. Aud-iverimus, we may
Aud-iveritis, you may
Aud-iverint, they may ^
4th Conjugation.']
ETYMOLOGY.
49
IMPERFECT TENSE, — mighty
couldj would, should,
S. Aud-Irem, I mighty
Aud-Ires, thou mightst,
Aud-Iret, he might,
P.Aud-iremus, we might,
Aud-iretis, i/ou might,
Aud-irent, they might, ^
• o
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — might,
covld, wotdd, shotdd have,
S.Aud-lvissem, /
Aud-ivisses, thou
Aud-ivisset, he
P. Aud-ivissemus, we
Aud-ivissetis, you
Aud-ivissent, they
2.1
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the conjunction prefixed.
]>RESBNT TENSE.
Si Audiam, if I hear ^ or may hear.
Clim Audiam, since^ or when I hear,
IMPERFECT TENSE.
Si Audirem, if I heard., or shotdd hear.
CQm Audirem, since y or when I heard^
or was hearing.
PERFECT TENSE.
Si AudivSrim, if I heard, or have heard.
Ciaa Aiidiyerimt since^ or when I heard.
PLUPERFECT TENSE.
SI Audlvissem, if T had heard, or should
have heard,
Cdm Audivissem, stnce^ or when I had
heard.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT & IMPERF. TENSE.
Aud-ire, to hear.
FUTURE IMPERFECT.
Aud-Itiirum esse, to be about
to hear.
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.
Aud-Ivisse, to have heard.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Aud-Iturum fuisse, to have
been about to hear.
GERUNDS.
Genit. Aud-iendi, of hearing.
D.&Ab. Aud-iendo, for, by,
in hearing.
Ac & N. Aud-iendum, to hear,
SUPINE.
Aud-itum, to hear.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT.
Aud-iens, entis, hearing,
FUTURE.
Aud-Iturus, a, um, about to
hear.
b. The tenses of the verb Sum, when joined with the participle in rus, denote that a
person has a mind to do^ or is upon the point (tf doing something. Hence arises a new
conjugation called periphrastic.
Indicative JfocK^.— Present Tense. AuditUrus «Km, &c. ,
50 LATIN GRAMMAR. IPassive Voice,
PASSIVE VOICE.
Formation of the Tenses in the Passive Voice,
123. 1. The Present Indicative is formed from the Present
Indicative Active by adding r,
2. The Imperfect Indicative is formed from the Imperfect
Indicative Active by changing m into r,
3. The Future Imperfect Indicative is formed from the
Future Imperfect Active by adding r in the first and second
Conjugations, and by changing W into r in the third and
fourth Conjugations.
4. The Present and Imperfect Potential . are formed from
the Present and Imperfect Potential Active by changing m
into r.
6. The Perfect and Pluperfect Tenses of the Indicative,
Potential, and Infinitive Moods, and the Future Perfect of
the Indicative, are formed from the Participle Perfect with
some tense of the verb Sum.
Q. The Imperative is the same as the Infinitive Active.
7. The Infinitive Present is formed from the Infinitive
Present Active by changing, final e in the first, second, and
fourth Conjugations into i, and in the third ere into i,
8. The Future Imperfect Infinitive is the Supine in um^
with iri,
9. The Future Perfect Infinitive is the Participle Future
Passive, with the verb Fuisse.
10. The Supine is formed from the Active by taking
away m.
11. The Participle Perfect (or Present) is formed from the
Supine in um by changing m into s.
12. The Participle Future is formed from the Participle
Present Active by changing s into dus.
I St Con. Passive.] ETYMOLOGY. 51
124. a. THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Amor, amatus sum vel fui, amari,
to be loved.*
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — am.
S. Am -or, I am loved. P. Am-amiir, we are loved.
Am-aris 1 ^^^^ ^^^ j^^^
vel are, J
Am-attir, he is loved.
Am-amini, ^ou are loved.
Am-antur, thet/ are loved.
IMPEEFECT TENSE, MJflMf.
S. Am-abar, / was loved.
Am-abaris 1 thou wast
vel abare, J loved.
Am-abatiir, he was loved.
P.Am-abamur, we were ■ -n
Am-abamini, you were > §
Am-abantur, they were] ^
}
rUTUKE IMPEBFECT TENSE, — skall OF Will be.
P Am-abimur, we shalH ^S
Am-abimini, i/ou shall>\ti
Am-abuntur, thet/ shall] ' <?
S.Am-abor, I shall
Am-aberis \ thou
vel ab^re, J shalt
Am-abitur, he shall
PEEFECT TENSE, — icflw, havB been.
S. Am-atus sum vel fui, / have been loved.
Am-atus es vel fuisti, thou hast been loved.
Am-atus est vel fuit, he has been loved.
P. Am-ati siimus vel fuimus, toe have been loved.
Am-ati estis vel fuistis, you have been loved.
Am-ati sunt, fuerunt vel fuere, they have been loved.
pLTTPERFBCT TENSE, — hod been.
S« Am-atus eram vel fueram, / had been loved.
Am-atus eras vel fueras, thou hadst been loved.
Am-atus erat vel fuerat, he had been loved.
P. Am-ati eramus vel fueramus, we had been loved.
Am-ati eratis vel fueratis, you had been loved.
Am-ati erant vel fuerant, they had been loved.
* 1. The true import of Amor is, I am in the state of being loved ; bo, Domus aedi*
ficatuTt »ignifie8, the house is building, in a Passive sense, and not, the house is built,
which would be rendered by Domus est aedificata / domus aedijicabatury the house was
building, and not, was built.
2. The Perfect Participle, in all the tenses of which it forms a part, agrees in
gender and number with the nominative of the verb ; as, homo amatus est^ mulier
amata est., met amaium at.
3. The tenses formed by /ta', fueram^ fuero^ express more emphatically the com*
D 2
52
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Is^ Con. Passive.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE, — skcdl OT wUl hovc been, .
S. Am-atu8 ero vel fufiro, / shall have been loved.
Am-atus Sris vel fiieris, thou wilt have been loved,
Am-atus erit vel fiiSrit, he will have been loved.
P. Am-ati erimus vel fbgrimus, we shall have been loved.
Am-ati eritis vel fueritis, you will have been loved.
Am-ati erqnt vel fuerint, they will have been loved.
thou loved.
S.Am-5re, \^^
am-ator, J
Am-ator, let him be loved.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
P. Am-a
,Am-amini, l , , ,
«•« 5«„-«^« \ be you loved.
am-aminor, J "^
Am-antor, let them be loved.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
vel ere,
Am-etur, ne may
mayst
PRESENT TENSE, flUiy^ Can
S. Am-er, / may
^''^^'^ I thou
d
P. Am-emur, we may
Am-emmi, you may
Am-entur, they may
o
a-
TMFERF. TENSE, might, COUld,
S.Am-arer, I might,
Am-areris \ thou
vel arere, J mightst, I
Am-aretur, he might, y
P. Am-aremur, we might,
Am-aremini, you might
Am-arentur, they might.
Src.
.1
PERFECT TENSE,— -may have been.
S. Am-atus sim vel fiierim, / may have been loved.
Am-atuB sis vel fueris, thou mayst have been loved,
Am-atus sit vel fuerit, he may have been loved.
P. Ara-ati simus vel fuerimus, we may have been loved,
Am-ati sitis vel fueritis, you may have been loved.
Am-ati sint vel fuerint, they may have been loved.
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — might, coidd, wotdd, should have been.
S. Am-atus essem vel fuissem, / might, could, would,
Am-atus esses vel fuisses, thou mightst, couldst, wouldsty
Am-atus esset vel fuisset, he might, could, would,
P.Am-atiessemust;e^ fuissSmiis, we mighty could, would
Am-ati essetis vel fuissetis, you might, could, would,
Am-ati essent vel fuissent, they might, could, would.
pletion of the action than those by «tim, eram^ ero. Amatus sum implies the completion
of an action, without reference to the precise time; d(ma/twyui implies that an action
has been finished some time ago. Epistola scripta est signifies the letter has been
written ; Epistola scripta Juit denotes that it has existed as a written one, but does not
at present exist. . ___
Ut Con. Passive,'} ETYMOLOGY. 55
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the conjunction prefixed.
Present. Si Amer^ If I be Io7«d, or may be loved ; or Cftm Amer^ since I am loved.
Imperf. 5/ Amarer, If I were loved, or might could, would, or should be loved.
Perfect. Si Atnattu »im^ If I have been loved, or m&y have been loved.
Pluperf . SiJmatus essenit If I had been loved, or might, could,- would, or should have
been lored.
ESTFINITIVE MOOD.
PBBSENT & IMPEBF. TENSE.
Am-ari, to be loved.
FUTUBE IMPEBFECT.
Am-atum Irl, to be about to
be loved.
PEBFECT AND PLUPBBFECT.
Am-atum esse vel fuisse, to
have been loved.
FUTUBE PEBFECT.
Am-andum liuisse, to have been
about to be loved*
SUPINE.
Am-atu, to be loved.
PARTICIPLES.
PBE8ENT ANP PEBFECT.
Am-atus, a, um, loved or being
loved.
FUTUBE.
Am-andus, a, um, to be loved.
b. The Participle in dus expresses, fn the nominative, necessity or propriety ; as,
Atnandus sum, I must be loved or deserve to be loved. It may be joincKl with all the
moodi and tenses -of Sum, and hence arises a second Periphrastic conjugation ; as.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PrMont 5 Sing. Amandus sum^ I must be loved, or deserve to be loved.
ireseni. j p^^^^ Amandi sUnuUt We must be loved, or we are they who deserve, &c.
Imnerf S Sing. Amandus ^ram, I was one who ought to be loved, or deserved, &c.
™ I Plur. Amandi Sramus^ we were they who ought to be loved, &c.
!?»«• 1rv^nf S Sing. Amafidus Sro, I shall be one who will deserve, &c.
em. impi. j p,^^ Amandi Srimus, we shall be they who, &c.
p f . C Sing. Amandus fui, I have been one who deserved. Sec,
renecc. ^ pj^^, Amandi jauntts. We have been they who, &c.
T>i.in..*r 5 Sing. Amandus fiUHriAH, 1 had been one who deserved, &c.
riuperi. ^ pj^^ Amandi fOirdmus, We had been they who, &c.
c. The neuter with esse, and the dative of the person, expresses the necessity under
which a person is to do or suffer a thing ; as, ttbi scribendum est, it is necessary for
thee to write, or thou must write ; mihi scribendum erat^ it was necessary for me to
write ; mihi scribendum erit, it will be necessary for me to write, o»' I shall be obliged
to write ; thus,
d. Fres. Sing. Mihi scribendum est, I must write.
Tibi scribendum est, thou must write.
Illi scribendum est, he must write.
Plur. Nobis scribendum est, we must write.
Vobis scribendum est, you must write,
Illis scribendum est, they must write.
Imperf. Sing. Mihi scribendum erat, / ought to have written.
Tibi scribendum erat. thou oughtest to have written*
Illi scribendum erat, he ought to have written.
Plur. Nobis scribendum erat, we ought to have written.
Vobis scribendum erat, you ought to have written,
Illis scribendum erat, tkey ought to have written.
(And 10 on for the other tenses.)
D 3
54
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^nd Con. Passive.
125. a. THE SECOND CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Mongor, monittis sum vel fui, miJ-
neri, to be advised,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — am.
S. Mon-eor, / am advised,
Mon-eris 1
vel ere, J
IMon-etiir, he is advised.
thou art advised.
P.Mon-emur, we are advised,
Mon-emini,^oM are advised.
Mon-entur, they are advised.
IMPEBrECT TENSE, — WO^.
S.Mon-ebSr, I was advised.
Mon-ebaris 1 thou ivast
vel ebare, J advised,
Mon-ebatur, he was advised.
P. Mon-ebamur, we were "|
Mon-ebamini,yoMwcre >•
Mon-ebantur,M6y were J §^
FUTURE IMPERFECT TENSE, sholl. Will he.
S.Mon-ebor, I shall
Mon-eberisl thou
vel ebere, J shalt
Mon-ebitur, he shall
o
^ Q S
P. Mon-ebimur, we shall
Mon-ebimini, t/ou shall
Mon-ebuntur, 4 , ji
PERFECT TENSE, WOS, JlttVe 1)6671.
S. Mon-itus sum vel fui, I have been advised,
Mon-itus es vel fuisti, thou hast been advised,
Mon-itus est vel fuit, he has been advised.
P. Mon-iti sumus vel f iiimus, we have been advised,
Mon-iti estis vel fuistis, you have been advised.
Mon-iti sunt, fuerunt ve/fuere, they have been advised,
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — had been.
S. Mon-itus eram vel f iieram, / had been advised,
Mon-itus eras vel fueras, thou hadst been advised,
Mon-itus erat vel fuerat, he had been advised,
P. Mon-iti eramus vel fueramus, we had been advised,
Mon-iti eratis vel fueratis, you had been advised,
Mon-iti erant vel fuerant, they had been advised,
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE,— «AaZ/ OF Will kave 1)6671.
S. Mon-itus ero vel f iiero, / shall have been advised.
Mon-itus eris ve^fueris, thou wilt have been advised,
Mon-itus erit vel fuerit, he will have been advised,
P. Mon-iti Srimus vel f uerimus, we shall have been advised,
Mon-iti eritis vel f uerltis, you will have been advised,
Mon-iti erunt vel f iigrint, they will have been advised.
27id Con. Passive^]
ETYMOLOGY.
55
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
PBBSENT TENSE, — may, Can,
S.Mon-ear, I may
Mon-earisl .^ .
, - > thou mayst
vel eare, J ^
Mon-eatur, he may
P. Mon-eamur, we mUy
Mon-eamini, you may
Mon-eantur, they may ^
o
•-i
(8
,5:
r
e
POTENTIAL MOOD.
iMPEBF. TENSE, — mighty could^c.
S. Mon-erer, / might,
Mon-ereris 1 thou
vel erere, J mightst
Mon-eretur, he might }> |&
S, P. Mon-eremur, we might
S5-; Mon-eremini,yoM might
p^' Mon-oxQiiiVLV^they might.
PERFECT TENSE, — wiff^, have hecTi,
S. MoH-itus sim vel f iierim, / may have been advised,
Mon-itus sis vel fueris, thou mayst have been advised,
Man-itus sit vel fuerit, he may have been advised,
P. Mon-iti simus vel f iierimus, we may have been advised.
Mon-iti sitis vel f iieritis, you may have been advised.
Mon-iti sint vel fuerint, they may have been advised,
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — might, could, woidd, shouM have been,
S. Mon-itus essem vel fuissem, / might, could, would,
Mon-itus esses v.fuisses, thoumightst,couldst,wouldst,
Mon-itus esset vel fuisset, he might, could, would,
P. Mon-iti essemusrc/fuissemus, weme^rA^, could, wotdd,
Mon-iti essetis vel fuissetis, you might, could, would,
Mon-iti essent vel fuissent, they, might, could, would.
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the Couj unction prefixed.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
4
PRESENT & IMPERF. TENSE.
Mon-eri, to be advised,
FUTURE IMPERFECT.
Mon-itum iri, to be about to
be advised.
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.
Mon-itura esse vel fuisse, to
have been advised.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Mon-endum fuisse, to have
been about to be advised.
SUPINE.
Mon-itu, to be advised.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT AND PERFECT.
Mdn-itus, a, um, advised, or
being advised.
FUTURE.
Mon-endus,a,um,^o be advised.
b. Periphrastic Conjugation, Monendus sum, eram, &a I anty was, &c. to be advised.
D 4
56 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Srd Cm. Passive.
126. a. THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Regor, rectus sum vel fui, regi, to
be ruled,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, am.
S. Reg-5r, I am ruled.
^^^/f Jf 1 thou art ruled,
vel ere, J
Reg-itur, he is ruled.
P. Reg-imur, we are ruled.
Reg-imini, you are ruled.
Reg-untur, they are ruled.
P. Reg-ebamur, we were 1 g
Reg-ebammi, you were > ^
Reg-ebantur, M^y were J ^
IMPERFECT TENSE, tOUS.
S.Reg-ebar, I was ruled.
Reg-ebaris "I thou wast
vel ebare, J ruled.
Reg-ebatur, he was ruled.
rUTURB IMPERFECT TENSE, — shoU OT wUl he.
p. Reg-emur, we shall 1 ** 2
Reg-emini, you shall }- 2 ^
Reg-entur, ^^ey ^Aa/Z J |[Ss
S.Reg-ar, /*Aa// "j o
Reg-etur, he shall J. ^
vel ere, J
PERFECT TENSE, — M«w, have teen.
S. Rec-tus sum vel fui, / have been ruled.
Rec-tus es vel fuisti, thou hast been ruled.
Rec-tus est vel fuit, he has been ruled.
P. Rec-ti stimus vel f iimus, we have been ruled.
Rec-ti estis vel fuistis, you have been ruled.
Rec-ti sunt, f iierunt vel f Gere, they have been ruled.,
PI.UPBRFECT TENSE, — had been.
S. Rec-tus Sram vel f iieram, / had been ruled.
Rec-tus eras vel fueras, thou hadst been ruled.
Rec-tus erat vel fuerat, he had been ruled.
P. Rec-ti ^ramus vel f iieramus, we had been ruled*
Rec-ti eratis vel fueratis, you had been ruled.
Rec-ti erant vel fuerant, they had beek ruled.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE, — shoU oT wul havB been*
S. Rec-tus Sro vel fiiSro, I shall have beefi ruled.
^^ec-tns eris vel f iieris, thou wilt have been ruled.
Rec-tus Srit vel f iierit, he vnll have been ruled.
P. Rec-ti grimtis vel f tierimus, we shall have been ruled.
Rec-ti eritis vel f iifiritis, you will have been ruled.
Rec-ti Srunt vet f iierint, they will have been ruled^
3rd Con. Passive."]
ETYMOLOGY.
57
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
* ^l^ ^ > be thou ruled. ' K^^^^' V be you ruled,
reg-itor, J reg-iminor, J ^
Reg-itor, let him be ruled. 'Reg-wator, let them be ruled.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
may, can.
o
ft
ft
ft
IMPEBF. TENSE, — might, coidd, SfC.
S.Reg-ferer, I mighty
Reg-ereris 1 thou
vel erere, J mightst,
Reg-eretur, he might,
P.Reg-eremur,. we might,
Reg-eremini,^otf might,
Reg-erentur,^A€y might,.
PRESENT TENSE,'
S.Reg-ar, I may
Reg-arisl .7 .
? . \ thou mayst
vel are, J ^
Reg-atur, he may
P. Reg-amur, we may
Reg-amini, you may
Reg-antur, they may
PEEFBCT TENSE, — may have been.
S. Rec-tus sim vel fiiSriin, / may have been ruled.
Rec-tus sis vel fueris, thou mayst have been ruled.
Rec-tus sit vel fuerit, he may have been ruled.
P.Rec-ti simus vel fiierimus, we may have been ruled.
Rec-ti sitis vel fueritis, you may have been ruled.
Rec-ti sint vel fuerint, they may have been ruled.
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — might, could, wovM, shovM have been.
S. Rec-tus essem vel fuissem, / might, could, would,
Rec-tus esses t^e/fuisses, thou mightst,couldst,would$t,
Rec-tus esset vel fuisset, he might, could, would,
P. Rec-ti essemus t^e/fuissemus, we might, could, would,
Rec-ti essetis vel fuissetis, you might, could, would,
Rec-ti essent vel fuissent, they might, could, would.
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the Conjunction prefixed.
mFEN^ITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT & IMPERF. TENSE.
O
S 0.
«6
Reg-1, to be ruled.
FUTURE IMPERFECT.
Rec-tum irl, to be about to be
ruled.
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.
Rec-tum esse ve/fuisse, to have
been ruled.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Reg-endumfuisse, to have been
about to 'be ruled.
SUPINE.
Rec-tu, to be ruled.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT AND PERFECT.
Rec-tus, a, yxm,ruled, or being
ruled.
FUTURE.
Reg-end us, a, urn, to be ruled.
b. Periphraitle Conjugation, Regendtu mm, eram, &c. I amt was, See. to be ralecL
D 5
58
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[4^i Con. Passive.
127. a. THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.
The Principal Parts — Audior, auditus sum t7c/fui, audiri,
to be heard,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE, — am,
P. Aud-Imur, we are heard.
Aud-Imini, you are heard.
Aud-iuntur, they are heard.
S. Aud-ior, / am heard,
, - ^ > thou art heard,
vel ire, J
Aud-itur, he is heard,
IMPEBFECT TENSE, — WOS,
S. Aud-ieb&r, / was heard.
Aud-iebaris \ thou wast
vel iebare, J heard,
Aud-iebatiir, he was heard.
P. Aud-iebamur, we were'\ ^
Aud-iebamini,yow were [• |
Aud-iehontury they were J ^
FUTTntE IMPERFECT TENSE, skoU OF WtU be.
P.Aud-iemur, we shall "] ^^
Aud-ieraini, you shall f%%
Aud-ientur, they shall j ^
S.Aud-riar, I shall
i'.- ythoushalt
vel lere, J
Aud-ietur, he shall
PERFECT TENSE, — was^ Imvc been.
S. Aud-ItuSrSum vel fiii, / have been heard,
Aud-itj4S, es vel fuisti, thou hast been heard,
Aud-itus est vel fuit, he has been heard,
P, Aud-iti sumus vel fuimus, we have been heard.
Aud-iti estis vel fuistis, you have been heard.
Aud-iti sunt, fuerunt vel fuere, they have been heard^
PLUPERFECT TRNSE, — had been.
8. Audfitus eram vel fiieram, / had been heard.
Aud-itus eras vel fueras, thou hadst been heard,
Aud-itus erat vel fuerat, he had been heard.
P. Aud-iti eramus vel fiieramus, we had been heard.
Aud-iti eratis vel fueratis, you had been heard,
Aud-iti erant vel fuerant, they had been heard.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE, — shoR OT wiU have been.
S. Aud-itus ero vel ftiero, / shall have been heard,
Aud-itus eris vel fueris, thou wilt have been heard,
Aud-itus erit vel fuerit, he wiU have been heard,
P. Aud-iti erimus vel iuerimus, we shall have been heard.
' Aud-iti eritis vel fueritis, you will have been heard.
Aud-iti erunt vel fuerint, they will have been heard.
Ath Con, Passive.']
ETYMOLOGY.
59
Aud-itor, let him he heard.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
P. Aud-lmini
aud-iminor,
^ J
be you
Aud-iuntor, let them be
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PEESEMT TENSE, — fMLy^ Can
S Aud-iar, / may
Aud-iaris7 ^7
/.. Vthou may St
Aud-iatur, he may
P. Aud-iamur, we may
Aud-iamini, you may
Aud-iantur, they may
I
ji
o
Si
<^
Si
5
IMFEBF. TENSE, mighty COuM^ ^C,
S.Aud-irer, I mighty i
Aud-ireris 1 thou
vel irere, _| mightst^
Aud-irgtur, he mighty
P. Aud-iremur, we might,
Aud-iremini,yott might,
Arrd-irentur,^Acy might!
-may have been.
Q
PERFECT TENSE,
S. Aud-itus sim vel fuerim, / may have been heard,
Aud-Itus sis vel fueris, thou mayst have been heard,
Aud-Itus sit vel fuerit, he may have been heard,
P. Aud-iti simus vel fiierimus, we may have been heard.
Aud-iti sitis vel fiiSritis, you may have been heard,
Aud-iti sint vel fuerint, they may have been heard.
PLUPERFECT TENSE, — might, covld, wovM, shovM have been,
S. Aud-itus essem vel fuissem, 1 mighty could, would,
Aud-Itus esses v, fuisses, thou mightst, couldst, wouldst,
Aud-itus esset vel fuisset, he might, could, would,
P. Aud-iti essemus vel fuissemus, we might, could, would,
Aud-iti essetis vel fuissetis, you mighty could, would,
Aud-iti essent vel fuissent, they might, could, toould,
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the Conjunction prefixed.
o
I.
^S5
r
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT & IMPERF. TENSE.
Aud-iri, to be heard.
FUTURJB IMPERFECT.
Aud-Itum Irl, to be about to be
heard,
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT.
Aud-itum esse vel fuisse, to
have been heard.
FUTURE PERFECT.
Aud-iendum fuisse, to have
been about to be heard.
SUPINE.
Aud-itu, to be heard.
PARTICIPLES .
PRESENT ANB PERFECT.
Aud-Itus, a, um, heardoT being
heard.
FUTURE.
Aud-iendus, a, um, to be heard.
i. Periphrastic Conjugation, Audiendus sum, tram, &c. I am, taat, &c. to be heard.
D 6
60
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Srd Con. in to»
THE THIRD CONJUGATION IN io.
128. ACTIVE,
Principal Farts— C&pio, cSpi, captam, c&p£re, to take,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. Tense,
Ifnpetf.
Fat. Ifuvperf.
Perf.
Pluperf.
Put, Perf.
C&p-lo
Cap-Iebain,
Cap-lam,
Cep-i,
Cep-erain,
Cep-firo.
is.
lebas,
ies,
isU,
eras,
firis,
it;
leb&t;
i§t;
it;
erat ;
£rit;
Imos,
lebamus,
lemus.
Imus,
gramus,
Srlmus,
Itis,
lebatis,
ietis,
istis,
eratis,
entis,
lunt,
lebant.
lent.
erunt vd ere,
eraat.
£rint.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
C^-e, Ito ; — Ite, Itote ; iunto.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pret. Tense,
Imperf.
Perf.
Pluperf.
CSp-lam,
Cap-Srem,
Cep-Srim,
Cep-lssem,
las,
gres,
eris,
isses.
l&t;
6rdt;
§rU ;
ibset ;
lamus,
&r§mus,
erlmus,
issemus.
litis,
eretis,
erltis,
issetis.
lant.
erent.
Srint.
isseut.
The Subjanctive is coi^ugated like the Potential.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Pres. ^ Imp. Cipgre.
Put. Imp. CapcQrum esse.
Perf.A Plup. Cepisse.
Put. Perf. CaptQrum fuisse.
GERUNDS.
Ciplen-di,
do,
dum,
SUPINE— Captuxn.
PARTICIPLES.
Present^ Capiens.
Future^ C^Qrus.'
129.
PASSIVE,
Principal Parts — Caplor, captus sam vel fui, c&pi, to bs taken.
Pres. Tense*
Imperf.
FHt. Imperf.
Perf.
Pluperf.
Put. Perf,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
C&p-ISr, §rl8 vel SrS, Itur ; — Imur. Imlni, luntur.
Cap-leb&r, lebarls tfel lebarg, lebatur ; — lebamur, iebamlnf, iebantur.
Cap-lftr, ieris vel iere, ietur ; — iemur, iemini, ientnr.
Captus sum ve/ fui.esve/ fuisti, est v^/ fuit ; — capti sumus vel fulmos,
estis vel faistis, sunt, fuenint vel fuere.
Captus Sram vel fuSram, Sras vel fuSras, firat vel fu&rat ; — capti Sramus
vel fuSramus, eratis vet fueratis, erant vel fuerant.
Captus £ro vel fuSro, eris vel fueris, erit vel fuerit ; — capti £rlmus vel
fuSrlmus, erltis vel fuerltis, £runt vel fuerint.
Pres. Tense,
Imperf.
Perf.
Plu. Perf.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
CSp-Sre, Itor ; Itor ;— Imlni, Imlnor ; luntor.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
C&p-iar, ifiris vf/iare, iatur ;— iamur, lamini, iantur. '
Cap-6rer, grerls vel 6rere, Sretur ; — Sremur, Sremlni, Srentur.
Captus Sim vel fueriro, sis vel fueris, sit vel fuerit ; — capti slmus vel fuSrl-
mus, sitis vel fuerltis, sint vel fuerint.
Captus essem vel fuissem, esses vH fuisses, esset vel (Viisset ; —capti esse-
mus vel fuissemus, essetis vel fuissetis, essent vel fuissent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PaBSKNT AND IMPBBPKCT*
C&pi, to he taken,
PUTURB IMPBRTBCT.
Captum Irl, to be about to be taken,
PBBFECT AND PLUPBRFBCT.
Captum eue vel foisse, io have been taken*
PCTCRB PBBFFCT.
Caplendum fuisse, to have been about to be
taken,
SUPINE.
Captu, to be taken,
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. Captus, a, um, taken or being taken.
Put. C&plendu8, a, um, to be taken.
Verb Deponent^
ETYMOLOGY.
61
130.
A VERB DEPONENT.
The Principal l^arts — Miror, miratus sum vel fui, mirari,
to admire.
I
O
•%
s.
INDICATIVE
PBE8ENT TEHSB, — am^ do,
S- Mir-6r, 1 admire,
Mir-aris "1 thou ad^
vel are, J miresty
Mir-atur, he admires,
P. Mir-amur, we admire,
Mir-ammi, you admire,
Mlr'&ntur, they admire,
P.
MOOD.
IMPEBFECT TENSE, WOS,
Mir-abar, I was
Mir-abarisl .,
I V - > thou wast
vel abare, J
Mir-abatur, he was .
Mir-abamur, we were
Mir-abamini, you were
Mir-abantur, they were.
I-
lUTUBE IMPEBFBCT TENSE, — ShoU OT tDtU,
S. Mir-abor, / shall
Mir-abitur, he shall J
]
S3
P. Mir-abimur, we shall
Mir-abimini, you shall
Mir-abuntur, they shall \ ^^
PERFECT TENSE, — ?UlVe, did,
S. Mir-atus sum vel fui, / admired, or have admired.
Mir-atus es vel fuisti, thou admiredst, or hast admired,
Mir-atus est velfuit, he admired, or has admired,
P. Mir-ati siimus vel fQimus, we admired, or have admired,
Mir-ati estis vel fuistis, you admired, or have admired.
Mir-atisunt, fueruntvcZfuere, they admi7*ed,ov have admired*
PLUPEEFECT TENSE, — hod,
S. Mir-atus eram vel fiieram, / had admired.
Mir-atus eras vel fueras, thou hadst admired.
Mir-atus erat vel fuerat, he had admired^
p. Mir-ati eramus vel fueramus, we had admired.
Mir-ati eratis vel fueratis, you had admired,
Mir-ati erant vel fuerant, they had admired,
FUTUBB PEBFECT, — shoU OT wiU kave,
S. Mir-atus ero vel fuero, I shall have admired,
Mir-atus eris vel fueris, thou wilt have admired.
Mir-atus erit vel fuerit, he will have admired,
P. Mir-ati Srimus vel fiierimus, we shall have admired.
Mir-ati eritis vel fuerltis, you will have admired.
Mir-ati erunt vel fuerint^ they will have admired.
62
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ Verb Deponent
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
admire thou.
S. Mir-are, 1
mir-ator, J
Mir-ator, let him admire.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PBESENT TENSE, — ITlOy, COtl
S. Mir-er, / may
Mir-grisl -t
, - Y thou mayst
vel ere, J ^
Mir-6tur, he may
P. Mir-emur, we may
Mir-emini, you may
Mir-entur, they may ^
o
8
> O
P. Mir-amlni, 1 , .
« ' > admire you,
mir'aminor, J ^
Mir-antor, let them admire.
IMFEBF. TENSE, — mighty 8fC,
S.Mir-arer, I mighty
Iilir-areris 1 thou
vel arere, J mightsty
Mir-aretur, he might,
P. Mir-aremur, we might,
Mir-aremini,yoM might,
Mir-arentur, they might,.
PEEFECT TENSE, — may have.
1 may have admired.
S. Mir-atus aim vel fuerim.
Mir-atus sis vel fueris,
Mir-atus sit vel fuerit.
P.Mir-ati simus vel fu&rimus.
Mir-ati sitis vel fueritis.
Mir-ati sint vel fuerint.
FLUPSBF. TENSE, might, SfC. havB,
I mighty ^c. have admired.
S. Mir-atus essem ve/. fuissem.
Mir-atus esses vel fuisses.
Mir-atus esset vel fuisset.
P. Mir-ati essemust?.fuissSmus.
Mir-ati essetis vel fuissetis.
Mir-ati essent vel fuissent.
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, but
the signification varies according to the Conjunction prefixed.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT- & IMPEBF. TENSE.
Mir-ari, to admire,
FUTUBE IMPEBFECT ACTIVE.
Mir-aturum esse, to be about
to admire,
FUTUBE IMPEBF. PASSIVE.
Mir-atum in, to be about to be
admired.
PEBFECT AND PLUPEBFECT.
Mir-atum esse vel fuisse, to
have admired,
FUTUBE PEBFECT ACTIVE.
Mir-atiirum fuisse, to have
beeti about to admire,
FUTUBE PEBFBCT PASSIVE.
Mir-andum fuisse, to have
been about to be admired.
GERUNDS.
Genit. 'NL\V'QXkd\,of admiring,
D. & Ab. Mir-ando, ybr, by, in
admiring.
Ac. &N. Mir-andum, to ad-
mire.
SUPINES.
Act. Mir-atum, to admire,
I^ASS. Mir-atUy to be admired.
PARTICIPLES. -
PBESENT ACTIVE.
IVIir-ans, antis, admiring,
PEBFECT ACTIVE.
Mir-atus, a, um, having admired.
FUTUBE ACTIVE.
Mir-aturus, a,um,a6oti/ to admire.
FUTUBE PASSIVE.
Mir-andus, a, um, to be admired.
Kemarks on Conj.'] • ETYMOLOGY. 63
Remarks on the Conjttgaiions,
- 131. I. In the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect, of the first conjugation, vi
or ve is frequently dropped when an f or r follows dvi or dve, and a circumflex placed
over the aj as, amdsti, aaiiram^ amdroy for amavUtU amaveram, ainavero.
2. In the second and third conjugations, evi is similarly contracted; as, nisti^ decrisse,
for nepistiy decrevisse.
3. /s, in the Perfect and Pluperfect of the third conjugation, is frequently thrown out
after an « or an xs as, dixit for dixitti.
4. In the fourth, (Vis frequently contracted before «; as, audisii for audivisti j I'l'is
also frequently used for ivif as, audit for attdivi^ audieram for audiveram,
5. The third person plural of the Perfect Active has two forms, ere and erunU
6. The quantity of the t in rimus and ritis of the Future Perfect Indicative and the
Perfect Potential is doubtful, but more frequently long than short in both tenses.
7. The Participle Future Passive in some verbs of the third and fourth conjugations
is formed in undus as well as in endtu^ especially when t precedes ; eL$,faciutidmf vetii*
ttndus. In potior^ the usual form is potittndiu.
8. Some active and deponent verbs have a Participle in bundus^ having the same 8ig«
nification as a present participle ; as, mori-bundtu for moriens.
9. Amongst the older Latin writers, the Infinitive was sometimes lengthened by
annexing er; thua^ amarier for amari. The e in the Imperfect Active and Passive of
the fourth conjugation was frequently rejected ; thus, lenibam for leniebam, largibar
for largiebar.
Rules for the Formation of the Perfect and Supine.
GENERAL RULES FOR COMPOUND VERBS.
132. a. Compound Verbs form their Preterperfect and
Supine like their simples ; as, edoceo, edocui, edoctum, from
doceOf docuiy doctum^
EXCEPTIONS.
b. The syllable which is doubled in the Perfect Tense of
the simple verb is not doubled in the compound ; as, peUo,
pepuli ; repello, repuli. But praecurro^ repungo, and the
compounds of doy sto, disco, and poscOy retain the double
syllable ; as, praecurroy praecucurriy &c.
e. Verbs which change a of the Present of the simple into
i in the compound have e in the Supine ; &»yfacip ; per/icio,
perfeci, perfectum. Except verbs ending in do and goy and
the compounds of habeo, pl&ceOy salioy sapio, and statuo,
d. Verbs which are defective in the Perfect, want likewise
the Supine. Except plicoy which has plicatum.
64
LATIN GRAMMAR.
IfarmatUm qf
THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
133. a. The First Conjugation makes dvi in. the Perfect
Tense, and dtumy in the Supine ; as, Amo, amdvi^ amdtum^
to love,
h. Except the following, which make wt, ttum; crepo\
to make a noise ; cubOj to recline ; domOy to tame ; sono
(participle, sonaturws^ to sound ; t6no% to thunder ; vetOy
to forbid.
Present*
Do,3
FrTco,
Jtivo,^
Labo,»
Lavo,
Mico,
Emlco,
Dimlcoi
N6co,
Enfico,
Nexo,
PUco,
Duplico,
Applteo,
Explico,
Expllco,
Perfect.
dedi,
fricui,
juvi,
lavi,
EXCEPT ALSO,
Supine,
datum,
r fricatum, 1
\ frictum, J
(jutum,)
riavatum,
\ lautum,
I. lotum,
}
micui,
emicui,
diinicivi S[ ni,
{necavi, \
necui, J
f enecavi,
\ enecui,
Poto,
SSco,
Sto,
Obsto,
dtiplicavl,
applicavi S; ui,
explicavi,
explicui,
potavi,
emfcatum,
dimicatum,
necatum,
enecatum, 7
enectum, 3
plicatum,
dupllcatum,
to give,
to rub. (de, in, per, re.)
to help.
to fall or faint.
to wash.
to dart outy to shine.
to dart forth ray*,
tojlgkt,
to kill.
to h'U by htckes, (inter.)
to hind.
to fold, (re.)
. , to double, (sup, multi.)
appiicatum 4 Itum/ to attacks
expHcaturo, to explain, (com, tm.) bat
tou^old.
explicltum,
J potatum, "I
»» J
to drink.
to cut. (de, dis, prae.)
to stand,
to hinder.
\ potum,
secui, sectum,
st^ti, statum,
--obstiti, obstatum,
c. So constOy exsto, Sind praesto, make ttiy dtum; praestitum
is also found. CircumstOy antesto, interstOy and superstOy
have steti without Supine. Adsto, instOy resto, have stiti,
but no Supine. Disto has neither Perfect nor Supine.
I . Discrepo, to differ, and increpot to chide, have sometimet dvi and dtum, as well as
m', item.
, % Intdno has intonatus in the Perfect Participle.
3. Do makes «fdfre, short. So also, circumdo, pessundo, satisdo^ vemmdo, which are
.formed like do; but abdOt addo^ condo, prodo, reddo, belong to the third conjugation.
4. Future Participle, ^tiva/unff. AdjUvo^jStvi, has only adjutum in the Supine.
5. Riddle gives a JPerfect and Supine for labo, but without authoritjr.
Perfect Sf Supine.]
ETYMOLOGY.
65
THE SECOND CONJUGATION.
134. a. The Second CoDJugation makes ui, itum ; as,
MoneOy monui, momtumy to advise.
b, EXCEPTIONS.
Present. Perfect. Supine.
Algeo, alsi, (alsum,)
Arceo, arcui, ■
Its compounds have itum in the Supine ; as,
Exerceo, exercui, exercltum,
to shiver with cold,
to drive away,
to exercise, (co.)
Ardeo,
arsi.
arsum.
to burn.
Audeo,
ausus sum,
ausuiu.
to dare.
Augeo,
auxi.
auctum.
to increase.
Caveo,^
cavi.
cauturn.
to take care.
Censeo,
censui.
censum.
to think.
Accetueo, percetueot have no Supine ; recenseo has recensum aud recensitum.
Cieo,2
civi,
citum,
to stir up, (co!>,ex,per.)
Compleo,
coinplevi.
completum, -
r to Jill up, (de, im, ex,
1 re, sup.)
Connlveo,
" connivi,
connixi.
to wink.
Doceo,
docui,
doctum.
to teach, (e,per, de.)
Deleo,
delevi.
deletum.
to blot out.
Faveo,
favi,
fautum,
to favour*
Ferveo,^ .
Fleo,
Foveo,
fervi&ferbui,
flevi,
fovi,
to glow, be hot.
to weep, (af, de.)
to cherish.
fletum,
fotuin.
Frendeo,
Frigeo,
Fulgeo,
G-audeo,
Haereo,
frendui, frendi,
frixi,
fulsi,
gavisus sum,
haesi.
fressum,
to gnash the teeth*
fn ht> nnlfl
to shine, (af,;ef,re.)
to rejoice,
to stick, (ad, CO, in.)
haesum.
Indulgeo,
Jubeo,
Luceo,
Lugeo,
indulsi,
jussi.
indultum,
jussum.
to indulge, '
to order,
to shine,i^» e, per, prae.
to mourn.
luxi.
M&neo,
rnansi,
mansum,
to remain, (per, re.)
Misceo,
miscui,
fmistum, 1
mixtum, J
to mix, (ad. com. im.per.)
1. Verbs in v£0 undergo a contraction in the Perfect and Supine; as, caveOj cam\
cauturn.
2. Civi is the Perfect of the obsolete verb cio of the fourth conjugation, and ciium
the Supine. The compounds, in the sense ofcallingy are generally conjugated accord-
ing to the fourth conjugation ; as, excio, excttum. Condtus, exaitu, incSttnSj signify
rousedv stirred up, excitus, called forth.
3. Fervit,fervaty/ervSre, after the third, is an archaism.
66
LATIN GRAMMAR. [Formation of
Present.
Perfect.
Supine.
Mordeo,
momordi,
morsum,
to bite.
Admordeo,
admordi,
admorsum.
to bite hard.
Moveo,
movi,
motum,
f to move, ra, ad, com, per,
i pro, nj, sub.) *
Mulceo,
mulsi,
mulsum,
to stroke, (de, per.)
Mulgeo,
mulsi,
mulsum,
to milk.
Neo,
ngvi,
netum.
to spin.
Oleo
olui,
apounds, signifying to
to smell.
So also Its con
smelli as.
Ob51eo.
&b51ui.
i to smell strot^. (per, red,
I sub.)
Exoleo* Ifrom"! ,. .
X, ♦ fexolevi,
oleo, to grow. J '
exoletura.
to fade — grow old.
Adoleo,
adolevi,
adultum.
' to grow up — to bum
in sacrifice.
7
7
PSveo,
Pendeo,
T\0 171
to dread,
to hang.
pependi,
pensuui.
Depe'ndeo,
depend!.
depensum,
to hang from, (im.)
Prandeo,*
prandi,
pransum,
to dine.
Kideo,
risi,
risum,
to ZaU^A.(ar,de,ir,sub.)
Sedeo,
sedi,
sessuiu,
to sit.
Its compounds, except circumsedeo and tupersedeOt
change e of the simple into is as.
Assldeo,
assedi.
assessum.
C to sit by or at. (circum, con,
1 ob, dii, pes, prae, super.)
Disiideot rarely a Perfect or Supine
> ; praesideo, rarely a Supine.
Sorbeo,^
8orbui(sorps]
i),8orptum,
to sup up.
Soleo,
solitus sum,
am wont.
Spondeo,
spospondi, '
spopondi.
sponsum,
to promise.
Respondeo,
respondi.
responsum,
to answer, (de.)
Strideo,
stridi,
f to make a noise '^
\ hiss.
Suadeo,
suasi,
suasum.
to persuade, (dis, per.)
Teneo,
tenni,
tentuui,
to hold.
Its compounds change e into ij as.
Abstlneo,
abstlnui.
abstentum.
Cto abstain from, (at, con,
I de, re, sus.)
Pertineo has no Supine.
Timeo,
timui,
to fear.
Tergeo,
tersi,
tersum,
to wipe dry. (abs.)
Tondeo,
totondi,
tonsuni.
to clip.
Attondeo,
attondl.
attonsum.
to dip. (de)
Torqueo,
torsi,
tortum.
to tunst. (con, dis» ex.)
4. Exoleo and adoleo come from olere (not in use), to grow ; so also obsdleOt obsolevi,
obsoletum, to grow out of use ; indleo inoUvi^ inoietum or inolitum, to come into use ;
abdteo. to abolish, abolSvi^ aboHtum.
5. Pransus is used in the Active sense of having dined.
*«. Absorbeo, to sup up, and exsorbeo, to sup out, have sometimes absorpsi axiA exsorpsi
he Perfect ; exsorbeo and resorbeo have no Supine.
Perfect 8;" Supine.]
ETYMOLOGY.
