Elements of entomology : prepared for the use of schools and colleges

F NATUIVL HISTORY.

fT'S OF ENTOMOLOGY

; SPARED FOR THE USE 01
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES,

BY

W. R. W. lUSCHENBERGEyR, !,I.D.

: •: • : - • OF PHYSIC.-

,-

.

M THE TEXT OF

MILNE EDWARDS AND . GRILLE COMTE,

IN TTTL COL

'

WIT1. PLATES

PHILADELPHIA:

GRIGG & ELLIOT,

NO. 9 NORTH FOURTH ST.r

15.

. .

THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

R USCHENBERGER'S SERIES.

FIRST BOOKS OF NATURAL HISTORY,

ELEMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY:

PREPARED FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES,

BY

W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D.

SURGEON IN THE U. S. NAVY ; FELLOW OF THE COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS ; HON.

MEMBER OF THE PHILADELPHIA MEDICAL SOCIETY ; MEMBER OF THE

ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA, ETC., ETC.

FROM THE TEXT OF

MILNE EDWARDS AND ACHILLE COMTE,

PROFESSORS OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE COLLEGES
OF HENRI IV., AND CHARLEMAGNE.

WITH PLATES.

PHILADELPHIA:
GRIGG & ELLIOT,

NO. 9 NORTH FOURTH STREET.

1845.

Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1845, by
W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M.D.,

in the clerk's office of the District Court of the United States in and for the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.

!T. K. & P. G. Collins, Printers.

(4)

v_Jr

PREFACE.

THE sixth in the series of " FIRST BOOKS of NA-
TURAL HISTORY," includes a consideration of Articu-
lated Animals, Insects, My'riapods, Arach'nidans,
Crusta'ceans, Cirr'hopods, Anne'lidans, and Zo'o-
phytes, or radiated animals.

The volume is illustrated by ninety-one beautiful
wood-cuts, executed in his best style, by Mr. G.
Thomas, of Philadelphia.

The etymology of technical words is explained
in the text ; and a full Glossary is also appended.

In the preparation of this volume, besides the
text of Edwards and Comte, the works of Cuvier,
Lamarck, T. Rymer Jones, Thomas Say, and others,
have been freely used.

The writer takes great pleasure in believing that
in supplying a series of elementary books on natural
history, his humble labours may be beneficial to the
country. As a useful branch of education, natural
history seems not to be sufficiently appreciated, or
extensively regarded.

By the term Natural History, we mean that
science which embraces a knowledge of the structure

vi PREFACE.

of all bodies, whether living or inorganic, found on
the whole face of the earth, or united together to
constitute its mass ; a knowledge of the phenomena
observable in these bodies, the characteristics by
which they may be distinguished from each other,
and the parts they perform in the great total of the
creation. Its domain is immense, and its importance
does not yield to its extent. Some men, possessing
little acquaintance with science, perceive in it a
mere collection of anecdotes, more fitted to gratify
idle curiosity than to exercise the mind; or they
regard it as a dry study of technical names and
arbitrary classifications ; but such an opinion has its
source in ignorance, for no one possessing the most
elementary notions of natural history can fail to
recognise its great utility. The spectacle of nature,
grand and harmonious as it is, showing how vastly
superior in beauty the reality of the creation is to
the most magnificent of human inventions, elevates
and disposes the mind to high and salutary thoughts.
A knowledge of ourselves, and of the objects which
surround us, is not merely to satisfy our craving for
information — a craving which is developed in pro-
portion to the increase of intelligence : it is a neces-
sary foundation for many other studies, and is emi-
nently calculated to impart that rectitude of judg-
ment without which the most brilliant qualities lose
their value, and, in the course of life, rather lead

PREFACE. Vli

from than conduct us to useful conclusions. The
importance of the natural sciences ought to be too
evident to require demonstration. Geology and
mineralogy render daily services to industry, by
enabling us better to explore the wealth buried in the
bowels of the earth ; Botany makes us acquainted
with the plants, so varied and so beautiful, which
supply our wants in magnificent prodigality ; Zoo-
logy gives a knowledge of those animals which pro-
duce wool, silk, and honey, and those that assist us
in our toils with their strength, as well as of those
which, instead of being useful to us, destroy our
crops. How important a guide natural m'story may
be made to agriculture, the great pursuit in the
United States ! Besides, let us remember the long
list of diseases by which the human machine is
afflicted, and bear in mind the fact that the practice
of medicine is blind in action when it does not rest
on a scientific knowledge of the nature of man.

The practical importance of the study of natural
history, we repeat, requires no proof, and must be
felt, no matter what may be our career. But its
influence does not stop here ; the influence it can be
made to exert over our faculties themselves, is
worthy of the most serious attention. In fact, the
natural sciences, by reason of the routine system
peculiar to them, accustom the mind to go back from
effects to causes, and at the same time invariably

PREFACE.

submit results deduced from preceding observations
to the test of new facts ; their study leads to specu-
lations of the most elevated character, but never
leads the imagination astray, because it always
places material proof alongside of theory. And
beyond any other pursuit, natural history exercises
the mind in habits of method, a part of logic with-
out which every investigation is laborious, and
every exposition obscure.

Natural History ought to constitute one of the
elements of every system of liberal education ; but
it is not necessary that every young man should be
a naturalist. To become a proficient in a science
so vast in its scope, wrould require more time than
can be spared from other classical studies, and it
comprises a host of details useful only to those who
are desirous of devoting themselves especially- to it.
What every well-educated young man ought to
know is, not the characteristics which distinguish
this or that genus of plants or animals from another
genus, nor the exact course of every nerve, or every
artery in the human body : to charge his memory
with such details, would subject him to labour which
would be neither useful nor durable in its results ;
but what he ought to possess, are sound views on
all the great questions that it is the province of the
natural sciences to solve; those on the constitution
of the earth, and the physical revolutions that have

PREFACE. IX

taken place on its surface ; on the manner in which
the functions of all creatures are performed, and the
principal modifications observed in their structure,
according to the kind of life for which they have
been destined. Such information once acquired,
would not be soon forgotten ; and such information
must be specially sought by all who would become
naturalists ; it is enough, however, for those whose
occupations are not closely connected with these
sciences.

Such are the opinions of M. Edwards, the emi-
nent French naturalist. I am sure the propagation
of these opinions in our country will advance its
interests. To the science of agriculture, natural
history, properly taught, is of great importance,
because it teaches us the structure of animals, the
mode of their existence, and what is essential to
their life. This knowledge enables us to treat their
diseases with a better prospect of success, and to
destroy those animals which are injurious to our
interests. Of the value of geology in teaching us
the nature of the earth's surface, there is not less
doubt.

It ought not to be urged against the study of
natural history, that it requires us to become familiar
with hard words. Every branch of human know-
ledge— every mechanic art, has its respective tech-
nicalities. Systematic names are only difficult to

X PREFACE.

those who are unacquainted with their meaning. It
has been observed by an eminent botanist of our
country, Dr. Darlington, that ladies find no very
great labour in acquiring a perfect knowledge of the
technical language of fashion, of mantua-making
and millinery. Mousseline de laine, gros de Naples,
gimp, gingham, gros des Indes, millenet, inserting,
letting, &c. are examples of words which are hard
to those who do not comprehend their meaning, but
easy enough to those who understand their applica-
tion. Morus multicaulis is a systematic name,
which was for a time well understood by almost
everybody in the United States.

And the same is true of the systematic names
used in Natural History. Where there is a dispo-
sition to learn them, they are readily acquired at
the cost of a little labour.

February, 1845.

CONTENTS

OP

ENTOMOLOGY.

LESSON I.

General Considerations. — Structure of Articulated Animals — Division of

the Third Branch of the Animal Kingdom.
Class of Insects. — Organization — Metamorphosis — Classification.

LESSON II.

Ap'tera. — Order of Thysanou'ra.

Order of Parasi'ta. — Louse — Ticks.

Order of Sucto'ria. — Flea — Chigre.

Order of Coleop'tera. — Characters — Division — Pentame'rans — Cicin'dela-
Carabus — Gyrinus or Water-beetle — Fire-flies — Glow-worm — Borers —
Dermes'tes — May-bugs — Scarabeus — Heterome'rans — Blistering-flies —
Teterame'rans — Weevils — Trime'rans — Lady-bug.

Order of Orthop'tera. — Characters — Earwigs — Mole-crickets — Crickets-
Grasshoppers — Migratory Locusts.

LESSON III.

Order of Hemip'tera. — Organization — Division — Bed-bug — Locust — Plant-
lice — Cochineal Insect.

Order of Neurop'tera. — Dragon-flies — Ephe'mera— White Ants.

Order of Lepidop'tera. — Division — Butterflies — Sphinx — Botnbyx — Silk-
worm— Tineae.

LESSON IV.

Order of Hymenop'tera. — Organization — Ichneumon-fly — Galls — Wasps —

Hornets — Ants — Bees.
Order of Rhipip'tera.

Order of Dip'tera. — Mosquitoes — Flies — (Estrus.
Class of Myria'poda.— Scolopendra.

(7)

CONTENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY.

LESSON V.

Class of Arach'nidans. — Organization — Habits — Classification.
Arach'nida Pulmonaria. — Aranei'doe or Spinners — Mygale — Mason Spider

— Ara'nese Sedenta'riae — Ara'nese-Vagabun'dae — Taren'tula — Scorpions.
Ajach'nida Trachea'ria. — Mowers — Aca'rides — Mites — Itch-Arach'nidan

—Ticks.

LESSON VI.

Class of Crusta'cea. — Organization — Moulting — Circulation — Respiration
— Division.

LESSON VII.

Crusta'ceans.-— Order of Decapoda— its Division.

Bra'chyu'ra. — Crabs — Land-crabs — Habits.

Anomou'ra. — Soldier or Hermit-crabs.

Macrou'ra. — Craw-fishes — Lobsters — Locust® — Prawns.

Orders of Am'phipoda and Iso'poda. — Sea-louse — Wood-louse — King-crab

— En'tomo'stracans — Trilobites.
Class of Cirr'hopoda. — Ana'tifa — Balanus.

LESSON VIII.

('lass of Anne'lida. — Organization — Division— Earth-worms.
Family of Suctoria. — Leech.
Order of Dorsibranchiata. — Eunice.
Order of Tubicola.— Sabella.

LESSON IX.

Zo'ophytes. — Organization — Division.
Class of Infusoria Rotatoria.

Class of Entozo'a. — Division — Filia'ria — Ascarides — Teenia.
Class of Infuso'ria Polygas'trica.
Class of E'chinoder'mata. — Sea-stars.
Class of Acale'pha. — Medusa.

Class of Polypi. — Cor al— Coral-reefs — Hydros— Sponges— Geographical 1 >is-
tribution of the Animal Kingdom.

ELEMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY.

THIRD BRANCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM,

ARTICULATED ANIMALS.

LESSON I.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. — Structure of Articulated Animals
— Division of the Third Branch of the Animal Kingdom.

CLASS OF INSECTS. — Organization — Metamorphosis — Classi-
fication.

1. The third great division, or Third Branch of the Animal
Kingdom, includes all animals that are constructed on the same'
general plan as insects. Their internal structure is essentially
different from that of animals belonging to any of the other three
branches of the animal kingdom ; and their external characters
are so decided and evident that it is almost always easy to
recognise them at first sight.

2. They are termed articulated animals — animalia articulata
— because their body is divided into sections, and seems to be
composed of rings, placed in a contiguous series on a line with
each other (Jig. 1). The extremities in many instances are also
formed in this manner. These rings are formed of portions of

Fig. 1. SCOLOPEXDRA.

1. What description of animals are comprised in the third branch of the
animal kingdom ?

2. Why are they termed articulated animals ? How are the rings
formed? Have articulated animals any skeleton ?

1 ** (9)

10 STRUCTURE OF ARTICULATA.

skin which are harder and thicker than the rest of the body.
In some cases this annular arrangement arises so'ely from the
existence of a certain number of transverse folds or plaits which
groove the skin and encircle the body ; but in most instances the
animal is enclosed in a species of solid armour, composed of a
series of rings united to each other in such a manner as to permit
of motion. The uses of this armour are similar to those of the
internal frame or skeleton of vertebrate animals ; because it de-
termines the general form of the body, protects the soft parts,
affords points of attachment for muscles, and furnishes them
levers, fitted to secure precision and rapidity of motion. It is
frequently termed an external skeleton, although it does not
represent our skeleton. In reality it is only the skin which
has become hard and stiff. Its rings are of a horny consist-
ence ; and in some instances, they become almost, if not
entirely, stony, forming a case in which the soft parts of the
animal are enclosed.

3. In general, the rings of which this external skeleton is
formed are movable upon each other, but in certain parts of
the body, we sometimes see them soldered together, and then
they are less easily distinguishable : this is always the case in
the thorax of insects, but in other articulate animals, the cen-
tipedes or scolopendraB, for example, the rings are movable and
like each other throughout the whole length of the body.

4. Some articulated animals have no extremities, an example
of which we have in the common leech ; but most of these ani-
mals are provided with them ; the number of these extremities is
very considerable; there are never less than three pairs, and
sometimes we find several hundred, as in some marine anneli-
dans.

5. The nervous system of articulated animals is always com-
posed of a series of small ganglia attached together in pairs,
placed upon the middle line of the inferior face of the body, and
united by longitudinal cords of communication, so as to form a
sort of chain, or, rather, to represent a double-knotted cord, ex-
tending from one end of the body to the other. The nervous
mass formed by the first ganglion (fg. 2, a), which is sometimes
called the brain, is enclosed in the head, and is placed above and
in front of the cesophagus ; the other ganglia, on the contrary,
are situate behind the oesophagus and beneath the digestive canal,
so that the cords which unite the ganglia of the head to those of
the thorax, pass from each side of the oesophagus and form

3 Are all the rings of articulated animals movable ?
4. What is the number of extremities possessed by articulated animals ?
5 What is the character of the nervous system in articulated animals ?
Have these animals a brain, properly so called ?

STRUCTURE OF ARTICULATA.

11

around this canal a sort of collar (d).
The different nerves of the body arise
from these ganglia and ramify in the
neighbouring parts.

6. The organs of the senses are less
numerous than in vertebrate animals,
and sometimes they are altogether
wanting." In general they have eyes,
and sometimes an apparatus of hearing,
but no articulated animal has yet been
discovered possessing a distinct organ
of smell. It must not be inferred,
however, from this fact, that they are all
incapable of appreciating odours.

7. The digestive tube or canal of
these animals is always extended from
one end of the body to the other (figs.
12 and 74), and the mouth is generally
furnished with jaws ; but these organs
do not move up and down as in verte-
brate animals ; they are always lateral,
and move from without inwards.

8. In general their blood is white, but
not always ; in the class of anne'lida it
is red ; and its manner of circulating

is various. In these animals the mode of respiration is equally
various. They are all ovi'parous, that is, their young are pro-
duced from eggs.

9. Articulated animals, possessing, as they do, a nervous sys-
tem more developed than that of the rnollusks, limbs for locomo-
tion, and a sort of tegumentary skeleton, must necessarily be
superior to them in every thing which essentially characterized
ammatity, that is, in the functions of relation ; but, as respects the
functions of vegetative life, they are not so well provided ; their

Explanation of Fig. 2. — The nervous system of an insect : — cr, the brain
or cephalic ganglion : — 6, the optic nerves ; — c, nerves of the head ; — d,
nervous cords which unite the brain to the thoracic ganglia, and form a
collar around the oesophagus ; — e, e, e, e, thoracic and abdominal ganglia ; —
/, nervous cords which unite the nerves with each other ; — jf, g, nerves of
different parts of the body.

6. Are the senses perfect and complete ? Have articulated animals the
tense 'of smell ?

7. What is the character of the digestive apparatus in articulated
animals ?

8. What is the colour of their blood ? How do they breathe ? How are
they propagated ?

9. In what respects are articulated animals superior to rnollusks ?

Fig. 2.— NERVES OF AM
INSECT.

12

DIVISIONS OF ARTICULATA.

circulatory apparatus is less complete, and in some cases is alto-
gether absent.

10. In a word, we see that articulated animals are chiefly dis-
tinguished from the other three branches of the animal kingdom
by the arrangement of the nervous system and by the body being
surrounded by a series of rings which seem to divide it into so
many transverse segments.

11. This great branch of the animal kingdom is composed of
six distinct classes of animals ; namely, insects, my'riapods,
arach'nidans, crusta'ceans, cirr'hopods, and anne'lidans. The
following table exhibits some of the characters by which they
are distinguished from* each other.

A distinct head,'
thorax and abdomen ;
three pairs of legs, and
generally provided with
wings. Tracheae : but
no circulatory appara-

CLASSES.

INSE'CTA.

' lungs, or

ius piupen^ su uauuu. j

tracheae for
breathing air.
Extremities
articulated.

Head, thorax, and'
abdomen, not separated
from each other. Legs,
twenty-four or more

• MYRI'APODA.

•

pairs. Tracheae : no

circulatory apparatus:

without wings. j

Head confounded "}

.

'Blood white;
provided with

with the thorax. Al-
ways without wings.
Four pairs of legs.
Tracheae, or pulmonary

- ARACH'NIDA

5jjj

sacs. Vascular system

*%

tolerably well develop-

£

Led.

P

' In general, five or')

*&

branchiae for
breathing wa-<

seven pairs of articu- 1 n
lated legs. A circula- f CRU8TA CEA"
tory apparatus. J

1

<

Lter.

No legs for locomo- i
tion. Always live at- > CIRR'HOPODA.
Cached to other bodies. 5

Red or coloured blood. Unprovided with articulated > A „„./,.,

n i . . i . / ANNE LJDA,

^extremities. Generally having branchiae. $

10. How are articulated animals distinguished from the other three
Branches of the animal kingdom ?

11. Into what classes is the Branch of articulated animals divided ?

CLASS OF INSECTS. 13

12. By an examination of the preceding table we learn : — that
animals of the class INSECTA have articulated extremities, tracheae'
for breathing air, white blood, but no circulatory apparatus pro-
perly so called. They generally have wings and three pairs of
legs. The head is distinct from the thorax : —

13. That animals of the class MYRI'APODA have twenty-four
or a greater number of pairs of articulated extremities ; no wings ;
white blood, but no circulatory apparatus; and that they breathe
by tracheae. The head, thorax, and abdomen are confounded in
an elongated body : —

14. That animals of the class ARACH'NIDA have white blood,
and generally a tolerably well developed vascular apparatus ; tra-
cheae, or pulmonary sacs for breathing air ; they have four pairs
of articulated extremities, but are always destitute of wings. The
head is confounded with the thorax : —

15. That animals of the class CRUSTA'CEA have white blood ;
a circulatory apparatus ; articulated extremities ; five or seven
pairs of legs, and branchiae for breathing water ; —

16. That animals of the class CIRR'HOPODA have white blood,
but no extremities for locomotion ; and they always live attached
to other bodies. They breathe water by means of branchiae : —
and, last,

17. That animals of the class ANNE'LIDA have coloured blood ;
are unprovided with articulated extremities; and, in general, have
branchiae for breathing water.

CLASS OF INSECTS.

18. The class of insects includes all articulated animals that
are unprovided with a circulatory apparatus properly so called,
that breathe by tracheae, undergo, in general, a metamorphosis
while young, and possess six articulated extremities ; they gene-
rally have wings, and the head, which is furnished with antennae,
is always distinct from the thorax.

12. What are the distinguishing characters of insects.

13. How are myri'apods characterized? How are they distinguished
from insects.

14. What are the characters of arach'nidans ? What distinguishes them
from insects?

15. How are crusta'eeans distinguished? How do they differ from
cirr'hopods ?

16. What are the characters of cirr'hopods? What distinguishes them
from insects ?

17. What are the characters of anne'lidans ? How are they distinguished
from myri'apods ?

18. What are the general characters of animals composing the class of
insects ?

2

14

STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.

-n

19. The skin of insects is in general very hard, and almost
horny ; it forms a kind of solid case, in the interior of which are
placed the muscles, viscera,

&c. ; it fulfils the functions
of an external skeleton, and
is divided by a series of
rings more or less con-
siderable in number.

20. The body is divided
into three perfectly distinct
parts ; namely, head, thorax,
and abdomen.

21. The head (a, Jig. 3)
is not subdivided into
rings : it sustains the
mouth, and two little stems
or articulated horns, called
antenna, or feelers (c).
These little organs are
probably the seat of the
sense of touch ; their
length and form vary very

, J J Fig. 3. — ANATOMY OF AN INSECT.

much ; sometimes they are

filiform, at others like a saw, club-shaped, &c.

The surface of the head is sometimes divided into regions; namely, the
clypeus (Latin, buckler), that part to which the labrum or upper lip is at-
tached ; the face, the front, the vertex or summit, and the cheeks.

22. The thorax (d,f, i,Jig. 3), or middle portion of the body,
is sometimes called the corselet, although this name, strictly
speaking, belongs only to the second ring of the thorax, which,
in all insects, is composed of three rings or segments, each one

Explanation of Fig. 3. — Anatomy of the tegumentary system of a
winged insect (a grasshopper) : — a, the head ; — b, the eyes ; — c, the an-
tennae ; — d, the prothorax, or first ring of the thorax ; — e, the first pair
of legs ;— /, the mesothorax, or second ring of the thorax, bearing the first
pair of wings (g), and the second pair of legs (h) ; — i, the metathorax, or
third ring of the thorax, bearing the second pair of wings (j}, and the third
pair of legs (k) ; — I, the abdomen ; — m, the femur or thigh ; — n, the tibia or
leg ;— o, the tarsus or foot.

19. What purposes does the skin of insects fulfil?

20. How is the body of insects divided ?

21. Is the head divided into rings? What parts are attached to the
head?

22. To what part of the thorax does the name corselet particularly be.
long ? Of how many pieces is the thorax composed ? To what parts are
the legs and wings of insects attached ?

STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 15

having a pair of legs attached to it. The first ring of the thorax
(d) never has wings attached to it, and is always visible, while
the succeeding rings are commonly covered above by these
organs. When there are four wings, which is almost always the
case, those of the first pair are attached to the second ring of the
thorax (f), and are covered by the next pair, which are inserted
into the sides of the third thora'cic ring (i). When there is only
one pair of wings (as in the common fly), they are attached to
the second ring of the thorax (/).

The first ring of the thorax (d) is called the prothorax (from the Greek,
pro, before, and thorax, shield, or chest); the second ring (/), mesothorax
(from the Greek, mesos, the middle, and thorax') ; and the third (t) the meta-
thorax (from the Greek, meta, between, and thorax").

These three rings are closely and solidly united into one piece, and
constitute the trunk, the inferior surface of which is styled the peclus ; that
portion of it which corresponds to the prothorax, is called ante-pectus (from
the Latin, ante, before, and peclus, breast) ; that portion which corresponds
to the mesothorax, is called medio-pectus (from the Latin, medius, the
middle, and pectus, breast) ; and the part corresponding to the metathorax,
is named post-pcctus (from the Latin, post, behind, and pectus, breast). The
middle line of the inferior surface of the trunk is termed the sternum, and
is divided into three parts ; the ante-sternum, medio*sternum, and post-
sternum.

23. In all true insects, or, as they are also denominated, hexa-
pods (from the Greek, exa, six, and pous, foot — having six feet),
the abdomen is very distinct from the thorax, and has no ex-
tremities, neither feet nor wings, attached to it : it is composed of
a certain number of rings, and we often find at its termination,
near the anus, various appendages, such as stings or borers. The
last rings or an'nuli of the abdomen, in several females, form a
retractile or always projecting ovipositor, of a more or less com-
plicated structure, which acts as an auger.

24. The legs of insects, which are solid tubes containing the
muscles by which they are moved, are always six in number ;
there are never fewer than six, and if in some instances we see
but four at first (as in certain butterflies, Papilio), we shall find
on close examination that two of these organs are not developed,
but are concealed under the hair.

25. Sometimes the legs are formod solely for walking ; some-
times they are elongatecLand fitted for leaping, or they are spread
out so as to constitute fins for swimming ; and, again, they are
modified in such a manner as to form oi^ans of prehension.

23. What extremities are attached to the abdomen ?

24. What is the invariable number of legs in insects ? Where are the
muscles placed which move the legs ?

25. Are the legs of all insects alike ? What are the uses to which tney
are applied ?

16 STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.

26. The leg is divided into four parts; the coxa, the femur or
thigh, the tibia or leg, and tarsus or foot. The coxa (hip or
haunch), which may be said to be set into the thorax, is formed
of two pieces, and varies much in form. The femur (thigh, mt
Jig. 3) constitutes the second articulation of the leg ; it is always
tolerably long, and is sometimes remarkable for its development.
The tibia (leg,^^. 3, n) is next to the femur, which it ordinarily
equals in length ; the whole extremity is terminated by the tarsus
(o), which is almost always formed of from two to five articula-
tions, and frequently bears at the end, one or more hooks or
nails.

"In the generality of terrestrial insects, the last segment of the tarsus or
foot is provided with a pair of strong horny hooks, which are available for
many purposes, being used either for creeping upon a moderately rough
surface, for climbing or clinging to various substances.

" Such simple hooks, however, would not always serve. In the case of
the louse (pediculus\ for example, that is destined to climb slender and
polished hairs, such prehensile organs would be of little use. The structure
of the foot is therefore modified ; the tarsus in this insect terminates in a
single movable claw, which bends back upon a tooth-like process derived
from the tibia, and thus forms a pair of forceps fitted to grasp the stem of
the hair and secure a firm hold.

" Many insects, especially those of the dipterous order, are able to ascend
the smoothest perpendicular planes, or even to run with facility, suspended
by their feet, in an inverted position, along substances which, from their
polished surfaces, could afibrd no hold to any apparatus of forceps or hook-
lets. In the common flies (Muscidce} the exercise of this faculty is of such
every-day occurrence, that, wonderful as it is, it scarcely attracts the atten-
tion of ordinary observers. The foot of the house-fly, nevertheless, is a very
curious piece of mechanism ; for in addition to the recurved hooks possess-
ed by other climbing species, it is furnished with a pair of minute membra-
nous flaps, which, under a good microscope, are seen to be covered with
innumerable hairs of the utmost delicacy : these flaps, or suckers, as they
might be termed, adhere to any plane surface with sufficient tenacity to
support the whole weight of the fly, and thus confer upon it a power of
progression denied to insects of ordinary construction.

" Another mode of progression common among insects is by leaping, to
which from their extraordinary muscular power they are admirably adapted.
The common flea, for«example, will leap two hundred times its own length.

" The muscular system of insects has always excited the wonder and
astonishment of the naturalist, in whatever point of view he examines this
part of their economy, whether he considers the perfection of their move-
ments, the inconceivable minuteness of the parts moved, or the strength,
persistence, or velocity of their contractions. Insects are proverbially of
small comparative dimensions — 4 minims of nature' —

that wave their limber fans

For wings, and smallest lineaments exact,
In all the liveries deck'd of summer's pride ;'

their presence, indeed, around us, is only remarked as conferring additional
life and gayety to the landscape ; and except when, by some inordinate

26. How is the leg divided ? What is the coxa ? What is the femur ?
What is the tibia ? What is the tarsus ?

STRUCTURE OF WINGS OF INSECTS. 17

increase of their numbers, they make up by their multitude for their di-
minutive size, the ravages committed by them are trifling- and insignificant.
Far otherwise, however, would it be, if they attained to larger growth, and
still possessed the extraordinary power with which they are now so con-
spicuously gifted; they would then, indeed, become truly the tyrants of crea-
tion,— monsters such * as fables never feigned, nor fear conceived,' — fully
adequate to destroy and exterminate from the surface of the earth all that it
contains of vegetable or of animal life.

" The flea or grasshopper will spring two hundred times its own length ;
the dragon-fly possesses such indomitable strength of wing, that for a day
together it will sustain itself in the air, and fly with equal facility and
swiftness backwards or forwards, to the right or to the left without turning;
the beetles are encased in a dense and hard integument, impervious to or-
dinary violence ; and we might add, that the wasp and the termite ant will
penetrate with their jaws the hardest wood. Neither is the velocity of the
movements of insects inferior to their prodigious muscular power. 'An
anonymous writer in Nicholson's Journal,' say Kirby and Spence, ' calcu-
lates that in its ordinary flight the common house-fly (Masca domestica)
makes with its wings about six hundred strokes, which carry it five feet,
every second ; but if alarmed, lie states their velocity can be increased six
or seven fold, or to thirty or thirty-five feet in the same period. In this
space of time a race-horse could clear only ninety feet, which is at the rate
of more than a mile in a minute. Our little fly, in her swiftest flight, will
in the same space of time go more than the third of a mile. Now, compare
the infinite difference of the size of the two animals (ten millions of the
fly would hardly counterpoise one racer), and how wonderful will the
velocity of this minute creature appear ! Did the fly equal the race-horse
in size, and retain its present powers in the ratio of its magnitude, it would
traverse the globe with the rapidity of lightning.' " — T. Rymer Jones.

27. The wings are dry, membranous, elastic appendages, usu-
ally diaphanous, attached to the sides of the back of the thorax.
They are composed of two thin membranes, laid one on the other,
joined together by horny lines called nervures, which are in fact
so many tracheal tubes for the passage of a r.

28. The wings of insects differ much in texture : in place of
being membranous and transparent, as in flies and bees, they are
sometimes opaque and covered by a multitude of little scales like
dust, as in butterflies ; and at other times we observe them acquire
a thickness and consistence so great that they resemble horn,
and do not differ from other hard parts of the insect, as in the
may-bug, for example. It is only the first pair of wings that
present this latter condition ; when thus modified they are not
suitable for flight, but form a species of shield for the protection
of the upper part of the body, and are named elytra. Sometimes
the elytra, instead of being horny throughout their whole extent,
are membranous towards the end, as in wood-bugs: they are
then called demi-elytra.

27. What are wings ? What are nervures ?

28. In what respects do wings differ from each other ? What are ely-
tra ? What are demi-elytra.

2*

18

EYES.— NERVOUS SYSTEM.

29. In some di'pterous insects, in place of the second pair
of wings we find two pedunculated globular bodies, named hal-
teres, or poisers.

30. The eyes of insects are always on a level with the head,
and are never borne on a movable peduncle, as in certain crus-
taceans ; sometimes their structure is the same as in ara'chnidans,
and they are called simple eyes, or ocelli ; but in all insects
there exist, either conjointly with them or separately, compound
eyes, or eyes with facets.

" The compound eyes of insects are two in number, situated on the lateral
aspects of the head, the form of each being more or less hemispherical.
When examined with a microscope, their surface is seen to be divided into
a multitude of hexagonal facets, between which minute hairs are generally
conspicuous. The number of facets, or corneae, for such in fact they are,
varies in different genera : thus, in the ant (For'mica) there are 50 ; in the
common house-fly (Musca domestica) 4,000 ; in some dragon-flies (Libellula)
upwards of 12,000. In butterflies (Papilio) 17,355 have been counted, and
some Coleopteroe possess the astonishing number of 25,088 distinct cor-
nese." — T. Rymer Jones.

31. Of the organs of smell and of
hearing in these animals we know
nothing. The nervous system is
composed of a chain of double
ganglia, arranged as has already
been described (fig. 2, page 11).

32. The mouth is placed in the
anterior and inferior part of the
head ; but its form varies con-
siderably, accordingly as the ani-
mal is destined to feed on solid or
liquid substances.

33. In the Tritores, or triturating

insects, the mouth is composed, 1st, Fig. 4.— MOUTH OF AN INSECT.

of an upper lip ; 2d, of a pair of

mandibles ; 3d, of a pair of jaws ; and 4th, of a lower lip.

. m

ma-

Explanation of Fig. 4.— Apparatus of mastication of a coleo'pterous in-
sect ;_Za, the labrum ; — m, the mandibles ; — ma, the maxillse or jaws ; —
p, maxillary palpi ;— Zi, the labium, or lower lip;— pi, the palpi of the la-
bium.

29. What are halteres ?

30. How are the eyes of insects situated ? How many kinds of eyes have
insects ? What are compound eyes ?

31. Where are the organs of smell and of hearing situated ? How is the
nervous system of insects arranged ?

32. What is the character of the mouth ? Where is it situated ?

33. Of wnat parts does the mouth, in triturating insects, consist ?

MOUTH OF INSECTS. 19

34. The upper lip or labrum (la, fig. 4) is a flat piece fixed to
the anterior part of the head, and closes the mouth from above.

35. The mandibles (m) are appendages, resembling large
teeth, which are inserted into the sides of the head immediately
below and behind the labrum; they are movable, and transverse,
that is, they are placed, one to the left and the other to the right ;
they are generally very hard and of a horny consistence. They
serve to divide the food. The mandibles of insects never have
palpi attached to them.

35. The maxilla, or jaws (ma), are also two in number, and
are placed, one on the right and the other on the left, below and
behind the mandibles. Each jaw has, on its external side, a
little appendage formed of from four to six articulations, named
maxillary palpus (p) ; sometimes there are two palpi. In or-
thoptera the extremity of the palpus is often terminated by two
lobes ; in this case the external one is called the galea.

37. The lower lip, or labium (li) closes the mouth from below,
and resembles a second pair of jaws, ordinarily joined on their
internal side, and in a great degree covered by a horny pro-
longation in the middle, termed the mentum, or chin ; the ligula
is another part of the labium. Each half of this lip supports a
palpus (pi, fig. 4) which is smaller than

those of the maxillae, and consists of never
more than four articulations.

38. The annexed figure (5) is a magni-
fied representation of the head of a cock-
roach (Blattd), seen from the front. A
careful examination of the figure will
more fully explain the several parts of the
mouth ; — a, the antennae ; — b, the com-
pound eyes; — c, the ocelli or simple
eyes ; — d, the labrum ; — e, the mandi-

bles;— /, the maxillae or jaws;— g, the Figt S. — HEAD OF A

ligula; — h, the labial palpi ; — i, maxil- ' COCKROACH.

lary palpi. The principal use of the palpi

is to seize and hold food between the mandibles, while it is being

divided.

Sometimes the jaws are enormously developed and form in
front of the head a sort of pincers ; an arrangement which is

34. What is7 the labrum ? Where is it attached ?

35. What are mandibles in insects ? How are they placed in respect to
the labrum ? What is their number ? What is their use ?

