?>•
,t
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LIBRARY
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
GIFT OF
MRS. MARY WOLFSOHN
\
IN MEMORY OF / J
HENRY WOLFSOHN
^^
ELEMENTS
OF
NATURAL HISTORY:
EMBRACING
ZOOLOGY, BOTANY AND GEOLOGY;
SCHOOLS, COLLEGES AND FAMILIES.
BY
W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M. D.,
JRGEON, U. 8. N\VY; MEMBER OF THK AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; OF THE AC A lj EMI
»»r MATUKAL SCIENCES, FHILAPELPHIA : OF THE AMERICAN AhbOl.lA.T10H FUR
THK ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; <kC., ItC.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
WITH NEARLY ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS,
AND A COPIOUS GLOSSARY.
RA
' OF TMt
<IYER8(TY f
VOL. II.
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS,
BOTANY • THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANTS,
GEOLOGY; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE
PHILADELPHIA:
CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER,
819 & 821 MARKET STREET,
1871.
Entered, according to the Act of Cong.-ee*. in the year 1850. b?
W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M. D.,
n he Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for th»
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
VOL. II.
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
!NTOMOLOGY : THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF ARACHNIDANS OR SPIDERS.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CRUSTACEANS OR CRABS.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF ANNELIDANS OR WORMS.
THL NATURAL HISTORY OF ZOOPHYTES OR RADIATE ANIMALJ.
BOTANY.
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANTS.
GEOLOGY.
THE NATURAL Hf STORY OF THE EARTH'S STRUCTURE.
GLOSSARY.
CONTENTS
OF
ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HISTORY.
V£L£MEJ[I.
BOOK VI.
(Third Branch of the .Animal Kingdom; Articulated Animals.)
ENTOMOLOGY; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS.
LESSON I.
General Considerations — Structure of Articulated Animals — Division
of the Third Branch of the Animal Kingdom.
Class of Insects — Organization — Metamorphosis — Classification. P. 9 — 29
LESSON II.
Aptera — Order of Thysanoura.
Order of Parasita — Louse — Ticks.
Order of Suctoria — Flea — Chigre.
Order of Coleoptera — Characters — Division — Pentamerans — Cicln..
LHi — Carabus — Gyrinus or Water-beetle — Fire-flies — Glow-worm
— Borers — Dermestes — May-bugs — Scarabeus — Heteromerans—
Blisterinsj-flies — Teteramerans — Weevils — Trirnerans — Lady-bug.
Oraer of Orthoptera — Characters — Earwigs — Mole-crickets — Crick-
ets— Grasshoppers — Migratory Locusts P. 30 — 40
LESSON III.
Order of Hemiptera — Organization — Division — Bed-bug — Locust—
Plant-lice — Cochineal Insect.
Order of Neuroptera — Dragon-flies — Ephemera — White Ants
Order of Lepiaoptera — Division — Butterflies — Sphinx— Bom by x—
Silk-worm— Tinese P. 41—51
LESSON IV.
Order of Hymenoptera — Organization — Ichneumon-fly — Galls —
Wasps — Hornets — Ants — Bees.
Order of Rhipiptera.
Order of Diptera — Mosquitoes — Flies — CEstrus.
Class of Myriapoda — Scolopendra P. 52 — 60
ARACHNIDANS, OR SPIDERS.
LESSON V.
Class of Arafhnidans — Organization — Habits — Classification.
Arachnida Pulmonaria — Araneidse or Spinners — Mygale — Mason
Spider — Aranese Sedentariae — Araneae-Vagabundae — Tarentula —
Scorpions.
1* (v)
CONTENTS. — VOLUME II.
Arachnicla Trachearia — Mowers — Acarides — Mites — Itch-Arachni-
dan— Ticks.., P. 60— 67
CRUSTACEANS, OR CRABS.
LESSON VI.
Class of Crustacea — Organization — Moulting — Circulation — Respi-
ration—Division P. 68—73
LESSON VII.
Crustaceans — Order of Decapoda — its Division.
Brachyura — Crabs — Land-crabs — Habits.
Anomoura — Soldier or Hermit-crabs.
Macroura — Craw-fishes — Lobsters — Locustse — Prawns.
Orders of Amphipoda and Isopoda — Sea-louse — Wood-louse — King-
crab— Entomostracans — Trilobites.
Class of Cirrhopoda — Anatifa — Balanus P. 73 — 82
ANNELIDANS, OR WORMS.
LESSON VIII.
Class of Annelida — Organization — Division — Earth-worms.
Family of Suctoria — Leech.
Order of Dorsibranchiata — Eunice.
Order of Tubicola— Sabella ..P. 83— 89
(Fourth Branch of the Animal Kingdom ; Zoophytes, or Radiate dnimalt.)
LESSON IX.
Zoophytes— Organization — Division.
Class of Infusoria Rotatoria.
Class of Entozoa — Division — Filiaria — Ascarides — Tsenia.
Class of Infusoria Polygastrica.
Class of Echinodermata — Sea-stars.
Class of Acalepha — Medusa.
Class of Polypi — Coral — Coral-reefs — Hydrse— Sponges — Geographi-
cal Distribution of the Animal Kingdom P. 90 —1 10
CONTENTS. — VOLUME II.
BOOK VII.
BOTANY; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANTS.
LESSON I.
Botany — Definition of Plants — Structure of Plants — Nomenclature
of Organs P. 9—16
LESSON II.
Functions of Nutrition — Absorption and Ascent of Sap — Roots;
their Structure and Forms — Stem; its Divisions, Varieties, &c. —
Structure of the Stem, in Exogens — Medullary Canal — Pith —
Medullary Sheath— Wood— Medullary Rays— Bark— Epidermis
— Cork — Structure of the Stem in Endogens P. 16 — 27
LESSON III.
Mechanism of the Absorption and Ascent of the Sap — Ascending
Sap — Exhalation — Respiration — Leaves — Parts of Leaves; their
Structure, Shape, and Position — Stipules — Tendrils — Examples o
the Forms of simple and compound Leaves — Exhalation — Respi-
ration— Distribution of the nutritive Juices — Descending Sap —
Secretions — Excretions — Succession of Crops — Proper Juices —
Lignin — Fecula — Growth of Plants — Grafting — Effects of the
Seasons on the Nutrition of Plants— The Age of Plants P. 27 — 62
LESSON IV.
Generation of Plants — Multiplication of Plants by Division — For-
mation of adventitious Roots — Multiplication of Plants by Graft-
ing; by Tubercles — Phanerogamous and Cryptogamous Plants
defined — Structure of Flowers — Peduncle — Pedicil — Floral Leaf
— Bract— Involucre — Spathe — Glume—Torus — Receptacle — Inflo-
rescence— Perianth — Calyx — Corolla — Petals — Forms of the Co-
rolla— Nectary — ./Estivation — Essential Parts of Flowers — Sta-
mens— Anther — Pollen — Pistil — Carpel — Ovary P. 63 — 82
LESSON V.
Development and Functions of Flowers — Flora's Calendar — Flora's
Clock — Fertilization of Flowers — Fruit — Epi-carp — Meso-carp —
Endo-carp — Carpels — Classification of Fruits — Seeds ; their Struc-
ture- -Embryo — Cotyledons — Germination P, 83— 9"
CONTENTS. — VOLUME II.
LESSON VI.
Classification of Plants — Natural and Artificial Methods — Artificial
System of Linnaeus — The Natural Method of Jussieu.
Cryptogamous Plants — Lichens, Fungi, Agarics, Truffle, Algae, Mosses,
Ferns.
Phanerogamous Plants — Monocotyledons — Grasses — Wheat, Rye,
Barley, Malt, Oats, Rice, Maize, Sugar-cane, Sugar, Sugar-candy —
Palms — Narcissus — Dicotyledons — Apetalous Dicotyledons —
Monopetalous Dicotyledons — Potato, Tobacco, Belladonna, Olive,
Sage, Coffee — Polypetalous Dicotyledons — Hemlock —Mallow,
Cotton, Flax, Orange, Tea, Vine, Wine, Poppy, Sensitive Plant,
Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry, Apricot, Peach, Strawberry, &c. — Di-
cli'nese — Hop, Hemp, Elm, Bread-fruit, Oak, Chestnut, Ash, Pine
— Of the Uses of Plants — Examples of Ornamental Plants.. P. 98 — 145
BOOK VIII.
GEOLOGY ; THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE EARTH5S STRUCTURE*
LESSON I.
GEOLOGY DEFINED — Form of the Earth — Its Surface — Internal Heat
—Mineralogy defined — Definition of the term Rock — Formations
— Strata — The origin of Strata — Vegetable Earth — Alluvium —
Division of the Formations — Plutonic Formations — Neptunian or
Stratified Rocks — Order of Strata — Temple of Jupiter Serapis —
Subsidence and Elevation of Coasts P. 1 1— -20
LESSON II.
ORGANIC REMAINS — Fossils — how produced.
FIRST GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Primitive Rocks — Granite — Gneiss —
Mica-Schist — Argillaceous Schist.
SECOND GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Transition Formation — Cambrian Sys-
tem— Silurian System — Trilobites and other Animal Remains —
Devonian System — Fossil Fishes — Fossils — Limits of the Transi-
tion Formation — Strata changed in position by Geological Convul-
sion* P. 2 1 — 36
LESSON III.
THIRD GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Secondary Formation — Carboniferous
Formation — Old Red Sandstone — Fossils — Coal Formation — Fos-
sils— Extent of Coal Measures.
FOURTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH— New Red Sandstone — Fossils — Tri-
CONTENTS —VOLUME II. ix
assic System — Bunter Sandstein — Muschelkalk — Keuper — Am-
monites— Fossils.
FIFTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Lias or Liassic System — Fossils — Ich-
thyosaurus— Pleisiosaurus — Pterodactylus — Oolite System — Fos-
sils. . P. 36— M
LESSON IV.
SECONDARY FORMATION continued.
SIXTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Cretaceous Formation — Lower Cretace-
ous System — Fossils — Wealden Deposit — Greensand — Gault—
Fossils — Upper Cretaceous System — Fossils — Extent of Cretace-l
ous Formation — Table of Formations P. 66 — 77
LESSON V.
SEVENTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Tertiary Formation — Eocene Beds-
Paris Basin — Fossils — Anoplotherium — Paleotherium — Miocene
Beds — Dinotherium — Lignitos — Pliocene Beds — Fossils — Bone
Caverns.
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS — Drift — Diluvium — Megatherium — Boulder
Formation — Alluvium — Big Bone Lick.
EIGHTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH — Modern Formation P. 77 —
LESSON VI.
INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL AGENTS ON THE StTHFACE OF THE EARTH.
EARTHQUAKES — Description of — Effects of — Changes of Level pro-
duced by — Upheaval and Subsidence— Constant Level of Seas —
Slow and Progressive Subsidence — General Conclusion.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA — Explosion — Eruption — Island of Saint
George — Monte-Nuovo — Jorullo — Vesuvius — Definition of a Vol-
cano— Submarine Eruptions — Volcan of Unalaska — Crater of
Elevation — Formation of Craters — Effects of Upheaval — Form of
Volcanic Islands — Periods in the Formation of a Volcano— Inte-
rior of Craters — Kirauea — Solfatara — Volcanic Ashes — Lava Cur-
rents— Characters of Lavas — Dykes — Gaseous Volcanic Products
— Eruption of Mud — Solid Products of Volcanoes — Trachyte — Ob-
sidian— Compact Lavas — Porous Lavas P. 96—122
LESSON VII.
INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL AoENTS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH
Effects of the Atmosphere — Degradation — Effects of Winds —
Dunes — Effects of Lightning.
EFFECTS OF WATER — Dissolving Power — Softening Power — Denu-
dation— Erosion — Effects of Weight of Water — Running Waters
— Debacle of Lakes — Mud-Torrents — Slope of Torrents and Riv-
ers— Rolled Flints — Transportation by Ice and Glaciers — Action
CONTENTS.— VOLUME II.
of Waves — Deposits formed by Water — Geysers — Structure of
Sedimentary Deposits — Talus — Effects of Transport or Drift —
Effects of Oscillation in Waters — Nature of Deposits from Water
— Coral Reefs— Polyparia— Peat-Bogs P. 122—144
LESSON VIII.
EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS PHENOMENA — Consequences of Central
Heat — First effect of Cooling — Warm-Springs — Deposits referable
to Sediment — Fresh Water Deposits — Fossils of — Marine Depo-
sits— Fossils of — Carbonaceous Deposits.
EFFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE — Shell Depo-
sits and Raised Beaches — Submarine Forests — Tracks of Quadru-
peds and Birds — Dislocation of Strata — Faults — Crateriform ar-
rangement of Strata — Valleys of Elevation — Upheaval without
Dislocation — Distortion of Strata — Origin of Valleys — Valleys
from Dislocation — from Subsidence — from Folding or Plaiting —
from. Erosion or Denudation — Origin of Caverns P. 144 — 166
LESSON IX.
EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS PHENOMENA CONTINUED — Deposits attri-
butable to Volcanic Action — Lava — Basalt — Action of Basalt oa
Adjacent Rocks — Dolomisation — Giants' Causeway — Trachytic
Formation — Trap Rocks — Porphyry — Granitic Rocks — Injection
of Granite — Metalliferous Veins' — Metamorphism — Effects of Ero-
sion P. 166—181
LESSON X.
CLASSIFICATION OF FORMATIONS — Different kinds of Sm Hfication—
Dip — Strike — Conformable Stratification — Unconformable Stratifi-
cation— False Stratification — The Form and Habits of an Animal
deducible from a single Bone — Relative Ages of the principal
Catastrophes of the Globe — Systems of Upheaval — Classification
of — State of Europe at different Epochs of Formation — Deluge -
Geogeny P. 181—210
GLOSSARY.
BOOK VI.
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
THIRD BRANCH:— ARTICULATA.
CLASS I. — ANNELIDA. CLASS 1 1 . — C R U ST A 0 B A.
CLASS III. — ARACHNIDA.
CLASS IV.— INSECTA.
ENTOMOLOGY: THE NATURAL HISTORY OF INSECTS.
FOURTH BRANCH:— RADIATA.
CLASS L-ECHINODERMA. CLASS II.-INTESTINA. CLASS m.-ACA-
LEFHA, CLASS IV.-FOLYPI. CLASS V.-INFUSOEIA.
ELEMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THIRD BRANCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
ARTICULATED ANIMALS.
LESSON I.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. — Structure of Articulated Animals
— Division of the Third Branch of the Animal Kingdom.
CLASS OF INSECTS. — Organization — Metamorphosis — Classi-
f cation.
1. The third great division, or Third Branch of the Animal
Kingdom, includes all animals that are constructed on the same
general plan as insects. Their internal structure is essentially
different from that of animals belonging to any of the other three
branches of the animal kingdom ; and their external characters
are so decided and evident that it is almost always easy to
recognise them at first sight.
2. They are termed articulated animals — animalia articulata
— because their body is divided into sections, and seems to be
composed of rings, placed in a contiguous series on a line with
each other (fig. 1). The extremities in many instances are also
formed in this manner. These rings are formed of portions of
Fig. 1. — SCOLOPENDRA.
1. What description of animals are comprised in the third branch of the
animal kingdom ?
2. Why are they termed articulated animals ? How are the rings
formed? Have articulated animals any skeleton ?
2 (9?
10 STRUCTURE OF ARTICULATA.
skin which are harder and thicker than the rest of the body.
In some cases this annular arrangement arises solely from the
existence of a certain number of transverse folds or plaits which
groove the skin and encircle the body; but in most instances the
animal is enclosed in a species of solid armour, composed of a
series of rings united to each other in such a manner as to permit
of motion. The uses of this armour are similar to those of the
internal frame or skeleton of vertebrate animals ; because it de-
termines the general form of the body, protects the soft parts,
affords points of attachment for muscles, and furnishes them
levers, fitted to secure precision and rapidity of motion. It is
frequently termed an external skeleton, although it does not
represent our skeleton. In reality it is only the skin which
has become hard and stiff. Its rings are of a horny consist-
ence ; and in some instances, they become almost, if not
entirely, stony, forming a case in which the soft parts of the
animal are enclosed.
3. In general, the rings of which this external skeleton is
formed are movable upon each other, but in certain parts of
the body, we sometimes see them soldered together, and then
they are less easily distinguishable : this is always the case in
the thorax of insects, but in other articulate animals, the cen-
tipedes or scolopendrse, for example, the rings are movable and
like each other throughout the whole length of the body.
4. Some articulated animals have no extremities, an example
of which we have in the common leech ; but most of these ani-
mals are provided with them ; the number of these extremities is
very considerable; there are never less than three pairs, and
sometimes we find several hundred, as in some marine anneli-
dans.
5. The nervous system of articulated animals is always com-
posed of a series of small ganglia attached together in pairs,
placed upon the middle line of the inferior face of the body, and
united by longitudinal cords of communication, so as to form a
sort of chain, or, rather, to represent a double-knotted cord, ex-
tending from one end of the body to the other. The nervous
mass formed by the first ganglion (Jig. 2, a), which is sometimes
called the brain, is enclosed in the head, and is placed above and
in front of the oesophagus ; the other ganglia, on the contrary,
are situate behind the oesophagus and beneath the digestive canal,
so that the cords which unite the ganglia of the head to those of
the thorax, pass from each side of the oesophagus and form
3 Are all the rings of articulated animals movable ?
4. What is the number of extremities possessed by articulated animals ?
5 What is the character of the nervous system in articulated animals ?
Have these animals a brain, properly so called ?
STRUCTURE OF ARTICULATA.
11
-g
around this canal a sort of collar (d}.
The different nerves of the body arise
from these ganglia and ramify in the
neighbouring parts.
6. The organs of the senses are less
numerous than in vertebrate animals,
and sometimes they are altogether
wanting. In general they have eyes,
and sometimes an apparatus of hearing,
but no articulated animal has yet been
discovered possessing a distinct organ
of smell. It must not be inferred,
however, from this fact, that they are all
incapable of appreciating odours.
7. The digestive tube or canal of
these animals is always extended from
one end of the body to the other (Jigs.
12 and 74), and the mouth is generally
furnished with jaws ; but these organs
do not move up and down as in verte-
brate animals ; they are always lateral,
and move from without inwards.
8. In general their blood is white, but
not always ; in the class of anne'lida it
is red ; and its manner of circulating
is various. In these animals the mode of respiration is equally
various. They are all ovi'parous, that is, their young are pro-
duced from eggs.
9. Articulated animals, possessing, as they do, a nervous sys-
tem more developed than that of the rnollusks, limbs for locomo-
tion, and a sort of tegumentary skeleton, must necessarily be
superior to them in every thing which essentially characterizes
animality, that is, in the functions of relation ; but, as respects the
functions of vegetative life, they are not so well provided ; their
Fig. 2.— NERVES OF AM
INSECT.
Explanation of Fig. 2. — The nervous system of an insect : — 0, the brain
or cephalic ganglion : — 6, the optic nerves ; — c, nerves of the head ; — dt
nervous cords which unite the brain to the thoracic ganglia, and form a
collar around the oesophagus ; — e, e, c, e, thoracic and abdominal ganglia ; —
/, nervous cords which unite the nerves with each other ; — gt g^ nerves of
different parts of the body.
6. Are the senses perfect and complete ? Have articulated animals the
tense of smell ?
7. What is the character of the digestive apparatus in articulated
animals ?
8. What is the colour of their blood ? How do they breathe ? How are
\ey propagated ? :
9. In what resoects are articulated animals superior to molluska 7
12
DIVISIONS OF ARTICULATA.
circulatory apparatus is less complete, and in some cases is alto-
gether absent.
10. In a word, we see that articulated animals are chiefly dis-
tinguished from the other three branches of the animal kingdom
by the arrangement of the nervous system and by the body being
surrounded by a series of rings which seem to divide it into so
many transverse segments.
11. This great branch of the animal kingdom is composed of
six distinct classes of animals ; namely, insects, my'riapods,
arach'nidans, crusta'ceans, cirr'hopods, and anne'lidans. The
following table exhibits some of the characters by which they
are distinguished from each othe,r.
Blood white;
provided with
lungs, or
trachese for
breathing air.
Extremities
articulated.
CLASSES.
INSE'CTA.
MYRI'APODA,
branchiae for
breathing wa- <
Uer.
A distinct head,
thorax and abdomen ;
three pairs of legs, and
generally provided with
wings. Tracheae : but
no circulatory appara-
tus properly so called.
Head, thorax, and "
abdomen, not separated
from each other. Legs,
twenty-four or more
pairs. Tracheae : no
circulatory apparatus:
without wings.
Head confounded "
with the thorax. Al-
ways without wings.
Four pairs of legs.
Tracheae, or pulmonary
sacs. Vascular system
tolerably well develop-
ed.
In general, five or'
seven pairs of articu-
lated legs. A circula-
tory apparatus.
No legs for locomo- i
tion. Always live at- > CIRR'HOPODA.
tached to other bodies. j
>• ARACH'NIUA
lied or coloured blood. Unprovided with articulated
extremities. Generally having branchiae.
. ,
A
10. How are articulated animals distinguished from the other three
Branches of the animal kingdom ?
11. Into what classes is the Branch of articulated animals divided ?
CLASS OF INSECTS 12
12. By an examination of the preceding table we learn : — that
animals of the class INSECTA have articulated extremities, trachete
for breathing air, white blood, but no circulatory apparatus pro
perly so called. They generally have wings and three pairs of
legs. The head is distinct from the thorax : —
1>. That animals of the class MYRI'APODA have twenty-four
or a greater number of pairs of articulated extremities ; no wings ;
white blood, but no circulatory apparatus; and that they breathe
by tracheae. The head, thorax, and abdomen are confounded in
an elongated body : —
14. That animals of the class ARACH'NIDA have white blood,
and generally a tolerably well developed vascular apparatus; tra-
cheae, or pulmonary sacs for breathing air; they have four pairs
of articulated extremities, but are always destitute of wings. The
head is confounded with the thorax : —
15. That animals of the class CRUSTA'CEA have white blood ;
a circulatory apparatus ; articulated extremities ; five or seven
pairs of legs, and branchiae for breathing water ; —
16. That animals of the class CIRR'HOPODA have white blood,
but no extremities for locomotion ; and they always live attached
to other bodies. They breathe water by means of branchiae :—
and, last,
17. That animals of the class ANNE'LIDA have coloured blood ;
are unprovided with articulated extremities ; and, in general, have
branchiae for breathing water.
CLASS OF INSECTS.
18. The class of insects includes all articulated animals that
are unprovided with a circulatory apparatus properly so called,
that breathe by tracheae, undergo, in general, a metamorphosis
while young, and possess six articulated extremities ; they gene-
rally have wings, and the head, which is furnished with antenna?,
is always distinct from the thorax.
12. What are the distinguishing characters of insects.
13. How are myri'apods characterized? How are they distinguished
from insects.
14. What are the characters of arach'nidans ? What distinguishes them
from insects?
15. How are crusta'ceans distinguished? How do they differ from
cirr'hopods ?
16. What are the characters of cirr'hopods ? What distinguishes thein
from insects?
17. What are the characters of anne'lidans ? How are they distinguished
from myri'apods ?
18. What are the general characters of animals composing the class of
insects ?
2*
14
STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.
19. The skin of insects is in general very hard, and almost
horny ; it forms a kind of solid case, in the interior of which are
placed the muscles, viscera,
&c. ; it fulfils the functions
of an external skeleton, and
is divided by a series of
rings more or less con-
siderable in number.
20. The body is divided
into three perfectly distinct
parts; namely, head, thorax,
and abdomen.
21. The head (a, fig. 3)
is not subdivided into
rings : it sustains the
mouth, and two little stems
or articulated horns, called
antenna, or feelers (c).
These little organs are
probably the seat of the
sense of touch ; their
length and form vary very 3.-ANATOMY OF AN INSECT.
much ; sometimes they are
filiform, at others like a saw, club-shaped, &c.
The surface of the head is sometimes divided into regions ; namely, the
clypeus (Latin, buckler), that part to which the labrum or upper lip is at-
tached ; the face, the front, the vertex or summit, and the cheeks.
22. The thorax (d,f, i,fg. 3), or middle portion of the body,
is sometimes called the corselet, although this name, strictly
speaking, belongs only to the second ring of the thorax, which,
in all insects, is composed of three rings or segments, each one
Explanation of Fig. 3. — Anatomy of the tegumentary system of a
winged insect (a grasshopper) : — a, the head ; — 6, the eyes ; — c, the an-
tennae ; — </, the prothorax, or first ring of the thorax ; — e, the first pair
of legs ; — -/, the mesothorax, or second ring of the thorax, bearing the first
pair of wings (g-), and the second pair of legs (h) ; — t, the metathorax, or
third ring of the thorax, bearing the second pair of wings (j), and the third
pair of legs (fc) ; — Z, the abdomen ; — m, the femur or thigh ; — «, the tibia or
leg ;— o, the tarsus or foot.
19 What purposes does the skin of insects fulfil?
£0. How is the body of insects divided?
"2\. Is the head divided into rings? What parts are attached to the
head?
^2. To what part of the thorax does the name corsclg particu.arly be-
long ? Of how many pieces is the thorax composed ? To what parts are
the legs and wings of insects attached ?
STRUCTURE OF INSECTS. 15
naving a pair of legs attached to it. The first ring of the thorax
(d) never has wings attached to it, and is always visible, while
the succeeding rings are commonly covered above by these
organs. When there are four wings, which is almost always the
case, those of the first pair are attached to the second ring of the
thorax (f), and are covered by the next pair, which are inserted
into the sides of the third thora'cic ring (i). When there is only
one pair of wings (as in the common fly), they are attached to
the second ring of the thorax (/).
The first ring of the thorax (d} is called the prothorax (from the Greek,
pro, before, and thorax, shield, or chest); the second ring (/), mesothorax
(from the Greek, mesos, the middle, and thorax} ; and the third (i) the meta-
thorax (from the Greek, meta, between, and thorax).
These three rings are closely and solidly united into one piece, and
constitute the trunk, the inferior surface of which is styled the peel us ; that
portion of it which corresponds to the prolhvrax, is called ante-pectus (from
the Latin, ante, before, and pectus, breast) ; that portion which corresponds
to the mesothorax, is called medio-pectus (from the Latin, medius, the
middle, and pectus, breast) ; and the part corresponding to the metathorax,
is named post-pectus (from the Latin, post, behind, and pectus, breast). The
middle line of the inferior surface of the trunk is termed the sternum, and
is divided into three parts ; the ante-sternum, medio-sternum, and post
iternum.
23. In all true insects, or, as they are also denominated, hexa-
pods (from the Greek, exa, six, and pous, foot — having six feet),
the abdomen is very distinct from the thorax, and has no ex-
tremities, neither feet nor wings, attached to it : it is composed of
a certain number of rings, and we often find at its termination,
near the anus, various appendages, such as stings or borers. The
last rings or an'nuli of the abdomen, in several females, form a
retractile or always projecting ovipositor, of a more or less com-
plicated structure, which acts as an auger.
24. The legs of insects, which are solid tubes containing the
muscles by which they are moved, are always six in number ;
there are never fewer than six, and if in some instances we see
but four at first (as in certain butterflies, Papilio), we shall find
on close examination that two of these organs are not developed,
but are concealed under the hair.
25. Sometimes the legs are formed solely for walking ; some-
times they are elongated and fitted for leaping, or they are spread
out so as to constitute fins for swimming ; and, again, they are
modified in such a manner as to form oibans of prehension.
23. What extremities are attached to the abdomen ?
24. What is the invariable number of legs in insects? Where are the
muscles placed which move the legs ?
25. Are the legs of all insects alike 1 What are the uses to which tney
are applied ?
16 STRUCTURE OF INSECTS.
26. The leg is divided into four parts ; the coara, the femur 01
vbigh, the tibia or leg, and tarsus or foot. The coxa (hip or
haunch), which may be said to be set into the thorax, is formed
of two pieces, and varies much in form. The femur (thigh, m,
jig. 3) constitutes the second articulation of the leg; it is always
tolerably long, and is sometimes remarkable for its development.
The tibia (\eg,jig. 3, n) is next to the femur, which it ordinarily
equals in length ; the whole extremity is terminated by the tarsus
(o), which is almost always formed of from two to five articula-
tions, and frequently bears at the end, one or more hooks or
nails.
" In the generality of terrestrial insects, tfie last segment of the tarsus or
foot is provided with a pair of strong horny hooks, which are avaiiarje for
many purposes, being used either for creeping upon a moderately rough
surface, for climbing or clinging to various substances.
" Such simple hooks, however, would not always serve. In the case of
the louse (pediculus), for example, that is destined to climb slender and
polished hairs, such prehensile organs would be of little use. The structure
of the foot is therefore modified ; the tarsus in this insect terminates in a
single movable claw, which bends back upon a tooth-like process derived
from the tibia, and thus forms a pair of forceps fitted to grasp the stem of
the hair and secure a firm hold.
" Many insects, especially those of the dip'terovs order, are able to ascend
the smoothest perpendicular planes, or even to run with facility, suspended
by their feet, in an inverted position, along substances which, from their
polished surfaces, could afford no hold to any apparatus of forceps or hook-
lets. In the common flies (Muscida) the exercise of this faculty is of such
every-day occurrence, that, wonderful as it is, it scarcely attracts the atten-
tion of ordinary observers. The foot of the house-fly, nevertheless, is a very
curious piece of mechanism ; for in addition to the recurved hooks possess.
ed by other climbing species, it is furnished with a pair of minute membra-
nous flaps, which, under a good microscope, are seen to be covered with
innumerable hairs of the utmost delicacy : these flaps, or suckers, as they
might be termed, adhere to any plane surface with sufficient tenacity to
support the whole weight of the fly, and thus confer upon it a power of
progression denied to insects of ordinary construction.
•* Another mode of progression common among insects is by leaping, to
which from their extraordinary muscular power they are admirably adapted.
The common flea, for example, will leap two hundred times its own length.
" The muscular system of insects has always excited the wonder and
astonishment of the naturalist, in whatever point of view he examines this
part of their economy, whether he considers the perfection of their move-
ments, tne inconceivable minuteness of the parts moved, or the strength,
persistence, or velocity of their contractions. Insects are proverbially of
small comparative dimensions — * minims of nature' —
that wave their limber fans
For wings, and smallest lineaments exact,
In all the liveries deck'd of summer's pride ;'
their presence, indeed, around us, is only remarked as conferring additional
Jfe and gayety to the landscape ; and except when, by some inordinate
26. How is the leg divided ? What is the coxa ? What is the femur ?
What is the tibia ? What is the tarsus ?
STRUCTURE OF WINGS OF INSECTS. 17
increase of their numbers, they make up by their multitude for their di.
mhmtive size, the ravages committed by them are trifling and insignificant.
Far otherwise, however, would it be, if they attained to larger growth, and
still possessed the extraordinary power with which they are now so con.
spicuously gifted ; they would then, indeed, become truly the tyrants of crea.
tion, — monsters such *as fables never feigned, nor fear conceived,' — fully
adequate to destroy and exterminate from the surface of the earth all that it
contains of vegetable or of animal life.
44 The flea or grasshopper will spring two hundred times its own length ;
the dragon-fly possesses such indomitable strength of wing, that for a day
together it will sustain itself in the air, and fly with equal facility and
swiftness backwards or forwards, to the right or to the left without turning ;
the beetles are encased in a dense and hard integument, impervious to or-
dinary violence ; and we might add, that the wasp and the termite ant will
penetrate with their jaws the hardest wood. Neither is the velocity of the
movements of insects inferior to their prodigious muscular power. *An
anonymous writer in Nicholson's Journal,' say Kirby and Spence, 4 calcu-
lates that in its ordinary flight the common house-fly (Musca domestica)
makes with its wings about six hundred strokes, which carry it five feet,
every second ; but if alarmed, he states their velocity can be increased six
t»r seven fold, or to thirty or thirty-five feet in the same period. In this
space of time a race-horse could clear only ninety feet, which is at the rate
of more than a mile in a minute. Our little fly, in her swiftest flight, will
in the same space of time go more than the third of a mile. Now, compare
the infinite difference of the size of the two animals (ten millions of the
fly would hardjw counterpoise one racer), and how wonderful will the
velocity of thii x.*uute creature appear ! Did the fly equal the race-horse
in size, arid retr*»«» is present powers in the ratio of its magnitude, it would
traverse the globe with the rapidity of lightning.' " — T. Rymer Jones.
27. The wings are dry, membranous, elastic appendages, usu-
ally diaphanous, attached to the sides of the back of the thorax.
They are composed of two thin membranes, laid one on the other,
joined together by horny lines called nervures, which are in fact
so many tracheal tubes for the passage of a r.
28. The wings of insects differ much in texture : in place of
being membranous and transparent, as in flies and bees, they are
sometimes opaque and covered by a multitude of little scales like
dust, as in butterflies ; and at other times we observe them acquire
a thickness and consistence so great that they resemble horn,
and do not differ from other hard parts of the insect, as in the
may-bug, for example. It is only the first pair of wings that
present this latter condition ; when thus modified they are not
suitable for flight, but form a species of shield for the protection
of the upper part of the body, and are named elytra. Sometimes
the elytra, instead of being horny throughout their whole extent,
are membranous towards the end, as in wood-bugs: they are
then called demi-elytra.
27. What are wings ? What are nervures ?
23. In what respects do wings differ from each other ? What are cly
tra ? What are demi-elytra.
;s
EYES.— NERVOUS SYSTEM.
29. In some di'pterous insects, in place of the second pair
of wings we find two pedunculated globular bodies, named 7/a/-
teres, or poisers*
30. The eyes of insects are always on a level with the head,
and are never borne on a movable peduncle, as in certain crus-
taceans; sometimes their structure is the same as in ara'chnidans,
and they are called simple eyes, or ocelli ; but in all insects
there exist, either conjointly with them or separately, compound
eyes, or eyes with facets.
"The compound eyes of insects are two in number, situated on the lateral
aspects of the head, the form of each being more or less hemispherical.
"When examined with a microscope, their surface is seen to be divided into
a multitude of hexagonal facets, between which minute hairs are generally
conspicuous. The number of facets, or corne®, for such in fact they are,
varies in different genera: thus, in the ant (For' mica) there are 50; in the
common house-fly (Musca domestica) 4,000 ; in some dragon-flies (Libellula)
upwards of 12,000. In butterflies (Papilio) 17,355 have been counted, and
some Coleopterae possess the astonishing number of 25,088 distinct cor-
neae." — T. Kymer Jones,
31. Of the organs of smell and of
hearing in these animals we know
nothing. The nervous system is
composed of a chain of double
ganglia, arranged as has already
been described (fig. 2, page 11).
32. The mouth is placed in the
anterior and inferior part of the
head ; but its form varies con-
siderably, accordingly as the ani-
mal is destined to feed on solid or
liquid substances.
33. In the Tritores, or triturating
insects, the mouth is composed, 1st,
of an upper lip ; 2d, of a pair of
mandibles ; 3d, of a pair of jaws ; and 4th, of a lower lip.
9 U
Fig. 4.— MOUTH OF AN INSECT.
Explanation of Fig. 4. — Apparatus of mastication of a coleo'pterous in-
Rect ;— /a, the labruni ; — m, the mandibles ; — ma, the maxills or jaws ;—
p, maxillary palpi ;— Zt, the labium, or lower lip ;— ; pi, the palpi of the la-
bium.
29. What are halteres ?
30. How are the eyes of insects situated ? How many kinds of eyes nave
'nsects ? What are compound eyes ?
31. Where are the organs of smell and of hearing situated ? How is toe
nervous system of insects arranged ?
o2. What is the character of the mouth ? Where is it situated ?
33. Of wnat parts does the mouth, in triturating insects, consist 7
MOUTH OF INSECTS.
34. The upper lip or labrum (la, fig. 4) is a flat piece fixed to
tne anterior part of the head, and closes the mouth from aoove.
35. The mandibles (m) are appendages, resembling large
teeth, which are inserted into the sides of the head immediately
below and behind the labrum; they are movable, and transverse,
that is, they are placed, one to the left and the other to the right ;
they are generally very hard and of a horny consistence. They
serve to divide the food. The mandibles of insects never have
palpi attached to them.
35. The maxilla, or jaws (ma), are also two in number, and
are placed, one on the right and the other on the left, below and
behind the mandibles. Each jaw has, on its external side, a
little appendage formed of from four to six articulations, named
maxillary palpus (p) ; sometimes there are two palpi. In or-
thoptera the extremity of the palpus is often terminated by two
lobes ; in this case the external one is called the galea.
37. The lower lip, or labivm (li) closes the mouth from below,
and resembles a second pair of jaws, ordinarily joined on their
internal side, and in a great degree covered by a horny pro-
longation in the middle, termed the mentum, or chin ; the ligula
is another part of the labium. Each half of this lip supports a
palpus (pi, Jig. 4) which is smaller than
those of the maxillae, and consists of never
more than four articulations. _\_
38. The annexed figure (5) is a magni-
fied representation of the head of a cock-
roach (Blatta\ seen from the front. A
careful examination of the figure will
more fully explain the several parts of the
mouth ; — a, the antennae ; — bt the com-
pound eyes; — c, the ocelli or simple
eyes; — c?, the labrum; — e, the mandi-
bles;— /, the maxilla? or jaws;— g, the
ligula ; — A, the labial palpi ; — i, maxil- ' COCKROACH.
lary palpi. The principal use of the palpi
is to seize and hold food between the mandibles, while it is
divided.
Sometimes the jaws are enormously developed and form in
front of the head a sort of pincers ; an arrangement which is
34. What is the labrum ? Where is it attached ?
35. What are mandibles in insects ? How are they placed in respect to
the labrum ? What is their number ? What is their use ?
36. Where are the maxilla placed ? What is a maxillary palpus ?
What is meant by the galea 1
37. What is the labium ? What is the mentum ? What is the ligula ?
38. Of what use are the palpi ?
20
MOUTH OF INSECTS.
very remarkable in the stag-beetles (Lucanus cervus) and other
species of the genus lucanus ; for example :
Fig. 6. STAG BEETLE,
"The largest of these beetles in the New England States is the horn-bug,
Its colour is a deep mahogany-brown ; the upper jaws of the male are long,
curved like a sickle, and furnished internally beyond the middle with a
little tooth ; those of the female are much shorter, and also toothed ; the
head of the male is broad and smooth, that of the other sex narrower and
rough with punctures. The body of this beetle measures from one inch to
an inch and a quarter, exclusive of the jaws. The time of its appearance
in July and the beginning of August. The grubs (larvse) live in the trunks
and roots of various kinds of trees. Several other and smaller kinds of
stag-beetles are found in New England." — Harris.
39. In insects that live by suction, the jaws or labrum are
elongated in such a manner as to constitute a tubular trunk, in
which we often find delicate filaments that perform the functions
of little lancets ; they are formed by the mandibles and jaws, so
modified as to be scarcely remarkable.
40. In bees, the anthophoroe (from the Greek, anthos, flower,
and pherdy I bear), and other insects known to zoologists
39 What is the peculiarity of the mouth in insects that live by suction T
40. What are the peculiarities of the mouth in the Hymeno'ptera ?
MOUTH OF INSECTS.
Compound eyes -
i
Mandibles -—
Maxillary palpi ....
Maxilla or jaws ...
Labial palpi
antenna.
— labrum.
p— later al lobes of the ligvla»
ligula.
Fig. 7. — HEAD OF AN ANTHOPHORA.
under the common name of Hymenop'tera (from the Greek,
'umen, a membrane, and pteron, a wing), the buccal apparatus
has an intermediate arrangement. The upper lip or labrum
(Jig' 8, a) and the mandibles (6) closely resemble those of the
tritores or triturating insects ; but the
jaws (f) and the ligula (d) are not
excessively prolonged ; the first take
a tubular shape and form a longi-
tudinal sheath for the sides of the
ligula : so that these organs, joined
in a packet, constitute a trunk, which
conveys the food, always soft or
liquid, upon which these animals feed.
This trunk is movable at the base,
and flexible throughout the rest of its
extent, but never rolls itself up as we
see in butterflies. The mandibles
chiefly serve the purpose of dividing
tho materials of which the hymenop
terse make their nests, or rather, to
seize and put to death the prey whose
fluids these insects suck. There also
exists in the interior of the buccal cavity other solid pieces which
are wanting in the Tritores; they constitute valves destined to
close the pharynx or swallow every time the movement of deglu-
tition is not effected.
MOUTH OF INSECTS.
Fig. 9. — BUG.
i /
41. In the bugs (cimex), plant lice (aphis),
and other insects of the order Hemip'tera, the
sucking apparatus is composed of the same ele-
ments, but somewhat differently arranged. The
mouth is armed with a tubular and cylindical
beak, directed downwards and backwards (Jig.
9), and is composed of a sheath enclosing tour
stylets ; the sheath (Jig. 10, a) is formed of four
articulations placed end to end, and represents
the labium or lower lip ; at its base we perceiva
an elongated, conical piece, which is analogous
to the labrum ; the stylets (&, c) which are in
the form of fine threads, stiff and dentate at the extremity, to
pierce the skin of animals or the substance of plants, are the
representatives of the mandibles and maxiilse excessively elon-
gated. In the hemip'terse which live at the expense of other
animals, the beak is gene-
rally very stout and fold-
ed in a semicircle under
the head. In those that
feed on the juices of
plants, it is, on the con-
trary, almost always
slender, and, when at
rest, applied against the
inferior surface of the
thorax, betwixt the legs
(fg. 9). Its length is
sometimes so great as
to extend beyond the
posterior extremity of
the abdomen.
42. Tn flies, the pro-
boscis or trunk, some-
times soft and retractile, sometimes horny and elongated, also
represents the labium or lower lip, and often has palpi at its base ,•
a longitudinal groove on its upper surface lodges the stylets,
which vary from two to six in number; the mandibles, jaws, and
ligula of the tritores are analogous to them. Sometimes this trunk
acquires an enormous length, and sometimes, on the contrary, it
's scarcely visible.
43. In butterflies (Papilio) which also feed on the liquid sub-
stances they find at the bottom of flowers, and have no necessity
for strong weapons to obtain them, there are no lancet-like stylets •
V
Fig. 10. — BUCCAL APPARATUS OF AN HEMIP'TERA.
41. How is the sucking apparatus in Hemi'ptcra arranged?
42. What are the peculiarities of the sucking apparatus of flics?
43. Describe^tne sucking apparatus of butterflies.
DIGESTIVE ORGANS.
d —
he mouth is furnished with a long trunk
(fig. Hj d} rolled spirally, composed of b a
two filaments hollowed into a gutter on the ; •
internal side, which are in fact the jaws
excessively elongated and modified in form.
At the base of this lube, we observe in front
a small membranous piece which is the
representative of the labrum, and, on each
side, a small tubercle, the last vestiges of
the mandibles. We also perceive in the
same situation the rudiments of the maxil-
lary palpi (e), and behind we find a little e
triangular lip bearing two very long labial p^ n BEAK OF A
palpi, composed of three articulations, al- BUTTERFLY.
most always hairy and furnished with scales.
44. The digestive tube (fig. 12) is always open at both ends,
and extends from the mouth
to the anus ; sometimes it is
straight, at others, more or
less flexuous ; and here, as
in animals of a higher order,
it is very short in carni'vor-
ous insects, and very long in
those species which feed on
vegetable substances. Some-
times it preserves nearly the
same diameter throughout its
whole length ; but, generally,
it presents enlargements and
contractions which enable us
to distinguish an O3sophagus,
a stomach and an intestine.
Sometimes we find several
stomachs (jf, #, h) which
have been named, crop, giz-
gard, and chyliferous ven-
tricle.
Fig. 12. — DIGESTION OF INSECTS. 45. On each side we see
Explanation of Fig. 1 1. — Beak of a butterfly ; — a, the head ; — ft, antenna ;
— c, the eye ; — d, proboscis or trunk spirally rolled ; — e, rudiment of maxil-
lary palpi.
Explanation of Fig. 12. — Digestive apparatus of an insect;— a, the he id,
— 6 the antennae; — c, the mandibles; — d, the palpi; — e, the oesophagus ;—
/, g, h, the stomachs ; — i, the intestine ;— j, the rectum ; — A:, the biliary ves
sels;— /, secreting organs ; — m, the anus.
44. What are the characters of the digestive organs in insects ? For
what is the digestive tube of carm'vorous insects remarkable ? Of what
parts do the digestive organs consist ?
45. What are biliary vessels"
24 CIRCULATION.
a number of long, delicate tubes, filled with a yellowish liquid,
terminating in the digestive tube ; these are the biliary vessels
(k)t which perform the functions of the liver.
46. We find salivary organs in a great many insects, and
generally they are more developed in the suctorial than in the
triturating species. They, are simple, floating tubes, which some-
times terminate in a kind of utri'culse or little membranous sacs,
which communicate with the pharynx by means of intermediate
excretory ducts or canals.
47. Towards the posterior extremity of the intestinal canal, we
also find other secreting organs of various forms (Z) which serve
for the elaboration of those particular liquids which many insects
cause to exude from the posterior part of the abdomen when they
are disturbed ; the venom of the bee is an instance.
48. Sometimes the nutritive liquid resulting from the digestion
of food is immediately appropriated to assimilation, sometimes, on
the contrary, a part of it seems to be held in reserve to be em-
ployed on a future occasion. The species of reservoir which is
regarded as subserving this curious purpose is the mass of fatty
tissue surrounding the viscera.
49. Insects have no circulation properly so called ; the nutri-
tive liquid is diffused among all the organs and penetrates them
by imbibition. But there exists, nevertheless, on the dorsal sur-
fnce of the animal, immediately beneath the integuments, a sort
of longitudinal tube, surrounded by fleshy fibres, which appears
'•> be the rudiment of a heart, for we observe in it alternate con-
tractions and dilatations similar to those of the same organ in
other animals. But this canal does not appear to give off any
branches ; there are no arteries nor veins.
The blood, become venous by its action on the different tissues
of the economy, is not carried to any particular point to come in
contact with the oxygen of the air, to regain its vivifying quali-
ties. If respiration were carried on in the ordinary way, by
means of lungs or the external surface of the body, it would be
extremely imperfect ; but the disadvantage which seemingly must
result from this great imperfection in so important a function a.«
the circulation does not really exist. Nature has dispensed with
the necessity of*circulating the blood in insects, by carrying,
the air in them, to all parts of the body, by means of a multitude
of canals which ramify almost infinitely in the substance of i1-*
organs (Jig- 13).
46. What are the characters of salivary glands in insects?
47. Where is the venom of the bee formed ?
48. Is digested food in all cases immediately appropriated to the purpose?
of assimilation ?
49. How is the blood circulated in insects7 How is the want of circula-
tion compensated for in insects '(
RESPIRATION OF INSECTS.
25
Fig. 14.
STIGMATA.
ESPIRATORY ORGANS.
60. All insects have an aerial
respiration ; but instead of re-
ceiving air into pulmonary
cavities to which the blood is
sent by the action of the circu-
lating organs, as is the case in
most animals, they breathe by
means of a multitude of canals
(Jig. 13) which convey the air
to every part of the body ; these
canals are named trachea. The
external openings of the tra-
cheae are called stigmata or
spiracles. These openings have
the form of a
button-hole (Jig.
14), and are
placed on each
side of the body.
In this respect,
the organization
oftracheal arachnidans resembles that of insects.
51. Sometimes the trachea have enlargements along their
course like vesicles ; they all communicate freely
with each other ; they are ramified like roots,
and their last divisions penetrate into the sub-
stance of the organs. Their structure is the
same as in tracheal ara'chnidans, that is, they
are formed of a cartilaginous filament rolled
spirally, so as to constitute a tube (Jig. 15).
Were it not for this arrangement the sides of the tube would
be forced together by atmospheric pressure, and the animal
would be suffocated for want of air. Respiration seems to be
effected by the movements of the abdomen. In insects this func-
tion is very active: considering their size, they consume a con-
siderable quantity of air, and quickly suffocate when deprived of
Explanation of Fig. 13. — Respiratory apparatus of insects. The mask
or covering of on insect, showing the principal tracheae which convey air to
all parts of the body ; — s, s, s, s, s, the stigmata or spiracles.
Explanation of Fig. 14. — A stigmata magnified; — s, the opening of the
stigmata or spimcle; ir, a tracheae arising from it.
Explanation of Fig. 15.— A portion of tracheae considerably enlarged to
show its structure ; we see at (a) the end of the spiral of which the tube ia
composed, partly unrolled.
50. How do insects breathe ? What are tracheae ? What are stigmata *
51. How are the tracheae arranged? What is the peculiarity of their
str LU ture ?
3*
Fig. 15.
TRACHEA.
26 METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.
oxygen ; but when they are seemingly dead from this cause, they
for a long time retain the power of being restored to life.
52. The sexes are distinct in these animals, and frequently the
males and females differ widely from each other. There fre-
quently exists at the extremity of the abdomen of the female an
ovipositor or borer or some other organ by means of which she
prepares a hole for the reception of her eg^s. Some are vivi'-
parous, but almost all insects lay eggs, but they do not deposit
them wherever they may happen to be ; they require them to be
carefully lodged in some place where the young animals on
escaping can readily obtain the kind of food proper for them. In
this respect the instinct of insects is most surprisingly developed,
and it would be interesting to study the various plans they adopt
to secure this object, but our present limits will not permit.
53. When an insect escapes from its egg, it sometimes
possesses the same form which it is to preserve through life ;
but in the great majority of instances, it differs more or less
from its mother, as well as from the form it itself is destined to
assume. Before attaining its perfect state, it undergoes con-
siderable changes, which are designated under the name of meta-
morphoses ; it passes through two successive conditions, termed
the larva (Latin, a mask, because the perfect form of the insect
is concealed as it were under a mask), and nympha, pupa, or
chrysalis (from the Greek, ckrusos, gold, because the transparent
covering in which the animal is enclosed while in this state, in
many instances reflects a metallic lustre). When it has passed
through these two stages of its metamorphosis, it becomes a
perfect insect, and is then called imago. But these changes are
not always of the same nature; some insects experience only a
partial metamorphosis, some a demi-metamorphosis, and others,
a complete metamorphosis (from the Greek, meta, indicating
change, and morphe, form).
54. Those insects which undergo partial metamorphosis ac-
quire after birth a number of legs, more or less, but always
remain without wings. The Parasi'ta and Thysanou'ra experience
this description of metamorphosis.
55. Those insects which undergo demi-metamorphosis differ
very little from what they are to become ; their larva resembles
52. How are the young of insects produced ?
53. What is meant by the metamorphosis of an insect ? What is a larva I
Wnat is a nympha ? To what condition of insects are the terms pupa and
chrysalis applied ? What is an imago ? Is the metamorphosis the same ill
extent in all insects ?
54 W hat is meant by partial metamorphosis ?
55. What is meant by demi-metamorphosis ?
LARVAE.
27
Fig. 16.— LARVA OF A GRASSHOPPER.
ihe perfect insect except
that it is unprovided with
wings. The annexed
figure (16) of the larva
of a grasshopper illus-
trates this condition.
When it becomes a nym-
pha, we discover that it
has the stumps or rudi-
ments of wings; at the
last moult they become
perfectly developed, and
the insect then acquires
the form it preserves
through life.
56. The larva of those insects which undergo complete meta-
morphosis, in no respect resembles the imago or perfect animal,
and in proof of this it is only
necessary to recollect that the but-
terfly escapes from its egg in the
form of a caterpillar. Larvee
(fgs. 17 and 18) are in general
soft, cylindrical, or fusiform, pre-
senting at intervals a number of
contractions which divide the body
into as many rings or segments,
Sometimes they have the appear
ance of a worm, and are unpro-
vided with legs, as in the larva of the bee; in other instances,
they have appendages of this kind (fig* 18)> and then they are
generally called caterpil-
lars. These animals have
a head provided with jaws,
several small eyes, very
short legs, six of which are
scaly and pointed, and
attached to the three rings
next to the head ; they have also other legs, varying in number,
which are membranous and attached to the last rings of the body.
After having lived for a certain time in the larva state, the insect
becomes transformed into a nympha^ and is then motionless, and
Fig.
17. — LARVA. — MEASURING
WORM.
Fig. 18. — LARVA. — SILK-WORjf.
56. What are the general characters of larvae? What are cater
pillars? How does the larva prepare to become a nympha? What a!
28
NYMPHS.
Fig. 19. NYMPHA.
does not eat (jig. 19). Before under-
going this metamor'phosis, the larva
often prepares for itself a defence or
protection, and encloses itself in a shell
or cocoon (fg. 20), which it makes of
various materials ; but more especially
of the silk secreted by organs analo-
gous to salivary glands, and spun by
the assistance of spinnarets hollowed
in the lips. The insect, in the state
of a nympha, possesses all the parts
of the perfect animal, but contracted
and covered up, sometimes by a delicate pellicle
through which they may be seen, giving the
nympha the appearance of a bandaged mummy;
sometimes by a pretty thick skin, which is
moulded over the body ; at other times, by the
dried skin of the larva, which forms a sort of
case or shell around the animal, presenting the
form of an egg. Finally, after having remained
in this state of immobility for a period varying
in duration, the "perfect insect (imago) escapes
from the nympha, and the external organs, at
first humid and soft, are dried by the air and
acquire the consistence they afterwards main-
tain. These changes in the external form of the insect at dif-
ferent periods of its life are accompanied by modifications, not
less remarkable, in the internal structure of the animal ; and
these changes of organization induce others in the habits of these
creatures as well as in the manner of feeding.
57. The number of insects is immense ; it is estimated that it
exceeds sixty thousand species, and they differ very much from
each other both in their external form and manner of living.
Insects, so remarkable for their organization, are still more so
for their habits and for the admirable instinct with which nature
has endowed a great number of them. Their cunning plans for
procuring food or for escaping their enemies, and the industry
they display in their works, surprise all who witness them; and
when we see them united in societies to gain the power denied to
their individual feebleness, aiding each other, dividing the toils
necessary for the prosperity of the community, providing for
their future wants, and frequently regulating their actions accord-
Explanation of Fig. 20. — A nympha with one-half of its shell or cocoon
emoved.
Fig. 20.
NYMPHA.
57. What is the number of insects known ?
CLASSIFICATION OF INSECTS.
ing to accidental circumstances, we are astounded to find in these
creatures, so small and apparently so imperfect, instincts so varied
and so powerful, and intellectual combinations which so closely
resemble reasoning.
58. The division of this class into orders principally depend*
upon the form of the buccal apparatus, the organs of locomotion,
and the metamorphosis.
The following table exhibits the principal characters of the several order*
of the class of Insects :
ORDERS.
'folded only 1
transverse- >COLEO'PTERA.
' mastication, /-in form of
'y. j
Wings four ;
elytra ;
- , , .
the two an-
those of the *
loiueii j
terior
second pair
two airec- | ^
lengthwise j
.only. j
Membranous and re- )
ticulated lil
te the pos- >NEURO'PTERA.
. teriur.
undergo
All membranous,tran- 1
metamorphosis.
sparent and
divided into j
Mouth formed
large cells.
Mouth arm- V-HYMENO'PTERI.
for
ed with distinct inandi- j
bles.
J
four,-
All covered by a kind")
of coloured dust. Mouth 1* ,
armed with a spiral >LEPIDO'PTKRA.
trunk only.
J
oa fnave
h three
The anterior ordinari- ")
ly in form of demi-ely- |
* 1 legs
*" I and
suction.
Wings '
tra. Moutharmed with ^HKMI'PTKRA
a conical beak, either 1
straight or curved. J
C folded like a fan. >RHIPI'PTERA.
two, <
( Not folded. J^DI'PTERA.
entirely wanting .
not subject to metamorphosis. fc™vi<led With append- j PARAS,'T».
No wings. Abdomen
fl^ The Myriapods, which have twenty-four pairs of legs or more, and are without
winsja, now form a distinct class, and are not insects properly so called. They were
formerly included among the apterous insects.
59. The Thysanou'ra^ Parasi'ta, and Sucto'ria, have no wings,
and for this reason are frequently spoken of under the common
name of AP'TERA (from the G reek, a, without, and pteron, wing),
or apterous insects. All other orders of insects have wings, and
are spoken of by the common name of winged insects.
58. How is the class cf insects divided ?
59. What is meant by the term apterous insects ?
80 THYSANOURA.— PARASITA LOUSE.
LESSON II.
AP'TERA. — ORDER OF THYSANOU'RA.
ORDER OF PARASI'TA. — Louse — Ticks.
ORDER OF SUCTO'RIA. — Flea — Chigre.
ORDER OF COLEOP'TERA. — Characters — Division — Pentame'rans
Cicin'dela — Carabus — Gyrinvs, or Water-beetle — Fire-fies —
Glow-worm — Borers — Derrne'stes — May-bugs — Scarabeus —
Heterome'rans — Blistering -flies — Teterame'rans — Weevils —
Trime'rans — Lady-bug.
ORDER OF ORTHO'PTERA. — Characters — Earwigs — Mole-crick-
ets— Crickets — Grasshoppers — Migratory Locusts.
1. Hexapods or true insects comprise all those which have
three pairs of legs: they all have a head distinct from the thorax,
and the abdomen has no extremities attached to it; some are
apterous (without wings), others are winged.
2. Although apterous insects are not very numerous, they form
three distinct orders ; namely, Thysanou'ra, Parasi'ta, and
Sucto'ria.
ORDER OF THYSANOU'RA.
3. The Thysanourae (from the Greek, thvsan, bushy, and
owra, tail) are small wingless insects that do not undergo meta-
morphosis ; the abdomen terminates in filiform appendages, or is
furnished with organs by means of which they are enabled to
leap.
ORDER OF PARASI'TA.
4. We give the name of parasites (hanger on) to those apterous
insects which do not undergo metamorphosis and whose abdomen
is with&ut any appendage ; their mouth is chiefly internal and is
armed with a kind of sucker; their body is flattened,
and, as their name indicates, they live upon other ani-
mals ; but they are only found on mammals and birds.
Lice (Pediculus), of one of which the annexed figure
(21) is an enlarged representation, and dog-ticks
(Ricinus) belong to this order. Their eggs are known Fig. 21.
under the name of nits. LOUSE.
1. Do all insects possess wings ?
2. What orders of insects are wing-less ?
3. What are thysanou'ra ?
4. Give examples of insects of the order Parasita.
SUCTORIA.— FLEAS.— COLEOPTERA. 31
ORDER OF SUCTO'RIA.
5. Suctorial insects, like the preceding, are ap'terous, but they
do not undergo metamorphosis. The body is very much com-
pressed (Jig. 22), and the hind Jegs are adapted to leaping. The
mouth is extended in the form of a trunk or beak, which contains
hree bristle-like lancets, and performs the functions of a sucker.
They undergo complete metamorphosis, and in the larva state,
are in form of little worms without feet ; in the imago or perfect
state, they live on quadrupeds or birds.
This order comprises but a single genus, that of the Fleas.
6. The common flea — Pulex irritans — (j%'.22) lives upon dogs,
cats, and men, whose blood it sucks. The chigre — Pulex pene-
trans — very common in the warm parts of America, is armed
with a beak as long as its body. The female carries her eggs
in a sack under the abdomen, and by its rapid
growth, this part in a short time acquires the
size of a small pea, while the animal itself is
scarcely as large as a common flea. It in-
sinuates itself beneath the skin, and into the
flesh, particularly about the feet and toes, p- 32 —FLEA
where it deposits its egijs, and sometimes
causes great pain and ill-conditioned sores. The only remedy
is to remove the sack of eggs with a needle, and fill the hole
with strong mercurial ointment. This will be found effectual.
It also attacks monkeys, dogs, &c.
ORDER OF COLEOP'TERA.
7. The order of Coleop'lera (from the Greek, Jcoleos, a case,
and pteron, wing) comprises insects which have a mouth armed
with jaws, and four wings, differing from each other in texture.
The first pair are horny elytra (from the Greek, elvtron, a
sheath), which are not suitable for flight, but constitute a covering
or shield for the second pair, which are membranous, and when
in a state of repose, folded transversely.
8. The tegumentary envelope of these insects is almost always
remarkably hard, and sometimes forms a solid, and almost crus-
taceous cuirass. The mouth is formed for the mastication of
food, and is armed with a pair of mandibles, a pair of maxillae,
rearing palpi, and a labium or lower lip, also bearing palpi (fig.
4). The wings possess peculiarities of structure which it is im
portant to note : the first pair are of the same consistence as other
5. How is the order Sucto'ria characterized ?
6. What are chigres ?
7. What are the characters of the order Coleop'tera?
8. What are the characters of the mouth of Coleop'tera ? What is th«
»aatiire of the wings ? How is the abdomen attached to the
CHARACTERS OF COLEOPTER^E.
parts of the tegumentary skeleton, and form two sheaths or solid
elytra, joined together by a straight edge, sometimes solidly
united, forming a kind of shield over the abdomen (Jigs. 23 and
26). Sometimes these elytra are rudimentary, but are never
entirely wanting in both sexes. The same is not true of the
wings of the second pair, which are membranous, much larger
than the elytra, and when in a state of repose, folded transversely
at their extremity ; sometimes they are wanting, and then the in
sect is incapable of flying. There is no peculiarity of the legs
worthy of special remark. The abdomen is sessile, that is, it is
broadest where it joins the thorax, and on each side of the rings
which form it, there is, on the upper part, an opening, which is a
stigmata.
9. The metamorphosis which the Coleop'terse undergo after es-
caping from the egg is complete. The larva resembles a soft
worm, the head of which as well as the three first rings of the
body are scaly (Jigs. 4, 9, 19, and 25). They generally have
three pairs of horny legs, terminating in a point. Sometimes
there are no legs, or they are replaced by small fleshy tubercles ;
but we never find a greater number of these appendages. The
mouth has the same organization as the perfect insect ; the eyes,
on the contrary, are merely represented by small granular bodies,
which seem to consist of an assemblage of simple eyes, which
never exist in adult Coleop'teroe ; and we perceive on each side of
the body nine stigmata arranged in a series.
10. The nympha is always inactive; sometimes it is enclosed
in a shell or cocoon, generally composed of different substances
joined together by a viscid, silky matter ; sometimes it is naked.
The duration of these changes and the mode of life, as well in
the larva as in the perfect insect, vary in the different families
of this order.
11. The number of Coleop'terse is immense, and to distinguish
them more readily they are divided into four sections, according
to the number of articulations or joints of the tarsi ; namely,
1st. The Pentame'rans (from the Greek, pente, five, and meros,
& joint), in which the tarsus of all the legs is composed of five
joints.
2d. The Heterome'rans (from the Greek, 'eteros, various, and
meros, joint), in which the tarsi have four articulations on the two
fore legs, and five on the others.
3d. The Teterame'rans (from the Greek, tetteres, four, and
meros, joint), in which the tarsi of all the legs have four articula-
tions
9. What description of metamorphosis do the Coleop'terae undergo?
10. What is the condition of the nymph® of Coleop'teras ?
11. How is the order of Coleop'tera divided ?
PENTAMERANS.— CARABUS.— GYRINUS. 33
4th. The Trime'rans (from the Greek, treis, three, and meros,
joint or part), in which all the tarsi have three articulations.
COLEOPTEROUS PENTAME'RANS.
12. This division is composed of several families, among
which are the Carni'vora^ the Ser'ricornes, the Cla'vicornes, and
the Lame'llicornes.
13. The family of Carni'vora (from the Latin, caro, in the
genitive, carnis, flesh, and voro, I eat) is distinguished by having
double palpi on the maxillse. These insects pursue and devour
others. Several have no wings under the wing-covers or elytra.
The larvae are also very carni'vorous. This family is one of the
largest of. the Coleop'tera, and contains a great many tribes and
Ciera. Among them we shall mention the Cicin'dela (from the
tin, cicendela, a glow-worm), a genus of small insects, pos-
sessed of brilliant metallic colours, commonly met with in dry,
sunny situations. They run with considerable swiftness, take
wing the moment they are approached, but alight at a short dis-
tance. The larvse excavate holes in the earth, and such is their
voracity that they devour other larvae of the same species, which
have taken up their abode in the neighbourhood.
14. The Carabi — Carabus — which generally conceal them-
selves under stones or in the earth, one
species of which, the Carabus auratus
(Jig. 23), is very common in the environs
of Paris. It is about an inch long, and
remarkable for the brilliance of its co-
lours ; it is golden green above and black
below. All the Carabi are swift runners,
and when they have wings, rarely make
use of them. Most of them exhale a
fetid odour, and when disturbed, they
throw out from the mouth and anus a
caustic or acrid liquid.
15. The genus Gy'rinus (from the pig. 33.
Greek, guros, a circle) comprises aquatic CARABUS AURATUS.
insects that pass the greater part of
their lives in the water, but they nevertheless are obliged to
visit the surface to breathe. Their four anterior legs are in form
cf fins. They are often seen in numerous groups on the surface
of stagnant pools; they swim with great velocity, forming cir-
cular tracks in various directions.
12. How are coleop'terous Pentame'rans divided?
13. How is the family of Carni'vora distinguished?
14. What are the characters of the genus Carabus?
1^ How is the genus Gy'rinus characteri/ed /
4
WATER-BEETLES.
Fip. 24.
LARVA.
Fig. 25.— NYMKU,
The water-beetle (Dytisctts) is represented in the larva state
(fio- 24)> in tne nympha state (Jig. 25), in the imago or perfect
.insect (Jig. 26).
"Nothing is, perhaps, better
calculated to excite the admira-
tion of the student of animated
nature, than the amazing results
produced by the slightest devia-
tions from a common type of
organization ; and in examining
the changes required in order to
metamorphose an organ which
we have already seen perform-
ing such a variety of offices into
fins adapted to an aquatic life,
this circumstance must strike
the mind of the most heedless
observer. The limbs used in
swimming exhibit the same
P'irts, the same number of joints, and almost the
same shape, as those employed for creeping, climb-
ing, leaping, and numerous other purposes; yet
how different is the function assigned to them !
In the common water-beetle (Jig- 26) the two
anterior pairs of legs, that could be of small ser-
vice as instruments of propulsion, are so small as to appear quite dispropor.
tionate to the size of the insect, while the hinder pair are
of great size and strength; the last-mentioned limbs are,
moreover, removed as far backwards as possible by the
development of the hinder segment of the thorax, in
order to approximate their origins to the centre of the
body, and the individual segments composing them are
broad and compressed, so as to present an extensive sur-
face to the water, which is still further enlarged by the
presence of flat spines, appended to the end ot the tibia,
as well as of 'a broad fringe of stiff hairs inserted all
around the tarsus. The powerful oars thus formed can Fig. 26.
open until they form right angles with the axis of the WATER-BEETLE.
body, and from the strength of their stroke are well adapt-
ed to the piratical habits of their possessors, who wage successful war, not
only with other aquatic insects and worms, but even with small fishes, the
co-inhabitants of the ponds wherein they live." — T. Rymer Jones.
16. Other coleop'terous Pentame'rans, which have but two palpi
on the maxillae, and filiform or saw-like antenna?, belong to the
family of Ser'ricornes (from the Latin, serra, a saw, and cornu,
jorn), are worthy attention.
17. Of this number are the fire-flies — Elater — (from the Greek,
elater, a leaper), which have the power of leaping when placed on
the back. If a beetle be seen to fall upon its back, and instead
of making the ordinary efforts to set itself on its legs, bends its
16 How is the family of Ser'ricornes characterized ?
17. What are the habits of fire-flies?
LAMPYRA.— BORERS, &c.
35
head towards its tail, raising this part, and repeating this action
until it. has fallen on its feet, such a beetle may be recognised av.
once as a species of Elater. These beetles are often found on
flowers and on the grass: like many other coleop'terous insects,
when approached they fall to the ground and feign to be dead
There is one species (Elater noctilucus) about an inch long,
which inhabits South America, and has two brown spots on the
corselet, which at night diffuse a light so bright that the Indiana
make use of them to light them in their nocturnal labours and
excursions.
18. There is in the neighbourhood of Paris an insect, similar
to the last in producing phosphorescent light, the Lam'pyra (from
*he Greek, lampuros, a glow-worm). The males (fig. 27) are
not particularly remarkable; but the
female (fig. 28), which is without
wings, diffuses a phosphorescent light at
night, which circumstance has obtained
for it the common name of glow-worm.
This light issues from the abdomen, and
the animal can vary its intensity at
pleasure. The females of the species
of Lam'pyra inhabiting warm coun-
tries, are, on the contrary, all winged, and in flying
through the air after sunset, they often produce a natural illumi-
nation comparable to numberless little moving stars.
\19. VVe give the name of borers (Ano'bium) to small insects
which inhabit our dwellings ; while in the larva state they are very
destructive, for then they eat the floors, joists, books, &c., through
which they pierce little round holes similar to those made by a
very fine gimlet ; their excrements form those little pulve'rulent
heaps of worm-eaten wood we often see on the floors of old houses.
Another species of borer in the same manner eats farinaceous
substances, and ravages collections of insects.
20. Insects of the family of Cla'mcornes (from the Latin,
clava, a club, and cornu^ horn) are characterized by antennae in
form of a club. To this family belong the Derme'stes (from the
Greek, derma, skin, and esthio, I eat). They have an oval body,
and their larvse, which feed on animal substances, commit great
depredations in fur stores, and in museums of natural history.
The Bacon-beetle belongs to this family.
21. We place in the family of Lame'llicornes (from the Latin4
Fig. 28.
GLOW-WORM.
1 8. What are glow-worms ?
19. What are the habits of borers ?
20. How is the family of Cla'vicornes characterized ?
characters of the Dermes'tes ?
21. What are the characters of the Lame'llicornes ?
What arc the
30
MAY-BUG.— HETEROMERANS.
Fig. 29.
HORNED BEETLE.
lamella, a little thin plate, and cornu, horn)
may-bugs — Melolontha, — dung-beetles — Co-
pris (from the Greek, kopros, dung), — beetles
— Scarabeus, — and many other coleop'terous
Pentame'rans which have the antennae termi-
nated by a packet of lamellae arranged like a
fan or the leaves of a book (fig. 29). They
all have wings, and walk slowly; their body
is oval, and their larvae are very injurious to
agriculture from their eating the roots of
plants.
22. The larva of the common May-bug or May-chaffer
(Melolontha vulgaris), which belongs
to the tribe of Cut- worms, is one of
the most destructive (fig- 30). It lives
three or four years without undergoing
metamorphosis, and during the whole
time remains more or less profoundly
buried in the earth ; in winter it falls
into a kind of lethargy and takes no
food. This insect finishes its meta-
morphosis about the month of Febru-
ary ; but it is then very soft, and does
not reach the surface of the ground
till towards March or April, and leaves
it about the beginning of May. In the perfect state, May-bugs
feed on leaves, and they are sometimes so numerous as to strip a
forest in a short time. During the day they commonly remain
at rest, but fly at night ; their flight is heavy and noisy, and their
course is directed so badly that they strike against every thing
that comes in their way.
The species of beetle or scarabeus, so frequently represented
by the Egyptians, either on their monuments or sculptured stones,
which seems to have been used by them as a hieroglyphic, an
amulet, and even as an object of religious worship, is of the
family of Lame'llicornes, and belongs to the genus Ateuchus.
COLEOP'TEROUS HETEROME'RANS.
2.3. The section of Coleop'terous Heterome'rans also embraces
very interesting insects, not on account of the ravages they cause,
but on account of their great utility in medicine. We refer
especially to the Cantha rides. These little insects contain a
peculiar irritating matter, which, when applied to the skin, has
Fig. 30.
LARVA OF MAY-BUG.
22. What are the habits of the larva of the May-bug ?
23. What are Spanish flies ?
WEEVILS.— LADY-BUGS. 37
the property of producing a blister. The species employed in
medicine is the Cantharis vesicatoria, commonly called the
Spanish fly. The body is about half an inch in length, and
the elytra are long, flexible, and of a brilliant golden green
colour; it is very common in Spain, Italy, France, and Russia,
where it lives in great numbers, on the ash, the lily, privet, &c.
The potatoe fly, Cantharis mtata, is an American species, which
possesses qualities similar to the European.
COLEOP'TEROUS TETRAME'RANS.
24. Among the Coleopterous Tetrame rans we place Weevils,
which may be readily recognised by having a head elongated in
a kind of snout or trunk, upon which are placed the antennse.
These insects are gnawers and feed on vegetable substances ; the
larvae, which are without legs, frequently cause a great deal of
damage by attacking wheat.
" Would it be believed," says Wilson, the ornithologist, " that the larvae
of an insect, or fly, no larger than a grain of rice, should, silently, and in
one season, destroy some thousand acres of pine trees, many of them two
or three feet in diameter, and one hundred and fifty feet high. Yet, who-
ever passes along the high road from Georgetown to Charleston, in South
Carolina, about twenty miles from the former place, can have striking and
melancholy proofs of the fact. In some places, the whole woods, as far as
you can see around you, are dead, stripped of the bark, their wintry look-
ing arms and bare trunks bleaching in the sun and tumbling in ruins before
every blast, presenting a frightful picture of desolation. Until some effec-
tual preventive or more complete remedy can be devised against these
insects and their larvae, I would humbly suggest the propriety of protecting,
and receiving with proper feelings of gratitude, the services of this and the
whole tribe of woodpeckers, letting the odium of guilt rest on its proper
owners."
COLEOP'TEROUS TRIME'RANS.
25. As an example of Coleopterous Trime'runs, we mention
the lady-bug — Coccin'ella (from the Latin, coccinus, crimson) —
so common in our gardens. These beetles are of great service
to the agriculturist, and especially to the hop-grower; for they
destroy the plant-lice (aphides), in vast numbers feeding on them
both in the larva and perfect state.
ORDER OF ORTHOP'TERA.
26. Insects of the order of Orthop'tera (from the Greek,
orthoSj straight, and pteron, wing) are distinguished,
1st. By having the mouth armed with mandibles and maxillae
arranged for mastication.
24. How are Weevils characterized ?
25. To what division of the Coleop'tera does the lady-bug belong ?
26. How is the order of Orthop'tera distinguished ?
4*
33 ORTHOPTERJ3 EAR-WIGS.
2d. By having four wings, the two anterior of which constitute
the elytra or wing-cases, and the two posterior are membranous
and folded longitudinally when in repose, as in the grasshopper.
27. The body of these insects is less consistent generally than
that of the Coleop'tera?, and is elongated in form, as for example,
in the mole-cricket, domestic cricket, and grasshopper. In most
insects of this order the head is large and vertical. The elytra
slightly cross each other, and are almost always coria'ceous,
flexible, and reticulated; their position varies; but in a great
many instances they are placed obliquely or tile-like. The same
is the case with the wings, which are broad and sometimes folded
transversely, as* well as lengthwise. Sometimes all the legs are
of the same size and shape ; sometimes on the contrary they are
dissimilar. Sometimes the first pair of legs differ in form from
the others, and are adapted for digging in the ground or for seiz-
ing their prey ; at other times the hind legs are very much
developed and constitute leaping organs ; in all cases the last
articulation of the tarsus is terminated by two hooks. The abdo-
men, the form of which is usually elongated, in a great many
females has appendages attached to its posterior extremity, con-
stituting a borer or ovipositor, by means of which these insects
introduce their eggs into holes which serve their young for nests.
The Orthop'teraB undergo demi-metamorphosis, and the only
changes they experience consist in the development of elytra and
wings ; in other respects the larva and nyrnpha resemble the
perfect insect.
28. All the insects of this order are terrestrial, and most of
them feed on living plants ; they are very voracious, and some-
times commit great havoc.
Among the most interesting of the Orthop'teroe are the ear- wigs,
mole-crickets, crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts.
29. The Ear-wigs (fig. 31) — Forfi'cula
(from the Latin, forfex, pincers) — have a
linear body, very short elytra, and the abdo-
men is terminated by two horny movable
appendages resembling pincers. These in-
sects are very common in damp grounds ;
they sometimes assemble in large numbers,
and are very destructive' to fruit trees. It
was believed that they insinuated themselves
into the ear, and to this popular opinion is
due their common name; but it is an error
for they only raise the pincers that terminate
Fig. 31.-EAR.wio. the abdomen in Self.defence.
27. What are the characters of the Orthop'tera ?
28. What are the habits of Orthop'terse ?
29 How are ear-wigs characterized ? Are they dangerouc ?
MOLE-CRICKETS.— CRICKETS.
Fig. 32. MOLE-CRICKET.
30. The Mole-criclcefs—Grillo-tnlpa (fg. 32)— have broad,
flat fore legs, adapted for digging; the common Mole-cricket
(Grillo-talpa vvlgaris) lives in the ground, and is very injurious
from its habit of digging subterraneous passages like moles, and
cutting or detaching Ihe roots of all plants that come in its way.
Fig. 33. — CRICKET.
31. The Crickets — Gryllvs (Jiff. 33) — resemble the mole-
cricket, but their fore legs are not formed for digging, although
some of them dig holes. The domestic cricket (Gryllus domes-
ticvs) inhabits dwellings, and usually seeks the warmth of the
chimney. Crickets leap almost as well as grasshoppers, and are
not unlike them. Male crickets produce that sharp sound, com-
monly called their song, by rubbing their thighs against the
wings.
32. Grasshoppers (jigs. 34 and 35) closely resemble crickets'
but their tarsi have four articulations, and their antenna are lonj?
and consist of numerous small articulations. Like crickets, theii
hind legs are formed for leaping ; they walk slowly, but fly well
The females deposit their eggs in the ground by means of tho
30. What are the characters of mole-crickets ?
31. How are crickets characterized ? What are their habits ? How is
their song produced ?
32. How are grasshoppers characterized ? What are migratory locusts ?
10
GRASSHOPPERS.— MIGRATORY LOCUSTS.
sword-like ovipositor, which terminates the abdomen. The larvee
have neither wings nor sheaths for containing them ; in other
respects they resemble the imago or perfect insect. The genus
Acry'dium belongs to this group. These last Orthop'terte have
Fig. 34.— LARVA OF GRASSHOPPER.
on each side of the first ring of the abdomen a kind of mem-
branous drum, by means of which they produce a sound, impro-
perly called their song. They are very common in fields ; they
frequently assemble in countless multitudes, commonly known as
Migratory locusts, and in this way travel great distances ; the
Fig. 35. — GRASSHOPPER.
passage of one of these destructive bands sometimes converts a
whole kingdom into a desert, in a very short period. This
scourge is more frequent in Africa, but the same species of locust
als^ shows itself in Europe. In certain countries of Africa, these
insects are eaten; certain Asiatics, after drying and grinding
•them, make them into bread. At Bagdad they are sold in the
market.
HEMIPTEKA. 41
LESSON III.
ORDER OF HEMIP'TERA. — Organization — Division — Bed-bug
— Locvst — Plant-lice — Cochineal Insect.
ORDER OF NEUROP'TERA. — Dragon-flies — Ephemera — White
Ants.
ORDER OF LEPIDOP'TERA. — Division — Butterflies — Sphinx —
Bombyx — Silk-worm — Tinea.
ORDER OF HEMIP'TERA.
1. Insects of the order of Hemip'tera (from the Greek, Vmisws,
half, and pteron, wing) may be distinguished at first sight from
the two preceding orders, by the conformation of the mouth,
which, instead of being adapted to masticate food, is in the form
of a long sucker resembling a tube. They have four wings; the
two first are in general half coriaceous and half membranous,
from which circumstance the order derives its name (figs. 36
and 37).
2. In general the tegumentary covering of the Hemip'terse is
crustaceous ; sometimes, besides the compound eyes which exist
in all insects, we find simple eyes or ocelli ; the elytra are some-
times one-half crustaceous or coriaceous, and half membranous,
and at other times entirely membranous ; sometimes they, as
well as the wings, are wanting. The metamorphosis of the
Hemip'terse is generally incomplete, and consists only in the
development of wings and the growth of other parts of the body.
The organization of the mouth makes these insects necessarily
suckers ; it is composed of a sheath formed by the labium or
lower lip, and contains two pairs of filaments.
3. This order is divided into two sections ; namely,
1st. The HETEROP'TERJE (from the Greek, 'eteros, various, and
pteron, wing), in which the elytra are hard and thick at the
base, and membranous at the extremity (jig. 36).
2d. The HOMOP'TER^E (from the Greek, 0/7105, the same, and
pteron, wing), in which the elytra or first pair of wings are of
the same consistence throughout (Jigs- 37 and 39).
4. The Heterop'terse have a large and frequently triangulai
1. How is the order of Hemip'tera distinguished ?
2. What is the character of the teguments of Hemip'terans ? What it
the nature of their metamorphosis ?
3. How is the order of Hemip'tera divided ?
4. How is the section of Heterop'terai characterized ?
BED-BUGS.— LOCUSTS.
corselet, and a thick beak inserted beneath the front. They are
designated under the common name of bugs, and are divided into
GEO'COKISJE (from the Greek, ge, land, and koris, bug) or land-
ougs, and HYDRO'CORIS^E (from the Greek, 'udor, water, and
koris, bug) or water-bugs.
The Pen ta to' ma (Jig. 36) is the type of the
family of Geo'corisa.
5. The bugs, properly so called (Cimex),
also belong to this family ; they have a soft flat-
tened body, and are unprovided with wings.
The too well-known insect, vulgarly called the
bed-by g (Cimex lectularius), sucks the blood of
Fig. 36. man while he sleeps, and when in danger, or
PENTATOMA. w hen crushed, exhales a fetid odour ; it is the
scourge of old dirty houses ; during winter, h is
torpid. It is pretended that this insect did not exist in England
previous to the fire of London in 1666, and that it was transported
thither in timber from America. They were known long before
that time on the continent of Europe. Great cleanliness and
extreme vigilance are the best means of keeping clear of these
noxious insects.
6. The HOMOP'TERJS, in which the elytra, in place of being
horizontal as in the preceding, are inclined and similar to wings,
live exclusively on the juices of plants, and are generally remark-
able for the length of the beak which arises from the inferior and
posterior part of the head.
7. The locust— Cicada —
(fg. 37) — belongs to this
family. The males make a
monotonous noisy kind of
music, which is produced by
an organ situated at each side
of the base of the abdomen.
They live on trees and suck
their sap ; one species is in
Fig. 37. — LOCUST. the habit of stinging a species
of the ash, causing an exuda-
tion of a honey-like juice, which, growing thick by evaporation
in the air, constitutes manna. The elytra are almost always
transparent and veined. The female deposits her eggs in the
pith of dead twigs. The young larvre leave their asylum to
penetrate the earth, where they grow and experience their meta-
morphosis.
5. Wh.-it are the characters of the genus Cimex?
6. What are the characters of the section Homop'tera?
7. What are the habits of locusts ? How is manna produced ? Where
do locusts deposit their eggs ?
PLANT-LICE.— COCHINEAL, <fcc
43
Fig. 33. — APHIS.
8. The plant-lice — Aphis — (Jig. 38) — are
very small homop'terans ; they have a soft
body, and are found in myriads in our gardens;
they live in companies on trees, the rose, ivy,
oak, apple, &c., arid suck the sap by aid of
»heir trunk.
9. The cochineal insect (Coccvs] is very
similar to plant-lice. The males (Jig.
39) have wings, but the females (fig.
40) have none. Most of these insects
at a particular season of the year
attach themselves to the plants on
which they feed ; the males to experi-
ence their metamorphosis, and the
females to pass their lives. The sub-
stance called cochineal, so much used
in dyeing, is the dried bodies of certain
insects of this genus. The insects
which furnish the most beautiful scarlet live on a
kind of cactus called nopal or opuntia, which is cul-
tivated in Mexico and other parts of South America,
solely on account of these animals. They are native of America,
and have been found in South Carolina,
Fig. 40.
COCHIiNEAL.
Fig. 39.
COCHINEAL.
ORDER OF NEURO^'TERA.
10. The Neurop'tene (from the Greek, neuron, nerve, and
pteron, wing) are distinguished from other insects by their wings,
all four of which are membranous, transparent and reticulated
(that is, formed in very fine net- work), and by the organization
of the mouth, which is armed with mandibles and jaws adapted to
mastication (Jig. 41).
11. The general form of these insects is elongated, and their
teguments almost always soft. Most of them are carnivorous.
The larvce always have .six legs terminated by hooks ; their
metamorphosis is various, but generally incomplete.
The most interesting insects of this order are the Dragon-flies,
Ephemera, and Termites.
8. What are plant-lice ?
9. What is cochineal dye ? How dcstj thv malb differ from tne femaln
tochineal insect ?
10. How is the order of Neurop'tera dic,Lrignished ?
11. What are the habits of the Neuk>p tene ?
' or
44
DRAGON-FLIES.— EPHEMERAE.
41. — DRAGON-FLY.
Fig. 42.
LARVA OF DRAGON-FLY.
12. The Dragon-fies — (f-gAl) — Libel'lvla— are remarkable
for their elongated form, their varied colours, their large, beautiful,
gauze-like wings, and their rapidity of flight. Their larvae and
nymphce (fig. 42) live in the water until the period of their last
transformation. In the two first states they resemble the perfect
insect, except that they have no wings, and the head, yet unpro-
vided with simple eyes, has a mark in front covering the mandi-
bles, which is furnished with movable pincers, by means of
which the animal seizes its prey. At the posterior extremity of
the abdomen (fig. 42) we remark lamellar appendages which the
larva constantly expands, while at the same moment it dilates the
rectum to cause water to enter it ; then it forcibly expels the
water mingled with bubbles of air, both for the purpose of loco-
motion and breathing.
Fig. 43.— EPHEMERA.
13. The Ephemera (Jig. 43) have a very soft body terminated
by two or three long setae or filaments. As their name indicates,
these insects live but a very short time ; they usually appear in
12. What are the characters of Dragon-flies? How do their larvse differ
from the perfect insect ?
13. What are the characters of Ephemerae ? What are their habitt
flow does the larva differ from the perfect insect ?
TERMITES. 45
numerous swarms along the banks of rivers, towards sunset, on
bright days in the warm season. They assemble in the air and
then alight on neighbouring plants; soon afterwards the female
lays her eggs in the water and dies. These insects sometimes
fall upon the ground in such great numbers that they are gathered
up in cart-loads for manuring the earth. But notwithstanding
they live in the perfect state only a few hours, they undergo
transformation and clothe themselves in a new skin. In the state
of larvae or nymphae, on the contrary, they live two or three
years and remain in the water. The larva resembles the perfect
insect; but the mouth has two projections in form of horns, and
the abdomen has on each side a row of plates or leaflets, serving
for respiration and swimming. The pupa or nympha does not
differ from the larva except in the presence of sheaths enclosing
the wings. At the moment these organs are to be developed, the
insect leaves the water ; and it is a remarkable exception to the
general rule, that after having undergone this metamorphosis, it
again changes its skin before it becomes an adult.
1 4. The Ter' mites are only found in countries situated near the
tropics, and are known under the common name of white ants.
These insects live in very numerous societies, composed of males,
females, larvae, nymphs, and neuters or adults; the last are
however incomplete, wanting wings ; they are called soldiers.
They keep under ground or in the interior of trees, joists, &c.,
and in them dig very extensive and numerous galleries, all of
which communicate with a central place where they dwell ; these
habitations are always covered, and when circumstances compel
the larvae to leave it, they form beyond, from the materials they
gnaw, tubes or covered ways which hide them from view. The
soldiers, which have a larger head, and mandibles more apparent
than the others, are charged with the defence of the common
dwelling, and it is for this reason they have obtained the name
of soldiers; they keep near the external surface of the habita-
tion, and as soon as a breach is made, they rush out to fight their
enemies. The larva, which are called working termites, are
much more numerous than the soldiers; they perform all the
Inbour necessary for the construction and repair of their dwell-
ings ; they cause terrible destruction by mining, as it were, through
trees and the frames of houses. Having attained the perfect
state, the termites quit their nest towards evening and rise ir the
air; but on the rising of the sun their wings dry and they fall,
the most of them becoming a prey to lizards, birds, &c. ; but we
are assured that, at this period, the larva? make prisoners of tho
females and keep them in a particular cell in the centre of the
14 What are Ter'mites ? What are their habits ?
46 LEPIDOPTER^E.
habitation, for the purpose of augmenting the colony by the addi-
tion of their offspring. At first a certain number of larvse stand
guard at the entrance of this cell ; but the abdomen of the cap
tive female acquires so great a volume that she cannot pass the
entrance of the cell, which the larvse are even obliged to enlarge
The same larvse are careful to lodge in a particular cell the eggs
she lays and provide food for them. There is a species of ter-
mites, called lucifvgus, which is multiplied to such a degree in
the workshops and store-houses, in the dock-yard at Rochefort,
as to cause serious damage.
"When they find their way," says Kirhy, "into houses or warehouses,
nothing less hard than metal or glass escapes their ravages. Their favourite
food, however, is wood, and so infinite is the multitude of assailants, and
such the excellence of their tools, that all the timber-work of a spacious
apartment is often destroyed by them in a night. Outwardly every thing
appears as if untouched ; for ther.e wary depredators — and this is what con-
stitutes the greatest singularity in their history — carry on all their opera-
tions by sap or mine, destroying first the inside of solid substances, and
scarcely ever attacking the outside, until first they have concealed it and
their operations with a coat of clay."
It is related that "an engineer having returned from surveying the
country, left his trunk on a table : the next morning he found not only all
his clothes destroyed by the white ants or cutters, but his papers also, and
the latter in such a manner, that there was not a. bit left of an inch square.
The black-lead of his pencils was consumed ; the clothes were not entirely
cut to pieces and carried away, but appeared as if moth-eaten, there being
scarcely a piece as large as a shilling free from small holes. * One night,'
says Kemper, in his history of Japan, ' in a few hours, they pierced one
foot of the table, and having in that manner ascended, carried their arch
across it, and then down, through the middle of the other foot, into the floor,
as good luck would have it, without doing any damage to the papers left
there.' M — History of Insects in the Family Library.
ORDER OF LEPIDOP'TERA.
15. The Lepidop'terse (from the Greek, lepis, a scale, and
pteron, wing) or butterflies are recognised by the scaly dust,
similar to coloured flour, which covers their four membranous
wings, and by their mouth, which is in form of a tube spirally
rolled up (Jig. 11).
16. These insects experience complete metamorphosis; their
larvse, which are known under the name of caterpillars (Jigs. 17
and 18), have six scaly legs corresponding to those of the perfect
insect, and four or six membranous feet which subsequently dis-
appear; in general the body is almost cylindrical, soft, and dif-
ferently coloured. Most of them feed on leaves or other parts
15. How is the order of Lepidop'tera recognised ?
1 6. What are the characters of the larva of Lepidop' terse ? What In a
ehrysalid ?
. " **
DIURNAL LEPIDOPTEILE.— BUTTERFLIES. 47
of vegetables $ but there are some that eat woollen stuffs, peltries,
&c. Generally these animals change the skin four times; and
when they are about being transformed into the nympha or pupa
slate, they enclose themselves in a shell or cocoon, constructed
of a silky material, secreted in particular organs, and
forced out through a kind of lip. In the nympha
state, the Lepidop'terse resemble a mummy, and are
called chrysalids (fig. 44) ; they are swathed, and
when they have undergone the changes they are des-
tined to experience, they escape from their case
through a slit they make on the back of the corselet.
In the perfect state, these animals feed exclusively on
the honey of flowers.
17. The order of Lepidop'tera is divided into three great
families ; namely, Diurnal Lepidop'terce, Crepuscular Lepidop'-
ter&, and Nocturnal Lepidop 'term.
18. The DIURNAL LEPIDOF'TERJE: are recognised by their
wings, which are vertical when in repose (fig. 45), while in the
other two families they are horizontal or inclined. Their antennae
are generally terminated by a small rounded club-like mass ; some-
times, however, they are tapering at the extremity, and curved
Fig. 45. PAPILIO PHILENOR.
17. How is the order of Lepidop'tera divided?
ia How are the Diurnal Lepidop'tera; distinguished? What are their habit**
48 PAPILIO PHILENOR.— VANESSA.
so as to form a hook. These butterflies, as their name indicates,
fly and seek their food only during the day; their colours are
generally bright and agreeably variegated. Their caterpillars
always have six legs, and the chrysalid is seldom enclosed in a
cocoon, but is suspended by the posterior extremity of the body.
In this family are the butterflies, proper ly so ca lied, Vanessa,'&c.
19. As an example of the first we will mention the Papilio
philenor (Jig. 45), one of the most beautiful of our butterflies.
It is characterized by a black head, thorax and legs ; breast dotted
with yellow ; the superior wings are dark green, with white spots
on the margin ; the inferior wings highly polished green, with
spots of pearl-white and fulvous, the latter surrounded by a black
ring. The caterpillars of this genus are destitute of spines or
hairs; but when disturbed they suddenly project from the superior
part of the neck a soft bifid or forked appendage, which diffuses
a strong odour. This singular organ, although somewhat for-
midable in appearance, is yet perfectly harmless ; it may, however,
serve the purpose of repelling the enemies of the larva, rather,
perhaps, by the odour it emits, than by its menacing aspect.
20. The genus Vanessa comprises several species. Their ca-
terpillars are armed with numerous spines (fig. 46).
Fig. 46.— VANESSA.
21. The CREPUSCULAR LEPIDOP'TER.E only fly in morning or
evening twilight. When in repose, their wings are horizontal or
inclined, a position which is attributable to the fact that in this
family the inferior wings have a stiff bristle which serves to sup-
port the superior. The antennae are elongated clubs, and com-
monly prismatic or spindle-shaped ; sometimes they are pectinate
their caterpillars always have six legs.
19. How is the Papilio philenor characterized?
20. How are the caterpillars of the genus Vanessa characterized ?
521. Why are the wings of Crepuscular Lepidop' terse, when in repose, ton-
, tpntal or inclined"
SPHINX.— BOMB YX.
22. The type of this family is the genus Sphinx, so called, because
sometimes the attitude of its caterpillar resembles that of the sphinx
of fable ; they fly with great rapidity and hover above flowers.
2.S. The largest species in France is the Sphinx atropos, so
named, in consequence of a spot on the back resembling some-
what a death's head. Its caterpillar is yellow with blue stripes
on the side; it lives on the potatoe-vine, jasmin, &c., and changes
to a nymph, about the end of August; the perfect insect appears
in September.
24. The; NOCTURNAL LEPIDOP'TERJS always have horizontal
or inclined wings when in repose ; the superior wings are almost
always retained against the inferior (fig- 47) ; in this respect they
resemble the crepuscular lepidop'terae, but are distinguished from
them by their antennae, which diminish in size from the base to
the point, or in other words, they are seta'ceous. These lepidop'-
terae, which are sometimes called phaloensc, ordinarily fly only at
night or in the evening after sunsetj in some species the females
are without wings, or have them very small. Their chrysalids
are almost always round and lodged in a cocoon.
This family is very numerous, and is divided into several tribes ;
the most interesting is that of the Bom'byces, which have inclined
wings, forming a triangle with the body.
25. The mulberry bombyx
— Bombyx mori — (fig. 47) —
of all insects is the most in-
teresting, because its caterpil-
lar, known under the name of
silk-worm, furnishes us with
silk. In the perfect state, this
butterfly is whitish, with two
or three darkish transverse
stripes, and a cross-like spot
on the superior wings. Its caterpillar (Jig. 48) has a smooth
body, and at birth scarcely
exceeds a line in length ;
but attains in time to even
more than three inches long.
In this form the silk-worm
Fig. 47. — BOMBVX.
lives about thirty-four days,
and duringthis timechanges
Fig. 48. — SILK-WORM.
22. What is a Sphinx ?
23. How is the caterpillar of the Sphinx atropos characterized ?
24. How are the Nocturnal Lepidop'terae distinguished ? What are their
habits ?
25. What are silk-worms ? What are the characters of the bombyx
mori? What are the habits of its larva? What is the colour of it»
cocoon ?
5*
SILK-WORMS.
its skin four times ; it feeds on the leaves of the mulberry ; at
the time of moulting it becomes torpid and does not eat; but after
changing its skin, its appetite is doubled. When it is ready to
change into a chrysalis, it becomes flaccid and soft, and seeks a
proper place to construct its cocoon, in which it encloses itself;
the first day is occupied in attaching, in an irregular manner,
threads of silk to neighbouring bodies to support it; the second
day it begins to multiply these threads so as to envelope itself;
and on the third day it is entirely concealed in its cocoon. This
nest is formed of a single filament of silk wrapped around the
animal, and its turns glued together by a kind of gum. It is
estimated that the length of this filament in an ordinary cocoon
is nine hundred feet. The form of the cocoon is oval, and its
colour either yellow or white.
26. The bombyx remains in the chrysalis state, in the interior
of its cocoon, about twenty days ; and when it has finished its
metamorphosis, it disgorges upon a point of its parietes a par-
ticular liquid, which softens it. and enables the animal to make a
round hole through which it escapes.
27. This precious caterpillar appears to be originally from the
northern part of China, and, about the time of Justinian, was
imported into Europe by the Greek missionaries; but it was not
until the period of the Crusades that its culture passed from Greece
into Italy and Sicily. Some gentlemen who accompanied Charles
VIII. into Italy during the war of 1494 introduced these insects
into the south of France, as well as the mulberry, a tree without
which silk-worms cannot be raised ; but for a long time it attracted
very little attention. In the present day, however, this branch
of agricultural industry forms one of the chief sources of wealth
of southern France; and is yearly becoming of more and more
importance in the United States.
28. To obtain the silk produced by these animals, it is neces-
sary to kill them before they pierce the cocoon, and then wind or
reel off' the thread or filament of which it is composed ; to unglue
it, the cocoons are soaked in warm water; then the filaments of
three or four are united into one thread. That part of the cocoon
which cannot be reeled in this manner is carded, and constitutes
floss-silk.
29. The mulberry bombyx is not the only species of this genus
which yields silk that can be usefully employed; the inhabitants
of Madagascar make use of a species, the caterpillars of which live
126. How does the bombyx escape from its cocoon?
27. What is the history of the silk-worm ?
28. How is the silk obtained ? What is floss-silk ?
29. Is there any other species of Bombyx which produces silk ?
PROCESSIONNEA.— PTEROPHORA. 51
in numerous bands, and form a common nest, sometimes three
feet high, containing about five hundred cocoons.
30. A species of bombyx called processionne a, has analogous
habits, but instead of being useful, is very destructive ; the body
of the caterpillars is ash-coloured, with a black back spotted
yellow; they live in society on the oak, and while young, spin a
web or tent in common, under which they are all sheltered ; they
frequently change their domicil, and generally they leave their
retreat in the evening, following a regular order; one marches
ahead, then follows two, then three, and so on, increasing each
rank by one; this description of procession has given them their
specific name.
31. The Tinete or Moths, whose caterpillars frequently feed on
cloth and peltry, are also nocturnal lepidop'terae. The clothes-
moth, fur-moth, grease-moth, grain-moth, and various other
destructive moths are mostly very small insects; the largest of
them, when arrived at maturity, expanding their wings about
eight-tenths of an inch. The Tinea sarcitella or pack-moth,
which is very destructive to woollen, is silver-gray, and has a
white dot on each side of the thorax. Its caterpillar lives on
cloth and other woollens, weaving with their detached particles
mixed with silk a portable tube ; it lengthens it one end in pro-
portion as it grows, and slits it to increase its diameter by adding
another piece. From this circumstance it obtains the specific
name, sarcitella, which is formed from the Latin, sarcio, I patch.
32. Belonging to the
family of nocturnal lepi-
dop'tera is the tribe of
FISSIPENNJE : this tribe
is distinguished from all
other lepidop'terse by the
singular structure of the
wings, which, in a state
of repose, are straight
and elongated. The four
wings, or two of them at Fig. 49. — PTERO'PHORA.
least, are slit through their
whole length into branches, which are barbed on the sides, bear-
ing some resemblance to an outspread feather fan. All these
anomalous insects are included in a single genus, named PTERO'-
PHORA (fig. 49).
30. What are the habits of the Bombyx processionne'a ?
31. What are Tinese ?
32. What are Fissipennae ?
HYMENOPTERA.
LESSON IV.
ORDER OF HYMENOP'TERA. — Organization — Ichneumon Fly —
Galls — Wasps — Hornets — Ants — Bees.
ORDER OF RHIPIP'TERA.
ORDER OF DIP'TERA. — Mosquitoes — Flies — (Estrus.
CLASS OF MYRIA'PODA. — Scolopendra.
ORDER OF HYMENOP'TERA.
1. Insects of the order of Hymenop'tera (from the Greek,
'umen, a membrane, and pteron, wing) have, like the Neurop'terce,
four membranous, naked wings, that is, they are without the
coloured dust-like scales which cover those of the Lepidop'terae ;
the mouth is composed of mandibles, which in general are very
different in form from those of triturating insects (tritores) ; but
the maxillse and ligula are elongated in such a manner as to con-
stitute a tube adapted exclusively to suction; their wings are
veined, instead of being reticulated as in the Neurop'terce, and
the superior are always larger than the inferior. The tegumen-
tary envelope of these insects is not crustaceous ; besides the
compound eyes, they always have three small simple eyes.
When in repose the wings are placed horizontally over the body.
The tarsi are composed of five complete articulations ; and the
abdomen is generally suspended from the posterior extremity of
the thorax, by a straight peduncle; and in the females this part
of the body is terminated by an ovipositor or sting.
2. The metamorphosis of these insects is complete ; most of
the larvae are apodous, that is, without feet ; but some are pro-
vided with six or a greater number of legs.
3. In the perfect state, almost all the Hymenop'terse live on
flowers, and many of them form numerous societies, the labours
of which are performed in common. In the larva state, some
feed on dead insects, others on vegetable substances, and when
these animals are unprovided with legs, and consequently in-
capable of seeking food, the mother places them, sometimes in
the bodies of animals at whose cost they are destined to live,
sometimes in nests, and then she or others of the society regularly
bring them food.
1 . What are the characters of Hymenop'terans ?
2. What description of metamorphosis do they undergo ?
3. What are the habits of the Hymenop' terse ?
ICHNEUMON FLIES.— WASPS. 53
4. Some, designated by the common name of TEREBRAN'TIA
(from the Latin, terebro, I bore), have, in the female, the abdomen
terminated by a simple borer, most generally in form of a saw,
which they use to deposit their eggs in suitable places. Of this
number are the Ichneumon flies, insects which render essential
service to agriculture by destroying a great many caterpillars ;
the Cynips, which have a small head, and a large, raised up
corselet, which gives them the appearance of being hump-backed.
The females make excavations in trees for depositing their eggs,
and the juices effused at the wounded spot often produce excres-
cences named galls. The gall-nut, of which considerable use is
made in dyeing black, and in the manufacture of ink, is developed
in this manner on the leaves of a species of oak which grows in
Asia Minor.
5. Other hymenop'terae have the abdomen attached to the
thorax by a straight peduncle, and in place of the ovipositor there
exists in most of the females and most neuters, a retractile sting.
They form a group of ACU'LEATES (from the Latin, aculeus, a
prickle or sting). The most interesting insects of this division
are the wasps, ants, and bees.
6. Wasps — Vespa* — are so generally known that it is not neces-
sary to describe their form ; but their habits are worthy of atten-
tion. These insects, like some other hymenop'terse, live in
society. Only the females found new colonies ; in the spring
they lay their eggs, from which are derived individuals called
workers, who assist their common mother to enlarge the nest and
raise the young born afterwards. To construct their nest or
vespiary, these insects by aid of their mandibles detach pieces of
bark or old wood, which they reduce to a sort of paper-like paste ,
of this they form the combs or nests, which are generally hori-
zontal, suspended by pedicles, and present at the lower edge series
of hexagonal cells, serving for the lodgment of the larvae and
pupae. These cells are ranged parallel to each other, at regular
distances, and are joined together at intervals by little columns
which support them (fig. 50) ; the whole is built, sometimes in
the open air, sometimes in the hollow of a tree, and some are
naked or enclosed in a common envelope, according to the species
(Jig- 50). The cells, which vary in number, are sometimes
covered and communicate externally by a common aperture. It
is only in the beginning of autumn that male wasps are found in
the vespiary; the young females make their appearance about
the same time. About the month of November the young wasps
that have not yet completed their last metamorphosis, are put to
4. What are gall-nuts ?
5. What insects arc comprised in the group of Aculeates ?
6. What are the habits of wasps ?
HABITS OF WASPS.
Fig. 50. — VESPIARY OR WASP'S NEST.
death and thrown out of the cells by the neuters, who. as well
as the males, perish when cold weather arrives ; so that the pre-
servation of the species is confided exclusively to the few females
who resist the inclemency of winter and survive till spring.
" Cruel and ferocious as these insects may appear, still their affection for
their habitation and young is very striking. Whatever injury may be done
to the nest, if it should be even broken to pieces, they will linger about the
cherished spot, or quit it only to follow the combs wherever they may be
transferred. 'Those,' says Reaumur, 'which were absent when I removed
the nest, finding, on their return, neither companions nor homo, knew not
where to go, and for days together hovered around the hole before they
determined to abandon the spot.' The material from which the nest is con-
struclcd is vegetable fibre. The wasp will not use saw-dust ; but, knowing
that a filamentous material, like linen rags, is necessary for the fabrication
of its paper, it amasses pieces of some substance possessing this quality.
As the first step in the process of paper-making is to soak the vegetable
fibre in water, so the wasp takes especial care to select the filaments which
it intends to use from wet wood which has rotted in the rain. These are
worked up with «i glutinous secretion, and thus the material is prepared.
When the wasp can get its paper ready made, it makes no scruple to appro-
yiate IT. Reaumur, being once disturbed by a noise in his study, found
•Jiat it arose from the gnawing- of a piece of paper which thewe insects had
ANTS. 55
attacked. A few only of the community are architects ; the lest having
other appropriate employments. The females (for there are as many as
three hundred), unlike the queen bee, do not pass their lives in receiving the
homage of their subjects, but perform every species of labuur. The
neuters, however, as among bees, are the true workers. They build the
nest and forage for food for the males, females, and the young. The worms
are not locked up in a cell surrounded by food, but require to be fed like
the young of birds. ' I saw,' says Reaumur, 'a female wasp, which had
entered the vespiary with the belly of an insect ; this she contrived by
degrees to swallow, after which she ran to various cells, and disgorging that
which she had eaten, distributed it among the brood of worms.' Hence it
appears that it not only procured the food, but prepared it by a partial
digestion. The wasp is particularly fond of the belly of the bee ; it is a
choice bit which it eagerly seeks. It will watch for hours at the door of a
bee-hive, pounce upon some unfortunate bee which is about to enter, and
tumbling it to the ground, in a trice separate, with its two serrated teeth,
the tender abdomen, containing the soft intestines and the honey-bag, from
the dry and hard chest of the insect ; having secured its prey, it hurries
away to its habitation. The large blue bottle-fly is another delicate morsel
greatly coveted by the wasp." — Family Library.
The hornet is the largest of the wasp tribe. It is a terrible enemy of the
hive bee ; its sting is very dangerous even to man.
7. The ants — Formica — also present three kinds of individuals,
males, females, and workers; they live in societies composed
chiefly of workers who are unprovided with wings; so soon as
the males and females have acquired wings they leave the habita-
tion ; the males soon after die, and the females that are to become
mothers quickly lose their wings; some go off to found new
colonies, others are held prisoners by the neuters in the old
habitation, and there lay their eggs. The manner of construct-
ing these dwellings, and in fact every thing relating to the habits
of ants, is extremely curious. In general the Iarva3 dig in the
earth a multitude of galleries, chambers arranged in stories, and,
carrying out the dirt, often raise up above the nest a little hill,
in the interior of which these indefatigable workmen form new
stories similar to those below ; sometimes they construct from this
dirt, galleries which they carry up along the sterns of shrubs on
which these insects go in pursuit of food, and which shelter them in
their daily journeys. Other ants construct their nests in trees that
have been already attacked by other insects and softened by decay.
The larvae also receive assiduous attention from the workers;
each one is supplied by the latter with the juices proper for it,
and, when the weather is fine, we observe these active nurses
carry the young out of the nest to expose them to the rays of the
sun, defend them from their enemies, transport them back again
io the nest on the approach of evening, and keep them clean.
8. Bees (Jig. 5l)—^Apis — and some other Hymenop' terse pre
7. What are the habits of ants ?
8. W^at are the characters of bee? ?
Fig. 51.— HONEY-BEE.
sent a peculiar conformation of the
hind legs, which is characteristic of
them ; ihe first articulation of the tarsus
of these legs is very large, compressed
in form of a palette and armed with a
silky brush ; on the external side of
the leg or tibia there is also a depres-
sion bordered by hairs, named a basket;
the insect makes use of these organs
ror collecting the pollen of flowers. Honey-bees are distinguished
from other social bees by the absence of spines on the extremity
of the hind legs.
9. Of all insects that live in society these are the most interest-
ing to us; for by their admirable industry we are furnished with
honey and wax. These little animals establish their dwellings in
some cavity, such as holes in trees, or in a kind of cage which
farmers prepare for them, called a hive,
a The inhabitants of each hive or colony
formed by bees are for the most part work-
ers or drones ; during a part of the year
we also find a certain number of males ;
but only one female resides among them,
and she is the sovereign, the Queen. The
working bees perform all the labour; they
collect pollen and honey, build the cells of
wax in which are deposited the eggs and
provisions of the community, take care of
the young and defend the hive from ene-
mies. The males, commonly called drones,
are only useful for a short time, and before
autumn the workers destroy them without pity. The cells just
mentioned are in form of a little hexagonal cup, and constitute by
their union in series, regularly placed in rows one above the other,
back to back, masses whose regularity and finish always excite
our admiration (fig. 52) : they are called honey-comb, and there
are two kinds of cells ; the common (a) and the royal cells (b).
10. When the period for laying arrives, the Queen, now an
object of respect and of the most assiduous care on the part of
the workers, runs through the comb, examines the cells, and
deposits her eggs in them, first in those that are smallest (a) and
destined for the larvee of workers ; then in those of still larger
dimensions, which are designed to lodge the males ; and, lastly, in
those named royal cells (bj, in consequence of their size and their
9. What are the habits of bees ?
10. Are the cells of a bee-hive all of the game size? What are royal
What is bee.bread ?
Fig. 52.
HONEY-COMB.
RHIPIPTERA.— DIPTERA. 57
special destination for the larvae of females. When the number
of these chambers is too small, and the female deposits several
eggs in the same cell, the workers soon perceive it, and destroy
them all except one. Three days after laying, those workers who
have not contributed to the construction of the comb, b'ut have
collected pollen and honey to be deposited in magazines con
structed for the purpose, begin to discharge the duty of nurses to
the newly born larvae, bringing them several times daily a kind
of mixture varied according to the age and sex of those for
whom it is intended. This mixture is known under the name
of bee- bread.
11. These larvse are completely apodous, without feet, and
resemble small worms ; six or seven days after birth, they pre-
pare for undergoing their metamorphosis, and the nurses then
enclose them in their cells, closing the latter with a cover of wax ;
they remain in the nympha or pupa state about eleven days, and
then disengage themselves and appear in the form of bees. When
the number of bees contained in the hive becomes too great to be
comfortably accommodated, a part of them, led by a female,
emigrate and found a new colony, termed a swarm.
Although the habits of bees are very interesting, our limits
require us to refer the reader for their history to some of the
several works specially treating of them. A very entertaining
and correct account of them is contained in the " Natural History
of Insects," published in Harper's Family Library.
ORDER OF RHIPIP'TERA.
12. The order of Rhipip'tera (from the Greek, ripis, a fan,
and pteron, wing) is composed of a small number of insects,
very remarkable on account of their habits and anomalous form.
They may be recognised by their two large membranous wings,
longitudinally folded like a fan. In the larva state they form a
little oval worm, without legs, and live among the scales of some
species of Hymenop'terse, as wasps, for example; in the same
situation they change into the nympha state.
ORDER OF DIP'TERA.
13. The order of Dip'tera (from the Greek, dis, two, and
pteron, wing) is composed of insects that have only two wings,
which are membranous and extended (fig. 53).
14. The general envelope of these insects is very thin ana
1 1 . What are the characters of the larvse of bees ?
12. How is the order of Rhipip'tera recognised ?
13. How is the order of Dip'tera recognised ?
14. What are the characters of the Dip'tera?
6
58
MOSQUITOES.
possesses very little consistence ; the mouth is in form of a trunk,
and is only adapted to sucking; their legs are generally long and
slender; and the abdomen is more or less pedunculated.
15. The dip'terse experience complete metamorphosis. The
larvae are apodous, and their head is soft and variable ; their
rnouth is commonly furnished with two hooks. In most of them
it is the skin of the larva, which, by becoming hard, serves as a
cocoon for the nympha, and then puts on the appearance of a
seed or egg.
This division is very numerous both in genera and species ;
besides a great many other insects, we place in it mosquitoes,
flies, &c.
16» The mosquitoes — Culex — (fig- 53) — have a long hairy
body, antennae in form of plumes, and very
long legs. The inconvenience and annoy-
ance of these insects are well known, par-
ticularly in damp, marshy situations, where
they are found in the greatest abundance.
Voraciously fond of blood, they pursue us
everywhere, enter our dwellings, especially
in the evening, and announcing their ap-
proach by a sharp humming sound, pierce
the skin with the bristle-like lancets in their
trunk and distil a venomous liquid into the
little wound thus made. In the stale of
larva and nympha, mosquitoes live in water.
The larva lias on the segment of the abdo-
men next to the last a long tube (Jig* o4, Z),
by means of which it draws from the atmo-
sphere the air it requires: the nympha breathes
in the same manner, but by means of two
tubes placed on the thorax ; it floats on the
surface of the water, and, after having finish-
ed its metamorphosis, the perfect insect makes
use of its nympha slough or cast skin, as a
boat, until its legs and wings have acquired
sufficient solidity to enable it to walk on the
surface of the water, or betake itself to
flight; for, if its body were submerged, as
often happens when the wind overturns their
frail barks, they would invariably drown.
All these metamorphoses occur in the course
nf three or four weeks : thus, generations are renewed three or
four times in the same year.
15. How are the larvae of dip'terous insects characterized ?
16. What are the characters of mosquitoes? What are the character*
md habits of their larvae ?
Fig'. 53. — MOSQUITO.
Fig. 54. — LARVA.
FLIES.— SCOLOPENDR.E.
59
17. The number of species of flies (Musca) is very great.
Their larvae feed on meat, carrion, &c. : they are in form of soft
whitish worms, and are frequently termed Maggots.
18. The gad-flies ((Estrus) resemble large flies; their flight is
accompanied by a humming noise ; they are very tormenting to
horses, oxen, &c. ; some of them pierce the skin of these ani-
mals to deposit their eggs ; others simply lay their eggs in the
vicinity of one of the natural apertures of the body, and the
larvae in this manner at birth enter the stomach through the
nostrils or nasal sinus. The larvae of the CEstri are usually
conical and entirely destitute of feet; their presence in horses
constitutes the disease termed bots.
CLASS OF MYRIA'PODA.
19. The Myria'pods (from the Greek, murias, ten thousand,
and pous, foot) breathe air by means of tracheae, like insects, but
differ very considerably from these animals, as well as from
arach'nidans, in their general conformation. They never possess
wings, and the body, which is very much elongated and divided
into a great many segments or rings, bears on each ring, at least
one pair of legs; the number of these organs is twenty-four, or
even more, and there is no line of demarcation between the thorax
and abdomen. They bear some resemblance to serpents, or
rather to what worms would be if provided with legs, but their
internal organization is similar to that of insects.
Fig. 55. — SCOLOPEN'DRA.
20. The head is furnished with two antennae and two eyes
ordinarily formed by the union of ocelli. The mouth is formed
for mastication. The number of rings of the body varies. They
experience while young an imperfect metamorphosis, but these
changes are not similar to those we observe in insects properly
17 What are maggots?
18. What are the characters of gad-flies ?
19. What are the characters of the class Myria'poda ?
20. To what description of metamorphosis are myria'pods subject?
60 CHARACTERS OF ARACHNIDANS.
BO called, and consist merely in the formation of new rings and
a corresponding increase in the number of legs.
The centipedes (Scolopen 'dra) belong to this class. Most of
them live on the ground under stones and delight in the dark
(fig- 55)-
LESSON V.
CLASS OF ARACH'NIDANS. — Organization — Habits — Classifica-
tion.
ARACH'NIDA PULMONARIA. — Aranei'dce or Spinners — My gale
— Mason Spider — Ara'nea sedenta'rue- — Ara'nea — Vaga-
bun'dce — Tareritula — Scorpions.
ARACH'NIDA TRACHEA'RIA. — Mowers — Aca 'rides — Mites — Itch
Arach'nidan — Ticks. ; • ->
CLASS OF ARACH'NIDA.
1. The class of Arach'nidans (from the Greek, arachen, spider)
is composed of animals, which, in their general organization,
resemble spiders. Like crusta'ceans and insects, they are articu-
lated animals with white blood (which is sufficient to distinguish
them from anne'lidans) ; but they differ from crusta'ceans, in the
fact that their ae'real respiratory organs communicate externally
by means of openings called stigmata or spiracles, and they
differ from insects in the number of their legs, which is eight, in
the absence of a head distinct from the thorax, and, in general,
by the existence of a circulatory apparatus composed of arteries,
veins, and a dorsal vessel which performs the functions of a
heart.
2. Most of these animals are of small size, and the body is
divided into but two portions; namely, a first part, consisting of
the head and thorax confounded in one piece (fig. 56) ; and a
second, consisting of the abdomen.
3. The anterior portion or cephalo-thorax never bears antennas
as in other articulated animals ; in this part we observe, in fror*t
and below, the mouth, which is furnished with mandibles; the
jaw, almost always bearing palpi, and a lower lip; and pos-
teriorly, the legs, which in the adult number four pairs. Arach'
nidans never have wings, and their abdomen, which is gene-
1 . What are the characters of arachnidans ?