67
Present
Torreo,
Turgeo,
Urgeo,
Video,
Voveo,
Perfect
torrui,
tursi,
ursi,
vidi,
vovi,
Supine,
tostum.
visum,
votum.
to toast — parch,
to swell,
to urge.
to see. (in,per,prae,pro.)
to VOW. (de.)
135. a. Neuter Verbs in veo have no Supine; as, pdveo,
pdvi, to be afraid.
b. Also, Neuter Verbs which have ui in the Perfect, have
no Supine ; as, splefideo, splendui, to shine.
c. But the following Neuter Verbs, and their compounds,
have ui and itum, according to the general rule : —
C^reo, ui, itum, to want.
Coaleo, ui, itum, to grow to-
gether.
Doleo, ui, itum, to grieve.
Jaceo, ui, itum, to lie ; recline.
L3,teo,^ ui, itum, to lie hid*
Liceo, ui, itum, to he valued.
d. Verbs that have no Supine, consequently want the
tenses formed from the Supine.
136. a. The following have neither Perfect nor Supine : —
MSreo, ui, itum, to deserve.
Noceo, ui, itum, to hurt.
Pareo, ui, itum, to appear.
Placeo, ui, itum, to please.
Taceo,® ui, itum, to he silent.
Valeo, ui, itum, to be in health.
Aveo, to desire.
Calveo, to grow bald,
Caneo, to he grey.
Denseo, to grow thick.
Flaccep, tofade.^
Flaveo, to be yellow.
Foeteo, to stink.
Glabreo, to be smooth.
Hebeo, to be blunt*
Humeo, to be damp.
*Lacteo, to grow milky,
Liveo, to he black and blue.
Moereo, to be sorrowful.
Renideo, to shine.
Polleo, to be powerful.
Sc&teo, to flow out.
Squaleo, to be dirty.
Vegeo, to flourish.
Vieo, to hoop a vessel.
Uveo, to he moist.
b. These impersonal verbs, Ubet (coUibet), licet, piget^ placet, pudet, have the regular
Perfect Ubuit^ &c., and another which is Perfect Passive in form, but Active in significa-
tion ; as, libitum est, licitum est, &c. Taedet has taeduit or taesum est; pataedet has
pertaesum only.
7. Deliteo, to lurk, and perla^o, to lie hid, compounds of lateo^ have the Perfect vt,
but no Supine.
8. Conticeo, reticeo, make ui in the Perfect, but have no Supine.
9. Riddle gives a Perfect to this verb.
68
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^Fomuition of
THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
137. a. BO 13 changed into^^, ptum ; as, Scribo, scripsiy
scriptum, to write.
So Glubo, to peel ; Nubo, to marry (applied only to the female ; part, nupta).
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Present. Perfect Supine,
n r I vt. . wuw. S recline at table,
from cidfo, j-accubm, accubitum, | (m, pro. sue. oc.)
cubdrCy J
Bibo, bibi, bibitum, to drink, (e, im.)
Lambo, Iambi, to lick.
xj^v, _, . T to scratch toith the
bcabo, scabi, | ^^^
138. a. CO is changed into xi, ctum; as, Dtco^ dixi^
dictum^ to say ; Duco, duxi, ductum^ to lead.
Ico,
Parco,
CoraparcOi
Vinco,
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Ici, ictum, to strike.
parsl, parsam, • to accumulate by saving.
Yici, victum, to conquer. {co^de,%,)
139. a. SCO is changed into t?£, turn; as, Nbsco, novi,
ndtum, to know.
So cretcOy to grow ; quiescOf to rest ; tuetco^ to become accustomed^
Fur Inchoatives in «oo, see at th'e end of the third conjugation.
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Agnosco,
Dignosco,
agnovi,
dignovi.
Compesco, compescui.
Disco, didici.
Addisco,
Dispesco,
Pasco,
Posco,
1>eposco,
Quinisco,
addldici,
dispescui,
pavi,
poposci,
depoposci,
quexi.
agnitum, to own (cog,prae,re.)but
dignotum, to discern (ig,inter, per.)
■ to restrain.
— — ^— to learn, (ad, e, de.)
— — — to learn more.
to divide,
pastum, to feed, (de.)
■ to require, (de, re, ex.)
'■ to demand.
— — to nod.
140. a. i>0 is changed into di^ sum; as, Scando, scandiy
scansum, to climb.
So aicendOt to mount, and the other compounds of scando; also accendo^ to light,
and its compounds; cudOt to forge; d^endo^ to defend; mando, to chew; q^indo^to
oflTend ; ostendo, to shew ; prehendo, to seise.
Perfect Sf Supine,']
ETYMOLOGY.
69
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Present. Perfect Supine,
Abdo, abdidi, abditum,
Abscondo, -{ , ,.%. j- absconditum, to Atcfe.
Addo, addidi, additum,
Cado, cecidi, casum,
Its compounds change a into t; as,
Incldo, I incldi, incasum,
Caedo, cecidi, caesum,
Its compounds change ae into i; as,^
Concido, concldi, conclsum,
to hide.
to add.
to fall.
to fall into, (oc, re.)
to cut.
f to cut <n piecet. (abs, in, oc.
Cedo, cessi, cessum,
Claudo, clausi, clausum,
Its compounds change au Into »; as,
{
de, &c.)
to yield, (abs, ac, ante,
con, de, dis, ex, in, &c.)
to close.
ConclQdo,
Condo,
Credo,
Ace redo,
Dedo,
Dido,
Divido,
Edo,
£do,*
Fido,
Findo,
Frendo,
Fundo,
couclQsi,
condidi,
credidi,
accredtdi,
dedidi,
dididi,
divisi,
edidi,
edi,
fisus sum,
fidi,
(frendi,)
fudi,
conclQsum,
conditum,
creditum,
accredltum,
dedituni,
diditum,
divIsuDQ,
editum,
{esum (ores-
turn,
fissum,
{fressum ^
fresum,
fusum,
inditum,
laesum,
Indo, indidi,
Laedo, laesi,
Its compounds change ae into t ; as,
Allido, allisi, allisum,
Ltido, lusi, lusum,
Obdo, obdidi, obditum,
fpassum,
Pando,2 pandi, -I (pansum
l_ rare)
5 to conclude — to shut up.
I (ex, in, re, se.)
to lay up ; arrange,
to believe.
to give credit to. (con.)
to submit,
to give out.
to divide.
to put forth — to
publish.
- to eat, (ex, com.)
to trust, (con, dif.)
to split (dif.)
to gnash with the
teeth.
to pour forth, (af, ef,
in,'of, con, dif, per, pro.)
to put in,
to hurt.
}
to dash against, (il, col, e.)
to sport (al, col, e, de, il.)
to oppose,
to shew.
1. Incido, occidOf and recidOy make dtdiy casum; the other compounds of cado hare
no Supine.
2. Expando has expansttm and expassum ; dispando only dispansum.
70
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Formation of
Present. Perfect Supine,
Pendo, pependi, pensum,
Its coin[K)undi lose the reduplication ; .as,
Appendo, append!, appensum,
Perdo, perdidi, perditum,
Deperdo, deperdtdi, dpperdltum,
Plaudo, pkusi, plausum.
The compoands of plaudo, except applaudo and drcum-plaudo, change au into
oj as,
expl5sum,
proditum,
to weigh,
C/o weigh out to. (ex, im, per,
( de, sus.)
to lose.
to lose.
to clap.
explosi,
prodidi,
rasum,
redditum,
rosum,
scissum.
I
ExpUklo,
Prodo,
Bado, rasi,
Reddo, reddidi,
Rodo, rusi,
Riido, rudi,
Scindo, scidi,
Sldo, sidi, — ^^
Its compounds malie edi\ essum; as,
Consido, consedi, consessutn,
Strido, stridi,
Subdo, subdidi, subditum,
Tendo,* tetendi, {ZZlm, }
Its compounds lose the reduplication ; as,
Contendo, conteiidl, contentum,
Trado, trSdidi, traditum,
Trudo, trusi, trusum,
Tundo, tiitudi, -I .- 'V to beat — pound.
to explode, (com, sap.)
to betray.
J to shave, (ab, drcum,
1 cor, de, e.)
to render,
to gnaw, (ab, ar, de,
circum, per.)
to bray as an ass,
to cut. (ab, ex, per, re.)
to sink down,
to sit down, (as, de, re, sub.)
to creak — whiz,
to put under.
to stretch.
'€* to stretch — to laboiu^ (dis,
C in, ob, at.) W
to deliver,
to thrust, (de, ex, pro.)
Its compounds have tSdi\ tUsumj as,
Contundo, contudi, contQsum,
(vasi,)
r (vasum, 1
\ rarely ) J
to beat— bruise, (ex, ob, re.)
to go.
V ado* I V ao2.. I ^ J V
' V »/ ^ rarely)
Its compounds have vasi, vasum, in the PRrfect and Supine ; as,
Invado, invasi, invasum, to go to— to attack, (e, per.)
Vendo, vendidi, venditum, to sell,
141. a. GOf GUO, and HO, are changed into art, ctum ; as
Hego, rexiy rectum, to rule ; Unguo, unoci, unctum, to anoint ;
Traho, trcuci, factum, to draw, to drag.
So affligo, to strike to the ground ; eonfiigo, to fight ; dngo, to gird ; i^fSgo, to
strilce upon ; Jungo, to join ; lingo, lo licle ; mungo, to blow the nose ; plango, to beat,
lament ; the compounds of rego, arrigo, &c.; sago, to sucli ; tego, to cover; tingo or
tittguo, to dip, dye ; extinguo, restinguo (from stinguo), and dislinguo; veho, to carry;
and their compounds.
3. The compounds oftendo have generally tentum In the Supine, except extendo and
ostendOt which have both ieusum and tentum.
I*erfect 8f Supine.']
ETYMOLOGY.
71
JPresent,
AgoS
Ango,
ArgDO,
Clango,
Cogo,
Dego,
Flgo,
Fingo,
Frango,
Perfect.
egi,^
anxi.
argui,
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Supine,
actum,
{
argutum ^
arguitum
coactum,
coegi,
degi,
fixi, fixum,
finxi, fictum,
fregi, fractum,
Its compounds change a Into i' ; as,
Confringo, confregi, conflracttmi.
to drive,
to squeeze, strangle,
^ ito shew — to prove,
to sound a trumpet,
to drive together,
to lead — spend,
to fasten, (af, trans.)
to feign, (con, af, ef, re. )
to break,
f to break to pieces.
I (per, ef, re.)
Frigo,
Lego,
frixi, \ /r ' ' \ !- to roast — fry,
' |^(inxum,)j -^ ^
legi, lectum, to gather, to read.
Tts compounds perlSgo, praeSSgo, colOgo, dcOgo, eUgo, seiigOt and iubUfgo, have Itgi,
lectum f but diligOy inteUigo^ and negtigo^ have lexU ledum.
Mergo, mersi.
mersum.
to dip, (de, e, im, sub.)
Ningo, ninxi,
to snow.
J Pango^, pepigi, pactum,
\ Pango, panxi, panctum,
Its compounds have pegU pactum^ and change a into
Compingo, compegi, compactum.
to bargain,
to drive in — strike,
is as,
to/asten together, (im, op.)
Pergo, perrexi,
perrectum,
to go forward.
Pingo, pinxi,
pictum,
to paint, (de, ex, ap.)
Pungo, pupiigi, punctum,
Its compounds baTe;9viMri in the Perfect ; as,
Compungo, compunxi, compunctum,
Repungo, {V^lf^'] repunctum.
to pierce,
to sting, (dis, inter.) but
to pierce again.
Spargo, sparsi,
Its compounds change a into e
Aspergo, aspersi.
sparsum,
;as,
aspersum,
to scatter,
to besprinkle, (con, re, ex.)
Stringo, strinxi,
strictum.
" to squeeze together,
(ad, con, dis, ob.)
Surgo, surrexi,
surrectum.
to rise.
Tango, tetigi,
tactum,
to touch.
Its compounds change a into i',
Attingo, attlgl.
and drop the reduplication ; as,
attactum, to touch, (con, ob.)
4. Circumago, perago. satago, and coago (contracted into cogo), retain the a ; the
other compounds change a into t' ; as, ^igo, adigo^ exigo, subigo. Dego ((or deago),
prodigo, and satago^ have no Supine. Ambigo, to doubt, has neither Perfect nor
Supine.
5. The Present oT pango is rarely used in the sense of bargain^ hut pmiscor is em-
ployed instead. Depango and repango have neither Perfect nor Supine.
LATIN GRAMMAR.
Perfect.
tersi,
Supine.
tersum,
72
Present.
Tergo,
Vergo, ■
142. 10 is various ; as,
picio/r. Ugpgxi aspectum,
'^^i°/'"'"»}allexi, aUectum,
Elicio, elicui, elicitum,
Capio, cepi, captum,
lu compounds change a into t ; at,
Acclpio, accept, acceptum,
[Formation of
to wipe, (ab, de, ex.)
to lie towards.
dis,
Ciipio, (3rd I - .
&4th con.)J ^"P^^^'
Facio, feci.
cupitum,
{to behold, (con, de,
1^ per, in, sua.)
to allure, (ii, pel.)
to draw out.
to take hold of.
(■ to receive, (de, ex, per,
X prae, re, sua.)
to desire, (con, dis, per.)
C/o qffict (con, per, de. Inter,
\ pro, re, of.)
factum, to do — to make.
So ar^aa'o, conswfacio,frigefaao, labrfna'o, patefacfo, tepefacio ; these have In the
Passive,^, foetus turn, fieri j as, pateJaciOt pat^o. But facio, compounded with a
preposition, changes a into t ; as,
Afflcio, affeci, affectum.
These latter h%ve their own Passive ioficiorj as, qfflcior.
Fodio, fx)di, foSSUm, to dig, (ef,con,per,suf.)
Fflgio, fugi, fugitum, to flee, (au, ef, con, per.)
JScio, jeci, j actum, to throw.
The compounds ofjacio change a into t ; as,
Pario, p6pSri, I pari^, } <« bring forth.
Its compounds change a into e, and belong to the Fourth Conjugation.
Quatio, quassi, quassum, to shake.
Its compounds change quatio into c&tio; as,
Concutio, concussi, concussum,
Eapio,
rapui.
raptum,
Its compounds change a into i ; as,
Arrlpio, arrlpui, arreptum.
Sapio,
sapui,ii,&ivi,-
Its compounds change a into i'/ as,
Deslpio, deslpui.
Cto shake violerafy. (dis, ex,
I per.)
to snatch..
to seize, (ab, er, de, sub.)
to be wise — to taste.
tobe/oolisk. (re.)
143. a. LO is changed into luiy litum; as, Moloy moluiy
molitum, to grind. Alo, to nourish, has alUum and altum
in the Supine.
b. EXCEPTIONS,
Antecello* -! ^ ^ \ ' r— - toexceL (cxjllrae.) but
1^ rarejy j
Percello, perculi, perculsum, to strike down.
Perfect ff Supine,"]
ETYMOLOGY.
73
JPresent.
C61o,«
Consiilo,
FaUo,
Refello,
Occiilo,
Pello,
Perfect,
cdlui,
consQlui,
fefeUi,
refelli,
occiiliu,
peptili,
Supine,
cultum,
consultum,
falsum,
occultum,
pulsum,
Its compounds drop the reduplication ; as,
compulsum,
Compello,
Psallo,
Sallo,
ToUo,
Attollo, 7
ExtolIo,7
VeUo,
Convello,
compuli,
psalli,
salli,
sustiili,
attuU,
extuli,
salsum,
sublatum,
alUtum,
elatum,
vein & vulsi, Tulsum,
▼elli, irulsum,
to till, (ex, per, In.)
to consult,
to cheat,
to confute,
to hide,
to drive away,
Cio'compel. (ap, de, ex, pro«
I &c.)
to sing or plat/ on
an instruments
to salt,
to lift up,
to raise up.
to ^fl up— to praise.
to pluck out. (a, re.)
to tear up. (di, e.)
{
144. a. MO is changed into mui, mttum; as, Fremo,fremui.
fremitum, to murmur.
So gl^mo, to groap {cong(imo and inghno have no Supine); vHma, to yomit.
h. EXCEPTIONS.
C5mO} compsi, comptum, to adorn.
Demo, dempsi, demptum, to take away,
Emo, €mi, emptum, to buy.
The compounds of emo^ except demo, promo^ sumo, change e of the simple Into
as,
adSmi,
ademptum.
Adimo,
Premo, pressi, pressum,
The compounds oi prima change e into i ; as.
Opprfmo,
Promo,
Sumo,
Tremo,
145. NO.
Cano,
oppress!,
prompsi,
sumpsi,
tremui.
cecini,
oppressum,
promptum,
sumptum,
C to take away, (dir, ex, red,
X inter.)
to press,
f to press down, (com, de,
X sup, ex.)
to bring out. (de, ex.)
to take, (ab, ad,con,&c.)
to tremble,.
cantum, to sing.
Its compounds change a Into t, and make ct/itit, centum; as,
Succino, succinui, succentum, to sing to. {oc)
Of acdhto and interdhw^ neither Perfect nor Supine is to be found.
Cerno,®
Cerno,
Decerno,
crevj,
decrgvi.
to perceive — see,
cretum, to sift — separate.
decretum, to decree, (dis. ex, se.)
6. AcdUo and cireumdUo have no Supine.
7. Attollo and etttMo have no Perfect nor Supine of their own, but take the Perfect
and Supine of t^jBftro and effhro.
8. Cerno has neither Perfect nor Supine in the sense of ««^, perceive; but the Per«
UsXerivi\k used in the sense of '* entering upon an inheritance."
74
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Formationqf
Present.
Grigno,
lano,
P5no,
Sino,
Desino,
SpernOy
Sterno,*
Temno,
Contemno,
Perfect
geniii,
levi, Kvi,
posni,
sivi,
desfi.
sprevi,
stravi,
coQtempsi,
Supme.
genitiun.
Ilium,
positum,
sitam,
desltiim,
spretum,
stratum,
contemptum.
to beget, (in, pro.)
tosmear, (coiauper.ob.)
^tO place, (ante, ap, com,
C. de, dis, ex, op.)
to allow.
toeeoMe.
to despise.
{to stretch on the
ground, (in, con, pro, re.)
to despise, but
to despise.
146. o. PO is changed into psiy ptum ; as, Carpo, carpsi,
carptuniy to pluck.
So the compounds otearpo, comeerpo, ftc. ; c/^po, to steal ; rcjM, to creep ; sealpo,
to scratch ; scu/jio, to worli wkh the chisel : serpo^ to creep, — ana the compounds of
these words.
Rumpo, rupiy
Strepo, strepui,
147. QUO.
Coquo, coxi.
Linquo,
Relinquo,
liqui,
reliqui.
h. EXCTEPTIONS.
ruptum,
strepitum,
coctum,
(lictum,)
relictum.
rto break — tear.
\ (ah, e, con, &C.)
to make a noise, (ob.)
StO dress, (con, de, dis,
^ ex, &c.)
to leave.
to leave behind, (dere, de.)
148.0. RO is changed into ssi, stum; as, GerOj gessi,
gestumy to cany. — So uro, to bum, and its compounds, odtiro, comburo, &c.
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Curro, cucurri, cursum, to run.
Ac, con, de, dis, ex, in, oc, per,wrae, pro-curro, sometimes have, and sometimes have
not, the reduplication in the Perfect ; eireum, re, sue, irams-curro, are without it.
Fero,
Affgro,
Aufero,
Confero,
Differo,
EffCro,
Infgro,
Offero,
Suffgro,
ttili,
attiili,
abstuli,
contiili,
disttili,
extiili,
intiili,
obtiili,
(sustuli,)
latum,
allatum,
ablatum,
collatum,
dilatum,
elatum,
illatum,
oblatum,
C to bear, (ante, circum, de,
I per, post, prae, pro,re,tran8.)
to bring.
to take away.
to compare together.
to scatter abroad.
to bring out.
to bring into.
to bring to.
(sublatum,) to lift up.
9. Constemo and externa, when they signiry to alarm, are of the first conjuss^on.
Th<» other compounds are coD|tigated like sterna.
'Perfect jr Supintl]
ETYMOLOGY.
75
Quaero,
Perfect,
(furui,)
quaeslvi,
Supine.
, quaesitum,
It changes ae into i in the compounds ; as.
Aoqulro,
S^ro,
Consfiro,
Sero,
Cons^ro,
T&o,
Verro,
acquislvi,
to rage,
to seek.
fto acquire, (con, ex, re, in,
I per.)
to SOW.
to sow. (In.)
acquisltum,
sevi, satum,
consevi, consltum,
serui (rare), seKtum (rare), to join.
consSrui, consertum, to Join, (de, dis, ex, in.)
trivi, tritum, to rub. (at, con, de, &c.)
verri, versum, to irM*A.(con,e,de,&c.>
149. a. SO is changed into siviy sltum ; as, ArcessOy ar-
cesslvi, arcessltum^ to summon.
So also capessot to undertake ; facessoy to give trouble ; lacetsOt to provoke.
b. EXCFPTIONS.
Depso,
Incesso,
Pinso,
Viso,
150. TO.
Flecto,
Meto,
Mitto,
Necto,
Pecto,
PSto,
Plecto,
Sisto,
Subsisto,
Sterto,
Verto,"
depsui.
incessi, 1
incessivi, J
pinsui et
pinsi,
visi,
flexi,
messui,
misi.
{depsitum,
depstum
' > to knead.
> J
to go — attack.
flexum,
messum,
missum.
nexum,
pexum,
petitum.
nexi & nexui,
pexi & pexui,
petivi, petii,
plexi & plexui, (plexum,)
(stiti,) statum,
substiti, substltum,
stertui or ti,
verti, versum,
pinsitum, Ito grind — to
pinsum, pistum, J pound.
visum, to go to visit, (re, in.)
to bend, (in, de, re.)
to reap, (de,)
r to send, (a, ad, com, de,
\ di, e, im, o,&c.)
to bind, knit, (an, con.)
to comb, (de.) -
f to ask — seek, (ap, ex.
\ op, re.)
to twist,
to stop.
K to cause to Btand still, (ab,
i ad, de, con, ex, in, ob, &c.}
to snore,
to turn.
sub, &c.)
{
(a, ad, con, e.
151. UO is changed into «t, utum; as, Tribuo, trtbuiy
trlbutum^ to grant — bestow.
So also actio, to sharpen ; hatuo (no supine), to beat — ^to fight ; exuo^ to put off clothes;
mbuo, to moisten — to wet ; tiMfno, to put on clothes ; nOnuo^ to lessen ; spuo^ to spit ;
stdtnot to set — to place ; stemuo (no supine), to sneese ; ssio, to stitch.
10. The first person Present ofjuro is not used.
11. DivertoTt praevertoTt and revertor, compounds otverto, are Deponents.
S 2
76
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Formation of
b. EXCEPTIONS.
Present Perfect. Supine.
FiuO, fluxi, fluxum, to J^Ol^. (af,con,ef, inter.)
Luo, lui, luitum, lutum, to pat/ — to wash.
Its compounds have Otum in the Supine ; as,
Abluo, ablui, ablatum, to toa»h away.
Ruo, rui, ruitum, riitum, to rw^A — to fall.
Its compounds have Utum; as,
Diruo, dirui, dirutum,
iCorruo and irruo have no Supin^.)
to overthrow. (Ir, ob» pro.
Struo,
Annuo,
Congruo,
Ingruo,
Metuo,
Pluo,
struxi,
annul,
congrui,
ingrui,
metui,
plui,
structum,
Jto
build — to pile,
(con, de, ex, in.)
r annutum "| to assent, <ab, in, re.)
\ {doubtful), J (TheSupine in all doubtful.)
■ to agree,
. to assail,
to fear.
■ to rain.
152. FO is changed into t?t, w^M»i ; as, Volvo, volvi, volu-
turn, to roll ; solvo, solvi, solutum, to loose ; and tkeir com-
pounds.
Except Vivo, vixi, victum, to live.
153. X0i8 changed into xui, xtum ; as, Texo, texui, tex'
turn, to weave and its compounds.
154. Inchoatives in sco, that is, such as denote a beginning, are formed principally
from Verbs of the second conjugation, but sometimes fVom Substantives and Adjectives.
Those derived from Verbs of the second conjugation have no other Perfect tiian that of
their root ; the others either have none or form it in ut. Many of the verbal inchoatives
have the Supine of their root ; See p. 80.
Present.
Amicio,
THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.
155. a. The Fourth Conjugation makes tvi, Itum ; as.
Audio, audivi, auditum, to hear.
b, EXCEPTIONS.
Supine.
> amictum. to clothe,
apertum,
compertumj to discover, (re.)
to be dim-sighted,
{to change money,
(very rare).
to be mad.
Itum, to go. (ad, ab, circum, &c.)
{
Aperio,
Comperio,
Caecutio, ■
Cambio, campsi,
Perfect.
amicui,
amixi,
apSrui,
comperi,
fto open, (opgrio,
1^ co-q[>Srio.)
campsum,
Dementio,
Eo,
ivi,
Perfect jf 5tiptfie.]
ETYMOLOGY,
77
Present.
Farcio,
Its comi
Confercio,
Ferio,
Perfect,
farsi,
Supine.
{fai'tum and^ . . jr*
/. . \to stuff.
larctum, J '^
Its compounds change a into e; as,
confers!, confertum, tofiil up. (ef, in, re.)
{wants the Perfect and Supine ; instead of the.
Perfect, pereussi is used for the Active Per-
fect, and icttis sum generally for the Passive.
Ferocio, to be fierce.
Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, to prop.
{haustum, 1
(hausum > to draw.
seldom\ J
Queo, quivi or quii, quitum, mdy—^can.
Raucio, rausi, (rausum, rari) to he Jwarse.
Salio, to salt, is regular, but
Salio, salui 4r salii^ saltum,
Its compounds change a into r ; as.
Desllio,
Sancio,
Sarcio,
Sentio,
Sepelio,
Sepio,
Singultio,
Veneo,
Venio,
Vincio,
desilui, desllii,
fsancivi,
J sanxi,
1^ sancii,
sarsi,
sensi,
sepelivi,
sepsi,
isingultivi
{rmre
venii and
venlvi,
veni,
vinxi,
ivil
desultum,
1 sancitum,
Y and
J sanctum,
sartum,
sensum,
sepultum,
septum.
}
to spring.
to spring forth, (ex, in.)
to decree — sanction.
venitum
{doubtful),
ventum,
vinctum,
to patch, (re.)
f to feel — think, (con,
1_ dis, prae.)
to bury.
to enclose — hedge in,
to sob — hiccup,
to be sold.
to come, (ad, con,' ob, in,
per.)
to hind, (de.)
' c. The following Verbs have the Perfect formed regularly,
but want the Supine :
Gestio, Ivi, to show signs of joy Glocio^ to cluck as a hen.
by the gestures of the body. Ineptio, to play the fool.
156. Desiderative Verbs which express the desire of doing
an act, and end in urio, — as, coenaturio, — have neither Perfect
nor Supine, except esurio, nupturio, and parturio, which
have esuriviy nupturivi, and parturivi, but no Supine.
s 3
78
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^Deponent Verbs,
DEPONENT VERBS.
157. a. The Perfect of a Deponent Verb is formed in the
same manner as if the Supine of the Active voice existed,
by changing um into us; thus, Gratulor, gratulatus sum, as
if from gratulo, grattddvi, gratuldtum.
There are no exceptions In the First Conjugation.
b. EXCEPTIONS IN THE SECOND CONJUGATION.
Present, Perfect.
Fateor, fassus sum, to confess.
Iti compounds change a into t; as,
Confiteor, confessus sum,
Difflteor,
Medeor,
Misereor,
Reor,
r medicatus is used as
1 the Perfect,
fmiseritus sum, 1
\misertus sum, J
ratus sum.
iocoftfesi. (pro.)
to heal.
}
to pity.
f to think, (No Imperfect
Potential.)
C, EXCEPTIONS IN THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
Apiscor, aptus sum,
Adipiscor, adeptus sum,
Comminiscor, commentus sum,
Defetiacop Ne^ssus suml
LHJletiscor, "[(^^^yi,/)^ j
Expergiscor, experrectus sum,
Fruor, fruitus and fructus,
Gradior, gressus sum.
Its compounds change a into e; as,
AggrSdior, aggressus sum,
Irascor,^ iratus sum,
lapsus sum,
{locQtus sum, 1
loquutus sum, J
Labor,
L5quor,
M6rior,
Nanciscor,
Nascor,
Nitor,2
Obliviscor,
mortuus sum,
nactus sum,
natus sum,
msus or nixus sum
oblitus sum.
{
to get,
to obtain,
to devise,
to become weary,
to awake,
to enjoy,
to proceed.
to go to -^to accost.
to be angry,
tofalL
to speak.
to die. (in the Future
Participle it makes
morituriLS,)
to get.
(Participle
)
lean
to forget.
1 . I hone been angry, or vfas angry, is generally rendered by tuccemsui,
2. Enitor, in the sense of to bring/orth, has emxa in the Participle.
Redundant Verba,']
ETYMOLOGY.
79
Present
Orior,'
Paciscor,
Pascor,
Patior,
Perpetior,
Proficiscor,
Queror,
Bingor,
Sequor,
Ulciscor,
Utor,
Perfect,
ortus sum,
pactus sum,
pastus sum,
passus sum,
perpessus sum,
profectus sum,
questus sum,
rictus sum "I
{doubtful), J
seciitus sum,
sequutus sum,
ultus sum,
}
{to rise, (Participle Fu-
ture, oriturus.
to bargain,
to feed,
to suffer,
to endure,
to go — to travel,
to complain,
to grin — to shew the
teeth.
to follow .
to revenge — to punish,
to use.
lisus sum,
d. The following Verbs want the Perfect Tense :
Liquor, to melt I Vescor, to feed,
Reminiscor, to remember. j
€. EXCEPTIONS IN THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.
Experior, expertus sum, to try.
mensus sum, to measure, (di, e. per.)
oppertus sum, to wait for.
Metior,
Opperior,
Ordior,
orsus sum.
to begin.
REDUNDANT VERBS,
158. Redundant Verbs are those which have diffbrent forms to express the same sense;
as, assentio and assentioTy to agree.
1 : Some Verbs are usually of the First Conjugation, and rarely of the Third ; as,
Laro, laras, lavare, > 1 ^^ C lavo, lavis, lavSre, to wash,
Sono, sonas, sonare, 3 (. sono, sonis, son&re, to soundl
2. Some are usually of tiie Second, and rarely of the Third ; as,
fervo, fervis, fervfire, to boil.
fuigo,fulgis,Mgere,to shine, (poetical.)
strido, stridis, strid£re, to creak.
tergo, tergis, tergSre, to wipe.
tuor, tuSris, tui, to d^end,
3. Some are usually of the Third, and rarely of the Fourth ; as,
Arcesso, arcessis, arcessSre,
FMio, fodis, fodSre,
Morior, morSris, mori,
Orior, orfiris,*
Potior, potSrls,
Sallo, sallis, saliere,
NoTB.— Potfor is always of the Fourth Conjugation in the Infinitive.
Ferreo, ferves, fervere,
Fulgeo, fulges, fulgere,
Strideo, strides, stridere,
Tergeo, terges, tergere,
Tueor, tuens, tueri.
* and
and
arcessio, arcessire, to send far.
fodio, foidis, fodire, to dig.
morior, morlris, morirl, to die.
orior, oriris, oriri, to rise.
potior, potlris, potiri, to obtain.
sallio or sallo, sallis, salllre, to salt.
3. Ortor has, in the Infinitire, oriri, and Imperfect Subjunctive orirer, according to
the fourth conjugation. In the other Tenses, it generally follows the third conju-
gation.
E 4
80
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^Irregular Verbs.
Additional and recapitulatory Remarks on Compound Verbs*
159. a. In Compound Verbs the last consonant of the Preposition is sometimes
changed into the first of the simple Verb ; thus, ad-fero becomes t^ro. Sometimes it is
changed into a diflferent letter, thus ab'Jero is changed into attfero. Sometimes a letter is
either added to the Preposition, as redeo (or re-eo; or taken from it, as otmtto for obmiUo.
b. The following simple Verbs, when compounded, change their first vowel into ej
arceOt capto^ carpOy damno, fallOyfarcio, JaUtcoTy gradioTt Jacto^ lacto^ pario, partio^
patioTy patrOt sacrOt tcamdOt spargo, traclo. Yet we find praedanmoy desacro, per*
tracto.
c. These change the first vowel into i; cado^ caedo^ cano^ egeo,'hdbeo, laedo, laieOy pla-
ceoy qtiaero, rapiOy salio, »apiOy staiuo, taceo, iattgOy teneo. But we find conuper-placeos
post-ante-habeOy oc-re-cano are sometimes found.
d. The following change the first vowel into i only in the Present Tense, and in those
^derived from it ; ago, apiscoTy capio, emo, fateoTy Jrango, jaciOy pangOy premo, rego,
fedeoy spea'o. Except coemo, cogo (for con-ago)y dego (for de-ago)y ctrcuni'sat-per-eufo.
jlntecapio and anticipiOy superfacio and ntperjicio, are both used. Circum-supersedeoi
Me-ob-re-pango. Some compounds'of/ocio, with Nouns and Adjectives, throw away the
< which precedes o, and are of the first coujugation ; as, sigtifficOy laetffico,
e. The compounds otcaico and sdUo change a into u.
*. Those of eattfo, daudo,lavo, throw away a; as, accusOy redudo, diluo.
Verbs which have Two Perfects,
160. a. Some Verbs have both an Active and a Passive Perfect Tense; as, libett libuUt
Ubiium est : so, licet, piget, pudettJurOy nubOy piaceo, suesco.
Verbs which borrow Tenses from others.
b. Inchoatives in sco borrow their Perfects from their Primitives ; as, tepeseo, teput,
from tepeo : their Supines also ; as, abolescoy «vt, itumy from aboleo.
Ferio, percussi, percussum, Arom pereutio;
Fero, tuli, latum, from tulo ;
Furo, insanivi, insanitum, from insanio ;
Meio, minxi, mictum, from mmgo ;
Sido, sedi, sessum, from tedeb ;
Sum, fui, futurus, from fuo (obsolete) ;
Liquor, liquefactus sum, Arom liqu^ s
Meideor, medicatus sum, from medicor (deponent) ;
Reminiscor, recordatus sum, from recordor.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
161. Those Verbs are called irregular, whose Tenses are
not all formed according to the Rules.
161.
162.
163.
164.
165.
166.
167.
168.
169.
Possum,
£o,
Volo,
N5lo,
Malo,
£do,
Fgro,
Flo,
Feror,
THE PKINCIPAL PARTS.
potiii,
ivi,
volui,
nolui,
malui,
itum.
6di, esum,
tiili, latum,
factussum t7e/fui, fieri,
latus sum vel fui, ferri,
to be able,
to go,
to be vnUing,
to be untoUling,
to be more wtl*
ling.
edere vel esse, to eat.
ferre, to bear,
to become,
to be borncp
posse,
ire,
velle,
nolle,
malle,
Irregular Verbs.]
ETYMOLOGY. '
81
INDICATIVE MOOD.
FSS8BNT TENSB.
Singular.
Possum, pdtes, potest,
£o,^ is, it,
Volo, vis, vult,
Nolo, nonvis, nonvult,
Malo, mavis, mavult,
£do,2 edis r, es, editi^.est,
Fero, fers, fert,
Flo,3 fis, fit,
F5ror,fems v. ferre, fertur,
Plural,
possumus, p5testis, possimt.
imus, Itis, eunt.
vdltimus, vultis, v6ltint.
noliimus, nonvultis,nolunt.
maliimus, mavultis, malunt.
edimus, editisi?. estis, edunt.
ferimus, fertis, ferunt.
flmus, fitis, flunt.
ferimur, ferimini, feruntur.
Singular,
P6t-eram, €ras, ^-at,
I-bam, b9,s, bat,
N6l-
Mal-
£d- i
F^r-
Fl-
IMFEBrSCT TENdE.
PluraL
eramiis, Gratis,
bamiis, batis,
ebam, ebas, ebat.
erant.
bant.
ebamtis, ebatis, ebant.
ebamiir, ebamini, ebantilr
FUTUEE IMPERFECT TENSE.
Singular.
Plural,
Pot-ero, eris.
erit.
erimus.
eritis.
^runt.
I-bo, bis.
bit.
bimtis,
bitis.
bunt.
V61-1
•
Nol-
Mal-
£d.
• am, es,
et.
emus,
etis.
ent.
Fer-
Fi-
■
F&-ar, eris v, ere.
etttr.
emlir.
emini.
entur.
1. In the FasslTe, Eo is found only as an Impersonal, itur^ ibatur, itum estt Sec. Some
compounds of eo have a transitive meaning, and may tlius become Passive ; as, adeot
I approach, adeor,
2. In the Passive of EdOj only estur and editur occur.
3. Fio serves as the Passive of/aciOf when/acio is not compounded with a PrepositioOj
as in p. 72.
E 5
82
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^Irregular Verbs.
PEBFEGT TEN8B.
Singular.
isti, it,
sum es est,
J- -| vel vel vel
Iftii, fuisti, fUit.
FlurdL
imus.
istis, erunt v. ere.
i siimus estis sunt
vel vel fuSrunt
f&imusy fuistis, t;e/fuere.
The Perfect of eo is frequently formed by rejecting the v; thus, n for mi : to alto its
compounds ; thus, redii for redivi.
PLUFESFECT TENSE.
Singular.
Sram, SraSy er&t,
■i?««x « fSram Sras erat
Fa^t-us I ^^^ ^^^ ^^^
i.at-us [ftLgramfii6ras,fagrat
Plural.
Tamils, er&tis, erant.
i eramus eratis Srant
vel vel vel
fii&ramus, fUeratis, fii^rant.
FUTUBE PEBFEGT TENSE.
Singular.
Sris, erit,
Fact-US
Lat-us
&:o ^ris firit
vel vel
,fiigris, fiigrit,
J vel
lfugro,i
Plural.
erlmus> <is, Srint.
i ^Iinus Sritia &runt
vel vel vel
ftiSrlmus, ftiSrltis, fti&int.
Jrreguktr Verbs.']
ETYMOLOGY.
83
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
2.
I, ito,
!N61i, nolito,
£de, ^to, vel
es, Ssto,
Fgr, ferto,
Fi, fito,
Ferre, fertor,
Singular. 3.
ito,
^to vel
esto,
ferto,
fito,
fertor.
2. Plural. 3.
ite, itote, Sunto.
nolite, nolitote,
Mite, Sditote, vel 1 v ^ .
est^ estote, J
ferte, fertote, fSrunto.
f ite, fitote, f iunto.
f^rimini vel or, f gruntor.
Poantmt volo^ and ptalOf are not found in the Imperative.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pos-sim,
Mai-
£d-i
Fer-
Fi-
Fer-ar,
-aiD,
^-im, 1
ol-im, >
[al-im, J
i-am, "j
?r-am, >
L-am, J
Singular,
sis,
as,
is.
as.
PRESENT TENSE.
filt,
at,
it,
at,
aris V, are, atur.
simiis,
amus,
imus.
amus,
amur.
Plural,
sitis, sint.
atis, ant.
itis,
atis^
— w_ •
int.
ant.
amini, antur.
IMPSBFECT TENSE.
Fos-sem,
l-rem,
Vell-CTQ,
Noll-em,
MaU-em,
£der-em,
V. essem,
Ferr-em,
Fier-em,
Fer-rer,
Singular.
ses,
res,
Ves,
s^t^
rgt.
et,
reris r.rere, retur,
B
semiis,
remus,
emus.
remur.
Plural.
setis,
r€tis,
etis.
mm 9 •
sent,
rent.
ent.
remini, rentur.
84?
LATIN GRAMMAR. ilmgular Verbs.
PEBFECT TBNSE.
Singular.
► ^im, Sris, erit,
Potii-
Iv-
Vom-
Nslii-
Malii-
Ed.
T3,, . f sim sis sit
-us J^fagrim^fueris^fuerit,
erimus^
PluraL
eritisy erint»
i simus, sitis sint
vel vel vel
fuerimus, faeritis, fhennt.
PLUPEBFECT TENSE.
Singular,
Potu. 1
Nolii- Vissem^ isses, isset,
Malii.
Ed-
Tul-
'■cv. X fessem esses esset,
?^*-'^« «;«/ vel vel
I^missem, misses, fuisset,
Plurah
issemus, issetis> issent.
i essemus essgtis essent
vel vel vel
fiiissemus, fuissetis, fuissent
The Subjunctive Mood is conjugated like the Potential, &c.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRES. AND IMFEBF. TENSE.
1. Posse, to be able,
2. Ire, to go,
3. Velle, to he willing,
4. Nolle, to he unwilling,
5. Malle, to be more wUling,
6. fidere vel esse, to eat,
7. Ferre, to hear,
8. Fieri, to become or he done.
9. Ferri, to he home^
FEBF.* AND PLUPEBP.
1. Potiiisse.
2. Ivisse.
3. Voluisse.
4. Noltiisse.
5. Maliiisse.
6. Edisse.
7. Tiilisse.
8. Factum 1 esse vel
9. Latum J fuisse.
Jrregular VerhaJ]
ETYMOLOGY.
85
rUTXJBE IMPERFECT TENSE,
1.
2. Iturum esse, to be about to go^
4.
5. ;:
6. Esurum esse, to be about to eat,
7. Latiirum esse, to be about to bear,
8. Factum iri, to be about to become,
9. Latum iri, to be about to be borne.
FUTUBE PERFECT.
1. 3
2. Iturum fuisse.
3.
4.
5. -::
6. Esurum fuisse.
7. Laturum fuisse.
8. Faciendum fuisse*
9. Fcrendum fuisse.
Possum^ volot nolOt nuUOy have neither Future Imperfect, nor Future Perfect Tense
of the Infinitive.
GERUNDS.
1. -
2. £un-di,
3. V61en-di,
4. N6len-di,
5. Malen-di,
6. fiden-di,
7. Feren-di,
8.
9.
Possum KwAflo have no Gerunds. Feror^ being Passive, has none.
PosstaHy volo, nolo, maio, and jlSo, have no Supines.
do,
do,
do,
do,
do,
do,
dum.
dum.
dum.
dum.
dum.
dum.
SUPINES.
1.
2. Itum, Itu.
3.
4.
5.1
3. Esum, £su.
?• Latum.
8.
9. Latu.
PARTICIPLES.
PBESEKT.
1. Potens,^ being able,
2. N. lens, — G. guntis,
D. eunti, going,
3. Volens,^ being willing,
4. Nolens, ^ being unwilling.
5. Malens, ^ being more willing,
6. £dens, eating.
7. Ferens, bearing,
8. F&ct\i8,becomeoT being done,
\bome,
9. Latus, borne or having been
FUTUBE.
L —
2. Itiirus, about to go.
3.
4.
5.
6. Esurus, about to eat,
7. Laturus, about to bear.
8. Faciendus, a, um,^ about to
become or to be done.
9. Fgrendus, a, um, to be borne,
Pro$um takes a din those persons which in sum begin with
an c ; as, es, prod-es, prod-eram, prod-ero, &c.
Queo, to be able, and neqiteo^ to be unable, are conjugated like eo, except that they
have no Imperative Mood nor Gerunds.
1 . Potens, volenSy nolensj malens^ are generally used as Adjectives.
2. Faciendus, a, um, is sometimes changed into faciundus, a, um.
86 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Defectioe Verbs,
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
170, a. A Defective Verb is one that is used only in some of
the Moods and Tenses. The following are the principal:-^
h, Aio*, I say.
Singular. INDICATIVE MOOD. Plural.
Pres. Alo, ais, ait,
Imp. Al-ebam, ebas, ebat,
Perf. ■ aisti, ait,
' alunt.
ebamus, ebatis, ebant.
IMPERATIVE MOOD,
ai, I
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pres. alas, alat, | — ■ alant.
PARTICIPLE. Pres. Aiens, saying.
171. Ausim, I dare.
INDICATIVE AND POTENTIAL MOODS.