36. Where are the maxillae placed ? What is a maxillary palpus ?
What is meant by the galea 1

37. What is the labium ? What is the mentum ? What is the ligula ?

38. Of what use are the palpi ?

20 MOUTH OF INSECTS.

very remarkable in the stag-beetles (Lucanus cervus) and other
species of the genus lucanus ; for example :

Fig. g. STAG BEETLE.

"The largest of these beetles in the New England States is the horn-bug.
Its colour is a deep mahogany-brown ; the upper jaws of the male are long,
curved like a sickle, and furnished internally beyond the middle with a
little tooth ; those of the female are much shorter, and also toothed ; the
head of the male is broad and smooth, that of the other sex narrower and
rough with punctures. The body of this beetle measures from one inch to
an inch and a quarter, exclusive of the jaws. The time of its appearance
in July and the beginning of August. The grubs (larvse) live in the trunks
and roots of various kinds of trees. Several other and smaller kinds of
stag-beetles are found in New England." — Harris.

39. In insects that live by suction, the jaws or labrum are
elongated in such a manner as to constitute a tubular trunk, in
which we often find delicate filaments that perform the functions
of little lancets ; they are formed by the mandibles and jaws, so
modified as to be scarcely remarkable.

40. In bees, the anthophorse (from the Greek, anilws, flower,
and pherb, I bear), and other insects known to zoologists

39 What is the peculiarity of the mouth in insects that live by suction?
40. What are the peculiarities of the mouth in the Hymeno'ptera ?

MOUTH OF INSECTS.

21

ocelli

Compound e$es
Mandibles ••••

I

Maxillary pa Ipi ... .«'
MaxilltB or jaws ....

Labial palpi

lateral lobes of the ligula.

Fig. 7. — HEAD OF AN ANTIIOPHORA.

under the common name of Hymenop'tera (from the Greek,
'i/men, a membrane, and pteron, a wing), the buccal apparatus
has an intermediate arrangement. The upper lip or labrum
(Jig. 8, a) and the mandibles (6) closely resemble those of the
tritores or triturating insects ; but the
jaws (c) and the ligula (d) are not
excessively prolonged ; the first take
a tubular shape and form a longi-
tudinal sheath for the sides of the
ligula : so that these organs, joined
in a packet, constitute a trunk, which
conveys the food, always soft or
liquid, upon which these animals feed.
This trunk is movable at the base,
and flexible throughout the rest of its
extent, but never rolls itself up as we
see in butterflies. The mandibles
chiefly serve the purpose of dividing
the materials of which the hymenop
terse make their nests, or rather, to
seize and put to death the prey whose
fluids these insects suck. There also
exists in the interior of the buccal cavity other solid pieces which
are wanting in the fritores ; they constitute valves destined to
close the pharynx or swallow every time the movement of deglu-
tition is not effected.

22

MOUTH OF INSECTS.

Fig. 9. — BUG.

41. In the bugs (cimex), plant lice (aphis),
and other insects of the order Hemip'tera, the
sucking apparatus is composed of the same ele-
ments, but somewhat differently arranged. The
mouth is armed with a tubular and cylindical
beak, directed downwards and backwards (Jig.
9), and is composed of a sheath enclosing four
stylets ; the sheath (fig. 10, a) is formed of four
articulations placed end to end, and represents
the labium or lower lip ; &.t its base we perceive
an elongated, conical piece, which is analogous
to the labrum ; the stylets (b, c) which are in
the form of fine threads, stiff and dentate at the extremity, to
pierce the skin of animals or the substance of plants, are the
representatives of the mandibles and maxillae excessively elon-
gated. In the hemip'terae which live at the expense of other

animals, the beak is gene-
rally very stout and fold-
ed in a semicircle under
the head. In those that
feed on the juices of
plants, it is, on the con-
trary, almost always
slender, and, when at
rest, applied against the

l /

a b c

Fig. 10. BUCCAL APPARATUS OF AN HEMIP'TERA.

inferior surface of the
thorax, betwixt the legs
(fig. 9). Its length is
sometimes so great as
to extend beyond the
posterior extremity of
the abdomen.

42. In flies, the pro-
boscis or trunk, some-
times soft and retractile, sometimes horny and elongated, also
represents the labium or lower lip, and often has palpi at its base ;
a longitudinal groove on its upper surface lodges the stylets,
which vary from two to six in number; the mandibles, jaws, and
ligula of the tritores are analogous to them. Sometimes this trunk
acquires an enormous length, and sometimes, on the contrary, it
is scarcely visible.

43. In butterflies (Papilio) which also feed on the liquid sub-
stances they find at the bottom of flowers, and have no necessity
for strong weapons to obtain them, there are no lancet-like stylets ;

41. How is the sucking apparatus in Hemi'ptcra arranged?

42. What are the peculiarities of the sucking apparatus of flies ?

43. Describe tne sucking apparatus of butterflies.

DIGESTIVE ORGANS.

23

d """"

the mouth is furnished with a long trunk
(fig. 11, d) rolled spirally, composed of
two filaments hollowed into a gutter on the
internal side, which are in fact the jaws
excessively elongated and modified in form.
At the base of this tube, we observe in front
a small membranous piece which is the
representative of the labrum, and, on each
side, a small tubercle, the last vestiges of
the mandibles. We also perceive in the
same situation the rudiments of the maxil-
lary palpi (e), and behind we find a little
triangular lip bearing two very long labial
palpi, composed of three articulations, al-
most always hairy and furnished with scales.

44. The digestive tube (fig. 12) is always open at both ends,

Fig.

11. BEAK OP A

BUTTERFLY.

Fig. 12. DIGESTION OF INSECTS.

and extends from the mouth
to the anus ; sometimes it is
straight, at others, more or
less flexuous; and here, as
in animals of a higher order,
it is very short in carni'vor-
ous insects, and very long in
those species which feed on
vegetable substances. Some-
times it preserves nearly the
same diameter throughout its
whole length ; but, generally,
it presents enlargements and
contractions which enable us
to distinguish an oesophagus,
a stomach and an intestine.
Sometimes we find several
stomachs (/, g, h) which
have been named, crop, giz-
gard, and chyll'ferous ven~
tricle.

45. On each side we see

Explanation of Fig. 11. — Beak of a butterfly ; — a, the head ; — 6, antenna ;
— c, the eye ; — d, proboscis or trunk spirally rolled ; — e, rudiment of maxil-
lary palpi.

Explanation of Fig. 12.— Digestive apparatus of an insect;— a, the head,
— 6, the antennae ; — c, the mandibles ; — d, the palpi ; — c, the oesophagus ; —
/, g, h, the stomachs ; — i, the intestine ;— j, the rectum ; — k, the biliary vea.
sels ; — I, secreting organs ; — m, the anus.

44. What are the characters of the digestive organs in insects? For
what is the digestive tube of earni'vorous insects remarkable ? Of what
parts do the digestive organs consist ?

45. What are biliary vessels ?

24 CIRCULATION.

a number of long, delicate tubes, filled with a yellowish liquid,
terminating in the digestive tube ; these are the biliary vessels
(&), which perform the functions of the liver.

46. We find salivary organs in a great many insects, and
generally they are more developed in the suctorial than in the
triturating species. They are simple, floating tubes, which some-
times terminate in a kind of utri'culse or little membranous sacs,
which communicate with the pharynx by means of intermediate
excretory ducts or canals.

47. Towards the posterior extremity of the intestinal canal, we
also find other secreting organs of various forms (I) which serve
for the elaboration of those particular liquids which many insects
cause to exude from the posterior part of the abdomen when they
are disturbed ; the venom of the bee is an instance.

48. Sometimes the nutritive liquid resulting from the digestion
of food is immediately appropriated to assimilation, sometimes, on
the contrary, a part of it seems to be held in reserve to be em-
ployed on a future occasion. The species of reservoir which is
regarded as subserving this curious purpose is the mass of fatty
tissue Gurrounding the viscera.

49. Insects have no circulation properly so called ; the nutri-
tive liquid is diffused among all the organs and penetrates them
by imbibition. But there exists, nevertheless, on the dorsal sur-
face of the animal, immediately beneath the integuments, a sort
of longitudinal tube, surrounded by fleshy fibres, which appears
to be the rudiment of a heart, for we observe in it alternate con-
tractions and dilatations similar to those of the same organ in
other animals. But this canal does not appear to give off any
branches ; there are no arteries nor veins.

The blood, become venous by its action on the different tissues
of the economy, is not carried to any particular point to come in
contact with the oxygen of the air, to regain its vivifying quali-
ties. If respiration were carried on in the ordinary way, by
means of lungs or the external surface of the body, it would be
extremely imperfect ; but the disadvantage which seemingly must
result from this great imperfection in so important a function as
the circulation does not really exist. Nature has dispensed with
the necessity of circulating the blood in insects, by carrying,
the air in them, to all parts of the body, by means of a multitude
of canals which ramify almost infinitely in the substance of the
organs (fig. 13).

46. What are the characters of salivary glands in insects ?

47. Where is the venom of the bee formed ?

48. Is digested food in all cases immediately appropriated to the purposes
of assimilation ?

49. How is the blood circulated in insects ? How is the want of circula-
tion compensated for in insects ?

RESPIRATION OF INSECTS.

25

spiracles.

Fig. 14.

STIGMATA.

S S S 8

Fig. 13. RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

50. All insects have an aerial
respiration ; but instead of re-
ceiving air into pulmonary
cavities to which the blood is
sent by the action of the circu-
lating organs, as is the case in
most animals, they breathe by
means of a multitude of canals
(fg. 13) which convey the air
to every part of the body ,• these
canals are named trachea. The
external openings of the tra-
cheae are called stigmata or

These openings have
the form of a
button-hole (Jig.
14), and are
placed on each
side of the body.
In this respect,
the organization
of tracheal ara'chnidans resembles that of insects.

51. Sometimes the trachea have enlargements along their
course like vesicles ; they all communicate freely

with each other ; they are ramified like roots,
and their last divisions penetrate into the sub-
stance of the organs. Their structure is the
same as in tracheal ara'chnidans, that is, they
arc formed of a cartilaginous filament rolled
spirally, so as to constitute a tube (Jig. 15).
Were it not for this arrangement the sides of the tube would
be forced together by atmospheric pressure, and the animal
would be suffocated for want of air. Respiration seems to be
effected by the movements of the abdomen. In insects this func-
tion is very active : considering their size, they consume a con-
siderable quantity of air, and quickly suffocate when deprived of

Explanation of Fig. 13. — Respiratory apparatus of insects. The mask
or covering' of an insect, showing" the principal trachea which convey air to
all parts of the body ; — s, s, s, s, s, the stigmata or spiracles.

Explanation of Fig. 14. — A stigmata magnified ; — s, the opening of the
stigmata or spiracle; tr, a tracheoe arising from it.

Explanation of Fig. ] 5.— A portion of tracheae considerably enlarged to
show its structure ; we see at (a) the end of the spiral of which the tube is
composed, partly unrolled.

50. How do insects breathe ? What are tracheae ? What are stigmata *

51. How are the tracheae arranged ? What is the peculiarity of their
structure ?

Fig. 15.

TRACHEA.

26 METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.

oxygen ; but when they are seemingly dead from this cause, they
for a long time retain the power o;' being restored to life.

52. The sexes are distinct in these animals, and frequently the
males and females differ widely from each other. There fre-
quently exists at the extremity of the abdomen of the female an
ovipositor or borer or some other organ by means of which she
prepares a hole for the reception of her eggs. Some are vivi'-
parous, but almost all insects lay eggs, but they do not deposit
them wherever they may happen to be ; they require them to be
carefully lodged in some place where the young animals on
escaping can readily obtain the kind of food proper for them. In
this respect the instinct of insects is most surprisingly developed,
and it would be interesting to study the various plans they adopt
to secure this object, but our present limits will not permit.

53. When an insect escapes from its egg, it sometimes
possesses the same form which it is to preserve through life;
but in the ^'reat majority of instances, it differs more or less
from its mother, as well as from the form it itself is destined to
assume. Before attaining its perfect state, it undergoes con-
siderable changes, which are designated under the name of meta-
morphoses ; it passes through two successive conditions, termed
the larva (Latin, a mask, because the perfect form of the insect
is concealed as it were under a mask), and nympha, pupa, or
chrysalis (from the Greek, chrusos, gold, because the transparent
covering in which the animal is enclosed while in this state, in
many instances reflects a metallic lustre). When it has passed
through these two stages of its metamorphosis, it becomes a
perfect insect, "and is then called imago. But these changes are
not always of the same nature; some insects experience only a
partial metamorphosis, some a demi-metamorphosis, and others,
a complete metamorphosis (from the Greek, meta, indicating
change, and morphe, form1).'

54. Those insects which undergo partial metamorphosis ac-
quire after birth a number of legs, more or less, but always
remain without wings. The Parasi'ta and Thysanou'ra experience
this description of metamorphosis.

55. Those insects which undergo demi-metamorphosis differ
very little from what they are to become ; their larva resembles

52. How are the young of insects produced ?

53. What is meant by the metamorphosis of an insect ? What is a larva ?
What is a nympha ? To what condition of insects are the terms pupa and
chrysalis applied ? What is an imago 1 Is the metamorphosis the same in
extent in all insects ?

54. What is meant by partial metamorphosis?

55. What is meant by demi-metamorphosis ?

LARVAE.

27

Fig. 16.— LARVA OF A GRASSHOPPER.

the perfect insect except
that it is unprovided with
wings. The annexed
figure (16) of the larva
of a grasshopper illus-
trates this condition.
When it becomes a nym-
pha, we discover that it
has the stumps or rudi-
ments of wings ; at the
last moult they become
perfectly developed, and
the insect then acquires
the form it preserves
through life.

56. The larva of those insects which undergo complete meta-
morphosis, in no respect resembles the imago or perfect animal,
and in proof of this it is only
necessary to recollect that the but-
terfly escapes from its egg in the
form of a caterpillar. Larvas
(fgs. 17 and 18) are in general
soft, cylindrical, or fusiform, pre-
senting at intervals a number of
contractions which divide the body
into as many rings or segments.
Sometimes they have the appear-
ance of a worm, and are unpro- «
vided with legs, as in the larva of the bee ; in other instances,
they have appendages of this kind (fig' 18), and then they are
generally called caterpil-
lars. These animals have
a head provided with jaws,
several small eyes, very
short legs, six of which are
scaly and pointed, and
attached to the three rings

next to the head ; they have also other legs, varying in number,
which are membranous and attached to the last rings of the body.
After having lived for a certain time in the larva state, the insect
bscomes transformed into a nympha, and is then motionless, and

56. What are the general characters of larvae? What are cater-
pillars? How does the larva prepare to become a nympha? What arc

Fig.

17. — LARVA. — MEASURING
WORM.

Fig. 18. LARVA. — SILK- WORM.

28

NYMPHS.

Fig. 19. — NYMPHA.

does not eat (Jig. 19). Before under-
going this metamor'phosis, the larva
often prepares for itself a defence or
protection, and encloses itself in a shell
or cocoon (fg. 20), which it makes of
various materials ; but more especially
of the silk secreted by organs analo-
gous to salivary glands, and spun by
the assistance of spinnarets hollowed
in the lips. The insect, in the state
of a nympha, possesses all the parts
of the perfect animal, but contracted

and covered up, sometimes by a delicate pellicle
through which they may be seen, giving the
nympha the appearance of a bandaged mummy ;
sometimes by a pretty thick skin, which is
moulded over the body ; at other times, by the
dried skin of the larva, which forms a sort of
case or shell around the animal, presenting th©
form of an egg. Finally, after having remained
in this state of immobility for a period varying
in duration, the perfect insect (imago) escapes
from the nympha, and the external organs, at
first humid and soft,, are dried by the air and
acquire the consistence they afterwards main-
tain. These changes in the external form of the insect at dif-
ferent periods of its life are accompanied by modifications, not
less remarkable, in the internal structure of the animal ; and
these change's* of organization induce others in the habits of these
creatures as well as in the manner of feeding.

57. The number of insects is immense ; it is estimated that it
exceeds sixty thousand species, and they differ very much from
each other both in their external form and manner of living.

Insects, so remarkable for their organization, are still more so
for their habits and for the admirable instinct with which nature
has endowed a great number of them. Their cunning plans for
procuring food or for escaping their enemies, and the industry
they display in their works, surprise all who witness them ; and
when we see them united in societies to gain the power denied to
their individual feebleness, aiding each other, dividing the toils
necessary for the prosperity of the community, providing for
their future wants, and frequently regulating their actions accord-

Explanation of Fig. 20. — A nympha with one-half of its shell or cocoon
removed.

57. What is the number of insects known ?

Fig. 20.

NYMPHA.

CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.

29

ing to accidental circumstances, we are astounded to find in these
creatures, so small and apparently so imperfect, instincts so varied
and so powerful, and intellectual combinations which so closely
resemble reasoning.

58. The division of this class into orders principally depends
upon the form of the buccal apparatus, the organs of locomotion,
and the metamorphosis.

The following table exhibits the principal characters of the several orders
of the class of Insects :

ORDERS.

folded only )

transverse- >COLEO'PTERA.

mastication.
Wings four ;
the two an-
terior

in form of
elytra ;
those of the ^
second pair

folded in}
two direc- \
tions, or ^ORTHO'PTERA.
lengthwise 1
.only. J

Membranous and re- 1
ticulated like the pos- VNEDRO'PTERA.
. terior. )

undergo
metamorphosis.
Mouth formed '
for

' All membranous,tran-1
sparent and divided into I
largecells. Mouth arm- J>HYMENO'PTERA.
ed with distinct mandi- I
bles. J

ffour,«

All covered by a kind 1
of coloured dust. Mouth I T Ppinf>r „-,_„.
armed with a spiral f LEPIDO PTERA-
trunk only. J

n ("have
P three

17

% legs
( and

suction.
Wings '

1

The anterior ordinari- ")
ly in form of demi-ely- |
tra. Mouth armed with ^HEMI'PTEKA.
a conical beak, either j
.straight or curved. J

C folded like a fan. >RHIPI'PTERA.
two, <
( Not folded. ^DI'PTERA.

not subject to metamorphosis. ru"Pgrovided with *PPend' j PARASI'TA.

No wings. Abdomen

age

provided with false legs, ) rr, „, ,
or appendages for leaping, j T«YSANOU RA.

Sf* The Myriapods, which have twenty-four pairs of legs or more, and are without
wings, now form a distinct class, and are not insects properly so called. They were
formerly included among the apterous insects.

59. The Thysanou'ra, Para si' ta, and Sucto'ria, have no wings,
and for this reason are frequently spoken of under the common
name of AP'TERA (from the Greek, a, without, and pteron, wing),
or apterous insects. All other orders of insects have wings, and
are spoken of by the common name of winged insects.

56. How is the class of insects divided ?
59. What is meant by the term apterous insects ?
3*

30 THYSANOURA.— PARASITA LOUSE.

LESSON II.

AP'TERA. — ORDER or THYSANOU'RA. •

ORDER OF PARASI'TA. — Louse — Ticks.

ORDER OP SUCTO'RIA. — Flea — Chigre.

ORDER OF COLEOP'TERA. — Characters — Division — Pentame'rans
Cicin'dela — Carabus — Gyrinvs, or Water-beetle — Fire-fies —
Glow-worm — Borers — Derme'stes — May-bugs — Scarabeus —
Heterome'rans — Blistering -files — Teterame'rans — Weevils —
Trime'rans — Lady-bug.

ORDER OF ORTHO'PTERA. — Characters — Earwigs — Mole-crick-
ets— Crickets — Grasshoppers — Migratory Locusts.

1. Hexapods or true insects comprise all those which have
three pairs of legs: they all have a head distinct from the thorax,
and the abdomen has no extremities attached to it ; some are
apterous (without wings),. others are winged.

2. Although apterous insects are not very numerous, they form
three distinct orders ; namely, Thysanou'ra, Parasi'ta, and
Sucto'ria.

ORDER OF THYSANOU'RA.

3. The Thysanourse (from the Greek, thusan, bushy, arid
oura, tail) are small wingless insects that do not undergo meta-
morphosis ; the abdomen terminates in filiform appendages, or is
furnished with organs by means of which they are enabled to
leap.

ORDER OF PARASI'TA.

4. We give the name of parasites (hanger on) to those apterous
insects which do not undergo metamorphosis and whose abdomen
is without any appendage ; their mouth is chiefly internal and is
armed with a kind of sucker ; their body is flattened,

and, as their name indicates, they live upon other ani-
mals ; but they are only found on mammals and birds.
Lice (Pediculus), of one of which the annexed figure
(21) is an enlarged representation, and dog-ticks
(Ricinus) belong to this order. Their eggs are known. Fig. 21,
under the name of nits. LOUSE.

1. Do all insects possess wings ?

2. What orders of insects are wingless ?

3. What are thysanou'ra ?

4. Give examples of insects of the order Parasita.

SUCTORIA.— FLEAS.— COLEOPTERA. 31

ORDER OF SUCTO'RIA.

5. Suctorial insects, like the preceding, are ap'terous, but they
do not undergo metamorphosis. The body is very much com-
pressed (jig. 22), and the hind legs are adapted to leaping. The
mouth is extended in the form of a trunk or beak, which contains
three bristle-like lancets, and performs the functions of a sucker.
They undergo complete metamorphosis, and in the larva state,
are in form of little worms without feet ; in the imago or perfect
state, they live on quadrupeds or birds.

This order comprises but a single genus, that of the Fleas.

6. The common flea — Pulex irritans — (j#g'.22) lives upon dogs,
cats, and men, whose blood it sucks. The chigre — Pulex pene-
trans — very common in the warm parts of America, is armed
•with a beak as long as its body. The female carries her eggs
in a sack under the abdomen, and by its rapid

growth, this part in a short time acquires the
size of a small pea, while the animal itself is
scarcely as large as a common flea. It in-
sinuates itself beneath the skin, and into the
flesh, particularly about the feet and toes, F- r>2_
where it deposits its eggs, and sometimes
causes great pain and ill-conditioned sores. The only remedy
is to remove the sack of eggs with a needle, and fill the hole
with strong mercurial ointment. This will be found effectual.
It also attacks monkeys, dogs, &c.

ORDER OF COLEOFTERA.

7. The order of Coleop'tera (from the Greek, koleos, a case,
and pteron, wing) comprises insects which have a mouth armed
with jaws, and four wings, differing from each other in texture.
The first pair are horny elytra (from the Greek, elittron, a
sheath), which are not suitable for flight, but constitute a covering
or shield for the second pair, which are membranous, and when
in a state of repose, folded transversely.

8. The tegumentary envelope of these insects is almost always
remarkably hard, and sometimes forms a solid, and almost crus-
taceous cuirass. The mouth is formed for the mastication of
food, and is armed with a pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillee,
bearing palpi, and a labium or lower lip, also bearing palpi (fig.
4). The wings possess peculiarities of structure which it is im
portant to noie : the first pair are of the same consistence as other

5. How is the order Sucto'ria characterized ?

6. What are chigres ?

7. What are the characters of the order Coleop'tera?

8. What are the characters of the mouth of Coleop'tera ? What is the
nature of the wings ? How is the abdomen attached to the thorax ?

32 CHARACTERS OF COLEOPTER^E.

parts of the tegumentary skeleton, and form two sheaths or solid
elytra, joined together by a straight edge, sometimes solidly
united, forming a kind of shield over the abdomen (figs. 23 and
26). Sometimes these elytra are rudimentary, but are never
entirely wanting in both sexes. The same is not true of the
wings of the second pair, which are membranous, much larger
than the elytra, and when in a state of repose, folded transversely
at their extremity ; sometimes they are wanting, and then the in-
sect is incapable of flying. There is no peculiarity of the legs
worthy of special remark. The abdomen is sessile, that is, it is
broadest where it joins the thorax, and on each side of the rings
which form it, there is, on the upper part, an opening, which is a
stigmata.

9. The metamorphosis which the Coleop'teree undergo after es-
caping from the egg is complete. The larva resembles a soft
worm, the head of which as well as the three first rings of the
body are scaly (figs. 4, 9, 19, and 25). They generally have
three pairs of horny legs, terminating in a point. Sometimes
there are no legs, or they are replaced by small fleshy tubercles ;
but we never find a greater number of these appendages. The
mouth has the same organization as the perfect insect ; the eyes,
on the contrary, are merely represented by small granular bodies,
which seem to consist of an assemblage of simple eyes, which
never exist in adult Coleop'terae ; and we perceive on each side of
the body nine stigmata arranged in a series.

10. The nympha is always inactive; sometimes it is enclosed
in a shell or cocoon, generally composed of different substances
joined together by a viscid, silky matter ; sometimes it is naked.
The duration of these changes and the mode of life, as well in
the larva as in the perfect insect, vary in the different families
of this order.

11. The number of Coleop'terse is immense, and to distinguish
them more readily they are divided into four sections, according
to the number of articulations or joints of the tarsi ; namely,

1st. The Pentame'rans (from the Greek, pente, five, and meros,
a joint), in which the tarsus of all the legs is composed of five
joints.

2d. The Heterome'rans (from the Greek, 'eteros, various, and
xieros, joint), in which the tarsi have four articulations on the two
Tore legs, and five on the others.

3d. The Teterame'rans (from the Greek, tetteres, four, and
meros, joint), in which the tarsi pf all the legs have four articula-
tions

9. What description of metamorphosis do the Coleop'terse undergo ?

10. What is the condition of the nymph® of Coleop' terse ?

11. How is the order of Coleop' tera divided ?

PENTAMERANS.— CARABUS.— GYRINUS. <33

4th. The Trime'rans (from the Greek, treis, three, and meros,
joint or part), in which all the tarsi have three articulations.

COLEOP'TEROUS PENTAME'RANS.

12. This division is composed of several families, among
which are the Carni'vora, the Ser'ricornes, the Cla'vicornes, and
the Lame'llicornes.

13. The family of Carni'vora (from the Latin, caro, in the
genitive, carnis, flesh, and roro, I eat) is distinguished by having
double palpi on the maxillee. These insects pursue and devour
others. Several have no wings under the wing-covers or elytra.
The larvee are also very carni'vorous. This family is one of the
largest of the Coleop'tera, and contains a great many tribes and

£3nera. Among them we shall mention the Cicin'dela (from the
atin, cicendela, a glow-worm), a genus of small insects, pos-
sessed of brilliant metallic colours, commonly met with in dry,
sunny situations. They run with considerable swiftness, take
wing the moment they are approached, but alight at a short dis-
tance. The larvse excavate holes in the earth, and such is their
voracity that they devour other larva? of the same species, which
have taken up their abode in the neighbourhood.

14. The Carabi — Carabus — which generally conceal them-
selves under stones or in the earth, one

species of which, the Carabus auratus
(fig. 23), is very common in the environs
of Paris. It is about an inch long, and
remarkable for the brilliance of its co-
lours ; it is golden green above and black
below. All the Carabi are swift runners,
and when they have wings, rarely make
use of them. Most of them exhale a
fetid odour, and when disturbed, they
throw out from the mouth and anus a
caustic or acrid liquid.

15. The genus Gy'rinvs (from the pig. 23.
Greek, guros, a circle) comprises aquatic CARABUS AURATUS.
insects that pass the greater part of

their lives in the water, but they nevertheless are obliged to
visit the surface to breathe. Their four anterior legs are in form
of fins. They are often seen in numerous groups on the surface
of stagnant' pools ; they swim with great velocity, forming cir-
cular tracks in various directions.

12. How are coleop'terous Pentame'rans divided?

13. How is the family of Carni'vora distinguished?

14. What are the characters of the genus Carabus ?

15. How is the genus Gy'rinus characterized ?

WATER-BEETLES.

Fi^.24.

LARVA.

The water-beetle (Dytiscus) is represented in the larva state
(fig. 24), in the nympha state (fig. 25), in the imago or perfect
insect (jig. 26).

"Nothing is, perhaps, better
calculated to excite the admira-
tion of the student of animated
nature, than the amazing- results
produced by the slightest devia-
tions from a common type of
organization ; and in examining
the changes required in order to
metamorphose an organ which
we have already seen perform-
ing such a variety of offices into
fins adapted to an aquatic life,
this circumstance must strike
the mind of the most heedless
observer. The limbs used in
swimming exhibit the same
parts, the same number of joints, and almost the
same shape, as those employed for creeping, climb-
ing, leaping, and numerous other purposes ; yet
how different is the function assigned to them !
In the common water-beetle (fig. 26) the two
anterior pairs of legs, that could be of small ser-
vice as instruments of propulsion, are so small as to appear quite dispropor
tionate to the size of the insect, while the hinder pair are
of great size and strength ; the last-mentioned limbs are,
moreover, removed as far backwards as possible by the
development of the hinder segment, of the thorax, in
order to approximate their origins to the centre of the
body, and the individual segments composing them are
broad and compressed, so as to present an extensive sur-
face to the water, which is still further enlarged by the
presence of flat spines, appended to the end of the tibia,
as well as of a broad fringe of stiff hairs inserted all
around the tarsus. The powerful oars thus formed can
open until they form right angles with the axis of the
body, and from the strength of their stroke are well adapt-
ed to the piratical habits of their possessors, who wage successful war, not
only with other aquatic insects and worms, but even with small fishes, the
co-inhabitants of the ponds wherein they live." — T. Rymer Jones.

16. Other coleop'terous Pentame'rans, which have but two palpi
on the maxillae, and filiform or saw-like antennse, belong to the
family of Ser'ricornes (from the Latin, serra, a saw, and cornv,
horn), are worthy attention.

17. Of this number are the fire-flies — Elater — (from the Greek,
elater, a leaper), which have the power of leaping when placed on
the back. If a beetle be seen to fall upon its back, and instead
of making the ordinary efforts to set itself on its legs, bends its

16 How is the family of Ser'ricornes characterized ?
17. What arc the habits of fire-flies?

Fig. 26.

V7ATER- BEETLE.

LAMPYRA.— BORERS, &c.

35

Fig. 28.

GLOW-WORM.

Fig. 27.

LAMPYRA.

head towards its tail, raising this part, and repeating this action
until it has fallen on its feet, such a beetle may be recognised at
once as a species of Elater. These beetles are often found on
flowers and on the grass : like many other coleop'terous insects,
when approached they fall to the ground and feign to be dead.
There is one species (Elater noctilucus) about an inch long,
which inhabits South America, and has two brown spots on the
corselet, which at night diffuse a light so bright that the Indians
make use of them to light them in their nocturnal labours and
excursions.

18. There is in the neighbourhood of Paris an insect, similar
to the last in producing phosphorescent light, the Lam'pyra (from
the Greek, lampuros, a glow-worm). The males (Jig. 27) are

not particularly remarkable; but the
female (fig. 28), which is without
wings, diffuses a phosphorescent light at
night, which circumstance has obtained
for it the common name of glow-worm.
This light issues from the abdomen, and
the animal can vary its intensity at
pleasure. The females of the species
of Lam'pyra inhabiting warm coun-
tries, are, on the contrary, all winged, and in flying
through the air after sunset, they often produce a natural illumi-
nation comparable to numberless little moving stars.

19. We give the name of borers (Andbium) to small insects
which inhabit our dwellings ; while in the larva state they are very
destructive, for then they eat the floors, joists, books, &c., through
which they pierce little round holes similar to those made by a
very fine gimlet ; their excrements form those little pulve'rulent
heaps of worm-eaten wood we often see on the floors of old houses.
Another species of borer in the same manner eats farinaceous
substances, and ravages collections of insects.

20. Insects of the family of Cla'vicornes (from the Latin,
clava, a club, and cornu, horn) are characterized by antennae in
form of a club. To this family belong the Derme'stes (from the
Greek, derma, skin, and esthio, I eat). They have an oval body,
and their larvae, which feed on animal substances, commit great
depredations in fur stores, and in museums of natural history.
The Bacon -beetle belongs to this family.

21. We place in the family of Lame'llicornes (from the Latin,

18. What are glow-worms ?

19. What are the habits of borers? •

20. How is the family of Cla'vicornes characterized ? What are the
characters of the Dermes'tes ?

21. What are the characters of the Lame'llicornes ?

36

MAY-BUG.— HETEROMERANS.

Fig. 29.

HORNED BEETLE.

lamella, a little thin plate, and cornu, horn)
may-bugs — Melolontha, — dung-beetles — Co-
pris (from the Greek, kopros, dung), — beetles
— Scarabeus, — and many other coleop'terous
Pentame'rans which have the antennae termi-
nated by a packet of lamellae arranged like a
fan or the leaves of a book (fg. 29). They
all have wings, and walk slowly ; their body
is oval, and their larva? are very injurious to
agriculture from their eating the roots of
plants.

22. The larva of the common May-bug or May-chaffer

(Melolontha vulgaris), which belongs
to the tribe of Cut-worms, is one of
the most destructive (Jig. 30). It lives
three or four years without undergoing
metamorphosis, and during the whole
time remains more or less profoundly
buried in the earth ; in winter it falls
into a kind of lethargy and takes no
food. This insect finishes its meta-
morphosis about the month of Febru-
ary ; but it is then very soft, and does
not reach the surface of the ground
till towards March or April, and leaves

it about the beginning of May. In the perfect state, May-bugs
feed on leaves, and they are sometimes so numerous as to strip a
forest in a short time. During the day they commonly remain
at rest, but fly at night ; their flight is heavy and noisy, and their
course is directed > so badly that they strike against every thing
that comes in their way.

The species of beetle or scarabeus, so frequently represented
by the Egyptians, either on their monuments or sculptured stones,
which seems to have been used by them as a hieroglyphic, an
amulet, and even as an object of religious worship, is of the
family of Lame'llicornes, and belongs to the genus Ateuchus.

COLEOP'TEROUS HETEROME'RANS.

23. The section of Coleop'terous Heterome'rans also embraces
very interesting insects, not on account of the ravages they cause,
but on account of their great utility in medicine. We refer
especially to the Cantha rides. These little insects contain a
peculiar irritating matter, which, when applied to the skin, has

Fig. 30.

LARVA OF MAY-BUG.