2. How is the body divided ?
3 What parts are borne by the cephalo-thorax ?
CHARACTERS OF ARACHNIDANS. bl
rally globular, soft, and attached to the thorax by a sort ot
peduncle, never affords origin to legs.
4. The skin never possesses the hardness remarked in that of
crusta'ceans ; generally it is rather coria'ceous than horny ; some-
times it has considerable consistence, and, in all cases, it forms a
kind of external skeleton, to which the muscles designed to pro-
duce motion are attached.
5. Most arach'nidans are terrestrial animals, and accordingly
their legs are formed for walking or leaping. These organs are
often very long, and are ordinarily terminated by two hooks.
Of the senses of hearing and smell in these animals very little is
known ; on the upper and anterior part of the body, which repre-
sents the head, we find in almost all a certain number, commonly
eight, shining points, which are the eyes. They are called simple
eyes, to distinguish them from the compound or net-like eyes of
insects ; each one consists of a little, transparent cornea, which
is convex and without any trace of division ; beneath it we find
a small vitreous body, a layer of colouring matter, and the ter-
mination of the optic nerve.
6. The nervous system of arach'nidans (fig. 56) is composed,
1st, of a pair of ganglia situated in the head in front of the
ossophagus ; 2d, two nervous cords which pass from this species
of brain into the thorax, forming a collar around the oesophagus ;
3d, a nervous mass situated in the thorax, beneath the digestive
tube, composed of a certain number of ganglia which are com-
monly agglomerated ; 4th, of one or more abdominal ganglia ;
and 5th, of nerves which pass from these different ganglia to all
parts of the body.
7. Most arach'nidans are carnivorous. Some have their mouth
armed with cutting or sharp jaws, and feed on insects which tHey
seize alive ; some fix themselves on other animals and live by
sucking their blood; these parasites have a mouth formed like a
sucker. We distinguish in the apparatus of manducation of the
first : 1st, a pair of mandibles, which are generally armed with
a movable claw ; 2d, two jaws bearing articulated palpi ; 3d, a
small lip without palpi. The digestive canal extends to the
extremity of the abdomen ; close to the mouth we find salivary
organs which open into the first joint of the mandibles, and
appear to secrete a venomous liquid. And biliary tubes, which
form a substitute for a liver, are attached to the digestive tube
further back.
4. What is the character of the skin of arach'nidans ?
5. What is the character of the eyes of arach'nida.ns ?
6. How is the nervous system constituted /
7. What is the character of the mouth in arach'nidana 1
6*
62
ORGANIZATION OF ARACHNIDANS.
8. Most arach'nidans have a complete circulation. In these
animals the heart is placed in the abdomen, and in several species
of aranei'dse (from the Latin, ara'nea, a spider) its pulsations can
he distinguished through the teguments. It is a large longitudinal
vessel, which gives rise to the arteries and receives the veins
through which the blood returns from the respiratory organs to
be again distributed to different parts of the body.
9. In this class of animals the
organs of respiration differ exceed-
ingly ; in some they consist of pul-
monary sacs, and in others, of
tra'chese.
10. The pulmonary sacs (br,Jig.
56) are small cavities, the parietes
of which are formed by the union
of a great number of extremely
thin, white, minute triangular plates.
The number of these respiratory
pouches is generally two ; but some-
times there are four or even eight.
The apertures through which each
one communicates externally, called
stigmata or spiracles (s), are in form
of minute transverse slits, situate
at the inferior part of the abdomen.
11. The tra'chece are tubes that
issue from or rather are continuous
with apertures similar to those jusl
mentioned, and are ramified through
the substance of all the organs, so
as to convey air to all parts of the
body. This arrangement is represented in Jig. 13 (page 25),
which shows the arrangement in an insect.
Explanation of Fig. 56. — Anatomy of Arach'nidans. — A mygale seen
from below. 71, the ce'phalo-thorax ; — A, the abdomen ; — m, the mandibles ;
— pa, the palpi of the jaws ; — p \,p 2, p 3, p 4, bases of the legs ; — gcy the
cephalic ganglion or brain, behind which we see the nervous collar which
surrounds the oesophagus ; — gt, the nervous mass formed by the union of
the thoracic ganglia ; — n, nerves of the legs ; — ga, abdominal ganglion ; — »,
utigmata or spiracles ; — 6r, one of the pulmonary sacs opened to show the
membranous laminae which line it internally ; — o, the ovary ; — on, the anus ;
—f, the spinnerets.
8. What kind of circulation have arach'nidans ?
9. Is the character of the respiration the same in all arucli'iiidaus?
10. What are pulmonary sacs ? What are stigmata ?
11. What are tra'chem? (pronounced, tra'-ke-ay.)
an f
Fig. 56. — ARACH'NIPAN.
ARACHNIDA PULMONARIA SPINNERS. 63
12. Those arach'nidans that breathe by these lubes have no
circulatory apparatus, while those that breathe by lungs are
always provided with one.
13. After leaving the egg, these animals do not, like insects,
mdergo metamorphosis, although at this period they often have
but six legs, the fourth pair not being developed until after the
little creature has changed its skin ; like the crusta'ceans, the
arach'nidans frequently cast the skin or moult.
14. The class of arach'nidans is divided into two orders, which
may be distinguished by the following characters: —
1st. The ARACH'NIUA PULMONA'RIA have eight simple eyes,
and pulmonary sacs for respiration.
2d. The AUACH'NIDA TRACHEA'RIA have at most four simple
eyes, and trach'ecs for respiration.
ORDER OF ARACH'NIDA PULMONA'RIA,
15. The division of pulmonary arachnidans includes all the
common araneidse. The circulatory apparatus is well developed,
and they have from six to eight eyes, while the next order has
but four or even only two. The number of stigmata is two, four,
or eight.
16. This group is divided into two families : the Aranei 'dee or
spinners, and the PedipalpL
17. The ARANEJ'DA: or spinners have but one or two pairs of
pulmonary cavities, which may be distinguished by as many
whitish or yellowish spots near the lower part of the abdomen ;
their palpi are in form of little feet without pincers at theu'
extremity (fig. 56, p).
18. One of the most curious phenomena in the history of these
animals is their mode of spinning silk, and with this delicate
material making webs which are as remarkable for their extent
rjs for the regularity with which they are woven. This silk is a
natter secreted by a peculiar apparatus situated in the abdomen
of the spider; it escapes externally by a certain number of spin-
nerets or small holes placed at the summits of several little nip-
ples near the anus (/, fi.g. 56). The threads of silk at the
moment of escaping are glutinous, and to be employed by the
animal, require to be dried, but when the temperature is favour-
1'2. Are trach'eoe in aracbnidans accompanied by a circulatory apparatus ?
13. Do arach'nidans experience metamorphosis ?
14. How is the class of arach'nidans divided ?
15. What are the characters of the pulmonary arach'nidans?
16. How are the pulmonary arach'nidans divided?
17. How are the aranei'dae distinguished?
18. What is spiders' web ? How is it formed ? To what purposes If U
applied ?
HABITS OF SPIDERS.
j, an instant is sufficient for this purpose. The sedentary
(those which do not go in pursuit of their prey) weave
with these threads various structures which they use as snares to
entrap the insects necessary for their nourishment; sometimes
these webs are so strong as to arrest small birds, but generally
they are very delicate. After constructing it, the animal places
himself in its centre or at the bottom of its web, sometimes in a
particular habitation situated near one of its angles ; as soon as
an insect is caught in the snare, he rapidly approaches his prey,
and makes every effort to pierce it with a kind of venomous dart
with which the mandibles are furnished, and distils into the wound
a poison which acts very promptly; when the insect offers too
strong resistance, or when it would be dangerous for the spider
to contend with it, he retires for a moment to wait till its powers
•are exhausted, or until it is more entangled ; or if there is nothing
to fear, he hastens to bind it by throwing threads of silk around
its body, which sometimes envelope it entirely, forming a cover-
ing so thick as to remove it from sight.
19. The female Aranei'da3 also employ their silk in construct-
ing bags or cocoons to contain their eggs.
20. Those white and silky flocculi,
which are seen floating on the air, in
foggy weather, in the spring and au-
tumn, are composed of silk of this kind
produced by various young Aranei'dre ;
they are principally the strong threads
which serve to attach the corners of
the web, or those which compose the
chain, and, having become heavier by
the action of the moisture, sink, ap-
proach each other, and finally form
little pellets.
21. Most Arach'nidans of this divi-
sion are more or less venomous ; the
bite of some large species in hot coun-
tries is sometimes fatal to man ; and in
our climate, a spider of moderate size
will kill a fly in a few minutes by in-
flicting a single wound.
22. The MYGALES (fg. 57), which
Explanation of Fig. 57. — The mygale or mason spider ; — a, the cephalo.
thorax ; — b, the abdomen ; — p, the palpi.
19. How do the female aranei'dae take care of their eggs ?
20. What are those white flocculi sometimes seen in foggy weather?
21. Are spiders venomous ?
22. What are the characters of Mygales ? What are the habits of Masoa
Spiders ?
Fig. 57. — MVGALB.
MASON SPIDERS. 65
form one of the principal subdivisions of this family, have four
pulmonary sacs. Some of them are of large size, and are known,
in South America, among the French, under the name of crab-
spiders ; there is one, which, with the legs extended, covers a
circular space of seven inches in diameter. They live on trees
or among rocks. Other Mygales, much smaller, however, in-
habit the South of France, and dig subterranean galleries in form
of tubes, in dry and mountainous situations, the apertures to
which are furnished with movable doors.
'* The mason spiders (Mygale coementaria) excavate for themselves sub-
terranean caverns, in which these marauders lurk, secure from detection,
even by the most watchful foe : nor could any robber's den, which ever
existed in the wild regions of romance, boast more sure concealment from
pursuit, or immunity from observation. The construction of these singular
abodes has long excited the admiration of the naturalist: a deep pit is first
dug by the spider, often to the depth of one or two feet, which, being care-
fully lined throughout with silken tapestry, affords a warm and ample
lodging ; the entrance to this excavation is carefully guarded by a lid or
door, which moves upon a hinge, and accurately closes the mouth of the
pit. In order to form the door in question, the Mygale first spins a web
which exactly covers the mouth of the hole, but which is attached to the
margin of the aperture by one point only of its circumference, this point
of course forming the hinge. The spider then proceeds to lay upon the
web a thin layer of soil collected in the neighbourhood of her dwelling,
which slve fastens with another layer of silk ; layer after layer is thus laid
on, until at length the door acquires sufficient strength and thickness :
when perfected, the concealment afforded is complete; for, as the outer
layer of the lid is formed of earth precisely similar to that which surrounds
the hole, the strictest search will scarcely reveal to the most practised eye
the retreat so singularly defended." — 7'. Rymtr Jones.
The other Aranei'dne never have more than two pulmonary
sacs : a large number is known ; they are subdivided into many
tribes, which, in turn, are composed of many genera.
23. The Ardnece sedentdrice, or sedentary spiders, form one
of these divisions. They are remarkable for their habit of
remaining in their webs, and keeping in their snares or close by
them, to surprise their prey, instead of going abroad in pursuit
of food.
24. To this tribe belong the spiders, properly so called (Ardnea
or Tegena'ria^), which live in the interior of our houses, in hedges,
along the road-sides, &c., and weave a large, nearly horizontal
web, at the upper part of which is a tube where they keep them-
selves perfectly at rest.
25. Other Aranei'dse are wandering, and constitute the tribe of
Vagabunda. They make no web, but watch for their prey ann
23. How are sedentary spiders distinguished ?
24. What are spiders, properly so called ?
25. What is the taren'tula ? o» *
60 PEDIPALPL— SCORPIONS.
pounce upon it or seize it in its flight. A species of this group,
the taren'tula (Lycosa) is very celebrated ; it derives its name
from being found near Tarentum, a city of Italy : it is common
in all the warm parts of Europe, and in the opinion of the people,
its poison produces death or serious consequences, which can
only be dissipated by having recourse to music and dancing.
But it is now known that the poison of this animal is not really
dangerous to any thing but the insects upon which it feeds.
26. In the FAMILY OF PEDIPALPI, there are four or eight pul-
monary sacs, and the
palpi are very large
and terminated by pin-
cers or claws, called
cheli'cera (c). They
have no spinnerets.
27. The SCORPIONS
— Scorpio (Jig- 58) —
belong to this family.
They may be at once
Fig. 58. — SCORFION. recognised by the ab-
domen, which is in
form of a knotted tail, terminating in an arcuated, excessively
acute point or sting. They inhabit the hot countries of both
hemispheres, live on the ground, conceal themselves under stones
and other bodies, most commonly in ruins, dark and cool places,
and even in houses. They run with considerable swiftness,
curving their tail over the back. They can turn it in every direc-
tion, and can use it in attack and defence. With their pincers
they seize various insects, on which they feed, pierce them with
their sting by directing it forwards, and then pass their prey
through the cheli'ceras and jaws. The wound produced by the
sting of some species is followed by serious and alarming symp-
toms. The remedy employed is the volatile alkali, used both
internally and externally.
ORDER OF ARACH'NIDA TRACHEA'RIA.
28. The Arach'nidans of this order are not provided with pul-
monary sacs, but breathe by means of trach'eoe. The air pene-
trates into these canals through two very small stigmata, situated
at the lower part of the abdomen. They all seem to be without
a circulatory apparatus ; some of them have no eyes, and those
that possess them, never have more than two or four.
26. How is the family of Pedipalpi characterized?
27. How are scorpions recognised ? What are their habits ?
98. How are the tracheal Arach'nidans characterized 7
MOWERS.— MITES.
67
Fig. 59. PHALANGIUM.
29. In this order are
placed mites, the mow-
er & (pkalari gium}, &c.,
so remarkable for the
length of their legs (Jig.
59). Their mandibles
are shorter than the
body, and their eyes are
borne on a common
peduncle. They are
very active ; some live on the ground, and others on trees.
30. The tribe of ACA'RIDES or mites is composed entirely of
very small or microscopic Arach'nidans. Their habits vary very
much. Some live on the ground under
stones, or on plants ; others are aquatic ;
some are only found in organic substances,
which are more or less changed, as old
cheese, &c. ; and there are some that live in
the skin or flesh of different animals. A
species of mite, the leptus autumnalis, very
common in autumn on wheat and other
plants, insinuates itself under the skin and
occasions an almost insupportable itching.
To one genus of mites, called Sarcop'tes
(from the Greek, sarx, in the genitive, sarkos,
flesh, and koptein, to cut), is due that loath-
some disease the itch. This a'carus is repre-
sented (fig. 60) magnified. Other parasitic
arach'nidans attach themselves to dogs, oxen, &c., and are known
under the name of ticks, &c.
Fig. 60. — A'CARUS.
29. What are mowers?
30. What are Aca'rides ?
What is the cause of itch ' What are ticks I
CRUSTACEANS.
LESSON VI.
CLASS OF CRUSTA'CEA. — Organization — Moulting — Circula-
tion— Respiration — Division.
CLASS OF CRUSTA'CEA.
1. The class of CRUSTA'CEA (from the Latin, crusta, a hard
covering) comprises all articulated animals, that have articulated
legs, and are provided with a heart, and branchiae for breathing
water. Crabs and cray-fish are types of this group ; but we
place also in it a great number of animals whose structure is
much more complicated, and whose external form is very dif-
ferent; for, in proportion as we descend in the natural series
formed by these creatures, we observe the same general plan
becomes modified, and more and more simplified. The body in
most of them is covered by a sort of crust of almost stony hard-
ness.
2. Crusta'ceans differ greatly from anne'lidans, but resemble
insects and arach'nidans by having white blood, and articulated
legs ; and are distinguished from the two last classes, by their
branchial respiration, by the number of their legs, and by several
other characters.
3. The body of crusta'ceans is composed of a succession of
rings more or less distinct. Sometimes these segments move
freely on each other, and at others they are so solidly joined that
the rings are merely indicated by ridges. Frequently the head
and thorax form but one piece, which is separated from the abdo-
men. In the lobster, for instance, the head and thorax are con-
founded in one mass, and Ihe abdomen is composed of seven
distinct and movable rings (fig. 61, b). It is the same in crabs,
except that the abdomen is smaller, and folded underneath ; but
in the wood-louse, the head is distinct from the thorax, which is
itself divided into seven movable rings. The legs, which are
composed of several articulations, are inserted into the thorax :
their number is ordinarily five or seven pairs; lobsters and crabs
1. What description of animals constitute the class of Crusta'cea ?
2. How are Crusta'ceans distinguished from Anne'lidans, insects and
Arach'nidans ?
3. How are Crusta'ceans characterized ?
LOBSTERS.
have five, but the wood-
louse has seven pairs of
legs. The head is pro-
vided in front with two
pairs of appendages,
called antennae (e ,/ \fg.,
61), and is also furnish-
ed with several pairs of
jaws, and the abdomen
bears other appendages
in form of fins. An
examination of the
figure (61), which re-
presents a lobster, will
enable us better to un-
derstand the various
parts of crusta'ceans : —
a, the carapace, or com-
mon integument of the
head and thorax ; — 6,
the abdomen, composed
of seven rings ; — c, the
caudal fin ; — d, the
eyes; — e, the internal
antennae ; — /, the ex-
ternal antennae ; — g, the
palpi, which are articu-
lated filaments attached
to the jaws or to the
lower lip, and appear
to be employed by the
animal in recognising
its food; — h, the first
pair of legs, called
cheles (from the Greek, chele, pincers); — i, the second pair of
legs, also terminated by pincers ; — jt the third pair of legs, ter-
minated by pincers, and termed foot-jaws; — k, the fourth pair;
— /, the fifth pair of legs.
4. The external skeleton of crusta'ceans is formed of an ex
tremely hard epidermis : at certain periods it is detached and falls
off*. The necessity for such changes or moulting in animals,
whose body is enclosed in a hard sheath, is very plain ; for inas-
much as this sheath does not grow or enlarge, like the internal
parts, it would oppose an insurmountable obstacle to their develop-
4. What kind of skeleton do Crusta'ceans possess ? Do they alwaya
preserve the same covering ?
Fig. 61. — LOBSTER.
70 MOULTING OF CRUSTACEANS.
ment, if it did not fall off when it had become too small to con
veniently accommodate them : therefore, crusta'ceans change their
skin as long as they continue to grow, and it appears that most
of these animals grow during their whole lives. The manner of
getting rid of the old envelope is very curious. Generally they
succeed without producing any deformity, and when they leave
it, the surface of the whole body is already provided with a new
sheath; but it is still soft, and becomes hard at the expiration of
some days. Crabs which have recently cast their old shell or
skin, and while the new skin remains soft, are considered a great
delicacy.
" We are indebted to Reaumur, who watched the process in the cray-fish
(Astacus Jluviatilis), for what little is known concerning the mode in which
the change of shell (in crustaceans) is effected. In the animal above men-
tioned, towards the commencement of autumn, the approaching moult is
indicated by the retirement of the cray.fish into some secluded position,
where it remains for some time without eating. While in this condition,
the old shell becomes gradually detached from the surface of the body, and
a new and soft cuticle is formed underneath it, accurately representing of
course all the parts of the old covering which is to be removed ; as yet, but
little calcareous matter is deposited in the newly formed integument. The
creature now becomes violently agitated, and by various contortions of its
body seems to be employed in loosening thoroughly every part of its worn-
out covering, from all connection with the recently secreted investment.
This being accomplished, it remains to extricate itself from its imprison,
ment; an operation of some difficulty ; and, when the nature of the armour
to be removed is considered, we may well conceive that not a little exertion
will be required before its completion. As soon as the old case of the
cephalo-thorax has become quite detached from the cutis by the interposi
tion of the newly formed epidermic layer, it is thrown off after great and
violent exertion ; the legs are then withdrawn from their cases- after much
struggling; and, to complete the process, the tail is ultimately by long con-
tinued efforts extricated from its calcareous covering, and the entire coat of
mail which previously defended the body is discarded and lefl upon the
sand. The phenomena which attend this renovation of the external skeleton
are so unimaginable, that it is really extraordinary how little is accurately
known concerning the nature of the operation. The first question which.
presents itself, is, how are the limbs liberated from their confinement? for,
wonderful as it may appear, the joints even of the massive chela of the
lobster do not separate from each other ; but, notwithstanding the great size
of some of the segments of the claw, and the slender dimensions of the
joints that connect the different pieces, the cast-off skeleton of the limb
presents exactly the same appearance as if it still encased the living mem-
bcr. The only way of explaining the circumstance, is to suppose that the
individual pi« ces of the skeleton, as well as the soft articulations connect-
ing them, split in a longitudinal direction, and that, after the abstraction of
the limb, the fissured parts close again with so much accuracy that even
the traces of the division are imperceptible." — T. Rymer Jones.
It is said that a lobster will throw off its claws it' alarmed by the report
of a cannon. This singular power of breaking off their own limbs, pos-
sessed by many crustaceans, is a very indispensable provision in their
economy. Should the claw of a lobster, for example, be damaged by acci-
dents to which creatures encased in such brittle armour must he perpetually
ORGANIZATION OF CRUSTACEANS. 71
exposed, the animal might bleed to death, if it did not at once break off the
injured member at a particular point ; namely, at a point in the second piece
irom the body ; and by this operation, which seems to produce no pain, the
bleeding is effectually staunched. After this extraordinary amputation has
been effected, another leg begins to sprout from the stump, which soon
grows to be an efficient substitute for the lost extremity, and gradually,
though slowly, acquires the pristine form and dimensions of its predecessor
The process of reproduction is as follows: — the broken extremity of the
second joint skins over, and presents a smooth vascular membrane, at first
flat, but soon becoming conical as the limb begins to grow. As the growth
advances, the shape of the new member becomes apparent, and constrictions
appear, indicating the position of the articulation ; but the whole remains
unprotected by any hard covering, until the next change of the shell, after
which it appears in a proper case, being, however^still considerably smaller
than the corresponding claw on the opoosite side of the body, although
equally perfect in all its parts.
5. The nervous system of crusta'ceans is considerably develop-
ed : the ganglia of the head and thorax are large, and the latter
are sometimes united in a single mass. Most of these animals
have eyes of a very complicated structure. In general each one
of these organs is composed of an assemblage of a multitude of
little eyes, and the cornea covering each presents a considerable
number of square or hexagonal facets corresponding with it.
Sometimes these compound eyes are very slightly projecting,
sometimes, on the contrary, they are placed at the end of two
movable stems which are fixed on the front part of the head ; by
means of these peduncles or stems they can be directed forwards
or thrown backwards, in a kind of orbit (as in crabs, Jig. 63).
In most crusta'ceans too, we observe an organ of hearing, which
consists of a small tubercle, situated between the mouth and the
base of the external antennae, enclosing a small vesicle filled with
water, and the termination of the acoustic nerve. From the
stony nature of the skin, their sense of touch must be very
obtuse.
6. The legs of crusta'ceans do not serve them for walking or
swimming only; in general, the first pair terminate in a sort of
pincers (called chela), by aid of which the animal seizes its prey
(fig. 61).
7. Most of these animals are carnivorous ; some are parasites
and live on other animals, whose blood they suck by means of a
kind of trunk ; but most of them feed on solid food, and have
mouths armed with strong jaws, often numbering six pairs. The
stomach is situated immediately under the mouth in the anterior
part of the body (Jig. 62, e) ; it is large, and its parietes are
5. What is the character of the eyes in crusta'ceans ? Have they an
organ of hearing ?
6. What is meant by chela ?
7. Upon what do crusta'ceans feed ?
ANATOMY OF CRUSTACEANS.
a a
as
c f m
a e
an
Fig, 62. ANATOMY OF CRUSTACEANS — LOBSTER.
commonly supported by solid plates, and internally furnished
with very hard teeth. The intestine is narrow, and on each side
of this tube we see the liver (/), which is generally very volu-
minous ; but sometimes we find simple biliary vessels substituted
for it.
8. The heart of crusta'ceans (c) is situated near the back, about
the middle of the thorax ; it is generally of considerable size,
and consists of one ventricle only, which forces the blood through
the arteries. After having furnished nutritious material to the
various organs, this liquid goes to the venous sinus placed along
the base of the legs, thence to the respiratory organs (6r), and
then returns to the heart. The heart of crusta'ceans is aortic,
and the circulation is carried on nearly in the same manner as in
mollusks.
9. The respiration of crusta'ceans is almost always aquatic,
and is effected by means of branchiae (6r). These organs vary
both in form and situation ; but they are generally attached near
the base of the legs.
10. All crusta'ceans are ovi'parous ; after laying her eggs, the
Explanation of Fig. 62. — Anatomy of Crusta'ceans. — A lobster seen in
profile, the greater part of the integuments being removed ; — c, the heart;
— nr, «r, the abdominal artery ; — </s, the sternal artery ; — o, artery of the
antennae ; — e, the stomach ; — wi, muscles of the stomach ; — /, the liver ; —
6r, branchiae ; — p, base or point of insertion of the legs ; — ca, part of the
carapace ; — 6, the mouth ; — r, the respiratory canal destined to give passage
to water for the purpose of respiration ; — y, the eyes ; — an, the superior
antennae ; — tint, base of the inferior or second pair of antennae ; — 5, the
caudal fin, the principal organ of progression.
8. What is the character of the circulation ?
9. How do crusta'ceans breathe ?
10. How are the young of crusta'eeans produced ?
CRUSTACEANS.— DECAPODA.
female carries them for a time suspended under the abdomen,
or even enclosed in a kind of pouch formed of appendages of the
legs; sometimes the young are born in this pouch, and remain in
it until after they have undergone the first moult.
11. The CLASS OF CRUSTA'CEA is divided into three natural
groups or divisions, according to the conformation of the mouth ;
namely,
1st. The Trito'res or Grinders, having the mouth furnished with
jaws and mandibles proper for mastication.
2d. The Sucto'ria or Suckers, having a mouth provided with a
tubular beak armed with suckers.
3d. The Xi'plwsura (from the Greek, ziphos, a sword, and
oura, tail), in which the mouth is destitute of the appendages pro-
perly belonging to it, but is surrounded by legs, the bases of
which constitute the jaws.
12. The group of TRITO'RES or Grinders is divided into nine
orders, and comprises most of the crusta'ceans. The principal
orders are named Decapoda, Iso'poda, Am'phipoda, &c.
LESSON VII.
CRUSTA'CEANS. ORDER OF DECAPODA — its Division.
BRA'CHYU'RA. — Crabs — Land-crabs — Habits.
ANOMOU'RA. — Soldier or Hermit-crabs.
M ACROU'R \ . — Ct~aw-Jish.es — Lobsters — Locusts — Prawns.
ORDERS OF AM'PHIPODA and ISO'PODA. — Sea-louse — Wood-louse
— King-crab — Entonio' stracans — Tritobites.
CLASS OF CIRR'HOPODA. — Ana'tifa — Bala'nus.
I. The order of DECAPODA (from the Greek, deca, ten, and
pous, foot) is so called, because the animals comprised in it have
ten legs. These crusta'ceans (fig. 63) have the head and thorax
confounded in one piece, and concealed under a kind of shield,
called carapace (Jig: 61, a). The eyes are borne on movable
oeduncles, and the branchise are situate on each side of the thorax,
enclosed in particular cavities beneath the lateral parts of the
carapace (Jig. 62, br). The mouth is armed with six pairs of
jaws ; the first pair are named mandibles ; the two next are jaws,
properly so called ; and the three last are termed foot jaws In
II. How is the class of Crusta'cea divided ?
12. How is the group of Trito'res divided ?
1. What are the characters of decapods ?
7*
74
CRABS.
some, the abdomen is very short, and folded beneath the thorax
(Jig- 63); while in others, this part of the body extends back-
wards, is of considerable size, and is a powerful organ of loco-
motion (fig. 61, page 69).
2. This order is divided into the Macrou'ra (from the Greek,
makros, long, and oura, tail) or swimming decapods, which have
a long abdomen terminated by a fin spread out like a fan (fig.
61, c); the Bra'chyu'ra (from the Greek, brachus, short, and
oura, tail) or short-tailed species, of which the crab is a familiar
specimen ; and the Anomou'ra (from the Greek, anomos, name-
less, irregular, and oura, tail), which inhabit the empty shells of
mollusks.
3. The section of BRA'CHYU'RA consists of crusta'ceans, known
under the common name of crabs ; they are formed for running,
rather than swimming. This section is divided into four families,
each of which is composed of several tribes, subdivided in turn
into a great many genera ; they are esteemed as food. Most of
them inhabit the sea. They run quickly along the shore ; their
legs are placed in
bed e such wise that they
most easily move
sideways, although
they can advance in
any direction. The
first pair of legs are
pincers or claws, and
do not assist in loco-
motion.
4. Among the
common species, on
the French coast,
is one, sometimes
known as the mad
crab, Cancer mcenas,
from its manner of
running ; it is of
moderate size, and
the carapace is
Explanation of Fig. fi3.— A crab (Cancer pagvrus) ;— a, the carapace;—
6, the eyes ; — c, the external antennae ; — d, the internal antennse ; — e, the
rhelce or pincers ;— /, second pair of legs ;— g, the abdomen, folded beneath
the thorax.
2. How is the order of Decapoda divided ?
3. What crusta'ceans are comprised in the section Bra'chyu'ra ? How
are crabs characterized ?
4. How does the mad crab obtain its name 1
Fig. 63.— CRAB.
LAND-CRABS. 75
greenish, which becomes .'ad by boiling, as is the case with most
crusta'ceans. Among the crabs, properly so called, is the Cancer
jmgurus (Jig. 63), which is among the largest species ; the cara-
pace is somewhat oval, ten to twelve inches wide, of a reddish-
brown colour, and festooned on the edges; its flesh is much
esteemed. A group, named Portunus (from the Latin, portus,
a haven or bay), is distinguished by the lamellar form of the last
joint of the posterior legs; these crabs are essentially swimmers.
5. Land-crabs — Gecarci'nus (Jig. 64) — inhabit the West
Indies and other warm countries. These crabs, instead of living
in the sea, as most crusta'ceans do, are essentially terrestrial, and
they sometimes live at
a considerable distance
from the shore. They,
nevertheless, avoid ex-
tremely dry situations,
arid are ordinarily found
in marshy districts. —
They all dig deep holes.
They are commonly
seen at night, or just
after abundant rains, Fig. 64. — LAND-CRAB.
when they sally forth in
crowds from their subterranean habitations in pursuit of food ,
some species live principally on vegetables ; but others seek ani-
mal food with avidity ; great numbers are found in cemeteries ;
and, it is said that, in the West Indies, they have been known to
enter dissecting-rooms to feast on the dead.
6. One of the most curious points in the history of these ani-
mals is that they make an annual journey to the sea-shore. In.
the rainy season they abandon their holes ; they assemble in
almost numberless troops, and, guided by an instinct which is
incomprehensible to us. take a direct line towards the sea, although
they are often very distant from it. They travel chiefly at night,
and nothing but large rivers arrests or turns them from their
route ; they march over houses, scale rocks, and often destroy
whole plantations, cutting and destroying the yo.ung plants as
they pass along. Having reached the sea, these armies of crabs
plunge in and bathe several times, and then retire to the plains or
neighbouring woods. Sometime afterwards the females go again
to the sea and there deposit their eggs ; then they take up their
inarch and return to their ordinary abode; but at this time they
are so thin and feeble, they can scarcely drag themselves along.
5. What are the characters of land-crabs?
6. What are the habits of land-crabs ?
78 SOLDIER-CRABS.
Wo find in Italy, Greece, and Egypt, another species of land-
crab, which lives along the margins of rivulets, known to natura-
lists under the name of Tkelphu'sa Jluviati'lis.
1. The decapods of the section of ANOMOU'RA differ from each
other widely in their organization. Although the abdomen or
tail ij not reduced to the rudimentary condition, as in the
Bra'chyu'ra, it does not afford them great assistance in swimming.
As their name imports, the Anomou'ra have tails of very unusual
conformation ; instead of being encased in a hard coat of mail,
as in the lobster, the hinder part of the body is soft and leathery.
This section includes many genera.
8. The Soldier-crabs or Hermit-crabs (Pagurus) are remark-
able for their habits. They frequent sandy and level shores.
They always take possession of empty turbinated shells of some
gasteropod mollusk, in which they establish themselves, and we
may readily conceive of the reason of this habit : the abdomen,
instead of being hard and crusta'ceous, as in other animals of the
same class, is always soft and membranous ; therefore, to defend
it from the attacks of their enemies and to preserve it from
numerous accidents to which its softness exposes them, they need
a kind of armour, which they find in the shells in which they
lodge. When they have increased in size and find the dimen-
sions of their, dwelling too narrow, they take possession of a
more voluminous shell ; but, except for this purpose only, they
never go out of the shell entirely, but always carry about with
them their domicil, and on the approach of the smallest danger
retire into it. It is said, that if we remove from their shells a
number of these soldier-crabs, or pirates, as they are sometimes
called, and leave the party only one o^ two ol the same shells,
they will fiercely dispute possession.
" The wonderful adaptation of all the limbs to a residence in
such a dwelling cannot fail to strike the most incurious observer.
The chelce, or large claws, differ remarkably in size ; so that
when the animal retires into its concealment, the smaller one
may be entirely withdrawn, while the larger closes and guards
the orifice. The two succeeding pairs of legs, unlike those of
the lobster, are of great size and strength ; and, instead of being
terminated by pincers, end in strong pointed levers, whereby the
animal can not only crawl, but drag after it its heavy habitation."
9. The decapods of the section of MACROTJ'RA are recognised
nt first sight by the great development of their abdomen, which
always terminates in a large fin (Jig. 61, c), composed of five
7. How is the section Anomou'ra distinguished ?
8. What are hermit-crabs ?
9. How is the section Macrou'ra distinguished ?
CRAY-FISHES.— LOBSTER, &c. 77
plates arranged like a fan. They are essentially swimmers, and
never land ; they never walk except at the bottom, under water ;
they swim almost constantly, and by striking the water with their
powerful tail, dart forward with great rapidity. The body 19
elongated, and almost always laterally compressed; they hav^
very long antennae, and false natatory legs beneath the abdomen
This section of decapods is divided into four families : Cray or
craw-fish, Lobsters, Locustse, and Prawns.
10. Cray-fishes are distinguished from most other decapods by
the conformation of their legs ; those of the first pair terminate
in very large chela3 or pincers; and those of the two succeeding
pairs, although slender, also terminate in pincers. The carapace
is a little elongated, and is not armed with spines, and its anterior
extremity is always extended so as to form a kind of beak or
projecting rostrum (Jig. 65, r). These crusta'ceans are aquatic ;
some live in fresh water, and others inhabit the sea.
11. The fresh-water cray-fish (Astacus fluviatilis) is found in
the fresh waters of most countries of Europe, and ordinarily
keeps under stones. It feeds on mollusks, fishes, putrid flesh,
&c. It is said to live more than twenty years ; those found in
running waters are most esteemed.
12. The sea cray-fish or lobster — Astacus marinus (fig. 61) —
is much larger than the fresh-water or river cray-fish ; like the
locustse, it frequents fissures among rocks. The American species
is somewhat different from that of Europe. Lobsters are caught
in traps, made of slats or osiers, baited, and then sunk by means
of a weight ; a buoy and cord are attached to draw up the trap
for examination, at the proper lime.
13. The locustoe (Palinu'rus) are the largest of all the deca-
pods of this section. Their carapace is studded with a great
number of spines, and terminated by two thick points curved
forwards ; the abdomen is very large ; their legs are all termi-
nated by a single toe ; those of the first pair are strongest, but
shorter than those of the second pair. These crusta'ceans inhabit
almost every sea, and are sought as food. The Palinu'rus quad-
ricornis is sometimes half a yard in length, and when loaded
with ova weighs from twelve to fourteen pounds.
14. Prawns — Pal&mon (fig- 65) — are small decapods, having
an elongated, laterally compressed body ; the legs are slender,
and those of the two first pairs are terminated by little pincers ,
10. How are cray-fishes distinguished ?
1 1. Do all cray-fishes live in salt water ?
12. What are lobsters?
1 3. What are locustse ?
14. What ar^ prawns?
78
PRAWNS.— SEA-LICE.
as
pm
P PP
Fig. 65. — PAL^MON or PRAWN.
the antennae are very long, and the beak or rostrum is serrated,
and very projecting. The flesh is very delicate and esteemed to
be superior to that of shrimps.
15. Those crusta'ceans which compose the orders of AM'PHI-
VODA (from the Greek, am.phis, on both sides, and pous^ foot) and
ISO'PODA (from the Greek, wos, equal, and pous, foot), do not,
like the decapods, bear their eyes on movable peduncles, nor do
they possess a carapace; their head is
distinct, and the thorax is divided in o
seven rings. The Am'phipods breathe
by vesicular appendages fixed under
the thorax, near the base of the legs ;
and the Is'opods, by means of mem-
branous lamellre, which terminate the
appendages attached to the abdomen.
16. Among the Am'phipods are the
sea-lice — Talitra (Jig. 66) — small' ani-
mals which often remain on shore after
the fall of the tide, where they may be seen jumping with great
activity.
Fig. 66. TALITRA.
Explanation of Fig. 65. — The Prawn or Palremon : — as, first pair of
antennae ; — at, second or inferior pair of antennae ; — I, the lamellar append-
age covering1 its base , — r, the rostrum ; — y, the eyes ; — pm, external foot-
jaws; — p, first thoracic leg; — pp, second thoracic leg; — fpt false natatory
legs of the abdomen ; — n, caudal fin.
] 5 How are the orders of Am'phipoda and Iso'poda characterized ?
16. What are sea-lice?
KING-CRABS.
79
V*.
Fig. 67.
OMSCUS.
17. Most of the Iso'pods inhabit the sea, but there
are some that live on land. To this order belongs
tne wood-louse — Oniscus (jig. 67) — which is com-
monly found in caves, beneath stones, and in other
damp, shaded situations.
18. The Sucto'ria — the crusta'ceans of this divi-
sion are parasites, and live on other animals; they
have a mouth in form of a beak or cylindrical
trunk, enclosing styliform appendages, suitable for
piercing the integuments of those animals whose
fluids they suck. They are generally found attached to fishes.
19. The division
of crusta'ceans named
XI'PHOSURA forms a
single genus, Limulus Pm
or king-crab. They
are large animals, hav-
ing a body divided into
two parts ; the first
part, which is covered
by a semicircular shield
or carapace, bears the
eyes, the antennae, and
six pairs of legs which
surround the mouth
(jig. 66, 6), and at the
same time serve for pro-
gression and mastica-
tion, as well as for the
prehension of food ; the
second part of the body,
which is covered by an
almost triangular shield,
bears, underneath, five
pairs of natatory legs,
the posterior sides of
which are furnished
with branchics, and is terminated by a styliform tail. These
singular animals are found in the Indian Ocean, and on our own
**ff- 68.-KiNG-cRAB-LiMuujs.
Explanation of Fig. 67. — A king-crab viewed from below: — c, the cara
pace ; — q, the tail ; — b, the mouth ; — pmt legs which surround the moutb ;—
he legs bearing branchiae or gills.
17. What are wood-lice?
18. What are suctorial crusta'ceans ?
19. What are king-crabs ? tfqw are they characterised T
80
TRII.OBITES.— CIRRHOPODA.
coasts. On some parts of the coast of New Jersey they form
an article of food for swine.
20. The En 'tamos 'tracans (from the Greek, entomos, incised,
and ostrakan, a shell) are all extremely small, and most of them
have a single eye placed in the middle of the front part of the
animal. They abound in fresh waters.
21. To the class of Crusta'ceans also belong the Tri'lobites, a
tribe of extinct animals found only in the fossil state ; they would
bear some resemblance to a very large oniscus or sea-louse, if the
body of the latter were divided into three lobes by longitudinal
grooves. Three species of trilobites are figured below (Jig. 69).
Asaphus Caudatus.
Asaphus Buchii.
Fig. 69.
Colymene Blumenbachii
CLASS OF CIRRHOPODA OR CIRRIPEDA.
"However distinct in outward appearance, and even in their
internal economy, the creatures composing the primary divisions
of animated nature may seem to be when superficially examined,
closer investigation invariably reveals to the zoologist gradations
of structure connecting most dissimilar types of organization,
and leading so insensibly from one to another, that the precise
boundary line is not always easily defined. The Cirrhopods or
Barnacles present a remarkable exemplification of this important
fact."
22. The class of Cirrhopoda (from the Greek, Idrros, a cirrus
or curl, and pous, foot) is composed of animals, which, in many
••espects, especially as to their shells, resemble mollusks, but are
20. What are en'tomos'tracans ?
21. What are tri'lobites ?
22. What are Cirrhopods ? How are they characterized ?
CIRRHOPOD.
81
d-
more closely allied to
articulated animals.
In the early period
of their existence all
these creatures are
marine, and swim
readily, and resem-
ble, particularly in
their organization,
certain inferior crus-
ta'ceans ; but very
soon after birth, they
permanently attach
themselves to some
submarine body, and
entirely change their
form. In this man-
ner they are fixed by
the base. The body
is more or less pyri-
form and doubled on
itself, and is enclosed
entirely, or in part,
in a kind of shell
composed of several
pieces. They have
no eyes, and the
mouth is furnished
with mandibles and
jaws, closely resembling those of certain crusta'ceans ; the ab-
dominal face of the body is occupied by two rows of fleshy
lobes, each one bearing two long horny appendages (e), armed
with cilise, and composed of a multitude of little articulations,
corresponding in a manner to the fins or feet found under the tail
of several crusta'ceans. These arms or cirri, of which there are
twelve pairs, are doubled on themselves, and the animal is con-
stantly drawing them in and then protruding them through t'.ie
opening of its sheath. The nervous system consists of a double
series of ganglia, arranged like that of other articulated animals.
Explanation of Fig. 70. — A Pentalasmis or anatifa, represented with one-
ialf the shelly covering removed to show the body : — o, a, shell ; — 6, 6, the
body, which is soft, enclosing the principal viscera ; — g, the mouth, seen
from the ventral aspect, the oral aperture appears to be raised on a promi-
nent tubercle ; — </, d, rf, fleshy appendages which constitute the respiratory
or branchial organs ; — c, c, flexible arms, or cirri ;— /, muscle for protiuding
the cirri through the slit of the mantle.; — /, the pedicle or base by which
the animal attaches itself to submarine bodies.
8
Fig. 70. — CIRRHOPOD or CIRRIPED.
ANATIFA BALANUS.
Fig. 71.
ANATIFA.
They have a heart, which is placed on the dorsal part of the
body, and they breathe by branchire, the form of which varies.
23. The Cirrhopods are divided into two natural
families: the ANATIFJS, which are fixed by a
long cylindrical peduncle, and the BALANI, which
are without a similar peduncle.
24. The Anatifse, known in common parlance
as barnacles (figs. 70 and 71), are enclosed in
a sort of compressed mantle, open on one side,
and suspended from a fleshy tube; sometimes
this mantle is almost entirety cartilaginous, and
is only furnished with two very small valves
(as in the genus Qtiori} ; at other times, as in
the genus ANATIFA, properly so called, it is
covered by five testaceous plates, the two largest
of which resemble those of a mussel. The
branchiae, which are in form of small pyramids,
are attached to the base of the cirri. The com-
mon Anatifa inhabits the Atlantic Ocean, and is
frequently found attached to rocks, the bottoms of ships, or pieces of
floating timber. It was the subject
of a most absurd fable ; from some
remote resemblance of its shell to a.
bird, it was supposed to give origin
to a species of duck, and from this
it has obtained the name Anatifa
(from the Greek, anas, a duck).
25. The Ba\am—J3alanus (fg.
72) — abound on rocks in warm
regions of the ocean, and are entire-
ly contained in a very short, conical
shell, attached firmly by the base,
and composed of several pieces
joined together; the opening of this
tube is occupied by from two to four
movable valves, between which we
find a slit which gives passage to
the cirri. The branchia? are in
form of membranous, foliated and
fringed plates ; they adhere to the
internal face of a sort of mantle which lines the shell.
23. How are Cirr'hopods divided ?
24. What are the characters of Ana'tifoe ?
25. What are the characters of Bala'ni 7
Fig. 72. — GIANT BALANUS.
STRUCTURE OF ANNELID ANS. 8b
LESSON VIII.
CLASS OF ANNE'LIDA. — Organization — Division — Earth
worms.
FAMILY OP SUCTO'RIA. — Leech.
ORDER OF DORSIBKANCHIA'TA. — Eunice.
ORDER OF TUBICOLA. — Sabella.
CLASS OF ANNELIDA.'
The lowest class of articulated animals comprehends an exten
sive series of creatures generally grouped together under the com
mon name of worms.
1. The class of anne'lidans is composed of red-blooded worms,
and is easily distinguished from the rest of the Branch of articu-
lated animals by the absence of articulated extremities.
2. The body of these animals is considerably elongated, and
generally slender (Jigs. 76 and 79) ; it is composed of a succes-
sion of numerous rings, the first of which, although it differs but
little from the others, may be called the head; it contains the
mouth, which is sometimes armed with a formidable apparatus
of jaws. The skin has little consistence, and the rings formed
by it are never horny nor stony. Many anne'lidans are entirely
without legs, an example of which is seen in the leech (Jig. 76) ;
and when these organs do exist, they are never formed of solid
pieces, articulated end to end, as in insects, crusta'ceans, and
arach'nidans ; they are merely fleshy tubercles, armed with stiff
setae or movable bristles, and are arranged in pairs on each side
of the body, and are commonly found on each ring. The figure
(73) on the next page, represents a transverse section of an anrie'li-
dan, and conveys an idea of the character of the extremities of
these animals; — d, is the dorsal arch of the ring; — v, the ventral
arch ; — rv, an extremity of the ventral arch ; — rd, an extremity
of the dorsal arch; — s, setae or bristles, surrounding the append-
age, called cirrus (e). The Eunice (Jig. 79), a marine worm
often found on oysters, is an example of an animal having extre-
mities of this kind.
3. The nervous system consists of a long series of minute
* From the Latin, annulus, a little ring.
1. How are anne'lidans distinguished from other articulated animals?
2. How are anne'lidans characterized ?
3. What is the character of their nervous system ?
84 ANATOMY OF ANNELIDANS.
rd
V TV
Fig. 73. SECTION OF AN ANNELIDAN.
ganglia; there is a pair of ganglia in each ring, which circum-
stance may account for the curious fact, that when, in some
instances, a part of a worm is cut off, both parts still live.
4. Most anne'lidans have, at the anterior extremity of the body,
black spots which appear to be eyes of a very simple structure :
they never possess distinct organs of smell or of hearing; but
they often bear on the head, or on each side of the neck, fila-
ments called antennae and tentacles, which seem to serve them
as organs of touch. In general these animals move by crawling,
and assist themselves in progression by the setse with which they
are armed, but they are never swift: many live buried in the
earth, or are enclosed in solid tubes which they never leave.
Most of them inhabit the sea.
5. The digestive apparatus of anne'lidans is not particularly
remarkable, except for the sucker (tr,Ji-g. 74) with which the mouth
in many of them is furnished ; some have a long projectile trunk,
and they are often provided with small horny jaws. They all
appear to be carni'vorous.
6. The blood of anne'lidans differs from that of all other inver-
tebrate animals by its red colour ; it circulates in a complete sys-
tem of arteries and veins, and often, it appears to be set in motion
by several fleshy ventricles which may be regarded as hearts
(fig- ™, c).
1. Almost all these animals live in water; they breathe by the
skin, or through branchiae (6r), which resemble little packets of
fringe, attached along each side of the back.
4. In what organs of sense are anne'lidans deficient ?
5 What is the character of the digestive apparatus ? '
6. What is the peculiarity of the blood in anne'lidans ?
7. How do anne'lidans breathe ?
ORDERS OF ANNELIDANS.
vd br br br br vd ve ve br
~r \ i i \ j ,
b ph c e av vi va va i a
Fig. 74. ANATOMY OF ANNELIDANS.
8. According to the differences in their respiratory organs, this
class is divided into three orders; namely,
1st. The abranchiate anne'lidans (from the Greek, a, without,
and bragchos, branckia, or gills), in which there is no visible
respiratory apparatus.
2d. The dorsibranchiate anne'lidans (from the Latin, dorsum,
back, and branchice, gills), in which the branchiae are arranged
along the middle or on each side of the back, in form of vascular
tufts, fringes, &c. (fig. 74, br).
3d. The tubicola — tubicole anne'lidans (from the Latin, tubus,
a tube, and colo, I inhabit) inhabit a fixed and permanent resi-
dence, which encloses and defends them. The two preceding
orders are erratic. The branchiae are in form of plumes or
branches attached to the anterior part of the body (fig- 80).
9. The abran'chia — this order comprehends two very distinct
families : the terricola setigerous abran'chiate anne'lidans, which
have the body furnished with setae (bristles), serving them for
locomotion, and the sucto'ria or suctorial abran'chiate anne'lidans,
which are without setae, but have a prehensile sucker attached to
each extremity of the body.
10. To the family of terrico'la (from the Latin, terra, earth,
and colo, I inhabit) belongs the lumbricus or earth-worm, so com-
mon in our gardens. The body of these animals is cylindrical,
elongated, and divided by plaits into a great many rings, and
they are totally destitute of legs ; in place of them, we find on
Explanation of Fig. 74. — Anatomy of anne'lidans — longitudinal section
of an Arenicola ; — t, the cephalic extremity ; — 6, the mouth ; — tr, the trunk
or sucker ; — ph, the pharynx ; — e, the stomach ; — i, the intestine ; — a, the
anus ; — br, the branchiae; — c, one of the ventricles serving as a heart; — c»,
ventral vessel; — va, vessels which carry the blood to the branchiae; — ve,
vessels which bring the blood back from the branchiae to the interior; — vd,
dorsal vessel into which many of these last vessels empty ; — vi, inferior in
testinal vessel, which also receives vessels coming from the branchiae • it
opens in the dorsal vessel near the heart.
8. How is the class of anne'lidans divided ?
9. How are anne'lidans of the order abran'chia characterized
10. What are the characters of the earth-worm 1
8*
86 EARTH-WORMS.— SUCKERS.
each side a number of setae which serve them
for locomotion. They have neither eyes, tenta-
cles, nor jaws. If we cut one of these into two
pieces, each piece continues to live, and becomes
a perfect animal ; the part of the body which is
deficient is reproduced.
11. The lumbrici (earth-worms) are propa-
gated by eggs, which, when laid, are two or
three lines in length. In the annexed figure (75),
one of them, enclosing a mature embryo, is de-
lineated ; the top is closed by a peculiar valve-
like structure, adapted to facilitate the escape of
EGG 'OF THE the worrn- The egg commonly has a double yolk,
EARTH-WORM. and a couple of young ones are produced generally
from each egg.
44 Whoever has attentively watched the operations of an earth-worm, when
busied in burying itself in the earth, must have been struck with the seem-
ing- disproportion between the laborious employment in which it is per-
petually engaged, and the means provided for enabling it to overcome dif-
ficulties apparently insurmountable by any animal unless provided with
limbs of extraordinary construction, and possessed of enormous muscular
power. In the mole and burrowing cricket we at once recognise in the im-
mense development of the anterior legs a provision for digging, admirably
adapted to their subterranean habits." Every ring of the lumbricus, " when
examined attentively, is found to support a series of sharp, retractile spines
or prickles ; these, indeed, are so minute in the earth-worm, that on passing
the hand along the body from the head backwards, their presence is scarcely
to be detected by the touch, but they are easily felt by rubbing the animal
in the opposite direction ; a circumstance which arises from their hooked
form, and from their points being all turned towards the tail." By the aid
of these the animal makes its way in the following manner : 44 The
attenuated rings in the neighbourhood of the mouth are first insinuated
between the particles of the earth, which, from their conical shape, they
penetrate like a sharp wedge ; in this position they are firmly retained by
the numerous recurved spines appended to the different segmertts ; the
hinder parts of the body are then drawn forwards by a longitudinal con-
traction of the whole animal ; a movement which not only prepares the
creature for advancing further into the soil, but by swelling out the anterior
segments forcibly dilates the passage into which the head had been already
thrust : the spines on the hinder rings then take a firm hold upon the sides
of the hole thus formed, and, preventing any retrograde movement, the head
is again forced forward through the yielding mould, so that, by a repetition
of the process, the animal is able to advance with the greatest apparent ease
through substances which would at first seem utterly impossible for so help-
less a being to penetrate." — Thomas Rymer Jones— Comparative Anatomy.
12. The family of sucto'ria or suckers comprises the leech,
and all anne'lides that are unprovided with setce. The integu-
ments are softf; the body is generally oblong, slightly depressed,
11. How are earth-worms propagated ?
12. How is the family of Sucto'ria characterized ?
LEECHES.
87
Fig. 76.
LEECH.
and divided into a great many segments : it is
entirely without legs or setce, but has at either
extremity, a dilatable, prehensile cavity, which
performs the functions of a cupping-glass. —
The mouth, situated at the bottom of the anterior
or oral sucker (fig- 76, a), has neither trunk
nor tentacle, but is armed with hard parts which
serve the purposes of jaws. It has a certain
number of eyes, or rather ocellar points, situated
on the dorsal face of the anterior extremity of
the body. The anus is placed at the bottom of
the posterior sucker (b).
13. All these anne'lides feed at the expense of
other animals. They attach themselves to fishes
or batrachians; sometimes they devour mollusks,
anne'lidans, or the larvae of insects; certain
species attach themselves to horses and cattle,
and even to men, when they drink at springs;
sometimes fixing themselves under the tongue, in
the nostrils, or even in the gullet.
The mouth of a leech is an exceedingly perfect appara-
tus. u Around the entrance of the oesophagus are disposed
three minute cartilaginous teeth, imbedded in a strong cir-
cle of muscular fibres. Each tooth has somewhat of a semi-
circular form, and, when accurately examined with a
microscope, is found to have its free margin surmounted
with minute denticulations so as to resemble a small
semicircular saw (fig. 77). On watching a leech atten-
tively during the process of biting, the action of these
teeth is at once evident ; for, as the skin to which the
sucker is adherent is rendered quite tense, the sharp
serrated edges of the teeth are pressed firmly against it
and, a sawing movement being given to each cartilagi
nous piece by the strong contractions of the
muscular fibres around the neck, these in-
struments soon pierce the cutis to a consider-
able depth, and lay open the cutaneous ves-
sels, from which the creature sucks the fluid
which its instinct prompts it to seek after
with so much voracity. The position of the
teeth around the opening of the mouth, as
represented in the annexed figure (78), will
at once explain the cause of the tri-radiate
form of the incision which a leech-bite in-
variably exhibits." — T. Rymer Jones.
The use of leeches is so general in
the practice of medicine, that they
^aave become an important object in
commerce. They are imported from
Spain, Portugal, and other countries
Fig. 77.
TOOTH OF A IJSECH
Fig. 78.
HEAD OF A LEECH MAGNIFIED
13. What are the habits of sucking Anne'lidans ?
DORSIBRANCHIATA.— TUBICOLA.
in Europe. They are preserved for a long time by packing them
in moist earth or mud. On the approach of cold weather, they
bury themselves in mud at the bottom of ponds, and pass the win-
ter in a state of lethargy, and regain their activity in the spring.
14. The ORDER OF DORSIBRANCHIATA or erratic Annelidans
are the most complicated in their organization of all, animals of
this class. The head is almost always distinct from
the body, and is provided with a certain number of
antennae ; we see there also one or two pairs of eyes,
in form of black or variously coloured spots (Jig. 79).
The mouth is provided with a protractile trunk, the
length of which is sometimes very considerable, and
at -its extremity we often find two or more pairs of
horny jaws. Generally, on each side of the neck
there is a certain number of tentacular cirri, append-
ages analogous to antennaa, and each ring has
attached to it a pair of legs, varying in structure in
the different genera : they are often composed, each
of two tubercles, one placed on the dorsal, and the
other on the ventral arch of the ring, and studded on
top with a packet of setae. Nothing can exceed the
splendour of the colours which ornament some of
these fasciculi of hairs ; they yield, indeed, in no
respect to the most gorgeous tints of tropical birds or
the brilliant decorations of insects : green, yellow,
and orange, — blue, purple, and scarlet, — all the hues
of the rainbow play upon them with the changing
light, and shine with the metallic effulgence only
comparable to that which adorns the breast of the humming-
bird.
15. These anne'lidans walk and swim very well, but neverthe-
less, commonly live under stones, among shells, or buried in the
sand ; a kind of mucus which exudes from them forms a tubular
sheath which they inhabit. They all live in the sea.
The ARENICOLA, the APHRO'DITA, the EU'NICE, &c., are some
of the genera.
16. The ORDER OP TUBICOLA comprises anne'lides which have
no distinct head, nor jaws, nor eyek, nor antennas, but the anterior
extremity of the body is furnished with a great number of ap-
pendages, some of which constitute bran'chiae, and others for the
prehension of food, or for locomotion. Their legs are but slightly
projecting, and only assist them in rising or descending in the
Fig. 79.
EUNICE.
14. What are the characters of dorsibranch anne'lidans?
15. What are the habits of dorsibranch anne'lidans ?
16. How is the order of Tubicola characterized?
SERPUL.E — SABELL^E.
tube they inhabit; most of them neither
walk nor swim, and those that drag them-
selves along, do it by the assistance of
the long tentacles surrounding the mouth.
The tube varies in texture, in different
species. Sometimes it is formed by agglu-
tinating foreign substances, such as grains
of sand, small shells, or fragments of vari-
ous materials, by means of a secretion,
which exudes from the surface of the body,
and hardens into a tough membranous
substance, as is the case of Terebella
medusa, which constructs its tube by
cementing together minute shells, and other
small bodies. There is no muscular con-
nection between these animals and the
tubes they inhabit, so that the creature can
be readily withdrawn from its residence.
17. In this order are placed the SER-
PUL.E, which live in calcareous tubes, vari-
ously contorted ; the anterior extremity of
the body is adorned by a crown of ap-
pendages like plumes : these animals are
found adhering to oysters and other mol-
lusks. They are frequently found encrusting the surface of
stones, or other bodies, which have been immersed for any length
of time, at the bottom of the sea ; they are closed at one end,
and from the opposite extremity the head of the worm is occa-
sionally protruded in search of nourishment. The SABELL^J also
belong to this order. They inhabit a tube, which is. most com-
monly composed of granules of clay or mud, and is rarely cal-
careous (fig. 80). The Dentalium, Terebella, Amphitrite, and
Syphostoma, are other genera of the order of Tubicola.
17. What are serpulae ? What are sabella* ?
Fig. 80. — SABELLA.
90 ZOOPHYTES.
FOURTH BRANCH OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
ZO'OPHYTES OR RADIATA.
LESSON IX.
ZO'OPHYTES. — Organization — Division.
CLASS OF INFUSO'RIA ROTATO'RIA.
CLASS OF ENTOZO'A. — Division — Filia'ria — Asca rides —
Tce'nia.
CLASS OF INFUSO'RIA POLYGAS'TRICA.
CLASS OF ECHINODER'MATA. — Sea-stars.
CLASS OF ACALE'PHA. — Medusa.
CLASS OF POLYPI. — Coral — Coral-reefs — Hydra — Sponges. —
Geographical Distribution of tlie Animal Kingdom.
The animals placed in the fourth and last great division of the
animal kingdom possess an organization much less complicated
and consequently much less perfect than that, of the creatures we
have studied in the preceding parts of our series.
1. In the higher animals the body always consists of two
similar halves; all the external organs are arranged on each side
of the middle line, in pairs ; whenever there is an organ on one
side, a similar one is found on the opposite side, and the superior
and inferior surfaces of the body differ from each other. In
Zo'ophytes, on the contrary, this symmetry is seldom found : in
general, the different organs are placed around the axis or centre
of the body, so as to give it a radiated form. Sometimes this
arrangement is carried so far that the animal resembles a star
(fg- 85) ; and in a great many of these creatures, the body resem-
bles an expanded flower (figs. 87 and 88). Many of them live
fixed at the bottom of the sea, and united to each other in such a
manner as to wear the appearance of branching shrubs, and this
external analogy to certain plants is so great, that for a long
time these animals were confounded with marine plants, and even
now that we know how much their structure, as well as their
functions, differ from those of vegetables, we cannot assign to
them a more appropriate name than Zo'ophytes (from the Greek,
zbon, animal, and phuton, plant) or plant-animals.
2. In these animals the nervous system is entirely wanting, o
is found in an extremely rudimentary state: they have no specir
1. What are the general characters of Radiate animals?
2. What is the character of the nervous system in Zo'^phytem ^
INFUSORIA ROTATORIA.— HYDATINE.
91
organs of the senses, except perhaps their tentacles, which may
serve them for the sense of touch.
3. Most Zoophytes are also destitute of blood-vessels, and they
have no special organs of respiration, this function being per-
formed by the whole surface of the body. Some of them have
a mouth armed with teeth, a digestive canal and anus; but in
others, the digestive cavity has a single opening, which servos at
the same time both for mouth and anus.
4. This Branch of the animal kingdom is divided into six
classes ; namely, Infusoria rotatdria, Entozo'a, It/fusd ria poly-
gas'trica, Eckinoder'mata> Acale'pha, and Polypi.
CLASS OF INFUSO'RIA ROTATO'RIA.
5. These creatures are so extremely small, that prior to the
discovery of the microscope, their existence was not even sus
pected, and yet their structure appears to be as complicate i as
any other animal of the same branch.
Although the instruments by means of
which they were observed, caused them
to appear to be two or three hundred
times larger than they really are, no
distinct organ was discovered in them,
and for a long time they were regarded
as creatures composed of a kind of
animated jelly only, which lived by im-
bibition. But the researches of some
modern naturalists, especially Professor
Ehrenbuig, of Berlin, have shown how
much we were mistaken in regard to
these animalcules; and we are aston-
ished, not by the simplicity of their
structure, but by their complicated
microscopic organization.
6. These animalcules are found in
stagnant waters, and also in water in
which animal substances have been
soaked. Their body is partially trans-
Fig. 81. HYDATINE.
Explanation of Fig. 81. — Anatomy of a Hydatine, a microscopic animal-
rule, resembling a rotifer : — «, the vibratory cilia ; — 6, a fleshy mass which
surrounds the mouth and sets the jaws in motion; — c, the stomach; — dt
cloaca ; — e, anus ; — -f, salivary glands ; — g, ovaries ; — A, vessels.
3. How do Zoophytes breathe ?
4. How is the Branch of Zoophytes divided ?
5. What are the characters of the rotatory Infuso'riae ?
6 Where are these animalcules found?
92 ENTOZOA.— FILIARIA.
parent, and frequently presents traces of annular divisions.
Trie mouth occupies its anterior extremity, and on each side, or
around it, are seen the vibratory cilise (fig. 81, #), the rotatory
movements of which are very remarkable. The mouth is fur-
nished with powerful muscles and lateral jaws. The digestive
canal expends from one end of the body to the other, and ordi-
narily has an enlargement near the middle which constitutes the
stomach (c) ; on each side of this tube are frequently seen bodies
of a glandular appearance, and at its posterior extremity a sort
of cloaca into which the oviducts empty.
CLASS OF ENTOZO'A.
7. This division comprises intestinal worms and other inferior
animals of similar organization. Intestinal worms bear a closer
resemblance to anne'lidans than to ordinary radiate animals. The
body is elongated and composed of more or less distinct rings ;
there is often a digestive canal, sometimes vesse,s, but never a
distinct circulation or special organs of respiration.
8. Most of these singular creatures can live only in the bodies
of other animals, and lodge themselves in the substance of the
liver, in the eyes, in the cellular tissue, in the muscles, and even
in the brain, as well as in the alimentary canal ; we know they
are multiplied by means of eggs, and also that their young are
in some instances born alive, but we do not understand by what
means they are transmitted from one animal to another, nor how
they penetrate into the substance of organs in which they are
developed. There is scarcely an animal that does not nourish
many kinds of them, and those found in one species are rarely
found in many others.
9. This class is divided into two orders : one in which the
intestinal canal floats free in the cavity of the abdomen, and
therefore denominated cavifa'ria ; the other is named parenchy'-
mata, because the animalcules of this order have neither abdo-
men nor intestine distinct from the neighbouring parts, their
digestive cavity consisting of ramified canals hollowed out in the
substance of the body, and generally opening externally by
suckers.
10. To the first division belong the FILIA'BLA ; they have a
slender, filiform body ; several species are known, which live in
the substance of the organs of many animals. One of these is
the Guinea-worm ; it lodges itself beneath the skin of man, and
7. What description of animals belong to the class of Entozo'a ?
8 Where are these animals found ?
9. How is the class of Entozo'a divided ?
10. What are filia'rirt ? What are asca'rides?
TAPE-WORMS.
is very common in warm countries. ASCA'RIDES, which are found
in the intestines of man, also belong to this division. One species,
the lum'bricus, sometimes attains to fifteen inches in length.
11. To the second division, parenchy' mata, belongs the tape-
Fig. 82.
Fig. 83. TVENIA TAPE-WORM.
worm (Tce'nia). The body is terminated anteriorly by a small
head (Jig. 83, a), having two or four pits, and, frequently, one or
more proboscis-like appendages ; but the mouth is very indistinct,
and the digestive apparatus is generally reduced to a double
longitudinal vessel (Jig. 82). The body is ordinarily flat, very
long, and divided into a great many more or less distinct joints
(fig. 83). Each segment or ring has one or two pores which
communicate with the longitudinal vessels, and contains a dis-
Explanation of Fig. 82. — A ring or segment of a teenia, magnified, show
ing the ovaries ; — a, the two longitudinal vessels and the lateral pore ; — 6, a
segment from which almost the whole ovary has heen removed.
Explanation of Fig. 83. — Represents the ribbon-like body of the tape-
worm and the lateral vessels running through its whole length on eacJi
side ; — a, the head.
11. How are Vape- worms characterized ? Where are they found ?
9
94 INFUSORIA POLYGASTRICA.
tinct ovary (fig. 82, a). The body of this creature consists of a
great number of these segments, united together in a linear series
(Jig. 83) : the segments which immediately succeed to the head
(a) are very small, and so fragile that it is rarely this part of the
animal is procured in a perfect state; they gradually however
increase in size towards the middle of the body. Each segment
of the tape- worm may be regarded as a distinct animal, for it
possesses the means of reproducing itself; yet the alimentary
tubes are common to them all, those of each joint freely com-
municating with the nutritive canals of the adjoining segments.
The first joint of the Tse'nia, which may be~ called its head, differs
materially in structure from all the rest ; it is in fact converted
into an apparatus by means of which the entire animal derives
its nourishment. This part, when highly magnified, is found to
be somewhat of a square shape; in the centre is seen the mouth,
surrounded with a circle of minute spines, so disposed as to
secure its retention in a position for imbibing the chyle in which
it is immersed. Around this mouth are placed four suckers.
Tape-worms infest all classes of animals, and commonly inhabit
the small intestine. Their presence in the alimentary canal
generally causes debility and wasting of the body, and often
very serious disturbance. The species which attacks man, " the
solitary worm," is very difficult to get rid of.
We also place in this division certain very singular animals,
which resemble a little bladder filled with water ; they grow in
different parts of the bodies of animals, and are called Hydatids.
They are the cause of considerable disturbance and serious dis-
eases.
12. INFUSO'RIA POLYGAS'TRICA. — These animalcules can only
be perceived by means of the microscope ; they are abundantly
developed in water containing the remains of organic bodies ;
6 3 1
Fig. 84. POLYAGASTRIC INFUSORIA.
Wnat are the characters of the polygastric infuso'ria ?
ECHINODERMATA SEA-STARS.
-antil within a few years they were confounded with the infuso'riu
rotato'ria, the structure of which is very different. Their body,
sometimes round, sometimes long and flat, is often covered with
little cilise, and contains ordinarily a considerable number of
cavities, which seem to discharge the functions of so many
stomachs. The above figure will give an idea of the most com-
mon species of these creatures. The movements of the poly-
gastrica, when seen under the microscope, are exceedingly viva-
cious ; and although many of them inhabit a space not larger
than the point of a needle, they swim about with great activity,
avoiding each other as they pass in their rapid dance, and
evidently directing their motions with wonderful precision and
accuracy.
13. The ECHINODER'MATA or Echi'noderms (from the Greek,
echinus, a hedge-hog, and derma, skin) are formed for crawling
at the bottom of the sea, and are ordinarily provided with a mul-
titude of retractile appendages, by means of which they attach
themselves to bodies they touch ; in general the skin is covered
with spines, and their organization is more complicated than that
of most Zoophytes. They often
possess a kind of skeleton, vessels
for circulation, special organs for
respiration, and a separate intes-
tinal canal furnished with two
openings.
14. The sea-stars — Asteria
(Jig- 85) — belong to this division.
Also, the sea hedge-hogs or sea
eggs, which have the appearance
of balls covered with spines ; in
some ports of the Mediterranean Fig. 85.— SEA-STAR.
they are used for food.
15. The ACALE'PHA or Acale'phans (from the Greek, acalephe,
a nettle), commonly called sea-nettles, on account of the irritation
contact with them produces on the skin, are of a gelatinous
consistence; they always float on the sea, and are essentially
organized for swimming. Their organization is very simple
Explanation of Fig. 84. — Infu'soria polygas'trica as seen under a micro-
scope ;— 1, monad ; — 2, trachelius anas;— 3, enchelis or flask animalcule ;—
4, paramecium ; — 5, kolpoda ; — 6, trachelius fasciolarius as seen walking on
microscopic plants.
13. What are the characters of echi'noderms ?
14. What are sea-stars?
15. How are acale'phans characterized? What are the characters <n*
medusae ?
96
MEDUSA—POLYPI.
Fig. 86.— MEDUSA.
their internal organs consist almost
exclusively of a stomach, hollowed
in the substance of the body, from
which a rise different branched canals.
The Medusa belong to this class.
The body is broad, and more or less
convex, resembling a disk or the cap
of a mushroom (fig. 86, a). The
margin and centre of the cap are
furnished with tentacles (6), which
probably serve them to seize small
mollusks or zoophytes, and convey
them to the mouth. They swim by
slowly contracting the margin of the
cap, and thus expelling the water
contained in its concavity ; they are
seldom seen on the surface except
in calm weather. Many of these
animals contribute to the phos-
phorescence of the sea, diffusing a whitish light.
16. CLASS OF POLYPI. — Under the name of
polypi is included a great number of animals,
possessing a cylindrical or oval body, with an
opening at one of
its extremities, sur-
rounded by long
tentacles (fig. 87).
The structure of
polypi is very sim-
ple, and their facul-
ties very limited.
Most of. them live
fixed to other bodies, by the posterior
extremity, and all their movement
consists in extending and contracting
their tentacles, and drawing the an-
terior portion of the body into itself.
They are multiplied in two ways :
sometimes they produce eggs, which
detach themselves, and are expelled,
and their development is left to chance;
at other times, buds spring from the
surface of the body, which never
separate, but become so many new
Fig. 87. — ACTINIA.
Fig. 88. SERTULARIA
16. What are polypi ? What are their characters?
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLYPI. 97
polypi, similar to the parent ; hence result masses of various
form, in which an entire series of generations are aggregated,
and seem to possess a life in common, just as if it were really a
compound creature, provided with a single body, possessing a
thousand mouths, and as many stomachs (Jig- 88). In genera*
the digestive cavities of all these aggregated animals, living thus
in society, do not open directly into each other, but commonly
there are vascular communications between the individuals united
in a single mass, and the alimentary matter digested by one may
in this way be of advantage to all its neighbours.
17. Frequently the bodies of these little animalcules is com-
posed entirely of a semi-transparent tissue of extreme delicacy ;
but in most of them the inferior portion of the tegumentary sheath
becomes much indurated, and even ossified so as to acquire the
hardness and appearance of stone. This solid envelop assumes
various forms, and sometimes constitutes tubes, and sometimes
merely cells ; for a long time it was considered merely as the
dwellings of the polyps which formed it, and is designated under
the name of coral. Sometimes every polyp has a distinct coral,
but ordinarily it is the portion common to an aggregated mass of
polyps that possesses the characteristics of these bodies, the
volume of which may become enormous, although each of the
parts forming it is extremely small.
18. It is in this way that polyps of only a few inches in length
raise reefs and islands in seas bordering the tropics ; when placed
under circumstances favourable to their development, certain
animals of this class multiply to such a degree as to cover chains
of rocks or immense submarine banks, and form, with their stony
corals heaped one upon another, masses whose extent is con-
stantly increasing by the birth of new animalcules added to those
already existing. The solid slough or remnant of each colony
of polyps remains after the frail architects have perished, and
serves as a base for the development of other polyps, until these
living reefs reach the surface of the water, where these animals
cease to exist, and the soil formed by their remains ceases to
rise; but the surface of these masses of corals, exposed to the
action of the atmosphere, becomes the site of a new series of
phenomena; seeds, which are deposited by the winds, or borne
thither by the waves, germinate, and the surface of these corai
masses is in this way gradually clothed in a rich vegetation ; and
thus, what were but recently vast charnel-houses of almost micro-
sc^pic zo'ophytes, are converted into habitable islands. In the
Pacific Ocean there are innumerable reefs and islands which had
no other origin ; in general they seem to be based on the crater
17. What is coral?
18. How are coral reefs formed ?
9*
98
CORAL.
of some extinct volcano, for they are almost always of a circular
form, with a lake in the centre communicating with, the ocean
by a single channel : some are more than ten leagues in dia-
meter.
19. Almost all polyps inhabit the sea: some, however, are
found in fresh water.
Most polyps secrete this
stony matter, above
mentioned, in the cells
of which they are lodg-
ed, or around which
they are grouped. The
stony matter, of a beau-
tiful red colour, employ-
ed as an ornament, call-
ed coral, is formed in
this way ; it is the stem
found in the midst of
an aggregation of cer-
tain polyps, that serves
to sustain and attach
them to the earth ( fig.
89). These little ani-
mals, only two or three
lines in length, have at
their free extremity
eight tentacles, in the
middle of which is the
mouth ; by their oppo-
site extremity they are
fixed in little cavities hollowed out in a kind of membrane or
living bark, which is common to all, and into which they can
entirely withdraw themselves ; this common part is more or less
branched, and in its centre are found successive layers of very
hard, stony matter, which is the coral. This coral is found
plentifully in the Mediterranean, principally on the African coast,
where it forms the object of an active fishery.
20. Fresh-water polyps (fg. 90) or Hydrce (from the Greek,
'udor, water) may be considered as the most simple type of this
group. The body is a gelatinous tube, in which no particular organ
is perceived ; nevertheless they crawl and swim actively, by agi-
tating their long tentacles, to seize small animals that come within
their reach, which they devour with great avidity ; they seem to
be sensible to the influence of light. Some of these polyps have
19. What is red coral ? Where is it found?
•JO. What are hydras ? Where are they found ?
Fig. 89.— CORAL.
HYDR,E.— SPONGE.
been turned inside out,
and yet the cavity thus
formed, having the skin
inside, performed the
functions of the natural
stomach ; but what is
most singular and as-
tonishing is their great
tenacity of life, which
enables them to live
even after they are cut
into pieces, and each
fragment afterwards be-
comes an entire and per-
fect hydra.
Fig. 90.— HYDR.E.
" When left free, the hydrae are found to select positions most exposed In
the influence of light, assembling at the surface of the ponds which they
inhabit, or seeking that side of the glass in which they are confined, that ia
most strongly illuminated. That they are able to appreciate the presence
of light is therefore indubitable ; yet with what organs do they perceive it ?
we are driven to the supposition, that, in this case, the sense of touch sup-
plies to a certain extent the want of other senses, and that the hydrae are
able to feel the light.
" When the hydra is watching for its prey, it remains expanded (Jig. 90,
6), its tentacles widely spread and perfectly motionless, waiting patiently
till some of the countless beings which populate the stagnant waters it fre-
quents, are brought by accident in contact with them : no sooner does an
animal touch one of the filaments, than its course is arrested, as if by
magic ; it appears instantly fixed to the almost invisible thread, and in spite
of its utmost efforts is unable to escape ; the tentacle then slowly contracts,
and others are brought in contact with the struggling prey, which, thus
seized, is gradually dragged towards the orifice of the mouth, that opens to
receive it, and slowly forced into the interior of the stomach." — Jones.
21. SPONGES live in the sea, atta«hed to rocks: they bear
some analogy to the common mass in which certain polyps are
lodged, but we find none of these ani-
mals on them. Their surface is per-
rorated by an immense number of
holes which communicate with canals
running through their substance in
every direction, and through which
currents of water are continually
passing (fg» 91). Sponges are found
in a variety of forms; some are like Fig. 91. — SPONGE.
Explanation of Fig. 90. — a, represents small patches of vegetable mat
ter, floating on the water, beneath which hydrtE are ordinarily found; — 6
jne of these polyps ; — c, another, having two young ones attached to it.
21. What are sponges ? Where are they found ?
100 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
horns, spheres, cups, fans, shrubs, &c. ; some are studded with
fine stony needles ; others are sustained internally by flexible
fibres, arranged so as to form tubes and little cells.
Common sponge, of which we make so much use, has a struc-
ture of the latter description ; it constitutes large brownish masses,
and is found in the Mediterranean.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
To form a general idea of the animal kingdom, it is not enough
to know the principal phenomena by which life is manifest in
animate creatures, and 1o have studied the structure of their
bodies, and the mechanism of their functions ; we must also look
at the manner in which animals are distributed over the face of
the earth, and endeavour to appreciate the influence which the
different circumstances in which they are placed may exercise
over them.
When we look at the manner of distribution of animals on
the globe, we are at first struck with the difference of the media
they inhabit. Some, as every body knows, always live under
water and quickly die when withdrawn from it ; others can only
exist in the air and almost immediately perish when submerged.
Some in fact are destined to inhabit the waters, and others to live
upon the land ; and when we compare aquatic and terrestrial
animals, in their physiological and anatomical relations, we find,
nt least in part, the causes of the differences in their mode of
existence.
In studying respiration, we pointed out the constant relation
between the intensity of this function and vital energy. Animals
consume in a given time a quantity of oxygen, increasing in pro-
portion to the activity of their motions and rapidity of their
nutrition : now, they can obtain this oxygen only from the fluids
surrounding them ; in a gallon of air there are about 84 cubic
inches of this vivifying principle, while in a gallon of water we
ordinarily find only about five cubic inches. It is evident then
that the degree of activity in the respiratory function, indispen-
sable to the exercise of the faculties belonging to superior ani-
mals, must be of more easy attainment in air than in water, and
on account of this difference alone, the creatures highest in the
animal series cannot dwell in water. We comprehend, indeed,
that an animal which, in order to exist, must appropriate a consider-
able quantity of oxygen every instant, does not find it in suf-
OF ANIMALS. 101
ficient quantity when plunged into water, and therefore perishes
of asphyxia. But at first sight, it is not so easy to explain wh}
an aquatic animal cannot continue to live when taken from th«
water and placed in the air, for then we supply it with a fluid
richer in oxygen than that, the vivifying action of which was
sufficient for all its wants. There are, however, various circum
stances which, to a certain degree, explain this phenomenon.
Physics teach us that a body carefully weighed in air and in
water, is lighter in the last than in the first, and that, to sustain
it in equilibrium, there is then only required a weight equal to its
weight in air, less that of the bulk of water it displaces. Hence
it follows that animals whose tissues are too soft to sustain them-
selves in air, and are compressed to such an extent as to become
unfit to perform their functions in the organism, can nevertheless
live very well in water, where these same tissues, being not much
more dense than the surrounding fluid, are required to possess
only a feeble power of resistance to preserve their forms and to
prevent the several parts of the body from falling together on
each other. This consideration alone is sufficient to show us
why gelatinous animals, such as infusorise or medusss, are neces-
sarily inhabitants of the water; for, when we observe one of
these delicate creatures while still in this fluid, we perceive that
all the parts, even the most slender tissues, are sustained in their
proper position and float easily in the surrounding medium; but
the moment they are withdrawn, their body is almost entirely
effaced, offering to the eye only a confused and shapeless mass.
The influence of the density of the surrounding medium upon the
mechanical play of these instruments of life is also felt in ani-
mals of a more perfect structure, in which, however, respiration
is still carried on by means of ramified membranous appendages,
resembling diminutive shrub-branches or plumes. For example,
in anne'lidans or even in fishes, the branchise or gills are com-
posed of flexible filaments, which easily sustain themselves in
water, and therefore permit the respirable fluid to reach and
renew itself at all points of their surface; but, in air, these same
membranous filaments are in a measure effaced by their own
weight, falling one on another, and, in this way, exclude the
oxygen from the greater part of the respiratory apparatus. It
results that this function is then embarrassed, and the animal may
die of asphyxia in the air, although it found in water all it re
quired for free respiration. To convince ourselves of the impor
tance of these variations in the physical state of organs placed
in air or in water, it is only necessary to be reminded of what is
seen in dissecting-rooms : an anatomist desirous of studying the
structure of a very delicate part, would succeed very indifferently
if he made his dissection in air ; but by p.acing the subject of
L02 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
investigation in water, he much more easily succeeds in distin-
guishing all the parts ; because these parts, sustained in a mea-
sure by this liquid, then preserve their natural relations just as if
they we're of a consistent and stiffer tissue. Another circum-
stance which influences the possibility of living in air or in water
is the evaporation which always takes place from the surface of
organized bodies placed in the air, but which cannot take place
in water. A certain degree of dessication causes all organic
tissues to lose their distinguishing physical properties, and we find
that losses by evaporation always produce death in animals when
they exceed certain limits. It follows that creatures whose
organization is not calculated to preserve them against the injuri-
ous effects of evaporation, can only live in water and quickly
perish in air. Now the animal economy is equal to this exigence
only when it possesses a very complicated structure. In fact, if
an active respiration be requisite, the respiratory surface must be
deeply lodged in some internal cavity where the air can be renew-
ed only in proportion as it is required for the support of life. To
secure this renovation, the respiratory apparatus must be furnish-
ed with proper motive organs ; to prevent the dessication or drying
of any portion of the surface of the body, the diffusion of the liquids
to the different parts of the body must be easily carried on, and
there must be an active circulation, or the surface must be in-
vested by a tunic or covering that is scarcely permeable. This
is so true, that even in fishes, in which the circulation is very
complete, although slowly carried on, and the capillary net-work
not very dense, death speedily takes place in consequence of
dessication of a part of the body, of the posterior portion, for
example, even when this portion alone is exposed to the air, while
the rest of the animal remains under water.
We may add, too, that in water, feeding may be effected with
less perfect instruments of prehension than in air, where the
transportation of the food required by the animal is more difficult.
In all its most essential relations, life is, in a manner, more easily
maintained in the midst of the waters than on the surface of the
earth ; in the atmosphere it demands more perfect and more com-
plicated physiological instruments: the water is the natural ele-
ment of animals lowest in the zoological series ; and if the pro-
ductions of the creation have succeeded each other in the same
order as the transitory states through which every animal passes,
during the period of its development, we may conclude that ani-
mate creatures first appeared in the midst of the waters, a con-
clusion in accordance with the observations of geologists and the
text of the Scriptures.
In this manner the physiologist can account for the division of
Animals between the two geological elements of the globe, water
OF ANIMALS. 103
and earth ; but these fundamental differences are not the only
ones observed in the geographical distribution of animate crea-
tures. If a naturalist familiar with the fauna* of his own coun-
try, visit distant regions, he sees, as he advances, that the land
becomes inhabited by animals new to his eyes; then these species
disappear, in their turn to give place to species equally unknown.
If, after leaving France, he land in the South of Africa, he
will find there only a small number of animals similar to those
he saw in Europe, and he will remark especially the Elephant,
with bigears ; the Hippopo'tamus ; the Rhinoceros, with two horns ;
the Giraffe ; innumerable herds of Antelopes ; the Zebra ; the Cape
Buffalo, the widened base of whose horns cover the front ; the
biack-rnaned Lion ; the Chimpanzee, which of all animals most
resembles man; the Cynocephalus, or dog-faced Monkey; Vul-
tures of particular species; a multitude of birds of brilliant
plumage, strangers to Europe ; insects, also different from those
of the north; for example, the fatal Termite, which lives in nume-
rous societies, and builds, in common, its habitation of earth, which
is very curious in its arrangement and of considerable height.
If our zoologist leave the Cape of Good Hope, and penetrate
into the interior of the great island of Madagascar, he will there
find a different fauna. He will see none of the large quadrupeds
he met in Africa ; in place of the family of monkeys, he will
find other mammals equally well formed for climbing trees, but
more resembling the carna'ria, designated by naturalists under
the name of makis ; he will meet the ai-ai or sloth, a most
singular animal, which appears to be a sort of object of veneration
among the inhabitants, and partakes of the nature of both monkey
and squirrel ; Tenrecs (a kind of hedge-hog), small insecti'vorous
mammals, which have spiny backs like hedge-hogs, but do not
roll themselves in a ball; the Came'leon, with forked nose, and
many curious reptiles not found elsewhere, as well as insects not
less characteristic of that region.
Still pursuing his route and arriving in India, our traveller sees
an elephant different from that of Africa; oxen, bears, rhinoceros,
antelopes, stags, different from those of Africa and Europe ; the
ourang-outang, and a multitude of other monkeys peculiar to
those countries ; the royal tiger, the argus, the peacock, pheasants,
and an almost innumerable host of birds, reptiles, and insects,
unknown elsewhere.
If he now visit New Holland, all will be there again new to
him, and the aspect of this fauna will appear to him still more
strange than the various zoological populations he has passed in
* Fau'na, from the Latin, faunvs, the name of a rural deity among tho
Romans, The animals of all kinds peculiar to a country consulate it*
Fauna.
104 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
review. He will no longer meet with species analogous to our
oxen, horses, bears, and large carna'ria ; large-sized quadrupeds
are almost entirely wanting ; he will find kangaroos, flying-
phalangers, and the oruithoryn'chus.
Finally, if our traveller, to get back to his own country, tra-
verses the vast continent of America, he will discover a fauna
analogous to that of the old world, but composed almost entirely
of different species ; he will there see monkeys with a prehensile
tail, large carna'ria similar to our lions and tigers, bisons, lamas,
armadillos ; birds, reptiles, and insects, equally remarkable, and
equally new to him.
Differences not less great in the species of animals peculiar to
different regions of the globe, are observed, when, instead of con-
fining our observations to the inhabitants of the land, we examine
the myriads of animated creatures that dwell in the midst of the
waters. Passing from the coasts of Europe to the Indian Ocean,
and from the latter into the American seas, we meet with fishes,
rnollusks, crusta'ceans, and zoophytes, peculiar to each of these
regions. This limitation or colonization of species, whether
aquatic or terrestrial, is so marked, that a slightly experienced
naturalist cannot mistake, even at first sight, the original localities
of zoological collections that may have been gathered in one or
the other of the great geographical divisions of the globe, and
submitted to his examination. The fauna of each of these divi-
sions is peculiar to it, and may be easily characterized by the
presence of certain more or less remarkable species.
Naturalists have formed many theories to account for this mode
of distribution of animals over the surface of the globe ; but, in
the present state of science, it is impossible to give a satisfactory
explanation, without admitting that, in the beginning, the different
species had their origin in the different regions where they are
found, and that by degrees they afterwards spread afar and occu-
pied a more or less considerable portion of the surface of the
earth. In short, the presence of a particular animal within nar-
row limits on the earth, necessarily supposes, when this animal
is found nowhere else, thnt it had its origin on this spot, or that
it imigrated there from a more or less remote region, and that
subsequently it was entirely destroyed where its race commenced,
that is, exactly at the place where, according to every probability,
all circumstances most favourable to its existence were found in
combination. There is nothing strongly in favour of this last
hypothesis, and it is repugnant to common sense to believe that,
in the beginning, the same country saw the birth of the horse,
the giraffe, bison, and kangaroo, for instance, but that these ani-
mals left it afterwards, without leaving any trace of their pas-
sage, to colonize, one on the steppes of central Asia, another in
OF ANIMALS. 105
the interior of Africa, a third in the New World, and another again
in the great islands of Australia. It is much more natural to sup-
pose that every species was placed, from the beginning, by the
Author of all things, in the region where it was destined perma-
nently to live, and that by extending from a certain number of
these distinct centres of creation, different animals have spread
throughout those portions of the globe now forming the domain
of each kind. In the present condition of the earth, it is impos-
sible to recognise all those zoological centres : for we can con-
ceive the possibility of exchanges so multiplied between two
regions, the faunoo of which were primitively distinct, that they
present species common to both, and nothing now points out to
the eyes of the naturalist their original separation ; but when a
country is inhabited by a considerable number of species which
are not seen elsewhere, even where local circumstances are most
similar, we are warranted in the supposition that this region was
the theatre of a peculiar zoological creation, and we must regard
it as a distinct region.
What the naturalist should ask, is, not how different portions
of the earth have come now to be inhabited by different species,
but how animals could be so far extended over the surface of the
globe, and how nature placed variable limits to this dissemination
according to species. The latter question especially presents
itself to the mind when we consider the unequal extent now occu-
pied by this or that group of animated creatures : for example,
the ourang-outang is confined to the island of Borneo and the
neighbouring lands ; the musk-ox is colonized in the most northern
part of America, and the lama in the elevated regions of Peru
and Chile, while the wild-duck is seen everywhere, from Lapland
to the cape of Good Hope, and from the United States to China
and Japan.
The circumstances which favour the dissemination of species
are of two kinds : the one pertains to the animal itself, and the other
is foreign to it. Among the first is the development of the loco
motive power, all things being equal in other respects ; the species
which live attached to the earth, or which possess only imperfect
instruments of locomotion, occupy a very limited extent of the
earth's surface, compared to those species whose moving powers
are rapid and energetic : among terrestrial animals, birds present
us with most examples of cosmopolite species, and, among aquatic
animals, the ceta'ceans, and fishes. Reptiles, on the contrary,
are restricted to narrow limits, and the same is true of most
mollusks and crusta'ceans. The instinct possessed by certain
animals to change their climate periodically, also contributes to
the dissemination of species ; and this instinct exists in a great
number of these creatures. j S*^ Vv
10 " or TMC
^lYERSITY \
106 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Among the circumstances foreign to the animal, and in a mea-
sure accidental, we place first the influence of man ; and to illus-
trate this point, a few examples will suffice. The horse is origin-
ally from the steppes of Central Asia, and, at the time of the
discovery of America, no animal of this species existed in the
New World ; the Spaniards carried it with them there not mors
than three centuries back, and now, not only do the inhahitants
of this vast continent, from Hudson's Bay to Terra del Fuego,
possess horses in abundance, but these animals have become
wild, and are found in almost countless herds. The same is true
of the domestic ox : carried 1'rom the Old to the New World,
they have multiplied there to such an extent that in some parts
of South America they are actively hunted for their hides only,
for the manufacture of leather. The dog has been everywhere
the companion of man, arid we could instance a great many ani-
mals that have become cosmopolite by following us; the rat,
which appears to be originally from America, overran Europe in
the middle ages, and is now met with even on the islands of
Ocea'nica.
In some cases, animals have been able to break through natural
barriers, seemingly insurmountable, and spread themselves over
a more or less considerable portion of the surface of the globe,
by the assistance of circumstances whose importance at first
sight seems very trifling, such as the movement of a fragment of
ice or wood, often carried to considerable distances by currents:
nothing is more common than to meet at sea, hundreds of miles
from land, fucus floating on the surface of the water and serving
as a resting-place for small crusta'ceans incapable of transport-
ing themselves, by swimming1, far from the shores where they
were born. The great maritime current, the gulf-stream, com-
mencing in the gulf of Mexico, coasts North America to New-
foundland, then directs its course to Iceland, Ireland, and returns
towards the Azores, often bearing to the coasts of Europe, trunks
of trees which were conveyed by the waters of the Mississippi,
from the most interior parts of the New World, to the sea ; it
frequently happens that these masses of wood are perforated by
the larvaB of insects, and they may afford attachment to the eggs
of mollusks, and of fishes, &c. Finally, even birds contribute
to the dispersion of living creatures over the surface of the globe,
and that too in a most singular manner : frequently they do not
digest the eggs they swallow, but, evacuating them at places far
from where they were picked up, carry to great distances the
germs of races unknown till then in the countries where they
were deposited.
Notwithstanding all these means of transportation and other
circumstances favouring the dissemination of species, there are
OF ANIMALS. 10?
very few animals that are really cosmopolites, the most of these
creatures being colonized within limited regions. That such
should be the case, we can comprehend, if we study the circum.
stances which may oupose their progress. But this study is fat
from furnishing us a satisfactory explanation of all cases of
limited circumscription of a species, and it is often impossible to
divine why certain animals remain restricted to a locality, when
r.othing seems to oppose their propagation in neighbouring situa
tions.
Whatever may be the reason, the obstacles to the geographical
distribution of species are sometimes mechanical, and at others,
physiological ; among the first are seas and chains of lofty moun-
tains. To terrestrial animals seas of much extent are in general
an impassable barrier, and we perceive, all things being equal,
the mixture of two distinct faunas is always most intimate in pro-
portion as the regions to which they belong are, geographically,
most approximated, or in communication with each other, by
intermediate lands. The Atlantic Ocean prevents species peculiar
to tropical America, from extending to Africa, Europe, or Asia;
and the fauna of the New World is entirely distinct from that of
the old continent, except in the highest latitudes, towa-rds the
north pole. But there the land of the two continents is approxi-
mated, America being separated from Asia only by Behring's
Straits, and is connected to Europe by Greenland and Iceland :
on this account zoological exchanges can be more easily effected,
and we find there species common to both worlds ; for example,
the white bear, the reindeer, the castor, the ermine, the bald
eagle, &c. Chains of lofty mountains also constitute natural
barriers, which arrest the dispersion of species, and prevent the
admixture of faunae, proper to neighbouring zoological regions.
For instance, the opposite declivities of the Cordillera of the
Andes are inhabited by species which are for the most part dif-
ferent ; the insects of the Brazilian side, for example, are almost
all distinct from those found in Peru and New Granada.
The dispersion of marine animals living near coasts is pre-
vented in the same manner by the geographical configuration of
the earth; but here it is sometimes a continuation of a long chain
of land, and sometimes a vast extent of open sea, which opposes
the dissemination of species. Thus most animals of the Medi-
terranean are also found in the European portion of the Atlantic,
but they do not extend to the seas of India, from which the Medi
terranean is separated by the isthmus of Suez, nor can they
traverse the ocean to gain the shores of the New World.
The physiological circumstances which tend to limit the dif
ferent faunae are more numerous; and without doubt, the first in
consideration is the unequal temperature of different regions of
the earth. There are species which can bear an intense cold and
108 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
tropical heat equally well ; man and the dog, for example ; but
there are others which, in this respect, are less favoured by
nature, and which do not flourish, or even cannot exist, except
under the influence of a determined temperature. For instance,
monkeys, which thrive in tropical regions, almost always die of
phthisis, when exposed to the cold and humidity of our climate
while the reindeer, formed to support the rigours of the long ana
severe winter of Lapland, suffers from the warmth of St. Peters-
burgh, and generally succumbs to the influence of a temperate
climate. Hence it is that, in a great number of cases, the dif-
ference of climate is alone sufficient to arrest species in their
march from high latitudes towards the equator, or from the equa-
torial regions towards the poles. The influence of temperature,
on the animal economy, also explains why certain species remain
within a chain of mountains, without being able to extend beyond
it to analogous localities. We know, in fact, that temperature
decreases in proportion to the elevation of the land, and conse-
quently, animals that live at considerable heights cannot descend
on to the low plains, to reach other mountains, without traversing
countries in which the temperature is much higher than that of
their ordinary dwelling. The lama, for example, abounds on the
pastures of Peru and Chile, situated at a height of from twelve to
fifteen thousand feet above the level of the sea, extending south-
wards to the extremity of Patagonia, but is not seen either in
Brazil or Mexico, because it cannot reach those countries without
descending to regions too warm for its constitution.
The nature of the vegetation, and of the previously existing
fauna, in a 'region of the globe, also exerts an influence on its
invasion by exotic species. Thus, the dispersion of the silk-
worm is limited by the disappearance of the mulberry, beyond a
certain degree of latitude; the cochineal cannot spread beyond
the region in which the cactus grows; and the large carna'ria,
except those that live on fishes, cannot exist in the polar regions,
where vegetable productions are too poor to nourish any consider-
able number of herbi'vorous quadrup-^s.
It would be easy to multiply examples of these necessary rela-
tions between the existence of an animal species, in a particular
place, and the existence of certain climatic, phytological, or
zoological conditions; but our limits do not permit these details,
and the considerations we have already presented, appear to be
sufficient to give an idea of the manner in which nature has
effected the dissemination of animal species, on different parts of
the earth's surface; and, to attain the end we proposed to our-
selves in commencing the subject, it only remains for us to glance
at the results brought about by the different circumstances we
have just mentioned, that is, the present state of the geographical
distribution of animated creatures.
OF ANIMALS.
When we compare with each other the different regions of the
globe, in respect to their zoological population, we are at first
struck by the extreme inequality remarked in the number of
species. In one country we find a great diversity in the form
and structure of the animals composing its fauna, while in another
place, there is great uniformity in this respect ; and it is easy to
perceive a certain relation existing between the different degrees
of zoological richness, and the more or less considerable eleva-
tion of temperature. In fact, the number of species, both marine
and terrestrial, augments, in general, as we descend from the poles
towards the equator. The most remote lands of the polar regions
offer little to the observation of the traveller but some insects,
and in the glacial seas the fishes and mollusks are but little va-
ried ; in temperate climates the fauna becomes more numerous in
species ; but it is in tropical regions that nature has displayed the
greatest prodigality in this respect, and the zoologist cannot behold
without astonishment the endless diversity of animals that he there
finds assembled.
It is also remarked that there is a singular coincidence between
the elevation of temperature in different zoological regions, arid
the degree of organic perfection of the animals which inhabit
them. It is in the warmest climates that those animals live that
most nearly resemble man, and also those in the great zoological
divisions which possess the most complicated organization, and
the most developed faculties, while in the polar regions we meet
with creatures occupying a low rank in the zoological series.
Monkeys, for example, are confined to the warm parts of the two
continents; the same is true of parrots among birds, of croco-
diles and tortoises among reptiles, and of land-crabs among crus-
ta'ceans, all of them the most perfect animals of their respective
classes.
It is also in warm countries that we find animals the most
remarkable for the beauty of their colours, their size, and the
strangeness of their forms.
Indeed there seems to exist a certain relation between the cli-
mate and the tendency of nature to produce this or that animal
form. We observe a very great resemblance between most ani-
mals inhabiting the extreme northern and southern regions ; the
faunae of the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and North
America, are very analogous in their general aspect, and in the
tropical regions of the two worlds similar forms predominate. It
is not identical species that we meet in distinct and nearly
\sothermal regions, but species more or less approximating to
each other, which seem to be the representatives of one and the
same type. For example, the monkeys of India and of Central
Africa are represented in tropical America by other monkeys
10*
110 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS.
easily distinguishable from the first ; the lion, tiger, and pan
ther, of the old continent, correspond to the cougar, jaguar, and
ounce, of the New World. The mountains of Europe, Asia, ana
North America, nourish bears of distinct species, but differing
very little from each other. Seals abound especially in the
neighbourhood of the polar circles ; and if we seek the proofs of
this tendency, not among the highest classes of the animal king-
dom, bult among the inferior creatures, they will be found not less
evident: cray-fishes, for example, appear to be confined to the
temperate regions of the globe, and are found throughout Europe,
in a species common to European streams ; in the South of
Russia, there is a different species ; in North America, there are
two species, distinct from the preceding ; in Chile, there is a fourth
species ; in the south of New Holland, a fifth ; in Madagascar,
a sixth ; and at the Cape of Good Hope, a seventh.
A comparison of the faunae peculiar to the different zoological
regions of the globe leads to other results for which it is more
difficult to account ; when we examine successively the assem-
blage of species inhabiting Asia, Africa, and America, we remark
that the fauna of the New World is characterized by inferiority,
a fact which did not escape the celebrated Buffon. In a word,
there are no mammals existing now in the New World as large
as those of the old ; it is true, we find, in America, a consider-
able number of monkeys, but among them there is none equal to
the ourang-outang, or chimpanzee; the roderi'tia and edenta'ta
abound most, which, of all ordinary mammals, are the least intel-
ligent. Finally, in America, we find opossums, animals belong,
ing to an inferior type of ordinary mammals, which have r.o
representative, neither in Europe, nor Asia, nor Africa. If we
pass from the New World to the still newer region of Australia,
we shall there see a fauna whose inferiority is still more decided,
for there the class of mammals is scarcely represented by the
Marsu'pials and Monotre'mata.
As to the limitation of the different zoological regions into
which the globe is divided, and the composition of the faunae
proper to each, we cannot treat without exceeding our limits ; but
we regret this less, because, in the present state of science, these
questions are far from being settled.
Here we terminate our zoological studies : for the object we
proposed to ourselves was not a particular description of each
animal, nor an enumeration of those characters which would
enable us to recognise or group them methodically ; we were
merely desirous of giving some notion of the nature and proper-
lies of these creatures, to sketch rapidly the prominent traits of
their history, and furnish our young readers the general know-
'edge most useful to all, and indispensable to those who wish to
study more profoundly this branch of the sciences of observation
BOOK VII.
^s^y*-«^^v^vy^^N-««*^^-^^^^^s.^-^
BOTANY:
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANT*
ELEMENTS OF BOTANY:
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PLANTS,
LESSON I.
BOTANY. — Definition of Plants — Structure of Plants — Nomen-
clature of Organs.
1. Botany (formed from the Greek word botane, a plant) is
that division of Natural History which treats of vegetables.
2. The science of Botany is divided into three branches :
namely, the Anatomy of Plants, Vegetable Physiology, and
Descriptive Botany, which last comprises the classification of
plants and their especial history.
3. Botany, therefore, does not consist, as is commonly ima-
gined by the ignorant, in merely " getting by heart" a great
number of names of plants, and of being able to apply their
names to the objects to which they belong ; but in a knowledge
of the plants themselves, of their organization, their growth, their
manner of living, their properties, and the relations they bear to
each other, as well as the characters by which they are distin
guished from each other.
4. Definition of Plants. — Plants are beings organized for
living; but they are not endowed, like animals, with the faculties
of sensation and of performing voluntary motion.
5. Like animals, these beings are readily distinguished from
inorganic bodies by their mode of structure, by their nutritive
function, through the means of which their substance is renewed
and-augmented, by their origin, and by the limited duration of
their existence.
6. They differ from animals not only in being destitute of the
functions of relation, but also in many other respects. Almost
all vegetables live fixed in the soil ; they absorb, from without,
nutritive matters which they assimilate, without previously di«
1. What is Botany?
2. How is the science of Botany divided ?
3. What is to be learned by studying- Botany ?
4. What are plants ?
5. How are plants distinguished from inorganic bodies ?
6. How do plants differ from animals ?
(9?
10 SENSIBILITY OF PLANTS.
testing them, and they have nothing which resembles a stomach ;
by the act of respiration, they possess themselves of the carbonic
acid of the air, and exhale the oxygen.
7. We have said that vegetables are destitute of the faculty of
sensation, and the faculty of performing voluntary motion : this
is very evident in an immense majority of instances ; but
there are some plants which, at first sight, seem to form an ex-
ception to this rule. For example, the branches and leaves cf
all plants are directed to that side from which they receive the}
light and air. Certain plants on the approach of night, or the
morning dawn, close their leaves or flowers : and there are some
that contract themselves in this manner when they are toucheu
by any foreign body. The small shrub called the Sensitive
Plant exhibits this phenomenon in a very remarkable manner :
and a plant of certain
Carolina marshes, Venus's
Fly-trap, — Dionwa mus-
cipula (Jig. 1) — performs
these motions most singu-
larly ; the leaves, which
are formed of two lobes,
are so irritable that they
close on the slightest touch ;
when an insect alights
upon the internal face of
one of them, the two lobes
immediately approximate
each other, and the ani-
mal, caught upon the
thorns with which these
lobes are armed, dies in
this species of natural
snare. The Sundew, —
Drosera, — the white flow-
ers of which often deck
the pools in France, are
somewhat analogous, for
the hairs which fringe FiS- L— VENUS'S FLY-TRAP.
their broad round leaves, lie down the moment they are irritated
by the contact of a foreign body.
8. But these phenomena diffp" essentially from the voluntary
movements of animals ; there is no proof that the plants we have
7. Do plants feel ? AIM they capable of voluntary motion ?
8. Is there any positive proof that vegetables feel, or move of their own
will?
STRUCTi JRE OF PLANTS. 11
just mentioned experience sensations, nor that the motions per-
formed by them are directed by will : sometimes these move-
ments result from the action of heat or humidity upon certain
parts of their tissues, and at other times they can only be com.
par^d to the automatic movements, which are readily brought
about by means of electricity or galvanism, in animals that have
been recently killed and deprived of the functions of relation.
Of the Structure of Plants in General.
9. Although plants differ very widely from each other in their
external forms, they closely resemble each other in the materials
of which their organs are composed: if we examine the internal
structure of plants by the aid of a microscope, we find they con-
sist entirely of cellular tissue alone, or at most of cellular tissue
united to vessels.
10. Plants that are composed entirely of cellular tissue are
called cellular plants^ and those formed of cellular tissue and
vessels are named vascular plants.
Of Cellular Tissue.
11. The cellular or utricular tissue of vege-
tables consists of a multitude of vesicles (minute
cells) filled with a liquid or other substance;
sometimes these little bladders are rounded and
loosely attached to each other (f-g. 2); but in
general they are so strongly pressed against each
other that they are flattened at the points where VESICLES.
they touch, and take the form of polygons (from
the Greek, polus, many, and gone, sides, Jigs. 3
and 6, g, c) ; at the same time .their union be-
comes so intimate that it is 'difficult to separate
them, and the cells formed by their cavities seem
to be separated only by simple partitions, as cavi-
ties would be if hollowed out of a continuous or
solid mass, like the cells of a honey-comb, for example.
Explanation of Fig. 2. — Utricula or cells of the cellular tissue, which
have preserved their primitive form, magnified.
Explanation of Fig. 3. — The same cells which have become poly'gonal
in consequence of pressing against each other.
9. Do plants differ from each other in their internal structure as much ai
they do in their external form ?
10. What are cellular plants ? What are vascular plants?
11. Of what does the cellular tissue of plants consist? Are all cell? of
the same form ?
CELLS— VESSELS.
Fig. 4.
VESICLES.
12. The form of these cells varies very much :
sometimes they are spherical or octa'gonal, at other
times flat or very much elongated, and tapered at
their extremities like spindles (jig- 4) ; in the latter
case they are often designated under the name of
clostres. Their surface frequently presents rays or
points which resemble pores, but in reality these vesi-
cles are completely closed, and are without openings
or orifices ; their parietes are naturally transparent,
and almost colourless; but ordinarily these cells con-
tain granules which are deposited on their internal
surface, and, when these corpuscles (little bodies) are green,
brown, red, &c., their parietes appear to be coloured in the same
manner. The colour of different parts of plants depends upon
this circumstance.
13. The cellules (little cells) of the cellular tissue often have
between them empty spaces of more or less extent, called inter-
cellular mca'tus, or inter-cellular pores, or passages : these
cavities, which are of irregular form, are very important, as we
shall see in the sequel.
Of Vessels.
14. The vessels of plants are generally cylindrical
tubes, which sometimes resemble excessively elon-
gated cells (Jig. 5). They differ very much in their
structure, and they are divided into tracheas, false tra-
chese, punctuated or dotted vessels, moniliform vessels,
reticular vessels, mixed vessels and proper vessels.
15. Trachea. We give the name of trachese to
tubes, which closely resemble the
tracheae of insects, for, like them,
•they are formed of a thread
spirally folded (fig. 6). This thread, which
is silvery white, is very elastic and easily
unrolled ; and if we carefully break a leaf
of a rose tree, or dog- wood, for example, we
Fig. 5.
VESSEL.
a b cd e f g
Fig. 6. TRACHEA.
Explanation af Fig 4. — Clostres or fusiform cells of wood, magnified.
Explanation of Fig. 5. — A punctuated or dotted vessel, magnified.
Explanation of Fig. 6. — Vertical section of a stem, showing the cellular
tissue of which the epidermis is composed (a) ; the cellular tissue of the
bark (&) ; the clostres of the fibre of the wood (c) ; a punctuated vessel (d) J
n rayed vessel (e) ; a tracheae (/) ; and soft cellular tissue (g).
12. What are clostres?
13. What are inter-cellular passages ?
14. How are the vessels of plants divided?
15. What are tra'cheae ? (Tracheae, the plural of trachea, — pronounced
tra'-ke-ah — wind-pipe.)
VESSELS.
find the two fragments united to each other by filaments, similar
to spider's web, which are, in fact, the unrolled tracheue.
Sometimes, instead of "being formed of a single spiral thread,
these vessels are composed of two or three parallel threads rolled
together. Their length is, in general, very considerable, and it
seems that they terminate in a point at each extremity ; they do
not branch or ramify like blood-vessels in animals, and ordinarily
they are united in bundles.
36. The false trachea, which are also called annular, or
radiated vessels, are unramified tubes, marked by transverse
parallel rays (fig. 6, e). When the rays are very close toge-
ther, these vessels resemble tracheae very much, but they are
not elastic and cannot be unrolled.
17. The punctuated or dotted vessels (fg. 5) are cylindrical
tubes like the preceding, but their parietes are dotted with
small opaque points arranged in parallel or oblique series.
They were formerly called porous vessels, because it was be-
lieved that these dots were holes, but we are now assured that
they are not pores.
18. The reticular vessels are cylindrical tubes, the surface of
which being covered by oblong transverse spots, gives them the
appearance of a net.
19. The mixed vessels are tubes which at different points in
their length seem to possess alternately the characters of the three
kinds of vessels we have just mentioned.
20. The moni'liform, or bead-like vessels, are
j punctuated tubes
which ramify, and
are contracted or
strangulated at dif-
ferent points (fig- 7).
Many botanists sup-
pose they consist of
series of cells at-
tached to each other,
end to end.
Fig. 8.— VESSELS. 21. The proper vessels (fig* 8,
Explanation of Fig. 7. — Moni'liform (bead-like) vessels, magnified.
Explanation of Fig. 8. — Vertical section of a stem, showing cellular
tissue with elongated cells (a) ; and the reservoirs of the peculiar or proper
juices (/», b).
16. What are false tra'chese ?
17. What are punctuated or dotted vessels?
18. What are reticular vessels ? (Reticular ; from the Latin, rctc, a net.)
19. What are mixed vessels ?
20. What is meant by rnoniliform vessels ? (Moni'liform, from the
Latin, monile, a necklace, a string of beads, and /or/no, form.)
21. What are proper vessels?
..-.a
Fig. 7.
14 FIBRES.— EPIDERMIS.
b) are cavities which are sometimes in the form of short blunt
tubes, and sometimes they are elongated very much ; they en-
close the particular juices of the various species of plants.
22. Finally, the vessels of the latex are ramified canals,
which may be considered as a sort of proper vessels ; according
to some botanists, they are lined by a proper membrane, but ac-
cording to other observers, they have no lateral parietes, and are
merely inter-cellular passages or meatus. (Latex is a Latin
word, signifying a peculiar fluid, which is usually turbid, and
coloured red, white or yellow; often, however, colourless.)
Of the Compound Constituent Parts of Organs.
23. The elementary parts of plants we have just mentioned
constitute, either alone or by their union, the tissues and the dif-
ferent organs which, in their turn, concur in the formation of the
various apparatuses constituting the body of these beings. Such
are the fibres, the epidermis, the hairs, the glands, &c.
24. Fibres. — The fibres which are often found in the different
parts of plants, but chiefly in the stems, are not composed of a
peculiar tissue, but are formed of vessels united in bundles, inter-
mingled with clostres or elongated cells. Among these vessels,
we sometimes find tra'chese, but most of them are punctuated
vessels. The filaments thus formed are arranged parallel to each
other, and joined together by a more or less loose cellular tissue ;
it is therefore much easier td separate them lengthwise than
transversely.
25. Epidermis (from the Greek epi, upon, and derma, skin).
The epidermis or cuticle fl....
is a thin membrane which
covers the external surface
of plants; it is especially
distinct in the young
stems, the leaves and
roots ; it is composed of '• '' '
cellular tissue, the cells of
which adhere more strong- **• 9.-vERT,cAL SECTION OF A LEAF.
ly to each other than to the subjacent parts, and for this reason
Explanation of Fig. 9. — Vertical section of a leaf magnified ;— a. the
epidermis of the upper surface ;— 6. the paren'chyma formed of cellular
tissue, in which we observe inter-cellular passages or mea'tus ; — c, c. epi
dermis of the lower surface ;— rf, d, d. the stoniata cut transversely.
22. What are the latex vessels ?
23. What elementary parts constitute the tissue of plants ?
24. What aro fibres ?
'J£ What is meant by epidermis ? What are sto'mata ? Whore are
they found ?
HAIKS.— SCURF.
— HORIZONTAL SECTION OF A LKA*.
it is, in general, easily raised up (fig. 9, a and c) : we often re-
mar* in it little openings called sto'mata (from the Greek, stoma,
mouth), which are not visible without the assistance of a ma^ni-
fying-glass (fig. 10, b) ; the a
edges of these pores are
formed by two oval or glo-
bular cells filled with green
globules, and their opening
corresponds with the inter-
cellular vacuities or lacuna?
(fig. 9, 6), the uses of which
appear to be very important
in the respiration of plants.
No sto'mata are found upon
the roots; many cellular
plants, such as mushrooms lg'
and mosses, are altogether without them, and they are also want-
ing in certain plants that live in water.
26. The hairs of plants are external appendages formed of
elongated and projecting cellules ; sometimes they are simple,
that is, composed of a single cell ; sometimes they are partitioned,
that is, formed of several cells arranged in a row, end to end, and
at other times they are more or less branching ; sometimes they
lie upon glands, and serve as an excretory canal to the caustic
juices secreted by these organs.
Hairs vary extremely in length, density, rigidity, and other particulars ;
on this account they have received the following names :
Down, or pubesce nc?,when they form a short soft layer, which only par-
tially covers the cuticle or epidermis.
Hairiness (hirsutus}, when they are rather longer and more rigid.
Pilosity (pilosus\ when they are long, soft, and erect.
Villosity (villosus}, when they are very long, very soft, erect, and straight
Crini (crinitus) are this variety in excess.
Velvet (velutinus), when they are short, very dense and soft, but rather
rigid, and forming a surface like velvet.
CHite, — eye-lashes (ciliatus), — when long, and fbiming a fringe to the
margin, like an eye-lash.
Bristles (seta — setosus}, when short and stiff.
Stinsrs (stimuli — stimulans\ when stiff and pungent, giving out an acrid
juice if touched, as in the nettle.
Glandular hairs (pili capitati\ when they are tipped with a glandulai
exudation.
Hooks (hami, unci, roslella\ when curved back at the point.
Barbs (glochis—glochidatus\ if forked at the apex, both divisions of the
fork being hooked.
Explanation of Fig. 10. — Horizontal section of a leaf, magnified : — a. epi.
dermis;— b. stomata; — c. cellular tissue of the paren'chyma.
26. What are hairs ? Mention some of their varieties.
16 FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION.
27. SCURF consists of thin flat membranous disks, with t
ragged margin, formed of cellular tissue springing from the
epidermis. It may be considered as a modification of hairs; for
it differs from those bodies only in being more compound.
28. Prickles are conical hairs of large size, sharp pointed, and
having their tissue very hard. They differ from thorns in being
fixed to the bark ; the thorn is fixed to the wood.
29. Glands. We give the name of glands to those organs
which are destined for the secretion of particular liquids : they
are found in almost all parts of plants; they are small cavities,
sometimes formed of cellular tissue only, and sometimes of very
little cells mingled with a great number of vessels ; in other
respects, they do not appear to differ essentially from the tubiform
reservoirs we have already mentioned under the name of proper
vessels.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF VE-
GETABLES.
30. The functions of vegetable are referred to two classes.
One belongs to the individual life of the vegetable, that is, the
functions which effect its nutrition : the other refers to its multi-
plication or the preservation of the species.
31. The parts of plants that serve the functions of nutrition,
are the roots, the stem, and the leaves.
32. The parts which are especially designed to secure the mul-
tiplication of plants are the organs of fructification ; namely, the
flowers and fruits.
LESSON II.
FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION. — Absorption and Ascent of Sap —
Roots, their Structure and Forms — Stem, its Divisions,
Varieties, <fyc. — Structure of the Stem in Ex'ogens — Medul-
lary Canal — Pith — Medullary Sheath — Wood — Medullary
Rays — Bark — Epidermis— Cork — Structure of the Steni in
En'dogens.
FUNCTIONS OF NUTRITION.
1. The phenomena of the life of nutrition in plants are referred
to five distinct functions ; namely,
27. What is scurf?
28. Wnat are prickles? How do they differ from thorns?
29. What are glands ?
30. How many kinds of functions do plants possess ?
31. What parts serve the function of nutrition ?
32. What parts serve the function of multiplication, or reproduction of
plants?
1. What are tne several functionb of the life of nutrition?
ROOTS. 17
1st. The absorption of nutritive matter:
2d. The transportation of the nutritive liquid or sap to the
organs of respiration.
3d. The process of respiration and elaboration (or prepa-
ration) of the nutritive juices in the interior of the respiratory
organs.
4th. The transportation of the sap thus elaborated to different
parts of the plant, and the deposition or assimilation of its ele-
ments in its various parts.
5th. The secretion of peculiar juices effected by special
organs.