Pres. Ausim, ausis^ ausit, | . ausint*
172. Ave, hail.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
p^.- fave orl f avete or\
\aveto, J \avetote, J
INFINITIVE MOOD. Pres. Avere, to hail or speed.
173. Salve, haily be well
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Fut.Imp. salvebis, — | —
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
p ^ f salve, 1 I fsalvete, 1
i-res. ^ salveto, J | " \ salvetote, J
INFINITIVE MOOD, Pres. Salvere, to be weU.
* In the Verb ato^ the first two letters form one syllable when they are followed by a
vowel> but the a becomes short when i is followed by a consonant $ as aOf/, he says.^ ^^^
Defective Verba,^ ETYMOLOGY. 87
174. Cedo, teUme.
Singular. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Plural.
Pres. — cSdo, | — cSdite, —
Cedo is used both as singular and plural ; cedite as plural
only, and contracted into cette,
175. Faxo or Faxim, I will do it or may do it,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
JFut Imp, Faxo, faxis, faxit, \ faximus, faxltis, faxint.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
Pleff. Faxim, faxis, faxit, | faximus, faxitis, faxint.
Faxo andfaxfm are merely old forms torfecifro and fet^rimt and are used in the same
sense.
176. Quaeso, I prat/, beseech.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
JPres. Quaeso, | quaesumus,
177. In qua in, I say.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
JF^es. Inquam, inquis, inquit,
Imp. Inqui-ebam, ebas, ebat,
JPerf. inquisti, inquit,
JFut. Imp, inquies, inquiet,
.Wa»_ •-
inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt.
ebamus, ebatis, ebant.
— inquistis,
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
POTENTIAL.
Pres, — inquias, inquiat, | inquiatis, inquiant.
PARTICIPLE. Pres, Inquiens, saying.
178. a. The following Verbs, — Coepi, I begin or have
begun ; Odi, 1 hate or have hated ; Memini, I remember or
have remembered, — have only those tenses which are formed
from the Perfect, but the persons of each of these tenses are
entire: —
Coep-i, 1
Od-i, >eram, 6ro, erim, issem, isse.
Memin-i, J
88 LATIN GRAMMAR. llmperwnal Verbs.
b. Coepi has the Perfect Participle coeptuSy begun or
having begun, and the Future Active Participle coepturtis,
about to begin. Odi has the Participle ostis, hated or
having hated, and osums, about to hate. Memini has
memento and mementote, the second persons singular and
plural of the Imperative.
c. The Perfect of these Verbs has the meaning of the Present, the Fast-Perfect of the
Imperfect, and the Future Perfect of the Future- Imperfect.
179. a. Fart and its compounds adfdri or c^ffSri, ^ffSrt\ and prqfdri are used almost
exclusively by the Poets. Fatur^ fabor; the Imperative, /are ; the Participles, faius,
Jandtts; the Gerunds, /ancfi and fatuUf; and the Supine, fatu, are most commonly used*
Of Dare, the Passive forms dor and der are not found in classic authors.
b. Set, the Second Person Singular Imperative of scio, is not used ; instead of which,
scito is employed.
e. Of the following Verbs, only the subjoined Persons are to be found : — Ap&ge,
begone; InfU, he begins ; Cor\(U, it is done, cortfiet^ eot^fieret, eo^fiSri; D^, it is wanting,
dtfiet, dtifiat, d^fShri i Ova», thou rejoicest, oval, ovet, ovdret, ovans, ovatus, ovandi.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
180. a. An Impersonal Verb is one that is used only in
the Third Person Singular ; as, decety it becomes ; deUctaty
it delights ; videtur, it seems.
b. The principal Impersonals are Mitifret, plget, poetatet, pUdet, iaedet, oportet, Ubet,
licet, cSicet, liquet, interest, r^ert, acOditf &c.
c. Impersonal Verbs have all the moods and tenses which
Personal Verbs have, with the exception of the Imperative
Mood; thus,
Indie, Decet, decebat, decebit, deciiit, deciierat, dectierit ;
Subj. deceat, deceret, dectierit, dectiisset; Infin. decere,
decuisse.
d. The Imperative, when necessary, is supplied by the
Present Subjunctive : as, delectety let him delight.
e. Impersonals want not only the Imperative but gene-
rally the Participles, Gerunds, and Supines.
/. Many Personal Verbs are used as Impersonals, with an Infinitive after them, or
the Subjunctive Mood and ut; tht(B we do not say, si places audire, but si placet tUti
fludire, if it pleases you to hear.
g. Some Impersonals are found in the Third Person Plural ; thus, Non te haec
pudent.
h. The Third Person Singular of many Verbs, especially those which express a
movement, is used impersonally in the Passive ; as, curritur, it is run, or they run.
These Passive Impersonals may be formed both from transitive and intransitive Verbs;
as, scribitur, they write, or it is written ; statur, it is stood, or they stand.
•'. Intransitives can be used in the Passive voice oaly as Impersonals,
Adverbt (f BrepotOiotu.] ETTMOLOGT.
89
ADVERBS.
181. a. An Adverb is a word which qualifies a Verby an Ad-
jective, or Bjiother Adverb, by expressing some circumstance of
time, place, or wander respecting it; as, "He writes correctly;"
" A remarkably diligent boy ;" " He speaks very fluently r
b. Adverbs are, in general, derived from Nouns, Adjectives,
Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, or Prepositions. They are like-
wise formed by composition, in various ways ; as, hodie, to-day,
from hoc-die; postndie, the following day, from |90f^^ocfo'e,&c.
c. Adverbs derived from Adjectives and Participles, have
generally degrees of comparison. The Positive more fre-
quently ends in e or ter ; the Comparative in itis ; the Super-
lative in is^ime ; as.
Pos, Comp»
Alt^, highly ; altius,
Fortit^r, bravely; fortius,
Sup,
altissim^.
fortissimo.
d. Adverbs are subject to the same irregularities and defects as their primitires ; thus,
Bend, toellt
Maid, badly,
' Avltbrnt much,
Param, Utile.
Propd, near^
Ultril, beyond.
BeWi, prettily,
Pend, tUmostf
Nuper, latent
Novd, noviter, neto^,
Meritb, deservedly.
Satis, enough,
Secus, otherwi$e.
meliils,
peiCls,
plus,
minQs,
propiCls,
ulterids,
magisj more,
oclus, nwre swiftiy,
prills, sooner,
potitis, raUter,
satius,
secius.
optlmd.
pesslmd.
plurlmdm.
xninltnfe, minlmtim.
proximd.
ultim5, -dm.
maxlm^.
ocisslmd. *
primd, primOm.
potissimum.
bellisslmd.
penisslmd.
nuperrlmd.
novisslmd.
meritisslmd.
e. Two Adverbs, not derived from Adjectives, are also compared ; diit, long, divti^,
dhttissimij saepe, o^ea, $aepiUs, saepittimi.
/. The Neuter Ciender of Adjectives is often used Adverbially ; 9A, facile for faciliters
recent for recenter. The Poets frequently use the neuters, singular and plural, of Ad*
jectives, both of the second and third declensions, as Adverbs ; as, tonmm elamdre,
muUa gemere.
PREPOSITIONS.
182. a. A Preposition is a word placed before Nouns and
Pronouns to show the relation which they bear to each other,
90
LATIN GRAMMAR.
{^PrqtosUuma,
or to some Verb ; as, " He went from London to York ;"
" She is above disguise ;" " They are instructed bt/ him."
b. These Prepositions govern an Ablative : «*, ab, absy
absque, coram, cum, de, e, ex, palam, prae, pro, sine, tentis,
c. These govern an Accusative and an Ablative : clam, in,
sub, subter, super,
d. These govern an Accusative :
Ad, penes, adversus, circum, cis, circtter, erga.
Extra, apud, ante, secus, trans, supra, versus, ob, intra.
Ultra, post, praeter, propter, prope, pone, secundum.
Per, circa, citra, contra, juxta, inter, et infra.
AN EXPLANATION OP THE PRINCIPAL PREPOSITIONS.
183. Prepositions governing the Accusative case.
Ad, to, towards, at, near, for,
according to, in respect to.
Advers-us, -um, against, to-
wards.
Ante, before (in place, time,
or rank).
Apud, at, with, near, among,,
in the presence of
Circa,^ circum, around, about.
Circiter(indefinite timG),about
Cis, citra, on this side.
Contra, opposite' to ; against
(in hostility).
Erga, towards (of the affec-
tions).
Extra, out of, beyond.
Infra, beneath, fic/ow? (whether
of place, rank, or size).
Inter, between, among, during,
mutually (with se).
Intra, within.
Juxta, near, nigh to.
Ob, on account of , for, before,
(with oculos).
Penes, in the power of.
Per, through, during, by.
Pone, behind.
Post, behind, after, since.
Praeter, except, besides, beside
(passing by), beyond.
Prope, near.\
Propter, near, on account of
Secundum, next to, after, ac-
cording to, in favour of.
Supra, above, beyond, more
than.
Trans, across, over.
Versus, towards.
Ultra, beyond.
Usque^, as far as.
1 . 'A, before consonants ; ab, before vowels and n,^, r, $; abSt before gu and t,
2. Ctrca is used both of time and place ; circum^ only of place.
3. Usque is more commonly an Adverb, but is sometimes used alone for tuque ad.
prepositions,^ ETYMOLOGY. 91
184. Prepositions which govern the Ablative case.
A, ab, shSj/romy by^ after , on
the side of, ^
Absque, without
Coram, before^ in the presence
of
Cum, with, along with.
De, from, of (one of), con-
cerning, according to.
E^ ex, out of from, agreeably
tOy for the good of
Falam, before, in the presence
Prae, before, in comparison
with, on cujcount of
Pro, before, for, instead of,
according to,
Procul,* far from,
Simul,* together with.
Sine, without,
Tenus, a^far as, up to.
Versus and tentts are placed after the Noun ; as, Londinum
versus, towards London ; Oceano tenus, as far as the ocean.
Tenus governs the Genitive Case of the Plural Number ;
as, Crurum tenus, up to the legs.
Cum follows the Ablative Case of Pronouns ; as, mecum,
tecum, secum, nobiscum^ vobiscum.
Prepositions governing either case.
185. a, 1. The Accusative,
In, into, to (in what direction, whither f), tending to, towards,
against, to or till, upon, over.
Sub, under (with verbs signifying motion, whither f), at,
about (signifying time), sub noctem, at nightfall.
Super, above, over, beyond, over and above, in addition to,
Subter, under, is conmionly used with the Accusative, both
of rest and motion, and rarely with t)ie Ablative.
b. 2. The Ablative,
Clam, without the knowledge of
In, upon, on (of rest, where f), in (of place), among.
4. Proctd and simul are more commonly Adrerbs. Clam, coratn^ and palantt are
also frequently Adverbi. Many other Prepositions are used as Adverbs ; such as, ante
and postt drca and extrOt t'lt^a, JuxiOt proper propter, pone, supra, vltra, super, and
subter.
92 LATIN GRAMMAR. ICanjUnctioiu.
Sub, under (signifying rest or situation^ where f\ near or close
undery at the very time of.
Super, upon^ concerning.
Subter is rarely used with the Ablative.
c. Prepositions, compounded with Verbs, frequently change their final consonant into
the initial one of the verb ; as, tuecedo from tub and cedoi coUido from con and laedo.
d. The following words are called Inseparable Prepositions, because they are found
only in compound words :
Ambt an, around.
Re or red, back.
Ne and ve, negatives.
Dis or Di, asunder.
'Se, aside, apart.
Can from cumt together.
e. In, not. Per, prae, and proy have a similar meaning to what they have when single.
For the Prepositions used in composition, see Syntax.
CONJUNCTIONS.
186. a. A Conjunction joins words and sentences together ;
as, " One and one make two ;" " He and I must go."
Conjunctions are divided, in reference to their signification,
into several classes : —
b. Copulative Conjunctions connect things which are to
be considered yom^/y; such as, et, acy atque^ que, and; etiamy
quoque (itemy adverbial), also ; cum, tumy both, and.
c. Disjunctive Conjunctions imply diversity, negation,
doubt, or opposition ; as, auty vel, ve, seUy sivCy either, or ; necy
neque, neu, neve, neither, nor ; an, anne, annon, whether ;
ncy necne, nor, lest ; sed, verum, autem, at, ast, atquij but ;
tamen, cUtdmeny veruniamen, verum, enimvero, yet, notwith-
standing, nevertheless.
d. Besides these there are the Causal, Final, Conditional,
and several other classes.
e. Etnon or acnon is used, and not neque^ when the whole clause is afBrmative, and
only one word or one idea is to be made negative. Necnon is not precisely but nearly
equivalent to ei. Of the Disjunctives, out is more emphatic than vet. Fe unites single
words only, not propositions.
Sive^ when it signifies or^ and is used with single words, denotes that the same person
or thing has different name* ; as, Mavors sive Mars.
'/• -^ f^ atmte are used for as and than after' Adjectives and Adverbs which express
similarity and dissimilarity ; such as, aequet Juxta, par, pariter, perinde, sinUtis, dt'ssi.
milt's, similiter, talis, totidem, alius, aliter, contra, secus, contrariusi as. Nod aliter
scribo ac sentio.
InterjecHms,'] ETYMOLOGY. 93
g. Sed denotes direct opposition, atUem^ a distinction or contrast, or'a transition from
one subject to another.
A. In double questions, atU must not be used to distinguish the things opposed to each
other (whether the Question be direct or indirect), but an or ne enclitic. The first
question is introduoea by w/rtim, mnn, or ne, or without any particular mark of inter*
rogation.
t*. Et followed by et signifies both— and. Instead of el— tf<, we hare et—qtte or que—et.
Qve-'Oue is used only by the Poets, except when que is joined to the relative ; as, gt$i-
que exissent quique ibi mansissent.
J. Negative Propositions are connected by Nee— nee; neque—nequej neque—nec.
Affirmative and negative Propositions by Et—nequej neque or nec—ets nee or neque
— que. Disjunctives are thus doubled, out— out; vel-^veli sive—'Stve; seu—seu.
-turn, f or ZSa SShJSS^^^klto non«avmud-diam, [ ?^.^'
k. jtutem, enitHt vero* quidem, quoque, should not stand first in a sentence ; namque,
sed, etemm, equidem, ergo, igitur, itaque, tamen, may stand first or second. Que, ne,
ve, are joined to the end of the latter of the two words which they connect. Ac is used
before a consonant, atque before a vowel. Ne, quidem, not even, must be separated by
one or more words.
/. Que, ne, ve, are called enclitics, because they throw the accent upon the preceding
syllable of the word (if that syllable is long), to which they are always annexed. If the
preceding syllable is short, the pronunciation is not affected.
Tom'— I
turn-
qumm.
INTERJECTIONS.
187. An Interjection expresses a sudden passion or emo-
tion of the mind ; as, ah I vae ! !
Nouns, Adjectives, Adverbs, and Verbs, are sometimes used as Interjections.
945
LATIN GRAMMAR.
TABLES
EXHIBITING THE
PRINCIPAL RULES OF CONCORD AND GOVERNMENT.
N.6. It is recommended that the pupil carefully learn these tables previoasly to his
proceeding with Syntax.
PRINCIPAL RULES OF CONCORD.
1. Nominative Case and the
Vbeb.
1. A Verb must be of the same number
and periBon as its subject oc nominative
case ; as, Praeceptor kgHt tos verd neg-
ligUis.
2. Sometimes an Infinitive Mood or a
part of a sentence becomes the nominative
to a verb in the third person.
3. A. Collective Noun of the singular
number, such as turba^ popUlus, plebs^
mantu, pan, gens, vtdgus, &c. sometimes
requires the verb to be plural.
4. Two or more Nominatives Singular,
united by the connective conjunctions et,
ac, atque, &c. either expressed or under-
stood, re<^uire the verb to be in the plural
number, if they denote Uving beings, and
especially persons.
6. a. But if the Nominatives denote
things without life, and especially abstract
ideas, the singular or plural may be used.
b. When, however, one of the Nomina-
tives is in the plural, or when that which
is asserted is only true of the nominatives
tekeo. Jointly, then the verb must be plural.
6. When the Nominatives are of diffirent
persons, the plural verb and pronoun must
agree with the first person rather than
with the second, and with the second ra-
ther than with the third.
2. The Adjective and tke
Substantive.
7. Adjectives, Participles, and Pronouns,
must be of the same gender, number, and
case as the substantive to which thqr be-
long.
8. Sometimes an Infinitive Mood, or a
sentence, is the subject to an adjective in
the neuter gender.
9. An Adjective, Pronoun, or Participle,
may be used alone, a substantive being un-
derstood, from which it takes its gender.
If homo is understood, the adjective is
masculine ; if negotium or qffldum, the
adjective is neuter.
10. A Collective Noun may have an ad-
jective in the plural number, the gender of
which is determined by the sense.
11. Two or more Substantives of the
same gender require the acUectives, pro-
nouns, and participles, belonging to them,
to be in the plural number, and the same
gender as the nouns.
12. a. Two or more Substantives Singu-
lar, of d^ffkrent genders, and signifying
things urilA life, require an adjective in the
plural number, and of themasculine ri^er
than of the feminine gender.
b. If the Substantives are of di£ferent
genders, and signify things vrithout life,
the adjective is neuter.
e. If the Substantives are of diflferent
genders, and signify things with, and things
without life, the adjective must either be
neuter, or of the gender of the thing with
life.
PRINCIPAL RULES OF GOVERNMENT.
95
3. The Relative and the
Antecedent.
13. The Relative agrees with its antece-
dent in gender, number, and person, but
takes its case from the verb in its own
clause.
14. When the Relative refers to a verb,
or to a whole dame, as its antecedent, it
must be put in the neuter gender.
1 5. The Relative, V!ke the noun, is in the
nominative case when it is the mlject of
a verb, but is in the accusative or some
other oblique case when it is the oMect of
a verb or preposition.
16. With Antecedents of different gen-
ders, the same rules are applicable for
relatives as for adjectives.
17. Sometimes the Relative takes its
gender and number from the personal
pronoun, which is implied in the posses-
sive.
18. a. When the Relative is placed be-
tween two nouns of different genders and
numbers and followed by Mim, or a verb
of co/Zt^g: and naming, such as A'cere, tfo-
care, ajmeUare, nomtnare, &c. it generally
agrees in gender with the noun imme'
diately qfier the verb.
b. But sometimes the Relative takes the
gender of the preceding noun.
4. A Noun with a Noun.
19. Two Substantives coming together
and signifying the same person or thing,
are put m the same case by apposition.
20. a. The Noun or Pronoun that answers
a question, must be in the same case as the
word that asks it.
b. The Case must, however, be varied,
if the rules of Syntax require a different
construction.
21 . a. Nouns and Pronouns depending on
the same verb or preposition, and con-
nected by copulative or disjunctive con-
junctions, must be in the same case.
b. Except when the words themselves
require different cases, j
PRINCIPAL RULES OF GOVERNMENT.
5. Nouns.
Oerutive (j&se.
22. When two Substantives come toge-
ther, signifying different things, the latter
is put in \he genitive case.
23. The Genitive or Ablative is used to
express, that one thing is the property or
OTW&Yy of another ; as, of praise, blame,
&C. The latter substantive, however, must
always have an adjective joined with it.
24. An Adjective of the neuter gender,
not having a substantive expressed, re-
quires a, genitive case.
Dative Case,
25. A Dative may, in some instancel, be
substituted for the genitive.
Ablative Case.
26. OpusKc^usus,Agti\ff\ngneed, govern
an ablative of the thing wanted, and a da-
tive of the object to ox far which the thing
is wanted.
27- fl. Nouns denoting the definite va»
hte or cost of a thing, are put in the ab^
kUive.
b. But when the cost or value is not
exactly defined, but expressed by an orf-
Jective, the adjective must be in the geni-
ttve.
28. Nouns denoting the cause (why), the
manner {how), or the instrument^ by which
an action is performed, are put in the ab-
lative.
96
LATIN GRAMMAR,
6. Adjectives.
Genitive Case,
29. Adjectiirefl signifying desire^aversion,
or disdain i knoufledge,unorance,or dovbt;
remembrance or forge0tlness; fear or con-
fidence ; innocence or guilt; diligence or
idleness ; care or negligence; with verbal
adiiectives in ax, n*, or <««, require the
genitive case.
30. Words denoting a part of a greater
number, whether pronouns, comparatives,
superlatives, or numerals, require the geni-
tive plural, from which genitive they take
their gender.
Dative Case.
31. AcUectives followed in English by to
or for^ and signifying advantage or disad-
vantage, likeness or unlikeness, pleasurct
displeasure, or pain, submission or resist-
ance, trust or distrust, friendship or hatred,
fitness or ur^tness, and relation to anv
thing, with many words compounded with
con, govern a dative case of the noun to
which they refer.
32. Verbal Adjectives in bilis, and parti-
ciples passive in dus require a dative case.
Accusative Case,'
33. Adjectives denoting measure or du-
tance, require generally the accusative case,
but sometimes the ablative or genitive.
34. An Accusative is sometimes put after
adjectives and participles governed by a
preposition understood.
AhlaHve Case,
35. Adjectives signifying plenty or teant,
govern the ablative and sometimes the
genitive case.
36. Dignus, indigwus, praeditus, captus,
contentus, extorris, fretus, liber, axtd'-alii-
nus; also, adjectives and participles sig.
nifying descent; as, natus, sahis, ortus,
editus, cretus, oriundus, and progndtus,
with these three, signifying prices— carus,
frt'Afj'and vendlis, require an ablative case.
37. When two Nouns or Pronouns are
compared with each other, the one follow-
ing the comparative is put in the ablative,
if the word than is not expressed by quam.
But when the Conjunction qudm is ex-
pressed, the objects compared are put in
the same case.
38. The excess or d^ect of one thing
compared with another, is put In the ab-
lative.
7. Verbs.
AccitsaHve Case,
39. Transitive Verbs, and Deponents
having a transitive signification, govern the
immediate object of an action in the accu-
sative.
40. Neuter Verbs have no accusative
case, except of words having a significa-
tion similar to themselves.
41. Doceo, and its compounds dedoceo
and edoceoi verbs of asking, demanding^
entreating, and enquiring, and the verb
celo, govern two accusatives, one of the
person, and another of the thing.
42. Decet, delectat,Juvat, oportet, govern
an accusative of the person with an infini-
tive*
Nominative Case.
43. Intransitive Verbs denoting exis-
tence, gesture, or posture; Passive verbs,
denoting name or title, election or appoint-
ment, estimation or opinion, have the same
case after them as they have before them.
Genitive Case.
44. Sum, signifying the possession, duty,
disposition, sign, or lot of any one, requires
a genitive.
45. Verbs of accusing, complaining, or
acquitting, convicting or condemnmg, ad-
monishing or warning, require the person
to be in the accusative, and the crime or
c^ence either in the genitive or in the ab-
lative, with or without a preposition.
46. Verbs of remembrance and forget-
fulness, as, reminiscor, memini, recordor,
and <Miviscor, require more frequently a
genitive, but sdmetimes an accusative of
the person or thing remembered or for-
gotten.
47. a. Verbs signifying the efJB^wns of
the mind; as, doubt, anxiety, grief, shame^
desire, &c govern either a genittve or an
ablative case.
b. Miserett wUserescit, piget, poetatet,
pudet, taedet, are followed by an accusative
of the person affected, and a genitive of the
thing which is the orighi of those feelings.
Dative Case.
48. a. All Transitive Verbs require the
immediate object of an action to be in the
accusative case ; but the remoter oliject, or
that ft) or /or which any thing is done, or
from which any thing is taken away, to be
in the dative case.
The Verbs belonging to this rule are th»
following: —
b. Verbs of cony>aring, giving, adding^
PRINCIPAL RULES OF GOVERNMENT,
97
and taking awcufy restoring^ and denying^
profnising md pairing, dedarmg, inform-
t'ngr, or explaining^ have, if tranntive, both
a dative and an accasative ; but if intran-
sitive, a dative only.
e. Verbs signifying advantage or dig-
advantage^ pleasure or displeasure^ trust
or distrust^ command, resistancey or odf.
dience, threatening or being angry witk,
studying^ healing, and the verbs ntAo and
parco, are generally intransitive, governing
only a dative.
d. But yuvo, laedo, eiffbndo, delecto, rego,
and gubernOf govern an accusative.
e. Verbs compounded with the Adverbs
beni, mali, and satis, and with these Pre-
positions, ad, anie, con, in, inter, ob, post,
prae, sub, super^^ have generally a dative;
if transitives, with an accusative also, but
if Intransitives, without it.
49. Sum, used for habeo, or followed in
English by of or to, has a dative.
50. Sum, do, duco, fio, habeo, mitto, pro-
ficiscor, reh'nquo, tribuo, venio, and verto,
may hav.e one dative of the person, and
another of the thing which expresses the
purpose, effect, destination, advantage, or
disadvantage.
51 . The Impersonal Verbs, put acqui-
sitively, require a dative.
Ablative Case,
52. a. Nouns denoting the cause, the
manner, or the instrument by which an
action is performed, are put in the ablative.
b. With Passive Verbs, the principal
agents if a living being, must be put in the
ablative with a or oft.
c. But if the Agent after a passive verb
does not denote a living being, it must be
in the ablative without a or ab.
53. Verbs signifying j9i^n/y or toan/.yS//-
ing or emptying, loading or unloading, and
alsp verbs of cwthing, require an ablative.
54. Verbs of liberating or delivering
from, of removing, keeping at a distance,
banishing, or separating, require an abla-
tive, either with or without a preposition.
55. Verbs or Participles signifying origin
or descent ; as, nascor, natus, ortus, prog-
natus, oriundus, satus, cretus, editus, have
an ablative, either with or without a pre-
position.
56. Fungor, fruor, utor, vescor, potior,
dignor, laetor, glorior, gaudeo, nitor, with
their coraixNinds abator, perfruor, dan-
ger, perfungor, and the verbs muto, comrnu*
nico, and supersedeo, require an ablative.
57. When a Noon or Pronoun is con-
nected with a participle, expressed or un-
derstood, and neither agrees with a verb,
nor is governed by any word in the sen-
tence, it is put in ihetMaOveeAsolute.
Infinitive Mood,
68. When two Verbs come together, the
latter must be in the infinitive mood, when
it denotes the suhject or object of the
former.
Participles^
59. Participles, Gerunds, and the Supine
in um, govern the same case as their verbs.
8- Time, Space, Measure, and
PlliACE.
60. Nouns denoting a point of Time, an-
swering to the question^ whenf are put in
the ablative without a preposition.
61. Nounsdenoting iheduration of Time,
answering to the x)uestion, how longf are
put in the accusative, generally without a
preposition.
62. Nouns denoting space, distance, and
measure, answering to the question, how
farf are generally put in the accusative,
but sometimes in the ablative.
63. In or at a town or eity, answering to
the question, where ? is put in the genitive,
if the noun be of the first or second declen-
sion and ftf^tt/arnumber ; but in the oA/a-
/wf without a preposition, if the noun be of
the third declension, or in the plural num-
ber.
64. To a towa« answering to the question,
whither f Is put in the accusative ; from or
through a town, answering to the question,
whence f is put in the ablative, without pre-
positions.
9. Pbepositions.
65. These Prepositions govern the Accu-
sative:-— act, adversus, ante, a]Dffd,&c. See
page 90.
66. These Prepositions govern the Abla-
tive :— a, ab, abs, absque, coram, &c. See
page 90.
CONNECTION.
10. CoNJUNCTIONff.
67. a. Copulative and Disjunctive Con-
junctions connect, in the same mood and
tense, two or more verbs which are simi-
larly situated with respect to time and cir-
cumstance.
b. They also connect, in the same case,
two or more nouns and pronouns, depend-
ing on the same verb or preposition.
98 . LATIN GBAMMAR. [SaUenca.
III. SYNTAX.
188. Syntax treats of the agreement, government, and
proper arrangement of words in a sentence.
189. A Sentence is a collection of words, iso arranged as
to form one complete affirmation or proposition.
190. Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound.
a. A simple sentence has only 'one subject and one personal
verb ; as, " Charles studies his lessons."
Personal verbs are those which have all the persons in each number.
b. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple
sentences, so connected by conjunctions or relatives as to form
only one complete sense ; as, " Industry procures competence,
and frugality preserves it."
c. A Phrase is two or more words put together, so as to
express a certain relation between our ideas, but without
affirming any thing ; as, " A man of honour."
191. a, .The piincipal parts of a simple sentence are, the
subject or nominative, the attribute or verb, and the object,
b. The Subject is the thing of which something is affirmed
or denied, and is always in the nominative case ; the attribute
is the verb affirming or denying ; and the object is the thing
affected by such affirmation or denial ; as, " Charles studies
his lessons." Here Charles is the subject ; studies, the at-
tribute or thing affirmed ; and lessons, the object.
c. That whidi is affirmed or denied respecting the subject is frequently called the
predicate, as in the preceding sentence, the verb studies his lessons is the predicate.
When the verb to be is used, it is termed the copula, or that which forms the connection
between the subject and predicate ; as, " The father is learned ; *' here, father is the
subject, is, the copula, and learned, the predicate. In the sentence, " Great is the Lord ;"
Lord is the subject, w, the copula, and great, the predicate.
d. The subject maybe not only a noun or pronoun, but an adverb with a genitive case,
or an infinitive mood and the words dependmg upon it. The predicate may be either,
1. a verb denoting an action or condition and its object; as, "Autumnus dot pomoi**
autumn gives apples ; or, 2. It may be a verb of existence with dependent noims,
adjectives, or participles; as, " Mundus est' globosus," the world is spherical. The
subject and its predicate form sl proposition or sentence.
e. Adjectives may agree with either the subject or predicate ; as, " That amiable and
learned man has written several valuable worlis.** Here, " Tiutt amiable and learned
man" is the subject ; *' has written several valwMe works," is the predicate.
192. a. Sentences are divided by points or stops. Those
parts of a sentence which are separated bj commas, are gene-
rally called clauses ; and those separated by semicolons, are
called members.
The Romans had no other point than the full stop. But to facilitate the understand-
^ their works, Grammarians instituted the present mode of punctuation.
Concord,^ SYNTAX 99
b. The dauseM of a compound senteoce are Bither princfpal or parertthelicaL The
princioal clause is that wnicb contains the leading proposition ; a parenthetical or
seconaary olause, is a simple sentence, or part of a sentence, modifying the principal
clause. Thus, in this sentence, " He will be punished, unless he repent^** the clause
" unless he repeta" is parenthetical ; and " He will be punished^* is the principal.
c. Adjuncts are words of different parts of speech used to modify others ; as adjectives
are the adjuncts of nouns, sometimes nouns to nouns; as, *' Cicero, the orator i*^ here
tlie word orator is the adjunct to Cicero.
193. a. Syntax consists of three parts ; concord^ govern-
ment, and the proper arrangement of words in a sentence.
b. Concord is the agreement which one word has with
another, in gender, number, case, or person.
Thus, ** Ego doceo^*^ I teach. Here doceg is of the singular number and first person,
because its nominative case ego is of the singular number and first person ; they agree,
therefore, in number and person.
194. Government or regimen is that power which one word
has in requiring another to be in a particular mood, tense, or
case.
Thus, •* Alexander vicit Barium" Alexander conquered Darius. Here, Dartum is
in the accusative case, governed by the transitive verb vicit^
195. In the arrangement or order in which words are
placed in Latin, the following rules are observed :
1. The most important word in the sentence must be
placed before those connected words which are less important.
2. The word governed is placed before the word which
governs it.
3. In Latin narrative, in didactic composition, or in ordi-
nary discourse, in which no emphasis is intended, after con-
junctions, is placed the subject, then the governed causes, with
all other unemphatic additions, and lastly, the verb,
4. "Words connected in sense should be placed as closely as
possible to each other ; and the words of one clause should
never be mixed with those of another.
CONCORD.
196. In Latin there are four Concords :
1. Between a Verb and its Subject, or Nominative Case.
2. Between an Adjective and a Substantive.
3. Between a B^lative and its Antecedent.
4. Between one Substantive and another. .
F 2
100
LATIN GRAMMAR,
[l8t Concord,
THE FIBST CONCORD,
7^e Nominative and the Verb.
197. a, A Verb must be of the same number and person
as its subject or nominative case ; as,
Praeceptor legit,* vos verb
negligitis ;
The master reads^ but ye re-
gard not.
1 . To find the NominadTe Case, ask the qoestiaii, who or what with the Terb, and
the word that answeri to the qaettion U the nominatire ca«e to the verb.
2. Every nominative must have a verb, and every verb a nominative, expressed or
understood ; thus, in Di melidra ! the verb detU is understood. In the phrase, ** Stmt
auos jutfot** the nominative homines is understood. All Impersonal verbs, therefore,
nave a nominative case implied. Some verbs, as munt^ dicunt, ferunt, have seldom a
nominative expressed ; the word homines is then understood.
b. The Nominative Case of pronouns is expressed only
when some emphasis or particular distinction of the person is
necessary; as,
Vos damnastis ; | Ve have condemned me.
As It ye were the only persons who condemned me.
c. Impersonal Verbs have seldom a nominative case ex-
pressed ; as,
Taedet me vitae ; | I am weary of my life.
These nominatives — hoc, iUud, id, idem, ouod, mttl/um, &c. are sometimes prefixed
as nominatives to impersonal vertM ; as, *' Sin tibi id minus libebit."
198. a. Sometimes an Infinitive Mood, or a part of a sentence,
becomes the nominative to a verb in the third person ; as,
To have learned the liberal
sciences thoroughly, softens
the manners.
b. Sometimes an Adverb with a Genitive Case is the no-
minative to a verb ; as.
Ingenuas didicisse fideliter
artes Emollit mores ;
ceciderunt
Part of the men fell in war.
Partim virorum
in bello ;
199. A Collective Noun of the singular number, such as
Turba, popHlus, plebs, mantis, pars, gens, vulgus, &c. some-
times requires the verb to be plural ; as,
Pars abiere; \ Part of them are gone.
1 . When the persons included under the collective term are represented as taken
coilectivelgft the verb must be singular ; as, " Vulgus satvit." But when the persons
thus comprehended are intended to be represented individually, then the verb is plural;
as, ** Si fortt vulgus eonspexire ;** if by chance the vulgar saw.
2. A Plural Verb is ftrequeutly used after nterque,quisque, alius — aliumt alter -^
alterum.
* Noie.'-^The word which exemplifies the rule in each example, is printed in italics.
The leading branclies of each rule are denoted by the letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, d,
&c. Subordinate rules or explanations of each branch are designated by the small
numerals, 1, 2, 3, Ac.
1st Concord,] SYNTAX. 101
200. a. Two or more Nominatives Singular united by the
connective conjunctions, et, ac, atqttCy &c. either expressed
or understood, require the verb to l)e in the plural number, if
they denote living beings^ and especially persons ; as,
Pater et mater vivunt;
The father and mother are
alive.
h. But if the Nominatives denote things without life, and
especially abstract ideas, the singular is frequently used to
agree with one of the nominatives, and is understood with
the other ; as, " .
Cum tempus necessitasque
postMat ;
When time and necessity re-
quire.
c. When, however, one of the Nominatives is in the plural,
or, when that which is asserted is only true of the Nominatives
taken jo/w//y, then the verb must be plural : as.
Vita, mors, divitiae, omnes
homines commovent ;
Beneficium et gratia homi-
nes inter se conjungunt;
Life, death, riches, move all
men.
Kindness and favour unite
men to each other.
1. Unu8 et alter has a Verb ib the singular ; as,
Dicit unus et alter brevlter ; | The one and the other speaks briefly.
2. A singular Noun joined to another by cum is sometimes followed by a plural
verb ; as,
Juba cum Labieno vent'ssent ; . \ Juba with Labienus had come*
3. When et or turn is repeated, the Verb is in the singular, as it refers to the nomi-
natives separately ; as.
Hoc et ratio doctis et necessitas barbaris I Both reason Aa«<ftW<tf«d this to the learned
praescripsit ; \ and necessity to the barbarians.
4. The Disjunctives a»/, vel, neque^ ve, »ru, stve, are followed sometimes by a singular,
sometimes by a plural verb. The singular is preferable, except when the subject in-
cludes the first and second persons, in which case the plural is used ; as, *' Haec neque
ego neque tu fecimus."
201. a. When the Nominatives are of different persons, the
plural verb and pronoun must agree with the first person
rather than with the second, and with the second rather than
with the third ; as.
Thou and I are happy ; that
is, we are happy.
Thou and thy father are hap-
py ; that is, ye are happy*
b. Sometimes the Verb agrees in number and person with the last nominative ; as.
Ego et Cicero meuaflagitdbH ; ' \ My Cicero and I shall ask it.
c. A Verb placed between two Nominatives of different numbers, must agree with its
own appropriate subject ; as.
Pars non minima triumph! est victi- 1 Not the least part of the triumph is the
Ego et tu fellces sumtLS ;
Tu et pater fellces estis ;
mae ; I victims.
r 3
102 LATIN GRAMMAR. [2nd ConcorcL
THE SECOND CONCORD.
The Substantive and Adjective,
202. Adjectives, Participles, and Pronouns must be of the
same gender, number, and case, as the substantive to which
they belong ; as,
Magister doctus ;
Faemina bona ;
Dulce pomum ;
A learned master.
A good woman.
A sweet apple.
1. It must be observed, that Possessive Pronouns, in Latin, agree with the noan
representing the person or thing possessed, and not, as in English, with that which
represents the possessor ; as,^
Frater suus ;
Soror sua ,•
Caput suum j
His or her brother.
His or her sister.
His or her head.
Here suus is masculine, not because it may mean his, but because the noun frater is
masculine ; while soror, being feminine, requires stui to be of the same gender, though
in English, it may mean his or her sister. Hence such phrases can be properly trans-
lated only by referring to the context.
2. To find the Substantive to an Adjective, ask the question who or tohat with the
adjective, and the word that answers to the question is the substantive ; as in the
phrase, " Magister doctus," ask, a learned what ? The word which answers to the
question n— master.
203. Sometimes an Infinitive Mood or a Sentence is the
subject to an adjective in the neuter gender ; as,
Dlluciilo surgere saltiberri- L To rise earljr in the morning
mum est ;
is very healthy.
204. An Adjective, Pronoun, or Participle may be used
alone, a Substantive being understood, from which it takes
its gender. If homo is understood the adjective is masculine ;
if negotium or officium, the adjective is neuter ; as.
Kari bo?ii ;
Labor omnia vincit ;
Triste lupus stabulis ;
Meum est discere ;
Good men are scarce.
Labour conquers all things.
The wolf is a sad thing to the
folds.
It is my duty to learn.
1. An Adjective also mi^ be used alone whenever the sense readily supplies the sub-
stantive understood ;, as, Superi {Dii understood) ; Dextra {manus understood).
2. Sometimes the gender of the Adjective or Pronoun is determined only by the
sense; as.
Magna pars hominum vulnerati sunt ; | A great part of the men were wounded.
3. The nouns man, woman, thing, are seldom expressed in Latin. Thing is generally
expressed by res, when the adjective alone would leave it doubtful whether men or
things were meant ; thus, muUarum rerum in preference to muUorum.
4. The neuter plural without a substantive of adjectives denoting magnitude, quantity
&c. is generally used in Latin where we use the singular ; as, multa, much j permulta
ttfirtf much ; omnia, every thing. Sec.
^nd Concord.]
SYNTAX.
103
205. A Collective Noun may have an adjective in the plural
number, the gender of which is determined by the sense ; as,
Turba erant tuti ; \ The multitude were safe.
206. Two or more Substantives of the same gender, require
the adjectives, pronouns, and participles, belonging to them,
to be in the plural number, and the same gender as the nouns ;
as.
Pater et frater sunt amati ;
Haec charta et penna sunt
meae ;
Caput et pectus sunt ser-
vanda ;
My father and brother are be-
loved.
This paper and pen are mine.
The head and breast must be
preserved.
With inanimate things, however, the verband predicate are sometimes singular, when
the predicate can be repeated with each subject ; as, " Villa et domus amism est"
207. a. Two or more Substantives singular, of different
genders, and signifying things with life, require an adjective
of the plural number, and of the masculine rather than of
the feminine gender ; as,
Rex et reglna sunt hedti; \ The king and queen are happy.
b. If the Substantives are of different genders, and signify
things without life, the adjective is neuter ; as.
Labor et voluptas dissimil- Labour and pleasure are very
lima sunt ; unlike.
c. If the Substantives are of different genders, and signify
things vnth and things without life, the adjective must either
be neuter, or of the gender of the thing with life ; as,
Jane, fac aeternos pacem,
pacisque ministros ;
d. Sometimes the Adjective agrees with the last Substan-
tive ; as,
Janus, make peace and the
ministers of peace, eternal.
Life, children, honour, and
riches are dearest.
Salus, liberi, fama, fortunae
sunt carissimae;
e. An Adjective between two Substantives of different
genders must agree with that which is considered its proper
subject ; as.
Paupertas mihi onus visum
est ;
Poverty seemed a burden to
me.
Here visum, from its proximity, qualifies onus, instead of visa to qualify paupertas.
F 4
104
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[3rd ConconL
THE THIRD CONCORD.
The Relative and the Antecedent,
208. a. The Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender,
number, and person, h\xi takes its ca^e from the verb in its
own clause ; as.
The man who loves God is
happy.
The man whom God loves is
happj.
The Antecedent is the Noun going before, and to which the Relative refers, as in
** Homo, qui Deum dHiglt ;" the word homo is the antecedent, and the relative qw is o(
the same gender, number, and person. To find the antecedent, ask the question, v>ko
or what with the verb, and the word that answers to the question is the antecedent.
b. The Relative, like the Noun, is in the Nominative
Case, when it is the subject of a verb, but in the Accusative
or some other oblique case, when it is the object of a verb or
preposition, as,
— 7 — ^
Homo, qui Deum diligit,
felix est ;
Homo, quem Deus diligit,
felix est ;
Est Deus, qui omnia videt ;
Liber, quem (Jibrum under-
stood) legis ;
Ecce homo, cui {homini un-
derstood) confidis ;
He is God, who sees all things.
The book which (book) you
read.
Behold the man in whom thou
trustest.
1. In a Relative Sentence, each clause has generally its own verb, and its own inde-
pendent construction.
2. Sometimes the Antecedent is included in the relativet and omitted in the prine^nU
clause. When this is the case, the relative clause is often placed fifst^ and the antece-
dent either entirely omitted, or represent«Ml in the principal clause by the proper case
ofti or hies as, "Qui bend latuit, bene vixit;" (he) who has well escaped notice,
has lived well. " Bestiae in quo loco natae sunt, ex eo se non commfivent ; '* animals
do not move themselves from the place in which they were bom.
3. The Relative fftt/ answers to is; qualis to taUs; quantus to tontus ; quot to tot;
quotus to totiu. Ifthese correlatives refer to different nouns and depend on different
verbs, they wilt take the gender, number, and case, which they respectively require.
7Wi« is frequently omitted before qualis^ tanlus before quanhUt &c.
4. What, as a Relative, is equivalent to that which or those which. That is a relative
when it can be turned into who or which ; when it is not a relative it is either a De-
finitive Adjective or a Conjunction, which latter is expressed by quod or ul.
5. A$, when a Relative, is rendered by qui^ after idem j by qualis, quanius, quot, after
talis, tanlus, tot, respectively.
209. When the Relative refers to a Verb or to a whole clause
as its Antecedent, it must be put in the neuter gender ; as,
In tempore veni, quod re-
rum omnium est primum ;
Tu multum dormis et saepe
potas ; quae (negotia under-
stood) ambo sunt corpSri
inimica ;
I came in time, which is the
principal business of all.
Thou sleepest much and driuk-
est often ; \K>ih. which things
are injurious to the body.
3rd Concord.]
SYNTAX.