22. What are the habits of the larvae of the May-bug ?

23. What are Spanish flies ?

WEE VILS.— LADY-BUGS. 37

the property of producing a blister. The species employed in
medicine is the Cantharis vesicatoria, commonly called the
Spanish fy. The body is about half an^ inch in length, and
the elytra are long, flexible, and of a brilliant golden green
colour ; it is very common in Spain, Italy, France, and Russia,
where it lives in great numbers, on the ash, the lily, privet, &c.
The potatoe fy, Cantharis vitata, is an American species, which
possesses qualities similar to the European.

COLEOPTEROUS TETRAME'RANS.

24. Among the Coleopterous Tetrame'rans we place Weevils,
which may be readily recognised by having a head elongated in
a kind of snout or trunk, upon which are placed the antennas.
These insects are gnawers and feed on vegetable substances ; the
larvae, which are without legs, frequently cause a great deal of
damage by attacking wheat.

" Would it be believed," says Wilson, the ornithologist, " that the larvre
of an insect, or fly, no larger than a grain of rice, should, silently, and in
one season, destroy some thousand acres of pine trees, many of them two
or three feet in diameter, and one hundred and fifty feet high. Yet, who-
ever passes along the high road from Georgetown to Charleston, in South
Carolina, about twenty miles from the former place, can have striking and
melancholy proofs of the fact. In some places, the whole woods, as far as
you can see around you, are dead, stripped of the bark, their wintry look-
ing arms and bare trunks bleaching in the sun and tumbling in ruins before
every blast, presenting a frightful picture of desolation. Until some effec-
tual preventive or more complete remedy can be devised against these
insects and their larvae, I would humbly suggest the propriety of protecting,
and receiving with proper feelings of gratitude, the services of this and the
whole tribe of woodpeckers, letting the odium of guilt rest on its proper
owners."

COLEOPTEROUS TRIME'RAJfS.

25. As an example of Coleopterous Trime'rans, we mention
the lady-bug — Coccin'ella (from the Latin, coccinus, crimson) —
so common in our gardens. These beetles are of great service
to the agriculturist, and especially to the hop-grower ; for they
destroy the plant-lice (aphides), in vast numbers feeding on them
both in the larva and perfect state.

' ORDER OF ORTHOP'TERA.

26. Insects of the order of Orthop'tera (from the Greek,
orthos, straight, and pteron, wing) are distinguished,

1st. By having the mouth armed with mandibles and maxillae
arranged for mastication.

24. How are Weevils characterized?

25. To what division of the Coleop'tera does the lady-bug belong ?

26. How is the order of Orthop'tera distinguished ?

4

38 ORTHOPTER^E EAR-WIGS.

2d. By having four wings, the two anterior of which constitute
the elytra or wing-cases, and the two posterior are membranous
and folded longitudinally when in repose, as in the grasshopper.

27. The body of th'ese insects is less consistent generally than
that of the Coleop'terse, and is elongated in form, as for example,
in the mole-cricket, domestic cricket, and grasshopper. In most
insects of this order the head is large and vertical. The elytra
slightly cross each other, and are almost always coria'ceous,
flexible, and reticulated ; their position varies ; but in a great
many instances they are placed obliquely or tile-like. The same
is the case with the wings, which are broad and sometimes folded
transversely, as well as lengthwise. Sometimes all the legs are
of the same size and shape ; sometimes on the contrary they are
dissimilar. Sometimes the first pair of legs differ in form from
the others, and are adapted for digging in the ground or for seiz-
ing their prey ; at other times the hind legs are very much
developed and constitute leaping organs ; in all cases the last
articulation of the tarsus is terminated by two hooks. The abdo-
men, the form of which is usually elongated, in a great many
females has appendages attached to its posterior extremity, con-
stituting a borer or ovipositor, by means of which these insects
introduce their eggs into holes which serve their young for nests.
The Orthop'terse undergo demi-metamorphosis, and the only
changes they experience consist in the development of elytra and
wings ; in other respects the larva and nyrnpha resemble 'the
perfect insect.

28. All the insects of this order are terrestrial, and most of
them feed on living plants ; they are very voracious, and some-
times commit great havoc.

Among the most ^interesting of the Orthop'terse are the ear- wigs,
mole-crickets, crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts.

29. The Ear-wigs (jig. 31) — Forficula
(from the Latin, forfex, pincers) — have a
linear body, very short elytra, and the abdo-
men is terminated by two horny movable
appendages resembling pincers. These in-
sects are very common in damp grounds ;
they sometimes assemble in large numbers,
and are very destructive to fruit trees. It
was believed that they insinuated themselves
into the ear, and to this popular opinion is
due their common name ; but it is an error ,
for they only raise the pincers that terminate
. 31—EAR-wio. -tfae abdomen-jn seif.defence.

27. What are the characters of the Orthop'teree ?

28. What are the habits of Orthop'teraB ?

29. How are ear-wigs characterized ? Are they dangerous ?

MOLE-CRICKETS.— CRICKETS.

39

lt 32. — MOLE-CRICKET.

30. The Mole-crickets— Grillo-talpa (fg. 32)— have broad,
flat fore legs, adapted for digging; the common Mole-cricket
(Grillo-talpa vulgaris) lives in the ground, and is very injurious
from its habit of digging subterraneous passages like moles, and
cutting or detaching the roots of all plants that come in its way.

Fig. 33. CRICKET.

31. The Crickets — Gryllus (Jig. 33) — resemble the mole-
cricket, but their fore legs are not formed for digging, although
some of them dig holes. The domestic cricket (Gryllus domes-
ticus] inhabits dwellings, and usually seeks the warmth of the
chimney. Crickets leap almost as well as grasshoppers, and are
cot unlike them. Male crickets produce that sharp sound, com-
monly called their song, by rubbing their thighs against the
wings.

32. Grasshoppers (fgs. 34 and 35) closely resemble crickets-
but their tarsi have four articulations, and their antennae are long
and consist of numerous small articulations. Like crickets, their
hind legs are formed for leaping ; they walk slowly, but fly well.
The females deposit their eggs in the ground by means of the

30. What are the characters of mole-crickets ?

31. How are crickets characterized? What are their habits? How is
their song produced ?

32. How are grasshoppers characterized ? What are migratory locusts ?

40

GRASSHOPPERS.— MIGRATORY LOCUSTS.

sword-like ovipositor, which terminates the abdomen. The larvae
have neither wings nor sheaths for containing them ; in other
respects they resemble the imago or perfect insect. The genus
Acry'dium belongs to this group. These last Orthop'tene have

Fig. 34. — LARVA OF GRASSHOPPER.

on each side of the first ring of the abdomen a kind of mem-
branous drum, by means of which they produce a sound, impro-
perly called their song. They are very common in fields; they
frequently assemble in countless multitudes, commonly known as
Migratory locusts, and in this way travel great distances ; the

Fig. 35. GRASSHOPPER.

passage of one of these destructive bands sometimes converts a
whole kingdom into a desert, in a very short period. This
scourge is more frequent in Africa, but the same species of locust
also shows itself in Europe. In certain countries of Africa, these
insects are eaten ; certain Asiatics, after drying and grinding
them, make them into bread. At Bagdad they are sold in the
market.

HEMIPTERA. 41

LESSON III.

ORDER OF HEMIP'TERA. — Organization — -Division — Bed-bug

— Locust — Plant-lice — Cochineal Insect.
ORDER OF NEUROP'TERA. — Dragon-flies — Ephemera — White

Ants.
ORDER OF LEPIDOP'TERA. — Division — Butter/ties — Sphinx —

Bombyx — Silk-worm — Tinea.

ORDER OF HEMIP'TERA.

1. Insects of the order of Hemip'tera (from the Greek, 'emisus,
half, and pteron, wing) may be distinguished at first sight from
the two preceding orders, by the conformation of the mouth,
which, instead of being adapted to masticate food, 1s in the form
of a long sucker resembling a tube. They have four wings ; the
two first are in general half coriaceous and half membranous,
from which circumstance the order derives its name (Jigs. 36
and 37).

2. In general the tegumentary covering of the Hemip'terse is
crustaceous ; sometimes, besides the compound eyes which exist
in all insects, we find simple eyes or ocelli ; the elytra are some-
times one-half crustaceous or coriaceous, and half membranous,
and at other times entirely membranous ; sometimes they, as
well as the wings, are wanting. The metamorphosis of the
Hemip'terce is generally incomplete, and consists only in the
development of wings and the growth of other parts of the body.
The organization of the mouth makes these insects necessarily
suckers ; it is composed of a sheath formed by the labium or
lower lip, and contains two pairs of filaments.

3. This order is divided into two sections ; namely,

1st. The HETEROP'TER^E (from the Greek, 'eteros, various, and
pteron, wing), in which the elytra are hard and thick at the
base, and membranous at the extremity (Jig- 36).

2d. The HOMOP'TERJE (from the Greek, omos, the same, and
pferon, wing), in which the elytra or first pair of wings are of
the same consistence throughout (figs. 37 and 39).

4. The Heterop'terce have a large and frequently triangular

1. How is the order of Hemip'tera distinguished ?

2. What is the character of the teguments of Hemip'terans ? What is
the nature of their metamorphosis ?

3. How is the order of Hemip'tera divided ?

4. How is the section of Heterop'terse characterized ?

4*

42 BED-BUGS.— LOCUSTS.

corselet, and a thick beak inserted beneath the front. They are
designated under the common name of bugs, and are divided into
GEO'CORIS^E (from the Greek, ge, land, and koris, bug) or land-
bugs, and HYDRO'CORISJE (from the Greek, Wor, water, and
is, bug) or water-bugs.

The Pentato'ma (fig. 36) is the type of the
family of Geo'corisce.

5. The bugs, properly so called (Cimex),
also belong to this family ; they have a soft flat-
tened body, and are unprovided with wings.
The too well-known insect, vulgarly called the
bed-bug (Cimex lectularius), sucks the blood of
Fig. 36. man while he sleeps, and when in danger, or

PENTATOMA. when crushed, exhales a fetid odour ; it is the
scourge of old dirty houses ; during winter, it is
torpid. It is pretended that this insect did not exist in England
previous to the fire of London in 1666, and that it was transported
thither in timber from America. They were known long before
that time on the continent of Europe. Great cleanliness and
extreme vigilance are the best means of keeping clear of these
noxious insects.

6. The HOMOP'TER^E, in which the elytra, in place of being
horizontal as in the preceding, are inclined and similar to wings,
live exclusively on the juices of plants, and are generally remark-
able for the length of the beak which arises from the inferior and
posterior part of the head.

7. The locvst— Cicada —
(Jig. 37) — belongs to this
family. The males make a
monotonous noisy kind of
music, which is produced by
an organ situated at each side
of the base of the abdomen.
They live on trees and suck
their sap ; one species is in
Fig. 37. — LOCUST. the habit of stinging a species

of the ash, causing an exuda-
tion of a honey-like' juice, which, growing thick by evaporation
in the air, constitutes manna. The elytra are almost always
transparent and veined. The female deposits her eggs in the
pith of dead twigs. The young larva? leave their asylum to
penetrate the earth, where they grow and experience their meta-
morphosis.

5. What are the characters of the genus Cimex ?

6. What are the characters of the section Homop'tera ?

7. What are the habits of locusts ? How is manna produced ? Where
do locusts deposit their eggs ?

PLANT-LICE.— COCHINEAL, &c.

43

Fig. 38.— APHIS.

8. The plant-lice— Aphis— (Jig. 38)— are
very small homop'terans ; they have a soft
body, and are found in myriads in our gardens;
they live in companies on trees, the rose, ivy,
oak, apple, &c,, arid suck the sap by aid of
their trunk.

9. The cochineal insect (Coccus) is very

similar to plant-lice. The males (fig-

39) have wings, but the females (fig*

40) have none. Most of these insects
at a particular season of the year
attach themselves to the plants on
which they feed ; the males to experi-
ence their metamorphosis, and the
females to pass their lives. The sub-
stance called cochineal, so much used
in dyeing, is the dried bodies of certain
insects of this genus. The insects

which furnish the most beautiful scarlet live on a
kind of cactus called nopal or opuntia, which is cul-
tivated in Mexico and other parts of South America,
solely on account of these animals. They are native of America,
and have been found in South Carolina.

Fig. 40.

COCHINEAL.

Fig. 39.
COCHINEAL.

ORDER OF NEUROP'TERA.

10. The Neurop'terse (from the Greek, neuron, nerve, and
pteron, wing) are distinguished from other insects by their wings,
all four of which are membranous, transparent and reticulated
(that is, formed in very fine net-work), and by the organization
of the mouth, which is armed with mandibles and jaws adapted to
mastication (fig. 41).

11. The general form of these insects is elongated, and their
teguments almost always soft. Most of them are carnivorous.
The Iarva9 always have six legs terminated by hooks ; their
metamorphosis is various, but generally incomplete.

The most interesting insects of this order are the Dragon-flies,
Ephe'merce, and Termites.

8. What are plant-lice ?

9. What is cochineal dye ? How does the male differ from the female
cochineal insect ?

10. How is the order of Neurop'tera distinguished?

11. What are the habits of the Neurop' terse ?

44

DRAGON-FLIES.— EPHEMERAE.

Fig. 41. DRAGON-FLY.

Fig. 42.

LARVA OF DRAGON-FLY.

12. The Dragon-files — (figAl) — Libel' Ma — are remarkable
for their elongated form, their varied colours, their large, beautiful,
gauze-like wings, and their rapidity of flight. Their larvae and
nymphcs (fig. 42) live in the water until the period of their last
transformation. In the two first states they resemble the perfect
insect, except that they have no wings, and the head, yet unpro-
vided with simple eyes, has a mark in front covering the mandi-
bles, which is furnished with movable pincers, by means of
which the animal seizes its prey. At the posterior extremity of
the abdomen (fig. 42) we remark lamellar appendages which the
larva constantly expands, while at the same moment it dilates the
rectum to cause water to enter it ; then it forcibly expels the
water mingled with bubbles of air, both for the purpose of loco-
motion and breathing.

Fig. 43. EPHEMERA.

13. The Ephemera (fig. 43) have a very soft body terminated
by two or three long setse or filaments. As their name indicates,
these insects live but a very short time ; they usually appear in

12. What are the characters of Dragon-flies ? How do their larvae differ
from the perfect insect ?

13. What are the characters of Ephemerae ? What are their habits?
How does the larva differ from the perfect insect ?

TERMITES. 45

numerous swarms along the banks of rivers, towards sunset, on
bright days in the warm season. They assemble in the air and
then alight on neighbouring plants; soon afterwards the female
lays her eggs in the water and dies. These insects sometimes
fall upon the ground in such great numbers that they are gathered
up in cart-loads for manuring the earth. But notwithstanding
they live in the perfect state only a few hours, they undergo
transformation and clothe themselves in a new skin. In the state
of larvae or nymphre, on the contrary, they live two or three
years and remain in the water. The larva resembles the perfect
insect ; but the mouth has two projections in form of horns, and
the abdomen has on each side a row of plates or leaflets, serving
for respiration and swimming. The pupa or nympha does not
differ from the larva except in the presence of sheaths enclosing
the wings. At the moment these organs are to be developed, the
insect leaves the water ; and it is a remarkable exception to the
general rule, that after having undergone this metamorphosis, it
again changes its skin before it becomes an adult.

14. The Ter' mites are only found in countries situated near the
tropics, and are known under the common name of white ants.
These insects live in very numerous societies, composed of males,
females, larvae, nymphs, and neuters or adults; the last are
however incomplete, wanting wings; they are called soldiers.
They keep under ground or in the interior of trees, joists, &c.,
and in them dig very extensive and numerous galleries, all of
which communicate with a central place where they dwell ; these
habitations are always covered, and when circumstances compel
the larva? to leave it, they form beyond, from the materials they
gnaw, tubes or covered ways which hide them from view. The
soldiers, which have a larger head, and mandibles more apparent
than the others, are charged with the defence of the common
dwelling, and it is for this reason they have obtained the name
of soldiers ; they keep near the external surface of the habita-
tion, and as soon as a breach is made, they rush out to fight their
enemies. , The larva, which are called working termites, are
much more numerous than the soldiers; they perform all the
labour necessary for the construction and repair of their dwell-
ings ; they cause terrible destruction by mining, as it were, through
trees and the frames of houses. Having attained the perfect
state, the termites quit their nest towards evening and rise in the
air; but on the rising of the sun their wings dry and they fall,
the most of them becoming a prey to lizards, birds, &c. ; but we
are assured that, at this period, the larvae make prisoners of the
females and keep them in a particular cell in the centre of the

14. What are Ter'mites ? What are their habits ?

46 LEPIDOPTER^E.

habitation, for the purpose of augmenting the colony by the addi-
tion of their offspring. At first a certain number of larvae stand
guard at the entrance of this cell ; but the abdomen of the cap-
tive female acquires so great a volume that she cannot pass the
entrance of the cell, which the larvae are even obliged to enlarge.
The same larvae are careful to lodge in a particular cell the eggs
she lays and provide food for them. There is a species of ter-
mites, caHed lucifugus, which is multiplied to such a degree in
the.workshops and store-houses, in the dock-yard at Rochefort,
as to cause serious damage.

"When they find their way," says Kirby, "into houses or warehouses,
nothing less hard than metal or glass escapes their ravages. Their favourite
food, however, is wood, and so infinite is the multitude of assailants, and
such the excellence of their tools, that all the timber-work of a spacious
apartment is often destroyed by them in a night. Outwardly every thing
appears as if untouched; for these wary depredators — and this is what con-
stitutes the greatest singularity in their history — carry on all their opera-
tions by sap or mine, destroying first the inside of solid substances, and
scarcely ever attacking the outside, until first they have concealed it and
their operations with a coat of clay."

It is related that " an engineer having returned from surveying the
country, left his trunk on a table : the next morning he found not only all
his clothes destroyed by the white ants. or cutters, but his papers also, and
the latter in such a manner, that there was not a. bit left of an inch square.
The black-lead of his pencils was consumed ; the clothes were not entirely
cut to pieces and carried away, but appeared as if moth-eaten, there being
scarcely a piece as large as a shilling free from small holes. ' One night,'
says Kemper, in his history of Japan, ' in a few hours, they pierced one
foot of the table, and having in that manner ascended, carried their arch
across it, and then down, through the middle of the other foot, into the floor,
as good luck would have it, without doing any damage to the papers left
there.' " — History of Insects in the Family Library.

ORDER OF LEPIDOP'TERA.

15. The Lepidop' terse (from the Greek, lepis, a scale, and
pteron, wing) or butterflies are recognised by the scaly dust,
similar to coloured flour, which covers their four membranous
wings, and by their mouth, which is in form of a tube spirally
rolled up (Jig. 11).

16. These insects experience complete metamorphosis; their
larva?, which are known under the name of caterpillars (Jigs. 17
and 18), have six scaly legs corresponding to those of the perfect
insert, and four or six membranous feet which subsequently dis-
appear; in general the body is almost cylindrical, soft, and dif-
ferently coloured. Most of them feed on leaves or other parts

15. How is the order of Lepidop'tera recognised 1

16. What are the characters of the larvae of Lepidop'terae 1 What is a
ehrysalid 1

DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERJ3.— BUTTERFLIES. 47

of vegetables ; but there are some that eat woollen stuffs, peltries,
&c. Generally these animals change the skin four times ; and
when they are about being transformed into the nympha or pupa
state, they enclose themselves in a shell or cocoon, constructed
of a silky material, secreted in particular organs, and
forced out through a kind of lip. In the nympha
state, the Lepidop'teree resemble a mummy, and are
called clirysalids (fig. 44) ; they are swathed, and
when they have undergone the changes they are des-
tined to experience, they escape from their case
through a slit they make on the back of the corselet.
In the perfect state, these animals feed exclusively on CHKVSALID.
the honey of flowers.

17. The order of Lepidop'tera is. divided into three great
families ; namely, Diurnal Lepidop'terte, Crepuscular Lepidop -
tercv, and Nocturnal Lepidop'tera.

18. The DIURNAL LEFIDOF'TERJG are recognised by their
wings, which are vertical when in repose (fig. 45), while in the
other two families they are horizontal or inclined. Their antennoe
are generally terminated by a small rounded club-like mass ; some-
times, however, they are tapering at the extremity, and curved

Fig. 45. PAPILIO PHILENOR.

17. How is the order of Lepidop'tera divided?

18. How are the Diurnal Lepidop'tera- distinguished? What are their habits?

48 PAPILIO PHILENOR.— VANESSA.

so as to form a hook. These butterflies, as their name indicates,
fly and seek their food only during the day ; their colours are
generally bright and agreeably variegated. Their caterpillars
always have six legs, and the chrysalid is seldom enclosed in a
cocoon, but is suspended by the posterior extremity of the body.
In this family are the butter/ties, proper ly so called,Vanessa,&z,c.

19. As an example of the first we will mention the Papilio
philenor (Jig. 45), one of the most beautiful of our butterflies.
It is characterized by a black head, thorax and legs ; breast dotted
with yellow ; the superior wings are dark green, with white spots
on the margin ; the inferior wings highly polished green, with
spots of pearl-white and fulvo'us, the latter surrounded by a black
ring. The caterpillars of this genus are destitute of spines or
hairs; but when disturbed they suddenly project from the superior
part of the neck a soft bifid or forked appendage, which diffuses
a strong odour. This singular organ, although somewhat for-
midable in appearance, is yet perfectly harmless ; it may, however,
serve the purpose of repelling the enemies of the larva, rather,
perhaps, by the odour it emits, than by its menacing aspect.

20. The genus Vanessa comprises several species. Their ca-
terpillars are armed with numerous spines (fg. 46).

Fig. 46. — VANESSA.

21. The CREPUSCULAR LEPIUOP'TEK.E only fly in morning or
evening twilight. When in repose, their wings are horizontal or
inclined, a position which is attributable to the fact that in this
family the inferior wings have a stiff bristle which serves to sup-
port the superior. The antennoe are elongated clubs, and com-
monly prismatic or spindle-shaped ; sometimes they are pectinate j
their caterpillars always have six legs. _

19. How is the Papilio philenor characterized ?

20. How arc the caterpillars of the genus Vanessa characterized ? ^

21. Why are the wings of Crepuscular Lepidop' terse, when in repose, non-
tontal or inclined "'

SPHINX.— BOMB YX.

49

22. The type of this family is the genus Sphinx, so called, because
sometimes the attitude of its caterpillar resembles that of the sphinx
of fable ; they fly with great rapidity and hover above flowers.

23. The largest species in France is the Sphinx atropos, so
named, in consequence of a spot on the back resembling some-
what a death's head. Its caterpillar is yellow with blue stripes
on the side ; it lives on the potatoe-vine, jasmin, &c., and changes
to a nymph, about the end of August ; the perfect insect appears
in September.

24. The NOCTURNAL LEPIDOP'TER^E always have horizontal
or inclined wings when in repose ; the superior wings are almost
always retained against the inferior (fig- 47) ; in this respect they
resemble the crepuscular lepidop'terae, but are distinguished from
them by their antennae, which diminish in size from the base to
the point, or in other words, they are seta'ceous. These lepidop'-
terae, which are sometimes called phaloense, ordinarily fly only at
night or in the evening after sunset ; in some species the females
are without wings, or have them very small. % Their chrysalids
are almost always round and lodged in a cocoon.

This family is very numerous, and is divided into several tribes ;
the most interesting is that of the Bom'byces, which have inclined
wings, forming a triangle with the body.

25. The mulberry bombyx
— Bombyx mori — (fig' 47) —
of all insects is the most in-
teresting, because its caterpil-
lar, known under the name of
silk-worm, furnishes us with
silk. In the perfect state, this
butterfly is whitish, with two
or three darkish transverse
stripes, and a cross-like spot

on the superior wings. Its caterpillar (fig. 48) has a smooth

body, and at birth scarcely

exceeds a line in length ;

but attains in time to even

more than three inches long.

In this form the silk-worm

Fig. 47. — BOMBYX.

lives about thirty-four days,
andduringthis timechanges

Fig. 48. — SILK-WORM.

22. What is a Sphinx ?

23. How is the caterpillar of the Sphinx atropos characterized ?

24. How are the Nocturnal Lepidop'terze distinguished ? What are their
habits ?

25. What are silk-worms ? What are the characters of the bombyx
mori? What are the habits of its larva? What is the colour of its
cocoon ?

50 SILK-WORMS.

its skin four times ; it feeds on the leaves of the mulberry ; at
the time of moulting it becomes torpid and does not eat ; but after
changing its skin, its appetite is doubled. When it is ready to
change into a chrysalis, it becomes flaccid and soft, and seeks a
proper place to construct its cocoon, in which it encloses itself;
the first day is occupied in attaching, in an irregular manner,
threads of silk to neighbouring bodies to support it ; the second
day it begins to multiply these threads so as to envelope itself;
and on the third day it is entirely concealed in its cocoon. This
nest is formed of a single filament of silk wrapped around the
animal, and its turns glued together by a kind of gum. It is
estimated that the length of this filament in an ordinary cocoon
is nine hundred feet. The form of the cocoon is oval, and its
colour either yellow or white.

26. The bombyx remains in the chrysalis state, in the interior
of its cocoon, about twenty days ; and when it has finished its
metamorphosis, it disgorges upon a point of its parietes a par-
ticular liquid, which softens it and enables the animal to make a
round hole through which it escapes.

27. This precious caterpillar appears to be originally from the
northern part of China, and, about the time of Justinian, was
imported into Europe by the Greek missionaries; but it was not
until the period of the Crusades that its culture passed from Greece
into Italy and Sicily. Some gentlemen who accompanied Charles
VIII. into Italy during the war of 1494 introduced these insects
into the south of France, as well as the mulberry, a tree without
which silk-worms cannot be raised ; but for a long time it attracted
very little attention. In the present day, however, this branch
of agricultural industry forms one of the chief sources of wealth
of southern France; and is yearly becoming of more and more
importance in the United States.

28. To obtain the silk produced by these animals, it is neces-
sary to kill them before they pierce the cocoon, and then wind or
reel off the thread or filament of which it is composed ; to unglue
it, the cocoons are soaked in warm water ; then the filaments of
three or four are united into one thread. That part of the cocoon
which cannot be reeled in this manner is carded, and constitutes
floss-silk.

29. The mulberry bombyx is not the only species of this genus
which yields silk that can be usefully employed ; the inhabitants
of Madagascar make use of a species, the caterpillars of which live

26. How does the bombyx escape from its cocoon?

27. What is the history of the silk-worm ?

28. How is the silk obtained ? What is floss-silk ?

29. Is there any other species of Bombyx which produces silk?

PROCESSIONNEA.— PTEROPHORA.

51

in numerous bands, and form a common nest, sometimes three
feet high, containing about five hundred cocoons.

30. A species of bombyx called processionne 'a, has analogous
habits, but instead of being useful, is very destructive ; the body
of the caterpillars is ash-coloured, with a black back spotted
yellow ; they live in society on the oak, and while young, spin a
web or tent in common, under which they are all sheltered ; they
frequently change their domicil, and generally they leave their
retreat in the evening, following a regular order ; one marches
ahead, then follows two, then three, and so on, increasing each
rank by one; this description of procession has given them their
specific name.

31. The Tinea or Moths, whose caterpillars frequently feed on
cloth and peltry, are also nocturnal lepidop'terae. The clothes-
moth, fur-moth, grease-moth, grain-moth, and various other
destructive moths are mostly very small insects; the largest of
them, when arrived at maturity, expanding their wings about
eight-tenths of an inch. The Tinea sarcitetla or pack-moth,
which is very destructive to woollen, is silver-gray, and has a
white dot on each side of the thorax. Its caterpillar lives on
cloth and other woollens, weaving with their detached particles
mixed with silk a portable tube ; it lengthens it one end in pro-
portion as it grows, and slits it to increase its diameter by adding
another piece. From this circumstance it obtains the specific
name, sarcitella, which is formed from the Latin, sarcio, I patch.

32. Belonging to the
family of nocturnal iepi-
dop'tera is the tribe of
FISSIPENNJE : this tribe
is distinguished from all
other lepidop' terse by the
singular structure of the
wings, which, in a state
of repose, are straight
and elongated. The four
wings, or two of them at
least, are slit through their

whole length into branches, which are barbed on the sides, bear-
ing some resemblance to an outspread feather fan. All these
anomalous insects are included in a single genus, named PTERO'-
PHORA (Jig. 49).

30. What are the habit? of the Bombyx processionne's. 1

31. What are Tinese 1

32. What are Fissipeanae 1

Fig, 49. PTERO'PHORA.

52 HYMENOPTERA.

LESSON IV.

ORDER OF HYMENOP'TERA. — Organization — Ichneumon Fly —

G alls — Wasps — Horn ets — A n ts — Bees .
ORDER OF RHIPIP'TERA.

ORDER OF DIP'TERA. — Mosquitoes — Flies — CEstrus.
CLASS OF MYRIA'PODA. — Scolopendra.

ORDER OF HYMENOP'TERA.

1. Insects of the order of Hymenop'tera (from the Greek,
*u?nen, a membrane, and pteron, wing) have, like the Neurop'terse,
four membranous, naked wings, that is, they are without the
coloured dust-like scales which cover those of the Lepidop' terse ;
the mouth is composed of mandibles, which in general are very
different in form from those of triturating insects (tritores) ; but
the maxillse andjigula are elongated in such a manner as to con-
stitute a tube adapted exclusively to suction ; their wings are
veined, instead of being reticulated as in the Neurop'terse, and
the superior are always larger than the inferior. The tegumen-
tary envelope of these insects is not crustaceous ; besides the
compound eyes, they always have, three small simple eyes.
When in repose the wings are placed horizontally over the body.
The tarsi are composed of five complete articulations ; and the
abdomen is generally suspended from the posterior extremity of
the thorax, by a straight peduncle; and in the females this part
of the body is terminated by an ovipositor or sting.

2. The metamorphosis of these insects is complete ; most of
the larvse are apodous, that is, without feet ; but some are pro-
vided with six or a greater number of legs.

3. In the perfect state, almost all the Hymenop'terse live on
flowers, and many of them form numerous societies, the labours
of which are performed in common. In the larva state, some
feed on dead insects, others on vegetable substances, and when
these animals are unprovided with legs, and consequently in-
capable of seeking food, the mother places them, sometimes in
the bodies of animals at whose cost they are destined to live,
sometimes in nests, and then she or others of the society regularly
bring them food.

1. What are the characters of Hymenop'terans ?

2. What description of metamorphosis do they undergo ?

3. What are the habits of the Hymenop'terae ?

ICHNEUMON fUES,— WASPS. 53

4. Some, designated by the common name of TEREBRAN'TIA
(from the Latin, terebro, I bore), have, in the female, the abdomen
terminated by a simple borer, most generally in form of a saw,
which they use to deposit their eggs in suitable places. Of this
number are the Ichneumon Jlies, insects which render essential
service to agriculture by destroying a great many caterpillars ;
the Cynips, which have a small head, and a large, raised up
corselet, which gives them the appearance of being hump-backed.
The females make excavations in trees for depositing their eggs,
and the juices effused at the wounded spot often produce excres-
cences named galls. The gall-nut, of which considerable use is
made in dyeing black, and in the manufacture of ink, is developed
in this manner on the leaves of a species of oak which grows in
Asia Minor.

5. Other hymenop'terse have the abdomen attached to the
thorax by a straight peduncle, and in place of the ovipositor there
exists in most of the females and most neuters, a retractile sting.
They form a group of ACU'LEATES (from the Latin, aculeus, a
prickle or sting). The most interesting insects of this division
are the wasps, ants, and bees.

6. Wasps — Vespa — are so generally known that it is not neces-
sary to describe their form ; but their habits are worthy of atten-
tion. These insects, like some other hymenop'terse, live in
society. Only the females found new colonies ; in the spring
they lay their eggs, from which are derived individuals called
workers, who assist their common mother to enlarge the nest and
raise the young born afterwards. To construct their nest or
vespiary, these insects by aid of their mandibles detach pieces of
bark or old wood, which they reduce to a sort of paper-like paste ,
of this they form the combs or nests, which are generally hori-
zontal, suspended by pedicles, and present at the lower edge series
of hexagonal cells, serving for the lodgment of the larvae and
pupse. These cells are ranged parallel to each other, at regular
distances, and are joined together at intervals by little columns
which support them (Jig, 50) ; the whole is built, sometimes in
the open air, sometimes in the hollow of a tree, and some are
naked or enclosed in a common envelope, according to the species
(Jig. 50). The cells, which vary in number, are sometimes
covered and communicate externally by a common aperture. It
is only in the beginning of autumn that male wasps are found in
the vespiary ; the young females make their appearance about
the same time. About the month of November the young wasps
that have not yet completed their last metamorphosis, are put to

4. What are gall-nuts ?

5. What insects are comprised in the group of Aculeates ?

6. What are the habits of wasps ?

5*

54

HABITS OF WASPS.

Fig. 50. — VESPIARY OR WASP'S NEST.

death and thrown out of the cells by the neuters, who, as well
as the males, perish when cold weather arrives ; so that the pre-
servation of the species is confided exclusively to the few females
who resist the inclemency, of winter and survive till spring.

" Cruel and ferocious as these insects may appear, still their affection for
their habitation and young is very striking. Whatever injury may be done
to the nest, if it should be even broken to pieces, they will linger about the
cherished spot, or quit it only to follow the combs wherever they may be
transferred. ' Those,' says Reaumur, ' which were absent when I removed
the nest, finding, on their return, neither companions nor home, knew not
where to go, and for days together hovered around the hole before they
determined to abandon the spot.' The material from which the nest is con-
structed is vegetable fibre. The wasp will not use saw-dust ; but, knowing
that a filamentous material, like linen rags, is necessary for the fabrication,
of its paper, it amasses pieces of some substance possessing this quality.
As the first step in the process of paper-making is to soak the vegetable
fibre in water, so the wasp takes especial care to select the filaments which
it intends to use from wet wood which has rotted hi the rain. These are
worked up with a glutinous secretion, and thus the material is prepared.
When the wasp can get its paper ready made, it makes no scruple to appro-
priate it. Reaumur, being once disturbed by a noise in his study, found
that it arose from the gnawing of a piece of paper which these insects had

ANTS. 55

attacked. A few only of the community are architects ; the lest having
other appropriate employments. The females (for there are as many as
three hundred), unlike the queen bee, do not pass their lives in receiving the
homage of their subjects, but perform every species of labour. The
neuters, however, as among bees, are the true workers. They build the
nest and forage for food for the males, females, and the young. The worms
are not locked up in a cell surrounded by food, but require to be fed like
the young of birds. 'I saw,' says Reaumur, 'a female wasp, which had
entered the vespiary with the belly of an insect ; this she contrived by
degrees to swallow, after which she ran to various cells, and disgorging that
which she had eaten, distributed it among the brood of worms.' Hence it
appears that it not only procured the food, but prepared it by a partial
digestion. The wasp is particularly fond of the belly of the bee ; it is a
choice bit which it eagerly seeks. It will watch for hours at the door of a
bee-hive, pounce upon some unfortunate bee which is about to enter, and
tumbling it to the ground, in a trice separate, with its two serrated teeth,
the tender abdomen, containing the soft intestines and the honey-bag, from
the dry and hard chest of the insect ; having secured its prey, it hurries
away to its habitation. The large blue bottle-fly is another delicate morsel
greatly coveted by the wasp." — Family Library.