2. The roots of plants absorb the nutritive matter necessary
for the maintenance of vegetable life, and the liquids, thus in-
troduced into the body of the vegetable, constitute what is called
the ascending sap. This sap rises through the stem by means
of particular canals, and in this manner reaches the leaves and
other gr^en parts of plants; there it is modified by the effects of
transpiration and of respiration, and after having been thus pre-
pared, the sap descends, following a new route, and is distributed
to those parts for the growth of which it is destined.
We will study successively these phenomena, and the organs
which are the seat of them, both in vascular and cellular plants.
OF TIJE ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF SAP.
3. The absorption of nutritive matters is principally effected by
the extremity of the roots, and by passing through these organs
and mounting along the stem, they reach the leaves, in the sub-
stance of which the alimentary juice is rendered fit for the nutri-
tion of the plant. These two phenomena, the absorption and
ascent of the sap,' are very intimately united ; and in order to un-
derstand them, we must, in the first place, study the structure of
the two portions of the plant which are the seat of them, namely,
the roots and stem.
OF THE ROOT OR DESCENDING AXIS (RADIX).
4. We give the name of root to that inferior portion of plant
which serves to fix them in the soil, and which, by its growth,
increases in length in an opposite direction to the stem.
5. With the exception of some plants that live under water, or
float upon its surface, all vegetables are provided with roots,
2. What is ascending sap ? What becomes of this ascending sap ?
3. Through what part of a plant is matter chiefly conveyed for its nour-
ishment.
4. What is meant by the root of the plant?
5. Are all plants provided with roots ? Where are the roots usually
found ? What are adventitious roots ?
11*
18 STRUCTURE OF ROOTS.
and these organs are almost always buried in the earth. Some-
limes the roots float freely in the water, and there are some
plants that insinuate them into cracks in walls, or in crevices
of the stem of some other plant, as the mosses, for example.
There are certain plants, the roots of which arise at a considera-
ble distance above the surface of the soil, and have only their ex-
tremity buried in the earth, so that the greater part of their length
remains exposed to the air. To such roots we give the name of
aerial or adventitiovs roots; the maize or Indian corn and many
other American plants have them.
6. We see now that it is not a constant character of roots to
be covered up in the earth ; and, on the other hand, we should be
equally deceived if we were to regard as roots all parts of plants
that are buried in the soil ; for it sometimes happens that the
stem, instead of rising up through the air, creeps horizontally
under ground ; but the structure of the two parts is different, and
prevents them from being confounded with each other. The tissue
of roots is whitish, and never becomes green by exposure to the
action of light, which occur to all other parts of plants. [Those
stems which creep along under the ground, are called root-stalks,
or subterranean, or rhizome (from the Greek ridsa, root) stems ;
the stems of the orris root, ginger, and potato, upon which grow
the tubers we eat, are instances of this kind.]
7. The root, considered as a whole, generally consists of
three distinct parts: First, the body or middle part, which is
sometimes globular, and, at others, similar in form to a descend-
ing stem ; Second, the radicles, the more or less delicate fibres
which terminate the root at its lower part ; and, third, the neck
or collum, the point that separates it from the stem, and which is
often marked by being smaller.
8. The internal structure of roots varies ; in general, it is di-
vided into the cortical part, or bark of the root, and central or
ligneous part.
9. The bark of the root, which is often very thick, is entirely
composed of cells ; its epidermis is always without sto'mata.
10. The ligneous body of the root is not ordinarily composed
of distinct fibres, and we do not find tracheae in it as in the stalk
or stem of vascular plants ; nor has it pith in the centre.
6. Are roots always under ground ? Does the stem ever grow under
ground ? How is a root distinguished from a stem that grows under
ground ? How is the tissue of roots characterized ? How are those sterna
which grow under the soil designated ?
7. How is the root divided ?
8. How is the internal structure of roots divided ?
9. What is the structure of the bark of the root?
lu. What is the ligneous body of the root '(
DIVISION OF ROOTS.
] 1. The extremities of the radicles are unprovided with epi
dmnis, and are composed only of rounded cellular tissue; these
parts are called spongioles (little sponges), and, as we shall pre-
sently see, play a very important part in absorption.
12. The general form of roots varies much, and gives rise to-
numerous distinctions, the chief of which are the following:
DIVISION OF ROOTS.
Roots are primarily divided into Simple and Compound or Multiplt
Roots.
SIMPLE ROOTS have a single base continuous with the stem ; they are
called
Tap-roots, when they descend perpendicularly, and have almost the whole
of their spongioles united at their extremity. These are
Fusiform, when they are shaped like carrots, and
Napifotm, Tuberous, &c , when they are swelled and rounded like turnips.
Fibrous, when they are very branching and ordinarily furnished with
numerous spongioles. These are
Knotted, when they present swellings along- the course of their fibres, and
Creeping, or Repent, when they run along near the surface of the soil.
The second priinarv division of roots is
The COMPOUND ROOTS : they arise in great numbers from the neck of the
plant. They are said to be
Branching, or Capillary, when each fibre, which is distinct at its origin,
gives off branches in abundance ;
Knotted, when the fibres have swellings or knots in their course ; and
Fusiform, or Fasciculate, when they are formed by the union of a great
many more or less elongated tubercles.
13. We may add that roots are said to be Jleshyt when they
are more succulent (juicy) and larger than the base of the stem,
and ligneous, when their tissue resembles wood. They frequently
present swellings or tubers, which are always masses of nutritive
matter destined to supply the wants of the plant at a certain
period.
14. Finally, we give the name of adventitious roots to those
which, in certain instances, arise from the stem, but are in other
respects analogous to ordinary roots. (See pages 63 and 64.)
OF THE STEM (CAULIS).
15. We give the name of STEM (Cavlis, Stalk) to that part
of plants which is intermediate between the roots and the leaves.
11. What are spongioles ?
12. What is a simple root? What is a tap-root? What is a fusirbrm
root? What is a napiform root? What is a fibrous root? What is a
knotted root ? When is a root said to be creeping ? What is a compound
root ? What is a capillary root ?
13. What is meant by a fleshy root ? What is meant by a ligneous root?
What is the use of those swellings or tubers found on certain roots '
14. What are adventitious roots?
15. What do you mean by stem ?
20 STEMS.
16. The stem grows in an opposite direction to the root, and
seeks the air and light; in general, it rises vertically above .he
sul, and serves to support the leaves, flowers, and fruit.
17. Generally this part of a vegetable is very apparent and-
easily recognised ; sometimes it is simple, at others branching,
and when it is simple below, and branching in its superior part,
the first part is called the trunk, and to the second we give the
name of branches.
18. All vascular plants are provided with a stem, but some-
times it is so short and so enveloped in leaves, or so completely
hidden in the ground, that it seems not to exist ; vegetables thus
formed, are named a'cavlous plants (from the Greek, a, without,
and kavlos, stem or stalk) ; but this absence of the stem is only in
appearance.
19. Thus, in tulip and other bulbs, there exists
amidst the leaves in form of scales, of which the
greater part of these bodies is composed, a
tissue which separates these appendages from
the roots, and which constitutes a true stem
(fg. 11); only, instead of being elongated and ,
cylindrical, as is ordinarily the case, it is gene- °'
rally globular and flattened above, an arrange-
ment which has procured for it the name of i
cor my s or plateau. *»» 11.- BULB.
20. Subterraneous or rhizome stems have the appearance of
roots, but are distinguished from them by their structure and
several other characters ; their tissue becomes green by the ac-
tion of light, which is never the case in true roots, and, under the
influence of moisture, branches spring up covered with leaves,
but radicles never grow from them. Sometimes these subterra-
neous stems bear, here and there, irregular tubercles.
21. The stem of a plant assumes numerous and very different
appearances in different plants.
Explanation of Fig. 11.— A bulb or onion, showing- the roots (cr) ;— the
cormus, or plateau, or representative of the stem (/>) ; — and the leaves or
scales (c) ; Cormus (from the Greek kormos, a stem), a rhizome, or subter-
raneous stem.
1 6. In what direction does the stem grow ? What is the use of the
stem?
1 7. What is meant by trunk and by branches ?
18. Are all plants provided with a stem?
19 What is a cormus ?
20. How are subterraneous stems distinguished from roots ? What is
•he effect of light on the colour of plants ?
21. Is the form of the stem in all parts the same ? What are the forms 7
What is a scape 1
STEMS. 21
If above ground, it is root-shape'd, or knotted ; ascending ;
creeping ; articulated ; leafless, succulent, and deformed ; or
leafy.
If it bears the flower s> proceeding immediately from the soil or
near it, it is a scape.
22. The stem, in most plants, rises vertically in the air, out
sometimes it wants strength to sustain itself, and rests drooping
on the surface of the ground, to which it often attaches itself by
roots (stems of this kind are named repent or creeping), or they
sustain themselves upon some other more robust plant, as is seen
in the climbing plants, &c. It is observed that the latter often
wind themselves spirally round whatever supports them; they are
then called twining or voluble ; and it is worthy of note, that the
direction according to which different individuals of the same
species wind themselves, never varies; in some, such as the
haricot or bean, and bind-weed, it is from right to left; in others,
such as the honeysuckle and hop, it is constantly from left to
right.
23. While young, stems are always of a soft consistence and
similar to grass; they often remain in this state, and live but a
year; they are then called herbaceous stems. In other instances
they acquire more or less hardness, their interior is transformed
into wood, and they live out of the ground many years : in this
case they are called ligneous stems.
24. When the stem, although it be persistent, remains watery
and more or less soft, it takes the name of fleshy stem.
25. We generally apply the name of shrub to those plants
with a ligneous stem which branch at their base, and do not
much exceed a man in height, such as the rose or lilac ; and we
give the name of tree to those with a ligneous (woody) stem that
branch only at the superior part, and rise to a considerable
height. The branches are only divisions of the trunk which di-
verge more or less from it, and are again subdivided in their turn ;
upon their arrangement depends the general form of the plant ;
sometimes they stand up, which gives the tree a pyramidal form ;
sometimes they are spread out, and at others they are pendent or
hanging.
26. Stems of certain plants present at intervals knots or enlarge-
22. What is meant by a creeping stem ? What is meant by twining or
voluble stems ? What is especially remarkable in these stems?
23. What is an herbaceous stem ? What is a ligneous stem ?
24. What is a fleshy stem ?
2.5. What is a shrub? How does a tree differ from a shrub?
What is a culm ?
THE'
y
22
STEMS.
Fig. 12. — DATE PALM.
ments, produced by an indura-
tion and a swelling of their
tissue ; when they are also
hollow internally, they are
designated under the name of
culm or straw. The stems of
wheat, barley, and oats are of
this kind.
27. We give the name of
stipe to stems which resemble a
round column, as large above
as below, and crowned with a
cluster ofleaves or flowers, like
the stems of palms (Jig- 12).
28. The stem of all vascular
plants is composed of fibres ar-
ranged in bundles (fasciculi),
or layers, and variously sur-
rounded by cellular tissue;
but we observe very great dif-
ferences in their structure ;
and these variations, which
coincide with differences not
less important in their mode
of growth, have caused vas-
cular plants to be divided into
two groups ; namely, EX'OGENS
and EN'DOGENS.*
* EX'OGENS (Ex'ogenous plants). From the Greek, ex, from, and geinomai,
> grow. A term applied to those plants, a transverse slice of whose stem
exhibits a central cellular substance or pith, an external cellular and fibrous
ring or bark, and an intermediate woody mass, and certain fine lines radiat-
ing from the pith to the bark through the wood, and called medullary rays.
They are called EX'OGENS, because they add to their wood by successive
external additions ; and are the same as what are otherwise called dicoty'-
ledons. They constitute one of the primary classes into which the vegetable
world is divided, characterized by their leaves being reticulated ; by their
stems baling a distinct deposition of bark, wood, and pith; by their em.
bryo huving two coty'ledons ; and by their flowers being usually formed on
a quinary type.
EN'DOGENS (Endogenous plants). From the Greek, endon, within, and
geinomai, I grow. One of the primary classes of plants, so called because
their stems grow by successive additions to the inside. They are usually
27.' What is a stipe ?
28. What is the nature of the stem in vascular plants ? How are vascu-
lar plants divided ?
STEMS OF EXOGENS. 23
29. The CLASS OF EX'OGENS comprises all the trees and
shrubs of our forests, and is composed of vascular plants, the
stem of which has a medullary canal in the centre, and grows by
super-posed layers (Jig. 13).
30. The CLASS OF EN'DOGENS comprises those plants in which
the stem has neither a central canal nor concentric layers (Jig.
14). The palms belong to this division.
Structure of the Stems of Exogenous Plants.
31. In the stems of these plants we distinguish two principal
parts : the bark, and the central, or ligneous part, which might
be called the body of the stem. Each one of these portions is in
turn composed of several different parts ; the central portion of
the stem is formed by a central pith, by ligneous layers, and by
medullary rays; the bark, or cortical portion, is composed of the
epidermis of a cellular envelope, and of a fibrous part named
liber, or cortical layers. (Liber, Latin, bark, is the interior
lining of the bark of ex'ogenous plants.)
32. If we cut through an elder, or any other ex'ogenous tree,
transversely, we observe in the centre a canal, which is ordi-
narily angular, or very nearly cylindrical, and which, in the
young branches, if not in the whole plant, is filled with a round
cellular tissue (Jig. 13, a); this cavity is called the medullary
canal, and the cellular tissue found in it is named the pith of the
plant.
33. This central pith is of a soft consistence, and of a very
homoge'neous* structure ; while young it is always humid, and
of a light greenish tint; but with the progress of age, the cells
of which it is composed become empty, dry, and assume a re-
markable whiteness; sometimes it is torn by the effect of the
elongation of the stem, and separates in laminae or bundles, as
may be easily seen in branches of jasmine that have attained one
year old.
known by the veins of their leaves running1 parallel with each other, with-
out branching or dividing. Grasses, lilies, the asparagus, and similar
plants belong to this class, which in warm countries contains trees of largo
size, such as palms and screw pines.
* Homoge'neous. From the Greek, omou, together, and genas, kind.
Of the same kind. Bodies whose constituent elements are of one and the
same kind, are said to be homoge'neous.
29. What is the general character of those plants which constitute the
class of Ex'ogens ?
30. What kind of plants does the class of En'dogens comprise ?
31. How is the stem of ex'ogenous plants divided ? What is the centra]
portion ? What is bark ?
32. What is the medullary canal of plants ? What is meant by pith 7
33 What is the character of pith ?
24
PITH.— WOOD.
34. In herbaceous plants, and in ligneous plants of very
rapid growth (such as the elder), the space occupied by the pith
is very considerable; but in trees, the wood of which is very
hard, such as the oak, the medullary canal or sheath is generally
very small.
35. The parietes of the canal, containing the central pith,
called the medullary sheath, are formed of longitudinal fibres,
ordinarily arranged in a circle, and of a layer composed of tra-
cheae, false trachea?, and porous vessels. It is the only part of
the stem in which true trachese have been observed.
36. Between the medullary canal and the bark, is the ligneous
body, or wood, which is composed of concentric layers, the
number of which is more or less considerable, according to the
c b a
Fig. 13. — TRANSVERSE SECTION OF AN EX'oGENOUS STEM.
age of the plant (fg. 13, b, c) ; each of these layers is com
posed of longitudinal fibres, united to the subjacent layer by eel
lular tissue. These fibres are formed nearly in the same mannei
as those of the medullary sheath, except that no trachea are
found in them ; they are composed only of clostres or elongated
cells, or dotted or rayed vessels.
87. The ligneous body constitutes what is generally termed
irood / its central portion is harder than its external part, and is
Explanation of Fig. 13. — Transverse section of an ex'ogenous stem:--
a. the pith ; — b. layers of the heart of the wood ; — c. layers of the albur'num
or sap-wood ; — d. the bark.
34. How does the pith vary in quantity in different plants ?
35. What is meant by medullary sheath ? What is remarkable in itg
structure ?
36. What is meant by the ligneous body ? How is it formed ? -
37. What is wood ? What is meant by true wood ? What is meant by
Albur'num ? In what respect does true differ from sap wood ?
BARK. 25
»rdinarily of a different colour : it is this part which is commonly
called the heart of the wood, and which botanists designate under
the name of true-wood, heart-wood, or duramen* while they give
the name of albur'mim or sap-wood to the external ligneous
layers, the solidity of which is less, and the colour whiter ($£•
13, c). In other respects the structure of these parts is the same,
only the ligneous fibres of the true or perfect wood are filled with
solid matters deposited in their interior, while the proportion of
liquids is more considerable in the sap-wood or alburnum. In
trees of slow growth the line of demarcation is very distinct be-
tween the heart and sap-wood, and in the coloured woods, such
as ebony, mahogany, &c., it is the heart only that possesses their
peculiar colour, the sap-wood being usually white. In trees of
very rapid growth, such as the poplar, willow, &c., there is, on
the contrary, but little difference between these two ligneous lay-
ers. As we shall see in the sequel, the albur'num is gradually
converted into perfect wood, and it is by the formation of new
ligneous layers between those already formed and the bark, that
the stem increases in thickness.
38. The medullary rays are the divergent lines which run
from the centre of the stem towards its circumference ; they
are composed of vertical laminae of compressed cellular tissue,
and are very analogous to the pith, from which they seem to
arise. These rays come in part from the external ligneous
layers, and terminate in the bark, thus establishing a communi-
cation between the superficial and central parts of the stem.
39. The bark is composed first of a layer of cellular tissue,
which constitutes the epidermis, and of a deeper layer formed
of clostres grouped together so as to form fibres, but without
being united with tracheae; in the progress of age, new alter-
nating zones of cellular tissue and fibres, are formed beneath the
preceding, and there results from it a series of super-posed lay-
ers, which resemble those of the wood, but differ from them es
sentially in their mode of growth ; we have observed that the
latter are formed successively one on top of the other ; in the*
bark, on the contrary, growth takes place from without inwards.
40. We give the name of liber to the inner layers of the bark
because they are easily detached in thin plates or laminae, and
because the ancients made use of it, as we do paper, to write upon.*
* Some of our young readers may remember the Latin word, liber, and
its several versions, given as follows :
" Liber, book ; liber, tree ;
Liber, child, and liber, free."
38. What are medullary rays ?
39. How is bark formed ? In what respect does bark differ in its m*n-
ner of growth from wood ?
40 What part is called liber? 12
rORK.— STEMS OF ENDOGENS.
41. The external layer of cellular tissue constitutes the epi-
dermis, and is what botanists term the herbaceous envelope
of the bark. In the course of the growth of the subjacent parts,
it soon becomes strongly compressed, and at a certain epoch, we
see it crack and tear in flexible laminae, or detach itself in scales
or patches ; the neighbouring cortical layers undergo the same al-
terations, and when the part of the bark thus modified has been
raised up, the laminse of cellular tissue thus exposed becomes for
a brief period a kind of epidermis, until it is itself in turn detached.
For this reason the thickness of the bark is never very considera-
ble, and its surface is continually renewed. In some plants the
herbaceous layer becomes very much developed, and the portion
of bark that is thus separated is of sufficient consistence and thick-
ness to be very useful to us in the arts. Cork, for example, is
only the superficial part of the bark of a particular species of oak,
— quercus robur, — which detaches itself from the liver every
eight or nine years, and it may be removed more frequently with-
out any danger of destroying the tree.
42. Bark often contains, in its interior, cavities which are
reservoirs of proper juices, and, in particular, those called the
vessels of the latex.
Structure of the Stem of Endogenous Plants.
43. The stem of these plants,
that of a palm, for example
(Jig. 14), is formed of a consi-
derable mass of cellular tissue,
analogous to pith, through which
penetrate bundles of fibres in
various ways, but never forming
concentric layers, as in the ex'o-
genous plants. Each of these
fibres is composed of elongated
cellules, of large dotted vessels,
of tracheae, of proper vessels, and
of polyhedral cells; they are
closer together near the centre
of the stem than towards its cir-
cumference, and their superior
extremity is abruptly curved out-
wards to be continued into the
a b
14. SECTION OF AN ENDOGEN.
Explanation of Fig. 14. — Section of the stem of an endogenous plant,
l a palm);— a. cellular tissue ;— b. fibres; — c. external pellicle.
41. What is epidermis ? How is it formed ? What is cork ?
42. What does bark contain ?
43. What is the structure of the stem in endogenous plants ?
ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF SAP. 27
leaves (<:•). It is to be remarked also, that in general there is no
distinct bark, and that the external pellicle never grows in layers,
as is the case in the Ex'ogens.
CELLULAR PLANTS never present parts that are really analo-
gous to the organs we have just spoken of, and to which we shall
again recur.
LESSON III.
MECHANISM OF THE ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF THE SAP.
— Ascending Sap — Exhalation — Respiration — Leaves —
Parts of Leaves ; their Structure, Shape, and Position —
Stipules — Tendrils — Examples of the Forms of Simple and
Compound Leaves — Exhalation — Respiration — Distribution
of the Nutritive Juices — Descending Sap — Secretions — Ex-
cretions— Succession of Crops — Proper Juices — Lignin —
Fecula — Growth of Plants — Grafting — Effects of the Sea>
sons on the Nutrition of Plants — The Age of Plants.
MECHANISM OF THE ABSORPTION AND ASCENT OF THE
SAP.
1. It is by the process of absorption that plants derive from
the soil in which they are fixed, the nutritive matters necessary
for their growth and the maintenance of their existence.
2. The nutritive matters, to be pumped up in this manner,
must necessarily be in a fluid state ; in the solid form they could
not be absorbed ; and it is, in fact, water holding various sub-
stances in solution, that thus penetrates the plant and serves for
its nourishment.
3. It is chiefly, and sometimes exclusively, by the extremity
of the roots that this operation is effected. The epidermis,
which covers almost the whole plant, in general offers obstacles
to the passage of these liquids; but the spongioles, as we have
already seen, are unprovided with this envelope, and constitute
a cellular tissue which gives a ready passage to water ; for this
reason we must consider these spongioles as the chief organs of
absorption.
4. Some plants also absorb by the leaves; and when the
1. By what process do plants derive nourishment from the soil in which
they grow ?
2. In what state or condition must the food of plants be before it can
nourish them ?
3. What are the chief organs of absorption ? How is this operation
effected ?
4. Is absorption carried on by the roots alone 7
28 ASCENDING SAP.
stem of a plant is cut across, its internal tissue being thus laid
bare, also pumps up water in which it may be placed ; but in the
ordinary state of a plant, these cases are exceptions, and the ab-
sorption of liquids is carried on in the most active manner by the
spongioles.
5. It has been remarked that water, rendered thick and viscid
by the presence of foreign substances, was absorbed very slowly
and with difficulty, but when its fluidity is not diminished by
matters that it holds in solution, it penetrates vegetables just
as if it were pure. Now, the water which reaches the roots
of plants always holds in solution a greater or less quantity
of air, earthy salts, and organic matter ; and consequently it
introduces these substances into the interior of the plant, which
is either benefited or injured according as they are proper for
its nutrition, or as they exert an injurious influence upon its
organs.
6. The liquids thus absorbed by the roots constitute the as-
cending sap, which rises through the stem to reach the leaves.
7. The ascent of the sap is always effected through the ligneous
body ; and it is remarked that it takes place more actively through
the albur'num than through the perfect wood.
8. It is not known with certainty by what way the absorbed
liquids rise up in this manner; many botanists think that it is
only by the intercellular passages ; others believe- that it is by
the vessels ; and in fact, if we place the roots of a plant in
coloured water, we are not long in perceiving that the vessels
of the stem assume the same colour, which seems to indicate that
it is through these tubes that the liquids mount up towards the
leaves. Nevertheless, under ordinary circumstances, we find
these vessels empty, or at least filled with air, and it Would seem
that it is chiefly through their interior that the air, absorbed by
the roots, ris^s in the stem of the plant.
9. The rapidity and force with which the ascent of sap takes
place, are sometimes extremely great. In the experiments made
upon this subject, it has been shown that a branch of an apple tree
cut across and surmounted by a tube, raised water contained in
the latter several feet in the space of some hours ; and what
are called vine tears, is nothing but the ascending sap, which
escapes in abundance when the plant is trimmed. In other
experiments made to ascertain the force with which the sap
5. How are earthy salts introduced into the substance of living plants ?
6. What constitutes the ascending sap ?
7. Through what part of the plant does the sap ascend ?
8. What is the manner of the ascent of the sap «
'). What is the force and rapidity of the ascent of the sap?
EXHALATION.— RESPIRATION.— LEAVES. 29
mounts in the grape vine, it was found to be sometimes so great
us to sustain the weight of a column of water, over forty feet in
height.
10. The circumstances that have most influence upon the as
cent of the sap are heat and light.
OF EXHALATION AND RESPIRATION.
11. To render it fit for the purpose of nutrition, the ascending
sap undergoes, in the interior of the plant, considerable changes ;
these changes are the result of two important phenomena ; name-
ly, exhalation and respiration.
12. The leaves are the chief seat of these two functions, and
must be regarded as their special organs. We will now study
their structure.
OF LEAVES.
13. The leaves of vascular plants are the lateral appendages
of the stem, formed of more or less distinct fibres and cellular
tissue, enclosing, in its interior, a great deal of green colouring
matter.
14. The fibres of the leaf are the continuation of those of the
stem, but ordinarily they contain more tracheae ; in general,
they form at first a cylindrical fasciculus (bundle), caniculated
(that is, hollowed in a gutter on the opposite side), or laterally
compressed, which is named petiole, or leaf-stalk ; then they
expand and join again to form the flat part called the blade or
limb of the leaf. When the fibres separate immediately on
springing from the stem, the leaf has no pedicle or petiole, and
is then said to be sessile (from the Latin, sedeo, I sit). 1 he
petiole of dicotyle'donous* plants is separated from the stem
by an articulation or joint, that is, a line at which its tissue offers
but little resistance, the cells and vessels of which it is composed
being placed end to end, instead of being mingled as usual ; it is
on account of this arrangement that the leaves fall when they
fade, while those of which the limb or blade arises directly from
the stem are destroyed only little by little, and remain adherent
at their base. The first are called caducous, or articulate leaves,
* DICOTYLE'DONOUS. (From the Greek, dis, double, and kotuledon, a seed
eaf.) Having a double seed-leaf or seed-lobe.
10. What circumstances most influence the ascent of the sap?
1.1. Does the ascending sap undergo any change in the interior of
plants ?
12. In what part of plants do exhalation and respiration take place?
13. What are leaves ?
14. How are leaves formed ? What is the petiole ? What is the limb of
& leaf? When is a leaf said to be sessile? What are caducous or articu-
late leaves ? What are persistent leaves ?
12*
30
STRUCTURE OF LEAVES.
and to the second we give the name of persistent ; the leaves of
fir trees are persistent.
15. When all parts of the leaf are equally adherent to each
other, it is named a simple leaf, whatever may be the divisions
of its blade ; for example, the leaves of the lilac, the ranunculus,
of the vine, &c. (see Jigs. 17 to 57); sometimes the same tail
or peduncle supports several petioles, each of which is articu-
lated upon this peduncle, as it itself is upon the stem, and then
this assemblage is called a compound leaf. (Examples of com-
pound leaves are seen in the sensitive plant, the leaves of the
acacia, of the chestnut, &c. See Jigs. 58 to 74.)
i , , 16. The fibres, by expanding
in the limb, constitute the nerves
; ; • of the leaf, and the cellular
tissue lodged between these
bundles of fibres, thus ramified,
constitutes the paren'chyma*
of the leaf (fig. 15).
17. The form of the leaf
depends principally upon the
disposition of the nerves ; in
general, the nerves expand on
a single plane so as to form a
plate or membrane with two
surfaces, a superior and an inferior; but they sometimes ramify
in a.ll directions, and then give rise to leaves characterized by be-
ing thick, cylindrical, triangular, or swelled, as we observe in
certain fleshy plants. The large nerves that arise immediately
from the petiole are called primary nerves (Jigs. 25 and 26);
those which arise from the latter are secondary nerves (Jig. 28) ;
we sometimes give the name of tertiary nerves (Jig. 43) to those
ramifications which spring from the secondary nerves, and we
apply the name of veins of the leaf to those terminal divisions of
the nerves which are visible to the eye, but too small to make any
projection on the surface. [The veins are merely a continuation
Fig. 15,
-SECTION OF A LEAF.
* PAREN'CHYMA (pronounced paren'-ke-ma}. From the Greek, parr.g-
cJiuein, to strain through. The spongy and cellular tissue of vegetables and
animals is so called.
Explanation of Fig. 15.— Section of a leaf showing the epidermis
(at a} ; — the paren'chyma (6, 6) ; — the dense cellular tissue (c, c) ;— and th
vessels (d) of which its fibres are composed.
15. What is a simple leaf? What is meant by a compound leaf?
16. What are the nerves of a leaf? What is paren'chyma?
17. Upon what does the form of the leaf depend ? What are primary
nerves ? What are secondary nerves ' What are the veins of leaves ?
NERVES OF LEAVES. 31
of the nerves, and both are constituted of the same fibres and
vessels. It must not be supposed from the names that have been
arbitrarily given them, that these parts are similar in function to
those parts of animals of the same name.
18. Sometimes the leaf presents one or more primary nerves
which diverge in a straight line from the base of the blade, and
give rise to more slender nerves, that separate from each other,
following a straight line, and forming an angle with the first
(Jig. 28) : at other times the principal nerves are curved from
their base (Jig. 34).
19. We give the name of angu'linerve leaves to those in
which the primary and secondary nerves are straight, and form
angles with each other (fig. 26), and we call those curvinerve
leaves in which the primary nerves are curved (figs. 37 and 43).
The first belong chiefly to ex'ogenous or dicotyle'donous plants,
and the second to endogenous or monocotyle'donous plants.
(Monocotyle'donous. — From the Greek, monos, single, and kotu~
ledon, seed-lobe. Applied to plants that have but one seed-lobe
or coty'ledon in the embryo.)
20. The angu'linerve leaves present four principal arrange-
ments; sometimes they are penninerve; that is, provided with a
middle nerve (called also midrib), which is a prolongation of the
petiole, and which gives off to the right and left secondary
nerves, like the feathers of a pen (for example, the olive leaf,
fig. 22, the leaf of the yoke-elm, and of the beech tree) ; some-
times they are palminerve^ that is, provided with several primary
nerves which separate from each other at the base of the blade,
like the divisions of a fan (fig. 28) ; for example, the leaf of the
grape vine, which has five primary nerves, and that of the mal-
lows, in which we count seven or even nine : the number of
these nerves is always unequal, and that of the middle appears
to be the prolongation of the petiole ; peltinerve (fi-g. 45), that is,
provided with nerves that radiate on an oblique plane relatively
to the petiole, so as to constitute a sort of disk or shield, placed
upon its peduncle (foot), (for example, the leaf of the nastur-
tium) ; and in others again they are pedalinerve, that is, having
a very short central nerve or midrib, from which spring two
largely developed lateral nerves, the ramifications of which are
very small towards the external side (edge) of the leaf and very
1 8. Are the nerves of all leaves alike in arrangement ?
19. What are angulinerve leaves?
20. What is a penninerve leaf? (Penninerve, from the Latin, penna, pen
or feather.) What is a palminerve leaf? (Palminerve, from the Latin,
pnlma, palm of the hand.) What is a peltinerve leaf? (Peltinerve. from
the Latin, uelta, a shield.)
32 FORMS OF LEAVES.
strong towards the centre of the blade, like the leaves of the
foetid hellebore (fig. 72), and some of the arums, for example.
21. The cvrvinerve leaves, in general, have a great number
of slightly projecting nerves, which most generally ramify near
their summit, and are often nearly parallel in the greater part
of their length (for example, the leaves of the narcissus and
fig. Ar- 87).
22. It sometimes happens that the space comprised betwixt the
nerves is not filled by cellular tissue, which produces a very
singular arrangement ; the leaf is then full of holes and resem-
bles a trellis-work (for example, the leaves of the Hydrogeton
fenestralis) ; or the holes are irregular, as we see in the leaves
of the Dracontium pertvsum.
23. At other times the cellular tissue which surrounds the
nerves is spread out in such a way as to completely unite them
to their utmost extremity, in which case the leaf is said to be
entire (for example, the leaf of the lilac, and of the olive, Jigs.
22, 52, and 53). But between these two very different modes
of conformation, there is a great number of intermediate degrees.
Sometimes the paren'chyma completely unites all the ramifica-
tions of a secondary nerve, but does not extend between the
different nerves that arise from the primary nerve, so that the
blade is divided into several segments or lobes ; sometimes these
lobes are joined at the base or as far as the middle of their length,
and then the leaf is said to be partite or divided, and the intervals
between the lobes are called fissures (fig. 32). According to
the number of these fissures or divisions, the terms trifid, quin-
qirifid, &c., are used. In some instances this junction is com-
plete, but the paren'chyma which separates the last nerves does
not extend entirely to their extremity, and the edges of the leaf
are then dentate, as in the rose (fig. 47). When these small
marginal divisions are rounded instead of being pointed, they are
called crenulations, and the leaf is said to be cremtlate (fig. 41).
24. The two surfaces of the leaf are ordinarily covered with
an epidermis, which often has hairs upon the nerves, and stomata
on the paren'chyma: these appendages and orifices are, in gen-
eral, especially numerous on the inferior surface; and on this
account it is almost always paler than the superior surface of the
.. 21. What is remarked of curvinerve leaves?
22. Is the space between the nerves of the leaves always filled by eel.
lular tissue ?
23. What is meant by an entire leaf? When are leaves partite ? What
are fissures of leaves ? What is the difference between a dentate and a
crenulate leaf? (Dentate, from the Latin, dens, a tooth.)
24. Why is the inferior surface of a leaf generally palest ? What is
found in leaves besides the nerves and cellular tissue ?
POSITION OF LEAVES.— STIPULES.
leaf. Sometimes there are no stomata on the superior surface,
and the arrangement of the cells of the paren'chyma is not the
same as beneath. In the thickness of the leaf there are, ordi-
narily, cavities or intercellular lacunae which contain air, and
co-rtmunicate externally through stomala (Jigs. 9 and 10) ; some-
tin we also find in the paren'chyma, glands or reservoirs of the
proper juices.
[The distribution of the vascular tissue through the limb of the leaf is
termed its venation or nervation, because the course of the vessels (of which
these nerves are made up) have been supposed to bear some resemblance
to the distribution of veins and nerves in certain parts of the animal struc-
ture. The bundles of vessels constituting- the nerves, maintain nearly a
parallel course in their passage through the petiole, and are closely con-
densed together; but on arriving at the limb they separate, and, as we have
seen, are distributed in various ways. It will be observed they may all be
referred to one or the other of two classes, called the angulinerve and
curvinerve arrangement.]
25. The position of the leaves on the stem and branches varies
in different plants, and furnishes very useful characteristics to
botanists for the distinction of species; sometimes they are oppo-
site, that is, they rise in pairs at the same point from two sides
of the stem or peduncle (Jig. 70) ; sometimes they are verticil-
late, that is, grouped, three or more together, around the same
part of the stem ; and at other times they are alternate, that is,
they arise separately at different points.
£6. It is remarked, also, that opposite leaves are almost always
so arranged that the different pairs cross each other. When they
touch each other at the base, instead of arising from the opposite
sides of the stem, they are called gemini, or geminate leaves.
27. On the stems of many plants, we observe on both
sides of each leaf, small organs named stipules, which seem
to be very analogous s
to leaves, but their
nature is not fully
ascertained (fig. 16,
«, s). They are only
found in the dicotyle'-
donous plants, and
they sometimes re-
semble little leaves,
at others, scales.
---•si
Fig. 16. — STIPULES.
Explanation of Fig. 16 :— s,s, stipules arising at the axil of the leaf, that
is, where the petiole joins the stem ; — I, leaf; — p. petiole ; — st. stem.
25. When are leaves opposite ? When are leaves said to be verticillate ?
26. When are leaves geminate ?
27. What are stipules? To what description of plants MO they coa
fined? What is their use?
34 STIPULES.— TENDRILS.
[Whatever arises from the base of a petiole, or of a leaf, if sessile, oc-
cupving the same place, and attached to each side, is considered a
stipule. The appearance of this organ is so extremely variable, some
being large and leaf-like, others being mere rudiments of scales, that
botanists are obliged to define it by its position, and not by its organization.
Stipules, the margins of which cohere in such a way that they form a
membranous tube sheathing the stem, are called ochrea. — Example, the
rhubarb. — Lindley.]
28. The filamentous appendages, known under the name of
tendrils, which twine themselves round neighbouring bodies, serve
to sustain weak and climbing plants, are frequently petioles 01
stipules, modified in a particular manner, but they are also often
formed by the peduncle of flowers that have proved abortive in
development.
29. According to their duration on the stem, the leaves are
Caducous, when they fall early, as in the plane tree.
Deciduous, when they fall belbre the new leaf appears, as in the horse-
chestnut, and most other trees.
Marcescent, when they wither before falling, as in the oak, and many
other trees.
Persistent or Evergreen (Sempervirens), when they remain on the ve-
getable one winter or longer, as the iv.y, the pine, the. myrtle, the com-
mon laurel, &c. Plants of this kind are called evergreens.
The various shapes of leaves, and the names given to them, as
well as the variety of their margins, may be seen in the following
EXAMPLES OF THE FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
The side or edge of the leaf in which the petiole is inserted, is
'ermed the base, and the opposite extremity, the apex of the leaf.
A linear leaf — folium lineare — (fig* 17). — (Folium,
Latin, a leaf; lineare, Latin, line-shape.) The two
edges straight and equidistant throughout, except at the
two extremities. The Jester linearifolius, the star-flower,
as well as Indian corn, and the grasses generally, have
leaves of this kind.
When it embraces the stem it is vaginate or
sheathing.
fig. 17. A subulate leaf — folium subulatum — (fig-
LINEAR. 18). — (Subulate, from the Latin, subula, an
awl — awl-shaped.) Linear at bottom, but gradually
lessening towards the top, and ending acute. The
Phascum subulatum, one of the mosses, and the jonquil, Fig-
have a leaf of this description. SUBULATE.
28. What are tendrils ?
29. What is the difference between a caducous and a deciduous leaf?
'Caducous, from the Latin, cado, I fall. Deciduous, from the Latin, de-
cido, I fall off.) When are leaves said to be marcescent? (Marcescent,
from the Latin, marceo, I wither.) What are persistent leaves 1 (Per-
sistent, from the Latin, per, through, and sisto, I remain.)
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
OBTUSK.
Fig. 21.
EMARGINATE
An a'ctrose leaf (from the Latin, acer, a needle),
in the form of a needle, is seen on pines ; it is linear
acuminate.
An obtuse leaf — folium obtusnm — (fig* 19), blunt
pointed ; the apex is broader than the base, and forms
the segment of a circle. The primrose has a leaf of
this kind. '
An obcordate leaf — folium obcordatum — (fg. 20).
— The Latin word ob is prefixed to technical terms,
to indicate that a thing is inverted : obcordate means
inversely cordate (see Jig. 51), the notch being at
the apex instead of the base of the leaf. Example:
the Oxalis acetosella, sheep-sorrel.
An ema'rginate leaf — folivm emarginatum — (Jig.
21). — Ernarginate (from the Latin, e, from, and
margo, margin, or edge), notched. Having a notch
at the end. Example : the Geranium emarginatum.
When the notch or sinus is very obtuse, it is said
to be refuse, or almost emarginate.
A lanceolate leaf —
folium Innceolatum — (fig.
22) — lance-shaped, as in
the olive. Narrowly ob- Fig. 22. — LANCEOLATE.
long and tapering to each
end. The peach tree has leaves of this description.
An acute leaf — folium
acutum — ( fig. 23). Sharp
pointed. Terminating in
nn acute point without Fi^. 23. — ACUTE.
tapering suddenly. The Solidago odora, an aromatic plant, i*
an instance.
tum—(fg. 24).— (From the Ftg. 24. — SETACKO-ACUMINATE.
Latin, seta, a bristle.) The point of the leaf terminated by a
straight bristle-like projection. The Quercus phellos, willow-
.eaved oak, is an example. Leaves are
Mucronate (from the Latin, mucro, in *he genitive, mucronis,
a sharp point), when an obtuse leaf terminates in a short, rigid
point, formed by the projection of the miclrib.
Cuspidate (from the Latin, cuspis, the point of a spear or
other weapon), when it is more gradually prolonged into a rigid
point.
Pungent, when it tei minates in a hard sharp point, like thp
eaves of thistles.
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
Awned — aristate (from the Latin, arista, a beard of wheat),
when it terminates in a long, hard bristle or beard.
An acuminate leaf —
folium acuminatum —
(fig. 25). — (From the
Latin, acumen, a point.)
It has an extended ter-
mination, and in this
i-. 25. — ACUMINATE. respect differs from the
lanceolate leaf.
The Cornus alternifolia and reed are examples.
This figure (25) and the following (26) show the primary
nerves, which arise directly from the petiole and midrib.
A hastate leaf — folium
hastatum — (Jig. 26). —
From the Latin, hasta, a
spear or halbert — halbert-
shaped.) Triangular with
lobes projecting perpen-
dicularly to the petiole.
The Polygonum hasta-
tum and bitter-sweet are
Fig. 26. — HASTATK. ,
examples.
This leaf is an instance of an angulinerve leaf.
A sagittate leaf — folium
sagittatum — (fig. 27). —
(From the Latin, sagitta,
an arrow.) A leaf resem-
bling the head of an arrow :
the lobes at the base are
27. — SAGITTATE.
elongated, and scarcely diverging from the petiole. Example:
Polygonum sagittatum, called tear-thumb, and turkey-seed.
A palmato-lobate leaf —
folium palmato - lobatum
— (fig. 28). — (From the
Latin, palma, palm of the
hand.) Having lobes which
give it some resemblance
to the hand. This figure
illustrates a palminerve
leaf.
Example: — the Liquid-
ambar styracifera, called
Fig. 28. — PALMATO-LOB ATE. S WCCN gU HI.
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
37
Fig. 29. PALMATE.
Fig. 30. TRILOBATE.
A palmate leaf — folium palmatum —
(fig- 29). Hand-shaped, divided nearly
to the insertion of the petiole into oblong
lobes of similar size, but leaving a space
entire like the palm of the hand.
Examples: the Viola palmata, the pas-
sion flower, and castor-oil plant ; also, the
red and sugar maples.
A trilobate leaf — folium
trilobatum — (fig* 30). —
(From the Latin, tres, three.)
A leaf formed of three lobes,
the margins of which are
rounded.
A lyrate leaf — folium
lyratum — (jig. 31). — (From
the Latin, lyra, a lyre.) A
leaf supposed to resemble the
shape of a lyre. It is cut
into several transverse seg-
ments, gradually larger to-
wards the extremity of the
leaf,which is rounded, as in the
Salvia lyrata, Lyre-leaved
sage, and garden radish.
A sinuate, or sinuose leaf
— folium sinuatum — (fig. 32).
A leaf having deep fissures or
sinuses. Bending in and out.
(Sinus: the bays or recesses
formed by the lobes of leaves or
other bodies, are so called.)
Example : the Argemone
mexicana.
Fig. 31. LYRATE.
13
Fig. 32. — SINUATE.
38
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
Fig. 35. AMPLEXICAULE.
A doubly serrate leaf —
folium duplicate- serratum —
(fg. 33). — (From the Latin,
serra, a saw.) Having teet h
like a saw: the larger teeth
being notched also with teeth.
(See Jig. IS.)
Fig. 33 shows the second-
ary nerves arising from tho
primary.
A repand leaf — folium repan-
dum — (fg. 34). — (From the Latin,
repandus, bent.) A leaf having a
margin undulated, and unequally
dilated, is so called.
Example : the Hydrocotyle.
An amplexicaule \eaf-folium
amplexicaule — (fgltre 35). —
(From the Latin, ampleoto, I
embrace, and caulis, stem,
stem -embracing.) A leaf or
bract whose base projects on
each side, so as to clasp the
stem with its lobes.
Example : the Papaver somni-
ferum.
Fig. 36. CONNATE.
A connate, or double -perfoliate, or doubly amplexicaule leaf —
folium connalum — (fig» 36). — (From the Latin, con, together
and natus, grown.) Joined together" j I the base.
Example : the Eupatorium perfoliatum, bone-set.
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
A perfoliate leaf — folium perfoliatum
— (fig* 37). — (From the Latin, per,
through, andyb/it/m, leaf.) A leaf having
the stem running through it. The annex-
ed figure (37) is an illustration of acurvi-
nerve leaf.
Example: the Uvularia perfoliata, or
bell-wort.
Fig. 37. PERFOIJATE.
Fig. 3 "5. — PANDUR.ATE.
A pandurate leaf— -folium panduratum
— (fiS- 38). — (From the Latin, pandus,
bent or bowed inward in the middle.)
Fiddle-shaped. It is also termed panduri-
form. It is oblong, broad at the two
extremities, and contracted in the middle.
Example: Convolvulus panduratus, Virginia Bindweed, and
Convolvulus ijnperati, native of Egypt, Italy, &c.
A rvncinate leaf — folium
runcin'afum — (fig' 39). — S
(From the Latin, run'cina, a
large saw, to saw timber.)
Example : Leo'ntodon ta-
, , . Fig. 39. — RUNCINATE.
ra xacvm, common dande-
lion. (Dandelion, a corruption of the French, dent de lion, lion's
tooth.)
An undulate leaf — folium
undulatum — (figure 40). —
(From the Latin, undula, a
little wave.) Having the edges
irregularly waved.
Example : Asclepias obtu-
sifolia. Figt 4 Q! — UNDULATE.
A crenate leaf — folium
crenatvm — (figure 41). —
Having rounded teeth, which
are not directed towards
either extremity of the leaf,
as in the garden pink, ground
vy, and heart's ease. Fig. 41. — CRENATE.
Crenulate, finely crenate. Some leaves are doubly crenaie,
rhat is, bicrenate.
Example : the Quercus prinus, chestnut oak of Pennsylvania.
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
Fig. 44. SPATULATE.
A lobate leaf — folium loba-
tum — (Jig. 42). — Divided more
deeply than toothed or dentate,
by somewhat obtuse incisions of
an uncertain depth : each portion
is termed a lobe. The number
of lobes is sometimes specified.
Example : the Liriodendron
tulipifera, or tulip tree; also
called poplar, canoe-wood, sugar
maple.
A reniform leaf — folium rent-
forme — (fg. 43). — (From the
Latin, ren. kidney ; and fcrmn,
form, shape.) Kidney-shaped. A
short, broad, round leaf, with a
sinus or hollow at the base.
This figure shows the tertiarv
nerves springing from the second-
ary.
Example: the Asarum cana
dwse, colt's foot.
A spatulate leaf — folium spatula'
turn — (fig- 44). — (From the Latin,
spathuldj a broad slice or knife to
spread plasters.) Oblong or obverselv
ovate, with lower part much attenuated.
Example : the Poly gala lutea.
A peltate leaf — folium peltatum —
( fig. 45). — (From the Latin, pelta a
shield.) Where the petiole is inserted
into the middle of the leaf on the under
side, like the arm of a man holding a
shield. This figure (45) is also an illus-
tration of a peltinerve leaf.
Example : the common nasturtium.
. 45 — PELTATE.
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
A deltoid leaf — folium
deltoides — (fig. 48).—
(From the Greek letter
A, delta, and eidos, re-
semblance.)
Example : the Populus
A dentate leaf— -folium
dentatum — (fig* 47). —
(From the Latin, dens, a
tooth.) The edge having
horizontal, distant teeth.
This term, as well as the
following, refers only to
the edge or margin of the
leaf, without regard to its Fig. 47. — DENTATE.
general form.
Example : Populus grandidentata.
A serrate leaf— folium
serratum — (fig* 48). —
(From the Latin, serra,
saw.) The edge being
cut into notches, like saw
XX
--X-— r- r-
Fig. 48. SERRATE.
Fig. 49. — RHOMBOID.
teeth, ending in sharp points, which incline towards the apex of
the leaf.
The nettle, rose, and peach, are examples.
A rhomboid leaf — folium rhom-
boideum — (fig-^)- — Rhomb-shaped
<O>- A rhomb, in geometry, is a
four-sided figure, having its opposite
sides equal. When the angles are
right angles, it becomes a square.
An auriculate, or eared
leaf — folium auriculatum
— (fig- 50); — (From the
Latin, auricula, a little
ear.) It has two small
rounded lobes, projecting
at the base.
The Magnolia auriculata and
amples.
13*
Fig. 50. AURICULATE.
Rumex acetosella are ex-
42
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
Fig. 51. CORDATE.
A cordate leaf— -folium
cordotum — (fig* 51). —
(From the Latin, cor, a
heart.) Heart-shaped,
ovate, with two rounded
lobes at the base.
Example : the Pente-
deria cor data , and com-
mon morning-glory.
Obcordate is the cordate reversed ; the sinus and lobes being
at the summit instead of the base of the leaf. (See Jig. 20.)
An obovate leaf — folium
obovatum — (fg> 52). — (From
the Latin, ovum, egg.) The re-
verse of ovate, egg-shaped, with
the base broader than the apex ;
and length greater than the
breadth. (See fg. 20.)
Example : the Arbutus uvi ursi.
An elliptic or oval leaf
— -folium ellipticum — (Jig.
53). — Having a regular
outline, resembling an
ellipse : the curves of both
ends are alike, and it is
longer than it is wide.
Fig. 52. — OBOVATE.
Fig. 53. — ELLIPTIC.
Fig. 54. ORBICULATE.
Fig. 55. — CUNIEFORM.
Example : the Magnolia
glauca, common magnolia
or beaver tree.
An orbiculate leaf — folium
orbiculatum — (figure 54). —
(From the Latin, orbis, an orb.)
Having a circular outline.
Example : the Glucine to-
mentosa.
A cuniate or cunieform leaf —
folium cunieforme — (Jig- 55). —
(From the Latin, cuneus, a wedge.)
Wedge-shaped. Broad and obtuse at
the summit, and tapering gradually
almost to a point at the base.
Example : the Quercus nigra, the
true black oak or black jack.
FORMS OF SIMPLE LEAVES.
43
A partite leaf — folium
partitum, is one deeply
divided. .nearly to the base,
as Helleborus viridis : and
according to the number of
its divisions it is bipartite,
tripartite, or multipartite.
A multipartite leaf —
folium multipartitum —
(figure 56). — (From the
Latin, multus, many ; and
pars, part — much divided.)
Having very deep and very distinct divisions.
A laciniate leaf — folium laciniatum
— (fig* 57)* — (From the Latin, lacinia,
a lappet; a separate fold of a garment.)
Divided by deep incisions ; the lacinioe or
parts being quite slender and numerous.
Examples : the Dentaria laciniata,
and the Rudbeckia laciniata. Also,
the k>wer leaves of the Clematis Jlam-
mula, sweet virgin's bower.
Fig. 57. LACINIATE.
EXAMPLES OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
Compound leaves may be referred to two classes or divisions ;
one containing digitate, and the other pinnate leaves, accordingly
as they are supposed to resemble fingers (digitus) or feathered
stems (pinnatus). First, of digitate leaves :
A conjugate or binate leaf — (fig- 58). —
(Conjugate, from the Latin, conjugatum,
which is formed from con, together, and
iugum, a yoke, yoked together. Binate,
from the Latin, bis, two, and natus, grown.)
When a common petiole bears two leaflets on
its summit.
Fig. 58. — CONJUOATJ
44
FORMS O* UOM^UUiNU LEAVES.
Fig. 59. TERNATE.
A ternate leaf — folium ternt\
turn — (Jig, 59). — (From the Latirb
ternus, three and three.) When
three leaflets arise from one
petiole.
Example: the Trifolium pra-
tense, red clover.
Biternate, twice three leaved :
the petiole divided into three
parts, and each part bearing three
leaflets.
Triternate, three times three
leaved : a common petiole divided
into three parts, and each of these parts subdivided into three,
and each subdivision bearing three leaflets, as in the wind flower.
A ternate leaf, which is also
doubly serrate (Jig' 60), that
is, folivm ternatum, foliis du-
plicato-serratis, — a ternate leaf,
with doubly serrate leaflets,
as in Indian physic, — Spir&a
trifoliata.
Flg.^Q.— TERNATE.
A qvaternate leaf — folium
quaternatum — (fig. 61). — (From
the Latin, quatcr, four.) Having
four leaflets growing from a com
mon petiole or leaf-stalk.
Fig. 61 — QUATERNA1
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
45
A quinquefoliate or quinate
leaf— folium quinquefotiatMm
— {fig. 62). — (From the Latin,
qm?tque, five, fend/a&ttft, leaf.)
Having five leaflets growing
from one common petiole.
Example : ginseng — Panax
quinqucfolium. — Panax is de-
rived from the Greek, pan, all,
and akos,a. remedy; a remedy
for all things. It is an almost
universal medicine among the
Tartars and Chinese, and ac-
cording to them, it is capable
of relieving fatigue both of
body and mind. It is a native
of North America, where it is
not esteemed as a medicine.
Fig. 62. QUINQTTEFOLIA'
A digitate leaf — folium digita-
•turn — (fig. 63), — composed of
seven leaflets, an example of which
is afforded in the perennial lupin,
which is common in the neigh-
borhood of Philadelphia. — (Digi-
tate, from the Latin, digitus, a
finger.) Compared to the spread
fingers of a hand. When several
leaflets arise from the very sum-
mit of the petiole, as in the horse-
chestnut tree, and high blackberry.
Fig. 63. — DIGITATE.
The second division of compound leaves, called pinnate.
A pinnate leaf — folium pinnatum — (fig. 64). —
(From the Latin, pinnatus, winged or feathered.)
Having leaflets arranged along each side of a com-
mon petiole, liku the feather of a quill.
Fig. 64.
PINNATE.
46
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
A bipinnate leaf — folium
bipinnutu'in — (fig- 65), —
as that of the mimosa far-
ncsiana. Doubly winged :
a common petiole bearing
pinnate leaves on each one
of its sides. Most of the
Aca'cia tribe have bipinnate
leaves.
(Bipinnate : from the Latin,
bis, two; and pinna, wing,
— two-winged.)
Fig. 65
BIPINNATE.
A bipinnate leaf — (jig.
66), — folium bipinnatum.
We have an example of
leaves of this kind in the
Pride of China, — Mclia
azederach.
Here the leaflets of the
secondary petiole are un-
equally pinnate. (See fig'
70.) '
Fig. 66. BIPINNATE.
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
47
Fig. 67. — TRiriNNATE. — HEMLOCK.
A tripinnaU leaf — folium tripinnatum — ( fig. 67). — (From
*he Latin, tres, three; and pinna, wing.) Coni'um macula-
turn, — common hemlock. Common in many parts of the
United States. When the common petiole has bipinnate leaves
on each side.
A pinnate leaf, with bijugate leaves —
(fig. 68). — Folium pinnatum ; foliolis
bijugis (from the Latin, bis, two; and
jugum, yoke), formed of two pairs of
leaflets, as seen in the Cassia absus, of
India and Egypt.
Fig, 68.— PI NATTB.
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
An abruptly pinnate leaf (Jig. 69). When
the petiole of a winged leaf ends without a
leaflet or tendril, as in the American senna, it
is abruptly pinnate.
When the leaflets of the opposite sides
alternate, it is alternately pinnate ; and when
the leaflets are alternately large and small, it
is interruptedly pinnate.
When the leaflets are opposite or in pairs,
as in the annexed figure (69), it is oppositely
pinnate.
Fig. 69.
ABRUPTLY PINNATE.
An unequally pinnate leaf
— folium impari-pinnatum
— (fig. 70). Example: the
shell- bark hickory.
When a pinnate or wing-
ed leaf is terminated by a
single leaflet, as roses, &c.,
it is unequally pinnate, be-
cause the pinnce or leaflets
are not of an even or equal
number.
When the leaflets are cut
in fine divaricated segments,
embracing the footstalk, we
have the verticillato-pinnate
leaf.
The lyrato-pinnate, " in a
lyrate manner, having the
terminal leaflet largest, and
the rest gradually smaller,
Fig. 70.- UNEQUALLY PINNATE. *f ^ aPPr°ach ^ base,
like brysimum prcecoz, and,
with intermediate smaller leaflets, Geum rivale ; also, the com-
mon turnip.
" Such leaves are usually denominated lyrate in common with
those properly so called (whose shape is simple, and not formed
of separate leaflets); nor is this from inaccuracy in botanical
writers. The reason is, that these two kinds of leaves, however
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
distinct in theory, are of all leaves
most liable to run into each other,
even on the same plant." — Smith.
A cir'roso-pinnate leaf— -folium
zirroso-pinnatum — (fig- 71). —
(From the Latin, cir'rus, a tendril,
a climber.)
Example : the tamarind tree,
Tamarindus Indica.
In this form of leaf, a tendril
supplies the place of the odd leaflet
(as in the pea and vetch tribe), con-
stituting the remarkable difference
between it and the unequally pin-
nate leaf (fig. 70).
Fig. 71. — CIR'ROSO PINNATE.
A pedate leaf — folium peda-
turn — (fig. 72). — (From the
Latin, pes, in the genitive case,
pedis, foot.) A compound leaf,
the divisions of which give it a
resemblance to a foot with out-
spread toes. This is an exam-
ple of the pedalinerve leaf (see
page 39), in which there is no
decided midrib, but the vessels
diverge in two strong lateral
nerves, from which branches
are given off, on that side only
which is towards the apex of the
leaf.
Example : the Helleborus fee-
tidus.
14
Fig. 72. — PEDATE.
THt
50
FORMS OF COMPOUND LEAVES.
A pedate leaf, with
compound leaflets —
folium pedatum ; —
foliis compositis.
Example: I he Maid-
en hair — Adiantum
pedatum. A very com-
mon plant in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadel-
phia.
Fig. 73. — PEDATE.
The most singular of
all the various leaves, are
those of the pitcher plants.
The pitcher of the Nepen-
thes (74, c) is provided with
a perfect lid or cover, which
is closed in dry weather, as
if to prevent evaporation,
and open when it is rainy
or damp. It has been sug-
gested, that these pitchers
were designed as reservoirs
in which water is stored
for the occasional use of
the plant in extremely dry
weather.
When the petiole be-
comes dilated and hollowed
out at its upper end, the
lamina being articulated with and closing up its orifice, as in
Sarracenia (Jig. 74, a), and Nepenthes (Jig. 74, c), it is called
a pitcher, or ascidium ; if it is enclosed and is a mere sac, as in
Utricularia (Jig. 74, 6), it is called ampulla.
The surface of a leaf may be ribbed or nerved, having1 fine elevations,
running from one extremity to the other, without branching ; or
Veined, having prominent divisions near the base, and finer and smaller
as they extend over the leaf, as in the mullein ; or
Wrinkled, rugose, rough, or corrugated, like the leaf of the sage ; or
Fig 74. — LEAVES OF PITCHER PLANTS.
EXHALATION. 51
Plicate (plaited), having the surface formed into ridges and channels, by
the alternate rising and sinking of the nerves of the leaf; or
Smooth^ when without wrinkles or ribs ; or
Villose, or velvety, when covered by soft down or hairs.
Besides the general form, the character of the margin, and surface of
leaves, their position is also described. When upright, and the leaf forms
a very acute angle with the stem, it is erect. When they are at right
angles with the stems, and parallel with the horizon, they are horizontal.
When the apex of the leaf hangs lower than the insertion of the petiole, it
is reclined. When the base of the leaf is turned in one direction, and the
apex in another, that is, twisted, it is oblique.
Radical leaves are those which grow very near to the root.
When leaves arise one after the other from opposite sides of the stem,
they are alternate ; but when they arise, on the same line, from opposite
sides of the stem, they are opposite.
When they grow in a circle round a stem, they are verticillate (whorled)
or stellate.
EXHALATION.
30. When treating of absorption, we saw that vascular plants
pump up, by their roots, a considerable quantity of water, hold-
ing different matters in solution, and that this liquid rises through
the stem to reach the leaves. But all the water thus absorbed
does not remain in the interior of the plant, and a great part is
dissipated in the form of vapour. To satisfy ourselves on this
point, it is only necessary to place in a perfectly dry glass jar,
the leafy stem of a vegetating plant, and expose the whole to the
sun ; we soon discover little drops which arrange themselves on
the parietes of the jar. By weighing plants immediately after
they have been watered, and weighing them again some time
afterwards, we obtain proof of this loss, and we may exactly
estimate the quantity of water exhaled ; it was found, by an
experiment of this kind, that a cabbage lost by evaporation nine-
teen ounces of water a day, and a helianthus (from the Greek,
elios, the sun, and anthos, flower) or sunflower loses even a more
considerable quantity in form of vapour.
31. A small part of the water thus expelled, evaporates through
the tissue which constitutes the surface of all parts of the plant,
as well after death as during life ; and it is for this rtnson that
the stem, fruit, tubercles, and flowers terminate their existence
by drying, when the place in which they may be is not very
damp. But the greatest quantity of water is expelled through
the leaves of the living plant, and this exhalation only takes
place, while the plant is alive, and when the influence of light
30. What becomes of the water absorbed by the roots ? How is it ascer
tained that plants exhale water in form of vapour? What quantity of
water does a cabbage exhale ?
31. What parts of plants are seats of exhalation ? When does exhalation
tah e place ? What influences exhalation ? What description of plants*
exhale least?
52 EXHALATION. — RESPIRATION.
causes the stomata to open. It has been ascertained that the
quantity of water thus exhaled is in proportion to the extent of
the leafy surface of the plant, and the number of slomala j thus,
fleshy plants, which have but few stomata, lose very little by
aqueous exhalation.
32. Light, as we have said, has the property of causing the
stomata to open, but these orifices close when the plant is placed
in the dark. During the night, plants lose very little by evapora-
tion ; and it is known that the best way of preserving a bouquet
as fresh as possible, is to put it in an obscure place, or at least
shelter it from the light of the sun.
33. Exhalation is more active in dry warm air, than when the
atmosphere is cold and damp ; and it takes place more actively
in young leaves, than in those of which the surface has been
hardened by age. The water that thus escapes is almost pure,
and it is estimated that, under ordinary circumstances, it is equal
to about two-thirds of the quantity of liquid absorbed by the
roots. Sometimes this exhalation becomes even more abundant
than absorption, and causes the death of the plant ; this often
happens when we transplant a tree in spring, without taking suf-
ficient care to lop the branches, for by taking it from the earth
we destroy a great many radicles of the root, and absorption is
consequently less active; in order to proportion the exhalation to
this enfeebled absorption, gardeners leave but a small number of
leaves on the summit of the stem.
RESPIRATION.
34. Plants cannot live when deprived of air, and are, just as
much as animals, under the necessity of constant respiration ;
but their respiration is carried on in a different manner from that
of animals.
35. All parts of the plant, root, stem, and flowers, as well as
the leaves, continually absorb a certain quantity of ox'ygen from
the air, which combines with the car'bonous particles of the sap,
and thus forms carbo'nic acid ; but this carbo'nic acid is not
expelled as in animals, but serves for nutrition.
[Before we proceed further, let us endeavour to obtain clear notions of the
meaning- of the words ox'ygf.n and carbo'nic acid.
32. Why are we recommended to put a bouquet in the dark for preser-
vation ?
33. What condition of the atmosphere is most favourable to exhalation ?
What is the character of the water exhaled by plants ? What happens if
exhalation is greater than absorption ? Why do gardeners carefully lop
trees that are transplanted ?
' 34. Do plants breathe ?
35. What i/arts of plants absorb ox'ygen ? What becomes of the ox'y gen
absorbed ? What is the use of carbo'nic acid to plants ?
RESPIRATION.
The air we breathe (called atmospheric air) is a compound of about one
part of ox'yge.n gas to four parts of ni'trogen gas, and a very much smaller
proportion of carbo'nic acid gas, together with some watery vapour.
Ox'ygen and ni'trogen are simple substances, that is, chemists have not
been able to decompose them ; but carbonic acid gas is a compound sub-
stance, that is, it consists of more than one material or substance.
This name, ox'ygen, is formed from the Greek, oxus, acid, and geinomai,
I beget, and was so called because it was believed, without it, there could
be no acid. Although there are acids which contain no ox'ygen, we know
that without its presence every living thing, animal or plant, would dievand
all fire would be extinguished. It is indispensable to respiration and com-
bustion.
The word ni'trogen was formed from the Greek, nitron, nitre, and
geinomai, I beget, because it was discovered to be one of the essential con-
stituents of nitre, and also of nitric acid. It was also called azote (from fl,
privative, and zoe, life), because it would not support animal life.
Carbo'nic acid consists of carbon and ox'ygen.
Carbon (from the'Latin, carbo, coal) is the name of a simple substance
or element. It occurs naturally in the form of the diamond (which is pure
carbon), of plumbago or black-lead, anthracite and bituminous coals ; it is
an elementary constituent of all wood ; it seems to be the true food of plants
without which they die. Lamp-black and charcoal are forms of impure
carbon. The chief action of vegetable organization is to obtain and form
carbon.
Carbo'nic acid exists in the atmosphere as the product of combustion, and
of the respiration of animals ; the frothing of beer, and the sparkling of
champagne and " mineral water," depend on its presence.]
36. The leaves and other green parts of plants also absorb
the carbonic acid gas contained in the air, and by the process of
respiration, this fluid, as well as the carbonic acid formed in the
interior of the plant, is decomposed ; its carbon remains in the
tissue of the plant, and nourishes it, while the oxygen is thrown
off and mingles with the atmosphere.
37. We now see that the relations of plants with the air are
more complicated than those of animals with the same fluid.
The latter absorb oxygen, and in its place exhale carbo'nic acid ;
plants absorb ox'ygen and carbo'nic acid, and exhale the ox'ygen
arising either from the quantity of this gas previously absorbed,
or from the decomposition of the carbo'nic acid derived from the
atmosphere.
38. In general it is the last phenomenon, that is, the absorp-
tion of carbonic acid, its decomposition and the exhalation of
ox'ygen, that is designated under the name of respiration of
plants. Its effect, as we see, is to destroy the carbo'nic acid,
36. What parts of plants absorb carbo'nic acid gas from the atmospheric
air ? What becomes of the constituent elements of the ( arbo'nic acid of
plnnts?
37. How does the respiration of animals differ from that of plants ?
38. What constitutes the respiration of plants ? What is the effect of
the respiration of plants ? How does it purify the atmosphere ?
14*
54 RESPIRATION.
which the respiration of animals is unceasingly diffusing through
the air, and consequently to purify the atmosphere.
39. The green parts alone possess the property of decompos-
ing carbo'nic acid in this way, and they cannot effect this decom-
position without the direct influence of the light of the sun.
Thus, a plant which is put in an obscure place ceases to respire
languishes, bleaches, and dies, after a shorter or longer time.
40. Consequently, the leaves are the principal seat of respira-
tion, and this function is only carried on during the day.
41. It is easy to demonstrate the influence of light upon the
respiration of plants ; a simple experiment is sufficient to do this :
if we place leaves in water containing a small quantity of car-
bo'nic acid in solution, and expose them to the sun, we see bub-
bles of air rise from them ; but if we place them in the shade,
this disengagement of gas is arrested.
42. In leaves exposed to the air, the absorption of carbo'nic
acid takes place chiefly through the stomata, and this fluid acts
upon the sap in the interior of the cavities which exist in the
paren'chyma of the leaf, and abandons its carbon to pass to the
state of free ox'ygen. The intercellular passages (meatus) of
the leaves consequently perform, in the respiration of plants,
functions analogous to those of the pulmonary cells in terres-
trial animals ; and it is remarkable that in aquatic plants, the
leaves of which are submerged, there are no similar cavities, and
respiration is carried on by the surface of the leaves, just in the
same manner as the skin or projecting branchiae perform this
function in aquatic animals.
43. During the night, the leaves, instead of purifying the air,
absorb ox'ygen, and consequently contribute towards its vitiation.
For this reason, as well as on account of the odour they exhale,
it is often dangerous to place plants or even bouquets of flowers
in sleeping apartments.
44. The absorption of ox'ygen by the parts of plants that are
not green is feeble, but takes place by day as well as by night,
and it is necessary to the life of all plants. It is because roots
do not obtain the air which they require that they die, when too
deeply buried ; and it is for the same reason that a seed will not
germinate when removed from the action of the atmosphere.
39. Do all parts of a plant decompose carbo'nic acid? Do plants decom-
pose carbo'nic acid under all circumstances ?
40. Do plants respire at all times ?
41. How is it shown that light influences the respiration of plants?
•12. In what part of the plant does the carbo'nic acid act "on the sap ?
What is remarkable in the respiration of aquatic plants ?
43. Why is it improper to keep plants in apartments in which we sleep T
44. Why do roots and seeds die when too deeply buried ?
DESCENDING SAP. 55
OF THE USE AND MODE OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE
NUTRITIVE JUICES.
*
45. The sap elaborated in the leaves, as we have seen, again
descends to other parts of the plant, and constitutes the nutritive
juice by the aid of which its growth is effected.
46. It is easy to be convinced that the nutritive juices of plants
are formed in the leaves ; for if we strip a tree of all its leaves,
it will cease to grow until it is furnished anew with these organs ;
and farmers who cultivate mulberries for feeding silkworms have
remarked that the growth of the trees is less in proportion to the
frequency of stripping them of their leaves.
47. The movement of the nutritive juice (that is, the descend-
ing sap) is slow, and always takes place from the leaves, towards
the roots, whatever may be the position of the branches that this
liquid traverses.
48. The route followed by the descending sap is not the same
as that by which the sap rises from the roots to the leaves ; in-
stead of traversing the ligneous layers, it descends chiefly through
the substance of the bark.
49. The following experiment proves that it is the descending
sap which especially serves for the nutrition of the plant, and that
this same sap moves in the interior of the bark. If we remove
from a branch or the trunk of an ex'ogenous tree, a circular strip
of bark, we prevent the sap that descends from the leaves to the
lower part of the plant from continuing its route, and, in fact, we
see that the portion of the stem which is below this annular or
ring-like section, ceases to grow, while the part situate above
profits more than is usual, and swells out on the upper margin
of the wound, so as to form a ring. The same thing happens
when we surround a branch by a very tightly drawn cord ; for
in this way we may also arrest the descending sap, and the parts
where this juice accumulates are benefited at the expense of those
situated below.
45. What becomes of the sap that is elaborated in the leaves ? (Elaborate:
from the Latin, labora're, to work. The word is employed to signify the
act of living organs upon substances capable of assimilation, by which
nutritive matter is separated and appropriated. The elaboration of food in
the stomach produces chyme.}
46. What proof is there that the nutritive juice of plants is formed in
the leaves ?
47. Is the movement of the nutritive juice rapid ? In what direction
does it flow ?
48. What is the route of the descending sap ?
49. How do you prove that the descending sap is the nutritive juicu o'
plants, and that it moves through the substance of the bark?
56 SECRETION.
50. For this reason gardeners sometimes make annular in-
cisions through the whole thickness of the bark around a branch
filled with fruit, so as to retain the nutritive juice, and augment
the size of the fruit.
51. The greater part of the descending sap is found, as we
have before slated, in the bark ; but it appears that this liquid
also traverses the young layers of the albur'num, and it is by its
action that we explain the transformation of this albur'num into
perfect wood or dura'men. (Dura'men : Latin, hardening.)
52. The descending sap appears to be chiefly composed of
water holding gum and some other substances in solution. It
must be regarded as the chief source from which the plant
derives the materials composing; 1st, the excreted products ; 2d,
the peculiar juices secreted in the different organs and designed
to remain in the interior of the plant ; 3d, the new tissues. We
shall now study these phenomena successively in order.
OF SECRETIONS.
53. Plants, as well as animals, form, in certain parts of their
bodies, peculiar liquids, which differ from the generally diffused
juices ; and it is to the process by which these peculiar liquids
are formed, as well as to the liquids themselves, that we give the
name of secretion*
54. The matters secreted may be thrown out or expelled, or
they may be destined to remain in the interior of the plant, and
subserve the purposes of nutrition or some other function.
55. The matters that plants excrete in this way are very vari-
ous. A great many plants produce in reservoirs, situate near
the external surface, volatile oils that evaporate through their
tissue and diffuse themselves through the air ; the odour of flowers
and also of certain leaves depends in a great measure upon this
exhalation ; and it is to an emanation of this kind that is due
* Secretion : from the Latin, secer'nere, to separate. The process by
which organic structure is enabled to separate, from the fluids circulating1
in it, other different fluids. The function of secretion is usually performed
by glands, and each gland secretes a peculiar fluid according to its struc-
ture ; for example, the liver secretes bile, that is, it separates from the blood
circulating in the liver, the materials which it forms into bile ; the sali'vary
glands secrete saliva, and the mammary glands in females, secrete milk, &c.
Now, bile, saliva, and milk, are also termed secretions
50. How may the size of fruit be augmented ?
51. Does the descending sap pass through any other part Jhaa the bark ?
52. What are the chief uses of the descending sap ?
53. What is meant by the term secretion ?
54 What becomes of the secretions ?
55. Mention some of the various secretions of plants.
SECRETIONS. 57
a singular phenomenon presented by a plant named Fraxinellii,
which in hot days exhales an essential oil in such abundance,
that if it be approached with a light, the vapour with which the
plant is surrounded takes fire and burns, like that we force out
of an orange or lemon skin by pressure, into the flame of a can-
dle. Other plants secrete a caustic juice, which is frequently
poured out through hollow hairs, and thus produces a lively irri-
tation at the bottom of punctures made by these hairs. The
nettle is an example of this kind. Again we have wax secreted
by the leaves or epidermis of young branches and afterwards
expelled ; and we have also produced in this way gluey, acid,
saline, sugary, and other secretions.
56. These excretions* are formed by the roots as well as by
the leaves ; and as the matters thus expelled are of a nature that
is injurious to the plants which produce them, we understand
through the knowledge of,this fact why plants of the same species
do not flourish when kept for a long time in the same soil ; foi
the matters expelled by the roots are deposited in the earth sur-
rounding them, and are again absorbed by the plants growing in
it. But the matters expelled by one plant may often be suitable
nourishment fora plant of another species, and it is for this reason
that the ground often becomes fitted for certain culture when it
has been previously made to produce plants in which the excretion
by the roots is abundant. The art of assolement or succession
of crops, so important in agriculture, is chiefly based upon the
results depending on this excretion by the roots. We give the
name of assolement to the succession in the same soil of different
crops, combined in such a manner as to produce as largely as
possible ; and we say triennial, quatrennial assolement, &c.
according as the cultivation of the same plant recurs every three
every four years, &c.
57. The liquids secreted by plants and designed to remain in
the interior of their organs are designated under the name of
proper juices ; if they escape externally, it is altogether by acci-
dent, and their production appears to be useful to the health of
the plant that forms them. These juices are sometimes milky,
* [Excretion : from the Latin ezcer'nere, to separate from. The throwing
oft' those matters which are supposed to be useless or injurious to organic
life, as the perspiration in animals. An excretion is a secretion that is
hrown out of a plant or animal because useless to its internal well-being. J
56. Do other parts than the leaves of plants form excretions ? Why is
it that farmers do not plant the same plant in the same field, year after
year ? What is meant by excretion ?
57. What are proper juices ? What are then characters ?
58 SECRETIONS.
sometimes resinous, sometimes composed of essential oils, and at
other times formed of fatty matters.
58. The milky juices are chiefly found in the bark, and appear
to constitute the liquid we see circulating in the vessels of the
latex, in a great number of plants. The white liquid that runs
from the fig tree when it is cut, opium, caoutchouc (India rubber),
^c., are juices belonging to this class.
59. The resinous juices are very common in the bark, and are
also met with in other parts of the stem; they are formed in
little masses which become united together, and descend by their
own weight in the tissue of the plant. Sometimes these juices
are so abundant that, by making an incision in a tree, we cause
a stream to flow out of it, and in this way collect considerable
quantities of its proper juices ; as we see in pine and fir trees.
60. The essential or volatile oils are contained in cells or
vesicles, and are found in the foliacious and cortical parts of
plants. And the proper juices constituted of fatty oils are chiefly
found in the seeds.
61. The solid matter, found in the elongated cells of the wood,
and on this account called lignin (from the Latin, lignum,
wood), may also be considered as being the product of a species
of secretion, as well as the fecula, which is produced in great
abundance in certain parts of plants, seemingly forming deposits
of nutritive matter, destined at a future time for the nourishment
of the plant. This last substance has the appearance of small,
white, hard grains, which seem to be composed of different layers,
the exterior of which are hardest, and the most internal are simi-
lar to gum. It is found isolated in the cells of the cellular tissue;
and in some parts of certain plants, such as the seeds of wheat
or of rye, the tubers of the potatoe, the ligneous stems of mono-
cotyle'donous plants, &c., it forms considerable masses.
OF THE GROWTH OF PLANTS.
62. The growth of plants depends upon two phenomena : 1st,
the increase of the diameter of stems already formed ; 2d, the
development and elongation of new branches. We will succes-
sively examine both.
58 Where are the milky juices found ? Give some instances of milky
juices.
59. How are resinous juices collected from plants ? In what p irt of the
plant are they found ?
GO. In what parts of plants do we find the essential oils ? In what part
Ihe fatty oils ?
61. VVhat is lignin ? What is fecula ? Where is it found ?
62. Upon what does the growth of plants depend ?
GROWTH OF PLANTS. 59
63. The cellular tissue of plants, while it is still young, and
receives a sufficient quantity of nutritious juices, gives rise to
new cells, which are at first very small, isolated and soft; but
which, in proportion as they are developed, enlarge and harden,
and become as closely united to each other as to the cellular tissue
upon the surface of which they are formed. Those cells which
have ceased to grow, no longer possess the power of giving rise
in this way to new tissue; they become strongly joined to the
young cells with which they are in contact; and hence it is that
the growth of plants takes place only from the surface of the
most recently formed parts.
64. In ex'ogenous plants, the new tissue is thus deposited
between the albur'num and the bark, and at first appears in the
form of a viscid matter which is called cam'bium. Those tissues
which arise from the albur'num, form around the ligneous body
or wood of the stem, a new layer of albur'num, exterior to all
those that have been already deposited ; and those which arise
from the bark constitute a new cortical layer, within the layers
of bark already formed. Each of these layers increases in
thickness for a certain time, then ceases to grow, and, at the end
of a certain period, in its turn produces a new layer.
65. Perennial ex'ogenous plants in this way form a new layer
of wood arid of bark every year; and if we cut through the
stem of a tree transversely, we may see the number of zones or
rings of which it is composed, and thus count the number of
years it has lived.
66. The thickness of these layers varies in different plants,
and also varies in the same tree according to its age, the richness
of the soil in which it grows, and the abundance of its leaves,
&c. Trees grow most rapidly during the first years of their
existence, and it is observed that in old trees the most external
ligneous layers are thinnest. When the soil that surrounds the
foot of a tree is more favourable to vegetation on one side than
on the other, the roots become unequally developed, and on the
side where the largest roots are found are also found the largest
branches and the thickest ligneous layers.
67. The new ligneous and cortical foyers are not restricted to
covering the surface of the plant, but are prolonged beyond it,
and, at different points, form lateral expansions which constitute
63. From what parts does the growth of plants take place ?
64. What is cam'bium ? How is the new matter deposited ? Do the
new layers always continue to grow ?
65. How long is occupied in the formation of a new layer?
66. Is the thickness of these layers the same in all plants ? When is the
growth of trees most rapid ?
67. What are buds? Where are they found? What are the charai'-
ters of these budj ? Uoon what docs the rapidity of their growth depend I
60 GROWTH OF PLANTS -^- GRAFTING.
the new branches. These young shoots are, in general, protected
in their first growth by peculiar scales, and then constitute what
are called buds. They are ordinarily found at the base of the
petioles of the leaves, or at the extremity of the branches in
ligneous plants, and at the collum or neck of the root in perennial
herbaceous plants. Sometimes they are not apparent externally,
and are concealed even in the substance of the wood : but in
most instances they have the form of a small projecting tubercle,
which shows itself in the summer, and is known to farmers under
the name of eye; during the winter they enlarge, and in the
spring, when the sap begins to rise with strength, and to carry
towards the extremity of the branches the nutritive matters pre-
viously deposited in the roots or in the stem, they rapidly develope
themselves, their scales separate, and we see a young branch
spring from them, the leaves of which are at first variously
plaited and very close together ; this new shoot grows more
rapidly in proportion to the abundance of the sap, and during a
certain time is elongated throughout its length. But after the
first year it ceases to grow in this way, and it then forms laterally,
and particularly towards its upper part, new layers of vegetable
tissue which contribute to the increase of the length of its ex-
tremity, and, at the same time, to augment the diameter of its
base. •
68. In endogenous trees growth takes place very nearly in the
same manner, only the new parts do not form concentric layers,
but simply bundles (fasciculi) of fibres variously arranged, and
the buds are ordinarily developed at the extremity of the stem
and branches.
69. We have said above that the cells of the cellular tissue,
when very young, tend to become united or soldered to each
other. This is so true that if we lay bare a portion of new
tissue of two neighbouring trees, and bring these parts together
and keep them in contact, they become so intimately united that
the two soon form a single body, and possess one life in common.
The art of grafting plants depends upon a knowledge of this
fact. *
[Grafting is an operation by which one plant is joined to another in vital
union, in such a manner as to form one. The tree upon which grafting is
practised is called the stock, and the branch, or rudiment of a branch that
is fitted to it, is named the graft. The stock is ordinarily a wild shrub,
and the graft a cultivated variety of the same plant. In order to succeed,
the albur'num of the graft must accurately fit, through the greatest part of
its extent, that of the stock, that is, the tree upon which the graft is im-
planted ; then the junction, or, as it were, soldering of the two barks, is
6». How does the growth of en'dogens differ from that of ex'ogens ?
69. tpon what does the art of grafting depend? What is grafting?
\Vhat are the modes of performing this operation ?
GROWTH OF PLANTS. 61
effected by the assistance of the cam'bium. One condition necessary to
the success of the operation is, that the sap of the two plants shall bo
feimilfir; for example, the plants of the same genus, or of the same family
are more readily grafted upon each other than those which belong to dif-
ferent families. Grafting is a very useful operation in agriculture ; it
serves to preserve and multiply varieties winch could not be produced by
means of seeds ; it saves time by procuring a great number of trees which
are with difficulty multiplied by other means, and accelerates by many
years the fructification of certain plants.
Gardeners employ five or six different processes to obtain the develop.
ment of the bud or graft upon the bark of other trees which they use as
stocks.
Splice or whip grafting, consists in paring down in a slanting direction
both the graft and stock, and, after applying them neatly to each other,
securing them by strands of bast matting, in the same manner as two
pieces of rod are spliced together to form a whip handle. The part is after-
wards covered with tempered clay, or any convenient composition that will
exclude the air.
Grafting by approach, or inarching, is a mode of grafting in which, to
make sure of success, the graft or scion is not separated from the parent
plant until it has become united to the stock.]
70. Such are the principal phenomena of the life of nutrition
in plants : but they are far from taking place with the same in-
tensity at all times ; and their duration is extremely variable.
71. In every plant we observe periods of activity, of languor,
and even torpor, and then an augmentation of the vegetative
functions. In our climate these periods correspond with the four
seasons of the year. During winter, the cold and absence of the
leaves, in most plants, almost entirely arrests nutrition ; they are
then in a state of torpor, comparable to that which hibernating
animals experience, and their buds and roots alone continue to
grow. But when returning spring imparts to the plant thus
benumbed a certain amount of heat and moisture, it awakes in a
measure, the sap rises with force, the buds develope themselves,
the young shoots or scions become elongated, and vegetation
displays all its activity. In summer the leaves are somewhat
hardened, and become less suited for attracting the sap and
exhaling the liquids which reach them from the roots ; conse-
quently vegetation is less active : and in autumn this change in
the leaves being greater, gradually brings about their destruction
or fall. At this period, it sometimes happens that buds begin to
develope themselves, and again attract the sap with force ; and
this ascent of the nutritive juices causes an elongation of the
branches and the formation of new leaves, the freshness of which
is in bf-autiful contrast with the yellow tint of the old ones. But
the cold soon enfeebles all these phenomena of life, and arrests
70. Is the duration of all plants the same ?
71. Are the functions of vegetables always equally active ? How is their
activity influenced ?
15
62 AGE OF PLANTS.
nutrition, even when it does not cause the /all of the leaves, as
ordinarily happens.
72. In hot countries, where there is no winter properly speak-
ing, there are, nevertheless, periods of activity and repose in
plants which correspond to the dry and wet or rainy season;
there the great heat arrests vegetation as the cold does in our
climate, and the life of plants is reanimated in the rainy season.
73. As we have already stated, a great number of plants are
annual, that is, they live only through one year ; others com-
plete their growth only in the second year, and die on the
approach of the second winter, and are termed biennial ; others
again continue to live many years, and are for this reason called
perennial plants. All herbaceous plants are annual or biennial;
ligneous plants live many years, and the duration of their lives
exceeds every thing we could imagine. One of the orange trees
at Versailles, in France, appears to be nearly four hundred
years old; and a tree of the same species, which* may be still
seen at the convent of Saint Sabin in Rome, was planted there
by Saint Dominick more than six hundred years ago. In Swit-
zerland there are linden trees which, to judge from their diameter
and the manner in which these trees ordinarily grow, ought to be
more than a thousand years old ; and there is a chestnut tree at
Sancerre, which was known six hundred years ago as the great
chestnut, from which we may conclude that its age is not much
less than that of the lindens we have just mentioned. But the
tree most celebrated on account of its longevity is, unquestion-
ably, the baobab, that flourishes in Senegal. A botanist named
Adanson notices one which three centuries before had been
observed by two English travellers, and on excavating the trunk
of this tree, there was found an inscription they had written,
covered by three hundred ligneous layers; from this they were
enabled to judge how much this gigantic plant had grown in three
hundred years, and, comparing this with the diameter of the tree,
it was estimated that the probable duration of its existence wag
upwards of five thousand years.
72. Is there any variation in the activity of the functions of vegetables
in hot countries ?
73. What is meant by an annual plant ? What is meant by a biennial
plant? What is a perennial plant? What is supposed to be the age of
the oldest living tree ?
GENERATION OF PLANTS. 63
LESSON IV.
GENERATION OF PLANTS. — Multiplication of Plants In/ Division
— Formation of adventitious Roots — Multiplication of Plants
by Grafting ; by Tubercles — Phanero gamous and Cn/pfo' ga-
mous Plants defined — Structure of Flowers — Peduncles — Pedi*
cii — Floral Leaf — Bract — Involucre — Spatke — Glume —
Torus — Receptacle — Inflorescence — Perianth — Calyx — Co-
rolla— Petals — Forms oj tlue Corolla — Nectary — JKstivation
— Essential Parts of Flowers — Stamens — Anther — Pollen —
Pistil — Carpel — Ovary.
OF THE REPRODUCTION OF PLANTS.
1. The multiplication of plants takes place in two ways ; some-
times by means of special organs, designed to produce the germ
of the new individual, and sometimes by the simple division of
their tissue.
2. The multiplication of plants by division consists in tho
separation of a part of an individual, which part continues to
vegetate, and becomes so complete in itself as to constitute, in its
turn, a new individual plant.
3. This phenomenon depends upon the fact that the different
parts of a plant, placed under favourable circumstances, have a
tendency to produce those organs which are wanting to constitute
a complete plant, and that the portion which gives rise to these
complementary parts becomes fit to live without the assistance of
the individual from which it was taken. For example, a branch
placed in favourable circumstances may put forth roots (which
are called adventitious when they arise in this way, as before
stated in page 18), so that, if it be separated from its stem, it
will still continue to be nourished, and will constitute a new indi-
vidual ; the same is true of roots ; they also have the faculty of
giving rise to sterns and to leaves ; and a root from which a stem
and leaves arise possesses all the organs necessary for vegetation,
and consequently may continue to live after it has been separated
from the plant of which it at first formed a part.
4. Gardeners give the name of shoots or slips to those branches
from which they cause adventitious roots to spring, and which
they then separate from the parent plant. In general we succeed
1. How is the multiplication of plants effected ?
2. What is meant by the multiplication of plants by division
3. Upon what does the multiplication of plants by division depend ?
4. How are adventitious roots artificially produced ?
64 MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS.
in producing these roots by placing in a property moist situation,
a branch in which the progress of the descending sap is slow,
therefore permitting an accumulation of nutritive matter in it.
To arrest in this way the descending sap at a point from which
we wish to produce adventitious roots, we sometimes make a cir-
cular incision through the thickness of the bark, and place in it
i tightly drawn ligature, and then surround it with moist earth;
ometimes we simply bend a branch into the ground, because, at
he point where it is bent, the nutritive juices, being forced to
overcome their own weight in order to ascend towards the stem,
are retarded in their progress ; at other times we take advantage
of natural knots that exist in a branch and favour the development
of adventitious roots ; and there are some plants, the branches
of which, when surrounded by moist earth or moss, put forth
roots without a stagnation of the nutritious juices being necessary.
When the roots appear, we cut the branch so as to separate it
from the plant to which it belonged, and it then constitutes a new
individual.
5. But we do not separate the slip or branch until the roots
are formed, that is, when it possesses all the parts that compose
a complete plant ; but it often happens that a branch cut before
it has put forth adventitious roots, continues to vegetate and pro-
duce roots so as to constitute a new individual : for example, a
branch of willow freshly cut and planted in moist earth, promptly
takes root and becomes a tree similar to that from which it
was detached ; it is then called a slip or sucker. All piants
may be multiplied in this way, but with more or less facility; as
this operation rarely succeeds, gardeners seldom have recourse
to it.
6. It is not the branches alone that may give rise to adventi-
tious roots and constitute a slip or shoot; sometimes the leaves
will perform this office; for example, the leaves of the orange,
of the fig, &c., detached from their stems and fixed in the earth
by their petiole, will take root by their principal nerve, and after-
wards give rise, from the superior surface of their paren'chyma,
to ascending stems.
7. The multiplication of plants by grafting, of which we
have already spoken, is also a mode of propagation that belongs
to this class of phenomena, because it is effected by simple divi-
sion ; only the part of the plant which is separated, instead of
5. When is the new branch separated ?
t>. Do any other parts than branches produce adventitious • oots ? (See
pajre 19.)
7 What is the multiplication of plants by grafting- ?
MULTIPLICATION OF PLANTS. 65
becoming complete in itself, farms an intimate union with another
plant, and lives at the expense of its roots as a sort of parasite.
8. Propagation by tubercles is another mode of multiplication
by division, which is effected by means of buds surrounded by a
deposite of nutritive matter, which, being placed in favourable
circumstances in regard to moisture, heat, &c., may vegetate and
put forth a stem and roots. These deposites of nutritive matter
are sometimes formed in the roots, sometimes in subterraneous
stems, sometimes in the axil* of the leaves, ordinarily designated
under the name of tubercles, off-setts, which, when they have
attained a certain size, are usually detached. The potatoe pre-
sents us with a remarkable example of this mode of rnultiplica-.
tion ; this plant produces along its sterns tubercles which are not
developed ordinarily except in its subterraneous part, and are
only held by a thin thread, so as to be easily separated at the end
of the year, either by the slightest force, or from the death of the
stem from which they grow ; now, each one of these tubercles
has upon it several buds or germs (called eyes] enveloped by a
mass of cellular tissue containing fecula, &c. ; if placed in a
situation that is sufficiently moist and warm, these buds soon
begin to sprout and attract the nutritive mutters deposited around
them ; by means of this nourishment the bud elongates, the stem
and leaves begin to develope themselves, and as soon as they
begin to perform their ordinary functions, the nutritive juices,
prepared within them, descend and cause the formation of roots
so as to give rise to a new and complete plant.
9. To recapitulate : we see, then, that, under certain favour-
able circumstances, all plants may be multiplied by division, and
that this division may be effected by shoots, by slips, by grafting,
and by tubercles ; but in most cases, the reproduction of plants
's effected in a manner altogether different, by the means of seeds,
which are themselves the production of particular organs :
namely, flowers and fruits.
10. The special organs destined to secure the multiplication of
plants are the flowers, fruits, and seeds.
11. Plants that are provided with perfectly distinct flowers, are
designated under the name of Phanerd 'gamous (from the Greek,
phaneros, evident, and gamos, marriage) ; and those which have'
no distinct special organs of multiplication are called Crypto'-
* Axil : from the Latin, axilla, arm-pit. The angle or point at which a
leaf or branch unites with the stem.
8. What is meant by the propagation of plants by tubercles ?
9. How is the reproduction of plants usually effected ?
10. What are the special organs of reproduction of plants ?
11. What are phanero'gamous plants ? What are crypto'gamous plants?
66 STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS.
gamous (from the Greek, kruptos, concealed, and gamos, mar
riage).
12. The flower consists of the assemblage of organs, upon
which spring the germs of phanero'gamous plants, and the parts
which immediately surround them. Its use is to secure the pro-
duction of these germs, and their fecundation (fertilization), that
's, to endow them with the faculty of living and of developing
themselves so as to be able to become plants, similar to those
from which they were derived.
13. The fruit is the assemblage of these germs already
fecundated, and of organs destined to protect them until they
attain maturity, that is, the state of perfect seeds.
14. And the seed is the germ furnished with various envelopes,
that is, the body which, by its development, becomes the new
plant, and the organs designed to protect it, or to furnish the
young plant its first nourishment.
Of the Structure of Flowers.
15. The flowers, as we have stated above, are the parts in
which the germ of the new plant is produced and acquires the
property of living and of developing itself. They are composed
of appendages analogous to leaves, but of various forms, which
arise from the extremity of the stem or its ramifications.
16. Sometimes the flowers arise immediately from the stem
without being attached to it by a tail or any accessory part; in
this case they are termed sessile (from the Latin, sessilis, dwarfish,
that is, without a stalk or stem) ; but in general that portion of
the stem which bears them is prolonged and constitutes a sort of
tail, analogous to the petiole of a leaf; to this support we give
the name of peduncle (from the Latin, pes, a foot,) a little foot, —
(Jigs. 81, 82, 96);. and when it is divided, each one of the
divisions that is terminated by a flower is called a pedicil. (See
fig. I, page 11).
17. For example : pedunculate flowers have the tailor stem
simple, as in the common pink ; and pedicelate flowers have
several tails springing from one common to the whole, as in
hunches or clusters of lilac, of the vine, &c.
18. The peduncle or the pedicil of a flower may arse from
12. Of what does the flower consist ? What is its use ?
] 3 What is meant by the fruit ?
14. What is the seed ?
15. Of what are flowers composed ?
1 6. What is the peduncle of a flower ? What is a pediciJ?
17. What is meant by pedicelate flowers?
18. What is a floral leaf? What is a bract ?
STRUCTURE OF FLOWERS.
the very extremity of the branch that bears it, or laterally, and
in this last case, it arises from the axil of a leaf, which on this
account has been called floral leaf, when it resembles other
leaves (Jig. 86), and is named bract (from the Latin, bractea,
a thin leaf of metal), when it differs from the other leaves in its
colour, its form (Jigs. 75 and 76), or in the absence alone of the
buds in its axil.
19. These bracts may be found at the base of the peduncle,
or at the base of each of its divisions, when this support is
ramified as in pedicelate flowers. When they are symmetrically
arranged around one or several flowers, so
as to form a kind of accessory envelope,
the assemblage is called an involucre —
from the Latin, involutiu, folded in (Jig.
75). — Generally, they have a foliaceous
consistence, but they sometimes resemble
little scales, more or less closely embracing
the base of the flower. When the in-
volucre surrounds a single flower, and is
very close to it, it often resembles one
of the proper envelopes of the flower,
called calyx (Latin, the cup of a flower),
and in this case it is commonly known „.
under the name of calicula, as in the mal-
low. When the involucre entirely covers a flower before it is
blown, and the flower is not seen externally until this enve]ope
INVOLUCRE.
Fig. 76. — SPATHE.
Fig. 77. — GLUMZ.
is torn open or unrolled, it is called a spathe (Jig. 76, sp, from
the Greek, spathe, a ladle): — the common onion, narcissus (fig
19. What is an involucre ? What is a spathe ? What is a glume ?
68 INFLORESCENCE.
113), the palm, &c., are examples. Finally, the bracts of some
giants are in the form of two small scales, which seem to be in
the place of the proper envelopes of the flower, and then they
constitute what botanists call glume (from the Latin, gluma,
a husk of corn, Jig. 77).
20. The terminal portion of the pedicil which gives rise to
the different parts of the flower, is called torus (from the
Latin, torus, a bed). When the terminal extremity of a peduncle
is divided into a great number of pedicils,
and these are very short, we generally re-
mark that the principal support is widened
and thickened, and to this dilated portion of
the peduncle we give the name of recep-
tacle ; it contains a deposit of nutritive
matter destined to assist in the develop-
ment of the flowers situate above, and it
is sometimes entirely fleshy as in the
Fig. 78. — RECEPTACLE, artichoke ; sometimes it is so concave as to
completely enclose the flowers and fruits
that arise from it, as is seen in the fig tree (fig. 78).
21. We give the name of inflorescence to the arrangement
which the flowers assume on the stem, and we give special names
to the different arrangements they assume. For instance, those
flowers which spring from the axil of an ordinary leaf, are called
axillary fimvers ; and these axillary flowers are again distin-
guished by the terms solitary, geminal, ternary, quaternary,
and fascicular, according as one, two, three, four, or a greater
number spring from the axil of the same leaf: and we give the
name tf verticillate to flowers which arise from the axil of leaves
which are also verticillate, and form a kind of ring around the
stem. Terminal flowers are those found at the extremity of the
stem or a principal branch, and accompanied at their base by two
opposite bracts ; the term spike (fig. 79) is applied to axillary
flowers which are arranged upon a common, but simple and
not ramified axis, as in the wheat, &c. ; when unisexual flowers
furnished with scales, the known peduncle of which is similar to
that of the spike, but is articulated at its base in such a manner
Explanation of Fig. 78. — Flowers of a fig tree enclosed in a concave
receptacle ; — a, receptacle ; — 6, flowers.
20. What is meant by torus ? What is the receptacle ?
21. What is meant by inflorescence? What is meant by axillary
flowers ? What are verticillate flowers ? What are terminal flowers ?
What is a spike ? What is a cat-kin ? What is a cluster ? What is a
panicle? What is a thyrsus? What is a corymb ? What is an umbel?
What is a capital ?
PARTS OF FLOWERS.
as to be entirely detached after inflorescence, as, for example, in
the flowers of the willow, elm, beech, oak, &c., it is called a cat-
kin ; when all the flowers are borne upon a common peduncle,
irregularly branched,
they are termed a
cluster, as in the
horse-chestnut ; when
flowers are arranged
on the stem similarly
to a cluster, but have
the secondary divi-
sions very much elon-
gated and widely se-
parated from each
other, they form a
panicle, as in the
male flowers of the
maize or Indian corn;
thyrsus is a sort of
cluster, the axis of
which is much elon-
gated, and the branch-
es of which, in parti-
cular, have the same
arrangement as the assemblage of the cluster,
as in the lilac and vine; a corymb is where all
the flowers, the peduncles of which with their
ramifications arise from the upper part of the
stem, at different points, and reach to nearly the
same height, as in the milfoil; when the peduncles
are of equal lengths and arise from the same point, diverging and
ramifying in a uniform manner so that the assemblage of flowers
presents an arched surface like the top of an extended parasol,
we have an umbel, as in the carrot, parsley, hemlock, &c. (fig.
150); we give the name of capital to an assemblage of a con-
siderable number of little flowers upon a common receptacle, that
is wider than the summit of the peduncle, and surrounded by a
particular involucre, as in the artichoke, milk-thistle (fig- 80),
the marigold (fig- 153), the sunflower, &c. ; capitals are often
designated under the name of compound or composite flowers,
because at first sight the assemblage of all the flowers borne
upon a common peduncle appear to form only one and the same
flower.
22. The flower itself is ordinarily composed of two series of
organs, namely, (1.) the essential parts, which occupy the centre,
Pig, 80. — A CAPITAL,
Fig. 79.
A SPIKE.
22. How is a flower composed ?
70
CALYX.— SEPALS.
Fig. 81. SECTION OF A FLOWER.
and, (2.) the accessory or tegumentary parts, which occupy the
circurrference, and serve to protect the first.
23. ' These tegumentary parts of ike flower constitute what is
called the perianth (from the Greek peri, around, and anthos,
flower) ; sometimes they are wanting entirely ; and at others
they are imperfect; but in most instances they form around the
essential organs of infloresehce two envelopes, the most external
of which is called the calyx (cup of the flower), and the second,
which is situate above, and within the preceding, is named
the corolla (from the Latin, corolla, a little crown) — ( figs. 81, 82,
*3, 84).
24. CALYX. The calyx
or the external envelope
of the flower is composed
of a variable number of
appendages, analogous to
leaves, which are called
sepals ; they are arranged
nearly in a circle around
the inferior part of the
flower (fig. 81, b, c). Their
colour is generally green ;
their surface is furnished with stomata, and their structure is
similar to that of leaves.
25. Sometimes all the se'pals are perfectly distinct and may
be separated without breaking their tissue; in this case they con-
stitute a polyse'palous* calyx; at other times they are joined, or
as it were glued together, in such a way that the calyx appears
to be formed of a single piece, and is then designated under the
name of monose 'palous\ or gamose 'palom\ calyx (Jigs. 84, 89,
95 ). When this junction extends throughout the whole extent
Explanation of Fig. 81. — Vertical section of a polypetalous flower (of the
family of Rosaces), showing the relative position of its different parts : — a,
the peduncle ; — fe, the calyx ; — c, division of the calyx ; — d, the corolla ; — c,
the stamens ;— /, the stigma ; — o, the ovary.
* POLVSE'PALOUS. — From the Greek, polus, many, and se'pal — having
many sepals.
t MONOSE'PALOUS. — From the Greek OTOTIOS, single, and se'pal — having a
single se'pal.
t GAMOSE'PALOUS. — From the Greek gamos, marriage, and se'pal — having
the se'pals united together, forming a single piece or sepal.
23. What is a perianth ?
24. What is a calyx ?
25. What are sepals ? What is a polyse'palous calyx ? What is a toono-
scpalous calyx ? What is meant by an entire calyx ? What are the lobes
jf the calyx? What is a regular calyx? What is an irregular calyx?
What is a ablate calyx ?
SEPALS.— COROLLA. 71
of the se'pals, the calyx is entire, but in general it occurs only at
the base, and then the terminal and free portion of the se'pals
constitutes the lobes or teelk which occupy the upper part of the
calyx and spread more or less. We give the name of tube to the
lower and commonly contracted part of a calyx thus formed, and
the superior and open part is called the limb. In most dicotyle'-
donous plants, the calyx is composed of five se'pals, and when
these appendages are united at the base, presents five lobes ;
sometimes, however, there are only three or even two, and there
are examples of a considerably greater number. Its form varies :
sometimes it is regular, that is, composed of parts entirely like
each other ; sometimes irregular, that is, consisting of parts that
differ from each other in form or size. Sometimes certain se'pals
nre united to each other for a shorter distance than the rest, so as
to form divisions of unequal size, and constitute what botanists
icrm a labiate calyx (labiate, from the Latin labium, lip).
26. The se'pals, like the leaves, are sometimes caducous (from
ihe Latin, cado, I fall), and sometimes persistent (from the Latin
per, through, and sisto, I remain); after inflorescence they some-
times dry where they are, and at other times, on the contrary,
they enlarge and become fleshy. Their form varies : some are
lanceolate (lance-shaped) or pointed, others are blunt, and others
again are cordiform (heart-shaped). In some plants their extremity
is hardened so as to resemble a spine or a long hair.
27. The whole of the calyx formed by the assemblage of the
se'pals also presents considerable differences ; the monose 'palous
ca'lices may be tubular (or elongated in the form of a tube, as in
the pink); urce'olate (from the Latin urceus, a pitcher), or in form
of a pitcher or urn, contracted above the limb and then dilated,
as in the rose ; campa' nulate (from the Latin campanula, a little
bell), or in form of a bell; vesicular, compressed, angular, &c.
The polyse'palous ca'lices also vary ; some are tubular, others
are campanulate, others stellate (star-shaped), &c.
28. Corolla. The internal
envelope of the flower or
corolla is composed, like the
calyx, by the union of a certain
number of lamellar appendages
somewhat analogous to leaves,
which are arranged circularly
in one or more rows or whorls
(Jigs. 82, 83, 84). To these
appendages we give the name Fig. 82. — COROLLA,
26. In what particulars do se'pals resemble leaves?
27. What are the forms of calices ?
28. What is a corolla ? What are petals ?
72
COROLLA.
Fig. 83.
POLYPETALOUS COROLLA.
of petals (from the Greek petalon, a leaf,
Jig. 83, c), and it is to be observed that
they differ from leaves more than the se'-
pals ; they have but few stomata ; their
nerves, which are similar to those of the
leaves as regards their direction, are
more slender, and contain no other kin'i
of vessels but tracheae ; they are very
seldom green, but generally possess the
most brilliant colours.
29. The corolla is sometimes mono-
pe'talous or gamope'talous (Jig. 84), that
is, composed of a single piece, formed by the inti-
mate union of all the petals (as in the flower of the
bind-weed) ; at other times it is polypetalous (Jigs.
82, 83), that is, composed of a greater or less num-
ber of separate petals (as in the rose, pink, &c.).
The number of petals is ordinarily five, in which
case they are arranged around the essential or-
gans of the flower in a single row or whorl or
verticellus ; sometimes there are three or four
only, or seven, and at other times a much larger
number, and then they are placed so as to form
several concentric whorls (verticelli), and to alter-
nate with those of the neighbouring row. Polype'-
talous flowers are called dipe'talous when they
have two petals only ; tripe'talous when they have three ; tetra-
pe'talous, pentape'talous, hexape'talous, when they have four, five,
and six petals, and so on.
30. We generally recognise in a pe'tal, the claw or inferior
part, corresponding to the petiole of the leaf, which is more or
less contracted, and the limb, which is more or less spread and
Explanation of Fig. 82. — A polypetalous flower (of the family of Rosa-
cese): — a, the peduncle or flower-stalk ; — 6,6,6,6, extremities of the divisions
of the calyx or sepals; — cy, the petals of the corolla; — rf, the stamens (in
this instance, perigy'novs, from the Greek, peri, around, and gune, woman),
in the midst of which is seen the pistil.
Explanation of Fig. 83. — Flower of a malva'cea : — a, the calyx ; — 6, the
corolla; — c, the stamens united in a tubular andro'phorum (from the Greek
i/ner, man, or in Botany, a stamen, and pherein, to bear) — a columnar ex-
pansion of the centre of the flower upon which the stamens seem to grow :
— rf, the stigmata.
Explanation of Fig. 84. — Represents a monopetalous, labiate flower, or
lulobate corolla.
29. What is meant by a monopetalous corolla ? What is a polypelaloua
corolla ?
30. What is the claw of a petal ? What is the limb of a petal ? What
is the throat of a corolla ?
Fig. 84.
MONOPETALOUS
COROLLA.
VARIOUS FORMS OF COROLLA.
constitutes tha upper part. Its form varies very much : some-
times it is rounded, sometimes acute, sometimes Iwllow, and at
other times its base is prolonged like a spur. Like the calyx,
the corolla is sometimes regular, sometimes irregular; sometimes
jt *.s cadu'cous; that is, it falls as soon as it is expanded or blown,
at other times it fades in the flower before it is detached, and is
then said to be marcescent, and we generally distinguish an in-
ferior, straight portion, which, in monopetalous flowers, consti-
tutes the tube; a superior part which is more or less flaring,
called limb, and a circular line which separates the latter from
the tube, and bears the name of throat.
The general form of the corolla varies much ; the following
are its principal modifications.
VARIETIES OF THE COROLLA.
Corollas are monope'talous, when they are formed of a single
petal, and polype' talous, when they consist of several petals.
MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS are either regular or irregular.
31. The principal forms of REGULAR MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS,
are the following :
Tubular, when the tube is long, as in the
lily.
Campanidate, or bell-shaped, as in the
annexed figure (85). (From the Latin, cam-
pana, a bell.) Example: the campanula.
Fig. 85. CAMPANULATE.
Infundibular, or funnel-shaped, as in the flower
of the tobacco (fig. 86).
(Infundibular, from the Latin, infundibulum, a
funnel.)
Fig. 86.
INFUNDIBUI.AR
31. What is a tubular corolla? When is it campanulate ? When is it
nfundibular? When is it cyathiform ? What is a hypocrate'riform
corona ? What is a rotate corolla ? What is an urce'olate corolla ? What
9 a scu'tellate corolla ?
16
VARIETIES OF COROLLA.
Cyathiforni, or cup-shaped (fig. 87). (Cyathifann,
from the Latin, cyatkus, a drinking-cup.) It differs from
the infundibular corolla in having its tube, and of course
its border, less spreading; and from the campanulate,
in not having its tube appear as if scooped out at the
base. Fig. VI.
CYATHIFORM.
Hypocrate'riform, or salver-shaped, when the
tube is long, and expanded into a flat limb at the
c throat or entrance into the corolla, as in the prim-
rose.
(Hypocrate'riform : from the Greek, upo, under,
d krater, cup, and phorme, shape. Salver-shaped.)
The form of a corolla consisting of a tube, sud-
denly expanded into a flat border. ( Fig. 88 : — c,
Fig. 88. corolla ; — d, the calyx.)
PRIMROSE. C
Rotate, or wheel-shaped, when the tube is
very short, and the limb expanded and almost
flat.
Urceolate, or pitcher-shaped, when it is di-
lated towards the base,, and contracted towards
the orifice, as in several heaths, &c. Fig. 89
represents an urceolate, monopetalous corolla :
— a, the calyx; — b, tube of the corolla; — c, the
limb of the corolla ; — d, the pistil.
Scu'tellate. or porringer-shaped, when it is
expanded and slightly concave, like a basin.
The following are the principal forms of
a.
Fig. '89.
URCEOLATE.
Fig. 90.
BILABIATE.
IRREGULAR MONOPETALOUS COROLLAS.
32. Bilabiate, when it is more or less elongated,
dilated, and open towards the top, and terminated by
two lips, one superior and the other inferior (Jig.
90).
Personate, or in form of a mask, when
the tube is elongated and the throat di-
lated and closed above by the approxima-
tion of the limb, which consists of two
unequal lips (Jig. 91).
Anomalous, when its form is so irregu
lar that it cannot be referred to any of
the ordinary types.
32. What is a bilabiate corolla ? When is a corolla personate ? When
VARIETIES OF COROLLAS.
75
The following are the principal forms of
REGULAR POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS.
Cruciform (from the Latin, crux, a cross i
when it is composed of four petals with an
elongated claw, arranged in the form of a
cross, as in cresses (jig. 92).
(The four petals have the form of a St. Andrew's
cross; the lower part is the unguis or claw, and the
upper part is called the tolarnen or border, each petal
having the form of a battledore. The claw is some-
. 92. — CRUCIFORM, what longer than the border.)
Rosaceous, when the petals, from
three to five, or more, have a very short
claw, and are expanded as in the simple
rose (fig. 9.3).
Cary'ophylla'ceous (from the Latin,
caryophyllus, the garden pink) — when
the petals, five in number, have very
long claws, concealed by the calyx,
as in the pink.
The following are the principal forms of the
Fig.W
IRREGULAR POLYPETALOUS COROLLAS.
Papilionaceous (from the Latin, papilla,
a butterfly), when the petals, five in num-
ber, have each a peculiar form, the two
lower ones ordinarily united to
each other, forming what is call-
ed the carina or keel (fig. 95) ; €
the two lateral ones are generally
expanded and called wings ; and
the superior one ordinarily erect,
various in form, and covered by
the other four, previous to the
Fig. 95.
CARINA.
d c a
Fig. 94. — PEA.
Explanation of Fig. 94. — Represents a papiliona'ceous flower;— a, the
calyx; — 6, the banner; — c, the wings; — d, the carina or keel; — e, the
stamens.
1'ig- 95 is the same flower, having the banner and wings removed to
show the carina.
is it anomalous? What is a cruciform corolla? What is a rosaceous
corolla ? When is it caryophylla'ceous ?
33. What is a papiliona'ceous flower ? What is the vcxillum ?
715 NECTARY.— AESTIVATION.
blowing of the flower, and called the banner, or standard, or
vezillum, as in the pea, acacia, &c. (fig. 94).
Anomalous, when the petals are irregular without having the
papilionaceous form, as in the violet.
34. NECTARY. — The word " nec-
tary," (from nectar, the food of the
gods,) is of very general application,
and is used to express some peculiar
modifications in the sepals or petals,
by which they^assume an unusual
form ; but more especially when
there is some alteration of struc-
ture, by which they are wholly or
partially converted into secreting or-
gans, and exude a saccharine, glutin- P
ous juice. FIjr. 96. -NECTARY.
35. ^ESTIVATION. — As the condition of the leaf whilst yet in
bud, is termed its vernation, so the manner in which the several
parts of the flower lie folded in the flower-bud, is termed their
estivation.
36. Certain flowers (the tulip for example), instead of having
a double perianth, have only a single envelope, and we are not
certain whether it is a calyx or corolla. In general it seems to
bear a closer resemblance in structure to the calyx, but it some-
times presents the bright colours of corollas ; it is sometimes
analogous to the first of these floral envelopes, and sometimes
analogous to the second ; and at other times again it is entirely
formed by the union of the two, which have become perfectly
alike. Be it as it may, we give the name of perigoniym (from
the Greek, peri, around, and geinomai, I grow) to this single
envelope (which, in other respects, may be double or simple) ;
and flowers that possess this mode of organization are termed
monochla'mydous (from the Greek, monos, one, chlamus, cloak,
and eidos, resemblance : — apparently having but one covering or
envelope).
37. ESSENTIAL PARTS OF FLOWERS. — The essential parts of
flower occupy its centre (figs. 81, 82, 83), as has been stated
above, and, although they are the most important, they are very
Explanation of Fig. 96. — Flower of the larkspur; — n, the nectary ; —
p, the peduncle.
34. What is meant by nectary ?
35. What is meant by vernation ? (Vernation : from the Latin, vernvs,
belonging to the spring.) What is aestivation? ^-Estivation from the
Latin, astiva, summer quarters.)
36. What is the perigonium ? What are monochla'mydous flowers *
37. What are the essential parts of flowers ?
PISTILS.—STAMENS.
far from being the most apparent to the eye. These organs are
of two kinds ; one kind is destined to produce the ovules or
germs, and the other to cause their fecundation ; the first bears,
the name of pistil, and the second is called stamen.
38. Most flowers are provided both with a pistil, and with
stamens, and consequently possess all the organs necessary for
the production and fecundation of germs ;
they are distinguished by the name of her-
maphrodite flowers. Others, on the con-
trary, either possess only stamens (Jig> 97)
or a pislil alone (fig> 98), and are named
unisexual; the plants that bear these in-
complete flowers are termed monaeceous
(from the Greek, monos, single, and oikos,
a house), when the two kinds of flowers,
those with pistils, and those with stamens,
are developed on the same plant; but when
these different flowers grow on separate plants, some
producing flowers with stamens, and others bearing
flowers with pistils only, they are named di.wr.cous
(from the Greek, dis, two, and oikos, house). Those which have
flowers provided with all the organs are named polygamous plants.
39. Stamens. — Thesla- f e d
mens are situate between
the corolla (d) and the pis-
til (/) (fig. 99, e] ; they
are generally in form of
filaments (threads), and in
no manner resemble the
leaves in their use; never-
theless, they may be con-
sidered as analogous to
leaves, because, under cer-
tain circumstances, they are changed into petals. In double
flowers, for example, it is by the stamens being changed into
petals that the corolla, in place of being simple, as in the natural
or uncultivated state, presents a greater or less number of whorls.
Fig. 98.
PISTIL,.
Fig. 99.
Explanation of Fig. 97. — Represents (enlarged) one of the male flowers
of a fig tree, isolated ; it has three stamens, each one crowned by an
anther.
Fig. 98. — Represents (enlarged) one of the female flowers of the fig tree,
separated ; it shows a pistil.
38. What are monoeceous flowers ? What are dioeceous flowers ? What
are polygamous flowers ?
39. Where are the stamens situated ? How are stamens analogous to
leaves? What are double flowers ?
16*
STAMENS.
Fir. 100.
Fig. 101.
DIANDROUS.
40. The number of stamens varies much in different plants;
certain flowers which are on this account named monandrous
(from the Greek, monos, single, and
arter, stamen), have bnt one stamen ;
other flowers called ctiandraus (Jig.
101), triandrous, tetrandrous, pen-
tandrous, &c. (fig. 100) have two,
three, four, five, or more stamens.
In general, their number is equal to
that of the petals, or is a multiple of
tne petals. Sometimes they are all
alike, and at other limes they are not of the same
size ; when the same flower always has two short and two long
stamens, it is named didyna'mous (from the Greek, dis, twice,
and dunamis, power) ; when the whole
number of stamens is six, and four of
them are longer than the other two, the
plant is termed tetradyna'mous (from the
Greek, tetefes, fou r, and dunamis, power).
These organs form one or more whorls
or verticals, situate within the corolla
(fig* 102), and in general those which
form the external whorl (or the only F.
verticel when there is biit one) regularly
alternate with the petals, so that each stamen corresponds with
one of the divisions of the corolla.
41. Each stamen consists of three parts: namely, the fila-
went, the anther, and the pollen.
42. The filament of a stamen is a sup- ?
port analogous to the petiole of the leaves
and the claw of the petals, and is gene-
rally cylindrical and slender, as in fig. b-
103, b. Sometimes it is so short that
it seems to be wanting, and in this case,
the stamen is said to be sessile; gene-
rally, however, it is very long.