105
210. a. With Antecedents of different genders, the same
rules are applicable for Relatives as for Adjectives ; as,
Ninus et Semiramis, qui con-
diderunt Babylona ;
Ninus and Semiramis, who
founded Babylon.
b. When the Relative comes after two words of different persons, it agrees with the
first person rather ^than with the second, and with the second rather than with the
third ; as, ** Ego sum vir g«//acio," I am a man who do.
c. To express the^frf^ person who did a thing, the Romans did not use a relative, but
made primus agree with the nominative of the principal verb ; as, " Primta mala
nostra sensit," he was the first toko perceived our evils.
211. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number
from the Personal Pronoun, which is implied in the Posses-
sive ; as.
Omnes laudare fortunas measy
gut gnatum haberem tali
ingenio praeditum ;
All began to praise my for-
tune, who had a son en-
dowed with such a disposi-
tion.
That is. forttmtu meiy qui ; the personal mei being implied in the possessive mea$
and the relative quit is therefore masculine.
212. a. When the Relative is placed between two nouns of
different genders and numbers, and is followed by suniy or a
verb of calling or naming, such as dicere, vocdre^ appelldrey
nomindre, &c. it generally agrees in gender with the latter
noun, rather than with the Antecedent ; as.
Animal, qtiem vocamus ho~ The animal which we call
fnmem ; man.
6. But sometimes the Relative takes the gender of the preceding noun ; as,
G^us hominum, quod Heldtes vocatur ; | A race of men which is called Helots.
1. "When a Relative refer* to a common and a proper noun of different genders, it
may agree with either of them ; as,
Flumen est Arkr quod in RhodSnum I There is a river (called) Arar which flows
influit ; I into the Rhone.
2. The Relative sometimes takes an Adjective after it, which properly belongs to
the Antecedent ; as, ** Alvus calore quern muUum habet omnia conficit," the stomach
digests all things by the abundant warmth which it has ; instead of ** muUo calore
quern habet."
3. Hence may be explained the use of the Relative in such phrases as the following :
" Quae tua est virtus expugnabis ;" such is your valour, that you will take by storm ;
that is, " eA virtute, quae tua est"
1* 5
106 LATIN GRAMMAR. [4th Concord,
THE FOURTH CONCORD.
A Noun with a Nouriy Sfc.
213. a. Two Substantives coming together, and signifying
the same person or thing, are put in the same case by appo^
sition ; as,
Cicero orator ;
Opes irritamenta malorum ;
Cicero the orator.
Riches the incentives of evil.
b. If the Noun placed in appotiUon is used as referring to a persout then the word
in apposition must agree with the principal noun both in gender and number; as,
" Timor, DofnintM," Fear, the master; *' Fortana, domtna. Fortune, the mistreu;
" Athenae, inventrtces multarum artium," Athens, the inveniress of many arts.
c. But if the Noun in apposition denotes something inantmaie, the gender and number
of this substantive need not agree with the principal noun ^ as, " Timor, catua," Fear,
the cause; " Athenae, urbs^'* Athens, the city ; *' Ciceto^meaedeliciaemeiqueamdres"
Cicero, my delight.
d. If the principal word is the Name of a Town, with urbs or oppidMon in apposition
to it, the verb or participle generally agrees with the apportion instead of the principal
noun ; as, *' Folsiniif oppidum Tusoorum opulentissimum, ioium coneremaium est
fulmlne ;" Volsinii, the most wealthy town of the Tuscans, was entirely destroyed by
lightning.
e. The English, a«, as if, fphen, for, standing with a noun, are often omitted, and the
Latin substantive placed m apposition; as, '* NatQra homini sensus, tanquam nufttios,
ac sateUites attrlbult ;'* Nature has given to man sensations as if they were messengers
and attendants.
/. A Proper Name, when accompanied by a common one, is generallv in the genitive
case ; as, " Fons TimdviC* the fountain of Timavus,— and not *' Fons rimavtw."
214. a. The Noun or Pronoun that answers a question,
must be in the same case as the word that asks it ; as,
Quis mundum creavit? Deus;
Quarum rerum nulla est sa-
tietas ? Divitiarum ;
Who created the world? God.
Of what things is there no ful-
ness? Of riches.
b. The Case must, however, be varied, if the rules of Syntax require a different con-
struction ; as, *' Quanti emisti ? Viginti minis." Here if intf is required to be in the
Ablative, because it is the specified price.
c. The Possessive Pronouns correspond with the Genitive of the Personal or Rela-
tive, both in the question and the answer ; as, ** Cujus est liber ? Mens. Cujum est
pecus? Meliboei.*'
215. a. Nouns and Pronouns depending on the same verb
or preposition, and connected by copulative or disjunctive
conjunctions, must be in the same case ; as,
Socrates docuit Xenophon- Socrates taught Xenophon
tern et Platonem ;
and Plato.
b. Except when the words themselves require different cases ; as, " Vlxi Romae ct
AtheniSy* I have lived 4t Rome and at Athens.
-PrOflOMIM.]
SYNTAX.
107
PRONOUNS,
216. a. Mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri (the Genitive Cases of
the personals ego, tu, sui), are joined to substantives taken in
a passive sense, denoting the object ; as,
She languishesfor want of you.
The picture of our person.
The love of me ; or the love
with which I am loved.
li^nguet desiderio tui ;
Imago nostri ; .
Amor met ;
b. The Genitive Plural o^ego and tu has two forms, nostrum and nosiri, vesir&m and
vestri. The termination &m is used with partitives, numerals, comparatives, and su-
perlatives ; as, uterque nostrdm, primus vestrdpty &c. In other connections the form
in t is proper ; as, tnetnor vestrt\ &c
217* a. When action or possession is signified, the Posses*
sive Pronouns mens, tuus, suus, noster, vester, agreeing with
their nouns, must be used ; as,
Favet desiderio ttio ;
Imago nostra ;
She favours your desire.
Our picture ; or that which we possess.
b. The Pronouns my, thy, hfs, her, our, tfour, their, are not expressed in Latin,
if they are not contrasted with others, but simply refer to the subject of the sentence;
as. He loves his brother as he ought, " Fratrem sic amat, ut debet."
c. But when these words do not refer to the subject of the sentence, but denote a
contrast, or a particular emphasis, especially when the word otvn is connected with the
pronoun, then they must be expressed, and generally placed before their substantives ;
as, " Tu iuam utUitatem praepouis publicae," you prefer your (own) interest to the
public.
d. The word oum is either not translated at all but implied in the pronoun, or trans-
lated by the words ipsius, ipsorttm, ipsarum; as, " Mens ipshts pater," my own father.
e. Every addition or explanation which refers to the ego, tu. Hie, nos, vos, iUi, con-
tained in the possessive, is put in the genitive, and genersQly immediately after the pos-
sessive. Of this kind are the genitives ipsius, solius, unius, duorum, trium, &c.,
omnium, plurium, paucorum, cujusqtie ; and also the genitive cases of participles,
which are referred to the primitive word understood ; as, ** MeA unitu operi," by my
single service ; *' In su& cujusque laude, praestantior," more excellent each in his
own skiN ; ** Veitrls paucorum respondet laudlbus," he answers to the praises of yoil
few; " Mea scripta /imfntii," the writings of me fearing.
/. The distinctions given in Rules 216, 217. were sometimes violated by the Poets ; as,
** Nee me mea falllt imago," nor does my likeness deceive me.
218. a. Sui and suus are Reciprocals, because they gene-
rally refer to the principal subject in the sentence. Sui is
used when self or selves can be added to him, her, it, or them ;
suus, when own may be added to his, her^ its, or their ; as,
Petrus nimium admiratur
se ; parcit erroribus suis ;
b. When the Subject is of the third person, and no transition from one subject to
another is to be noted, sui and suus must be employed ; but when a change of subject
is to be sif^nifled, either is, itle, or iste, must be used ; as, " Cicero arcesslvit Tironem.
et fratrem suum,'* Cicero called upon Tiro and his own brother. Here suum refers
to Cicero ; ^fus would have referrpd to Tiro, and the meaning would have been Cicero
called upon Tiro and on his (Tiroes) brother. The oblique cases of is, ea, id, are used
when an object is no^ opposed to itself, but to another object; as, ** Pater er ignovit," the
father pardoned him» that is, his sou \ but Pater sibi would mean himself.
F 6
Peter admires himsel/too much ;
he spares his own errors.
108
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Pronouns*
c. Though the principal Subject of discourse is generally the nominative to the verb,
it is sometimes expressed in an oblique case; thUB»*'Ab Antonio admoiiitus sum, uc
mand tibi adessem." Here the principal subject is expressed by an ablative case, and
Jet it is properly rq[>resented by *ibi. The same observation may be applied to the foU
owing sentence : ** Hunc elves sui ex urbe ejecerunt."
d. The ancients sometimes deviated from these rules ; thus, Nepos in Milt. 4. says,
" CCim viderent de eorum virtute nan desperari," ttta or suorum virtute would have
been better.
e. The word ipse must be employed instead of tui, nttUt when there would be
danger of understanding Mui or suus'to signify the nominative of its own rerb; thus,
" Persae, mortuo Alexandro, nan alium, qui imperaret ipsis, digniurem fulsse confite-
bantur." Qui imperaret $ibi, might have meant a Jitter person to govern himfeff.
9
/. Ipse often stands with the personal pronouns, either in the same case writh the
subject, when the subject is contrasted with other subjects, or in the same an the object,
when the object is contrasted with other objects ; as, " Ego me ipse vitup^ro," I censure
myself; ** Se ipsos omnes natura dillgunt," all men naturally love themselves.
ff* He himself, selfiiame, she herse^, i{ itself, t^ or that one himself, Ac are also ex-
pressed in Latin by ipse Hie, ipse his, or by tUe ipse, hie ipse. But the phrase even he,
this or thai very person or thing, is expressed only by hie ipse, ilie ipse, and not by ipse
iUej thus, " Ipse iUe Gorgias," Uae self-same Gorgias » " In iUo ipso Hbro," in that very
book.
219, a. He, she, it, they, are translated bj is, ea, id, when
they merely stand for a person or thing either before men-
tioned, or ahout to he described by a relative clause ; as,
Dionysius a slave of mine has
run* away ; he is in your
province.
b. When used to distinguish objects, hie refers to that
which is nearest to the person speaking ; iste, to that which
is nearest the person addressed ; ille, to that which is at a
distance from both.
c. lUe is sometimes employed ta denote that which is of general notoriety, and most
commonly of repuiation ; iste, to denote contempt! as, " Magnus ille Alexander, i^e
nebulo."
d. When hie and Hie refer to two persons or things men-
tioned before, hie generally refers to the latter ; ille, to the
former; as.
Dionysius servus mens aufu-
git; is est in provincia tua ;
** Nihil est nisi pontus- et aer.
Nubibus hie tumldus, fluctibus Ule mi
nax ; *'
There Is nothing but sea and air ; the lat-
ter swelling with clouds, the former
threatening with waves.
e. Sometimes, however, hie is nade to refer to the former, and iUe to the latter of two
things before-mentioned ; as in Ovid, ** Sicdeus et virgo est ; hie spe celer, iUa timore ;' '
thus are the god and maiden ; he swift with hope, she with fear.
/. The Phrases, and this too, and that too, and these too, and besides, and even, when
connecting important addltionaL circumstances to what preceded, are expressed by et
is, et hie, is que in their proper gendera. In the same manner, the phrases, and at the
same time, at once, and aiso, are expressed by et idem or idemque ; as, ** Epist&lam ,
eamque (et earn) brevem accept ;** 1 have received a letter, and that too a snort one.
When the additional circumstance is negative, then, instead of et or 911^, the word
nee or neiiue is used ; as, ** At length he sent me a letter, and that too not a long one ; "
** episthlaxaf neque earn longam.** The adverb quidem is frequently joined tou; as,
*' Et eas quidem breves,'* aud those (letters) indeed short ones.
*g, The'Pronouns is, ea, id are fkvquently omitted in L4itin,and the sense included in
the Relative qui, quae, quod; as, *' Qu/ virtutem amat, rotht carus est }'* He who loves
virtue Is dear to me.
i
Pronouns,] SYNTAX. 10^
A. The Latins sometimes pot the Antecedent and the Relatire in the same clause,
and instead of saying, *' The letters which you sent me are short," they say, " lyhat
letters you sent me, these are short ;" ** Quap epistolas mihi misistl, eae breves sunt."
This mode of construction and agreement must always be adopted, when a substantive,
to which qui^ quaet quod refers, stands alone, and is in apposition with anotlier ; thus,
** Muramius destroyed Corinth, a city which ai that time was the most magnificent in
Greece," ** quae urbs trnn amplissima Graecii eraU" So also, ** a place which, qui
locus i*^ " every thing which, quae omnia.**
The Indefinite Pronouns.
220. The word ant/ admits of various renderings ; thus,
a. Any is rendered by quisquam or uflus, when it does not include every one, but is
used in a negative sentence, or in questions which imply a negative; and after vi'x, scarcely,
and sinCj without ; as, '* An quisquam potest ei creaere ? " Can any oue believe him?"
b. Any is rendered by quivis or quilibet, when it includes every one.
c. Any is rendered by qui* or qui, after n, nisi^ num^ ne, quo, quanto, i as, ** Si qui*
aliud cogitet," if any one should think otherwise.
d. Any is rendered by aliquit or quispiam when it signifies some one or other, some j
.as, " Fictor atiqtas,'* some painter, or a painter.
221. Of Qui, quisf qui? quisquis, quisque, the follow-
ing observations may be sufficient :
a. Qui, the old ablative nf quis and qui, is used by good prose writers only in the
sense of houf, chieiy with^feri axkd posse j as, qtUJU, how hai^ns it ?
b. The interrogative pronoun 9ttt> ^ qui? has two forms for the masculine and neuter;
qtus and quid, qui and quod. Fruse writers of the best agp use quod with a substantive,
and quid without. Quis is commonly used without a substantive, or only with one
denoting a person ; as, quis amicus. Qui Is generally used with a substantive.
c. Quisquis and quicunque cannot alone form the subject of a proposition, but must
be united with a verb. In order to become a part of some other proposition ; as, " Male
Tivit quisquis nescit bene mori."
d. Quisque signifies every one, and is generally used as a substantive. Quisque
takes an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, every good man, *' quisque optimus."
It scarcely ever begins a proposition.
222. a. Alius, aliud^ is thus distinguished:
Alius is generally used when several or all are spoken of, and alter when the
subiect \^ot two. **One another " is rendered by repeating the word alius; as, they
Slew one armther, " alii occiderunt alios.** Alius is used with oneof its own cases, or an
adverb derived from it, to express what in English requires two separate propositions,
denoting the one— the other, or one — another ; as, '* AUud aliis videtur optimum," one
thing seems best to one, anether to another; ^*Alit<^ cum aliis loquitur," he speaks in one
way to one, another to another ; ** Alii alio itinere venerunt," different men came by
different ways. Alius— alius, and the derivatives, are used in two propositions for aHu»,
aliter, alias, &c. with oc or atquej as, ** AUud loquitur, aliud sentit," he speaks otherwise
than bethinks.
b. liter, altery neuter, are used when the discourse is
of only two ; quis, alius, nulluSy on (he contrary when the
discourse is of several ; as, " tfter fratrum ad te venit ? "
which of the two brothers came to thee ?
Uierque, when connected with a noun, agrees with it in gender, nmnber, and case ;
as, *' Uterque dux f ** But when uterque is connected with a Frononn, the pronoun i» hi
the genitive ; as, " Quorum uterque,*' both of whom. ,
110 LATm GRAMMAR. [Interrogatives.
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
223. Questions are generally asked in Latin, either by the
Interrogative Particles wc, num^ nonne, utrum ; or by Inter-
rogative Pronouns and Adverbs*
a. Ne (which is enclitic, being always attached to the last
syllable of the accented word) is used simply to ask for in-
formation ; as, " Fuistine hen in schola ? '* Were you at
school yesterday ? Yes or no.
b. Num expects the answer no ; as, " Num quaerebas me ?"
Did you seek for me ? iVb, I did not.
c, Nonne expects the aAswer yes ; as, " Nonne quaerebas
me ?*' Did you not seek me ? Yes, I did.
d, Utrum is used only in double questions.
W^hen the Interrogative ne relates to Ate, haec^ hoc, and sic, it is often written hicdrw.
haeccine, hoccinej and siccine i as, " Hunccine homiuem vidisti ? " Hast thou seen tiiis
man V
man
224. The answer yes is expressed ;
1. By a repetition of the word upon which the stress of the
question lies ; or,
2. By the words ita, ita est, sane, etiam, verd, certe, pro^
fectOy and the like ; as,
1. "Fuistinr heri in schola? ^i." Were you at sdiool yesterday. ItoaStOtYei.
" Mene vis ? Te.'* Do you wish for me ? Yes, that is I do wish /or Viee.
2. Fuistine heri domi ? Verh, certi, &c. Were you at borne yesterday ? Yes, cer-
tainty.
225. The answer no is expressed;
1. By repeating (with the negative particle non before
it) the word upon which the stress of the question lies ;
or,
2. By the words non, non ita, minimey nequdquam, and
the like ; as,
1. **Estne frater domi ? Non est." Is your brother at home ? He is not, or No.
2. " Venitfttf pater tuus ? Minime, or non.** Has your father come ? No.
3. No rather, on the contrary, are' expressed by immo
(imo) with the addition of the word expressing the opposite
of what is implied in the question ; as,
**Egebat amicus tuus ? Immo locuples erat." Was your friend in want ? On the con-
trarjf he was rich.
InterrogaHvea.] SYNTAX. Ill
Independerifcmd dependent Questions.
226. Questions are either independent (direct) ; as, Were
you at school yesterday ? or dependent upon another sentence
going before (indirect questions^ ; as, I do not know, whether
you were at school yesterday.
Independent or Direct questions are such as do not depend on any preceding word,
but contain the very words which were addressed to any one. Such questions can be
stated either dtfinilely ; as, "Who is this .man?" or doubtfully (Indetinitely) ; as
** Who can this man be ? *'
Dependent questions follow and depend on such words as lo atk, doubt, knotv^ not
know J examiney inquire, try, &c.
a. In the direct question the Indicative is used, when it is
asked positively ; as, " Quid agis ? " What are you doing ?
but in the Subjunctive, when it is asked doubtingly ; as,
" Quid agamus f " What can we do ?
b. In the indirect question the Subjunctive is always used ;
as, " Die quid agas ?" Say what thou art doing ?
227. Both direct and indirect questions are introduced ; —
1. By the Interrogative and Relative words, quis, quid,
uter, qualis, quantus, quot, unde^ ubi, quando, quomodo, cur,
&c.
2. By the Particles ne, num, nonne, utrum,
1. Who ? what? are expressed by quis, quid, without a noun ; or by qui, quae, quod,
when used in agreement with one; as, '* Quis hoc negat? " Who can deny this ? " Quod
facinus commisit ? " What crime has he committed ? Qui ablative, how ? as, Qui fit' f
How does it happen ? Quot f how many ? Quantus f how great ? Quantum ? how
much? Curf why? is used whether an answer is required or not ; quare? where-
fore ? is used when a reason is decidedly expected ? Qutmdo ? when ?
Vbi, where, corresponds to ibi, there.
Unde, whence —— inde,hinc, thence.
■ Qub, whither, — — eb, thither.
228i In disjunctive or double questions, in which one
member excludes the other, the first member is introduced
by utrum, num, or the enclitic ne, and the second by an, or,
both in direct and indirect questions ; as.
Direct Quest. — Utrum unus, an plures sunt mundi ?
Indirect Quest. — Utrum unus, an plures 5i«^ mundi ?
1 . Or not is expressed in Latin by annon in direct, by necne in indirect questions.
2. In dependent questions whether is often untranslated, and or translated by an, aniu,
or the appended nS, as in the forms below.
3. An Is sometimes found before single questions ; but this is not in accordance with
Clcero*t general practice.
4. Or, in questions, is to be translated by tm or ne, and never by out, where one ques-
tion is to be answered in the affirmative, and the other in the negative.
fi. The Forms for double quettioru are, —
Utrum (utrumne), whether . an (anne, ne), or.
Num, whether .... an, or.
— ^- whether .... an, anne, ne, or.
6. If there are more than two questions, the second and remaining ones begin with
an; as, '* Haud scio maneamne Arpini, an propius accedam, an veniam Romam ; " I
do not know whether I shall remain at Arpinum, or I shall approach nearer, or (eT«ii>
shall come to Rome.
112 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Noims.
1
GOVERNMENT.
GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES.
229. a. When two Substantives come together, signifying
different things, the latter is put in the genitive case ; as,
Amor nummi ; \ The love of money.
1. The Genitive is sulffective when it denotes that which doet something, or to which
something belongs ; as, '^Hominum facta ; liber pueri: *' it is oltfective, when it denotes
that which is the o^e^ of the action or feeling spoken of; as, "Amor viriutisj desi-
derium otii,**
In English, the directive genitive is often rendered bj some other word than qfj as,
longing Jor rest, love to virtue. ** Mull£rum Sabinarum ii^ariae ; " the wrongs done
to the Sabine women. "Gratia beneficiis ;" gratitude /or a kindness. But whenever am-
biguity would arise from the use of this case, the Latins used the prepotition with its
proper case ; thus, " Amor parenium" would signify the love which parents bad for
others ; but " Amor in parentes" signifies love /or parents.
2. The Genitive signifies origin, cause^ or poueuiont and general^ has the sign qf;
but sometimes, as just stated, it takes the signs to, for, in, from. Hot is the word qf
always a sign of the genitive case ;— after words signifying praise or blame, plenty or
toant, the quality of things, worthy or unworthy, need, descended or bom, it is generallr
a sign of the ablative. When the latter substantive denotes the substance or materiM
iof which the former consists, the word of is expressed by de, e, or exf as, '* Ensis es
ferro factus ; " a sword made of iron. Instead of a substantive, an adjective is some-
times used ; as, " Ferretu ensis." Of, signi Tying concerning, is expressed by de ; signi-
fying by or firom, by a,'ab, e, ex. Of, after mereor, is rendered by de; after comparatives
and superlatives, by de, e, or inter.
b. Sometimes the Genitive case is put alone, the former
substantive being understood ; as,
Ubi ad i>ia»ae veneris ; that
When you come to Diandi
is, ad templum Dianae ; (temple understood).
Many instances of this kind occur ; thus, *' Per Farronis," that is, per fundum Var-
ronis ; **Foppaea Neronis" that is cin^ux Neronis j " Aberant bidui,** that is, iter bidui.
c. A Dative may, in many instances, be substituted for
the genitive, with very little change of meaning ; as,
Caesari se ad pedes pro- They cast themselves down at
jecere ;
Caesd-r's feet.
d. The Genitive, signifying possession, is also ft-equently changed into an adijective ;
as, " Domus patema," for domus patrisj "Causa regia," the royal cause, or the king's
cause.
e. The Phrases, the top of, middle qf, end qf, whole of, the rest qf, &c. are generally
translated by adjectives agreeing with their substantives ; thus "Suinmtwmons, ' the top
of the mountain; *'/ma quercus," the bottom of the oak ; ** Sapientia prtma," the be-
ginning of wisdom ; " Media via," the middle of the way.
230. The Genitive or Ablative is used to express that one
thing is the property or quality of another; as, o^ praise,
blame, weight, size, &c. The latter substantive, however,
must always have an adjective joined with it ; as.
Summae virtutis adolescens ;
Vir nulla fide ;
Magno pondere saxum ;
A youth of great virtue.
A man of no integrity.
A stone of great weight.
1. It would here be improper to say virtute adolescens, or virtutis adolescens. The
latter substanUve must always denote a part or property of the former, otherwise, it
does not belong to this rule ; such phrases as, " pulchra prole parentem," will therefore
beazdudfld.
Nouns.] SYNTAX. 113
2. For the ex-prenltmu possessed^ endowed tm'th,di*ttMuisked for, thererb'snm might
be employed ; thus, *' Cato erat summae prudemiae," Cato pousessed, had, loat qfi the
greatest prudeuce.
3. The Genitive denotes essential^ the Ablative accfdental qualities ; hence the desig-
nations of measure hy number ^ time, and space are always expressed by the Genitive
(never by the Ablative), these beioK essential qualities oraii object.
4. Later writers employ the Genitive to specify the age; as, '* Hamilcar secom duxit
filium Hannibalem, annomm novem" for annos novem natuin«
231. An Adjective of the neuter gender, not having a
substantive expressed, requires a genitive case ; as,
Fauliilum pecuniae ;
Quid rei est ?
Augusta viarum;
A very little money.
What is the matter ?
Narrow ways.
1. The Adjectives thus used, generally signify fuanft'/y; m, multwn, plus, phtrimum,
tantutn, quantum, minus, minifnum ; also, tUiud, id, hoc, quid, and its compounds (aW'
quid, qwdquam, ftc.)i summum, uUimum, extremum, dimidium, and m^itim, with
many plural neuters; as, " Opdca locorum, incerta fortunae," &c. The words quod, ait-
quod, quoddam, always agree with their substantives, but quid and plus are followed by
a genitive.
2. Nihil, hoc, id, illud, istud, quid, aliquid, quidquam, admit the genitive of neuter
adjectives of the second, but rarely of the third declension ; as, " Nihil tinceri, quid
rt/iVi«e8t?'»
232. a, Optis and usus, signifying need, govern an a5-
IcUive of the thing wanted, and a dative of the object to or
/or which the thing is wanted ; as,
Auctoritate iua nobis opus
est;
Nunc viribus usus ;
We have need of your au-
thority.
Now there is need of strength.
1. So " opus est properdto,^" need of haste; **coniulto," of deliberation; **■ mature
facto," of prompt execution.
2. When optts is used personally, the thing wanted is in the nominative case ; as,
**Multi mihi libri opus sunt ; " many books are wanted by me. When the thing wanted
cannot be expressed by a substantive, either the accusative with the infinitive Is used,
or the accusative only, the subject being left to be supplied fVom the connection ; as,
** Si quid erit, quod te scire opus erit, scribam."
3. Optts and usus sometimes, though rarely, govern the genitive of the thing wanted,
as, ^'Lectionis opus est." This construction is not to be recommended.
b. Opus Is sometimes used as an indeclinable Adjective
for necessary, governing a dative ; as,
Dvix nobis opus est ; | A leader is necessary for us.
233. a. The definite value or cost of a thing expressed
by a noun is put in the ablative ; as,
-^sfcimo tribus denariis ; \ I value it at threepence.
b. But when the cost or value is not exactly defined, but
expressed by an adjective, the adjective must be in the
genitive; as.
Tanti eris aliis, quanti tibi
fueris ;
You will be of as much value
to others, as*you have been
to yourself.
These Adjectives are, magni (not multi), permagni, pluris (not m(0oris), plurimi„
maximi, parvi, mtnoris, minimi, tanti, quanti, tantidem, quantivis, quantUibet, quan-
ticunque.
lU LATIN GRAMMAR. [Adjectives.
e. They are also joined with these Genitives— a««t«, ftoeeU funteif nihili^ penri^ pili,
teruncti, hujus; as, " Me pib' aestimat," he values me at a hair.
d. The words vi/i, pattlo, parvo, minimo, magno^ nimiOy plurimo, dimidio^ dvpto^ are
sometimes put by themselves in the ablative, having the word pretio understood ; as,
" Vtli venit triticum,".wheat is sold at a low rate.
234. Nouns denoting the cause (why), the manner (how),
or the instrument^ by which an action is performed, are put
in the ablative ; as,
Palleo metu ;
Caesus est virgis ;
Mira celeritate rem peregit;
I am pale with fear.
EJe was beaten with i^'ods.
He finished the business with
wonderful dispatch.
1. The Cause is known by putting the question wAyf or wkeniforef The Instru-
ment, by with whatt or wherewith f and the Manner, by howf
2. The Cause is frequently expressed by per, ob^ and propter, with an accusative, and
by a, ab, de, e^ eXf prae^ with an ablative; as, " Legibus non propter metum^pai^\
nee loqui pr»e timore potult ; ob lucrum ; k&c de eatud."
3. The instrument rarely admits the preposition ; thus we do not say, ** Scribo cum
ealdmo," but " Scribo caldtno,'^ I write with a pen ; nor do we say, " Cum ocuiis video,"
but '* Ocuiis video." But when the Instrument is used merely as a concomitant^ the
preposition is generally expressed ; as, " Ingressus est cum gladio"' he entered with a
sword, that is, either in his hand or about him. When a man is the instrument, the
accusative with per, or the phrase opera alict^us, is preferable.
4. The Manner is frequently expressed by a, ao, cum, de, e, ex, per j as, " C&m
videret oratores cum severitate audirL" The substantive expressing manner should
generally have an adjective connected with it; but if there be no adjective, the prepo.
sition cum should always be used ; as, '* Literae cum fide scriptae." In some military
expressions the word cum is frequently omitted ; as, " Egressus omnibus covum.'*
6. The usual signs of the Ablative are, a/, by, from^ in, on, than, with; but these
words are sometimes applied to other cases ; thus at and by, signifying near, are ren.
dered by ad, apud, or Juxta* By, in beseeching and swearing, is made by per. From,
after verbs of differing and taking away, may to made by a dative. With, after verbs
of anger, is a sign of the dative ; after verbs of comparing or contending, may be made
by cum.
GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
L The Genitive after Adjectives.
235. Adjectives signifying desirCy aversion, or disdain \
knowledge, ignorance, or doubt; remembrance or forget-
fulness ; fear or confidence ; innocence or guili ; diligefice
or idleness; care or negligence; with verbal adjectives in
ax, nsy or tus, require the genitive case ; as,
Novitdtis avida ;
Praescia/t^^n ;
Timidus Deorum ;
Tempus edax rerum ;
Alieni appetens, sui profii-
sus :
Fond of novelty.
Foreknowing the future.
Fearing the Gods.
Time the devourer of things.
Coveting the property of
others, lavish of his own.
1 . To this Rule also belong Adjectives denoting zeal, curiosity, conscknuness, eapa-
city, incapacity, skill, prudence, participation, and their opposites ; also, sorrow, aiann,
anger, foresight, art, patience, resolution, liberality, profusion, parsimony, besides many
otiiers denoting an oMCiion of the mind.
2. It is to be observed, that Participles, used as such, do not come under this Rule ;
thus, " Pattens frtgus," signifies oua enduring cold at this moment, but " Patiens
frigbris," is applied to one who is capable of bearing cold habitually.
3. Peritus and cohsuUus have frequently an abmive ; rudis has sometimes an abla>
tive with in.
Quisquis Deorum ;
Manuum fortior est dextra;
'^hiiLvaiQ princvpum ;
Sapientum octavus ;
Adjectives.] SYNTAX. 115
4. The GenitiTe depending on an Adjective, is not alwars expressed in English by />/.
Sometimes no preposition whatever is understood ; as, " Futuri praescia," foreknowing.
the future. Sometimes it is expressed by in, with regard to, with respect to ; as, "Ruth's
belli," unskilful in war; '* inl^ger yitae," blameless with respect to his life} **JE^er
auimi," sick as to my mind; **Fessi rerum," wearied with or from their toils.
236. a. Words denoting a part of a greater number,
whether pronouns, comparatives, superlatives, or numerals,
require the genitive plural, from which genitive they take
their gender ; as,
Whoever of the Gods.
The right is the stronger of the hands.
The greatest of chiefs.
The eighth of the wise men.
1. If the SubstfintiTe be a collective noun, the genitive singular is used.
2. Par/t<t>M, that is, such words as denote a par< of a great number, agree in gender
with the substantives which they govern ; as, " Nulla sororum." But if the governed
noun be a collective, the partitive takes the gender of the noun understood ; as, "^tatis
suae docti$simu$ ; " that is, doctissimus vir. If aloo there are two substantives of dif-
ferent genders, the ^rtitive agrees with the former ; as, *^Indus flumlnum tnaximus"
3. The Comparative, with the genitive of partition, is used only when two persons
or things belonging to the same class, nature, or description, are compared ; as, **Mq}or
fratrum," the greater of the (two) brothers. The superlative, with the genitive of
fkartition, is used when three or more things of the same class, &c. are: compared ; as,
**Maximus fratrum," the greatest of (three or more) brethren. When the comparison
between two objects is expressed by than, the rule under the ablative of adjectives
must be used.
4. Whenever there is no division of the whole, the Latins do not use the genitive ;
there are ten qfus; of you, &c., would be expressed, as if written we are ten, you are
ten, nos sum us, or vos estis decem. Many of the soldiers, muki milites ; how many of
the scholars, quot discimdi. — All of us, all qfyou, all of them, are expressed as if written
toe all, you all, they all, and the verb agrees with each accordingly. — So also, both qfus,
both qfyou, &c., uterque nostn!lm, uterque vestrtlm, &c.
b. Instead of the Genitive Case, numerals and partitives sometimes govern the abla-
tive with de, e, ex (but never with ab), or the accusative with inter i as,
Unus efiliis, one of the sons. I Pauci de nostrt's, a few of our men.
Nemo ex vobis, none of you. | Primus inter omnes, the first among all.
Unus in the sense of the numeral one does not govern a genitive ; unus ex optimis ;
but when opposed to alter, it has a genitive ; as the one of. these, unus eorum,
c. Secundus sometimes requires a dative case ; as,
Haud ulli vetSrum virtute secundus ; | Inferior to none of the ancients in valour.
2. The Dative after Adjectives.
237. a. Adjectives followed in English by to or for^ and
signifying advantage or disadvantage; likeness or unlikeness;
pleasure, displeasure, or pain; submission or resistance;
trust or distrust ; friendship or hatred; fitness or unfitness ;
facility and relation to anything; with "many words com-
pounded with con, govern a dative case of the noun to which
they refer ; as,
Utilis agris;
Jucundus amlcis ;
Omnibus supplex ;
Contrarius albo ;
Est finitimus oratdri poeta ;
Contermina fonti ;
Useful to the lands.
Pleasant to his friends.
Submissive to all.
Contrary to white.
A poet is nearly alliedjto an orator.
Adjoining the fountain.
116 LATIN GRAMMAIL [Adfedhes,
b. This Rnle also eompreliends A^jectires rignifying dearmat or obwaaihf^
or unknown to, neamrss, ease or ^^ffiemUg, and eqmaliff or meqmoBlg.
e. Idem, with the Poets, sometimes has a dative Propior and p ro Mimm * take after
tbem the datire, or the aocosative goremed hj ad ondcrstood ; as, ** Propiiis nero''
** Proximos P om peimm** {ad mdentood.) JUatnms a genitiTe or aUative ; as, "Alienus
aliei0w ret, ab aliqud re." — See 343. 1.
d. Some AdjectlTos, rignirymg i^ectkm or pastkm, are followed hy mnr ergn with
the accusatire ; such as aeerb$u, animaius. benefteut, eomimnuu, endeMs, dmrm*, gra-
tlonu, gratnt, gravis, tmjriuM, impidcdbiUs, iniquus, n^furidnu, Uberdiis, memdax^ must-
ricor$t qffletoiut^ pn**, Moena^ $e9erms, ami tonms,
238. a. Some of these Adjectives have other cases besides
the dative ; thus,
Adjectives of likeness and unlikeness are followed gene-
rally by a dative, but sometimes by a genitive ; as.
Par ventis;
Domini similis ;
Like the winds.
Like your master.
1. To these maybe aMed, affmis,eommMnis,proprhu,/baanm$,JkhUteimternamtt,
mpertteM, aeyuaU$, amirarhu, adversus, amicus, inhmcus, famiiidris, eogndtus, pro-
pm^uus, tfictnus, soa'us, aemiUus, germdnus, intiduSt and necessarhu. Conscius has a
genitire of the thing and a datire of the person.
2. With simtlis,dusimtlis,the genitiva ex^reswes essential likeness in «a/sire,ftc; the
datire is chiefly used of simiiarity in outward appearance.
b. Adjectives signifying motion or tendency to a thing, take
after them the accusative with ady rather than the dative; as,
Ad praemia -^eXon'y \ Swift for rewards.
To this class belong ceier, tardus^ p^er, imjAger, lentus, praeceps, pardtus, pmmtu,
propensus, &c.
c. Adjectives signifying usefulness^ fitness^ and the con-
trary, with natuSf commodus, incommodus, and vehemenSy take
not only a dative, but frequently an accusative with ad ; as.
Utilis ad nullam rem ;
Natus ad gloriam ;
Useful for nothing.
Born for glory.
d. But when the object is a person, the dative and not the accusatlTe is used after
these adjectives. Natus, signifying " years old," talies an accusative ; as, ** Triginta
annos natus." See 230. 4. p. 1 13.
239. a. Verbal Adjectives in bilis, and Participles Passive
in dus, require a dative case ; as,
.NiiUi penetrabilis astro ; Penetrable by no star.
Vivendum est miki;
I must live.
b. Perfect Passive Participles in tus have sometimes a dative ; as, " Dilecta sorort,*'
loved bv thy sister. But among prose writers they are generally followed by an abla-
tive with a preposition ; as, " Mors Crassi est a muUis defleta, *'; the death of Crassus
was Lamented by many. Participles in dus are also frequently followed by an ablative
with a or ab.
c. Invius, obvius, pervius, impervius, and other Adjectives of a passive signification,
BM,faciUs, inddaiis,^e followed by a dative ; as, " Troja obvia GraOs.**
3. The Accusative after Adjectives,
240. Adjectives o£ dimension, such as longus, latus,crasstiSy
profundus, alius, and densus, govern nouns denoting
measure, generally in the accusative case, but sometimes in
the ablative or genitive ; as,
A^djectives.]
SYNTAX.
117
Turris centum pedes alta ;
Fons latus pedibtis tribus ;
A tower a hundred feet liigh.
A fountain three feet wide.
Words denoting measure, are digitus, palmus, pes^ cubitus^ uina^ passus, stadium^
miliare — The excess or deficiency ot measure is always put in the ablative ; as, " Turris
est sex pedibus altior qufcm murus."
241. An Accusative is sometimes put after adjectives and
participles governed by a preposition understood ; as,
Os humerosque Deo similis
(secundum understood) ;
JJumeros amictus (circa un-
derstood) ;
Like to a God, as to his coun-
tenance and his shoulders.
Covered round his shoul-
ders.
4. The Ablative after Adjectives,
242. Adjectives signifying plenty or want, govern the
ablative and sometimes the genitive case ; as,
Terra triumphis dives ;
"Expersfratidis ;
Plena timoris ;
A land rich in triumphs.
Void of deceit.
Full of dread.
1. To this rule belong Adjectives signifying rich, plentiful, full, fruitful, laden^
stored, free, partakiHg,pouferful, liberaltoboundingi and their opposites, ;>oor, destitute,
deprived^ empty, barren, void, weak.
2. Some of these Adjectives govern the Genitive only ; as, benipius, exsors, impoa,
impdtens, irritus, Uberdlis, mun^ficus, praelargus. Some the Ablative only ; as, bedtus,
d\ffkrtus,frv^er, mutUus, tentus, distentus, tumidus, turgidus. Some either ttie Geni-
tive or Ablative ; as, copiosus, dives, foecundus, ferax, immunis, indnis, inops, largus,
modus, modicus, immodicus, nimius, opulentus, plentis, potens, purus, refertus, satur,
vacuus, uber» The following sometimes take the Preposition a or ab ; Copiosus, fir-
mus, immunis, inanis, inops, instructus, liber, nudus, paratus, impardtus, solutus, va-
cuus. These have in with an Ablative ; Foecundus, modicus, parcus, pauper, tenuis.
3. Sometimes a Noun is put in the Ablative in connection with an Adjective, and go-
verned by the preposition m understood ; as, ** Nomine grammatlcus," a grammarian
in name ; " Re barbarus," in reality a barbarian.
243. Dignus, indignus, praedttus, capttis, contentus, ex*
torris, fretus, liber y and alienus ; also, Adjectives and Par-
ticiples signifying descent; as, N^atus, satus, ortuSy edttuSy
cretuSy oriundus, and progndtus, with these three, signifying
price, carusy viliSy and t^e^ia/i^, require an ablative pase; as,
Dignus honore ;
Tali ingenio praeditum ;
Oculis capti ;
YT^tw&Juventa ;
Nate ijea ;
Gemmis venale ;
Worthy of honour.
Endowed with such a disposition.
Blind.
Relying on youth.
Born of a goddess.
To be purchased with jewels.
Alienus has frequently an ablative with a or ab ; as, " A me alienum," foreign to
me. Sometimes it has a dative or a genitive ; as, ** Alienus ambitionij non aliena con-
silii."— Dignus, indignus, extorris,axA contentus,a.re sometimes followed by a genitive ;
as, " Indignus avorum"
118 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Adjectwes.
Comparison.
244. a. When two Nouns or Pronouns are compared with
each other, the one following the comparative is put in the
ablative^ if the word than is not expressed by quam ; as,
Vilius argentum est auro; \ Silver is less valuable than gold.
b. But when the Conjunction quam is expressedy the objects
compared are put in the same case ; as, " Vilius argentum
est quam aurum;*^ " Ego kominem callidiorem vidi neminem
quam Phormionem, " I have seen no one more cunning than
Phormio.
1. The comparison with qudm expressed is in general the preferable mode. The
comparative and not the superlative must be used when the comparison is limited to/tro
objects. The nominative and accusative onljr can be repeated after qithtn; and if any
other case precede the comparative, the verb sum with the nominatiTe must be used ; as,
" Loquor de viro sapientiore quSim tu es."
2. When the comparison lies not between two Nouns, but between two A^feelnes,
both Adjectives must be put in the positive with magis quUm, or both in the compara*
tive with qwim ; as.
Vir magis doetus qu&ro eloquetu ; or doc- ] A man more learned than eloquent.
iior qu&m eloquentior ; \
3. The word than before a Verb is always expressed by quhm ; as, *' Nihil turpius
st qudm menttri** nothing is more shameful than to lie.
4. Quitm must always be expressed after Adverbs in the comparative degree ; as.
** Oderam hunc multd pejds qucLm Clodium," I hated this man much more than I
hated Clodlus.
5. Before a Numeral the word quint is frequently omitted aiter mfnus,pltts, amplhts,
lon^ior, major, and mitutr, except when they are joined with a dative ; as. " In eopraelio
ceciderant minus duo aiUlia civium,** The numeral with its noun suffers no.change of case.
6. The Positive with mngis or minus is sometimes followed by the ablative; as,
" Hoc nemo fuit minus ineptus." — The Comparative is often followed byopinione, spe,
aequo, solito^justo, dicto ; ad. " Perfecisti rem spe dtius," thou hast .accomplished the
thing sootier than was expected.
7. A Noun is frequently put in the ablative after a Comparative Adjective, governed
not by the Comparative, but by some Preposition understood ; as, " Corpore validior,"
stronger in boay. So also, grandts, grandior ; magnmt, mt^or^moMimus i minor ^
minimut, are joined with the ablative natu, to denote age.
8. The Comparative of Adverbs is frequently rendered in English by rather {some-
what), too much, or too ; as, " Qu6d contumaciCts se gesserat.**— IVf and still with Com-
paratives are expressed, in the best writers, by etiam s in later writers by adkuc ; as,
** Punctum est quod vivimus, et adhme puncto minus.**
245, a. The proportionate excess or defect of one thing
compared with another, is put in the Ablative; — quanta^
tanto, quoy eo, or hoc ; as,
Quanto superiores sumus, tan-
to nos geramus submissius;
The more eminent we are, the
more humbly we should behave.
b. A seatence of the same kind may also be expressed by ut quisque with a Super-
lative, followed by ita with another Superlative ; as,
Ut quisque est sapienlistimus, ita est mo- \ The wiser a Man is, the more modest he
destissimus ; I is.
c. The accusatives aliquantum, tantum, quantum, are sometimes used adverbially
for the ablatives ; as, *' QuatUum doctior, tantum modestior.'*
Verds.] SYNTAX. 119
GOVERNMENT O^ VERBS.
1. The Accttsative Case after the Verb.
246. Transitive Verbs, and Deponents having a transitive
signification, govern the immediate object of an action in the
accusative case ; as,
Pater amat filium ;
Spes sola in miseriis homi"
nem consolatur ;
The father loves his son.
Hope alone comforts man in
distress.