The hornet is the largest of the wasp tribe. It is a terrible enemy of the
hive bee ; its sting is very dangerous even to man.

7. The ants — Formica — also present three kinds of individuals,
males, females, and workers ; they live in societies composed
chiefly of workers who are unprovided with wings ; so soon as
the males and females have acquired wings they leave the habita-
tion ; the males soon after die, and the females that are to become
motjiers quickly lose their wings ; some go off to found new
colonies, others are held prisoners by the neuters in the old
habitation, and there lay their eggs. The manner of construct-
ing these dwellings, and in fact every thing relating to the habits
of ants, is extremely curious. In general the larvae dig in the
earth a multitude of galleries, chambers arranged in stories, and,
carrying out the dirt, often raise up above the nest a little hill,
in the interior of which these indefatigable workmen form new
stories similar to those below ; sometimes they construct from this
dirt, galleries which they carry up along the stems of shrubs on
which these insects go in pursuit of food, and which shelter them in
their daily journeys. Other ants construct their nests in trees that
have been already attacked by other insects and softened by decay.
The larva? also receive assiduous attention from the workers ;
each one is supplied by the latter with the juices proper for it,
and, when the weather is fine, we observe these active nurses
carry the young out of the nest to expose them to the rays of the
sun, defend them from their enemies, transport them back again
to the nest on the approach of evening, and keep them clean.

8. Bees (fig. 51) — Apis — and some other Hymenop'teraB pre

7. What are the habits of ants ?

8. What are the characters of bees ?

56

BEES.

Fig. 51.— HONEY-BEE.

sent a peculiar conformation of the
hind legs, which is characteristic of
them ; the first articulation of the tarsus
of these legs is very large, compressed
in form of a palette and armed with a
silky brush ; on the external side of
the leg or tibia there is also a depres-
sion bordered by hairs, named a basket;
the insect makes use of these organs
for collecting the pollen of flowers. Honey-bees are distinguished
from other social bees by the absence of spines on the extremity
of the hind legs.

9. Of all insects that live in society these are the most interest-
ing to us ; for by their admirable industry we are furnished with
honey and wax. These little animals establish their dwellings in
some cavity, such as holes in trees, or in a kind of cage which

farmers prepare for them, called a hive.
The inhabitants of each hive or colony
formed by bees are for the most part work-
ers or drones ; during a part of the year
we also find a certain number of males;
but only one female resides among them,
and she is the sovereign, the Queen. The
working bees perform all the labour ; they
collect pollen and honey, build the cells of
wax in which are deposited the eggs and
provisions of the community, take care of
the young and defend the hive from ene-
mies. The males, commonly called drones,
are only useful for a short time, and before
autumn the workers destroy them without pity. The cells just
mentioned are in form of a little hexagonal cup, and constitute by
their union in series, regularly placed in rows one above the other,
back to back, masses whose regularity and finish always excite
our admiration (Jig. 52) : they are called honey-comb, and there
are two kinds of cells ; the common (a) and the royal cells (b).

10. When the period for laying arrives, the Queen, now an
object of respect and of the most assiduous care on the part of
the workers, runs through the comb, examines the cells, and
deposits her eggs in them, first in those that are smallest (a) and
destined for the larvse of workers ; then in those of still larger
dimensions, which are designed to lodge the males ; and, lastly, in
those named royal cells (6), in consequence of their size and their

9. What are the habits of bees ?

10. Are the cells of a bee-hive all of the same size? What are royal
cells ? What is bee-bread ?

Fig. 52.

HONEY-COMB.

RHIPIPTERA.— DIPTERA. 57

special destination for the larvse of females. When the number
of these chambers is too small, and the female deposits several
eggs in the same cell, the workers soon perceive it, and destroy
them all except one. Three days after laying, those workers who
have not contributed to the construction of the comb, but have
collected pollen and honey to be deposited in magazines con-
structed for the purpose, begin to discharge the duty of nurses to
the newly born larvse, bringing them several times daily a kind
of mixture varied according to the age and sex of those for
whom it is intended. This mixture is known under the name
of bee-bread.

11. These larvse are completely apodous, without feet, and
resemble small worms ; six or seven days after birth, they pre-
pare for undergoing their metamorphosis, and the nurses then
enclose them in their cells, closing the latter with a cover of wax ;
they remain in the nympha or pupa state about eleven days, and
then disengage themselves and appear in the form of bees. When
the number of bees contained in the hive becomes too great to be
comfortably accommodated, a part of them, led by a female,
emigrate and found a new colony, .termed a swarm.

Although the habits of bees are very interesting, our limits
require us to refer the reader for their history to some of the
several works specially treating of them. A very entertaining
and correct account of them is contained in the " Natural History
of Insects," published in Harper's Family Library.

ORDER OF RHIPIP'TERA.

12. The order of Rhipip'tera (from the Greek, ripis, a fan,
and pteron, wing) is composed of a small number of insects,
very remarkable on account of their habits and anomalous form.
They may be recognised by their two large membranous wings,
longitudinally folded like a fan. In the larva state they form a
little oval worm, without legs, and live among the scales of some
species of Hymenop'terse, as wasps, for example ; in the same
situation they change into the nympha state.

ORDER OF DIP'TERA.

13. The order of Dip'tera (from the Greek, dis, two, and
pt.eron, wing) is composed of insects that have only two wings,
which are membranous and extended (fig. 53).

14. The general envelope of these insects is very thin and

1 1 . What are the characters of the larvae of bees ?

12. How is the order of Rhipip'tera recognised ?

13. How is the order of Dip'tera recognised ?

14. What are the characters of the Dip'tera ?

58

MOSQUITOES.

possesses very little consistence ; the mouth is in form of a trunk,
and is only adapted to sucking ; their legs are generally long and
slender; and the abdomen is more or less pedunculated.

15. The dip'teras experience complete metamorphosis. The
larvae are apodous, and their head is soft and variable ; their
mouth is commonly furnished with two hooks. In most of them
it is the skin of the larva, which, by becoming hard, serves as a
cocoon for the nympha, and then puts on the appearance of a
seed or egg.

This division is very numerous both in genera and species ;
besides a great many other insects, we place in it mosquitoes,
flies, &c.

16. The mosquitoes — Culex — (fig- 53) — have a long hairy

body, antenna in form of plumes, and very
long legs. The inconvenience and annoy-
ance of these insects are well known, par-
ticularly in damp, marshy situations, where
they are found in the greatest abundance.
Voraciously fond of blood, they pursue us
everywhere, enter our dwellings, especially
in the evening, and announcing their ap-
proach by a sharp humming sound, pierce
the skin with the bristle-like lancets in their
trunk and distil a venomous liquid into the
little wound thus made. In the state of
larva and nympha, mosquitoes live in water.
The larva has on the segment of the abdo-
men next to the last a long tube (fig> 54, 2),
by means of which it draws from the atmo-
sphere the air it requires: the nympha breathes
in the same manner, but by means of two
tubes placed on the thorax ; it floats on the
surface of the water, and, after having finish-
ed its metamorphosis, the perfect insect makes
use of its nympha slough or cast skin, as a
boat, until its legs and wings have acquired
sufficient solidity to enable it to walk on the
surface of the water, or betake itself to
flight ; for, if its body were submerged, as
often happens when the wind overturns their
frail barks, they would invariably drown.
All these metamorphoses occur in the course
of three or four weeks : thus, generations are renewed three or
four times in the same year.

15. How are the larvae of dip'terous insects characterized ?

16. What are the characters of mosquitoes ? What are the characters
and habits of their larvsB ?

Fig. 53. — MOSQUITO.

Fig. 54,

FLIES.— SCOLOPENDR.E.

59

17. The number of species of flies (Musca) is very great.
Their larvae feed on meat, carrion, &c. : they are in form of soft
whitish worms, and are frequently termed Maggots.

18. The gad-flies (CEstrus) resemble large flies ; their flight is
accompanied by a humming noise ; they are very tormenting to
horses, oxen, &c. ; some of them pierce the skin of these ani-
mals to deposit their eggs ; others simply lay their eggs in the
vicinity of one of the natural apertures of the body, and the
larvae in this manner at birth enter the stomach through the
nostrils or nasal sinus. The larvae of the GEstri are usually
conical and entirely destitute of feet ; their presence in horses
constitutes the disease termed bots.

CLASS OF MYRIA'PODA.

19. The Myria'pods (from the Greek, murias^ ten thousand,
and pous, foot) breathe air by means of tracheae, like insects, but
differ very considerably from these animals, as well as from
arach'nidans, in their general conformation. They never possess
wings, and the body, which is very much elongated and divided
into a great many segments or rings, bears on each ring, at least
one pair of legs ; the number of these organs is twenty-four, or
even more, and there is no line of demarcation between the thorax
and abdomen. They bear some resemblance to serpents, or
rather to what worms would be if provided with legs, but their
internal organization is similar to that of insects.

Fig. 55. — SCOLOPEN'DRA.

20. The head is furnished with two antennae and two eyes
ordinarily formed by the union of ocelli. The mouth is formed
for mastication. The number of rings of the body varies. They
experience while young an imperfect metamorphosis, but these
changes are not similar to those we observe in insects properly

17. What are maggots?

18. What are the characters of gad-flies ?

19. What are the characters of the class Myria'poda ?

20. To what description of metamorphosis are myria'pods subject ?

60 CHARACTERS OF ARACHNIDANS.

so called, and consist merely in the formation of new rings and
a corresponding increase in the number of legs.

The centipedes (Scoloperi dra) belong to this class. Most of
them live on the ground under stones and delight in the dark
(Jig. 55).

LESSON V.

CLASS OF ARACH'NIDANS. — Organization — Habits — Classifica-
tion.

ARACH'NIDA PULMONARIA. — Aranei'dce or Spinners — Mygale
— Mason Spider — Ara' nea sedenta'rice — Ara'nea — Vaga-
buridte — Tareritula — Scorpions.

ARACH'NIDA TRACHEA'RIA. — Mowers — Aca 'rides — Mites — Itch
Arach'nidan — Ticks.

CLASS OF ARACH'NIDA.

1. The class of Arach'nidans (from the Greek, arachen, spider)
is composed of animals, which, in their general organization,
resemble spiders. Like crusta'ceans and insects, they are articu-
lated animals with white blood (which is sufficient to distinguish
them from anne'lidans) ; but they differ from crusta'ceans, in the
fact that their aereal respiratory organs communicate externally
by means of openings called stigmata or spiracles, and they
differ from insects in the number of their legs, which is eight, in
the absence of a head distinct from the thorax, and, in general,
by the existence of a circulatory apparatus composed of arteries,
veins, and a dorsal vessel which performs the functions of a
heart.

2. Most of these animals are of small size,, and the body is
divided into but two portions ; namely, a first part, consisting of
the head and thorax confounded in one piece (fig. 56) ; and a
second, consisting of the abdomen.

3. The anterior portion or cephalo-thorax never bears antennre
as in other articulated animals ; in this part we observe, in front
and below, the mouth, which is furnished with mandibles ; the
jaw, almost always bearing palpi, and a lower lip; and pos-
teriorly, the legs, which in the adult number four pairs. Arach'-
nidans never have wings, and their abdomen, which is gene-

1 . What are the characters of arachnidans ?

2. How is the body divided ?

3. What parts are borne by the cephalo-thorax ?

CHARACTERS OF ARACHNIDANS. 61

rally globular, soft, and attached to the thorax by a sort of
peduncle, never affords origin to legs.

4. The skin never possesses the hardness remarked in that of
crusta'ceans ; generally it is rather coria'ceous than horny ; some-
times it has considerable consistence, and, in all cases, it forms a
kind of external skeleton, to which the muscles designed to pro-
duce motion are attached.

5. Most arach'nidans are terrestrial animals, and accordingly,
their legs are formed for walking or leaping. These organs are
often very long, and are ordinarily terminated by two hooks.
Of the senses of hearing and smell in these animals very little is
known ; on the upper and anterior part of the body, which repre-
sents the head, we find in almost all a certain number, commonly
eight, shining points, which are the eyes. They are called simple
eyes, to distinguish them from the compound or net-like eyes of
insects ; each one consists of a little, transparent cornea, which
is convex and without any trace of division ; beneath it we find
a small vitreous body, a layer of colouring matter, and the ter-
mination of the optic nerve.

6. The nervous system of arach'nidans (Jig> 56) is composed,
1st, of a pair of ganglia situated in the head in front of the
oesophagus ; 2d, two nervous cords which pass from this species
of brain into the thorax, forming a collar around the oesophagus ;
3d, a nervous mass situated in the thorax, beneath the digestive
tube, composed of a certain number of ganglia which are com-
monly agglomerated; 4th, of one or more abdominal ganglia;
and 5th, of nerves which pass from these different ganglia to all
parts of the body.

7. Most arach'nidans are carnivorous. Some have their mouth
armed with cutting or sharp jaws, and feed on insects which they
seize alive ; some fix themselves on other animals and live by
sucking their blood ; these parasites have a mouth formed like a
sucker. We distinguish in the apparatus of manducation of the
first: 1st, a pair of mandibles, which are generally armed with
a 'movable claw; 2d, two jaws bearing articulated palpi; 3d, a
small lip without palpi. The digestive canal extends to the
extremity of the abdomen ; close to the mouth we find salivary
organs which open into the first joint of the mandibles, and
appear to secrete a venomous liquid. And biliary tubes, which
form a substitute for a liver, are attached to the digestive tube
further back.

4. What is the character of the skin of arach'nidans ?

5. What is the character of the eyes of arach'nidans ?

6. How is the nervous system constituted .'

7. What is the character of the mouth in arach'nidans ?

6

62

ORGANIZATION OF ARACHNIDANS.

8. Most arach'nidans have a complete circulation. In these
animals the heart is placed in the abdomen, and in several species
of aranei'dse (from the Latin, ara'nea, a spider) its pulsations can
be distinguished through the teguments. It is a large longitudinal
vessel, which gives rise to the arteries and receives the veins
through which the blood returns from the respiratory organs to
be again distributed to different parts of the body.

9. In this class of animals the
organs of respiration differ exceed-
ingly ; in some they consist of pul-
monary sacs, and in others, of
tra'cheee.

10. The pulmonary sacs (br,fig.
56) are small cavities, the parietes
of which are formed by the union
of a great number of extremely
thin, white, minute triangular plates.
The number of these respiratory
pouches is generally two ; but some-
times there are four or even eight.
The apertures through which each
one communicates externally, called
stigmata or spiracles (s), are in form
of minute transverse slits, situate
at the inferior part of the abdomen.

11. The tra'cliece are tubes that
issue from or rather are continuous
with apertures similar to those just
mentioned, and are ramified through
the substance of all the organs, so
as to convey air to all parts of the

body. This arrangement is represented in Jig. 13 (page 25),
which shows the arrangement in an insect.

Explanation of Fig. 56. — Anatomy of Arach'nidans. — A mygale seen
from below. 71, the ce'phalo-thorax ; — A, the abdomen ; — m, the mandibles ;
— pa, the palpi of the jaws ;— p 1, p 2, p 3, p 4, bases of the legs ;— gc, the
cephalic ganglion or brain, behind which we see the nervous collar which
surrounds the oesophagus ; — gt, the nervous mass formed by the union of
the thoracic ganglia ; — n, nerves of the legs ; — ga, abdominal ganglion ; — s,
stigmata or spiracles ; — fer, one of the pulmonary sacs opened to show the
inamKi-anruia Inminno whir>Vi Imp it. int.p.rnnllv : — o. the ovarv : — an. the anus :

an f
Fig. 56. — ARACH'MDAN.

membranous laminae which line it internally ;
— /, the spinnerets.

-o, the ovary ; — an, the anus ;

8. What kind of circulation have arach'nidans ?

9. Is the character of the respiration the same in all arach'nidans?

10. What are pulmonary sacs ? What are stigmata ?

11. What are tra'cheee? (pronounced, tra'-ke-ay.)

ARACHNIDA PULMONARIA SPINNERS. 63

12. Those arach'nidans that breathe by these tubes have no
circulatory apparatus, while those that breathe by lungs are
always provided with one.

13. After leaving the egg, these animals do not, like insects,
•indergo metamorphosis, although at this period they often have
but six legs, the fourth pair not being developed until after the
little creature has changed its skin ; like the crusta'ceans, the
arach'nidans frequently cast the skin or moult.

14. The class of arach'nidans is divided into two orders, which
may be distinguished by the following characters : —

1st. The ARACH'NIUA PULMONA'RIA have eight simple eyes,
and pulmonary sacs for respiration.

2d. The ARACH'NIDA TRACHEA'RIA have at most four simple
eyes, and trach'ess for respiration.

ORDER OF ARACH'NIDA PULMONA'RIA.

15. The division of pulmonary arachnidans includes all the
common araneidaB. The circulatory apparatus is well developed,
and they have from six to eight eyes, while the next order has
but four or even only two. The number of stigmata is two, four,
or eight.

16. This group is divided into two families : the Aranei'dce or
spinners, and the Pedipalpi.

17. The ARANEI'U^E or spinners have but one or two pairs of
pulmonary cavities, which may be distinguished by as many
whitish or yellowish spots near the lower part of the abdomen ;
their palpi are in form of little feet without pincers at their
extremity (fig. 56, p).

18. One of the most curious phenomena in the history of these
animals is their mode of spinning silk, and with this delicate
material making webs which are as remarkable for their extent
as for the regularity with which they are woven. This silk is a
matter secreted by a peculiar apparatus situated in the abdomen
of the spider; it escapes externally by a certain number of spin-
nerets or small holes placed at the summits of several little nip-
ples near the anus (/, f-g. 56). The threads of silk at the
moment of escaping are glutinous, and to be employed by the
animal, require to be dried, but when the temperature is favour-

12. Are trach'eoe in arachnidans accompanied by a circulatory apparatus ?

13. Do arach'nidans experience metamorphosis ?

14. How is the class of arach'nidans divided ?

15. What are the characters of the pulmonary arach'nidans?

16. How are the pulmonary arach'nidans divided?

17. How are the aranei'dae distinguished ?

18. What is spiders' web ? How is it formed ? To what purposes is it
applied ?

HABITS OF SPIDERS.

able, an instant is sufficient for this purpose. The sedentary
Aranei'daB (those which do not go in pursuit of their prey) weave
with these threads various structures which they use as snares to
entrap the insects necessary for their nourishment; sometimes
these webs are so strong as to arrest small birds, but generally
they are very delicate. After constructing it, the animal places
himself in its centre or at the bottom of its web, sometimes in a
particular habitation situated near one of its angles ; as soon as
an insect is caught in the snare, he rapidly approaches his prey,
and makes every effort to pierce it with a kind of venomous dart
with which the mandibles are furnished, and distils into the wound
a poison which acts very promptly ; when the insect offers too
strong resistance, or. when it would be dangerous for the spider
to contend with it, he retires for a moment to wait till its powers
are exhausted, or until it is more entangled ; or if there is nothing
to fear, he hastens to bind it by throwing threads of silk around
its body, which sometimes envelope it entirely, forming a cover-
ing so thick as to remove it from sight.

19. The female Aranei'da3 also employ their silk in construct-
ing bags or cocoons to contain their eggs.

20. Those white and silky flocculi,
which are seen floating on the air, in
foggy weather, in the spring and au-
tumn, are composed of silk of this kind
produced by various young Aranei'da3 ;
they are principally the strong threads
which serve to attach the corners of
the web, or those which compose the
chain, and, having become heavier by
the action of the moisture, sink, ap-
proach each other, and finally form
little pellets.

21. Most Arach'nidans of this divi-
sion are more or less venomous ; the
bite of some large species in hot coun-
tries is sometimes fatal to man ; and in
our climate, a spider of moderate size
will kill a fly in a few minutes by in-
flicting a single wound.

22. The MYGALES (/#. 57), which

Explanation of Fig. 57. — The mygalc or mason spider ; — a, the cephalo-
thorax ; — ft, the abdomen ; — p, the palpi.

19. How do the female aranei'dae take care of their eg-g-s ?

20. What are those white flocculi sometimes seen in foggy weather ?

21. Are spiders venomous?

22. What are the characters of Mygales ? What are the habits of Mason
Spiders ?

Fig. 57. — MYGALE.

MASON SPIDERS. 65

form one of the principal subdivisions of this family, have four
pulmonary sacs. Some of them are of large size, and are known,
in South America, among the French, under the name of crab-
spiders ; there is one, which, with the legs extended, covers a
circular space of seven inches in diameter. They live on trees
or among rocks. Other Mygales, much smaller, however, in-
habit the South of France, and dig subterranean galleries in form
of tubes, in dry and mountainous situations, the apertures to
which are furnished with movable doors.

" The mason spiders (Mygale ccementaria} excavate for themselves sub-
terranean caverns, in which these marauders lurk, secure from detection,
even by the most watchful foe : nor could any robber's den, which ever
existed in the wild regions of romance, boast more sure concealment from
pursuit, or immunity from observation. The construction of these singular
abodes has long excited the admiration of the naturalist: a deep pit is first
dug by the spider, often to the depth of one or two feet, which, being care-
fully lined throughout with silken tapestry, affords a warm and ample
lodging ; the entrance to this excavation is carefully guarded by a lid or
door, which moves upon a hinge, and accurately closes the mouth of the
pit. In order to form the door in question, the Mygale first spins a web
which exactly covers the mouth of the hole, but which is attached to the
margin of the aperture by one point only of its circumference, this point
of course forming the hinge. The spider then proceeds to lay upon the
web a thin layer of soil collected in the neighbourhood of her dwelling,
which slve fastens with another layer of silk ; layer after layer is thus laid
on, until at length the door acquires sufficient strength and thickness :
when perfected, the concealment afforded is complete ; for, as the outer
layer of the lid is formed of earth precisely similar to that which surrounds
the hole, the strictest search will scarcely reveal to the most practised eye
the retreat so singularly defended." — T. Rym.tr Jones,

The other Aranei'dee never have more than two pulmonary
sacs: a large number is known; they are subdivided into many
tribes, which, in turn, are composed of many genera.

23. The Ara'nece sedenta'ricey or sedentary spiders, form one
of these divisions. They are remarkable for their habit of
remaining in their webs, and keeping in their snares or close by
them, to surprise their prey, instead of going abroad in pursuit
of food.

24. To this tribe belong the spiders, properly so colled (Ara'nea,
or Tegena'ria}, which live in the interior of our hcnses, in hedges,
along the road-sides, &c., and weave a large, nearly horizontal
web, at the upper part of which is a tube where they keep them-
selves perfectly at rest.

25. Other Aranei'dse are wandering, and constitute the tribe of
Vagaburi da. They make no web, but watch for their prey ana

23. How are sedentary spiders distinguished ?

24. What are spiders, properly so called ?

25. What is the taren'tula ?

6*

PEDIPALPL— SCORPIONS.

pounce upon it or seize it in its flight. A species of this group,
the tareri'tula (Lycosa) is very celebrated ; it derives its name
from being found near Tarentum, a city of Italy : it is common
in all the warm parts of Europe, and in the opinion of the people,
its poison produces death or serious consequences, which can
only be dissipated by having recourse to music and dancing.
But it is now known that the poison of this animal is not really
dangerous to any thing but the insects upon which it feeds.

26. In the FAMILY OF PEDIPALPI, there are four or eight pul-
monary sacs, and the
palpi are very large
and terminated by pin-
cers or claws, called
cheli'cerce (c). They
have no spinnerets.

27. The SCOBPIONS
—Scorpio (fig. 58)—
belong to this family.
They may be at once
Fig. 58.— SCORPION. recognised by the ab-

domen, which is in

form of a knotted tail, terminating in an arcuated, excessively
acute point or sting. They inhabit the hot countries of both
hemispheres, live on the ground, conceal themselves under stones
and other bodies, most commonly in ruins, dark and cool places,
and even in houses. They run with considerable swiftness,
curving their tail over the back. They can turn it in every direc-
tion, and can use it in attack and defence. With their pincers
they seize various insects, on which they feed, pierce them with
their sting by directing it forwards, and then pass their prey
through the cheli'cerse and jaws. The wound produced by the
sting of some species is followed by serious and alarming symp-
toms. The remedy employed is the volatile alkali, used both
internally and externally.

ORDER OF ARACH'NIDA TRACHEA'RIA.

28. The Arach'nidans of this order are not provided with pul-
monary sacs, but breathe by means of trach'eoe. The air pene-
trates into these canals through two very small stigmata, situated
at the lower part of the abdomen. They all seem to be without
a circulatory apparatus ; some of them have no eyes, and those
that possess them, never have more than two or four.

26. How is the family of Pedipalpi characterized?

27. How are scorpions recognised ? What are their habits ?

28. How are the tracheal Arach'nidans characterized ?

MOWERS.— MITES.

67

Fig. 59. PHALANGIUM.

29. In this order are
placed mites, the mow-
ers (p/talan'giu?n), &c. ,
so remarkable for the
length of their legs (Jig.
59). Their mandibles
are shorter than the
body, and their eyes are
borne on a common
peduncle. They are

very active ; some live on the ground, and others on trees.

30. The tribe of ACA'RIDES or mites is composed entirely of
very small or microscopic Arach'nidans. Their habits vary very
much. Some live on the ground under

stones, or on plants ; others are aquatic ;
some are only found in organic substances,
which are more or less changed, as old
cheese, &c. ; and there are some that live in
the skin or flesh of different animals. A
species of mite, the Icplus autumnalis, very
common in autumn on wheat and other
plants, insinuates itself under the skin and
occasions an almost insupportable itching.
To one genus of mites, called Sarcop'tes
(from the Greek, sarx, in the genitive, sarkos,
flesh, and koptein, to cut), is due that loath-
some disease the itch. This a'carus is repre-
sented (fig. 60) magnified. Other parasitic
arach'nidans attach themselves to dogs, oxen, &c., and are known
under the name of ticks, &c.

Fig. 60. — A'CARUS.

29. What are mowers ?

30. What are Aca'rides ?

What is the cause of itch ? What are ticks ?

CRUSTACEANS.

LESSON VI.

CLASS OF CRUSTA'CEA. — Organization — Moulting — Circula-
tion— Respiration — Division.

CLASS OF CRUSTA'CEA.

1. The class of CRUSTA'CEA (from the Latin, crusta, a hard
covering) comprises all articulated animals, that have articulated
legs, and are provided with a heart, and branchiae for breathing
water. Crabs and cray-fish are types of this group ; but we
place also in it a great number of animals whose structure is
much more complicated, and whose external form is very dif-
ferent; for, in proportion as we descend in the natural series
formed by these creatures, we observe the same general plan
becomes modified, and more and more simplified. The body in
most of them is covered by a sort of crust of almost stony hard-
ness.

2. Crusta'ceans differ greatly from anne'lidans, but resemble
insects and arach'nidans by having white blood, and articulated
legs ; and are distinguished from the two last classes, by their
branchial respiration, by the number of their legs, and by several
other characters.

3. The body of crusta'ceans is composed of a succession of
rings more or less distinct. Sometimes these segments move
freely on each other, and at others they are so solidly joined that
the rings are merely indicated by ridges. Frequently the head
and thorax form but one piece, which is separated from the abdo-
men. In the lobster, for instance, the head and thorax are con-
founded in one mass, and the abdomen is composed of seven
distinct and movable rings (Jig. 61, b). It is the same in crabs,
except that the abdomen is smaller, and folded underneath ; but
in the wood-louse, the head is distinct from the thorax, which is
itself divided into seven movable rings. The legs, which are
composed of several articulations, are inserted into the thorax :
their number is ordinarily five or seven pairs ; lobsters and crabs

1. What description of animals constitute the class of Crusta'cea ?

2. How are Crusta'ceans distinguished from Anne'lidans, insects and
Arach'nidans ?

3. How are Crusta'ceans characterized?

LOBSTERS.

-d

have five, but the wood-
louse has seven pairs of
legs. The head is pro-
vided in front with two
pairs of appendages,
called antennse (£->f,fig.
61), and is also furnish-
ed with several pairs of
jaws, and the abdomen
bears other appendages
in form of fins. An
examination of the
figure (61), which re-
presents a lobster, will
enable us better to un-
derstand the various
parts of crusta'ceans: —
a, the carapace, or com-
mon integument of the
head and thorax ; — 6,
the abdomen, composed
of seven rings ; — c, the
caudal fin ; — d, the
eyes; — e, the internal
antennse ; — f, the ex-
ternal antennas ; — g, the
palpi, which are articu-
lated filaments attached
to the jaws or to the
lower lip, and appear
to be employed by the
animal in recognising
its food; — 7i, the first
pair of legs, called

chelcB (from the Greek, chele, pincers) ; — ^, the second pair of
legs, also terminated by pincers; — j, the third pair of legs, ter-
minated by pincers, and termed foot-jaws ; — k, the fourth pair;
— I, the fifth pair of legs.

4. The external skeleton of crusta'ceans is formed of an ex-
tremely hard epidermis : at certain periods it is detached and falls
off. The necessity for such changes or moulting in animals,
whose body is enclosed in a hard sheath, is very plain ; for inas-
much as this sheath does not grow or enlarge, like the internal
parts, it would oppose an insurmountable obstacle to their develop-

—ft

r. 61. — LOBSTER.

4. What kind of skeleton do Crusta'ceans
preserve the same covering ?

possess? Do they always

70 MOULTING OF CRUSTACEANS.

ment, if it did not fall off when it had become too small to con-
veniently accommodate them : therefore, crusta'ceans change their
skin as long as they continue to grow, and it appears that most
of these animals grow during their whole lives. The manner of
getting rid of the old envelope is very curious. Generally they
succeed without producing any deformity, and when they leave
it, the surface of the whole body is already provided with a new
sheath ; but it is still soft, and becomes hard at the expiration of
some days. Crabs which have recently cast their old shell or
skin, and while the new skin remains soft, are considered a great
delicacy.

" We are ind< bted to Reaumur, who watched the process in the cray-fish
(Astacusfluviatilis}, for what little is known concerning the mode in which
the change of shell (in crustaceans) is effected. In the animal above men-
tioned, towards the commencement of autumn, the approaching moult is
indicated by the retirement of the cray-fish into some secluded position,
where it remains for some time without eating. While in this condition,
the old shell becomes gradually detached from the surface of the body, and
a new and soft cuticle is formed underneath it, accurately representing of
course all the parts of the old covering which is to be removed ; as yet, but
little calcareous matter is deposited in the newly formed integument. The
creature now becomes violently agitated, and by various contortions of its
body seems to be employed in loosening thoroughly every part of its worn-
out covering, from all connection with the recently secreted investment.
This being accomplished, it remains to extricate itself from its imprison-
ment; an operation of some difficulty ; and, when the nature of the armour
to be removed is considered, we may well conceive that not a little exertion
will be required before its completion. As soon as the old case of the
cephalo-thorax has become quite detached from the cutis by the interposi-
tion of the newly formed epidermic layer, it is thrown off after great and
violent exertion ; the legs are then withdrawn from their cases after much
struggling ; and, to complete the process, the tail is ultimately by long con-
tinued efforts extricated from its calcareous covering, and the entire coat of
mail which previously defended the body is discarded and left upon the
sand. The phenomena which attend this renovation of the external skeleton
are so unimaginable, that it is really extraordinary how little is accurately
known concerning the nature of the operation. The first question which
presents itself, is, how are the limbs liberated from their confinement? for,
wonderful as it may appear, the joints even of the massive chelae, of the
lobster do not separate from each other ; but, notwithstanding the great size
of some of the segments of the claw, and the slender dimensions of the
joints that connect the different pieces, the cast-off skeleton of the limb
presents exactly the same appearance as if it still encased the living mem-
ber. The only way of explaining the circumstance, is to suppose that the
individual pieces of the skeleton, as well as the soft articulations connect-
ing them, split in a longitudinal direction, and that, after the abstraction of
the limb, the fissured parts close again with so much accuracy that even
the traces of the division are imperceptible." — T. Rymcr Jones.

It is said that a lobster will throw off its claws it' alarmed by the report
of a cannon. This singular power of breaking off their own limbs, pos-
sessed by many crustaceans, is a very indispensable provision in their
economy. Should the claw of a lobster, for example, be damaged by acci-
dents to which creatures encased in such brittle armour must be perpetually

ORGANIZATION OF 'CRUSTACEANS. 71

exposed, the animal might bleed to death, if it did not at once break off the
injured member at a particular point; namely, at a point in the second piece
from the body ; and by this operation, which seems to produce no pain, the
bleeding is effectually staunched. After this extraordinary amputation has
been effected, another leg begins to sprout from the stump, which soon
grows to be an efficient substitute for the lost extremity, and gradually,
though slowly, acquires the pristine form and dimensions of its predecessor.
The process of reproduction is as follows: — the broken extremity of the
second joint skins over, arid presents a smooth vascular membrane, at first
flat, but soon becoming conical as the limb begins to grow. As the growth
advances, the shape of the now member becomes apparent, and constrictions
appear, indicating the position of the articulation ; but the whole remains
unprotected by any hard covering, until the next change of the shell, after
which it appears in a proper case, being, however, still considerably smaller
than the corresponding claw on the opoosite side of the body, although
equally perfect in all its parts.