43. The filaments arise from the Fig. 103. — STAMENS.
Explanation of Fig. 103.— A flower without its envelopes; — a, the calyx
— 6, the filament of the stamen ; — c, the anthers ; — </, the ovary ; — e, the
stigma.
40. Have all flowers the same number of stamens ? What is a didy-
na'mous flower? What is a tetradyna'mous flower? How are sta'mens
placed in respect to the petals ?
41. Of what parts docs each stamen consist ?
42. What is the filament ? When is a stamen said to be sessile ?
43. What part gives rise to the filament? Are the filaments joined
together, or are they separate from each other ? What is an andiophor 7
STAMENS. 79
torus or receptacle (fig. 104, c), that is, from the supe-
rior extremity of the pedicel of the flower,
d—\ /M between the corolla and the pistil (figs.
\---a 103 and 104). Generally they are distinct
b from each other, and entirely free, but some-
times they are joined together, and in this
* — c way form one or more bodies, to which we
give the name of androphor (from the
Greek, andros, the genitive of aner, man,
anther, and phoreo, I support — anther-bearer: — -fig. 105).
In certain plants, such as the mallows, this cohesion takes
place between the filaments of all the stamens, so that the
androphor constitutes a tube of greater or less length, in the
interior of which the pistil is lodged (fig. 110, p. 81). At other
times the stamens are united in two or more
bundles (fasciculi) and then form two or more
ondtophors. And there are flowers in which
the anthers cohere to each other, although
the filaments are distinct (Jig* 105, a).
44. The point where the stamens cease ^o
adhere to the neighbouring parts varies; some-
times they arise below the portion of the pistil
called the ovary (figure 104); they are then Fig. 105.
termed hypogy'no is (from the Greek, upo, under, and gune,
woman or pistil) ; at other times these organs, as well as the
petals, seem to arise at a greater or less distance above the calyx,
and are then termed perigy'nous (fig. 81) (from the Greek, peri,
around, and gune, pistil). At other times again, the portion of
the pedicle which bears them is prolonged in the
same way between the calyx and the ovary, but
adheres to the latter organ as well as to the calyx,
and in this instance the stamens seem to arise
above the ovary, and are named epigy'nous (from
the Greek epi, upon, and gune, woman or pistil).
Fig. 106 : — o, the ovary ; — e, the stamens ; — s, the
stigma.
45. In consequence of these differences, the
sfamens may have four different and fixed posi- Fig. 106.
tions :
Explanation of Fig. 104.— A vertical section of the same flower, to show
the interior of the ovary ; — a, the lodges or cells of the ovary ; — 6, the
ovules ; — r, the torus or receptacle ; — rf, filament of the stamen.
Fig. 105. — A flower opened to show the coherence of the stamens by the
anthers (a) while the filaments are distinct.
44 What is meant by a hypogy'nous stamen ? What is meant oy a
pengy nous stamen ? What is meant by an epigy'nous stamen ?
45. What are the several positions of the stamens?
ANTHER.— POLLEN.
1st. Upon the internal panetes of the tube ofth&
corolla, when it is mpnopetalous, as in the lilac. —
Fig. 107 represents the flower of a primrose opened,
showing the pistil (a) and the stamens (6) attached
to the corolla (c).
2d. Upon the ovary, which takes place when the
Fig. 107. corolla is epipe 'talons, as in umbelliferous plants.
3d. Beneath the ovary, which happens when
the corolla is hypope'talous, as in the poppy, the cruci'ferce, the
vine (Jig. 115), &c.
4th. Upon the. calyx, which always occurs when the calyx
bears the petals, as in the rose (fig. 82).
46. The corolla always has the same position as the stamens ;
in all monopelalous corollas, the stamens are altached to the
corolla, and in all polype'talous flowers the stamens are not
attached to the corolla.
47. Anther. The anther is the most essential part of the
stamen, and occupies its summit (fig. 103, c); its colour is almost
always yellow, and it may be compared to the limb of a very
small leaf, that has become thickened, narrow, and folded upon
itself. In its interior the pollen is formed; and it ordinarily con-
sists of two small membranous sacks, named cells or lodges,
which are joined together back to back, or by a portion of the
superior extremity of the filament, called the connective. Some-
times there is but one of these cells, which seems to be owing
to the abortion of one of these pouches, or to the bifurcation
of the filament ; and at other times there are four. There
are some also that are divided internally by partitions. The
form and mode of insertion of the anthers vary ; sometimes
these organs are elongated, at other times rounded, cordiform,
&c. Sometimes they adhere to the filament for a great part of
their length ; at other times they are attached by one of their
extremities only, and at other times again, they are fixed at their
middle upon the very extremity of the filament.
48. Pollen. The pollen is a yellow dust that is enclosed in
the cells of the anther, which by falling upon the pistil causes the
development of germs and the formation of seeds. It is composed
of extremely small grains, the surface of which is sometimes
smooth, sometimes covered by asperities, and their interior is
filled with extremely fine dust. The envelope of these grains of
pollen is composed of two membranes, and when they come to be
46. Where are the stamens attnched in raonopetalous flowers? Where
are they attached in polypetalous flowers?
47. Describe the anther. What is meant by the connective? Is the
form of all anthers the same ? Are their attachments alike in all flowers 7
48. What is pollen ? Where is it formed ? What is the use of it?
PISTIL.— CARPELS.
moistened, the internal vesicle swells, tears the external
hrane, and escapes, forming species of tubes of greater or less
length.
49. Pistil. The pistil (Jigs. 108, 109), or
organ that produces the germ, occupies the
centre of the flower, and is surrounded by
the stamens, by the perianth (figs. 103,
110). The portion of the torus or extremity
e of the pedicel where it springs sometimes
takes its rise above the origin of other parts
of the flower, so as to form for this organ a
special support, named a gymnophore (from
the Greek, gumnos, naked, and p/wreo, I
support). The pistil is composed of ap-
pendages, named carpels, which are somewhat analogous
to leaves, but they are folded inwards, and bear on their ^; 1C
edges the ovules destined to become seeds (fig. 110).
%. ..... d 50. In each carpel we distinguish three
parts : the ovary (fig. 110, 0), the style (e\
and the stigma (d)t The ovary occupies its
lower part and encloses a cavity or cell (fig.
108, e), in which the germs are developed.
The style (fig. Ill, c), is a superior pro-
longation of the ovary, which is, however,
much less, and is often even as slender as a
•c thread ; it varies extremely in length. And
the stigma (fig. 110, d], is the terminal por-
tion of the pistil which surmounts the style ;
£— a or, when this latter organ is wanting, it rests
on the ovary, and is generally composed of a
soft and, to appearance, glandular tissue.
51. The number of carpels varies much ;
sometimes there is only one, sometimes two or
three, or even more, and, as we have seen in
the case of sepals and petals, these organs cohere more or less
Explanation of Fig. 108. — Pistil, with the ovary (e} opened.
Explanation of Fig. 109. — Pistil of the jasmine magnified.
Explanation of Fig. 110. — Vertical section of a polypetalous flower,
showing the manner in which the andiophor sheaths the pistil : — a, the
calyx ; — 6, the corolla ; — c, the androphor open ; — /", the anthers ; — rf, the
stigmas ; — e, the styles, the upper portion of which is free and the lower
part adherent ; — o, the ovaries.
49. What is the pistil ? Where is it situate ? Of what is it composed ?
What is a gymnophore ?
50. What parts compose a carpel ? (Carpel : from the Greek, knrpoa
fruit.) What is the ovary ? What is a style? What is the stigma *
51. Is the number of carpels always the same ?
Fig. 110. _ PISTIL,
82
CARPELS.
Fig. 111.
PISTIL.
completely to each other. When the carpels remain entirely
separate from each other, they constitute several distinct pistils,
and when they are united into one mass, they form what is ordi-
narily called a single pistil. Sometimes this coherence
takes place through the whole length of the carpels,
sometimes in the ovaries, without the styles partici-
pating, so that the single mass formed by the ovaries,
and ordinarily called a single ovary, is surmounted
by two or more styles ; and when the styles are united,
the stigmas of the different carpels may be separate
(Jig- HO), or they may cohere (Jig- 104).
52. The number of cells we find in an ovary when
we cut through the lower part of a pistil, depends upon
the number of carpels that are united together: some-
times there is but one, at other times two, three, four, five, or
even more. Its general form is commonly ovoid (egg-shaped).
Finally, the cell of each carpel encloses one or more ovules,
which, by being developed, become seeds.
58. The relations of the ovary with
other parts of the flower vary, and fur-
nish important characters for the classi-
fication of plants. Sometimes the base
of this organ corresponds to the point
at which both the stamens and perianth
are inserted, so that the ovary is free
at the bottom of the flower ; it is then
termed a super -ovary {Jig.
112). At other times it is uni-
ted entirely round the tube of
the perianth, so as to form one
body with the calyx, and is
only free at its upper part ; in
this case the stamens and petals
seem to arise above the ovary,
and is said to be infra (below),
or adherent (fg. 113). This latter
arrangement carries with it the coherence
of the sepals to each other : therefore
whenever the ovary is infra, the caly*
Fig. 113. — NARCISSUS. is necessarily monose'palous.
PISTIL.
Explanation of Fig. 1 1 1 .—The pistil :-
the style ; — </, the stigma.
r, the torus ; — 6, the ovary ;-
52. Upon what does the number of cells in the ovary depend ? What dc
the cells of the carpels contain /
53. What is a super-ovary ! What is an infra-ovary ?
DEVELOPMENT OF FLOWERS. 83
LESSON V.
Development and Functions of Flowers — FhrcCs Calendar —
Florals Clbck — Fertilization of Flowers — Fruit — Epicarp —
Mesocarp — Endocarp — Carpels — Classification of fruits — •
Seeds ; t/teir structure — Embryo — Coty'ledons — Gennination.
OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTIONS OF FLOWERS,
1. Flowers are formed in certain plants long before
they appear externally; in the palms, for example, they
remain concealed a year or even several years before they
show themselves. They first appear in the form of a
bud, which is generally a little larger than the buds of
the leaves, and for a certain time their different constituent
parts remain contracted ; they are then designated under
the name of flower-bud (fig. 114) ; finally, when they
approach a little nearer to the term of their growth, they
expand or blow, and it is to this phenomenon that we
ordinarily apply the name of inflorescence or flowering Fl£-^*'
of plants.
2. Plants do not fade till they attain a certain age, which
varies according to the species a/id according to circumstances,
but this period is deferred in proportion to the slowness of the
growth of the plant and the time it is destined to live. For
instance, herbs fade on the first year of their existence ; some
do not fade until the second year; most shrubs only die in the
second, third, or even fourth year; and in trees, this phenome-
non is more tardy. A certain degree of heat is necessary to
effect inflorescence, and it is remarked that the same plant begins
to fade sooner in warm countries than in cold ; it sometimes even
happens, in the latter, that certain plants, if they can live at all,
never fade. Too much moisture, and superabundant nourish-
ment, by favouring the development of the leaves and stem, often
contribute to retard inflorescence.
3. When a perennial plant has begun to blossom, it ordinarily
produces new flowers every year at about the same period ; seme-
times, however, this periodical return of inflorescence does not
Explanation of Fig. 114.— A flower bud, magnified.
1. How do flowers first appear ? What is a flower-bud ? What is inflo.
rescence ?
2. When do plants fade? What circumstances exert an influence over
the duration of inflorescence ?
3. Is the recurrence of inflorescence regularly periodical in plants ?
FLORA'S CLOCK.
occur with the same regularity, and when vegetation is injured
by any circumstance, it may have barren years. It has also
been observed, that when a tree has borne a great deal of fruit
one year and retained it late, inflorescence is feeble or entirely
wanting the succeeding year ; and thus it is in the south of
Europe, when the olives are left late upon the trees, the harvest
fa:ls the following year. Sometimes, on the contrary, the periods
of inflorescence are more approximated, and in warm and humid
autumns, we occasionally see plants flowering a second time.
4. The period of the year at which inflorescence takes place
is generally definite for each species of plant, but varies a little
according to the temperature and other atmospheric circum-
stances. For example, in the climate of Paris (which is similar
.o that of the Middle States), the black hellebore flowers in
January ; the hazel tree and willow in February ; the box, the
yew, the almond, the peach, the apricot, the primrose, the stock-
gilly flower, in March ; the plum, the pine, the ash, the elm, the
yoke-elm, the hyacinth, the dandelion, &c., in April ; the apple,
the horse-chestnut, the lilac, the cherry, the peony, in May ; the
iinden tree, the vine, oats, wheat, the wild red poppy, larkspur,
in June ; the violet, the carrot, hemp, lettuce, in July ; asters,
garden-balsams, and water-hyssop, in August ; ivy, saffron, in
September; Jerusalem artichoke and certain other plants, in
October. The table of the different epochs of inflorescence con-
stitutes what botanists have named Flora's calendar. In colder
countries, inflorescence is retarded, while in the South it occurs
earlier; for example, in Smyrna, the almond flowers in the first
fortnight of February; in Germany, in the second half of April;
and in Christiania (Sweden), in the first davs of June.
5. The expansion or blooming of the flower is
almost always effected by the separation of the
pieces of the corolla and calyx from above down-
wards ; but there are some in which the floral in-
teguments ^emain adherent to the summit, and
separate at the base, as in the vine, for example
(/£. 115).
6. The period of the day at which this phenomenon occurs
varies in the greatest number of plants, but in some it is fixed,
and a series of plants arranged according to the hour at which
the flowers blow, constitutes what Linnaeus called Flora's clock.
For example, at Paris, the bearbind (a species of bind-weed)
blows between three and four o'clock in the morning ; between
4. Does inflorescence recur in the same species of plant at the same
period ' What is meant by Flora's calendar ?
5. How does a flower expand ?
(i. What is meant by Flora's clock.?
FERTILIZATION OF FLOWERS.
four and five, certain of the chicora'cese expand ; between five
and six, the convolvulus tricolor appears ; about seven, the
lettuces, water-lilies, &c. ; about eight o'clock, a species ot
chick-weed ; about nine, the umbel-flowered marigold ; at ten,
the ice-plant; towards eleven, the purslain and the star of
Bethlehem ; about noon, most of the ficoides (fig-marigolds) ;
about sunset, the evening primrose ; between six and seven in
the evening, the marvel of Peru; between seven and eight, the
privet ; and about ten in the evening, a bind-weed, which garden-
ers call a morning-glory, because they always find it open when
they rise in the morning.
7. When the flower has arrived at a certain period of its
development, the pollen formed by the anthers falls upon the
stigma, and in this way causes the fecundation of the ovules,
enclosed in the inferior part of the pistil ; frequently the stamens
are inclined towards the pistil that they may more conveniently
deposit the pollen ; for example, in the geraniums, the filaments
of the stamens are curved so that the anther rests upon the
stigma ; and in the nasturtium, the eight stamens are each in-
clined in turn for eight successive days to deposit the pollen on
the pistil in this way ; and at other times this species of dust is
cast into the air, and borne by the wind to the pistil of the same,
or of a neighbouring flower.
8. It is easy to prove that the action of the pollen upon the
pistil is indispensable to the fecundation of the ovules and the
production of seeds which are developed in this organ. For
example, it is sufficient to cut off the stamens of an hermaphro-
dite flower to render it sterile (provided it be sufficiently removed
from other flowers in which the stamens have not been destroyed),
and when we have mutilated a flower in this way, it is sufficient
to cast upon its stigma some pollen taken from another flower of
the same species to make it produce seeds. In monoeceous plants
(that is, having flowers with stamens and flowers with a pistil
only on the same stalk), as the maize, it is only necessary to
remove the flowers with stamens to prevent the others from pro-
ducing seeds; and when the plants are dioeceous (that is, when
the stamens and pistils are borne on different stems) the fecun-
dating action of the pollen is still more evident ; it has been long
known that female date trees do not produce fruit, if they are
very distant from trees of the same species bearing flowers with
stamens ; and in this case they will not bear, if we are not care-
ful to dust over the branches, at the time of inflorescence, with
7. How are flowers fertilized by the pollen ?
8. What evidence have we that the pollen is necessary for the fecundation
jf flowers ?
17
80 FRUI1
pollen derived from the male date. This operation is daily prac-
tised on date trees in the East; and during the expedition of the
French army in Egypt, the war having prevented the inhabitants
of that country from procuring, as usual, flowers with stamens,
they were deprived of their harvest of dates.
9. The grains of pollen that are deposited on the stigma meet
there with moisture, swell, burst, and permit the escape of the
granules contained within. These granules penetrate the spongy
tissue of the pistil, and descend to the ovules which they are
destined to fecundate. If the pollen is moistened before it
reaches the stigma, it bursts in the same way; but in that case
the granules it contains are lost, and fecundation does not take
'ace ; for this reason nature ordinarily gives to the corolla a
orm or position that protects the stamens against the action of
moisture.
10. When the ovules are fecundated, the flower fades, and all
the parts situate above the ovary, or that are not adherent to this
organ (as is sometimes the case with the calyx), fall or dry up.
But the ovules, as well as the parietes of the ovary, rapidly
enlarge and constitute the fruit.
OF FRUIT.
11. We give the name of fruit to the fecundated and increased
ovary, and, by extension, we also understand by this term, the
floral envelopes which may remain adherent to this organ.
c b 12. The fruit is essentially composed
| ! of two parts ; namely, the ovules or
seeds (fig> 116, e), and the carpels or
ovaries which surround them, and for
this reason they are called by some
botanists the pericarp (fg. 116, c, d)
(from the Greek, peri, around, and
karpos, fruit). These two parts are
never wanting, but the pericarp is
sometimes so thin and so closely united
to the seeds, that without a very care-
d ful examination, we would not believe
that it existed at all.
Explanation of Fig. 116. — Fleshy fruit (an apple) ; — </, the peduncle;— ft,
the remains of the limb of the calyx ;— c, the sarcocarp, surrounded by the
calyx ; — d, the lodges or cells lined by the endocarp ;— e, the seeds.
9. What takes place after the pollen has been deposited on the stigma ?
10. What becomes of the flowers after the fertilization of the ovules ?
11. What is meant by fruit?
lii. Of what parts is the fruit composed?
FRUIT. 87
13. A carpel may be compared, as we have before said, to
a leaf folded upon itself (that is, the edges rolled inwards to-
wards its midrib), and, like it, is composed of three layers ;
namely, an external membrane, which represents the epider-
mis of the inferior surface of the leaf, and in the fruit is named
epicarp (from the Greek, epi, upon, and karpos, fruit); a middle
layer, which is analogous to the paren'chyma of the leaf, and
is called the mesocarp (from the Greek, mesos, the middle, and
karpos, fruit), or sarcocarp (from the Greek, sarx, flesh, and
karpos, fruit, flesh of the fruit); finally, an internal membrane
or endocarp (from the Greek, endon, within, and karpos, fruit),
which corresponds to the superior surface of the leaf; also,
the pericarp, which is nothing but the united or
agglutinated carpels, is essentially composed of
three layers; namely, the epicarp, which occupies
the surface of it, the mesocarp, which is more deeply
situated, and the endocarp, which lines the lodges or
cells in which the seeds are found.
14. The epicarp frequently has upon its sur-
face, hairs, glands, and stomata ; in general, it is
thin and flexible, and is often easily detached from the subjacent
parts; it is this membrane which forms the velvety skin of the
peach and of the plum. When the ovary is infra, that is, when-
ever it is united with the tube of the calyx, it is this tube which
constitutes the epicarp, and then we always distinguish at its
superior part, the teeth or divisions of the limb, or at least a
border formed by the remains of this part of the floral envelope,
which fades after fecundation (Jig' 116, ft).
15. The mesocarp is the parenchy'matous portion in which all
the vessels of the fruit are united. It frequently presents a very
considerable thickness and a fleshy consistence (which has ob-
tained for it the name of sarcocarp), as in the peach, the apricot,
the cherry, &c., and constitutes the part we eat. Sometimes the
mesocarp is dry and fibrous, as in the almond, or it constitutes the
part called the shell ; and at other times it is so thin as to be
hardly distinguished.
16. The endocarp which internally lines carpels or ovaries
and constitutes the layer of the pericarp nearest the seed, varies
much. In most fruits it is thin and transparent (as in the husk
Explanation of Fip. 117. — Fruit of a palm tree opened; — a, the peri
carp, composed of three layers, called epicarp, mesocarp, and endocarp; —
6, the seed ; — c, its embryo.
13. Of what parts is a carpe? composed?
14. What is the epicarp?
15. What is the mesocarp?
1 6. What is the endocarp ?
se FRUIT.
of beans, for example), but at other times it becomes hard and
brittle, and forms what is named the stone of the fruit.
17. Each carpel has two edges, one named dorsal, which cor-
responds to the primary nerve of this appendage, and another,
called ventral, which results from the agglutination of these tw:
edges to each other ; and, when the edges of the carpel, in place
of being simply joined, are folded inwards, they constitute an in-
ternal partition which divides the ovarian cell or cavity into two
parts.
18. The carpels are sometimes single in each flower, some-
times more or less numerous, and in this last case they may be
agglutinated to each other in different ways, and constitute com-
pound fruits, the appearance of which varies. Sometimes they
are very distinct externally, at other times are united with the
torus and with the calyx in such a manner that no trace of ex-
ternal union can be seen, and constitute a simple fruit (fig. 116).
In general the cells of different carpels united into a single mass,
are perfectly distinct, and the compound fruit consequently pre-
sents as many cells as there are carpels ; but sometimes the car-
pels are not closed along their ventral edge, and then the cells of
all these organs communicate with each other, and constitute a
single cavity, of which the circumference only is more or less
lobed. And it also happens sometimes that the partitions, which
separate the neighbouring cells, are in part destroyed by the pro-
gress of maturation, and all the cells of a compound fruit are
united into a single cavity, the centre of which is occupied by a
species of column formed by the remains of the ventral edge of
the carpels thus united. Often one or more carpels abort and
leave no trace of their existence. Finally, not only may the
carpels of the same flower be united to each other, but sometimes
those of neighbouring flowers approximate, and become agglu-
tinated into a single mass, and thus constitute what is termed an
aggregate fruit. Figs, and the cones of the pine tree are com-
posed in this way.
19. At the period of their maturity fruits present still other
important differences ; some are indehiscent (from the Latin in,
not, and dehiscere, to gape wide open), that is, they do not open
spontaneously; others, on the contrary, open of themselves, and
are called for this reason, dehiscent. In simple fruits, the open-
ing generally takes place at the agglutinated edges of the carpel,
or by this and the dorsal edge at the same time, so that the fruit
s divided into two pieces called valves. In the compound fruits,
17. What is meant by the dorsal and ventral edges of a carpel ?
18. Have all flowers the same number of carpels ? What is meant by
ftn aggregate fruit ?
19. What is meant by an indehisceut fruit ? What is a deh scent fruit ?
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS. 89
we sometimes see the different carpels separate and fall singly
then remain closed, or open in the same way as the simple fruits;
sometimes also "the back of each cell is torn without the carpels
being separated.
The differences that we have pointed out in the conformation
of fruits and the principal variations of form which they present,
have led botanists to class them as follows :
CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS.
20. All fruits are included in three classes.
21. The first CLASS is composed of the SIMPLE or APOCARPOUS
fruits, formed of a single carpel or of several free carpels.
The first division of this class includes what are termed dry
fruits, having a thin pericarp and being but slightly furnished
with juices, and generally contain only a small number of seeds.
22. This division contains two varieties ; the first are the in-
dehiscent, simple fruits: under this head we have the three fol-
lowing forms :
Caryopsis. — Fruit monospermatic (from the Greek, monos,
single, and sperma, seed, having one seed) and indehiscent, the
pericarp of which is very thin, and intimately connected with the
seed, as wheat, barley, rice, oats, &c.
Akene or achenium (from the Greek, «, without, and chainb,
I gape). — Fruit monospermatic and indehiscent, the pericarp of
which is distinct from the proper covering of the seed, as in
hemp, sunflower, &c.
Gland or nut. — Fruit unilocular (from the Latin, unus, one,
and loculus, partition, seed-vessel not separated into cells) and
therefore monospermatic, from the constant abortion of all the
ovules except one ;* the coriaceous or woody pericarp of this one
presents at its summit vestiges of the limb of the calyx, and is
enclosed, either partly or entirely, in a kind of involucrum called
cupule, as in the oak.
23. The second variety of the first division of the first class
contains the three following dehiscent fruits :
* If we regarded the carpels which constantly abort in glands, ache-
mums, &c., we must place these in the class of compound fruits ; but most
botanists place them here, because, at maturity, they are essentially com
posed of a single carpel.
20. How are fruits classified ?
21. What are the general characters of fruits of the first class?
22. What is a caryopsis ? What is an achenium ? What is a gland or
nut?
23. What is a follicula ? What is a legume ? What is a lomentum ?
17*
90 FORMS OF FRUITS.
Follicula (little bag — follicle). — Fruit ordinarily
membranous, opening longitudinally on the ventral
surface, as the larkspur, senna, &c.
Legume or husk. — Fruit which is ordinarily mem-
branous, elongated, and compressed in form,
opens longitudinally both by the ventral and
dorsal suture at the same time, as peas,
beans, &c. (fig. 118).
Lomentum. — Fruit similar to a pod or
legume, but contracted at different points,
forming partitions which result from the
cohesion of the two faces of the carpel, and
, opening by transverse sections, as in Cassia
?*• lia fstulajg. 119).
24. The second division of the first class contains
fleshy fruits, having a thick, pulpy, and succulent
pericarp ; they are never dehiscent.
It contains the two following forms :
Drupe. — Fruit fleshy, enclosing a nut internally
(the mesocarp being fleshy and very thick, and the
endocarp coriaceous, or bony), as the peach, the Fig. 119.
apricot, the cherry, &c. CASSIA.
Nut. — Fruit similar to a drupe, but the mesocarp is less thick,
and constitutes what is called a shell (as the fruit of the almond).
Sometimes these fruits, in place of being isolated, are grouped
together on a fleshy gymnophore so as to resemble a compound
fruit, as in the strawberry and raspberry.
25. The SECOND CLASS is composed of fruits that are COM-
POUND or SYNCARPOUS (from the Greek, sun, with, and karpos,
carpel or fruit) : they are formed of several carpels of the same
flower agglutinated together.
26. The fruits of the first division of the second class are free,
not being united to the calyx or perigon through the medium of
the torus. The first variety contains the two following dehiscent
fruits :
Silique or siliqua. — Fruit dry, analogous to a legume, but
bilocular (from the Latin, bis, two, and loculus, partition), and
having the seeds attached upon the two edges of the partition in
each cell, as the cabbage, rose, &c.
Capsule. — Fruit dry, formed of two or more carpels united
together, and opening in different ways, but not bivalve, as the
p°ppy-
24. What is a drupe ? What is a nut ?
25. What are compound fruits ?
26. What is a silique ? What is a capsule ?
FORMS OF FRUITS. 91
27. The second variety of the first division of the second class
consists of the following indehiscent fruit :
Hesperide — orange. — Fruit fleshy, composed of a common
epicarp, and several cells formed by the endocarp of different
carpels, and filled with a sort of pulp, as the orange, citron, &c.
The fruits of the second division of the second class are
adherent, being united to the calyx or perigon through the medium
of the torus.
28. The first variety of this division contains fleshy or pulpy
fruits.
Pome or apple. — Fruit composed of several indehiscent car-
pels with a cartilaginous or bony pericarp, completely enveloped
by a fleshy indehiscent calyx to which they are agglutinated, as
the apple, pear, medlar, &c.
Melonide or pepo. — Fruit unilocular, formed of several inde-
hiscent carpels with edges not infolded, and enclosing numerous
seeds surrounded by a pulp, as melons, gourds, &c.
Berry. — Fruit multilocular, indehiscent, semi-fluid internally,
HS gooseberries, &c.
The second variety includes dry fruits and certain adherent
capsules, dec.
29. The THIRD CLASS is composed of fruits that are AGGRE-
GATED or POLYANTHOCARPOUS (from the Greek, polus* many,
anthoSt flower, and karpos, fruit, fruit from many flowers),
because these fruits are formed by the approximation or aggluti-
nation of the fruits of many' flowers. The three following are
placed in this class :
Cone. — An assemblage of sessile fruits concealed at the base
of convex scales formed by bracts, or by a ligneous pericarp, as
the pine, savin, &c.
Sycone. — An assemblage of very small fruits analogous to
drupes, enclosed in a fleshy concave receptacle, as figs (fig. 78).
Sorose. — An assemblage of fruits attached to a single body, by
means of their floral envelopes, which are fleshy and united so as
to resemble a rnammalated berry, as the mulberry, &c.
" Of the terms above explained only a few are in common use, and it
seems to be found by systematic botanists more convenient to describe a
given fruit by exact words, than to use any particular term. The names
most employed are achenium, nut, caryopsis, drupe, capsule, siliqua, legume,
and cone." — Lindley.
27. What is a hesperide ?
28. What, is a pome ? What is a pepo ? What is a berry ?
29. What are aggregated fruits ? What is a cone ? What is a svcono ?
What is a sorose ?
SEEDS.
Fig. 120.
SEEDS.
OF SEEDS.
30. The seeds, which, during the early period of
their development, are called ovulest are produced in
the interior of the cells of the carpel or ovary, along
the ventral suture of this organ (Jig* 120).
31. That part of the carpel from which the seeds
spring is named the placenta or trophosperm (from
the Greek, trepho, I nourish, and sperma, seed, seed-
nourisher), and the stalk or thread by which the
seeds are attached to it, we call the funicula (Latin,
little cord) or po'losperm (from the Greek, pous, in
the genitive, podos, foot> and sperma, seed, seed-foot
or seed -stalk).
32. The funicula in general resembles a little
pedicle, and its extremity is expanded sometimes
around the seed so as to envelope it more or less,
and constitute what is named the aril (arillus).
Sometimes this expansion of the funicula is thick and fleshy ;
sometimes thin and membranous ; its form varies considerably.
[n the nutmeg tree, for example, the aril forms a fleshy lamina
of a bright red, divided in shreds which envelope the nutmeg,
and constitutes the spice called mace. It is to be remembered
that the aril is found only in those plants that have a monope
talous corolla.
33. The seed itself is the part of the perfect fruit contained in
the interior of the carpel, and encloses the body which is destined
to become the new plant. The point by which it adheres to its
funicula, generally has the appearance of a small scar or cicatrix,
and is called the hilum. Finally, the seed is composed of two series
of organs ; namely, the accessory parts, and the essential parts.
34. The accessory parts of the seed are
divided into the spermoderm (from the Greek,
sperma, seed, and derma, skin) or episperm
(from the Greek, epi, upon, and sperma, seed),
c and the albumen; the essential part is called the
b embryo (fg. 121).
35. The spermoderm or skin of the seed is
Fig. 121. sometimes a simple membrane, and sometimes a
Explanation of Fig. 121. — The seed of a bean, split open to show the
Bpermoderm (a), the plumule (c), and the radicle (6).
30. Where are seeds formed ? What are ovules ?
31. What is the placenta? What is the funicula?
32. What is the aril ? What is mace ?
33. What is the hilum ?
34. What constitutes the accessory parts of the seed ?
35. What is the spermoderm ?
PARTS OF SEEDS. 93
covering composed of two or even three coats. The nutritious
vessels of the seed, which come from the trophosperm, ramify in
the thickness of this seed-covering, and we usually perceive near
the centre of the hilum a minute hole, which gives them a free
passage.
36. The albumen, also called perisperm (from the Greek, peri,
around, and sperma, seed) or en'dosperm (from the Greek, endon,
within, and sperma, seed) ; the albumen is a body intermediate
between the spermoderm and the embryo, which surrounds the
latter (embryo) and ordinarily constitutes a depot of nutritive
matter. In general it is formed of a kind of cellular tissue, in
which is found the fecula, as in wheat ; at other times it encloses
fatty matter, as in the castor oil plant (palma chr.isti) ; frequently
it is very thin, and sometimes it is entirely wanting.
37. The embryo or essential part of the seed is the rudiment
of the new plant which the seed is destined to produce. In
plants unprovided with albumen or perisperm, the embryo con-
sists of a single kernel or almond, and fills the spermoderm. In
this case we call it an epispermatic embryo, because it is covered
immediately by the episperm, or internal layer of the spermoderm.
But in plants that are provided with an albumen, the kernel is
composed of the latter united to the embryo. (In this instance it
is termed an endospermatic embryo^ In this latter case the posi-
tion of the embryo may vary considerably ; sometimes it is sim-
ply applied upon a point of the surface of the albumen, which
presents for its reception a little pit (fossette), as in the grain of
wheat, or it may be rolled around the albumen so as to envelope
it, more or less completely ; it is then said to be extra : at other
times it is entirely enclosed in the interior of the albumen, and
then takes the name ofintra embryo, as in the castor-oil seed.
38. We distinguish in the embryo, that is,
in the young plant which is still enclosed in
the seed, three principal parts ; the radicle, the
plumule, and the cotyledons (fgs. 121 and
122).
39. The radicle (fgs. 124 and 125) is the
young root, which before germination is al- .
• 11111 •• FT&* J^-w.— "BEAN.
ways simple, but by development it is more
or less divided, and constantly tends towards the centre of the
earth.
Explanation of Fig. 122. — The seed of a bean : — a, the coty'ledons ; — h,
the radicle.
36. What is the albumen ?
37. What is the embryo ?
38. What parts are distinguished in the embryo ?
3.9. What is the radicle ?
94
COTYLEDONS.
Fig. 123.
COTYLEDON.
40. The plumule (figs. 121, c, and 125, d) or young stem is
sometimes scarcely visible before germination ; at other times it
is as long as the radicle with which it is inferioriy continuous :
by development it becomes elongated in a direction contrary to
that of the root, and consequently it always tends to rise. We
distinguish in it two parts, namely: the stemmule and \he gemmule,
situate one above and the other below the coty'ledons.
41. The coty'ledons are lateral appendages
which represent the first leaves (fig. 123). They
are almost always thick and fleshy in plants un-
provided with albumen, but thin and membranous
in endospermatic seeds. Their use seems to be to
furnish the young plant with the first alimentary
matter, and their number is various; sometimes
there is but one and at others there are two ot
more.
42. Plants whose seeds contain only a single
coty'ledon, are named monocot.y' ledons (from the Greek, monos,
single, and kotuledbn, seed-lobe) ; those whose seeds contain two
or more coty'ledons, are named dicotyledons (from the Greek, dist
iwo, and kotuledon, seed-lobe).
The annexed figure (124)
represents the section of a
seed of a monocoty'ledon in
process of germination,
showing the perisperm (d) ;
the summit of the single
coty'ledon (6) ; the base of
the coty'ledon, forming a
sort of tube (c) ; at the lower
part of the base we see the
plumule (d), which sets upon
the radicle (e).
Figure 125 represents the same seed, further
advanced in germination, after the appearance
of the plumule or young stem (d].
43. When the seeds are ripe or a short time afterwards, they
separate from the plant ; sometimes the fruit opens spontaneously
to permit their escape; at other times they are detached without
Explanation of Fig. 123. — A seed in process of germination : — c, base of
Ihe cotyledon.
40. What is the plumule ? (Plumule : from the Latin plumula, a little
feather.)
41. What are coty'ledons ? What is their use ?
42. What is meant by a monocoty'ledon ? What is dicoty'ledon ?
43. How are setda naturally distributed ?
--C
Fig. 124.
COTYLEDON.
Fig. 125.
COTYLEDON
GERMINATION. 95
its opening, and the pericarp is sown entire, or in part, with the
seed. Most seeds fall upon the surface of the ground, and nature
resorts to various means to secure their dispersion: sometimes
they are surmounted by a little plume which takes the wind ; at
other times ihey are furnished with wings, so as to be readily
carried to a distance; they are often conveyed to great distances
by the currents of rivers or of the sea; and occasionally their
dissemination is effected in a still more singular manner, for it
frequently happens that birds eat fruits, the seeds of which they
do not digest, but afterwards discharge at some more or less
distant place, where they germinate and grow.
44. The number of seeds produced by most plants is so con
siderable that if every seed germinated, the product of some
square leagues of land would be equivalent, according to several
calculations, to the vegetation of the whole world. For example,
160,000 seeds have been counted on a single stalk of tobacco,
arid 029,000 on an elm. But this seeming prodigality on nature's
part is only a wise precaution against the numerous causes of
destruction to which they are exposed.
OF GERMINATION.
45. The term germination is applied to the series of pheno-
mena that a seed presents, in effecting the development of the
embryo it contains. Germination cannot take place except under
a concurrence of circumstances dependent on the seed itself and
external influences. The seed must be ripe, enclose a complete
embryo, and not be too old. There are some seeds that retain
the faculty of germinating for a very long time ; wheat and beans
enjoy this property for sixty and even a hundred years, while
coffee, on the contrary, loses it in a very short time. Some, when
protected from contact with the air, preserve their germinative
faculty for a long period : on the other hand, the seed must be
subject to the action of certain external agents, the chief of which
are water, heat, and air. Water is indispensable to germination ;
it acts by penetrating the substance of the seed, by softening its
envelopes, by causing the embryo to swell, and by bringing about
in the endosperm or in the coty'ledons, chemical changes, which
render the substances deposited in their paren'chyma (from the
Greek, paregchuein, to strain through, — the spongy and cellular
tissue of organized bodies) fit to nourish the young plant. Heat
Is also necessary : below a certain temperature the seed remains
4f. Are the seeds of plants very numerous?
45. What is meant by germination ? What circumstanqes are essential
to germination '/
GERMINATION.
inactive; too much heat destroys the vegetative power; (he
extreme limits are between thirty-two and one hundred and
twenty-two degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The presence
of air is as indispensable to the germination1 of seeds, or at least
to their development, as it is to the respiration of animals. It
acts through the means of the oxygen it contains ; seeds placed
in contact with this gas are stimulated in their germination.
Light, on the contrary, hinders or at least retards it much.
46. The first phenomenon observed in germination is the
swelling of the seed and the softening of its envelopes; the time
at which the latter burst varies in different plants ; the manner
of this rupture is either regular or irregular. From this moment
a we observe the embryo, which ,
is at this period termed plan- ,
tule (diminutive plant), begin
to develope (figs* 126 and
127), we observe its two
extremities which constantly
grow in opposite directions ;
the gemmule, called the as-
cending caudex ) is directed
towards the air and light ;
the radicle or descending
•c caudex tends to bury itself in
the ground. The substance
of the coty'ledoris liquefies ;
it becomes milky and serves
for the nourishment of the
plantule; the perisperm un-
dergoes an analogous trans-
formation and appears to
perform the same function.
While the radicle, by pene-
trating the earth, gives rise
to delicate little ramifications,
the stem mule lengthens and
raises up the coty'ledons.
The gemmule is at once free Fig. 127.
Fig. 126.
Explanation of Fig. 126.— Seed of a bean in a state of germination ; — o,
the spermoderm split ; — 6, coty'ledons ; — c, radicle ; — d, plumule.
Fig. 1 27. — The same bean in a more advanced stage of development ,—
a. radicle ;—b, collum or neck; — c, the stemmule; — rf, the cotyle'donous
leaves.
46. What is the first phenomenon observed in germination ? What is»
the ascending caudex ? What is the descending caudex ? When does
germination cease ?
TERMINATION. 97
and uncovered ; the little leaves of which it is composed expand,
increase in size, become green, and begin to draw from the
atmosphere a portion of the fluids which nourish the young plant.
The act of germination is now at an end, and nutrition goes on
as we described it when speaking particularly of this function.
47. All seeds do not require the same period of time for their
germination. For instance, certain cresses germinate in two
days; the turnip and bean in three days; lettuce in four; the
melon in five ; most of the grasses in six or seven days ; the
hyssop in a month ; the peach in a year, and rose tree in two
years, &c.
48. What we have hitherto said of fructification relates entirely
to cotyle'donous plants; and we have still to say a few words of
what takes place in acoty 'ledons (from the Greek, a, without, and
kotufedbn, seed-lobe), in which we find neither flowers, nor seed,
nor embryo. The class of acoty'ledons comprises all plants
which are unprovided with true organs of generation, that is,
stamens and pistils ; on this account they are named crypto'gam-
ous (from the Greek, kruptos, concealed, and gamos, marriage)
or a'gamous (from the Greek, a, without, and gamos, marriage),
and are produced through the means of corpuscules, analogous
in their structure and development to the bulbills or bulblets of
certain perennial plants. These corpuscules (minute bodies) are
named sporules or seminules ; they are contained in envelopes
called conceptacles, and are variously placed either in the interior
of the plant itself, or (but more rarely) on its exterior in the form
of tubercles, as we shall see when we come to speak of the his-
tory of these plants.
47. Do all seeds require the same time for germination ?
48. What are acoty'ledons ? What plants are contained in the class of
ucoty'ledons ? What are crypto'gamous plants ?
18
98 CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
LESSON VI.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. — Natural and artificial Methods
— Artificial System of JLinnceus — The Natural Method oj
Jussieu.
CKYPTO'GAMOUS PLANTS. — Lichens, Fungi, Agarics, Tritffle,
Algce, Mosses, Ferns.
PH ANKRO'G AMOUS PLANTS — Monocotyledons — Grasses — Wheat,
Rye, Barley, Malt, Oafs, Rice, Maize, Sugar-cane, Sugar.
Sugar • candy — Palms — Narcissus — D icoty' ledons — Apeta l-
ous D icoty' ledons — Monopetalous Dicoty ledons — Potatoe, To
bacco, Belladonna, Olive, Sage, Coffee — Polypetaloas Dico-
ty'ledons — Hemlock, Mallow, Cotton, Flax, Orange, Tea, Vine
Wine, Poppy, Sensitive Plant, Apple, Pear, Plum, Cherry,
Apricot, Peach, Strawberry, <SfC. — Diclinece — flop, Hemp,
Elm, Bread-fruit, Oak, Chestnut, Ash, Pine — Qj the Uses of
Plants — Examples of ornamental Plants.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
1. As we stated when beginning the natural history of ani-
rnals, we give the name of classification to any arrangement
designed to facilitate the determining and study of objects, by
separating them into more or less numerous groups, which, in
their turn, are again divided and subdivided ; and by assigning to
each of these divisions a name and character suitable to enable
us to recognise all bodies of which they are composed.
2. With this view we make use of two kinds of classifica-
tion ; one called an artificial system, and the other a natural
method.
3. An ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM or classification of plants is a mode
of arrangement by means of which .ve may readily obtain a
knowledge of the name of a plan*, by examining the characters
furnished in the conformation of certain parts of these beings.
In this kind of classification we divide and subdivide the vege-
table kingdom into groups, into each one of which we range all
those plants which possess a certain character, selected arbitrarily,
and exclude all those that do not possess this same character,
without considering whether we separate in this way, plants that
resemble each other in all the most important relations, or
whether we bring together in the same division, other plants that
1. What is meant by classification?
2. By what modes are plants classified ?
3. What is understood by the artificial method or system of classifica-
tion?
NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL SYSTEMS. 99
possess scarcely any property in common with each other. On
this principle we might class plants according to the variations
observed in the form and structure of the leaves, or of the corolla
of the flower, or any other organ ; but by proceeding in this way,
we should learn almost nothing in relation to the organization of
these beings, or in respect to the degrees of resemblance or dis-
similarity they possess.
4. A natural method or classification is, on the contrary, a
sort of synoptical table of all the modifications that nature has
produced in the conformation of plants, a table in which these
modifications are arranged according to their relative importance,
and serve for the establishment of divisions and successive sub-
divisions. In consequence of this, plants arranged according to
this method have more important and more numerous points of
resemblance to each other in proportion to their approximation to
each other in the classification ; for instance, when two plants are
placed in two different divisions, it is because they differ from
each other in more respects than either of them differs from all
the other plants with which it is arranged, and these differences
are less important between different species of the same geius
than between the different genera of the same family. Those
characters which distinguish the families from each other are, in
their turn, of less importance than those employed to separate
from each other the groups formed by the union of several of
these families, and so on. By the assistance of these methods
we determine the name of a plant we wish to know with less
facility than by an artificial system, but we acquire much more
important knowledge, because, having thus ascertained the place
a plant occupies in a classification of this kind, we know the
principal features of its mode of organization, and consequently
its physiological history also.
5. Botanists have successively employed different artificial
systems and the natural method in the classification of plants.
Among the first, there is one which, from its simplicity, and the
celebrity it for a long time enjoyed, merits being cited here; it is
the System of Linnaus (a Swedish botanist who died in 1778),
which is based upon the differences that plants present in the
various essential parts of their flowers, but especially in their
stamens.
6. In this system of classification plants unprovided with
stamens and pistils form a particular class, and those which pos-
sess these organs are divided : first, according to the existence of
stamens and pistils in the same flower, or in different flowers ,
4. What is meant by the natural method?
f>. Which method or system of classification is employed by botaniuts ?
fi Upon what principle is the artificial system of Linnaeus based ?
100 LINN^EAN SYSTEM.
second, according to the cohesion of the stamens to each other or
with the pistil, or according to their not cohering; third, accord-
ing to the relative length of the stamens ; fourth, according to the
number of stamens, &c.
7. The first eleven classes are characterized by the number of
stamens. The names of these and the two succeeding classes are
formed from the Greek by prefixing the proper numerals to the
word aner (man), used metaphorically for stamen.
Class 1. MONANDRIA : includes all plants with perfect flowers that
have but one stamen.
2. DIAXDRIA : two stamens.
3. TRIANDRIA : three stamens.
4. TETRANDRIA : four stamens.
5. PENTANDRIA: five stamens.
6. HEXANDRIA : six stamens.
7. HEPTANDRIA : seven stamens.
8. OCTANDRIA : eight stamens.
9. ENNEANDRIA : nine stamens.
10. DKCANDRIA : ten stamens.
11. DODECANDRIA : eleven to nineteen stamens.
8. The two succeeding classes are characterized by the num-
ber of the stamens with their mode of insertion.
12. ICOSANDRIA : twenty or more stamens which are attached
to or stand upon the calyx; as in the apple, cherry, &c.
1 3. POLYANDRIA : twenty or more stamens which do not ad-
here to the calyx, that is, the stamens are hypogy'nous.
9. The two following classes are characterized by the relative
length of their stamens :
14. DIDYNA'MIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and dunamis,
power) : two long and two shorter stamens, as in mint.
15. TETRADYNA'MIA (from the Greek, tetteres, four, and duna.
mis, power) : four long, and two short stamens, — the longer
stamens are supposed to be the most powerful.
10. The four following classes are characterized by the con-
nexion of the stamens.
16. MONODE'LPHIA (from the Greek, monos, single, and del-
phos, brotherhood) : having the filaments of all the stamens
united into a set or tube, constituting a single brotherhood ,
Example, the mallow.
17. DIADB'LPHIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and delphos}'
having the filaments of the stamens united in two sets, as
in the pea.
7. How are the first eleven classes of the Linnsean system named and
characterized ?
8. How is the class Icosa'ndria characterized ? How is the class Poly,
andria characterized ?
9. How is the class Didyna'mia recognised ? What are the characters
of the class Tetradyna'mia ?
10. What are the characters of the class Monodelphia ? What are tha
characters of Dia'delphia ? What are the characters of Polya'delphia f
LINN^JAN SYSTEM. 101
18. POLYDE'LPHIA (from the Greek, poZus, many, and delphos) :
having the filaments of the stamens united into more than
two sets.
19. SYNGENE'SIA (from the Greek, 'sun, together, and geinomai,
to arise, to grow) : having the stamens united by their
anthers in a ring or tube, as in the sunflower.
20. GYNA'NDRIA (from the Greek, gune, woman, used meta-
phorically for pistil, and oner, stamen) : having the stamens,
in appearance, growing out of the pistil, as in the ladies'
slipper.
In all the preceding classes the flowers are perfect.
11. The next three classes are characterized by the stamens
and pistils being separately contained in different flowers.
21. MONCE'CIA (from the Greek, monos, single, and oikia,
house) : the stamens and pistils are in separate flowers, but
both grow on the samo plant, or both dwell in the same
house, as the name denotes.
22. DICE'CIA (from the Greek, dis, two, and oikia") : the stamens
and pistils are not only in separate flowers, but on different
individuals, — they are in two households.
23. POLYGA'MIA (from the Greek, polus, many, and games,
marriage or union) : the stamens and pistils are separate
in some flowers, and united in others, all on the same, or
on two or three individuals of the same species.
12. The last class includes flowers in which neither stamens
nor pistils are visible. They are now termed flowerless plants.
24. CRYPTOGA'MIA (from the Greek, kruptos, concealed, and
gamos, marriage) : having the essential organs of the flower
concealed from view.
A synoptical view of the Linnsean classes is seen in the
following :
What are the characters of Syngenesia ? What are the characters of
Gynandria?
11. What are the characters of Moncecia ? What are the characters of
Dicecia ? What are the characters of Pol ygamia ?
12. What are the characters of the class Cryptoga'mia ?
18*
102
LINN^EAN SYSTEM.
PLANTS
Iff 1
3J.F •«
1: 5:
CD • ~
: : § : : :
f in more than 2 fa
C in 1 fasciculus, .
" < in 2 fasciculi, . .
Bt^
^ 5'
*- S"
11
r<r
P P H- H-
II " %«
3-3 S. | E
S- r* ^°
s- ? 1 -:
•S-*
g . :::::::::::
» . ..::..::...
I
M
D
ecia
ia.
-
Di
Te
Ico
Polya
I III f I II
8- s-1 s- |r i s- 3- ?' §: ?' g. ? s ? s- s-
• 3c* * « 3» • JN ^ • •*
LINN J3 AN SYSTEM. 103
13. In the first thirteen classes of the Linnsean system, the
orders are founded on the number of styles, and when these are
wanting, on the number of stigmas. The names of these orders
are formed by prefixing numerals from the Greek to the word
gynia, — from gune (woman), metaphorically used for pistil.
Order 1 . MONOGYNIA : 1 style, or sessile stigma.
2. DIGYNIA : 2 styles, or sessile stigmas.
3. TRIGYNIA : 3 "
4. TETRAGYNIA : 4 "
5. PENTAGYNIA : 5 "
6. HEXAGYNIA : 6 "
7. HEPTAGYNIA : 7 "
8. OCTAGYNIA : 8 "
9. ENNEAGYNIA : 9 "
10. DECAGYNLA: 10 "
11. DOUECAGYNIA : 12, or about twelve.
12. POLYGYNIA: more than 12.
The sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth orders are very rarely found.
14. The 14th class, Didyna'mia, contains two orders, named
and characterized as follows :
GYMNOSPE'RMIA (from the Greek, gumnos, naked, and sperma%
seed) : has naked seed, commonly four in number.
ANGIOSPE'RMIA (from the Greek, aggeion, a vessel, and sperma,
seed) : has the seeds, which are usually numerous, enclosed
in a seed-vessel.
lo. The 15th class, Tetradyna'mia, has two orders, distin-
guished by the form of the fruit.
SILICULO'SA : fruit a silicle or roundish pod.
SILIQUO'SA : fruit a silique.
16. The orders of the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes are
founded on the characters of the first thirteen classes. Foi
example, the mallow, which belongs to the 16th class, Monodel-
phia, has more than 20 stamens, and therefore belongs to the
order Polyandria of that class.
17. The 19th class, Syngenesia, has five orders, characterized
by the nature of the florets, whether perfect, separated, or barren.
1. POLYGAMIA ^QUALIS has perfect florets, that is, furnished
with both stamens and pistils. Example, the thistle.
2. POLYGAMIA SOPE'RFLUA has the florets of the disk perfect,
and those of the ray furnished with pistils only. Example,
the aster.
13. On what characters are the orders of the first 13 classes e* the
Linnaenn system founded ?
14. What are the orders of the class Didynamia ?
15. What are the orders of Tetradynamia ?
16. On what characters are the 16th, 17th, and 18th classes founded*
17. What are the orders of Syngenesia ?
104 NATURAL METHOD.
3. POLYGAMIA FRUSTRANEA : has the florets of the disk per
feet; those of the ray without either stamens or pistils
which are well formed. Example, the sunflower.
4. POLYGAMIA NECESSARIA : has the florets of the disk with
stamens only, the stigmas being imperfect ; and those of
the ray with pistils only. Example, silphium.
5. POLYGAMIA SEGREGATA : has all the florets perfect, and each
floret has a well formed calyx, the whole being enclosed in
an involucre. Example, elephantopus.
The orders of the 20th, 2 1st, and 22d classes are for the most
part characterized by the number of stamens.
18. The 23d class, Polygamia, has three orders founded on
the immediately preceding orders.
1. MONOECIA has both separated and perfect flowers on the
same individual.
2. DICECIA : when one individual bears the perfect, and another
the two kinds of separated flowers.
3. TRHECIA : when one bears the perfect,' a second the stami-
nate, and a third the pistillate flowers.
The Ferns, Mosses, Algse, Fungi, &c., constitute the orders
of the 24th class, Cryptogamia.
19. The basis of the natural method was proposed by a
French botanist, Bernard de Jussieu, and this classification, per-
fected by the labours of Antoine Jussieu (pronounced jus-sue),
and the botanists of his school, is the one now generally adopted.
According to this classification, we bring together, in groups
called genera, all the species of plants which resemble each
other throughout, in the important characters of their organiza-
tion ; and in the same manner we bring together, into divisions
of higher rank, named natural families, the different genera,
the most essential organs of which possess an analogous mode
of structure : then we group together the natural families accord-
ing to the same principle, and finally obtain a small number of
divisions which comprise all the subdivisions we have mentioned
above, and which, by their union, include the whole vegetable
kingdom.
20. The most important differences among plants, consist in
the absence or presence of flowers or organs of fructification,
and this difference almost always coincides with their peculiar
modes of organization in all their parts, such as the absence or
presence of distinct vessels in the tissue of the plant. There-
lore, in a natural method, we must first divide the vegetable
kingdom into two groups ; one containing plants which are re-
produced by means of flowers, and the other including plants
18. What are the orders of the class Polygamia?
19. What is the basis of the natural method of arranging1 plants ?
JiO. What are the most important differences among plants? Into how
many groups is the vegetable kingdom d'vided ? What are they ?
NATURAL METHOD. 105
which are not multiplied in this way, and unprovided with flowers.
This is, in fact, the course followed ; we ordinarily designate the
first of these divisions under the name of cotyle'donous or pha-
nero'gamous plants, and the second under the name of acotyle'-
donoits or crypto' gamous plants.
21. The phanerogamous (from the Greek, phaneros, evident,
and gamos, marriage) or cotyie'donous plants all resemble each
other in the most important particulars of their organization, but
nevertheless very greatly differ from each other; in some, the
seed contains but a single coty'ledon, and the stem is en'dogen-
ous ; the others have seeds provided with two or more cotyledons,
and an ex'ogenous stem ; consequently we divide them into two
groups, which are called monocotyledons and dicoty'ledons.
22. Among the crypto' gamous plants, there are some which
are composed exclusively of cellular tissue, and do not possess
any distinct organs that are analogous either to roots, stems, or
leaves; there are others which, although composed chiefly of cellu-
lar tissue like the first, often acquire vessels at a certain period of
their development, and are provided with parts analogous to th<?
roots and leaves of ordinary plants. In order that the classifica-
tion of these plants be natural, that is, the expression of the more
or less important resemblances or differences they present, we
must, therefore, form them into two divisions; that of cellular
plants properly so called, and that of semi-vascular plants.
23. We subdivide the monocotyle'donous and dicotyle'donous
plants into classes according to the structure of their flowers, and,
to characterize the groups thus formed, we ordinarily take into
consideration, first, the absence or existence of a corolla, &c.,
then we make a distinction between the monopetalous and
polypetalous corolla; then we consider the manner of insertion
of the stamens or petals when they possess stamens. Finally,
the classes thus formed are subdivided into natural families ac-
cording as nature has variously modified the general mode of
organization of the seed, of the fruit, of the flower, &c.
The following table, in which we have placed the most import-
ant natural families, shows at a glance the successive degrees
through which we arrive at the division of the vegetable king-
dom, according to the natural method or classification of Jus-
21. In what respects do phanero' famous plants differ from each other?
How are phanerogamous plants divided ?
22. How do crypto'gamous plants differ from each other? How are
they divided ?
23. On -vhat principle are these divisions subdivided ?
ss, - -• ••
TABLE
OF THE
CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS,
ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL METHOD OF JUSS1ED,
CLASSES.
FAMILIES.
f Cellulares. 1
Fungi.
I
Lichenea.
Cryptoga' m i a or inembryon ntx-Jicotyledons t
Hepa'ticae.
\Semi-vasculares. <
Aphvlla'.
(
Fi'lices.
- ' * ••*
Stamens hypogy "OM^ | Mart ohypogy1 nea. { Grami'nese.
Monocoty'le- •
Stamens perigy' nous, ( C
fixed on the calyx v Monoperigy1 nea. <
around the ovary. ( (
Palmae.
Asphode'leae.
Lilia'ceee.
dons.
Slamtns epiffy'nous,t
fixed on the upper part< Monoepigy' nea. •{
Iri'dete.
T
of the ovary. f
1
f Stamens epigy' nous. { Epistami' nea. \
Aristolo'chite.
u
With- \ Stamens perigy' nous. ^ Peristami'nea. {
Lauri'neae.
I
m
3
out pe
tals. ^Stamens hypogy'nous.-^ Hypostami' nea. •{ Amaranta'cesB
§
1
(
Sola'nejE.
c
ft
C
O
c
Corolla hypogy 'nous. ^ Hypocoro' llea. <
Labia'tje.
Convolvula'cem.
I"? 0
Mono-
Corolla perigy'nous. { Pericoro'llea. 4 Campanula'ce®.
s
tt
petal-
K .
1
• 1.
ous.
Corolla C ^ j y"-t^[a | Synanthc1 rea. •{ Synanthe'rec.
s
p
nous. ( g £"tjn^,rts j Corisanthe' rea- •{ Rubia'cese.
£
13
re
£
Stamens eplgy'nous. •< Epipeta'lea. <
[ Umbelli'fera.
b"~
—
'Ranunciila'ces.
£
Malva'cese.
1
c
Aurantia cea^.
M
1
6
Poly- 1 Stamens hypogy'nou*.< Hy pop eta' lea.
petal--
Papavera'ceas.
Cruci' terse.
Carj'ophi'lleffi.
.~ ,
ous.
Anipeli'dete, Vite?
|
f Ficoi'deae.
O
Cucurbita'ceae.
.Stamens perigy' nous. < Peripeta1 lea.
Myrta'ceffi.
i Rosa'cece.
I Legumino'sae.
^Terebintha'c*.
(Euphorbia'cew
Flowers unisexual, borne on two ( nidi'nea
*• individuals. (
Urti'ces.
Cupuli'fer*.
| Coni'ferje.
tCyca'dee.
(106)
CELLULAR PLANTS^— LICHENS. 107
CRYPTO'GAMOUS PLANTS.
Division of Cryptoga'mia. (See table on page 102.)
24. Crypto'gamous plants are constituted exclusively, or
chiefly of cells, and during the first period of their growth, or
even throughout their existence, are unprovided with vessels and
stigmas; they also differ from phanero'gamous plants in theii
mode of propagation, for their multiplication always takes place
without the aid of various reproductive organs, analogous ta
stamens and pistils, and is effected by the division or by the
development of sporules, bodies which resemble the seeds of
ordinary plants, but have no protecting envelope like a pericarp,
nor a depot of nutritive matter similar to the albumen, or 'to
cotyledons. We divide these plants into two groups; cellular
plants properly so called, and semi-vascular plants.
25. CELLULAR PLANTS properly so called are composed ex-
clusively, and at all periods of their existence, of cellular tissue,
which forms a homogeneous mass and is rarely green; their
forms, which are very various, do not at all resemble those of
ordinary plants ; we can distinguish in these plants neither roots
nor organs similar to stems or leaves, and absorption seems to
take place throughout the whole extent of their surface. When
their tissue is membranous and flat, we give the part thus con-
stituted the name of tkallu*, and when branched and spread out,
it constitutes what is called a frond or frons. The. sporules are
sometimes naked, sometimes contained in one or more membran-
ous sacks which seem to be ordinary cells.
26. This group is divided into three natural families; Lichenes,
Fungi, and Algse.
27. LICHENS are perennial plants which grow upon the trunks
of trees, on rocks, or on the surface of the ground, and are com-
posed of a thallus (possibly from the Greek, thaleia, the bloom-
ing one) having the appearance of filaments, of foliaceous mem-
branes or hardened pulve'rulent crusts. This thallus consists of
two layers, one external or cortical, variously coloured, but never
green; and an internal or medullary, which often contains green
matter and gives origin to young plants, either by the division of
its tissue or by the production of spores (from the Greek,
24. What are the general characters of crypto'gamous plants? How do
l-hey differ from phanero'gamous plants ? What are sporules ? How are
crypto'gamous plants divided ?
25. What are the general characters of cellular plants ? What is a
thallus ? What is a fi ond ?
26. How are cellular plants divided ?
27 "What are lichens ? What is the character of the thallus in lichena 7
108 MUSHROOMS.
seed) called apothecum or scutum (Latin, a shield), because theii
form is frequently like that of a small shield.
28. There are more than two thousand species of lichens
known ; they grow in the most arid places, arid constitute the
greater part of the vegetation of the regions near the pole. One
species, the cenomy'ce range-ferina (reindeer) (cenomy'ce, from
the Greek, kenos, empty, and mukes, a minute fungus), forms the
food of the reindeers of Lapland for the greater part of the year
and several are used as dye-stuffs, as the archil.
29. The FUNGI, mushrooms, are plants of various forms, and
are never green. In general, they consist of cellular tissue
formed into globular masses, or having a
peduncle (Jig- 128, d) surmounted by a
cap, pileus (c), which is ordinarily convex,
and the inferior surface is furnished with
radiating laminae (fig> 128). They are
distinguished from lichens and alga? by the
a absence offrons or crust, bearing organs of
fructification. The sporules are sometimes
naked, and sometimes enclosed in little cap-
F Ig. 1 28. MUSHROOM. , , . r
sules ; in common mushrooms, the union
of these capsules constitutes a membrane named the hyme'nium
(from the Greek, umen, a membrane), which is ordinarily plaited,
and covers, entirely or in part, the surface of the plant. These
sporules become free, sometimes by the rupture of their envelope,
sometimes by the decay of the tissue which surrounds them ; and
when they germinate, we observe arising from them white fila-
ments upon which spring bodies, from point to point, that seem-
ingly constitute the mushroom, but in reality they appear to be
only the spores, that is, the reproductive organs. These plants
are developed, in general, in shady, damp, and warm situations,
and are found especially numerous where organic matters in a
state of putrefaction abound ; many live as parasites upon peren-
nial plants, and some grow on the surface of water, but most of
them inhabit the surface of the earth, or are buried in the soil ;
sometimes they grow with extraordinary rapidity; frequently we
see thousands of mushrooms growing up in a single night, and
the greater part of them do not live beyond a few days at most ;
there are some however that grow slowly and live many years.
Explanation of Fig. 128. — A mushroom (fungus); — a, 6, the volva or
wrapper, — c, the pileus or cap; — tf, the peduncle or stipe.
28. How many species of lichens are known ? To what uses are lichens
applied ?
29. What are the general characters of fungi ? What is a hyme'nium ?
Where are fungi found ?
AGARICS. 100
30. This family is very numerous, and is divided into several
groups, the most important of which are agarics or mushrooms,
properly so called, iycopodidcea, and the muscidi'nece, moss
tribe.
31. Agarics or mushrooms, properly so called, are plants ordi-
narily of fleshy consistence, the sporules of which are placed on
the surface of an external membrane and enclosed in distinct
capsules. Some have a sort of stem surmounted by an um-
brella-shaped cap, the inferior surface of which is lined by the
sporiferous membrane; others are club-shaped or branched;
others again form irregular masses of a gelatinous consistence.
They are commonly found in shady, damp woods, at the foot of
old trees, and a great many are known. Several of them may
be used as food, and are even very much esteemed, but others are
violently poisonous, and there are no general characters by which
good mushrooms may be certainly distinguished from bad ones ;
it is only when we are able to recognise perfectly the species
known to be good that we should venture to eat those found in
forests, because there are poisonous mushrooms which so closely
resemble the edible species that mistakes are easily made. We
should invariably reject those which change colour quickly after
being gathered ; those which contain a milky juice, or are of a
very soft and watery structure ; those that have a peppery, bitter,
or astringent taste, and disagreeable odour ; a bright red colour
is also frequently an indication of poisonous qualities.
32. The mushrooms most used as food are the edible agaric —
agaricus edulis, the mousserron agaric, the oronge, chantrelle,
'nioriUe, ceps, or boletus edulis, or edible bole ; but the only
species cultivated is the edible agaric, which is propagated at
pleasure by means of the white filaments that spread out in the
soil where the sporules have germinated, and are known to
gardeners under the name of white of mushrooms.
33. One of the most poisonous mushrooms is the false oronge,
which resembles the true oronge, which is among the most
esteemed species, and is very common in the South of France.
34. Tinder or spunk is a species of mushroom of the genus
Agaric.
30. What are the most important divisions of the family of Fungi ?
31. What are agarics? How are edible mushrooms recognised?
32. What species of mushrooms are used for food ? YVhat species is
cultivated ?
33. Name one of the most poisonous species of mushroom.
34. VVhat is spunk?
19
110
TRUFFLES.
35. The division of the Lycopodia cece comprises mushrooms,
the sporules of which are not enclosed in especial capsules. We
place among them truffles (Jig. 129), singular plants of irregu-
larly rounded form, which grow under ground without being
attached to any other body and without ever appearing above the
surface. The edible truffle, so much esteem-
ed by gourmands, is of a brown colour,
strong odour, and peculiar taste ; its size
varies from that of an egg to that of a fist,
and it grows five or six inches under ground.
It is chiefly met with in forests of ash, chest- _,. "
i i • -i i f i .riff. Iz
nut, or oak, and in soils composed of sand
and clay. To gather these subterranean mushrooms we take
advantage of the instinct of hogs, which root them up with their
snout. They have not been multiplied by cultivation as yet.
36. The mucedinece or moulds are also plants of the family
of Fungi, and we also place in this natural division certain
parasitic plants that grow on other living plants, often producing
in them very remarkable injurious alterations. Of this number
is a species of fungus named aredo, which is sometimes developed
on wheat, and occasions what farmers call blight.
37. The FAMILY OF ALG^E — Sea-
weeds— is composed of marine arid
other aquatic plants, the structure of
which is very simple. The fuel which
cover the rocks on our coast belong
to this group. The genus Fucus (Jig.
130) yields iodine, a useful medicine.
The Chondrus crispus or Carageen
moss of Ireland, which also grows on
our own coast, is converted into size ;
it also yields a fine jelly for invalids,
and is often used in the composition of
blancmange.
38. The SEMI-VASCULAR PLANTS
are at first composed of cellular tis-
sue alone like cellular plants, but often acquire, at a certain
period of their development, vessels and stomata like phanero'-
gamous plants. They are provided with roots like the latter,
35. What species of mushroom belong to the division of Lycopodia cea; ?
What are the general characters of the edible truffle ? Where are they
found ? Are they cultivated ?
36. What are mucedi'neffi ? What is aredo ?
37. What are Algae ? What do we obtain from the genus Fucus ?
38. What are the general characters of the semi-vascular plants ?
Fig. 130.— FUCUS.
MOSSES.— FERNS.
Ill
Fig. 131. — MOSS.
and with expansions or fronds, ordinarily
green, analogous to leaves ; the latter often
arise from an axis similar to a stem, and
sporules are developed upon their external or
inferior surface.
39. In this division we place the mosses,
musci, the ferns, fdices, and some other
families of less importance.
40. The MOSSES — Musci — (figs. 131
and 132) have a very short, herbaceous
stem, fixed on the ground, on stones,
or the bark of trees, bysmall brown
roots, and covered by little leaves
in form of scales ; there are no
vessels in their interior; finally,
their spores are enclosed in lateral
or terminal buds, surrounded by
a sort of perigon, and arise from
the internal parietes of a sort of
urn (fig- 132). "Mosses rank
among the smallest of plants;
they seldom exceed the height of a few inches ; and many are
so minute that they would wholly escape our observation if they
did not grow in patches. Several species, indeed, are scarcely
visible to the naked eye ; and yet they have a stem, leaves, fruit,
and other organs, as the largest plants of the family.'1 — <
Elements of JBotany.
41. The FERNS— Felices— (figs. 133 and 134) are
herbaceous or arborescent, plants, the fronds or leaves
of which are alternate, often lobate, and grow upon
a sort of vertical stem or rhizome ; we find stomata on
the leaves, and tracheae and other vessels in their
petioles. Their organs of fructification are found on
the inferior surface of the leaves, towards the edge, at
the extremity of the veins (fig. 133). "Although
the ferns of the United States and of all northern cli-
mates have prostrate stems, and consequently do not
Explanation of Fig. 132.— A magnified view of the capsule of a moss,
enclosing the sporules. The sporule case, or theca, also called capsule,
is a little oblong urn-shaped body, which in a few cases is sessile, but
is usually borne on a filiform fruit stalk or seta (fig. 131). The tall
cap-like p>irt of the figure above, somewhat like an extinguisher, is called
a caly'ptra, and when of this form is said to be mitriform.
39. What families belong to the semi-vascular plants?
40. What are the general characters of the mosses?
41. What are the general characters of the ferns?
112
PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS.
Fig. 134.
FERN.
rise, at most, above three or four feet in height, yet in
tropical countries their trunks are often erect, and fre-
quently attain the height of seventy or eighty feet. The
tree ferns of the tropics are said to be objects of incom-
parable beauty ; their straight, unbranched trunks often
rising, like those of palms, as high as forty or fifty feet,
without a leaf." — Gray.
42. We also place in this
division of the vegetable king-
dom the chara (Jig. 135), an
aquatic plant, which is very re-
markable on account of the
singular circulation observed
in the interior of the cellules
of its tissue. Of the structure
of the charse very little is cer-
tainly known. They consist
of submersed water-plants, hav-
ing slender jointed stems desti-
tute of leaves, but furnished
with whorled branches resembling the F*£m 135.— CHARA.
stem. There are only a few species, but these abound in stag-
nant waters.
PHANERO'GAMOUS PLANTS.
43. This great division of the vegetable kingdom comprises all
plants that bear flowers and are multiplied by means of true seeds.
They are also called cotyle' donous plants, because the embryo or
germ, contained in the seed, is always provided with one or more
coty'ledons, organs which serve as depots of food for the nourish-
ment of the young plant during the first part of its existence, am
are not found in the cryptoga'mia. Vessels as well as cellular
tissue always enter into the composition of these plants, and for
this reason botanists sometimes designate them under the name
of vascular plants.
They are divided, as we stated before, into two groups, the
monocoty 'led.ons and dicotyledons.
MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS PLANTS.
44. The most remarkable characteristics of the organization of
plants of this division are :
Explanation of Fig. 134. — The leaf of a fern (magnified) seen from below,
snowing the capsules containing the sporules.
42. What are the characters of the genus Chara?
43. What description of vegetables belong to the division of phanero'ga-
mous plants?
44. What are the most remarkable characteristics of the monocotv'ledons ?
MONOCOTYLEDONS.— GRASSES.
113
1st. The existence of a single coty'Jedon in the seed, a circum-
stance which corresponds with a particular mode of germination.
2d. The existence of an endogenous stem, that is, a stem in
which the new fibres do not form concentric layers around the old,
but are arranged in scattered bundles.
3d. The arrangement of the nerves of the leaves is almost al-
ways parallel ; as in Indian corn.
4th. The existence of a single floral envelope, called perianth
m glume, which takes the place of calyx and corolla.
45. These plants are also distinguished from the dicoty'ledons
by their aspect and by some other characters. We place in this
group the Grami'neoe, Palma'ceee, Asparagi'neae, Lilia'cese, Nar-
< 'ssa'cese, I'rideae, Orchi'dese, and several other natural families.
46. The FAMILY OF GRAMI'NE^E — Grasses
• — (Jigs. 136 and 139) belongs to the class of
monocoty'Iedons with stamens inserted below the
ovary, named for this reason, monohypogy'nia
(from the Greek, monos, single, upo, below, and
gune, woman, metaphorically, pistil, that is, hav-
ing the stamens fixed below the ovary). They are
for the most part herbaceous plants; their stem,
which is cylindrical and ordinarily hollow, pre-
sents at different points knots from which the
leaves arise; it is called a culm or straw. The
flowers are generally united in a spike or in
panicles (Jig. 137); their ovary is simple, and
the seed, sometimes naked, and sometimes fur-
nished with an envelope named
glume, is composed of an albu-
men or farinaceous perisperm,
having a lateral pit near its
base which lodges the embryo.
It is this perisperrn which ren-
ders many of these plants so
useful, by furnishing to man an
abundant and wholesome arti-
cle of food, flour, and meal,
&c.
Fig. 136. 47. This family is composed
DARNEL. of a great many genera, among
Fig. 137
DARNEL.
Explanation of Fig. 137. — A magnified flower of the darnel, Lo'liun
perenne, sometimes called ray-grass, &c.
45. What natural families belong to the class of monocoty'Iedons ?
46. What are the general characters of the grasses? What is a sulm *
47. What genera belong to the family of Grami'neae ?
19*
114 WHEAT.
which are wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize (Indian corn), rice,
and sugar-cane, as well as bamboo and reeds. We also place in
this family different herbs which constitute the bottom-grass of
all natural prairies, such as fescue, alopecurus (from the Greek,
atopez, a fox, and oura, tail, fox-tail), timothy, festuca, meadow-
grass, and darnel or tare (Jig. 136).
48. Common wheat — Tri'ticum — the most important of all
the grasses, is an herbaceous annual plant, with a stem (culm)
four or five feet high, furnished with some leaves, which is ter-
minated by a spike composed of flowers united in groups of from
three to six, called spikelets, in a common enve- a a
lope, which consists of two scales, bearing
the common name of glume; each flower,
bears three stamens enclosed between two
unequal palese (from the Latin, palea, chaff),
the external of which often but not always
terminates in a long beard or barb, called
awn (fg» 138 a). The seed is oval, larger
than that of most other grasses, convex on
one side, and on the other hollowed by a
longitudinal groove ; on an average, there
are forty seeds on each spike. It is filled
by a white, farinaceous substance, chiefly
consisting of fecula, and a peculiar sub- „. "' UMK
stance named gluten. These two substances,
crushed by a mill-stone, constitute the flour which we use for
making bread. Fecula consists of minute grains, filled with a
matter of a gummy consistence, which, by the action of heat
and various chemical agents, burst and permit their contents to
escape ; this is the reason why, when we boil fecula in water, it
suddenly thickens and becomes paste. Gluten is a very elastic
substance, which may be separated from fecula by washing
wheat flour, wrapped in a cloth, under a stream of water, for
some time.
49. Wheat is sown at two different periods; in the autumn
Explanation of Fig. 138. — The glume or husk; — a, a, the awns; — g, g,
the glume. This term is most generally applied to the outer and thicker
set of scaly leaves next to the sexual organs in grasses, two in number, and
embracing each other at the base (Jig. 138), in which are seen the outer
scales (glume or calyx, g, g~) and the inner scales with the awn (a) attach-
ed. The stamens and pistils are removed. The small thin leases to which
the awns are attached, are called palece. When these scaly leaves embrace
several flowers, they are called bracteae (bracts).
48. What are the characters of wheat? What is a glume? What is
meant by the paleae ? What is fecula ? What is gluten ?
49. What is the difference between fall and spring ^vheat?
RYE __ BARLEY.— OATS.
and in the spring; the first is called winter or " fall" wheat, and
Ihe second spring wheat; the season of the harvest varies accord-
ing to the climate.
50. There is a species of wheat called spelt> the seeds of
which are not separated from their envelope by thrashing, and
still another called dog or couch-grass, having a long spreading
root, which is very injurious on account of the rapidity with
which it overspreads wheat-fields.
51. Common rye — Secale — very much resembles wheat, but
it never has more than two flowers joined in the same glume, and
forming a spikelet. It is said to have come originally from the
Levant, but is cultivated in the United States and all parts of
Europe ; it succeeds better than wheat in cold countries, and in
dry. and arid soils. It is sown earlier than the other cereals, and
Generally flowers in the month of May ; and it is usually gathered
fifteen or twenty days before the wheat (generally in the month
of July). Rye flour is not so white as that of wheat, but is used
for the same purposes.
52. Barley — Hordeum — is distinguished from the preceding
species by its simple, compact spike, formed of spikelets of a single
flower, arranged three and three; its height does not exceed two
or three feet. It is the easiest of the cereals to cultivate, and the
most rapid in its development ; but barley flour is even less
nourishing than rye. What is called pot barley is made by grind-
ing off the husk, and pearl barley is made by carrying the opera-
tion so far as to produce roundness of the grains.
Malt is the chief purpose for which barley is cultivated in Great Britain
and the United States. In order to understand the process of malting1, it
may be necessary to observe, that the coty'ledons of a seed, before a young
plant is produced, are changed by the heat and moisture of the earth into
sugar and mucilage. Malting is only an artificial mode of effecting this
object, by steeping the grain in water, and fermenting it in heaps, and then
arresting its progress towards becoming a plant, by kiln-drying it, in order
to take advantage of the sugar in the distillation of spirits, or fermentation
for beer.
53. Oats — Avena — has its flowers arranged in an open panicle,
composed of multiflorous spikelets hanging on their peduncles.
The seeds adhere to the glume, and are oblong and acute ; they
are much used as food for horses. Oats are sown in the autumn
or spring, and are gathered from the middle of July to the first of
September. The flour, called oat meal, is also made into bread,
and forms what is termed groats by grinding off the husk.
50. Are there other kinds of wheat ?
51. What are the characters of rye ?
52. How is barley distinguished from wheat and rye ? What is the dif
ference between pot and pearl barley ? What is malt ?
53. What are the characters of oats ?
116
RICE.— MAIZE.— SUGAR-CANE.
54. Rice — Ory'za* — also has flowers arranged in a panicle, but
the spikelets are uniflorous ; it is an annual plant, and delights
most in low humid situations, and even in inundated places ; its
culm rises three or four feet high, and its leaves are very long.
It is originally from India : it is cultivated in Italy, but Asia,
Africa and America furnish most; Carolina rice is considered
amongst the very best ; it constitutes the principal article of diet
of all the nations of the East.
55. Maize, or Indian Corn — Zea — (from the Greek, zed, I
live) — is also an herbaceous annual grass ; its fibrous roots give
rise to one or more stems five or six feet high, the summit of which
bears a panicle nearly a foot long, formed of male flowers in great
numbers on several spikes ; the female flowers are very nume-
rous, sessile, attached upon a common axis in the axil of the su-
perior leaves. The grains are round-
ed, of the size of a common pea,
ordinarily of a yellow colour, com-
pressed one against the other, and ar-
ranged longitudinally in six or eight
rows. This plant is originally from
America ; but was long ago intro-
duced into Europe, and is cultivated
in all the south of France, Spain and
Italy, and is used as food both for
men and many domestic animals.
56. Sugar-cane — $>accharum\ —
(Jig. 139) — also belongs to the fami-
ly of Grami'nese; its white, silky
flowers, all of which are hermaphro-
dite, are arranged in fasciculated
spikes, with two flowers at each arti-
culation ; its stem, which is fror/
eight to twelve feet high, is full ol
sweet juice, which, being compressed
and evaporated by boiling, yields su-
gar. It grows in the East and West
Indies, United States, South America,
Fig. 139. — SUGAR-CANE. and South Sea Islands.
* ORY'ZA. — From the Arabic word eruz, the Greeks coined their word
trvza, and the various modern nations of Europe, their rice, riz, rets,
arroz, &c.
t SACCHARUM. — From its Arabic name soukar, from which the Greeks
54. What are the general characters of the rice plant?
55. What are the characters of Indian corn?
56. What are the characters of sugar-cane ? How is sugar made' How
is sugar-candy prepared ? What is rock-candy ? What is barley-sugar }
What is rum ?
SUGAR.— BAMBOO. 117
[The cane in the We'/t Indies is propagated by cutting's from the root end,
planted in hills or trenches in spring or autumn, something in the manner
of hops. The cuttings take root at the joints under ground, and from those
above send up shoots, which, in from eight to fourteen months, are from six
to ten feet long, and fit to cut down for the mill. A plantation lasts from
six to ten years. Sugar mills are merely iron rollers placed vertically or
horizontally, between which the canes are passed and repassed. The juice
thus squeezed out is collected and boiled with quicklime, which imbibes the
superfluous acid, which otherwise would impede crystallization : impuri-
ties are skimmed off, and the boiling is continued till a thick syrup is pro-
duced, when the whole is cooled and granulated in shallow vessels of earthen
ware, which permit the molasses (a part that will not granulate) to drain
off. It is now the brown or raw sugar of commerce. A further purifica-
tion is effected by dissolving it in water, boiling, skimming, adding lime,
and clarifying from the oily or mucila'ginous parts, by adding blood or eggs,
which incorporate with them and form a scum. When boiled to a proper
consistency, it is put into unglazcd earthen vessels of a conical shape, with
a hole at the apex, but placed in an inverted position, and the base, after the
sugar is poured in, covered with clay. When thus drained of its impurities,
it is taken out of the mould, wrapped in paper, and dried or baked in a close
oven. It is now the loaf sugar of the shops, and according to the number
of operations it undergoes, is called single or double refined. The operation
of refining is seldom or never performed by the growers, but forms a sepa-
rate branch of business.
Sugar-candy is formed by dissolving loaf sugar in water over a fire, boil-
ing it to a syrup, and then exposing it to crystallize in a cool place. When
crystallized upon strings put into the syrup, it is.called rock-candy. This
is the only sugar esteemed in the East.
Barley-sugar is a syrup from the refuse of sugar-candy, hardened in
cylindrical moulds.
Rum is distilled from the fermented juice of sugar and water.]
57. The Bamboo — Bambu'sa — (from the Indian name Bam-
bos) — an arborescent plant of the equatorial regions, also belongs
to the family of Grami'neas. The bambop is applied to a great
variety of purposes. In India it is used for building- houses and
bridges, for masts, for boats, for making boxes, baskets, cups,
mats, tables, chairs, fences, paper, and a variety of other pur-
poses ; and the tops of the tender shoots are, in the West Indies,
pickled. It grows about forty feet high. The genus Barnbu'sa,
belongs to the class Hexandria, order Monogy'nia of Linnaeus.
58. The FAMILY OF PALMS — Palma'cece,(fig. 140) — is com-
posed of monocoty'ledons with perigy'nous stamens ; the stem,
which is cylindrical and resembles a column, is crowned by a
fasciculus of large leaves. We have already spoken of its struc-
ture (page 26). Their flowers, which are generally unisexual
formed sackchar, and modern European nations sugar. The genus Sac'
charum belongs to the class Tria'ndria, order Trigy'nia, of the Linnroan
arrangement.
57. What is bamboo ? To what uses is it applied ?
58. How is the family of Palms characterized7 What is sago?
118
PALMS.
form catkins or a great bunch
called raceme; the fruit is a
fleshy or fibrous drup3 contain-
ing a very hard, bony nut.
Nearly all these large and beau-
tiful trees belong to the inter-
tropical regions ; many of them
furnish the inhabitants of the
countries in which they grow
naturally, wholesome and plea-
sant food ; the date tree and
cocoa-nut yield excellent fruits ;
the cabbage-tree palm bears a
terminal bud which may be com-
pared to our common cabbage,
and several other species yield
a fecula named sago. By in-
cision into the spathe at the top
of the stems of some, a saccha-
rine liquor, termed sweet toddy,
is procured, which when fer-
mented constitutes Palm wine,
and yields by distillation arrack,
or rack. The date tree — Phce-
nix — (the Greek name of the
Fig. 140. DATE PALM.
date) — furnishes a great part of the diet of the inhabitants of
Arabia and part of Persia. They make a conserve of it with
sugar; and even grind the hard stones in their handmills for
their camels. The Idfaves are manufactured into baskets, bags,
brushes, &c., and the stem is used in building, and another part
of the plant is made into rope and rigging for small vessels.* The
palms of Scripture are the leaves of the date tree.
The genus Ca'lamus (from the Greek kalamos, a reed) fur-
nishes the several species of rattan-canes, whose flexible stems
when split are woven into chair-bottoms.
59. The FAMILY or ASPHODE'LEJE, or Asparigi'nese, belongs
to the class of Monoperigy'nia, and is composed of herbaceous
plants with fibrous roots, the fruit of which is a capsule with three
cells, or a globular berry. Common asparagus, the young shoots
of which are eaten, is the type of this group.
* The Phoenix, according to the Linnean arrangement, is in the clasa
DicGcia, order Triandria ; while the Calamus, another genus of the Pal-
iriacetB, is in the class Hexa'ndria, and order Monogy'nia.
What ie sweet toddy ? What is arrack ? What tree furnishes dates ? What
are rattans ?
59. What are the characters of the Asphode'lece ?
LILIES.
119
60. The FAMILY OF LILIA'CEJE is also placed, in the class
of Monoperigy'nia , it is composed of plants with bulbous or
fibrous roots, and a stem (or shaft)
generally naked ; the leaves are sessile
or sheathing ; several species of this
family are remarkable from having
flowers with a coloured calyx, such
as the lilies, tulips, hyacinths, tuberoses,
imperials, &c.
61. The FAMILY OF AMARY'LLIDJE
or NARCI'SSE^E (fig. 141), and the
family of IRI'DE^E belong on the con-
trary to the Mono-epigy'nia : among the
first is the common Narcissus (fig.
141), the Agave americana, and among
the second the Iris florentina, which
furnishes orris root, and the Crocus
sativus, which has long, orange-coloured
stigmas, which, when dried, form saf-
fron. The plants of the family of
Iri'dese are herbaceous — under shrubs,
with fibrous or bulbous roots ; gene-
rally their flowers are large, beautiful,
and variegated in different colours. Fig. 141.— NARCISSI/S.
DICOTYLE'DONOUS PLANTS.
62. The plants of this division are chiefly characterized :
1st. By the existence of an embryo with two cotyledons,
sometimes however we find three, or even more.
2d. By the internal organization of the stem, all parts of
which are arranged in concentric layers, the growth of which is
ex'ogenous.
8d. By the arrangement of the leaves, the nerves of which
are ramified.
4th. By the very frequent presence of both a calyx and a
corolla, &c. f
63. They are divided into four groups ; the Apeta'leae, Mono-
peta'lese, Polypeta'lese, and Dicli'neae.
60. What are the characters of the Lilia'cese ?
6J. To what family does the common narcissus belong? What is orn»
root ? What is snffron ?
62. What are the chief characters of the dicotyledons* ?
63. How is the division of dicotyledons divided, ?
120
BIRTH WORT.— LAURELS.
Fig. 142.
Fig. 143.
ARISTOLOCHIA.
APE'TALOUS DICOTY'LEDONS.
64. This group of dicotyle'donous plants is characterized by
he absence of a corolla, or at least of a double floral envelope,
for vhe perianth as often resembles a corolla as a calyx. We
olaco in it Aristolo'chiae, Lauri nese, &c.
65. The FAMILY OF ARIS-
TOLO'CHIA — Birthwort — (from
the Greek, arisos, excellent, and
lochos, female, because it was
supposed to be excellent for
females in particular conditions)
is composed of twining plants
with epigy'nous stamens (figure
142), with alternate and internal
leaves, some species of which are
cultivated in gardens — the com-
mon Aristolo'chia, for example (fg> 143).
The Aristolo'chia serpentaria — Virginia snake-
root — belongs to this family.
66. The FAMILY OF LAURI'NE^E (from the Latin, laurus
the laurel or bay tree) belongs to the class of Peristami'neoe
(from the Greek, peri, around, and stamen — fig. 144), and
is composed of trees or shrubs with per-
sistent leaves and fleshy fruit. The type
of the family is the laurels, one species of
which, the laurel of Apollo, is originally
from Greece, and was used by the ancients
for decorating the crowns of their conquer-
ors. Cinnamon is the bark of another
a species of laurel which grows in India ; and
Fig. 144.— LAURUS. camphor is derived from another tree of the
same genus.
67. We will also montion in this class the FAMILY OF CHENO-
PO'DE^E (from the Greek, c/t.en, a goose, and pous, foot — goose-
foot), because we find in it one of the plants which at present
occupies a good deal of attention among agriculturalists, espe-
Explanation of Fig. 144. — Flower of a laurel; — a, the perigon; — 6,
stamen ; — c, pistil.
f>4. How are Apeta'lese characterized ?
65 How is the family of Aristolo'chia (pronounced aristolokea) charac-
terized ?
66. From what is cinnamon obtained ? From what genus of plants if
camphor derived ?
67 To what family does the sugar-beet belong ?
SUGAR-BEET.— POTATOE.
cially in France; namely, the sugar-beet. This plant, originally
from the southern parts of Europe, is annual or biennial ; it has
a spindle-shaped, fleshy root, sometimes as thick as one's leg,
which contains a considerable quantity of sugar, precisely like
that of the sugar-cane ; the leaves of the sugar-beet constitute
an abundant and wholesome food for cattle, but it is especially
cultivated in France for its sugar.
MONOPE'TALOUS DICOTY'LEDONS.
68. This division, which is much more numerous than the
preceding, is characterized by having a corolla distinct from the
calyx, and composed of a single piece. In it we place the
Sola'neiu, Primula'ceae, Jasmi'nese, Labia'tae, Synanthe'reae, and
Rubia'cece, &c.
69. The FAMILY OF SOLA'NEJE is composed of monope'talous,
dicotyle'donous plants with hypogy'nous stamens, the flowers of
which have a monose'palous, persistent calyx, with five lobes, a
regular corolla, divided into from four to five lobes, four or five
stamens, and a style bearing a stigma with two lobes, the fruit
of which is a capsule or «\ berry containing a great many seeds,
and the leaves are commonly alternate. Most of the Sola'neie
contain a narcotic (stupifying) substance, which sometimes
renders them very dangerous ; tobacco, henbane, stramonium
(Jamestown weed), are of this kind ; we find it even in the leaves
of the common night-shade, and the Solanum tubcrosum. This
last plant, the stem of which is herbaceous, and the flowers white
or slightly violet, has at irregular intervals on its long, fibrous
roots, large tubers, which are ordinarily rounded or oblong,
which contain an immense quantity of fecula, and are known
under the name of potatoes.
The potatoe is originally from America (growing at this time wild in
Mexico and Peru), and was first introduced to Europe by Sir Walter
Raleigh, about the year 1587, who carried it to England, whence it was
soon spread upon the continent ; it is now cultivated in almost every part
of the world. This plant may be reproduced, multiplied in two ways;
namely, by the £eed, or by the development of the root-buds or eyes, which
we see on the surface of the tubers. By sowing the seed we obtain a great
variety ; but the multiplication by the root-buds produces, without any
alteration in the form or colour, potatoes like those from which the tuber.
cles were taken. This List mode of culture is most generally used, and to
succeed, it is only necessary to place entire tubers in the ground ; we may
divide them into several pieces, provided eacli fragment has one or more
root-buds upon it, for the development of which the feculent matter of the
68. How are the Monopeta'leae characterized ?
69. What are the general characters of the Sola'nea? ? What plant pro-
duces potatoes ? Where were potatoes originally found ? How are they
cultivated ?
20
TOBACCO.— BELLADONNA.
potatoe furnishes the nourishment. In those countries where frosts are
feared in the spring, these vegetables are planted about the month of April,
and gathered towards the end of October; a sandy and rich soil suits the n
best ; in moist clayey land they become pasty. By the ordinary method of
cultivation, the potatoe yields but seven or eight for one, but by hoeing the
stems, that is, by heaping up the earth to a certain height around them, we
obtain twelve or thirteen for one, and we are assured that by bedding and
covering them with earth the product may be increased to sixty for one.
70. Tobacco — Nicotiana tabac-
cum — (fg* 145) is a plant of the
genus Nicotiana, which is a native
of America ; it is actively culti-
vated for its large leaves, the uses
of which are known by every body.
Introduced into the stomach it acts
as a poison, and the smoke it yields
when burnt commonly excites nau-
sea and giddiness in persons not
accustomed to it ; but they may
become readily ^habituated to its
use, which, either in the form of
snuff, cigars, or smoking and chew-
ing tobacco, has become almost uni-
versal. It is now cultivated in
France, and in most countries of
Europe, and several parts of India,
as well as in various parts of
America. It is sown about the
month of March ; and about the
middle of July, they begin to gather
.he leaves; this harvest continues until the period of frost, which
the plant does not resist, and after drying the leaves thus obtained,
and having removed from them the large nerves (stems), they
are sprinkled with salt and water, and for a certain time permit-
ted to ferment; tobacco for smoking is then coarsely cut up, and
exposed to a moderate heat which curls it ; tobacco for snuff is
cut into strips, which are pressed into masses, which are after-
wards reduced to powder by a mill.
71. Belladonna — Atropa belladonna — is another plant of the.
family of Sola'neas which is also very poisonous ; it is common
under walls and in the woods. Its stem is branching, three or
four feet high, and slightly hairy ; its leaves are large, ovate, acu
minate, and diffuse a disagreeable odour its corolla, in form of an
elongated bell, has five lobes, is of a dull red ; its fruit is fleshy,
Fig. 145. — TOBACCO.
70. Where is tobacco found ? What are its qualities ?
71. What are the properties of belladonna?
OLIVES.
128
about the .size of a cherry, at first green, then
reddish, and lastly black. It then resembles a
black-heart cherry ; its taste is insipid, but this
fruit is extremely poisonous. The henbane
(hyosciamus), bitter-sweet (dulcamara), and se-
veral other plants of the same family are also
active poisons.
72. The FAMILY OF JASMI'NEJE, also, belongs
to the class of the Hypocoro'llese, and is com-
posed of trees and shrubs with, commonly, op-
posite leaves ; the corolla of the flower has
four or five lobes, but only two stamens (figs.
146, 147). We place in it the jasmine, olive,
ash, &c.
73. The Olive — Olea europea
— (fig. 148) — is a tree originally
from Asia Minor, and
the south of Europe,
now extensively culti-
vated in the southern
departments of France;
in the East it grows
from forty to fifty feet
high, but in France it
rarely exceeds twenty-
five. It is extremely long-lived.
Its leaves are opposite, lanceolate,
of a bronze green
colour above, and
whitish below. Its
flowers aresmall and
arranged in little
clusters (fig. 149);
its fruit is a fleshy,
oval drupe, contain-
Fig. 148. — BRANCH OF OLIVE. jng a nut with a single seed. A
symbol of peace, and consecrated to Minerva, this tree was an
object of a species of worship among the Greeks, and its destruc-
tion was prohibited under severe penalty : it is still cultivated with
care, but for other reasons — its fruit and its oil. (Olive, or sweet
oil, may be said to form the cream and butter of Spain and Italy.
Olive oil is made by crushing the fruit to a paste, then pressing it
through a woollen bag, adding hot water as long as any oil is pro-
72. To what class does the family of Jasmi'neoe belong?
73. What are the general characters of the olive tree ? How is sweel
oii prepared? What is the difference between French and Spanish olives f
Fig. 149.
OLIVE.
124
SWEET OIL.— MANNA.
duced. The oil is afterwards skimmed off the water, and put in
tubs, barrels, and bottles for use. Pickled olives are prepared from
unripe fruit, by repeatedly steeping them in water, to which quick-
lime or any alkaline substance is sometimes added to shorten the
operation. Afterwards they are soaked in pure water, and then
taken out and bottled in salt and water, with or without an aro-
matic. Spanish olives differ from the rVench in consequence of
being prepared from ripe fruit.)
74. The Ash — Fraxinus — is among the largest and most beau-
tiful forest trees ; it delights in a humid, light soil ; its wood, which
is white, longitudinally veined ano very pliant, is much employed
in carriage-building, &c.
75. The Manna-ash, or round-leaved ash — Fraxinus ornus-~
which grows in Calabria, and on the coast of Africa, permits a
sugar-like substance to exude through its bark, which hardens in
the air, and is known under the name of manna..
Fig. 150. SCARLET SAGE. Fig, 151.—SAGE.
76. FAMILY OF LABIA'TJE (Jigs. 150 and 151) belongs to
the same division as the preceding : these plants, which are
alrnos* all herbaceous, have a square stem and n tubular corolla,
divided into two lips, one of which is superior to the other
(fig. 151); the fruit is composed of four monospermous ache-
niums enclosed in a persistent calyx, and the leaves are sessile
and opposite. Most of the Labia'ta? are very aromatic ; they are
employed in medicine, and for the preparation of scented waters ;
yuch are the mint, lavender, rosemary, sage, thyme, balm, &c.
>74. What use is made of the ash ?
75. From what tree is manna obtained ?
76. What are the general characters of the family of Labia'tce i
BINDWEED.— MARIGOLD.
125
Fig. 152.— CONVOLVULUS.
The FAMILY OF BORRAGI'NE.U is
closely allied to the Labia'tse ; the type
of this family is the barrage.
77. The FAMILY OF CONVOLVU-
LA'CE^E, which is also composed of
hypogy'nous, monopetalous plants, has
the bindweeds as its type (figure 152),
which are common in our fields and
gardens. A species of the bindweeds
furnishes jalap, an active purgative
medicine.
78. We also place in the class of
Hypocoro'lleae the FAMILY OF PRIMU-
LA'CEJE, the type of which is the prim-
rose, the gentia'nre, and several others.
79. The FAMILY OF SYNANTHE'-
REJS (from the Greek, sun, with, and
anthos, flower) or COMPOSITE, which
belongs to the division of monopetalous
Epicoro'Ileoe, is v*?ry remarkable for the
arrangement of its flowers. They are
generally small, and united in a close
mass, called capi'tulum, upon a com-
mon receptacle ; they a
are of two kinds; one
has a regular corolla in
form of a funnel, and
called flosculous ; the
others have an irregu-
lar corolla, laterally
warped in form of a
little tongue. Finally,
the anthers are united,
and form a tube which
is traversed by the
style (figure 110).
Sometimes the capi'tulums (fig. 80) are composed only of florets
like the thistle (Jig. 154, a) and artichoke; sometimes in demi-
florets, as the dandelion and lettuce ; and sometimes of florets in
the centre, and demi-florets occupying the circumference, as the
tunflower and marigold (fig. 153). The first are frequently
designated under the name of flosculous, the second are called
semi-flosculous, and the last radiate.
77. From what family of plants is jalap obtained ?
78. To what class does the family of Primula'ce.-B belong ?
79. What are the general characters of the Synanthe'rn; ?
20*
Fig. 153. MARIGOLD.
Fig. 154.
MILK THISTLE.
COFFEE.
80. Other monopeta'lese with epigy'nous corolla?, have the
anthers distinct, and form the class named Cor isantiie'rea, which
is divided into several families, among which are the CAPRI-
FOLIA'CK,E, of which the honeysuckle is the type, and the
RUBIA'CE^E, a group in which we find the coffee, Peruvian bark,
and ipecacuanha, &c.
81. The Coffee tree (figure
155) appears to be originally
from Ethiopia, whence it was
carried by the Arabians to dif-
ferent parts of Arabia, but par-
ticularly to the province of
Yemen, and especially to the
environs of Mocha. Towards
the close of the seventeenth
century, the Dutch carried it to
Batavia, and about 1710, one
of these precious plants was
sent from this colony to Am-
sterdam ; it was carefully culti-
vated in the botanical garden,
and soon produced fruit, the
seeds of which furnished the
means of its rapid multiplica-
tion, for one of these young
trees thus obtained, having been
sent to Louis XIV., flourished in
the garden of plants, near Paris,
and afforded the French govern-
ment the means of introducing its cultivation into Martinique ; it
soon spread through the West Indies, and Brazil, &c. The trunk
of the coffee tree is cylindrical, and rises to from fifteen to twenty
feet high; its branches are somewhat knotty; its 'leaves are
lanceolate, shining, and of a deep green ; its flowers are white
and almost sessile; and its fruit is fleshy, ovoid berries, which are
at first green, then red, and finally black ; each berry encloses
two fleshy nuts, each containing a seed convex outwardly and
flat within, and marked on the flat side by a longitudinal groove.
This shrub ordinarily flowers twice a year, but there is scarcely
an interval between these periods, so that it is always loaded
with flowers and fruit ; the latter generally ripens four months
after inflorescence, and must be gathered with care according to
its state of maturity.
Fig. 155. — COFFEE.
80. To what class do the families Caprifolia'ceffi Mid Rubia'ceaj belong?
81. What are the characters of the coffee tree ? Where does it grow /
HEMLOC'.K. 127
82. The plant which furnishes us the medicine called ipeca-
cuanha, used as an emetic, bears considerable analogy to ihe
coffee tree, and is found in South America.
83. The Cinchona or Peruvian bark, so valuable in the treat-
ment of intermittent fevers, is- the bark of certain trees which
also belong to the family of Rubia'ceae ; they grow in Peru.
POLYPE'TALOUS DICOTY'LEDONS.
84. This division is distinguished from the two preceding by
having flowers, the corolla of which is composed of several
separate petals. It is also divided in accordance with the inser-
tion of the stamens into three sections called Epipeta'lece (epi,
upon), Hypopetd lece (hypo, beneath), and Penpetalea (-peri,
around), which, in their turn, are subdivided into families, the
most remarkable of which are the Umbel li'ferce, the Malva'cefie,
the Gerana'ceae, the Aurantia'ceae, the Papavera'cece, the Cary-
ophy'lleae, the Ampe'lidse, the Cucurbita'cese, the Myrta'cese, the
Rosa'cese, the Legumino'sse, the Terebintha'cese, &c.
Fig. 156. — HEMLOCK.
82. Where does ipecacuanha grow ?
83. To what family does Peruvian bark belong ?
84. What are the general characters of the polypetalous dicoty"edoni T
L'ow are they divided ?
128
MALLOWS.— COTTON.
85. The FAMILY OF UMBELLI'FER^J is composed of plants of
the class Epipela'lese, the flowers of which are very small, and
arranged in an umbel. One of the most remarkable genera of
this group is that of the hemlocks (Jig- 156), the poisonous
action of which is very powerful. Several species are known ;
the spotted hemlock — Coni'um macula' turn — has a cylindrical,
fistulous stem, longitudinally striated, branching, and marked at
its inferior part with irregular spots of a dark purple, which are
also seen on the leaves; these are very large, three-lobed, arid
of a very deep green ; the whole plant diffuses a strong odour,
especially when rubbed between the fingers. This hemlock is
biennial, and grows in stony places, near hedges.
86. The Carrot, Fennel, Angelica, Anis, Assafcetida, Am-
moniac, Galbanum, and several other plants which are not at
all poisonous, belong to this family.
87. The FAMILY OF MAL-
VA'CEJS, the type of which is the
marsh-mallows (figure 157), be-
longs to the class of Hypopela'lece;
its principal characters are a mono-
se'palous calyx with from three to
five divisions, and a corolla with
five petals adhering, at their base,
to the filaments of the stamens,
which are united into a tube (f-g.
110). The uniform character of
the mallow tribe is to abound in
mucilage, and to be totally desti-
tute of all unwholesome qualities.
88. The most important plants
of this family are the cotton trees,
the fruit of which furnishes the
texible (weaveable) material, known
under the name t>f cotton. Many
species of this genus are known :
one called herbaceous cotton, varies much in its appearance ; some-
times it is an herbaceous annual plant growing scarcely beyond
eighteen or twenty inches in height ; at other times a shrub from
four to six feet high, the stem of which is ligneous and perennial
at its lower part. This cotton tree grows in Egypt, Syria, and
85. What are the general characters of hemlock ? To what class and
fcmily does it belong?
86. Name some of the plants of this family.
87. How is the family of Malva'cece characterized ?
88. What is cotton ? What part of the plant furnishes cotton ? flow
is the cotton wool separated from the seeds ?
Fig. 157. MARSH MALLOW.
COTTON.— FLAX. 129
India, and is also cultivated in Sicily. The arborescent cotton
tree was originally from India: it is now cultivated in Brazil and
Peru, and constitutes one of the most important products of the
United States : it grows to the height of from fifteen to twenty
feet. The leaves of these plants are alternate, petiolate, and
divided into five digitate lobes; the flowers, borne upon peduncles
in the axils of the upper leaves, are yellowish or purplish. The
fruit is an egg-shaped capsule, divided into from two to five cells,
each of which contains several seeds ; the cotton is found sur-
rounding these seeds.
The Gossy'pium herba'cfum — herbaceous cotton — "grows from four to six
feet high, and produces two crops annually ; the first in eight months after
sowing the seed ; the second within four months after the first ; and the
produce of each plant is reckoned at about one pound weight. The branches
are pruned or trimmed after the first gathering ; and if the growth is over
luxuriant, this should be done sooner. When a great part of the pods are
expanded, the wool is picked, and afterwards cleared from the seeds by a
machine (invented by Whitney, an American) called a cotton-gin, com-
posed of two or three wooden rollers of about one inch diameter, ranged
horizontally, close and parallel to each other ; and the central roller being
moved by a treadle or foot-lath, resembling that of a knife-grinder, makes
the other two revolve in contrary directions. The cotton is laid in small
quantities at a time upon these rollers, whilst they are in motion, and readily
passing between them, drops into a bag placed underneath to receive it,
leaving the seeds, which are too large to pass with it, behind. The cotton
thus separated from the seeds, is afterwards hand-picked and cleansed
thoroughly from any little particles of the pods or other substances which
may be adhering to it. It is then stowed in large bags, where it i.s well
trodden down, that it maybe close and compact ; and the better to answer this
purpose, some water is every now and then sprinkled upon the outside of
the bag ; the marketable weight of which is usually three hundred pounds."
— London,
89. The Flax — Linum usitati' ssimum — which is employed in
a like manner, belongs to another family of the same class, called
the family of GERANIA'CE.E, the type of which is the Geraniums
of our gardens and green-houses. This well-known thread or
clothing plant has been cultivated from the remotest antiquity for
its cortical fibres, which, when separated from the woody matter,
form the lint and tow, which is spun into yarn, and woven into
linen cloth. Flax-seed yields a valuable oil, by expression, called
linseed oil, used in painting; in powder it is much used for poul-
tices ; and the refuse, after pressing for oil, forms a cake fit to
"atten cattle, and for manure. The stem of the flax is simple
and cylindrical, from two to three feet high, and branching only
towards the top; the leaves are sparse and lanceolate, and the
terminal flowers are of a delicate blue; the calyx has five sepals
89. To what family does the flax plant belong ? What is linen ? What
is linseed oil ?
[30 ORANGE — LEMON.— SHADDOCK.
and the corolla, which is campanulate, is composed of the same
number of petals, and encloses five stamens, and as many
stigmas.
90. The FAMILY OF AURANTIA'OE^: or HESPERI'DE*:, which
includes the orange and lemon, belongs to the same class as the
two preceding, and is composed of trees or shrubs, bearing articu-
late leaves, furnished with small vesicular glands, filled with a
transparent, volatile oil ; their flowers are composed of a mono-
^e'palous persistent calyx, with from three to five divisions, and
a corolla with from three to five petals ; the style is simple ; and
the fruit is fleshy, internally separated by very thin membranous
partitions, and covered by a thick pericarp, which, like the leaves,
is furnished with vesicles filled with a volatile oil.
91. The common orange — Citrus auran'tium — is a tree
which may grow to thirty or forty feet in height, but in our
climate seldom attains to twenty feet. It does not resist the cold
of our winters, and during this season it must be protected by a
proper temperature. Orange trees do not often yield fruit after
they are twenty years old ; but they may live for centuries ; there
are orange trees still existing at Cordova, that date back to the
time of the Moorish kings; one of these trees is said to be
between six and seven hundred years old. At Versailles, there
is a bitter orange tree, that, it is said, was sown in the year 1421,
in the garden of the Queen of Navarre, at Pampeluna ; it after-
wards belonged to the Constable of Bourbon, and after his death,
this tree, then the only one in France, was transported from
Chantilly to the chateau of Fontainebleau, whence Louis XIV.
carried it to the orangery of Versailles in 1684.
92. The uses of the orange, the lemon (Citrus me'dica), the
citron (a variety of the Citrus me'dica), the lime (Ci'trus acida)
and the shaddock (Ci'trus decumana). are well known. They
all contain an agreeable acid, which renders them favourites as
dessert fruits, or for making acidulous drinks, for preserves,
confections, &c. The rind is generally bitter, and abounds in
volatile oil. There are two principal varieties ; the sweet or
China orange, and the bitter or Seville orange. An agreeable
distilled water is prepared from the flowers of the orange. The
oil of bergamot is obtained from the rind of the fruit of a species
of Citrus.0
90. What are the characters of the family of Aurantia'ceae 'i
91. To what family does the orange tree belong ? Are orange trr es ve-y
snort-lived ?
92. What are the uses of the orange ?
PEA.— VINE.
131
93. Most botanists place in this
family the tea-plant (fig. K>8) —
Camellia — (from Camellus or
Kamel, the name of a Jesuit bota-
nist). This remarkable genus fur-
nishes the domestic tea in universal
use, and flowering trees and shrubs
which are universally admired.
There are two species, the Camel'
lia bohe'a, and the Camel 'Ha viri-
dis, which furnish tea. This article
is prepared with great care, and
considerable labour. The leaves
are carefully picked one by one;
dried in shallow, iron pans, over a
slow fire ; exposed to the air, fre-
quently turned, and finally passed
through a winnowing machine, such
as is commonly used by our farmers
for wheat, &c. In this way the
kinds of tea are separated, the
lightest falling farthest from " the
fan ;" the first and the heaviest is
the " imperial," next the young
hyson, then gunpowder, and so on.
Both green and black tea are said to be from the same plant
but the green tea is longest over the fire. — Rusckenberger^a
Voyage round tJie World.
94. The VINI'FEKJE, or VITES, or AMPELLI'DFJE, form
another natural family closely resembling the preceding, which
belongs to the same class ; it is composed of bushes or sarment-
ous (trailing or climbing) shrubs, which support
themselves by tendrils growing in the place of the
peduncles; with simple or digitate, alter-
nate leaves, having two stipules at the
base, and small greenish flowers ar-
ranged in racemes opposite to the leaves ;
calyx very short, and the corolla com-
posed of five petals, and five stamens
opposite to the petals ; the fruit is a
Flo- 159 globular berry containing from one to
VINE. four seeds. Annexed are representations
93. To what family does the tea-plant belong ? What is the genus of the
tea-plant? Where does it grow?
94. What are the characters of the family Viniferae? How many species
of vine are cultivated in France ? What are raisins ? What are currants *
Fig. 158. TEA-PLANT.
132
WINE.— OPIUM.
of the flowers of the vine. Figure 159 is the unexpanded flower
magnified. The Common vine — Vitis vinifera — was originally
from Arabia, but is now widely spread through the tropics and
temperate zones of both hemispheres. The varieties are very
numerous, and there are no less than fourteen hundred said to be
cultivated in France alone. The fruit of the vine (the grape,
when newly gathered, and the raisin, when dried) is extensively
used as an article of dessert, and its juice furnishes wine by fer-
mentation. Verjuice, a harsh acid juice, is obtained from the
unripe grape. Currants or Corinthian raisins are obtained
from a remarkably small variety of black grape, called the
Black C&rintJi.
95. Wine is the product of the fermentation of the juice of
the grape ; its colour, as we know, varies from red to a very
pale yellow : red wines are made from black grapes from which
the pericarp or envelope of the fruit is not separated from the
juice ; white wines are from white grapes or from black grapes,
the skins of which are not permitted to remain in the juice while
fermenting1. During fermentation there is a great quantity of
carbonic acid disengaged, and when the wine is put into bottles
before this process is terminated,
this gas remains imprisoned in
the liquid, and, escaping the mo-
ment the cork is withdrawn,
renders the wine sparkling and
frothy : Champagne is of this
kind.
96. The FAMILY OF PAPA-
VERA'CE^E (fig» 161) also be-
longs to the class of Hypope-
ta'leae; the type of this family is
the poppies, plants from which
opium is obtained. The flower
of the poppy has a calyx with
two concave and very cadu'cous
sepals; a corolla with four large
petals, which, before their ex-
pansion, are plaited or wrinkled ;
a great many stamens, a one-
celled ovary, which becomes an
oval capsule enclosing a great
number of seeds. The red poppy
Fig. 161.— RED POPPY. — Papaver rhaas — (fig. 161)
95. What is wine ? What Benders some wine sparkling ?
96. To what class does the family of Papavera'cea? belong? Wha! M
e'pium ? Wha# is lau'dunum ?
CRUCIFER^E.— LEGUMINOS.E.
133
so common in our gardens, belongs to this genus ; but the most
celebrated species is the white poppy — Papaver somni'ferum —
because the juice that is extracted from the capsules constitutes
opium, a peculiar substance which has the property of calming
pain and inducing sleep, when taken in small quantity, but in a
large dose, is a violent poison. Dissolved in proof-spirits it con-
stitutes lau'danum.
97. The FAMILY OF RANUNCU-
LA'CEJS or Crowfoot tribe (fig*
162) also belongs to the class of
Hypopeta'leae. It consists of herbs
or very rarely shrubs. The petals
are from three to fifteen, hypo-
gy'nous, in one or more rows.
The leaves are alternate or oppo-
site, generally much divided, with
the petiole dilated and forming a
sheath half clasping the stem.
The Anemone, Buttercup, Monk's-
hood, and Traveller's-joy, are of
this tribe. The plants of this
family are in general acrid and
caustic, and some are even poison-
ous.
98. The FAMILY OF CRUCI'FERJE
is also composed of plants with
hypogy'nous stamens; almost all
of them are herbaceous ; the leaves
are alternate, and the flower has four ungui'culate petals arranged
in the form of a cross, and six tetrad y'aamous stamens (four long
and two short), and the fruit is a silique. In it we place mustard
— Sinapis — Cabbages — Bras' sica — Radish — Raphanus sati-
vus, &c.
99. The FAMILY OF RESEDA'CEJJ:, the type of which is the
Reseda or Mignonette, that of the VIOLA'CK^E, which includes
Violets, &c., that of the CARYOPHI'LLE^E, which includes the
caper-bush (Capparis spinosa], &c., and several other families
belong to the class of Hypopeta'lese.
100. The FAMILY OF LEGUMINO'S^J, of the class of Peripe-
ta'lere, is, next to the grasses, one of the most useful, on account
Fig. 162. RANUNCULUS.
97. What are the characters of the family of Ranuncula'cese ?
98. What are the characters of the family of Cruciferse ?
99. Name some other families of the class of Hypopeta'lese.
100. What are the characters of the family of Legumino'sje »
all
134
MIMOSJE.
of the abundant and various aliment it furnishes for man and the
domestic animals. Some of these plants are herbaceous, and
others are even very tall trees ; their flowers are generally com-
posed of a monose'palous calyx, ordinarily campanu'lifbrm or
tubular, and a corolla with five unequal petals, the general form
of which bears some resemblance to that of a butterfly ; the
sta\nens are almost always ten in number, and joined together in
two unequal fasciculi ; the fruit is a cod or legume, generally
elongated, compressed, bivalve, and has a single cell enclosing
seeds which are ordinarily globular or lenticular. The leaves
are almost always alternate, and the stem varies much.
101. This very natural family has been divided into three
sections, the Papiliona'cece, Cassise, and Mimosas.
102. The Papiliona'cece are characterized by the papiliona'-
ceous corolla (fig. 94), and have, in general, ten diadelphous
stamens, as broom (Spartium scoparium), pea (Pisum sativum),
laburnum (Cy'tisus laburnum}.
103. The Cassice have an equal and regular corolla of three
or five petals, and ten stamens, of which some are frequently
abortive, as the Senna shrub (Cassia senna), the Tamarind tree
( Tamarindus indica).
104. The Mimdsce have a double calyx, the external small
and of five teeth, the internal monosepalous and tubular (some-
times called corolla), and
numerous stamens, general-
ly monodelphous, as the sen-
sitive plant — (jig. 163) —
( Mimosa pudica] — t he G u m
Arabic tree (a'cacia vera),
&c. The most common fea-
ture of the family of Legu-
mirrosoe, is (Mr. Lindley ob-
serves) " to have what are
called papiliona'ceous flow-
ers; and when these exist,
no difficulty is experienced
in recognising the order, for
papiliona'ceous flowers exist
nowhere else. Another and
Fig. 163. —SENSITIVE PLANT.
more invariable character is
101. How is the family of Legumino'sse divided ?
102. How are the Papiliona'cese characterized ? (from the Latin, papilio,
butterfly, because the flower bears some resemblance to a butterfly.)
103. What are the characters of the Cas'siae ?
104. What are the characters of the Mimosae ?
ROSACES APPLE.— PEAR PLUM. 135
to have leguminous fruit; and by one of these two characters ah
the plants of the family are known."
105. Many plants of this family yield seeds, the coty'ledons
of which are thick and fleshy, and formed chiefly of fecula, that
serve us for food ; others furnish gum, the different a'cacia for
example ; some are used as purgative medicines, such as the senna
and tamarind ; and others yield colouring matters, which are very
useful in the arts, such as indigo, campeachy wood, &c.
106. Most of our fruit trees belong to the FAMILY OF ROSA'CE^J,
the type of which is the rose tree. This family takes its place
near the Legumino'sse, in the division of peripetalous dico-
tyledons. The flower of these plants is composed of a mono-
sepalous calyx, with four or five divisions, and a corolla almost
always composed of from four to five petals regularly displayed ;
the stamens are generally numerous; the leaves are alternate,
and the form of the fruit varies a great deal. We place in this
family, which also includes many ornamental plants, the apple,
Dear, plum, cherry, peach, apricot, quince, medlar, almond,
strawberry, raspberry, dewberry, &c.