1 . The same sense may be expressed by making the Accusative of an Active the
Nominative to a Passive Verb; thus, " Amat //mm," or ** Filt'us amatur." It is
only this accusative of the active which can become a nominative to a passive verb ;
thus we cannot say, " Flaceor" I am pleased, but ** Placet mihi" It pleases me ;
nor ** Creditur Jiiius" the sou is trusted, but " Creditur JUio; " because in the active
we say, " Placet mihi," and " Credit fiU'o."
2. The Accusative of Personal Pronouns is frequently understood ; as, *' Eo lavatum "
{me understood); '*Nox praecipitat" (se understood). Sometimes of nouns also;
as, " Ci^m fadam vital& ; " sacra being understood.
3. The Accusative of a Verb may be found by asking the question, whom f or what t
after the verb, and the word that answers the question is the accusative.
247- a. Intransitive Verbs have no accusative case, except
of words having a signification similar to themselves ; as,
f^tow jucundam vivere; \ To live a pleasant life.
b. Neuter verbs, signifying to smell or taste of any thing, as olere, redolere^ sapiSre^
resipere, have an accusntive ; as, " Olet ttnguenta; uva picetn resipiens." So in a meta-
phorical sense, " Olt^t peregrinum" Also sittre, to thirst after ; ardere^ to be inflamed
with the love of; eavere, to guard against, have an accusative. Lateo has an accusative
of the person ; as, " Res latuit patrem."
c. Sometimes other Neuter verbs assume an active signification ; as, " Horreo tene-
bras." Many Intransitires, when compounded with prepositions, become transitive,
and require an accusative.
d. The Neuters of Pronouns are frequently joined to Intransitives with which the
accusatives of nouns cannot stand ; as, ** Hoc lateor ; id tibi assentior ;" — so qtud^ ali-
quidj itlud, alia, caeiera, omnia, utrumque.
248. Doceo, and its compounds dedoceo and edoceo, verbs
of asking, demanding, entreating, and inquiring, and the verb
celo, govern two accusatives, one of the person, and another
of the thing ; as,
7(6 tuafata docebo ;
Posce Deos veniam ;
Celo te hanc rem ;
I will teach you your destiny.
Entreat the favour of the gods.
I conceal this circumstance from you.
1 . Doceoj edoceoy and dedoceo, are the only verbs of teaching which govern two accw
faff VM, the other verbs of teaching take an ablative sometimes with in; as, ** ErudiOt
instiluo, instruo, imbuo aliquem artibus, in Jure a'vili.*' So a\to,/brmo and iitformOt
' signifying to instruct, Erwiio, in the Poets, has a double accusative.
2. Doceo and its compounds, in the sense of giving ir^formation, frequently change
the accusative of the t/Ung into an ablative with de; as, ** De ttincre hostium senatum
edocet."
3. The verbs of demanding and entreatinet as, posco, reposco, postulo,flagito, orot
rogo, interrogOj frequently take an ablative of the person with ab and dej as, '* Abs te
■ hat Uteras poscSre : " those of inquiring, as, percontor, quaero, have an ablative of the
120 LATIN GRAMMAR. IVerbs.
tkfng with de; as, " Percontari aliauAn de reV Peto, in the sense of entreatmgy has
always an ablative o( the person witn abj as, '* Jb te peto."
4. Oto has sometimes a dative of the person, and sometimes an accosatiTe of the
person, and an ablative of the thing governed by de.
5. Coiuulo, in the sense of ask advice or propose for del^ratitm, has sometimes,
though rarely, a double accusative ; as, ** Nee te id consulo."
6. Also the verbs compounded with trans; as, transduco, trantgredior, transjia'o,
transmitto, frequentlv take two accusatives, the one governed by the verb, the other by
the preposition, whicn is sometimes omitted, sometimess expressed ; as, ** Bxercitum
Rhod&uum transduxit.**
249. The same verbs (doceo and its compounds, those of
asking, demanding, &c. and the verb ce/o) require in the pas-
sive an accusative of the thing ; as,
Rogatus est sententiam ;
Id celabar ;
He was asked his opinion.
I was kept from the knowledge
of that thing.
Summutn, at most t mininmnL, at least ; magnam partem: maximam partem, are
used adverbially in the accusative, without a preposition.
250. Verbs signifying name or title, election or appoint-
mentj estimation ^or opinion, have two accusatives in the
active voice ; as,
Romulus' urbem quam con-
didit Romam vocavit ;
Romulus named the city
which he built, Rome.
So praesto and praebeo, signifying to show, prove one's se{f^ have two accusatives ; as,
** Praebe te hominem'*
251. Decet, delectat^ juvat, oportet, govern an accusative
of the person with an infinitive ; as,
Non decet te rixari ;
Delectat me studere ;
It does not become you to
scold.
It delights me to study.
1. Decei, dekctat, Juvat, are frequently used personally, but oportet rarely ; as,
^ Llterae me delectaruntJ"
2. Fallityfugit, praeterit, latet, used impersonally, have an accusative, and generally
with the infinitive } as, ** Fugit me ad te scribere."
252. Attinet, pertinet,9Jid spectat, have an accusative with
ad; as.
Quod ad te attinet ; | Which belongs to you.
The preposition is, in some few instances, omitted.
2. The Nominative Case after the Verb,
253. a. Intransitive Verbs denoting existence, gesture, or
posture ; Passive Verbs denoting name or tithy election or
Verbs.] SYNTAX. 121
appointment, estimation, or opinion, have the same ease after
them as they have before them ; as,
Jra est furor ;
£go incedo Regina ;
Tempus actionis opportu-
num appellatur occasio ;
Cupio me non mendacem
putari ;
Licet illis esse timtdis ;
Anger is a madness.
I move (as) a Queen.
A proper time for action is
called opportunity.
I wish not to be thought a
liar.
They may be fearful.
a. Verbs denoting existence are, sum,flo^ existo^natcor^ reddor; — those of gesture or
of posture are, eo, incedOy venfo, cubo, sto^jnceo^ sedeo, evado,/ugio, dormio, maneo^ &c.
Passives, denoting name or title, are, appellor^ dicor, nominor^ perhibeor^ vocor, salutor;
of election or appointment, creor, elfgor, desfgnor^ renuncior, declnror; — of estimation,
or opinion, credor^ exisiimoTt habeor, Jwticor^ numeror^ putor^ videor, reperior, depre-
hendoTt censeor,
b. The Passives also of other Verbs, as of do, addo^ adjungo, adscrtbo^ acct'o, peto^
sumo, frequently take the same case after them as before them, when both words refer
to the same thing; as, ** Servus puero comes adjungltur," the slave is added to the boy
as a companion.
e. When the Infinitive of any Verb, particularly of sum, has the dative before it,
governed by an Impersonal Verb, or any other word, it may have after it either the
dative or the accusative ; as, " Licet mihi esse beato^^ or " Licet mihi esse beaium^*
me being understood ; thus, " Licet mihi {mt) esse beatum."
d. In English, Verbs of declaring, thinking, &c. are used either personally or imper-
sonally ; thus, Atticus is said to have been, or it is said that Atticus was ; but in Latin,
the personal construction is much more common, especially with videors aSi '* Atticus
▼idetur (dicitur, fertur, traditur, creditur, negatur, &c.) fuisse."
254. An Adjective in the nominative case may be placed
after any verb, when such adjective agrees with the nominative
case ; as,
Pii orant taciti;
Hie codex est mens ;
Vult esse princeps ;
Pious men pray silently.
This book is mine.
He wishes to be^r*^.
1 . But the accusative with the infinitive is more common with Cicero ; as, " Vult se
esse principem."
2. An Adjective is frequently joined with a Verb, when in English either an adverb
or a substantive with a preposition would be used ; as, " Laetus abit,'* he departs
gladly ; ** Frequentes convenerunt," they came m great numbers.
3. The Genitive Case after the Verb.
255. a. Sum, signifying the possession, duty, disposition,
sign, or lot, of any one, requires a genitive case ; as.
Pecus est Meliboei ;
Adolesceniis est majores natu
revereri ;
The cattle is Meliboeus's.
It is the duty of a young man
to reverence his elders.
Fio is frequently used in the same manner as sum; as, " Asia Bomanorum facta est,"
Asia came under the dominion of the Romans.
b. The Neuter Possessive Pronouns, meum, tuum, suum,
nostrum, and vestrum, are used with sum, and not the geni-
tives of the Personal Pronouns, mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri ; as,
Non meum est ; | It is not my business.
G
122 LATIN GRAMMAR. IVerbs.
e. Certain PotsesiiTe At^ectivet, a« regtus^ humama^ beUtunuSf senilis, are flrequently
used in the same manner ; at, ** Humanutn est errare,** to err Is human. .
d. The Phrases, U belongs to^ is eharacteristie qf^ is incumbent on^ it is far (the rich,
&c.), it is not every one who, it demands or requires, it betrays, &c. belong to this rule ;
thus, it Is wise, *' sapientis est,** not sapiens est; it is madness, *' dementiae est."
2S6, a. Verbs of accusing^ complaining or acquitting^
convicting or condemning, admonishing or warning, require
the person to be in the accusative, and the crime or offence
either in the genitive or in the ablative, with or without a
preposition ; as.
Alterum accusat prohri ;
Aliquem rei capitalis reum
fac6re ;
Eunir accdsare de negligen-
tia;
Suspicione absolvSre ;
Admoneto Ulum pristinae
Jbrfunae ;
He accuses the other of dis-
honesty.
To accuse any man of a ca-
pital crime.
To accuse him of negligence.
To acquit of suspicion.
Remind him of his former
condition.
h. The punishment is generally in the ablative, and some-
times in the genitive, particularly with capitis and voti ; as,
capitis or capite damnari. The accusative also with ad or in
is used ; as, " Damnare ad mortem.^
1. Uierque, ntdlus, tUter^ neuter, alius, amAo, and the superlative degree, maybe
joined to verbs of this Icind in the ablative case ; as. ** Accusas furd, an stupri ? iftro'
que, Tel de utroque." ** De plurimis simul accusaris," you are accused of very many
things at once.
2. The following Verbs of accusing, Ac. have an accusative of the thing, and not a
genitive:— ca/umiitor, earpo, corripio, criminor, cu^o, excOso, mulefo, ounio,repre-
hendo, sugtUo, taxo, tradHco, vUUpSro; as, ** Potentiam alicCkjus invidiose criminari.**
This construction is sometimes found with the verba which have a genitive or an abla-
tive ; as, " Ejus avdritiam perfldiamque accusArunt."
3. Accuso, incuso, insimulo, sometimes take two accusatives ; as, " Si id me non ac-
cusas." One of these accusatives is generally id, illud, quod, or the lilie.
4. Instead of the genitive. Verbs of admonishing or warning sometimes take an
ablative with de ; as, *^ De quo vos admonui." Sometimes moneo, and its compounds,
have two accusatives ; as, ** Sed eos hoc moneo ; ** but one of these accusatives l» gene-
rally a pronoun ; as, hoc, id, quod, &c.— or some word referring to number or quantity ;
as, unum, duo, mulia, nihil, nonnihil. Sometimes these verbs are followed by an m-
finitive, or by a subjunctive governed lqrtt<or nej as, "Pietas erga parentes officium
conservdre monet ;" .*' Immortalia ne speres monet annus."
257. YexhB o^ remembrance ^\i^ forgetfulness, — as, remt-
niscor, memtni, recorder, and obliviscor, — require more fre-
quently a genitive, but sometimes an accusative, of the person
or thing remembered or forgotten ; as,
Dataejidei reminiscitur ;
Oblivisci injUrias;
He remembers his promise.
To forget injuries.
1. Memini, when it signifies to make mention, is followed by a genitive or fagr de; as,
'* Neque h^fus rei meminit ;" *' De quibus multi meminSrunt."
2. Mihi in mentem venit is commonly used with a genitive case ; as, ** Venit mihi
Platonis in mentem." A nominative may, however, be used ; as, ** Multa mihi in men-
tem veniunt."
258. a. Verbs signifying the affections of the mind, — as.
Verbs.] SYNTAX. 123
douhtj anxiety, griefs skamcy destrcy &c. — govern either a
genitive or an ablative case ; as,
Pendeo animi vel animo ;
Discrucior animi Ye\ animo ;
I am in doubt.
I am tormented in my mind.
1 . Fastidfo, ntiror, and vereor^ are sometimes used with a genitive ; as, ** Fastidit
meiC^ he Is disgusted at me. — Some Verbs, signifying anger, pastiont Sec. have a
datire. — See the Rule under the Dative.
b. Satagoy misereor, and miser escOy require a genitive
CaS6 y as,
He is busy with his own af-
fairs.
Pity my distresses.
2. On the contrary, miseror, commiseror, to bewail, have an accusative.
c. Miserety miserescity pigety poenitet, pudet, taedety are fol-
lowed by an accusative of the person affected, and a genitive
of the thing which is the origin of those feelings ; as,
Rerum suarum satagit ;
Miserere laborum ;
Tut te nee miseret, nee
pudet ;
Me civitatis morum piget
taedetque ;
You neither pity nor are
ashamed of yourself.
I am grieved for, and weary
of, the manners of the city.
3. The Infinitive, or part of a sentence, sometimes supplies the place of the genitive;
as, '* Te id puduit/a<:^r<r."
A. Puriitum est Andperlaesum est are used In the Passive Voice, governing an accu-
sative of the person and a genitive of the thing, or followed by an Infinitive ; as, " Atti-
cuin nunquam susctpti negotii pertaesum est;*' ** CClm puderet vivos, tanquam puditu-
rum esset mortuos.'^
d. Interest (rarely refert) is used with a genitive of the
person interestedy and both of them with the accusative plural
of the Possessives meay tua, suay nostrtty vestrOy instead of
meiy tuiy suiy &c. ; as,
Interest magistrdtus tueri
bonos;
Tua refert seipsum n6sse ;
It concerns the magistrate to
defend the good.
It concerns you to know your-
self,
5. The Possessives tnea^ tua, sua, Ac. may have a genitive of the substantive to
agree with them in sense ; as, " Interest mea oratoris" it is the interest of me as an
orator. -> Whether these Possessives are neuters plural or feminine singular, med, tua,
sua, nostra, vestra, is undecided.— J2<yir/ tua signifies ad tua negotia or commoda.
e. The thing that is of importance is not expressed by a
substantive, but by an accusative vHith an infinitive ; or by uty
that, ney that not, with a subjunctive and the interrogative
particles ; as, '^ Multum mea interest, ut diligens sis ; or, te
esse diligentem ; or, utrum diligens sis necneJ* Idy Uludy
quody quidy express what one is interested in.
f. The degree of interest {how mttch, how littky) is ex-
o 2
124? LATIN GRAMMAR. [Verbs.
pressed by the genitives tanti, guanti, magniy parvi, pluris,
tantidem, quanticunque ; or, bj the neuters tantum, quan-
tum, magnuniy plurimum ; or by the adverbs magnoperCy
multum^ magis, maxime, nihil, parum, mintme ; as,
Tanti refert honesta agere ;
Of such concern is it to do
honest things.
4. The Dative Case after the Verb.
259. a. All Transitive Verbs require the immediate object
of an action to be in the accusative case, but the remoter ob-
ject, or that to or for which any thing is done, or from which
any thing is taken away, to be in the dative case ; as.
Dedit mihi librum ;
Mea mihi ademerunt ;
He gave the book to me.
They took my property from me.
b. To and foTt in the sense of acquisition, are tlie usual signs of tlie dative. But tOt
after attinet, pertinet^ specicU^ and after Verbs of caUingy exhorting^ inviting^ provoking^
speakings is made by ad. To and /or, after motion^ bom, fit, prone, ready, are made by
ad or in. For, signifying on account of, is a sign of the ablative, or it mav be expressed
by ob, propter, de, prae, or pro. For, before a word of price, is a sign of the ablative ;
signifying exchange, reward, or instead qf, is made by pro.
The Verbs belonging to this General Rule are the follow-
ing : —
260. Verbs o£ comparing, giving, adding, and taking away^
restoring and denying, promising and paying, declaring^ in-
forming, or explaining, have, if transitive, both a dative and
an accusative ; but if intransitive, a dative only ; as,
To compare great things with
small.
I will give you advice.
Who can refuse verses to
Gallus ?
He paid me the debt.
Tell me.
Parvis componere magna ;
Consilium vobis dabo ;
Neget quis carmina Gallo?
.Ms alienum mihi numeravit;
Die mihi;
1. Verbs of compar/iii:, namely, comparo, compono,Bnd coij/ero, have frequently an
t>lative with ctfiny as, " Dicta r«m/ac/tf componere
ad and inter j as, ** Si ad eum comparatur, nihil est."
2. Verbs of taking awi^ have frequently an ablative with a, ab, de, e, ex; as, **Er!-
pite nos e* miieriis.
3. Verbs oi Joining, conceding, deb'vering up, belong to this Rule.
261. a. Verbs signifying advantage or disadvantage;
pleasure or displeasure ; trust or distrust ; command or per^
suasion ; resistance or obedience ; threatening or being angry
with ; studying, healing, and the Verbs nubo and parcoj are
generally Intransitive, governing only a dative ; as,
Non potes mihi commodare ;
Flacuisse tibi;
You cannot serve me.
To have pleased you.
Verbs,] SYNTAX. 125
Ne crede colori ;
Imperat ventis;
Irascor amicis ;
Studere grammdttcae ;
Mederi morbo ;
Venus nupsit Vulcano ;
Victis parcere ;
Trust npt to beauty.
He commands the winds.
I am angry with my friends.^
To study grammar.
To heal a disease.
Venus was married to Vulcan.
To spare the conquered.
b. But^wvo, laedOy offendo, delecto, rego, andgubemo, go-
vern an accusative. The Verbs tempero and moderor, signi-
fying *' to bound, to 7noderate,^^ have a dative of the thing ;
to sparCy a dative of the person ; signifying to " regulate und
arrange^^ an accusative. Dominor has a dative or genitive,
or an accusative with a preposition. Impero has an accusa-
tive of the thing wanted ; as, " Caesar obstdes imperat,**
To the Verbg enumerated as governing the dative, may be added verbs of gratffica-
tiotit consent^ faioning or flattery, allurement, dftamntennnce, impartiality, incivility,
detraction, reproach, endurance, forbearance, congratulation, caution, apprehension,
grudging, envy, malice, introducing, and undeceiving,
c. Many Verbs, when used with different significations, are followed by different
cases ; thus, *' Caveo tibi," I provide, or am concerned for tliv safrty : but *^Caveo te,"
or " a te," I avoid thee, am on my guard against thee. " iietuo, tkmeo tibi," I am
alarmed on thy account : but*" Metuo or Umeo te, " I fear thee. " Cotisulo tibi," (pro-
spicio, provideo), 1 provide for thy interests: but " Consulo te," I tk$k thy advice.
** Sotvo tibi pecuniam,*^ 1 pay money to thee: but **Soivo te," I free thee (as from
fear).
d. Some Verbs have the same signification, even when used with different cases ; as,
"Accidit auribus, or accidit ad aures. ConfidBre rei ulicui, or re aliqua , or m re etliqud.'*
262. a. Verbs compounded with the adverbs bene, male,
and satis; and with these prepositions ad, ante, con, in,
inter, ob, post, prae, sub, super, have generally a dative case ;
if transitives, with an accusative also ; but if intransitives,
without it ; as,
Di tibi benefaciant ;
Adspirat fortuna labori ;
Impendet omnibus periculum ;
"Postponof amae pecuniam ;
May the gods do good to thee!
Fortune favours our enterprise.
Danger hangs over all.
I regard money less than re-
putation.
b. Adspergo and insper^o, circwndo, and circuntfundo, dono and impertio, exuo and
induo, are Uked either with an accusative of the thing and a dative of the person, or
with an accusative of the person, and an ablative of the thing. " Interdico, I forbid,
governs a dative of the person, and an ablative of the thing jirohibit(>d ; as, " Interdico
tibi dome med," I forbid thee my house. The thing prohibited is, however, frequently
in the accusative ; as, " Interdico tibi usum purpurae."
c. Some Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with prepositions, become transitive,
and take only an accusative ; as, adorior, aggredior, alluo, invado, ineo, praecedo, obeo,
oppeto, adeo, and convenio ; egredior and excedo (to transgress) ; and particularly
words compounded with circum, praeter, and trans.
d. Others again, as the following, have with the same sense sometimes a dative and
sometimes an accusative,— a»/«cec(ere, antecellere, anteire, praecurrcre^ praetre, prae-
grSdi, praestare,praestolari,praeverlire,aUntrare, ndjncere, illtidire, tnsultare, obtreC'
tare. Praecedhre has commonly the accusHtive, excetiSre only the dative. Despero,
Q 3
126 LATIN GRAMMAR. IVerU
whra traniltive, gorerns an accusatiTe ; when Intransitive, either a dative or an ablatire
with de. Praeire, to precede-, has an accusative , but when it signifies '* to rehearse
words to be repeated bf another," it has a dative i as, '* Praeire nriW^Bnu sacFameDtmn.*'
Attendo and dtficio have both a dative and an accusative.
« e. Compound Verbs that have a transitive signification solely Trom being joined to
prepositions, cannot be used as the nominative in the passive; thus we can say,
^* praeterJluSre wrbem^* but not *' »r&s prafterftuiiur.**
Jl In prose, the Preposition used in compound verbs is fre-
quently repeated with its proper case, and particularly with
verbs compounded with ad, con, de, in ; as,
Conferte banc pacem cum Compare this peace with that
illo bello ;
war.
A father is to me ; that Is, I have a father.
It is destruction to the flock.
1 . IneutnbOt signifying " to lean or press upon," has a dative ; signifying '* iqppljing
to a pursuit," is followed by ad or in.
2. Many Verbs, compounded with a6, dr, and et^ take the ablative, either with or
without the repetition of the preposition ; such as, abeue, absittere., abstmere, tdire,
e*ire, decedSre^ fxcedSre^ dejicBre, depelBhre, effbrre^ evadSre.
263. Certo, congredior, and pugno, have, in prose, an ab-
lative with cum ; but, with the Poets, a dative ; as,
Frigida pugnabant caUdis; \ Cold things contended with hot.
Misceo has both a dative and an ablative in prose. Loquovj
in prose, takes cum.
264. a, Sumy used for habeo, or followed in English by of
or to, has a dative ; as,
Est mUii pater ;
Exitium pecori est ;
b. Sum, signifying abilt^ or readiness for any thing, and sometimes when 'the a^jec-
tives idaneus, aptus. Sec. are understood, requires a dative ; as, *' Sum oneri /erendo"
I am capable or bearing the burden.
c. Dejit and suopetit have a dative ; as, ** Lac mihi non aestate novum, non frig6re
defit ; new milk is not wanting to me either in summer or in winter. ** Cut rerum
suppetit usus," who has a suflScIency.
d. To this Rule may be referred the form of naming g as, " Est miki nomen Petro^
Petri, or Petrus ; " my name is Peter, or the name is to me Peter. The dtUive of the
name is more common than either the nominative or genitive, but both of these may
l>e used.
265. The compounds of sum, except possum, have a dative ;
as,
Mihi nee obest, nee prodest ; It neither hurts nor profits me.
Deest sibi ; He is wanting to himself.
Absumt signifying absence, governs an ablative with a or ab.
266. Sum, do, duco,Jio, habeo, mitto, projlciscor, relinquo,
tribuo, venio, and verto, may have one dative of the person,
and another of the thing which expresses the purpose, effect,
destination, advantage, or disadvantage ; as.
The sea is as a destruction to the sailors.
Exitio est mare nautis ;
Id mihi vitio vertis ; | You impute it as a fault to me.
Verbs.^ SYNTAX. 127
267. The Impersonal Verbs acetdit, benefit, contingit, con-
venit, eocpedity libet, licet, liquei, and other impersonals put
acquisitively, require a dative case ; as,
Peccare nemmi licet ;
Mihi haud liquet ;
268. a. The Poets frequently use the dative of Pronouns,
instead either of the genitive case or of a Possessive Pronoun ;
as, " Ei corpus," for '* ejus corpus ;" " Mihi manus,'* for "wiea
It is lawful for none to sin.
It is not clear to me.
manus."
b. The datives mihi, tibi, sibi, nobis, vobis, are frequently
added to Verbs in an almost redundant manner ; as,
SuO Sibi gladio hunc jugulo ; I I stab this man with his own sword.
Words thus used, mostly occur in confidential letters, speeches, &c.
5. The Ablative Case after the Verb,
269. a. Nouns denoting the cause, the manner, or the in-
strument by which an action is performed, are put in the
ablative case. See No. 234. p. 114.
b. With Passive Verbs, the principal agent, if a living being
or person, must be put in the ablative with a or ab ; as,
Laudatur ab his ;
Caesus est a lupo ;
He is praised by these.
He was killed by a wolf.
c. But if the agent after a Passive Verb does not denote a
living being, it must be in the ablative without a or ab ; as,
Cometae radiis solis obscu- Comets are obscured by the
rantur ; rays of the sun.
1. If this agent be considered by personification as a living being, it will take a or
ab ; as, " Hie error a Philosophid pellatur."
2. Per properly denotes the medium of some action which baa its source in a re-
moter cause ; as, " Per litSras a te sum admonltus."
d. The dative is frequently used in poetry, and sometimes
in prose, with Passive Verbs, instead of a or ab with the ab-
lative ; as.
Neque cernitur ulli ;
Cui non sunt auditae De-
mosthenis vigiliae ?
Nor is he seen by any:
By whom have not the watch-
ings of Demosthenes been
heard of?
e. The matter (or materials) of which a thing is made, is
put in the ablative, with de, e, or ex ; as,
Templum de marmore ; \ A temple built of marble.
G 4
128 LATIN GRAMMAR. IVerbs.
270. a. The ablative is added to Nouns, Verbs, and Parti-
ciples, to express a circumstance bjr which they are more
exactly fixed and defined, where, in English, the words tw,
as to, &c. would be used ; as,
Agesilaus claudus fuit altera Agesilaus was lame in one
pede ; foot.
b. The Poets put these limiting expressions in the accusa-
tive, in imitation of the Greeks ; as,
Nudae hrachia ; \ Naked as to the arms.
c. Verbs of buying^ selling, valuing, lending, hiring, and
esteeming, take an ablative when the price or cost is exactly
specified h J sl noun (See No. 233. p. 113.), but a genitive
when it is expressed by an adjective ; as,
^stimo tribus denariis ; I value it at three pence.
TatUi eris aliis quanti tibi fuSris ; You will be of as much value to others, as
you have been to yourself.
d. Mereor, connected with the Adverbs bene, male, pejits,
optime, pessime, has an ablative case with the Preposition
de ; as,
De me bene meritus est ; | He deserved well of me.
271. a. Verbs signifying j^Zcw^ or want, filling or empty ^
ing, loading or unloading, and also verbs oi clothing, require
an ablative case ; as.
Abundat divitiis ;
Caret omni culpa;
Implentur vino ;
Te mendaciis onerarunt
Te hoc crimine expedi ;
He abounds with riches.
He has no fault.
They are filled with wine.
They loaded you with calumnies.
Clear yourself of this charge.
Induit se purpura ; \ He arrays himself in purple.
1 . To thiii Rule belong the Verbs privare^ spoliare^ orbare^ frattdare^ d^raudarCt
nudare, exuSre, and others of a similar meaning.
2. Verbs of clothing have, among the Poets, sometimes two accusatives ; as, " Induit
$e calceos" he put on his shoes. The Verbs induo and eruo have sometimes an accu-
sative of the thing and a dative of the person ; as, " Sibi torquem induit."
b, Egeo, impleo, compleo, and indigeo, sometimes govern a
genitive ; as,
Implentur veteris Bacchi ; They are filled with old wine.
Quorum indiget usus ; Things which utility requires.
272. a. Verbs of deliberating or delivering from, of re-
moving, keeping at a distance, preventing, banishing, or se^
parati7ig, require an ablative case, either with or without
a Preposition ; as,
Athenienses belh liberati j The Athenians were freed
sunt ; from war.
Verbs.]
SYNTAX.
129
Haec me imago dofno mea pel-
let;
Tefasce levabo ;
Disjungamus nos a corport-
btis ;
This image will drive me from
my house.
I will ease you of your load.
Let us separate ourselves from
our bodies.
1. After Verbs signifying to be remote from, to keep off, to iijferfrom, not to coincide
vith ; as, discrepo, drscordo, dijfkro^ dissideo, diuto^ arceo^ dejendo^ &c. the Poets fre-
quently use the dative instead of an ablative.
2. When a separation from persons is spoken of, the Preposition ah must always be
used.
b. Desino, desisto, abstineo, have sometimes a genitive
among the Poets ; as, ** Desine quereldrum, " cease from or
leave off complaints.
273. Verbs or Participles signifying origin or descent; as,
nascor, natus, ortus, prognaius, oriundtiSy sattt^, cretusy editus,
have an ablative, either with or without a Preposition ; as,
Bonis prognata parentihus ; Born of good parents.
Edita de magno flumxne ; Descended from a great river.
274. a. FungoTy fruovy utovy vescovy potiovy dignoty laetovy
glorior, gaudeOy niiOTy with their compounds abutor, perfruovy
defungoTy perfungovy and the Verbs mutOy communico. and
supersedeOy require an ablative case ; as,
Functus est munere ;
Pace frui ;
Utere sorte tua ;
Auro potltur ;
Me dignor honore ;
Mutat quadrata rotundis ;
Caesar praelio supersedere
statuit ;
He discharged his office.
To enjoy peace.
Use your fortune.
He takes possession of gold.
I think myself worthy of
honour.
He changes square things for
round.
Caesar resolved to forbear
fighting.
1. Under this Rule are included the following ; eptdor^ deUctor^ vivo, vicato^ eaniitOt
siOt consto, consihto, and laboro.
2. With consto^ ItAoro, nitor^ and glorior, a Preposition is frequently expressed ; as,
** Ci^m constemus ex animo,"
b. Potior frequently governs a genitive ; as, " Potiri rerum ; **
to obtain the supreme command. Utoryfruoryfungovy potior y
and vescor, are sometimes found with an accusative.
m
275. a. "When a Noun or Pronoun is connected with a
participle, expressed or understood, and neither agrees with
a Verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence, it is
put in the ablative absolute ; as,
o 5
130 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Passive Verbs, Sr
Libertate oppressa, nihil est Libertj being abolished, we
quod speremus ; have nothing to hope.
Teduce; You being leader.
h. The ablative absolute is used to specify time ; as, '* Im^
perante AugustoJ^ This is frequently rendered into English
bj wketiy since, whiUy although.
Another ablative must not be placed in appotUiom with the ablative abso'ute. We
maj say, ** Porcia marito mmemto dixit," Porcia having found her husband said ; but
not " Marito cogitanie ixofnto** having found her husband wrapped ip thought ; this
should be expressed by " Quum maritum cogitantem invenisset.
PASSIVE, NEUTER PASSIVE, AND IMPERSONAL
VERBS.
276. a. For directions with respect to the Agent after
Passive Verbs, see No. 269. by c. p. 127.
b. Neuter Verbs, and also Neuter Passives, as vapuloy
veneoy liceo, exulo, fioy have the same case after them as
Passive Verbs have ; as,
Aforti viro cad^re ;
A praeceptdre vapulabis ;
Ab hoste venire ;
To fall, or be killed, bj a
brave man.
You will be beaten by the
master.
To be sold by an enemy.
277. a. Verbs which govern two accusatives in the active
voice, retain one in the passive ; and those which govern
an accusative, with a genitive, dative, or ablative, retain the
genitive, dative, or ablative, in the passive ; as,
You shall be untaught those
manners.
You are accused of theft.
You will be considered as a
laughing-stock.
You will be deprived of your
office.
b. Passive Verbs of clothing, such as induory amicfor, crngor, acewgor, also exuor^
dhcingor, and their participles, are frequently by the Poets joined to the accusative ; as,
" Induitur faciem cuitttmqjae Dianae." With prose writers they govern the ablative ;
as, " Cingltur gladio.'*
278. Impersonal Verbs may be applied to any person or
number, by puttii% after them, in their proper cases, those
words which form the nominative to regular verbs; as, "2)e-
lectatme," it delights me, or I delight; ^^ Placet tibi,* it
pleases thee, or thou pleasest; ^^ Pugndtur a militibuSy^ it is
fought by the soldiers, or the soldiers fight.
Dedoceberis istos mores ;
AccussLTis furti ;
Habeberis ludibrio ;
Privaberis magistratu ;
Participles, §-c.] SYNTAX. 131
1. Id many general expressions, indeed, the passive voice is used impersonattyt where
the active might be usea ; thus, *'Ambulatum est" it has been wall&ed by us, or we have
walked. But with Verbs of seeming and Passive Verbs of declaring^ thinking &c. the
personal construction is preferable to the impersonal ; thus. It seemed that Miltiades,
or Miltiades seemed, not to be able to be a private man, " Miltiades videbatur non posse
esse privatus."
2. Passive Impersonals take after them the case of their personals, with the exception
of the accusative of the active voice ; as, " Ut mcfforibus natu assurgatur, ut supplicum
raisereatur. Favetur mihi."
3. Most Neuter Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive voice ; as, ** Non
invidetur illi aetati sed ^iam favetur.'*
4. When the English of such Deponents as have an active signification is expressed
passively t such passive expression must be changed Into an active one ; thus, I have
been encourageid by my father ; that is, My father has encouraged me, " Pater me
exhortatus est ; " I was forgotten, or, they forgot me, " Me obliti sunt."
GOVERNMENT AND USE OF PARTICIPLES, GE-
RUNDS, AND SUPINES.
279. Participles, Gerunds, and the Supine in um, govern
the same case as their verbs ; as,
Amans virtutem ;
Caxens Jraude ;
Cupidus utendi tempore ;
Scitatum oracula ;
Loving virtue.
Wanting deceit.
Desirous of employing my time.
To consult the oracle.
1. Terfra/ Nouns sometimes govern the case of the verbs from which they are de-
rived ; as " Justitia est obtemperatio leglbus."
2. Participles used as Adjectives (generally ending in lu) follow the rules of ad-
jectives.
280. ExosttSy perosuSy and frequently pertaestiSy have an
active signification, and govern the accusative ; as,
Taedas exosB, jugales ; \ Hating marriage.
Pertaesus^ used Impersonally, governs the genitive ; as, '^ Pertaesum levUatis.**
28 1.) Participles denote the time of an event, and are used
in the sense of asy when, althotigh ; as.
Curio, ad focum sedenti, au-
rum Samnltes attulerunt ;
The Samnites brought gold to Cu-
rius, as he sat near his fire-place.
1 . The Participle is frequently used instead of the infinitive after Verbs of hearing,
8eeingy\ and others of a similar meaning ; &s, '* Audivi eum canentem^* I heard him
singing.
2. In order that a Verb may be turned into a Participle, it is necessary that there
should be two sentences, which are so closely connected that the one expresses either
the cause or consequence, or at least, some explanation of the other ; thus, (1)1 rejoice
(2) when thou comest ; (I) When my father had gone, (2) my friends came to me. In
such instances, the sentence which is first conceived, or to which are prefixed the par-
ticles of time, tohen^ whilstt ssnee^ after that, &c. must be 'expressed by the ablative
absolute ; thus, for
Gaudeo cum venis, 1 TGaudeo te vem'enie.
Postquam paier prqfectust est, venerunt V we can say < Pater prqfeeto, venenmt ad me
ad me amici. J ; L amici.
When there is only one subject, and both the actions implied by the verbs are re-
ferred to this subject, then a Verb, and not a Participle, must be employed ; thus, in the
expression" Postquam pater profectus est, non scripsit" the nominative fa^eristhe
subject of both prqfectus and scripsit. Again, " Sol oriens fugat Stellas,'^ when the
gun rises it puts to flight the stars ; here, sol and oriens must be in the nominative,
because the same sun that rises puts to flight the stars. Had "sole orient'* been
G 6
152 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Gerunds and
employed, the expression woald hare been unintelligible, because /V^af would have bad
no nominatire. On the contraiy, we must say, ''^ S<Se orienie stellae fugiunt ;" because
here there are two different subjects, the sun and the stars.
3. The Participle must remain in the same tense as the Verb for which it is substi.
tuted, that is, the present remains a present, &c. Yet the present active participle may
be employed to express the imperfect, and the perfrct participle of the passive (or de-
ponent verb, to express the pluperfect, if no ambiguity in either case will arise. On the
other hand, as the Latin has no perfetA active participle, nor mresetU participle passive,
these tenses cannot be expressed hy the participle ; thus, " Homo, ^uia Deo amatur,
felix est," must remain unaltered; since there is no participle corresponding to amatur
we must employ a deponent ; thus, *' Homo fruen* amove Dei" &c. So also, *' Filius,
qui patrem amavt't," cannot be expressed by a participle, unless we employ a deponent;
as, ** Filius complextu amore patrem," &c. If, therefore, a participle must be employed,
we must employ an equivalent deponent ; thus, for ** Amari" we may say, *' Amore
alieujus frui ;*' and for "Amare" we may say, ** Amore aliquem complecti.*' In general,
deponents may most readily be used in the participle, since they have participles of all
tenses.
4. Two or more participles in the same case cannot correctly come together without
the conjunctions et, or, &c. Two participles thus connected by et, may lie considered
as one, and referred to one personal verb ; as, ** Hac re visa et audita abii.'*
5. The English without^ with a verbal substantive, is expressed in Latin, not by sine^
but by nisi or non, ornuUus with the participle!; as, " Nisi perspeculatus lucorum situs,**
without exploring the localities ; " NtUla praestituti diet** without iixing any day of
payment.
282. A Substantive with a Perfect Passive Participle, or
with a Future Perfect Passive, is used instead of two sub-
stantives ; as,
Post natum Christum ;
Virtute colenda ;
After the birth of Christ.
By the practice of virtue.
283. a. The Participle in rw*is used after Verbs of motion,
to denote the purpose ; as,
Pergit consuUurus ; \ He goes to consult.
b. Instead of this Participle, the Supine in um, the Sub'
junctive with qui or ut, and the Gerund in dum with ad, may
be used, — as *^ Pergit consultum, or ut consuleret, or ad con^
sulendum.'^
1. For the Case Absolute ^ see No. 275.-2. For the Participle in dtw, see No. 290. ..
GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES.
28 \, a. The Gerund has an active signification, corre-
sponding, in general, with the English Participle in ing, and
governing the same case as the Verb from which it is de-
rived; as,
Pauci idonei sunt ad aliis im- Few men are fit to command
perandum ; others.
A Gerund cannot take an Adjective in agreement with it.
b. The Gerundive, or Participle in dus, has a passive
signification, denoting necessity, fitness, or something m-
tended; — what must, should, or is to be done,
285. The Gerund in di is used as a genitive, governed by
substantives and relative adjectives ; as,
Gerundives.^
SYNTAX.
133
Tempos legendi;
Studiosus avdiendi;
The time of reading.
Desirous of hearing.
This Gerund is sometimes construed with the genitive plural ; as, " Facultas ag}-o-
rum condonandi," for agros. It is sometimes also joined with the genitive of Pro-
nouns, with which the participle cannot agree ; as, *' In castra veneruut sui purgandi
causA."
286. a. The Gerund in do of the dative case is governed
by Adjectives which require a dative, particularly by those
denoting useful, Jit, hurtful, like, and unlike; as,
Utilis scribendo ; | Useful for writing.
1. The Adjective is sometimes understood ; as, " Cdm tolvendo civitates non essent ;"
tliat is, " pares tolvendo J**
2. The Gerund iu do sometimes depends on a Verb ; " Epidicum quaerendo operam
dabo."
3. Gerunds have sometimes a passive sense ; as, ** Aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo"
b. Many of these Adjectives, however, take ad with the
Gerund in dum, to express purpose or design ; as,
Apt us ad videndum; | Proper to see.
287. The Gerund in do of the ablative is used as an
ablative of the cause or manner ; also, with the Prepositions
a, ab, de, e, ex, in; as^
I am weary with walking.
The memory is improved by
exercising it.
Punishment frightens from
sinning.
288. The Gerund in dum is used as an accusative,
governed by the Preposition ad or inter ; as.
Defessus sum ambulando ;
Memoria excolendo augetur ;
Poena a peccando absterret;
Promptus ad audiendum ;
, Attentus inter docendum ;
Ready to hear.
Attentive in time of teaching.
This Gerund is sometimes governed by anti\ circa^ or ob ; as, " Ante domandtmt."
289. a. When the Gerund would take an object in the
accusative, a Gerundive (Participle in dus) is used instead,
which agrees with its Substantive in gender, number, and
case. The agent or doer is in the dative.
We must use the Gerundive in dtu^ and
Thus, instead of using the Gerund, and
saying :
Nam. Nobis heneeducandum ettpneroa ;
Gen. Ars ct'viiatem gi/Aemandi est diffl-
cillima ;
DcU. Aslnus idoneus est onera portando;
Ace. Puer apkus est ad litteras tractan-
dum ;
Aid. Litteras tractando ingenium acul-
tur ;
b. But when the object in the accusative is the neuter of an Adjective or Pronoun.
then the Gerund must not be changed into the Gerundive in </<;«/ thus, '* Stadium
vera cognoscendi " (not verorum cognoscendorum).
c. The genitive singular masculiike of the Gerundive in dus is used with sut\ even
when it is plural or feminine singular; as, " Purgandi sui causa," for the sake of clearing
themselves.
say:
Pueri nobis bene educandi sunt.
Ars civitaiis gubemandae est difficillima.
Astnus idoneus est oneribus portandis.
Puer aptus est ad litteras tractandas.
Litteris tractandis ingenium acultur.
134 LATIN GRAMMAR. [5ap«er.
d. The Genmds of thoie Vciba whidi donot gOTcra the accosatrre, wn not duu^ed
into the Participle in dtus thus, we mastnj, ** Ptuxendmm est aumuds," and not
** Inhnid sunt parcauU** we must (pare our enemies. But the Verbs mtar, lAmtor,
fruor^ fttngar^ and potior, thoagh thej do not govern the acc n sa ri Te, yet etiaoge their
Gerands into the Participle in tfitf ; as, ** Jmatttiatjrmtmdae cansi.**
290. The Gremndive (Participle Fatnre in duSy doj dum^^
is employed to denote duty or necessiiyj and requires the
object on which the duty or necessity rests to be in the
dative case ; as,
Mihi exorandus ;
Dlligentia nobis est semper
adhibenda ;
Suo cuique judicio utendum
To be prevailed on by me.
Diligence must always be
employed by us.
Each must use his own judg-
est ; [ ment.
1 . The datire is freqaently understood : as, ** Bondum est ** (understand mobis).
2. The Neuter of this Participle, with at, retains the government of the Verb ; as,
** Studendum est literu,^ one must attend to literature. But when the verb lias an
entire passive, the participle is made to agree with its substantiTe ; as, "'■ Virtus est
amanda,^ and not ** Amandum est virtrntem."
3. A, with the ablative, is sometimes found with this participle ; as, ".Haec atnein
dicendo praetereunda non sunt."
291. The Participle in dus is also used instead of an In-
finitive, after euro, do, trado, mitto, permitto, accipio, sus-
cipio, and similar verbs, to express the purpose or object for
which a thing is done ; as,
Caesar commands the lieute-
nants to cause ships to be
built.
Caesar legatis imperat, uti
naves aedijicandas curd-
rent;
SUPINES.
292. The Supine in um is put after a Verb of motion, to
express the object ; as,
Spectatum veniunt ; | They come to see.
1. This Supine is sometimes put after verbs which do not strictly denote motion; as
*' DoJUiam nuptum:'
2. Instead of the Supine in um, we may use the gerunds, participles in dm$ and rus,
or ut with a subjunctive ; as, *' Eospectatum,adtpectandum{spectandicttusd,ludorum
spectandorum causd or gratid, md $pwumdo9 ludos, speetaturtUt and vt spectem.**
293. The Supine in u is used after such Adjectives as —
hard, easy, honest, good, bad, disagreeable, useful, wonderful,
and the like; and also after y*a«, nefas, and opus ; as.