5. The nervous system of crusta'ceans is considerably develop-
ed : the ganglia of the head and thorax are large, and the latter
are sometimes united in a single mass. Most of these animals
have eyes of a very complicated structure. In general each one
of these organs is composed of an assemblage of a multitude of
little eyes, and the cornea covering each presents a considerable
number of square or hexagonal facets corresponding with it.
Sometimes these compound eyes are very slightly projecting,
sometimes, on the contrary, they are placed at^ the end of two
movable stems which are fixed on the front part of the head ; by
means of these peduncles or stems they can be directed forwards
or thrown backwards, in a kind of orbit (as in crabs, Jig. 63).
In most crusta'ceans too, we observe an organ of hearing, which
consists of a small tubercle, situated between the mouth and the
base of the external antennae, enclosing a small vesicle filled with
water, and the termination of the acoustic nerve. From the
stony nature of the skin, their sense of touch must be very
obtuse.

6. The legs of crusta'ceans do not serve them for walking or
swimming only; in general, the first pair terminate in a sort of
pincers (called chela], by aid of which the animal seizes its prey
(fig. 61).

7. Most of these animals are carnivorous ; some are parasites,
and live on other animals, whose blood they suck by means of a
kind of trunk ; but most of them feed on solid food, and have
mouths armed with strong jaws, often numbering six pairs. The
stomach is situated immediately under the mouth in the .interior
part of the body (Jig. 62, e) ; it is large, and its parietes are

5. What, is the character of the eyes in crusta'ceans ? Have they an
organ of hearing ?

6. What is meant by chela ?

7. Upon what do crusta'ceans feed ?

72

ANATOMY OF CRUSTACEANS.

a a

an

qbr p p p br

Fig. 62. ANATOMY OF CRUSTACEANS — LOBSTER.

commonly supported by solid plates, and internally furnished
with very hard teeth. The intestine is narrow, and on each side
<}f this tube we see the liver (/), which is generally very volu-
minous ; but sometimes we find simple biliary vessels substituted
for it.

8. The heart of crusta'ceans (c) is situated near the back, about
the middle of the thorax ; it is generally of considerable size,
and consists of one ventricle only, which forces the blood through
the arteries. After having furnished nutritious material to the
various organs, this liquid goes to the venous sinus placed "along
the base of the legs, thence to the respiratory organs (br), and
then returns to the heart. The heart of crusta'ceans is aortic,
and the circulation is carried on nearly in the same manner as in
mollusks.

9. The respiration of crusta'ceans is almost always aquatic,
and is effected by means of branchiae (br). These organs vary
both in form and situation; but they are generally attached near
the base of the legs.

10. All crusta'ceans are ovi'parous; after laying her eggs, the

Explanation of Fig. 62. — Anatomy of Crusta'ceans. — A lobster seen in
profile, the greater part of the integuments being removed ; — c, the heart;
— a, o, the abdominal artery ; — as, the sternal artery ; — a, artery of the
antennse ; — e, the stomach ; — m, muscles of the stomach ; — /, the liver; —
br, branchiae ; — p, buse or point of insertion of the legs ; — ca, part .of the
carapace ; — b, the mouth ; — r, the respiratory canal destined to give passage
to water for the purpose of respiration ; — y, the eyes ; — an, the superior
antennae; — ant, base of the inferior or second pair of antennae ; — q, the
caudal fin, the principal organ of progression.

8. What is the character of the circulation ?

9. How do crusta'ceans breathe ?

10. How are the young of crusta'ceans produced ?

CRUSTACEANS.— DEC APOD A. 73

female carries them for a time suspended under the abdomen,
or even enclosed in a kind of pouch formed of appendages of the
legs ; sometimes the young are born in this pouch, and remain in
it until after they have undergone the first moult.

11. The CLASS OF CRUSTA'CEA is divided into three natural
groups or divisions, according to the conformation of the mouth ;
namely,

1st. The Trite! res or Grinders, haviag the mouth furnished with
jaws and mandibles proper for mastication.

2d. The Sucto'ria or Suckers, having a mouth provided with a
tubular beak armed with suckers.

3d. The Xi'phosura (from the Greek, xiplws, a sword, and
oura, tail), in which the mouth is destitute of the appendages pro-
perly belonging to it, but is surrounded by legs, the bases of
which constitute the jaws.

12. The group of TRITO'RES or Grinders is divided into nine
orders, and comprises most of the crusta'ceans. The principal
orders are named Decapoda, Isdpoda, Am'phipoda, &c.

LESSON VII.

CRUSTA'CEANS. ORDER OF DECAPODA — its Division.

BRA'CHYU'RA. — Crabs — Land-crabs — Habits.

ANOMOU'RA. — Soldier or Hermit-crabs.

MACROU'RA. — Craw-fishes — Lobsters — Locuske — Prawns.

ORDERS OF AM'PHIPODA and ISO'PODA. — Sea-louse — Wood-louse

— King-crab — Entomo 'stracans — Trilobites.
CLASS OF CIRR'HOPODA. — Ana'tifa — J3ala'nus.

I. The order of DECAPODA (from the Greek, deca, ten, and
pouSj foot) is so called, because the animals comprised in it have
ten legs. These crusta'ceans (fig. 63) have the head and thorax
confounded in one piece, and concealed under a kind of shield,
called carapace (fig. 61, a). The eyes are borne on movable
peduncles, and the branchiae are situate on each side of the thorax,
enclosed in particular cavities beneath the lateral parts of the
carapace (Jig. 62, br). The mouth is armed with six pairs of
jaws ; the first pair are named mandibles ; the two next are jaws,
properly so called ; and the three last are termed foot jaws. In

II. How is the class of Crusta'cea divided ?
12. How is the group, of Trito'res divided ?

1. What are the characters of decapods?

7

74

CRABS,

some, the abdomen is very short, and folded beneath the thorax
(fg> 63) ; while in others, this part of the body extends back-
wards, is of considerable size, and is a powerful organ of loco-
motion (Jig. 61, page 69).

2. This order is divided into the Macrou'ra (from the Greek,
makros, long, and oura, tail) or swimming decapods, which have
a long abdomen terminated by a fin spread out like a fan (Jig.
61, c) ; the Bra'chyu'ra (from the Greek, brachus, short, and
oura, tail) or short-tailed species, of which the crab is a familiar
specimen ; and the Anomou'ra (from the Greek, an&mos, name-
less, irregular, and oura, tail), which inhabit the empty shells of
mollusks.

3. The section of BRA'CHYU'RA consists of crusta'ceans, known
under the common name of crabs ; they are formed for running,
rather than swimming. This section is divided into four families,
each of which is composed of several tribes, subdivided in turn
into a jrreat many genera ; they are esteemed as food. Most of
ihem inhabit the sea. They run quickly along the shore ; their

legs are placed in

bed e such w*se that they

most easily move
sideways, although
they can advance ia
any direction. The
first pair of legs are
pincers or claws, and
do not assist in loco-
motion.

4. Among the
common species, on
the French coast,
is one, sometimes
known as the mad
crab, Cancer mcBnas,
from its manner of
running ; it is of
moderate size, and
the carapace is

Fig. 63.— CRAB.

Explanation of Fig. 63.— A crab (Cancer -pagurus} ;— a, the carapace; —
fe, the eyes ; — c, the external antennae ; — d, the internal antennae ; — c, the
chelae or pincers ;— /, second pair of legs ;— g, the abdomen, folded beneath
the thorax.

2. How is the order of Decapoda divided ?

3. What crusta'ceans are comprised in the section Bra'chyu'ra ? How
are crabs characterized?.

4. How does the mad crab obtain its name 1

LAND-CRABS. 75

greenish, which becomes red by boiling, as is the case with most
crusta'ceans. Among the crabs, properly so called, is the Cancer
pagurm (Jig, 63), which is among the largest species; the cara-
pace is .somewhat oval, ten to twelve inches wide, of a reddish-
brown colour, and festooned on the edges; its flesh is much
esteemed. A group, named Portunus (from the Latin, portus,
a haven or hay), is distinguished by the lamellar form of the last
joint of the posterior legs" ; these crabs are essentially swimmers.

5. Land-crabs — Gecarci'nm (Jig. 64) — inhabit the West
Indies and other warm countries. These crabs, instead of living
in the sea, as most crusta'ceans do, are essentially terrestrial, and
they sometimes live at

a considerable distance
from the shore. They,
nevertheless, avoid ex-
tremely dry situations,
and are ordinarily found
in marshy districts. —
They all dig deep holes.
They are commonly
seen at night, or just
after abundant rains, , Fig. 64.— LAND-CRAB.

when they sally forth in

crowds from their subterranean habitations in pursuit of food ,
some species live principally on vegetables ; but others seek ani-
mal food with avidity; great numbers are found in cemeteries;
and, it is said that, in the West Indies, they have been known to
enter dissecting-rooms to feast on the dead.

6. One of the most curious points in the history of these ani-
mals is that they make an annual journey to the sea-shore. In
the rainy season they abandon their holes ; they assemble in
almost numberless troops, and, guided by an instinct which is
incomprehensible to us. take a direct line towards the sea, although
they are often very distant from it. They travel chiefly at night,
and nothing but large rivers arrests or turns them from their
route ; they march over houses, scale rocks, and often destroy
whole plantations, cutting and destroying the young plants as
they pass along. Having reached the sea, these armies of crabs
plunge in and bathe several times, and then retire to the plains or
neighbouring woods. Sometime afterwards the females go again
to the sea and there deposit their eggs ; then they take up their
march and return to their ordinary abode; but at this time they
are so thin and feeble, they can scarcely drag themselves along.

5. What are the characters of land-crabs?

6. What are tiie habits of land-crabs ?

76 SOLDIER-CRABS.

We find in Italy, Greece, and Egypt, another species of land-
crab, which lives along the margins of rivulets, known to natura-
lists under the name of Thdphu'sa flaviati'lis.

7. The decapods of the section of ANOMOU'RA differ from each
other widely in their organization. Although the abdomen or
tail is not reduced to the rudimentary condition, as in the
Bra'chyu'ra, it does not afford them great assistance in swimming.
As their name imports, the Anomou'ra have tails of very unusual
conformation ; instead of being encased in a hard coat of mail,
as in the lobster, the hinder part of the body is soft and leathery.
This section includes many genera.

8. The Soldier -crabs or Hermit-crabs (Pagurus) are remark-
able for their habits. They frequent sandy and level shores.
They always take possession of empty turbinated shells of some
gasteropod mollusk, in which they establish themselves, and we
may readily conceive of the reason of this habit : the abdomen,
instead of being hard and crusta'ceous, as in other animals of the
same class, is always soft and membranous ; therefore, to defend
it from the attacks of their enemies and to preserve it from
numerous accidents to which its softness exposes them, they need
a kind of armour, which they find in the shells in which they
lodge. When they have increased in size and find the dimen-
sions of their dwelling too narrow, they take possession of a
more voluminous shell ; but, except for this purpose only, they
never go out of the shell entirely, but always carry about with
them their domicil, and on the approach of the smallest danger
retire into it. It is said, that if we remove from their shells a
number of these soldier-crabs, or pirates, as they are sometimes
called, and leave the party only one or two of the same shells,
they will fiercely dispute possession.

"The wonderful adaptation of all the limbs to a residence in
such a dwelling cannot fail to strike the most incurious observer.
The chelce, or large claws, differ remarkably in size; so that,
when the animal retires into its concealment, the smaller one
may be entirely withdrawn, while the larger closes and guards
the orifice. The two succeeding pairs of legs, unlike those of
the lobster, are of great size and strength ; and, instead of being
terminated by pincers, end in strong pointed levers, whereby the
animal can not only crawl, but drag after it its heavy habitation."

9. The decapods of the section of MACROU'RA are recognised
at first sight by the great development of their abdomen, which
always terminates in a large fin (fig. 61, e), composed of five

7. How is the section Anomou'ra distinguished ?

8. What are hermit-crabs ?

9. How is the section Macrou'ra distinguished ?

CRAY-FISHES.— LOBSTER, &c. 77

plates arranged like a fan. They are essentially^wimmers, and
never land ; they never walk except at the bottom, under water ;
they swim almost constantly, and by striking the water with their
powerful tail, dart forward with great rapidity. The body is
elongated, and almost always laterally compressed; they have
very long antennae, and false natatory legs beneath the abdomen.
This section of decapods is divided into four families : Cray or
craw-fish, Lobsters, Locustse, and Prawns,

10. Cray-fishes are distinguished from most other decapods by
the conformation of their legs; those of the first pair terminate
in very large chela? or pincers ; and those of the two succeeding
pairs, although slender, also terminate in pincers. The carapace
is a little elongated, and is not armed with spines, and its anterior
extremity is always extended so as to form a kind of beak or
projecting rostrum (Jig. 65, r). These crusta'ceans are aquatic ;
some live in fresh water, and others inhabit the sea.

11. The fresh-water cray-fisli ( Astacus fluv iatilis) is found in
the fresh waters of most countries of Europe, and ordinarily
keeps under stones. It feeds on mollusks, fishes, putrid flesh,
&c. It is said to live more than twenty years ; those found in
running waters are most esteemed.

12. The sea cray-Jish or lobster — Astacus marinus (fg. 61) —
is much larger than the fresh-water or river cray-fish ; like the
locustas, it frequents fissures among rocks. The American species
is somewhat different from that of Europe. Lobsters are caught
in traps, made of slats or osiers, baited, and then sunk by means
of a weight ; a buoy and cord are attached to draw up the trap
for examination, at the proper time.

13. The locustse (Palinu'rus} are the largest of all the deca-
pods of this section. Their carapace is studded with a great
number of spines, and terminated by two thick points curved
forwards; the abdomen is very large; their legs are all termi-
nated by a single toe; those of the first pair are strongest, but
shorter than those of the second pair. These crusta'ceans inhabit
almost every sea, and are sought as food. The Palinu'rus 'quad-
ricornis is sometimes half a yard in length, and when loaded
with ova weighs from twelve to fourteen pounds.

14. Prawns — Pal&rnon (Jig. 65) — -are small decapods, having
an elongated, laterally compressed body; the legs are slender,
and those of the two first pairs are terminated by little pincers ,

10. How are cray-fishes distinguished ?

11. Do all cray-fishes live in salt water?

12. What are lobsters?

13. What are locustae ?

14. What are prawns ?

7*

78

PRAWNS.— SEA-LICE.

r y

Fig. 65. — PAL^EMON or PRAWN.

the antennae are very long, and the beak or rostrum is serrated,
and very projecting. The flesh is very delicate and esteemed to
be superior to that of shrimps.

15. Those crusta'ceans which compose the orders of AM'PHI-
roDA (from the Greek, amphis, on both sides, and pous, foot) and
ISO'PODA (from the Greek, isos, equal, and pous, foot), do not,
like the decapods, bear their eyes on movable peduncles, nor do
they possess a carapace ; their head is
distinct, and the thorax is divided into
seven rings. The Am'phipods breathe
by vesicular appendages fixed under
the thorax, near the base of the legs ;
and the Is'opods, by means of mem-
branous lamellae, which terminate the
appendages attached to the abdomen.

16. Among the Am'phipods are the

Fig. 66,-TALiTRA. sea-lice— Talitra (jig. 66)— small ani-

mals which often remain on shore after

the fall of the tide, where they may be seen jumping with great
activity.

Explanation of Fig. 65. — The Prawn or Paloemon : — as, first pair of
antenna ; — ai, second or inferior pair of antennae ; — I, the lamellar append-
age covering its base; — r, the rostrum ; — y, the eyes; — pm, external foot-
jaws; — p, first thoracic leg; — pp, second thoracic leg; — fp, false natatory
legs of the abdomen ; — n, caudal fin.

15. How are the orders of Am'phipoda and Iso'poda characterized ?

16. What are sea-lice ?

KING-CRABS.

79

Fig. 67.

ONISCUS.

17. Most of the Iso'pods inhabit the sea, but there
are some that live on land. To this order belongs
tiie wood-louse — Oniscus {fig. 67) — which is com-
monly found in caves, beneath stones, and in other
damp, shaded situations.

18. The Sucto'ria — the crusta'ceans of this divi-
sion are parasites, and live on other animals ; they
have a m<Juth in form of a beak or cylindrical
trunk, enclosing styliform appendages, suitable for
piercing the integuments of those animals whose

fluids they suck. They are generally found attached to fishes

19. The division
of crusta'ceans named
XI'PHOSURA forms a
single genus, Limulus Pm
or king-crab. They
are large animals, hav-
ing a body divided into
two parts ; the first
part, which is covered
by a semicircular shield
or carapace, bears the
eyes, the antenna?, and
six pairs of legs which
surround the mouth
(fig. 68, 6), and at the
same time serve for pro-
gression and mastica-
tion, as well as for the
prehension of food ; the
second part of the body,
which is covered by an
almost triangular shield,
bears, underneath, five
pairs of natatory legs,
the posterior sides of
which are furnished

with branchice, and is terminated by a styliform tail. These
singular animals are found in the Indian Ocean, and on our own

Explanation of Fig. 67. — A king-crab viewed from below : — c, the cara
pace ;— q, the tail ; — b, the mouth ;— pm, legs which surround the mouth ;- •
pb, the legs bearing branchiae or gills.

17. What are wood-lice ?

18. What are suctorial crusta'ceans ?

19. What are king-crabs ? How are they characterized ?

Fig. 68. — KING-CRAB — LIMULUS.

80

TRILOBITES.— CIRRHOPODA.

coasts. On some parts of the coast of New Jersey they form
an article of food for swine.

20. The En'tomos'tracans (from the Greek, entomos, incised,
and ostrakan, a shell) are all extremely small, and most of them
have a single eye placed in the middle of the front part of the
animal. They abound in fresh waters.

21. To the class of Crusla'ceans also belong the Tri'lobites, a
tribe of extinct animals found only in the fossil state^ they would
bear some resemblance to a very large oniscus or sea-louse, if the
body of the latter were divided into three lobes by longitudinal
grooves. Three species of trilobiles are figured below (fig. 69).

Asaphus Caudatus.

Asaphus Buchii.
Fig. 69.

Colytnene Blumenbachii

CLASS OF CIRRHOPODA OR CIRRIPEDA.

"However distinct in outward appearance, and even in their
internal economy, the creatures composing the primary divisions
of animated nature may seem to be when superficially examined,
closer investigation invariably reveals to the zoologist gradations
of structure connecting most dissimilar types of organization,
and leading so insensibly from one to another, that the precise
boundary line is not always easily defined. The Cirrhopods or
Barnacles present a remarkable exemplification of this important
fact."

22. The class of Cirrhopoda (from the Greek, kirros,a cirrus
or curl, and pous, foot) is composed of animals, which, in many
respects, especially as to their shells, resemble mollusks, but are

20. What are en'tomos'tracans ?

21. What are tri'lobites ?

22. What are Cirrhopods ? How are they characterized ?

CIRRHOPOD.

81

more closely allied to
articulated animals.
In the early period
of their existence all
these creatures are
marine, and swim
readily, and resem-
ble, particularly in
their organization,
certain inferior crus-
ta'ceans ; but very
soon after birth, they
permanently attach
themselves to some
submarine body, and
entirely change their
form. In this man-
ner they are fixed by
the base. The body-
is more or less pyri-
form and doubled on
itself, and is enclosed
entirely, or in part,
in a kind of shell
composed of several
pieces. They have
no eyes, and the

Fig. 70. — CIKRHOPOD or CIRRIPED.

mouth is furnished
with mandibles and

jaws, closely resembling those of certain crusta'ceans ; the ab-
dominal face of the body is occupied by two rows of fleshy
lobes, each one bearing two long horny appendages (c), armed
with cilise, and composed of a multitude of little articulations,
corresponding in a manner to the fins or feet found under the tail
of several crusta'ceans. These arms or cirri, of which there are
twelve pairs, are doubled on themselves, and the animal is con-
stantly drawing them in and then protruding them through the
opening of its sheath. The nervous system consists of a double
series of ganglia, arranged like that of other articulated animals.

Explanation of Fig. 70. — A Pentalasmis or anatifa, represented with one-
half the shelly covering removed to show the body : — a, a, shell ; — 6, 6, the
body, which is soft, enclosing the principal viscera ; — £-, the mouth, seen
from the ventral aspect, the oral aperture appears to be raised on a promi-
nent tubercle ; — J, </, J, fleshy appendages which constitute the respiratory
or branchial organs ; — c, c, flexible arms, or cirri ;— /, muscle for protiuding-
the cirri through the slit of the mantle ; — /, the pedicle or base by which
the animal attaches itself to submarine bodies.

82

ANATIFA — BALANUS.

Fig. 71.

ANATIFA.

They have a heart, which is placed on the dorsal part of the
body, and they breathe by branchiae, the form of which varies.

23. The Cirrhopods are divided into two natural
families: the ANATIFJE, which are fixed by a
long cylindrical peduncle, and the BALANI, which
are without a similar peduncle.

24. The Anatifse, known in common parlance
as barnacles (Jigs. 70 and 71), are enclosed in
a sort of compressed mantle, open on one side,
and suspended from a fleshy tube ; sometimes
this mantle is almost entirely cartilaginous, and
is only furnished with two very small valves
(as in the genus Otion} ; at other times, as in
the genus ANATIFA, properly so called, it is
covered by five testaceous plates, the two largest
of which resemble those of a mussel. The
branchiae, which are in form of small pyramids,
are attached to the base of the cirri. The com-
mon Anatifa inhabits the Atlantic Ocean, and is

frequently found attached to rocks, the bottoms of ships, or pieces of

floating timber. It was the subject
of a most absurd fable ; from some
remote resemblance of its shell to a
bird, it was supposed to give origin
to a species of duck, and from this
it has obtained the name Anatifa
(from the Greek, anas, a duck).

25. The Balani — Balanus (fig.
72) — abound on rocks in warm
regions of the ocean, and are entire-
ly contained in a very short, conical
shell, attached firmly* by the base,
and composed of several pieces
joined together; the opening of this
tube is occupied by from two to four
movable valves, between which we
find a slit which gives passage to
the cirri. The branchise are in
form of membranous, foliated and
fringed plates ; they adhere to the

internal face of a sort of mantle which lines the shell.

23. How are Cirr'hopods divided ?

24. What are the characters of Ana'tifce ?

25. What are the characters of Bala'ni ?

ig. 72. — GIANT BALANUS.

STRUCTURE OF ANNELIDANS. 80

LESSON VIII.

CLASS OP ANNE'LIDA. — Organization — Division — Earth-
worms.

FAMILY OF SUCTO'RIA. — Leech.
ORDER OF DORSIBRANCHIA'TA. — Eunice.
ORDER OF TUBICOLA. — Sabella.

CLASS OF ANNELIDA.*

The lowest class of articulated animals comprehends an exten-
sive series of creatures generally grouped together under the com-
mon name of worms.

1. The class of anne'lidans is composed of red-blooded worms,
and is easily distinguished from the rest of the Branch of articu-
lated animals by the absence of articulated extremities.

2. The body of these animals is considerably elongated, and
generally slender (figs. 76 and 79) ; it is composed of a succes-
sion of numerous rings, the first of which, although it differs but
little from the others, may be called the head ; it contains the
mouth, which is sometimes armed with a formidable apparatus
of jaws. The skin has little consistence, and the rings formed
by it are never horny nor stony. Many anne'lidans are entirely
without legs, an example of which is seen in the leech (fig. 76) ;
and when these organs do exist, they are never formed of solid
pieces, articulated end to end, as in insects, crusta'ceans, and
arach'nidans ; they are merely fleshy tubercles, armed with stiff*
setae or movable bristles, and are arranged in pairs on each side
of the body, and are commonly found on each ring. The figure
(73) on the next page, represents a transverse section of an anne'li-
dan, and conveys an idea of the character of the extremities of
these animals; — d, is the dorsal arch of the ring; — v, the ventral
arch ; — rv, an extremity of the ventral arch ; — rd, an extremity
of the dorsal arch; — 5, setse or bristles, surrounding the append-
age, called cirrus (e). The Eunice (Jig. 79), a marine worm
often found on oysters, is an example of an animal having extre-
mities of this kind.

3. The nervous system consists of a long series of minute

* From the Latin, annulus, a little ring.

1. How are anne'lidans distinguished from other articulated animals ?

2. How are anne'lidans characterized ?

3. What is the character of their nervous system ?

84

ANATOMY OF ANNELIDANS.

d

rd

V TV

Fig. 73. — SECTION OF AN ANNELIDAN.

ganglia; there is a pair of ganglia in each ring, which circum-
stance may account for the curious fact, that when, in some
instances, a part of a worm is cut off, both parts still live.

4. Most anne'lidans have, at the anterior extremity of the body,
black spots which appear to be eyes of a very simple structure :
they never possess distinct organs of smell or of hearing ; but
they often bear on the head, or on each side of the neck, fila-
ments called antennse and tentacles, which seem to serve them
as organs of touch. In general these animals move by crawling,
and assist themselves in progression by the setce with which they
are armed, but they are never swift : many live buried in the
earth, or are enclosed in solid tubes which they never leave.
Most of them inhabit the sea.

5. The digestive apparatus of anne'lidans is not particularly
remarkable, except for the sucker (£?", j^. 74) with which the mouth
in many of them is furnished ; some have a long projectile trunk,
and they are often provided with small horny jaws. They all
appear to be carni'vorous.

6. The blood of anne'lidans differs from that of all other inver-
tebrate animals by its red colour ; it circulates in a complete sys-
tem of arteries and veins, and often, it appears to be set in motion
by several fleshy ventricles which may be regarded as hearts
(Jig. 74, c).

7. Almost all these animals live in water; they breathe by the
skin, or through branchia? (br), which resemble little packets of
fringe, attached along each side of the back.

4. In what organs of sense are anne'lidans deficient ?

5. What is the character of the digestive apparatus ?

6. What is the peculiarity of the blood in anne'lidans ?

7. How do anne'lidans breathe ?

ORDERS OF ANNELIDANS. 85

t vd br br br br vd

\ \

tr \

av vi va

Fig. 74. ANATOMY OF ANNELIDANS.

8. According to the differences in their respiratory organs, this
class is divided into three orders; namely,

1st. The abranchiate anne'lidans (from the Greek, a, without,
and bragchos, branchia, or gills), in which there is no visible
respiratory apparatus.

2d. The dorsibranchiate anne'lidans (from the Latin, dorsum,
back, and branchia, gills), in which the branchiae are arranged
along the middle or on each side of the back, in form of vascular
tufts, fringes, &c. (fig. 74, br).

3d. The tubicola — tubicole anne'lidans (from the Latin, tubus,
a tube, and colo, I inhabit) inhabit a fixed and permanent resi-
dence, which encloses and defends them. The two preceding
orders are erratic. The branchiae are in form of plumes or
branches attached to the anterior part of the body (fig. 80).

9. The abrarichia — this order comprehends two very distinct
families : the terricola setigerous abran'chiate anne'lidans, which
have the body furnished with seta3 (bristles), serving them for
locomotion, and the sucto'ria or suctorial abran'chiate anne'lidans,
which are without setce, but have a prehensile sucker attached to
each extremity of the body.

10. To the family of terrico'la (from the Latin, terra, earth,
and colo, I inhabit) belongs the lumbricus or earth-worm, so com-
mon in our gardens. The body of these animals is cylindrical,
elongated, and divided by plaits into a great many rings, and
they are totally destitute of legs ; in place of them, we find on

Explanation of Fig. 74. — Anatomy of anne'lidans — longitudinal section
of an Arenicola ; — t, the cephalic extremity ; — 6, the mouth ; — tr, the trunk
or sucker ; — ph, the pharynx ; — e, the stomach ; — i, the intestine ; — a, the
anus ; — br, the branchiae; — c, one of the ventricles serving as a heart; — ctJ,
ventral vessel ; — ca, vessels which carry the blood to the branchiae ; — ve,
vessels which bring- the blood back from the branchiaB to the interior ; — vd,
dorsal vessel into which many of these last vessels empty ; — ui, inferior in-
testinal vessel, which also receives vessels coming from the branchiae • it
opens in the dorsal vessel near the heart.

8. How is the class of anne'lidans divided ?

9. How are anne'lidans of the order abran'chia characterized ?
10. What are the characters of the earth-worm ?

8

86 EARTH-WORMS.—SUCKERS.

each side a number of setse which serve them
for locomotion. They have neither eyes, tenta-
cles, nor jaws. If we cut one of these into two
pieces, each piece continues to live, and becomes
a perfect animal ; the part of the body which is
deficient is reproduced.

11. The lumbrici (earth-worms) are propa-
gated by eggs, which, when laid, are two or
three lines in length. In the annexed figure (75),
one of them, enclosing a mature embryo, is de-
lineated ; the top is closed by a peculiar valve-
p. ~ like structure, adapted to facilitate the escape of

EGG OF THE the worm. The egg commonly has a double yolk,
EARTH-WORM. and a couple of young ones are produced generally
from each egg.

" Whoever has attentively watched the operations of an earth-worm, when
busied in burying itself in the earth, must have been struck with the seem-
ing disproportion between the laborious employment in which it is per-
petually engaged, and the means provided for enabling it to overcome dif-
"ficulties apparently insurmountable by any animal unless provided with
limbs of extraordinary construction, and possessed of enormous muscular
power. In the mole and burrowing cricket we at once recognise in the im-
mense development of the anterior legs a provision for digging, admirably
adapted to their subterranean habits." Every ring of the lumbricus, " when
examined attentively, is found to support a series of sharp, retractile spines
or prickles ; these, indeed, are so minute in the earth-worm, that on passing
the hand along the body from the head backwards, their presence is scarcely
to be detected by the touch, but they are easily felt by rubbing the animal
in the opposite direction ; a circumstance which arises from their hooked
form, and from their points being all turned towards the tail." By the aid
of these the animal makes its way in the following manner : " The
attenuated rings in the neighbourhood of the mouth are first insinuated
between the particles of the earth, which, from their conical shape, they
penetrate like a sharp wedge; in this position they are firmly retained by
the numerous recurved spines appended to the different segments; the
hinder parts of the body are then drawn forwards by a longitudinal con-
traction of the whole animal ; a movement which not only prepares the
creature for advancing further into the soil, but by swelling out the anterior
segments forcibly dilates the passage into which the head had been already
thrust: the spines on the hinder rings then take a firm hold upon the sides
of the hole thus formed, and, preventing any retrograde movement, the head
is again forced forward through the yielding mould, so that, by a repetition
of the process, the animal is able to advance with the greatest apparent ease
through substances which would at first seem utterly impossible for so help-
less a being to penetrate." — Thomas Rymer Jones — Comparative Anatomy,

12. The family of sucto'ria or suckers comprises the leech,
and all anne'lides that are unprovided with setae. The integu-
ments are soft ; the body is generally oblong, slightly depressed,

11. Hotfr are earth-worms propagated?

12. How is the family of Sucto'ria characterized ?

LEECHES.

87

Fig. 76.

LEECH.

and divided into a great many segments: it is
entirely without legs or setse, but has at either
extremity, a dilatable, prehensile cavity, which
performs the functions of a cupping-glass. —
The mouth, situated at the bottom of the anterior
or oral sucker (fig. 76, a), has neither trunk
nor tentacle, but is armed with hard parts which
serve the purposes of jaws. It has a certain
number of eyes, or rather ocellar points, situated
on the dorsal face of the anterior extremity of
the body. The anus is placed at the bottom of
the posterior sucker (6).

13. All these anne'lides feed at the expense of
other animals. They attach themselves to fishes
or batrachians ; sometimes they devour mollusks,
anne'lidans, or the larvae of insects ; certain
species attach themselves to horses and cattle,
and even to men, when they drink at springs ;
sometimes fixing themselves under the tongue, in
the nostrils, or even in the gullet.

The mouth of a leech is an exceedingly perfect appara-
tus. " Around the entrance of the oesophagus are disposed
three minute cartilaginous teeth, imbedded in a strong cir-
cle of muscular fibres. Each tooth has somewhat of a semi-
circular form, and, when accurately examined with a
microscope, is found to have its free margin surmounted
with minute denticulations so as to resemble a small
semicircular saw (Jig. 77). On watching a leech atten-
tively during the process of biting, the action of these
teeth is at once evident ; for, as the skin to which the
sucker is adherent is rendered quite tense, the sharp Fig. 77.

serrated edges of the teeth are pressed firmly against it, TOOTH OF A LEECH.
and, a sawing movement being given to each cartilagi-
nous piece by the strong contractions of the
muscular fibres around the neck, these in-
struments soon pierce the cutis to a consider-
able depth, and lay open the cutaneous ves-
sels, from which the creature sucks the fluid
which its instinct prompts it to seek after
with so much voracity. The position of the
teeth around the opening of the mouth, as
represented in the annexed figure (78), will
at once explain the cause of the tri-radiate
form of the incision which a leech-bite in-
variably exhibits." — T. Rymer Jones.

The use of leeches is so general in
the practice of medicine, that they
have become an important object in p.
commerce. They are imported from HEAD OF A LEECH MAGNIFIED.
Spain, Portugal, and other countries

13. What are the habits of sucking Anne'lidans ?

88

DORSIBRANCHIATA TUBICOLA.

in Europe. They are preserved for a long time by packing them
in moist earth or mud. On the approach of cold weather, they
bury themselves in mud at the bottom of ponds, and pass the win-
ter in a state of lethargy, and regain their activity in the spring.

14. The ORDER OF DORSIBRANCHIATA or erratic Annelidans
are the most complicated in their organization of all animals of

this class. The head is almost always distinct from
the body, and is provided with a certain number of
antennae ; we see there also one or two pairs of eyes,
in form of black or variously coloured spots (fig. 79).
The mouth is provided with a protractile trunk, the
length of which is sometimes very considerable, and
at its extremity we often find two or more pairs of
horny jaws. Generally, on each side of the neck
there is a certain number of tentacular cirri, append-
ages analogous to antenna3, and each ring has
attached to it a pair of legs, varying in structure in
the different genera : they are often composed, each
of two tubercles, one placed on the dorsal, and the
other on the ventral arch of the ring, and studded on
top with a packet of setse. Nothing can exceed the
splendour of the colours which ornament some of
these fasciculi of hairs ; they yield, indeed, in no
respect to the most gorgeous tints of tropical birds or
the brilliant decorations of insects : green, yellow,
and orange, — blue, purple, and scarlet, — all the hues
'EUNICE.' of the rainbow play upon them with the changing
light, and shine with the metallic effulgence only
comparable to that which adorns the breast of the humming-
bird.