107. The apple tree — Pyrus malus — grows to from fifteen to
twenty feet in height, and bears oval, dentate leaves, smooth on
both sides, and white flowers tinted with rose colour externally.
It is indigenous to the forests of Europe, and in the wild state,
flowers about the beginning of May, but earlier when cultivated,.
The structure of its fruit has already been mentioned (Jig. 116).
More than a hundred varieties are known ; this tree only flourishes
in temperate climates, and succeeds best in a deep and slightly
humid soil ; it may live two hundred years. The apple is a
wholesome and agreeable fruit ; the most important product from
it is cider, a more or less spirituous liquor, obtained by ferment-
ing the juice of the fruit, which is obtained by pressing it.
108. The pear tree — Pyrus communis — a tree similar to the
preceding, is also indigenous to the forests of Europe ; it succeeds
best in a rich soil, but also accommodates itself to dry and sandy
situations. Pears are very much esteemed, and vary very much
in taste as well as in form; their juice by fermentation yields a
liquor very similar to cider, called perry.
109. The plum, apricot, peach, and cherry, differ from the
preceding in the structure of their fruit, which is a fleshy, round
105. In what manner are the Mimosae valuable to us ?
106. What are the characters of the family of Rosa'ceae? What plant*
are included in this family ?
107. What are the characters of the apple tree 7 What is cider ?
108. What is perry?
109. What are prunes ?
136 CHERRY APRICOT.— PEACH.— ALMOND.
drupe, slightly furrowed on one side, containing a nut enclosing
one or two oleaginous seeds. The domestic plum — Prunus
domestica — is a hardy tree of middle size, which accommodates
itself to all kinds of soil ; when left to itself it grows straight
and pyramidal, but from trimming forms a rounded top; the
leaves are oval, smooth above and slightly pubescent below; its
lowers are white; and its fruit, the colour and form of which
varies, has a smooth skin, without down, and more or less
covered by a very fine powder, called flour. Nearly all the
species of plums may be dried in the sun or in an oven and con-
verted into prunes.
110. The common c/ierry — Prunus cera'sus — is analo-
gous to the plum ; it appears to be originally from Asia, and
Pliny informs us that in the year of Rome 880, Lucullus, after
his victory over Mithridates, introduced it into Italy. This tree
delights in temperate climates, and yields abundance of excellent
fruit.
111. The apricot — Prunus armeni'aca — appears to be origin-
ally from Armenia; every one knows the fruit of this tree, and
the form of its stone or nut. The peach — Amy'gdalus persica
(of which the nectarin is a variety) — and the almond — Amy'g.
dalis communis and Amy'gdalus ama'ra — belong to the same
genus, but differ from the apricot in the nut, the surface of which,
instead of being smooth, is irregularly and deeply furrowed.
The peach is originally from Persia, and does not prosper except
in-localities where it is exposed to the influence of the sun ; when
carefully trimmed it may live forty years. The almond is a tree
of twenty- five to thirty feet high ; its trunk is rugged, and cover-
ed with an ash-coloured bark; the leaves are straight, pointed
and dentate; the flower is white, and expands before the leaves
are developed ; the fruit is ovoid, elongated, a little fleshy, and
of a green colour ; and the bony case which envelopes the
almond kernel is sometimes thin and pliable, and at others, thick
and very hard. There are .two principal varieties; one called
the bitter, and the other the sweet almond ; both contain a good
deal of oil, and yield, when rubbed up in water, an emulsion
called almond milk, which forms the basis of orgeat. Bitter
almonds also contain, in very small quantity, a very volatile sub-
stance, called hydrocy'anic or prussic acid, which is a most vio-
lent poison.
112. The strawberry — Fraga'ria vesca — is an herbaceous
110. Where is the cherry tree from, originally?
111. What are the characters of the almond tree ? What is orgeat ?
112. What are the characters of the strawberry ?
STRAWBERRY.— RASPBERRY.—MELONS. 137
plant with a very short stem; almost all the leaves are radical,
and ordinarily consist of three leaflets borne on a long petiole;
the collum of the root gives rise to slender, long, repent shoots,
which take root, from point to point, put forth leaves, and thus
form new stems ; from the midst of these leaves rise two or three
simple, slender stems, which bear on their summit from four to
six white flowers. The red, fleshy body which succeeds the
flower, and known under the name of strawberry, is commonly
taken for the fruit of this plant, but is nothing but a prolongation
of the common support of the seeds, which becomes succulent
and very much developed ; the true fruit, that is, the seeds and
their envelope, adhere to its surface. This plant grows through-
out Europe, and in most places in North and South America.
113. Raspberries — Rubus idceus — which have nearly the
same structure as the strawberry, are furnished by a shrub of
the genus of bramble, which belongs to the family of Rosa'ceae.
Botanists call the raspberry the bramble of Mount Ida, because
it j^rows wild on that mountain, but it is also originally from the
northern regions of Europe and America; it delights in a light
and somewhat shaded soil. Its root is a ligneous stock which
produces several straight stems armed with numerous fine thorns;
its flowers are white, quite small, and borne on slender peduncles.
Its fruit is composed of many small monospermous berries slightly
attached to each other, and placed round a conical, fleshy sup-
port. The dewberry — Rubus ccesius — yields a fruit of similai
character, but it is without the taste and perfume of the rasp
berry.
114. The FAMILY OF CUCURBITA'CE^E belongs to the same
class as the preceding, and is composed of large herbaceous
plants, the fruit of which is a pepo. The pulpy matter found in
the fruit of most of the plants of this family is wholesome and
often very nutritious. The melon or cantaloupe, so much prized
as a dessert fruit, is obtained from the Cu'cumis melo ; the com-
mon cucumber is the fruit of the Cu'cumis sativus. Besides
these, we have the water-melon — Cu'cumis citrulLus — and the
squash-gourd, &c. The FAMILY OF MYRTIA'CK^J or MYRT.E,
and several others also take their place in the division of polype-
talous dicotyledons.
113. What are raspberries ?
114. What are the characters of the Cucurbita'osae ?
21*
138 HOP.— HEMP.
115. To the same division of Peripeta'lejB
belong the Indian figs, or Ca'ctece, or Nopa'-
lece (Jig. 164) ; they are known by the stamens
being indefinite, the calyx and corolla being im-
perceptible, or very minute, and their succulent
character. The fruits of many of the Ca'cteae
are pulpy and refreshing. The milky juice of
some of the plants in this family is very dan-
gerous, as that of the Cactus grandiflorus^
,,. 1C. Cactus flagellif&rmis, &c. The insect called
riff. lO4. — CACTUS. /-i i • I //~i ., -\ • f j
Cochineal (Locus cacti) is found on some
species of cactus.
DICLINOUS* DICOTY'LEDONS.
116. This fourth division of the dicoty'ledons is composed, in
the method of Jussieu, of plants, the flowers of which are truly
unisexual and diclinous, that is, the two sexes are not found in
the same individual ; but it is not very natural and is not adopted
by the majority of the botanists of the present day.
In this division we place the Euphorbia'cese, the Cupuli'ferae,
or Amenta'cese, the Urti'cese, the Coni'ferse, &c.
117. The FAMILY OF URTI'CE^: is composed of plants, both
Herbaceous and ligneous, the juices of which are often milky, the
flowers are apetalous, joined in a catkin or enclosed in a fleshy
involucre, and have hypogy'nous stamens ; the fruit is composed
of a crustaceous achenium enveloped by the calyx or involucre.
We place in this family the hop (Humulus lupulus), which is
valued in brewing for the bitter quality of its strobili or cones;
the banyan tree (Ficus religiosa) ; the fig (Ficus caricd) ; nettle
(Urtica dioica]\ the well known plant which furnishes hemp
(Cannabis saliva) ; mulberry (Morus nigra). The bark of the
Morus papyrifera furnishes the paper of the Chinese. The
bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa) ; the elm, &c.
1 18. The hemp — Cannabis saliva — belongs to the family of
Urti'cese: it is an herbaceous, diceceous plant, the male flowers
of which are arranged in axillary and terminal panicles, and the
female flowers are sessile in the axils of the superior ramuscules ;
these flowers have a single envelope which takes the place of
* DICLINOUS : (from the Greek, dis, two, and kline, bed.) This term is
applied to plants in which the sexual organs exist separately in different
flowers, that is, not having both sexes in the same flower, being unisexual.
115. How is the family of Nopa'lese known ? What is cochineal ?
116. What kind of plants are included in the class of Dicli'neae ?
117. What are the characters of the family of U.'ti'ceffl ?
118. What is hemp ? For what is it used ?
ELM.— BREAD-FRUIT.— OAK. 139
calyx and corolla; it is entire, oblong or conical, and in the
female flowers laterally cleft, while in the male, it presents five
oblong and slightly concave parts. We know but one species of
this genus ; its straight, quadrangular stem rises from five to six
feet high ; the leaves are digitate, acuminate, and dentate : at the
base of the stem, opposite, and alternate above. In this plant, as
well as almost all of the dicecia, the males are not so tall as the
females, and, through a singular error, they are always regarded
by the ignorant, as the female, and vice versa. Hemp is origin-
ally from Persia, and has been as long in use as flax ; it is culti-
vated in great quantity in different parts of Europe, and even
grows there spontaneously. It is sown in the month of June in
very rich soil ; the female plants, which ripen later than the
male, are chiefly cultivated for the seed, from which an oil is
obtained, for burning in France, for eating in Russia, and paint-
ing in England. Within a few years hemp has been cultivated
in the United States. It is manufactured into ropes for rigging
ships, &c.
119. The elm is also a plant of the family of Urti'cese. Its
flowers, which are hermaphrodite, are very small and united in
clusters at the upper part of the ramifications of the stem ; they
expand before the leaves, which are simple and alternate. This tree
is indigenous in France, and acquires a great size ; it is frequently
employed in forming shady avenues, and its wood is useful.
120. The bread-fruit of the South Sea Islands bears a pulpy
fruit, which, when gathered before being ripe, is roasted ; it tastes
like bread made of wheat flour and potatoes. The inhabitants
of Tahiti and the adjacent islands feed upon it nearly throughout
the year.
121. The FAMILY OF CUPULI'FER^J or AMENTA'CE^E, contains
several of our most important forest trees, such as the oak, beecb.
and chestnut. It is composed of trees with simple, alternate
leaves ; the male flowers are arranged in cylindrical and scaly
catkins, and the female flowers are generally axillary and
entirely, or in part, covered by a scaly cupule ; the fruit is always
A gland, which is commonly unilocular, and always accompanied
*3y a cupule. There are several species of oak known ; the com-
mon or red oak is a magnificent tree which grows to a height of
sixty or seventy feet; the leaves are laterally incised into obtuse
lobes, and almost always regularly opposite; the male flowers
119. What are the general characters of the elm ?
120. Where is bread fiuit found ? How is it eaten ?
121. What are the characters of the family of Cupuli'fertB? (from the
Latin, cupulvm, a little cup, and /fro, I bear.) What description of plants
does this family contain ? What are tlie characters of the oak ? What i»
tan'
140 TAN.— NUT-GALLS.— CORK.
form long, slender catkins at the upper part of the young
branches ; and the female flowers are sessile, and grouped in the
axils of the upper leaves. This tree grows slowly, but lives for
a long time ; it rarely begins to bear glands (acorns) at an early
age, but does not cease to .grow till the end of three or four cen-
turies. Its wood is very valuable on account of its hardness and
durability, and is used for frame-work in building. Its bark,
which is very astringent, is also very useful, because it serves to
make tan, a substance by means of which skins are tanned^ and
form leather.
122. Nut-galls, which are employed for making ink, and lor
dyeing black, are excrescences produced by the sting or puncture
of a little insect on the branches of a species of oak in Asia
Minor.
123. The holm-oak or evergreen-oak which abounds in the
South of Europe, has dentate leaves, which remain throughout
the winter. The same is true of another species of this genus,
known as the cork tree, because it furnishes cork. This sub-
stance, which is spongy and elastic, is the herbaceous layer of
the bark, which is removed from the tree every eight or ten
years ; there are a great many of these trees in Spain, and also
in the South of France. The outer bark is the cork, but there
is an interior bark which is left on to protect the tree, so that
stripping off the outer bark is so far from injuring the trees, that
it is necessary to their continuation. Trees that are never bark-
ed are said to die at the end of fifty or sixty years. The bark
is removed for the first time when the tree is about fifteen years
old. It is taken off in sheets, and after being detached, it is flat-
tened by presenting the convex side to heat, or by pressure. In
either case it is charred (slightly burned) on both surfaces to
close the transverse pores previously to being sold. The car-
bonized surface produced by this charring may be seen in bungs
(for casks), but not in corks, which being cut in the lengthway
of the bark, the charring is taken off in the rounding.
124. The live-oak — Quercus virens — grows to the height of
forty or fifty feet, spreading its branches, when in open piaces,
extremely wide; it yields the finest and" most durable ship-timber
of any species known ; for which reason it is considered one of
the most valuable trees in the United States. It is chiefly found
in Florida, and the Southern States.
122. What are nut-galls ? What are they used for ?
123. What tcee furnishes cork ? What is the reason that we s^e sheet*
.if cork slightly charred ?
,24. Where does live-oak grow?
CHESTNUT.—ELM.— PINES. 141
125. The chestnuts — Casta'wea — form another genus of the
same family as the preceding ; the fruit is a species of nut with
a single cell, which encloses two or three seeds containing a good
deal of fecula, and is entirely enveloped by the cupule, the sur-
face of which is studded with sharp points. The common chest-
nut is a large beautiful tree which grows spontaneously in the
forests, nearly throughout Europe and different parts of North
America ; it sometimes acquires an enormous size ; there is one
on Mount Etna said to be one hundred and ten feet in circum-
ference; it is hollow, and a little house has been built in its
interior, with a hearth where they cook chestnuts which are often
gathered from the tree itself. In Cevennes, Limousin, and some
other parts of France, the peasants live almost exclusively on
chestnuts. The wood is used in building ; it is extremely durable,
and in high esteem for posts and rails to construct fences. The
chinquapin nut — Casta'nea pu'mila — is a small tree, or rather a
shrub, growing to the height of thirty feet in the Southern States,
but scarcely exceeding seven or eight in cold latitudes. The fruit
is very sweet and agreeable to eat.
126. The yoke-elm also belongs to the family of Cupuli' ferae ;
the male and female flowers are arranged in catkins, composed
of imbricated scales. It is a tree easily shaped by trimming, and
for this reason is often employed in Europe for hedges ; it some-
'.imes rises to fifty or sixty feet in height, and its wood, which is
very hard, is much used by wheelwrights, and for fuel.
127. A great many European forests are formed of trees of
the FAMILY OF CONI'FER^, which is placed in the class of Di-
cli'nese, alongside of the Cupuli' fersa ; they are generally designated
under the title of evergreens and resinous trees, because they pre-
serve their leaves through the winter, and because their wood
contains a great quantity of resin (commonly called rosin).
Almost all of them have stiff, linear, coriaceous leaves ; their
flowers are unisexual, and arranged in cones or catkins which are
ordinarily scaly; and generally the fruit also is a scaly cone.
Fir trees and pines are types of this family; these two genera
are distinguished from each other by their aspect, by their leaves,
which are solitary on the fir tree, and united in fasciculi or
bunches of from two to five on the pines ; by the male flowers,
the catkins of which are isolated and solitary on the pines, and
united and grouped on the fir tree, and by several other charac-
*eristics. Both delight in mountainous regions, and on sandy
1 25. What are the characters of the chestnut tree ? What plant furnishes
chinquapins ?
1-26. What are the characters of the yoke-elm ?
127. What are the characters of the family of Coni'fer® ? (from the Latin,
conus, a cone, and /ero, I bear.) Where do pines most abound ?
A2 USES OF PLANTS.
olains. Pines abound especially in the north, where they form
forests of vast extent ; the stem is straight, and their height fre-
quently colossal ; a great many species are known.
128. The Jersey pine, pitch, or scrub pine, is of middle size,
straggling growth, and full of resin. Its branches are tougher
than those of any other pine, and might be used for many pur-
poses if its wood were not subject to so early a decay. The
pitch pine is generally known in its native country by the name
of Norway pine ; sometimes, particularly among the Canadian
French, red pine. It grows in close forests, is very tall, and its
bark remarkably smooth and red ; the timber is very heavy ; for
which reason it is rejected for masts, though its shape and size
appear to recommend it far that purpose. The yellow pine is
most in use for building houses as well as shipping. The loblolly
or old field pine is found in large tracts in the Southern States;
all the woods seem to be filled with its seeds ; for when any piece
of clear land is neglected for any space of time, it will be covered
by these pines. It is difficult, and in some cases almost imprac-
ticable, to recover lands so run over, as the ground appears to
have lost all fertile properties for other vegetation. The long-
leaved, yellow, pitch, or brown pine, is a beautiful, as well as a
very useful tree. The white or Weymouth pine grows in the
State of Vermont, to an enormous size ; it is the best timber in
America for masts.
Turpentine, resin, tar, and pitch, are the products of several
species of pines, and are exported in large quantities from the
United States.
The common fir is found in the same countries as the wild
j)ine. Larch and cedar are very analogous to the fir tree.
OF THE USES OF PLANTS.
From the short sketch we have just given of the vegetable
kingdom, we see how many important and varied services are
rendered to us by plants. Either directly or indirectly, all ani-
mals are nourished by plants; indeed, there is an immense num-
ber of animated beings that eat nothing but vegetable substances,
and those that feed upon meat would not find sufficient food, unless
they devoured each other, without destroying those that are main-
tained on vegetable food exclusively. There is scarcely a plant
that does not nourish some animal ; almost all insects, for exam-
ple, live either in the perfect or in the larva state, at the expense
of the plant upon which they are habitually found; and even in
the highest classes of the animal kingdom, the number of
128. What species of pine are most prevalent in the United States ?
What is tar procured from ? What plants yield turpentine ?
USES OF PLANTS. 143
phyti'vorous* species is immense, for the quadruma'na,f the
gnawers, the pa'chyderms,^ and the ruminants, all observe a
vegetable diet ; and man himself derives most of his food from
the vegetable kingdom.
Among the most important alimentary plants, the first are the
cereals. Under this name we designate plants of the family of
grasses, which afford nourishment to man and most domestic ani-
mals ; namely, wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, and rice. These
is in the interior of their seed, betwixt the spermodenn and the
embryo, a considerable deposit of amylaceous§ matter, designed
to nourish the young plant, and designated by botanists under
the name of albumen or perisperm ; it is this matter we use for
food. We have already studied the history of these plants, con-
sequently it is useless to repeat it. We will, however, add here,
that the perisperm of the cereals, and consequently the flow
obtained by grinding them, is essentially composed offecula or
starch, ordinarily mixed with a certain quantity of a substance
named gluten, which considerably resembles animal matter.
Wheat flour contains more gluten than any other, and for this
reason, it makes better bread and is more nutritious ; rye also
contains it, but there is none in rice, oats, &c.
Other plants also furnish abundance of fecula, but not from the
same part as in those mentioned ; sometimes it is in the coty'le-
dons of the seed, sometimes in tubercles, and at other times in
the very substance of the stems or roots ; thus, peas and beans
and some other plants of the family of Legumino'saa, furnish
edible seeds, the cotyledons of which contain the same as the
albumen of the cereals, a great deal of fecula, and a certain
quantity of gluten mixed with sugar and some other matters.
Whatever part this fecula may occupy, it in general constitutes,
as in the pericarp of the cereals, depositories of nutritive matter
for the nourishment of the young plant, or of new shoots.
The tubers of the potatoe owe their nutritious qualities to the
quantity of fecula they contain; the same is true of batatas\\
(the Spanish or sweet potatoe), a species of convolvulus, originally
* Phyti'vorous. — From the Greek, phuton, plant, and tjoro, I eat ; plant,
eating.
t Quadruma'na. — From the Latin, quadrinvs, formed from quatuor, four,
and m.anus, hand ; having four hands.
t Pa'chyderm. — From the Greek, packus, thick, and derma, skin.
§ Amyla'ceous. — From the Latin, amy'liim, starch ; starchy,
|| Batatas is either a Malay or Mexican word. The plant is a native cf
both the East and West Indies, and China. It was first carried to Spain
from the West Indies, and annually imported into England, and sold as a
delicacy. It is the potatoe of Shakspeare and his cotemporaries, the Ppm.
mon or Irish potatoe being then scarcely known in Europe.
144 USES OF PLANTS.
from India, which is now cultivated in all warm regions in tho
world. The species of fecula, known under the name of cassava
or tapioca, of which great use is made in the West Indies, is
derived from the root of the manioc, a plant of. the family of
Euphorbia'cese, which also contains a very poisonous juice that
is separated by means of water. Sago is another species of
fecula obtained from the stem of a palm, and salep is also a fecula
obtained from the stem of a monocotyle'donous plant of the family
of Orchi'deae.
The most esteemed of our fruits, the majority of them at least,
are furnished by the family of Rosa'cese : for example, apples,
pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, strawberries, raspber-
ries; and to complete the list of fruit trees we must not omit the
mention of some species of the family of Ampeli'dese, and the
family of Aurantia'cese ; namely, the vine, the orange, and
citron.
Plants furnish us not only with wholesome and agreeable food,
but also substances which are of the greatest utility in the manu-
facture of clothing, and in the construction of our dwellings.
Hemp, flax, and cotton, yield us long, flexible filaments, which
constitute excellent materials for spinning and weaving ; and our
forest trees, almost all of which belong to the family of Cupuli'-
ferse, or that of the^Coni'ferse, furnish abundance of wood for
building our houses and ships, as well as for the manufacture of
furniture, and instruments of various kinds.
Ornamental plants which decorate our gardens and con-
servatories are very numerous ; they are furnished by very
various families, in the front rank of which we may place the
rosa'ceae, because it has for its type one of our most beautiful
flowers, the rose. Many species and varieties of rose trees are
known, and almost all of them may be cultivated in the open air,
in our climate; they flourish best in a light soil and partial expo-
sure to the sun. In the wild state, they have but five petals, in
the midst of which we observe a great number of stamens ; but
cultivation has transformod most of these latter organs into petals,
and enhanced the beauty of the flowers.
The dahlia, which was for some years so rare, but now every-
where met in gardens, belongs to the family of Synanthe'rese ;
this beautiful herbaceous plant has a perennial root composed of
bundles of horizontal, oblong tubercles, from which rises a cylin-
drical, branching stem, bearing opposite leaves and large flowers,
which appear from the end of July till the approach of frost.
The dahlia may be multiplied by its seeds, or by the division of
its roots.
The genus aster, which comprises a great number of beautiful
autumnal flowers, including the Queen Margaret, which was im-
USES OF PLANTS. 145
ported from China into Europe, about a hundred years ago, also
belongs to the family of Synanthe'rea3.
The family of Caryophi'llese presents our gardens with dif-
ferent species of carnations or pinks, known under the name of
common pink, china pink, &c. The family of Legumino'sse
gives us aca'cia, the sweet pea, &c.
We have seen that a great many plants afford to man whole-
some and abundant food ; that others are violent poisons to him
but very many even of the latter are useful, because when pru-
dently administered they constitute powerful medicines.
A great number of plants of the family of Sola'nese are of
this kind ; for example, belladonna, henbane, stramonium, to-
bacco ; some species of the family of Papavera'cese, such as the
poppies ; and hemlock, which belongs to the Umbel li' terse, &c. &c.
In our citation of poisonous plants, we must not omit the mush-
rooms, the history of which we have already given.
BOOK VIII.
GEOLOGY:
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.
Geology.
ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY.
LESSON I.
GSOLOGY DEFINED. — Form of the Earth — its Surface — Internal
Heat — Mineralogy defined — Definition of the term Rock —
Formations — Strata — The Origin of Strata — Vegetable Earth
~Allumum — Division of the Formations — Plutonic Forma
tions — Neptunian or stratified Hocks — Order of Strata — Tern
pie of Jupiter Serapis — Subsidence and Elevation of Coasts.
1. GEO'LOGY (from the Greek, ge, the earth, and logos, dis-
course), or science of the earth, is that branch of Natural History
which treats of the physical constitution of our globe.
2. The earth, as is generally known, is in form of a ball, or
spheroid, slightly flattened at the poles, floating freely in space.
Its diameter is about 8000 miles, and its surface is irregular ; here
it is studded with long chains of mountains, there hollowed by
deep depressions ; but these inequalities, however gigantic they
may appear, when compared with objects surrounding us, are in
reality very trifling, in comparison with the mass of the globe ;
they are proportionally much less than those we see on the skin
of the smoothest orange, and if represented on a ball three feet in
diameter, the highest mountains would be still so small as almost
to require a microscope to perceive them.
3. The deepest excavations of the surface of the globe are
covered by great riasses of water which conceal them and prevent
their examination ; but there is reason to believe that the most pro-
found depression? do not much exceed three miles in depth, below
the surface of tb j sea, and we know by exact measurement that
the summit of tKe loftiest mountains is no.t six miles above the
same level.
Mont Blanc, th^-s highest mountain in Europe, is 15,748 feet; Mont Perdu,
of the Pyrenees, is 11,168 feet; Peak of Teneriffe, 12,172 feet; in South
America, in the Cordillera of the Andes, there are still higher mountains,
1. What is Ecology 1
2. What ie the form of the earth 1 What is its size? What is the cha.
racter of its r urface 1
3. What is the greatest depth of the sea 1 What is the greatest height
of land above the level of the sea ?
12 INTERNAL HEAT OF THE EARTH.
Chimborazo, 21,440 ; Illimani, 24,450 feet ; and Sorota, 25,000. The high-
est mountain in the world is in Asia, the Himalaya, which rises 26,862 feet
above the level of the sea.
4. The surface of the earth has not always possessed the same
configuration that it now presents ; it has been frequently upturned,
and there is even reason to believe that the entire globe was a
liquid mass, melted by heat, and that it gradually became solid as
it cooled.
5. Except at comparatively shallow depths, we cannot examine
the nature of the materials constituting our globe, not even hy
Descending into mines, excavated for the purpose of extracting the
wealth they contain ; for the deepest of these excavations do not
exceed 500 yards. But by calculations, it has been inferred that
the centre of the earth cannot be occupied, either by water, or by
vapour, but by matter as heavy as our heaviest metals, and so hot
that it is probably in a state of constant fusion.
6. A great number of facts concur in proving that the earth
possesses an internal heat (the remnant of its original heat), inde-
pendent of that which it receives from the sun. Its temperature
increases in proportion as we descend to considerable depths ;
there are some very deep mines in which the workmen can only
labour when naked, and wherever the water of a spring rises from
a great depth, its temperature is always very high. This increase
of temperature has even been measured, and it has been ascer-
tained that the heat of the earth increases about two degrees, Faren-
heit, for every 70 to 100 feet. In very deep cellars, where the
influence of the seasons is not felt, and where the temperature is
always the same, the thermometer, at Paris, stands at about 51
degrees, and at a depth of 200 feet below these cellars the heat is
about 55 degrees ; at a league below the surface, the temperature
must be above that of boiling water, and at a depth of less than
two leagues, it must be sufficient to melt tin.
7. It appears to be demonstrated, that the globe, at some remote
period, was in a state of incandescence, or liquefaction from heat,
and that it cooled by degrees ; but we must not conclude that this
cooling process has continued to the present time, and is still going
forward ; it has almost, if not entirely, ceased. From the earliest
records of history, to the present moment, the temperature of the
4. Has the surface of the earth always been the same in form and shape
as it now is ? Is it supposed that the globe has always been in its present
condition ?
5. What occupies the centre of the earth ?
6. Is the temperature of the earth the same at its centre as it is on the
surface ? What reasons lead us to the conclusion that the earth possesses
an internal heat?
7. Is it supposed that the earth is becoming cooler and cooler every day T
How is the earth enabled to preserve its temperature ?
STRATIFICATION. \.\
globe has not sensibly changed, and by the calculations of the
learned, it is proved that the surface of the earth receives from the
sun during a year a quantity of heat equivalent to that which it
loses in the same space of time ; the internal heat of the earth no
longer influences the temperature of its surface, except in an in-
sensible degree, and to diminish this influence, which is almost
none at all, one-half, would require the lapse of 30,000 years.
8. Our knowledge of the central portion of the globe is limited
to what we have just said of its weight and temperature ; but the
solid crust, constituting its surface, has been better studied.
9. This crust is not formed of a single piece, but is composed
of a great number of various materials. The study of these vari-
ous substances, particularly, belongs to Mineralogy ; the study of
their mutual relations and the more or less important part they
play in the constitution of the globe, is the province of Geology.
10. In general we give the name of rocks to mineral substances,
which are united in great masses, and apply the term formations,
to diverse assemblages of rocks which appear to have oeen formed
under the same circumstances.
The word rock, as used by geologists, is applicable to all mineral masses
whether hard or soft, and therefore includes in its meaning, sand, marble,
clay, granite, &c.
11. When we examine the sides of mountains, artificial exca-
vations, and various other localities favourable to geological studies,
we very soon perceive there are a great many different formations,
and these formations are in layers or stories reposing one above
the other, constituting strata : (plural of stratum, a Latin word,
meaning a bed, couch, or layer ; anything spread out or strewed
over a surface.)
12. We can be convinced of this by examining the cuts made
through hills for the passage of rail-roads and canals in various
parts of the tlriited States. By comparing the different materials
composing the earth's crust, the geologist will soon be satisfied that
these different rocks, in a majority of instances, are not placed one
alongside the other, but cover each other, and form a series of
layers, of more or less thickness, comparable to the courses or
layers in a mass or wall of mason-work. Gypsum, or plaster of
paris, for example, rests upon a stratum of coarse limestone, for,
in digging wells in the neighbourhood of Paris, at different points,
ihe coarse limestone is always found below the plaster. This
8. What do we know relative to the centre of the earth ?
9. What is the crust of the earth ? Does it consist of one piece ? What
is mineralogy ?
10. What are rocks ? What are formations ?
11. What is meant by stratum ?
12. How are rocks placed relatively to each ether 7
2
14 STRATIFICATION.
coarse limestone in its turn covers a stratum of plastic clay ; in
many places where the coarse limestone is not very thick, it has
been pierced through, and the plastic clay found beneath it.
13. But it is not necessary to dig wells in order to be certain of
the superposition of the different layers formed by these rocks ; it
is distinctly seen by examination of the declivities of certain hills,
or cuts made through them for the passage of roads, &c. ; for,
when the point of contact of two layers is exposed at one of these
localities, we may frequently distinguish, without difficulty, the
manner in which one of these layers is continued beneath the
other.
14. In other places nothing similar is seen ; the rocks show
no trace of stratification, but constitute compact masses, such as
granite.
To form an idea of the manner in which nature has produced
these immense earthy layers, we must study the phenomena which
are now taking place at different places on the surface of the
earth.
15. The action of rain, of the sun, of frost, and many other
causes are constantly tending to change the surface of rocks, even
those which are most compact, and to detach fragments from them ;
these fragments, more or less divided, are spread out over the sur-
face of the soil, mixed with the detri'tus* of plants and animals,
and constitute a kind of movable bed, more or less thin, which
covers the whole surface of the globe, and bears, commonly, the
name of vegetable earth, because it is in this bed that almost all
vegetables grow. The mineral substances which enter into its
composition are ordinarily sand, clay, or the debris, or remains of
calcareous rocks.
16. When currents of water pass over movable formations, such
as we have just mentioned, they take up a portion and convey to
a distance the detri'tus and debris of which they are composed.
In this way, when the heaped-up snows on the tops of mountains
melt under the influence of the summer's sun, or when abundant
rains fall on the same places, impetuous torrents descend towards
the plain, and carry with them earth and fragments of stones found
in their route, or 'vhich they tear up from their resting-places ; the
* DETRX'TUS. — A geological term applied to deposits composed of various
fubstances which have been comminuted by attrition. The larger frag,
ments are usually termed debris ; those which are pulverized, as it were,
constitute detri'tus. Sand is the detri'tus of siliceous rocks.
# : :
13. What evidence have we of the superposition of strata ?
14. Are all rocks stratified ?
15. What are the common causes which tend to change the surface of
rocks ? What is detri'tus ? What is vegetable earth ? What is debris ?
16. How do currents of water change the surface of the earth?
DEPOSITION OF SOIL BY RIVERS. 15
result is that the water of these torrents is often turbid, and loaded
with mud, sand, flints, or even blocks of stone ; but when they
reach a flat country, or fall into a large basin, their course is much
less rapid, and the foreign materials they held in suspension are
gradually deposited; the heaviest sink first, and, at length, these
materials line the bottom of the river with an earthy bed, whose
thickness is continually increasing.
17. The river Po, which is precipitated from a lofty chain of the
Alps, and traverses Lombardy, is a remarkab.e example of this
curious phenomenon. This river, and its principal tributaries,
have transported, in this way, so much earthy matter from the
mountains to the plain, that, since the Roman era, several large
lakes and extensive marshes, situated near Parma, Paisance, Cre-
mona, &c., have been filled up and become dry : the bed of these
rivers is also gradually filled up, so that they have several times
changed their course, and poured over the neighbouring plains.
It has been necessary to restrain them artificially, by building up
a long dyke on each bank ; this has put an end to these disastrous
inundations, but has not prevented the bottom of the river from
continuing to rise up; every year it is therefore necessary also to raise
up the dykes, so that now these rivers flow in a sort of immense
aqueduct, and at certain places the surface of their waters is higher
than the roofs of the surrounding houses, as at Ferrara, for ex-
ample.
18. The river Rhone descends on the northern side of the Alps,
and passes the Valais too impetuously to deposit the rnu«l and flints
with which it is abundantly freighted ; but, when it empties into
the lake of Geneva, its course becomes so slow as to be almost
imperceptible, and its waters, which were at first turbid and muddv,
are limpid and transparent, when they escape from the opposite
side of this basin to pass through the town of Geneva: the result
is that the Rhone deposits in this basin all the matters which it
carried, and gradually raises up its bottom, constituting what is
termed lacustrine formation. This progressive elevation of the
soil is so marked at the eastern extremity of the lake, that an an-
cient town called Port Valais, formerly situated on its margin, is
now found about a half a league from it; about eight centuries
have been sufficient for the formation of the great earthy bank
which now separates this town from the lake, and the deposite
which gave rise to it continues to be made at the bottom of that
portion of the lake in its vicinity, and continually tends to rai«e it
up more and more, so that in time it may fill the whole of this
basin, and transform the lake into a plain'which the Rhone will
pass through without spreading itself. In passing through Geneva,
17. Give an example of change produced by currents.
18. What has been the effect of the Rhone passing throuf^i the kke of
Geneva ? What is meant by lacustrine formation ?
16 ALLUVILM.— DELTAS.
this beaut.ful river, as we have already said, is clear and limpid ;
but a little beyond the town it receives new tributaries, such as the
Arve, which pour into it their muddy waters, and little by Hide it
is again loaded with sand and mud, which it rolls on impetuously
to the sea ; but at its mouth, its course being slow, these foreign
materials, the debris of Mont Blanc, of the Alps, of Dauphiny,
and the central regions of France, are in their turn deposited, and
gradually elevate the soil they cover ; the result is new land which
advances more and more on the sea.
19. We give the name of alluvium (from the Latin, alluvio, an
inundation, or alluo, I wash) to formations caused in this way by
the deposite of materials carried by waters, and as these alluvial
formations, when deposited at the mouth of a river, often assume
the form of the Greek letter A delta, we designate the new-made
land, which in a manner encroaches on the domain of the sea,
under the name of delta.
20. The delta of the Rhone, to which we alluded above, and
that which is found at the mouth of the Po, are very inconsider-
able ; but, in certain parts of the globe, several are found of very
much greater geological importance. One of the most celebrated
is the Delta of the Nile, which, according to the calculations of
some authors, must have grown nearly half a league since the
time of Herodotus; and according to the commonly received
opinion, its formation began at the foot of the rocks upon which
were built the pyramids of Memphis ; but the deltas at the mouth
of the Mississippi, and the mouth of the Ganges, increase more
rapidly, and possess greater interest for the naturalist.
21. Other formations are also produced, so to speak, under our
eyes, by the deposite of materials which the waters of certain
springs hold in solution, and throw down when they reach the sur-
face of the earth. In different parts of France, near a spring
situated at the north of Clermont Ferrand, for instance, we see
examples on a small scale, and in many parts of Italy, enormous
masses of calcareous stone, known under the name of Travertin
(from the Italian, travertine), are formed.
22. We often behold issuing from the craters of volcanoes, a
burning, serni-liquid matter, which spreads over the surface of the
neighbouring country, and, on cooling, is converted into a hard
compact rock, called lava. Etna has furnished a great number of
irruptions of lava, one of which was six leagues in length, and, in
1783, Hecla, a volcano of Iceland, gave origin to a similar cur-
rent, which extended twenty leagues in length, and twelve in
breadth.
19. What is alluvium ? What is a Delta ?
,20. Mention some examples of Deltas.
21. What is Travertin ?
22 What is lava?
AQUEOUS AND PLUTONIC FORMATIONS. 17
23. These different phenomena partly explain to us the manner
in which the production of the different formation disseminated
on the surface of the globe, must have been effected, formations
whose origin date back from an epoch long anterior to that of the
creation of man.
24. In fact, the various formations constituting the common por-
tion of the globe differ, as we have already seen, very widely in
their nature, in their constitution, and in their mode of arrange-
ment. Now, these differences remind us of those which exist in
the modern formations above mentioned, and seem to indicate that,
in the ancient formations, some were produced in the midst of the
waters by the deposit of solid materials held in suspension or in
solution by this liquid, and others by the action of heat on earthy
materials susceptible of being melted, and of being afterwards
hardened by cooling.
25. Guided by these considerations, geologists have divided the
formations into two great classes ; namely, the sedimentary, or
stratified formations, and the massif or igneous formations.
On account of the presumed method of their production, they are
also designated under the names of Aqueous or Neptunian for-
mations, and Igneous or Plutonic formations.
26. The plutonic formations have received this name because
they appear to be the product of the action of fire ; they are
generally of a dense crystalline structure, and ordinarily form very
immense masses; they are not arranged in regularly superposed
beds, nor do they contain the remains of organized bodies. Some
of them are formed, as we see, by the action of volcanoes, and
others are very analogous to the latter ; they contain not only
minerals peculiar to volcanic ejections, but sometimes also matters
that are produced by the furnaces of our laboratories and work-
shops. They seem to have formed the primitive crust of the
globe ; for we find them beneath the neptunian formations, but
they are also sometimes spread over the surface of the latter, or
betwixt the different beds or strata of which they are composed.
27. The aqueous or neptunian formations appear to have been
deposited by the waters ; in general their texture is coarse or com-
pact, rarely crystalline, and they are often composed of grains of
sand separate or agglutinated, of heterogenous fragments, or ma-
terial havinir the aspect of a kind of indurated mud ; they are also
frequently called stratified formations, and most of them are also
termed SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS. It is in the midst of these for-
23. Are the various formations all of the same age ?
24. In what manner were the various formations produced?
25. How are the formations divided ?
26. What is meant by plutonic formations ? How are they produced ?
27. How were the aqueous formations produced ? Whit are the charao
ttrs of aqueous rocks ?
2*
ORDER OF STRATA.
mations that we find the remains of the different organized bodies
by which the earth has been successively peopled.
28. These stratified formations were not all produced at once,
but successively, and under the influence of different circumstances;
they constitute, as we have before said, distinct beds or strata,
and these strata lie one on top of the other, so that those of a more
ancient are found beneath those of a more recent formation. By
studying them carefully we shall also perceive that different points
on the surface of the earth have been successively, and at intervals,
left dry, and covered by the waters of the sea, or by fresh water,
the sediment from which constitutes these banks, and we see that
these banks themselves differ, not only in the nature and disposi-
tion of their constituting elements, but also in the nature of the
remains of the organic bodies buried in their substance.
29. We distinguish a great number of these stratified forma-
tions, and, as might be anticipated from their mode of production,
they are everywhere found in the same order of superposition ;
the formation which, in one locality, covers another formation, can
never be found in another place beneath the latter; it may be
entirely wanting, so as to leave the latter uncovered, or in contact
with a stratum, which in another place it covered ; but wherever
it exists, it must be on top of or superior to all formations, the pro-
duction of which dates back to a more remote epoch.
80. For example, we have stated that in the vicinity of Paris, the
gypsum rests upon the coarse limestone, this upon the plastic clay,
and this plastic clay upon the chalk ; in other localities we^ may
find new strata interposed between these various formations, or we
may find one of them entirely wanting ; for example, the plastic
clay being absent, the coarse limestone would be found resting
directly upon the chalk ; but this coarse limestone, for the reason
alone that it is everywhere found resting upon the chalk, must have
been deposited after the chalk was formed, and consequently can
never be found below it.
31. It is also evident that when these solid beds are slowly
Sea.
Sedimentary Rocks.
Plutonic Rocks.
Fig. 1.
28. Were the stratified formations all produced at the same time ? Are
all the stratified rocks alike in character ?
29. Are the stratified formations always found in the same order of sue-
•.ession ? Are all the strata everywhere found ?
30. Give an example to show that the strata are always found in the sama
order of succession.
31. What is the position of sedimentary rocks ?
MOVEMENTS OF STRATA. i9
deposited at the bottom of waters, they must have a nearly hori-
zontal position (fig. 1), and that they must occupy, the steepest
parts of the surface upon which they are formed, so that if the
surface presents considerable elevations, these may remain un-
covered, and show themselves above the level occupied by the
new formation (fig' 2). Thus when we go from low plain
Fig. 2.
towards mountain chains, and ascend to their summits, we meet,
successively, formations more and more ancient as we rise.
32. Sometimes these stratified rocks preserve the horizontal
position they had in the beginning ; but at other times they become
more or less oblique in consequence of their partial depression or
sinking, or their unequal elevation. Frequently we see beds
which are abruptly raised up, so as to be almost perpendicular ;
and on the edges of the elevation produced by this overturning of
nature, we find other beds which are perfectly horizontal, and we
may conclude that the latter were formed subsequently to the eie-
vation of the former ; by studying these relations of position we
are enabled to determine the geological age of mountains.
33. These great movements of strata sometimes take place sud
denly, and are accompanied by earthquakes ; but at other timrs
they are effected gradually and without any shock. It appears to
be well ascertained that since the time of the Romans, a portion
of the coast of Naples sank below the level of the sea, and was
subsequently raised up again above this level, witiiout overturning
the monuments built on this movable soil. One may be satisfied
of this fact by visiting an ancient temple situated near Puzzuoli,
called the Temple of Jupiter Serapis ; this monument, of which
three cohimns remain standing erect, appears to have been built in
the third century, and was then very much frequented, on account
of its warm baths ; but at a subsequent epoch, supposed to be about
1488, the ground sank down, and the temple was covered by the
32. Do stratified rocks always preserve their original position ? What is
to be learned by studying the position of strata ?
33. How do these great movements of strata take place? G re an in-
itance of the gradual movement of strata.
23
20
ELEVATION OF COASTS.
Fig. 3.— Temple of Serapis.
sea to a height of about six-
teen feet above the pavement.
Marine animals then establish-
ed themselves on a portion of
the submerged columns, and
mollusks of the genus Pholas
excavated innumerable holes
in the same way as they do
rocKS now covered by the sea ;
but in the present day the state
of things is not the same, the
pavement of the temple is again
dry, and the traces of the pho-
lades we have just mentioned
are at a considerable height
above the level of the sea (fig.
3). Now, these changes in the
relative levels of the coast of
Puzzuoli, and the neighbour-
ing sea, cannot be attributed
to an alternate sinking and rise
of the waters, because move-
ments of this sort must have been accompanied by fearful inun-
dations along the shores of the Mediterranean, and we cannot ex-
plain this phenomenon except by supposing that the coast itself,
after sinking, was again gradually raised up.
34. At the present time Scandinavia and Chile exhibit an
analogous phenomenon. On the coasts of Sweden, for example,
we see certain rocks, which were formerly submerged, now above
water, and that the steep shore is gradually rising more and more
above the level of the sea. For a long time it was observed that
the sea abandoned certain parts of the coast, and that the depth of
water decreased in several ports of this region ; but these changes
of level have been ascertained in a more exact manner ; more than
a century since, marks were made on different rocks on a line with
the surface of the water, to serve as points of comparison, and on
examining them from year to year, il was found that these marks
were successively higher and higher above the level of the sea.
In the gulf of Bothnia, this rise appeared to be four feet in a
century, but at other places less, and at some points on the coasts
of the Baltic, it was nothing, which proves that the change of level
does not depend on the subsidence of the sea.
We shall recur to the subject of stratification and the various
causes which influence it, after we have studied the characters or
the various formations.
34. What other instances Drove the slow movement of strata
ORGANIC REMAINS. 21
LESSON II.
ORGANIC REMAINS. — Fossils — How produced.
FIRST GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — Primitive Rocks — Granite — Gneiss
— Mica- Schist — Argillaceous- Schist.
SECOND GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — Transition Formation — Cambrian
System — Silurian System — Trilobites and other animal
remains — Devonian System — Fossil Fishes — Fossils — limits
of the Transition Formation — Strata changed in Position by
geological Convulsions.
1. We find entombed in the different strata of the crust of the
globe a great quantity of the remains of organic bodies, which at
different epochs have lived on its surface. Those which exist in
the present formations, and which have been deposited since the
last great revolutions of the earth, generally preserve their primi-
tive composition ; but those which have been found in the more
ancient strata have been altered in their nature, and passed into
the fossil state ; the gelatinous, fleshy, or ligneous portions, which
concurred in their formation, have in part disappeared, and have
been more or less replaced by stony particles. By the term fossil
(formed from the Latin, fodio, I dig) is meant any organic 'body,
or the traces of any organic body, whether animal or vegetable,
which has been buried in the earth by natural causes.
2. In general, it is the hard parts, those that are capable of ]ong
resisting decomposition, which alone undergo this kind of altera-
tion ; such as bones, shells, and scales, for example. We never
find flesh, nor nails, nor soft fruits, nor other analogous bodies, in a
fossil state. Sometimes even these hard bodies disappear, and
leave merely tracts of their existence in an impression or print in
the rock that enveloped them.
3. The organic remains which are found in the most superficial
and most recent strata of the crust of the earth, belong in part to
species which still exist; but most fossils are derived from ani-
mals or plants which have not existed since a period anterior to
1. In what respects do the organic remains found in the most ancient
formations differ from those found in the more modern strata ? What is
meant by the term fossil ?
2. What parts of organized bodies are found in the fossil state ?
3. Are the animals and plants found in the fossil state the same as those .
now existing- on the face of the earth ? Are all the varieties of fossils dis.
tributed through the divers strata without regard to the age «,f the forma-
tions ?
REVOLUTIONS OF THE EARTH.
historic times, and the species of which are now totally extinct.
In general, they differ from species now living, more and more, in
proportion to the antiquity of the strata m which they are found,
and, in most of the strata of the earth's crust we find certain
species which are not met with either in more ancient or more
recent formations.
4. It is hy comparing the fossils with each other, and by com-
bining this study with that of the order of superposition, in which
the different strata are found, and with their mode of formation,
that we have arrived at a knowledge of the earth at periods long
anterior to the creation of man, and are enabled to trace the his-
tory of the great revolutions which have successively disturbed
and changed its surface.
5. We learn by this study that the physical condition of the
surface of the earth, as well as that of the organized beings by
which this surface is inhabited, has undergone great and nume-
rous changes. Entire creations of animals and of plants have sue
ceeded each other ; a'ter having peopled the waters and inhabited
the land for ages, each in its turn has been destroyed by some
great catastrophe of nature, and given place to a new creation.
But the appearance of a new flora, or a new fauna, the destruction
of living beings, and the deposit of enormous beds of rocks, are
not the only phenomena which characterize the great revolutions
of the earth. At different epochs, total overthrows, of which the
most fearful earthquakes and volcanic eruptions of our times can
give but a very feeble idea, have raised up the solid crust of the
globe, and produced lofty chains of mountains, whose elevation,
immense as it appears to us, was even still greater before the val-
leys and basins that separate them were gradually filled by new
deposits.
6. The great revolutions of the earth appear to have been sepa-
rated by long periods of tranquillity, during which animals and
plants multiplied on different parts of the globe's surface, and de-
posits of solid materials, borne by the waters or drawn from the
bosom of the earth, were heaped up, constituting beds of rocks of
greater or less thickness, and varying in their nature, in the sub-
stance of which were entombed the remains of contemporaneous
animals and plants.
7. The natural history of the globe is written in the very rocks
of which our planet is composed, and the study of these ancient
monuments of the power of the CREATOR teaches us what tran-
spired long before the existence of man on the earth. These fos-
4. By what means do we study the geological history of the earth?
5. What are the great facts taught by the study of geology ?
6. What seems to have occurred in the long intervals of tranquillity
between the great geological revolutions of the earth?
7. Does geology teach us that the earth was always inhabited by man ?
NATURAL RE VOLITIONS.
sils are truly the medals of creation, medals which are more Im-
portant and incomparably more ancient than all those of Grt.ece
and Rome, or the hieroglyphics of Egypt.
OF THE NATURAL REVOLUTIONS OF THE GLOBE.
8. The history of the globe, like that of nations, is divided into
a certain number of distinct periods, during each of which the
state of things changed but little, yet it resembles neither that
which preceded nor that which followed after it.
9. Geologists designate under the term formation, the assem-
ble of rocks which were produced during each one of these
periods comprised in the interval between two of these revolu-
tionary disturbances of the globe.
10. For example, they give the name of creta'ceous formation
(from the Latin, creta, chalk) to the assemblage of rocks which
were deposited or derived from the interior of the earth, during a
geological epoch, in a part of which chalk was deposited ; and
juras'sic formation is the name given to the assemblage of con-
temporaneous sedimentary rocks composing the most remarkable
strata of the mountains of Jura, &c.
Beginning with the most ancient, -we will examine these several
formations in succession.
FIRST GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
Primitive, Primary, Primordeal, or Unstratified Rocks.*
11. Under the name of primitive, or primary rocks (from the
Latin, primus, first, before), we ordinarily designate the different
rocks which appear to have been formed before the creation of
plants and animals, the remains of which are found in less ancient
strata, and seem to be a foundation for rocks subsequently pro-
duced.
* Mr. Lyell proposes to designate this system of rocks by the term
Hypo'gene (from the Greek, vpo, under, and geinomai, I beget), because
they are found under other rocks. He objects to the words primary and
primitive, because these terms convey a notion as to the time and age cf
the formation, and might lead to the error of supposing that thev were
formed before any other rocks were formed, but the term hypo' gene refers
exclusively to position.
8. How is geological history divided ?
9. What is meant by the term formation ?
10. What is meant by creta'ceous formation? What is meant by jutnt'
*ic formation ?
1 1. What is meant by primitive, or primary rocks?.
23*
Z4 FIRST GEOLOGICAL EPOCH GRANITE.
12. As already stated, at As origin our globe must have been. a
mass kept in a state of fusion by the action of heat, and its surface
became solid by slowly cooling. This first crust must have re-
mained for a long time in a soft or pasty condition, and at first its
temperature must have been too high to permit water to remain
on its surface without evaporating. It must have been split in
different directions by the contraction produced by cooling, and
then resembled the masses of ice which in our day cover the sur-
tice of the polar seas ; that is, it presented a very unequal surface,
studded with immense fragments heaped up in all directions. In
this first geological epoch were formed the massive rocks, such as
granite, wThich serves as the base of all other rocks, and is the
result of the solidification of mineral substances previously melted
by heat. The cooling of this first crust must have also caused
the precipitation of the least volatile matters diffused in the atmo-
sphere, just in the same manner as a cold body placed in a warm
moist air is quickly covered by a layer of condensed vapour ; and
from this cause came new changes in the configuration of the sur-
face of the globe, and the formation of new beds of a crystalline
texture.
13. The most ancient portion of the crust of the earth known
to geologists is composed chjefly of granite and some other un-
stratified rocks which appear to be also of igneous origin.
14. We give the name of granite to a rock, which is extremely
hard, having a rough fracture, which is composed of a confused
agglomeration of crystals formed of three distinct materials: some
of these crystals have a glassy appearance, and are ordinarily of
a grayish colour; they are quartz, the same material of which
rock crystal is composed ; others, often large, opaque, and some-
times rose-coloured, sometimes green, sometimes white or yellow,
are formed of a mineral co\\e& feldspar ; and the third variety of
crystals, which are composed of mica, resemble small brilliant
spangles, sometimes black, and sometimes silvery white. Granite
then consists of quartz, feldspar, and mica. Certain varieties of
granite remain for centuries exposed to the inclemencies of the
weather without undergoing any alteration ; but other varieties are
speedily disintegrated by the action of the atmosphere, and are thus
reduced to a kind of grit or argilla'ceous earth. It presents no
trace of stratification, and possesses all the characters of a rock of
igneous origin.
12. What is supposed to have been the condition of the earth when first
formed? What was the condition of the crust of the earth when first
formed ? Was it smooth and regular?
13. Of what is the most ancient portion of the crust of the earth com-
posed ?
14. What is granite? Of what minerals is it composed7 What is th«
character of granite for durability ?
GNEISS, MICA-SCHIST, &c. 25
15. Granite, which seems to form the first basis, the foundation
stone of the great -^oiogical edifice, remains uncovered at various
points on the surface of the earth, while in other places it is
covered by more or less numerous beds of more recent formations.
But all the granitic rocks now scattered over the surface of the
globe do not date from an antiquity so remote ; for, in different
recent epochs, mineral materials in a state of fusion have escaped
from the bosom of the earth, which spread over formations then
existing, and, on cooling, constituted immense masses of granite
s milar to that first formed.
16. This rock is met with in different places in all parts of the
world, and is employed in the construction of edifices of various
description.
17. The beds which are deposited on the first massive crust of
the globe are crystalline in structure, and this character is more
decided the more ancient they are ; they seem to have been ex-
posed to the action of a great heat, without possessing the charac-
ters of rocks of igneous origin. They consist principally of gneiss,
mica-schist, and argillaceous schist.
18. Gneiss is a rock very analogous to granite as respects its
elementary constituents, but its structure is foliated and presents a
stratified arrangement ; it appears to have been formed under wa-
ter, and seems to be the most ancient of the sedimentary forma-
tions, because in certain places on the surface of the globe we find
it covered by all the other formations. We often see it naked ; it
forms vast systems of rocks in which it is often alternated with
mica-schist and other ancient rocks. It is used in building and
flagging.
19. Mica-schist is a lamellar rock composed of quartz ordinarily
grayish, and a great quantity of brilliant lamellae of mica arranged
in extended leaves or scales ; it commonly accompanies granite and
gneiss.
20. Jlrgil/aceous schist is in appearance an earthy rock, which
is easily divided into large laminae more or less thin, and was evi-
dently formed under water by the deposit of sediment. [Schist,
from the Greek schist os, slaty, easily split.]
We also find in these primitive strata compact limestone of great
hardness, and other rocks which more or less resemble the pre-
ceding.
21. These different rocks, the origin of which dates from the
15. Is granite everywhere hid beneath the surface of the earth? Is ail
granite supposed to be of the same age ?
16. Where is granite found? To what uses is it applied?
17. What kind of rocks are found overlying the granite?
18. What is gneiss? How does it seem to have been formed'
19. What are the characters of mica-schist?
20 What is argilla'ceous schist ?
3
20 SECOND GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
earliest period of geological history, constitute a great part of the
present surface of the globe, and ate often found at great depths,
beneath less ancient formations. They present evident traces of
great overthrows, and the beds or layers which they form no longer
occupy the horizontal position they must have had in the begin-
ning, but are more or less inclined, twisted and fractured, as if at
various times they had been broken and their immense fragments
irregularly raised up. Those countries in which the primitive
rocks constitute the surface are knotted and mountainous, and we
find these same rocks in the most elevated points of the globe,
where they form the mass of most great mountain chains.
22. The central plane of France, comprising Auvergne, Limou-
sin, Vivarais, and Valais, is formed almost entirely of primitive
rocks, most of which are granitic. The same is true of a great
part of Brittany and Corsica, Scandinavia and Finknd, &c. ; these
ancient rocks also constitute a large part of the Great Alps, of
which Mont Blanc is the highest point, the Eastern Alps from
Saint Gothard to Hungary, the Pyrenees, the chain of Erzge-
berge, in Saxony, the Grampian Hills of Scotknd, the Oural
mountains, in Russia, the Alleghanies in the United States, and
the Andes in South America.
23. As we have already stated, we find no fossils in the sedi-
mentary formations of this geological period, and it is therefore
inferred that in this epoch no living beings existed on the surface
of the globe ; but it may have been otherwise, and the absence of
fossils in these strata depends on some cause, such as their destruc-
tion by heat, resulting from their vicinity to enormous masses of
igneous rocks, effused near to, or even over and above these non-
fossiliferous strata.
SECOND GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
Transition Formation.
24. The stratified formations which rest on the primitive strata
iust mentioned, present us with the first traces of the existence cf
living beings on the surface of the globe, and constitute a particrJar
division, generally named the Transition Formation, but desig-
nated by Mr. Lyell as the Primary Fossiliferous Formation. The
most recent name given, however, to these formations, is poise' ozoic
(formed from the Greek palaios, ancient, and zoon, an animal), be-
cause they contain ancient animal remains.
21 Are primitive rocks found only beneath the more recent formations ?
22. In what countries do we find primitive rocks at the surface7
23. What fossils are found in the primitive sedimentary rocks?
24. In what formations are fossils first met with ? What is meant by
palaeozoic formation ?
CAMBRIAN SYSTEM. 27
25. These formations closely resemble the preceding, and it is
often difficult to distinguish them, but they do not appear to hav>>
begun to form until the first had been disturbed by some great
geological convulsion ; for the strata of which they are composed
are not parallel to those of the rocks on which they rest, and they
differ from them by having fossils entombed in their substance.
They appear to have been formed by a slow and continuous
deposit of sand, mud, and other materials suspended in water,
and they consist chiefly of schists and calcareous rocks. The sea
seems then to have covered the greatest part of the known surface
of the globe, for we scarcely find a trace of terrestrial plants, and
immense depots of these strata, almost identical in character, are
met with in the most distant parts of the earth, as in Germany,
England, and America.
26. To judge by the fossils concealed in these formations, the
globe was then inhabited by a small number of plants, belonging,
for the most part, to the family of fucus, and by a multitude of
marine animals, the forms of which differed widely from those now
existing. It is also remarked that most of these animals belonged
to the inferior classes of the animal kingdom, and, until lately, it
was believed no vertebrate animal then existed ; but within a short
time it has been ascertained there were marine fishes, for remains
of them have been discovered in certain rocks whose formation
dates back to this remote epoch. (Fig- 20.)
27. The most ancient beds of the transition formation contain
very few fossils, wnile other rocks of the same formation are rich
in these remains ; these differences, which correspond with other
peculiarities of stratification, have led geologists to divide this period
into three divisions, called the CAMBRIAN, SILURIAN, and DEVONIAN
Systems of rocks.
28. The CAMBRIAN (from Cambria, in Wales) or SCHISTOSE SYS-
TEM. The Cambrian rocks are the lowest sedimentary deposits
known. They are composed essentially of schistose grauwackes,
which pass through all shades of solidity, lustre and colour ; on
one side they unite with the mica-schists and gneiss, and on the
other with the coarse grauwackes, with which they are found inter-
calated. These rocks contain slate rocks, conglomerates, dark
limestone, and fine-grained slates of various shades of purple, blue
and green. In the Cambrian rocks the organic remains consist of
a few fossil brachiopods, polypa'ria, or coral animals, &c.
25. How does the palao'ozoic formation differ from the primitive rocks ?
In what manner were the palao'ozoic formations produced ?
26. At the period of the palae'ozoic formation, what description of organ,
ized beings lived on the earth ?
27. How is the transition or palse'ozoic formation divided ?
28. How is the Cambrian System of rocks characterized ? From what
is :*s name derived ? What is the geological position of the Cambrian
System ?
SILURIAN SYSTEM—FOSSILS.
29. The SILU'RIAN SYSTEM (from the Si/ures, or Siluri, the an-
cient Britons who inhabited the region where these strata are most
distinctly developed) is next above the Cambrian. It is subdi-
vided into the upper and lower Silurian strata. In its mineral
composition it so closely resembles that of the Cambrian that it is
often difficult to distinguish them. These strata are entirely of
marine origin, and many of the beds (as the well-known Dudley
limestone) are composed of shells, corals, crinoidea, and those pe-
culiar crusta'ceans termed trilobites (fig. 4), held together by a
calcareous cement.
Fig. 4.— Trilobites*
30. The presence of these fossil animals is characteristic of the
Silurian and Devonian Systems of strata, because they are rarely
met with in other situations. They are found entombed in slate
and dark limestone.
Trilobites, from their extraordinary form and appearance, have, for more
than a hundred and fifty years, been objects of great interest to the natu-
ralist and of wonder to the general observer, and have long been provin-
cially termed Dudley insects or locusts. The most common examples con-
sist of a convex, oblong body, divided transversely into three principal
parts, and longitudinally into three lobes, by two deep, parallel furrows ;
from this last character, by which the family is recognised among natural-
ists, the name Trilobite (from the Latin Ires, three, and lobvs, lobe) has been
derived. These fossils are the carapaces, or shells, of crustaceans, belonging
to an extinct family, which comprises many genera, and numerous species.
The class of crustaceans consists of two groups, namely : those with eyes
* Explanation of Fig. 4. 1 . A'saphus Caudatus. — 2. A'saphus Buchii. —
3. Caly'mene Blumenbachii. .
29. How is the Silurian System characterized ? How does it differ from
the Cambrian System ? What is the origin of its name ? What are tri-
•obites ?
30. Of what systems of rocks are trilobites characteristic ?
FOSSIL REMAINS TRILOBITES.
supported on movable peduncles, as the crab and lobster*, and those with
eyes fixed ; the extinct order of trilobites belongs to the last.
The Caly'mene. Blumenbachii (Jig. 4, No. 3) is named after the celebrated
German naturalist Blumenbach ; the generic name, caly'mene (formed from
the Greek kekalumene, concealed) was devised to express the obscure nature
of this genus of trilobites. It is found- expanded, with its under surface
attached to and blended with the limestone, or coiled up. The head is large,
convex, rounded in front, with a broad border, and divided into three lobes
by two longitudinal depressions. It has two compound eyes with numerous
facets, situated at the back of the head remote from each other. This spe-
cies is from one to four inches in length. Mantell.
" It is a curious fact," says Mr. T. A. Conrad (Palaeontologist, State of
New York, 1838), "that, whilst the Caly'mene Blumenbachii ceased to
exist in New York after the final deposition of the Trenton series, it escaped
into remote seas and lived in the era of the Dudley limestone."
In another genus, A'saphus (from the Greek asaphcs, obscure), the cara-
pace is wide and much depressed (Jig. 4, Nos. 1,2); the middle lobe distinct,
the cephalic portion rounded in front, and terminating posteriorly in a sharp
process on each side. The eyes are compound, and each contains four hun-
dred spherical lenses. Some kinds of A'saphus have remarkably long,
pointed, caudal appendages, or tails, (Jig. 4, No. 1). Some American species
of this group are eighteen inches in length. Mantell.
31. Besides the trilobites, the remains of other animals are found
in the Cambrian and Silurian Systems. They mostly belong to
the division of brachiopod mollusks. Among those which are
regarded as characteristic of the Silurian System are the Orthis
orbiciilaris (fig. 5), Orthis testudinaria (Jig. 6) : the orthis is a
circular shell with a striated surface, and long, narrow hinge;
Fig. 5. — Orthis orbicularis. big. 6. — Orthis testudinaria.
the Orthoceras (Jig. 7), (from the Greek orthos, straight, and keras
horn) ; the Luiiuites (Jig. 8), of large dimensions ; the Productut
Fig. 1. — Orthoceras conica.
Fig. 8. — Lithuites giganleut.
31. Name some of the fossils found in the Cambrian and Silurian Syt
terns. To what division of the animal kingdom do these fossils belong 7
PRODUCTUS.— SPIRIFER.— TEREBRATULA.
(fgs. 9, 10), -(Latin, drawn out, dilated) ; or Leptena (from the
k leptos, slender).
Fig. 9. — Productus depresses.
Fig. 1Q. — Productus antiquatus.
"The genus Productus has received its name from a peculiarity observed
in several species where the dorsal valve, after having attained a certain
magnitude, bends suddenly at right-angles to its former direction, and is
then continued irregularly, sometimes being produced (extended) to a con-
siderable length. The whole shell is usually covered with striae and spines,
which in some species are numerous and very long, and which appear to
have been movable, doubtless serving a purpose in the animal economy."
Ansted.
32. The Spi'rifer (Jig. 11), (from the Latin spira, a wreath or
twisting, and fero, I bear), is a bra-
chiopod, closely resembling the tere-
bratula in many important characters,
but differing from it in the singular
spire of calcareous matter passing
across the interior of the shell, and
from which the name of the genus
is derived. The species are very
numerous, and, next to terebratula,
are the most abundant of all brachiopod fossils.
33. The genus Terebra'tula (figs. 12, 13, 14), (from the Latin
terebrOj I bore ; bored, alluding to the perforated
beak). Throughout the whole of the pakc'ozoic
Fig. 11. — Spirifer trigonalis.
Fig. 12.— Terebra.
tula digona.
Fig. 13,— Tfrebra-
tula octoplicata.
Fig. 14.— Terebratula
navicula.
formation, certain species of terebra'tulae are found. This remark-
oble genus, which has in the present day some representatives in
'he existing seas, appears to have been created among the very first
of the inhabitants of the first formed ocean, and to have retained
32. What is the peculiarity of the Spi'rifer ?
33. What are terebratula? ?
PENTAMERUS— POLYPARIA.
its place longer than any other. From the incalculable antiquity
of their lineage, the terebratulae have been humorously styled the
Fossil aristocracy.
34. The genus Pentame'rus (Jigs. 15, 16, 17 — from the Greek
pente, five, and meros, parts, or cells), contains four known species
all of which belong to the Silurian rocks. In «
this genus, the lesser valve is divided inter-
nally by two parallel walls, or septa, running
close together lengthwise along the shell,
forming three cells ; the other valve also has
a septum or wall, which is forked towards the
beak of the shell, and divides it into two cells ;
thus forming the five cells to which it is in-
debted for its generic name. The casts of
these shells (fig* 15), often have fissures, pro-
duced by the decomposition of the septa ; and occasionally these
cavities are occupied by calcareous spar.
Fig. 1.5.— Cast of the
Pentamerus Icevis.
Fig. 16.— Pentame'rus Knightii. Fig. 17.— Section of same Shell.
35. Of the polypa'ria or corals which existed when the SiliTJar
Fig. 18-Cyatkophyllum turbinatum. Fig. 19.—Catenipo~a escharoides
rocks were formed, representations of two genera are given. The
34. How is the genus pentame'rus characterized ?
35. Did corals exist in the Cambrian and Silurian rocks ?
24
32
ORGANIC REMAINS—DEVONIAN SYSTEM.
Cyatho'phyUwn (fig. 18), (from the Greek, kitathos, a cup, and
pi mil on, a flower). The abundance of corals of this genus in the
Silurian system proves that the seas of that epoch must have
teemed with these zo'ophytes. The Cate'nipora (fig. 19), (from
the Latin, catena, a
chain, and poms, a
pore). The oval form
of the cells when united
laterally, and the flexu-
ous disposition of the
lamellae, give rise in
transverse sections to
elegant catenated mark-
ings, from which ap-
pearance the fossil has
received the name of
chain-coral. The spe-
cies figured (fig. 19),
is common in Silurian
limestone, and some-
times forms hemispher-
ical masses more than a
foot in diameter.
36. The organic re-
mains of the Cambrian
system differ from those
of the Silurian system
in being less developed ;
the genera and species
of mollusks and corals
found in both are alike.
37. The DEVONIAN
SYSTEM (so called be-
cause it is largely deve-
Fig. 20.*— Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System, loped in Devonshire,
England) forms the su-
perior part of the preceding formation. It appears to be composed
* Explanation of Fig. 20. — 1. Pterichthys cornutus, seen from above—
'Pterichthys, from the Greek, pleron, wing, and ichthos, fi^h : cornutus, La-
tin, horned. The horned wing fish). 2. Coccostcus oblongus. These
figures are restored with great, accuracy from the best pieservtd specimens
hitherto discovered. The British species of fossil wing-fishes, of which
five or six are known, are all very small, varying in length from one to
eight or ten inches. But in the Devonian strata of Russia enormous spe.
cies occur , the spines of some of them exceed a foot in length. See Man-
tell's Medals of Creation. London, 1844.
36. How do the fossils found in the Cambrian rocks differ from those of
the Silurian System '/
DEVONIAN SYSTEM.
83
at first of pudding-stone, with which it commences, and to pass to
sandstone, with which it alternates at different places. Then come
Fig. 21. — Caryoplty'llia fastigia'ta.
Fig. 23. — Calceola sandalina.
Fig. %2.—Awplexus coralloi'des.
sandstone-schists, more or less fine, different species of schist, lime-
stones, alternating with each other, in the midst of which are found
beds of anthracite. These va-
rious materials are differently
developed in different coun-
tries : in England the sand-
stones predominate. They
form the old red sandstone,
comprising strata of clay and
marl of different colours. In
other places the limestones
prevail with different clay-
slates, or chloritic schists, some-
times intercalated with schistose Fi£- 24.— C/yme'ma linea'ris.
quartz, as in Devonshire, and sometimes almost alone, as in Corn-
wall.
37. What is the origin of the term Devonian System ? What is iti
geological position f Of what rocks does it consist ?
SLATE— SYSTEMS OF ROCKS.
38. This system presents us with depots of the oldest com-
bustible materials known ; and we find in it ferns, ca'lamites, divers
species of plants, differing but little from the plants found in the
coal formation which
immediately follows.
We here find also a
great many pol'yps
more or less analogous
to the CaruophyUia
(Jig. 21) ; Jimplexus
(Jig. 22), by some re-
garded as polyps and
by others as chamber-
ed shells, which are
found nowhere beside.
Fig. 25. — Megalodon cuculla'tus. - -, ,. -
so nearly resembling
certain productus, appears to be characteristic of the Devonian
locks ; and perhaps also the Clymenia Hnearis (Jig. 24), a cham-
fered shell with aventral siphon. Certain peculiar bivalves are
a] so found (fig. 25); some brachiopods, and among others the
7'erebra'tnla porrecta (Jig. 26).
39. Slates, so extensively used for roofs, are furnished from this
group of ancient rocks ;
and on many we find im-
pressions of trilobites. The
upper part of the transition
strata often contains car-
boniferous materials, some-
times disseminated among
the schists, and at others
constituting more or less ex-
tensive masses, which are
generally composed of anthracite, though sometimes of bituminous
coal.
40. Thefce three systems of rocks, namely the Cambrian, Silu-
rian and Devonian, which are not easily distinguished from each
other, are found in most countries of Europe, where their
assemblage constitutes the greater part of what is named the
transition or paleozoic formation. They abound in Brittany :
there the anthraciti'ferous mass forms a stripe along the Loire, ex-
tending from Maine to Morbihan, as well as other depots in Sarthe
and Mayenne. These rocks are found through the whole chain
38. What fossils are found in the Devonian System ?
39. What useful material is found in the Devonian System ?
40. What systems of rocks constitute the palaeozoic formation ? Where
is this formation met with ?
Fig. 26.-4erebra'tula porrecta.
POSITIONS OF THE DIFFERENT STRATA. 35
of the Pyrenees, in the southern part of Cevennes, in the moun-
tains of Forez and Beaujolais, and in some parts of Vosges. They
form all the Hundsruck, Eiffel, and Ardennes and the southern
part of Belgium. They are met with in Hartz, in Saxony, and
different parts of Germany, Sweden, and Norway ; and they
abound in England as well as in the United States. They every-
where offer a matrix for anthracite. '
41. Geologists are not agreed as to the natural limit between
these strata and those of a more recent order, generally designated
under the name of secondary formation ; bu4; most authors con-
sider the period of transition to cease beneath the carboniferous
rocks and the coal measures.
42. While the different stratified rocks we have spoken of were
in progress of formation, there were effusions of granite and other
igneous rocks on their surface, and these geological convulsions
have produced in the strata elevations and changes of direction, so
that many of them are raised up and are very much inclined and
in some instances almost vertical. It was during one of these
revolutions that the mountains of Westmoreland and Cornwall, in
England, were suddenly elevated ; a part of those of Brittany, and
Bigorre, &c., in France, of the Hundsruck, Eiffel, and Hartz, in
Germany, and many other mountain chains. The superior transi-
tion strata, which were formed subsequently to this convulsion and
rested on the edge of strata thus upheaved, were in turn dislocated
and raised up, and according to the observations of a French geo-
logist, Elie de Beaumont, this elevation appears to have been ante-
rior to the formation of more recent rocks than those we have yet
mentioned, and to correspond with the eruption of masses of igne-
ous rocks of the mountains of Vosges, known under the name of
ballons of Alsace and Comte. The elevation of the hills of Bocage,
in Calvados and several mountain chains in England, Germany
and Poland appears to have occurred about the same time.
The following diagram (fig. 27), represents the several strata
we have described, in a horizontal position, one lying above the
other, and embraces the granite or plutonic rocKs below, next the
aqueous or metamorphic rocks, and above the whole, the transition
formation, consisting of the Cambrian, Silurian and Devonian Sys-
tems of strata.
{• IVv..|iia.i Sys-ein-fi'g-ilg- F'?hes.
Transition Rocks. •< Silurian System— 'JWils-Tii'olii es
/ Cambrian System- Fo>-il-,— polyrs
Fig. 27.
Metamorphic Rocks
r Ar^illar
.4 Mica-nc
(. Gnei*.
41. How is the transition separated from the secondary formation?
42. What is supposed to have happened while the stratified rocks we**
being formed 5
24*
36 THIRD GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
If we suppose the strata to have been in this position at the time
of a geological convulsion, such as we have alluded to above, and
that the granite should force its way upwards at A or B, we should
find perhaps all the relations of the strata changed, presenting
something like the arrangement represented in the following figure.
Transition. Stratified.
The above figure represents the effect of the sudden rising up
of a mass of granite, Dursting and breaking through all the strata
that were lying above it. Instead of a horizontal level surface, as
in fig. 27, we have a mountain of granite, from the lowest stratum,
overtopping all the more recent formations ; and the ends of the
several strata, where they were broken to give passage to the
granite, are brought up towards the earth's surface, represented by
the dotted line. In such a case as we here suppose, it would be
very difficult for one who had not studied the subject to determine
which stratum was first formed : it might seem to him that inas-
much as he finds the granite occupying the highest point, and the
transition rocks the lowest, that the granite is of the last or most
modern formation.
LESSON III.
THIRD GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — Secondary Formation — Carbonife-
rous Formation — Old Red Stone — Fossils — Coal Formation-
Fossils — Extent of Coal Measures.
FOURTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — New Ped Sandstone — Fossils —
Trias sic System — Bunter Sandstein — Mushelkalk — Keu'per
— Ammonites — Fossils.
FIFTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.— Lias, or Lia'ssic System— Fossils
— I'chthyosau'rus — Plei'siosau'rus — Pteroda'ctylus — O'ohtic
System — Fossils.
THIRD GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
Secondary Formation — Carboniferous Formation
1. After the great revolutions which seem to have termmau-d
•he ancient period commonly designated as the transition epoch,
OLD RED SANDSTONE, &c. , 37
the earth appears to have remained in a state of repose for a long
time, which permitted new generations of organized beings to mul-
tiply on its surface, and mineral substances, carried by the waters,
to be deposited in great layers, and to entomb in their substance
the solid remains of the exuviae of contemporaneous animals and
plants.
2. The first deposits which took place during this geological
opoch, constituted the strata of sandstone, conglomerate, (an assem-
olage of fragments of rocks and pebbles, cemented together by
other mineral matter,) clay, calcareous rocks, &c., and from theii
union resulted the formation called by geologists the old red sand-
stone, on account of its antiquity and prevailing colour. But this
state of things was soon changed, and there was formed, slowly
and gradually, at the bottom of the waters, an immense stratum of
calcareous rocks, seven or eight hundred feet in thickness ; then
the sandy sediment alternated with these limestones, and above this
great formation, designated under the name of carboniferous (coal-
bearing) limestone, numerous strata of sandstone, schistose clay
and coal were accumulated.
3. The fossils of the old red stone are somewhat numerous, and
belong, for the most part, to marine animals, among which was a
fish of strange form, called Cephalaspis, (from the Greek, kephale,
head, and aspis, shield or buckler,) because its head resembles a
kind of buckler (fig. 29).
Fig. 29. — Cephalaspis Lyellii".
The remains of the genus Cephalaspis (fip. 29) are found chiefly in the
apper beds of the old red sandstone of Scotland, but also in Herefordshire
And Wales. u In this genus, the head is very large in proportion to the
body, and occupies nearly one-third of the entire length of the animal; its
outline is rounded and crescent-shaped, and the lateral horns slightly incline
towards each other, their points being nearer to one another than they are
to the round part of the snout. The middle of the head is elevated, and
the sides dilated, so as to overlap the body, and extend considerably behind
it; but perhaps the head only appears to extend so far, owing to accidents
of displacement since the death of the animal. The eyes are placed in the
middle of the shield, near to each other, and are directed straight upwards.
It is imagined that the pointed horns of the crescent may have been useful
1. What happened after the termination of the transition period of geo-
logical history ?
2. What were the first deposits after the transition ppriod ?
3. What is the character of the fossils of the old red sandstone ? What
is the Cephalaspis ?
4
38
CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE.
as defences when the fish was attacked by the powerful cephalopods which
inhabited the ocean at the period of its existence." The head and body are
covered with scales, of peculiar and varied shapes. Ansted.
4. The carboniferous limestone, also called mountain limestone,
and metalliferous limestone, affords several varieties of black,
bluish grey, and variegated marbles, as well as ores of lead, cop-
per, zinc, &c. It contains a great number of organic remains,
such as divers polyparia cyathophylla (Jig. 18), madrepora, &c.,
encrinites, which belong to the division of crinoidea (fig. 30).
It also contains the remains of a number of mollusks, as the
orthoceras lateralis (fg. 31) ; goniatites (Jig- 32), which resem-
ble the nautilus ; bcllerophons (Jig- 33), which, with analogous
forms, are not chambered ; euompJialus (fig. 34) ; spirifers and
productus in great variety, especially (Jigs. 35, 36).
The Crinoideae, (from the Greek, krinon^ a lily, and eidos, resemblance,)
a family belonging to the class of radiate animals, are remarkable for the
simplicity of their organization, and the peculiarly com-
plicated structure of their skeleton. The animal resem-
bled a true polyp or coral animalcule ; the body consisted
of a gelatinous tube, contracted at one extremity, by
which it was attached, and furnished at the opposite end
with a variable number of delicate contractile filaments
placed around the opening which represents the month.
The calcareous skeleton was formed within the tube,
and consisted of thousands of regularly-shaped pieces,
kept together by the tough membrane which enclosed
them during the life of the animal.
The family is divided into genera, according to the
form of the stems, or according to its general shape.
When the arms or stems are round, it is an Encrinite ;
Pis 30 —Cwitho- tne cyathocrinites (Jig. 30) takes its name from the
crinites planus. ' Greek, kuathos, a cup, and krinon, lily.
Many limestones are composed almost exclusively of
the remains of species of Crinoidea, as at Lockport, New York; and various
genera of this family are found in Alabama, near Huntsville.
Th*e Orthoceras, or orlhoceratite, (from the Greek, orthos,
straight, and keras, horn,) is straight, or slightly bent, cylin-
drical, slightly conical, many-chambered cell ; the chambers
are separated by plain septa, which are concave towards the
larger end, and pierced with a siphuncle.
Go'niatites (Jig. 32), (from the Greek,
gonia, an angle,) is a genus of extinct
cephalopods, which inhabited a cham-
bered shell resembling that of the am-
monites.
Belle'ropTion (fig.W), (from the Greek,
Bellerophontes, the name of a fabulous
hero,) a genus of cephalopods which in-
Fig.31. — Ortho- habited chambered shells similar to those
ceras lateralis. of the argonaut and nautilus.
Fig. 32.—Go'ma.
tiles evolutus.
4 What are the characters of tne carboniferous Umestone '
COAL FORMATION.
The Euomphalus (,fig. 34), (from the Greek, fu, properly, and omphalos
the navel,) was a gasteropod mollusk. The shell is
often exceedingly thick, and is divided irregularly into
a number of compartments or chambers, provided with
a solid tube running through them, entirely shutting
off that part of the shell in which the animal dwelt,
from the smaller and uninhabited portion. These
empty spaces served, no doubt, as floats, rendering1 the
whole mass of the shell and animal sufficiently light
to move easily in the water. Ansled.
Fig. 33.—Belle'ro.
phon costatus.
Fig. 34. — Euom'phalus penta'ngula'tus.
Fig. 35.—Spi'rifer glaler.
Fig. 36. — Productus Martini.
5. At the period of the Coal Formation, the earth appears tr
have been occupied, in a great part, by a deep sea studded with
islands, covered by an abundant and luxuriant vegetation. The
then existing plants differed very much from those now living ;
hundreds of different species are known, but almost the whole of
them belonged to the class of vascular cryptoga'mia : they aie
principally ferns, equisita'ceae, lycopodia'ceze, that is, plants of a
very simple structure but of gigantic size. The tree-ferns, of
which existing species do not exceed 20 or 25 feet in height, even
in the torrid zone, and generally not more than 8 or 10 feet, then
grew, in localities far beyond the tropics, from 40 to 50 feet high ;
and other plants, whose representatives of the present time are
mere herbs, then rose to 60 feet in height.
6. In that period, there were also insects resembling weevils and
neuro'ptera of the present day ; scorpions, which differed from the
5. What was the condition of the earth at the period of the coal formation *
40
COAL FORMATION.
existing species in the number of their eyes ; fresh-water mollusks,
and very remarkable fishes, which, in certain respects, resembled
reptiles, and had their bodies covered by thick solid plates.
7. The debris of the plants of that period, accumulated in im-
mense masses and altered by time and other causes, were trans-
formed into the combustible material, which is so immensely
valuable, known under the name of coal.
8. The deposits of coal begin, in France, ordinarily with pud-
ding-stones formed of the debris of different rocks from the sur-
rounding country, often comprising gigantic blocks scarcely rounded.
Sometimes finer pudding-stones alternate with sandstone, which
always constitutes a chief part of the deposit. Very numerous va-
rieties of these sandstones, arising from the size of the grains of
quartz and the quantity of argilla'ceous matter entering into their
composition, are found ; they are frequently micaceous and schistose ;
;hey contain beds of clay-slate and bituminous schist, which are
sometimes very thick, but rarely calcareous strata. The masses
of coal are scattered throughout, but are always separated from the
sandstone by beds of slate ; these are at first nearly pure, then
mixed with the combustible, and finally are represented alone above
the deposit.
9. Besides the coal formed by the accumulation of the debris of
decomposed plants, the coal-measures con-
tain a great number of the remains of
plants which retain their organic charac-
ters : the stems and trunks of trees are
found in the sandstone; the leaves have
left their imprints perfectly preserved in
the schists and clays which accompany
the coal.
10. The impressions of ferns are ex-
tremely numerous ; among them is the
Pecopferis (tfig* 37), of which the leaflets,
but little detached from the pedicle, are
joined in a single ieaf, deeply incised, in
which we iecognise a principal nervure,
from which the secondary nervures arise
perpendicularly ; the Sphscnopteris (fg.
38), analogous to the preceding, but in
which the leaflets are moie distinct, deeply
lobed, and have the nervures radiate al-
most from the base ; the Neuro'pteris
als0 has the leaflets de-
(t. What animals existed at that period?
7. From what, was coal formed ?
8. In what kind of rock is coal found ?
9. In what do we find impressions of plants ?
TOAL FORMATION.
41
tached, but entire and
from the middle nervurc, apd
great number of other genera
*he nervures arise very obliquely
s frequently divide ; arid a
on the form of their leaJleu
Fig. 33.—SphcEnopieris Hccni^gh^usi. Fig. 39. — Neuropteris Loshii.
and the arrangement of their nervures. We also find various other
plants, the families of which are uncertain, such as the Spheno-
nhy ltif.es (/#. 40), dnnula'ria, &c. (fig. 41), which are very
abundant in certain localities.
Fig. 40. — Spheno'phyllum
den ta turn.
Fig. 41. — Annula'ria brevifolia.
11. True equisita appear to have existed in the coal-measures ;
but we are also led to place in the same family certain stems,
grooved lengthwise, with joints at intervals from which branches
sometimes spring (figs. 42, 43). These stems, called ca'lamites,
10. Name seme of the genera of fossil plants found in coal-beds.
4*
42
COAL FORMATION.
are often found, like alJ the rest of those of which we speak, con-
verted into argillaceous matter, which has hecome hard, or into car-
bonates of iron, but rarely into silicious matter. The external
vegetable tissue is frequently found to have passed into a carbonous
state.
Fig. 42. — Calami'tes suckomi.
Fig. 43. — Calami'tes cannafo'rmis.
12. The Lycopodia'cesc embrace various species of Lepidode' n-
drons (Jigs. 44, 45), of which entire trees have been sometimes
found, upwards of sixty feet in height. Their trunks present
rhomboidal projections, spirally arranged, which clearly exhibit
near the top cica'trices of leaves.
.Fig. 44. — Lepidode' ndr on crena'lum. Fig. 45. — Lepidode.' ndron e'legans.
13. The Sigilla'rise (fig. 46) seem to range themselves next to
the Cyca'derc ; their stems, flattened by pressure, are channelled
lenpthwise but not articulated, and the cica'trices are arranged in a
longitudinal series. The stems, called stigma'ria (Jig. 47), are,
11. What genera belonging to the family of equisita'ceae are found in
coal-beds ?
12. What fossil plants of the family of lycopodia'ceffi are found in coal-
measures ?
COAL FORMATION.
43
according to Ad. Brongniart, probably only the roots of plants, tb«
body of which is traversed by a ligneous axis surrounded by sou
fleshy parts.
Fig. 46. — Sigilla'ria pachyde'rma.
Fig. 47.— Stigma'ria Jicoi'des.
14. The co'nifers, which, from the consistence of their wood,
eeem to have participated largely in the formation of carbonaceous
matter in different
strata, present us, in
the different coal-
measures, especially
in the upper beds,
species approxima-
ting to the arauca'ria
in their spirally-ar-
ranged sessile leaves.
M. Ad. Brongniart
refers the whole of
them to the genus
Walchia of M. Stern-
berg, of which two
species, with their
leaves and fruit, are
here figured, (Jig.
15. Animal re-
mains are not very
common in coal-mea-
Fig. 48.— a Walchia Schlotheimii.
b Walchia Hypnoides.
Bures ; still some are found, and even in great numbers in certain
13. What are sigillari® ? What are stigmariae ?
14. What genus of conifers is found fossilized ?
25
COAL FORMATION.
localities. From the calcareous beds, subordinate to these sand-
stones, in the environs of Edinburgh, Dr. Hibbert has collected the
remains of enormous sauruid fishes, the strong and longitudinally
striated teeth of which, as well as the whole osseous system, remind
Fig. 49. — Lower Jaw of the Holopticus Hibberti.
us of the largest sized reptiles. Fig. 49 represents, very much
reduced, a portion of the lower jaw of one of these voracious crea-
tures, and Jig. 50 a tooth of the natural size of another species.
The limestone in which they are found also
contains particular concretions (Jig- 51) which
are considered to be the excrement of these
animals, and, on this account, called coproliles,
(from the Greek, kopros, dung, and lithos,
stone). The family of squalae was then
represented by the division of cestra'cions,
characterized by teeth
adapted for grinding,
(_/?#•. 52); and by that
of the hybodons, with
conoidal but not tren-
chant teeth, the ena-
mel of which is plaited
on both surfaces (Jig.
53). The true sharks,
Fig. 50.— Tooth of the witn teetn flattened
Mtgahchthys Hibberti. and trenchant on the
edges, (fig. 54), did not then exist, and did not appear until very
much later in the creta'ceous formation.
16. Other fishes are found in the coal-basins of the continent
of Europe, either in the bituminous schists, as at Sarrebruck and
at Antun, or in kidney-shaped masses of carbonate of iron, as at
Saint-Etienne. They belong to neighboring genera of sturgeons,
named by M. Agassiz palsconi' scus, (Jig. 56), and am'blipterus,
and seem to have lived in fresh water.
Fig. 51. — Coprolilfs.
15. What animal remains are found in the coal-measures? What ire
coprolites 1
16. Are any other fishes fc'ind in coai-beds ?
COAL FORMATION. 45
17. Marine shells are rare in coal strata, and are only found in
the subordinate limestone of Belgium and England; but at the
same time there were some species of unio and some small ento-
mostracans which indicate at least an afflux of fresh water to the
sea at the points where these particular deposits were made.
Fig. 52.— Tooth of Fig. 53.— Tooth of Fig. 54.— Tooth of
Cestracion. Hybodon. true Shark.
18. EXTENT OF THE COAL-MEASURES. It is evident that the
coal formation cannot be found except above the Cambrian, Silurian
arid Devonian strata, which were formed anteriorly to, or about the
time of these deposites. If it existed before that period, it must
be necessarily concealed by all the strata subsequently formed, and
searches have been extended below them at great expense for thi?
combustible. The consequence is, that the coal formation occupies a
small portion of the uncovered surface of the earth. All the depo-
sites known in France do not occupy more than one two-hundredth
part of the superficies of the territory. England and Belgium are
comparatively richer, for in the first the surface of the coal forma-
tion is equal to one-twentieth of the whole kingdom, and in the
second to one twenty-fourth. All the other States of Europe are
much poorer, and some, Sweden, Norway, Russia, Italy and Greece,
are almost entirely without this valuable formation. Bohemia is
the richest part of Germany in coal, although it does not produce
largely. The northern part of the Spanish peninsula seems to
contain considerable deposites of coal, and to participate, in this
respect, in the wealth of Western Europe.
19. The coal-fields of the United States are numerous and ex-
tensive. Coal is found in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Pennsyl-
vania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Illinois,
Alabama, Mississippi, and Indiana; in a word, the coal formation
in the United States is greater than in any country or kingdom on
ihe face of the earth, and embraces every variety hitherto disco-
vered.
20. The different layers, constituting the coal-measures, were
deposited horizontally at the bottom of the basins they occupy, but
they have not remained in this position ; at certain places they
17. What does the existence of the genus unio in the coal-beds indicate 1
IS. What is the relative geological position of the coal-rneasures ?
19. In what pa-ts of the United States do we find coa-1?
COAL FORMATION.
were raised up, and at others lowered down, so that they became
more or less oblique, and often seem to be, as it were, folded on
themselves ; it is also remarked that
frequently a certain extent of the mass
formed by these layers has been sepa-
535-* rated from neighboring parts by a sort
~A^i of split or cleft, and elevated or de-
__ ^g - pressed to a different level ; conse-
Fig. 55.— Fault. quently the beds of coal are suddenly
interrupted at these points, and are
found further on at a different height. These geological accidents
are designated by miners under the name of faults, (Jig. 55).
Speaking of the origin and nature of coal, Dr. Bucklanct remarks, " The
most early stage to which we can carry back its origin, was among the
swamps and forests of the primeval earth, where it flourished in the form
of gigantic Ca'lamites, and stately Lepidode'ndra, and Sigilla'ria. From
their native bed, these plants were transported into some adjacent, lake, or
estuary, or sea. Here they floated on the waters, until they sank saturated
to the bottom, and being buried in the detritus of adjacent lands, became
transferred to a new estate among the members of the mineral kingdom.
A long interment followed, during which a course of chemical changes, and
new combinations of their vegetable elements, converted them to the mine-
ral condition of coal. By the elevating force of subterranean agency,
these beds of coal have been uplifted from beneath the waters, to a new
position in I'iie hills and mountains, where they are accessible to the industry
of man. From this fourth stage, coal has been removed by the labours of
the miner, assisted by the arts and sciences, that have co-operated to pro-
duce the steam-engine and the safety-lamp. Returned once more to the
light of day, and a second time committed to the waters, it has, by the aid
of navigation, been conveyed to the scene of its next and most considerable
change by fire ; a change during which it becomes subservient to the most
important wants and conveniences of man. In this seventh stage of its
long and eventful history, it seems, to the vulgar eye, to undergo annihila-
tion ; its elements are, indeed, released from fhe mineral combinations
which they have maintained for ages, but their apparent destruction is only
the commencement of new successions of change and of activity. Set free
from their long imprisonment, they return to their native atmosphere, from
which they were absorbed by the primeval vegetation of the earth. To-
morrow they may contribute to the substance of timber in the trees of our
existing forests; and, having for a while resumed their place in the living
vegetable kingdom, may, ere long, be applied a second time to the use and
benefit of man. And when decay or fire shall once more consign them to
the earth, or to the atmosphere, the same elements will enter on some fur-
ther department to their perpetual ministration in the economy of the ma-
terial world."
21. A part of this grand upturning of the coal formation has
not disturbed the more recent strata by which it may be covered,
and consequently it must have been effected at the close of the geo-
logical period whose history we have just studied.
20 How were the coal-measures deposited ? What is meant by a Fault?
21. Has the disturbance of the coal strata affected the strata subsequently
deposited abcve them ?
FOURTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. 41
FOURTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
(secondary Formation Continued.]
Sfdiferous Formation — New Red Sandstone — Po'ikilitic (variegated) group.
22. The rich vegetation which adorned the surface of the earth
during the coal period, seems to have been entirely destroyed or
converted into coal, by the geological convulsion which separated
this epoch from the succeeding period ; this convulsion wus fol-
lowed by the formation of extensive deposits of more ancient rocks
and sandy matters, as well as by the effusion of different rocks of
igneous origin, such as porphyries.
23. These deposits, which' are indicative of great movements
in the waters, constitute the formation designated by geologists under
the names of red conglomerate, new red sandstone, rothe-todte-
lievende,* &c. They frequently form layers six hundred feet in
thickness, and contain scarcely any remains of organized beings.
24. This lower new red sandstone, or penine formation of the
French, is very abundant in Thuringia. It contains very few-
organic remains. Above this red sandstone we find, in some places,
bituminous schists, which are very remarkable, especially in Thu-
ringia, for the ores of copper they contain, which circumstance has
gained for them the name of kupfer-s chief er, that is, copper-slate.
They contain plants which appear to belong to the family of algae,
and a very small number of terrestrial plants, such as the co'nifers.
Higher in the series come the compact limestones, the zechstein
(mine-stone) of the Germans, separated into several layers by
marls ; then cellular and magnesian limestones, which are more 01
Ises friable, and again, compact limestone and argilla'ceous matter.
Such is the assemblage of strata in Thuringia, and in different
parts of Germany ; but in England the whole series is replaced by
the magnesian limestone.
25. It was about this geological period that animals belonging
to the class of reptiles were created. In this formation we find
for the first time the remains of sau'rians, in the bituminous schist
and in the zechstein, and subsequently in the magnesian limestone
of England. These reptiles resemble the living genera of the
iguana and monitor. We also find fishes of the genera pal&o-
ni'scus (Jig. 56 — from the Greek, palaios, ancient, and oniskos,
* Rothe-lodie-liepende — German : red, dead, lier ; so named because it is
of a red colour, underlies the metalliferous strata, and is dead, or worthless,
as far as any metallic produce is concerned.
22. What became of the plants which flourished on the earth previous to
the time of the coal formation ?
23. What formation is ne~t above the coal ?
24. What are the characters of the lower new red sandstone ? What :•
kupier-schiefer ?
25. What animals seem to belong to this fourth geological epoch *
•2j *
48
PAL^EONISCUS.— PLATYSOMUS.
a kind of fish), and ambly'pterus, (from the Greek, amblus, obtuse,
and pteron, wing), similar to those of the coal-measures ; but they
are not found in any formation subsequent to that we are now con-
sidering.
The palaoni'scus is found in
the magnesian limestone of
England and the kupferzchiefer
of Germany. The head is of a
somewhat singular form, espe-
cially with regard to the ante-
rior portion of the face, which
forms a rounded projection
above and before the upper jaw,
Fig. 56. — Pal&oni'scus
occasioned by the swelling out and prolongation of some of the bones of the
skull. The orbit of the eye is surrounded by a series of small narrow bones,
and the mouth is usually large, but the teeth so exceedingly small that it is
rarely possible to distinguish them. The jaws, however, are powerful, and
more especially the lower one, which is larger than the upper. Ansted.
The genus Platyso'mus
(fig. 57), (from the Greek,
platuSj flat, and soma, body,)
which is found in the same
strata, differs considerably
from the palaeoni'scus, as the
body is of a trapezoidal form,
is much raised, and nearly
as high as it is long, while
from the position of the
scales on the edge of the
T-" r-r m A > back and on the belly, it ap«
Fig. V.-Platyso mus. ^ ^ ^ been jj^g
The head is large in proportion to the size of the body, the extremity of
the snout forms a slightly rounded projection, the mouth is small and nar-
row, the jaws are armed with small but very pointed teeth, the lower jaw
is shorter than the upper, and broader in proportion, and the operculum (or
bony scale covering the gills) is narrow and much elevated. The whole
body is covered with large scales.
One of the most remarkable peculiarities in the structure of this fish is,
ihat .ilthnugh the body is flat, short, and elevated, like that of the recent
flat-fish, the tail instead of being, as in the latter, much forked and equally
lobcd— arrangements which appear, in the present state of things, to be in-
dispensable— retains in the PI ityso'mus the hr'tcrocercal character, the upper
portion having the vertebral column continued into it, and being much
longer and more powerful than the lower portion, which rather resembles a
small accessory fin. Ansted.
M. Agassiz classifies fishes according to the form of their scales. AJ1
those fishes with angular scales regvlarly arranged and entirely covering
the skin, constitute the order of Ganoidcans (from the Greek, ganos, splen-
dour). The order of Placoideans (from the Greek, plax, a broad plate) con.
tains fishes whose skin is covered irregularly with plates of enamel, often
of considerable dimensions, but sometimes reduced to small points, like the
shagreen on the skin of the shark, and the prickly tubercles of the ray.
The order of Clennideans (from the Greek, kteis, in the genitive ktenos, a
comb) is characterized by horny or bony scales, jagged like the teeth of a
TRIASSIC SYSTEM. 49
comb on the outer edge. The perch, and many other existing genera, are
of this order, which contains but few fossil forms. The order of Cyclodi-
ans (from the Greek, kuklos, a circle) is characterized by having scales
which are smooth and simple at the margin, as in the herring, salmon, &c.
When the vertebral column is prolonged into the caudal fin, tne tail is
he'terocercal; when the vertebral column t rminates where the tail is given
off, we have the homocercal tail, as in most of the recent fishes.
In this same formation we also find Spi'rifers (Jig. 58), and
Productus (figs. 59, fiO), and especially the Productus aculea'tits
(Jig. 59), which, under the name of gry'phites acuhdtm, has
been regarded as characteristic of it in Germany ; and sometimes,
in consequence, the zechstein is called gryphltenkalk, which, on
this account, has heen confounded with the lias. Other mollusks,
as well as the remains of encri'nites, which seem to be the same as
those of the carboni'ferous limestone, are also found.
Fig.5S.—Sfji'rifer Fig. 59. — Productus Fig. 60.— Pro-
undula'tus. aculea'tus. ductus calvus.
26. Next in order is a layer, known as the sandstone of Vosges,
which lies either on the red sandstone or magnesian limestone ;
or, when these strata are wanting, on some other more ancient rock.
After the formation of the several portions of the crust of the globe
just mentioned, geological convulsions again occurred, and, as it
appears, the mountains of Vosges, the Black Forest, &c., were
elevated about the same time. After this movement, new deposits
were formed around the base of the hills, constituting the Trias
System of French and German geologists, so named because it is
composed of three kinds of rocks.
27. The TRIAS or TRIA'SSIC SYSTEM (or upper new red sand-
stone of the English) consists of: —
1. Bunier Sandstein, (gres bigarre of the French), a quartzose
sandy deposit, which usually forms the base of J;he system, both in
France and Germany.
2. Muschelkalk, (shell-chalk), a well-marked and highly fossili'-
ferc as limestone, rarely absent in the continental series, but never
found in England.
3. Keuper, a singular group of sandy marls, of variegated
colours, frequently containing salt and gypsum, and remarkable
for numerous fossil vegetable remains.
28. The BUNTER SANDSTEIN, or Gres Bigarre, is a fine-grained,
26. What is the relative position of the Vosges sandstone ?
27. What is the trias, or tria'ssic system ?
5
BUNTER SANDSTEIN.
Fig. Gl.— Bird-tracks.
solid sandstone, sometimes white, but more frequently of a red,
blue, or greenish tint. The structure of the lower part is tolerably
close-grained, and sufficiently compact to form a good building
stone ; but the uppermost strata are
fissile and incoherent, and pass into
an earthy clay containing gypsum
(plaster of Paris). The intermedi-
ate portion is compact, like the
lower, but its structure is that of
a conglomerate, and is used for mak-
ing millstones. In many districts the
Bunter sandstein contains numerous
remains of fossil plants and marine
shells, but the latter are rare and con-
fined to particular localities. In this
series are found foot-prints, (Jig. 61),
some of which evidently belonged to
birds, and others, according to the
opinion of certain naturalists, belonged
to marsupial mammals, or gigantic
batrachian reptiles.
29. The sandstones and marls of this part of the series are
spread over an extensive tract of land in western Europe, more
particularly in France, and in south-western and central Germany.
On the right bank of the Rhine, in Swabia, there are some dis-
tricts in which the bunter-sandstein rests immediately on the rothe-
todte-liegende, the lower new red sandstone (Vosges sandstone)
being absent, and no other representative of the magnesian lime-
stone taking its place.
30. The MUSCHELKALK (also called conchylian limestone, shell-
limestone) is a compact limestone of a grey or greenish-grey co-
lour, and commonly contains, in great abundance, the remains of
shells and fragments of radiated animals and fishes. Sometimes
the muschelkalk is a bituminous rock, and emits a fetid, disagreea-
ble odour when rubbed or struck with a hammer.
31. Among the characteristic shells are the rfmmom'tes nodo'sus
(Jig. 62) ; A'm'cula socia'fis (Jig. 63). Possido'nia minu'ta (Jig.
64). In this stratum the Trigo'nia ('fig* 65) is first met with, and
species of it are found extending through various subsequently-
formed strata to the chalk. A great many Encri'nites are also
found, especially the species monilifo' rmis (Jig- 66).
28. What is Burner Sandstein ? What animal remains do we find in the
Bunter Sandstein ?
29. Where is the Bunter Sandstein met with?
30. What is Muschel-kalk ?
31. What shells are characteristic of the Muschel-kalk '. What are Am,
monites ?
AMMONITES.
61
Fig. 62. — Ammonites nodosvs.
The Ammonites, (Jig. 62), or Co'rnua Ammonis — so called from a sup
posed resemblance to the horns engraven on the heads of Jupiter Ammon —
are among the most common and well-known fossils. Local legends,
ascribing their origin to swarms
of snakes turned into stone by
the prayers of some patron saint,
are still extant in certain parts
of England, and perpetuated by
the name of snake-stones, by
which these fossils are provin-
cially known. Several hundred
species have been described ;
they are divided into genera,
which are characterized by es-
sential modifications in the di-
rection of the spire, and the
inflections of the septa.
The shell of the ammonite is
generally thinner and more deli-
cate than that of the nautilus, (to which it bears considerable resemblance),
and in some species it resembles the flexible covering of the argonaut; pos-
sibly, in these species the animal, like the recent paper nautilus, may have
possessed a pair of arms terminating in broad membranous expansions,
which secreted the shell, and generally remained in contact with it; other-
wise it is difficult to explain how such delicate fabrics should have been
uninjured.
The living and extinct species of testaceous cephalopods, " are all con-
nected by one plan of organization ; each forming a link in the common
chain which unites the existing species with those that prevailed among the
earliest conditions of life upon our globe, and all attesting the identity of
the design that has effected so many similar ends, through such a variety
of instruments, the principle of whose construction is, in every species, fun-
damentally the same.
" Throughout the various living and extinct genera of these beings, the
use of the air-chambers and siphon of their shells, to adjust the specific
gravity of the animals in rising and sinking, appears to have been identical.
The addition of a new transverse plate within the coiled shell added a new
air-chamber, larger than the preceding one, to counterbalance the increase
of weight that attended the growth of the shell and body of these ani-
mals."— Buckland.
The occurrence of the nautilus and its congeners among the earliest
traces of the animal kingdom, and their continuance throughout the im
mense periods during which the family of ammonites was created, flour-
ished, and became extinct, and the existence of species of the same genus
at the present time, are facts too remarkable to have escaped notice. To
these facts Mrs. Howitt alludes in the following lines to the nautilus :
• "Thou didst laugb at sun and breeze
In the new created seas ;
Thou wast with the reptile broods
In the old sea solitudes.
Sailing in the new-made light,
With the curled-up ammonite.
Thou surviv'dst the awful shock,
Which tiirn'd the ocean-bed to rock,
And changed its myriad living swarnut
To the marble's veined forms."
See Manteirs Medals of Creation.
6.1 AVICULA.— POSIDOXIA— TRIGONIA— ENCRINI'J'htS.
Fio-,63
The genus A'vicula (Jig. 63) belongs to the
division of bivalve shells, and the fossil species,
a great many of which are known, resemble the
pearl oyster (A'vicula Murgaritifera}.
The genus Posido'nia, (Jig. 64), (from the
Greek, posfidon, Neptune), also belongs to the
bivalves, and is found in the lower part of tho
carboni'ferous series.
Fig. 65. — Trigo'nia vvlga'ris.
The genus Trigonia, (fig 65 — from the Greek, trigonos, three-cornered),
belongs to the family of ostracea ; the only living species known inhabits
the seas of New Holland.
Fig. 66. — Encri'nites monilifor'mis.
The Encri'nites, (Jig. 66 — from the Greek, krinon, a lily), belong to the
family of Echi'noderms. The skeleton of this animal is said to consist
of not less than 26,000 separate pieces. The body of the lily-encrinite was
supported on a long and nearly cylindrical column, attached to a rock or
some nard substance at the bottom of the sea by an enlargement of its base.
This column was made up of a vast number of joints, through which was
an aperture, descending from the stomach of the animal to the base of the
column.
32. The KEU'PER (a German word) is the name given to
the uppermost division of the tria'ssic system, and is often ap-
plied to the upper part of the new red sandstone formation. This
32. What are the characters of the Keuper formation ? What organic
remain? are found in the Keuper series ?
KEUPER FORMATION.
group usually consists of a numerous series of mottled marls, of a
red, greenish grey, or blue colour, which pass into green marls,
black slaty clays, and fine-grained sandstones. Throughout the
series, common rock-salt and gypsum are abundant, but the
organic remains of animals are extremely rare. Of plants, how-
ever, a considerable number are preserved in some localities ; and
Fig. 67. — Volt'zia ketcro'pliylla.
these indicate a wide departure from the carboniferous period, and,
as well as the shells, seem to
possess more analogies with the
forms of life determined from the
fossils of the secondary period, than
with those common in palse'ozoic
rocks. Besides peculiar species
of ferns, the trias presents us with
fossil plants not previously met
with. In the sandstone are par-
ticular species of co'nifers which
constitute the genus Volt'zia, (Jig.
67), and in the limestone, remains
of cyc'adeas of the genus manfe/lia;
ihis last family is very abundant
in the Keuper, in which are found
the genus Nttso'nia, and the genus
Plerophylhtm, (Jig. €8). Several
species of large saurian reptiles
are also found in the trias group
of rocks. Fig-,68, — Ple'rophyllumPlfiriinge'rH
5*
54 LIAS, OR LIASSIC SYSTEM.
FIFTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
Lias, or Lia'ssic System — Jura'ssic Formation — O'olitic System.
(Secondary formation Continued.)
33. Up to th'is period of its geological history, we have seen the
earth was inhabited only by plants, some inferior animals, such as
zo'ophytes, mollusks and fishes, and lastly, by some reptiles. Dur-
ing the period at which we have now arrived, this state of things
changed, and there was created a new fauna composed of most
remarkable animals, characterized especially by a multitude of
reptiles, of strange form and gigantic size.
34. The formation of the LIAS — so called from a barbarous pro-
vincial word, supposed to be a corruption of layers, and to allude
to the riband-like appearance of the rock when seen in section —
the Lias consists of strata, in which an argilla'ceous character pre-
dominates throughout, but which are also remarkable for a quan-
tity of calcareous matter mingled with the clay, and forming
occasional bands of argilla'ceous limestone. A few beds of sand-
stone also alternate with the clay and marl, and are sometimes
mixed with the latter, forming a marly sandstone of a white or
greenish colour.
35. The inferior layers of the lia'ssic system are characterized,
according to M. Leymerie, by the presence of the Pecten lugdu-
ne'nsis (Jig. 69), and different species of echi'nidx of the division
diade'ma (Jig. 70).
Fig. 69. — Pt'cten Ivgdune'nsis. Fig. 70.— Diade'ma seria'le.
36. The middle layers, or the lias proper, are distinguished
especially oy the presence of the Gry'phea arcua'fa, (jig> 71), and
the ammonite named after Dr. Buckland, (Jig. 72), the spi'rifer of
33. What is remarked of the animals in the early geological periods ?
34. Of what is the Lias formation constituted ?
35. What animal remains characterize the inferior beds of the Lias 7
36 How is the Lias proper characterized ?
FOSSILS OF LIASS1C SYSTEM.
55
Walcot, (fig. 73), the last of the race, the giant plagio' stoma, (fig
75), and the spinous plica tula, (fig. 74).
Pig 71. — Gry'phea arena ta.
Fig. 72. — Ammonites Buckla'ndii
Fig.lS.—Spi'rifcr Walcoti.
Fig. 1±.— Plica' tula Spino'sa.
Fig. 75. — Plagio'stoma giga'nteum.
37. The superior part of the lias contains a great number of
belemnites, (figs. 76, 77), the ammonite named after Walcot, (fig
78), and an a'vicula with unequal valves, (fig. 79), &c.
Fig. 76. — Bele'mnites pistillifo'rmis.
Fig. 77.— Bele'mnites Sulca'tus.
37. What fossils beloig to the upper part of the Lias ?
26
56
FOSSILS OF LIASSIC SYSTEM.
Fig. 79. — A'mcula in-
tequiva'lvis.
Fig. 78. — Ammonites Walcoti.
38. We also find in this group various species of Trigo'nia,
(fig. 80), which appear to have existed in all parts of the depo-
sit ; but the species, which perhaps furnish very important charac-
teristics, have not yet been studied sufficiently in relation to the
grouping. They extend through the o'olitic series to the chalk
fo mation.
Fig. 80. — Trigo'nia clavella'ta.
39. We find too, in the lias for the first time, in ascending
through the crust of the earth, those singular saurians whose ske-
leton at the same time reminds us of lizards, crocodiles, fishes and
mammals ; their feet, which are in form of paddles, show they
were aquatic in their habits : such are the Ich'thyosau'rus, (,fig*
81), some of which were twenty-five feet in length; the Plei'sio-
sau'rusj (Jig. 82), some species of which are nearly fifteen feet
long.
18. Are any species of Trigo'nia characteristic of any part of the Lias ?
3D. What is an Ich'thyosau'rus ? What is the lowest stratum in which it
is found ? What is the Plei'siosau'rus ?
FOSSILS OF LIASSIC SYSTEM.
57
The I'CHTIIYOSAU'RUS (from the Greek ichthus, a fish, and sauros, a lizard
— -Jiah-lizai d — Jig. 81), must have resembled some huge fish, having an
exceedingly large head and very powerful tail. The spine consisted of]
Fig. 81. — I'chthyosau'rus communis.
vertebrae or joints, besides those of the neck, which were united into a mass
of solid bone. The eye was an extremely powerful organ, "capable of
adapting itself," says Dr. Buckland, " to great changes of distance, and
great alterations in the amount of light in which it could be used ; giving
to its possessor the power of discerning a far-distant object, as well as ono
near at hand, and of pursuing its prey in the darkness of night, or the dim
obscurity of the depths of the ocean, as well as in the day-time or on land."
This animal had a wrinkled skin, like the whale, without scales.
Fig. bx. — F lei' siosau' r ti s dolichodeirvs
The PKEI'SIOSAU'RUS (from the Gre^k ^«f«on, near, and sauros, a lizard or
reptile — resembling a reptile— Jig. 82) may be described as exhibiting the
head of a lizard, attached to a neck whose length was three, or, in some^
species, even more than four times that of the head. The body appended
to this head and neck was comparatively small and fish-like ; the extremities
were large paddles, and the tail like that of the crocodile. The neck con-
sisted of upwards of thirty vertebrae or joints, and was very long and flex-
ible. Ansted.
Fig. 83. — Ptfroda'ctylus longiro'stris.
40. We also find, for the first time, in the lia'ssic group, the
pterodac'tylus (from the Greek ptcron, wing, and daklulos, finger-—
59 JURASSIC OR OOLITIC SYSTEM.
fig. 83), a flying saurian, whose head and neck gave it the semblance
of a bird, and its tail was like that of a mammal, while its extremities
were analogous to those of a bat ; it was capable of walking and
flying, and, perhaps, of climbing steep rocks in pursuit of food.
41. With the remains of these singular animals are found, in the
lias of Lime-Regis, on the coast of Dorset, England, an immense
quantity of coprolites (from the Greek kopros, dung, and lithos,
stone), which probably belonged to them : sometimes their intes-
tines are found in their skeletons ; and we also find, in these, the
remains of fishes and other reptiles, clearly showing how the
aquatic species were nourished. The remains of insects are found
with those of the pteroda'ctyli at Solenhofen, in Franconia, also
showing what was the food of these animals.
42. Saurians resembling crocodiles were much less abundant in
this epoch, although we find, in the lias, remains which prove
their existence. The me'galosau'rus (from the Greek mcgas, great,
and sauros, reptile) partook of the nature of the crocodile and
monitor, and must have been from fifty to sixty feet in length.
43. Ink-bags of considerable size (fig. .84), ana-
logous to those of the cuttle-fish, are also found. In
the lias of Lime-Regis, the dorsal bones of the calmar
are also met, with other traces of this genus, as well
as of belemni'tes. The ink or se'pia, which may be
obtained from these fossils, is as good as that pre-
pared from the recent cuttle-fish, and has been used.
41. THE JURA/SSIC OR O'OLITIC SYSTEM. — Oolite
(from the Greek don, an egg, and lithos, a stone), is a
granular variety of carbonate of lime, frequently called
roc-stone, from its resemblance to a fish-roe, or egg-bag.
n- ^6 frequency of the occurrence of this particular
'bag. n form of limestone in a great series of deposits, has
caused the name of o'olilic to be applied to the whole series.
45. The o'olitic or jura'ssic deposits (the Jura-kalk of German
geologists), are divided into several groups, which are distinguisha-
ble from each other by their relative position in the scale of eleva-
tion, but more particularly by the fossils found in them ; the re-
mains which are characteristic of the preceding groups, are not
met with in this. The o'olite is divided into the lower, middle, and
upper o'olites.
46. The lower o'olite, the first in the series of o'olitic deposits
40. What is a Pteroda'ctylus? Where is it found ?
41. What was, probably, the food of the Pteroda'ctylus?
42. What was the Me'galosau'rus ?
43. What other fossil substances are found in lias?
44. What is o'olite?
45. How is the o'olitic system divided ? How are the divisions recognised ?
46. Of what does the lower o'olite consist? By what foseil is it charac-
terized ?
FOSSILS OF THE OOLITE.
• onsists at first of layers of marl intermixed with sand, then layers
«»f ferru'ginous o'olites, and strata of compact limestone and clays,
more or less pure and fitted for the purposes of the fuller, and
hence named fullers' earth. The first of these marly deposits joins
with the marls of the lias, but is characterized by a new species of
gryphse'a (Jig. 85), which is not found in the preceding layers.
47. Above these deposits
are found fissile marls, lime-
stone, with ferru'ginous o'olite ;
to which succeed earthy de-
posits, the great o'olite, which
consists of a variable series of
coarse shelly limestone (lo-
cally called "rag"), alternat-
ing with beds of fine soft free-
stone, devoid of fossils, and
admirably adapted for building
purposes. Above these again
come marls, sands, clays, and
limestones, some of which are
full of shells. They are known
under the names of Bradford
clay, Forest mar6/e,and Corn-
brash. In spite of the num-
ber of fossils, often broken and
in the state of moulds, found
in this group, it is difficult to
designate those which are cer-
tainly characteristic of it. Fig. SS.—Grypha'a cym'bium.
48. To the Gryphse'a cym'bium (Jig. 85), which is characteristic
of the first group of the o'olitic deposit, and forming, as it were, a
Obwgeognostic horizon, we may add the O'strea acumina'ta (./zg.86),
Terebra'tula digona
Fig. 86. — O'strea acumina'ta.
47 What is found above the lovver o'olite ?
•26*
FOSSILS OF THE OOLITE.
which is found in the upper marls, or limestones sometimes met
vith in their place : different species of Terebra'tula (Jigs. 88, 89),
Fig.88.— Terebrat.globa'ta. Fig.QQ.— Tereb. spino'sa. Fig. 90.— Ammonites Brongnia'rtil
which seem to belong more particularly to the lower o'olite, as well
as a small globose species of ammonites (fig. 90).