Difficile dictu est; It is hard to say.
Si hoc fas est dictu ; If this is proper to be said.
Only a few Supines are used in this way ; as, dictu, auditu, cogniiu, faetu, Awentu.
^'i and the gerund, or sum and the infinitive, are generally used with/actiUr, difflciUt,
Time, S-c] SYNTAX. ' ' 135
TIME, SPACE, MEASURE, AND PLACE.
294. Nouns denoting a point of time, answering to the
question when? are put in the ablative without a Preposition ;
as,
Venit hora tertid ; \ He came at the third hour.
1 . By nighty by day, are expressed by inierdt'u, nociu, and sometimes, but less fre-
quently, by die, noete. In the evening, is expressed by vesperi or vegpere* In tempore^
or tempore alone, is used for in good time,
2. The time br/ore and time itfter are expressed by ante and post, with an ablative ;
as, " Tribua annis post decessit," or " Tribus post annis ;" or by an accusative ; as,
" Post tres annos,'* or " Trespcst annos.*'
3. Qudm, followed by a Verb, is used with ante and post in different ways ; thus
'* Tribus annis (or tertio anno) postqudm venerat ; " *' Post tres annos qudm (or post
annum tertium qudm) venerat.'^ Sometimes post is omitted ; as, *' Tertio anno quant
venerat." So, " Postero anno quim" &c., the year after, &c. ; '* Priore annoqucLm^*
&c., the year before.
4. The point or part of time is sometimes expressed bv the Prepositions m, de, ad,
per; as, '* /n tempore veni; Surgunt denocte latrones. A point or space o( future
time is put in the accusative with in ; and«the exact time at which a thing is to be done
in the accusative with eui ; as, " Nostra ad diem dictum fient."
5. When the time within which an action or event was accomplished is to be accu-
rately expressed, the Preposition intra, with an accusative, is employed ; as, " Intra
biduum morietur," he will die within two days. Sometimes, however, it is expressed
by the (dilative either with or without m, with a cardinal numeral in the plural ; with
an ordinal in the singular.
295. Nouns denoting the duration of time, answering to
the question how long ? are put in the accusative, generally
without a Preposition ; as,
Flet noctem; \ She bewails all the night.
1. The ablative is sometimes, though rarely, used with <f»ra/ton of time ; as, " Vixit
anaus viginti novem."
2. The Prepositions per, ad, ante, in, intra, are frequently expressed ; as, ** Perannot
decern ; Intra annos quatuordecim.'*
3. ilMifM;, denoting tfura/ron, has aa Accusative; m, ** Ahhinc annos trei :" dieting
a point of time, it has an ablative ; as, ** Abhinc triginta diebus.^*
A. Old, as before observed, is rendered by nalus with an accusative of the time ; as,
** Decessit Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et triginta natus." Above or under so
many years old maybe expressed in various ways; thus, " Major or minor (quinque)
annis, annorum, annis natu, annis natus, annos natus; or quam (quinque) annos natus."
296. a. Nouns denoting space, distance, and measure,
answering to the question how far? are generally put in the
accusative, but sometimes in the ablative; as,
I had advanced a mile.
He is distant from the city
five hundred miles.
1. One of the Substantives expressing distance is sometimes omitted; as, " Gastra
aberant bidui" (spatium being understood).
2. The word denoting distance is governed in the accusative bj ad or per understood,
and in the ablative by a or ab.
Mille passus processeram ;
Abest ab urbe quingentis mil-
lihus passuum ;
h. The excess or deficiency of measure or distance, answer-
ing to the question how much more ? or how much less f is
always put in the ablative ; as,
Superat capite ; | He is taller by the head.
136
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[^Place, ffc.
297. In or at a town or city, answering to the question
where ? is put in the genitive, if the Noun be of the first or
second declension and singular number ; but in the ablative
without a Preposition, if the Noun be of the third declen-
sion, or in the plural number ; as,
Quid RomcB faciam ?
Mortuus est Londini ;
Habitabat Carthagine ;
Studuit Athenis ;
What shall I do at Rome ?
He died in London.
He dwelt at Carthage.
He studied at Athens.
Carthdgmem rediit ;
Accepi Roma literas ;
Iter Laodicea faciebam ;
1. The words urbs, oppidum, locus ^Vf hen in apposition to names of towns, as the
place where anything occurs, may be in the ablative without in, though the name of the
place be in the genitive ; as, " Archias Antiochiae natus est, celebri urbe.**
2. The ablative is governed by in, which is sometimes expressed ; the genitive de-
pends on in urbe.
3. The names of towns of the first and second declensions are sometimes, though
rarely, found in the ablative ; as, " Pons, quern ille Abydo fecerat."
A. At, denoting near a place, is expressed by adj m, ** Bellum quod ad Trojam ges*
serat ; " ** Ad Roman ire, to go towards Rome.
298. a. To a town, answering to the question whither f is
put in the accusative \from or through a town, answering to
the question whence? is put in the ablative, without pre-
positions ; as.
He returned to Carthage.
I have received a letter from
Rome. [dicea.
I was passing through Lao-
1. The Preposition is used if the name of the city has an adjective ; as, ** Proiicisci
ad doctas Athenas." So also if cppidum, urbs^ &c. precedes the proper name ; as, " Ad
urbem Ancytam ; ex urbe Roma.
2. Motion by or through a town is generally expressed by the Preposition per; as,
" Cilm iter;Mrr Thebas facSret.*'
3. The preceding Rules are applicable only to towns or cities and STnaU islands.
** Such expressions as * schooi at Capua* * Carthage in Africa^* &c. are not admissible,
in Latin." " But the name of the town is governed according to the preceding Rules,
and the other noun governed by a Preposition; thus, * Running to \i\% mother at Naples*
should be, running to Naples to (prep.) bis mother, * Currens ad matrem NeapHlim.* "
b. The names of towns, an'd frequentlj of small islands,
are used after Verbs of motion or of rest, vnthout a Preposi-
tion ; as,
Athena^ proficiscebantur ; They went to Athens.
Lesbi vixit ; He lived at Lesbos.
c. But the names of countries, provinces, islands, villages,
mountains, rivers, seas, woods, and all other places, except
towns and small islands, have the Preposition generally ex-
pressed; as.
Natus in Italia^ in LatiOy in
urbe ;
Abiit in Itadiamy in LatiuTOy
in urbem ;
He was born in
Latium, in a city.
He has gone to
Latium, to a city.
Italy^ in
Italy, to
Adverbs,} SYNTAX. 137
1. It is a violation of the Rule, when the names of countries, &c. are used without
Prepositions, or the names of cities with in,ab, ex. By the Poets, however, the names
of nations are frequently used without a Preposition ; as, *' hinc ibimus 4fro9."
2. Feto, signifying: / make for^ I go to, always governs the accusative without a Pre-
position ; as, " JEgjfptum peiSre decrevit."
3. The ablative, without a Preposition, is used with several general designations of
place; as, ** Terra marique" by sea and land. We also say, /ioco and locis^ when
joined with Adjectives and Pronouns ; as, " Hoc loco ; MuUis loeis"
4. When the name of a country and a city in it are joined with a Verb of motion,
the name of the country has in with an accusative ; as, "Legati Carthaginem in Africam
triijecerunt."
299. a. Domus and rw5, like the names of towns, are used
in the accusative after Verbs of motion, and in the ablative
after iw, at, from, without Prepositions ; as, " Ite domum "
(" domos^^ if more than one), go home ; " Abiit rus,^ he
has gone into the country. " Domo " and " rure" from
home, from the country ; " domi *' and " ruriy* or " rure,^*
at home, in the country.
1 . jRccf-i, in the country, is more frequent than rure.
2. Domi is used only when joined with the words meae, tuae, suae, nottrae, vestrae,
alienae. With Adjectives, domo, generally with the Preposition m, is used for domi;
as, *' In domo patema," and not *' dofni paiernae"
3. When domus is followed by a genitive denoting the possessor, either doftni or in
domo may l>e used ; as, "Deprehensus est domi" or *' in domo Caesaris.**
4. Rura, in the plural, is preceded by a Preposition.
b. Humi, belli, militiae, are used in the genitive both with
Verbs of motion and rest ; as,
Una militiae et domi fuipius ;
Humi jacere ;
We were together in war and
at home.
To lie on the ground.
ADV&RBS.
300. Adverbs of time, place, and quantity, govern a
genitive; as.
Ubi gentium ?
Eo impudentiae ventum est;
Where in the world ?
They have arrived at such a
degree of impudence.
The day before that day.
Eloquence enough, but little
wisdom.
Pridie ejus diei ;
Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae
parum ; .
1 . Adverbs of time are, Nunc, tunc, turn, interea, pridie, poitridie, &c. ; oi place — Ubi,
ubinam, unde, nxuquam, eb, eodem, longe, qud, ubivis, huccine^ &c. ; of quantity —
rarum, tantum, quantum, satis, abundi, affdtim, partim, &c.
2. Minime gentium is a strong negation, — not in the least.
3. Pridie and postridii have an accusative as well as a genitive ; as, "Pridid Kalen-
das, Nonas, Idtts ; " that is, " Pridii ante Kalendas," &c. " Postridie Kalendas ; "
that is, " Postridid post Kalendas."
4. The Ordinal Numerals also have a genitive or accusative of the Kalends, Nones
and Ides ; as, " Quarto Nonas; Tertio Nonarumi " on the third day before the nones.
138 LATIN GRAMMAB.
301. Aliter and secus have frequently an ablative; &s,
^^ MuUo aliter," much otherwise ; '* Paulo secos," little
otherwise.
302. ErgOf for the sake of— insiar, as great as, equal to
— and the substantives causa and graHoj require a genitive
case; as,
Vtrtutis ergo ;
Inst^r montis equum ;
Honoris causa ;
For the sake of virtue.
Ahorse aslarge as a moantaiD.
For the sake of honour.
303. a. Derivative Adverbs, used as adjectives, govern the
same case as their primitive adjectives, b. Adverbs derived
from verbs compounded with prepositions, and also obviam^
to meet, and praestd, at hand, govern a dative ; as,
a. Optim^ omnium ;
a, Proxim^ castris ;
^- Naturae coovenienter vivSre
A.Praesto esse amicis;
The best of aU,
Near the camp.
To live agreeably to nature.
To be ready (to serve) our
friends.
h, Huic obviam processit ; He went to meet him.
304. a. Two negatives in the same clause are equal to an
affirmative in Latin, as in English ; as,
I am not ignorant, or I know.
Some one.
Non sum nescius ;
Non nemo (that is, quidam) ;
b. In many instances, two negatives convey the assertion
more faintly than an affirmative mode of expression ; as,
Non parere noluit; \ He did not refuse to obey.
NuUus and neque are sometimps found implying negation ; as, *^NtManeqiteamnent
libavit qtiadrupeB.** In old writers also, two negatives are sometimes used to render
the negation stronger ; as, " Jura, te non nociturum homini b&c de re nernini " (for
nulli homini),
PREPOSITIONS.
305. These Prepositions govern the accusative ; ad^ ad^
versus, ante, apud, &c. ; as.
Ante pedes; | Before the feet.
306. These Prepositions govern the ablative: a, ab, abs-
que, coram, &c. ; as.
Coram omnibus ; \ In the presence of alL
307. Versus and tentis are placed after the noun ; as,
** Londlnum versus,** towards London ; ** Oceano tenus^
as far as the ocean.
iVcpowTiojw.] SYNTAX. 139
Tenus governs the genitive case of the />/Mra/ number ; as,
" Crurum tentis^ up to the legs.
308. a. In, suby suhter^ super, signifying motion to a place,
govern an accusative ; as,
In urbem ire ;
Sub moenia tendit ;
To go into the city.
He goes under the walls.
b. Motion or rest in a place is denoted by in and sub with
an ablative ; super has either the accusative or ablative in
this sense ; subter generally the accusative; as,
Sedeo, ordiscurroiw schola;
I sit, or run up and down in
the school.
To live under the earth.
Sitting above the arms.
He led them under the roof.
Sub terra habitare ;
Sedens super arma ;
Sithter fastlgia duxit ;
309. In, signifying into, to, tending to, towards, against,
until, according, for, over, upon, through, and by (expressive
of time), governs an accusative; signifying in, on, at, among,
in the case of, an ablative.
In iR used with an ablative after the verbs pono, loco, eolioco^ consido ; with an accu*
sative after advenio and advento, though they have m or ai in English.
310. Sub, referring to ^'^n^, governs an accusative; as,
" Siib noctem^ at night-fall.
Super, signifying above, beyond, over and above, governs
an accusative ; signifying upon, for the sake of, concerning,
an ablative.
Prepositions are frequently understood ; as, " Metun casum doluerunt ; " that is,
**Propter nuum cattrni" &c.
311. a. Prepositions combined with Verbs frequently
govern the same case as when they are separately used ; as,
^Zloquor te ;
Coelo cfemittltur ;
Servitio carire ;
I speak to you.
He is sent down from heaven.
To depart from slavery.
b. This Rule is not applicable to compounds governing a
dative, but only to such as can admit the preposition, without
injuring the sense, to be separated from the verb, and placed
before the case by itself ; as, " Loquor ad te ; " " De coelo
mittitur ; " " Ex servitio ire^
c. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, e, ex, and such com-
pounds of ad, con, in, as do not govern a dative, frequently
have the preposition repeated with its proper case ; as,
140 LATIN GRAMMAR. IConjuncttans,
^^^tinuerunt a vino ;
Ad te accedo ;
They abstained from wine«
I come to thee.
1 . Some Verbs, compounded with e or <vr, are followed by an accusative or ablative ;
as, *'E*ire limen ; " " Egredi portubus.'*
2. These Verbs never repeat the preposition after them : tuffitris, allatro, aUuOy txccolo,
cireuntveniOf circumeo^ drcutnsto, ctrcttmsedeo^ circwnvolo^ obeo, praetereot abdico,
^ero^ everto. The compounds of praeter also generally omit the preposition.
3. The Noun to which the preposition in composition refers is sometimes implied ;
as, '^Submittite tauros" (that is, Mubjugo)^ put your steers under the yolie.
4. Prepositions in composition serve to augment, diminish, or In some manner to
modify the meaning of the simple word, as In the following instances :
Ad%\gtk\&e&approxitnationi as, **accipio" I take to myself: or increase; as, "adamo,**
to love much.
OA, in composition, sometimes means before; as, "ruo" to rush ; **obruoJ** to rush
before, or overwhelm : sometimes it strengthens the signification ; as," dormio," to sleep;
*\obdormio" to sleep soundly.
Per increases; as, "gratus," agreeable; '* pergratus" very agreeable : or expresses
transition; as, "do," to give ; ** perdo," to give thoroughly, to give without hopes of
recal, and so to lose * : or privation ; as, " per/Utus" perfidious.
Po«/ implies behind ; as, "pono" to place; *^posipono" to place behind: also of
inferiority; as, " habeo" to have esteem ; ^^posthabeo" to esteem less.
A^ ab, abs, in composition, signify privation for separation ; as, *' dueo" to lead ;
"abduco" to lead away ; " moveo" to move ; " atnoveo" to remove.
Cum signifies society^ participation^ accompaniment^ and is frequently changed into
com^ con^ co^ col.
Be serves to augrnetU the simple word ; as, "finio" to bound ; " definio^'* to bound
completely: or to diminish; as, "facio" to do ; ^^dejicio" to do less than one ought:
or to express privation'; as, deferveo,** to cool ; **demens" mad.
Ex signifies on/, and hence may be derived its significations of privation^ or negation^
eleviUion, &c. ; thus, " armo" to arm ; " exarmare" to deprive of arms ; " sanguis "
blood ; " exsanguiSt^ bloodless ; " levo" to lighten ; " elevo^*' to lighten thoroughly, to
elevate.
Prae signifies precedence^ prevention ; as, " dicere" to tell ; " praedieeret** to foretell;
" clattdere^'* to shut ; ** pratcludere" to shut out. In Adjectives, it augments; 9A,prae'
maiUms" too early, i. e. premature.
Pro signifies advancing ; as, "moveo" I move; "promoveo" I move forward: or
substitution ; as, " nomen^* a noun ; **pronomen^** a word instead of a noun, a pronoun :
or presence or publicity ; as, " voco" to call ; **provoco** to call before the public, to
challenge. It is sometimes privative ; as, " prqfanus" profane.
Zn has numerous meanings. 1. \t augments; sia^ ** induro,** I harden much. 2. It
signiBes control; as, *\habeo" to have ; " itthioeo" to have within command. 3. Jp-
proximation ; as, " <fuco," to lead ; " induco" to lead into. 4. With Adjectives it is
generally J9rf9<i<rv0j as, **ingratus" ungrateful.
Sub generally lessens ; as, " timeo" to fear ; " subtimeOt" to fear a little : or deprives;
as, *" subduci,** to be .withdrawn.
Other Prepositions, in composition, generally retain the signification of the simple
word when separately used.
CONJUNCTIONS.
312. a. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect,
in the same mood and tenser two or more Verbs which are
similarly situated with respect to time and circumstance ; as^
Nee scribit nee legit; \ He neither writes nor reads.
They also connect, in the same case, two or more Nouns
and Pronouns depending on the same verb or preposition ; as,
" Socrates docuit Xenophontem et Platdnem"
* Dr. Butler's Praxis.
Use of Moods.] SYNTAX. 141
b. But sometimes the Nouns themselves require different
cases ; as, ** Vixi Romae et Athenis,^
1. Not only the Copulative Conjunctions et^ ac, atgue, pte, etiam, &c. and the Dis-
junctive, aut, vflj vfy scUt iive, nec^ &c. but also quant, nist, praeterquam, nempe, licet,
quamvis, nedumy and the Adverbs of likeness ; as, «<, ceu^ tanquam, quast\ &c. belong
to this Rule.
2. Nee and neque stand indifferently before either vowels or consonants.
8. Soma Conjunctions are followed by a corresponding word ; thus, iamen answers
to eUi or quamvi»i gudm to tarn i tU to ita^ or tain, or e^eo ; quettn to ante and priU*.
Sometimes the corresponding Conjunctions are omitted.
4. For the influence which different Conjunctions have on certain Verbs, see the Use
qf Moods and Tenses.
INTERJECTIONS.
313. a, 0, heUy and prok, are followed by an accusative
or a vocative ; as,
0./a//flc^wihominum spem I
Heu me infelicem !
Proh sancte Jupiter !
O deceitful hope of men !
Ah ! wretched me !
sacred Jupiter !
' 1. These Interjections are sometimes joined to the nominative ; as, *'0 virfortis! "
Heu has sometimes a dative ; as, " Heu misero mihil
2. The Inteigections are sometimes understood ; as, " Hominem probum ! "
3. Ak and vnh are followed by an accusative and a yocative ; Aem, by a dative, accu-
sative, or vocative.
b. The vocative is used with nearly all Interjections.
314. Hei and vae govern a dative ; as,
Hei mihi!
Vae misero mihi !
Woe is me !
Wretched man that I am !
315. En and ecce generally require a nominative case, but
sometimes an accusative ; as,
En Priamus !
Ecce hominem !
See Priam !
Behold the man !
USE OP THE MOODS.
316. Sentences are 1st, either Prificipal or Independent,
or 2ndly, Subordinate or Dependent. The principal sen-
tence is that to which another may belong as a dependent
part ; the subordinate sentence, on the contrary, depends on
another both in sense and construction.
Thus, in the sentence, " When the spring comes, the trees bloom," the last clause,
** the trees bloom,*' is the principal sentence ; and the first, " when the spring comes,"
is the subordinate sentence.
Indicative Mood,
317. The Indicative Mood is used in every proposition
•when we speak of a thing absolutely and with certainty ; as,
ScribOf I write ; docebat, he was teaching*
142 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Use of Moods,
1 . Hence, though the verb may be preceded by the particles etsi^ tametsi, quanquam,
«i, nt«i\ &c. and interrogatives, yet when it is used directly ag denoting some J'act, it
must be in the Indicative; as, *'Quamvts credo," though I believe ; **Quandorediistt ?"
When didst thou return ? — But all these particles, under other circumstances hereafter
to be noticed, are connected with the verb in the Subjunctive Mood.
2. Prepositions also with «f«f—irtv^, are commonly in the Indicative ; as, **Sive taeebts
give toqueris, mihiperinde est; " whether thou shalt be silent or shalt speak, is the same
to me.
318. a. Present, past^ and future duty^ ability, wiU^ or
liberty, are, in Latin, denoted by the present, past, and.
future Indicative of that verb which expresses these circum-
stances, and the verb following is nearly always in the Infinitive
Present, and not, as in English, in the Infinitive Perfect ; as.
You should write; or, it is
your duty to write.
You ought to have written ;
that is, it was your duty to
Scribere debes;
Scribere debuisti
Scribere debebis ;
write.
It will be your duty to write.
1. To this Rule belong such words as oportere, necesse esse, debere, convenirey posse;
par, aequum, consetUaneunt, Justnm esse j melius, utilius, optabilnts esse ; in which
cases the propriety, advantage, abiiiiy, &c. are considered, in Latin, as something actual,
and rendered accordingly in the indicative, though the circumstances which would have
realised it never took place ; thus, " Hoc facere debebas," thou oughtest to have done
this. " Longfe utilius/ui/ angustios aditus occupare," It tooutd have been much better
to seiie the pass.
2. Fres, Mihi ire UcU, I may go ;
Tibi Ire licet, thou mayst go.
lUi ire licet, he may go, &c.
Petf, Mihi ire licuit, I might have gone.
Tibi ire licuit, thou mightst have gone.
Itii ire licuit^ he might have gone.
3. Pres. FacSre possum, I can do it | Facfire potui, I could have done it.
4. Pr0f« Me facere oportet, I ought to do it ; or, Ego facere debeo.
Te facere oporlet, thou oughtest to do it ; or, Tu facere debes,
Perf. Me facere oportuit, I ought to have done it ; or. Ego facere debui.
Te facere <qiOftuit, thou ouglitest to have done it ; or, Tu facere dehuisti,
5. Or, the Subjunctive governed by «/ omitted may be used ; as,
(Ego)/aa<im oportet, I ought to do it ; {Tu)fmcicu oportet, thou oughtest to do it.
When nuMfy mtghL, ctm, could, shouid, &c. are principal verbs, they must be trans-
lated by the proper tenses of licet, possum, oportet, debeo, &c.
6. In Latin also, an Indicative is ftequently used when in English a Potential would
be employed ; thus, "Longum est, infinitum est narrare," is said instead ofesset or/oret;
it iaould be long or tedious to narrate.
7. When the obligation, ability, &c. are represented as eontingent, the Subjunctive
must be used.
b. With the Participles in rus and dus, the Indicative of
sum in past time is more generally used than the Subjunc-
tive ; as, '' Haec via tibi ingredienda erat, " this path should
have been taken by thee.
Imperative Mood,
319. The Imperative Mood is used to express a command,
exhortation, entreaty, or wish,
320. The Imperative has two forms ; as, lege, ley i to ; the
shorter form [lege) expresses either a command, exhortation,
or wish ; the longer form {Ugito) is used only for command,
— i chiefly in the wording of latM, contracts, and wills.
Use of Moods,] SYNTAX. 143
The Hortative form, not having a first and a third Person Singular or Plural, borrows
the Subjunctive Present ; as, "Xega/," let him read ; '*Legamux" let us read, &c.
321. Instead of the Imperative, the Present or Perfect Sub-
j unctive may be used to express a command more mildly ;
as,
Facias hoc ; feceris hoc ; | Do this.
322. With the Imperative, and with the Subjunctive put
imperatively, not must be expressed by ne; and nor, by
neve; as, '
Ne legito neve scribito ; | Neither read nor write.
1. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive with fie, may be used to express a prohibition
more mildly ; as, " Hoc ne facias."
2. After cave^ fae, and some other Imperatives, ut as the affirmative, and ne as ne-
gative, are frequently omitted befure the Subjunctive ; as, **Cavedicas " (cave ne dicas),
beware of speaking.
Potential and Subjunctive Moods,
333. The Potential Mood is used when a thing is spoken
of as possible^ uncertain^ or contingent, and is expressed in
English by the signs may, can, might, could, would, should.
This mood is not governed by any contingent particle, but the
sense itself -requires this form ; as.
He may be innocent.
Men were sent who should
inform him ; or, to inform
him.
1 . The Prrsent Potential Includes the expression of may, cin, will, and shalU and
the Imperfect of might, cou/d, would, and should. Thus, Amem signifies not only, " I
may or can love ;" but likewise, in dependent and interrogative clauses, " I shall or will
love ; " as, " Nonne earn ? " Shall I not go ? " An potius ita me cotnparem f " Shall I
rather so malce up my mind ?
2. When the sentence or, clause is absolute and independent^ or in general, when it is
not followed or preceded by any tense expressing a circumstance on which the clause
in question depends, then the words may, can, might, could, wouldj should, must be
rendered by the verbs possum, volOy licett and debeo, governing the following verb in
the Infinitive. Thus,
Ire volumusi We will go, or we are willing to go.
Ire nolunt ; They will not go, they are unwilling to go.
Mihi venire licet; I may come, it is allowable for me to come.
Leg^re possum ; I can read, I am able to read.
Legere debes ; — 7Y6i legendum estj —Te Thou shouldst read, that is, thou oughtest
Ugere oportet; to read.
Fieri potuit or potuissetj It might have been done.
3. On the other hand, the verbs vo2o,0(»«ttm, licet, oportet, and debeo^ are suppressed,
and the words may, might, can, could, ice, are considered merely as signs of the Poten-
tial Mood, under the two following circumstances : —
Ist. When the sense is conditional or dependent , as,
Tenerem, si vellem ; ] I might hold it, if I pleased.
Fecissctt si tent&sset ; I He would have done it, if he had tried.
2ndly, When a conditional sentence Is interrogative ; as,
Sit innocens ;
Homines missi sunt, qui eum
certioTem facerent ;
Nonne earn f
QvAAfadhem f
Men' moveat cimex Pantiliui ?
Shall I go, or should not I go?
What could I do ?
Shall or should the insect Pantilius dis-
compose me ?
144
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ Use of Moods.
S24. The Subjunctive Mood has the same terminations as
the Potential ; but it depends on certain adverbs, conjunctions,
or indefinite terms to which it is subjoinedy and which assert
or imply a contingency^ circumstance, cause, motive, or some-
thing desirable or to be conceded.
325. a. The following particles require either the Indicative
or Subjunctive Mood, according to the signification annexed
to them in the subjoined table : —
Particles.
Ac si.
An, ne, nvm.
AnfequaiUf 7
FriutqtMm, i
Ceu,
Cum^y or Quum,
DoneCj
Dum,
DummodOf
Etiamti,
Forsariy 7
Forsitan, y
Licet,
Modby
NCy
Perindfy
Perinde ac si,
Postqudmy 7
Fosteaqudm, 3
QMomdiUy
Quamvis,
QuandOy
Qttandoquidem, )
Quonianiy S
Qnanquam,
Quasi,
Quin,
Quippe,
Qmppe qui,
(iuby
Quoady
Qubdy
QuomimUy
Si,
Sic-ut, 7
Ita-itt, S
Simul,
Simul ae,
Simvl aique,
Simul ut,
Tauqvam,
Ubiy
Uty
Utinam,
Utpotecum^
Indicative Mood.
when interrogatives.
before (when positive).
* See the subsequent Rule.
aa If>ng as,
whilst, as long as.
Suljuncttve Mood.
just as if.
expressing doubt.
as.
before ^when doubtful). — Ani^ouam
ily.in
Narrative,' the Imperfect and Plii-
and Priuiquam have commoiii
perfect Subjunctive; but in the
other tenses, either the Indicative
or Subjunctive, according to the
sense.
as if.
until (when the sense is contingent.)
provided, so that, until, that,
provided, so that,
although.
perhaps.
although.
{irovided.
est.
after,
as long as,
when, since,
since,
although,
as,
why not,
for,
as long as, as far as,
as to, how,
since,
expressing an assurance,
as soon as.
as,
when,
as, how, since, when,
as \L
although, however mach.
ns if.
but that.
AS he.
that
until.
in order that not.
although.
expressing a wish.
as soon as (when contingent.)
as if.
that, so that, in order that, although.
I wish. (Also, after other particleti
of wishing ; as, " «i /) "
seeing that.
1. Tn the preceding table, whena blank is attached to a word, that mood under whicii
it occurs, is not to be employed.
2. An and num are placed at the head of a sentence ; ne is placed after the fint
word.
Vae of Mooda,'] SYNTAX, 145
b. The following before the Imperfect and Pluperfect go-
vern the Subjunctive ; before the other tenses either the In-
dicative or Subjunctive, according to the positive or contingent
sense of the sentence : — *
JEtsi, although.
iVt, nisi, unless.
Siy Siquidem, if.
Sin, but if.
Tametsiy although.
1. With nisty ninjortey nm tvro, the Indicative it commonly used, if they are meant
to introduce some absurd and improbable or inadmissible proposition ; as, '* Nemo saltat
fiobrius, nisi forte insanit.*'
2. The Imperfect or Pluperfect should be used when the thing spoken of is repre-
sented not as real, but only as supposed.
3. In a Conditional Sentence, the clause containing the condition is sometimes called
the protdsis ; and that which contains the consequence^ the apoddsis. lu whatever tense
of the Subjunctive the protasis may be, the apodosis roust ue the same. The past tenses
of the Indicative, however, are sometimes used in the apodosis to give more liveliness
to the representation ; as, " Perieram nisi tu accurriises." Here the protasis is Sub-
junctive, and the apodosis in the Indicative.
326. a. In Affirmative Sentences, that, followed by ma^y
might, and expressing a purpose, motive, or design, must be
translated by ut with a Subjunctive ; as,
Yqu must eat, that you may
live.
Esse oportet ut vivas ;
1 . That is here equivalent to in order that, in order to, for the purpose qf.
2. The word that is frequently understood in English, when of two Infinitives the
one expresses the purpose of the other ; as, ** I am come to ser yon" that is, in order
to see you. "I advise you to do it; " that is, I advise you m order that you may do it.
b. In Negative Sentences, that not (which is equivalent
to lest and /rom) expressing the idea of preventing, averting,
is translated by ne with a Subjunctive ; as,
Cura ne denuo in morbum
incidas ;
Take care thatjou do not fall
(or lest you fall) into any
disease.
Ut non is used, on the other hand, for that not, when a simple result or consequence,
and not an intention, is expressed j as, ** Tum forte aegrotabam, ut ad nuptias tuas venire
non possem ;" I was then so unwell, that I could not go to your marriage. Hence the
following rule: —
That not, denoting a purpose, is expressed by ne.
That not, —~ A consequence, by »< non.
c. When that, denoimg a, purpose, is followed by a negative,
it is expressed by ne and an affirmative pronoun ; but when
a consequence is denoted, it must be expressed by ut and a
negative; thus.
That nobody^ purpose oxp. by ne quis ; but consequence exp. by «/ niemo.
That nothings — — nequid; » — utmhiL
That no, ■ ueuUusi — - utnuUus.
ThtU never, ■ ■ n^nn^tfom; ufnunquam.
146
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[Use of Moods.
327. That^ denoting a consequence (and not a purpose),
and following the words sitcky so, &c. must be expressed by
ut with a Subjunctire ; as,
Epaminondas fuit etiam di-
sertus, ut nemo Thebanus
ei par esset ;
Epaminondas was so eloquent
that (consequence) no The-
ban was equal to him.
328. After Verbs oi fearing and solicitude (such as meiOo,
timeo, vereor), that is expressed by ne, and that not by ut;
as,
I fear that he will come ; that is,
I do not wish him to come.
Vereor ne veniat ;
Vereor ut veniat ;
I fear that he will not come ;
that is, I wish him to come.
1. NeU therefore used after these words, when the following verb expresses a result
contrary to our wish, but tU when it is agreeable to it ; as,
" Timeo ne/acias" I fear that you will do it ; but I do not want you to do it.
•• Timeo utfaa'aSj** I am afraid you will not do it ; but 1 want you to do ft.
2. Ni nony with Verbs of fearing^ is eauivalent to ut, the negatives cancelling each
other ; as, ** Timeo ne nan impetrem," I fear I shall not obtain it ; the same as ut
impetrem. The negative may be incorporated with the verb ; as, " Unum vereor, ne
senatus Pompeium rtolit dimittere ;" that is, vereor ut velit.
3. Neve or neu is compounded of »^ and v£, and means or that not^ and tJuU not; it
must not therefore be confounded with nequej neque answers to non, neve to ne.
329. The following table will show the peculiar application
of the words that, that not, according to the different senses
both in afiirmative and negative sentences : —
In what sense used.
1. Purpose, design,
2. Wish, care, effl>rt,
3. Request, command,
A. Result, ^ctt
6. Conchuion,
6. Object oi Verbs referring to the'
operation of the mind or the
senses, as, believe, think, ob-
serve, see, &c., and those of
narrati&n axid information, as
to say, answer, write, report, &c.
7. Cause, reason, circumstance, ex- '
planation.
8. fear, solicitude.
That, exp. by
ut,
ut,
ut,
ut,
ut.
accusative with
infinitive.
{
{
quod, or accusa-)
tive with infin. 3
ne,
That not, exp. by
ne, ut ne ; and that not, neve,
ne, ut ne ; and that not, nev«.
ne ; and that not, neve,
utnon. (When the govern*
ing sentence is negative
by qt^.)
ut non.
Accusative with infinitive
with non when the sen-
tence is negative.
quod non, or accusative with
infinitive,
ut, ne non.
QuOf QtwminuSy Quin,
330. a. Quo, that, is used (for ut eo, that hy this) to denote
a consequence, and which is frequently connected with a
Comparative ; as,
Caesar milites cohortatus est^
quo &nimo Jbrtiore essent ;
Caesar exhorted his soldiers
that {by this) they might be
more courageous.
Use of Moods.] SYNTAX. 147
b. Quominus is used after Yerki of hindering^ preventing^
TesisHng, re/using, and is translated by that, that not ; as,
Quid sapienti potest obstare^
quominus beatus sit;
What can prevent a wise man
that he should be happy.;
ox from being happy.
The word ne^ and if a negative precedes, ^iitn, may be used after these words. Jf^Hil^^
c, Qmn, signifying thcU not, is used after a negative prin- '
cipal clause ; as,
Facere non possum, quin ad
te mittam literas ;
I cannot forbear writing to
you ; that is, I cannot do,
that I should not write to
you.
d. Quin, signifying that {but that), is. used after Verbs of
doubting, denying, &c. in negative sentences ; as.
Non dubito quin verum dix-
eris ;
I do not doubt that you speak
the truth.
QtUn is used after a principal negative clause, instead of qui non^ quae non^ &c.; as,
** Nemo est quim optei.'*
Cum or Quum,
331. a, CUm or quum, signifying since, although, whilst,
during the time that, after, requires the Subjunctive Mood.
b. Ciim or quum, signifjring when, has a Subjunctive in
the Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses, if the events described
depend on each other, so that in English the Participle may
be used ; as,
Alexander, quum interemis-
set Clitum, vix manus a se
abstinuit ;
Alexander, having killed Cli-
tus, scarcely kept his hands
from himself.
But when the time at which the events happened is intended to be distinctly marked
the Indicative must be employed ; as, ** Verres quum rosam vidSrat, tunc indpere ver
arbitrabatur."
Perhaps no Rule can be given that will apply to all the passages in which quum is
used, as both moods are occasionally applied by the same author to express the same
idea.
e, cam or quum has an Indicative Mood, when it signifies
because (quod) ; as cften as, whenever, (quoties, quandoqui-
dem) ; when, at which time, (quando).
Also, to express the point of time at which an action or state cotnmenced, andwhith
is conceived to be continued to the present period ; as, " Jam anni propd quadraginta
sunt, quum hoc probaturj" it is now nearly forty years when this was proved.
Again, when it signifies as soon as^ and denotes an action or event in close succession
to another ; as, ** Ciim ad nos aUdium est de temeritate eorum, graviter commotus sum ; **
as soon as we were Informed, &C:
H 2
•«■<>•
148 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Use ofMoodt,
Of the Form of Direct and Indirect Discourse,
332. Oratio recta {direct discourse) is that kind of dis-
course in which the words of a person are repeated precisely
as they were pronounced by him ; as, The messenger an-
nounced, ^^ Peace is concluded;" Nuncius allatus est, "-Par
est compositaJ*
333. Oratio obliqua (indirect discourse) is that kind of
discourse in which the words of a person are made dependent
upon some Verb of perceiving or communicating ; as^ The
messenger announced " that peace was concluded,**
Inquam is generally used in direct, and aio in indirect, discourse.
334. Principal sentences in indirect discourse, are ex-
pressed : —
a. By the Accusative with \he Infinitive, when they express
a simple statement ; as, Nuntius allatus est ^^pacem esse
compositamJ*
b. By the Subjunctive, when they express a command or
ivish ; as. Dux dixit ^^ omnia esse perdita, milites suae saluti
consulerent,"
The direct form of this sentence would be, ** Omnia sunt perdita ; consulite, militei,
Testrae saluti."
335. Subordinate sentences in indirect discourse are ex-
pressed by the Subjunctive ; as, " Caesar dixit, se, postquam
ho^tQ^fusi essentf castra munitiirum esse."
Government of Qui, quae, quod.*
336. a. When a writer or speaker uses the relative qui,
quae, quod, or the Causal Conjunctions qudd, quia, quoniam,
qiuinddqutdem, quum, quando, to report the words or sen-
timents of another, and not his own, the Verb must be in the
Subjunctive Mood ; as,
Socrates dicere sol^bat om-
nes in eo, quod scvrent, satis
esse eloquentes ; (Cic.)
Socrates was accustomed to
say, that all men were suffi-
ciently eloquent on that sub-
ject which they understood.
Here Cicero is quoting the words of another, that is, of Socrates, and not expressiog
any sentiment of his own, and therefore the verb scirent is in the Subjunctive.
Again, ** Socrates accusatus est, gudd corrumpiret javentOtem ;" Socrates was
accused of corrupting the youth. — Had the verb corrumpiret been in the Indicatife
instead of the Subjunctive, the writer would have asserted that he did eu^uaUg corrupt
the youth, whereas fie was only euxused of doing so.
This is an instance of Ohliqua Oratio.
b. When the Relative or Causal Clause is either the ob-
* For the rules on the government of Qui, quae, quod, the Author is prindpsHy
indebted to Crombi^t Gffmna$ium.
Use of Moods^l SYNTAX. 1 49
seryation of the author, or the precise words of the person of
whom he is speaking, the relative or causal Conjunction is
joined to the Indicative Mood, unless the sense he contingent
or the Subjunctive be required by any of the subsequent rules.
1. When the propositioa is in the Indicative, it is called the Reda Oratio.
The following sentence illustrates both rules : " Praeterea traditum esse memora-
tumque, in ultimA quAdam terrA, quae Albania didtWt gigni homines, ^i in pueritift
oanetcant." In the former relatire clause (being the observation of the writer), quae
is joined to the Indicative, in the latter, the relative clause is the subject of traditum^
and therefore takes the Subjunctive Mood.
2. In the same manner, Uhi^ not taken interrogatively, but relatively, and used for
in quo loco; also, Quo for ad quern locum, and Unde for e quo loco, taken relatively, and
not expressing an observation or opinion of the author's, govern the Subjunctive Mood ;
thus, " Romanes neque ullam facultatem habere navium, nequp eorum locorum, ubi
bellum gesturi euent^ perspiciebant."
3. When an indirect question is expressed, the Subjunctive is used; as, " Qualis sit
ipse nescit." " Incertum est quo te loco mors expectet."
The direct questions are, " Qualis estf" *' Quo loco mors te expectat f "
337. Qui is joined to the Subjunctive Mood, when the
relative clause expresses the motive^ reason^ or cause of the
action or event ; as,
Hannibal did wrong immnter-
ing, or because he wintered
at Capua.
1. If we say, " Maid fecit, qui hiemavit" we impute error to the person who wintered
but do not express the error as consisting in his wintering ; but when we say, " Maid
fecit, qui hiemdrit" we signify that he erred, because he wintered, or m wintering. In
such expressions, the relative seems equivalent to Quoniam lyo, or quod egoj Quoniam
tu, or quod tu; Quoniam tile, or ffuod iUe.
2. When ui, utpdte, quippe, are expressed with the relative, they sufficiently mark the
influence of the relative clause, and thus they are sometimes joined to the Indicative,
but more frequently to the Subjunctive Mood.
338. Q^i is joined to the Subjunctive Mood, wtien it is
equivalent to quamquam is, or etsi is, si is, modb is^ or dum-
modois; as,
Mal^ fecit Hannibal, qui Ca-
puae hiemarit ;
Cicero qui per omnes su-
periores dies milites in cas-
tra continuisset, misit ;
Cicero, though he had hept
his troops in the catnp
through all the preceding
days, sent.
Quod is used with a Subjunctive to express a restriction ; as, " Quod sciam,** as far
as I know.
339. When the relative follows an interrogative, negative,
or indefinite word, and expresses the same thing and subject
as the antecedent clause, it is followed by the Subjunctive
Mood; as,
What reason have you for
fearing? or, You have no
cause for fear.
1. This Rule is applicable only when the interrogation is equivalent to an affirmation
or negation. When the sentence implies a question put for.tne sake of information, the
U 3
Quid est, quod metuas f
1 50 LATIN GRAMMAR. lUse o/ Moods.
relative takes the Indicative Mood. ** Quid eft quod audio f" signifies. What it tb$t,
which I hear ? '* Quid est quod audiam f '* means, What is there for me to bear ? or.
What reason la there for my hearing ?
2. The following are the most common forms of expression comprehended under
this Rule: " Qmsestf Owmiuaeaf Ecquu est? An quitquam ettf &c Nemo etty
ifuilut est, Nihd est, Non qufsquam est, Nego esse quenquanty Fix uUus est, &c.
340. The relative is generally joined to the Subjunctive
Mood, when a periphrasis is employed with the Verbs sum,
reperio, invenio, existo, exorior, instead of simply the
nominative with the principal verb ; as,
Sunt, qui dicant ; there are persons who say ; instead of
Nonnulli dicunt ; some say.
1. This Rule is applicable onlv when the Relative Clause forms the Predicate of the
seiitence, as will be seen in the following examples : —
When Cicero says, " Erant in magn& potentiA qui consulebantur,** he means. Those
who were consulted were in gre^ power. Here the relative clause forms the subject,
and the other the predicate. Had he said, " Erant In magnft potentiA qui consuleren-
tur," he would have expressed, " There were men in great power who were consulted.'*
Here men in great power is the su'bject, and were consulted the predicate. The verb
is therefore in the Subjunctive.
2. The s^me periphrastic form of expression is also employed with the following
phrases : tempos fuit, tempus veniet, adest, si quis est, praesto swU,** &c.
341. When the relative follows the intensive words sic, ita,
tarn, talis, is, {such, so,) and is used for ut ego, ut tu, ut ille,
ut nos, ut vos, ut illi, through all their eases, it requires the
Subjunctive Mood ; as, '^ Non sum is qui dicam,^^ I am not
such a man as to say ; or, I am not the man who says.
This Rule does not apply to the word is when it is not
causal, but merely demonstrative ; for it would then mean,
I am not that man who says, " Non sum is qui dicoJ'
1. The relative agrees in person with the principal subject, and not with the antece-
dent, wTiose character is expressed in the relative clause ; thus, " Non i»sum qui omnia
wiam." Here, qui and sciam agree with ego understood, and not with is.
2. Quis sum, used for num talis sum ut, takes a Relative with the Subjunctive; as,
*' Quis sum, ct0us aures laedi nefas sit f " Who am I, that it should be a crime that my
ears should be wounded ?
342. Qui is joined to the Subjunctive Mood after solus and
unus, when they are employed to restrict to a single person
the qualities implied in the relative clause; as, " Est solus ex
familia qui discat,*^ he is the only one of the family who
learns. "Were we to say discit, it might be taken for. He
who learns, is the only one of the family.