15. These anne'lidans walk and swim very well, but neverthe-
less, commonly live under stones, among shells, or buried in the
sand ; a kind of mucus which exudes from them forms a tubular
sheath which they inhabit. They all live in the sea.

The ARENICOLA, the APHRO'DITA, the EU'NICE, &c., are some
of the genera.

16. The ORDER OF TUBICOLA comprises anne'lides which have
no distinct head, nor jaws, nor eyes, nor antennae, but the anterior
extremity of the body is furnished with a great number of ap-
pendages, some of which constitute bran'chise, and others for the
prehension of food, or for locomotion. Their legs are but slightly
projecting, and only assist them in rising or descending in the

14. What are Ihe characters of dorsibranch anne'lidans ?

15. What are the habits of dorsibranch anne'lidans ?

16. How is the order of Tubicola characterized?

SERPULJE.—SABELL.E.

89

tube they inhabit ; most of them neither
walk nor swim, and those that drag them-
selves along, do it by the assistance of
the long tentacles surrounding the mouth.
The tube varies in texture, in different
species. Sometimes it is formed by agglu-
tinating foreign substances, such as grains
of sand, small shells, or fragments of vari-
ous materials, by means of a secretion,
which exudes from the surface of the body,
and hardens into a tough membranous
substance, as is the case of Terebetta
medusa, which constructs its «tube by
cementing together minute shells, and other
small bodies. There is no muscular con-
nection between these animals and the
tubes they inhabit, so that the creature can
be readily withdrawn from its residence.

17. In this order are placed the SER-
PULJE, which live in calcareous tubes, vari-
ously contorted ; the anterior extremity of
the body is adorned by a crown of ap-
pendages like plumes : these animals are
found adhering to oysters and other mol-
lusks. They are frequently found encrusting the surface of
stones, or other bodies, which have been immersed for any length
of time, at the bottom of the sea ; they are closed at one end,
and from the opposite extremity the head of the worm is occa-
sionally protruded in search of nourishment. The SABELLJD also
belong to this order. They inhabit a tube, which is most com-
monly composed of granules of clay or mud, and is rarely cal-
careous (Jig. 80). The Dentalium, Terebella, Amphitrite, and
Syphostoma, are other genera of the order of Tubicola.

Fig. 80. — SABELLA.

17. What arc serpulee ? What are sabellse ?

90 ZOOPHYTES.

FOURTH BRANCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
ZO'OPHYTES OR RADIATA.

LESSON IX.

ZO'OPHYTES. — Organization — Division.

CLASS OF INFUSO'RIA ROTATO'RIA.

CLASS OF ENTOZO'A. — Division — Filia'ria — Asca 'rides —

Tce'nia.

CLASS OF INFUSO'RIA PoLyGAs'TRicA.
CLASS OF ECHINODER'MATA. — Sea-stars.
CLASS OF ACALE'PHA. — Medusa.
CLASS OF POLYPI. — Coral — Coral-reefs — Hydra — Sponges. —

Geographical Distribution of the Animal Kingdom.

The animals placed in the fourth and last great division of the
animal kingdom possess an organization much less complicated
and consequently much less perfect than that of the creatures we
have studied in the preceding parts of our series.

1. In the higher animals the body always consists of two
similar halves; all the external organs are arranged on each side
of the middle line, in pairs ; whenever there is an organ on one
side, a similar one is found on the opposite side, and the superior
and inferior surfaces of the body differ from each other. In
Zo'ophytes, on the contrary, this symmetry is seldom found : in
general, the different organs are placed around the axis or centre
of the body, so as to give it a radiated form. Sometimes this
arrangement is carried so far that the animal resembles a star
(Jig- 85) ; and in a great many of these creatures, the body resem-
bles an expanded flower (figs. 87 and 88). Many of them live
fixed at the bottom of the sea, and united to each other in such a
manner as to wear the appearance of branching shrubs, and this
external analogy to certain plants is so great, that for a long
time these animals were confounded with marine plants, and even
now that we know how much their structure, as well as their
functions, differ from those of vegetables, we cannot assign to
them a more appropriate name than Zoophytes (from the Greek,
zoon, animal, and phuton, plant) or plant-animals.

2. In these animals the nervous system is entirely wanting, or
is found in an extremely rudimentary state : they have no special

1. What are the general characters of Radiate animals ?

2. What is the character of the nervous system in Zo'ophytes ?

INFUSORIA ROTATORIA.— HYDATINE.

91

organs of the senses, except perhaps their tentacles, which may
serve them for the sense of touch.

3. Most Zoophytes are also destitute of blood-vessels, and they
have no special organs of respiration, this function being per-
formed by the whole surface of the body. Some of them have
a mouth armed with teeth, a digestive canal and anus ; but in
others, the digestive cavity has a single opening, which serves at
the same time both for mouth and anus.

' 4. This Branch of the animal kingdom is divided into six
classes ; namely, Infuso'ria rotato'ria, JEntozo'a, Infuso'ria poly-
gas' trica, Echinoder 'mata, Acale'pha, and Polypi.

CLASS OF INFUSO'RIA. ROTATO'RIA.

5. These creatures are so extremely small, that prior to the
discovery of the microscope, tlieir existence was not even sus
pected, and yet their structure appears to be as complicated as
any other animal of the same branch.

Although the instruments by means of
which they were observed, caused them
to appear to -be two or three hundred
times larger than they really are, no
distinct organ was discovered in them,
and for a long time they were regarded
as creatures composed of a kind of
animated jelly only, which lived by im-
bibition. But the researches of some
modern naturalists, especially Professor
Ehrenburg, of Berlin, have shown how
much we were mistaken in regard to
these animalcules; and we are aston-
ished, not by the simplicity of their
structure, but by their complicated
microscopic organization.

6. These animalcules are found in
stagnant waters, and also in water in
which animal substances have been
soaked. Their body is partially trans-

Explanalion of Fig. 81. — Anatomy of a Hydatine, a microscopic animal-
cule, resembling a rotifer : — a, the vibratory cilia ; — 6, a fleshy mass which
surrounds the mouth and sets the jaws in motion ; — c, the stomach ; — rf,
cloaca ; — e, anus ;— /, salivary glands ; — g, ovaries ; — A, vessels.

3. How do Zoophytes breathe ?

4. How is the Branch of Zoophytes divided ?

5. What are the characters of the rotatory Infuso'riae ?

6. Where are these animalcules found?

Fig. 81. HYDATINE.

92 ENTOZOA.— FILIARIA.

parent, and frequently presents traces of annular divisions.
The mouth occupies its anterior extremity, and on each side, or
around it, are seen the vibratory cilise (Jig. 81, a), the rotatory
movements of which are very remarkable. The mouth is fur-
nished with powerful muscles and lateral jaws. The digestive
canal extends from one end of the body to the other, and ordi-
narily has an enlargement near the middle which constitutes the
stomach (c) ; on each side of this tube are frequently seen bodies
of a glandular appearance, and at its posterior extremity a sort
of cloaca into which the oviducts empty.

CLASS OF ENTOZO'A.

7. This division comprises intestinal worms and other inferior
animals of similar organization. Intestinal worms bear a closer
resemblance to anne'lidans than to ordinary radiate animals. The
body is elongated and composed of more or less distinct rings ;
there is often a digestive canal, sometimes vesse.s, but never a
distinct circulation or special organs of respiration.

8. Most of these singular creatures can live only in the bodies
of other animals, and lodge themselves in the substance of the
liver, in the eyes, in the cellular tissue, in the muscles, and even
in the brain, as well as in the alimentary canal ; we know they
are multiplied by means of eggs, and also that their young are
in some instances born alive, but we do not understand by what
means they are transmitted from one animal to another, nor how
they penetrate into the substance of organs in which they are
developed. There is scarcely an animal that does riot nourish
many kinds of them, and those found in one species are rarely
found in many others.

9. This class is divided into two orders : one in which the
intestinal canal floats free in the cavity of the abdomen, and
therefore denominated cavita'rig, ; the other is named parenchy'-
mata, because the animalcules of this order have neither abdo-
men nor intestine distinct from the neighbouring parts, their
digestive cavity consisting of ramified canals hollowed out in the
substance of the body, and generally opening externally by
suckers.

10. To the first division belong the FILIA'RI^E ; they have a
slender, filiform body ; several species are known, which live in
the substance of the organs of many animals. One of these is
the Guinea-warm ; it lodges itself beneath the skin of man, and

7. What description of animals belong to the class of Entozo'a ?
8 Where are these animals found ?
9. How is the class of Entozo'a divided ?
10. What are filia'riae ? What are asca'rides ?

TAPE-WORMS.

93

is very common in warm countries. ASCA'RIDES, which are found
in the intestines of man, also belong to this division. One species,
the lu?n' bricus, sometimes attains to fifteen inches in length.
11. To the second division, parenchy' mata> belongs the tape-

i-. 82.

Fig. 83. TJENIA TAPE-WORM.

worm ( Tce'nid). The body is terminated anteriorly by a small
head (fg. 83, a), having two or four pits, and, frequently, one or
more proboscis-like appendages ; but the mouth is very indistinct,
and the digestive apparatus is generally reduced to a double
longitudinal vessel (jig. 82). The body is ordinarily flat, very
long, and divided into a great many more or less distinct joints
(Jig. 83). Each segment or ring has one or two pores which

communicate with the

longitudinal

vessels, and contains a dis-

Explanation of Fig. 82. — A ring or segment of a tsenia, magnified, show-
ing the ovaries ; — o, the two longitudinal vessels and the lateral pore ; — ft, a
segment from which almost the whole ovary has been removed.

Explanation of Fig. 83. — Represents the ribbon-like body of the tape.
worm and the lateral vessels running through its whole length on each
side ; — a, the head.

11. How are tape- worms characterized? Where are they found ?

94 INFUSORIA POLYGASTRICA.

tinct ovary (Jig. 82, a). The body of this creature consists of a
great number of these segments, united together in a linear series
(Jig. 83) : the segments which immediately succeed to the head
(a) are very small, and so fragile that it is rarely this part of the
animal is procured in a perfect state; they gradually however
increase in size towards the middle of the body. Each segment
of the tape-worm may be regarded as a distinct animal, for it
possesses the means of reproducing itself; yet the alimentary
tubes are common to them all, those of each joint freely com-
municating with the nutritive canals of the adjoining segments.
The first joint of the Tse'nia, which may be called its head, differs
materially in structure from all the rest; it is in fact converted
into an apparatus by means of which the entire animal derives
its nourishment. This part, when highly magnified, is found to
be somewhat of a square shape; in the centre is seen -the mouth,
surrounded with a circle of minute spines, so disposed as to
secure its retention in a position for imbibing the chyle in which
it is immersed. Around this mouth are placed four suckers.
Tape-worms infest all classes of animals, and commonly inhabit
the small intestine. Their presence in the alimentary canal
generally causes debility and wasting of the body, and often
very serious disturbance. The species which attacks man, " the
solitary worm," is very difficult to get rid of.

We also place in this division certain very singular animals,
which resemble a little bladder filled with water ; they grow in
different parts of the bodies of animals, and are called Hydatids.
They are the cause of considerable disturbance and serious dis-
eases.

12. INFUSO'RIA POLYGAS'TRICA. — These animalcules can only
be perceived by means of the microscope ; they are abundantly
developed in water containing the remains of organic bodies ;

6 31

Fig. 84. POLYAGASTRIC INFUSORIA.

12. What are the characters of the polygastric infuso'ria ?

ECHINODERMATA — SEA-STARS. 95

until within a few years they were confounded with the infuso'ria
rotato'ria, the structure of which is very different. Their body,
sometimes round, sometimes long and flat, is often covered with
little cilise, and contains ordinarily a considerable number of
cavities, which seem to discharge the functions of so many
stomachs. The above figure will give an idea of the most com-
mon species of these creatures. The movements of the poly-
gastrica, when seen under the microscope, are exceedingly viva-
cious ; and although many of them inhabit a space not larger
than the point of a needle, they swim about with great activity,
avoiding each other as they pass in their rapid dance, and
evidently directing their motions with wonderful precision and
accuracy.

13. The ECHINODER'MATA or Echi'noderms (from the Greek,
echinus, a hedge-hog, and derma, skin) are formed for crawling
at the bottom of the sea, and are ordinarily provided with a mul-
titude of retractile appendages, by means of which they attach
themselves to bodies they touch ; in general the skin is covered
with spines, and their organization is more complicated than that
of most Zoophytes. They often
possess a kind of skeleton, vessels
for circulation, special organs for
respiration, and a separate intes-
tinal canal furnished with two
openings.

14. The sea-stars — Asteria
(Jig> 85) — belong to this division.
Also, the sea hedge-hogs or sea
eggs, which have the appearance
of balls covered with spines ; in

some ports of the Mediterranean Fig, 85.— SEA-STAR.

they are used for food.

15. The ACALE'PHA or Acale'phans (from the Greek, acalephe,
a nettle), commonly called sea-nettles, on account of the irritation
contact with them produces on the skin, are of a gelatinous
consistence; they always float on the sea, and are essentially
organized for swimming. Their organization is very simple;

Explanation of Fig. 84. — Infu'soria polygas'trica as seen under a micro-
scope ; — 1, monad ; — 2, trachelius anas; — 3, enchelis or flask animalcule ;—
4, paramecium ; — 5, kolpoda ; — 6, trachelius fasciolarius as seen walking on
microscopic plants.

13. What are the characters of echi'noderms ?

14. What are sea-stars ?

15. How are acale'phans characterized? What are the characters <&'
medusae ?

96

MEDUSA — POLYPI.

Fig. 86. — MEDUSA.

a their internal organs consist almost
exclusively of a stomach, hollowed
in the substance of the body, from
which arise different branched canals.
The Medusa belong to this class.
The body is broad, and more or less
convex, resembling a disk or the cap
of a mushroom (Jig. 86, a). The
margin and centre of the cap are
furnished with tentacles (6), which
probably serve them to seize small
mollusks or zoophytes, and convey
them to the mouth. They swim by
slowly contracting the margin of the
cap, and thus expelling the water
contained in its concavity ; they are
seldom seen on the surface except
in calm weather. Many of these
animals contribute to the phos-
phorescence of the sea, diffusing a whitish light.

16. CLASS OF POLYPI. — Under the name of
polypi is included a great number of animals,
possessing a cylindrical or oval body, with an
opening at one of
its extremities, sur-
rounded by long
tentacles (Jig. 87).
The structure of
polypi is very sim-
ple, and their facul-
ties very limited.
Most of them live

fixed to other bodies, by the posterior
extremity, and all their movement
consists in extending and contracting
their tentacles, and drawing the an-
terior portion of the body into itself.
They are multiplied in two ways :
sometimes they produce eggs, which
detach themselves, and are expelled,
and their development is left to chance;
at other times, buds spring from the
surface of the body, which never
separate, but become so many new

Fig. 87. — ACTINIA.

Fig. 88.— SERTULARIA.

16. What are polypi ? What are their characters?

CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYPI. 97

polypi, similar to the parent; hence result masses of various
form, in which an entire series of generations are aggregated,
and seem to possess a life in common, just as if it were really a
compound creature, provided with a single body, possessing a
thousand mouths, and as many stomachs (fig. 88). In general
the digestive cavities of all these aggregated animals, living thus
in society, do not open directly into each other, but commonly
there are vascular communications between the individuals united
in a single mass, and the alimentary matter digested by one may
in this way be of advantage to all its neighbours.

17. Frequently the bodies of these little animalcules is com-
posed entirely of a semi-transparent tissue of extreme delicacy ;
but in most of them the inferior portion of the tegumentary sheath
becomes much indurated, and even ossified so as to acquire the
hardness and appearance of stone. This solid envelop assumes
various forms, and sometimes constitutes tubes, and sometimes
merely cells ; for a long time it was considered merely as the
dwellings of the polyps which formed it, and is designated under
the name of coral. Sometimes every polyp has a distinct coral,
but ordinarily it is the portion common to an aggregated mass of
polyps that possesses the characteristics of these bodies, the
volume of which may become enormous, although each of the
parts forming it is extremely small.

18. It is in this way that polyps of only a few inches in length
raise reefs and islands in seas bordering the tropics ; when placed
under circumstances favourable to their development, certain
animals of this class multiply to such a degree as to cover chains
of rocks or immense submarine banks, and form, with their stony
corals heaped one upon another, masses whose extent is con-
stantly increasing by the birth of new animalcules added to those
already existing. The solid slough or remnant of each colony
of polyps remains after the frail architects have perished, and
serves as a base for the development of other polyps, until these
living reefs reach the surface of the water, where these animals
cease to exist, and the soil formed by their remains ceases to
rise; but the surface of these masses of corals, exposed to the
action .of the atmosphere, becomes the site of a new series of
phenomena ; seeds, which are deposited by the winds, or borne
thither by the waves, germinate, and the surface of these coral
masses is in this way gradually clothed in a rich vegetation ; and
thus, what were but recently vast charnel-houses of almost micro-
sc »[ ic zo'ophytes, are converted into habitable islands. In the
Pacific Ocean there are innumerable reefs and islands which had
no other origin; in general they seem to be based on the crater

1 7. What is coral ?

18. How are coral reefs formed ?

9

98

CORAL.

of some extinct volcano, for they are almost always of a circular
form, with a lake in the centre communicating with the ocean
by a single channel : some are more than ten leagues in dia-
meter.

19. Almost all polyps inhabit the sea: some, however, are

found in fresh water.
Most polyps secrete this
stony matter, above
mentioned, in the cells
of which they are lodg-
ed, or around which
they are grouped. The
stony matter, of a beau-
tiful red colour, employ-
ed as an ornament, call-
ed coral, is formed in
this way ; it is the stem
found in the midst of
an aggregation of cer-
tain polyps, that serves
to sustain and attach
them to the earth (jig.
$9). These tittle ani-
mals, onFy two or three
lines in length, have at
their free extremity
eight tentacles, in the
middle of which is the
mouth ; by their oppo-
site extremity they are
fixed in little cavities hollowed out in a kind of membrane or
living bark, which is common to all, and into which they can
entirely withdraw themselves ; this common part is more or less
branched, and in its centre are found successive layers of very
hard, stony matter, ^vhich is the coral. This coral rs found
plentifully in the Mediterranean, principally on the African coast,
where it forms the object of an active fishery.

20. Fresh-water polyps (fg. 90) or Hydrce (from the Greek,
'udar, water) may be considered as the most simple type of this
group. The body is a gelatinous tube, in which no particular organ
is perceived ; nevertheless they crawl and swim actively, by agi-
tating their long tentacles, to seize small animals that come within
their reach, which they devour with great avidity ; they seem to
be sensible to the influence of light. Some of these polyps have

19. What is red coral ? Where is it found?

20. What are hydras ? Where are they found ?

Fig* 89, — CORAL.

HYDILE.— SPONGE.

been turned inside out,
and yet the cavity thus
formed, having the skin
inside, performed the
functions of the natural
stomach ; but what is
most singular and as- C
tonishing is their great
tenacity of life, which
enables them to live
even after they are cut
into pieces, and each
fragment afterwards be-
comes an entire and per-
fect hydra.

Fig. 90. — HYDROS.

" When left free, the hydrse are found to select positions most exposed to
the influence of light, assembling at the surface of the ponds which they
inhabit, or seeking that side of the glass in which they are confined, that is
most strongly illuminated. That they are able to appreciate the presence
of light is therefore indubitable ; yet with what organs do they perceive it ?
we are driven to* the supposition, that, in this case, the sense of touch sup-
plies to a certain extent the want of other senses, and that the hydrse are
able to feel the light

" When the hydra is watching for its prey, it remains expanded (Jig. 90,
fc), its tentacles widely spread and perfectly motionless, waiting patiently
till some of the countless beings which populate the stagnant waters it fre-
quents, are brought by accident in contact with them : no sooner does an
animal touch one of the filaments, than its course is arrested, as if by
magic; it appears instantly fixed to the almost invisible thread, and in spite
of its utmost efforts is unable to escape ; the tentacle then slowly contracts,
and others are brought in contact with the struggling prey, which, thus
seized, is gradually dragged towards the orifice of the mouth, that opens to
receive it, and slowly forced into the interior of the stomach," — Jones,

21. SPONGES live in the sea, attached to rocks: they bear
some analogy to the common mass in which certain polyps are
lodged, but we find none of these ani-
mals on them. Their surface is per-
forated by an immense number of
holes which communicate with canals
running through their substance in
every direction, and through which
currents of water are continually
passing (fg. 91). Sponges are found
in a variety of forms ; some are like Fig. 91.— SPONGE.

Explanation of Fig. 90. — a, represents small patches of vegetable mat-
ter, floating on the water, beneath which hydroe are ordinarily found ; — i,
one of these polyps ; — c, another, having two young ones attached to it

21. What are sponges? Where are they found ?

100 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

horns, spheres, cups, fans, shrubs, &c. ; some are studded with
fine stony needles ; others are sustained internally by flexible
fibres, arranged so as to form tubes and little cells.

Common sponge, of which we make so much use, has a struc-
ture of the latter description ; it constitutes large brownish masses,
and is found in the Mediterranean.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.

To form a general idea of the animal kingdom, it is not enough
to know the principal phenomena by which life is manifest in
animate creatures, and 1o have studied the structure of their
bodies, and the mechanism of their functions ; we must also look
sit the manner in which animals are distributed over the face of
the earth, and endeavour to appreciate the influence which the
different circumstances in which they are placed may exercise
over them.

When we look at the manner of distribution of animals on
the globe, we are at first struck with the difference of the media
they inhabit. Some, as every body knows, always live under
water and quickly die when withdrawn from it ; others can only
exist in the air and almost immediately perish when submerged.
Some in fact are destined to inhabit the waters, and others to live
upon the land ; and when we compare aquatic and terrestrial
animals, in their physiological and anatomical relations, we find,
at least in part, the causes of the differences in their mode of
existence.

In studying respiration, we pointed out the constant relation
between the intensity of this function and vital energy. Animals
consume in a given time a quantity of oxygen, increasing in pro-
portion to the activity of their motions and rapidity of their
nutrition : now, they can obtain this oxygen only from the fluids
surrounding them ; in a gallon of air there are about 84 cubic
inches of this vivifying principle, while in a gallon of water we
ordinarily find only about five cubic inches. It is evident then
that the degree of activity in the respiratory function, indispen-
sable to the exercise of the faculties belonging to superior ani-
mals, must be of more easy attainment in air than in water, and
on account of this difference alone, the creatures highest in the
animal series cannot dwell in water. We comprehend, indeed,
that an animal which, in order to exist, must appropriate a consider-
able quantity of oxygen every instant, does not find it in suf-

OF ANIMALS. 101

ficient quantity when plunged into water, and therefore perishes
of asphyxia. But at first sight, it is not so easy to explain why
an aquatic animal cannot continue to live when taken from tho
water and placed in the air, for then we supply it with a fluid
richer in oxygen than that, the vivifying action of which was
sufficient for ail its wants. There are, however, various circum-
stances which, to a certain degree, explain this phenomenon.
Physics teach us that a body carefully weighed in air and in
water, is lighter in the last than in the first, and that, to sustain
it in equilibrium, there is then only required a weight equal to its
weight in air, less that of the bulk of water it displaces. Hence
it follows that animals whose tissues are too soft to sustain them-
selves in air, and are compressed to such an extent as to become
unfit to perform their functions in the organism, can nevertheless
live very well in water, where these same tissues, being not much
more dense than the surrounding fluid, are required to possess
only a feeble power of resistance to preserve their forms and to
prevent the several parts of the body from falling together on
each other. This consideration atone is sufficient to show us
why gelatinous animals, such as infusoria or meduscs, are neces-
sarily inhabitants of the water; for, when we observe one of
these delicate creatures while still in this fluid, we perceive that
all the parts, even the most slender tissues, are sustained in their
proper position and float easily in the surrounding medium ; but
the moment they are withdrawn, their body is almost entirely
effaced, offering to the eye only a confused and shapeless mass.
The influence of the density of the surrounding medium upon the
mechanical play of these instruments of life is also felt in ani-
mals of a more perfect structure, in which, however, respiration
is still carried on by means of ramified membranous appendages,
resembling diminutive shrub-branches or plumes. For example,
in anne'lidans or even in fishes, the branchiae or gills are com-
posed of flexible filaments, which easily sustain themselves in
water, and therefore permit the respirable fluid to reach and
renew itself at all points of their surface; but, in air, these same
membranous filaments are in a measure effaced by their own
weight, falling one on another, and, in this way, exclude the
oxygen from the greater part of the respiratory apparatus. It
results that this function is then embarrassed, and the animal may
die of asphyxia in the air, although it found in water all it re
quired for free respiration. To convince ourselves of the impor-
tance of these variations in the physical state of organs placed
in air or in water, it is only necessary to be reminded of what is
seen in dissecting-rooms: an anatomist desirous of studying the
structure of a very delicate part, would succeed very indifferently
if he made his dissection in air j but by placing the subject of

102 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

investigation in water, he much more easily succeeds in distin-
guishing all the parts ; because these parts, sustained in a mea-
sure by this liquid, then preserve their natural relations just as if
they were of a consistent and stiffer tissue. Another circum-
stance which influences the possibility of living in air or in water
is the evaporation which always takes place from the surface of
organized bodies placed in the air, but which cannot take place
in water. A certain degree of dessication causes all organic
tissues to lose their distinguishing physical properties, and we find
that losses by evaporation always produce death in animals when
they exceed certain limits. It follows that creatures whose
organization is not calculated to preserve them against the injuri-
ous effects of evaporation, can only live in water and quickly
perish in air. Now the animal -economy is equal to this exigence
only when it possesses a very complicated structure. In fact, if
an active respiration be requisite, the respiratory surface must be
deeply lodged in some internal cavity where the air can be renew-
ed only in proportion as it is required for the support of life. To
secure this renovation, the respiratory apparatus must be furnish-
ed with proper motive organs ; to prevent the dessication or drying
of any portion of the surface of the body, the diffusion of the liquids
to the different parts of the body must be easily carried on, and
there must be an active circulation, or the surface must be in-
vested by a tunic or covering that is scarcely permeable. This
is so true, that even in fishes, yi which the circulation is very
complete, although slowly carried on, and the capillary net-work
not very dense, death speedily takes place in consequence of
dessication of a part of the body, of the posterior portion, for
example, even when this portion alone is exposed to the air, while
the rest of the animal remains under water.

We may add, too, that in water, feeding may be effected with
less perfect instruments of prehension than in air, where the
transportation of the food required by the animal is more difficult.
In all its most essential relations, life is, in a manner, more easily
.maintained in the midst of the waters than on the surface of the
earth ; in the atmosphere it demands more perfect and more com-
plicated physiological instruments : the water is the natural ele-
ment of animals lowest in the zoological series ; and if the pro-
ductions of the creation have succeeded each other in the same
order as the transitory states through which every animal passes,
during the period of its development, we may conclude that ani-
mate creatures first appeared in the midst of the waters, a con-
clusion in accordance with the observations of geologists and the
text of the Scriptures.

In this manner the physiologist can account for the division of
animals between the two geological elements of the globe, water

OF ANIMALS. 103

and earth; but these fundamental differences are not the only,
ones observed in the geographical distribution oT animate crea-
tures. If a naturalist familiar with the fauna* of his own coun-
try, visit distant regions, he sees, as he" advances, that the land
becomes inhabited by animals new to his eyes; then these species
disappear, in their turn to give place to species equally unknown.

If, after leaving France, he land in the South of Africa, he
will find there only a small number of animals similar to those
he saw in Europe, and he will remark especially the Elephant,
with big ears ; the Hippopo'tamus ; the Rhinoceros, with two horns ;
the Giraffe ; innumerable herds of Antelopes ; the Zebra ; the Cape
Buffalo, the widened base of whose horns cover the front ; the
black-maned Lion ; the Chimpanzee, which of all animals most
resembles man ; the Cynocephalus, or dog- faced Monkey ; Vul-
tures of particular species; a multitude of birds of brilliant
plumage, strangers to Europe ; insects, also different from those
of the north ; for example, the fatal Termite, which lives in nume-
rous societies, and builds, in common, its habitation of earth, which
is very curious in its arrangement and of considerable height.

If our zoologist leave the Cape of Good Hope, and penetrate
into the interior of the great island of Madagascar, he will there
find a different fauna. He will see none of the large quadrupeds
he met in Africa ; in place of the family of monkeys, he will
find other mammals equally well formed for climbing trees, but
more resembling the carna'ria, designated by naturalists under
the name of mdkis ; he will meet the ai-ai or sloth, a most
singular animal, which appears to be a sort of object of veneration
among the inhabitants, and partakes of the nature of both monkey
and squirrel ; Tenrecs (a kind of hedge-hog), small insecti'vorous
mammals, which have spiny backs like hedge- hogs, but do not
roll themselves in a ball ; the Came'leon, with forked nose, and
many curious reptiles not found elsewhere, as well as insects not
less characteristic of that region.

Still pursuing his route and arriving in India, our traveller sees
an elephant different from that of Africa ; oxen, bears, rhinoceros,
antelopes, stags, different from those of Africa and Europe ; the
ourang-outang, and a multitude of other monkeys peculiar to
those countries ; the royal tiger, the argus, the peacock, pheasants,
and an almost innumerable host of birds, reptiles, and insects,
unknown elsewhere.

If he now visit New Holland, all will be there again new to
him, and the aspect of this fauna will appear to him still more
strange than- the various zoological populations he has passed in

* Fan'na, from the Latin, faunus, the name of a rural deity among the
Romans. The animals of all kinds peculiar to a country constitute its
Fauna.

104 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

review. He wi4l no longer meet with species analogous to our
oxen, horses, bears, and large carna'ria ; large-sized quadrupeds
are almost entirely wanting; he will find kangaroos, flying-
phalangers, and the ornithoryn'chus.

Finally, if our traveller, to get back to his own country, tra-
verses the vast continent of America, he will discover a fauna
analogous to that of the old world, but composed almost entirely
of different species ; he will there see monkeys with a prehensile
tail, large carna'ria. similar to our lions and tigers, bisons, lamas,
armadillos ; birds, reptiles, and insects, equally remarkable, and
equally new to him.

Differences not less great in the species of animals peculiar to
different regions of the globe, are observed, when, instead of con-
fining our observations to the inhabitants of the land, we examine
the myriads of animated creatures that dwell in the midst of the
waters. Passing from the coasts of Europe to the Indian Ocean,
and from the latter into the American seas, we meet with fishes,
mollusks, crusta'ceans, and zoophytes, peculiar to each of these
regjons. This limitation or colonization of species, whether
aquatic or terrestrial, is so marked, that a slightly experienced
naturalist cannot mistake, even at first sight, the original localities
of zoological collections that may have been gathered in one or
the other of the great geographical divisions of the globe, and
submitted to his examination. The fauna of each of these divi-
sions is peculiar to it, and may be easily characterized by the
presence of certain more or less remarkable species.

Naturalists have formed many theories to account for this mode
of distribution of animals over the surface of the globe ; but, in
the present state of science, it is impossible to give a satisfactory
explanation, without admitting that, in the beginning, the different
species had their origin in the different regions where they are
found, and that by degrees they afterwards spread afar and occu-
pied a more or less considerable portion of the surface of the
earth. In short, the presence of a particular animal within nar-
row limits on the earth, necessarily supposes, when this animal
is found nowhere else, that it had its origin on this spot, or that
it imigrated there from a more or less remote region, and that
subsequently it was entirely destroyed where its race commenced,
that is, exactly at the place where, according to every probability,
all circumstances most favourable to its existence were found in
combination. There is nothing strongly in favour of this last
hypothesis, and it is repugnant to common sense to believe that,
in the beginning, the same country saw the birth of the horse,
the giraffe, bison, and kangaroo, for instance, but that these ani-
mals left it afterwards, without leaving any trace of their pas-
sage, to colonize, one on the steppes of central Asia, another in

OF ANIMALS. 105

the interior of Africa, a third in the New World, and another again
in the great islands of Australia. It is much more natural to sup-
pose that every species was placed, from the beginning, by the
Author of all things, in the region where it was destined perma-
nently to live, and that by extending from a certain number of
these distinct centres of creation, different animals have spread
throughout tfoose portions of the globe now forming the domain
of each kind. In the present condition of the earth, it is impos-
sible to recognise all those zoological centres : for we can con-
ceive the possibility of exchanges so multiplied between two
regions, the faunrc of which were primitively distinct, that they
present species common to both, and nothing now points out to
the eyes of the naturalist their original separation ; but when a
country is inhabited by a considerable number of species which
are not seen elsewhere, even where local circumstances are most
similar, we are warranted in the supposition that this region was
the theatre of a peculiar zoological creation, and we must regard
it as a distinct region.

What the naturalist should ask, is, not how different portions
of the earth have come now to be inhabited by different species,
but how animals could be so far extended over the surface of the
globe, and how nature placed variable limits to this dissemination
according to species. The latter question especially presents
itself to the mind when we consider the unequal extent now occu-
pied by this or that group of animated creatures : for example,
the ourang-outang is confined to the island of Borneo and the
neighbouring lands ; the musk-ox is colonized in the most northern
part of America, and the lama in the elevated regions of Peru
and Chile, while the wild-duck is seen everywhere, from Lapland
to the cape of Good Hope, and from the United States to China
and Japan.

The circumstances which favour the dissemination of species
are of two kinds : the one pertains to the animal itself, and the other
is foreign to it. Among the first is the development of the loco
motive power, all things being equal in other respects ; the species
which live attached to the earth, or which possess only imperfect
instruments of locomotion, occupy a very limited extent of the
earth's surface, compared to those species whose moving powers
are rapid and energetic : among terrestrial animals, birds present
us with most examples of cosmopolite species, and, among aquatic
animals, the ceta'ceans, and fishes. Reptiles, on the contrary,
are restricted to narrow limits, and the same is true of most
mollusks and crusta'ceans. The instinct possessed by certain
animals to change their climate periodically, also contributes to
the dissemination of species ; and this instinct exists in a great
number of these creatures.