49. In the limestones proper, different species of ammonites
(Jig. 91) are found; various species of pleurotoma'ria (Jig. 92)»
Fig. 91. — Ammonites stria'lulus. Fig. 92. — Pleurotoma'ria cono'idea.
which seem to be characteristic, and a great number of shells of
divers kinds, are met with. Encrini'tes, frequently very nume-
rous, which are chiefly referred to the pyriform species, apiocri'-
niles, are sometimes found on the very spot where they lived,
attached to the solid materials forming the bottom of the sea of that
epoch, and covered by successive deposits of the earthy matter of
which it w^as constituted. » \
50. An important fact is connected with the marls and fissile
limestones which form the first of the o'olite system: the first, or
most ancient fossil mammals, were discovered in Stonefield slates.
48. What fossils are characteristic of the o'olite ?
49. What fossils are found in the limestone proper of the o'olite series?
50. What important fact is connected with the fissile limestone and marl*
wf the lower o'olite '
FOSSILS OF THE O'OLITE.
61
These small ani-
mals, the lower
jaw of one of
which is repre-
sented (fig. 93),
belong to the mar- <
supials ; that is,
one of the most
imperfect orders
Of the claSS. *Yg.93. — Taw of the Dide'lphusBuckla'ndU— (twice the natural size)
Bones of large animals, thought
to belong to the order of ceta'
cea, are also found in the o'oli-
tic strata.
51. Con'ifers, which are but
rarely found beyond the shell-
limestones, are abundantly
met with in the o'olite series,
of particular genera (fig. 94),
with Cyca'dese (fig. 95) —
ferns of different species, dif-
fering from all those met in
more ancient strata, and finally
a true equisetum (fig. 96).
Fig. 95. — t'tero'phyllum Williamso'ms.
51 What fossil plants are found in the lower o'olite ?
6
\ 8 R A .*
or THE
NIYERSITY J
«..
FOSSILS OF THE O'OLITE.
52. MIDDLE O'OLITE. — This group, which is less complicated
than the preceding, at the lowest part consists of clay, called Oxford
clay, with layers of calcareous grit, and stratoid masses of lime-
stone. Above these are found sands, and limestones which are
more or less o'olitic, and often ferruginous. In this group we find
deposits of o'olitic iron, which had already appeared in the pre-
ceding series. It is very rich in fossils, particularly ammonites ;
and the Jlnanchy'les bicorda'tus (Jig. 97) is very common.
Fig. 97. — AnancJiy'tes bicorda'tus.
AnancJty'tfS is a genus of the family of Echini'dese, or sea-urchins, some,
times vulgarly called sea-eggs, The family contains thirteen genera, which
are distinguished from each other by the form and size of the ambula'cra,
(alleys) — the narrow longitudinal portions of the shell of the echinus or sea-
urchin, which are perforated with a number of small orifices, giving pas-
sage to tentacular suckers, and alternate with the broad tuberculate spine-
bearing portions (see Jig. 70) — and ;ilso by the position of the vent, and of
the mouth. Figure 70, p. 54, exhibits the ambula'cra, between the tubercles
to which the spines are attached in living species.
53. What especially characterizes the Oxford clays is the pre-
sence, often in abundance, of a new species of Gryphae'a (Jig. 98),
ftg.QS.Gryphat'adilata'ta. Fig.QQ O'streaMa'rskii. Fig.lQl. Terebra'tulaimpre'asa.
the O'strea Ma'rshii (Jig. 99), which already commenced in the
preceding group, a great number of different terebra'tula, among
52. Of what floes the middle o'olite consist ? What fossils belong to itt
5.'*. How are the Oxford clays especially characterized ?
FOSSILS OF THE O'OLITE.
G3
which we find in the upper part of the series, the Te; ehra'tula
Thurmanni (Jig. 100), and the Ferebrtfttila impressa (Jig. 101).
The moulds of these shells are frequently silicious, and we find,
in the upper layers, beds of silicious balls of loose texture, some-
times enclosing silicious moulds of shells.
54. The upper group of the middle o'olite, called coral o'olite,
consists almost entirely of limestone ; it is divided into different
thick layers, which are distinguishable from each other by their
structure. The first or lowest layers are ordinarily compact, grey-
ish or yellowish, filled with polypa'ria or corals of a sac'charoid
structure, or those which have passed to the silicious state : this
constitutes the coral rag of English geologists. Some of the
succeeding layers are o olitig, frequently of large irregular grains,
mingled with fragments of rolled shells ; others are compact, pars-
ing into chalk or even marl of greater or less solidity.
55. The numerous polypa'ria contained in this group present
to us caryophy Ilia (fig. 21), a'strea, meandri'na, madrepores of a
great number of species, resembling more or less those of coral
reefs, and a great many other genera. Among the shells, ammo-
nites are less common ; but above the o'olite, where all the organic
remains are broken, the lowest layers contain a great quantity of
various shells, among which are neri'nea (Jigs. 102, 103). The
Fig. 102.- Neri'nea Goodhallii.
Interior of the shell, shmniwg the
plica of its columhella.
Fig. 103.— Neri'nea mosa.
superior errata contain a great quantity of astartes (figs. 104.
105), the most characteristic of which is the astarte minima.
54. What are the characters of the upper group of the middle o'olite ?
What is coral rag ?
55. What genera of corals are found in the middle o'olite ? What fossil
hells do we find in this group ?
61
FOSSILS OF THE O'OLITE.
Fig. 104 — Astarte mi'nima.
Fig. 105. — Astarte elegans.
: the
among the echi'noderThs,
Among other shells, we may cite the Dice' r as arieti'na (Jig.
106) ; and among: the echi'noderThs, the cida'ris corona'ta
(Jig. 107).
Fig. 106.— Mould and shell of the Dice'ras
arieti'na.
Fig. 107.— Cida'ris
corona'ta.
56. UPPER O'OLITE. — This group is divided into Kimmeridge
clay, and Portland o'olite. Kimmeridge clay, (so named because
it is well exhibited at Kimmeridge Bay, and near the village of
the same name, in the isle of Purbeck), is of a blue, slaty, or grey-
ish yellow colour. Above this is the .Portland stone, which, with
alternaticns of compact, marly, sandy or o'olitic limestones, termi-
nates the Jura'ssic or o'olitic system.
57. The organic remains which characterize this group are of
the genera ostrea, and ex'ogy'ra of particular species (figs. 108,
109), sometimes in great abundance. With a few ammonites, we
also find mya (fig. 1.11), Pholadomy'a (fig. 110), and Terebra'tula
(fig. 112), which are also equally characteristic. Certain beds
of this formation contain Paludi'nee, or Helices, consequently indi-
cating that streams of fresh water emptied into the seas of that
period.
56. How is the upper o'olite divided ? What is Kimmeridge clay ?
What is found above the Kimmeridge clay?
57. What fossils are characteristic of the upper o'olite ?
FOSSILS OF THE O'OLITE.
Fig. WS.—O'slrea del-
to'idea.
Fig.llQ.—Pholadomy'a
a'cutico'sta.
Fig.lW.—Ez'ogy'ra
vir'gula.
58. The lithographic stone of Solenhofen, in Bavaria, is referred
to the upper strata of the Jura'ssic system ; in it are found an im-
mense quantity of fossils, reptiles, particularly, pterodactyls, fishes,
insects, plants, &c. In some parts of upper o'olite are beds of a
highly bituminous shale (locally known as Kimmeridge coal) ; in
the latest calcareous beds of the Portland group are found cycti'dear
(fig. 113).
Pig. \\%.— Terfbra'tula sella. Fig. Il3.—Za'mia feneo'nis.
59. The o'olitic or Jura'ssic system of rocks is met with in Eng-
land and on the continent of Europe, but is not represented in
North America, where the transition from the new red sandstone
to the greensand and other rocks of the creta'ceous period is abrupt
No rock answering to the Lias has yet been discovered in the
United States.
58. To what geological group does the lithographic stone of Solenhofen
belong ? What is Kimmeridge coal?
59. In what part of the world is the o'olitic system of rocks found 7 la
it known in the United States?
ti*
SIXTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
LESSON IV.
-
SECONDARY FORMATION Continued.
SIXTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — Creta'ceous Formation — Lower Cre-
ta'ceous System — Fossils — Wealden Deposit — Greensand —
Gault — Fossils — Upper Creta'ceous System — Fossils — Extent
of Creta'ceous Formation — Table of Formations.
SIXTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
CRETA'CEOUS FORMATION.
(Secondary Formation Continued.]
1. Next in order above the Jura'ssic system we find, in discord-
ant stratification, immense Creta'ceous deposits in a great many lo-
calities ; these deposits may be divided into several others, accord-
ing to the discordance of stratification observed in some of their
divisions. The cretaceous formation (from the Latin, creta, chalk)
may be divided into the upper and lower chalk.
2. The LOWER, or INFERIOR CRETA'CEOUS system : Neocomian
of the French ; the Shanklin, or Lower Green Sand of the Eng-
lish. The first deposits formed above the o'olite are composed of
marls, then a yellowish limestone, characterized by great numbers
of genus Spata'ngus (fig. 114), with a multitude of the remains
of shells and polypa'ria of different genera. This limestone is
sometimes in continuous layers of considerable thickness, some-
-. \U.~Spatangus Fig. 1 15.— Exo'gy'ra Fig. 116.— Lima
retusus. subplica'ta. elegans.
1 What is found next above the Jurassic formation ? Why is it termed
Creta'ceous ? How is the creta'ceous group divided ?
2. How are the first deposits above the o'olite characterized? What is
.umachella ' What is found next above the yellow limestone ?
CRETACEOUS FORMATION.
67
times only in masses agglutinated to each other by mud and sand ;
sometimes it is entirely wanting. Above it are clays which con-
tain, often in great quantity, ex'ogy'ra (Jig. 115), and oysters,
among which is distinguished the great species, named Ostrea
Leymerii; the Lima elegans (Jig. 116) is also found. Among
these clays are met large calcareous masses, a good deal flattened,
filled with the same fossil shells, presenting lumachella* or conchi-
lians, which have been confounded with the Portland group, form-
ed by an accumulation of the ex'ogy'ra vi'rgula (Jig. 109). Next
we have, at least in parts of France, sands and clays, sometimes
variegated in colours, among which are masses of iron ore, com-
monly o'olitic. The remains of shells seem to give place here to
ferruginous masses.
3. These last deposits seem to be wanting in other localities, in
which we find, instead, great layers of limestone, more or less
compact, sometimes white, sometimes coloured, which enclose
hippuri'tes,spheruli'tes,and even nummuli'tes, which have been long
regarded as belonging to the
tertiary formation. We also
find here a fossil which is
very characteristic ; it was at
first compared to the diceras
(Jig. 106), but is now call-
ed Chama ammonia (Jig.
117). This species of shell,
which is often very abundant,
is always so imbedded in the
mass of rock, where it is dis-
tinguished by the sinuosities FiS- m.—Cha'ma ammo'nia.
it forms, that it is very difficult to detach it entire. Various spe-
cies of ammonites, gigantic hamites, several species of Crio'ceratitei
(Jig. 118 — from the Greek, Krios,
a ram, and Keras, horn) and belem-
nites. The trigo'nise, which are still
met with and continued to the green-
sand, present here new species (Jig.
119), which seem to be characteris-
tic.
4. In the south of France and in
the Pyrenees the chalk formation Fig, u8.-Cri'oceratueS»uvaiiii.
* Lumachella — an Italian word, formed from limacea, a snail, which is
derived from the Latin, Umax. The word is used to designate a mass
formed of the remains of snails, &c. with their nacre, united by gluten —
It is also called conchilian marble.
3. Are sands and clays everywhere found above the yellowish limestone f
What fossils are found in these limestones of the cre'a'ceous group?
27
68
CRETACEOUS FORMATION.
(View of Hinge.)
Fig. 119. — Trigo'nia a'l&for'rnis.
possesses peculiar characters, both in relation to the organic re-
mains contained in it, as well as its mineralogical relations. We
there find a great many shells, very remarkable for their form and
peculiar structure, \yhich are called hippuri'tes (Jigs. 120, 121),
and spheruli'tes (fig. 122). Many
nummuli'tes (Jig. 123), of which some
deposits are formed exclusively, are also
met with. It is not determined pre-
cisely to what part of the lower chalk
these deposits should be referred, but
Fig. 12Q.—Hippvri'tes Iw'culata. Fig. 1 2 1 .—Hippvri'tfs orga'nisun*
4. How is the chalk formation characterized in the south of Franc* /
What are Hippurites ?
THE WEALDEN DEPOSIT.
they seem to represent a part of
the neocomian (or Shanklin) for-
mation. In the Pyrenees the lay-
ers are often of a deep colour,
and separated by argilla'ceous
schists, which seems to make
them a part of the transition for-
mation ; but, on the contrary, in
the north part of the basin of
the Gironde, they belong to the
chalk.
5. The neocomian, which was
not at first distinguished from
other parts of the chalk forma-
tion, is now recognized in a
Fig. l&.-Spkernli i^ otnirtcota, or,
RadioLi' te.-- lurbiiiu ta.
Fig. 123. — Nummuli'tes from the chalk.
great part of France, Switzerland, and different parts of Gerro ti»y,
Poland, and even to the Crimea. Here and there deposits of <yp-
sum of greater or less extent are met with, sometimes isolated, and
sometimes associated with crystalline rocks.
6. The WEALDEN DEPOSIT. — We frequently meet in the tirst
deposits of the chalk formation the remains of organized bodies,
which appear to belong to paludi'nae, clearly showing there was
here and there an afflux of fresh water to those seas in which
these remains accumulated. We also find in the same situations
deposits of combustibles, which have always been known under
the name of lignite (from the Latin, lignum, wood), probably form-
ed from con'ifers (as dicotyledons did not then exist), which
were doubtlessly carried by rivers : such are those in the environs
of Orthez, in the department of Landes ; of Bellesta and of
Saint-G irons, in the department of Ariege ; of Irun, in Guipuscoa
(Spain), &c. But all these local deposits are nothing compared to
those which have long been described in England, in parts of the
counties of Kent, Surrey, and Sussex, under the name of wealds
from which is derived the term wealden formation.
5. What is the Neocomian deposit? What is its extent'
6. What is meant by Wealden formation ? Why is it so called ?
70 THE WEALDEN DEPOSIT.
7. This formation is composed of alternate layers of limestone
sand, more or less ferru'ginous, and clay, the deposits of which art
sometimes extremely thick. There are entire beds of limestone
composed of paludi'nse, constituting what is named Purbeck lime'
stone. The laminae of argilla'ceous matter are often covered by
cy'clades and anodo'ntx, and we find disseminated a great number
of small cypris. There are many species of fresh water fishes,
the remains of fluviatile tortoises, mingled with marine and terres-
trial saurians, among which is the monstrous i'guanodon, wrhich
must have been thirty feet in length, to judge from the size of its
bones. In this formation are
found also, in the dirt of the Isle
of Portland, the sili'cified stems
of cyca'deas (Jig. 124), standing
erect in the midst of the earth,
of which the deposit consists ;
various species of con'ifers, equi-
sita'ceae, and ferns are also met.
The remains of birds of the order
Fig. 124. — Mante'llia nidifo'rmis. of gra'Dese (waders)also exist, but
no mammals, although we have seen them in the marls of the
o'olite (jig* 81, 82).
8. It is believed that the clays in the environs of Boulogne,
which seem to be continuous writh those of England on the south-
ern side of the Channel, may be referred to the wealden deposit,
as well as those of Forges and of Savigny in the country of Bray,
where paludine limestones like those of Purbeck have been found.
It is very certain, according to the observations of M. Leymerie,
these deposits are connected with those in the department of Aube,
and form part of the superior neocomian clays : if there are indi-
cations of fresh water deposits, they prove the connection between
the wealden formations and those of this epoch.
9. According to English geologists, the wealden formation is
below the neocomian, and is, consequently, older and not precisely
contemporaneous with it.
10. Above the neocomian and wealden formations there is a
group of deposits generally termed Green Sand, consisting of two
arena'ceous beds, with a parting of clay called gaitlt. The green
sand formation receives its name from the prevalence of smal1
^rreen particles of si'licate of iron distributed through the sand. It
is found in New Jersey. In England it is divided into lower green
&and, gault, and upper green sand. This group consists of white
7. What is Purbeck limestone ?
8. Whai is the extent of the Wealden formation ?
9. Which deposit lies above, the Neocomian or Wealden '
10. What is found next above the Wealden and Neocomian ? From what
dues green sand obtain its name ? How is it divided?
GREEN SAND GAULT.
71
and yellowish sands, which are frequently ferru'ginous, containing
masses of limestone, clays, and sandstones of more or less com-
pactness : it also comprises the quadersandstein and plsener-kalk
of German geologists.
11. Gault is si stiff clay of a blue colour, and the inferior por-
tion of it in England abounds in iron py'rites, while the uppe-r part
contains green particles of the si'licate of iron. Various nodulea
and concretions are found throughout, which are sometimes fossili'-
ferous, but more frequently obscure and of doubtful origin. Gault
is a provincial term, used originally in the middle of England to
designate the brick-clay, which there belongs to the creta'ceous
system.
12. Above the green sand formation, the calcareous .part be-
comes more abundant ; at first it is mixed with sandstone, and then,
little by little, becomes isolated, and now contains only green parti-
cles of si'licate of iron, which, from being at first very abundant,
gradually disappear : this is the chloritic chalk, which is some-
times friable, and at others solid. The green particles having
totally disappeared, the limestone is found alone, sometimes in form
of pure chalk, of more or less solidity, and occasionally becomes
very compact ; here we have argilla'ceous or arena'ceous limestone,
and finally sands, or nearly pure sandstone. From these result the
chalk marl, or representatives of it.
13. Organic remains
are
in
very abundant
these deposits, and in
species and even in ge-
nera are very distinct
from those of the preced-
ing formations. Immedi-
ately above the wealden
is a marly bed, charac-
terized by the presence
of a species of Ex'ogy'
ra (/?>. 125) five or
six inches in diameter,
not known in the neo-
comian. According to
M . Leymerie, the nu'-
cula peclina'ta (Jig.
126) is a characteristic
Fig. 125. — Ex'ogy ra sinua'ta.
shell of the gault or blue marl. Belonging to the green sand
11. What is gault ? What is the origin of the name ?
12. What succeeds the green sand formation? What is chloritic chads ^
What is chalk marl ?
13. What organic remains are found in these deposits ?
27*
72
FOSSILS.
formation generally, the characteristic shells are the inoce'ramus
conce'ntricus (fig. 127), the plica'lula placu'nea (fig. 128), seve-
ral species of ammonites, and particularly the ammonites monile
(fig. 129), which is quite characteristic.
Fig 126.— JVu cula pectma'ta (shell and mould)
Fig. 1-28.— Plica' tula placu'nea. e'qualis.
14. We find in the chalk marl the baculi'fes (fig. 130), and
turrUi'tes (fig. 131), different species of the first of which are
found in the highest part of the chalk formation. To these may
be added the scaphi'tes (fig. 132), some particular species of
Fig. m.- Ammonites monile. Fig. UO.—Baculi'tes.
Fig. 131.— Turrrili'tes
costa 'tus.
ammonites (figs. 133, 134), the Ex'ogy'ra columba (fig. 135),
the O'sfrea carmata (fig. 136), the terebra'tula octo'plica'ta (fig.
137), which continue in the chalk.
14. What animal remains are found in the chalk marl ?
FOSSILS.
73
Fig. 134.— A mmonites rothomage' nsit
Fig. 135.—Ex'ogy'ra columba. Fig. 137.— Terebra' tula octo'plica'ta.
^Nu'cula (from the Latin, nux, a nut) is an inequilateral bivalve shell; the
hinge is narrow, and has many teeth like those of a comb : several species
are known.
Scaphi'tes-(from the Greek, scaphe, a boat) is an eliptical, many cham
bered shell, somewhat resembling- the ammonites.-
Ba'culites (from the Latin, ba'culwn, a stick) is a multilocular, straight,
or slightly bent, and slightly conical shell; the chambers are separated 'by
septa, pierced by a marginal siphuncle.
Turrili'tp.s is a spiral, turriculated, multilocular shell; the chambers are
separated by winding septa, which have the si'phuncle in their disks : the
aperture is round. This fossil must not be confounded with the Turrite'lla,
which is a univalve, found both recent and fossil.
15. The Upper Chalk Formation. — In- this we find chalk with
and without flints. The layers of flint" are frequently almost the
only indications of stratification afforded by the mass. It is fre-
quently soft, and susceptible of solution or suspension, as in Spa-
nish whiting, which contains an immense quantity of microscopic
shells, belonging to the group of foraminifera. In some cases it
is arena'ceous, and sometimes very compact. Although often
white, we find it in some places coloured grey, yellow, red, &c. ;
15 How is the upper chalk formation characterized ?
UPPER CHALK FORMATIONS.
sometimes it is o'olitic in character, and becomes almost crystalline
even magnesian, and in localities remote from crystalline materials
which might affect it. The inferior part of this formation is fre-
quently soiled with clays — chalk marl. Above it is more pure,
and contains a great many nodules of flint or silex. Though this
character is very common, it is wanting in a great many places. At
its upper part the chalk formation becomes very sandy, as in the
neighbourhood of Maastricht.
16. Excepting the ba'culites found at Maestricht, the remains
of cephalopods are not found in the upper creta'ceous formation ;
but belemni'tes (from the Greek, belem'non, a dart) of particukr
species, such as Jig. 138, and many other organic remains not
Fig. 138. — Belemni'tes mucrona'tus.
met with in the chalk marl, are found : among them are the pla-
gio'stoma spino'swn (Jig. 139) ; the o'strea vesicida'ris (Jig. 140) ;
Fig. 139. — Pla gio'stoma spino'sum. Fig. 140. — O'strea vesicula'ris.
the Ca'tylus Cuvieri (Jig. 141), the structure of which is fibrous ;
the Terebra'tula Defra'ncii (Jig. 142) ; the ana'nchytes ova'tua
(Jig. 143) ; the Spa'tangus cor-ari guinum (Jig- 144).
Fig. 142. — Terebru'tula
Fig 141. — Ca'tylus Cuvieri. Defra'nc.v.
16 What organic remains are found in the chalk formation ?
UPPER CHALK FORMATIONS.
75
Fig. 143. — Ana'nchytes ova'tus.
Fig. 144. — Spa'tangus cor. an guinum.
17. In the upper part of these deposits we find, among many
other fossils, an enormous saurian, called the Mosasaurus (from the
name of the river Meuse, and the Greek, sauros, lizard), originally
found on the banks of the Meuse, in the celebrated quarries of St.
Peter's Mount, near Maastricht (Jig. 145). Organic remains of a
Mosasaurus have been found in New Jersey.
Fig. 145. — Head of the Mosasaurus of Maastricht.
" The Mosasaurus is a genus determined from a fossil discovered upwards
of sixty years ago, and which at that time was extremely puzzling to natu-
ralists. Its true place in the animal kingdom is now known to be among
the Lacertian Saurians; but the animal appears to have been perfectly rna
fine in its habits. The head, the only part at first discovered, measured
7 Where is the Mosasaurus found ? From what is its name derived .
76
CRETACEOUS GROUP.
four feet in length, and is preserved in the museum at Paris. Other paitd
have also been found from time to time in the Maastricht quarries, and som&
fragments in the chalk of the south of England." Ansted.
The whole length of the animal was probably not less than twenty-foui
feet, a magnitude which must be compared with that of the lizards of the
present day, and not with the crocodilians, whose structure is totally dif-
ferent.
18. We also find in the chalk formation ceta'ceous mammals,
which are classed among the lamantins and dolphins.
19. The CRETA'CEOUS GROUP prevails extensively in England
and on the continent of Europe. True white chalk exists not
only in England, but also in France, in Denmark, in Poland, in
central Russia, and in the Caucasus. Semicrystalline rocks of the
oreta'ceous epoch also exist in the central plains of Asia Minor.
Beds of the creta'ceous period are found in New Jersey, and other
parts of the United States ; but they rest on the oldest secondary
rocKs, without the intervention of the o'olite. The formation is
extremely calcareous, in places chiefly arenaceous, but no true
chalk has yet been discovered in America ; nor has o'olite been
found. Fossils, apparently creta'ceous, have been recently obtained
from south-eastern India.
This brings us up to the close of the secondary formation. As
far as we have studied our subject, we find the earth's crust to con-
sist of a series of formations, as represented in the following dia-
gram (fig. 146).
Secondary.
Chalk with flints.
Chalk without Hints.
Chalk marl.
Green sands.
Wealden.
Cretaceous System.
O'olitic System.
Upper m'\v red sandstone, or Triaseic System^
Lower new red sandstone, or Permian System.
Carboniferous System.
Old red sandstone.
Transition.
Metamorphic.
Plutonic Rocky
f Devonian System.
•< Silurian System.
Cambrian System.
Argillaceous Schist.
Mica Schist.
Gneiss.
Granite.
Fig. 146.
18. What mammals are found in the chalk formation?
19. What is the extent of the creta'ceous group ? Has chalk been found
in the creta'ceous formation of the United States ?
SEVENTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
The study of the creta'ceous rocks brings us, as it were, to the
.ermination of that period in the history of the earth's structure to
which the character of antiquity belongs, hi the succeeding
period, we shall find all the fossils are either resemblances or types
of existing organic creatures.
LESSON V.
SEVENTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — Tertiary Formation — Eocene
beas — Paris Basin — Fossils — Jinoplothe'rium — Pakothe'rium
— Miocene beds — Dinothe 'rium — Lignites — Pliocene beds —
Fossils — Bone Caverns.
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS. — Drift — Diluvium — Megathe'rium —
Boulder Formation — diluvium — Big Bone Lick.
EIGHTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. — Modern Formation.
SEVENTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
TERTIARY FORMATION.
1. Ordinarily, geologists. designate under the collective name of
SECONDARY FORMATION, the long series of systems of rocks, com-
mencing above the transition formation with old red sandstone and
coal ( fig. 146), and terminating above with the chalk ; and they
give the name of TERTIARY FORMATION to those strata which are
more recent than the chalk, and consequently superior to it. but
still more ancient than the strata of the present or modern epoch.
2. During that period the seas were very much less extensive
than they were in the more remote geological ages, and conse-
quently the sedimentary deposits formed in those waters are of less
extent and more isolated. Moreover, their formation was effected
at different points of the globe, and at different periods, and to fol-
low their history in chronological order, it is necessary to subdivide
them into three groups. At the period contemporaneous with the
deposit of each one of these series of formations, there existed
particular species of organized creatures, mingled with other spe-
( ies like the preceding or succeeding periods ; but the fauna of all
the divisions of this period possesses certain common characters,
and among the most remarkable of these is the existence of a
great number of mammals.
1. What is understood by secondary formation? What is meant by tei-
tiary formation?
2. How did the seas of the tertiary epoch differ from those of more re-
mote geological ages ? What is the most remarkable characteristic qf the
tertiary formation ?
78 TERTIARY FORMATION.
3. The Tertiary Formation is divided into the older, middle, and
newer tertiary groups, which have been conveniently designated
by Mr. Lyell under the names of Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene.
The first, EOCENE (from the Greek, eos, dawn, and kainos,
recent), designates the older tertiary strata, in which there appears,
as it were, the first dawn of existing species.
The second, MIOCENE (from the Greek, meidn, less, and kainos,
recent), is applied to the middle tertiary strata, because in them we
find more recent species than in the preceding group, but still
fewer recent than extinct species.
The third, PLIOCENE (from the Greek, pleidn, more, and kainos,
recent), is given to the newer tertiary beds, because there is always
a greater number of recent than of extinct species found in them.
4. The Eocene, or older tertiaries. — The beds thus designated
are a very variable series, consisting, in England and Belgium, of
stiff clays alternating with sand, and resting on coarse sand and
gravel ; and, in Paris, of a number of limestones and marls, alter-
nating with gypsum and silicious strata. They are deposited in
basin-shaped depressions in the older rocks, and in England some
portion of them has been so greatly disturbed, that the beds are
actually vertical.
5. The older tertiaries of England are chiefly confined to three
masses, contained in trough-shaped basins, called respectively, the
London, the Hampshire, and Isle of Wight basins ; a stiff clay
predominates in them, and, from being very abundant near Lon-
don, is known as the " London day" The London clay often,
but not alwrays, rests on a series of" sandy and gravelly beds, in-
closing bands of potters' clay, to which the name of Plastic day
has been given.
6. The greatest development of eocene strata in the United
States occurs in Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, and
Alabama. In Virginia these beds consist of greenish sands, nearly
identical in appearance with a portion of the creta'ceous series, and
of the same mineral composition ; and a little further to the south
a continuous formation of white limestone ("Santee limestone")
occurs, which is of no great thickness, and which varies in hard-
ness, and is composed of comminuted shells, but so closely resem
bling certain creta'ceous beds of the secondary period in New Jer-
sey, as to have been frequently mistaken for them. But this
resemblance does not extend to the fossil contents of the beds
3. How is the tertiary period divided ? What is meant by Eocene ?
What by Miocene ? What by Pliocene ?
4. What are the characters of the Eocene beds ? How are they de-
posited ?
5. What are the chief localities of Eocene beds in England? What if
London clay ?
C In what parts of the United States do Eocene strata exist?
TERTIARY FORMATION.— PARIS BASIN. 7*
which are in many instances analogous, or the same as those of
the eocene formations in other parts of the world.
7. The geological position of the city of Paris resembles that
of London, each being situated upon an extensive and important
group of tertiary strata, which occupies a depression or basin in
the underlying chalk. The nature of the two deposits is, how
ever, totally different, the deposit being characterized in England
by-., great accumulations of argillaceous matter, which form the
London clay, while in the neighbourhood of Paris there is a varied
series of limestones and marls, alternating with important beds of
gypsum and silicious matter.
8. The depression in the chalk forming the celebrated Paris
basin so frequently named by geologists, which is filled up by these
strata, is nearly one hundred and eighty miles in its greatest length,
and about half that in breadth. The surface of the chalk is usually
covered by broken and rolled flints, often cemented by a silicious
sand into a kind of breccia; and these flints seem to mark the
action of the sea upon reefs of chalk before the commencement of
the tertiary epoch.
The order of stratification of the Paris basin is represented in
the following table.
8. Upper marine sands. 7. Upper fresh water sands.
6. Green marls.
5. Gypsum.
, ( Calcaire siliceux, or o ( Calcaire grossier, or
* I Fresh water limestone. ' ( Marine limestone.
2. Plastic clay.
1. Chalk.
9. Above the chalk we find, first, deposi^ of plastic clay, s>o
called because varieties of it are well suited for the manufacture
of pottery. In the neighbourhood of Montereau on one side, be-
tween Houdan and Dreux on the other, it is remarkable for its
whiteness and purity, and is used in the fabrication of the finest
porcelain. Around Paris it is coloured and impure, and suitable
only for coarse pottery. These clays contain lignite, in which we
see, perhaps for the. first time, mingled with numerous co'nifers,
phanerogamous monocotyledons, true palms, and some dicoty'le
dons. Marine, as well as fresh water shells, are found in its upper
part.
7. In what respects does the geological position of Paris differ from that
of London.
8. What is the extent of the Paris basin ?
0. What lies next above the chalk in the Paris basin ? What art the
eharacters of plastic clay ? To what uses is it applied ?
28
80 TERTIARY FORMATION PARIS BASIN.
10. Above tYs plastic clay
\\w find thick deposits of marine
limestones, more or less arena-
ceous in structure, the different
beds of which may be easily
distinguished by their characters.
These limestones contain a pro-
digious quantity of mil'lioliles
(Jlg> 147) — extremely small
Fig. W.— Mil' Halites (greatly mag.
nified).
shells — the most of which do
not attain .03937 of an inch in
size, and yet they constitute a
great number of genera. These
serve, in a manner, as paste to
an immense number of shells
of different genera, which are
more analogous to creatures now
living than any we have hither-
to mentioned : three per cent,
of them are even identical with
species now existing in the
neighbouring seas. The cerithia
are here so abundant that the
formation is sometimes known
by the name of cerithia lime-
stone, although these same fos-
sils are found in many other de-
posits. There are certain spe-
cies which are characteristic, —
that is, they are always found
•vherever these deposits exist :
such, for example, is the Ceri'- pig. US.—Ceri'thium giga ntevm
t/lium giga'nteum (JJg> 148), (very much reduced).
10. What lies above the plastic clay? What are rnil'liolites ? What
proportion of fossil shells found in eocene strata resemble living species ?
What is Cerithia limestone ?
FOSSILS.— PARIS BASIN.
sometimes twenty-seven inches in length, the extremity of which
is almost always worn or broken by the friction and knocks occa-
sioned by the movement of the animal. Among other shells, of
which there are a great many species, it is difficult to name any
which are absolutely characteristic ; among the most common are
the Turrile'lla imbrica-
ta'ria (Jig. 149); the
ampulla 'ria acuta (fig*
150) ; the terebe'llum
fusifo'rme (fig. 151);
the mitra SCubra (Jig. Fig. 149. — Turrite'lla imbricata'ria.
152); the crassalella sulca'ta (Jig. 153); the car'dium porulo'sum
Fig. \^— Ampulla' ria
acuta.
Fig. l5l.— Terrebe'Uttm
fusifo'rme.
Fig. 152.— Mitra
scabra.
(fig. 154). With
these species are
found a great many
others, which have
been described and
figured in a great
many books on the Fig. 153. — Crassate'lla sulca'ta.
environs of Paris ; there are species which are much more com-
Fig. 154. — Car'dium porulo'sum.
PARIS BASIN __ ANOPLOTHERIUM.
,»ion than those named, but some of them are not found every-
where, and others are seen first in the superior formations.
11. Above the marine limestone, or rather parallel with it, we
find what is named fresh-water or silicious limestone, so called be-
cause there is mingled in it a considerable quantity of silex, some-
times uniformly disseminated, and at others forming here and there
more or less voluminous masses (fig. 155), which constitute the mill-
Millstone.
Fig. 155. — Fresh-water limestone, with masses of millstone without shells.
stone without s/?e//s,which is wrought into millstones. Flu viatile shells
are found in the lower parts of this bed, such as lymnea and planorbis.
12. The next group in the general series of Paris basin rocks
consists of white and green marls, with a considerable quantity of
gypsum, the latter being chiefly developed in the centre of the
basin. The upper parts both of the marine and fresh-water lime-
stone alternate occasionally with marls ; but the latter form, on the
whole, a distinct overlying group of fresh-water origin, and contain
land and fluviatile shells, fragments of wood, and great numbers
of the bones of fresh-water fishes, of crocodiles, and other reptiles,
of birds, and even of quadrupeds, the latter being usually isolated
and often entire. The gypsum beds having been extensively
quarried for the manufacture of "plaster of Paris" (obtained by
burning the gypsum), they have yielded a multitude of these
mammalian remains, \vhich formed the base of the great dis-
coveries of Cuvier — so that the investigation of them by that
anatomist may even be considered to have laid the foundation of
the science of Palaeontology, so far as it is dependent on sound
principles of analogy. It is chiefly in the lower parts of the
gypsum that these extinct quadrupeds are found. Such, for ex-
ample, are the anoplo-
the'rium and paleo-
the'rium, pachyder-
matous animals, more
or less approaching to
the rhinoceros and ta-
pir, of which there
were several species.
The common anoplo-
Z'V.156.— Sk eleton of the Artoplof he' rium commune, the'rium (Jig. 156 —
11. What is the portion of the fresh-water limestone of the Paris basin ?
12. What is found next above the limestones of the Paris basin ? What
ifo plaster of Paris? WThat fossils are found in the gypsum * What is tho
Anoplothe'rium 7
PALEOTHERIUM.— MIOCENE.
from the Greek, a, without, oplon, arm, and therion, animal )„ wa&
of the size of an ass, of a heavy form, and with thick short legs
and a long tail ; some species had slender legs, and must have been
swift and active ; and others of the size of a hare, and even of a
guinea-pig, which were nevertheless adult.
13. The paleothe'rium (Jig. 157 — from the Greek, palaios,
ancient, and therion, a beast), was of the size of a horse, and form
of a tapir ; species of various size, both krge an 1 small, existed
Fig. 157. — Skeleton of the Paleothe'rium magnum.
14. Above the gypsum we find another more modern group,
consisting of two formations, one marine and the other fresh-water.
They are composed of marls, mica'ceous and quartzose sands, and
layers of flint. These beds of sand are often of great thickness,
and are at first coloured by oxide of iron, and then white and pure:
they frequently form masses of sandstone, sometimes witnout or
ganic remains, or only rolled shells of the marine limestone ; some-
times, on the contrary, they contain the casts or impressions of
shells. On these sandstones repose new lacu'strine deposits, form-
ing sometimes shell millstone, filled with lymneae (Jig. 158),
piano' rbis (fig. 159), and seeds ofchara, or gyro'gonites (Jig. 160).
Fig. 158. — Lymnea
longisca'ta.
Fig. 159.— Piano' rbis
cuom'phalus.
FigASQ.—Chara medt
cage'nula — (greatly
magnified.}
15. The Miocene, or middle tertiary period. — During1 this
second part of the tertiary period both terrestrial and aquatic am*
13. What is the Paleothe'rium ?
14. What lies above the gypsum ?
o* MIOCENE, OR MIDDLE TERTIARY.
mals became more numerous, and more like those of our own
times ; then there existed a great number of mollusks, belonging to
species which still inhabit the seas of the present epoch.
16. In England the miocene tertiary is represented by a thin
and variable heap cf gravelly strata, called the "crag formation,'*
which is divided into three parts. The lowest is called coralline
crag, because a great many coral remains are found in it ; the
next is the red crag, distinguished by its deep ferru'ginous stain ;
the uppermost is named Norwich, or mammali'fe rous crag, which
is of more recent origin than the red crag, and contains bones of
large mammals, and occasionally fresh-water shells.
17. An extensive series of miocene beds occupies the whole
surface cf both shores of the Chesapeake Bay, a hundred miles
north and south, and fifty miles wide. A similar series occurs in
Virginia. The lowest beds of the Chesapeake series are argilla'-
ceous, and the uppermost are sandy ; both series abound in fossils,
and when met on the side of a river they are sometimes found to
consist of little else than shells and the remains of zo'ophytes, often
in a high state of preservation.
18. The miocene tertiaries prevail extensively on the continent
of Europe in various river basins. They occupy a considerable
portion of the west of France, filling up the basins of the Loire
and Garonne ; they fill up also a great part of the valley of the
middle Rhine, and the whole of the great valley of Switzerland,
between the Alps and the Jura chain ; and from Switzerland they
extend towards the north-east, following the course and partly fill-
ing up the valley of the Danube. From point to point they may
here be traced spreading out into extensive series near Vienna, and
in Styria, and occurring again in the plains of Hungary ; they are
also found in Poland and Russia ; they appear both in northern
and southern Italy, and on the shores and islands of the Mediterra-
nean.
19. The miocene beds of the basin of the Loire are chiefly de-
veloped near the city of Tours, and in the Touraine district, where
they consist for the most part of broken shells ; these beds, how-
ever, sometimes afford a building stone, the comminuted shells
being mixed with sand and gravel, and cemented by calcareous
matter. In Switzerland there is a series of tertiary sandstones of
the miocene period ; and between the lakes of Geneva and Lu-
15. What U remarked of the miocene period, as respects animals ?
16. How are the miocene beds represented in England ? What is coral
line crag ? What is red crag? What is Norwich crag?
1 7. In what part of the United States do we find examples of miocene
beds ?
18. Where do we find miocene beds in Europe ?
19. What is the nature of the miocene beds in Switzerland? What >•
molasse "
MIOCENE FOSSILS.
cerne these beds consist of a coarse conglomerate, called " nagel-
fiuhe," passing into a finer sandstone (the " molasse" of French
geologists), which is usually soft and incoherent, but sometimes
sufficiently hard to be used as a building stone. Various beds of
lignite and marl are irregularly distributed through the moiasse,
which are evidently of fresh- water origin.
20. The marine deposits of the miocene strata, although abound-
ing in shells, do not contain as great a number of species 03 the
marine limestone of the Paris basin; yet, eighteen per cent, of
these species are identical with those now Jiving in the neighbour-
ing seas. There is often the strongest analogy between these new
deposits and the lower limestones, with which they have been
confounded ; yet, if we do frequently observe a common aspect,
and often find the same shells in both, there is, nevertheless, es-
sential differences between them. In one case, we no longer find
species characteristic of the lower deposits ; there is no ceri'thium
giga'nteum, no car'dium porulo'sum, &c. : in the other, we find
new remains which we did not meet with before, such as the
Bala'nus cra'sus (Jig. 161), the Rostella'riapespelica'ni (fig. 102),
the Pe'clen pleurone'ctes (fig. 163), &c., which are never found in
the Paris basin, but exist in the subapennine formation.
Fig. 161.— Bala'-
nus crasus.
Fig. lK2.—Rostella'ria
pespelica'ni.
Fig. 163.— Pe'cten
pleurone'ctes.
21. The strata belonging to this period of the tertiary formation
contain divers species of paleothe'rium, but differing from those
found in the Paris gypsum. Here we also find several other species
of animals, which constitute genera, no trace of which is met with
in the preceding formation, and which totally disappear in the suc-
ceeding epoch. Here we find the remains of ma'stodons (from
the Greek, mastos, a nipple, and odous, tooth), animals analogous
20. What is the character of the fossils of these beds? What proportion
of them resemble recent or living species ?
8
MASTODON.— DINOTHERIUM.
to the elephant, but whose teeth (fig.
1(54) have crowns studded with conical
or nipple-like points, instead of being
flat. On the miocene beds we also
find the gigantic Dinotherium (from
the Greek, dinos, circular, and thenon,
a beast), an animal resembling the tapir,
which is remarkable by having the
tusks turned downwards (fig- 165).
It was first found in Hesse, afterwards
Fig. 164. — Toothofama'sto- near Auch by M. Lartet, who sub-
don (reduced). sequently found in the same place the
bones of monkeys. —
Remains of the rhi-
noceros, of the hippo-
po'tamus, and of the
castor are also found
in these deposits.
" The Dinothe'rium is
the largest of the terres-
trial mammalia of whose
existence we have any
positive knowledge, but
as it is not a matter of
absolute certainty at pre-
sent of what nature its ex-
tremities may have been,
we are hardly in a condition to speak very decidedly of its general appearance
or habits. It is chiefly known by the fragments of the head and teeth,
which exhibit a near approach, the former to the ceta'cean tribe, and the
latter to the tapir ; but there is a remarkable and very striking anomaly in
the existence of two large and heavy tusks placed at the extremity of the
lower jaw, and curved downwards like the tusks in the upper jaw of the
walrus. It is probable, from the size and position of these tusks, as well
as from the structure of the bones of the head, that the animal was aquatic
in its habits, living almost entirely in the water, and feeding on such succu-
lent plants as it could there obtain.
" The length of the Dinothe'rium is calculated to have been at least as
much as eighteen feet, and its proportions were, probably, very much the
same as those of the great American tapir. It was provided with a trunk,
which seems to have been short, but extremely large and powerful, and
capable of being employed to tear up the food which the tusks, acting like
pick-axes, may have loosened." Ansted.
22. The miocene is very rich in combustible material ; to it
belong the lignites of Languedoc, of Provence, Switzerland, and
most of those of Germany — as well as the masses of earthy com-
Fig. 165. — Lower jaw and tusk of
the Dinothe'rium giga'nteum.
21. What fossil animal remains are found in these beds ?
Dinothe'rium ?
What is th*
LIGNITES.— MOLASSE.
S7
bustible in the neighbourhood of Cologne. All these lignites
appear to have been formed chiefly from con'ifers, the structure of
which (fig. 166) maybe recognised in the mass of combust ble
itself, or in the wood disseminated through various deposits.
C.
B. b. c.
fig, 166. — Structure of the wood of con'ifers.
a. Part of a transverse section of natural size.
6. Part of the same section seen under a microscope.
c. Longitudinal section, in the direction from B to C, also magnified.
d. Section in the direction from A to B.
23. But the tertiary sandstones of the miocene period (the mo-
lasse) also contain a great quantity of dicotyledonous plants, the
wood of which is here and there found disseminated, sometimes in
a silicious state, and clearly exhibiting the proper tissue or struc-
ture of this class of plants (fig. 167), particularly characterized
by the presence of large longitudinal vessels. We also find leave?
C.
a. B. 6.
Pip. 167. — Structure of the wood of dicotyledons.
a. Part of a transverse section of natural size.
b. Part of the same section, seen under the microscope, showing the large
vessels.
c. Longitudinal section in the direction from A to B, showing the struc
ture of the medullary rays, and that of a large vessel.
22. What is lignite ? From what family of plants were these lignites
probably formed 1 How is this family of plants recognised 1
23. What description of plants exist in the terti.iry sandstone a? the
miocore period 1
88
FOSSILS.
often in great numbers,
in the clays which ac-
company the lignites,
in the characters of
which we distinctly re-
cognise existing dicoty-
ledons, such as walnuts,
maples, elms, birches,
&c. (figs. 168, Ki9).
Even fruits are found
which are distinguish-
ed, often with difficulty,
from those now grow-
ing.
Fig. US.— Leaf of an un- 34. We also find in
dete, mined elm. thig formationj
the midst of
deposits of
Fig. 169. — Complonia combustible -
a'cutilo'ba. as jn those of
Liblar near Cologne, or in the ar-
gilla'ceous or sandy matter of the
formation, the remains of monoco-
ty'ledonous plants : there is word
presenting the structure of the
palms, that is, an assemblage of
\voody fasciculi (bundles), longi-
tudinally arranged, without regard Fig- 170. — Strvcture of the wood
to regularity, in the middle of cel-
Fig. 171. — L'almacites Lamanonis.
of palms.
lular tissue, as seen (fg-
170). Leaves like the
representation (fig. 171)
are also met with. We
find, too, in the miocene
gypsum of the same na-
ture as that of the Paris
basin, which has led to
the supposition that they
we~e of the same epoch ;
but besides this section of
country being formed of
the "molasse," the or-
ganic remains are not of
the same species.
Towards the close of the
miocene, or second epoch of
24. How do we recognise the previous existence of monocoty'Iedonoito
-plants from their fossil remains ?
PLIOCENE.
the tertiary period, a new upheaval appears to have taken place in tho
region of the Alps. A part of this complicated chain of mountains had
then long existed. Thus the Alps of Provence and of Dauphiny, which
belong to a system of which Mont Viso is the most remarkable point, dato
from the interval elapsed between the deposit of the inferior and upper lay-
ers of the creta'ceous system ; other portions of the Alpine region were
raised up at the same time as the Pyrenees, that is, after the creta'ceous
period; for example, the neighbourhood of Castel-Gomberts, and in the
mountains which connect the Alps to the Jura, we perceive traces of an
upheaval contemporaneous with that of Corsica, which occurred after the
deposit of the eocene, or first period of the tertiary formation ; but the
greater part of this majestic barrier between Italy and the north seems to
have acquired its present configuration, and to have, attained the immense
height we now observe, in more recent times. The chain of the western
Alps appears to have been upheaved after the deposit of the mioccne or
second series of the tertiary ; and the chain extending from Valais towards
Austria appears to be of still more recent origin.
Dating frcm the geological convulsion which gave to the western Alps
their existing prominence, and at different points produced the elevation of
the " molasse," and other tertiary strata of the miocene period, as well as
those of more ancient epochs, Europe presented a great continental space ;
and during the period of tranquillity which followed this catastrophe, marine
deposits did not take place except on the shores or in gulfs not far from the
centre of this region, as in the subapcnnine hills, in some parts of Sicily, and
on a portion of the coast of England ; but sedimentary deposits occurred
in the basins or valleys of still existing rivers, and in some lakes of fresh
water which a more recent geological revolution has caused to disappear.
25. The Pliocene, or newer tertiary. — In Europe the pliocene
is chiefly represented in south Italy, in the Morea, and in the isl-
ands of the eastern archipelago ; and important contemporaneous
beds exist in the valley of the lower Rhine, near Bonn, and a por-
tion of central France, as well as in southern Russia.
26. The pliocene beds are not all, however, of the same age,
and the beds so called must have been in the course of formation
for a very long period. Those of Italy admit of being subdivided
into two groups, the older of which is called the sub-apennine, and
attains a great thickness near Parma, exhibiting a considerable
number and variety of fossils. These beds consist for the most
part of greyish, brown, or blue marls, containing calcareous mat-
ter, and overlaid by thick sandy beds. The Sicilian beds are dis-
tinctly newer than these, and are equally extensive. Marls, with
occasional limestone, form the great mass of the materials of these
strata. Like the subapennines they are richly fossili'ferous, but
are chiefly characterized by their shells. A fresh-water bed of
the newer period is found at GEningen, on the lake of Constance,
and contains numerous remains of fishes, and some fragments of
land animals.
27 From the eocene, or deposits of the Paris basin, there is a
25. In what parts of Europe are the pliocene beds represented ?
26. Are all pliocene beds of the same age? What is the character of the
Sicilian beds?
8"*
FOSSILS.
progressive increase in the number or proportion of recent species
found : in the Paris basin three per cent, of the fossil shells are
analogous to the shells now existing ; in the miocene, eighteen per
cent., and in the pliocene fifty per cent, of the fossil shells resem-
ble existing species. There is scarcely any analogy between the
shells of the Paris basin limestone and those of the subapennine
hills. Besides the Balanus crasus (fig. 1(51), and the Rostella!-
ria pespeliea'ni (Jig. 162), we may cite the Pleuro'toma rota' fa
(fig. 172), the Buc'cinum prisma'ticum (Jig. 173), the Volu'ta
Lambe'rti (Jig. 174), &c., and almost all the shells of the Mediter-
ranean.
Fig. HZ.—Pleuro'loma
rola'ta
Fig. 173.— Buc'cinum
prisma'ticum.
Fig. 174 — Volu'ta
Lambe'rti.
Fig. 175 —Murex
alveola'tus.
Fig.
176. — Astarte Bag.
teroii.
Fig. lll.—Cy'prea
coccinello'ides.
The deposits alluded to also contain masses of lignites, which arc advan-
tageously worked in different localities. Some offer regular layers of a sort
•jf compact coal (brown coal), accompanied by fresh-water shells, indicating
a tranquil deposit in lakes; but the greatest number contain only irregular
masses of wood, some of which present the texture of the con'ifers. A
great number of leaves, analogous to those of existing dicoty'ledons, are
also found.
27. What proportion of fossils found in the eocene, miocene, and plio-
cene respectively, resemble species now living ?
BONE CAVERNS. 91
28. The pliocene beds of the United States seem to belong
chiefly to a very modern period ; they exist to a great extent in
several localities. At the mouth of the Potomac, in Maryland, is
a series of clay beds, alternating occasionally with sand. All the
fossils found in these beds are identical with those species found
living on the neighbouring sea-coast, a positive indication of the
newness of these beds. Similar beds exist at Niagara and in
Kentucky, and in other parts of North America ; in ali cases the
recent deposits are very striking.
29. While these lacu'strine deposits were tranquilly forming be-
neath the waters, the then uncovered surface of the earth was in-
habited by hyenas, cavern bears, hairy elephants, ma'stodons, rhi-
noceroses, hippopo'tami and other animals belonging to genera still
in existence, but the species of which are now lost ; they appear
to have been destroyed in the geological revolution which raised
up the principal chain of the Alps, and gave to these mountains
their present configuration, and its present shape to the European
continent. It is probable, too, that the same revolution destroyed
the multitude of animals whose bones are found at the bottom of
certain caverns or fissures in the rocks, where they are buried in a
sort of calcareous cement, ordinarily of a reddish colour.
30. BONE CAVERNS. — The most ancient caverns, celebrated for
the remains of mammals which they contain, are those of'Harz
and of Franconia ; but since Dr. Buckland has shown the pro-
priety of removing the mud, sands, rolled flints-, stala'gmites, &c.,
which often cover the bone collections, these remains have been
found everywhere, even in places where they had not been pre-
viously supposed to exist.
31. Most of these caverns appear to have had one or more
lateral openings, affording easy entrance to the animals that fre-
quented them, as places of refuge, to devour their prey, and finally
they came to them to die. Here their bones accumulated through
a great many generations, and we now find them buried in a dark
earth, in or on which we recognise their dejections. Often we
find among the bones of a certain genus of animals other bones,
having upon them the print of teeth, showing they had been the
prey of the first. The greater number of these bones belong to
the bear tribe, two species of which were larger than any now
existing ; or to the hyena tribe, also larger than those now known.
Sometimes one, and sometimes the other of these genera predomi-
nates ; a species of wolf abounds in the bear caverns of Galenreuth
in Franconia : other carni'vora, of the genus dog, and those of the
genus cat, including species of cougars, are everywhere in small
28. In what parts of the United States do pliocene beds exist?
29. Wh it kind of animals inhabited the land while these lacu'strine de»
yosits were being formed ?
30. What are bone caverns ?
31 What are the features of bone caverns ?
29
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS.
numbers. The remains of rodents, of ruminants, also of large
pachyderms and of birds, which have been dragged as prey to
\hese resorts, are also found.
SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS.
" The regularly stratified deposits, of whatever geological period they
may be, are in most parts of the world covered up, more or less, by a con-
Biderable mass of heterogeneous material derived from the degradation of
the more an«ent rocks. This mass is generally unstratified, and deposited
in irregular heaps, partially filling up valleys, covering low tracts of level
country, and sometimes even capping low hills, but almost always bearing
marks of having been transported from a distance over ranges of high
land, although not without some reference to the present physical features
of the country over which it has travelled.
"Occasionally the fragments which have been thus conveyed are of large
size and angular, and in this case they are called "boulders," or "erratic
blocks ;" but such masses have not generally travelled to any very con-
siderable distance from the parent rock. The transported fragments are
much more commonly of small size, and rounded, as if by mutual attrition,
at the bottom of the sea ; and in this state they have been often carried to
very great distances, and are found many hundred miles from the place
whence they seem to have been derived. They are then called ' gravel,'
and are not unfrequently mingled with bones and fragments of bones of
large quadrupeds." Ansted.
32. These superficial deposits are termed DRIFT, and comprise
deposits of water-worn, transported materials, consisting of gravel,
boulders, sand, clay, &c.
33. Drift is divided into DILU'VIUM, or ancient drift, and ALLU'-
VIUM (from the Latin, alluo, I wash upon), or modern drift.
34. The DILU'VIUM
(formed from the Latin,
diluo, I wash away) co-
vers up the tertiary depo-
sits, and contains fossils
whose origin dates back
to a period not very long
antecedent to the present.
In fact the dilu'vium, to
a certain extent, unites
the tertiary with the re-
cent period. It contains
the bones of large mam
mals, both of extinct and
recent genera and spe-
cies. Among them we
may perhaps place the
enormous megathe'rium
Fig. 178.— Skeleton of the Megathe'rium. (fg. 178 — from thfc
32. What is meant by drift ?
33. How is drift divided ? What is the difference between dilu'vium and
ullu vium ?
MEGATHERIUM BOULDER FORMATION. 03
Grreek, megas, great, and therion, beast), which was not less than
jighteen feet long and nine feet high. The skeleton is analogous
tolhat of animals of the order edentata. The thigh-bone in the
megathe'rium is nearly three times as great as the largest known
elephant ; the bones of the instep and those of the foot are of cor-
responding size, the heel-bone projects back nearly eighteen inches,
and the small bones of the foot advanced as much forwards. The
third toe is provided with a socket to receive a cla\v, the sheath of
which measures thirteen inches in circumference, and the core on
which the nail was attached is ten inches in length. The fore
limbs were well adapted for grasping the trunk or larger branches
of a tree. This animal was slow in its movements, and probably
fed on roots, which its teeth were admirably adapted for grinding.
35. To the diluvial drift are also referred the great collectiens
of bones of the Icy ocean, on the coasts of Siberia and on the
neighbouring islands : there a number of enormous animals, their
flesh preserved through thousands of years, lie buried in sands
consolidated by perpetual ice ; in the same situations have been
found stags and horses, the elephant and rhinoceros, covered with
hair, seemingly indicating that the species which then lived in
northern climates were enabled to bear, from being clothed in fur,
lower temperatures than those with naked skins which now inhabit
southern Asia and Africa. The tusks of these elephants of the
ancient world are sought for the ivory they afford, and compete, in
commerce, with those of modern elephants.
It is perhaps to the clilu'vium we must refer those immense masses of
rolled debris which contain gold, platina, and the diamond, in Brazil, in
Africa, in India, and in the Oural mountains, as well as the arena'ceouw
veins of tin in Cornwall and Mexico.
36. The BOULDER FORMATION, or ERRATIC BLOCK FORMATION
also, is regarded as a part of the diluvial drift. A great part of
the plain of Switzerland is covered at intervals by fragments of
rock, measuring about a cubic yard, which strew the plain, and
dot the sides of the Alpine ravines, and rise on the opposite side
of the Jura range, even to an elevation of several thousand feet
above the sea. The most concentrated distribution of these blocks
seems to be near the town of NeuchateL but similar masses are
also found on the summit of the Mont Saieve, behind Geneva.
It is very remarkable that a belt of fragmentary masses (not few
or small, but countless and gigantic), differing entirely in character
from the formation on which they rest, should be found lying on a
steep, almost precipitous slope of nearly bare or thinly-covered
rock. One of the blocks behind Neuchatel, eight hundred and
fifty feet above the lake, is of granite, and measures between fifty
34. What is the position of diluvial drift ? What is the megathe'rium ?
^r>. What other fossils are referred to the diluvial drift ?
36. What is the nature of the Boulder formation?
94 ALLUVIUM, OR MODERN DRIFT.
and sixty feet in length, by twenty feet broad, and forty feet high,
while between the Jura and the Alps blocks still larger are in
many places to be found — one, out of a great number together in
the canton of Berne, measuring 01,000 cubic feet.
37. Erratic blocks and gravel cover the plain of central Europe
and the steppes of Russia. Almost the whole surface of North
America, as far as it has been examined, has been found covered
with gravel, pebbles, and boulders, varying greatly in thickness,
and obviously of the same origin as similar deposits in Europe ;
and a region which has been called the great Atlantic plain, ex-
tending between the Alleghany mountains and the Atlantic ocean,
together with the lower part of the great valley of the Missisippi,
appear to* be the districts where it conceals the underlying deposits
to the greatest depth.
On the borders of Lakes Erie and Ontario there are very de-
cided marks of the great drift which has elsewhere overspread
North America, and the boulder formation, containing marine
shells, extends into the valley of the St. Lawrence, as far down as
Quebec, and at a height of at least three hundred feet above the
sea-level. Below duebec there are large and far-transported boul-
ders in beds, both above and below these marine shells, and
wherever the contact of the drift with hard subjacent rocks is seen,
these rocks are smoothed and furrowed on the surface, as they are
in similar positions in northern Europe.
38. ALLU'VIUM, or MODERN DRIFT. — In many parts of North
America the valleys are filled up to a depth of twenty or thirty
feet with unconsolidated beds of earth of various kinds, and the
heteroge'neous mass contains in it abundant remains of large
pachydermatous animals, not now living in the country, but asso-
ciated with, and overlaid by other and similar beds, in which occui
the bones of buffaloes, that have within a few years been driven
westward by the advancing steps of civilized man. These beds
all belong to the same geological period, or nearly so, and a descrip-
tion of one will be sufficient to give an accurate notion of a multi-
tude of similar bogs and soft meadows in many of the western
states. The most remarkable is that known as the " Big Bone
Lick" in Kentucky.
39. The Big Bone Lick occupies the bottom of a boggy valley,
kept wet by a number of salt springs, which rise over a surface of
several acres, and the substratum of the country is a fossil i'feroua
limestone. At the Lick the valley is filled up to the depth of not
less than thirty feet with beds of earth, the uppermost of which is
a yellow clay, apparently the soil brought down from the high
grounds by rains and land floods. In this yellow earth, along the
37. Where is the Boulder formation met with ?
38. What is allu'vium ?
39. What are the characters of the Big- Bone Lick of Kentucky ?
EIGHTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH. 95
water-courses at various depths, the bones of buffaloes and other
modern animals are often found quite entire. Beneath the clay is
another layer of a different soil, bearing the appearance of having
been formerly the bottom of a marsh. It is more gravelly, darker
coloured, and softer than the other, and in it, or sometimes in a
stratum of compact blue clay alternating with it, there are found
innumerable bones of large mammals, chiefly ma'stodons, but in-
cluding also elephants, and extinct species of animals of the ox
and deer tribe. In other localities the mastodon bones are founu
immediately below the surface in reclaimed marshes, and they are
sometimes extremely perfect, sometimes broken and water-worn.
The Big Bone Lick would appear to have been resorted to, not
only in modern times by the living races, but more anciently by
animals now extinct, for the salt, and perhaps the food produced
by the marsh. The buffalo and bison are frequently known to
perish entrapped in these licks and swamps, and it seems evident
that the ma'stodon and elephant of former times must, from their
huge size and unwieldy forms, have been at least equally exposed
to the same fate. rfnsted, Rogers, $c.
40. Up to the present time all geologists agree in saying tint in
the formations of this period, as well as in the most ancient rocks,
neither human bones nor any vestige indicative of the existence of
man on the face of the earth has been found, arid it is, for this rea-
son, probable that man had not yet been created at the time of the
destruction of these animals.
EIGHTH GEOLOGICAL EPOCH.
Modern Formation.
41. New formations are now being made, either by the effusion
of igneous matter from the bowels of the earth, or by sediment
from waters, and, these formations, which are contemporaneous with
man, constitute the modern formation.
42. Since the last great catastrophe alluded to (the upheaval of
the Alps), there has been a general repose, which perhaps will be
disturbed one day by some new geological revolution ; by the up-
heaval of some great mountain chain, for example, and by the
great rush of waters which must follow such a convulsion, new
lands will rise from the bosom of the ocean, and probably enclose
remains of the bony frame of man and of animals now existing,
just as the ancient formations conceal the solid remains of creatures
which preceded us on the earth. Even now we have proof that
things must pass in the present time very nearly as they did in
40. Are human bones found in a fossil state, in the formations thus for
studied 1 What is the inference from the fact ?
41. What is meant by modern formation?
4~ Are human bones any where found in a fossil state*
3D*
MODERN FORMATION.
ages long gone by, for in certain modern formations, which con-
tinue to be formed under our eyes, we find human skeletons im-
bedded in the substance of the rock, and already presenting the
characters of fossils of the tertiary period. One of the most re-
markable examples of this kind has been discovered in the island
of Guadaloupe.
Thus far we have presented a sketch of the earth's structure as
revealed to us by an examination of its crust, only in reference,
however, to the order of superposition of its formations, resulting
from great geological convulsions, and characterized by the remains
of animals found entombed in it. When we reflect on the incon-
ceivable length of time it has evidently required to effect all these
changes, anid elevate one above another gigantic stories of various
rocks, the imagination is startled ; when we see entire creations of
plants and animals covering the surface of the earth, and inhabit-
ing the waters, disappear after a time, leaving a few mutilated re-
mains as the only irace of their existence, and give place to a new
flora and a new population ' of animated creatures, destined to un-
dergo in turn a similar fate, we are struck with astonishment, and
overcome by admiration of the power of the Creator of things so
grand and so beautiful.
LESSON VI.
INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL AGENTS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
EARTHQUAKES — Description — Effects of — Changes of level pro-
duced by — Upheaval and Subsidence — Constant level of seas —
Slow and progressive Subsidence — General conclusions.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. — Explosion — Eruption — Island of Saint
George'— Monte-Nuovo — Jorullo — Vesuvius — Definition of a
Volcano — Submarine Eruptions — Volcan of Unalaska — Crater
of elevation — Formation of Craters — Effects of upheaval —
— Form of Volcanic Islands — Periods in the formation of a
Volcano — Interior of Craters — Kirauea — So/fataras — Volcanic
Joshes — Lava Currents — Characters of Lavas — Dykes — Gas-
eous Volcanic Products — Eruption of Mud — Solid products
of Volcanoes — Trachyte — Obsidian — Compact Lavas — Po-
rous Lavas, fyc.
1. We have spoken of formations and of their relative order of
superposition, and occasionally alluded to the various causes which
affect them. From what we have said it might be inferred that
the several formations are so many concentric spheres, enveloping
1. Why is it that the surface of the globe is not entirely smooth, free
from mountains and valleys ?
DESCRIPTION OF EARTHQUAKES. 97
a mass of fire ; and such in fact might have been the case had it
not been for certain disturbing forces which have fashioned the
mountains and valleys, and caused the dry land to be lifted up
above the waters. Had it not been lor these disturbing forces,
phenomena analogous to volcanoes and eaithquakes, the whole
globe would have remained under water, and man would not have
been called into existence. But having seen the general structure
of the interior of the earth, we will study the phenomena, the dis-
turbing forces which modify its surface, more particularly than we
have yet done.
These disturbing forces are either internal or external ; first, of
the INFLUENCE OF INTERNAL AGENTS ON THE SURFACE OF THE
EARTH.
It has been already stated (page 12) that the centre of our earth
is a mass of fire, to the influence of which many phenomena may
be referred.
EARTHQUAKES.
2. Description of Earthquakes. — Every one has heard of the
terrible scourge which in a moment reduces the most nourishing
cities to a heap of ruins, and sometimes upturns the neighbouring
country. An earthquake is often preceded by rumbling, subterra-
neous sounds, which are frequently heard some time before thp
catastrophe. Tremblings more or less violent are perceived during
a few minutes or seconds only, which in many instances are often
repeated with more or less rapidity and force ; in certain cases
they even continue, with irregular intervals, during several days,
or months, or even entire years. These movements of the earth
are of different kinds ; sometimes they consist of jerking horizon-
tal oscillations, occurring at irregular intervals, sometimes of verti-
cal shocks, that is, in rapid and successive rising and falling of the
soil ; at other times of various twisting movements. Frequently
all the various motions take place almost at the same moment, and
then nothifctf can escape destruction.
3. Sometimes an earthquake is circumscribed in narrow limits ;
that which happened on the 2d of February, 1828, in the island
of Ischia, was not felt either in the neighbouring islands or on the
continent. Frequently, too, it shakes an immense surface : for
example, the earthquake of the 17th June, 1826, in New Grenada,
was felt over many thousand square leagues. Sometimes it extends
enormous distances, as in the case of the famous earthquake of
Lisbon, which was felt in Lapland in one direction, and Martinique*
in another ; and, transversely, from Greenland to Africa, where
2. What are earthquakes ? What is the nature of the motions produced
by earthquakes ? What is the duration of earthquakes ?
3. What are the limits of earthquakes ?
9
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES.
Morocco, Fez, and Mequinez were destroyed : all Europe expe-
rienced its effects at the same moment. From the different histo-
ries of earthquakes, many examples of this kind of propagation
might ne adduced, extending more or less widely. It may be even
concluded, from statements of facts, that the shock extends accord-
ing to a great circle, more or less inclined to the equator, and per-
haps over an entire hemisphere.
4. Effects of Earthquakes. — Earthquakes, when violent, not
only overturn entire cities, and the most solidly built edifices, but
they cause important modifications in the ground itself. Those of
Calabria, in 1783, furnish examples, which are the more important
because the facts were observed by the most distinguished men of
the times, such as Vicenzio, physician to the king of Naples, Gri-
maldi, Hamilton, Dolomieu, &c., and also by a commission ap-
pointed by the royal academy of Naples. All was overturned in
this unhappy country ; the course of rivers was interrupted and
changed ; houses were raised above the level of the country, while
others, frequently at no great distance, were sunk down more or
less ; edifices of great solidity were split from top to bottom ; cer-
tain parts were raised above others, and the foundations pushed up
out of the ground. Every where the surface of the earth partly
opened, often in long crevices, some of which were one hundred
and fifty yards in breadth ; some of these were isolated, sometimes
bifurcated — frequently exhibiting other fissures perpendicular to
their direction (fig. 179) ; some were in form of rays diverging
from a centre, like a broken glass (Jig. 180). Some opened at the
Fig. 179. Fig. 180.
Crevices and fissures produced by earthquakes.
moment of the shock, and immediately closed again, grinding be-
twixt their parietes the habitations they swallowed up ; others in-
variably remained gaping after the commotion, or, commenced by
A first snock, were widened by succeeding shocks. In both cases
it was sometimes observed that the borders of the split were on
the same plane, or showed a more or less projecting swelling up
4. What are the effects of earthquakes ? What is the character of feu
eures produced by earthquakes ?
UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE,
xt/ c_. 181); sometimes one of the parts is elevated much higher
than the other (Jigs. 182, 183), showing that one must have been
raised while the other was sunk.
Fig. 181. Fig. 182. Fig. 183.
Changes of level produced by earthquakes.
Again it happens that a more or less considerable extent of surface ia
suddenly sunk, carrying down plantations and habitations, leaving- yawning
chasms, with vertical sides, eighty or a hundred yards in depth. In certain
cases an immense quantity of water springs from the bottom of these cavi-
Jies, forming more or less extensive lakes, sometimes without apparent cur-
rent, and sometimes giving origin to impetuous torrents. In some instances,
on the contrary, rivulets were absorbed by the fissures in the earth, or swal-
lowed for a time, or forever.
But, besides the numerous cracks and divers chasms which intercept the
waters, furnishing new springs, and giving them a new channel, it also
happens that masses of rocks, falling across valleys, arrest the waters and
soon form lakes in the upper part. Now, these accumulated waters make
new passages, either by breaking through the sides of the valley, or by en-
larging some fissure in the mountain ; or, they degrade, cut down, the obsta-
cle which retained them, and soon overturn it entirely or in part. Hence
arise those fearful outbreaks, those impetuous torrents rolling down enor-
mous masses of rock, the ravages of which are as disastrous as the earth-
quake itself, and which, excavating new channels, or widening and deep-
ening those that waters before pursued, mark their course by the debris
which they roll down and successively deposit.
When the principal effects of earthquakes took place on the continent
between Oppido and Soriano, the phenomena extended as far as Messina,
across the straits ; more than half the city was destroyed, and twenty-nine
hamlets or villages were swallowed up. The bottom of the sea was sunk,
and disturbed at various points ; the shore was rent, and the whole ground
along the port of Messina was inclined towards the sea, suddenly sinking
several yards ; the whole promontory which formed its entrance was swal-
lowed in a moment.
5. Upheaval and Subsidence. — The earthquakes which occurred
on the coast of Chile in 1822, 1835, and 1837, have produced
effects not less remarkable. Different parts of the coast, from
Valdivia to Valparaiso, that is, an extent of more than two hundred
leagues, were evidently elevated above the waters, as well as many
neighbouring islands as Air as those of Juan Fernandez ; the bot-
tom of the sea to a considerable extent participated in this phe-
nomena. On the coast, rocks which had been previously under
water were raised two or three yards above its level, with the mol-
5. Give some examples of upheaval and subsidence produced by earth-
quakes.
UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE,
lusks which lived on their surface ; rivers emptying on the coast
became fordable where they had been navigable by small vessels ;
well-known anchorages were diminished in depth to a correspond-
ing extent, and at different points, shoals now oppose the passage
of vessels of large draught where they readily floated before.
Analogous circumstances occurred in India in 1819; a lull, fifty miles
long and sixteen broad, was raised up in the midst of a flat country, barring
the course of the Indus. Further to the south, on the contrary, but parallel
to the same direction, the country sank, carrying down the village and fort
of Sindre, which nevertheless remains standing, half submerged. The
eastern mouth of the river became more shallow in many places, and por-
tions of its bed which had been fordable suddenly censed to be so.
The history of all times and of all places furnishes us with facts of exactly
the same nature. Everywhere we are told of fissures in the earth, of pro-
found chasms, in which cities and even entire countries are swallowed, from
which flow mephitic gases, enormous masses of water, sometimes cold,
sometimes hot, sometimes even flaming. Also of plains suddenly trans.
formed into mountains, of shoals raised in the midst of the ocean, of moun-
tains rent and overturned, of mountainous regions, of hundreds of leagues
of rocks all at once levelled arid replaced by lakes. Of water-courses
changed, swallowed in chasms of the earth ; of lakes which dry up by
breaking through their bounds, or suddenly lost in subterraneous conduits,
instantaneously formed. In opposition, we also learn of enormous springs
producing new streams, suddenly rising through a fissure of a rock, without
any knowledge whence the waters come: of thermal springs which have
become instantaneously cold ; of others, on the contrary, appearing where
they did not exist before. All these phenomena are so many indications of
fissures in the earth, which afford new channels to waters which might
have circulated there before.
(>. Relatively to the sea-coasts, these phenomena are often men-
tioned by authors in a peculiar manner ; rarely do we see it expli-
citly announced, there is an elevation ; but the event is stated in
other terms, referring the effect to the most moveable element. In
this way authors speak of the sea having retired more or less, leav-
ing its bed dry, either permanently or only for an instant : some-
times, on the contrary, they mention that the sea suddenly over-
flowed more or less elevated coasts. Geologists translate these
indications by the term oscillation, if the phenomenon be mo-
mentary, and by the terms upheaval, or subsidence of coasts, if it
be permanent, because they refer these effects to the solid parts of
the globe, and not to the sea, the level of which does not vaiy.
Nevertheless it must be borne in mind that, if these transitory phe-
nomena may sometimes be attributed to oscillations of the earth,
they may also arise from a real impulse communicated to the
waters of the sea, and possibly partake of both causes. We
know, in fact, that during earthquakes the sea is sometimes vio-
lently ao-itated, that its waters, elevated to considerable heights,
occasionally make fearful irruptions on the land, advancing and
6. What is meant by oscillation ? What is meant by upheaval ? What
bv subsidence 9
CONSTANT LEVEL OF SEAS. 101
retiring again, carrying devastation over a greater or less extent
These impetuous movements of advance and retreat, accompanied
by sudden dislocations caused by subterraneous commotions: in the
solid crust of the globe, may occasion frightful havoc. The his-
tory of the Grecian archipelago, of the islands of Japan, and of a
multitude of places, is full of disasters produced by these catas-
trophes.
The various effects produced by earthquakes under our eyes, and those
cited in the most authentic narrations, tend to confirm what is transmitted
to us from the most remote times, although we might state the facts in other
terms. Who dares formally to contradict Pliny, relating, according to the
historians, that Sicily was separated from Italy by an earthquake ; that the
island of Cy'prus was seperaled from Syria by the same means ; and that of
Eubce'a (Negropont) from IkeotLi, »&c.? We would not even positively deny
the existence of the Atlantis, swallowed by the waters, according to Egyp-
tian tradition, in a day and a night. Let us rather declare, that the assem-
blage of observations we have, evidently slio.vs that immense upheavals and
subsidences have for a long time formed part of the mechanism of nature, in
bringing (he surface of the earth to the configuration we now observe.
7. Constant level of seas. — We have just admitted the subsid-
ence and upheaval of coasts, and laid down the principle that the
level of seas is invariable : but this last assertion being contrary to
opinions commonly received by the world, it is necessary to sup-
port it by demonstration. The laws of hydrostatics teach us that
a mass of liquid cannot be permanently elevated or depressed at
one point of its surface, but that a level must be established after
oscillation, great or small, ceases. Hence it follows that the levei
of the sea cannot be stationary at one point, without its being so
throughout, and thaUthe waters cannot be elevated or depressed in
one spot, without similar changes being experienced at all points
of the same basin. Now we know thousands of localities where
the surface of the sea has not undergone the least variation since
the most remote historic times ; therefore the level has not changed,
and its constancy is the most positive fact we are aware of, be-
cause it has been subject to the proof of all ages. On the other
hand, if we could be led to suppose, like the inhabitants of Chile,
seeing the manifest change on their coast, that the sea has sub-
sided there, we must also conclude, with the inhabitants of Cali-
fornia, Peru, Brazil, &c., that in those places it underwent no
variation. It must also be admitted that the sea has risen at th-3
bottom of the Gulf of Arabia, as it has done, in different epochs, on
the roasts of Portugal, in the Straits of Messina, &c. All these
circumstances are incompatible with each other, and opposed to
the laws of hydrostatics; and hence we conclude, that instead of
the immutability of the ground, which an error, analogous to the
idea of immobility of the globe, has created, we must admit immu-
7. Does the sea always maintain the same level ? What reasons lead to
the opinion that the level of seas is always the same?
»
Of THE
102 SLOW AND PROGRESSIVE SUBSIDENCE.
lability of the seas, by acknowledging that the solid surface of our
planet is susceptible of elevations, depressions, and all kinds of
disturbances.
The slow upheaval of Sweden has already been noticed (p. 20).
8. Slow and progressive subsidence. — There is no doubt that,
for four centuries past, the western coast of Greenland is continu-
ally sinking, through an extent of two hundred leagues north and
south ; ancient buildings, both on the low islands and on the con-
tinent, have been gradually submerged ; and it has been frequently
necessary to move various establishments built near the shore,
farther inland. Subsidence of certain islands in the South Seas has
been indicated ; but in those places, so rarely visited by geologists,
the facts are not yet clearly established.
9. General conclusion. — It must now appear to be well estab-
lished, that earthquakes are capable of producing great modifica-
tions of the earth's surface, since, within our times, vast tracts of
country have been elevated sensibly above the level of the sea. It
is not less evident there is a slow power in operation, in virtue of
which, different parts of our continents may also be successively
raised ; and that it also produces gradual sinkings as well as sud-
den subsidences, which are doubtless correlative phenomena.
All these circumstances, however remarkable, are, nevertheless,
not very astonishing, when we reflect on the enormous dispropor-
tion which exists between the thickness of the solid crust of the
globe, and the mass of melted matter it envelopes. Is it surprising
that such a crust, a mere rind, relatively almost as thin as a coating
of gold-leaf on an orange, should be disturbed.in every manner by
die least movement of the subjacent mass, particularly if we beai
in mind that similar movements doubtlessly have been taking
place ever since the first pellicle was consolidated on the surface,
and all the successive crusts must have been rent in every direc-
tion, and therefore their mass could not afford the resistance of a
continuous envelope ?
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.
10. General notion — Erphsion — Eruption. — Volcanic pheno-
mena are closely connected with earthquakes; they are, in a
manner, the final results of them. When, by the shaking and ele-
vation of the ground, the terrestrial crust is deeply broken, a tem-
porary or permanent communication is established between the
interior and exterior of the globe, through which various kinds of
matter are disengaged from the bosom offhe earth. Through the
crevices escape gases of different kinds, waters hot or cold, simple
8. i« there any evidence of the slow and gradual subsidence of land?
9. Why is it believed that earthquakes modify the earth's surface ?
10. What are volcanic phenomena? Give some instances of volcanic
phenomena.
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. 103
or sulphurous, and loaded with mud, are the most simple transi-
tory results. But frequently there are, also, through the upheaved
and broken ground, amidst violent detonations, explosions which
eject, to a great distance, all the debris of the formation, as
happened at Saint-Michel, in the Azores, in 1522, where the
debris of two hills covered the whole city of Villa-Franca. It
most frequently happens, at the same time, that more or less con
siderable eruptions of incandescent matters take place, consisting
of scoriae, pumice, &c., in a mefted state, which are either projected
to a distance, or run on the slopes, or accumulate on the spot to a
greater or less height ; this has occurred in a great many localities.
Eruption of the island of Saint George. — In the month of May 1808, in
the island of Suint George, one of the Azores, the soil in the midst of culti-
vated fields after being upheaved opened at many points with a fearful noise.
It first formed a vast cavity, or crater, of 100,000 square yards, then a
smaller one at the distance of a league, and finally twelve or fifteen little
craters on the broken surface. An enormous quantity of scoriae and pumice
was projected to a distance, and the ground was covered a yard and a half
deep over an extent a league wide and four leagues long. For more than
three weeks afterwards currents of melted matter flowed from the principal
crater to the sea.
Monte. Nuovo. — Monte-Nuovo, formed in 1S38, at the bottom of the bay
of Baia, on the coast of Naples, is another example of a similar eruption.
Violent earthquakes had continued during two years : on the 21th and 28th
September they did not cease either day or night ; the plain found between
Lake Averne, Monte- Barbara and the sea, was then upheaved, and various
cracks were evident, fyc. (Pietro Giacomo di Toledo). Then a great extent
of ground was elevated, and suddenly assumed the form of a growing moun-
tain ; in the night of the same, day this little mountain of earth opened with
a great noise, and vomited flames, as well as pumice, stones and cinders
(Porzio). The pumice came from the upheaval of the soil, which consists
of this material throughout Campa/nia ; and the stones and cinders came
from the eruption which occurred at the moment : we still see on the south
side of the mountain a ridge of scoriae, and on its summit the crater which
produced them. The eruption lasted seven days, and the matters projected
and ejected partly filled Lake Lucrin. From that time the most perfect
tranquillity has prevailed.
Jorullo. — There was something analogous, but under peculiar circum-
stances, in what happened in Mechoacan, noar the town of Ario, on the
29th September, 1759, after an earthquake of two months duration. In the
midst, of a plain covered with sugar-cane and indigo, and traversed by twc
rivulets, there formed in a single night, says M. Humboldt, a gibbosity
(bunching up) 1 BO yards high near the centre, covered by thousands of
small smoking cones, in the midst of which were raised up six great hil-
locks, arranged in one line (Jig. 184), in the direction of the volcanoes of
Colima and of Popocatapctl. The highest of these hillocks, called Jorullo,
was more than five hundred yards in height above the plain ; from its sides
escaped a great quantity of lavas.
Vesuvius. — Something similar must have occurred in Vesuvius, for Strabo
describes the mountain so called by the ancients without in any way allud
ing to the remarkable cone which now exists ( fig. 185), and which he
would not have failed to mention. It is evident this cone did not then
exist; but the crests which rise in semicircles on the north, forming what
is new called the somma, probably constituted part of a ooniplete circle; the
30
104
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.
Fig. 184. — Volcan of Jorullo.
snith half, which was much more arched, and separated from the other by
a diametrical split, only offers now a trace at the east, and an indication at
the west by the pumice tuta of Salvatore. The mountain, which LA proba.
bly represented in fig. 18b', was, says Strabo, very fertile on it* slopes; its
Fig. 185. — View of Vesuvius Fig. 186. — Vesuvius in the time
as it now is. of Strabo.
summit was truncated, in a. great port united, entirely sterile, of a burnt
aspect, exhibiting cavities filed with cracks and calcined stones ; from which
it may be conjectured that these, places were formerly burning craters. All
leads to the belief that the cone, which alone bears the name of Vesuvius
now, all the products of which differ from the rocks of the somma, was not
formed till long afterwards, and probably at the time of the famous eruption
in the year 79, which cost the life of the Roman naturalist; it then, with,
out doubt, formed a permanent conduit in the midst of the matters which
are raised in form of a dome, and which has been enveloped by subsequent
scorise. This catastrophe seems to have produced but little lava, but a hor-
rible upheaval, which precipitated a great part of the mountain into the sea
(Pliny the younger), and buried Herculaneum and Pompeii, not under tor-
rents of melted matter, as commonly said, but under avalanches of pumice
which previously existed on the slope of the mountain, for Vesuvius itself
has never produced an atom. If the whole south slope turned towards the
sea is now occupied by lava, it is evident that before the formation of the
permanent volcan it was covered with pumice tufa, traces of which are still
heen at different points, the same as now on the external slope of the sornma,
and in all Campa'nia.
11. Definition of a Volcan. — In those events, it often happens
that the rent, which has given rise to observed effects, rs obstructed
or closed at a considerable depth, and tranquillity is entirely re-
stored, a^ at Monte-nuovo. Under other circumstances, on the
1 1. What is a vo'can, or volcano ?
SUBMARINE ERUPTIONS. IOC
contrary, the rent forms a permanent conduit at once, or after seve
rai shocks in the same place. In this case there is sometimes
established a continuously active furnace, from which gaseous
matter in abundance is disengaged, or from which lava continu-
ously boils, and from which there is an incessant projection of
scoriae ; this has been the case at Stromboli from the remotest
antiquity. At other times the conduit is temporarily obstructed at
Us upper part ; but the least effort is sufficient to remove the ob-
struction, or to produce a new opening in
the vicinity, through some fissure which
communicates with the principal conduit
(Jig. 187). In all cases, the result is a
centre of easy communication between
the interior and exterior of the earth, and
it is this which is called a volcan or vol-
cano. Fig.181.— Volcanic conduits.
This facility of communication is probably a preservative against the vio
lence of earthquakes ; indeed it has been observed that, from the moment an
eruption takes place anywhere, the shocks which had been felt up to that
time, become fewer and weaker, and even cease altogether. The earthquake
of Caraccas, in 1812, terminated by the eruption of the volcan of Saint-
Vincent, in the Antilles; the eruption of Jomllo, and that of Monte-Nuovo,
terminated the earthquakes which desolated the surrounding countries. Oil
the contrary, when a volcano becomes in .ctive, it seems to announce earth-
quakes; in 1797, when the volcan of Purace, near Popayan, had ceased to
emit flarne and smoke, the valley of Quito v/as agitated by violent shocks.
Volcans, therefore, seem to be natural vents, designed by Providence to pre-
vent a complete destruction of the globe, and its inevitable rupture into frag-
ments, which, launched into space, might there describe new orbits.
12. Submarine eruptions. — It is not only on land that volcanic
phenomena occur; they also take place under the sea, as might
be naturally anticipated. In our own times, we have had formed in
this manner the island of Julia,in 1831, on the south-west of Sicily ;
Bogoslaw, in 1814, in the Aleutian Archipelago ; Sabrina, and
another one not named, in 1811, in the Azores, where, previously,
at different epochs, others were formed, according to the most
authentic histories. The same thing occurred, at different times,
around Iceland : and various accounts indicate that in the islands
of Sunda, the Philippines and Moluccas, throughout the Pacific, in
the Kuriles, Kamtschatka, &c., similar phenomena took place.
Volcan of Unalaska. — One of the most striking examples is furnished by
the island, which arose in 1796, about ten leagues from the northern point
of Unalaska, one of the Aleutian islands. At first a column of smoke rose
above the surface of the sea; then a black point appeared, the smmit of
which launched forth sheets of fire and stones with violence. This pheno-
menon continued for several months, during which the island grew succes-
sively in extent and height ; later, smoke only issued, which ceased altoge-
ther four years afterwards. Still the island continued to enlarge, and to rise
12- Do volcanic eruptions take place on land exclusively ?
106 PHENOMENA OF SUBMARINE ERUPTIONS.
without any apparent ejection ; and, in 1806, it formed a cone which might
be seen from Unalaska, and upon it were four other smaller ones, on the
north-west side.
Santorin. — The Mediterranean also furnishes a fine example of submarine
eruptions, in the midst of the space comprised between the islands of San-
torin, Teresia and Aspronisi (Jig. 193), which, according to the ancients,
appeared above the water several centuries before the Christian era, in con-
sequence of violent earthquakes. In this circuit, Hiera arose first, 186 years
before our era, which subsequently grew by little islets rising on its borders
in the years 19, 726, 1427 ; then, in the same way, Micra-Kameni, in 1573,
and Nea-Kameni, in 1707, were formed ; and successively growing in 1709,
1711, 1712, &,c. No crater was formed in either of these islands, and we
only hiive there the appearance of volcanic matter in form of a do?ne, which
seems to have covered the orifice through which it escaped. There was no
volcan there, according to the terms of our definition, but a tendency to form
one at some future time. The islands of Milo, Argentiera, Polino, Policau-
dro, Poios, &c., are formed of the same materials, and probably had the same
origin.
13. Wliat passes in these phenomena. — These submarine phe-
nomena are announced by incandescent matters ejected above
water ; by scoriss and pumice, which float on the surface ; by burn-
ing rocks, which appear in the midst of waves of vapour, and by
the boiling of the sea, the temperature of which becomes very
much increased. All these things occurred in our own times, at
Julia, at Sabrina, &c., and are such as authors mention in detail, in
all their accounts. Father Goree has given us a history of the
upheaval of Nea-Kameni, of Santorin, in 1707; and all the cir-
cumstances he relates agree with what Strabo, Pliny, Plutarch and
Justin tell us of the appearance of Hiera, in the midst of flames,
and a violent ebullition of the sea.
But the circumstances we have just spoken of are not always all present
at the same time. Sometimes no solid rock appears above water ; this
was the case at Kamtschatka, in 1737, where jets of vapour, great ebul-
lition of the sea, and pumice-stones floating on the surface, were all that
was perceived ; but when the spot could be approached, there was found a
chaia of submarine mountains, where there had been previously a depth of
more than a hundred fathoms. In certain cases there is not even a jet of
vapour, and the phenomenon is manifested by the heat of the water only ;
this happened in 1820, at the island of Banda, among the Moluccas, where
the bay, which was upwards of fifty fathoms deep, was filled by the tranquil
elevation of compact basa'ltic matter, probably pre-existing, which formed
an elevated .promontory composed of large blocks piled one on the other;
and its appiarance was manifested by the heat of the water only. It also
beems, that after eruptions, there is often a peaceful and slow upheaval, as
in the island formed before Unalaska, and at Santorin, according to the
observations of M. Virlet. Indeed, between Micra-Kameni and the port of
Phira, where there is an abrupt submarine mountain, there was, at the be-
/inning of the present century, fifteen fathoms of water above the highest
part , but there were only four fathoms in 1830, and little more than two in
1834. It is presumed a new island, that is, the summit of a new cone,
will appear in the gulf, and the appearance will, probably, be accompanied
by sur.h phenomena as we mention.
13 What pnenomena occur in submarine eruptions ?
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.— CRATERS. 107
Let us add that islands which rise to the surface of seas do not always
remain. Many of them disappear after a longer or shorter period, either
by being washed down by the waves, as is supposed to have been the case
with the island of Julia, or by their mass sinking into an abyss formed be-
neath them ; the last circumstance doubtlessly happened to an island which
was elevated in 1719, near Saint-Michael (Azores), and disappeared in
1723, leaving in its place a depth of seventy fathoms. In the same region
there was an island in 1638, where there is now a bottomless abyss.
1 4. Crater of upheaval, or elevation. — The first effect of an
eruption is to burst, by its violence, the crust of the earth in the
direction which matters pent up in the interior have taken to
escape. The ground, no matter of what nature, is at first raised
to a more or less considerable extent, or arched like a bell, and
often cracked in every direction ; at once, the explosion occurring,,
as if by the action of a formidable powder-blast, an opening is
made in the form of a fennel, through which often escape gaseous
and other matters which caused the event. It is to these initiatory
openings, which may be made anywhere, to which the name of
crater of elevafion has been given, from the necessity of distin-
guishing them from all that may subsequently occur in the series
of volcanic phenomena. The hillock itself which is produced on
the soil, by the first effect, is called the cone of elevation, to distin-
guish it from analogous hillocks which are often formed also by
the accumulation of incoherent materials ejected from the volcano.
15. Character of these openings. — What characterizes craters
of elevation, and enables us to recognise them in places where
there is no account of an eruption, is, the disposition or arrange-
ment of the upheaved strata, being very different from what is
everywhere else observed. These beds are here found inclined all
round the axis of the cone, as in the
section (Jig. 188), rising more and
more from the base to the summit,
and presenting their abrupt escarp-
Fiff. 188.— Disposition of strata • * *r c if
around a crater of elevation. ments towards the Ulterior of the
cavity. Monte-Nuovo is an exam-
ple in miniature : the mountain was formed by elevation, hollowed at
its summit by ejecting gases and incandescent matters ; and the
cavity, which can be examined now, has around it, at an inclination
of thirty degrees, strata of different formations, which in all the
rest of Campa'nia are horizontal. The semicircle of the somma
presents the same characters in the inclined tables of amphige'nic
porphyries, and analogous circumstances exist in many other
localities.
1(5. Another character, not less important, and especially useful
when the upheaved matters are not divided into beds, is furnished
14. What is a crater of elevation ? What is a cone of elevation ?
15. How are craters of elevation characterized ?
30*
103
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA—CRATERS.
us in great craters of elevation by the crevices or cracks which
extend from the margin of the escarpment to the external base of
the mountain, forming what are named burancos in the Canary
islands, where the) ire so remarkable. One of these barancos
(or ravines) much deeper than the others, extends from the foot ot
the mountain to the bottom of the crater, as is shown in the follow-
ing view (Jig. 189). This last character is seen almost always in
Fig. lis'9. — View of the Island of Falma.
tne different localities produced by similar events, as well as m
most islands which have been upheaved in our times in the midst
of the ocean ; frequently there are many valleys of the same kind.
Remaiks on the formation of craters. — We have mentioned explosion as
determining, definitely, the formation of the crate'riforrn cavity at the sum-
rnii of the upheaved mass ; however, it is not probable that this circum-
stance, which is applicable to Monte-Nuovo, the island of St. George, &c.,
is constantly seen in all cases ; it seems to be even totally inadmissible in
certain craters of vast extent known to exist in a number of places. But
this explosion is not even necessary. In fact it is easy to conceive that
after a fracture, as in Jig. 190,
which is a correlative result of ele-
vation, it may happen that all the
erect, column-like masses, and all
the elongated points between the
rents, might be tumbled down at the
same moment, or by a subsequent
action. Hence results an open cavi-
ty (Jig. 191), the margin of which
is formed by all the debris, and the
depth is in proportion to the sum of
the voids or spaces formed by the
fractures. On the other hand, it is
clear that elevation is produced by
gome matter, liquid or gaseous,
which pushes the crust of the earth
and forces it to swell upwards ; now,
if it happen that this matter should
find exit at some other point, or re.
tire again into the bowels of the
earth, the upheaved part being left
without support may sink into the
abyss left beneath it, and conse-
quently cause an immense vacuity
in the midst of the gibbosity or
Fig. 191. hillock, then merely forming amass
16. How are craters of elevation distinguished when the upheaved mat-
ters are not divided into beds ?
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA—CRATERS. 109
hollow in the centre, and cracked on the margin. This must have taken
place in many cases, and notably in the mass of Etna, (,fig. 192), the east-
ern slope of which presents a vast excavation, called Vtd del Bove, which is
bounded by high ridges, cracked at various points.
Lava of 1822. -
Terminal cone. "
Va) de Bove. •
Lava of 1CC9. •
CATANEA. - -^^
i
Islands of Cyclops '-;
Fig. 192. — Plan of Etna and its environs, according to the relievo of
M. Elie de Beaumont.
This comment need not he regarded as a simple theoretic speculation
there are many examples of similar excavations, independent of the effects
produced by earthquakes. At the summit of Mount Etna there is one of
1300 feet in depth, which dates from 1832, and many others which were
produced at the end of the last or beginning of the present century. Fre-
quently lakes are formed on a sudden, sometimes of boiling water, by the
sinking of the land consequent on volcanic eruptions, as in 1835, near the
ancient Cesarea in Cappadocia; in 1820, in St. Michael's (Azores), &c. It
has also happened that high volcanic mountains have at once sunk, their
place being at once filled by deep lakes, as the volcano of Papadayann in
Java, in 1772, which carried away with it forty villages built on its sides
as also, in 1638, the peak of the Moluccas, which could be perceived twelve
leagues at sea. We know that the summit of Cargu.irai'zo which rivalled
Ohimborazo in height, crumbled in 1 698, and the same occurred to Capac-
TJrcu, also situited on the plane of Quito, a short time before the arrival of
the Spaniards in America. Many other facts of 4^Bimilar kind could be
adduced in support of the theory advanced.
17. Effects subsequent to elevation. — The crate 'riform cavities
we have spoken of sometimes remain the same as when first pro-
duced ; often, however, various volcanic phenomena subsequently
occur at different times and in various ways. In this manner it
was that the cone of Vesuvius (fig. 185) was formed in 79 in the
ancient crater of the Somma (p. 104) ; that the peak of TenerifFe
is found in a circle, the vertical walls of which rise from 600 to
1200 feet; that the volcan of Taal, in Luzon, one of the Philip-
pine islands, is in the centre of a basin filled with water, and our
17. Do craters of elevation always remain the same as when first pro
duced ? Give some examples of the secondary effects of eruption*.
10
no
VOLCANIC ISLAND*.
rounded by elevated rocks, having a single opening only for
entrance &c.
Islands which have been elevated in the midst of the sea frequently
exhibit phenomena of the same kind. Thus the islands of Santoriri, The-
rtsia, Aspronisi, (Jig. 193), which were elevated long before the Christian
era, present the appearance of a vast crater of elevation : their slopes are
gentle (Jig. 193} externally, but abrupt, on the contrary, towards the centre
Theresia.
Santorii).
193. — Section of Santorin and adjacent islands.
of the circle of which they form the margin. The ground is composed ol
various stratn, inclined outwardly, among which are limestone and argilla'
ceous schist. In the middle of the circle, the depth of which is considera-
ble on the borders, all the subsequent volcanic phenomena were produced,
and here the three summits of cones successively appeared, which consti-
lute three modern islands, and are still prepiring new eruptions.
Something similar is seen in the Gulf of Bengal, on the Island of Barren,
discovered in 1787. It is a vast circle (Jiff. 194) formed of high moun-
tains, into which the sea penetrates by a single opening, arid has a volcan
in the centre which was in full activity at the time of the discovery.
Fig. 194.— Vie^of the Island of Barren in the Gulf of Bengal.
18. Similarity of configuration in Volcanic Islands. — DifTeren'
volcanic islands which have been formed under our eyes, as it were,
in the midst of the ocean, are entirely analogous to those we have
mentioned. The island of Sabrina, at the moment of its appear-
ance, presented a crater which opened to the south, (Jigs. 195, 1(J6).
and terminated by an opening, through which issued a current of
boiling water: according to the accounts, the island of Julia must
have been somewhat analogous ; and the history given by Captain
Tha)Ter, reported by Poeppig, shows such to have been the case.
On the 6th September, 1835, to the north of New Zealand, this
navigator almost witnessed a submarine eruption, which presented
18. How do volcanic islands differ from each other in form?
VOLCANIC ISLANDS.
11.
Fig. 195. Fig. 196.
Appearance and form of certain volcanic islands.
an annular rock, almost on a level with the surface of the sea, in
the midst of which was a lagune having a single outlet, and in
which the water was burning. Now, these islands appear to be
nothing more than points of domes upheaved, like those in the
gulf of Santorin, either instantaneously or slowly, and having the
summit broken, like Monte-Nuovo. These are true craters of
elevation or of explosion, as we would call them ; and as such
they may consist of solid rocks, or of various tufas, or even of
scoriae accumulated on their borders. The archipelago of the
Azores, which have so often witnessed rising from the sea similar
islands, which time has destroyed, presents us one which seems to
have escaped destruction, to exhibit to us how all those were
formed which have disappeared. This is the rock of Porto de
Ilheo, which presents a vast circle, into which vessels enter for
shelter; its sides rise 400 feet and are composed of volcanic tufa.
19. These phenomena explain to us the origin of a great many
islands found in the ocean (fig. 197), both by the analogy of their
form to those we have named, and their nature. Some are in the
form of a horse-shoe, having a more ._ -
or less expanded opening, which rr~~~^~^ 0
gives access to the middle of the
o
0
deep basin they enclose, and in the
centre of which isolated volcanic
hillocks are occasionally found. Fig. 197.— Disposition of certain
Others are entirely circular, having islands in the South Scis
some of the points of the circle more or less broken, or groups of
small islands arranged in a circle, which are more or less promi-
nent above the water.
20. Different periols of the formation of a volcan. — We may
often distinguish in the mass of a volcanic mountain, several dif-
19. How do volcanic phenomena explain the origin of certain islands 7
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.
ferent parts, each of which corresponds to a particular mode of
formation. The first gibbosity or hill is, in general, the effect of
elevation of the pre-existing soil, which may be of any kind or
nature. Afterwards, sooner or later a fissure is formed, which
produces either a crater of elevation or a dome of pasty matter,
as at Jorullo, clearly detached from the first hillock ; and, as a last
result, in the midst of one or the other a permanent chimney is
formed. Often the formation of the terminal cone then commences,
by the scoriaceous matters raised by the melted lava filling the
primitive conduit, which overflows the margin of the aperture, or
it is ejected into the air, from which it falls again around the centre
of eruption, accumulating in cones with a maximum slope of from
30° to 35°. These loose scoriae melt on the side towards the inte-
rior of the chimney, which they narrow more and more by the suc-
cessive cornice-like projections they form, and in this way conceal
the true diameter of the crater.
21. It is rare that these three kinds of formations are all found
in the same volcano ; bat we always find the gibbosity produced by
elevation, and one or the other of the secondary domes. At Tene-
riffe there is a broken dome which was upheaved in the middle of
a crater of elevation. At Vesuvius, from the constant solidity of
the base, and other circumstances, we may infer the existence of a
central nucleus, produced in the same way as a dome, in the year
79, afterwards enveloped in loose materials, and bearing on its
summit a true cone of scoriaB. At Etna (Jig. 198) we clearly
Fig. 198. — View and profile of Etna, and the surrounding country.
distinguish the primitive hill or gibbosity, showing sheets or
coats of ancient upheaved lavas, on the middle of the slightly-
arched surface, which all this part of the island presents ; it is
terminated by an almost level surface, the Piano del Lago, in
the midst of which rises the terminal cone of scoriae, regularly cir-
cumscribed on all sides, and clearly separated from the base on
which it was formed. On the slopes are small cones of eruption,
formed here and there, at different times, which have since contri-
buted to the swelling up of the whole of the surrounding land.
22. It is clear, that the cones of scoriae constructed in the man-
ner just mentioned, at the bottom of volcanic gulfs, cannot be very
solid: they often change their form at every eruption. Sometimes
the edifice rises more and more ; sometimes, on the contrary, it
20. Are volcans always characterized by the same kind of formations?
21. Do we always find in one volcano all the kinds of formation? What
one is always found ?
22. What are the characters of cones of sconce found at the bottom of
Wcanic gulfs ?
INTERIOR OF CRATERS. 113
crumbles into more or less considerable shreds, and hence cones
are deeply broken in all manners of shape. Sometimes the whole
mass is swallowed at once in the abyss it covered, and is recon-
structed by subsequent eruptions. This took place in the terminal
cone of Etna, which has several times disappeared entirely, leaving
an immense aperture, without parapet, in the midst of a little plain
which crowned the original gibbosity or hill. At Vesuvius only
the upper part of the cone has ever been modified.
23. Interior of craters. — Contrary to the expectation of all those
who visit volcanoes, the interior of craters seldom possesses much
that is worthy of observation. After great eruptions, during which
they cannot be approached, these cavities (which are of conical
form, and have a more or less extensive diameter at the top, with a
bottom apparently formed of a sheet of consolidated lava, which
covers the principal chimney) ordinarily present for observation
merely jets of sulphurous vapours, escaping here and there from
fissures in the soil, from interstices in blocks of crumbled scoria?, or
a greater or less number of small cones raised up in different
places. Occasionally we see one or more gulfs, sometimes filled
with vapours which escape continually, and sometimes revealing
the incandescent lava in the depth; sometimes silent and dark,
inspiring with terror, but without possessing the least interest for
observation. In long intervals of crises, traces of volcanic action
often entirely disappear; in certain instances even the sides of
ihe crater become covered by vegetation, as is related of Vesuvius
before the eruption of 1631.
24. There are, however, some observations worthy attention.
The crater of Stromboli, which has been in continuous activity from
the most ancient times, still presents phenomena identical with
those recorded by Spallanzani, in 1788. It is constantly full of
melted lava, which alternately rises and sinks in the cavity. Having
reached to twenty-five or thirty feet of the edge, this lava swells,
is covered with large vesicles or blisters, which speedily burst with
a noise, permitting the escape of an enormous quantity of gas, and
projecting scoriaceous matters on all sides. It immediately sinks,
after an explosion, then rises again, to produce the same effects,
which are in this way repeated at regular intervals of some mi-
nutes.
25. If the lava of Stromboli were less fluid, it is conceived, that
havino; reached to its highest point, it would there stop, assume an
arched form, and become consolidated into a more or less elevated
cone ; and then, if an explosion occurred at a certain instant, a new
conical crater would be found in the middle of the old one. This
23. What is found in the interior of craters ?
24. What is remarked of the crater of Stromboli ?
25. What would probably be observed, if the lava of Stromboli were ItM
riuid than it is ?
10*
114
INTERIOR OF CRATERS.
explains what frequently takes place in volcanoes, and, for exam-
ple, at Vesuvius (fig. 199), where domes have been raised which
remained for a long time, and were subsequently broken, giving
passage to lavas, and finally sank into abysses left beneath them.
Certain craters, having a widely extended bottom, often contain
hills of considerable height, which have had an origin such as we
have described; either the lava is arrested at a certain height, in
Fig. 199. — Adventitious Crater, in the middle of Vesuvius, in 1829.
form of a cap, or swelled up at different points, or elevations took
place in different matters which had filled the cavity.
28. Sometimes, in place of lava, there is found at the bottom of
craters boiling sulphur, as was seen at Vulcano, and, on a larger
scale, at the volcan of Taal, in the island of Luzon, and at that of
Azufra., to tne north of Quito, in the Andes ; hills, and even
domes of sulphur, are also mentioned, as M. Boussingault observed
at the volcan of Pasto.
A crater now often mentioned by voyagers is that of Kirauea, on the island
of Hawaii, one of the Sandwich group. This vast cavity is three and a
naif miles long1 and two and a half wide, and over a thousand feet deep :
Uaplain Wilkes, in his narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition,
r-tate? that "the city of New York might be placed within it, and when at
Us bottom would be hardly noticed. A black ledge surrounds it at the depth
«f 660 feet, and thence to the bottom is 384 feet. The bottom looks in the
26. Is anything found at the bottom of craters besides lava?
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.— SOLFATARAS. 115
daytime like a heap of smouldering ruins. The descent, to the ledge appears
to the sight a short and easy task, but it takes an hour to accomplish.
"All the usual ideas of volcanic craters are dissipated upon seeing this.
There is no elevated cone, no igneous matter or rocks ejected beyond the
rim. The banks appear as if built of massive blocks, which are in places
clothed with ferns, nourished by the issuing vapours.
** What is wonderful in the day, becomes ten times more so at night.
The immense pool of cherry-red liquid lava, in a state of violent ebullition,
illuminates the whole expanse, and flows in all directions like water, while
an illuminated cloud hangs over it like a vast canopy."
27. Solfata'ras. — There are a great many craters which for a
long time have not given exit to any lava, and are reduced to dis-
engaging, in greater or less abundance, sulphurous gas, which
escapes by a multitude of fissures in the soil, and often accompa-
nied by aqueous vapour. Hence the name of Solfata'ra has been
given to those places where these phenomena are more or less
developed. There are some craters which seem to have been
always in this state. Such, for example, is the Solfata'ra of Pouz-
zouli, in the kingdom of Naples, which is a vast crater of eleva-
tion, at the bottom of which are found broken volcanic rocks, daily
decomposed by the vapours. This solfata'ra is of the highest anti-
quity, and appears never to have presented other phenomena than
those now observed. When in repose, volcanic craters become
more or less active solfata'ras.
28. It is not uncommon to find one or more lakes, frequently of
great depth, at the bottom of craters and solfata'ras. The waters
they contain are sometimes quite pure, but they are often charged
with various salts, or sulphurous or sulphuric acid, as was seen
in the volcan of Teschem, in the island of Java, prior to 1817,
the year when this mountain was entirely destroyed by the action
of gas.
29. Commencement of eruptions. — Continuous emissions of e^s
or scoriaceous matter from certain volcans, must not be confounded
with eruptions, which are sudden events, fortunately transitory,
often bringing desolation over an entire country. When an erup-
tion is about to take place it is ordinarily preceded by earthquakes,
after which it suddenly occurs with more or less noise. If a volcan
already exist in the country, an eruption begins by pouring out
abundant fumes, composed of various gases and aqueous vapour,
then pulverulent matter called volcanic ashes, the quantity of which
is sometimes immense ; then foilow directly, when they do not
appear from the beginning, fragments of red-hot porous stones,
called rapiUi or lapilli and pouzzolani, more or less considerable
blocks of solid matter, which are sometimes ejected to great dis
27. What are Solfata'ras ?
28. What is the character of the water of lakes found in craters ?
29. How is the commencement of eruptions characterized .' What are
volcanic ashes? What is rapilli^? What are volcanic bombs? Wh%f IP
tu'fa ?
31
119 VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.— ERUPTIONS.
lances ; and lastly, portions of melted matter torn from the lava
filling the crater, and becoming rounded by their motion through
the air, form what are called volcanic bombs. From all this we
have, amidst violent detonations, immense bundles or masses of
various matters projected to great heights, lighted by reflection from
the melted lava, part of which fall at greater or less distances, ac-
cording to their weight and the force with which they are impelled
Ashes, rapilli, or pumice then produce in the vicinity of the volcan,
sometimes even at a distance, considerable deposits, which becoming
solid by their weight and by water, form what is termed volcanic
tufa,pumice tufa, and various conglomerates.
The vapours and ashes ejected from volcanoes sometimes form enormous
clouds, frequently dense enough to intercept the light of day, and shroud
the whole neighbourhood in darkness. These clouds, driven by the wind,
are sometimes carried to the distance of twenty, fifty, and even two him.
dred leagues. This happened in 1-812, when the ashes of Saint Vincent, in
the Antilles, were carried to Barbadoes, and so darkened the air that persons
could not see their way. The ashes of Vesuvius were carried in 1794 to
the end of Calabria; and it was found even in Procopus, that during the
eruption of 452 they were conveyed as far as Constantinople.
What occurs at the bottom of seas during eruptions is not seen ; but it is
clear that the ejection of earthy matters, rapilli, and pumice, are not less
abundant, because we find at these times on the surface enormous quanti-
ties of them, and in land upheaved, there are seen distinctly deposits of
volcanic tufa, pumice tufa, and conglomerates, precisely like those formed
on land.
30. Appearance of melted matters. — The phenomena mentioned
are sometimes the only effects of an eruption ; but most generally
they are only the precursors orsequents of the expulsion of melted
matter, which soon appears under different forms. Sometimes
these matters, most frequently in mass, rise in cones or domes
above the very orifice from which they issued, sometimes entire,
sometimes vertically perforated in the centre, sometimes suscep-
tible of- being pushed further out. This happened at Jorullo, and
again and again in the gulf of Santorin, and the same must occur
in a great many other localities.
31. Under other circumstances, the crater first formed at the
oummit of a volcan is completely filled with melted matters ; these
soon break a passage at a greater or less depth, pouring out tor-
rents, which furrow the side of the mountain, and run to the
plain, where they spread more or less.
32. Form of currents. — If fissures or cracks of eruption be
formed at the foot of a volcano in a flat country, the lava escaping
from it at once forms broad horizontal sheets in the middle of the
plain. This occurred in Iceland in 1783; crevasses formed in the
plain at the foot of Skaptar-Jokul, a high volcanic mountain of the
30. What is the form of melted matters ejected from volcanoes ?
31. How are lava-currents formed ?
32. What i? the form of Lva-currcnts?
VOLCANIC PHENOMENA.— LAVA-CURRENTS. M7
country, and an immense volume of melted matter escaped from
them. This immediately spread over the soil, covering eighty
square leagues, filling up all depressions, and forming a vast lake
of fire of considerable depth.
33. But this is not always the case ; the current often forms 01
more or less inclined slopes, arid the lava forms true currents on
their surface, of greater or less length, a part of which adheres to
the land in consequence of cooling, and in evidence of its passage.
After its exit from the bosom of the earth, the melted matter soon
cools cm the outside, solidifies, wrinkling and cracking in every
direction, and thus acquires a crust, ordinarily porous, the thicknes.-j
of which becomes more or less considerable. This crust prevents
the liquid or paste it envelopes from spreading, and confines the
current to a certain thickness ; also, from its slight faculty of con-
ducting heat it prevents the interior lava from cooling, which, from
this cause, goes on very slowly. Lavas have in fact remained
liquid or pasty, and preserved a high temperature for a very con-
siderable time ; some are cited as still running on very gentle
slopes, ten years after their ejection, and others which gave off
vapour twenty-six years after their exit from the bosorn of the earth.
34. If after the external cooling the volcanic spring continues
to furnish melted lava, the current takes place in a kind of con-
solidated sack which is formed ; a sack which then strives, as it
were, in all directions, is broken and mended successively; this
causes the twisting and various irregularities in the current of
lava. When the source is stopped, the matter which escaped from
it does not continue to flow the less in the sack enclosing it, but the
latter successively flattens, and the middle is effaced, leaving a
more or less elevated roll or ridge on the margins. This is first
seen at the upper part of the current, then successively to a poi.nl
where the liquid matter, becoming
more and more viscid, has not suffi-
cient force to drag after it the solid
parts formed, to break or push them
forwards. The lava then stops at
the bottom of the sack, terminating Fig> 200. — Lava. current arrested
in a club-like mass (fig. 200). The on a sl°Pe-
form, direction, and extent of these lava-currents vary according
to circumstances, such as the degree of inclination of the mountain
sides, and the nature of the lava itself. Some volcanic products
are so pasty they cannot run, but remain over the aperture, as
occurs with certain trachytes, which then form more or less elevated
domes. Others, such as various obsidians, which seem to cool
and harden quickly, are sometimes arrested in form of great tears,
33. Do lava currents cool rapidly under all circumstances ?
34. Is the form, direction, and extent of lava-currents always the same f
118 VEINS OF LAVA, OR DYKES.
even on steep slopes, as at Teneriffe. On the contrary, stony iavas
which cool slowly and long remain fluid, are not arrested except
on a horizontal plain.
35. Various characters of the same lava. — From what has been
stated, it is certain that lavas cannot accumulate to a great thick-
ness, or spread in sheets, except on a horizontal plain. The struc-
ture of lava depends, in a degree, on its external arrangement. The
vein, which is behind -the current, on a very steep slope, is, in parts,
thin, scoriaceous, corded, and always very porous. On less steep
slopes, the surface of pieces is more united, the pores are smaller ;
on descents, at an angle of from three to five degrees, the dislocated
parts are in plates of greater or less thickness, the structure of
which presents a certain uniformity, and the centre is sometimes a
little more compact, if the thickness is sufficient. In great flows,
causing great accumulations on plains, where the depressions are
filled up, all the inferior part becomes a compact, and, more or
less, crystalline mass, which is porphyritic, because then it cools
slowly and tranquilly ; in this case it is frequently divided, through
its whole height, into columnar masses, generally normal on the
cooling surfaces, and porous at the upper part only; this is seen
at Vesuvius and Etna, where the lava is very thick, and at Iceland
in the immense deposit formed by the eruption of 1783.
36. Feins of Lava, or Dykes. — It frequently happens, that in
volcanic eruptions there is formed, on the sides of the mountain,
crevices of greater or Jess breadth, through which the lava comes
to the surface of the soil. These cracks are remarked for a Jong
time after their formation, either from remaining partly open, or
from the rapilli with which they are filled, leaving a kind of ditch,
which may be readily followed. They may be also recognised by
the partial and crate'riform excavations of these debris, which all
have the same line of direction ; sometimes they are distinguished
by rolls of scorias on the edges, which escaped while the lava was
boiling in the interior; they also exhibit conduits of lava, which
unite to each other the different cones of eruption formed on their
line of direction. It cannot be doubted that these cracks remain
partly filled with the lava to which they gave passage, giving rise
to veins, or dykes. Sometimes the lava flows above the crack or
fissure, forming sheets on the surface. Sometimes a coat or bed
of lava is found in evident communication with a dyke, which,
after having passed up through all the lower deposits, stops in thp
middle of it (^^. 201) ; and it is not rare to find several beds of
lava Jying one above the other, each one corresponding with a par-
ticular dyke (Jig. 202), to which, no doubt, it owes its origin ; the
35. Are the characters of lava always the same?
36. What are dykes? Are all dykes precisely the same in character 7
GASEOUS VOLCANIC PRODUCTS.
119
most recent of these dykes or veins being the one which has passed
up through all the inferior beds or tables, to form the upper one.
Fig. 201. Fig. 202.
Sheets, or tnbles of Lava, with their corresponding Dykes.
37. The matter that constitutes dykes is rarely porous, except
Sometimes on the sides towards the rock encasing it ; it is fre-
quently even of a finer grain than the table or bed in which the
dyke terminates ; its mass is sometimes divided into prisms per-
pendicular to the sides of the fissure, which were the cooling sur-
faces. This matter generally re-
sists atmospheric influences, and
it frequently happens that the
surrounding rock being degraded,
carried away by external agents,
the dyke remains projecting on
the side of the escarpment (fig.
203), -or even rising out of iheFig. 203.— Dyke brought into view by
earth like a wall. destruction of surrounding rocks.
88. Gaseous volcanic products. — Volcanic phenomena are ac-
companied by the production of great quantities of various gases,
some permanent, others condensable or soluble. These products
consist for the most part of watery vapour; but they are found to
contain also various acids, and other matters sublimated from the
volcano. Most of these gases are fatal when breathed.
Gases, always at a high temperature and mixed with the vapour of water,
act powerfully on the solid surrounding matters; they disaggregate and
decompose them in all ways, reduce them to powder, to mud, and form new
compounds of every kind. This happens in all solfata'ras, where it is often
necessary to be cautioned against falling into masses of muddy matter,
which is sometimes very hot. But nothing is comparable in this respect to
the volcans of Java; the acid and aqueous vapours which are there in great
abundance, destroy the rocks and form a paste of them, which speedily
becomes incapable of resisting the explosive action of the interior. These
fearful eruptions take place, not of lava as in ordinary volcanoes, but of
enormous masses of boiling water, charged with sulphuric acid and thick
mud, which destroy everything in their way, and cover the whole country
with a sulphurous slime the matter of which is called buah. This happened
in 1822, on the eruption of Gallung-Gung, which, with earthquakes and
horrible noises, was considerably sunk, truncated at the summit, and entirely
overturned. Torrents of hot sulphurous water and mud issued from renta
37. What is the character of the matter constituting dykes ? By wha*
means are dykes sometimes naturally brought into view?