343. A Eelative after aptt^, dignus, indignus, and idoneus,
requires the Subjunctive; as,
Voluptas non est digna ad [Pleasure is not deserving that a
quam sapiens respictat;
wise man should regard her*
Use of Moods.'i SYNTAX. 151
«
344. When qui is used for the interrogative indefinite quis^
and not as a mere relative, it is followed bj the Subjunctive ;
as.
Die mihi quern videos; \ Tell me whom 70U see.
345. Comparatives with qudm qui in all its cases, require
the Subjunctive ; as,
Major sum qudm cui possit
. fortuna nocere ;
I am too great for fortune to
be able to injure me.
346. When a Subjunctive is used, the verb in a clause de-
pendent on that subjunctive, must be in the same mood ; as,
Rex imperavit, ut quae bello
c^us esserUy pararentur;
The king commanded, that
those things should be pre-
pared which were necessary
for the war.
Pararentur is in the Subjunctive, because it follows ut^ and enent is in the Subjunc-
tive because pararentur is.
347. When a proposition is in the Infinitive Mood, a clause
belonging to it, as an essential part, must be in the Sub-
junctive after the relative ; as, " Perspicuum est esse aliquod
numen quo hie mundus regatur^^ it is clear that there is
some divinity by whom this world is governed.
The Infinitive Mood,
348. a. The Infinitive Mood expresses an action either in
progress or as completed, without any specification of number,
person, or time. The verb on which the Infinitive depends,
determines the time in which the action falls.
h. When two Verbs come together, the latter must be in
the Infinitive Mood, when it denotes the subject or object of
the former ; as,
Cupio s<nre ; \ I wish to know.
1. The Latin Infinitive,| in prose, is never employed to express a purpoie. The
English Infinitive, therefore, when denoting a purpoie^ must be translated by ui with
the Subjunctive.
2. The Infinitive is used chieflv after volo, nolo, cupio, amOf conor^ lento, audeo,
tiudeo, cogiio, possum, nequeo, obliviacor, debet, coepi, imcipio, eonstiiuo, soleo, con-
suesco, &c.
When the latter verb does not express the certain and immediate effect, but the
cause, purpose, end, or something remote, the Sulfjunetitfe Mood is generally used.
3w The Infinitive frequently follows adjectives, and sometimes substantives ; as,
" Dignus amarij" " Tempus equCkm fumantia sotvire coUa."
4. Directions for the Tenses of the Infinitive will be given under the Use qf the
Tenses.
349. The Infinitive is used as a neuter noun in all the
H 4
i5^ LATIN GRAMMAR. [Use of Mood^.
cases of the singular number, and may have adjectives and
pronouns agreeing with it ; as,
Frauddre turpe est ;
Praeter plorare ;
Dignus amdri ;
To cheat is shamefuL
Except lamentation.
Worthy of love.
The InfinitiTe is considered tlie Nominative when it is the««^eic<, and the AccusatiTe
when it is the object of an action.
350. a. When the word that between two verbs is omitted
in Latin, the noun or pronoun following is put in the Ac-
cusative, and the verb in the Infinitive Mood ; as,
AuAxo patrem esse doctum;
I hear that your father is
learned.
1. The word Ma/ is frequently omitted in English; thus, ** I think the Inasterwill
come," for '* I think that the master will come."
2. The Infinitive, according to this Rule, must be used either with the Accusative of
the subject or of the object. The Accusative of the object is generally a whole proposi-
tion ; as, " Scio Ciceronem/uisse elogttentem" I know that Cicero was eloquent.
3. The Accusative with the Infinitive follows Verbs {sentiendietdeclarandt) oifedingt
knowing, wishing^ hearing, believing, thinking, &c. ; and such expressions as, it is cer-
tain, manifest^ true, &c.
4. When the Verb has no supine and no participle future active an Infinitive Future
is formed hy fore orfiUurum esse, andfuturum^usse, followed by tU with a Subjunctive ;
as, " Spero /ore ut coniingat id nobis," I hope this may fall to our lot.
Such Verbs as existimo, puto, spero, suspicor, are frequently followed by fore or futu-
rum esse, even when the verb is not defective ; as, ** Nunquam putavi fore ut ad te
supplex venirem."
5. When two Accusatives with an Infinitive would render it doubtful which was the
case of the Infinitive, actives should be changed into passives, or qudd or ut should, if
possible, be used ; thus in the sentence, " JPatrem te amare dicunt," it is doubtful
whether you love the father, or the father you ; we should therefore say, " Patrem a te
amari, or a patre te amari."
b. After Verbs denoting j^am or joy, surprise or wonder,
the word that may be expressed by qudd with the Indicative
or Subjunctive, instead of the Accusative with the Infinitive;
as, " Doleo te stomachdri, or qudd stomachdris, or qudd
stomacheris ;^ I grieve that thou art offended.
1. With doleo and gaudeo the Accusative and Infinitive are more common ; but^a-
tias agere, and grattuari have generally qudd.
2. That, signifving in as much as, as far as concerns, must be rendered hy qubdy when
a pronoun preceoes to which it refers ; as, " ///ud est admiratione dignum, ^udd Regulus
captivos retinendos censuit."
351. a. The Infinitive is frequently used in narration in-
stead of the Indicative ; as,
Postquam in aedes irruperunt,
diversi regem quaerere ;
Afterwards they rushed into
the palace, and in different
directions (began) to seek
the king.
This is called Infinitivus Historicus. An ellipsis of coepit or coeperunt has been snp-
ised, but the sense will not always admit this ; as ii '
aud absurdum ; posse versus facere, jocum movere."
Eosed, but the sense will not always admit this ; as in this sentence, *' Ingenium ejus
a ■ ' "
Uiie of Moods.} SYNTAX. 153
b. In interrogations or exclamations expressing indig-
nation, the Accusative with the Infinitive is used alone, ne
being commonly added ; as,
Mene incepto desistere vie- Shall I, as if conquered, desist
tarn ? from my undertaking ?
The Verbs dieis, puUu, dicuntt puiant, are understood in such cases.
352. a. Verbs of endeavouring, aiming, and accomplish-
ing; B.3,facio, studeo (id, hoc, illud), ago, meditor, asseqtior,
pervinco, &c. ; of begging, demanding, admonishing, and
commanding, exce^^t jubeo, require the Subjunctive with ut
instead of the Infinitive ; as,
Omne animal id agit, ut se
conservet;
Moneo and admoneo, signifying to apprise, remind, inform^ take an Infinitive ; sig-
nifying to admonith or exhort to an action, have ut or ne with the Subjunctive ; as,
** Moneo ttf qttieseant.** Pertuadeo, to conmnee^ has an Infinitive, to succeed in ex-
horting, the Subjunctive. Kuncio, scribe, and dico, implying an injunction or intention
that a thing should be done, have a Subjunctive.
b. Ut must also be used with a Subjunctive after accidit,
caput est, contingit, evenit, extremum est, fieri non potest. Jit,
futurum est, inctdit, occurrit, rarum est, relinquitur, reltquum
est, restat, sequitur, superest, usu venit ; as,
Every animal takes pains to
preserve itself.
Keliquum est ut egomet mihi
consulam ;
It remains that I provide for
myself.
It must be here observed, that ut always denotes a purpose, consequence, or result;
qiM is either explanatory, or denotes a cause.
353. a. After Verbs of being willing, being unwitting, and
permitting (which commonly take the Accusative with the
Infinitive), and also after Verbs of advising, asking, remind-
ing, the Subjunctive alone, without ut, is sometimes used,
puticularly after fac, velim, nolim, malim, oportet, necesse
est; as.
Take care that thou have good
hope.
I wish thou wouldst love us
Fac spem bonam habeas;
T\xveUm nos absentes diligas;
absent.
Necesse est is, in Cicero, more commonly followed by the Infinitive than by the Sub-
junctive.
354. a. The use of .the Accusative with the Infinitive may
be summ.ed up in the following cases ; —
1. After Verbs of believing, thinking, feeling, and per-
ceiving ; of saying and relating.
2. After Verbs of willing, desiring, letting, bidding and
H 5
154 LATIN GRAMMAR. lUte of Tenaeg.
forbidding; such as voloy noloj malo, cupio^ studeOy sinOf
^potior, juheOy and veto,
3. After the expressions, apparel^ constat^ and the like ;
opus esty licet, justum est, aequum est, 8cc.
b. The Nominative with the Infinitive stands with the
passives — dicor, trador, putor, credor, existimor (they be-
lieve that I), videor (it seems that I), jubeor, vetor ; as,
" Bonus esse dicor,*' I am said to be good ; or, thej say that I
am good.
THE USE OF THE TENSES.
The Tenses of the Indicative Mood.
355. a. Every action may be considered either as past,
present, or future, and also as in an imperfect or a perfect
state.
b. The Indicative Mood has three Tenses both for the
Imperfect and Perfect States ; the former implying the
continuation, and the latter the completion of an action ; as,
IMPESFECT STATE.
Fres. Doceo, I teach.
Imp. Doceham, I was teaching.
Fut Imp. Docebo, I shall teadi.
PERFECT STATE.
(Pres.) Perf. Docui, I taught or
have taught.
Past PerfDocu^ram, I had taught.
Fut. Per£ Docuero, I shall have
taught.
356. The Present Tense speaks of an action or event
which takes place in present time ; as, ^^ Doceo^^ I teach,
am teaching, or do teach.
1 . The Latin Present is used to express general and immutable tmJtht., and also aa-
toms still continuing.
2. It it very frequently used in narrations of pcut events, to render the representation
more animated.
3. Sometimes it has the force of the Perfect, when joined with an Adverb or other
expression of past time that includes the past and present ; as, " Jam pridem cupio
Alexandrlam Tisgre," I have long had a desire to visit Alexandria.
357. The Imperfect Tense represents an action or event
which was going on and not completed at some past time ;
as, " Docebam,'* 1 was teaching.
1. This tense is generally used to express actions IVequently repeated ; also manners,
customs, and institutions formerly existing ; as, ** Ansferei Romae publicd aldhtfUm' in
Capitolio," Geese were kept at the public expense at Rome in the Capitol.
2. In writing letters, the Romans used the Imperfect Tense, when speaking of a
thing which was present at the time of writing, but which was subject to an alteration,
'and might be already past when their letter readied its destination ; as, " Novi nihil
erat apud nos," there is no news with us.
Use of Tenses.-] SYNTAX. 155
But if the discourse was abotrt somethiog unchangeaMe, or at least about things which
would not probably be changed within the time that the letter would come to hand, the
Present was used; as, "Deus «<. Justus."
3. The Peffect is sometimes used of a continued action, when its continnance is not
the circumstance which is meant to be brought particularly to view ; but the Imperfect
Is never employed, except the action is repeated or continued.
358. The Perfect Tense represents an action or event
either as just finished, or as finished some time ago ; as,
" Docui^ I have taught, or I^taught.
In the latter sense, it is used to relate events simply as happening in past time, with-
out reference to their having been completed or not completed at any specified time.
It is in this sense sometimes called an Aorist, aud is expressed in English by the Piist
Tense ; as, ** Docui,** I taught, or did teach.
The Perfect is sometimes used, when in English a Pluperfect would be employed;
as, ** Caesar postquam in Trevlros venit, Rhenum translre constituit."
359. The Pluperfect (Past Perfect) expresses an action or
event which was past before some other past action or event
specified in the sentence, and to which it refers; as, " Docue-
ramy^ I had taught.
360. The Future Imperfect represents an action or event
which is yet to come ; as, " Docebo^' I shall or will teach.
When a future action is apoken of, and another connected with it has not yet taken
place, the latter is also put in the Future ; or in the Futiure Perfect, if it must be com-
pleted before the other can begin ; as, '* Faciam si potero" I will do it if I can ; " Ut
sementemyi^c^rAf ita metei" as thou hast sown, so wilt thou reap.
The same Rule applies to the Imperative and to the Subjunctive used Imperatively ;
as, ** Factto hoc ubi voles,** do this when you please.
361. The Future Perfect denotes that a future action or
event will be completed at, or before another future action
or event ; as, " DocuerOy^ I shall have taught.
The Future Perfect is sometimes used for the Future, to express haste ; as, ** Mox
videro"
The Tenses of the Potential and Subjunctive Moods.
362. The Potential and Subjunctive Moods have the
Present and Past for both states, but no Future Tense.
1. As there is no Future of the Subjunctive, its place is supplied by the other Tenses
of the Subjunctive ; as, ** IllA de re prorolsit se scriptBrum, quum primum nuncium
accepfsset" he promised that he would write concerning that matter as soon as he
should have received intelligence.
2. Sometimes the other Subjunctives cannot supply its plaee ; in this case, therefore,
the Periphrastic Future must be employed ; thus, for ** I do not doubt that he will
return," we should say, " Non dubito quin rediturut sit." Were we to say, " Ncm
dubito quin redeat" the expression would imply, " I do not doubt that he is returning."
** Quin redierit " would mean ** thi^ he has returned."
3. The Participle in dus roust not be used for the Future, but fuiurum sit, or esset
with uts or in the Infinitive fore, which is of both Tenses, must be employed ; as,
" Spero /are ut vincatur," I hope that he will be conquered.
363. The Present Subjunctive has sometimes a present, but
generally a future signification.
H 6
1 56 LATIN GRAMMAR. [ Use of Tenses.
364. The Imperfect and Pluperfect Tenses Subjunctive
are variously rendered, according to their connection with
the other parts of the sentence.
365. The Perfect Subjunctive is used only of a completed
action, and of the Present time ; as, " Puer de tecto decidit,
ut crna fregerit;** the boy has fallen from the roof, so that
he has broken his leg. f
366. a. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive describe a
supposed or probable action or event, without necessarily
implying that it does not actually exist, or may not exist ;
but the Imperfect and Pluperfect exclude the idea of its
actual existence; as, "5t velit,' if he wishes; that is, he may
or may not wish ; " Si vellet,^* if he wished or did wish ;
implying that, " He does not or did not wish."
1. Sometimeg, however, the Present' and Perfect Sabjuoctlve are used even of what
is meant to be represented as not actually existing, to express in a more lively way, that
if it did exist, certain consequences would follow ; as, " Ta si hie sis allter sentias.'*
2. The Particle of contingency is sometimes understood in the Present and Perfect
Subjunctive ; as, " Dixerit EpicQrus," grant that Epicurus could have said.
b. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are also used, in
a future sense, to soften an assertion or statement; as, **Nemo
istud tibi concedat (concesserit),*^ no one will grant you
that.
c. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are used with
questions which imply a doubt respecting the probability or
propriety of an action ; as, '^ Quis posthac numen Junonis
adoret ? " Who will henceforth adore the divinity of Juno ?
The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are sometimes used instead of an Imperative.
See Imper. (321. 322.)
367. The Periphrastic Conjugation denotes that a person
has a mind to do, or is upon the point of doing something;
as, " Scripturus sum,^^ I am about to write, or meditate
writing.
The time of the action is liere determined, not by the Participle but by the Subttan*
tive Verb attached to it ; as, " Scripturus eram, scripturus ero^ &c.
The Tenses of the Infinitive Mood.
368. The Present Infinitive Active denotes an action as
not complete, but in progress, and shows that the action or
state is contemporaneous with that of the leading verb,
whether the tense of the leading verb be present or pre-
terite ; as,
1. *♦ Dicit me scribere,*' he says that I write. Here the leading verb dicit and the
governed verb scribere both express the same tijne ; the infinitive present is therefore
employed.
Use of Terum,'] SYNTAX. 157
'* JHxU me scribere,** he said that I wrote, that is, he said that I was writing at the
time he said so. Here also, scribere and dixit express contemporaneous time, and
therefore the present infinitive is employed.
Again, " DixU.fratrem quotidte legere" he said that his brother read every day.
Here the Maying and the reading are contemporaneous.
2. Memini generally takes an Infinitive Imperfect, although an action already com-
pleted is spoken of} as, " Memini Catonem mecum dittenre" I remember Cato's
talking with me.
369. The Infinitive Perfect Active expresses action com-
pleted*
o. If the leading verb be present, and the following verb
denote an action prior to that, the following verb, to mark
that priority, must be in the Infinitive Perfect; as,
*' Dt'cit me scripsisse" he says that I wrote. Here the actions are not contempora- '
neous, the verb scripsisse implymg an action antecedent to diciti it is, therefore, in the
Infinitive Perfect.
h. If the leading verb express a past action, and the
following verb denote an action antecedent to that, then the
following verb must be in the Pluperfect of the Infinitive,
and be translated by had; as,
1. ** Dixit me scrijMisse" he said that I had written. Here the «ay»i^ is past with
respect to present time, and the toriting being prior, is, therefore, expressed by the Plu-
perfect of the Infinitive. So again,
** Dieit nos audivitse" he says that we heard.
" Dixit nos audivisse" he said that we had heard.
2. The Infinitive Perfect is used as the Infinitive Present, after oontenUu twn^ satis
estf satis habeoj as, " Satis sit dixisse."
370. In the Passive Voice also, there are two Infinitives,
one called the Infinitive Present, which denotes a state of
suffering still continuing ; the other, the Infinitive Perfect,
and denotes the same state completed,
371. There is also, both in the Active and Passive Voice,
an Infinitive o£ future time. The active future is formed by
means of esse and the participle of the future ; as, " Lauda-
turum esse/' The passive future is the supine with iri; as,
** JLaudatum iriJ'
1. The Participle of the Future Active properly denotes the intention cr desire to
perform an action, whence it was an easy transition to the sense of/* to be about to
perform It."
2. After hope, promise, undertake, &c. the Future Ir^niiive Is used with the accusative
of the pronoun -, and after pretend, feign, the accusative of the pronoun and Infinitive
Present ; as, " Sperat adolescens diu se victurum (esse) ;'* " Simulat sefurere."
3. The Future Participle in the Passive Voice cannot be us^ with esse to denote
simple futurity ; for the proper meaning of the participle in dus is, " what ought to be
4lone ;" scribendum esse is, therefore, equivalent to necesse esse ut scribatur, and not
to fore ut scribatur.
4. A Circumlocution is frequently emploved instead of the Infinitive of future time,
by means of futurum esse or fore^ for a continuing state ; and yu/urum/wtM^ for a futu-
rity, contingent upon some condition not yet fulfilled. This mode is necessary, when
the verb has no supine and no participle future active.
158 LATIN GRAMMAR. ISuccega. of Tmuei.
ft. The expression ofpretetUf pastt *d<1 yWtere time in the Inflnittre wil] be clearly
seen from the following table : —
fDicit me scribSre; he says that I vfrt'te^ am writing, or do write.
< DIcit me seripsitiei he says that I wrote^ did write, or have written.
LDicit me scriplurum essej he says that I tkatl write.
rDixit me scribere; he said that I toas wrHing^ or wrote.
j Dixit me scripsissej he said that I had written.
1 Dixit me seripturum esse; he said that I would write.
LDixit me scrqfturum/uissej he said that I would have written.
Dlcit literas scribij he says that letters are written.
— scripias esse; — are, or were written.
— scrotum iri; — will be written.
ixit literas scribis he said that letters were written.
— scriptas esse; — have been written.
— tertptaafuisse — had b^n written.
— scrtptutn iri — would be written,
fDicit se intelligere quid a^at hostis ; — understands — are doing.
J — intellecturum quid acturus sit ho&tis ; — shall understand — will do.
Dicebat se intelligere quid ageret hostis ; — he understood — were doing.
— intellecturum quid acturus esset hostis ; — should understand — would do.
{
r
t
Succession of the Tenses in Svhjunctive subordinate Sentences.
372. After the words ut, ne^ quo, quominus, quiUy qui, quae,
qtuxi, quis, and other Particles that govern the Subjunctive,
it must be observed that,
1. When in the Independent clause, a principal tense,
namelj, a Present, Perfect, or Future verb is employed, then
a Present, Perfect, or Future Periphrastic Present must be
employed in the subordinate clause according to the sense.
2. When in the Independent clause, an historical tense is
employed, namely, an Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect tense,
then in the Subordinate clause, an Imperfect, Perfect, or
Future Periphrastic Imperfect must be employed according
to the sense ; thus.
1. Principal Tense.
Scio quid caaSy egeris, acturus sis.
Cognovi quid agas, egeris^ acturus sis.
Audiam quid agas^ egeris, acturus sis.
S. Historical Tense.
Sdebam quid agifrest egtsses^ acturus esses.
Cognovi quid agSreSt egisses, acturus esses.
Q^ovSram quid agSres, egisseSy acturus
esses.
Renuirks. — 1. a. The Present is followed by the Present when it relates to a present
circumstance ; as, " Rogo te ut venias" I ask thee to come : *' Pugnat quasi pro viti
contendat" he fights as if he contended for life.
b. Yet the Present is followed by the Perfect, when the discourse is of a past subject,
and by the Future when it is about a future subject ; as, " Timeo ne libros meos umi-
serim" I fear that I have lost my books. " Die mihi, quando redtturus sis,** tell me
when you will return.
c. Sometimes by the Imperfect and Pluperfect^ when the sense requires ; as, ** Die
mihi qvdd faceres;" " Die mihi qmd fecisses."
2. a. The Future is followed by the Present; as, ** Rogabo patrem, ut librum mihi
etnat;" I will ask my father to buy roe a book.
b. The Future is followed l^ the Perfect, when the discourse is of a past event ; as,
" Cras necesse erit, ut labor^nAtis sit;" to-morrow it will be necessary that the labour
have been finished.
3. a. The Imperfect is followed by the Imperfecti'* as, " Bogabat me, ut tenirem^
he asked me to come.
b. Bv the Pluperfect when the sense requires it } as, ** Vellem, nunquam te vidtssemi*'
I could wish that I had never seen thee.
Arransfement, ^c.'] SYNTAX. 159
4. The Peffeet Is followed by the Imperfect^ when It it uied tlmplT to express past
time ; as, " Puer de tecto decidit, ut cms frangeretj " the boy fell nrom the roof, so
that he broke his leg. ** Pugnavit, quasi pro ritk contendtref ; ** he ^fimgkt, as tf be
had contended for lite.
5. a. The Pluperfect is followed by the ImperSect; as, " Timueram ne in morbum
imciderem,** I had feared that I should fall sick.
b. Yet the Pluperfect is followed by the Pluperfect^ when the sense requires it ; a»
** Audiveram quaiisjWurf, '* I had heard what sort of a man he had been.
6. Verbs similarly situated with respect to time and circumstance, must be in the
same mood and tense, connected by copulative and disjunctive conjunctions. Sometimes
the conjunctions are understood.
, 7. To express diff^erU modifications of time, corresponding tenses must be used ; as.
The Present with the Perject; as, "Amavisti me et adhuc amas."
The Imperfect with the Pluperfect i as, " Speraveram semper et turn tperabam,**
The PreserU with the Fuiure ; as, **Amo te et per omnem vitam amaboj'*
8. The Infinitive Present is used both of the pas/ and the present^ according to the
verb on which it depends ; as, " Credebam te legerej Credo te legere."
9. The Perfect Infinitive will be followed by the Perfect ; as, "Arbitramur nos ea
praestitisse quae nAioprtKseripseritt** we Uiink that we have performed those things
which reason required.
The Infinitive of the perfect-aorist will be followed by a tense of past time ; as,
** Gandeo me curavitse ante senectutem ut h&ab viMrem," 1 am glad that I took care
before old-age to live well.
The Present Participle also is followed by a verb of past or present time, according
to the tense of the verb on which it depends. «
THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A LATIN
SENTENCE.
In the Arrangement or Order in which words are placed
in Latin, the following rules are observed : —
373. The most important word in the sentence must be
placed before those connected words which are less important.
In English, the Su^ect Is placed first, next the Verb with its Adverb^ And then the
Ol^ect with the words connected with it. The reverse of this frequently takes place in
Latin, particularly in subjects addressed to the feelings or the imaginatton. The most
important words are, in such instances, placed so as to make the strongest impression ;
those which express the principeU object of the discourse, together with Its circum-
stances, being placed the first in the sentence, and those which represent the actor of
agent, frequently the last ; as in the following sentences :—
The Nominative, when emphatic, precedes the verb; when not emphatic, it follows ;
as, ** Orttis nostri partem patria vindicate*' ** Non intelltgunt homirus qudm magnum
vectigal git parsimonia." Oblique cases, when emphatic, precede the governing word ;
as, *' Necessitatis inventa antiquiora sunt qudm volupt&tis.'* When not emphatic, they
follow ; as, "An tarn eram rudis ? tam ignarus rerum^ tarn expers coruiUif^'
374. The word governed is placed before the word which
governs it ; as, " Carthaginiensium dux ; Laudis avidus ;
Hostem fudit.*'
Much, however, depends whether the governed or governing word is the more im-
portant.
1. The proper name must precede the name of the rank or profession, &c. or a word
}iut in {qiposition ; " Cicero orator ; Agis rex ; Cyprus insula." Elxcept the emphasis
alls upon the common noun j as, **Pontife* Scaevola," to distinguish him from the
Avgur.
2. The Vocative either introduces the sentence, or is placed amongst the first words;
as, " Credo, vos, Judices."
160 LATIN GRAMMAR. [^Arrangement, ffc.
3. a. When the Adjective is emphatic, it precedes the Substantire ; but when the Sub-
stantive is emphatic, the Adjective follows.^ In other cases, the position of the AdjectiTC
is various, sometimes before and sometimes after the Substantive.
b. The Adjectives primus, medius, uiOmus, extretnust summust it^muSt imus, svpri'
muSt reOquuSt cae^us, are generally placed before the Substantive.
e. When the Substantive governs another in the genitive, the Adjective generally pre-
cedes both ; as, *^Duo Platonis praecepta."
d. When the Substantive is governed by a preposition, the Adjective is frequently put
before the Substantive ; as, **Magnd ex parte."
e. If two Adiectives refer to the same noun, the Pronoun is often inserted between
them ; as, " LibSro tuo et admirabili ingenio delector."
375. In Latin narrative, in didactic composition, or in
ordinary discourse, in which no emphasis is intended, after
Conjunctions is placed the Subjecty then the Governed Ca^es,
with all other unemphatic additions, and lastly, the Verb,
Note I. When a descriptive clause is subjoined to the nominative that cannot conve-
niently stand between the nominative and^the verb, or when the nominative is closely
connected with the succeeding clause by which it is either limited or explained, it must
follow the verb; as, " Erant omnlno itinera duo, quibus itinerlbus domo exire
possent"
2. Circumstances, that is, the cause, manner, instrument, time, or place, must be
expressed before the predicate or thing affirmed ; as, " Eam/erro occidi.*'
3. An aggregate of particulars, to which any addition is to be expressed, or from
which any exception is to be made, generally precedes the addition or the exception ;
as, " Ego, praeter caeteras tuas viriutes, humanitatem tuam admiror."
Also, what is common to several objects, either precedes or follows them, but must
not be placed with one exclusively : as, " In scriptorlbus legendis et iraitandis," or " Id
legendis imitandisque scriptoribus,'* and not " In legendis scriptoribus et imitandis."
4. The verb is seldom placed at the end of the proposition, when either this is too
long for the hearer to be kept in expectation of it, or when too many verbs would come
together at the end.
5. Sometimes the most important word is placed at the end of the sentence, in order
that the reader's attention may dwell upon it.
376. Words connected in sense should be as close as pos-
sible to each other ; and the words of one clause should never
be mixed with those of another.
When, for instance, Horace says, " Romanes terrarum dominos evehit ad decs,** it
is impossible to ascertain whether " Terrarum dominos " refer to the Romans or to
the gods.
377. Some words have a fixed and determinate situation
in the sentence.
1. The Pronouns hie, is, iUe, iste, generally precede their Substantives, and if used
substantively, are placed before the participle ; as, *' Hoc tempore j Eo regnante"
2. a. The Relative generally follows the Antecedent, and should be placed as near to
it as possible.
b. The Relative is generally the first word in its own clause. When it connects a
sentence with a preceding sentence, and is equivalent to et ilie, et hie, et is, or to the
pronouns without the conjunction, it must be the first word ; as, " Laudoeum qui Deum
colit." " Factum hoc est. Quod quis negat ?"
3. a. Adverbs are generally placed immediately before the words which they qualify ;
as, *' Nihil tarn asperum."
b. Non, qualifying a single word, is placed immediately before it ; as, **Non te repre-
hendo ; " but when qualifying a whole proposition, and not a single word, it must stand
before the Verb ; and before the finite Verb, if an Infinitive depends upon it.
4. Prepositions are either placed immediately before their case, or separated firom it
only by a Genitive Case, belonging to the word which they govern. See Note 3. 6, e.
No. 374.
Translating, ^c.^ ENGLISH PARTICLES.
161
Per^ in forms of adjuration, is separated by one or more words from its case ; as,
** Per ego te fill, quaecunquejura Uberos jungunt parentibus, precor."
5. a. Conjunctions generally introduce the clause to which they belong ; as, **At si
dares banc vim."
b. But que and ve are added to the latter of the two words which they serve to con-
nect ; as, ** Albus aterve." Ne is placed after the first word ; as,- " Loquarae f *'
Autem^ enirrit verb, quoquCj quidem, are generally placed after the- first word in the
clause, and sometimes after the second ; as, "///« a»/«m. Ego enim,**
Naniy namque, at, verum, sed, etenim, equidem^ ergo, igitur, itaque, tamen, frequently
stand the first, sometimes the second.
Ne quidem must always be separated ; as, *' Ne legere quidem didicit." Non nisi are
commonly separated.
6. a. Words of a similar kind, and those expressing a oon^roft, should be as close toge-
ther as possible ; as, " Manus manum lavat : '* Appetis pecuniam, virtutem abjicis:"
" Excludor ego. Hie recipitur."
b. The words which are opposed to each other, should, as much as possible, be of
the same part of speech ; thus, a Noun should answer to a Noun, &c.
378.
DIRECTIONS FOR TRANSLATING.
1st. Closely adhere to the actual order, and whatever words may be omitted, let them
be taken as soon as possible.
2nd. Whatever words are taken together, let them stand in the actual order.
3rd. Take together, or In immediate succession, words which are in regimen or
concord.
4th. Take together, or in immediate succession, the whole of a cluster of words.
Gth. Let the sentences stand in the actual order, and take the dependent sentence in
its proper place.
6th. With the preceding limitations, take as few words together as possible.
7th. Be as literal as possible.
NoTB. — The above Rules should never be deviated from, except when to observe
tbem would destroy perspicuity.
ENGLISH PARTICLES.
379. A or an, used as the indefinite article,
is not expressed in Latin ; — signifying one
is expressed by unusj'—some, by quidam,
or quispiam, aiiquis.
380. All of you, is expressed as if written
you all; — most qf %u, most of you ; as if
*'we most," "you most;*' thus, "pleri-
que," most of us ; " omnes fortunis ex-
pertes sumus," all of us are bereft of our
fortune. All qfthem, all qf whom, are ren-
dered by illi omnes, qui omnes.
381 . And is expressed by et, ac, atque,
que, necnon s — (oi\owed by a negative, is
rendered by nee; — sometimes is implied in
the participle ; as, " He took and killed
him, captum interfecit. " To me and
you<' in Latin " to me with you."
382. As, denoting comparison, is rendered
by ut, uti, sicut ; — signifying because, is
rendered b^ quoniam, quod, ^a, &c. ; —
signifying since, by quippe qut with a sub-
junctive ; — so great as, such as, so many as,
are rendered by quantus, qualis, quot ; —
so as, hy tanu-quam. As is also sometimes
rendered by a participle ; thus, "As he was
sitting," (7/1 «f(f«n<t. As it were, qyisaX. As
far tu possible, quoad ejus fieri potest ; As
far as I can, quoad ejus facere possum.
383. At, signifying near, is rendered by
ad or apudj — before names of towns, is a
sign of the genitive or ablative— after verbs
ofanger, is a sign of the dative ;— denoting
the cause, price, and time, is used with the
ablative ; as, in tali tempore ; — at supper,
at night, inter coenam or in coen&, nocte
or noctu.
384. Being, implying a cattsff, is rendered
principally by quum. cum, qwppe qui, ut
qui, ut po'te, ut pote dim, ut.
385. Bothf when followed bv and, is ex-
f>re8Bed by et or turn; — used distributively,
s rendered by uterque.
386. But is usually rendered by sed, at^
au^em;— after a negative, it is rendered by
nisi, praeter, praeterquam ; — after a nega-
tive, and signifying that not, it is rendered
by quin.^But if, sin, sin autem ; but ifnot^
sin minus. Nothing but, or nothing else
than, is expressed by nihit aliud qudm.
387. B^ore, when preceding a verb, is
rendered by antequam, priusquamj when
followed by a noun singly, or a noun with
an adjective or participle, it is rendered by
ante. The same observation will apply to
post and postquam. Brfore one* s eyes, ob
OCUlOB.
162
LATIN GRAMMAR. ^English Partida.
388. i5^/<^, mellor ; more $ati^faetoryt
satius.
389. Bfft when signifying near^ is ren-
dered by fld, apudjuxta^ proper propter:—
signifying " through " or "by way of,*^ is
rendered by per; " by letter," per litercu:
signifying the cause, agent, &c. it must
be rendered according Xf> the Rules given
in Syntax.
390. Can and could, see the observations
under the Potential Mood.
391. I cannot but^ facere non possum
quin. It cannot be but tkat^ fieri non potest
quln.
392. 7>0, did^ when implying an action,
are rendered hj facto; sumetlmes they are
merefy the emphatic signs or the present
and imperfect tenses \--do your endeavour
that or to, is expressed hy daoperam or
fae^ followed by a subjunctive. To do all
but, is expressed by tantum non, and some-
times hy fere, propemodum. To do notkiiK
but, is expressed by nihil aliud; as, " He
did nothmg but read," nihil aliud quam
legit,
393. Each other, one another, see No.
222.
394. For, signifying " instead of," is ren-
dered by pro; — signifying the cause, is ren-
dered by ob, propter, or is implied in the
ablative. For denoting the prt'c^, is implied
in the ablative ; as, auro ; — ^before a parti-
ciple in ing, and' denoting because thai, is
rendered by mtdd or qui, with a subjunc-
tive ; — at the oeginning of a clause, is ren-
dered by enim, nam, &c \—for, after fear,
is a sign of the dative.
395. From is generally expressed by a,
ab, de, e, ex ;*-aner verbs of taking away,
is implied by a dative ; — after verbs of li-
berating i as< sotvo, libero, is a sign of the
ablative ;■— denoting from a town, is also a
sign of the ablative ; — after prevents, de-
ters, &c. quominuB ; — atter recover, ex ;
-rfrom the heart, ex animo.
396. Had is sometimes merely a sign of
the pluperfect tense, and sometimes the
past tense of the principal verb to have.
Thus, if we say, "Lucretia had concealed a
' poniard under her clothes," it is rendered,
" Lucretia cultrum abdiderat,** But if we
say, " Lucretia had a poniard concealed,"
it must be rendered, " Cultrum .abditum
habebat." " Would rather,** contracted
hito «• I'd rather,** by malle.
397. In, for " Into," governs the accusa-
tive ; for " In,** it is joined to the ablative.
To this rule there are a few exceptions ;
thus, ** Dare or collocare in matrlmonium,"
to give in marriage ; " In futurum," in
future ; "A pud me," in my house, &c. In
(an author), apud (Homerum).
898. Instead of is expressed, 1 . Before a
noun by pro with an ablative, or loco or vice
with a genitive ;— 2. Denoting a change of
J lace, instead of\» rendered by im
. Denoting something ^that omght to be
done, it is expressed bv cum with the sub-
junctive of debeo ; as, '' Ludit ciUn studere
deberet,'* instead of studying, he p1ay» ; —
4. Denoting something that «n/gA/ be done,
instead qfu rendered by cum with the
subjunctire of possum : as, ** Studet ckm
\Vidkre posset ** ne studies instead of P^f-
ing;— 5. When the preceding verb la m
past time, debeo and possum must be in
the pluperfect ; as, " Ludebat ekm studere
debuisset,** he played instead of studjring;—
6. If it denotes a thing that owht not to
be done, instead of is turned mto ** and
not** or ** rather than; *' as, '* You ought to
study instead of playing," stadere deberes,
non ludSre ; or, Studere deberea potius
qudm lud&re.
399. May and might, see the Potential
Mood.
400. Must is rendered by necesse esi, or
by the verbal Indus; ms, ** I must read,"
" I have to read," Necesse est mihi legere,
or Mihi l^endum est,
401. No, preceding an adjective, is some-
times rendered by non ; — implying none,
is rendered by nullus. No one, nemo ; no
time, nihil temp6ris.
402. Not is usually rendered by non,
haud, minus, minime, nihil; ~in interro-
gations, annon, nonne ; — not at all, non
omnino ; — after verbs of fearing, not is
rendered by ut. For other observations,
see Imperative Mood (No. 322.).
403. Of, see under the Genitive (229. 2.).
404. On or Upon, denoting rest, is ren-
dered by in or super ;— motion against, by
in;— after verbs signifying to depend, on
is rendered by a, ah, de, e, or «r ; — after
verbs signifying to bestow, spend, employ,
waste, &c. by in ;— before a word denothig
time, condition, terms, food, &c. is implied
by an j^Iative case ; — on, before a parti-
ciple, is sometimes expressed by the abU-
tive absolute ; as, '*Hoc audito,** this being
heard.
405.
OHthepotnlqf isrcnd«radby i$noid.
It U in agUMon - • -id agUur ut
In the case <ff - - - 'in vith an ablative.
406. Ot^ht, as a principal verb, is ren-
dered by debeo ; see under the Indicative
Mood (318.).
407. Shall and shomld. Shall is generally
a sign of futurity in the indicative ; should,
when auxiliary, is a sign of the potential.
See the Potential Mood (323.). Should, after
that, is not always a sign of the future of
the infinitive, but fl-equently of the present;
and should have is often a sign of the per-
fect of the infinitive ; as, " It is wonderfUI
that you fAo«(/d covet riches," Tedivitias
appetHre mirum est; ** It is shameful that
he should have done so," Eum itafedsse^
turpe est.
JEnglisk iWfibfes.] ENGLISH PARTICLES.
165
406. So/ar from is rendered sometimes
by aded non, ita nan ; sometimes by ttm-
tum abesiut^ followed by ul or by turn moda
nam — ted etiam, non solum non — verum
ettcun; as, ** You are so far from loring me,
that you rather bate me," Ta$Uum abest
t»i me amest ui mepoitua odSris.
409. Than is rendered by muim, or im-
plied in the abfotive case ;--aller aiiter and
secHSt tkan is rendered by ac or atque
410. That, considered as a demonstrative,
is rendered byt72e, is, istej when a relative
it is rendered by^ut; when a conjunc-
tion, by ut or qttod j — that often denotes
the construetion of the accusative and in-
finitive (326, &c.).
41 1 . The can be rendered into Latin only
when some particular emphasis or con-
tempt is intended ; as, *' Alexander the
Great," Alexander ille Magnus; "Nero
the Tyrant," Nero isU Tyrannus. The
is sometimes prefixed to words denoting
the measure of excess; as, *' The wiser the
better," Quo sapientior, eo melior.
412. To is the usual sign of the infinitive;
—after verbs of motion it is rendered by
the supine in urn i—io is also the common
sign or the dative. See Dative (259 b.).
413. Too is sometimes rendered by nimfs,
nimiuSt plus, aequo, &c. signifying also, by
etienn atque J— is often implied ia a com-
parative adjective ; as, *' Too long," ton-
gior i " The burden is too great for your
strength," onus viribtu tuis est me^us.
414. Very is frequently expressed by
valde, adniodumi~'\% sometimes implied in
a superlative ; as, " Very long," longis-
timus ; — or in an adjective compounded
with per j as, " Very great," permagnus.
415.
Which (of many) is expressed
Whether or which ((rf two) ■
One (of many)
One (of two)
None (of many)
Neither (of two)
Any (of many) • . .
Either (of two)
Bvery one(of many) -
Each (of two) . - .
Whichsoever (of many)
Whetbersoever (of two)
by qtdt.
■ uler.
vnur.
alter.
nuilut.
neuter.
( qtiilibet or quivie.
Xquitauam or uiltu.
utmibet or utervii.
quisque.
uterque.
quitqm* at qtdeuftque.
uteteunque.
41«. Wm and Wculd, WiU, when it
simply denotes futurity, is generally ren-
dered by the future indicative; Would,
in like manner, by the potential Imper-
fect. When these verbs denote determi-
nation or inclination they are generally
rendered by vofo. See the Potential Mood
(323.2,3.),
417. WiA, denoting instrument, cause,
or manner, is merely a sign of the ablative;
it is only expressed by cum when concomi-
tanqf is meant ; as, *' He invited him with
his friends," Eum cum amicis invitavit.
With, expressing the manner in which an
action is performed, is generally turned into
an adverb ; as, " To speak with dignity,"
Dicere omati ; — the substantive may be
preserved if accompanied -with an adjec-
tive ; as, " Magno omatu dicere." With,
after verbs expressing anger, comparison,
or meeting, is generally a sign of tiie
dative.
418. Without, before a noun after a ne-
gation, may be expressed — 1. By nisi, nisi
cum; as, "They fight not without pay,"
non pugnant nisi stipendiati;'— or 2. It
may be expressed by a verb, participle, or
adverb ; as, " Grass grows without bid-
ding," It0ussa virescunt gramina ; when
the latter clause is emphatical, the verb is
preferable to the participle. 3. Without,
before a verb, may be expressed by the
relative qm, quae, quod, by quin, or by an
ablative absolute ; as, " He does nothing
without consulting you," nihil agit quin te
consulat, or te inconsuUo. 4. Without, used
as an adjective, is expressed by expers»
5. Without is sometimes equivalent to nor,
so as not; as, " Many praise poemsft<rt/Ao«/
understanding them ;*' that is, nor under-
stand them {neque intelli^unt). "You
cannot be ruined vnihout ruming others ;"
that is, so as not to ruin others {ut non
with su^nctive.)
419. Many English Particles, unless
they are emphatic, are frequently not ex-
pressed in Latin ; thus, when, as, if, al-
though, &c., frequently denote a noun in
apposition ; when, since, although, &c. are
often the signs of the ablative absolute.
I
164 LATIN GRAMMAR. IGram. Figures, J-&
GRAMMATICAL FIGURES, OR FIGURES OF SPEECH.
420. The Figures op Speech are deviations either from
the usual ybrw or spelling of words, from their Syntactical
constrtcctiouy or from their proper and literal meaning.
They are divided into 1st, the figures of Orthography^;
2nd, of Si/ntax; and 3rd, of Rhetoric.
1. Figures of Orthography.
421. The figures of Orthography are deviations froni the
usual ybrw. or spelling of words, and consist of Elision, Pros-
thesis, Epenthesis, Paragoge, Metathesis, Antithesis, and Ar-
chaism.
422. a. Elision signifies cutting off a letter or syllable
either at the beginning, middle, or end of a word. Elision
thus consists of three kinds, usuallj denominated Aphaeresis,
Syncope, and Apocope.
b. Aphaeresis takes away a letter or syllable from the be-
ginning of a word ; as, ^st for est, ponere for deponere, c. Syn-
cope rejects a letter or syllable from the middle of a word ;
as, periclum for periculum, dixti for dixisti, deum for deorum.
d. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end ; as, tuii
for tune, satirC for satisne.
423. 1. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning
of a word ; as, gnatus for natus, Mamercus for Marcus. 2.
Epenthesis inserts a letter or syllable in the middle of a word ;
as, relliquiae for reliquiae, induperator for imperator. 3.
Paragoge adds to the end ; as, mittier for mitti. All these
are merely older forms of spelling.
424. Metathesis transposes a letter or syllable ; as, accerso
for arcesso.
425. Antithesis puts one letter for another ; 2LS,/aciundum
for faciendum.
426. Archaism, in Orthography or Etymology, is the use
of antiquated words or modes of spelling ; as, oUi for illi,
pictai for pictae, siem for sim. It is chiefly used by Poets.