106 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Among the circumstances foreign to the animal, and in a mea-
sure accidental, we place first the influence of man ; and to illus-
trate this point, a few examples will suffice. The horse is origin-
ally from the steppes of Central Asia, and, at the time of the
discovery of America, no animal of this species existed in the
New World ; the Spaniards carried it with them there not more
than three centuries back, and now, not only do tfee inhabitants
of this vast continent, from Hudson's Bay to Terra del Fuego,
possess horses in abundance, but these animals have become
wild, and are found in almost countless herds. The same is true
of the domestic ox : carried from the Old to the New World,
they have multiplied there to such an extent that in some parts
of South America they are actively hunted for their hides only,
for the manufacture of leather. The dog has been everywhere
the companion of man, and we could instance a great many ani-
mals that have become cosmopolite by following us; the rat,
which appears to be originally from America, overran Europe in
the middle ages, and is now met with even on the islands of
Ocea'nica.

In some cases, animals have been able to break through natural
barriers, seemingly insurmountable, and spread themselves over
a more or loss considerable portion of the surface of the globe,
by the assistance of circumstances whose importance at first
sight seems very trifling, such as the movement of a fragment of
ice or wood, often carried to considerable distances by currents:
nothing is more common than to meet at sea, hundreds of miles
from land, fucus floating on the surface of the water and serving
as a resting-place for small crusta'ceans incapable of transport-
ing themselves, by swimming, far from the shores where they
were born. The great maritime current, the gulf-stream, com-
mencing in the gulf of Mexico, coasts North America to New-
foundland, then directs its course to Iceland, Ireland, and returns
towards the Azores, often bearing to the coasts of Europe, trunks
of trees which were conveyed by the waters of the Mississippi,
from the most interior parts of the New World, to the sea ; it
frequently happens that these masses of wood are perforated by
the larvse of insects, and they may afford attachment to the eggs
of mollusks, and of fishes, &c. Finally, even birds contribute
to the dispersion of living creatures over the surface of the globe,
and that too in a most singular manner : frequently they do not
digest the eggs they swallow, but, evacuating them at places far
from where they were picked up, carry to great distances the
germs of races unknown till then in the countries where they
were deposited.

Notwithstanding all these means of transportation and other
circumstances favouring the dissemination of species, there are

OF ANIMALS. 107

very few animals that are really cosmopolites, the most of these
creatures being colonized within limited regions. That such
should be the case, we can comprehend, if we study the circum-
stances which may oppose their progress. But this study is far
from furnishing us a satisfactory explanation of all cases of
limited circumscription of a species, and it is often impossible to
divine why certain animals remain restricted to a locality, when
nothing seems to oppose their propagation in neighbouring situa-
tions.

Whatever may be the reason, the obstacles to the geographical
distribution of species are sometimes mechanical, and at others,
physiological ; among the first are seas and chains of lofty moun-
tains. To terrestrial animals seas of much extent are in general
an impassable barrier, and we perceive, all things being equal,
the mixture of two distinct faunas is always most intimate in pro-
portion as the regions to which they belong are, geographically,
most approximated, or in communication with each other, by
intermediate lands. The Atlantic Ocean prevents species peculiar
to tropical America, from extending to Africa, Europe, or Asia ;
and the fauna of the New World is entirely distinct from that of
the old continent, except in the highest latitudes, towards the
north pole. But there the land of the two continents is approxi-
mated, America being separated from Asia only by Behring's
Straits, and is connected to Europe by Greenland and Iceland :
on this account zoological exchanges can be more easily effected,
and we find there species common to both worlds ; for example,
the white bear, the reindeer, the castor, the ermine, the bald
eagle, &c. Chains of lofty mountains also constitute natural
barriers, which arrest the dispersion of species, and prevent the
admixture of faunae, proper to neighbouring zoological regions.
For instance, the opposite declivities of the Cordillera of the
Andes are inhabited by species which are for the most part dif-
ferent ; the insects of the Brazilian side, for example, are almost
all distinct from those found in Peru and New Granada.

The dispersion of marine animals living near coasts is pre-
vented in the same manner by the geographical configuration of
the earth; but here it is sometimes a continuation of a long chain
of land, and sometimes a vast extent of open sea, which opposes
the dissemination of species. Thus most animals of the Medi-
terranean are also found in the European portion of the Atlantic,
but they do not extend to the seas of India, from which the Medi-
terranean is separated by the isthmus of Suez, nor can they
traverse the ocean to gain the shores of the New World.

The physiological circumstances which tend to limit the dif-
ferent faunae are more numerous ; and without doubt, the first iu
consideration is the unequal temperature of different regions of
the earth. There are species which can bear an intense cold and

103 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

tropical heat equally well ; man and the dog, for example ; but
there are others which, in this respect, are less favoured by
nature, and which do not flourish, or even cannot exist, except
under the influence of a determined temperature. For instance,
monkeys, which thrive in tropical regions, alrfiost always die of
phthisis, when exposed to the cold and humidity of our climate;
while the reindeer, formed to support the rigours of the long and
severe winter of Lapland, suffers from the warmth of St. Peters-
burgh, and generally succumbs to the influence of a temperate
climate. Hence it is that, in a great number of cases, the dif-
ference of climate is alone sufficient to arrest species in their
march from high latitudes towards the equator, or from the equa-
torial regions towards the poles. The influence of temperature,
on the animal economy, also explains why certain species remain
within a chain of mountains, without being able to extend beyond
it to analogous localities. We know, in fact, that temperature
decreases in proportion to the elevation of the land, and conse-
quently, animals that live at considerable heights cannot descend
on to the low plains, to reach other mountains, without traversing
countries in which the temperature is much higher than that of
their ordinary dwelling. The lama, for example, abounds on the
pastures of Peru and Chile, situated at a height of from twelve to
fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, extending south-
wards to the extremity of Patagonia, but is not seen either in
Brazil or Mexico, because it cannot reach those countries without
descending to regions too warm for its constitution.

The nature of the vegetation, and of the previously existing
fauna, in a region of the globe, also exerts an influence on its
invasion by exotic species. Thus, the dispersion of the silk-
worm is limited by the disappearance of the mulberry, beyond a
certain degree of latitude ; the cochineal cannot spread beyond
the region in which the cactus grows; and the large carnu'ria,
except those that live on fishes, cannot exist in the polar regions,
where vegetable productions are too poor to nourish any consider-
able number of herbi'vorous quadrupeds.

It would be easy to multiply examples of these necessary rela-
tions between the existence of an animal spfjcies, in a particular
place, and the existence of certain climatic, phytological, or
zoological conditions; but our limits do not permit these details,
and the considerations we have already presented, appear to be
sufficient to give an idea of the manner in which nature has
effected the dissemination of animal species, on different parts of
the earth's surface ; and, to attain the end we proposed to our-
selves in commencing the subject, it only remains for us to glance
at the results brought about by the different circumstances we
have just mentioned, that is, the present state of the geographical
distribution of animated creatures.

OF ANIMALS. 109

When we compare with each other the different regions of the
globe, in respect to their zoological population, we are at first
struck by the extreme inequality remarked in the number of
species. In one country we find a great diversity in the form
and structure of the animals composing its fauna, while in another
place, there is great uniformity in this respect ; and it is easy to
perceive a certain relation existing between the different degrees
of zoological richness, and the more or less considerable -eleva-
tion of temperature. In fact, the number of species, both marine
and terrestrial, augments, in general, as we descend from the poles
towards the equator. The most remote lands of the polar regions
offer little to the observation of the traveller but some insects,
and in the glacial seas the fishes and mollusks are but little va-
ried ; in temperate climates the fauna becomes more numerous in
species ; but it is in tropical regions that nature has displayed the
greatest prodigality in this respect, and the zoologist cannot behold
without astonishment the endless diversity of animals that he there
finds assembled.

It is also remarked that there is a singular coincidence between
the elevation of temperature in different zoological regions, and
the degree of organic perfection of the animals which inhabit
them. It is in the warmest climates that those animals live that
most nearly resemble man, and also those in the great zoological
divisions which possess the most complicated organization, and
the most developed faculties, while in the polar regions we meet
with creatures occupying a low rank in the zoological series.
Monkeys, for example, are confined to the warm parts of the two
continents ; the same is true of parrots among birds, of croco-
diles and tortoises among reptiles, and of land-crabs among crus-
ta'ceans, all of them the most perfect animals of their respective
classes.

It is also in warm countries that we find animals the most
remarkable for the beauty of their colours, their size, and the
strangeness of their forms.

Indeed there seems to exist a certain relation -between the cli-
mate and the tendency of nature to produce this or that animal
form. We observe a very great resemblance between most ani-
mals inhabiting the extreme northern and southern regions; the
fauna? of the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North
America, are very analogous in their general aspect, and in the
tropical regions of the two worlds similar forms predominate. It
is not identical species that we meet in distinct and nearly
isothermal regions, but species more or less approximating to
each other, which seem to be the representatives of one and the
same type. For example, the monkeys of India and of Central
Africa are represented in tropical America by other monkey'3

110 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.

easily distinguishable from the first ; the lion, tiger, and pan-
ther, of the old continent, correspond to the cougar, jaguar, and
ounce, of the New World. The mountains of Europe, Asia, and
North America, nourish bears of distinct species, but differing
very little from each other. Seals abound especially in the
neighbourhood of the polar circles ; and if we seek the proofs of
this tendency, not among the highest classes of the animal king-
dom, but among the inferior creatures, they will be found not less
evident : cray-fishes, for example, appear to be confined to the
temperate regions of the globe, and are found throughout Europe,
in a species common to European streams ; in the South of
Russia, there is a different species ; in North America, there are
two species, distinct from the preceding ; in Chile, there is a fourth
species; in the south of New Holland, a fifth; in Madagascar,
a sixth ; and at the Cape of Good Hope, a seventh.

A comparison of the faunae peculiar to the different zoological
regions of the globe leads to other results for which it is more
difficult to account ; when we examine successively the assem-
blage of species inhabiting Asia, Africa, and America, we remark
that the fauna of the New World is characterized by inferiority,
a fact which did not escape the celebrated Buffon. In a word,
there are no mammals existing now in the New World as large
as those of the old ; it is true, we find, in America, a consider-
able number of monkeys, but among them there is none equal to
the ourang-outang, or chimpanzee ; the roden'tia and edenta'ta
abound most, which, of all ordinary mammals, are the least intel-
ligent. Finally, in America, we find opossums, animals belong-
ing to an inferior type of ordinary mammals, which have no
representative, neither in Europe, nor Asia, nor Africa. If we
pass from the New World to the still newer region of Australia,
we shall there see a fauna whose inferiority is still more decided,
for there the class of mammals is scarcely represented by the
Marsu'pials and Monotre'mata.

As to the limitation of the different zoological regions into
which the globe is divided, and the composition of the faunae
proper to each, we cannot treat without exceeding our limits ; but
we regret this less, because, in the present state of science, these
questions are far from being settled.

Here we terminate our zoological studies : for the object we
proposed to ourselves was not a particular description of each
animal, nor an enumeration of those characters which would
enable us to recognise or group them methodically; we were
merely desirous of giving some notion of the nature and proper-
ties of th63se creatures, to sketch rapidly the prominent traits of
their history, and furnish our young readers the general know-
.'edge most useful to all, and indispensable to those who wish to
study more profoundly this branch of the sciences of observation

GLOSSARY.

ENTOMOLOGY.

ABDO'MEN. — From the Latin, abdere,
to conceal. The belly ; that part
of the trunk which contains the
stomach, liver, intestines, &c,

ABDO'MINAL. — Relating to the abdo-
men.

ASRAN'CHIA (a-bran'-kea). — In the
plural, abran'chiee. Abran'chians.
From the Greek, a, without, and
bragchia, gills. An order of anne-
lidans, so called, because the spe-
cies composing it have no external
organs of respiration.

ABRAN'CHIATE. — Relating to, or of the
nature of abranchia.

ACALE'PHA. — From the Greek, akale-
phe, a nettte. Class of radiate
animals, so called, on account of
the singular property possessed by
most of the species, of irritating
and inflaming the skin, when
touched.

ACALE'PHA. — Plural of acale'pha.

ACALE'PHANS.— Animals of the class
Aetle'pha.

ACA'RIDES. — A tribe of arachnidans,

A'CARUS. — From the Greek, akari, a
mite. A genus of arachnidans.

A'cARi. — Plural of Acarus.

ACOU'STIC. — From the Greek, akoud,
I hear. "Relating to sound, or
hearing.

A'CRID. — From the Latin, acer, sharp,
sour. Burning, irritating.

ACRY'DIUM. — From the Greek, oirts,
a locust. Name of a genus of in-
sects.

ACTI'NIA.— From the Greek, aktin, a
ray. A genus of polypi, with very
numerous tentacles, which extend,
like rays, from the circumference
of the mouth (Jig. 87).

ACU'LEATES. — From the Latin, acu-
leus, a prickle. A tribe of hy-
menopterous insects, in which the
females and neuters are provided
with a sting, generally concealed

within the last segment of th«
abdomen.

AGGREGATED. — From the Latin, ag-
grego, I gather. Collected to-
gether.

AGGREGATION, — A collection : a mass
composed of many.

AGGLOM'ERATKD. — From the Latin,
ad, to, and glomero, I heap up.
Gathered into a ball or heap.

ALIMEN'TARF. — Affording nourish-
ment.

1 From the Greek, am-

AMPKI'PODA. 1 pltis, on both sides,

AMPHI'PODS. j and pous, foot. An
J order of crusta'ceans.

AMPHITRI'TK. — A genus of anneli-
dans.

AMPUTA'TION. — From the Latin, am-
putare, to cut off. The act of cut-
ting off or removing a limb or
projecting part

ANA'TIFA. — Plural, anatifa. From
the Latin, anas, in the genitive
case, flwafcts, a duck, and fero, I
bear. A genus of cirrhopods. It
was for a long time believed that
certain ducks were derived from
the metamorphosis of these ani-
mals; and for this reason they
were called nna'tifa.

~\ From the Latin, anel-
lus, a little ring. It

ANEL'LIDA. 1 is, also, written an-

ANEI/UBES. j nelida^und annelides.
A class of articulate
J animals.

ANEL'LID.E. I Plural of anellida and

ANNE'LID^E. £ annelida

ANNE'UDAN. — An animal of the class
anel'lida.

ANIMA'LIA. — Latin. Animals.

AXIMA'LITY. — From the French, ani-
maliti. The peculiar vitai pro-
perty or character which belongs
to and distinguishes animals.

— A diminutive animal.
(Ill)

112

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

ANNULAR. — In form of a ring.

AN'NUL,US. — In the plural, anruli.
Latin. A ring.

ANO'BIUM. — From the Greek and,
above, upwards, and baino, I
ascend. Generic name of certain
beetles.

ANOMOU'RA. — From the Greek, ano-
mos, irregular, and euro, tail. A
division of crusta'ceans.

ANTEN'NA. — Latin. A yard-arm. A
tubular, jointed, filiform organ,
placed on the head of insects, and
some other animals. A feeler.

ANTEN'NA. — Plural of antenna.

ANTEPEC'TUS. — From the Latin, ante,
before, and pcctus, the breast. The
under surface of the first ring of
the thorax in insects.

ANTESTER'NUM. — From the Latin,
ante, before, and sternum, the
breast-bone. The fore part of the
middle line of the breast-plate; the
centre of the antepectus.

ANTHOPHO'RA. — In the plural, antho-
phorae. From the Greek, anthos,
a flower, and phero, I bear. Name
of a genus of hyinenopterous in-
sects. Applied also to insects
whose habits are analogous to
bees.

A'NUS. — The outlet or inferior open-
ing of the intestines.

AOR'TA. — The main artery of the
body.

AOR'TIC. — Belonging to, 01 of the
nature of tiie aorta.

A'PHIS. — From the Greek, aphis, a
plant-louse, a vine-fretter.

A'PHIDES. — Plural of aphis. Plant-
lice.

AFHRO'DITA. — A genus of anneli-
dans.

A'PIS. — Latin. A bee.

APPARA'TUS. — Latin. Formed from
ad, for, and parare, to prepare. A
collection of organs or instruments
for any operation whatever.

A'PODOUS. — From the Greek, a> with-
out, and pous, foot. Without
feet.

AP'TERA. — From the Greek, a, with-
out, and pteron, wing. A division
of insects, characterized by being
without wings.

AP'TEROUS. — Without wings ; wing-
less.

AQUA'TIC. — Belonging or relating to
the water.

ARACH'NIDA (arak'-ne-da), — From the
Greek, arachne, a spider. A class
of articulated animals.

ARACH'NID^E. — Plural of arachriida.

ARACH'NIDANS. > Animals of the class

ARACH'NIDES. \ Arachnida.

ARANE'IDA (Plural, arane'idse). —
From the Latin, aranea, a spider.
A tribe of pulmonary arach'ni-
dans.

ARENICO'LA (Plural, arenicolffi). —
From the Latin, arena, sand, and
colo, I inhabit. A genus of anne-
lidans.

AR'TERIES. — Blood-vessels,which con-
vey blood from the heart, to all
parts of the body : blood is carried
back to the heart, from all parts
of the body, by the veins.

ARTI'CULATA. — Latin. Articulated.

ARTI'CULATE. i Having articula-

ARTI'CULATED. \ tions ; jointed.

ARTICULA'TION. — A joint.

ASCA'RIDES. — A genus of worms.

ASPHYX'IA. — From the Greek, a, with-
out, and sphuxis, pulsation. State
of suspended animation, or seem-
ing death.

ASSIMJLA'TION. — A part of the func-
tion of digestion, by which the
food, previously prepared by the
digestive organs, is converted into
organic matter, similar to that
composing the various animal tis-
sues. »

ASTA'CUS. — Latin. A lobster.

ATEU'CHUS (a-tue-kus}. — A genus of
insects.

A'TROPOS. — Greek name of one of the
Fates. A genus of insects.

AURA'TUS. — Latin. Golden ; gilded.

AUTUMNA'LIS. — Latin. Autumnal.
Belonging to the autumn.

BALA'NI. — Plural of balanus.

BALA'NUS. — Latin. A barnacle.

BIFID. — Split into two points or
parts.

BILIA'RY. — Belonging or relating to
bile.

BOMBY'CES. — Plural of bombyx.

BO'MBYX. — From the Greek, ftom-

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

113

bux, a silk-worm. A genus of
insects.

BRA'CHYU'RA (brak-e.v-ra). — From
the Greek, brachus, short, and oura,
tu.il. A tribe of crusta'ceans.

BRAN'CHIA (brari -ke-a), — Latin. A
gill.

BRAN'CHI.E. — Plural of branchia.
Gills.

BRANCHIAL. — Belonging or relating
to gills,

BUC'CAL. — From the Latin, bvcoa,
cheek. Belonging or relating to
the cheeks,

C^EMENTA'RIA. — Latin. Belonging
or relating to mortar.

CALCA'RECHTS, — Of the nature of lime,

CAN'CER. — Latin. A crab.

CAN'THARIS. — Latin, A kind of fly.

CANTHA'RIDES. — Plural of cantharis.

CAPIL'LARY. — Hair-like.

CA'RAPACE, — The shell of crusta-
ceans,

CA'RABI. — Plural of Carabus.

CA'RABUS. — A genus of insects.

CARNA'RIA. — Name of an order of
mammals,

CARNI'VORA. — Latin. Carni'vorous.
Name of a class of insects.

CARNI'VOROUS. — From the Latin, caro,
carnis, flesh, and voro, I eat.
Flesh-eating.

CAR'TILAGE. — Gristle.

CARTILA'GINOUS. — Of the nature of
cartilage.

CAU'DAI. — From the Latin, cauda,
tail. Relating to a tail.

CAUS'TIC. — From the Greek, kaid, I
burn. Applied to substances which
have the power of burning or dis-
organizing animal tissue.

CAVITA'RIA. — From the Latin, cam-
tas, a hollow, a cavity. An order
of Entozoa, in which the intestinal
canal is contained in a distinct
abdominal cavity.

CE'NTIPED. — From the Latin, centum,
a hundred, and pes, foot. A hun-
dred legs ; a genus of myriapods.

CEPIIA'LIC. — From the Greek, kephale,
head. Belonging or relating to
tlje head.

CE'PHALO-THORAX. — From the Greek,
kephale, head, and thorax, chest.
Term applied to that part of the
10*

body of arachnidans, composed of

the head and thorax.
CETA'CEANS. — An order of mammals,

which includes the whale.
CER'VUS, — Latin. A stag,
CHELA. — Plural, chelee. Latin. From

the Greek, chele, pincers. A crab's

claw,
CHELI'CERA, — Plural,cheliceree. From

the Greek, cheie, pincers, and keras,

horn, A term applied to append-

ages on the head of arachnidans.

}From the Greek, chru-
sos, gold. The second
stage of the meta-
morphosis of insects.
CHYLE (kite). — A nutritious fluid, a
result of the digestion of food,
fitted for assimilation.
CHYLI'FEROUS. — From the Greek,
chulos, chyle, and fero, I bear.
Chyle-bearing.

CICA'DA. — Latin. A grasshopper.
CICIN'DELA. — From the Latin, cicen'-
dela, a glow-worm. Name of a
genus of beetles.

CIL'IA.— Plural, ciliae. Latin. Eye-
lash.

CI'MEX. — Latin. A bug.
CIR'RIPED. > A description of articu-
CIR'RHOPOD. s lated animals.

From the Latin, cir-
rus, a tendril, and
pes, foot. A class
of articulated ani-
mals.
CIR'RI. — Latin, plural of cirrus.

Tendrils.

CLAVICOR'NES. — From the Latin, cla-
vus, a club, and cornu, horn.
Name of a family of insects.
CLO'ACA. — A sewer.
CLY'PEUS. — Latin. A buckler. Name
of that part of the head of insects
to which the labrum is attached.
COCCINEL'LA. — From the Latin, coc-
cinus, crimson. Name of a genus
of insects.

COCOO'N. — The silken case which
the larvse of certain insects spin,
to cover them during a period of
their metamorphosis.
Coc'cus. — Latin. Scarlet cloth. Ge-
neric name of the cochineal hi-
sect.

CIR'RHOPODA.
CIR'RIPEOA.

114

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

COLEOP'TERA. — From the Greek,
koleos, a sheath, and pteron, wing.
Name of an order of insects.

COLEOP'TER^E. — Plural of Coleop'tera.

COLEOP'TEROUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to Coleop'tera.

CO'PRIS. — From the Greek, kopros,
dung. A genus of insects.

CO'RAL. — From the Greek, koreo, I
ornament, and als, the sea. The
hard calca'reous support, formed
by certain polypi.

COR'NEA. — From the Latin, cornu,
horn. The transparent part of the
eye-ball.

COR'NEA. — Plural of cornea.

CORIA'CEOUS. — Leathery.

CORSE'LET. — The second segment or
ring of the body of insects.

COSMO' POLITE. — From the Greek, kos-
mos, world, and polls, city. A
citizen of the world.

COX'A. — Latin. Hip.

CREPUS'CULAR. — From the Latin, cre-
puscula, twilight. Relating to
twilight.

CRUSTA'CEA. — From the Latin, crvsta,
a crust. A class of articulated
animals.

CRUSTA'CEA. — Plural of Crusta'cea.

CRUST A'CEAN. — Of the class of Crus-
ta'cea.

CRUSTA'CEOUS. — Of the nature, or
belonging to Crustaceans.

CU'TICLE. — The scarf-skin.

CU'TIS. — Latin. The skin : the true
skin.

CU'LEX. — Latin. A gnat.

CY'NIPS. — A genus of insects.

DE'CAPOD. — Of the family of Deca-
poda.

DECAFO'DA. — From the Greek, deca,
ten, and pous, foot. A family of
Crusta'ceans.

DEGLUTI'TION. — The act of swallow-
ing.

DEMI-ELY'TRA. — From the French,
de'mij half, and e'lytrum. Half-
wing cases.

DENTA'LIUM. — From the Latin, dens,
a tooth. A genus of cirrhopods.

DEN'TATE. — Toothed.

DENTICULA'TION. — A tooth-like pro-
jection.

PERMES'TES. — From the Greek, der-

ma, skin, and esthio, I eat. A

genus of insects.
DIA'PHANOUS. — From the Greek, did,

through, and phaino, 1 appear.

Transparent ; that which may be

seen through.
DIP'TERA. — From the Greek, dis, two,

and pteron, wing. An order of in-

sects.

DIP'TERA. — Plural of Dip'tera.
DIP'TEROUS. — Relating to Dip'tera.
DIUR'NAL. — From the Latin, dies

day. Daily.

DOMES'TICA. t Latin. Domestic ; re.
DOMES'TICUS. \ lating to home.
DOR'SAL. — From the Latin, dorsum,

the back. Relating to the back.
1 Having dorsal
branchta. or

bra'nchiata.

DORSIBRAN'CHIATA. — From the Latin,
dorsum, back, and branchiae, gills.
An order of annelidans.

DYTIS'CUS.— From the Greek, dutikos,
diving, expert in diving. Name
of a genus of aquatic insects.

ECHI'NODERM. — Belonging or relating
to Echinodermata.

ECHINODER'MATA. — From the Greek,
echinus, a hedge-hog, and derma,
skin. A class of radiate ani-
mals.

ELA'BORATE. ) From the Latin, lalo-

ELABORA'TION. $ ra're, to work. —
These words are employed to sig-
nify the separation and appropria-
tion of nutritive matter, by the
action of living organs, upon sub-
stances capable of assimilation.
The elaboration of food in the
stomach produces chyme.

E'LATER. — From the Greek, elater, a
leaper. A genus of insects.

E'LYTRA.— Plural of Elytrum.

E'LYTRUM. — From the Greek, elutron,
a sheath. A wing-cover. The
first pair of wings, when hard and
horny, as in beetles.

ENTOMO'LOGY. — From the Greek,
entoma, insects, and logos, dis-
course. The science of insects.

EN'TOMO'STRACANS. — From the Greek,
entomos, incised, and oslrakon, a

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

115

shell. A division of the class of
Crusta'cea.

ENTOZO'A. — From the Greek, entos,
in, and 200/1, an animal. Name
of a class of lowly organized crea-
tures, which live in the internal
organs of other animals.

EPHE'MERA.— From the Greek, ephe-
meras, daily. A genus of insects.
Day-flies, so called, because their
last stage of existence is generally
limited to twenty-four hours.

EPHE'MER^E. — Plural of Ephemera.

EPIDER'MIS. — From the Greek, epi,
upon, and derma, skin. The cuti-
cle or scarf-skin.

EUNI'CE. — Greek. A genus of anne-
lidans.

EXCRE'TJON. ) From the Latin, ex-

EXCRE'TORY. £ cer'nere, to separate
from. The throwing off those
matters which are supposed to be
useless, or injurious to organic
life, as the perspiration in animals.
An excretion is a secretion thrown
off. An excretory duct, is any duct
conveying off an excretion from
an organ.

EXO'TIC. — From the Greek, exdtikos,
foreign. Any thing introduced
into one country, from some other
country, is so termed.

EXTRE'MITIES. — Legs, arms, wings,
are so termed.

FA'CE 1-. — A little face, or surface.

FARINA'CEOUS. — From the Latin,
farina, flour. Of the nature of
flour.

FAU'NA. — From the Latin, faunus,
the name of a rural deity among
the Romans. All animals of all
kinds peculiar to a country con-
stitute the fauna of that country.

FAU'N.E. — Plural of Fauna.

FE'MUR. — Latin. The thigh.

FILIA'RIA. — From the Latin, filum, a
thread. A family of thread-like
entozoa.

FILIA'RIA:. — Plural of Filia'ria.

FI'I.IFORM. — Thread-like.

FISSJPEN'NA. — From the Latin, Jindo,
I split, and penna, wing. A genus
of insects, remarkable for the
wings being as it were split into
separate parts.

FISSIPEN'N*:. — Plural of Fissipenna.
FIS'SURED. — Split, separated.
FLEX'UOUS. — From the Latin, flecto,

I bend. Bending.
FLOC'CULI. — Plural offloculus, a lit-

tie lock of wool.
FLUVIATI'LIS. — Fluviatile ; belonging

or relating to a river.
FOR'CEPS. — Latin. Pincers.
FOR'FICULA. — From the Latin, /or/ear,

a pair of scissors. A genus of

insects.

FOR'MICA. — Latin. An ant.
Fu'cus. — Latin. Sea-weed.
Fut/ vous. — Tawny.
FUNC'TION. — From the Latin, fungor,

I act. The action of an organ or

set of organs.
FU'SIFORM. — From the Latin, fusus,

a spindle, and forma, shape. Spin-

die-shaped.
GALE'A. — Latin. A helmet. In Or-

thoptera, the extremity of the lobe

of the palpus, is so called.
GAN'GLIA. — Plural of ganglion.
GAX'GLION. — From the Greek, gag-

glion, a knot. A knot or enlarge-
ment along the course of a nerve.
GAS'TEROPOD. — From the Greek, gas-

ter, belly, and pous, foot. A kind

of mollusk.
GECAR'CINUS. — From the Greek, ge,

the earth, and karkinos, a crab.

A genus of crusta'ceans. Land-
crab.
GELA'TINOUS. — Of the nature of jelly

or gelatine : jelly-like.
GEO'COKIS^E. — From the Greek, ge,

earth, and koris, bug. A division

of insects.

GEOLO'GICAL. — Relating to Geology.
GEO'LOGIST. — One skilled in Geology.
GEO'LOGY. — From the Greek^-e, earth,

and logos, discourse. The science

of the earth.
GER'MINATK. — From the Latin, ger

men, a bud. To grow after the

manner of a plant.
GLU'TINOUS. — Sticky, adhesive, gluey.

Of the nature of glue.
GRA'NULAR. — Grain-like ; composed

of grains.
GRILLO-TAL'PA. — Compounded ofgri*

lus, a cricket, and talpa, a mole

Mole-cricket.

116

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

GRY'LLUS, also Grillus. — Latin. A

cricket.
GY'RINUS. — From the Greek, guros, a

circle. A genus of coleopterous

insects.
HALTE'RES. — From the Greek, '«/f eres,

lumps of lead held in the hands to

aid persons taking the exercise of

leaping, like the balancing-poles of

rope-dancers. Poisers.
HEMIP'TERA. — From the Greek, Vmt-

SMS, half, and pteron, wing. Name

of an order of insects.
HEMIP'TERA. — Plural of Hsemip'tera.
HERBI'VOROUS. — From the Latin,

herba, plant, and coro, I eat.

Plant-eating.
HETEROME'RAN. — From the Greek,

'eteros, various, and meros, joint,

leg. A section of coleop'terous

insects.
HETEROP'TERA. — From the Greek,

'eteros, various, and pteron, wing.

A section of the order Hemip'tera.
HETEROP'TERJE. — Plural of Heterop'-

tera.
HEXA'GONAL. — From the Greek, 'ex,

six, and gonia, angle. Having six

sides or angles.
HEX' APOD. — From the Greek, 'ex,

six, and pous, foot. Having six

feet. Applied to true insects.
HIEROGLY'PHIC. — From the Greek,

ieros, sacred, and gluphd, I en-
grave. Sculpture-writing. The

name is more peculiarly applied to

a species of writing, in use among

the ancient Egyptians.
HOMOP'TERA. — From the Greek, 'omos,

same, and pteron, wing. An order

of insects.
HOMOP'TERA. — Plural of Homop'-

tera.
HOMOP'TERAN. — Of the order Homop'-

tera.
HYDA'TIDS. — From the Greek, 'udatis,

a bladder. Name of certain ento-

zoa.
HY'DRA. — A- minute fresh water

polyp.
HY'DROCO'RIS^;. — From the Greek,

Wor, water, and koris, a bug. A

tribe of insects, including the

water-bug.
HYMENOP'TERA. — From the Greek,

'umen, a membrane, and pteron^
wing. An order of insects.

HYMENOP'TERA. — Plural of Hyme-
noptera.

IMA'GO. — Latin. Image. Name
given to insects after they have
completed their metamorphosis.

IMBIBI'TION. — From the Latin, in, in,
and bibo, I drink. The act of
absorbing or soaking in.

INFUSO'RIA. — From the Latin, in-
fundo, I pour in. A class of
microscopic animalcules, which
are for the most part developed in
infusions of decayed animal and
vegetable substances.

INSEC'TA. — Latin. Insects.

IN'SECT. — From the Latin, in, into,
and seco, I cut. Applied to a class
of animals, whose bodies are, as it
were, cut into three parts ; name-
ly, head, thorax, and abdomen.

INSECTI'VOROUS. — From the Latin,
insecta, insects, and voro, I eat.
Insect-eating.

INSERT'ED. — From the Latin,insere're,
to engraft. Attached ; set in.

INTE'GUMENT. — Covering.

INVE'RTEBRATE. — From the Latin, in,
without, and vertebra, a joint of
the spine or back-bone. Without
spine or back-bone.

IR'RITANS. — Latin. Irritating.

ISO'POD. — Of the order Iso'poda.

ISO'PODA. — From the Greek, isos,
equal, and pous, foot. An order
of crusta'ceans.

ISOTHER'MAL. — From the Greek, isos,
equal, and therme, heat. Of the
same heat or temperature.

LA'BIUM.— Latin. A lip. The lower
lip of insects.

LA'BRUM. — Latin. A lip. The up-
per lip of insects.

LAMEL'LA. Latin. A thin plate or
piece.

LAMEL'LA.— Plural of lamella.

LAMEL'LICORNES. — From the Latin,
lamella, a plate, and cornu, a
horn. A section of coleopterous
insects.

LA'MINA.— Latin. A thin plate.

LA'MIN^E. — Plural of lamina. A
tribe of beetles.

LAM'PYRA. — From the Greek, lam*

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

117

puris, a glow-worm. A genus of
insects.

LAR'VA. — Latin. A mask. The first
state of an insect after leaving the

GSS-
LECTULA'RIUS. — Latin. Belonging or

relating to a bed.
LEPIDOP'TERA. — From the Greek,

lepis, a scale, and pteron, wing.

An order of insects.
LEP'TUS. — From the Greek, leptos,

slender. A genus of arachni-

dans.
LIBEL'LULA. — Latin. A dragon-fly.