38. Wh.it are the characters of the gaseous products of volcanoes? How
do gases affect surrounding solids ? Do volcanoes ever eject mud ? In
hat condition is lava when jrases are disengaged from it ?
31*
120 SOLID VOLCANIC PRODUCTS.
in the side of the mountain ; and many inhabitants were swept away in the
waters, or buried under deposits of mud, during the 8th and 12th days of
October.
Muddy eruptions of Quito. — The volca.ns of Peru, which like those of Java
have rarely produced lavas, vomit from their sides torrents of mud called
inoya, sometimes sulphurous like the buah of Java, at others carboni'ferous.
This happened in 1698, when the volcan of Carguarai'zo crumbled, covering-
more than 2500 square rniles with mud ; and in 171)7, when the village Pel-
lile'o, near Rio-Bamba, was buried under a mass of black mud, &c. What
especially characterizes the eruptions in Peru, and makes them very strange,
is that the muddy waters which spring from the bosom of the earth, are
filled with small fishes, species of which live in the neighbouring lakes; and
'.he quantity of them has been sometimes so great as to excite epidemic dis-
tases by their putrelactiori.
Gases disengaged from Lavas. — It can be readily conceived that gases
and matters of various kinds may be disengaged from the bowels of the
earth, through fissures communicating with its surface; but what is most
remarkable, they are also disengaged from lavas, although on leaving the
volcano they have no properties in common. As long as the lava is fluid
and at a high temperature nothing escapes from it, but the moment it begins
to harden, and consequently to cool, gases are disengaged in more or less
quantity. Streams, matters which filled the lowest level?, then constantly
emit the vapour of water, hydrochloric acid, sal ammoniac, which are de-
posited on the surface, to say nothing of realgar, iron, &.c., which are some-
times sublimed in the fissures or cracks. Consequently the lava itself must
contain these matters, which remain engaged in it, we know not how, while
vhe mass is fluid or pasty, and \vhich are disengaged just in proportion as
it solidifies and cools, and in a manner whieh leaves no after-trace. It is
supposed that all these matters give to porous lavas, the power of preserving
their fluidity for a much longer time than similar substances artificially
prepared.
39. Solid products of Volcanoes. — All the solid substances which
volcanoes produce in great abundance, belong to the group of si'li-
cates, generally anhy'drous si'licates, and particularly to that divi-
sion of those confounded under the name of feldspar. These are
generally compound rocks, and substances more or less mixed, the
principal base of which it is difficult to separate, and therefore
they cannot be accurately classified : we are forced to resort to
artificial divisions.
1st. Tra'cltyte (from the Greek trachus, rough) is a rock often
rough to the touch, as its name indicates, composed of albite or
rya'colite, •sometimes compact, of a ceroid or vitreo-resinous, and
occasionally earthy lustre, sometimes crystalline, the mass being
finely porous, containing crystals of the same substances, and often
also hornblende and black mica.
Albite (from the Latin, albus, white), a mineral so called from its colour,
which contains si'lica, alu'mina, and soda. A lamellar variety is found at
Chesterfield, Mass., called Cleavelandite, in honour of Professor Cleaveland.
Rya'colite (from the Greek, ruax, a stream, and litkos, stone), is a glassy
mineral, of a greyish-yellow to white colour, or colourless. Besides si'lica,
alu mina, and soda, rya'colite contains potash.
39. What are the general characters of the solid products of volcanoes 7
What is tru'chytc 1
SOLID VOLCANIC PRODUCTS. 121
Hornblende (from the German), a kind of dark or black variety of mine
al, belonging to the same group as tre'molite, acti'nolite, asbe'stus, &,c.
Mi'cu (from the Latin, mico, I shine), is a mineral generally found in
ihin, elastic laminae, soft, smooth, and of various colours and degrees of
transparency. It is one of the constituents of granite and its associate
rocks.
40. 2d. Obsi'dian (from the Greek, ops/5, view, or after Obsi-
dius, who first found it in Ethiopia"), is a homogeneous, vitreous
substance of various colours. By me ancients it was used in
place of glass, and is also called volcanic glass. It consists of si'li-
ca, alu'mina, with a little potash and oxide of iron.
This substance is produced abundantly in the islands of Lipari
and Teneriffe, the volcans of the Andes, and wherever volcanic
apertures open in tra'chyte.
41. 3d. Compact lava. A substance with a compact base of a
deep colour, most frequently formed of la bradorite, containing crys-
tals of the same substance, or of the feldspa'thic group in general,
which in the mass presents a more or less distinct porphyritic struc-
ture. Crystals of py'roxene, of am phibole, black mica and peri-
dote are also occasionally found.
La'bradorile — L ibrador spar. A beautiful variety of opalescent feldspar
from the coast of Labrador : it exhibits brilliant and mutable tints of blue,
red, green and yellow, and is susceptible of a good polish. It is cut into
small slabs, and employed in ornamental jewelry. It is a si'licate of alu'.
mina, lime, and soda, with truces of oxide of iron.
1'y'rozene (from the Greek, pur, fire, and zenos, stranger). The augite,
supposed to have pre-existed in the volcanic minerals containing it, and not
to have been formed by fire.
Am'phibole (from the Greek, amphibolos, equivocal). A name applied by
some mineralogists to hornblende, because it may be mistaken for augite.
Peridot e, or Chrysolite (from the Greek, chrusos, gold, and lithos, stone),
from its colour. The topaz of the ancients.
These substances constitute the centre of thick currents, the in-
ferior part of the mass formed in excavations or hollows ; they are
often divided into prismatic columns.
42. 4th. Porous, or scoria'ceous lava. A substance of the
same nature as the preceding, but rarely having crystals embedded
in it, and its structure is porous, or cellular. These lavas consti-
tute the upper parts of thick layers, and envelope lava currents
and streams which rest on the surface of the ground.
43. 5th. Pouzzolani, volcanic tufa. Masses of small scoria'-
ceous fragments, or rupilli, accumulated around volcans, or earthy
substances, which contain them in greater or less quantity. Pu-
mice-tufas are formed of fragments of pumice, and trdchytic con-
glomerates of fragments of tra'chyte, united by crystalline or earthy
cement.
40. What is obsi'dian ? 41. What »s compact lava 7
42. What is scoria'ceous lava? 43. What is volcanic tufa?
11
EFFECTS OF WATER.
44. 6th. To these may be added scoriae in tears, irregular
stala'ctites scattered on the surface of volcanoes, and volcanic
bombs, which are sometimes found at considerable distances.
45. Volcanoes furnish annually but a small quantity of materials
to the solid crust of the globe, and the upheavals they cause pro-
duce very slight change in the elevation of countries where their
action is manifest. Nevertheless, if we remember that a great
number have been in action since the time of history, and observa-
tion shows that a great many more were previously in action, we
are led to the conclusion that volcanic substances are important,
and their presence must have occasioned great modifications on
the surface of our planet.
LESSON VII.
INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL AGENTS ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH.
— Effects of the Atmosphere — Degradation — Effects of Winds
— Dunes — Effects of Lightning.
EFFECTS OF WATER. — Dissolving power — Softening power —
Denudation — Erosion — Effects of weight of Water — Running
Waters — Debacle of Lakes — Mud-torrents — Slope of Torrents
and Rivers — Rolled Flints — Transportation by Ice and Gla-
ciers— Action of Waves— Deposits formed by Water — Geysers
— Structure of sedimentary Deposits — 7'a'lus — Effects of
Transport or Drift — Effects of oscillation in Waters — Nature
of Deposits from Water — Coral Reefs — Polypa'ria — Peat-
bogs.
1. Atmospheric Effects. — Variations of temperature, the air,
winds, dryness, and moisture, act very perceptibly on most mine-
ral substances ; there is not a rock on the surface of the earth which
does not present an appearance, externally, totally differing from
what is seen internally, when it is broken. This is everywhere
seen in escarpments formed by making roads, in mountainous
countries, where it is necessary to cut through rocks ; the exterior
is discoloured, and more or less extensively disaggregated, com-
These effects are not
a few years are sufficient
only on the surface, but to considerable
depths : these effects are seen in ancient quarries of marble, or of
44. What other solids are produced by volcanoes ?
45. What influence do volcanoes exert on the elevation of countries ?
1. How are the effects of the atmosphere on rocks manifested? How
does frost act on rocks ? Is a very long period of time necessary for the
atmosphere to produce its effects on rocks?
ATMOSPHERIC EFFECTS. 1.23-
certain granites, and in dressed stone. The effect is more rapid
and perceptible, in proportion to the susceptibility of the substance
to imbibe moisture, and to dry again; alternations which produce
a very rapid disaggregation, when frequently repeated, as is gene-
rally the case in mountains. The substances which degrade most
easily, are those of a granuhr structure, either earthy or crystalline ;
those of a foliated structure ; or compact masses, fractured and
split on the surface, such as are often seen in mountains. Frost,
when it attacks water absorbed by a body, is also a powerful cause
of destruction, because the expansion consequent upon it produces
a multitude of cracks in all directions. As long as the cold con-
tinues, its parts are held together by ice as by a cement ; but when
a thaw comes, the whole falls in scales, grains, or dust.
Mountains cannot be visited without meeting evident traces of degrada-
tion of this kind. In limestone escarpments (Jig. 204), we see parts of loose
Fig. 204. Fig. 205.
Daily effects of degradation in mountains.
texture, more or less hollowed out, and the more solid banks remain. Hence
the falling of the latter, which are successively detached in more or less
voluminous blocks. In high mountains (Jig. 205), often formed of in.
clined strata, which present their cuts or planes to the slope, we observe the
most marked degradations : parts are constantly detached, particularly at
times of most sensible atmospheric variations; at the instant of thaw, enor-
mous avalanches of stones occur, and roll down the sides with astonishing
rapidity, sweeping everything in their course ; sometimes great blocks, and
considerable portions of the mountain fall with tremendous noise. Hence
the enormous debris which accumulate at the base, sometimes covering a
great extent.
& Degradations attributable to these effects. — The degradation
which many rocks present is generally attributed to atmospheric
influences, long continued. Almost all rocks, in fact, are more or
less deeply changed, and are in a state of much less solid aggrega-
tion, much less homogeneous, on the surface, than they are inter-
nally. In almost all quarries, it is necessary to remove a great mass
of matter, before obtaining blocks which are homogeneous, solid,
free from cracks, and possessed of the bright colours which art»
ordinarily sought; this is especially the case with marble, and
generally, also, with compact limestone. Certain granites are so
deeply disintegrated, that the whole surface of the soil presents a
2. What is meant by degradation of rocks? What are rocking gtonea ,'
124
ACTION OF WINDS DUNES.
mass of giavel in rounded hills, gullied by the rain in all directions.
Frequently we find these granites on the surface of the soil, :n
great rounded blocks, piled up one on the other (fg. 206), in the
strangest manner, sometimes in unstable equilibrium, and suscep.
Fig. 206. — Degradation of granite as seen in different places.
tible of oscillating from the slightest effort ; these are termed rock-
ing stones, in some localities.
In mountains where the granite is easily decomposed, we often remark
that the mass, more or less cut, is in a sort of horizontal stories, divided by
vertical fissures, so as to present a kind of agglomeration of irregular paral-
le'llipipeds. It is supposed that, in consequence of atmospheric influences,
these angular blocks are altered on their faces and angles ; that the disag-
gregated parts are successively detached, producing rounded masses, piled
on each other like cheeses, as we now see, sometimes, isolated on the surface
of the soil.
3. Action of winds — dunes. Although winds act but very
ieebly on solid mineral masses, they exert an important influence
on deposits of fine movable sands. We know that in the deserts
df Africa and Arabia, the winds raise immense clouds of burning
sands, conveying them from place to place, and suddenly produc-
ing vast hills, sometimes quite high, which a new gale again de-
stroys. All sandy sea-coasts are exposed to similar effects ; the
least gale sets the sands in motion, and produces, on the previously
uniform surface, a multitude of wrinkles or ridges, parallel to each
other, separated by a greater or less interval, and each presenting
a gentle slope towards the wind, and a more abrupt declivity on the
opposite side, as represented (Jig' 207); the next gust of wind sets
all these ridges in motion, and each one is soon found to occupy the
space which separated it from the preceding ridge. This pheno-
menon of dunes, or downs, is seen in miniature on the sea-beaches;
and they sometimes invade immense tracts on adjacent planes.
These hills, placed one behind the other, in a direction perpendicu-
lar to that of the prevailing winds, are constantly in motion, and
constantly advance towards the interior of the land ; the wind from
3. What are dunes ? How are they formed?
At what rate do dunes advance ?
What is meant by ta lus 1
EFFECTS OF WATER. 125
seaward drives the sand from the foot of the hillock (Jig. 207, «),
to its summit (6), whence it falls in the line b, c, forming at this
point a falling talus, always more abrupt than the first or rising
Fig. 207. Fig. 208.
Progress of dunes, or moving sands.
*a'lus. The result of this is a single hillock, a b c, taken sepa-
rately (fig. 208), which grows behind, if new sands be furnished
in front, or it is displaced, if the same sands are continually re-
moved. Now, the wind acting on all these hillocks at the same
time, the mass formed by them is found to have moved a certain
distance inland, in a short time, while new heaps are formed in
front, at the expense of the sands freshly washed up from the sea.
It is calculated that dunes advance, in this way, twenty or thirty
yards a year; so that it is evident there must have been a time when
they were far from the places they have invaded. A great many
localities are known, which have been submerged by these seas of
sand.
4. Lightning sometimes produces remarkable effects ; in a great
many places and on various rocks, traces effusion by thunderbolts
in high mountains have been observed. According to the observa-
tions of Friedler, when lightning penetrates sand, it often forms
narrow, irregular canals to a great depth, the sides of which are
consolidated by the fusion of quartz itself; and there are instances
where considerable portions of rocks have been turned round, torn
from their places and hurled to great distances by lightning.
5. Effects of Water. — Water plays a very important part in the
changes which are taking place on the surface of the globe ; some-
times by its dissolving power, but more frequently by its softening
action, its weight, and especially by the motion that may be com-
municated to it, and by the transporting power resulting from its
rapidity. The extent and importance of modifications from this
agent ought to be understood.
6. Dissolving power. — Water exerts a chemical action on some
substances which it dissolves, either directly or by means of the
cnrbonic acid it may contain. It acts directly on some salts which
it meets here and there, or on some deposits of sulphate of lime,
which it corrodes in various ways. When more or less charged
with carbonic acid it acts on calcareous rocks, either under ground
or where they crop out on the surface ; or in high mountains at the
time snows are melting. In this case, the water generally pos-
sesses itself of the carbonic acid contained in the air, in greater
4. What are the effects of lightning on rocks?
5 By what properties does water produce its effects on rocks ?
6. What effects result from the dissolving power of water ?
11*
126 EFFECTS OF WATER.
quantity than at other times, in consequence of its low temperature ;
and running over calcareous masses, it forms furrows which gra-
dually deepen, and sometimes cause very considerable falls of rock.
These slow effects of water are particularly remarked in the Alps
and Pyrenees, where the snows remain a part of the year, and
melt by degrees in the fine season.
7. Softening power. — Water, by penetrating argilla'ceous beds,
sometimes softens them so much, that they cannot remain on the
slopes they occupied, and fall from their own weight; this is the
cause of many falls or slides in sedimentary formations. One of
ihe most remarkable catastrophes of this kind happened in 1806
at Ruffiberg or Rossberg in Switzerland, after a very rainy sea-
son. The argillaceous matters which cemented the rolled flints
forming the mountain becoming softened, a mass of more than
50,000,000 of cubic yards was suddenly detached, and precipitated
into the valley, forming in it hills sixty yards high, and burying
several villages under masses of mud and flints. We often see,
on a small scale, thick beds of rock gently slide to the bottom of
valleys, on softened argilla'ceous beds which supported them, and
tranquilly displace plantations and even the inhabitants on them,
without the proprietors perceiving it at the first moment.
8. Waters which filter through rocks to argilla'ceous layers
which may arrest them, and on the plane of which they are
directed to the surface, sometimes soften these substances also,
carrying away parts successively, and especially sands that may
rest on them, laying bare in this way underlying beds: this is
termed denudation. There results from this, at the point where
the wrater breaks forth from the declivity of hills, more or less ex-
tensive voids, which leave the solid superposed masses without
support, which are then dislocated in different ways (fig. 209) and
- 209. Fig. 210
Escarpments produced by the action of water.
*oon overthrown. This is frequently seen in certain escarpments,
Dt the base of which are found argilo-arena'ceous layers which con-
iuct tne springs externally.
7. What are the effects of the softening power of water on rocks ?
8. What is meant by denudation ?
EFFECTS OF WATER.— FALLS OF NIAGARA. 127
9. Erosion. — Something analogous happens when waters, which
cashing the foot of a mountain, meet there with substances that
they can easily soften or disaggregate. These substances being
destroyed, the upper parts of the soil are soon undermined, and
more or less considerable falls occur. This takes place on sea-
coasts, on the shores of Jakes or rivers where more or less elevated
escarpments are formed, and more and more degraded. The
same thing happens sometimes at the foot of cascades which fall
over rocky peaks (fig. 210), forming alternately calcareous and
argil la'ceous deposits ; the latter are disaggregated, and borne away
little by little by the waters which exude on the parietes or jet
forth after the fall, and other layers being undermined must fall
sooner or later from their own weight. In this case the cascade
cuts deep into the soil, and the same being successively repeated,
necessarily forms a gorge or bed the whole length of the rivulet,
which deepens more and more. It is in this way that the falls of
Niagara, by which the waters of lake Erie are precipitated into
those of lake Ontario, have sensibly receded since the discovery
by Europeans, and probably have excavated the deep bed through
which they afterwards escape.
" The waters, after cutting through strata of limestone, about fifty feet
thick in the rapids, descend perpendicularly at the falls (of Niagara) over
another mass of limestone about ninety feet thick, beneath which lie soft
shales of equal thickness, continually undermined by the action of the spray,
driven violently by gusts of wind against the base of the precipice. In
consequence of this disintegration, portions of the incumbent rock are left
unsupported, and tumble down from time to time, so that the cataract ia
made to recede southwards. The sudden descent of huge rocky fragments
of the undermined limestone at the Horse-Shoe Fall, in 1828, and another
at the American Fall, in 1818, are said to have shaken the adjacent country
like an earthquake. According to the statement of our guide in 1841,
Samuel Hooker, an indentation of about forty feet has been produced in the
middle ledge of limestone at the lesser fall, since the year 1815, so that it
has begun to assume the shape of a crescent, while within the same period
the Horse-shoe Fall has been altered so as less to deserve its name. Goat-
Island has lost several acres in area in the last four years (prior to 1841) ;
and I have no doubt that this waste neither is, nor has been, a mere temporary
accident, since I found that the same recession was in progress in various
other waterfalls which I visited with Mr. Hall, in the state of New York.
Som^ of these intersect the same rocks as the Niagara — for example the
Genesee at Rochester ; others are cutting their way through newer forma-
tions— Allan's creek, below Le Roy, or the Genesee at its upper falls at
Portage. Mr. Bakewell calculated that, in the forty years preceding 1830,
the Niagara had been going back at the rate of about a yard annually ; but
I conceive that one foot per year would be a much more probable conjecture,
in which case 35,000 years would have been required for the retreat of the
falls from the escarpment of Quecnston to their present site, if we could
assume that the retrograde movement had been uniform throughout. This,
however, could not have been the case, as at every step in the process of
excavation, the height of the precipice, the hardness of the materials at its
9. What is meant by erosion ? What are the effectg of erosion ?
32
[28 AOTION OF RUNNING WATERS.
base, and the quantity of fallen matter to be removed, must have varied.
At some points it may have receded much faster than at present, at clhers
much slower ; and it would be scarcely possible to decide whether its ave-
rage progress has been more or less rapid than now." — LyeWs Travels in
North America.
10. Effects of weight. — Water acting by its own weight like
other bodies, evidently often contributes to such land-falls as we
mention, and also exerts a powerful action on the dykes and bar-
riers which retain it. We see the unhappy effects of inundations,
to which certain countries are subject from their vicinity to rivers,
lakes, or seas, retained by natural or artificial dykes.
11. Jjlcfion of running waters. — To the softening action and
weight of waters is often added a new power, from the motion
they acquire by running over steep descents. This force is some-
times prodigious. The effects are seen after storms which pass
over moveable substances, in the deep ravines found to have been
excavated. These effects are in proportion to the mass of water,
and the rapidity of its motion on a particular point. When a hur-
ricane or violent storm bursts on a mountain, the soil is often found,
unless it consist of living rock, removed and gullied to great depths.
The numerous fissures on the surface of rocks facilitate the action
of waters, and a considerable mass of fragments is soon detached,
which increase more and more the destructive power of the current.
Then blocks of every size are loosened, torn from the mountain
and transported to great distances, multiplying the effects ten or
even a hundred fold, in proportion to their mass and rapidity of
motion. Hence we have great ravines on slopes that were pre-
viously unbroken, and an immense accumulation of debris at the
foot of the mountain, and especially where the soil or the swiftness
of the stream abated. Torrents swollen by circumstances of this
kind, or by the sudden melting of snows, also produce frightful
ravages; they sweep everything in their way, even the living rock,
which they soon attack forcibly by the fragments and blocks they
swiftly urge along. Nothing is more terrible than this kind of
water-course, and to form an exact idea of the effects one must see
a gorge through which it has passed, sometimes rolling along rocks
measuring ten or fifteen cubic yards.
12. Debacle of Lakes. — Lakes which sometimes form in valleys,
by avalanches or falls of land, constituting a barrier which retains
them, are most fearful in their debacle (sudden escape of their
waters from breaking of their barrier), in consequence of an enor-
mous mass of water rushing forth in a few seconds. Scarcely does
a flow begin through a few rents, before the first opening rapidly
enlarges, and in an instant the whole dyke is carried away. An
10. Does the weight of water contribute to its effects ?
11. What are the effects of running waters ?
12. What is meant by debacle ? What are the effects of debacle ?
SLOPES OF TORRENTS AND RIVERS. 129
enormous volume of water is then precipitated with extreme via
lence, and nothing can withstand the combined effects of its mass
and rapidity. All is overturned, and the most solid rocks, if they
project, in the least, across the direction of the current, are instantly
torn away, broken, and transported to great distances. The clear-
ing is so complete, at the origin of the current, and in the narrow
passages where the slope is rapid, that the exposed rock seems to
have been cut by the hand of man.
13. Mud-torrents, from one cause or another, are also formed»
which are not less terrible in their ravages. It sometimes happens,
as in Ireland, that turf-beds placed on a slight declivity, after being
swelled, more or less arched by retaining rain-water beneath them,
cannot resist the first heavy shower, and are set in motion. They
run then, in spite of th'e consistence of the mud, and the gentleness
of the descent, with prodigious rapidity, and sweep everything
they meet. Under other circumstances, the rain-waters soak in
loose, argilla'ceaus substances, accumulate in the midst of them,
and, at a certain moment, the dykes of the reservoir give way, and
a torrent of thick mud, filled with fragments of rock and even blocks,
suspended in the viscid mass, is formed, and rushes with fearful
rapidity, overturning everything, and cutting deep ravines.
14. Slopes of torrents and rivers. — The disastrous effects of
torrents are in proportion to the descent on which they move ; but
it does not necessarily follow that their bed must have a very con-
siderable inclination. The most rapid torrents* forming a continu-
ous bed and carrying rocks a half-yard in diameter, have a descent,
of only one or two degrees, and many rivers flow very swiftly on
a much less slope — a descent of from three to four minutes
(sixty to a degree) is about the limit for navigable rivers.
15. Rolled flints, or pebbles. — In the ravages produced by
water-currents, the debris torn from mountains are transported to a
greater or less distance, accordingly as the inclination of the soil
permits the current to maintain its force for more or lesy couside-
rafyle distances ; but in proportion as the slopes dirmnisn, the swift*
ness decreases, and the larger blocks successively roxnuiu behind,
at the bottom of the valley, and then those of smaller size, and suc-
cessively the sand and mud, which are often carried enormous dis-
tances. In this rolling of different substances, the blocks and frag-
ments sinking during their transportation, rubbing against each
other and against the soil, gradually IOGU Ineir prominences ant)
angles, and in the end become compile!/ rounded, forming wha^
are termed rolled flints, which im.y be more or less voluminous.
13. How are mud-torrents formed? What are their effects?
14. Upon what do the effects of torrents depend ? What is the rate of the
slope of neds of rivers that are nawgabie?
15. How are rolled flints ai,d pebbles produced? What is gravel?
What is sand '>
130 TRANSPORTATION BY ICE AND GLACIERS.
All the lower part of torrents, where the soil is sufficiently flattened,
or the enlargement of the valley permits the waters to expand,
diminishing their depth, and consequently their rapidity, is gene-
rally found covered with these flints, which are sometimes accumu-
lated in immense quantities, and through which, in its ordinary
course, the stream meanders in different ways, in a bed it forms
and often changes. Rivers and lakes into which torrents empty,
tind where they consequently lose their swiftness, are often loaded
with these flints ; and this is the cause of the constant elevation of
the bed of the river Po (see page 15). Gravel and sand, which
are merely small flints, the mud which results from their friction,
and the earthy particles removed, are always transported far, either
immediately into lakes, or seas, or rivers, which deposit them on
their banks, and especially at their mouths, which they more or
less obstruct.
16. Rolled flints, or pebbles, are also formed by the action of the
waves on fallen rocks. In this way. on the coasts of France and
England, the silex, or flints of the chalk, are rounded, by being
rubbed against each other, and constitute considerable banks of
pebbles or shingle. Something similar must have taken place at
points now far inland, where we find blocks round and smooth, at
a short distance from rocks from which they were evidently de-
tached.
17. Transportation by ice and glaciers. — On the shores of
northern seas, the ice envelopes blocks and masses of rock, which,
at the breaking up, are floated away on ice-cakes in all directions,
and deposited here and there, wherever they may ground, or fall,
to the bottom of the sea. In this way, in Canada, Greenland, and
on the coasts of Nova Zembla, &c., very voluminous blocks are
transported from one place to another, and often to very conside-
rable distances from the point of departure. There is no doubt
that many small debris, embedded in the ice, are transported in the
same way, and form adventitious deposits of more or less extent.
18. Glaciers, that is, beds of ice occupying the high valleys^ of
lofty mountain chains, are also very remarkable means of trans-
portation. Various circumstances (their great weight chiefly)
keep these deposits in constant, though very slow motion, from
half an inch to an inch an hour, descending along the slopes on
which they rest ; now, the surface of these glaciers is found to be
covered with fragments and blocks which have fallen from the
surrounding mountains, and the whole is conveyed from the upper
to the lower part ; and blocks, often of enormous size, are carried
1 6. Are rolled flints, or pebbles, produced by running water exclusively ?
What is shingle ?
17. How are rocks transported by ice?
18. What are glaci.rs? At what rate do they move? What are
moraines ?
ACTION OF THE WAVES AND OF TIDES. 131
without friction to considerable distances from then place of origin.
These debris, from several causes, always accumulate on the late-
ral parts of the glacier, against the side of the valley, and fre-
quently in the middle also, from other valleys emptying laterally
into it, from which result long, slender hills, designated under the
term moraines. All these debris, having reached the inferior ex-
tremity of the glacier, tumble into the valley on its slope, and form
at its foot other moraines often of considerable height. If, after
having increased for a certain time in consequence of a series of
cold summers, the glacier diminishes again by a succession of
warm, prolonged summers, the moraines of different kinds, aban-
doned by the ice, are left on the soil ; some form dykes, of more
or less height, at the bottom and across the valley, and others long
lines on the flanks of the valley, at a greater or less elevation.
19. It must be borne in mind that the slopes on which glaciers
move are always much greater than those of rivers, and that they
never descend at an angle of less than three degrees. This must
also be the minimum slope of masses of debris resting on the sides
of the valley, in consequence of the rapid melting of the glacier.
Thus we have a means of distinguishing the remains of lateral
moraines from deposits which may have been made by water-cur-
rents, the slopes of which are very much less.
20. Strive, channels, polishing of rocks. — Among the effects
produced by the motion of a glacier loaded with debris, and moving
slowly over the exposed face of a rock, is a rubbing, wearing, and
polishing of the surface which is passed over. The angles of the
rocks passed over are rounded ; deep undulating grooves, nearly
parallel and longitudinal, are cut in the surface, and the polished
surface of the rock passed over is scratched with fine striae, even
when it is of the hardest quartz. These effects are well known
to be produced by modern glaciers.
21. Action of the waves and of tides. — Waves exert an enor
mous power, particularly where rocks are abrupt and directly ex-
posed to the open sea. The shock is sometimes so great that the
earth trembles beneath the feet ; great blocks of stone are torn
up and carried far inland, pushed up against the inclination of
the shore, sometimes thrown up vertically on projecting points,
where they afterwards roll about like small pebbles : heavy banks
of sand and of shingle are often removed, and entire countries
have been in a moment destroyed.
Chronology and tradition of maritime countries furnish numerous in-
stances of successive changes, of instantaneous disasters which have oc-
curred in a great many localities. Immense ones have taken place, and
every day new ones occur on low, sandy coasts, bordering the sea, in many
19. What is the least slope or angle at which glaciers move ?
20. What effects are produced on rocks by the movement of glaciers
loided with debris ?
ai. What is the effect of the action of waves?
32*
132 ACTION OF THE WAVES AND OF TIDES.
parts of the world : we have famous examples from the mouths of the Scheld
to the canal of Jutland, where the Bies-Bosch, the Harlem sea, the Zuyder-
Zet, the Dolhirt, have been produced in the extraordinary irruptions of the
ocean ; where numerous changes have taken place in the islands, from the
Texel to the mouths of the Elbe, in the windings of Lymfiord, or on the
coasts of the Cuttegat and of the Baltic : immense cuts, bays, and deep
gulf*! are formed during tempests, and these are still daily forming by the
ordinary action of the waves, which sometimes carry away banks of sand,
and sometimes destroy the dykes they had already formed.
22. The action of waves is not confined to moveable soils, but
takes place on the most solid rocks ; and hence those daily modi-
fications in the enormous precipices found on the coasts of France,
England, and almost all parts of the world. The more abrupt the
coast, the more it is exposed to denudation from the waves, because
directly breaking them, the shock is felt in all its force. On flat
coasts, on the contrary, the wave meeting with no obstacle, ad-
vances as long as its force lasts, and until its rapidity is sensibly
lost ; and it carries up in sand and pebbles much more than it
destroys, even on the most moveable soils. The natural disposi-
tion of solid beds is sometimes opposed,' and at others favourable
to the action of waves ; it is opposed when the beds, being uniform
and homoge"neous, incline towards the sea ; because the return of
the wave along the slope or ta'lus diminishes the action of the suc-
ceeding wave, the remaining force of which is spent in merely
ascending the plane: the waters are spattered only by the crevices
and fissures that may exist in the rock. But the same is not the
case when the soil presents an escarpment to the action of the
waters (Jigs. 211, 212): the lower parts, continually attacked by
*''*2£«S^??=^
Fig. 211. Fig.
Action of waves on abrupt rocks.
reiterated shocks of waves, which nothing contributes to diminish,
are degraded and excavated successively, and with a rapidity in
proportion to the facility with which the substance is disaggregated ;
the upper beds being soon undermined, are not long in being pre-
cipitated into the sea. In this way considerable portions of coast
have been overturned at different times, promontories have disap-
22. Are all coasts equally subject to the action of waves. What circuia-
•lances diminish the effects of the action of waves ?
ACTION OF THE WAVES AND OF TIDES. 133
peared, and others have been cut off and separated from the main
land. These effects are more rapid in places where a deep sea
swallows up the detached blocks, or in those where the force of the
waves is sufficiently powerful to break up the debris, and wear
them one against the other and successively remove them, so that
the foot of the escarpment always remains bare.
23. When masses of debris falling from precipices are not im-
mediately removed, a natural rampart is formed against the action
of the waves, which break before
reaching the foot of the escarp-
ment (Jig. 213); then it is only
in a long time that the debris are
worn, rounded, and carried away
little by little, depending on the
solidity of the rocks of which
they are formed. These natural
ramparts are imitated as much as
possible by piling rocks before
the ta'lus we wish to preserve on Fig. 213.— Accumulation of debrit
sea-coasts or river banks. opposing the action of waves.
24. To the action of waves must be attributed certain excava-
tions frequently found, on a level with the sea, in calcareous preci-
pices, as well, perhaps, as the arches of greater or less height
which traverse certain promontories. Nevertheless, this action
does not immediately produce great results, except on matters
easily disaggregated, such as chalk, clay, and arena'ceous sub-
stances, and it is infinitely slow on more compact and harder sub-
stances : in fact, there are points where no effect whatever has
been produced within historic times. The erosive power of water
does not explain all these facts, nor even the impetuous force of
waves ; the soils on which this power is exerted are cracked in all
directions, either by previous action, or at the moment of earth-
quakes, accompanied by violent agitations of the sea, and it is
then they yield to the combined forces to which they are exposed.
By this means we can account for isolated rocks, for islands in the
vicinity of continents, for those great gaps through which the sea
finds passage, for those groups of split rocks which form shoals in
the midst of the sea, and for all those severings so common and
varied on the coasts of France and England, in numerous islands
that extend towards the North Sea, and in a great many localities
(figs. 214, 215).
25. Deposits of detritus formed by wafers. — Although waters
continually degrade certain parts of 'the globe, they create in a
measure new deposits proportioned to those they remove. Tor
23. What circumstance protects coasts from the action of waves ?
24. What effects are attributable to the action of waves?
25. How are deposits formed from water ?
12
134
ACTION OF THE WAVES AND OF TIDES.
Fig. 214. Fig. 215.
Examples of rocks eroded and shaped by waters.
rents, after having torn away blocks and fragments of rocks, re-
duced them to rolled flints or pehbles, and carried them to a greater
or less distance, deposit them, in proportion as the swiftness of the
waters diminishes, in the inferior parts of valleys they run through,
or at their confluence with rivers, or in lakes. Hence the masses
of debris, sometimes immense, the coarse parts of which are ce-
mented by the mud, they deposit at the same time.
26. Great rivers, running through valleys of little inclination,
generally leave behind the coarser parts they have received, and
only bear forward those whose weight is in relation to their force ;
but as their slope diminishes more and more, becoming almost in-
sensible towards the end of their course, they deposit the matters
they carry, and in this way generally elevate their bed; and
finally they even bar up their passage, and divide into several
branches, each of which cuts its way through sands. Rivers have
in this manner covered flat countries through which they pass
with sand to a considerable depth and extent. In great freshets
these sands are, often taken up again, transported from one point to
another, forming islands in the middle of the river, or alluvions on
one of its banks, while the other is hollowed out. In rivers, lakes,
or seas, these deposits become most remarkable. There, if the
current is not rapid enough to carry the debris to a distance, in
spite of the opposition of tranquil waters, or if the waves have not
sufficient force to remove the sands and mud which have been
deposited, they form deltas at the mouths of certain rivers (see
pape 10).
27. The sea itself, which in so many places has made breaches
in the main land, in others, heaves up and accumulates enormous
quantities of pebbles, formed by the trituration of rocks fallen from
precipices, or masses of sand and mud produced by the waves, 01
26. What are the effects of deposits from rivers ?
27. What arc the effects of deposits from the sea f
ACTION OF THE WAVES AND OF THE TIDES. 135
brought down by rivers. In this way banks and beaches, of greater
or less extent, are formed on coasts, the finer parts of which, car-
ried inland by the wind, form dunes (see page 125). There are
many places where accumulations of this kind are daily formed,
and many points of coast have been invaded by deposits from the
sea from remotest times: sometimes, by a single irruption, en'.ire
kingdoms have been covered by sand, and fertile countries changed
to arid plains, either in extraordinary tides, or in tempests, or by
the sudden displacement of waters consequent on earthquakes
Low countries, exposed to these alluvions^ daily grow at the ex-
pense of the waters, and, at certain points, this growth has been
estimated at several yards a year. Bays and ports have been filled
up in this way ; buildings and towns, formerly situated on the sea
shore, are now far from it ; Jakes have been transformed into
marshes, marshes into solid land, and islands joined to the main by
sands deposited around them. The sea, in some instances, contri-
butes to the growth of deltas.
28. Torrents and rivers transport not only mineral debris, but
also organic remains, immense masses of plants, detached from
ravines, or by falls. Here and there great masses of materials are
formed, especially in rivers which are bordered by immense forests.
Great deposits of debris of this kind are formed in the Mississippi
and its tributaries ; they there form immense rafts of trunks of trees,
interlaced, which are stopped here and there by the sands, and
finally are buried under the enormous alluvions daily deposited.
The mass of plants that the river carries is so considerable, that it
has been estimated at several thousands of cubic yards per hour.
29. Currents of the sea also often transport immense masses of
various vegetables, marine plants, and organic debris of every kind,
and from all climates, which are here and there deposited in the
bays these currents meet in their course. This is especially the
case as regards the great Atlantic current, the Gulf Stream, the
strongest and most considerable of all, which extends along the
coast of North America to the icy regions, where the polar currents
accumulate these debris with those of other parts of the world.
We cannot doubt, on reflecting on the quantity of debris borne by the
waters, that lakes which receive rivers are filled up, little by little, by tho
matters daily brought into them ; this is evident, in some places, where
marshes and considerable alluvions are thus formed. The same must be truo
of the bottom of the sea, where all waters finallv come; it is easv to con-
ceive there must be daily formed considerable deposits of all the substances
which are carried there, as well as of those washed away by the wavest and
of all the remains of animals which perish in this vast abyss.
30. Deposits of substances held in solution. — Waters degrade
28. Are all the materials, transported by waters, of a mineral origin ? How
are the rails in the Mississippi formed ? ^^*MMMBIM^^^
29. What effects are due to currents of the sea ? A *^^V
Of THE * X
VNIYERSiTYJ
OP
136 DEPOSITS OF SUBSTANCES HELD IN SOLUTION.
atid carry away different substances ; some they also dissolve, and
afterwards deposit them, by evaporation, in form of solid sediments,
which are sometimes more or less crystalline. To the infiltration
of these waters, for example, is due all kinds of stala'ctites (from
the Greek slalassb, I drop), which form in various subterraneous
cavities, and especially large in caverns found in calcareous coun-
tries. Certain waters are rich in dissolved materials, and suffi-
ciently abundant to give rise to extensive deposits on the surface
of the earth. Those particularly, which, by carbonic acid, hold
a great quantity of carbonate of lime in solution, and which, from
abundant or numerous springs, give origin to rivulets and even
lakes, at the bottom of which is daily formed what is called traver-
tin or calcareous tu'fa. These waters are met almost everywhere,
in calcareous regions. Scattered over a flat country, or on the slope
of a valley, these waters incrust the plants growing there, and,
from these agglomerated and superposed incrustations are formed
considerable rocks, the mass of which is consolidated by waters
which percolate the interstices they meet, and render the whole
solid and uniform. When these waters flow over slopes free from
vegetation, they deposit thin and successive layers, following the
undulations, the whole forming compact masses which daily grow
in thickness. In lakes into which waters of this kind fldw, hori-
zontal beds of solid calcareous matter are formed, which are often
filled with fluviatile, and even terrestrial shells, daily brought
into it.
31. Sands washed up by waves, either in fresh-water lakes or
seas, are daily consolidated by waters more or less charged with
carbonate of lime. Examples of this kind are seen in the sands
of lake Superior, in those of the gulf of Messina, at several points
on the coasts of England, of the West-India islands, chiefly at
Guadaloupe, New Holland, &c. These arena'ceous substances
often become sufficiently solid for building purposes.
32. Sili'cious deposits. — A great many mineral waters, particu-
larly those which are warm or hot, contain, besides carbonate of
lime, a certain quantity of silex (from the Greek cha/is, a pebble) ;
on this account many calcareous tu'fas are more or less silicious.
But there are springs in which the silex is sufficiently abundant to
form considerable deposits of hydrated sili'cious deposits, some-
limes nearly pure, and sometimes mingled with other substances.
The tu'fas of the geyser in Iceland are deposited for nearly a
quarter of a league round the spring, three-quarters of a yard thick.
One of the^e geysers (a word which according to some means
spouting, and furious, according to others) spouts up every half
30. How do waters form deposits from matter held in solution ? Whal
tre stala'ctites ?
31. By what means are sands consolidated?
32. How are sili'cious deposits formed ? What is a geyser ?
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY DEPOSITS. 137
hour a column of boiling water, eighteen feet in diameter and one
hundred and fifty feet high. Analogous springs of hot water exist
in the Rocky mountains, and in India, as well as in Saint Michael's
(Azores), where the sili'cious deposits are found in thin beds, alter-
nating with argilla'ceous substances which the same waters bring
from the interior of the earth. Organic remains, particularly vege-
table, are found in all, some of which have passed into the sili'cious
state, while others have disappeared, leaving only their impressions
behind.
33. Structure of sedimentary deposits. — Effects of land-falls. —
If we examine deposits of de'tntus, formed at the foot of mountains
by the daily destruction of its rocks, it will be seen their slopes
are very variable, the greatest not exceeding an angle of forty-five
degrees, and the least being seldom less than twenty degrees ; the
variations between these limits are found to be in relation to the
size, the form of the fragments, and circumstances of the fall,
rather than to the nature of the substances themselves. Hence it
is, if, at different successive fallings, there are variations in the form
of the fragments and in the circumstances of the fall, there will be
an accumulation of deposits, the slopes of which will be succes-
sively less, and which, in ravines
excavated by water, will have _
nearly the arrrangement repre- j|
sented, a, b, c, d? e, (Jig. 210), |
^here each additional deposit is "
thicker at its base than at the
upper part. It is evident the
same thing may take place in
stagnant waters ; whence it fol-
lows that from the fall of a river „. " _ . , c , ...
into a lake with steep banks, a F'S- ^- Talus from falhng.
very considerable ta'lus may be formed, and from different acces-
sions or growths, which bring materials of different form and size,
deposits similar to those just mentioned may be produced.
34. Effects of transport. — If in some places, even under water,
beds may be deposited at an inclination of from twenty to forty-five
degrees, it must not be inferred that the same is true of extensive
deposits, where running waters, if unimpeded, may force the debris
in every direction. Here the inclination of the ta'lus is much less ;
they never attain even the minimum angle of slopes formed of
fallen matter, and never reach even ten or twelve degrees, only in
exceptional cases of very rapid torrents, or rather of true cascades,
at the place where they fall into a transverse valley, and where
there is as much matter tumbled down as transported. The beds
of the most rapid rivers are much less inclined, and the successive
33. What is the structure of deposits from land-falls ?
34. \A the angle or slope of a ta'lus always the same ?
12*
138
EFFECTS OF TRANSPORT.
deposits are for the most part nearly horizontal. Gravel and sand
which the waves wash upon coasts, are also deposited at vtiy
small angles, and slopes of ten degrees are exceptions, even in
localities exposed to the strongest billows; most frequently they
are much less, and nearly horizontal.
35. It frequently happens, during the drift or transportation of
matters by currents, and by freshets in rivers, when the bottom is
disturbed, that effects analogous to those of sea-winds on dunes
are produced. Ridges are formed across the current ; various mat-
ters, pushed over these initial hillocks, accumulate behind them,
forming a ta'lus of successive fallings, which impart the structure
represented in^o-. 217. If the river change its course, the undu-
lated surface of the first deposit is soon levelled, and quiet deposits
are formed above (Jig- 218), from which the preceding may be
distinguished by the particular structure attributable to the circum-
stances of its formation.
Fig. 217. Fig. 218.
Structure produced by the transportation of materials.
These effects, resulting from a mixture of rapid and tranquil
deposits (that is, deposits formed from rapid currents and tranquil
waters), are very clearly seen in alluvions on river banks, and par-
ticularly in deltas, which terminate their course when the waters
have excavated some ravine near by. We then perceive that the
mass of the deposit is formed of horizontal layers, having a surface
more or less undulated (Jig. 219), which are distinguished from
•
Fig. 219. — Structure of alluvions in rivers.
«ach other by the size of the component parts, by the colour, by
the structure produced by rapid accumulation, either by pushing
forward the matters- in the direction of the ordinary current, as in
the deposits a and 6, or in a different direction, as in the deposit c,
which indicate counter-currents formed at one time or another.
Often there are particular masses, rf, formed here and there, which
ordinarily consist of coarser gravel, or of different organic debris.
35. What effects result from transportation or drift7
EFFECTS OF OSCILLATORY MOTION. 139
36. Effects oj oscillatory motion. — Great masses of water, sub-
ject, like the sea, to undulatory motion, present another order ot
facts ; not only are suspended substances deposited there in hori-
zontal beds, as a more weighty fluid would do, but the slightest
agitation does not permit any material particle to be solidly fixed
on planes of the least inclination, but tends, on the contrary, to de-
stroy all inequalities of the bottom. It is impossible to ascertain
positively these effects at the bottom of the sea ; but the immense
number of soundings, taken in all parts of the ocean by navigators,
show that all moving bottoms have very slight inclination; that
slopes, at an angle of half a degree, are rare, and that all above this
are exceptions : hence it follows, that in great masses of water,
beds formed by successive deposits must be entirely horizontal.
This fact is most clearly exhibited in certain lakes, which have
been entirely or in part dried up, where alternations of beds, of
every kind, are seen to be perfectly horizontal ; lakes Superior and
Huron furnish examples of this kind.
37. This disposition of various matters deposited from water,
bed by bed, at the bottom of rivers, lakes, marshes, is termed strati-
fication; the deposits themselves are said to be stratified. This
circumstance eminently distinguishes deposits formed by water,
from those produced by igneous fusion, which are most frequently
massive, or irregularly divided.
38. Nature of deposits — organic remains. — Beds of alluvium
are lormed of rolled flints, gravel, and sand, as well as of various
kinds of mud, analogous to matter called clay or argil. They
are more or less consolidated, as much by their own* weight,
as by waters charged with carbonate of lime, or various matters
which may penetrate them. In lakes, we see calca'reous and ar-
gilla'ceous marls, which have the property of hardening in the air,
as has been observed in certain half-dried lakes in Scotland, in
modern building-stone found in Hungary, and in lakes Superior
and Huron. Similar formations doubtlessly occur in the sea, as
waters are sufficiently calci'ferous to consolidate the sands thrown
on its coasts ; and the nature of upheaved deposits, in many places,
leave no uncertainty in this respect.
These deposits are frequently filled with remains of all the organized
creatures now living on the surface of the globe. In river alluvium we find
remains of fluviatile shells that still live in the same localities, or land shells,
such as various snails, brought thither by rivulets; there are branches and
trunks of trees, masses of plants, more or less changed, sometimes partly
bitumenized, bones of terrestrial or aquatic animals, rarely human bones,
but frequently the remains of art, such as fragments of brick and pottery,
&c.
36. What is the position of strata formed under the influence of undula
tory motion of water?
.'{?. What is meant by stratification ?
38. Of what do beds of alluvium consist ?
33
140 CORAL REEFS.
Alluvions formed by the sea are very similar ; they contain marine debris
of every kind, sometimes alone and sometimes mingled with fluviatile and
/erreslrial debris, brought into it by rivers. Debris of human industry, an-
chors, boats, &c., are frequent, and even man's remains exist ; not only in
cemeteries of villages that have been overwhelmed by sands, but also among
the debris cast up by the sea, as at Guadaloupe, where human bones are
found in a sand consolidated by a calca'reous tu'fa, and mingled with debris
of human art. In deltas formed partly of fresh water and partly by the sea
we find alternate layers, the one filled with marine debris, and the others by
those of fresh water; but, under other circumstances, all these remains are
found indiscriminately mingled.
Argilla'ceous, marly, .or calca'reous deposits, in lakes, contain the remains
of fluviatile and terrestrial mollusks, similar to those now existing in the
eame regions. Remains of fishes and mammals are also occasionally found.
There is no doubt deposits formed in the sea also contain remains of
the numerous animals that daily perish. We learn from soundings that the
bottom of the sea, in many places, is covered by shells, broken or entire,
fragments of madrepore, echinidse, &c., sometimes mingled with sand,
sometimes by themselves, constituting considerable banks in progress of
formation and consolidation.
39. Coral reefs. — Formations of stony polypa'ria, agglomerated
with each other, often of great extent, are thus named ; in inter-
tropical regions they constitute a great number of islands, on a level
with the sea, or submarine banks, the mass of which rises more
and more. It is scarcely twenty years since it was supposed that
the little animals which form these deposits, by a calcareous exu-
dation, had the faculty of living at great depths in the ocean ; it
was thought they began their dwelling, and gradually augmented
the mass, until it formed immense mountains, the summits of
which constituted the reefs, and that they gave origin to most of
the large islands formed in those regions. These microscopic
creatures, it was said, tended thus to fill up the ocean, and were
preparing prodigious changes on the surface of the globe. But all
•this exaggeration has disappeared, the observations of MM. Q,uoi
and Gaimard having shown, that the species which contribute most
to the formation of reefs, such as caryophy'llix (Jig. 220), mean-
dri'nse (Jig. 221), and particularly the as'tresc (Jig. 222), which
sqrnetimes cover immense spaces, and various madrepores (fig.
228), cannot exist except at moderate depths, and ten or twelve
yards below the surface no trace of them is to be found. It is,
then, on pre-existing rocks, already elevated under water, often
very steep on the sides, as soundings show, that these animals
begin to build ; and from this they afterwards accumulate their
solid product to the level of the sea, where their last generations
perish. They cannot, then, fill up the ocean ; but the incrusta-
tions they form are not the less important, since they are sometimes
ten or twelve yards thick, extending over immense spaces, and
these are found in a great many places in all seas comprehended
39. In what parts of the world do we find coral reefs ? How are they
formed ? At what, depths do polypa'ria live ?
CORAL REEFS.
141
Fig. 220. — Caryophy'llia fastigiata.
Fig. 223. — Madrepo'ra murica ta
Fig. 221. — Meandri'na labyri'nthica.
Fig. 222. — Astrea viridis.
between the tropics. They crown most submarine mountains, and
cover thousands of square leagues, distributed among thousands of
islands and reefs.
40. These sa'xigenous polypa'ria, attached to every kind of
rock, surround most large islands with their products, forming
around them a kind of rampart, separated frequently by deep
water. In other instances they form islets, detached or grouped in
different ways, and they are, when there are breakers, the more
dangerous, because they are not seen before being cast upon them,
and because the depth of water is so great as not to afford anchorage.
It is these deposits which render navigation so difficult in certain
parts of the South Sea, and cause so many deplorable losse's by
shipwreck. Some of the forms assumed by these deposits at the
surface of the sea are particularly remarkable, and are not ye.
entirely explained ; sometimes these reefs are completely annular
40. What is the form of coral islands ?
142
CORAL ISLANDS.
Fig. 224. — Coral island in the Pacific Ocean.
(fig. 224), with a lake in the centre, enclosed on all sides ; some-
limes they form broken circles, having one or more openings
through which the centre may be reached ; again, they are in
groups of islands, arranged in a circle, and frequently there are
several in a series. In these internal seas the water is often very
deep — but sometimes very shallow, and an immense number of
polypa'ria are developed, which sooner or later fill up the space.
It appears evident that these circular reefs are the edges of different
upheaved craters, upon which the polyps have established them-
selves ; this is inferred from the volcanic nature of most islands in
the Pacific, and from the manner in which submarine eruptions
sometimes take place. Nevertheless, this explanation is not re-
ceived as satisfactory in respect to many reefs of the kind, and
particularly those which constitute the Maldives and Lakadives,
groups in the Indian Ocean. The great number of circular groups
found in certain localities, and the immense expanse which we
must suppose craters of elevation to have in other places, are facts
urged in objection to the explanation.
Around coral reefs, as well as in the lakes they enclose, soft and white
mud of a calcareous nature, analogous to chalk, has been observed, which
has sometimes been referred to the disintegration of madrepores, and some-
times to dejections of worms which pierce the polypa'ria, or to those of
fishes which feed on them. In many places in the South Seas this mud
seems to constitute considerable deposits.
41. When a reef has reached the level of the water, the sea
often covers it with debris of every kind, on which vegetation is
afterwards developed. Most low islands in the Pacific have been
produced in this way, all of which rest on masses of polypa'ria.
A great many other islands have sprung up on their coasts '
me way ; and there are many which will sooner or later
same
in the
grow
41 How are coral islands formed ?
PEAT, OR TURF BOG. 143
up in the same manner, for now, at low tide, ^e may walk over
reefs extending half a league from the shore. But one very im-
portant circumstance is, that in many places we find precisely simi-
lar deposits, composed of the same species of madrepores, in the
interior of land at an elevation of from 200 to 300 yards ; this is
seen at Timor, where the deposits are ten or twelve yards thick;
at New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, at the Marian Islands.
Sandwich Islands, &c., where they rest on argilla'ceous schist,
sandstone, limestone, volcanic products, &c. ; in the Isle of France
a similar bank, four yards thick, is found placed between two cur-
rents of lava. The existence of these deposits in such situations
evidently indicates that all these islands have been upheaved from
the bosom of the waters, and often at several different periods, for
we often find banks of coral at different levels.
42. Peat, or Turf Bog. — There are daily formed, in different
excavations of the surface, in valleys of gentle slope, in low and
marshy situations, deposits of vegetable matter, the decomposition
of which furnishes a combustible called turf or peat, and the
mass bears the name of peat-bog. These deposits are formed
only under particular circumstances: they are seen only in places
where stagnant waters constantly exist, and only in shallow depths;
the presence of light is necessary to secure vegetation, to which
peat chiefly owes its origin.
The production of peat, to which all aquatic plants contribute, is princi-
pally owing1, however, to those which are always submerged, and which
multiply rapidly; their debris form the principal paste that envelopes all the
others, and probably contributes to their decomposition. A number of ter.
restrial plants also, brought to these bogs by brooks, contribute to the forma,
tion. Frequently large trees are found buried in the mass, particularly in
the lower parts, where they accumulate on sands and clays which form the
bottom. Oflen they are seen broken and fallen near the root, which is found
attached to the bottom of the hog. In some instances these debris are very
numerous, and seem to indicate that entire forests must have been buried
on the spot where they grew, before the formation of peat. The plants found
in these situations all belong to existing- species ; they are resinous trees,
oaks, birch, &c. Remains of mammals are often found in peat-bogs, such as
the bones of oxen, the horns of deer, tusks of wild-boars, &c.
43. Peat-bogs rest on every variety of soil, sometimes even on
crystalline rocks; most generally, however, they overlie deposits
of sand or clay, and sometimes the rolled flints of the country.
There are places where accumulated debris of plants form but a
single mass, of greater or less thickness, more compact and blacker
at the lower part than in subsequently formed parts of it ; there
are other places where the different beds are separated by sedi
mentary deposits of alluvium. These are formed of sands, clays,
calca'reous or argilla'ceous marls, often containing fresh-water shells
in great quantity. Sometimes the surface of the deposit remains
42. What are peat-hogs ? Of what do they consist?
43. On what do peat-bogs rest ?
33*
144 CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRAL HEAT.
covered oy water, and at others it is covered by a luxuriant vege-
tation.
44. Peat-bogs are numerous in different parts of the world ;
they occupy basins or depressions in the soil at different elevations,
even in the Alps. One-tenth of the whole surface of Ireland is
said to be covered by peat-bog. In the Great Dismal Swamp of
Virginia and North Carolina, there is a deposit of peat from ten to
fifteen feet in thickness.
LESSON VIII.
EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS PHENOMENA. — Consequences of Central
Heat — First effect of cooling — Warm Springs — Deposits
referable to Sediment — Fresh-water Deposits — Fossils of Ma-
rine Deposits — Fossils of Carbona'ceous Deposits.
EFFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE. — Shell
Deposits and raised Beaches — Submarine Forests—Tracks of
Quadrupeds and Birds — Dislocation of Strata — Faults — Cra-
te''riform arrangement of Strata — Valleys of Elevation — Up-
heaval without Dislocation — Distortion of Strata — Origin of
Valleys — Valleys from Dislocation, from Subsidence, from
Folding or Plaiting, from Erosion or Denudation — Origin
of Caverns.
Having established the fact of a central heat capable of keeping every,
thing in a stale of fusion, at a short distance beneath the surface we inhabit;
having shown the actual effects of earthquakes and of volcanic action ;
having pointed out those which waters produce, both by denudation, or de-
gradation, and the formation of new deposits, it is natural to attempt, by
reference to these effects, the explanation of all geological phenomena which
have occurred on the surface of the globe from the first moment of its exist,
ence. The causes now in action are the same as those which have acted
through all time; but doubtlessly they were more energetic at certain epochs
than present observation shows.
1. CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRAL HEAT. — The complete fluidity
rf the globe gave rise to its ellipsoidal form : the heat so long pre-
served, and still existing beneath the cooled pellicle or crust, has
^reduced, and is now producing a great number of phenomena.
The temperature of the surface is nearly stationary, and has not
varied since the period of records, and will not probably change.
But before reaching this state, which probably required thousands
44. Where are peat-bogs found ?
1 . What influence is central heat supposed to exercise over the form of
the globe? Had the central heat any influence on climate? How do yoa
account for the fossils of tropical plants and animals being found in northern
leg i MIS ?
CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRAL HEAT.
145
of years, the surface of the earth must have passed through every
degree of heat, from the state of fusion in which the centre still is
to its present degree of cold ; consequently, there was a time when
the temperature of the earth was such as to do away with differences
of climate, or an atmosphere of vapour, which, by overcoming radia-
tion, diminished the rigour of winter. Then vegetation, and life
generally, could be as equally maintained in all latitudes as in a
hot-house. From this it follows, that plants and animals now found
only between the tropics could then live anywhere, even under the
poles, which were not then encumbered in ice. It is therefore not
astonishing that we should find the remains of these various creatures
buried nearly on the spot where they lived, in countries which are
now the coldest in the world, and in which it would be impossible
for them to live at the present time.
There is in England, on the island of Portland, and at several places on
the continent, intercalated in other deposits, a bed of black matter, called
dirt-bed, and small argilla'ceous beds, in which, among- a great many vege-
table remains, bedded and scattered, are various plants in their place of
growth (Jig- 225), the roots of which extend into the fissures of the calca-
reous soil beneath. There-
fore, there must have been a
vegetable soil, on which all
the plants now buried in the
earth then grew. But all
the species found in this bed
belong to genera, such as
cycas and zamia, which
now live only in the tropics,
and the remains of animals
Fi<r. 225. — Portland dirt-bed.
also belonged to the same zone; consequently the mean temperature at the
time of this formation was very different from what it is now in England.
Most of the coal deposits of Europe lead to a similar conclusion. Entire
trees with their roots, many of them still erect, are found, as in the mine of
Treuil, near St. Eticnne (Jig. 226), in the mines of Anzin (North) in Eng-
land, in Scotland, &c., which seem to indicate, as in peat- bogs, plants that
grew very near the places where they are now found. It is evident from
the perfect preservation of the most delicate parts of plants, the manner in
which the leaves are extended on schists, that these remains could not have
*>cen carried far. All the remains of plants found in these deposita belong
«.o the equisita'ceae, lofty ferns, to the lycopodea'ceae, &c., and cannot be
compared with those now existing in the tropics; consequently, the climate
of Europe must have been then very different from what it is at present.
We find, in the latitudes of Europe, certain beds containing the remains
of intertropical plants, but we also find above them considerable deposits in
which are dicotyle'donous plants of the present time. The formation of the
1 st deposits, then, must have taken place long after the first; and it is pro-
bable that between the epochs, a period of time elapsed, sufficient for cooling
the surface of our planet.
Madrepores .of reefs, which now do not exist beyond the tropics, then evi
dently extended to the polar circle. In fact, the limestones of different
periods contain a great number, and frequently show that reefs existed com-
parable to those of our days. Facts show that the limits of these banks of
ao'ophytes have retrograded, from the period of the deposit of the oldest
13
CONSEQUENCES OF CENTRAL HEAT.
Fig. 226. — Vertical stems in the mine of Treuil, St. Etienne.
limestones to that of the chalk, after which they suddenly retired to their
present limits ; in other words, the climate of Europe has grown successively
colder.
First effect of cooling. — The idea of complete fusion, and of cooling, which
the observation of the phenomena forcibly leads us to admit, also leads us to
conceive what must have taken place on the first consolidation of the globe's
surface. The first solid pellicle formed underwent, from cooling, more or
less contraction, and on this account must have broken in all directions,
from the action of the melted matter it covered, swimming in pieces on it8
surface, and uniting anew more or less irregularly, to be again broken. But
assuming greater consistence, and pressing more and more on the liquid
part, this must have gushed up through the rents, then more rare, and formed
above the crust projecting ridges, of more or less extent, which increased in
height in proportion as the resistance of the crust became greater, and
caused stronger and stronger reaction. Hence the first rugosities, the first
ridges formed on the surface of the globe, which possibly afforded the first
hold for the action of water, the precipitation of which took place, without
doubt, long before the temperature of the terrestrial crust had descended to
212° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, in consequence of the pressure exerted
by the vapour then diffused in the air. From that moment waves produced
debris, and arena'ceous matters, and sediments began to form. Probably
Jie water, at a high temperature, charged witli the principles disengaged
from the solidified masses, like lava of the present time, attacked the stony
matters, disintegrated and dissolved them, and subsequently formed chemical
deposit?, or consolidated the debris. In fact, we find deposits formed of
fragments, of rolled flints and of sands, in the most ancient layers yet exa-
mined, and before meeting with organic remains.
All the solid layers formed beneath the first pellicle, like it, being sub-
jeoted to the law of contraction from cooling, must have been filled with
cracks in all directions ; therefore the whole terrestrial crust, thus formed,
-sould not have been as solid as might be at first imagined : it could noi
WARM SPRINGS. 147
resist, so successfully as might be thought, the internal actions, which, meet-
ing no obstacle in the sedimentary deposits subsequently formed, must have
dislocated them in all ways. In fact, there is no deposit on the surface of
the globe, either sedimentary or crystalline, which is not found to be cracked
in all directions ; even on the upper surface, most rocks are broken in small
fragments, to a considerable depth.
While the crust of the earth was gradually cooling, things must have
passed nearly as we have stated ; but, after the temperature had become
stationary, as it is now, it could not have been the same : the superficial
pellicle does not contract, because it does not grow sensibly cooler. Never-
theless, the interior mass is still cooling more and more, although with ex-
treme slowness*, and consequently diminishing in volume ; now, the fluid
part tending to drag with it that which covers it, and which becomes suc-
cessively too large, this must contract on itself, and ridge the surface by dis-
locations through its whole thickness. This may take place tranquilly, for
some time ; but, at certain moments, the effect cannot fail to take place
quickly, and hence the sudden catastrophes experienced on the earth's sur-
face.
All observations, in accordance with geometrical considerations, show-
that these ridges and these dislocations are formed according to the great
circle of the sphere, and extend over the half of its circumference.
2. Warm springs. — The different degrees of temperature of
warm springs are referable to the central heat, which is communi-
cated through fissures of greater or less profundity. The waters
come to the surface with the temperature of the point whence
they started, and, it is known, that at the depth of ahout 3280
yards, they boil. Now it may be readily conceived how, during
earthquakes, new hot springs may appear in a country, and how
those that existed there maybe lost ; in the first instance, all that is
required is a fissure, to establish a communication between the
surface and a proper depth ; and, for the second, that the existing
communication should be interrupted.
We may easily conceive, also, that before the earth had reached its pre-
sent degree of cooling, hot springs must have been infinitely more numerous
than they are at present. When, instead of one-thirtieth of a degree, centi-
grade per yard, the temperature increased one-third of a degree, that is, ten
times more rapidly than at present, and when water boiled at a depth of 325
yards, it is clear, there must have been a great many springs at a tempera-
ture of 212° Fahrenheit, or of boiling water, and that fumarolles, now rare,
were then common. Consequently, the condition of the atmosphere was then
very different from what it is now; thick fogs must have spread over the
surface of the earth, in the absence of the sun, and hence radiation towards
the celestial space, at present an important C;iuse of refrigeration, must then
have been nothing. Winter was consequently less rigorous ; and this ex-
plains, too, how so many plants and animals, which cannot now exist in
northern climates, could then live in them as between the tropics, and pre-
cisely as southern plants now live on northern coasts and islands which are
constantly shrouded in thick fogs. The whole earth, tempered by these
* According to Fourier, a decrease of internal heat of not more than one
degree in thirty yards, would require 30,000 years.
2. How is the temperature of hot springs accounted for? At what depth
do spring waters boil ?
148 DEPOSITS REFERABLE TO SEDIMENT.
abundant vapours, could then support the same organic creatures ; here we
have the reason why mineral beds, of a determined age, differ less in the
organic remains they contain, wherever found, than existing creatures of
different zones.
DEPOSITS REFERABLE TO SEDIMENT.
S. Rolled flints, sand, and mud, are formed by the action of
running water and of waves ; and, being transported by these
waters, they accumulate in lakes, in seas, at the mouths of rivers,
and on coasts. Whenever we find these kinds of matter accumu-
lated in more or less considerable deposits in the interior of coun-
tries, we have a right to conclude that there existed somewhere, far
or near, high mountains, from which these matters were detached ;
water-courses, which carried them ; undulating waters, which
heaped them up on their shores, and often lakes and seas, that
received them. By the greater or less abundance and size of the
rolled flints, we can judge of the mass and force of the waters that
transported them; and their nature, and various course or track,
ought to lead to the point of their origin, if circumstances have not
destroyed the traces left by currents in their course.
As in the present day we see deposits of shells formed in lakes and seas,
we infer that the numerous beds of the same kind we find at all heights,
even on the summits of the loftiest mountains, were necessarily formed
under water ; the nature of the organic remains enables us to determine
whether they were deposited under fresh or salt water, on coasts or in depths
of the sea; their mixture, their alternation, indicate mouths of rivers, alter-
nations of salt and fresh water, &c.
4. Deposits from fresh water. — These deposits are easily re-
cognised from the organic remains they contain being comparable
to different genera, sometimes even to different species of animals
now living in our lakes and rivers. These are especially remains,
impressions, or moulds of shells, like those of the genus limnc'a
(Jig. 227), planor'bis (fig. 228), paludi'na (fig. 229), mela'ma
(fig. 230), and of knd shells of the genus helix. These are all
Fiff. <227.—Limne'a Fig. 228.- Plnno'rbis Fig. 229.— Paludi'na Fig. 230.— Mela'
Lmgisca'ta. euom'phalus. lenta. nia inquina'ta.
3. How are rolled flints formed ? What does the presence of a deposit
of rolled flints in a country indicate ? What is inferred from their size and
quantity ?
MARINE DEPOSITS.
149
univalve, unilocuJar shells. The bivalve shells of fresh-water de-
posits, more rare than the preceding, are like mussels — u'nio (Jig.
231), anodo'nta (Jig- 232), cy'clas (fig. 233), and cyre'na (fig.
234). The entire absence of every species of polypa'ria (figs.
Kg. 231 - U'nio Fig. 232.—
littora' Us. cordieri.
Fig. 233.-Cy'cZa*
obo'vata.
trigo'nula.
235, 236, 237—239), and echini'dese (figs. 238 — 240, 241), is an
important characteristic of fresh-water deposits, which are very
common in different parts of the world.
5. Marine deposits. — These are distinguished by the analogy
o/ the organic remains they contain (figs. 235 to 250) to the debris
Fig. M5—Encri'nites
monilifo' rmis.
Fig. 236. —Jl'piocri' nitee Fig. 237. - Cy' aihocri1 nitet
rotu'ndus. planus.
4. How are fresh-water deposits recognised ? Which are most numerous"
ariivalve or bivalve shells, in fresh-water deposits ? What does the absence
of polypa'ria indicate?
5. How are marine deposits distinguished ? What fossils are characte»
«stic of marine deposits ?
' 13*
150
MARINE DEPOSITS.
of different animals now living in the seas. Polypa'ria. more or
lest) analogous to those which form coral reefs (Jigs. 220 to 223-—
p. 141), are highly characteristic; encri'nites (Jigs. 235 to 237),
Fig. 238.— Cida'ris corona'ta. Fig. 239. — Different joints of Encri'nites.
or the remains of their joints (fig. 239) — the echini 'deas (figs.
338 to 241). Not one of these organic todies is found in fresh
water
Fig 240. — financhytes ovatus
(from the Parisian chalk}.
Fig. 24l.—Spata'vg-us ambula
(from the chalk of the Pyrenees).
Among the marine univalves there are
some which are more or less analogous to
those of fresh, water, mentioned (p. 148),
although they are thicker, and more gene-
rally covered with tubercles (Jig. 242).
But, setting aside those on which at first
sight there might be some doubt, there are
many others which are sufficiently charac-
teristic : these are shells whose aperture is
terminated by a canal of greater or less
length, and belong either to the genus ceri'-
thium (fig. 243), of which a small number
of species lives in fresh water, or to \he
genera mu'rex (fig. 244), volu'ta (fig- 245), &c. ; they are all
•marine, and abound in calcareous deposits.
Fig 242.— Turbo costa'rius.
MARINE DEPOSITS.
151
.— Cm'tAiwr
muta'bile.
Fig. <244.—Mu'rex
alveola' tus.
Fig. 245.— Volu'ta
at/lie' ta.
Marine bivalve shells generally differ very much from those
found in fresh water ; some resemble oysters, and others are almost
entirely like them ; a great many are furnished with ribs, or striae,
or rugosities (figs. 24ti, 247), and possess, in a word, many cha-
racteristics entirely different from those found in the genera we
have just mentioned.
Fig '.'46.— Chama
folia' c fa.
Fig. 247.— Ve nerica rdia Fig. 248.— JVaw' tilus
imbrica'ta. trunca'tus (from the Lias]
Chambered shells are found only in seas, such as the nautilus
(fig. 248), more or less like numerous species of ammonites (Jig.
249), no analogue of which is now living, but with which certain
terrestrial strata are filled.
These deposits are generally formed very slowly, by the accumulation of
^llusks as fast as they perish, and not by sudden catas-
l»nvf> Knor\Af1 tl-icim •««. «K.*A i— . ._ _T _ - L __
I oy dead rno**u.c»«.o u,o IO.OL ao tucjr pcnsii, ana not oy suoocn etnas
U-ophes, which would have heaped them up alive in greater or less numbers
34
J52 CARBONACEOUS DEPOSITS.
Fig. 250.— Sf.'rpula, on the inside of a
Fig. 241 ftmmoni'tes cate'na. Ca'rdium porulo'sum.
This is pr jvod by the fact thai fre^u .ntly on the inside of shells we fmer
parasitic uninr.als, that attach the ns-il cr to bodies of all kinds (fig. 250),
and which could not attach themsel'-ef here, in the interior of the shell, if
the moJlusk had not been previously destroyed. Often the very shell of
the purisite is covered by others, showing that the first had long existed in
the ten. The shells of bivalves are frequently found separated, showing
the animal must have died before they were buried. And there are shells
wliich are pierced by lithopha'gi, as well as the flints and fragments of
limestone which accompany them, leading to the same conclusion. There
ure of course some exceptions, but these are commonly due to local circum.
stances.
Generally, these shelly deposits are on the spot where the animals lived.
In fact, they contain a great number of uninjured shells, the most delicate
appendages of which are in a state of perfect preservation ; a circumstance
not reconcilable with the idea of transportation by currents, which would
have broken the whole and rounded the fragments. Even in decomposition,
the finest parts have left their impressions on the substances enveloping them.
By means of the debris alluded to, we may always recognize marine
deposits.
6. Carbona'ceoits deposits. — It is undeniable, that the carbo-
na'ceous deposits found in different strata of the earth, were pro-
duced there by the accumulation of the remains of plants ; this IF
proved by the numerous and clearly characterized remains of
stems and leaves met with, either in the combustible mass or in
the earthy matter containing it. On this point al 1 are of one opinion ;
but all do not agree as to the manner of accumulation of these re-
mains. Some geologists suppose that all carbona'ceous deposits
result from the sinking of great rafts of divers plants, transported
by great rivers, by maritime currents, and sunk in different places;
others think, on the contrary, that most of these deposits were
formed, in place, in the same manner as peat-bogs, in depressions
of the surface to which rivulets daily brought debris from the sur-
rounding vegetation.
6. From what are carbona'ceous deposits derived ? How are carbona'
ceous deposits formed ?
CARBONACEOUS DEPOSITS. 153
Opposed to the idea of floating rafts is, the enormous thickness they nmsx
have attained, to have produced beds of coal such as are known, between
two layers of arena'ceous matter. In fact, taking into consideration the
specific weight of wood, the amount of carbon it contains relatively to that
of carbona'ceous deposits, we find that the latter can only be twenty-two
hundreds, or even seven hundreds (according to the kind of plants), of
the primitive volume of the mutters which gave origin to them. Besides,
estimating the numerous voids left by the irregular interlacing of these
debris in a raft, we know that coal, tor example, which is formed of the
lightest plants, as the equisita'ceae, ferns, &,c., cannot be, in the bed, more
than thirty-five thousands of the thickness of the raft that formed it : that
is, a coal-bed of from one or two to thirty yards thick, would require the
rafts to have been twenty-eight or fifty-seven, to eight hundred and fifly-
seven yards in thickness, which evidently exceeds the limits of probability,
and in most seas would be impossible.
The idea of the formation being analogous to that of peat-bogs does not
present this difficulty, arid only requires time for the accumulation of the
necessary organic materials. In the present state of things, this time would
be very considerable; for, according to the calculation of M. de Beaumont,
on the quantity of carbon annually produced by our forests, not much more
than six-tenths of an inch in thickness of coal would be ibrmed, in carbo-
na'ceous deposits, in the period of a century. But everything leads to the
belief, that at a mean temperature of 71° (Fahrenheit), when the atmosphere
was filled with vapour, and vegetation, in the genera of plants that then
grew in our country, was infinitely more vigorous than at present: we are
also Jed to believe that at the epoch of these formations, when the earth had
not yet cooled to its present temperature, a great deal of carbonic acid
issued from its interior, and the appropriation of the carbon by plants was
then more rapid. It is not only for the formation of coal that a long period
of time is required ; all sedimentary and calcareous deposits formed only of
shells, which acquire much greater thickness than carbona'ceous deposits,
have certainly required many centuries to reach this point.
The hypothesis which assimilates deposits of coal to peat-bogs, is fortified
by the different characters they present; such are, not only the trees found
erect with their roots, and the remarkable preservation of the leaves in
schists, but the deposition in isolated basins, of greater or less extent, seems"
to indicate swamps and marshy places formed in depressions of the surface
of the soil. These deposits are often surrounded on all sides by rocks of an
anterior formation, which form the parietes of the cavity where they took
place ; frequently, we also find that a certain number of small basins, inde-
pendent of each other, forming part of a more extensive basin of a species
of lake filled with contemporaneous arena'ceous matters, on the surface of
which there would be formed as many masses of combustible. There are
some, too, that extend through the length of certain ancient valleys, and are
contained in them. All these circumstances are observable in the deposits
of the centre and south of France ; but in the north of France, in Belgium,
in England, and in Scotland, it is different. There, the beds of combustible
seem to extend over great spaces; and the assemblage of facts, as well as
the immediate superposition of marine limestone, found in all these countries,
leads us to suppose that these deposits, now dislocated and separated by seas,
have once formed part of the same whole. It was not in swamps or in
closed lakes they were formed, but in a vast sea, the receptacle of all the
debris of the vegetation of its coasts and islands, that they must have taken
place, and in which undulatory motion stratified these materials as well as
all other sedimentary deposits.
Certain deposits of lignite were evidently formed in the same manner a*
coal ; but there are others which constitute irregular masses of wood thrown
(54 UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE.
1^1
pell-mell, more or less bituminous and preserving their tissue, found acci.
dentally buried in the midst of sedimentary deposits, and which probably
had a similar origin to those transported by great rivers, which are deposited
in lakes or conveyed to the middle of seas.
Remains of shells are rare in deposits of coal, properly so called. There
is no trace of them in any of the deposits of the centre of France ; and it
is only in the great formation comprising the north of France, Belgium,
and England, that some examples are met: marine shells are found in the
environs of Liege and of Namur, in Derbyshire, &c. Fresh-water shells,
similar to u'nio and anodo'nta, are found in the same place. In most depo-
sits of lignite, in which the structure of the wood has generally disappeared,
we find, on the contrary, a great number of fluviatile shells, which proves,
that the formation of these deposits took place in fresh-water lakes.
EFFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO UPHEAVAL AND SUBSIDENCE.
7. At whatever height we may find fluviatile deposits on the
surface of the globe, there is nothing to excite astonishment; for
we readily conceive that lakes could have existed at all heights on
continents, and that after their waters flowed away their deposits
remained dry on the soil. But we find also marine deposits at all
heights, in very extensive beds, and at first sight it is not so easy to
account for them. It is evident that such deposits could have been
formed only under waters of the sea ; and, as they are now found
thousands of yards above the present level of the ocean, we must
admit one of two things; either that the water was elevated above
these points for a sufficiently long time to form thick beds there,
or that these deposits were raised up from the bottom of the sea to
the height we now find them. Nothing in the phenomena of the
present time warrants a belief, that the sea, which has not changed
its level within the time of history, could have been so elevated,
long enough to form considerable deposits. The universal deluge
of the Holy Scriptures was a catastrophe of short duration, and
therefore could not have produced the immense deposits referred
to, which, everything leads us to believe, were formed slowly.
Besides, this catastrophe is comparatively of modern date, and
must be referred to the last modification of the surface ; now, all
the deposits of shells of which we speak were long anterior, and
were independent of facts belonging to the history of the human
race. Nothing informs us what became of the excess of water (a
greater or less volume than now exists) above the present level,
without having recourse to divine interference, which must have
been frequent in ancient times, to cause these waters to appear or
disappear a great many times, and even suspend the action of the
laws of equilibrium. In fact, very often deposits of shells, seen
here and there at a great height, are not found on corresponding
summits, and are represented on the contrary with all their charac-
ters, thousands of yards lower down ; hence we must suppose the
7 How is the presence of marine shells in deposits, at great height*
nboye the presen* level of the sea, accounted for ?
SHELL DEPOSITS.— RAISED BEACHES. 155
waters were considerably elevated on the first of these points, and
remained low on the other, which is absurd, or we must admit that
the same animals could live in one place, near the surface of the
water, and in another, at immense depths, which is contrary to all
observation. Therefore, the only reasonable supposition left is, that
of upheaval; an idea supported at least on positive events which
have taken place in our own times, and which are, doubtlessly, not
the only ones which have been manifest on the surface of the
globe. If an upheaving force could suddenly elevate 200 leagues
of the coast of Chile (page 99), spreading as far as the islands of
Juan Fernandez; if the same effect were slowly produced in all
the gulf of Bothnia, in Sweden, and in Finland, over a surface of
not less extent, we may comprehend how vast countries might have
been elevated anywhere. The enormous liquified mass 'forming
the interior of the globe, oscillating from side to side beneath its
thin crust, could emboss it in every direction, and nothing more
would be required to raise continents out of the sea, and vary the
slight relief in all manners. And let not such effects excite alarm
because they appear gigantic; we judge them to be so because
we compare them with our feeble powers, for they are nothing
compared to the globe itself. What are the 25,660 feet in the
height of Himalaya, the highest mountain in the world, and the
24,580 feet depth, the deepest soundings in the midst of the sea,
compared with the 19,685,500 feet, measured by the mean radius
of the earth ? And notwithstanding such eminences or depths, the
sum of which is less than .5000 of an inch to the yard, are rarities
on our planet, whose inequalities are not even comparable to the
unperceivable irregularities which are formed in our manufactories
on moulded glass or metals, which nevertheless pass unnoticed.
If to these reflections we add our knowledge of the immense force
often exerted, from the interior towards the exterior, none of these
phenomena will astonish us.
8. Shell deposits, and upheaved or raised beaches. — Parts of
soil upheaved above the level of the sea, are characterized, on the
surface of exposed rocks, by the presence of various shells, that
live, ordinarily, attached on a level with the water, such as barna-
cles, mussels, &c. ; or by that of some small deposits of shells,
identical with those daily formed at the bottom of neighbouring
seas. Now, on examining the hills near the coast of Chile, there
has been found on the plateaux (which succeed each other in ter-
races, the sides of which are parallel to the present shores), shells
similar to those, that have been left dry in our day, and which are.
still attached to rocks, as well as shelly deposits, which contain tho
same organic remains as those now forming in the Pacific Ocean.
Is it not most probable that these deposits are indications of suc-
cessive upheavals, similar to those which have recently taken place?
8. How are raised beaches accounted for ?
34*
156 EVIDENCE OF SUBSIDENCE.
This inference is sustained by observations made on the coast of
Peru, near Lima, in the island of San Lorenzo, where, thirty yards
above the level of the sea, deposits have been found which contain
woven osier, portions of cotton thread, &c., clearly showing that the
deposits in question were formed since the existence of man in
those countries; as the level of seas has not changed since history
began, it is only by upheaval they could be brought to light.
That the coast of Sweden has been uplifted slowly, has been established
by the most exact observations. In digging a canal near Stockholm, in the
midst of beds of sand, clay, arid murl, filled with shells similar to those that
now live in the Baltic, there were found the remains of very ancient ves-
sels; all this country, which must have been, at some period, under water,
and in which some ships were wrecked, has been upheaved since the pre-
sence of man ; the level of the ocean being invariable. It is therefore evi-
dent that the shelly deposit of Uddewalla, in which organic remains of the
Baltic are found, seventy yards above the level of the sea, and in which M.
Brongniurt found bulani attached to rocks, as they are on the present coast,
is a fact of elevation. Similar deposits and evidence of elevation arc met in
other parts of the world. The upheaval and subsidence of the temple of
Sera pis has been already mentioned (page 19).
In thus admitting that very extensive deposits, formed of shells that are
now living in the sea, have been evidently upheaved to greater or less heights,
is it not therefore exceedingly probable that the same is true of all the rest ?
Why should this not be true in regard to the neighbourhood of London and
Paris; to that of the plains of Gascony, Austria, Hungary, Poland, &,c. ?
All the shells found in those places are not similar to those in the pre-
sent seas ; but there exists a considerable quantity of them, and moreover,
their preservation is so perfect, in many places, that they seem to have been
recently buried. If we admit the fact of elevation, for these deposits, can
we refuse it to the chalk that everywhere envelopes them, forming not only
the Jura, but a great part of the calcareous mountains of France ; or to any
shell-deposits, the organic debris of which bear witness to their marine
origin ?
9. Subsidence of various deposits. — Upheaval has been shown ;
subsidence is not less demonstrable. At many points, on the coasts
of France and England, may be seen, at low tide, very extensive
deposits of plants, similar to those now living in those countries,
and which appear to have grown on the spot where they are found,
for the roots are seen attached to the soil. These deposits rest on
earthy matter, covered with leaves, heaped upon each other, or
sunk in a peat-like substance. In these places have been found
birch-trees, chestnuts, oaks, and fir-trees, sometimes scarcely
altered, species of deer, similar to those met in peat-bogs; the
whole covered by argillaceous deposits, which contain fresh-water
shells. These submarine, forests, as they are called, could have
grown only on a soil more or less elevated above the sea ; and as
they are now found beneath it, and are not uncovered, except in
unusually low tides, the earth must have sunk, after the period of
rogetation. The dirt-bed of Portland (Jig. 225, p. 145) shows the
9. What are submarine forests ? How is the subsidence of deposits
proved 7
SUBSIDENCE OF VARIOUS DEPOSITS.
157
existence of a vegetable earth or mould, of a soil nearly dry, resting
on marine deposits. This bed has been covered by a very tlrck
deposit of lacus'trine limestone, and the whole passes under tne
green sand which precedes the chalk, and which is of marine for-
mation. It is clear, therefore, that there was in those places a cer-
tain upheaval of the inferior marine limestone, on which terrestrial
plants grew; that subsequently a lake, or a deep estuary, was
formed, in which beds of limestone, sand, and clay, were deposited,
filled with fluviatile shells, the entire mass being sometimes from
200 to 500 yards in thickness. A subsequent upheaval must have
lifted the whole to its present level.
Around the Paris basin, the deposit of marine limestone, worked for build.
ing stone, must have been at first uplifted, at various points, above the sea,
to be ccfvered by a fresh- water lake in which lacustrine deposits were formed,
and among- them the plaster of Paris ; subsequently, it must have been sunk
beneath the sea, to be covered by a marine formation, and again uplifted, to
be covered by a second fresh- water formation.
Fig. 251. — Impressions of feet of quadrupeds.
Hundreds of facts of this kind might be cited ; but we will only notice the
impressions of feet and tracks of certain quadrupeds (Jig. 251) found at Hess-
berg, near Hildburghausen, in Saxony,
on the faces of certain beds of sand-
stone, and the impressions of the feet
of various birds, found in the valley of
the Connecticut, in the United States, in the
same deposits (Jig. 252). These impres.
sions show that the soil was in a degree
soft, although partly dry, which is proved
by the ridges it presents, and that it was
out of water ; the sedimentary bed on
which these animals walked, is now co-
vered by another, which is moulded on
these tracks, and afterwards by considera-
ble deposits of the same matter which could
be formed only under water ; it follows,
therefore, that the soil, first uplifted enough
to enable terrestrial animals to walk on it,
was subsequently sunk to receive all those
sedimentary deposits, and afterwards wa»
Fig. 252. — Bird tracks again upheaved to its present position
14
CHANGE OF POSITION OF STRATA
CHANGE OF POSITION AND DISLOCATION OF STRATA ATTRIBUTABLE
TO UPHEAVAL.
10. It has been already stated that sand and shells are deposited,
under water, in horizontal beds. Indeed, we frequently find them
in this position on the surface, even over extensive spaces, and we
then find flattened pebbles, valves of oysters, and other shells, lying
flat, and turriculated shells lying on one side ; and everything con-
firming the idea of a slow formation, by the weight of these sub-
stances. But it sometimes happens that we see deposits, more or
less inclined in certain parts of their extent, raised up almost to a
vertical position, and sometimes entirely overturned ; they still
preserve, however, all the characters which show they were at first
horizontal, for the debris of shells and pebbles they contain are still
found arranged parallelly to the planes of the beds. Besides, there
are deposits which contain ge'odes
of agate, in which are found sta-
la'ctites with the axis more or less
_ inclined (Jig. 253), which is di-
rectly opposite to the manner of
production of these substances.
— Consequently, these deposits could
Fig. 253. Fig. 254. not have been formed in the posi-
tion we find them, for, on the one hand, the debris of shells and
pebbles would have rolled over to be surely balanced, or fallen to
the foot of the talus ; on the other, the stalac'tites would have formed
in a vertical position. This last observation, particularly, shows
that the beds were at first horizontal (Jig. 254), and that their posi-
tion has been changed subsequently to their formation; this is one
of the great geological phenomena we seek to explain.
The effects of earthquakes, and those of volcanic phenomena, will serve as
points of comparison in our inquiry. On one hand, the crevices produced
in the soil at the time, to a greater or less depth, can only be the effect of
upheaval ; for the separation of parts does not result here from drying, nor
from cooling, which would produce a retreating of the whole mass. It is
remarked, in the neighbourhood of cracks, that the soil is no longer on the
same plane as the rest of the country; that it is more or less arched, and
often one part is more elevated than another. Now, if the soil have been
uplifted, it must follow that the internal beds have been disturbed in their
position ; consequently, when in a formation of horizontal strata, a crack is
made in a straight line (fig. 255), the beds must be inclined on both sides
through their length, like the two slopes of a roof. When several divergent
cracks are formed (fig. 256), the beds ought to incline symmetrically around
the axis of elevation.
Now, if we find all inclined beds in one or the other of these positions,
we have a right to conclude they have been uplifted by the same causes.
ll. Faults.— When a crack is made, it often happens that one
10. What proves that the position of strata has been changed by up
neaval ?
FAULTS.
109
Fig 255.
of the parts of the soil is more elevated than the other, no matter
whether the crack remains open or not. These effects are often
observed, and it is presumed they are all produced by the same
cause, namely, upheaval. The beds are then inclined in opposite
directions (Jig- 257), and one of the
parts is more elevated than that which
is adjacent ; the junction is sometimes
distinguished by subterraneous work,
either subsequently filled with gravel,
or a slight fissure, or at least by a
surface of separation, the planes of
Fig. 257.— Fault.
which are smooth, and sometimes polished or striated vertically,
showing a close crack and a rubbing of one part on the other.
This arrangement has been called/a^// (from the German fall, an
accident, /a//, or sinking), because one part is lower than the other;
faults are observed in every kind of soil, and present crests or
ridges extending over great spaces, nearly in a straight line, some-
times broken here and there, but the different parts preserve the
same direction.
12. Besides showing themselves on the surface, faults are also
perceived under ground, by the disturbance they have caused in
beds or veins worked for the benefit of the arts. It is thus, for
example, in coal measures, the
same bed of coal a, ft, c (Jtg- 258),
is found so much deranged in its
position, that the miner, after
having worked on a part of its
direction, from d to c, for instance,
finds it suddenly end, and would ^%-258. — Bed dislocated by /</» Its.
at once abandon all his labours, had not experience taught him that,
by followingr the fault, he will find the deposit either above or
below the point where it abruptly terminated. Sometimes theft
results from these disturbances serious mistakes for speculators,
11. What is meant by a fault? How are faults produced '/
12. Do faults always show themselves on the surface ?
160
CRATERIFORM DISPOSITION.
observing various outcrops on the surface of the ground, a, 6, c, d
(Jig- 259), they have inferred the existence of as many different
. — Dislocation, causing a single bed to appear as several.
beds, and consequently great wealth, when, in reality, it was only
one and the same bed dislocated and raised up to different levels
by successive faults.
13. Crate'riform disposition. — The known formation of Monte-
Nuovo, in explaining to us the uplifting of the beds seen in its
crate'riform cavity, leads us to attribute also to upheavals, the
epochs of which are unknown, the structure of several other hil-
locks of the same country, such as those of the solfata'ra of Puz-
zuoli, of Camboldi, of Astroni, &c., where the strata are all raised
towards the axis of the excavation found in the centre. In these
hillocks, the bottom of the cavity, particularly at Astroni (Jig. 200),
presents the point of a tra'chytic dome, which doubtlessly caused
the elevation of the surrounding beds of pumice tu'fa. These
crater hillocks at once explain all those of the Champs-Phlegreens,
which are full at the top, but all the strata of which are raised
around the axis (fig- 261) ; probably there would be found at their
Fig. 260. — Crate'riform disposition, with
a tra'chytic hillock in the centre.
Fig. 261. — Hillock with strata
raised towards the summit.
Fig. 262.
base some point of a cone which had not been uplifted with suffi-
cient force to crack the summit. When strata
are inclined in opposite directions (Jig. 261),
like the two sides of a roof, they form wThat is
termed an anteclinal axis ; but when they dip
oppositely, it is termed a synclinal axis (fig. 262).
Similar circumstances are observed in many places, on a greater
scale. At Cantal and Monte-Dore, basa'ltic and tra'chytic beds,
ivhich could only have been deposited on a horizontal plane, are
found raised up around one or more centres, leaving towards their
point of convergence a crate'riform.
basin of more or less extent, or
rising around a more or less pro-
jecting tra'chytic dome (fig. 268),
like the Peak of TenerifTe, above
Fig. 26 i. — Beds eleculrd around a
tra'chytic dome.
the escarpments surrounding it.
13. W •-* is meant by an anteclinal axis? What is a synclinal
VALLEYS OF ELEVATION.
161
Granitic masses are found under similar circumstances, in the
midst of which rise hillocks of basa'lt or scoriae, which doubtlessly
followed the first explosion, as at Monte-Nuovo and the island of
St. George.
14. Calcareous countries are not more exempt from these acci-
dents than others; only the crate 'ri form cavities, in place of being
nearly circular, are more frequently elliptical, sometimes very
much elongated, as seen in the Jura mountains. In general, the
length is produced, like cracks, extending to a great distance, and
forming along its direction elongated hillocks, in a line with each
other, offering here and there more projecting summits. These
summits are most frequently rent, and present what are termed
dosed valleys, and valleys of elevation (Jig- 264), which are in
fact craters of elevation.
Fig. 264. — Plan of a crater of elevation in calcareous countries.
15. Ruptures of calcareous mountains do not always present the
crate' riform uniformity just indicated, but vary much, in this re-
spect. One side of the rupture sometimes remains low, while the
other is elevated, as represented (Jig. 285). Sometimes the supe-
rior beds seem to have retired horizontally, and the inferior strata
are arched up between the fractured extremities, as seen (fig. 260).
Fie?. 265. Fig-. 266.
Craters of elevation in calcareous formations.
Often, among the upheaved beds, some are found which are easily
disintegrated, and their projection soon tumbles, inducing the fall
of solid strata ; from this we have ridges of rock parallel to each
other, separated by little valleys, in which the rain-water flows, and
they become covered by vegetation ; in this case the general ridg^
of the mountain is as represented (fig. 267). Sometimes the
summit only presents a mass of calcareous blocks piled on£ on the
other, but arranged in line, as if the work of a mason. Again,
14. What are valleys of elevation ? What is the peculiarity of crate'-i.
rorrn cavities in calcareous countries ?
15. Are the crate'riform cavities, in calcareous countries, always uniform
in configuration ?
102
UPHEAVAL WITHOUT DISLOCATION.
when iwo parallel upheavals take place (Jig. 268), it sometimes
happens that one portion (a) of the formation is cut off, and then
Fig. 267. Fig. 268.
Various dispositions of craters of elevation in calcareous formations.
forms the culminating point of the whole mass, giving the appear-
ance of a repetition of certain strata in the same deposit. The
central part of the uplifted mass is formed of matters sometimes
analogous to those that essentially constitute the formation, and
sometimes totally different.
16. Upheaval and distortion witliout dislocation. — The uplift-
ing of strata is often accompanied by ruptures, but frequently there
is no apparent dislocation. We have already noticed the isolated
mounts or hillocks on the Champs-Phlegreens (Jig. 261), and the
same is also seen, for greater or less lengths, which then have
more or less projecting sides, or anteclinal lines, formed by the
uplifted strata on either side, like the dip of a roof; these effects
are similar to those produced by crevices ; but acting on strata of
a certain degree of flexibility, like the matters placed in the centres
of the preceding figures. The Jura mountains present a number
of instances of this ; we often see there different parallel ridges of
this kind, clearly marked on the simplest maps, which leave be-
tween them valleys of greater or less breadth, on the two slopes of
which the beds are uplifted. The result is great undulations in
the strata, remarked especially in escarpments, produced by diffe-
rent ruptures, which cut the ridges in a great many places. These
Fig. 269.— Distortions of the Jura. Valleys from plaiting.
1R. Is upheaval always attended by rupture of strata?
dinal lines? How are undulations in strata produced?
What arc ante
PLAITING OF SCHISTOSE STRATA.
163
undulations on a grand scale, represented jfrg-. 269, are not inter-
rupted excot by crate'riform ruptures of summits, previously
spoken of.
17. Plaiting t-r folding of schistose strata. — Distortions are
also observed under other circumstances, in which it seems that
beds of a degree of flexibility, or in a pasty condition, have been
compressed by two opposing forces, rather than uplifted. Certain
facts observed in matter of the structure of schist, naturally lead to
this idea. It often happens that the laminae of these deposits, instead
of continuing on the same plane, horizontal or inclined, are all found
very much contorted without ceasing to be parallel, or folded on
themselves into a more or less acute zig-zag (fig. 270). The sup-
position as to the mode in which this plaiting has been effected, has
been verified by experiments made by Sir James Hall.
Fig. 270.— Contortion of schists.
Fig. 271.— Contortion of coal.
Entirely similar circumstances occur in coal measures ; all the strata of
these deposits, both argilla'ceous and combustible, are found plaited, and
often at acute angles (Jig. 271): this is especially remarkable in the coal
measures near Mons, in Belgium.
Now, how did these compressions take place ? In a degree, an explana-
tion is required for each locality; but we know that in a deposit of inclined
strata, the mass of which is pushed from below upwards, the superior part
presses with all its weight on the inferior, and the beds of the latter, being
placed between two opposing forces, may fold on themselves, if they are
sufficiently flexible. On the other hand, as matters in a state of fusion are
"often injected with great force into sedimentary deposits, it is conceived that
from this results the lateral compression which produces the same effects.
18. Origin of Valleys. — If mountains are only the result of dis-
locations which have taken place on the surface of the globe, by
the force of internal agents, there would be no difficulty in account-
ing for valleys. The first idea of the origin of valleys was based
on excavation by the erosive action of water ; but then mountains
having been previously formed, it is clear that water would always
follow the natural slope of the soil, and only excavate in that direc-
17. How is the folding in schistose strata accounted for?
18. How are valleys produced ? What is meant by vallevs of disloca
lion?
35
164 ORIGIN OF VA1LEYS.
tion ; when arrested by any obstacle, or in a basin, it would of
preference cut through deposits of sand and gravel. We see the
contrary of this natural action : valleys do not generally follow the
real slope of the soil ; it is not by the lowest part of basins that
waters are generally turned, nor through moveable formations that
they make a passage. Rivers, in place of having excavated their
beds, as was thought, are simply directed by the canals they found
already made. Now it is not difficult to go back to the origin of
these canals ; they are evidently the result of upheavals, which
have embossed or ridged the soil, until then horizontal. It is clear
the inflexible beds must have been broken, and consequently a
number of cracks were formed, as in the transverse section (Jig.
272). The cracks became valleys, placed in different relations to
Fig. 272. — Production of valleys by dislocation.
each other according to circumstances of upheaval: parallel if the
action, taking place in a certain direction, extended a sufficient
length ; divergent, if the action occurred at one point, as in certain
massive mountains ; often perpendicular to the direction of uplifted
chains, as the secondary cracks manifested during earthquakes
(Jig. 255), which occurs especially when the internal action forces
crystalline matter through the principal crack. It may be easily
conceived that crevices would remain more open in solid matters
than in arena'ceous deposits., the falling of which would tend to
fill the vacancy ; and this is the reason why rivers seem to shun
moveable formations, which they could easily excavate if they had
not found a bed ready prepared in another direction.
19. It must not be concluded, however, that water has no agency
in the configuration of valleys. On the contrary, we must believe
that when a country has been suddenly rent, causing the accumu-
lated waters to flow all at once, that torrents of frightful po\ver
were produced, tearing away and removing all parts fractured by
upheaval, and they thus modified the passages offered to them.
It is probable, also, that certain valleys, which pass through a
moveable formation, little disposed to fracture, have been produced
exclusively by water. Valleys referable to this origin are very
different in character from the first : they follow the natural line
of slope ; they change their course on meeting masses which offer
resistance, and turn round them to remain constantly in the movea-
ble deposits. Such are the valleys which cut through the great
deposits of rolled flints found at the foot of the oriental Alps.
19. How are valleys of erosion produced ?
ORIGIN OF CAVERNS.
Many great rivers have themselves
cut their beds in the ancient allu'-
vium (Jig. 273), very different from
that now forming; the Seine, at Pa-
ris, excavated its bed in a deposit
of rolled flints very unlike the gravel Fig. ^73.— Vailey <>f erosion in 6
it now deposits. moioe.able formation.
20. Valleys from disruption, are those which have been pro-
duced by cracks of every size, sometimes colossal, during the up-
heavals that have brought the land to its present configuration of
surface. They generally present abrupt escarpments, in which
are seen the section of the fractured strata, the projecting angles
on one side often corresponding with the retreating angles of the
other. The circles which frequently terminate them above, or
those that divide them in their length, are so many craters of ele-
vation, most of which are clearly characterized either by the up-
lifted strata or the barrancos they present.
21. Valleys of subsidence are also spoken of, but it does not
appear there are any arising purely from this cause. Subsidence
is frequently correlative to upheaval ; and valleys as well as craters
of elevation may exhibit the effects of both, which must have taken
place especially in the circles found along their line, and at their
superior extremity.
22. Valleys from folding or plaiting are produced by two
neighbouring upheavals, causing the elevation of strata, and leaving
a space between, the slopes of which being formed by their planes;
this is seen in the high parts of the Jura (Jig. 269.) Many rivers
flow in valleys resulting from two opposite uptiltings of the soil.
23. Valleys of erosion or denudation are produced in loose
formations like ravines, made by rain-storms, the waters of which
carry off the materials constituting the soil.
24. The origin of caverns is one of the phenomena attributed
to the action of water ; but, although we find on a level with the
sea some caverns of slight depth, which may have arisen from the
repeated action of waves, it is difficult to believe that great caves,
which are sometimes many leagues in extent, have been produced
solely by the action of the waters running through them. The
action of water on compact limestone, in which caves are princi-
pally found, is so slight, that it has been supposed the open spaces
now found, were at one time filled by masses of salt, which the
waters had subsequently dissolved and carried away.
It is presumed, however, that the first origin of caverns is due io cracks,
produced in the interior of the soil, which have been afterwards modified by
20. What are valleys of disruption?
21. What are valleys of subsidence?
22. How are valleys from folding- produced?
23. How are valleys of denudation formed in loose strata ?
*24. How is the origin of caverns accounted for ?
166 VOLCANIC CONES AND LAVA CURRENTS.
different causes. We know, in fact, that during earthquakes, rivers as well
as lakes suddenly disappear under ground, sometimes temporarily and
sometimes continuously ; it is conceived that the water flows through internal
cracks, similar to those produced on the surface, which form canals for its
passage. The phenomenon is sometimes coincident with tho appearance
of some abundant spring in a more or less distant place ; but it often hap-
pens also that the water nowhere re-appears, and we must conclude that it
runs directly into the sea. All these circumstances explain the disappear,
ance of certain rivers, which are swallowed by the earth after a superficial
course of more or less extent, as well as the sudden appearance of springs
gushing from the side of a rock. They point to the existence of subterra-
neous canals, and lead us to think that, dried up by a more or less consider,
able upheaval, these canals may have formed the now empty caverns found
at all heights, as well as those, the bottom of which are still occupied by a
stream of water fed from lakes or rivers on the surface.
Still, if the real origin of most of these subterraneous cavities be not
doubtful, it must be admitted that subsequently important changes took place
in the general form and condition of their parietes ; the rounded form, wear
and polish of surfaces, grooves, different excoriations, and in all positions,
even on the upper part of the vault, an erosive action of which water alone
is incapable. It has been thought this liquid might have been charged with
carbonic acid gas, which is frequently disengaged from the earth through
fissures formed in it, particularly at the time of earthquakes, and that the
subsequent effects were owing to its dissolving power.
LESSON IX.
EXPLANATION OF VARIOUS PHENOMENA CONTINUED. — Deposits
attributable to Volcanic Action — Lava — Basa'lt — fiction of
Basalt on Adjacent Rocks — Dolomisation — Giant's Causeway
— Tra'chytic Formation — Trap Rocks — Porphyry — Granitic
Rocks — 'injection of Granite — Metalliferous Veins — Met a-
mo'rphism — Effects of Erosion.
1. Volcanic cones and lava currents. — When we find conical
bills isolated, or arranged several together on a line, and covered
with scoriae, sometimes having crate'riform cavities at
the summit, surrounded by rapilli, we may be certain
they are volcanic cones, however ignorant we may be
of" the epoch of their activity. If on mountain sides,
whatever may he their nature, we see long, straight
masses., terminated^below in a club, hollow in the mid-
dle, and thinning out above in a pellicle of dislocated
scoriae (fig. 274), their origin cannot be doubtful,
although every other trace of volcanic action may
have disappeared. These long, straight masses are
lava currents. If we find these matters in pebbles, in
more or less extensive tables, compact below, porous,
tig. ~74. cejiu}arj or scoriaceous above, with a nearly uniform
1. By what features are extinct volcanoes recognised ?
BASA'LTIC DEPOSITS OF fUFFErtENT KINDS 167
surface, we may conclude they were accumulated on a horizontal
soil, or that in a more or less liquid state they flowed into a depres-
sion. They are evidently deposits which have issued from the
bosorn of the earth in a state of fusion. It is by observations of
this kind we are enabled to recognise extinct volcanoes, in relation
to which the history of the most remote times is entirely mute.
2. Some of these currents resemble what is called basa'lt, that
is, black rocks with a compact base of la'bradorite, containing
black pyroxene, and almost always magnetic oxide of iron. Very
frequently there is found in it more or less voluminous nodules of
peiidote, and sometimes crystals of feldspar, which give it a por-
phyritic structure. These currents ordinarily form thick deposits,
frequently divided into prismatic columns, sometimes in large
irregular pieces, all indicative of slow cooling. "The palisades" on
the North River are examples of basa'ltic columns.
3. Basa'ltic deposits of different kinds. — If basa'lt is found
in well-ascertained currents, traceable to craters, entirely similar
matter is found in very different positions. There is a great deal
of it that forms extensive tables of considerable thickness, consti-
tuting vast plateaux ; or heaped-up fragments on different moun-
tains, at the same level, the heaps corresponding, and seem to be-
long one to the other like parts of the same whole, showing a
vast dislocated table. Basa'lt also forms isolated masses, hillocks
in the midst of places, sometimes very distant from every
other formation of the same kind. It is found in seams, sometimes
enclosed in the soil that conceals it, sometimes rising here and
there like a wall, or presenting various hillocks on the same line
of direction.
All these dispositions of basa'ltic deposits, as well as currents or streams,
are sometimes found together in the same country. In some countries, on
the contrary, there is no trace whatever of volcanic cones or of currents.
In all cases, however, the rock possesses the general characters of basa'lt,
and seems to rest indifferently on every kind of formation, even on vegeta
ble earth.
4. Tabular basa'lt brings to
mind the great tables of Iceland,
especially those of the eruption
of 1783; they possess all the
characters of lava that has been
arrested on horizontal planes, or
filled depressions. The lower part
is compact, crystalline, and most
frequently divided into vertical
prismatic columns (Jig- 275) ;
and the upper part is porous, eel- Fig.
lular, sco'riform, irregularly di- porous basa'lt.
9. What is basa'lt ? What does it contain ? What is its form 2
3. Where is basa'lt found, and under what circumstances ?
35*
168 BASA'LTIC HIiLOCKS, OR BOSSES.
vided, and terminating on a plain horizontal surface. When the
mass is composed of several stories, the separations are sometimes
formed by thin beds of rapilli, and most generally they are dis-
tinguished by alternations of compact and porous matter, which
characterizes each particular effusion.
5. These characters leave no doubt as to the igneous origin of
these deposits ; but there are still others. When we can penetrate
beneath basa'ltic tables, as in cases
where they rest on moveable forma-
tions, we almost always find the in-
ferior part of the mass presents a
multitude of appendages (Jig. 276),
which penetrate into the soil, indi-
cating a liquid matter that has been
moulded in rents or crevices. The
earth on which the mass rests is
often found calcined through a great-
er or less thickness, and the debris
Fig. 276. — Appendages of basa'lt of plants it contains are carbonised.
in subjacent rocks. On the other hand, there is often
found on the surface of basa'ltic tables points of scorification, par-
ticular elevations, and even crate'riform depressions, towards which
the melted matter seems to have retired at a certain moment before
solidifying.
6. Basa'ltic hillocks, or bosses, are of different kinds ; some
seem to be the remnants of an extensive table which had been
partly destroyed ; in this case the principal mass of the bosse be-
longs to one or another species of soil, and the summit only is
basa'ltic. In others, on the contrary, the whole hillock is formed
of basa'lt, and the base is lost in masses of sand and debris, which
prevent us from seeing what is beneath ; some others are attached
to veins or seams. The composition of these hillocks, like that of
tabular basalt, varies.
7. jRasa'ltic veins, or seams. Basa'lt is frequently found in
reins. Most frequently the mass of the seam or vein is compact,
or irregularly cracked, "but it is often divided into prisms, perpen-
dicular to the parietes of the crevice, which then become the
cooling surfaces (fig* 277). The matters in these seams are rarely
scorified, but some instances are met in Vivarais and Auvergne.
Most frequently basa'ltic veins are prolonged to the surface of the
soil, where they present their out-crop ; but it frequently happens,
also, they terminate above in pointed masses (Jig. 278), sometimes
bifurcated, which are lost in the rocks through which they pass.
4. What are the characters of tabular basa'lt ?
5. What is the origin of basa'lt ?
6. What are the characters of bosses of basa'lt 7
7 What are the characters of basa'ltic veins ?
BASA'LTIC HILLOCKS, OR BOSSES.
169
Fig. 277. — View of prismatic
basa'lt.
Fig. 278. — Basaltic seams of
Villeneuve-de-Berg.
This circumstance positively indicates that the basa'lt was not in-
troduced from above, and that it could only have been injected
from the interior towards the exterior of the earth. Sometimes
the vein glides betwixt two strata, which it follows to a greater or
less extent ; or, in ramifying, it launches a part of its mass into
the interval, and ends by terminating there in a corner, whence it
spreads into ati the little fissures of the rock.
8. Along the course of basaltic
veins, the out-crops of which are
seen on the surface of the soil,
various isolated hillocks are fre-
quently observed (fig. 279), seve-
ral together at various distances
apart, which appear to be nothing
more than partial ejections, like
the cones formed along the same
crack in modern volcanic erup-
tions. Most often they are almost
entirely composed of scoriae, but Fig. 279. —Hillocks on the course of
some are found which consist of a vein.
pure basa'lt. Sometimes, instead of hillocks, there are effusions
of tables of more or less thickness (fig. 280), which are also
found along the course of a
vein. All these circumstances
lend to explain the formation
of isolated hillocks, as well as
the series of hillocks in line, Fi^ 280.-F.in terminating in a table.
found in a great many localities where the internal vein has found
here and there an outlet.
9. fiction of basa'lt on adjacent rocks. — The calcination of
clays, and the carbonisation of vegetable debris lying beneath ba-
sa'lt, have been mentioned ; granite traversed ty veins of it is very
much altered, portions of rocks which have been enveloped ;n
a How are isolated hillocks of basa'lt accounted for ?
15
170
ACTION OF BASA'LT ON ADJACENT ROCKS.
basa'lt are often melted on the surface, quartz and feldspar are
cracked, sometimes enveloped or penetrated by vitreous matter.
Marls, earthy limestones in contact with basa'lt, or pierced by its
veins, and especially fragments of matter drawn into the basaltic
mass, are converted into compact limestone, sometimes approach-
ing the saccharoid state. These limestones also become magne-
sian, and are converted into true dolomites, distinguished from the
rest of the enveloping mass by their slow effervescence. Dolomi-
sa'tion seems to be due to the presence of igneous products. When
basaltic veins pass through carbona'ceous deposits, the clays are
calcined, the coal is deprived of its bitu'men, and assumes a baccil-
hr (berry-like) structure.
Basa'ltic deposits, in tables, hillocks, or veins, are more abundant on the
surface of the globe than all the lavas in ascertained currents, which is,
doubtlessly, owing to their mode of ejection. Basa'lts are found in France,
on the borders of the Rhine, in Saxony, Bohemia, &c. Iceland contains a
great quantity, and the same rocks predominate in the West Indies, at St.
Helena, &c., and in almost all the islands of the South Seas.
Basa'ltic formations are noticed wherever they occur, in consequence of
the tendency of the principal rocks to divide into long prisms, the varied
arrangements of which have often excited the admiration of the curious.
Here all the prisms cdifrerge at the summit of a hillock ; there they form
magnificent colonnades of the most picturesque appearance ; in another
place all the columns, broken at the same level, present a pavement com
posed of pieces regularly joined, extending over a greater or less space, and
sometimes formed into an amphitheatre, one above the other. The gran-
deur, the imposing appearance of these pavements, have obtained for them
the name of Giants1 Causeway.
The Giants' Causeway in Ireland is famous ; but a similar structure
exists in France. Sometimes there are excavations in the middle of ba-
ea'ltic masses, or trappean rocks, which resemble them most, some of them
forming very remarkable grottoes. The most celebrated is Fingal's cave,
in the island of Staffa,
which is formed in the
midst of trap, divided
into prismatic columns
with the utmost regu-
larity, and into which
the sea continually beats.
Others exist in the ba-
sa'lt, properly so called ;
there is a famous one
on the banks of the
Rhine, between Treves
and Coblentz, near Ber-
trich-Buden (Jig. 281),
the columns of which
are composed of rounded
pieces, which has caused
Fig. 281.— Cheese-grotto, at Bertrich-Bfiden. tnem to be compared to
files of cheeses, whence the name of cheese-grotto, common in the country
9. What influence does basa'lt exert over adjacent rocks ? What is
meant by dolornisation ? Give some instances of basaltic formation.
TRACHYTIC FORMATION. 171
10. The Tra'chytic formation is very extensive. It presents
itself not only in conical hillocks, running in narrow bands, but
also in piled-up tables on the surface ; tra'chyte constitutes great
mountains, most frequently united in very extended groups, which
form very high masses, ordinarily the highest in the country,
covered with asperities ; their sides are broken into valleys and
deep ravines, with steep escarpments, and with all the circum-
stances of lofty chains. The tra'chytic formation is in strong
contrast with the igneous rocks we have heretofore studied, al-
though close inspection would show them to bear various relations
with deposits of basa'lt or lava.
11. The rocks which constitute the tra'chytic formation are ex-
tremely varied. Most of these substances, as their name indicates,
are rough to the touch, because they are most generally finely
porous, sometimes cavernous, scoria'ceous, pumice-like ; but there
are some that are perfectly compact, and present the porphyri'tic
structure, frequently with tints of grey, red, brown, or black, on
which are white crystals of albi'te and of rya'colite. There are
some, more or less earthy, ordinarily of clear tints, called domi'te,
oecause the Puy de Dome is composed of it. The base of all
these rocks, which is inattackable by acids, is albi'tic or ryacoli'tic,
formed of a multitude of microscopic crystals mingled together,
the whole constituting a mass which is more or less compact. The
disseminated substances are albi'te, in crystals of greater or less
size, rya'colite, black mica, amphibole hornblende, but rarely py'-
roxene augi'te. Cluartz in crystals, and chalcedony in small nodules
are also found in it sometimes, and especially in a certain very
cavernous species, hitherto found only in Hungary, the cement of
which also contains many small striated balls of sphe'rolite (from
the Greek spheira, a sphere, and lithos, a stone).
12. The name pho'nolite (from the Greek phone, a sound, and
lilhos, a stone) has been given to rocks more or less analogous to
tra'chyte, but differing from it in this, that their base is attackable
by acids, leaving a residue of rya'colite. These rocks are most
often compact, greyish or greenish, sometimes porphyroid, but in
which disseminated substances are rare. They are frequently
divided into plates or leaves of variable thickness, and in certain
cases the whole mass is divided into prismatic columns, which are
more frequently divergent and contorted than vertical. Pho'no-
lites have been sometimes confounded with certain porphyro'idal
varieties of tra'chyte, which possess nearly the same appearance,
but not the same solubility.
13. Some tra'chytic formations contain considerable deposits of
10. Under what forms do we find the tra'chytic formation ?
11. What are the characters of those rocks which constitute th* tnf
chytic formation ? What is domite ?
12. What is phonolite ? What are its characters ?
13. Do all tra'chytic formations contain obsidian?
172 DIORITE, TRAP ROCKS, &c.
obsidian and of pe'rlite, with all their gradations to pumice. Their
abundance and character vary according to locality ; they prepon-
derate in some countries, while in others scarce a trace of thorn is
to be seen.
14. Di'orite, trap rocks, amygdaloid, <^c. — There is nothing
more analogous to basalt than certain black rocks, some of which,
according to the numerous gradations they present in deposits in
which the elements are distinct, must be mixtures of albi'te and of
amphibole, and others are of an unknown, or at least doubtfu
nature. The first are designated in France under the name of
di'orite, and in Germany they are known as gmnstein. The
others have long borne the appellation of trap (from the Swedish,
trappa, a stair), the nature of which it is still impossible to deter-
mine definitely. These rocks bear some relation, as much by
their position in certain localities as by their mineralogical charac-
ter, to certain substances called amyg'dalo'idti, in consequence of
the nodules of various matters they contain, which are known in
England as loadstone, and whinstone, the nature of which is often
not better known.
15. For a long time these rocks were supposed to be of aqueous
origin ; but it is now ascertained that they are from igneous
causes.
10. At first, in spite of the absence of scoria'ceous matters,
these rocks, and especially those named trap, present all the
features of basaltic deposits ; they are found in isolated hillocks,
or in tables of greater or less extent ; their mass is often divided
into prismatic columns, which possess precisely the same appear-
ance as basa'ltic colonnades, giants' causeways, and all the forms
of basa'lt. On the other hand, these substances are frequently
found in veins ; and it is remarked that these veins or seams ter-
minate above in a pointed mass
(a, Jig. 282), or in their course send
off small ramifications (6) into the
rocks through which they pass —
small masses (c), sometimes isolated,
sometimes communicating with the
principal mass by a thin seam. The
enclosing rocks are sometimes occa-
Fig. 282.- Veins of trap -Iceland. sionaj]y perforated by small ramifi-
cations, and even to the finest fissures. These circumstances evi-
dently show these are not cracks filled from above, and can be
regarded only as injections from the interior, thrown with sufficient
force to penetrate the smallest fissures, to detach and carry away
fragments of rock sometimes found in their substance, as at d.
17. All these circumstances are exactly the same as those seen
14. What is di'orite ? What is trap ?
15. What is the origin of di'orite and trap ?
16. What are the characters of trap ? In what form is trap met with ?
SERPENTINE— PORPHYRIES. 173
in basa'lt. It is the same with beds, in appearance regular,
seen between sedimentary layers ; observation shows they are
only ramifications of veins. This is clearly seen at Trotternish,
in the isle of Sky (Jig- 283), where a great seam of trap commu-
nicates with a bed of similar matter, which is itself divided further
on into three branches. Hence it is evident the intercalation of
Fig. 283. — Injection of trap into sedimentary rocks. Isle of Sky.
tra'ppean rocks in arena'ceous beds is the result of an injection,
which followed the separation of the beds of the sedimentary de-
posit to a greater or less distance, as in the case of the basa'lls of
Villeneuve-de-Berg (fig. 278).