2. Figures of Syntax.
427. The Figures of Syntax consist of four kinds ; Ellipsis,
Pleonasm, Enallage, and Hyperbaton.
428. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words neces-
sary to complete the regular or full construction ; as, Ita
Cham, Figures, §v.] FIGURES OF SPEECH. 165
aiunt^ supply homines, Paucis te volo ; that is, " In paucis
verbis ad te alloqui ego volo."
Grammarians 'have generally Included the following under this head ; Asyndi^on,
Zeugma^ SytlepsiSt and Prolepsis.
1 . AsyndSton is the omission of conjunctions ; as, " Doctrinam virtutefn- amo ;** et
being understood.
2. Zeugma is' when an adjective or a verb, referring to different substantives, agrees
with the nearest ; as, " Et genus et virtus^ nisi cum re, vitior alg& est ;'* " Quamvis
ille niger, quamvis tu candidus esses.**
3. Syllepsis is when an adjective or a verb joined to different substantives, agrees in
gender with the masculine rather than with the feminine, &c., or in person with the first
rather than with the second, &c. ; as, " Pater et mater mortui sunt ; " " Susiulimus
manus et ego et Balbus."
4. Prolepsfs is when the parts are mentioned' after the whole, though differing from
it in number or person, without repeating the verb or adjective ; as, " Exercitus hos-
tium duo, alter ab urbe, alter a Gallid^ obstant" for " Exercitus hostium duo obstant,
alter ab urbe obstat, cUter a Galiid obstat"
429. Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, Oculis
vidi, for vidi ; Sic ore locutus est, for sic locutus est.
Pleonasm is a fault to be avoided, except in expressions of earnestness of affirmation
on an interesting subject, in solemn language, or in poetical description. The word
sibt in the following sentence is pleonastic : " Factus Scipio est consul bis, primum
ante tempus, iterum sibi suo tempore."
But in many of the instances of it alleged f^om good authors, the words supposed
to be redundfuit will be found to add something to the meaning or to the force of the
sentence.
To the Pleonasm belong the following : —
1 . Parelcon is the addition of an unnecessary particle to a word ; as, " Egome/
adesiftcm, vldests.
2. PoJysyndSton is the repetition of coi^unctions; as, " Un2l Eurus^ti^ Notusgt«? ruunt
creber^f procellis Africus."
3. HendH^s expresses one thing as.if it were two ; as, '* Pateris libamus et auro**
instead of " Pateris atfrm^libamus."
4. Periphrasis uses many words to express one thing ; as, " Tei^i foetus ovium^**
that is, <4mi'
430. Enallage is the change or substitution of one part
of speech for another, or of one gender, number, case, mood,
tense, or person for another ; as, " Quae loca Numidia ap-
pelldtur ;•" for appellantur.
It must be observed, that Latin writers did not make use of this figure at pleasure.
Some reason could ^nerally, if not always, be assigned for substituting one case, mood,
&c. for another.
To EnaUdge belong the following : —
a. ArUimMa is the use of one part of speech for another ; as, " Populura latd
regent}** for regnantem.
b. Sb/nSsis is when the adjective or the verb agrees with its subject, not in Grammar,
but only in sense ; as, " Pars in crucem acti sunt, pars bestiis objecti.'*
c. HypaUage is a mutual change of cases ; as, " Dare classibus austros" for classes
austris.
d. Hellenism is an imitation of Greek construction ; as,
" Abstineto irarum ; " for ah iris. " Sensit medios delapsus
Achivos ; " that is, se delapsum fuisse,
e. Archaism^ in Syntax, is when an old mode of construc-
tion is used, as when wtor, ahutor, and /rwor govern an Ac-
166 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Gram. Figta-es, %^
cusaHve; as, ^^ Absente nobis ;^ for absentibti9 nobis, or me
absents,
431. Htpeebaton is the violation of the common ai^ange-
ment of words in a sentence.
It is divided \xito'Anagtr}iphe, HysHron prZiiron^ Synchpsitt Tmesis, and Parenthesis.
1 . AnastrOphe Is the inyeraion of words, or placing that word after others whieh
ought to be before them ; as, *' His accensa super" for super his accensa ; ** Italiam
contra, * for contra Itaiiatn.
2. HystSron prd^ron pats that first in a sentence whfch is last In the sense; as
** Moruimur, et In media arma rttamus/*
3. Synchpsis is* a confused arrangement of words ; as, Saxa vocantltaU medUs quae
I
injluctibus aras;** for " Quae saxa in mediis fluctibus Italivocant aras.
4. Tmesis separates a compound word by the insertion of another word ; as, ** Per
mihi gratum feceris," for " Mihi pergratum feceris."
432. Parenthesis is the interruption of a sentence by the
insertion of some word or words ; as " Tit^e, dum r^eo
(brevia est via), pasce capellas."
433. A Barbarism is the use of a word which is foreign
to the language ; as, stavi for steti*
434. A Solecism is a construction contrary to the Rules of
Syntax ; as, " Acuta gladius,** for acutus gladrus ; ** Faveo
te," ioT faveo tibi,
435. An Idiotism is when the manner of expression pecu-
liar to one language is used in another ; as an Anglicism in
Latin, thus, "I am to write," Ego sum scribere, for JEgo sum
scripturus ; " It is I," Est ego, for Ego sum.
3. Figures in Rhetoric.
436. The Figures of Rhetoric are deviations ^TKymihe pro-
per and literal meaning of a word or phrase.
437. A word is said to be used literally when it is em-
ployed to describe anything according to the ordinary mode
of expression. A word is xx^q^l figuratively, when, though it
retains its usual signification, it is applied in a manner dif-
ferent from its common application.
438. The following are the principal Figures of Rhetoric ;
Comparison or Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Antithesis, Allu-
sion, Hyperbole, Irony, Paralepsis, Metonymy, Synecdoche or
Comprehension, Personification or Prosopopoeia, Apostrophe,
Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, Climax, or Enumeration.
439. A Simile or Formal Comparison is the resemblance
between two objects, expressed, in English, by the words like
€^111. Figures, J-c] FIGURES OF SPEECH. 167
or €is ; thus, we can say of a horse, ^' He is as swift as the
^nd ; " and of a man, <' He is Visjirm as a rock.^
440. A Metaphor expresses a resemblance between two
objects without the sign of comparison like or as; thus, " Thy
word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path."
441. An Allegory is a continuation of Metaphors, and re-
presents one subject by another which is analogous to it. The
subject thus represented is not formally mentioned, but will
be easily discovered by reflection.
442. An Antithesis is the contrast or opposition between
two objects, that they may be made to appear in a stronger
light ; as, " Temperance leads to happiness. Intemperance to
misery ; " ** On this side stands modesty, on that impudence/*
443. An Allusion is a figure by which some word or
phrase in a sentence recals to our mind either some well-known
fact in history, or fable in mythology, or the sentiments of
some distinguished writer.
444. An Hyperbole is a figure that represents things as
greater or less, better or worse, than they are in reality ;
thus, David, speaking of Saul and Jonathan, says, **They
were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions.*'
The use of extravagant Hyperboles forms what is called
Sombast
445. Irony is a figure by which we express ourselves in a
manner contrary to our thoughts, not with a view to deceive,
but to add force to our observations. Thus, when we style
a thief, " A mighty honest follow indeed,** we speak ironically.
446. Paralepsis or Omission is a figure by which we
pretend to omit;what we are really desirous of enforcing ; as,
'^ Your idleness, not to mention your impertinence and diS'
honesty, disqualifies you for the situation."
447. A Metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause
for the effect, or the effect for the cause, the container for the
thing contained, the sign for the thing signified.
448. A Synecdoche or Comprehension is when the whole is
put for a part, or a part for the whole, a definite for an m-
definite number, &c. ; as, " Man returns to the dust," mean-
ing only his body ; " He earns his bread,** meaning all the wc-
cessaries of life,**
449. Personification or Prosopopeia is that figure by which
168 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Gram. Figures, §-c.
life attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, ^^ The
thirsty ground ; " " The angry ocean ; " " The mountains
saw Thee, Lord, and they trembled,^'
450. An Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject of
discourse, to address some other person or thing ; as, ^' It ad-
vances, and with menacing aspect slides into the heart of the
city. my country ! ah Ilium ! the habitation of the gods ! "
451. An Interrogation is used literally to ask a question ;
but figuratively, it is employed, when the passions are greatly
moved, to affirm or deny more strongly. Thus, " The Lord
is not a man that he should lie, neither the Son of man that
he should repent. Hath he said it ? and shall he not do it f
Hath he spoken it f and shall he not make it good f "
452. Exclamation is used to express agitated feeling, ad-
miration, wonder, surprise, anger, joy, &c. ; thus, " Oh the
depth of the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God !
How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past find-
ing out ! *'
453. Vision or Imagery is a figure used only in animated
and dignified compositions, when, instead of relating some-
thing that is past or future, we employ the present tense, and
describe it as actually passing before our eyes.
454. Climax rises by regular steps from one circumstance
to another, till the thoughts cannot be carried to a greater
elevation ; thus, " There is no enjoyment of property with-
out government ; no government, without a magistrate ; no
magistrate without obedience ; and no obedience when every
one acts as he pleases.**
1 . Climax is the same as Amplification or Oradation.
2. In addition to the 'precedhig figures of speech, there are others, such* as Litdtet,
which aflSrms more strongly by denying the contrary ; as, " He is no fool^'* tor he is a
man qfsrnse ; the Parallelism, or the similar construction of the members of a sen-
tence ; Euphemism, when any thing sad or offensive is expressed in milder terms ; as,
*' Vita functus,** for mortuus ; the Catachresis, or abuse or words, when the words are
too far wrested from their proper meaning ; as, " A beautiful voice," " A sweet sound"
and a few others of minor importance and of rare occurrence.
3. For a more detailed account of the F^ures qf Speech, the student is referred to die
Author's English Grammar.
Quantity.l PROSODY. 169
IV. PROSODY.
45S* jFVewotly teaehea the Quantity or proper pronun-
ciation of syllables, and the laws of verse^
QUAOTTITY.
456. The Quantity oi a syllable signifies the ^'»>c occupied
in pronouncing it.
457. a. Syllables are either long or short. A long syllable
occupies twice the time in pronouncing it that a short one
does. Long syllables are marked thus (-) ; as, mensae ; short
syllable* thus {J) ; as, pater.
b. Every syllable must be either long or short ; those, which
are sometimes the one and sometiitfes the other are called
common^
458. a, A syllable is said to be long or short, 1st, by nature
or custom^ or 2nd, by authority,
b. When the quantity of a syllable is not fixed by some
particular rule^ it is said to be long or short by authority,
that is, by the usage of the Poets ; thus, le in lego is short,
because it is always made so by the Poets-
459. The ancient Poets sometimes made syllables long or
short, contrary to the Rules of Prosody ; that liberty is called
Poetical License,
The last syllable but one in a word is called the PemUtima^ or, by contraction, the
Penult, and the last but two, the Antepenultima.
QUANTITY OF TBK FIBST AND MIBDLE. STXXABLBS.
460. One vowel before another in the same word is short ;
as, deiis ; or before h and a vowel ; as, traho, mihi ; because
hy in verse, is considered merely as a breathing.
461. Exceptions, a. The e in the Genitive and Dative
of the Fifth Declension is long when preceded by i; as,
diei, speciei ; otherwise it is short.
b, /is long in those tenses of ^o which are not followed
by r; as, fiebam ; but short in those which are followed by
r; 2iS,fterem,
170 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Qiionfe-^.
c. Genitives ending in itis have the i long in prose, but
common in verse ; but alius is always long, and alterhis
always short.
d. Proper names in ^tis and aitis have the antepenult,
and in the Vocative, the penult, long ; as, PompeiuSy Cdiils,
Pompeiy CaL
e. Ay the penult in the old form of the Genitive of the
First Declension, is long; as, aqudi: and also the first *
syllable in aer, ditiSy eheu, is long.
y. The first syllable in lo, ohe, and Dianay is comnion.
462. a. A Diphthong is long ; as, aurumy musde,
b. But praey in composition, is short before a vowel ; as
prdeire,
463. Contracted syllables are long; thus, mi for mihi,
cogo for coagoy alitiSy for aliiusy sis for si vis.
464. a. A vowel is loUg by position^ 1st, before two con-
sonants, either in the same word, as beiluniy or in two words,
as semper i>cus ; 2nd, before the double consonants -Y, Z,
and J; as, axis.
In the compounds of Jugum^ the preceding vowel U short before^; as, iK^uguSt
quadr^ugus.
b. ' If the second consonant is either I or r, a vowel natu-
rally short becomes common in verse ; as, patris or pdtrisy
from pater; tenehrae or tenebrae. In prose, however, it is
always short; as, patris, tenebrde. If the vowel is naturally
long, it continues so ; as, atra from ater,
c. When / or r comes before the other consonants, or when
it belongs to a different syllable, the vowel is long ; as, arte,
db-luOy ob-ruOy quamob-rem,
d. When the last syllable of a word ends with a short
vowel, and the next word begins with two consonants, the
preceding short vowel is Sometimes, though rarely, made long ;
as, " Date tela, ^candite muros."
DEBIVATITB WOBDS.
465. Derivative and compound words retain the quantity
of their simples ; as, legebam from legOy legeram from legiy
amicus from dmOy invideo from videOy perjurus from juris.
The quantity of the simple word is not altered by the change of the vowel or diph*
thong in the compound ; as» concida from cddo, conctdo from caedo,'
Quantity.']
PROSODY.
171
466. Exc€ptio7is. a. Perfects and Supines of two syllables
have the first syllable long, though the present is short ; as,
vidi, visum, from video. But these Perfects, bibi, dedi, fidi
(from ^ndo)y steli, stUi, scidi, tiili (and when a vowel follows,
as rui), have the first syllable short; and also these Supines,
citum (from cieo\ datum, %tum, litumy ratum, rutum, sdtum,
situm, and statum, from sisto.
The Perfects and Supines of other verbs of two syllables retain, in the first syllable,
the quantity of the Present ; as, v6co^ vdcavi, vdcatum ; except p&suif p6situmy from
pono ; gSrutif genitum from gt'gno ; sdlutunt and vdlutuntt from solvo and volvo.
Supines of more than two syllables in dtum. Stum, and iitum, have the penult long.
So also Supines in itum, from Perfects in ivi (except eo and its compounds) ; but all
other Supines in Uum have the penult short ; as, monuif monUum, Participles in rvs
have the penult long ; as, amaturtts^
b. Perfects formed by reduplication have the first two
syllables short ; as, tutudi from tundo, cectni from cano ; ex-
cept cecldi from caedo, and pepedi, and those in which the
- middle syllable is made long by position ; as, momordi from
mordeo.
amintumixoxa ambio,amb,eo.
1 . The following words have a iong vowel from a sluytt
from \Heo,
— 16go.
— lino, lltum.
— m&cer.
— m6veo.
— m&la.
— pSnus.
persfino.
r6go.
one in the root : —
como —
dBni —
hUmdnus —
humor —
hybemus —
nontii —
imbectUus —
jug^rum —
junior —
c5ma.
dScem.
h5mo.
humus.
h^ems.
novem.
baculus.
jugum.
juvenis
Idtema
let, legis
Htera
mdcSro
Mobilis
moles
penuria
persona
rex, regis
regtUa.
}
from sSro.
— sMeo.
— s^cus.
stips, stipis.
susplcor.
tCgo.
v6mo.
v6co.
semen
sedes —
secius —
sttpendium —
suspicio —
te^hla —
vomer —
vox, voeis —
dd (Imper.)i8 long, but the
other tenses are short.
2. Tlv9 following words have a short vowel from a Umg one in the root : —
agnittts 1
cognitus Y from notus.
nota J
arena *\
arista >
drundo J
drnspex
b&btilus
— areo.
— ara. .
— bQbus.
dejSro 7 _
pejero S
itnio —
causidlcus 1
fatidlcus ^ —
malcdtctu J
jQro.
ditls.
dlco.
veridicus }
dicax 3
disertus
dux, dUcis
farina
fides I
perfidusS
figura
frdgUis
lUcema
mdmiUa
mdtestus
ndtare
ddium
from dlco.
— dlssero.
— dQco.
— far.
— fido.
.— fingo.
— frango.
— iQceo.
— mamma.
— moles.
~- no, natum.
— odi
pdciscor from
innUba 1 ^^
pronUba y ""
pUgil —
quusillus —
sdgax —
semisSpiius —
tigillutn —
sdpor —
stdtio
stdtus
stdbilis
stdbulum
vddum
pax, pads.
nQbo.
pugnus.
qualus.
Sagio.
opitus.
signum.
soplo.
statum.
vado.
c» Prepositions of one syllable are long in composition when
they end with a vowel, and short when they end with a con-
sonant ; as, deduco, aboleo*
1. But Prepositions terminating in a vowel are short, yi\k&a prefixed to words be-
ginning with a vowel ; as, d^osculor : and those which end in a coiisonauc are lo7ig,
when placed before another consonant ; as, ddmitto.
2. Pro, in Greek words, is short ; a,s,pr6pheta. In Latin words it is generally long ;
as, prodo : but sometimes short ; as, prdcella, pr^ugio. Se and di (tor dis) are long in
compound words, except in dirimo and disertus. Be, in compound words, is generally
short ; as, remitto, except in the impersonal verb r^ert, and in severaLcompoun^ words
in which the following consonant is supposed to have been formerly doubled ; as in
reUigio, relliquiae. Zand o, at the end or the first component part of a word, are gene-
rally short ; as, omnipotens, fiddie. is short in dmitlo, dperior.
I 2
172 LATIN GBAMMAR. IQuantity.
<iUANTITT OF THE LAST STI^LABLS.
A Vowel at the end of a Word.
467. A, I, 0, Uf final, are long; as, amd, regnty rogOy
vuUu.
468. Exceptions, a. All cases in a, except the ablative, are
short ; also eja, itdy postea, putdy quia, put adverbiallj,
Greek vocatives in a from nominatives in as, as, ^nea, are
long ; but the vocative of nominatives in tes, is short ; as,
Oresta.
Sometimes the words contra and itftra, and numerals in girUa^ have the final vowel
short ; as, Irigmtds but generally the final vowel is long in these words.
Exceptions, b. Nisi, qtmst, neuters in t, as gunimx, and
Greek datives and vocatives in i or si, are short ; as, Daph-
nidi, Daphni, heroist.
Mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, are common.
Sfcuti, necubi, and Octiht^ are short ; ttii has i long, but uOque and uOnam have i
short ; cul, when used as a dissyllable, is short.
Exceptions, c. Ambo, duo, imo, modo (and its compounds)^
sdo, cito, ego, iUico, profecto, and cedo (tell me), are short.
Nominatives in o, as leo, are common; also adeo, denub, ergo,
(used for igitur), idcirco, ided^ porrb, postremb, retro, serb,
verb, and quandb.
The Gerund in do is sometimes, though rarely, found short.
469. E final is short.
470. Exceptions, a. The Ablative of the Fifth Declension,
and its compounds, as re, die, quare, pridie, are long ; the
vocative and ablative of Greek nouns of the First Declen-
sion in e, as Anchise ; plural Greek nouns wanting the
singula]^ as Tempi; and the second person singular of the
imperative of the Second Conjugation, as mone, are also long ;
but cave, vale, vide, and responde, are sometimes found
short.
b. Monosyllables are long; as me, te; except the en-
clitics que, ne, ve, sjid pte, ce, te, joined to words; as suapte,
hujusce, tute. Adverbs derived from adjectives of three
terminations, are long ; as, docte, except bene, male, infeme,
and superne, which are short. Fere,ferme, and ohe, are long-
471. Yy which occurs only in Greek words, is short.
A ConsoTMTit at the end of a Word.
472. <z. Monosyllabic nouns ending with a consonant are
long ; as, nil,^sdl, sol, far, fur, jOs, ver; but cor, f el, mil, vxr,
OS (pssis), vas (vadis), are short.
Quantity. 2 PROSODT. 173
b. Monosyllables ending in a consonant, and not being
nounSy are short ; as, ut, an, in, dd, quid, is^ quis ; but eriy
non^ quin^ sin, cur, and par, with its compounds, are long.
See also the rules respecting c and is.
473. a. In words of more than one syllable, B, D, L, N,
H, T, final, are short.
It must be remembered that in these cases the next word must begin with a voweL
b. But nouns in er making eris in the Genitive, as crater,
crateris; also aer, aether, and Hebrew words, aS) Daniel, are
long. Also Greek nouns in an, en. In, increasing long in
the Genitive, as, Titan, hymen, delphln, are long. The verb
it, in the Perfect (by syncope for ivit or iit), is long.
Jf, at the end of a word, is cutoff before a vowel : the earlier writers often preserved
it, and made the syllable short It is still short in compound words, as circSmago.
474. a. C final is long.
b. But nee and donee are short ; the Pronoun hie, hoc, in
the nominative and accusative, is common, but generally
short ; hie (here) is long,yac is generally short.
475. AS, ES, OS, final, are Idng.
476. Exceptions, a. But Anas, anatis, and vas, vadis ; the
Greek nominatives which make adis or ados in the genitive,
as Ilias, Pallas ; and Greek accusatives plural of the Third
Declension in o*, as heroas, are short.
b. Nouns in es, of the Third Declension, increasing short,
as, miles, mUitis (except ceres, paries, aries, abies, and pes,
with its compounds, which follow the general rule), are short ;
also es from sum, with its compounds, the preposition penes,
and the nominatives plural of Greek words which increase
in the genitive, have es short ; as. Arcades,
JSs from edo is long.
c. Os is short in compos, impos, os (ossis), exos, and in
Greek words and cases in os ; as, Delds, Tethyos.
An*l, IS, US, final, are short.
478. Exceptions, a. Plural cases in is, as musts, are long ;
also nouns in is increasing long, as glis, Salamis, Simois ; —
is is long in the second person singular of verbs, when
the second person plural is itis; as, audis, with forts, gratis,
vis. Mis, in the future perfect, is common,
b. Us is long in the genitive singular, and the nominative,
accusative, and vocative plural of the Fourth Declension, as
gradHs ; and in nouns of the Third Declension which have
I s
174 LATIN GRAMMAR. IScanning.
u in declining ; as, virtus, virtutis. Us for ou, in G-reek
words, is long ; as, Panthus.
479. Ys, at the end of a word, is short, as Capysy except
in words which have yn in the accusative singular, as Tra-
chys,
480. Greek words used in Latin follow their original
quantity; thus, aU syllables which have, in Greek, an e
(epsilon) or an o (omicron), are short ; while those which
have an ij (eta), an w (omgga), or a diphthong, are long.
481. The last syllable of every line is common.
SCANNING.
482. Scanning is the division of a verse into its several
feet, in order to ascertain whether their quantity and place
are agreeable to the rules of metre.
483. A Verse is a certain number of syllables so disposed
as to form one line of poetry.
A Verse, when it contains the exact number or syllables, is called Acatalectic ; when
it wants one syllable at the end to coVnplete the measure, It is called CaUUectic ; and
when it wants two syllables, it is called Brackycatalectic ; when it has a redundant
syllable or foot, it is called HypercaUUectiCt or Hypermeter j when it wants oae syllable
at the beginning, it is called Acepkalus.
484. a. A foot is a portion of a verse consisting of two or
more syllables.
b. The principal feet are the following : — •
1. A Spondee, consisting of two long syllables; as, omnes,
2. An Iambus, a short and a long syllable ; as, amdns,
3. A Trochee, a long and a short syllable ; as, servOs,
4. A Pyrrhic, two short syllables ; as, deiis,
5. A Dactyl, one long and two short syllables ; as, frigtda.
6. An Anapaest, two short and one long syllable ; as, pietds.
7. A Tribrach, three short syllables ; as, dominus,
8. A Choriambus, a long, two short, and a long syllable ;
as, pontiftces,
485. Caesura is the division of a foot between different
words, so that the last syllable of a word becomes the first
syllable of a foot ; as the syllable tae in the following line: —
Pinguis et ingra|<ae prgmS|retur casetis urbi.
1. The CaesUra Is generally a long syllable ; but, when it falls on a syllable naturally
short, it sometimes renders it long ; as or in
Omnia ] vincit am | or, et | nos cefdamus ajmorl.
2. If there is only one caesura^ It Ib commonly in the third foot ; as,
Magnus ab | intelgro sae|clorum | nascitur ] ordo.
JFigurea m Scanning.'] \ PROSODY. 1 75
FIGURES m SCANNING.
486. Figures in Scanning are the various changes made
on words to adapt them to the verse. They are Elision,''^
Synaeresis^ Diaeresis^ Systole, and Diastole.
487. By Elision, a vowel or dipththong, or an 9n with a
vowel before it, is cut off at the end of a word, if the follow-
ing word begins with a vowel or an h ; as,
Conttcfi|er^.om|nes in|tentl|que or& t^jnebant.
Monstrtim hor|rendccm in | forme in j gens cul | lumSn Sd|emptuin.
Scanned as if written monstr* hor\rencr tn\form* in\gen8 cm, \ ^c.
1. Sometimes the Elision takes place at the end of a verse, when the next word
begins with a vowel ; as,
Sternitur | infellix alifeno J vulnere, JcoelumJ^ue
2. A verse is rendered Inharmonious when there are several Elisions ; as,
Primum nam inquiram, quid sit furer^ hoc ; st erit in te.
3. Aht O, heit heu^ pro, siy vae, vuh, and also most other monosyllables, are seldom
elided; as,
et I de LatijA, | et de | gente Sa|bin&.|
Other long vowels and diphthongs sometimes remain unelided, and are then gene-
rally made short : as,
Victor aplud rapi|dum Sim&|entasub | Hid \ alto.
Sometimes also the m Is not elided ; as,
Et tan] turn vene]rata vilrum, hQnc | sedula ) curet.
488. Synaeresis or Crasis is the contraction of two vowels
into one ; as, Di for Dii ; alveo, dcinde, pronounced as if
written alvo, dinde. So also in
Nee tantum Rhodope miratur et Ismarus Orphea.
1. %iiafr^5/s is frequently employed in the following words: antehae, anteit. alveo,
eadentj eodeniy cui, kuic, deest, deeratf deerit, dehinCy dein, dernceps, detTute, dii, diis,
ii, &c.
3. / and ti are sometimes changed into^ and v, and joined in pronunciation with the
following vowel ; as, alfjete for abiete, tenvis for tenuis.
489. Diaeresis is the division of one syllable into two ;
either by resolving a dipththong into its component parts, or
changing v into u ; as, auldi for aulae, soliiit for solvit.
490. Systole shortens a long syllable to suit the exigency
of the verse ; as,
Obstupu|i st&^)runtque comae ; et vox faucibus haesit.
491. Diastole lengthens a short syllable ; as,
Atquehic | JV{Sml|des: Nihil O tibi amice relictum.
* Elision is frequently divided into SynSloepha and Eethlipsis
I 4
176 LATIN GRAMMAR. \_Kinds of Versa.
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE.
492. a. An Jlexameier or Heroic verse consists of six feet,
of which the four first may be either Dactyls or Spondees,
but the fifth must be a Dactyl, and the sixth a Spondee ; as,
Tityrg | tu patti|lae rgciilbaDs sub |.tegming | fagi.
In{ln.|dum re{ginS jujbes rSno|varg dojlorem.
b. A Spondee sometimes, but rarely, occurs in the fifth
place, and then a Dactyl is generally found in the fourth ; as,
CarIL dSjum s5bo|les mag]nuin Jo vis | increjmentum.
Verses thus constructed are called Spondaic^
1. An Hexameter should not end in a word of more than tliree syllables ; the fol-
lowing line is therefore faulty :
Augescunt aliae gentes, aliae tninuttntur.
It is also better to avoid terminating an Hexameter in two dissyllables ; as.
Semper ut indaear, blandos offers mihi vuttut^
except a monosylli^le precedes them ; as,
Parcite, oves, nimlum procedere ; non bene ripae.
Nor should it be terminated by a monosyllable ; as, proelia rubricd picta aut car-
bone, velut $i j except another monosyllable precedes; as, Principibus placuisse m'ris,
non tUthna laus est. The Poets, however, sometimes Intentionally terminate the Una
with a monosyllable.
2. In every verse there must be a caesura; the following is therefore deficient in this
respect :
Romae | maenia | terruit ( impiger / Hannibal | armis.
3. A verse in which Dactyls greatly predominite, sufrgests the idea of rapid motion ;
while verses chiefly composed of Spondees give tlie idea of slowness and labour.
493. a, A Pentameter consists of five feet, and is divided
into two parts ; the former consisting of two feet, either
Dactyls or Spondees, and a long syllable ; the latter always
containing two Dactyls and a long syllable ; as,
Inter|dum l£cry|niae {{ pondSrH | vocls h^b|ent.
b. Each part is called a Penthemimer, as it contains at
least five syllables. The long syllable of the first penthemi-
mer should always end a word, and should not be cut off by
elision.
1. A Pentameter sulqoined to an Hexameter forms what is termed tlie Elegiac
verse ; as.
Hie locus exiguus, qui sustinet atria Vestae,
Tunc erat intonsi regia magna Numae.
2. A Pentameter should not end with a word of three syllables ; the following is
therefore incorrect :
Quolibet ut saltem rure frui ticeat.
It should not end in a mcmosyllable ; as,
Aut facere, haec a te dictaque factaque sunt,
unless a monosyllable goes before.
The last two words should not, if possible, end in a short a ; as,
Sis f«lix, et sint candida/ato tua.
Kinds of Verse, ] PROSODY. 1 77
Also the Pronoun <r, Adjectives, Adverbs, Conjunctions, &nd Prepositions, iire ex-
cluded from tlie end of a Pentameter. Nouns and Verbs generally form the proper
ending of a Pentameter.
3. In both Hexameters and Pentameters, rhyming was, by the Romans, avoided ;
though we occasionally find verses in which rhyme occurs ; as,
Vir precor uxorU frater succurre sorori.
494. Asclepiadean verse consists of four feet, a Spondee,
two Choriambuses, and an Iambus or Pyrrhic ; as,
]VIaece|nas &t&vls.| edlt^ re{glbtis.|
495. Glt/conian verse consists of three feet, a Spondee and
two Dactyls; as,
Reddas | inc61ti{inem prScSr.
496. Sapphic and Adonian, Sapphic verse consists of
five feet, a Trochee, a Spondee, a Dactyl, and two Trochees ;
as,
Int^lger vi|tae scSlS|risquS | purfis.
Adonian verse consists of a Dactyl and a Spondee ; as,
Terrult ] urbem.
The Sapphic and Adonian are always connected in stanzas,
consisting of three lines of the former and one of the latter.
497. Pherecratian verse consists of three feet, a Spondee,
a Dactyl, and a Spondee ; as,
Nigris I aequorS | venfls.
498. Phaleucian verse consists of five feet, a Spondee, a
Dactyl, and three Trochees ; as,
Summum | nee mStii|as dl]em n^cjoptSs,
499. a. The Alcaic stanza consists of four lines, of which
the two first are Major Dactylic Alcaic ; the third, Archilo-
chian Iambic Dimeter Hypermeter ; and the fourth. Minor
Dactylic Alcaic.
b. The Major Dactylic Alcaic consists of a Spondee (or
an Iambus), an Iambus, a Caesura, and two Dactyls ; as,
Vides, I ut allta || stet nlvS | candldum
SoracjtS, nee j jam || sustlnSjant onfis.
c. The Archilochian Iambic Dimeter Hypermeter has a
Spondee in the first and third places, an Iambus in the second
and fourth, and a Caesura at the end of the line ; as,
Silvae I l&bd|rantes, | gglu|que.
d. The Minor Dactylic Alcaic consists of two Dactyls fol-
lowed by two Trochees ; as,
Flumtn& I constats I rlnt &|cuto.
500. Iambic verse is of two kinds, one containing four
feet, and the other six^ Iambics of four feet are called Iambic
178 LATIN GRAMMAR. IKinds of Verse.
Dimeter ; of six, Iambic Trimeter; and were so called because
among the Greeks two feet were considered only as one mea-
sure in Iambic verse. At first this kind of verse admitted
Iambics only ; thus,
Dimeter — Indr\8'it aes \ tiiO \ sius:
Trimeter — SUU \ it ip\sd EO\mct vl\ribus \rutt.
Afterwards, in the first, third, and fifth places, besides an
Iambus, they admitted a Spondee, an Anapaest, and a Tri-
brach, A Tribrach is also found in the second and fourth
places. The last is always an Iambus.
Comic writers 'often use a verse of eight feet, called Te-
trameter or Octondrius, They admit different feet indis-
criminately in every place except the last. Such also are the
metres of Phaedrus.
501. ScazorUics are the same as Iambics, except that they have a Spondee in the last
and an Iambus in the fifth place.
502. Trochaics are generall]^ Catalectfc Tetrameters ; that is, eight feet wanting a
syllable. They regularly admit only a Trochee and a Tribrach in the first, third, fifth,
and seventh places. In the even places they receive also a Spondee, a Dactyl, and an
Anapaest.
The comic writers use the same mixture in Trochaics as in Iambics ; but they never
admit an Iambus in the former, or a Trochee in the latter.
503. The Anacreontic consists of three Iambuses and a long syllable. The first foot
may be either a Spondee, an Anapaest, or a Tribrach ; as,
FallOr i (fugat | rub5|rem.
This metre may be called Iambic Dimeter Catalectic.
504. The Archilochian Heptameter consists of seven feet, of which the first four are
either Dactyls or Spondees, and the last three Trochees ; as,
Solvltiir I acrls hi | ems gra|ta vIcS | verlsjet F&|v5nl.
505. Iambic Trimeter Catalectic consists of five feet and a Caesura, and admits of tlie
same varieties as Iambic Trimeter, having, however, an Iambus in the fifth place, from
the deficiency of a syllable in the sixth ; as,
Tr&hQnt|quS slcjcas majchlnae | cSrI|nas.
506. Trochaic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three Trochees with a Caesura ; as,
NOn Sjbflr nSjqne aurS|Qra.
507. The Choriambic Dimeter is sometimes combined with the Greater Sapphic. The
Choriambtc Dimeter consists of one Choriambic, an Iambus, and a Caesura ; and che
Greater Sapphic of a Trochee, a Spondee, a Dactyl, and a Caesura, with another Dactyl
and two Trochees ; as,
Lydm die | p§r 5mjnes
Te de|os d|rd Sj^b&jrlm | cQr pr6pg|ras &|mand5.
508. The Choriambic Pentameter consists of a Spondee, three Choriambics, and an
Iambic ; as.
To ne I quaesYSrls, | sclrg ngfSs, | quern mthl, quem |tXbi.
509. Dactylic Tetrameter Acatalectic consists of the last four feet of an Hexameter ;
as
AutEphe I sQm blm& ( rlsvS C& | rinthl.
This verse is combined in alternate lines with the Hexameter, in Horace, book first,
odes 7. and 28.
510. The Ionic a minore employed in Horace, b. 3. od. 12., contains eight feet, having
a Pyrrhic and a Siiondee alternately ; as,
Mt8&|rar«m est | nSqflf &|mdrl | dSrS | iQdQm | nSquS | dQlcI.
511 . The Minor Archilochian contains two Dactyls and a Caesura ; as,
Arb&rI|bflsquS cfilmciS.
179
512.
THE ROMAN CALENDAR.
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
March,
May.
July,
October.
Calbndab
6tus nonas
5tUB nonas
4tus nonas
3tius nonas
pridi^ nunas
Nonas
8vus idus
7tiTnu8 Idas
6tu8 idus
5tus idus
4tus idus
3tiu8 idus
pridid idus
Idus
ITtimus calendas
16tU8 calendas
lotus calendas
14tus calendas
I3tius calendas
I2mu8 calendas
llmus calendas
lOmus calendas
9nus calendas
8vus calendas
7timus calendas
6tas calendas
5tu8 calendas
4tu8 calendas
3tiu8 calendas
pridid calendas
January.
August.
December,
Calbndab
4tus nonas
Stius nonas
pridid nonas
Nonas
8vus idus
7timu8 idus
6tus idus
5tus idus
4tus idus
3tius idus
fridid idus
DUS
]9nus calendas
ISvns calendas
17timu8 calendas
16tus calendar
15tU8 calendas
14tus calendas
1 Stius calendas
12mu8 calendas
llmus calendas
lOmus calendas
9nus calendas
8-?u8 calendas
7timu8 calendas
6tus calendas
5tus calendas
4tus calendas
3tiu8 calendas
pridid calendas
April.
June.
September,
November.
Calbndab
Calbndab
4tu6 nonas
4 •
3tius nonas
3
pridid nonas
NONAB
prid. non.
Nonas
8vus idus
8
7timu8 idus
7
6tus idus
6
5tus idus
5
4tus idus
4
Stius idus
3
pridid idus
Idus »
f rid. id.
Idus
ISvus calendas
16
17timu8 calendas
15
16tus calendas
14
1 5tu8 calendas
13
i4tus calendas
12
IStius calendas
11
12mu8 calendas
10
llmus calendas
9
lOmus calendas
8
9nus calendas
7
8tu8 calendas
6
7timus calendas
5
6tU8 calendas
4
5tU8 calendas
3
4tus calendas
prid. cal.
Martii.
Stius calendas
pridid calendas
February.
The first column of the Calendar represents the order of the days according to
our mode of computation ; and opposite to each day is the date by the Roman
reckoning.
513. The Romans, as will be seen from the table divided
their months into three parts, called Kalends or Calends^
Nones, and Ides. The Calends are the 1st day of every
month ; WiQ Nones the 5th day ; and the Ides (being eight days
after), are on the 13th. But in March, May, July, and
October, the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on the 15th.
514. In dating a letter, &c. on the precise day either of the
Calends, Ides, or Nones, the Romans said Calendis Januariis,
or Januarii ; Idibus Martiis, Nonis Mails, according to the
particular day. The day. before was pridie Calendas, Idus,
Nonas, or Calendarum ; the day but one before, tertio (die
ante) Calendas or Calendarum, Nonas or Nonarum, Idus or
IduUm, and so through the rest of the numbers. The Romans,
including the day on which they dated, called the second day
before the Calends tertio, and so on.
515. They always counted forwards to the Calends, Nones,
or Ides, never backwards from them. After the first day of
180 LATIN GRAMMAR. [Parsing Table.
the month, therefore, they began to reckon so many days be-
fore the Nones ; after the Nones, so many days before the
Ides ; after the Ides, so many before the Calends of the next
month. The 2nd of January would, therefore, be quarto
NonaSy the 3rd tertioy the 4th pridie, the 5th Nonis. The
6th would be octavo Idus, and so on to the 13th, on which
the Ides fell. The 14th would be undevigesimo Calendas
FebruariaSy and so on to the end of the month.
516. In giving a date of so many days before the Calends,
Nones, or Ides, the Romans not only said tertioy pridie, pos-
tridie, Calendas or Calendarum, but ante diem tertium Ca-
lendaSy Nonary Idus, which in Cicero and Livy is by much
the more common ; usually written a. d. iii. Cal.
1. To turn Roman into English time, tlie following Rule will, in the absence of
the preceding table, be useful. Subtract the Roman numeral from ours, adding 1
in Nones and Ides, and 2 in Calends, and the difference is our date ; as, 13-S. Cal.
Feb. is thus Icnown ; I3 taken from 31 (the number of davs in January), leaves 18,
add 2=20, that is, the 20th day of January. Again, 42- Id. Jan. thus; 4' from 13 (the
day on which the Ides of the month fall) leaves 9, add 1=10, that is, the 10th of
January.
Note, the 2 is added in the account of Calends, because the 1st day of the followiog
month and the current day are included.
2. In the Roman leap-year (happening every 4th year), both the 24th and 25th of
February were called sexto Calendas Martii or Martias ; and hence this year is called
Bis-sextilis.
PARSING TABLE.
A Substantive.
— is a Substantive, "Why? of the declension, from
Nom. , gender, Why? number, Why? person. Why?
case. Why? Repeat the Rule. (Decline it.*) Repeat the Rule
for the Gender and Genitive Plural.
An Adjective.
— is an Adjective of terminations, of the degree, from
, . gender, number, case, to agree with its substan-
tive . Repeat the Rule. (Mention the degrees of comparisoo*
Quote the Rule for the comparison of Adjectives. Decline the Adjec-
tive and Noun together.)
A Relative.
— is a Relative Pronoun, from , of , gender, number, and
person, to agree with its Antecedent , Repeat the Rule. ' in
case. Why ? — .
A Verjb.
is an Active, Passive, or Neuter Verb of the conju-
gation, from — , the principal parts, mood. Why?.
tense • number person, to agree with its nominative case — -.
Repeat the Rule. (Conjugate the verb, or mention some of its tenses.)
* The words included ixx parentheses may be omitted as the pupil advances.
THE END.
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Courses of Composition which are subjoined, will be found simple and effective means,
if judiciously followed out, of teaching the young the whole art of composition, which
consists first, in the habit of thinking closely and observing nicely ; and secondly, in
the habit of clothing these processes with natural and ready expreiiions,*'— Monthly
Review,
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS, ETC.
III.
QUESTIONS and EXERCISES^ adapted to Hiley's English
Grammar, progressively arranged. Third Edition, considerably
improved. 12 mo. 2«.
" These Exercises are on a better principle, decidedly, than Murray's, and go much
farther into the minatis of our language." — Evangelical Magazine.
" Great sicill and judgment have been displayed in this compilation ; the Exercises
not only admirably illustrate the several Iiules, but also convey much valuable in-
formation. Mr. Hiley has subjoined a brief system of teaching the Art of Composition,
which possesses great merit." — Atherueum,
" This is a very judicious series, Ailly calculated to answer its object, in practically
assisting the student to ascertain the advantage he has derived from the preceding pub-
lication. We most cordially recommend both (the Grammar and Exercises) to our
readers, as works in the study of which they will find their own interest ; and which,
we are sure, wiU form a| lasting testimony to the talents and ability of their author."
— YorAr Courant.
** Two or three months ago, we inserted a notice of Mr. Hiley's Grammar of the
English Language, and we are glad to see that the favourable opinion we expressed of
it has been repeated and corroborated by some of the most influential of the London
periodicals. Of the present work we can say, with truth, that its arrangement appears
to be excellent ; that it contains a body of information which the student will look for
in vain in any other work of its kind ; and. to say all in one word, that it is in every
Yespect worthy of the Grammar to which it is adapted.**— Xe^dJt Mercury.,
IV.
PRACTICAL ENGLISH COMPOSITION.— Part L I8mo. 1*. U
" We have been particularly pleased with this small and unpretending volume. It
treats the difficult subject of English Composition for beginners in a manner at once
{>ractical, agreeable, and satisfactory. We have before expressed our regret at the
nefficiency of the generality of elementary works demoted to this highly important
subject, and have now great pleasure in introducing to the notice of our readers a
valuable exception to our remarks. . . . The exercises on Punctuation will be found
fiecullarly valuable by all who have experienced thd^difficulty of initfeiting large classes
Dto its mysteries. . . . We have no hesitation in recommending this little volume to
the notice of ail who feel the importance of the subject."— £tf«ca^ona/ Times.
Extract from a letter addressed by the Head Master of Greenwich Hospital Schools
to Messrs. Longman : —
'* The book seems to me to be the production of an able and experienced Teacher,
who well understands the mental capacity of youth. After a careful reading of the
work, I have arrived at the conclusion that the subject matter is excellent, well-
arranged, and eminently practical."— Feb. 23. 1848.
V.
PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY. New Edition. 18mo. 2*. Od. '
** The several courses are divided into convenient lessons, and interspersed with
copious exercises and directions for repeated examinations of the pumls, one of the
best features in these exercises is the perpetual reference to the map. Considering the
limited size and cost, the amount of information brought together is astonishing; and
if the book, aiter>ll, be but a manual, thisis all that a school Geography should be . . .
The remarks appended to each chapter on language, climate, soil, manufactures, &c.
are interesting and judicious ; and we have great satisfaction in recommending this
treatise, as being by Jar the best work of the kind that has come under our nMlce.''
—Educat^mal Times.
London: Spottiswoodb and Shaw, New-street-Square.
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