A genus of insects.
LI'GULA. — A part of the lower lip of

insects.
LI'MULUS. — From the Latin, limits,

mud. A genus of crusta'ceans.
LOCUS'TA. — Latin. A cray-fish. A

genus of crusta'ceans.
LOCUS'T^E. — Plural of Locusta.
LUCA'NUS. — From the Greek, lukos, a

kind of insect. A genus of beetles.
LUCI'FUGOS. ? Latin. Formed from
LUCI'FUGA. ^ lux, light, and fugo,

I fly from. Light-avoiding.
LUM'BRICUS. — A genus of annelidans,

and also a genus of entozo'a.
LUM'BRICI. — Plural of Lum'bricus.
LY'COSA. — From the Greek, lukos, a

wolf. A genus of arachnidans.
LY'COS^E. — Plural of Lycosa.
MACROU'RA. — From the Greek, ma-

kros, long, and oura, tail. A sec-
tion of decapod crusta'ceans.
M^E'NAS. — From the Greek, menis,

wrath. Specific name of a crab.
MAM'MAL. — Any animal that suckles

its young.
MAN'DIBLE. — From the Latin, man-

dibula, a jaw. Applied to the

lower jaw of mammals, and to

both jaws of birds. In insects it

is applied to the upper or anterior

pair of jaws.
MANDUCA'TION. — From the Latin,

manduco, I chew. The act of

chewing ; mastication.
MARI'NUS. — Latin. Marine ; belong-
ing to the sea.

MASTICA'TION. — The act of chewing.
MAX'ILLA. — Latin. The cheek-bone ;

a mandible.

.— Plural of Maxilla.

MAX'ILLARY. — Relating to the Max-
ill®.

ME'DIA. — Plural of Medium.

ME'DIO-PEC'TUS. — From the Latin,
medius, the middle, and pectus,
breast. The centre of the breast
of insects. See p. 15.

ME'DIO-STER'NUM. — The central por-
tion of the sternum or breast of
insects.

ME'DIUM. — The substance or matter
in which bodies exist, or through
which they pass in moving from
one point to another. The air, for
example, is a medium, in which
we exist ; fishes live in another
medium.

MEDU'SA. — A genus of marine ani-
mals of the class Acale'pha.

MEDU'S^E. — Plural of Medusa.

MELO-LON'THA. — Greek. From me-
lon, an apple, and anthos, flower.
Generic name of a kind of beetle.

MEM'BRANOUS. — Of the nature of
membrane.

MEN'TUM. — Latin. The chin.

ME'SOTHORAX. — From the Greek,
mesos, the middle, and thorax, the
chest. The middle ring of the
thorax of insects.

METAMOR'PHOSIS. — From the Greek,
mela, indicating change, and mor-
phe, form. Transformation. The
change which insects undergo.

METAMOR'PHOSES. — Plural of Meta-
morphosis.

ME'TATHORAX. — From the Greek,
meta, between, and thorax, chest.
The third ring of the thorax of
insects, so called, because it is be-
tween the chest and abdomen.

MI'CROSCOPE. — From the Greek,
mikros, small, and skoped, I view.
An optical instrument, by means
of which we are enabled to ex-
amine minute objects, such as
cannot be seen by the naked eye.

MICROSCO'PIC. — Belonging or relating
to a microscope,

MI'GRATORY. — From the Latin, mi-
grate, to move from one place to
another. Applied to animals which
habitually change their place ot
residence.

MOL'LUSK, — From the Latin, mollis

118

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

soft. A peculiar description of
soft animal.

MO'RI. — Latin. Of the mulberry
tree.

MO'RUS. — Latin. A mulberry tree.

MO'TIVE. — From the Latin, movco,
I move. That which moves or
sets in motion.

MOULT. — To change the feathers ; to
cast the skin.

MOULT'ING. — The act of chang-
ing the feathers or casting the
skin.

MUS'CA. — Latin. Fly,

MUSCI'D^E. — From the Latin, musca,
a fly, and the Greek, eidos, resem-
blance. A section or division of
the class of insects, which includes
flies.

MY'GALE. — From the Greek, mugale,
a field-mouse. A large kind of
spider.

MY'RIAPOD. — Of the class My'ria-
poda.

Mv'RiAPonA.-»-From the Greek, mu-
rias, ten thousand, and pous, foot.
A class of articulate animals.

NA'TATORY. — From the Latin, tiato,
I swim. Swimming, floating.

NERVU'RES. — The horny tubes in the
wings of insects, which serve to
stretch them.

NEUROP'TERA. — From the Greek,
neuron, a nerve, and pteron, wing.
An order of insects.

NIT. — A louse's egg.

NOCTILU'CUS. — Latin. Belonging or
relating to the moon.

NOCTUR'NAL. — From the Latin, nox,
night. Belonging or relating to
night.

NUTRI'TION. — The animal function,
by which the various organs re-
ceive nutritive substances (previ-
ously prepared by the several or-
gans of digestion), necessary to
repair their losses and maintain
their strength.

NYM'PHA. — The second stage of
metamorphosis of insects.

O'CELLAR. — Relating to ocelli.

O'CELLI. — Latin. Plural of ocellus,
a little eye.

CESO'PHAGUS. — The gullet.

(Es'TRi.— Plural of CEstrus.

— Latin. A gad-fly.

ONIS'CUS. — Latin. A wood-louse.

OP'TIC. — From the Greek, optomai,
I see. Relating to vision.

O'RAL. — From the Latin, oris, the
mouth. Relonging or relating to
the mouth.

OR'GAN. — From the Greek, organon,
an instrument. Part of an organ-
ized being, destined to perform a
particular function.

ORGA'NIC. — Relating to organs.

ORGANIZATION. — A mode of struc-
ture.

OR'GANISM. — The arrangement of
organs ; the assemblage of their
different functions.

ORTHOP'TERA. — From the Greek,
orthos, straight, and pteron, wing.
An order of insects.

ORTHOP'TERA. — Plural of Orthop'-
tera.

OS'SIFIED. — From the Latin, os, bone.
Converted into bone.

O'TIOPJ. — From the Greek, dtion, a
small ear. A genus of cirrhopods.

O'VA. — Plural of ovum.

O'VARY. — Receptacle of the ova.

O'VUM. — Latin. An egg.

OVIDUCT. — From the Latin, ovum,
an egg, and duco, I lead. The
tube which conducts the ovum
from the ovary.

OVI'PAROUS. — From the Latin, ovum,
an egg, and pario, I produce. Ap-
plied to animals whose young are
born from eggs.

OVIPOS'ITOR. — From the Latin, ovum,
an egg, and pono, I place. The
instrument by which insects de-
posit their eggs.

OX'YGEN. — The vivifying gas, which
constitutes about one-fifth of the
atmosphere.

PAGU'RUS. — Latin. Hermit-crab.

PALJE'MON. — Generic name of prawns.

PAL'PI. — Latin. Plural of Palpus.

PAL' PUS. — Latin. A feeler. An or-
gan attached in pairs to the labium
and maxilla of insects.

PAPI'LIO. — Latin. A butterfly.

PARENCHY'MATA. — From paren'chy-
ma, which is formed from the
Greek, paregchuein, to strain
through ; the spongy and cellular

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

119

tissue of organized bodies. Re-
lating to paren'chyma.

PARASI'TA. — Latin. Parasite.

PARASI'T^E. — Plural of Parasita.

PA'RASITE. — A hanger on, an ad-
herent.

PARASI'TIC. — Of the nature of a
parasite.

PARI'ETES. — From the Latin, pari'es,
a wall. The sides or parts form-
ing an enclosure ; the limits of
different organic cavities are so
termed.

PEC'TINATE. — From the Latin, pecten,
a comb. Resembling the teeth of
a comb.

PEC'TUS. — Latin. The breast.

PED'ICLE. — A little foot : a support.

PEDI'CULUS.: — Latin. A louse.

PEDIPAL'PI. — From the Latin, pes,
foot, and palpo, I feel.

PE'DIPALPS. — Name of a tribe of
arach'nidans.

PE'DUNCLE. — A foot-stalk or tube on
which anything is seated.

PEL' LET. — A little ball.

PEL'TRY. — From the Latin, pellis,
skin or hide. The name given to
dried skins of animals from which
furs are prepared.

PE'NETRANS. — Latin. Penetrating.

PENTALAS'MIS. — A genus of Cirrho-
pods.

PENTAME'RAN. — From the Greek,
pente, five, and meros, joint. A
section of coleopterous insects.

PENTATO'MA. — A genus of hemip'-
terans.

PHALAN'GIUM. — Latin. A genus of
arachnidans, including those in
which all the legs are very long
and slender.

PHA'RYNX. — The swallow.

PHILE'NOR. — Specific name of a but-
terfly.

PHOSPHORES'CENCE. — From the Greek,
phds, light, and phero, I carry.
The emission of light by substan-
ces at common temperatures.

PHOSPHORES'CENT. — Emitting light at
common temperatures.

PHYSIO'LOGIST. — One skilled in phy-
siology.

PHTHI'SIS. — From the Greek, phthio,
I fade. Consumption.

PHYTOLO'GICAL. — From the Greek,

phuton, plant, and logos, discourse.

Belonging or relating to plants.
PO'LYP. — From the Greek, polust

many, and pous, foot. A radiate

animal.

PO'LYPI. — Latin. Plural of polypus.
PO'LYPUS. — Latin. A polyp.
POLYGAS'TRIC. — From the Greek,

polus, many, and gaster, stomach.

Having many stomachs.
POLYGAS'TRICA. — Latin. Polygas-

tric.
PORTU'NUS. — Latin. Formed from,

portus, a port, bay, or haven.

Name of a group of crusta'ceans.
POST-PEC'TUS. — From the Latin, post,

behind, and pectus, the breast.

That part of the breast of insects

which corresponds to the meta-

thorax.
POST-STER'NUM. — The posterior part

of the sternum.
PREHEN'SILE. — From the Latin, pre-

hendere, to lay hold of. Having

the power to grasp or lay hold of

objects.
PREHEN'SION. — The act of taking

hold of. The prehension of food,

consists of laying hold of and con-

veying it to the mouth.
PROBOS'CIS. — A prolongation of the

nose or corresponding part.
PROCESSIONNE'A. — Latin. That goes

in procession.
PRO'JECTILE. — From the Latin, pro-

jicio, I throw forward. Capable

of being thrown forward.
PROTHO'RAX. — The first ring of the

thorax.
PTERO'PHORA. — From the Greek,

pteron, wing, and phero, I bear.

A genus of nocturnal lepidopterous

insects.

PU'LEX.— Latin. A flea.
PULMONA'RIA. — Latin. Pulmonary.
PUL'MONARY. — Relating or belonging

to the lungs.
PU'PA. — Latin. A puppet, a baby.

The second stage of metamorpho-
sis of insects is so called.
PU'P^E. — Plural of pupa.
PY'RIFORM. — From the Latin, pyrum,

a pear, and forma, shape. Pear

shaped.

120

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

QUADRICOK'NIS. — From the Latin,
quatuor, four, and cornu, horn.
Specific name of a crusta'cean.

RADIA'TA. — Latin. Radiate.

RA'DIATE. — From the Latin, radius,
spoke of a wheel, a ray. Radiate
animals are those of the lowest
degree of organization in the ani-
mal kingdom.

RA'MIFIED. — From the Latin, ramus,
a branch. Branched.

RECU'RVED. — Bent backwards.

RETI'CULATED. — Formed like a piece
of net-work.

RETRAC'TTLE. — Susceptible of being
drawn back.

RHIPIP'TERA. — From the Greek, ripis,
a fan, and pteron, wing. An order
of insects.

RI'CINUS. — Latin. A tick.

ROS'TRUM. — Latin. A beak, a snout.

ROTATO'RIA. — Latin. Rotatory.

SABEL'LA. — A genus of cirrhopods.

SABEL'L,E. — Plural of Sabella.

SALI'VA. — Fluid secreted in the
mouth : spittle.

SA'LIVARY. — Relating to saliva.

SARCOP'TES. — A genus of arachni-
dans.

SARCITEL'LA. — From the Latin, sarcio,
I patch. A genus of moths.

SCARABE'US. — Latin. A beetle, a
chaffer.

SCOLOPEN'DRA. — Latin. Generic name
of centipedes.

SCOR'PIO. — Latin. A scorpion.

SECRE'TE. — From the Latin,secernere,
to separate. To select and take
from the organic fluids, materials
peculiarly adapted to the purposes
of the organ or agent that secretes.

SECRE'TION. — The act or process by
which organic structure is enabled
to separate from the fluids circu-
lating in it, other different fluids.
The fluids thus separated, are
termed secretions.

SECRE'TORY. — Belonging or relating
to secretion.

SEDENTA'RIA. — Latin. Sedentary.

SEDENTA'RI^E. — Plural of sedenta'ria.

SEG'MENT.— A slice, a section.

SER'PULA. — From the Latin, serpo, 1
creep. A family of anne'lidans,
which inhabit a calcareous tube,

usually adherent to the shells of

mollusks.

SER'RATE. ) From the Latin, serro,
SER'RATEO. £ a saw. Having a

rough edge like the teeth of a saw.
SERRICOR'NES. — From the Latin,serr<7,

a saw, and cornu, horn. A family

of coleopterous insects.
SES'SILE. — From the Latin, sessilis,

dwarfish. Without a pedicle or

support.

SE'TA. — Latin. A bristle.
SE'™.— Plural of seta.
SETA'CEOUS. — Of the nature of setae

or bristles.
SETI'GEROUS. — Having or bearing

setae.

SI'NUS. — An excavation or hollow.
SPIN'NERETS. — Spinners. Organs with

which insects spin their silk or web.
STER'NAL. — Belonging or relating to

the sternum.

STER'NUM. — The breast-bone.
STIG'MATA. — A spiracle or breathing.

hole, forming the external opening

of the tracheae or air-vessels, in

insects.

STI'LET. — A little stile or point.
STY'LIFORM. — In shape of a stile.
Sucyo'RiA. — Latin. Suctorial.
SUCTO'RIAI,. — From the Latin, sugo,

I suck. Applied to those tribes of

insects, crustaceans and anneli-

dans, which are provided with

suckers.

SYPHO'STOMA. — From the Greek, si-
phon, a tube, and stoma, mouth.

A genus of annelidans.
TJE'NIA. — From the Greek, tainia,

a fillet. A tape-worm.
TAH'TRA. — A genus of crusta'ceans.
TAREN'TULA. — From Tarentum, a

town in Italy. A genus of arach'-

nidans.

TAR'SI. — Plural of tarsus.
TAR'SUS. — The fifth section or divi-
sion of the leg of insects, or foot.
TEGENA'RIA. — From the Latin, tegere,

to conceal. A name applied to the

family of spiders.
TEG'UMENT. — From the Latin, tego, I

cover. A covering ; the skin, for

example.

TEGUMEN'TARY. — Belonging or re-
lating to the tegument.

ENTOMOLOGY.— GLOSSARY.

121

TEN'TACLE. — From the Latin, tenta-

culum, a holder. Certain appen-
dages about the mouth of insects,

&c.
TENTA'CULAII. — Belonging or relating

to ten'tacles.
TEREBRAN'TIA. — From the Latin, tere-

bro, I bore. A section of hyme-

nopterous insects.
TERIBEI/LA. — A genus of anneli-

dans.
TER'MITES. — From the Latin, termes,

a branch of a tree. A tribe of

neuropterous insects.
TERRICO'LA. — From the Latin, terra,

earth, and colo, I inhabit. A divi-
sion of annelidans.
TESTA'CEOUS. — From the Latin,

testa, a shell. Of the nature of

shells.
TETRAME'RANS. — From the Greek,

tetteies, four, and meros, joint. A

division of coleopterous insects.
THELPHU'SA. — A genus of crusta'-

ceans.
THORA'CIC. — Belonging or relating to

the thorax.

THO'RAX.— The chest.
THYSANOU'RA. — From the Greek,

thusanai, fringes, and oura, tail.

An order of insects.
TI'BIA. — A leg.
TI'BIJE.— Plural of tibia.
TI'NEA. — Latin. A moth- worm, that

eats clothing, books, &c.
TI'NE.E. — Plural of tinea.
TIS'SUE. — From the Latin, texere, to

weave. The substances of which

the organs are composed.
TRA'CHEA (tra'ke-a). — Wind-pipe ; a

tube conveying air.
TRA'CHE^E. — Plural of trachea.
TRA'CHEAL, (tra'ke-al). — Relating to

trachea.
TRACHEA'RIA. — Latin. Tracheal ;

having tracheae.
TRI'LOBITE. — From the Latin, Ires,

three, and lobus, lobe. A fossil

crusta'cean.
TRIME'RANS. — From the Greek, treis,

three, and meros, joint. A division

of coleopterous insects.
TRIRA'DIATE. — From the Latin, tres,

THE

three, and radius, ray. Three*

rayed.
TRITO'RES. — Latin. Grinders ; tri

turators.
TUBICO'LA.— From the Latin, tubus,

a tube, and colo, I inhabit. A

genus of anne'lidans. .
TU'BICOLE. — Tube-inhabiting.
TU'BERCLE. — A small tuber; a little

knot or nob.
TUR'BINATED. — Shaped like a top or

pear.
UTRI'CULA.— Latin. A little bladder

or sac.

UTRI'CUL^E. — Plural of utricula.
VAGABUN'D,E. — Latin. Vagabond.
VANES'SA. — From the Greek, phanes,

one of the names of Venus. A

genus of butterflies.
VAS'CULAR. — Having numerous ves-
sels.

VE'NOUS. — Relating to the veins.
VEN'TRAL. — Belonging or relating to

the belly.
VEN'TRICLE.— A little belly ; a small

cavity.
VER'TEBRATE. — Having vertebrae, or

a spine.
VESICATO'RIA. — Latin. Vesicating,

blistering. Specific name of the

Spanish-fly.

VE'SICLE.— A little bladder.
VES'PA. — Latin. A wasp.
VES'PIARY. — A wasp's nest.
VIS'CERA. — Plural of viscus.
Vis'cus. — Any internal part, as the

intestine, &c.
VITA'TA. — Latin. Avoided, shunned.

Specific name of a fly.
VI'TREOUS. — From the Latin, vitrea,

glass. Resembling glass ; of the

nature of glass.
VULGA'RIS. — Latin. Common.
XI'PHOSURA. — From the Grcek,ziphos,

a sword, and ovra, tail. Name of

a tribe of crusta'ceans.
ZOOL'OGY. — From the Greek, zoon,

an animal, and logos, a discourse.

The science of animals.
ZOOLO'GICAL. — Belonging to zoology.
ZO'OPHYTE. — From the Greek, zoon,

an animal, and phutw, plant. A

plant animal.

END,

NEW AND IMPORTANT SCHOOL BOOKS.

TO TEACHERS, PRINCIPALS AND CONTROLLERS

OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES AND COLLEGES

We take the liberty of calling your attention to a Series
of Books on the subject of Natural History, which, in the
opinion of many of the most eminent men in our country,
is second to no branch of knowledge now taught in schools.
We ask your attention to these books, because we believe
them to be superior to any works of the kind ever offered
to the American public. They are small in size, extremely
cheap, as accurate in scientific arrangement as the most
voluminous works on similar subjects, and in every respect,
such as parents and teachers would wish to place in the
hands of their children. In confirmation of this opinion of
the worth of these works, we respectfully invite your
attention to the following testimonials.

Very respectfully, your obedient servants,

GRIGG & ELLIOT,
No. 9 North Fourth Street, Philad'a

These books have been introduced into the Public Schools of Pennsylvania
and Ohio, and no doubt will, ere long, be introduced into all the public schools
of our other States.

"We regard the introduction of these works into our public schools, among the
highest compliments they have received ; for we feel sure that the gentlemen
who constitute the committee for selecting books, possess too much discernment
and general knowledge, to pass favourably upon works of inferior pretensions.
The following gentlemen composed the Committee for selecting books for the
use of Public Schools." GEORGE M. WHARTON, Esq.

THOMAS H. FoRsyrrf, Esq.
GEORGE EMLEN, Jr., Esq.
FRANCIS LYONS, Esq.
JOHN C. SMITH, Esq.
Philadelphia.

In addition to the following flattering notices of the American Press, the pub-
lishers have received upwards of one hundred recommendations from the most
prominent professors and distinguished teachers of our country, to the superior
claims of these works, and urging their introduction as Class Books into all the
Schools, Academies, &c., throughout the United States.

HUSCHENBERGER'S SERIES.

FIRST BOOKS

OF

NATURAL HISTORY,

SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES.

1. ELEMENTS OF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

2. ELEMENTS OF

MAMMALOGY,

The Natural History of (Quadrupeds.

3. ELEMENTS OF

ORNITHOLOGY,

The Natural History of Birds.

4. ELEMENTS OF

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY,

The Natural History of Reptiles and Fishes.

5. ELEMENTS OF

CONCHOLOGY,

The Natural History of Shells and Mollusca.

6. ELEMENTS OF

ENTOMOLOGY,

The Natural History of Insects.

7. ELEMENTS OF

BOTANY,

The Natural History of Plants.

8. ELEMENTS OF

GEOLOGY,

The Natural History of the Earth's Structure.

This interesting series of books has already met with the most
flattering reception ever extended to any work issued from the Amer-
ican press. Introduced into the Public Schools of Pennsylvania, and
in nearly all the first class seminaries of learning in the United States.

RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES.

" Ruschenberger's Series of Books on Natural History, are among the
most valuable and useful works, for the use of Schools that have ever been
published. A knowledge of Natural History, is not only valuab e, but
deeply interesting; and no one's education can, with such facili ies as these
works afford, be considered comp'ete without it." — National Intelligencer.

"These are the mo^t valuable Additions of the day to our stock of School
Books. The avidity with which they have been seized upon is unprece^
dented. Though the first vol. w.is published for the first time only a few
months! ngo, it has already gone through its fifth edition; the second is fol.
lowing clo.-e upon its heels; and the third prorni es even to be more popular
than either of the other two. These books have been adopted by the * Uoyal
Council of Public Instruction,' for the use of Schoo's throughout France.
They are recommended and have been adopted by some of the most eini
nent teachers in the United States." — Southern Literary Messenger.

From ''The Ladies' Companion, a Monthly Magazine." June, 1842,— New York.
W. Snowden, 109, Fulton Street.

"RuscHENBKRGEa's ORNITHOLOGY: Grigg & Elliot. This is an excel,
lent book, by one who shows himself perfectly qualified for the task he has
undertaken, which is the publishing of a series of works on the different
branches of education, for the use of schools and colleges. The present
issue is a general and synoptical view of Ornithology, one of the most
interesting subjects in Natural History, and will be found of great service,
both to teacher and student."

" This is a compendious, and, as it seems to us. a judiciously compiled
treatise on Ornithology, and one well calculated for the use of Schools ; for
which object it is intended." — N. Y. Courier and Enquirer.

" In the work before us, the plan is happily carried out. In its small
compass it embraces an immense amount of useful and interesting infor-
ination." — Buffalo Adv. and Journal.

"Ornithology. — This is evidently, like its predecessors, an excellent work
of instruction; and ha^ been, in all respects well got up by the publishers/'
• — Pennsylvanian,

" A valuable little work, and is divided up and classified admirably. The
glossary, giving the derivation of the names of birds, is of itself worth the
price of the volume." — New York Aurora.

"An exceedingly interesting, and very instructive book, and one which
possesses special attraction for young ladies." — Baltimore Sun.

"RuscHRNBERGEu's SERIES : Second Book. — A highly useful and instructive
school book. Third Book. — This we consider as decidedly an acquisition
to our list of school books, the subject is treated of. in such a plain style aa
to be adapted to the simplest capacity. Altogether we think the above
series as worthy to take a high and permanent place among our schord
books " — Buffalo Democrat.

" We wish we could induce our teachers generally to examine this, a?
well as the earlier works of Dr. Ruschenberger ; they are admirably
arranged, and just the very books needed for schools. The work before
us on the Natural History of Birds is an admirable one, and no teachei
should neglect to introduce the series. ' — Cincinnati Gazette.

* It is an excellent text book of an interesting science, comprising much
knowledge in a brief space, presented in a clear style and with lucid
arrangement. Dr. Rnschenbergcr, who has already achieved a high charac
rer in the li'erary world, is acquiring additional claims by his exertions i»
the field uf Natural Science.— Spectator, Washington City.

RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES.

** Ruschenberger's Series. — These volumes are constructed upon a new
and admirable plan, combining great simplicity of arrangement, with a
perspicuity and sententiousness of style seldom found in works of this
class; find which has elicited the highest encomiums of upwards of thirty
of the leading professors of the country, whose opinions have again been
endorsed by most of the public prints." — U. States Adv.

"The developement of the principles of classification, is among the very
best we have ever seen. Science is here dressed in her own native sim-
plicity and beauty, so that the philosopher may admire, while the child may
acquire it. — Medical Reporter.

" it is a choice, and well digested work." — Atlas.

"An excellent publication adapted to the youthful mind, and a great help
to the more matured." — Mercury.

"The study of Natural History though generally neglected in schools,
is of undoubted use : the present work contains a great amount of infor.
niation within a sm;ill compass, and properly condenses it for the young
mind." — N. Y. Journal of Commerce.

" Ruschenberger'>s Series. — The subjects are Well treated, and from the
exceeding cheapness, and admirable arrangimeu' of these elementary work?,
they are well fitted for general use in public schools and academies."—
New York American.

"We do not hesitate to say, that this is the best work of the kind and
dimensions, that has even fallen under our notice. We hope all will embrace
the first opportunity of procuring a copy, as we are sure they will prize
it highly." — Botanic Recorder.

"A well dige ted and curefu'ly arranged abstract of the most interesting
parts of Natural Science." — Philade'phia Gazrtte

"Admirably adapted to convey an elementary knowledge on the subject
of which it treats; and will be found an excellent book for the student." —
Public Ledger.

"Valuable in every respect, — it contains a vast amount of inform ition,
condensed into an available form, for the use of schools." — Spirit of the Times.

14 Just such a work as is wan'ed for elementary instruction, in this pleas-
ing branch of science." — New York Evening Post.

" We regard this series as eminently useful, supplying adequately the
instruction in natural history necessary to a proper school education."—
North American.

" It is an rxcellcnt little woik for the purpose designed, written in a cl ar
and familiar style, and will not fail to facilitate the studies of those who
wish to make themselve- acquainted with the subject." — Sat'irday Courier.

"Admirably adapted for elementary instruction."— Sutuidny Chronicle.

" We have great pleasure in recommending it as an excellent elementary
manual on th<- subject " — Medical Examiner.

"Ornithology — This book is equal in merit to the first and second, and
is a most valuable work. It is intended for the use of schools and acade-
mies, and we would call the attention of parents and others to the series of
books to which this belongs, assuring them at the same time, that it will
answer the purpose for which it is intended, better than any other work of
the kind that we ever saw, or, in our opinion, that was ever published in
this country. It is divided into questions and answers, contains an exten-
sive and valuable Glossary, end is illustrated by eight Plates ; and what 19
more the price is so very low that every person can aftord to purchase it. —
fitv) Yoik New Era.

4.

RECOMMENDATORY NOTICES.

it has been justly observed, that " the double effect of the study of Natural Hi«oiy
is to impart certainty to the mind, and religion to the heart," and the Christian no les»
than the man of science, must rejoice in every effort to throw more widely open the
sublime and boundless field which it presents. This is the design of Dr. Ruschenberger,
in a series of First Books of Natural History, which he is preparing foi the use oi
schools and colleges. — Banner of the Cross.

The series have met a demand and sale in Prance almost unparalleled, and the words
are well adapted, not only for schools, but for popular reading and instruction. This
work is from the French of Edwards and Comte, and has received the warm commen-
dation of many of the best physicians and scholars in this country — JV. Y. Eve. Tattltr*

It is highly commended by the very best authorities.— JV. Y. Tribune.

This book is highly commended by competent judges, and we therefore give our so*
lemn opinion that it is an excellent work.— Boston Daily Times.

A small, but very valuable work. — Boston Evening Transcript.

We have examined this new book for schools and colleges, with peculiar gratification.
The style is succinct and clear, and the subject illustrated by appropriate drawings. We
should be glad to see this work introduced into all the schools. It teaches knowledge
the most important, which has been, however, strangely overlooked in our school and
college system. It is a book which should not be confined to seminaries alone It may
be used with advantage by all individuals in society. We repeat, it is in all respects a
most excellent work, and we hope will receive the attention and patronage it merits. —
Brooklyn Evening Nfar.

A valuable work; we have read it with profit. — JV. Y. Mercury.

We are highly pleased with this work. For elementary instruction in families,
schools, and colleges, it is decidedly superior to any thing of the kind we have seen. It
gives much valuable information in a very small space, and in style it is generally free
from obstruse technicalities It has already received the highest recommendations from
a large number of professional men in different parts of the country ; and it must have,
we think, a general circulation. It gives that kind of knowledge which should be dif-
fused among the mass of the people, and it must and will be patronised as far as its
merits are known. — Zion's Watchman.

This is a fine little book, containing the elements of much useful learning, illnstra-
ted by anatomical plates of the human figure, its orirn MS and their functions. It is a
highly useful work to the student — indeed to every citi/en it shows how fearfully and
wondermlly we are made, and what slight causes may derange and utterly destroy lh«
complicated machine. — The Olive Brand

A very useful little work.— JV. Y. Atlas.

As far as we are competent to determine, it may safely be welcomed as an important
addition to the means of elementary instruction in natural science, — The Friend.

We recommend it as a highly instructive publication. — JV. Y. Times and Eve. Star.

This is a most valuable work, by Dr. Ruschenberger, and most admirably are the
plates, representing a'l the different parts of the body, done. It is cheap, and every pa
rent should place one in the hands of their children. — JV. Y. Herald.

We have examined this little volume with much pleasure, and think it admirably
adapted to the purpose for which it is intended. Animal Mechanism, as a study, has
generally been neglected, except by the few, whose profession requires a knowledge of
it, and who have time to spare in acquiring that knowledge. A prominent cause of
the neglect of this useful and interesting science by the general student, is, the want
of a suitable treatise upon the subject, those extant being too voluminous, technical,
and expensive for general use. The little work before us is happily calculated to sup-
ply this want. It will, we think, be introduced into our schools and colleges as a text,
book, but its circulation ought not to be confined there. Every private library should
be considered incomplete without it. — JV. Y. Mechanic.

It seems to us to be well suited for the object for which it is designed, and it wiB
doubtless be introduced into many of our eleiner vary schools. — The American Journal
of the Medical Sciences.

OPINION OF THE PUBLIC PRESS.

" Such a little treatise is just the thing for our schools and academies and
no time should be lost in introducing it." — New York Mirror.

" This is a most excellent work, and we would most respectfully recom-
mend it to our common school tru tees, as worthy of introduction into the
temples of learning under their supervision." — New York New Era.

"The plan and arrangement of the work are admirable, and eminently
calculated to facilitate the progress of the pupil. — We recommend it to
teachers and he;ids of families." — Philadelphia Sat. Chronicle.

" We know of no books better calculated to convey elementary instruction
than these, and heart.ly recommend those which have appeared." — Brothet
Jonathan.

"We cannot too earnestly recommend it to public attention." — Cincinnati
Enquirer.

" Decidedly one of the best elementary works on the subject with which
we have ever met." — New York Lancet.

"The information it contains is at once lucid, intelligible, and satisfactory;
it forms an excellent text-book for classes in schools, and cannot fail to
infuse into the young mind a knowledge and love of Natural History. It
is concise ;md comprehensive, and must if adopted iu seminaries of learning
be exceedingly useful in inculcating a correct knowledge of the elements o
Zoology. The plan is excellent, and must be found eminently useful."—
Alexandria Gazette.

" It is one of the most valuable works of the kind we have erer read. —
Such are the books we like to see disseminated among the people." — Neu>
Orleans American.

"The reputation of the author is a guarantee that the work is a good one.
On examination we find it to be so. It is an ad nirable compend of the
subjects of which it treats: — we should think, indeed, that it would attract
the attention of teachers, both from its cheapness, and the admirable manner
in which it is arranged." — Cincinnati Gazette.

" The Second Book: — this number treats of all animals that in infancy
feed on the milk of their mothers; from the human being down to the mus-
quito-catching bat. — Like the " First Book," it is divided into questions and
answers, and a glossary ; and is illustrated by six plates. It is as cheap as
dirt ; and contains an abundance of useful information. There are thousands
of persons in this country, and millions in Europe, who do not know that
whales give milk." — New York Era.

"We do not know a more useful set than this promises to be: — and IS." — •
New York Aurora.

" We hesitate not to say that it is a valuab'e work, and fully entitled to
the high encomiums bestowed upon it; taken as a whole the work may be
justly regarded as invaluable to schools." — New York Standard.

" It is a most valuable work, and one which we believe has no superior in
our seminaries, — we know of nothing equal to it. It is very flatteringly
recommended by the most distinguished men in France and in the United
States, and deserves it." — New York Courier and Enquirer.

Ruschenberger's Second-Book of Natural History. — "This is another 01
those useful volumes, which Dr. Ruschenbeiger is so beneficially in editing.
His former volume has already been received into some of our public school,
nnd we hope both it and the present may find ihur way into all." — American
Medical Intelligencer.

The present work, is in our opinion quite a desideratum, and abounds
with information of the most useful and, at the same time, most necessary
character, every parent should place it in the hands of his children, and no
public instructor should neglect to give it a place in his academy. — Phil*
delphia Spirit of the Times. 6

HTJSCHENB ER GEH'S SEBIES,

FIRST BOOKS

OP

ATURAL HISTOR

FOR SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES,

1. ELEMENTS OP

NATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

2. ELEMENTS OF

MAMMALOGY,

The Natural History of Quadrupeds.

3. ELEMENTS OF

ORNITHOLOGY,

The Natural History of Birds.

4. ELEMENTS OF

HERPETOLOGY AND ICHTHYOLOGY,!

The Natural History of Reptiles and Fishes.

5. ELEMENTS OF

CONCHOLOGY,

The Natural History of Shells and Mollusca.

6. ELEMENTS OF

ENTOMOLOGY,

The Natural Hi story of Insects*

7. ELEMENTS OF

BOTANY,

The 'Natural History of Plants*

8. ELEMENTS OF

GEOLOGY,

The Natural History of the Ea. .h's Structure.

The above valuable Series of Elementary School Books are f«r j
sale by Booksellers ana Country Merchants generally throughout tl e !
United States.