18. Ser'pentine and Diallage ; different porphyries. — Magne-
sian rocks, called ser'pentine, often accompany trap and di'orite ;
they very frequently form seams or veins of themselves. Ser'-
pentines and eu'photides are often injected in all manners into cal-
careous deposits belonging to the jnra'ssic period. Sometimes
they form veins, sometimes thick strata ; they often present brec-
cias of every species which constitute the marbles called verd
anti'que, verd d'1 Egypt e, &c. The limestones mingled with these,
rocks are all in the saccharoid state, and furnish the most beautiful
statuary marble and the most brilliant breccias ; yet, if we ex-
amine them carefully, we find they belong entirely to the compact,
and more or less earthy limestones, the surrounding deposits of
which they are evidently a continuation. The schistose clays and
sandstone, which alternate with the last, are found converted in
the others into jaspers of different varieties.
The appearance of pyroxenic rocks, mela'phyrieg (porphyries, the con-
stituents of which are united by a black cement), and other porphyries
which belong to them, is productive of circumstances of the same kind ;
M. de Buch long- since pointed them out in the Tyrol, and subsequently in
upper Lombardy. They arc also found all along1 the Alp?, and are repre-
sented in the same direction in Provence in the midst of the mountains of
Esterel: all is upturned in the neighbourhood of these rocks, which, in
"coming to day," have upheaved around them calcareous deposits of dif-
ferent formations, dislocating and placing them in the most abnormal posi-
tions. Wherever they arc in contact with these porphyries, and to a con-
siderable distance beyond, limestones are transformed into dolomite, and in
such a manner that the same deposits are of simple limestone in some parts,
and of dolomite injected into those which are near to rocks of crystalli/a-
tion. What is most remarkable is, that the few organic remains met. in
1 7. How does trap resemble basa'lt J
IS. What is serpentine? Wh^t is verd antique ?
15*
174
GRANITIC ROCKS.
these modified limestones, even the shells of tnollusks or madrepores, are
fr.und changed into magnesia ; this clearly proves that an action subsequent
to the formation of the deposit has produced dolomisa'tion, for no shell or
madrepore exists which naturally contains magnesia, either in the living or
fossil state, where the deposit has undergone no modification.
Feldspathic porphyries are often so characterized that there can be no
doubt of their igneous origin. Not only are they found in veins in the
midst of rocks, but they act like trachytes, in passing through split
rocks, the fragments of which they glue together to form conglomerates ;
they often unite themselves in the most intimate manner to arena'ceous de-
posits which harden in their vicinity.
19. Granitic rock*. — There can be no doubt as to the igneous
nature of the preceding rocks, from the manner in which they are
injected into all kinds of deposits, and from the modifications they
produce in the substances they pass through or upheave. The
same is true of all granitic rocks, that is of granite properly so
called, of syenites, which resemble them more or less in appear-
ance, and pass into them in all manners, of certain gneiss rocks,
which belong immediately to one or the other, &c. In short, it is
inferred from a great mass of observations, collected first in Eng-
land by Dr. Macculloch, afterwards verified by other geologists,
that the granites, which are massive rocks, and therefore distinct
from aqueous deposits, which are ordinarily stratified, act, on their
appearance, exactly like the traps, diorites, and porphyries.
20. In the valley of Glen-Tilt, in Scotland, granite is found
injected into calcareous deposits, which alternate with argilla'ceous
schists (Jig. 284), into which it sometimes forces separate masses
(a); fragments of limestone (6) are also found enveloped in the
granite itself. In other places vertical veins traverse the rock
(Jig. 285), sometimes entirely, sometimes terminating in pointed
Fig. 284. Fig. 285.
Injection of granite into different rocks.
19. What is the origin of granitic rocks? What rocks are included
under the name of granitic rocks ?
2C. What circumstances prove the igneous origin of grani'ic rocks?
METALLIFEROUS LODES, VEINS, MASSES. 175
masses, like the dio rites and basa'lts, which also shows that the
matter came from below upwards, and that it was driven with
great force. These facts do not present themselves in a particular
locality only, but are observed in all parts of the world.
The state of pasty fusion in which the granites were, is indicated by the
manner in which these rocks are enveloped in certain sedimentary deposits,
or effused on the different soils they pass through. In the coal-measures
of La Pleau, to the south-west of Ussel, a portion of the formation has been
enveloped by porphyroid granites, which are found above and below. The
coal is there hard, as on all the plateau, and the deposit is very irregular.
In a great many localities, we find granite superposed on all sedimentary
deposits from schists, and the most ancient rocks, to those of the jura'ssic
period. There are different places in the Alps, where one may touch at the
same time, superposed rocks of crystallization and the subjacent sedimentary
deposit.
The action of granitic rocks on those through which they pass is the
same as that of the preceding rocks ; compact, o'olitic, and earthy lime-
stones are converted into saccharo'id limestones, from which organic re-
mains have most frequently disappeared ; they assume bright colours of
every kind, green, red, black, &c., and, in contact with mica, are filled with
garnets and various other crystalline substances. They are often converted
into dolomites, which are nowhere more abundant than in formations of
granite — and sometimes into gypsum, as proved by the out-croppings of this
substance in certain parts of the Alps. Clays, and various arena'ceous sub-
stances are transformed into jasper, and finally assume the characters of
mica'ceous or talcose schist, and gneiss. Simple sandstones of sedimentary
formations, on the approach of granite, are converted into beds of granular
quartz. It sometimes happens that modified schistose sandstones still pre-
serve their arena'eeous structure, although they may have become very
solid ; even the mica-schists to which they pass contain here and there thin
strata of sandy quartz, interposed between laminae of mica, which seems to
announce the remains of ancient modified sandstone.
Granitic rocks, referred to different ages, are very abundant on the sur-
face of the globe ; being found sometimes in very lofty mountain chains,
and sometimes forming rounded hills disintegrated on the surface, and cover-
ing considerable extents of country.
21. Metalliferous lodes, veins, masses. — The dolomisa'tion
and the sulphatisa'tion of limestones, the presence of various sub-
stances in adjacent rocks, are not the only facts referable to the
passage of igneous rocks from the bosom of the earth. It also
happens that, on the contact of the new with the ancient rock, the
deposits are filled with different metallic minerals, either dissemi-
nated or injected into fissures, and between beds, or accumulated
in small masses, sometimes united by slender threads. This has
been remarked by M. Dufrenoy in regard to iron ores in the Py-
renees, which are found either in limestone, or placed between
sedimentary deposits and the granite which upheaved the solid
mass.
It is evident, lodes or seams of ores are related to igneous action. As to
those which are deposited in veins, it is to be remarked, we have never had
occasion to follow them to a sufficient depth to ascertain whether they ter-
2 1 . How are metalli'ferous veins produced ?
' 36
176 METALLIFEROUS LODES, VEINS, MASSES.
initiate abruptly, and consequently whether they fill cracks opened from the
surface towards the interior; but they are known to terminate in pointed
masses upwards, as at Joachimstal in Bohemia, and in many other places,
in small veins which have been worked. This circumstance leads us to
think that metalli'ferous veins have been produced by an injection from the
interior towards the surface, in the same way as the stony veins we have
mentioned. Besides, veins of this sort are strongly united to the others :
thus, at Pontgibaud, the same veins are sometimes granitic and sometimes
metalli'ferous; in many other places metalli'ferous veins accompany por-
phyritic veins, and even veins of basa'lt, as in Bohemia, and the two sub-
stances mutually penetrate each other, sometimes one and sometimes the
other being above. On the other hand, we very frequently find in the same
localities stony and metalli'ferous veins running parallel to each other,
sometimes crossing in different ways, one throwing the other aside, and
thus mutually producing more or less marked faults. Sometimes the stony
displace the metalli'ferous veins ; sometimes, on the contrary, the latter
turn aside the others: in everything they act exactly alike, and it is impos-
sible not to refer them to the same origin. It is also remarked that veins
generally follow great lines of dislocation of the crust of the earth.
We find in metalli'ferous veins the influence of those which pass through
or accompany them, and which deposit, to a certain extent, substances not
previously observed. The influence of the rock passed through is seen in
metalli'ferous veins, as well as in those of trap; and it has been long known to
miners, that a poor vein in a determined bed at once becomes rich by pass-
ing into another, and the contrary : hence, the sudden success and unfore-
seen reverses in mining operations.
22. Metalli'ferous masses being in
general but accumulations of small veins
running in all directions (fig. 286), or
an abundant dissemination in the midst
of a stony substance of the kind attri-
.— Metalli'ferous bute(] to tne actjon of fire? [t js c}ear
these deposits are produced in the same
way as those just mentioned. These masses, the principal of
which present us with ores of tin, copper py 'rite's, and magnetic
iron, are chiefly composed of granites, porphyries, various mag-
nesian rocks, in which the ores are found. The metalli'ferous
mass of Zinwald, in Bohemia, is a particular granite enclosed in
a porphyry; that of Altemberg, in Saxony, is a porphyritic mass
enclosed in gneiss. The celebrated mass of magnetic iron of
Taberg, in Sweden, is a mass of diorite enclosed in gneiss ; that
of Cogne, in Piedmont, is a mass of serpentine driven into the
calci'ferous mica'ceous schist.
23. Metalli'ferous lodes in regular beds, are merely veins which
have followed the stratification, as we observed in traps (fig, 283)
or deposits which were formed in contact with sedimentary beefs
and the fused matters that upheaved them. But we must not con-
found the masses and veins, just mentioned, with certain deposits
of o'olitic iron ores found in sedimentary formations. Among the
22. Of what do metalli'ferous masses usually consist /
23. What is meant by the term lode ?
METAMORPHISM. 177
latter, some form beds of more or less
extent in the midst of calcareous forma-
tions, others fill wide apertures of little
depth, from above, which sometimes
communicate with caverns (fig 287) ; Fi 287.-
but these tacts are oi a different order j-rom t^e exierior,
from those just described.
24. Metamorphism. — From all the facts we have cited (which
might be vastly augmented in number by reference to details in
many localities), \ve must conclude that crystalline rocks, which
ire all formed of si'licates, extensively varied and mixed with each
)ther, have been produced by the action of fire ; that at different
epochs they have dislocated, uplifted, or overturned the sediment-
try deposits, modifying the mass in all manners — and it is to these
great phenomena that are due all the seeming disorder observed
on the surface of the globe, as well as all the successive changes,
vhe traces of which may be perceived at every step.
When we see earthy or compact limestones become crystalline on the
approach of these different kinds of rocks — to fill with various substances
Ihcy do not contain at certain distances — to be charged with magnesia in
Tracking in all parts, and to disintegrate with more or less facility ; when
schistose clays and arenaceous substances are converted into different
jaspers, and become charged with mica and am'phibole, and assume the
characters of gneiss, of mica'ceous or talcose schist ; finally, when sand-
stones are transformed into beds of solid quartz, can we be surprised that
most modern geologists have: adopted the idt a of complete changes effected
in a great number of sedimentary deposits, and that they resort to this
metamorphism^ long since perceived by Hutton, Playfair, and Dr. Macul-
loch, to explain a multitude of facts, observed especially in deposits anciently
designated under the names of primitive and transition formations ? The
facts appear so extraordinary, that we may be led to suppose a little ex-
ajrgeration : but we must reject evidence to deny that there are saccharo'id
limestones, dolonjites, mica-schists, gneiss, granular quartz, &,c., which are
the result of a change produced in earthy or compact limestones, clays,
sands, &c. of sedimentary formation : is it then so ridiculous to suppose
that such has been their origin in all cases?
These ideas, now more striking, because they are expressed by a proper
word, are nevertheless not absolutely new; all works on geology are actually
full of them, and the facts are not less remarkable from being expressed in
other terms. There is no description of a country, going back to the time
of Saussure, whose works are still remarkable for their fidelity of details,
in which are not seen numerous passages of different arena'ceous deposits
to rocks of crystallization, of schistose grauwackes to talcose schists, to
mica'ceous schists, and from these to gneiss, or the passage of sandstone to
different kinds of granite and porphyries on which they rest, &-c. Is not
the *act of the modifications, now described under the term of metamor-
phism, here clearly indicated — to which time has added only more details
and greater precision ?
It is certain that in departing from schistose grauwackes, for example,
and going towards some mountain or islet of crystallization, we finu these
24. What is meant by metamorphism ? Of what do crystalline TOCK*
consist ?
178 METAMORPHISM.
substances themselves become more crystalline in character, and sometimes,
without losing the organic remains they contain, become filled with new
minerals ; in Brittany these schists are filled with andalu'site, sometimes
staurotides, near all granitic deposits. Elsewhere, as in Vosges, in the
mountains of Var, we see them pass to mica-schist ; and the latter to gneiss,
which, itself, insensibly becomes granite. Now, as if the intimate union
observed were not sufficient, these mica-shists, then the gneiss itself, contain
carburetted sch'st. or even graphite, veins of anthracite, which remind us of
the deposits which are found further in the schists of grauwackes, and suffi-
ci»ntly marked to determine the pursuit of coal.
It is, then, evident that all the rocks we have cited, no matter how they
may differ, are only modifications, mere metamorphoses of one or all ; and,
as it is in approaching granitic rocks, evidently produced by igneous action,
that these metamorphoses become more and more marked, it is clear that it
is to the influence of the latter that they are due. The same influence is
manifest on the sandstones of different ages, at various points where they
are in immediate contact with granite: the modifications are such that the
special name, arkose, has been applied to them. They then pass through
all shades to granite, and become filled with different substances that they
do not contain elsewhere.
Near porphyritic ejections, schists frequently present modifications of an-
other kind. Here the most earthy, and the most evidently sedimentary parts,
pass by degrees to compact substances, more and more feldspathic, preserv-
ing more or less of their schistose character, and finally end by containing
crystals of feldspar ; elsewhere these same matters pass to solid clays, con-
taining veins of limestone, then nodules of the same substance, which as-
sume all the characters of amygdaloids, losing, only little by little, their
schistose structure.
The same phenomena are remarked between diverse sandstones and por-
phyries that intersect them. The arena'ceous matter gradually hardens,
becomes more compact, and finally unites with the porphyry in such a
manner that it is not easy to determine where one begins or the other ends.
All these facts pertain really, with the exception of some details, to ancient
jeology ; and it is only the manner of explaining them that has changed.
Everything conspiring to demonstrate that crystalline substances have been
produced by the action of fire, and forced through sedimentary deposits, we
now understand that the latter have been modified, or metamorphosed in
different wi;ys by their influence, in a degree corresponding to their proxi.
mity : the effects entirely cease only at greater or less distances.
It is conceived that one part of these metamorphoses of sedimentary forma-
tions arises from the simple action of heat without new fusion, but sufficient
to modify the texture of masses, and even to unite elements in other propor-
tions, as happens when transparent glass is submitted to a temperature in-
sufficient to melt it, in which, nevertheless, a new crystallization takes place.
But this idea is not sufficient of itself; we must conceive another action,
which we are not yet able to explain or account for, in virtue of which par-
ticular substances have been borne, or developed, in the midst of rocks found
in the neighbourhood of divers upturnings, of which the globe is the theatre.
We readily conceive of the introduction of sulphuric acid, which is frequently
formed in volcanoes; but we do not understand thai of magnesia and diffe-
rent species of si'licates, and, as respects them, all is still purely hypothetical.
We may compare these facts to cementa'tion, by means of which iron is
converted into steel ; a phenomenon which is manifested not only in contact
with carbona'ccous matter, but extends far into the ferru'ginous mass, and
even takes place at a distance, according to the experiments of M. Laurent,
wno hat- shown that carbona'ceous matter may penetrate iron even through
EFFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO EROSIOIS. 179
porcelain tubes. We also know, from experiment, and many effects ob-
served in manufactories, that the peroxide, of iron, the oxides of chrome, &c.,
are vola'tilized, and penetrate the substance of bodies that envelope them.
The experiments of M. Gaudin, with a blow-pipe on a de'tonating mixture,
show that silex, magnesia, and lime, are also volatile oxides ; the first after
fusion, the others belbre being melted. These facts evidently lead to an ex-
planation of all the phenomena of metamorphisrn, and the intrusion of
'oreign substances into sedimentary deposits, either in veins or in a state of
dissemination.
EFFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO EROSION.
We have seen that waters act by the carbonic acid they contain ; by tht ir
Weight; by their dissolving power; by their transporting power; by their
shock, as in waves of the sea, and thus denude continents. We have also
pointed out, that in arena'ceous formations, valleys are produced by erosion,
precisely as ravines are formed in sandy soils, by the action of rain-water.
Hence we may infer that, in every revolution that movements of the soil
must have necessarily determined, the waters, thrown forcibly sometimes on
one side and sometimes on the other, must, as in our time during earth-
quakes, have ravaged, divided, and modified pre-existing deposits in various
ways. Many circumstances may be explained by erosion of waters, and the
denudations it occasions.
25. At first, when we see more or less numerous hillocks of
sedimentary matter in a country (Jig. 288), whose summits are
Fig. 288. — Hills produced by denudation.
nearly on the same level, and whose strata correspond with each
other, we are naturally led to consider them as evidence of great
removals effected by the waters, at certain epochs, the relative
dates of which remain to be ascertained. In this way we explain,
according to appearance, all the sections which the sandstones pre-
sent on the eastern slope of Vosges ; that remarkable assemblage
of peaks of every form seen at Aldersbach, in Bohemia; the nu-
merous hills that cover Ross-shire, in Scotland ; the gypseous hills
in the neighbourhood of Paris, all composed of the same beds
placed at the same height ; and the division of the basa'ltic tables
that crown the hills, in certain localities, as well as the rupture of
certain lava-floods that had barricaded valleys, &c., &c.
Valleys which intersect moveable formations are evidently produced in the
same way ; and there is no doubt that most of those existing in solid forma,
tions, have been modified by erosion of water after the rupture which gave
origin to them. In this way we may explain the smoothing of all their
parietes, in a great many localities, and the widening of their upper parts.
The great lakes sometimes found at the extremity of valleys, as on the two
slopes of the Alpr>, in Switzerland and Piedmont, may be attributed to the
afflux of waters which rushed through them, at the period of some great ca-
tastrophe, and emptied with violence on the plain in which they terminated
25. What forms of surface are attributable to erosion and denudation T
36*
180
EFFECTS ATTRIBUTABLE TO EROSION.
Many other facts are explained by the power of erosion and transport by
water. When, by studying faults in the interior of mines, we clearly see
that the beds no longer correspond, and that a part of the formation must
have been uplifted (Jig. 289) ; then, if the soil, a, fe, c, is level on the surface,
Fig. 289. Fig. 290.
we naturally ask what has become of the beds d and f, which ought to have
formed a hillock between b and c. It is clear these beds must have been
removed, which we may conceive was only by a posterior action of waters,
which carried away the debris, and perhaps spread them over the surface.
In the same way, when we see a vein form a projection, a dyke on the sur-
face of the soil (fig. 203, page 119), we conceive that it could not have
formed in this manner, and that the uncovered part must have been once
encased just as that is which is now covered ; the surrounding formation
has been uplifted then afterwards, at least along the whole actual height of
the projection. Something similar necessarily took place at points where
veins crop out on the surface, or arc covered by moveable soil (^/fg-. 290) ; it
is not probable that melted matter injected in the crack would be immedi-
ately arrested at the surface of the earth, and it is presumable that Ihe soil
has been removed and subsequently covered by various clearings. We are
thus led to understand how so many basa'ltic masses now offer no trace of
scoria'ceous matter, neither in themselves nor in their vicinity. These im-
perfectly aggregated debris have been subsequently carried away by the
action of water, and perhaps it is the same with the scoria'ceous matter
which must have accompanied the appearance of trap.
The prodigious power exerted by waves, and the effects they have pro-
duced in our times, lead us to think, also, that all the rocks formed around
islands and reefs at a short distance from coasts, or the often fanciful groups
in the midst of the sea, are also the remnants of some great division caused
by water, as much in removable matters, easily disintegrated, as in masses
broken by earthquakes and different movements of the soil, and certain
parts of which have been afterwards removed, either by repeated shocks of
waves or sudden debacles. In this way we may explain the numerous
accidents in rocks which bound coasts, or are isolated in the midst of the
ocean, as in the sinkings of the chalk of Etretnt (fig. 291), and the sec-
tions of porphyritic or granitic rocks in the Shetland islands (fig. 292). It
is conceived that straits, more or less extended, may have been formed
by the two combined actions of currents of water and rupture which the
soil might have undergone, by upheaval or subsidence, at determined
epochs.
From these observations, we see that many effects may be attributed to
the action of water which cannot be in any other way explained. We may
see denudations in the midst of mountains and valleys, recognise the ancient
sinkings which bordered seas at different ages, and hence appreciate their
limits, as well as all other circumstances connected with them. Reference
to the immediate action of water should be always carefully restricted to the
moveable or loose matters found on the surface of the globe; for when
solid matters are in question, which water attacks too slowly, we are led to
CLASSIFICATION OF FORMATIONS.
Fig. 291. Fig. 292.
Examples of rocks cut and fashioned by water.
think that currents and waves cannot act effectively until the soil has been
previously prepared by the fissures or deteriorations caused in rocks by
movements of the earth.
We must not confound with divisions produced by water certain accidents
which may result from shrinking produced by metamorphism. This pro-
bably takes place in dolomites, which follow compact limestone in a great
many places, as in the Tyrol and in Cevennes. Masses of these matters
are frequently split and slashed in all directions on the surface, particularly
on the summits of mountains or on plateaux, very nearly in the same way
that calcareous deposits are cut by water. Now, the change from a simple
to a double carbonate, specifically heavier, requires contraction in masses
submitted to dolomisa'tion ; therefore, the latter must be split and cracked
in all directions, and the denudations they present are consequences of
these effects.
LESSON X.
Classification of Formations — Different kinds of Stratification
— Dip — Strike — Conformable Stratification — Un conformable
Stratification — False Stratification — The form and habits of
an Animal deducible from a single bone — Relative ages of the
principal catastrophes of the Globe — Systems of Upheaval —
Classification of— State of Europe at different epochs of forma-
tion— Deluge — Geogeny.
Classification of Formations.
1. As already mentioned, the several formations are divided into
two Classes, namely :
1st. Massive, or igneous formations, which are produced by the
1. How are the several formations divided ? What are the divisions ?
16
f ^ or THE
182 CLASSIFICATION OF FORMATIONS.
action of fire, and are not stratified. The terms primitive and
transition have been applied to these formations, but, as they are
inexact, they are going out of use.
2d. Sedimentary formations, which are deposited by the action
of water, and are stratified.
2. MASSIVE, or IGNEOUS FORMATIONS escaped from the earth in
a state of fusion, and became solid by cooling, but without being
stratified. They are divided into two classes : 1st, those crystal-
line rocks which are not traceable to the crater of any volcano now
recognisable, such as granite, trachyte, &c. ; 2d, massive rocks of
a slightly crystalline structure, traceable to volcanoes, such as
modern and ancient lavas, and basa'ltic formations.
3. SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS are arranged according to their
relative antiquity : they are divided into groups, composed of those
which appear to have been formed either at the same epoch or
during a geological period, during which the general condition of
the earth appears to have undergone no important change. These
formations are commonly divided into five groups, namely :
4. First. Primary stratified rocks, in which neither organic
remains, nor fragments of the most ancient rocks are found ; this
group includes gneiss, mica-schist, quartz, transition limestone,
and argilla'ceous schist.
5. Second. The transition formations, which rest on the pri-
mary stratified rocks, and contain fossils of plants or animals, but
which appear to have been deposited prior to the creation of the
most perfect beings of either kingdom, and only contain the remains
of aquatic animals, which are all very different from those of our
times, such as tri'lobites (fig. 4, page 28). This group includes
fossili'ferous schists, transition limestones, &c.
6. Third. The secondary formations were deposited at periods
less remote than the transition, and consequently rest on beds of
the latter, or on primary rocks ; but they go back to a time when
the state of the globe was very different from its present condition ;
very few mammals then existed ; ammonites are among the most
characteristic fossils of the secondary formation :
The secondary formations are subdivided into,
1st. The carboni'ferous, which includes old red sandstone, mountain lime
stone, and coal :
2d. The sali'ferous, embracing new red sandstone muschelkalk, and
varisgated marls, forming the tria'ssic system :
2. What are the divisions of the igneous formations ?
3. How are sedimentary formations arranged ? How are they divided ?
4. How are primary stratified rocks characterized ? What rocks are
included in this group?
5. On what do the transition formations rest ? How are they charac.
terized ?
6. On what do the secondary formations rest ? What are the most cha.
r jcteristic fossils of the secondary formations ? How are they subdivided ?
What are the divisions ?
MEANS OF DISTINGUISHING FORMATIONS. 183
3d. The jura'ssic, embracing the lia'ssic, the o'olite, and vvealden groups :
4th. The cretaceous, embracing the lower greensand, gault, upper green-
Band, chalk marl, chalk without, and chalk with flints.
7. Fourth. The tertiary formations, which, being more re
cent, covered all the preceding formations; they date from a period
when animals and plants belonging to all the great classes existed,
but still anterior to the creation of man :
The tertiaries are subdivided into three groups :
1st. The older tertiary or eocene, which embraces the London clay, bag-
shot sand, and Paris Basin.
2d. The middle tertiary, or miocene, which embraces the Coralline crag,
Red crag, the Molasse of Switzerland, &c.
3d. The newer tertiary, or Pliocene, which embraces Norwich crag, the
Bub-Apennine beds, the Brown coal of Germany, &c., as well as the super-
ficial deposits, called Pleistocene, consisting of diluvium and alluvium.
8. Fifth. The modern formations, which are contemporaneous
with the existence of man on the earth, and are still being formed.
The subdivisions embrace :
1st. Peat-bogs, formed by the accumulation of the debris of certain plants.
2d. Coral formations, from the multiplication of polypa'ria as seen in the
coral islands of the Pacific.
3d. Concretionary formations, formed by calcareous and other matters,
found in solution in the waters of certain springs, &c. ; as travertin, stala'c-
tites, stala'gmites, &c.
4th. Formations from transport or drift ; as fluviatile, terrestrial, or marine
alluvions, dunes, &,c.
5th. Humus, or vegetable earth, formed directly by the disintegration of
other formations, and their mixture with the products of decomposition of
plants and animals, spread in a layer of more or less thickness, on almost
every point of the surface of the earth.
9. All these deposits are superposed one on the other, in a con-
stant order; and if it were possible to make a sufficient section in
a part of the globe where they all exist together, we should find a
succession of twenty-seven stories, or layers, distinguishable by
their different characters. But each of the great deposits is divided
and subdivided into various layers, more or ]e?s distinct, composed
most frequently of arena'ceous substances, clay and limestone, of
different degrees of consistence, and in beds of varying thickness.
The assemblage of their alternate beds often forms successive layers,
several hundred yards thick.
10. It is evident, that if such sections existed in the crust of the
earth, we could see all the beds, and easily distinguish their rek-
7. From what period do the tertiary formations date 1 What are the
divisions of the tertiaries 1
8. From what period do the modern formations date 1 What formations
are embraced in the divisions of the modern formations 1 How is humus
*brmed 1
9. What is the r Tangement of the several deposits composing the crust
of the earth 1
10. Why is it difficult to distinguish the relative ages of deposits?
184 RELATIVE AGES OF DEPOSITS.
live ages by their number in the order of succession ; the deepest
•being the most ancient, arid that forming the surface being the most
modern. It would then be sufficient, in sections of different depths
which would be found elsewhere, to count from above downwards,
to know always where we were, and even the variations that a
determinate bed might undergo in different places would offer no
difficulty to observation. But such is not the case ; the numerous
escarpments we meet, always present us with but a very small
portion of .the series, sometimes in one part of its thickness, and
sometimes in another ; we never see the entire series ; and il is
only by combining the observations made in different places, that
we have been able to establish what we now know, at the same
time we discovered the particular circumstances of formation of
each deposit.
In consequence of the divisions of the whole, it is conceived, it might be-
come very difficult to distinguish them, and that in presence of an escarp
ment one might frequently be unable, at first sight, to decide on the point in
the series to which it ought to bo referred. Indeed, different beds of the
same nature which succeed each other in the series, are often very analogous,
the limestones of one story more or less resembling those of another ; and
the same is true of different deposits of sandstone and clay. It also happens
that the same deposit varies at different points : here it is a compact, and
there, an earthy limestone ; in another place the same limestone is found
mixed with sands, and, further on, it is nearly pure sand, &c. The injection
of crystalline matter adds to the embarrassment, by the modifications it
causes in the texture, and even in the nature of everything in its vicinity.
It is also conceived, that the fewer the beds superposed in the same place,
the greater the difficulties, and they are at a maximum when we meet an
isolated deposit, without knowing on what it rests, arid not being able to
perceive anything it covers : this occurs in a great many countries. It
often happens, too, that one or more beds are entirely wanting in one loculi-
ty, and then the deposits which should naturally separate them, being im-
mediately superposed, exposes the observer to attribute to the succeeding
beds an age very different from that which really belongs to them.
11. To obviate this difficulty, we have observations on the con-
tinuity of beds, some of which we can follow from points where
they present certain characters, to others where they offer different
characters; from points where they are entirely isolated, to others
where we can see on what they rest, and what covers them, &c.
We have also observations on stratification and inclination of different
beds towards one point or the other, which enable us to infer that such a
species of deposit passes below or above another, found isolated or at a dis
tarice. Fragments and rolled flints may evidently indicate the priority of
deposits which contain them, to those from which they came, and thus fur.
nish a good means of distinction, when they are sufficiently characterized.
And the nature of organic remains has now become a very decided aid in
distinguishing different formations.
12. Different kinds of stratification. There are two kinds of
11. How are we enabled to judge of the relative ages of deposits?
12. How many kinds of stratification are described ? What is observed
in .nclined stratification?
DIFFERENT KINDS OF STRATIFICATION. 18A
stratification : one horizontal (which is the natural stratification),
according to which all transported matters are de-posited under
water; the other more or less inclined, resulting from upheavals
which have taken place at different epochs. In the latter we dis-
tinguish the degree of inclination, or dip, which may be vertical,
and the point of the horizon towards which the beds dip. The
last part of the observation determines the direction of the crests of
the strata, or, as we say, the strike or direction of the strata, which
i? always at right angles to the dip or direction of the inclination,
and which also indicates the direction of the movement by which
the effect was produced. But the first observation of horizontal, or
inclined strata, is not always sufficient ; it is frequently necessary
to distinguish the relative stratification of different deposits, which
is reduced to the concordance or the discordance which may exist
between them.
13. The dip of strata is the point of the compass towards which
they slope, while the angle they form with the plane of the horizon
is called the angle of dip. The term dip refers to the inclination
of a stratum, and the term strike is used to express its direction.
Thus, strata may dip to the north at an angle of forty-five degrees ;
in this case, the strike, or line of bearing, must necessarily be east
and west, because the strike is always at right angles with the dip.
* Dip and strike may be aptly illustrated by a row of houses run-
ning east and west, the long ridge of the roof representing the
strike of the stratum of slates, which dip on one side to the north,
and on the other to the south." The angle formed by the roof
with the plane of the horizon would be the angle of dip.
14. Conformable stratification. When all the strata of a forma-
tion are parallel to each other, that is, when there is a concordance
between them, whatever may be their general position, horizontal
or inclined, convex or concave, they are said to be conformable
(figs. 293 to 296).
Fig-. 293. Fig-. 294. Fig-. 295. Fig-. 296.
Different, kinds of conformable stratification.
15. Unconformable stratification. When the strata of a forma-
tion are not parallel to each other, when there is a discordance
between them, as where horizontal strata come in contact with
13. What is meant by the dip of strata? What is the angle of din?
What is meant by the term strike ?
14. What is meant by conformable stratification ?
15. What is meant by unconformable stratification 7 Is it always of the
«amc character?
16*
186
UNCONFORMABLE STRATIFICATION.
inclined beds (Jig. 297), or where the relative inclination of beds
is different, as at a and b (fig. 298), they are said to be uncon-
formable. Where a superior deposit, whether stratified or not,
rests on a section of the beds of an inferior deposit (fig. 299), there
i? a peculiar kind of unconformable stratification, sometimes called
transgressive stratification. There is another kind of unconform-
able stratification, where the beds are parallel ; this occurs where
a horizontal deposit, after having been furrowed in different ways
by water, is again entirely covered by a deposit of the same nature
which fills up all the excavations (jfig. 300). In this case the
strata are unconformable where they join end to end with beds on
the slope of ancient valleys.
Fig. 297. Fig. 298.
Examples of vnconformable stratification.
16. To ascertain the relations in the stratification of two deposits,
it is necessary to pay great attention to the particular structure of
the beds, which in certain cases may lead us into error. For ex-
ample, seeing that the divisions of the feed a, (Jig. 301), dip to-
wards the left of the figure, we must not conclude that the strati-
fication is unconformable with the bed b ; this appearance results
altogether from the structure which the bed a owes to its rapid
formation under particular circumstances. (See page 138.)
Fig. 301. Fig. 302.
Examples of doubtful stratification.
17. Schistose substances often present many difficulties, in this
respect, because their divisions run in every direction, and some-
times the least apparent is the real stratification. For instance, we
might suppose the deposit a, (Jig. 302), rested conformably on the
deposit 6, and that the mass c is an unconformable stratification, from
regarding the finest divisions of the schist as indicative of the stra-
16. What is meant by doubtful stratification 1
17. What is false stratification?
FALSE STRATIFICATION. 167
tification. But we might also consider the deposit a as unconform-
able, and the deposit c as conformable, from regarding the parallel
joints., i to k, as those of stratification ; and it is also possible to
view both a and c as unconformable relatively to b, by considering
the other joints as those of the strata. It may be often difficult to
decide ; nevertheless, in general, the schistose division is frequently
a structure which has perhaps a certain crystallization of mica-
ceous matter ; and it is this character, therefore, among others, that
we must ordinarily select. Now, the joints of dislocation, for one
ci the other division must have been thus produced, are splits
united and well marked, often a little open, which are ordinarily
prolonged into several consecutive deposits,
while the joints of stratification are more un- j
dulated and more adherent. The most irregu-
lar undulations of true strata are often tra-
versed throughout by the schistose structure
(Jig. 303), without alteration. This circum-
stance evidently shows that this structure is
an effect posterior to the contortion of beds,
and may be attributed to a metamorphism,
more modern than their derangement. The
extraordinary divisions just mentioned, are
sometimes termed false st ratification.
18. Organic remains, which are very numerous in most sedi-
mentary deposits, also furnish a means of recognising strata.
There are some which are peculiar to certain deposits, and are
not found elsewhere, and which are therefore distinguished as
geo^nostic horizons. Thus, the Silurian or Devonian formations
are clearly recognised by the presence of the remains of a cer-
tain family of crusta'ceans, named trilobites (Jig. 4, p. 28). The
Gry'phea arcua'ta (fig. 71, p. 55), is found in the has, and
only in it : the ex'ogy'ra vir'gula (fig- 109, p. 65), belongs to
the upper part of the jura'ssic formation ; baculi'ies (Jig. 130), and
turrili'tes (fig. 131, p. 72), begin and end in the creta'ceous period.
19. Although the remains of mollusks and small animals aro
found entire, and therefore easily recognised, those of large mam-
mals, &c., often exist only in fragments ; and, without the nece 5-
sary knowledge, the family, genus, or species, could not be dis-
covered. But those well acquainted with comparative anatomy,
and the laws which govern in the organization of animals, can
deduce the form, and even the habits of an animal, often from a
Dingle bone.
" Every organized being may be considered as an entire and perfect sys-
18. How do organic remains assist us in distinguishing the relative age
of strata ?
19. How is it that a portion of the fossil remains of an animal enable ua
to recognise its class ?
37
188 AN ANIMAL MAY BE KNOWN FROM ONE OF ITS BONES.
tern, of which all the different parts mutually correspond, and concur in the
same definitive action by a reciprocal re-action. No one part can undergo
a change without a corresponding change taking place in all the others ; and,
consequently, each part taken separately, indicates and gives the key to a
knowledge of all the rest.
" Thus, it the stomach of an animal is so organized as only to digest fresh
animal food, its jaws must also be so contrived as to devour such prey ; its
claws, to seize and tear it ; its teeth, to cut and divide it ; the whole struc-
ture of its locomotive organs, to pursue and obtain it; its organs of sense, to
perceive it from afar ; and nature must have even placed in its brain the
necessary instinct to enable it to conceal itself, and to bring its victim within
its toils. Such will be the general conditions of a carni'vorous animal ; they
must inevitably be brought together in every species intended to be carni'-
vorous, for its race could not subsist without them ; but under these general
conditions there exist also special ones, relating to the size, the habits, and
the haunts of the prey, on which the animal is to exist ; and from each one
of these special conditions there result certain modifications, in detail, of the
form required by the general conditions ; so that not merely the class, but
the order, the genus, and even the species, will be found expressed by, and
deducible from, the structure of each part.
**ln order, for example, that the jaws may be enabled to seize the prey,
there must be a certain shaped prominence for its articulation ; a certain
relation between the position of the resistance and that of the power, with
respect to that of the fulcrum ; a certain magnitude of the muscle that works
the jaw, requiring corresponding dimensions of the pit in which that muscle
is received, and of the convexity of the arch of bone beneath which it passes,
while this arch must also possess a certain amount of stiength, to enable it to
bear the strain of another muscle.
"That the animal may be enabled to carry off its prey, a certain degree
of strength is necessary in the muscles which support the head ; whence
results a peculiar structure in the vertebrae to which these muscles^are at-
tached, and in the back of the skull where they are inserted.
"That the teeth may be adapted to tear flesh, they must be sharp; and
they must be more or less so, exactly according as they are likely to have
more or less flesh to tear, while their bases must be strong in proportion to
the quantity of bone, and the magnitude of the bones they have to break.
Every one of these circumstances will have its effect on the development of
all the parts which assist in moving the jaw.
" That the claws may be able to seize the prey, there must be a certain
amount of flexibility in the toes, and of strength in the nails ; and this
requires a peculiar form of the bones, and a corresponding distribution of the
muscles and tendons ; the fore-arm must possess a certain facility in turning ;
whence also result certain forms of the bones of which it is made up; and
these bones of the fore-arm, articulating to the humerus, cannot undergo
change without corresponding changes taking place in this latter bone. The
bones of the shoulder also require to have a certain degree of strength, when
the anterior extremities are to be used in seizing prey ; in this way again
other special forms become involved. The proper and free play of all these
parts requires certain proportions in all the muscles concerned in the mo-
tions of the fore-leg, and the impression of the museles so proportioned will
determine still more definitely the structure of the bones.
"It is easy to perceive that similar conclusions might be drawn as to the
structure of the posterior extremities, which contribute to the rapidity of the
general movement of the body; or of the vertebra?, which influence the
facility or" those movements ; and also as to the structure of the bom-s of the
t'aee. in their relation to the degree of development of the external senses. In
RELATIVE AGES OF THE GLOBE'S CATASTROPHES. 169
a word, the structure of a tooth involves that of the socket in the shonlder-
bone, and of the nails, just as — to use a mathematical, but very apt illustra-
'ion — the equation to a curve involves all the properties of the curve ; and
as the curve may be drawn when we know the root of the equation, so ir
comparative anatomy, by making each property separately the base of in-
vestigations, one may deduce all the other properties. Thus the shoulder
bone, the articulation of the jaw, the thigh-bone, or any other bone, taken
separately, gives the structure of the tooth, or, conversely, from the tooth,
a knowledge of these peculiarities may be derived ; so that, taking any one
bone, he who is familiar with the laws of the animal economy, may repro-
duce the whole animal." — Ansted.
RELATIVE AGES OF THE PRINCIPAL CATASTROPHES OF THE GLOBE.
From observations, it would seem that the dry land must have appeared
in successive portions, to cause on the surface all the variations of nature,
form, humidity, and dryness, the combination of which should procure for
man all the happiness designed for him by the Creator. The study of the
successive appearances of land is now one of the most beautiful points of
view in which geology can be presented ; we are indebted to M. Elie de
Beaumont for pointing out the course to follow, to establish the chronological
order of the principal catastrophes which happened in Europe, and around
which all facts of the same nature may be grouped.
As soon as we perceive some part of inclined sedimentary beds, we may
decide that they have been displaced from their ordinary position by up-
heaval. The period of this accident remains at first undetermined; but if,
at the base of more or less elevated projections which these beds produce, we
find other sediments deposited in horizontal strata,
resting against the preceding (Ji^. 304), it be-
comes evident that the upheaval of the first took
place after the formation of the second, which are
still found as they were when deposited from r, qru
water. We now have a term of comparison, and,
if we succeed in recognising the relative age of the horizontal deposit, we
also have an epoch of the catastrophe, relatively determined, which pro-
duced the uptilting of the other. These differences of stratification are
everywhere seen on the sides of mountains, and we then see that the several
sedimentary deposits, a, 6, c, are not all in the same position. In certain
places the stratum a, for example, is uptilted, and the stratum b is horizon-
tal ; in another, a and b are both uptilted, and c is horizontal ; in a third, a,
b, and c, are uptilted together, and another stratum, rf, rests upon them. We
must infer, from these observations, that a first upheaval took place after the
formation of a, and before that of b ; a second took place between the strata
b and c, a third between c and dt &c., and so on, chronologically, as far as
they have been observed.
Systems of upheaval. If the inclined position of sedimentary strata reveals
to us the existence of upheavals, the strike or direction of these beds, which
is nothing but the line produced by their swelling upwards or the crest or
ridge resulting from their rupture, shows us the course followed by the phe.
nomerion. Hence it follows we may take one fact for the other, as the basit
of observation, and that the different directions (strikes) of mountain chains,
are also indications of the different kinds of upheaval. In fact, it has been
long and perfectly established, on one hand, that the inclination of strata is
intimately connected with the direction of chains, excepting the perturba-
tions which result from crossings; on the other hand, we now know that
the phenomenon of uptilting of a determinate number of beds extends as far
as the chain itself. It has also been ascertained, at least for Europe, that
parallel chains correspond,, in general, in the epoch of upheaval ; that is in
190 SYSTEMS OF UPHEAVAL.
these chains, strata of the same age are found everywhere uptilted, and that
the succeeding ones are horizontal. It follows from this circumstance that
an upheaval does not take place purely on a mathematical line, but on a
band of formations more or less wide, on which it is manifested by several
parallel ridges. The same line does not continue always from one end to
the other, but we find here and there high and low parts, and those which
are concealed by subsequent deposits ; therefore, it is the common line of
all the elevated ridges which must be taken for the general direction or
ptrike — (The word strike is formed from the German streichen, to stretsh,
to extend).
20. The assemblage of directions on the same line, and paral-
lel directions, form what is called a system of upheaval, which is
synonymous with the expressions, system of fractures, system of
uptilted beds, and even system of mountains, although in a more
restricted sense than in geography. To designate the different
systems, the names of places in which each system is particularly
developed have been borrowed ; we say, system of the Pyrenees,
system of the Western Alps, &c.
The great catastrophes which have successively occurred on the surface
of the globe appear to have always taken place suddenly. At greater or less
distances from places where the stratification is unconformable, we often find
the same deposits in conformable stratification, and even joined to each
other by a gradual passage ; hence, it follows that deposition has not been
suspended, but the movement of the soil has been local over a more or less
considerable space of the terrestrial surface, and the interval during which
it took place must have been extremely short. This is clearly seen, foi
example, at the period of the system of the Rhine, in which the vosgean
sandstone is found upheaved, without the bunter sandstein having partici
pated in the action ; and, nevertheless, at a short distance the two arena',
ceous deposits, where their stratification is conformable, are so joined to
each other, that it cannot be determined where one begins or the other ends.
The same is the case with the creta'ceous formations; if their different
deposits are dislocated in a certain direction, they are conformable for great
extents, and they then pass from one to the other in such a manner that
they were for a long time confounded as a single formation.
Submerged and uncovered formations. — Sedimentary beds found resting
horizontally on the sides of mountains, show that the sea beat against
escarpments by deposits upheaved in an anterior epoch; hence the expres-
sion of the sea of this or that formation, as the creta'ceous sea, the jura's sic.
sea, &c., which indicate the waters beneath which each of these sedi.
mentary deposits was formed. When a deposit is wanting in a certain
extent of formation, we shonld infer the formation was then above the sea
of the epoch, and formed there a more or less elevated island or continent ;
thus, at the time when the Parisian limestone was formed, a great part of
France, and indeed of Europe, must have been dry, as we scarcely see
traces of these deposits anywhere except in the neighbourhood of Paris or
Bordeaux. But it also happens that the deposits which we must regard
as having been dry at a certain time, were afterwards covered by marine
sediment, more modern than the preceding ; and hence we must conclude
that, although uncovered prior to the anterior formation, they must have
afterwards sunk to receive new deposits: such sinkings make certain catas-
trophes particularly remarkable.
20. What is meant by "system of upheaval"? What is meant by ere-
l» Cfous sea ? How are the several systems of upheaval classed ?
EPOCHS OF EUROPEAN FORMATIONS. 19l
The several systems of upheaval have been classed according to their
direction, and the epochs in which they occurred. The following table
exhibits the supposed epochs of the European upheavals.
1st, Upheaval, or system of Fiiindsruck. between the cambrian and silurian formations.
'2,1,
3d,
4th,
5th,
titli,
or system of Ballons, between the silurian and coal formations.
or system of the North of England, between the coal and penine formations.
or system of Hainault, between the penine and vosjjean formations.
or system of the Rhine, between the vosirean and trias formations.
or system of Thiiringerwald, between the trias and jura'ssic formations.
7th, or system of Cote-d'Or, between the jura'ssic and greensand formations.
or system of Mont-Viso, between the two creta'ceous formations,
or system of the Pyrenees, between the upper chalk and Parisian limestone "
or system of Corsica, between the Parisian limestone and molasse formations,
or system of the Western Alps, bet. the molasse and subapennine formations,
or systi-m of the principal Alps, bet. the snbapennine and diluvium.
feth,
9th,
10th,
llth,
12th,
13th, " or system of Tenure, between the diluvium and perhaps some modern alluvions.
Since in Europe the different great chains of the same direction, which
are found on the same line or on parallel lines, belong to the same epoch of
upheaval, there is room to suppose, as nothing indicates limits to the phe-
nomena which gave rise to them, that the same effects were continued far
beyond the countries whose geological structure is known ; hence it follows,
that wherever we find parallelism in the chains, we should be led to believe
also that the. formations were contemporaneous. It is at least interesting to
examine, under this point of view, the principal chains we are acquainted
with.
The direction of the Pyrenees extends from the Alleghanies, in North
America, to the peninsula of India, through the Carpathian mountains, a
part of Caucasus, the mountains of Persia, from Erivan to the Persian Gulf,
and through the Ghauts, which determine the position of the coast of Mala-
bar. To the south of this line of direction several parallel ridges are also
represented : those which go from Cape Ortegal, in Asturias, to Cape Creux,
in Catalonia ; the small chain of Granada, which ends in Cape de Ijratte ;
the mountains which bound the desert of Sahara on the north, cutting the
direction of Atlas; finally, the Apennines, the Julian Alps, the mountain?
of Croatia, of Romelia, arid those of the Morea.
The system of Ballons, so near to that of the Pyrenees, appears to be
represented also in the Alleghanies : it is to be observed on the coast of
Brittany, and will no doubt be found in several of the groups just mentioned,
when careful study enables us to distinguish it from the neighbouring
system.
The direction of the Western Alps is remarked from the empire of Mo-
rocro to Nova Zembla, passing through the eastern coast of Spain, the south
of France, and a great part of the peninsula of Scandinavia. It is recognised
in the Cordillera of Brazil, from Cape St. Roque to Montevideo. Parallel to
this direction the same system is seen in the kingdom of Tunis, in Sicily,
the point of Italy, and in Asia Minor. All the shore of the ancient conti-
nent, from North Cape, in Lapland, to Cape Blanco, in Africa, is parallel to
the direction of this system.
The principal Alps form part of a system of direction of great extent
From the chains of Spain and those of Atlas, in the northern part of Africa,
we find parallel chains which extend to the China sea. On this line of direction
we find, starting from Sicily and Italy, the chains of Olympus, in Greece,
the Balkan, Taurus, the central chain of Caucasus, crowned by Elbrouz,
between the Black and Caspian seas, the long series of mountains vvhi :h
extend through Persia and Cabool, comprehending Paropamisus, Ilindou
koh, &,c. ; finally, Himalaya, the highest mountain in the world.
STATE OF EUROPE AT DIFFERENT EPDCHS OF FORMATION.
From what has been stated, we are led to infer that the surface
37*
192 SILURIAN AND DEVONIAN EPOCHS.
of the globe, so often disturbed, must have presented great varia-
tions in the relative extent of land and sea, and successively passed
through many different shapes, to reach its present state. But,
even in Europe, the only part of the world in relation to which
positive information has been obtained, it is very difficult to say
what may have been its condition in the most ancient epochs.
The reason of this is, that having for a long time confounded, under
the name of transition formation, deposits of very different epochs,
we are not now able to distinguish, with sufficient clearness
throughout, the limits of different formations comprised in it. Nor
do we know, and this is a great obstacle to tracing the continents
of the ancient world, what parts were successively sunk at each
catastrophe, and the extent of which we can only know from induc-
tion. It was not until after the appearance of the jura'ssic forma-
tion, the limits of which are clearly marked, that we are able to
distinguish, with precision, the shape and extent of lands in the
midst of seas in which these deposits were formed.
By the term epoch of 1 his or thai formation, we understand the
period of time during which the formation was produced beneath
the sea, around the upheaved deposits of the preceding epoch.
For example, the jura'ssic epoch indicates the time during which
the deposits of the Jura were formed in the seas where the
upheaved deposits of the trias and all that preceded were traced.
The term, sea of such an epoch, as jura'ssic sea, creta'ceous sea,
&c., is often used in the same sense.
Silurian and Devonian epoch. At the time when the Silurian
and Devonian systems were formed in the midst of seas, it is evi-
dent there were different portions of land in Europe uncovered,
which resulted as much from the upheaval of the Hundsruck as
from previous catastrophes : we have seen those of considerable
extent which entirely escaped these deposits, and which, in conse-
quence, must have been raised above the waters in which they were
formed. In France, there was at least one island, of the Cambrian
formation, near the gulf of St. Malo, on a part of Brittany and of Nor-
mandy; the great granitic plateau, which comprises Limousin, Au-
vergne, &c., where the upheaval of the Hundsruck was manifest by
the direction of certain uptilted beds of gneiss, arid by the anfractuosi-
ties in which the coal formation was subsequently deposited, must
have been, at that time, above water, and, perhaps joined, at the
south, to the ancient group which preceded the Pyrenees. The
mountains of iMaures also existed, and, perhaps, a part of the
formations comprised between Toulon and Inspruck, in a south-
west and north-east direction. Some parts of the centre of Vosges,
and of the Black Forest, Eiffel, the Hundsruck, where the first
upheaval is clearly indicated, and Ardennes, were necessarily
above water, as well as the county of Nassau, the Hartz, all the
centre of Germany, including Saxony, Bohemia, and Moravia.
TV same is true of Scandinavia, and a part of the British islands.
COAL EPOCH. 193
From this moment lands were covered with vegetation, in arbo-
rescent ferns, equisita'ceae, &c., sufficiently abundant to form the
masses of anthracite found in the Devonian formation. The seas
were then inhabited by trilobites, orthoce'ratites, orthis, productus,
different kinds of terebra'tula and several species of polypa'ria,
of the same genus as those found in madreporic reefs, which, as
*reli as the tree-ferns, indicate a climate analogous to that of the
present tropics. All these circumstances show that heat was not,
in that epoch, distributed over the surface of the globe as it now is.
Without doubt, the increase of temperature, from the surface to the
interior, was more rapid ; all springs were warm ; and, according
to M. Elie de Beaumont, the fogs, which were the result, hinder-
ing radiation, in the absence of the sun, everywhere tempered the
rigour of winter, and thereby augmented tho mean temperature
of the seasons.
Coal epoch. The upheaval of the Ballons, in bringing " to day"
the Silurian and Devonian deposits, no doubt, increased the extent
of lands, and more or less changed their configuration. Vegeta-
tion must have been prodigiously developed, at that time, and over
vast surfaces ; which is proved by the enormous mass of coal
formed, and the manner in which the deposits are piled up. On
one hand, the carboni'ferous limestone, and the different marine
beds found in the midst of the sandstone of the coal formation itself,
seem to indicate at first a deep sea, and perhaps afterwards an
immense maritime marsh, which extended from Ardennes and the
Hartz to the ancient mountains of the British islands. On the
other hand, the numerous coal basins known to exist in the surface
of France and central Germany, clearly show there were extensive
lands on which marshes were found, here and there, in which were
formed, just as peat-bogs are in our times, all the coal deposits
we have discovered.
The ancient and uncovered formations, which constitute Brittany
and the central plateau of France, clearly indicate high land, on
which are found the lakes of Bayeux, duimper, Laval, and Vouvant,
placed perhaps in the anfractuosities caused by upheaval of the
ballons ; then those of Burgundy, Limousin, Auvergne, Forez, &c.,
situated on a direction parallel to the elevation of the Hundsruck.
This land, the limits of which cannot be fixed, extended at least to
a peninsula towards Strasburg.
To the east of this land, and perhaps united to it, there is another,
which was evidently uncovered, because there is nothing of the
penine formation deposited on it. The latter probably extended
over the space now occupied by Inspruck, Milan, Briancon,
Genes, Nice, Toulon, and to the island of Corsica. Towards Toulon
are the marshes in which was formed the coal now found in that
part of France.
Lands also evidently existed over the space occupied by Bohe-
194 COAL EPOCH.
mia and Saxony, with several coal lakes on their surface ; the coal
deposits of Moravia and Galicia seem to show their extension
towards those countries. There was one island, at least, between
Cologne and Francfort, presenting in its southern part the great
coal basin of the country of Treves, and uniting, at the north, with
the ancient formation of the Hartz. Dry land also existed in the
peninsula of Scandinavia, where nothing has been deposited since
the Silurian formations ; but it seems to have been sterile, and
without swamps, for it affords no trace of coal.
We are entirely ignorant of what existed where the great cities
now stand; but the absence of carboniferous limestone, out of Bel-
gium and England, may lead us to think that a great portion of
western Europe was then uncovered, and perhaps presented coal
lakes which subsequent catastrophes have sunk beneath the seas.
A part of the land just mentioned has always remained unco-
vered to the present time, or has been even upheaved more and
more by various subsequent catastrophes, as Brittany and the cen-
tral plateau of France. At certain points, in fact, coal deposits
have been pushed upwards to a great height, as the plateau of
Santa Fe de Bogota, and in the Cordillera of Huarochiri, where
some are found from 2700 to 4600 yards above the sea. In other
places, on the contrary, it is evident the formations have sunk, to
be covered by more modern deposits, through which the coal is
sought in the depth, as at Anzin, under the chalk, in Vosges, under
the red sandstone, in Cevennes, under the jura'ssic limestone, &c.,
and, in general, on the borders of new formations exposed by sub-
sequent catastrophes. Without doubt, there is some deeply-buried,
and for ever lost to us, either under different sediments, or under
water, as at Whitehaven, in England, where the mine extends
more than a quarter of a league from the shore, and a hundred
yards beneath the bottom of the sea.
The vegetation of this epoch, favoured, no doubt, by the insular
form of the land, as it now is in all islands, consisted of lycopodia'-
ceae, equisita'cese, ferns, &c., of arborescent species, the analogues
of which are no longer found except within the tropics, with co'ni-
fers resembling the araucaria. The mass of coal was formed of
their debris, with cellular cryptoga'mia, which then grew under
water, as now, in peat-marshes, and under a still more favourable
temperature for their development.
The seas of this epoch had lost their trilobites ; but contained,
'n great abundance, spi'rifers, productus, orthoceras of particular
species, different ce'phalopods, analogous to the nautilus and argo-
naut, and various other shells. The encri'nites were so extensively
multiplied that their debris constitute, almost of themselves, certain
varieties of Flemish and Belgian marble. Sauroid fishes, of great
size, and of especially vigorous organization, then existed ; and
the family of sharks, still feeble, presented cestra'cions and hybo-
dons (figs. 52, 53, p. 45).
THE PEN E AN AND VOSGEAN EPOCHS. 195
The fresh waters which fed the coal marshes contained, as u
appears, few conchi'ferous mollusks ; the debris, which are rarely
found, resemble anodonta and unio. Fishes were numerous, in
some localities ; they belonged to the genera palioni'scus (fig. 56,
p. 48), and ambly'pterus, living, without doubt, in. the rivulets
which meandered at the bottom of abrupt fractures of the ancient
formation.
Penine epoch. — The disturbance caused by the upheaval of
the north of England, appears to have exerted more influence on
the surface, of the then uncovered lands, than on their extent and
form. Only the bottom of 'the sea, where the coal-beds of Eng-
land and Belgium were formed, was elevated in part to escape,
like all France, to the penine formation. On the other hand,
a small corner of the south-west of Vosges must have sunk
under water, to receive the red sandstones which there cover
the coal formation. Further, in Mansfield the presence of the
penine formation, which is there developed on a great scale with
its shell-limestones, demonstrate the submersion of the country
beneath sea-water. It was also beneath the sea, in the county of
York, that magnesian limestone was deposited, which there repre-
sents the whole formation of this epoch.
Very little is known of the terrestrial flora of that time, for we
find little, save the algae in the bitu'minous schists of Mansfield,
and some sili'cified trunks of co'nifers in the sandstone. Deposits
of coal suddenly ceased to form, and it seems from that time there
were neither ponds nor rivulets on the lands ; nevertheless, th^re
were still divers fishes of the genus palioni'scus, which lived per-
haps as well in salt as in fresh water. The land was for the r»rst
time inhabited by saurian reptiles resembling the iguana and moni-
tor, the remains of which are found in the cuprous schists. rJ he
seas beneath which all these deposits were formed, contained the
same genera, often the same species of mollusks and radiata as
those in which the carboni'ferous deposits were formed.
Fosgean epoch. — The system of Hainault, in dislocating the
coal formation and ridging- the surface of the land, had little in-
fluence on its form. In the Vosges some of the points where the
red sandstone was deposited were elevated, around Saint-Die,
Schelestadt, Montbelliard, and escaped the succeeding formations :
while all the rest of the chain, which had escaped the deposits of
the red sandstone, and consequently found elevated at this epoch,
must have been sunk now to receive the vosgean sandstone : the
same has taken place in the Black Forest.
Such was the state of things in this modification, that animals
could not have lived on this part of the earth, and that plants, if
any then existed on the surrounding soil, could not have been car-
ried under the waters except in very small numbers.
The trias zpoch. — After the system of the Rhine, subsequent to
190
THE TRIAS AND JURASSIC EPOCHS.
which the vosgean sandstone was upheaved, Vosges and the Black
Forest underwent a little change in shape ; but other lands in
Europe have undergone scarcely any modification. We observe
only a secondary elevation of the central plateau of France by th«
porphyroid granites of Lozere, by the hiils which edge the coal
formation from Fins to Mauriac. Subsidences occurred, on the
other hand, in Bourbonnais and Rouergue, as well as in lands be-
tween Toulon and Nice. Vegetation then underwent great modifi-
cations ; the ferns and equisitacese of great height had considera-
bly diminished, and coni'fers, on the contrary, became more
numerous : plants analogous to za'mia, and perhaps to cy'cas
(figs. 305, 806), then formed an important part of the flora of
Europe, being a prelude to the immense development they took in
the succeeding epoch.
Fig. 305. — Za'mia pungens. Fig. 30 fi. — Cy'cas revoluta.
In this epoch new saurians appeared, and traces of birds, which
had not appeared in preceding epochs, are recognised. It was at this
period also that those creatures existed, whatever they were, whose
tracks are found imprinted on bunter sandstein, freshly lifted above
water. Mr. Owen, who considers them enormous batrachians,
supposes them to have been of the form represented (Jig. 307).
The jura'ssic epoch. — At the time of the elevation of Thurin-
gerwald the tria'ssic formation, which had just been deposited
beneath the sea, was upheaved at different points ; some patches
,of bunter sandstein were added around the central plateau of
France, between Moulins and La Chatre, between Brives and
Tulle, in the environs of Rodez, of Saint-Affrique and of Lodeve.
THE JURA'SSIC EPOCH. 197
Fig. 307. — Labyrinthodon pachygnatus. (Owen.)
The island of Var was increased from these sandstones and con-
chylian limestone ; the Vosges and Black Forest were also con-
siderably augmented, the one to the west, in Lorraine, the other to
the east, extending into Germany, and uniting various islands
which had been separate till then. The same was the case with
different islets which already marked the place of the British
islands, and were then united to a continuous land by tria'ssic depo-
sits upheaved between them, and with them. But at the same
time that the new lands were raised above water, there were great
subsidences in those which previously existed. The land which
extended from Cherbourg to Perpignan, was then divided towards
Poictiers, forming a stiait, now occupied by the jura'ssic deposits ;
it was variously divided on its borders, and almost cut again towards
Rodez. That which extended from Nice towards Inspruck was
entirely sunk, to receive the new deposit which covers it. If per-
chance there existed, at the period of the coal, some portions of
land where Paris, London, &c., now are, everything leads to the
belief that they then disappeared, for the jura'ssic formation
appears to be prolonged everywhere beneath the soil which serves
them as a base.
All the data on the state of western Europe, at the period of
which we speak, are furnished by the presence and disposition of
the jura'ssic deposits. Developed on a vast scale, and upheaved
later from the bosom of the waters, they clearly show what was
then the configuration of the lands around which they weitj formed
under the sea.
The ocean of the jura'ssic epoch also had its peculiar characters.
It was inhabited by saurians, eminently swimmers, the ich'thyo-
sau'rus and plei'siosau'rus, whose paws, in form of paddles, remind
us of those of the chelonians of the present day ; these voracious
animals, all aquatic, took the place of the sauroid fishes of the car-
boni'ferous group, which had now disappeared. At the same
period lived those flying saurians, called pteroda'ctyls, which
pir-opled the air and completed the series of singular creatures of an
ancient creation, now entirely annihilated, the exterior forms of
which Dr. Buckland has attempted to paint from the skeleton ( fig.
308).
These sea? had lost the produces, and spirifers had almost di»-
17 »
198 THE JURA'SSIC EPOCH.
Fig. 308. — Restoration of the saurians of the jura'ssic epoch.
appeared. The numerous terebra'tulae, which lived in this epoch
oeionged to species entirely different from those seen in the pre
ceding seas ; but there was found a great number of mollusks with
chambered shells, in general called ammonites, the race of which,
as yet little developed, had begun to appear in the seas of the trias ;
there existed bele'mnites, the remains of which, until then unknown,
are numerous from the lias to the chalk : and the gry'phea arcua'ta
multiplied there for a moment, to disappear afterwards, when the
lias was formed, and to give place to other species of the same
genus.
As at present, coral reefs were formed in those seas, remains of
which are found, showing a mean temperature, analogous to that
of our intertropic seas.
On the land, fresh-wnter lakes without doubt supported palu'di-
nse, and fresh-water strea.ns carried helices, remains of which are
now found in the Portland group.
There must have existed also, on land, several species of insects,
which served to feed the pteroda'ctyls, the remains of which seem
«o show they were coleoptera and neuroptera, resembling the bu-
prestes and libe'llulse. Small marsupial mammals, analogous to
opossums, were met there, a skeleton of which was found in the
beds of Stonesfield. But these creatures seem to have been in
small numbers, if we judge from the few remains that have been
us yet found, and no one of the great animals which characterize
*be parisian epoch has been found with them.
URETA'CEOUS EPOCH. 199
The flora was not the same as that which furnished so many
remains to the coal formation; the lycopodia'ceae, and the gigantic
ferns had disappeared ; and it seems that many new species had
been created after the penine and tria'ssic epochs. Then the
cyca'deae and co'nifers considerably exceeded all other families ;
and probably some palms were already in existence, the fruits of
which are found in the lias. Also the carbona'ceous combustible
formed in this epoch, is very different from that of the great coai
formation. They were at the same time much less abundant,
which indicates a great difference in the extent of lands.
Creta'ceous epoch. After the system of upheaval of Cote-d'Or,
which elevated a part of the Jurassic deposits above the sea, the
form and disposition of continents were considerably changed.
The inferior limits of the chalk mark the shape of lands which
then existed, and determine the extent of the seas of the epoch.
The three islands of the preceding epoch were now united, but
without any change of shape. Brussels, which was inland, was
now found on the coast ; Arras, Dunkirk, Maastricht, Wesel, Bres-
law, and Vienna, were sunk under water. A lake was formed
between Dresden, Brunna, and Prague ; a strait was found in the
place of Perpignan and Carcasonne ; and, what existed previously
to the Pyrenees:, was in part submerged.
By compensation, the Vosges, washed by the sea in preceding
ages, was then found in the middle of the continent which joined
the central island of France. The space of sea which separated
them was filled up. Langres, Nevers, Lyons, Toulouse, and Ox-
ford, were on terra firrna, and an isthmus was formed about Poic-
tiers, to join the great island that existed to the west. A shore
extended from the environs of Craco'via, to about Perpignan, by
Ratisbonne, the position of which was not changed, and to Zurich
and Lyons. An immense gulf was formed between Brussels and
Oxford, extending to Poictiers.
Between Salzbourg and Avignon, a new island was formed,
which marked the future site of the A-lps : Brian^on, Turin, Trente,
and Inspruck, might have been already placed there ; but Switzer-
land was then a channel which separated this island from terra
firma. The island of Toulon was at the time limited, and some
small islands marked the environs of Marseilles.
Little change, however, had taken place in living creatures. At
the same time divers species of ferns and cyca'deae vegetated on
the soil ; co'nifers, especially, became more and more abundant, and
gave origin to masses of lignite found at the base of the chalky
formations ; but there were few terrestrial mammals, for no remains
of them are found in the chalk, although they were met with in
jura 'ssic deposits. There existed, however, divers ceta'ceae, such
as lamantins and dolphins, some of which had already appeared in
the jura'ssic seas. Reptiles were, among the animals capable of
38
200 PARISIAN EPOCH.
living on the earth, still the most elevated creatures of the creation
Aquatic and terrestrial species were very numerous ; among them
were the iguanodon, the megalosau'rus, and divers crocodiles.
Fluviatile tortoises, fishes, and mollusksof fresh water, lived on the
borders of lakes, or in their waters. The seas fed ba'culites and
turriJites, of whose anterior existence there is no trace, and which,
towards the end of the epoch, disappeared at the same time with
all trollusks having peculiar chambered shells. Here and there
true sharks existed, and have been continued to the present time,
although their dimensions are considerably diminished.
Parisian epoch. The upheaval of Mount Viso, and later, that
which gave birth to the Pyrenees, to the Apennines, and all the
parallel chains we have cited, prodigiously changed the geographi-
cal constitution previously established. The last, especially, pro-
duced one of the greatest convulsions Europe has experienced :
everything was shaken by it, and the greatest part of what was
then under water, was elevated above it, to form an immense con-
tinent. This proves the little extension of the parisian sediments
then formed, and which are found concentrated, one part in Bel-
gium, Artois, Picardy, Isle of France, Normandy, and the opposite
coasts of England ; and the other, in the environs of Bordeaux :
very few traces are found elsewhere. Hence it follows, that the
seas of this formation did not penetrate far into this continent,
although they covered the two capitals of the world ; of the vast
ocean of preceding ages there only remained a part of the gulf
already limited, about Cambridge, Oxford, Exeter, Cherbourg,
Angers and Poictiers, which was then narrowed in many places,
and widened elsewrhere at the expense of the ancient peninsula of
Brussels ; it probably communicated with some remains of the
North Sea. In the middle were two islands of chalk, the Wealds,
of England, and the country of Bray, in France. Another portion
of the gulf also remained between Bordeaux and Dax.
The fauna of the land, at the parisian epoch, was very different
from what it had been in preceding epochs. The gigantic sau-
rians had disappeared, but there remained great fresh-water cro-
codiles, marine arid lacu'strine chelonians, and the earth was
inhabited by mammals. The last were then pach'yderms, analogous
to tapirs, as the anoplothe'rium and paleothe'rium, which must
have been nearly of the form represented (Jig. 309) ; they lived
at the same time writh some carni'vora of the genus dog, &c. Belem-
nites, and all similarly chambered shells, had disappeared from
the seas ; the nautilus only remained, and it lived with the cere'-
thium giga'nteum (Jig. 148, p. 80), and a multitude of species of
•nollusk, more or less resembling those of existing seas.
At this age of our planet, the flora of Europe was still modified ;
the cyca'deaB had disappeared, and the co'nifers, presenting still
new species, to which were joined the dicotyledons, were found,
PARISIAN EPOCH. — MOLASSE. 201
a b d
Fig. 309. — Fauna of the epoch of the parisi'in formation.
a Paleothe'rium magnum. c Anoplothe'rium commune.
6 Paleothe'rium minus. d Crocodile.
wiih palms, to the centre of Europe. The last, which are not now
found closer than Africa, at the nearest point, evidently indicates a
mean temperature, higher than that we now enjoy, which must have
been about 72°, the present mean temperature of lower Egypt.
This circumstance may be attributed to the fact that the increase
of internal heat was greater than at present, and that the fogs, by
diminishing radiation, rendered the winters less rigorous.
Water-courses necessarily must have existed on the continent,
and may account for deposits of lignite, and the remains of fresh-
water mollusks, beincr found in place in the midst of marine depo-
sits. We are especially led to suppose that one of these water-
courses, emptying about Laon and carrying lacu'strine deposits
from Soissonais, and another, somewhere between Exeter and
Oxford, formed the deposits of the Isle of Wight, at the south-
west of the Wealds. Around Paris, some parts of the sea must
have been separated from the rest, at a certain time, and
converted into a fresh-water lake in which the gypsum was
formed.
Epoch of the molasse. — It was after the system of Corsica that
the molasse was formed, and, in such a manner, that it is
generally deposited where the Parisian limestone is entirely
wanting. It follows that lands which were then elevated above
the waters must have necessarily sunk, often to great depths, to
receive this new formation, which is sometimes extremely thick;
consequently, great modifications of the continent of the preceding
epoch again took place. Partial subsidences must have occurred
202
SUBAPENNINE EPOCH.
in many parts of Touraine, of Guienne, of Gascony, Languedoc,
Provence-, Dauphiny, and also in all Switzerland, &c. ; lakes
were formed, often extensive, sometimes isolated, and sometimes
communicating with the sea; and it is this which indicates the
contemporaneous deposits, some of which are fluviatile, and other*
marine. In opposition, more or less considerable upheavals took
place at the same time in many parts of the northern gulf, in Bel-
gium, in Picardy, in the isle of France, and all the coast of Eng-
land. The marine limestone, laid bare, escaped in all this extent
ihe succeeding deposits, and the sites of London and Paris were
brought to light, although surrounded by water in which the mo-
lasse was deposited ; it was the same in the gulf of Bordeaux,
where all the northern part of the Parisian formation was up-
heaved, and escaped the deposit of the molasse, which is found in
all the rest of the present basin which was from that time sub-
merged.
This epoch was accompanied by a new change in the creatures
which lived on the surface of the soil; and from that moment,
besides some new species of paleothe'rium, mastodons, and the
dinotherium giga'nteum, appeared in Europe (the last nearly of
the form represented, fig. 810), as well as the rhinoceros, hippo-
po'tamus, monkeys, and many rodents, as castors, squirrels, &c.
The flora was principally composed of coni'fers, with dicoty'ledons,
which, however, had not attained, in all probability, the develop-
ment they acquired in the succeeding epoch. There still existed
palms, the remains of which are found in deposits of lignite, and
particularly in those of Liblar, near Cologne, as well as in the
plaster-works of Aix.
Fig 3\Q.— Restoration of the Dinothe'rium giga'ntcum.
Subapennine epoch. — The upheaval of the western Alps caused
i new disturbance. Not only the soil comprised between Con-
stance and Marseilles, rendered mountainous by preceding events,
suddenly assumed a considerable height, and a great part of the
relief it now presents, but still the movement extended over all
Europe. The greatest part of the Anglo-French gulf was rilled
by an elevation, which brought "to day" all that is referred to the
EPOCH OF DILUVIUM.
molasse. It was the same in Guienne, in Languedoc, in Provence,
in Piedmont and Switzerland ; and the form of the seas was once
again changed. But, in time, great Jakes were formed in the inte-
rior of the lands : one, from Dijon to near the Isere ; another, in the
southern part of Alsace ; and a third, in Provence, from Sisteron
to the borders of the Durance.
At that time all the carni'vora appeared of the genera ursus,
hyena, felis, cam's, <$*c., which inhabited caverns ; their remains
aie not found in the Parisian formation ; their species disappeared,
not only from the European continent, but from the face of the
globe, in the next epoch. There also appeared several new
rodents, horses, ruminants, and probably the gigantic edentate ani-
mal, with slow and heavy gait, the megathe'rium (Jig. 178, p. 92),
whose head and whole aspect were similar to the sloths, although
its size was that of the largest rhinoceros, and its body must have
been covered by a bony cuirass like the armadillo.
Epoch of diluvium. At this time Europe took its present form,
and its relief was definitely fixed. The upheaval of the principal
Alps, in forming all the chains which extend to Austria, in elevating
likewise some portions of the western Alps, also raised up the soil
in a great part of Europe, and especially caused the division of the
waters between the ocean and the Mediterranean. The effects pro-
duced show that enormous currents of water were established in all
directions, which furrowed all the deposits then uncovered ; but the
volume of waters furnished by lakes, previously fdrmed in the interior
of lands, whose barriers were no doubt broken in the new catastrophe
of upheaval, was in relation to the vastness of the result produced;
it must have been prodigiously increased by some circumstances,
attributable, perhaps, to the sudden melting of the snows, and gla-
ciers then accumulated on the western Alps. The currents which
were formed, in furrowing the surface of lands, carried their debris
in all directions ; hence the alluvions of the valley of the Rhone,
of Crau, of the plains of Lombardy, those of Bavaria, the valley
of the Rhine, &c. ; hence the last configuration of the valleys, the
denudations, and the dislocations, seen in so many different places.
It is from the upheaval of this part of the Alps, that the separation
of France and England appears to date, as well as that of Ireland,
by ruptures effected between Brest and Cape Lizard, between
Caernarvon and Dublin. It was then that the Mediterranean took
its present limit?, in consequence of the subsidence of formations
which extended to the south of Marseilles, at the epoch of the
parisian sea. The gulf of Bothnia was perhaps produced in thif>
epoch, since the shell deposits found on some points of the coast
are all referred to the sub-Apennine formations.
But change of configuration in the soil was not the only conse-
quence of the appearance of the principal Alps ; this catastrophe,
extending over a great part of the world, from the height of Spaij
38*
204 MODERN EPOCH.
to the centre of Asia, was marked by the sudden cooling of Euro-
pean countries to their present temperature. From that time
palms ceased to grow in Europe, and dicotyle'donous plants were
prodigiously increased. The rhinoceros, elephants, and panthers,
which had just appeared in that part of the world, became entirely
extinct there ; and, if the cavern bear is represented in our present
bear, its size is considerably diminished. The fauna of that part
of the world was again completely changed, and replaced by that
we now see. Besides, it was at this moment, probably, that man
appeared on the earth : in fact, on one hand, there are no human
remains in what has been too lightly named dilu'vium, for the
skeletons of Guadaloupe are of the modern epoch, and cannot be
reckoned ; and, on the other, the animals which then began are
precisely those with which man has always lived, since historic
time.
Modern epoch. From the epoch of the principal Alps, no general
geological disturbance has taken place in Europe; and some volcanic
eruptions and upheavals, produced by earthquakes, are the only
effects that have been manifest. Such, also, appears to have been
the action of the 13th upheaval, which was revealed in the Morea,
in Naples, Sicily, and in some parts of Provence, and which, per-
haps, also determined the eruption of the modern volcanoes of
Auvergne and Vivarais, through ancient fissures, the beautiful
preservation of which attests their posteriority to the great denuda-
tions which followed the event of the principal Alps.
But if scarcely anything occurred in Europe after this great
event, perhaps it was not the same in other parts of the world.
We may suspect that a great part of the immense mountain range
which extends through America, and traverses Asia from Kamt-
schatka to the Birman empire, is the result of a more recent catas
trophe ; this direction, at least, offers the most extended, the most
decided, and, so to speak, the least effaced feature of the exterior
configuration of the earth. It is there we see the greatest numbei
of active volcanoes, and consequently the most extensive and best
preserved communication between the interior and exterior of the
globe, and perhaps, also, the greatest mass of volcanic products
known.
Deluge. The successive appearance of great mountain chains
has produced great disturbances in different parts of the globe.
But it is evident that these catastrophes, at least those of great
energy, and those which extended over large spaces, as the up-
heavals of the Alps, Pyrenees, &c., must have manifested their
action over all the rest of the earth in secondary phenomena
of more or less importance. If a simple earthquake is enough tc
produce a violent agitation of the sea, a sudden irruption of waters
on continents, these terrible revolutions could, not have failed to
cause more or less impetuous movements in the ocean, and tern
DELUGE. 20ft
porary derangement of level of more or less extent. Hence, without
doubt, the extraordinary inundations, which, at each catastrophe,
have ravaged the surface of existing lands, and produced, as in our
day, various denudations, or superficial alluvions, of more or less
extent.
Now, since, without counting all that escaped tntf investigations
of science, we clearly see, in Europe, a series of successive move-
ments of the soil, which have modified the whole continent, and
many even a whole hemisphere, there is nothing absurd in admit-
ting that what took place at so many different tiir.es, from the most
ancient to the most modern epochs of formation, may have happened
once, somewhere after the appearance of man on the earth. Con-
sequently there is nothing contrary to reason in the belief of a
great irruption of water over the lands, a general inundation, a
deluge, in fact, which we find described not only in the Bible, but
deeply impressed in the traditions of all people, and at an almost
uniform date. Thus, in recognising in the recital of Moses, the
extraordinary circumstances which bear witness to the supernatural
intervention of the divine will, we see, on one hand, the material
possibility of the fact transmitted to us, and, on the other, we find
even the secret of the means brought into play ; that is, the up-
heavals, the subsidences, the consequent oscillations of the water,
which from that time became efficient causes of the great chastise-
ment then inflicted on the human race. If, because the known
results it has produced are feeble, we cannot too carefully seek the
cause of this great phenomenon, in the last of the upheavals to this
time classed, which dislocated the deposits in which traces of human
industry have already been found : perhaps it may be discovered in
that which caused the rise of the Andes in America, and the volcanic
chain of central Asia, which, with a colossal development, also
present striking characters of relative novelty.
As to the future of our planet, everything leads to a belief that
the state of tranquillity we now enjoy is but temporary, like all the
intervals of crises during which the different sedimentary deposits
were formed. In fact, in the series of perturbations which, through
all time, have formed part of the mechanism of nature, we perceive
no law authorising us to conceive a termination to the succes-
sion of these phenomena : to accidents of little importance succeed,
indistinctly, either crises of the same order, or frightful catastrophes ;
long periods of tranquillity suddenly succeed terrible convulsions.
To the small upheaval of mount Viso, for example, succeeded the
great catastrophe'of the Pyrenees ; to this the small accidents of the
system of Corsica, which were followed by the great event of the
Alps. The long period of the jura'ssic formation was disturbed
by the upheaval of Cote-d'Or, as the deposit of the vosgean sand-
stone was almost immediately arrested by the system of the Rmne.
18
206 GEOGENY.
AU was irregular in those revolutions of which we have acquired
a knowledge ; no fact presents itself suggesting the idea of a
gradual diminution in the intensity of subterranean actions, and
leading us to think the earth has lost the property of being suc-
cessively broken and ridged in all directions. Nothing, therefore,
can assure us that the period of calm in which we have lived for
upwards of 5000 years (the period of the deluge), will not be dis-
turbed, in its turn, unexpectedly, by the appearance of some new
system of mountains ; the effect of a new dislocation of the soil, the
foundations of which earthquakes show not to be unshakable.
Hence it follows that the idea of an end, or a renewal of things
here below, as widely spread as the great inundation which has
passed, is also in the order of the laws which govern the universe.
Geogeny. The history of the various systems which have been
imagined to explain the origin of the universe, and of the earth in
particular, might perhaps afford some attraction to the curious ; but,
besides occupying a great deal of time in pure romance, it is, per-
haps, better to forget the many mental vagaries we should be
forced to expose. A single geogeny is worthy of our attention ;
it is that which is related in the Book of Moses, and which,
after a lapse of more than 3000 years, still presents, on one
hand, the clearest application to the best established theories,
and, on the other, the most succinct account of great geological
facts.
What is more rational, in fact, and more in conformity with
even our most precise knowledge, when we think of bringing order
into the general confusion of things, than to create the vehicle by
means of which the phenomena of light, of heat, &c., may be
manifest, and infuse life everywhere, — than to collect the scattered
elements into groups separate from each other, — than to establish
here and there centres of attraction around which all may gravitate
according to an immutable law ? Nevertheless, this is what we
find, with fewer details, no doubt, than we could give by means of
our acquired knowledge, in brief and common language intelligible
to all, in the first verses of Genesis, which thus state three succes-
sive and distinct facts. We there find, indeed, in outline: Dens
fecit LUCEM (the fluid of light, of heat, &c.), FIRMAMENTUM (space,
and all the masses scattered through it), SOLEM ET STELLAS (the
centres of attraction), &c.
As to the organic creation, it is divided into four successive, and
also rational epochs. The first established vegetative life, or life
of nutrition, which is manifested not only in plants, but also in the
inferior animals, in which we find scarcely any other phenomena
than those of nutrition, growth, &c. Afterwards came the life of
relation or sensibility, instinct, intelligence, and will, successively
added, in different proportions, to the phenomena of simple existence.
GEOGENY. 2C7
This new life first takes a certain development in fishes (including
reptiles, no doubt), then birds, which, together, corstitute the second
epoch of creation. It acquired a new extension in mammals, which
appeared at a third epoch ; and finally reached its highest degree
in man, with whom terminated the work of the OMNIPOTENT.
receiving a soul in the image of God, to distinguish him from all
other creatures.
This is without doubt a wonderful example of successive organic
combinations; but it is also precisely the order in which all the
remains buried in different ages successively present themselves.
Those we meet in deposits we regard as the most ancient, are the
calcareous remains of certain polypa'ria, mussels, sometimes even
the shell of some acephalous mollusks, the trilobite crusta'ceans,
and the remains of plants, the accumulation of which formed the
anthracite of the devonian formations. The abundance, the extent,
the thickness of these combustible beds announce the great luxu-
riance of vegetation, which leads us to believe that plants existed
for a long time, and that perhaps their first debris have disappeared
in the profound metamorphisms which modified the deposits in
which they might have been.
Fishes are not met with prior to the devonian formations, and it
is only in the coal deposits they present a strength of organization,
which is lost in the succeeding deposits, and which is not known
even now on the globe. Reptiles have left their remains in the
new red sandstone, or penine formations which followed ; and the
birds, the creation of which Genesis also places in the same epoch,
have left the imprints of their feet on the sandstones.
Mammals did not appear until long afterwards ; the traces* of
those found in the great o'olite belonged to the least perfect orders :
it is only in the tertiary strata that their debris of every species are
found in abundance.
Human remains are not found in any of the beds which have
been upheaved from the bosorn of the waters, and now forming
parts of our continents; it therefore follows that this privileged
being of the general creation did not appear on the globe until after
the animals whose fossil debris have been found ; he dates from
an epoch comparatively very recent, which is placed after the up-
heaval of the principal Alps; -his formation would consequently
go back about 6800 years, according to admitted chronology.
It is in deposits formed under the waters since this catastrophe
that the bones of man should be found, and they will not appear
from that time in the series of geological beds antil new revolu-
tions shall have transformed the sediments still found under water
into dry land.
It is clear from this outline that the brief statement of sacred
history is entirely in conformity with geological generalities. Ob-
GEOGENY.
servation alone enables us to add a great number of details,
useless no doubt to most men, but interesting at least to the smaL
number of those who dedicate themselves to study, if indeed
they are not destined perhaps to enlighten their belief.
The assemblage of data we now possess leads us to perceive
that each of the particular -creations briefly indicated in Genesis,
with the exception of that of man, did not take place in a single
moment ; that, on the contrary, it was successively, in a considera-
ble space of time, and in proportion as the terrestrial globe itself
was fashioned. Indeed, if the vascular cryptoga'mia appeared
nearly from the commencement of things, the gy'mnospe'rmous
phaneroga'mia did not appear until about the epoch of the coal
formation, and did not exist in abundance until long afterwards ;
it is the same with the monocoty'ledons, the remains of which are
at first few and indistinct, and not clearly seen until after the chalk ;
the dicoty'ledons did not appear until strtl later, in the midst of the
tertiary formations. In all this interval of time, the species suc-
cessively changed, and those which were created, have in turn also
entirely disappeared, one after the other, to give place to the
new.
Fishes, reptiles and mollusks, respectively present us with the
same phenomena, and still more clearly show the successive ex-
tinctions of different races, and the appearance of many others.
The sauroid fishes, which lived at the time that coal was formed in
Belgium and England, disappeared for ever in the new order of
things, established in the penine formation. True sharks did not
exist then, but appeared long after in the creta'ceous sea. Gigan-
tic saurians, with paws in form of paddles, and flying saurians,
existed in abundance in the jura'ssic epoch, but disappeared in
the following period, and were replaced in it by enormous ter-
restrial saurians. of which there are no previous traces, and, after
long having inhabited the earth by themselves, the latter were
also successively lost, leaving only crocodiles after them, still very
different from those of the present day. The same is true of the
tri'lobites, produclus, and spi'rifers, which, after having multiplied
for some time, disappeared one after the other. The ammonites and
belemnites succeeded them, and are found in abundance in the
jura'ssic sea ; then they became completely extinct, after having
successively changed species, at the moment in which the chalk
formation ceased to take place. All the mollusks that followed
after, more and more resemble those now existing, of which there
was then no trace.
Mammals present themselves under similar circumstances ; the
different orders and different species appeared only in succession.
The first were only the feeble marsupials. Long afterwards came
the pachyderms, analogous to the tapir, the first species of which
GEOGENY. 209
were soon annihilated. Other species of the same genus suc-
ceeded them, and these were found associated with new animals,
the ma'stodon and dinotlie'rium, but they soon afterwards became
extinct for ever. Still later came the elephants; they only appeared
with the carni'vora, the rode'ntia, &c., the species of which were
still only the prelude to those which appeared at the same time
with man.
All these successive changes in the series of creatures coincide
with the great disturbances of the surface of the globe. It was at
the instant of the catastrophes, produced by movements of the soil,
that families, genera, species of organic bodies which had until
then existed, disappeared. In times of the succeeding calm, on
the contrary, the new organization was developed in harmony
with the new atmospheric circumstances, and new dispositions
of the isothermal lines, &c.
These details, which observation enables us to add to the
recital of Genesis, are in general harmony with the facts, there
found briefly enunciated, and of which they are but the develop-
ment ; the only difficulty presenting itself is that of the appli-
cation of the word day, which, happily, even in the eyes of
legitimate judges, from Saint Augustine down, does not seem to
possess the value which people have naturally attributed to it.
This expression seems in fact to have been adopted, only as an in-
dicatio'n of relative epochs, as the means of making understood
ind retaining the order and succession of things which were at
once revealed. It is clear, indeed, that minute details categorically
established by figures, which would satisfy the curiosity of a small
number of men, would not be either received or comprehended
by the vulgar, who, nevertheless, are entitled to this important
instruction. We ourselves often resort to ways still more crooked
to make ourselves belter understood by all : it is in this way, for
example, we speak of the rising and setting of the sun, to describe
the arrival of this luminary to the meridian, to the solstice, &c.,
although we know very well that we must attribute these pheno-
mena to the inverse movements of the earth.
According to geological observations, this common expression,
days, ought to signify epochs* which embrace long periods of
time, each being relative to a certain system of creation in which
there were different formations of creatures, as well as success-
ive extinctions of those previously existing. Each period be-
gar. at a particular date, clearly determined, and marked by a
catastrophe which overturned the order of things anteriorly esta-
.blished on the earth ; it was extended, for a longer or shorter time,
"sometimes through succeeding epochs, and often up to the appear-
ance of man himself. According to the conjectures of the scien-
tific, an immense time elapsed between the formation of the first
18*
210 GEOGENY.
sediment and the last, without counting the period required
for the consolidation and first cooling of masses of planetary mat-
ter. It was in long series of ages, which are but as instants in
eternity, that the earth was fashioned, as we now behold it, by
every kind of movement in the soil, by sedimentary deposits of
different kinds, and finally prepared as the sojourning place of
man, for whom God has disposed everything.
LEXICON OF TERMS
USED IX
NATURAL HISTORY,
PREPARED FOR
SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND FAMILIES
BY
W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M. D.,
•VROEON, U. 8. N.VVY; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY; OF THE ACADEMY
OP NATURAL SCIENCES, PHILADELPHIA : OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR
THK ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; icC., iC.
PHILADELPHIA:
CLAXTON, REMSEN & HAFFELFINGER,
819 & 821 MARKET STREET,
1871.
Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by
W. S. W. RUSCHENBERGER, M. L».,
to the Ciork's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the
Eastern District of Pennsylvania.
ADVERTISEMENT.
THIS Lexicon contains the explanations of more than five
thousand words, terms, and names, used in natural history,
embracing the departments of zoology, botany, mineralogy,
and geology. Besides the technical terms, there are names
enough, pertaining to the several departments, explained in
the work, to give the student, or general reader, an idea of
nomenclature in natural history.
When it occurs, the Greek omega has been marked thus
(<?), and italics have been substituted for the Greek charac-
ters, because, it is presumed, many who may use this volume
are unacquainted with the dead languages.
The references are to the pages of the Series of Books
on Natural History, and to the " Elements of Natural His-
tory," prepared by the author of this little volume.
(iii)
; ;o a
A GLOSSARY
OF TERMS
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY,
The following abbreviations are used :
Ft. French
fir. fr. from the French
Ger. German
fr. ger. from the German
Gr. Greek
fr. gr. from the Greek
It. Italian
fr. it. from the Italian
Lat. Latin
fr. lat. from the Latin
Sp. Spanish
fr. sp. from the Spanish
PJur. Plural
priv. privative.
ABDO'METT — fr. lat. abdere, to con-
ceal. The belly; that part of
the trunk which contains the or-
gans of digestion, namely, the
stomach, liver, pancreas, intes-
tines, &c.
ABDO'MUTAL. — Relatingto the belly.
ABDOMIKA'LES. — Lat. Plur. ofa6-
domina'lis, relating to the abdo-
men. An order of soft-finned
fishes, which have the ventral
fins placed beneath the abdomen
behind the pectoral fins. (See
p. 99, Book iv.) — The families
arranged under this order are
Cyprinoides, or carps; the Silu-
roides, or Silures ; the Salmonoi-
des, or salmons; the Clupeoides,
or herrings; and the Lucioides,
or pikes.
ABDU'CTOR. — fr. lat. abduco, I draw
from. Applied to those muscles
which move one part of an ani-
mal's body from another. The
action of the abductor is opposite
to that of addu'ctor muscles. (See
addu'ctor.)
ABNO'RMAL. — fr. lat. a6, from, nor-
ma, rule. Not conformable to
rule.
ABNO'HMOTJS. — Out of rule; mis-
shapen.
AB'OMA. — Specific name of a Boa.
ABOMA'SUS. — Lat. a&, from, without,
and oma'ssum, stomach. The
fourth stomach of Ruminants.
The Rennet-bag.
ABO'RTIVE. — fr. lat. aborior,! abort,
that is, bring forth before the na-
tural time. Any part of a plant
which does not acquire its nor-
mal developement is said to
abort : stamens which have no
anthers, and seeds which have
no embryos, are said to be abor-
tive. In some instances abortion
2W2
(5)
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
is constant: the ovarium of the
cocoa palm is three-celled ; the
fruit has only one cell, the other
two becoming constantly abor-
tive.
ABUA'MIS. — The generic name of
fishes, called Breams.
ABRAN'CHIA (a-bran'-kea}. — In the
plural abran'chi(K — fr. gr. o, with-
out, and bragchia, gills. Abran'-
chians. An order of annelidans,
so called, because the species
composing it have no external
organs of respiration.
ABRAN'CHIATE.— - Relating to, or of
the nature of abranchiae.
ABSORP'TIOW. — fr. lat. absorbere, to
drink, to suck up. The function
of absorbent vessels, by virtue of
which they take up substances
from without or within the body.
AC'ACIA. — fr. gr. ake, a point, akios,
not subject to worms : a thorny
tree. A genus of the family Le-
gumino'sse and order Mimo'sae.
About 300 species are enume-
rated; many of them yield gum.
ACALE'PHA. — fr.gr. akalephe, a nettle.
Class of radiate animals, so called,
on account of the singular pro-
perty possessed by most of the
species, of irritating and inflam-
ing the skin, when touched.
ACALE'PHA. — Plural of acale'pha.
ACALE'PHANS. — Animalsof the class
Acale'pha.
ACA'NTHA. — fr. gr. akantha, a thorn.
A prickly fin of a fish. A spine
or prickle of a plant.
ACA'WTHOPTERT'GIAIT. — fr.gr. akan-
tha, a spine, pteron, wing. Ap-
plied to fishes that have bony fin-
rays.
ACA'NTHOPTEHT'GII. — Lat. Plural
of acanthopterygius. Same deri-
vation. Na*ne of the first order
of the class of fishes given to
them because they have bony
fins.
A'CA'NTHURI — Lat. Plur. of acan-
thu'rus. fr. gr. akantha, a spine,
oura, tail. Generic name of a
kind of fishes popularly called
Surgeon, because they have
sharp, lancet-like spines on the
tail. (p. 98, Book iv.)
A'CAUIDJB. ) A family of Arachni-
A'CARIDES. £ dans, which includes
the mite, the tick, the water rriite,
and flesh-worm.
A'cAHi. — Lat. Plur. of Acarus.
A'CARUS. — fr. gr. akari, a mite. A
genus of arachnidans.
ACAULOUS. ) fr. gr. a, priv. ;
ACAULE'SCEWT. £ kaulos, a stalk.
Stem less: applied to plants in
which the stern is seemingly ab-
sent, the leaves appearing to arise
from the root.
A'CCESSORT. — Joined to another
thing so as to increase it; addi-
tional.
ACCI'PITHES. — fr. lat. accipere, to
seize hold of. Systematic name
of the order of birds of prey.
AC'CLIMATE. — fr. gr. klima, a region :
to habituate to a climate.
ACCRE'TIOW. — fr. lat. accresco, to
grow to. Minerals grow by ac-
cretion, that is, they increase in
size by the deposit of new mat-
ter around a central nucleus.
AC'CUMBENT. — Prostrate, supine, ly-
ing upon.
A'CEOUS — An affix or termination
which denotes resemblance; as,
membrantt'eeotts ; resembling
membrane: but the affix CMS, de-
notes the substance itself; as,
membranous; — of the nature of
membrane, relating to mem-
brane.
ACE'PHALA (a-ke'f-ala) — fr. gr. a,
without, kephale, head : without
a head. Applied to animals
without a head.
ACE'PHAISC (a-ke'f-alay). — Lat. Plur.
of acephala.
ACE'PHALOUS (a-ke'f-alous). — Head-
less ; relating to acephalte.
ACERO'SE — fr. lat. acer, a needle.
In form of a needle.
ACETA'BULUM. — fr. lat. acetum. vin-
egar, from its resemblance to
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
the ancient Greek vinegar vessel,
called oxybaphon. Socket of the
hip joint. (See Cotyloid.)
A'CETABULT'FERA. — fr. lat. aceta'-
bidum, a little cup; fcro, I carry.
Applied to those cephalopods
that have cups or suckers on
their arms or tentacles.
ACETA'RIOUS. — Anything belonging
to the salad tribes of vegetables.
ACHATI'NA (akate'na). — fr. gr. acha-
tes, agate. Name of a genus of
terrestrial gasteropods, sometimes
known as the agate snails. All
the species of this genus are ovi'-
parous; one, the Achatina zebra,
figured on p. 41, Book v., lays eggs
with a hard, white shell, and as
large as those of a sparrow.
ACHE'NIUM. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; chaino,
I gape. A form of fruit.
ACI'CULAR. — Needle-shaped.
A'CID. — Sour, sharp. In chemistry
this term is applied to all sub-
stances which saturate and neu-
tralize alkalies and other salifia-
ble bases.
ACINA'CIFORM. — Scimitar-shaped.
ACINI. — Small stones in grapes,
strawberries, &c.
ACI'PENSER. — Lat. A Sturgeon.
ACOTY'LEDON. — fr. gr. o, without,
kotuledon, a seed-lobe. A class
of plants.
A'COTTLE'DONOUS. — Belonging or
relating to acoty'ledons.
ACOU'STIC. — fr. gr. akouo, I hear.
Relating to sound, or hearing.
A'CRID — fr. lat. acer, sharp, sour.
Burning, irritating.
A'CR-ITA, — fr. gr. a'kritos, indistinct.
A division of the animal king-
dom composed of the lowest
classes of radiate animals.
ACROMIOJT. — fr. gr. akros, extreme,
omos, the shoulder. The supe-
rior prominence of the scapula,
which joins the clavicle, form-
ing' the bony point of the shoul-
der.
ACRY'DIUM. — fr. gr. akris, a locust.
Name of a genus of insects.
ACTI'ITIA. — fr. gr. aktin, a ray. A
ray. A genus of polypi, with
very numerous tentacles, which
extend, like rays, from the cir-
cumference of the mouth {fig- 87,
p. 96, Book vi).
ACTUT'OHTK and ACTT'NOLITE. —
fr. gr. aktin, a ray ; lithos, a stone.
A variety of hornblende which
usually occurs in fascicular crys-
tals. There are three varieties
of this mineral ; crystallized, as-
bestous, and glassy.
ACU'LEATES. — fr. lat. aculeus, a
prickle. A tribe of hymenopte-
rous insects, in which the fe-
males and neuters are provided
with a sting, generally concealed
within the last segment of the
abdomen.
ACULEA'TUS. — Lat. Aculeate; hav-
ing a sharp point, (p. 49, Book
viii.)
ACU'LEI. — In botany, prickles; hard,
sharp processes of the epidermis
which fall off when old; they
are thus distinguished from spines,
which do not (all off.
ACCUMINA'TUS. ) Lat. Acuminate;
ACUMINA'TA. £ pointed; peak
ed. (p. 36, Book vii.)
ACUMINATE. ") fr- l'dt- acumen^ a
ACUMINATED. 3 sharp point. End-
ing in a point.
ACU'TE. — More gradually sharp
pointed than acuminate. In bo-
tanical language every angle is
acute.
ACUTICO'STA.— Lat. acutus, pointed,
costa, rib. Having pointed ribs or
sides.
A'CUTIT.O'BA. — Lat. acutus, point-
ed ; loba, a lobe. Having sharp
or pointed lobes. (Book viii. p. 88.)
A'CUTUS. i T
A'CCTA. f Lat. Acute j^sharp-
A'CUTUM. $ P°inted'
ADDU'CTOR. — fr. lat. addu er». I draw
towards. The muscle which
draws the valves of a bivalve
shell towards each other, is so
called.
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A'DIPOCIRE. — fr. lat. adeps, fat, cera,
wax : an animal substance analo-
gous to wax and fat; sperma-
ceti.
ADI'POSE. — fr.lat.aoVps, fat; belong-
ing or relating to fat.
AD'NATE. — Adhering, or growing
together, as the anther to the face
of its filament.
ADTJLA'RIA. — A kind of prismatic
feldspar, known to lapidaries un-
der the name of moonstone, from
the play of light exhibited by the
arrangement of its crystalline
structure. A variety from Sibe-
ria is called sunstone. The finest
specimens of adula'ria were pro-
cured at Adula, on the summit of
St. Gothard, and hence its name.
The Adularia of Ceylon is unri-
valled in beauty.
A'KCLT. — fr. lat. adolesco, I grow.
Full grown: arrived at maturity.
ADVEXTI'TIOUS. — Accidental. Ad-
ventitious roots are those which
grow from the stem (p. 19, Book
vii). Adventitious buds are those
which grow on parts of the stem
where they are not commonly
met.
/EANTHE. — fr. gr. aeo, to agitate,
antke, a flower. Name of a bird.
AEIION. — fr. gr. aedon, a songster,
derived from aeido, I sing. A
term applied to many birds.
K. — fr. gr. air, a goat, and
agrios, wild : wild goat.
us. — Lat. JEgagre: wild
goat.
GTPTIA'CUS. — Lat. Egyptian. Be-
longing to Egypt.
IS. — Lat. Equal; even.
AERIAL. — fr. lat. acrius : belonging
to the air.
A'EROLITE. — fr. gr. aer, air, and li-
thos, a stone. A meteoric stone,
or mineral mass of unknown ori-
gin, which falls upon the earth
from the air. These masses in-
variably contain iron, cobalt, or
nickel, or a combination of these
three metals, in union with vari-
ous earthy substances. They
are more or less magnetic.
A'EROPHYTES. — fr. gr. aer, acres, the
air; phuton, a plant. A term
used to designate plants which
live exclusively in air; those
which live in water are termed
hydrophytes.
JEnv'Go. — Lat. Verdigris ; impure
subacetate of copper.
. — Lat. Rusty.
. — Having a colour like
that of aerugo or verdigris.
^S'ALOX. — Lat. Name of a kind
of Falcon.
ESTIVA. — Lat. Belonging or relat-
ing to summer.
J£STIVA'TION. — fr. lat. cestivus, of or
belonging to summer. A figura-
tive expression employed to indi-
cate the manner in which the
parts of a flower are arranged
before they unfold. Botanists
speak of the aestivation of the ca-
lyx, of the corolla, of the stamens.
^ETHEO'GAMOUS. — fr. gr. aethes, unu-
sual ; gamos, marriage. Syno-
nytne of crypto'gamous.
V£'TITE. — fr. gr. aetos, an eagle. A
ferruginous mineral. Eagle-stone.
AFKICANUS. — Lat. African.
AGA'MIAX. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; gamos,
marriage. Having no sex. Ap-
plied to certain lizards.
AGA'MII»;E. — fr. gr. agama, a kind of
lizard. A group of Saurians.
AGA'MOID. — fr. gr. agama, lizard;
tidos, resemblance. All the aga-
moid lizards possess the property
of changing their colour.
A'GAMOITS. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; gamos,
marriage. Sexless. A class of
plants.
AGARIC. — A very pure native car-
bonate of lime, found in the clefts
of rocks. It is considered by
some to be a variety of Meerschaum.
It is the bergmehl, or rnountain-
meal of the Germans; and the
latte di luna or moon-milk of the
Italians.
AGA'UICUS.— Lat. Agaric. Generic
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
name of the mushroom tribe of
fungi.
AGA'STRICA. — fr. gr. a, priv.; gaster,
stomach. Without a stomach. A
tribe of infusoria.
A'GATE. — fr. gr. agathos, good, pre-
cious. An aggregate of certain
siliceous minerals, chiefly chalce-
dony, variously coloured. Moss
agate or Mocha stone is a chalce-
dony containing within, moss-like
delineations of a yellowish-brown
or green colour.
AGA'VE. — fr. gr. agauos, admirable.
A genus of plants.
AGGLO'MERATE. — fr. lat. agglomero, I
wind up. To gather together.
AGGLOMERATED. — fr. lat. ad, to ; glo-
rnero, I heap up. Gathered into a
ball or heap.
AGGLOMERA'TIOX. — A mass made up
of parts gathered together.
AGGLU'TINANS. — Lat. Glueing. Name
of a gasteropod which has the fa-
culty of causing other species, or
parts of shells, to adhere to it.
AGGLUTINATE. — fr. lat. agglutinare,
to glue. To join parts together.
AGGLUTINATED. — fr. lat. arf, to, glu-
ten, glue. United together; ad-
hering.
AGGREGA'TA. — Lat. Aggregated.
AG'GREGATED. — Collected together ;
accumulated. When a fruit is
composed of several agglutinated
carpels, it is termed aggregate.
AGGREGATION. — A collection: a
mass composed of many.
AGGRE'STIS. — Lat. Rural, wild.
AGILIS. — Lat. Agile, supple, light.
AGLOS'SAL. — fr. gr. a, priv.; glossa,
tongue. Tongueless.
AGOM'PHIA. — fr.gr. a, priv.; gomphios,
a grinder tooth. Toothless. Ap-
plied to certain animalcules. %
AG'RUMI. — An Italian name for any
kind of lemons or oranges.
Ai. — The sloth — a name derived
from the cry of the animal.
AIK-CELLS. — A term applied to cavi-
ties in the stems and leaves of
plants, which, being filled with
air, enable the plants to float in
water; also to membranous re
ceptacles in birds, by means of
which their bodies, being per-
meated by the atmospheric air,
are adapted for flight.
AIR-PLANTS. — A name given to cer-
tain parasitic plants which were
supposed to be nourished by the
air alone, without contact with
the soil. There are some species
which will live many months sus-
pended by a string in a warm
apartment.
AKE'NE.
AKE'RA. — fr. gr. a, without; keras,
horn — hornless. Name of certain
rnollusks that have very short
tentacles, or none at all.
AKE'RA. — Plural of Akera.
A'LA. — Lat. A wing.
AL^FO'RMIS. — Lat. a/a, wing,/orma,
shape. Wing-shaped.
A'LALITE. A sub-species of Augite.
ALAR (Extent.) — fr. lat. a/a, a wing.
Belonging or relating to the wings.
A term used in speaking of the
stretch of the expanded wings.
ALA'TE. — Winged.
ALAUDA. — Lat. A lark.
ALAU'DIN^B. — Lat. Alaudine birds,
or larks.
ALBINO. — Spanish, formed from the
Lat. albus, white. This word is
employed to designate those indi-
viduals of the human race who
have the skin and hair white, the
iris very pale and bordering on
red or pink; and the eyes so sen-
sible, that they cannot bear thy
light of day. Also applied to
animals of the lower orders that
are similarly characterised.
ALBITE. — fr. lat. albus, white. Soda
feldspar. A silicate of alumina,
resembling feldspar in its proper-
ties, with the substitution of soda
for potash.
ALBITIC. — Of the nature of albite.
ALBU'MEN. — fr. lat. albus, white. An
immediate principle of animals
10
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
and vegetables; it constitutes the
chief part of the white of eggs.
ALBUR'NUM. — Lat. Sap-wood.
ALCA. — Lat. The name of a tribe of
web-footed birds. An Auk.
AL'CES. — Lat. an Elk — one of the
dogs of Acteon was so called
AL'CEDO. — Lat. A kingfisher.
.A L'C YON. — — fr. gr. alkuon, formed
from als, the sea; kuo, I produce.
(The Halcyon, the name of a
fabulous bird of the ancients
which was supposed to build its
nest on the sea, at a season when
it was presumed to be cairn. This
season embraced a period of four-
teen days, which were called the
Halcyon days.) The specific name
of a kingfisher.
A'LCYONITES. — A general term for
the fruit-like, spongiforrn fossils
common in chalk formations.
A LECTOR. — fr. gr. alektor. The do-
mestic cock.
ALEC'TROID. — fr. gr. alektbr, the do-
mestic cock ; eidos, resemblance.
Applied to poultry.
A'LGA. — Lat. Sea-weed.
A'LGJE. — Plur. of alga. Name of a
sub-class of crytogamous plants,
which is subdivided into three
families: the Phy'ceee, or sub-
merged sea-weeds; the Lichens,
or emerged sea-weeds; and the
Byssa'cece, or amphibious sea-
weeds. The algae or sea-weeds
are agarnous plants which live in
the air, on the surface or at the
bottom of fresh or salt water ;
they are remarkable for their cel-
lular or filamentous structure, into
which no vessels enter.
A'LIFORM. — fr. lat. ala, wing ; forma,
form. Wing-like ; shaped likes
wing.
ALIMENT. — fr. lat. alimentum, formed
from alere, to nourish. Any sub-
stance, which, if introduced into
the system, is capable of nourish-
ing it, and repairing its losses.
Food.
A riMjE'xTARY.— Affording nourish-
ment. The intestinal tube is so
called because it is the medium
through which food is conveyed
into the body.
A'LLAGITE. — A mineral ; carbo-sili-
cate of manganese.
A'LLANITE. — A mineral containing
cerium, named after Mr. Allan.
ALLIA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. aliium, garlic.
Partaking of the properties of
garlic.
ALLOPHYL'LOUS. — fr. gr. allos, alter-
nate, and phullon, leaf. Having
alternate leaves.
ALLU'MINITE. — Native hydrated sub-
sulphate of alumina.
ALLUMI'NIUM. — A metalloid.
ALLU'VIAL. — Of the nature of allu-
vium.
ALLU'VIOJT. 7 fr- lat- alluo, I wash
ALLU'VIUM. 3 upon. Gravel, sand,
mud, and other transported mat-
ter washed down by rivers and
floods upon land not permanently
submerged beneath water. A
deposit formed from transported
matter, (p. 94, Book viii.)
A'LMANDJNE. — Precious garnet.
ALOPECU'RUS. — fr. gr. alopex, fox;
oura, tail. Name of a kind of
grass.
ALO'SA. — Generic name of the shad.
ALOU'ATTE.— French name of the
howling monkey.
ALPE'STRIS. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to the Alps.
ALPINE. — Belonging to the Alps.
ALPI'NUS.— Lat. Alpine.
ALTE'RNATE. — Being by turns; one
after another.
ALU'CO. — Specific name of a shell.
AL'ULJE. — Lat. Little wings. Two
diminutive scales found in dipte-
rous insects above the halteres.
A'LUM. — A sulphate of alumina and
potassa.
ALU'MINA. — fr. lat. alumen, alum.
Pure argil; the basis of alum;
one of the earths.
ALU'MINOUS. — Of the nature of alu'
mina.
ALUTA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. aluta, tanned
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
11
leather. Of the pale brown co-
lour of tanned leather.
ALVEOLA'TTJS.— Lat. Al ve'olate. Hav-
ing the surface covered with nu-
merous depressions, comparable
to the alve'oli or sockets of the
teeth. Also, resembling a section
of a honey-comb.
ALVE'OLI. — Lat. Plur. of alveolus.
ALVE'OLUS. — Lat. The hole or
socket in which a tooth is placed.
ALVINE. — Of, or belonging to the in-
testines.
AMAL'GAM. — Any alloy of mercury
with another metal.
AMA'RA. — Lat. Bitter.
AMARTL'LID^E. — Also, Amaryllida'-
ceae. Systematic name of an or-
der of plants, formed from Ama-
ryllis, the name of one genus of
the order.
A'MBER. — A hard, brittle, transpa-
rent or opaque substance, of an
orange colour, considered to be
an indurated vegetable juice, or
concreted balsam.
AMBERGRIS. — Fr. Arab, anibar, or
rather anbar, as written in Span-
ish, and the French gris, gray,
which, literally rendered, means
"gray amber," to distinguish it
from "yellow amber" of the
French, which is a kind of fossil
resin of vegetable origin, and ge-
nerally known under the name of
Amber ; but ambergris originates
in the spermaceti whale, and in
its essential properties differs al-
together from amber, with which
substance, the derivation of its
name might lead us to confound it.
AM'BIESTT. — Surrounding, investing.
AM'BITUS. — Lat. Contour. The outer
rim or circumference of the valve
of a shell ; of a frond or recep-
tacle, &c.
AMBLY'PTERTTS. — fr. gr. amblus, ob-
"ise ; pteron, wing. A fossil fish.
AMBLYRHI NCHCS, — fr. gr. amblus,
obtuse ; rugchos, snout. Name of
a genus of ignanian reptiles.
AMBBB'TTE. — fr. fr. ambre, amber;
name of a shell supposed to re-
semble amber, (p. 41, Book v.)
AMBXJLA'CRA. — Lat. plur. of ambula
crum. The narrow longitudinal
portions of the sea-urchin (Echi-
nus), which are perforated with
a number of small orifices, giving
passage to tentacular suckers, and
alternate with the broad tubercu-
late spine-bearing portions, (p.
54, Book viii.)
AMBULA'CRUM. — Lat. An alley.
A'MEJTT. — A cat-kin.
AME'NTUM. — Lat. A cat-kin; a mode
of inflorescence.
AME'NTA. — Lat. Plur. of Amentum.
AMENTA'CE.E. — A family of plants,
in which the flowers are ar-
ranged in amenta or cat-kins.
AMENTA'CEOUS. — Having aments.
AMERICANA. ^ American>
AMERICA utrs. y
AMETABO'LIAN. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; me-
tabole, change. Not subject to
metamorphosis.
A'METHTST. — fr. gr. o, priv.; me-
thuo, to be intoxicated. It was
supposed to have the virtue of
preventing intoxication. Oriental
amethyst is a rare violet-coloured
gern, called corundum, or ada-
mantine spar, with the qualities
of sapphire or ruby. The occi-
dental or common amethyst is
merely a coloured crystal or
quartz.
AMIA'TTTHUS. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; wiai-
no, to corrupt. Mountain flax.
An incombustible mineral, con-
sisting of very delicate and regu-
lar silky fibres.
A'MIATITE. — Fiorite or pearl-sinter;
a volcanic production.
AM'MOCETES. — fr. gr. ammos, sand.
Name of a genus of fishes that
live in the sand or mud. (p. 127,
Book iv.)
AM'MON. — fr. gr. ammos, sand. Nanr)
of a heathen divinity whose tem-
ple was in the sands of the desert.
Grecian Ram.
AMMO'NIA. — Lat. Relating to Am
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
inon, a name of Jupiter. Specific
name of a fossil chama. (p.
67, Book viii.)
AMMO'NIS. — Lat. Genitive case of
Ammon, a name of Jupiter.
AM'MOSITES. — Ammonites, vulgarly
called Snake Stones, are fossil
shells found in the strata of the
secondary formation, varying from
the size of a bean to the dimen-
sions of a coach-wheel. Their
name is derived from their re-
semblance to the horns on the
statue of Jupiter Ammon. (p. 51,
Book viii.)
A'MNIOS. — In botany, a gelatinous
substance, in which the embryo
of a seed is at first suspended.
It is subsequently absorbed, or
solidified in the form of albu-
men.
AMORPHOUS.— — fr. gr. a, without;
tnorphe, form. Shapeless.
AMO'RPBOZO'A. — fr. gr. amorphos,
shapeless ; zoon, animal. Shape-
less animals.
AMPELIS. — fr. gr. ampeleon, a singing
bird. A chatterer. The systema-
tic name of the crown birds.
AMPELLI DjE. — Chatterers ; a family
of perching birds.
AMPEI/IDEJB. — fr. gr. ampelos, a vine,
A systematic name of a family of
plants.
A'MPELITE. — fr. gr. ampelos, a vine.
A kind of slate.
Aw PHI. — Gr. A prefix, signifying
on both sides, around.
AMPHIBIA. — fr. gr. amphi — on two
sides, both, double ; bios, life :
animals that are fitted tor living
both on land and in the water.
AMPHIBIOUS. — fr. gr. amphi, double ;
bios, life. That which partakes
of two natures, so as to live in
two elements ; as in the air and
water.
AMPHI'BIUS. — Lat. Amphibious.
AM'PHIBOLE. 7 ^r< Sr- amphibolos,
AMPHI'BOLITE. 5 equivocal. A si-
licate of lime and magnesia, other-
wise called hornblende. This
mineral is liable to be mistaken
for augite.
AMPHIHEXAHE'DRAI. — Six-sided, in
opposite directions.
AMPUI'PODA. ) fr. gr. amphis, on both
AMPHI'PODS. $ sides; pous, foot.
An order of crusta'ceans which
have feet both for walking and
swimming.
AMPHISBX'NA. — fr. gr. amphis, both ;
bainein, to move, to walk. Walk-
ing both ways. The Generic
name of a serpent.
AMPHI-SPE'RMIUM. — fr. gr. sperma,
seed. A pericarp which is of the
same figure as the seed it con-
tains.
AMPHI'STOMA. — fr. gr. stoma, mouth.
A genus of worms which have
pores, like mouths, at both ends
of the body.
AMPHITRI'TE. — A genus of anneli-
dans.
AMPHiTBo'potis. — fr. gr. tropos, a turn.
A term applied to the ovule of
plants when the foraminal and
chalazal ends are transverse with
respect to the hilum.
AMPHIU'MA. — fr. gr. amphi, on all
sides ; uma, that which has been
moistened. A genus of Batra-
chians in which lungs, but no
branchiae, exist through life. It
resembles the salamander, and is
found in Louisiana.
AMPLE'XICAULE. — fr. lat. amplecto, I
embrace ; caulis, stem. Stem-em-
bracing. Applied to a form of
leaf.
AMPLE'XUS. — fr. lat. amplecto, I em-
brace. Generic name of a fossil.
AMPU'ILA. — Lat. A bottle. Any-
thing blown or puffed up. The
name of a form of leaf. (p. 50,
Book vii.)
AMPULLA'RIA. — fr. lat. ampulla, a
round, swelled out bottle. Name
of a genus of snails.
AMPULL A'RI*:. — Plur. of ampullaria.
AMT'&BALOID. — fr. gr. amugdalon,an
almond ; eidos, form. Almond-
shaped. Applied to certain rocks
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
18
in which other minerals are oc-
casionally imbedded like almonds
in a cake. A particular form of
volcanic rock.
AMYG'DALUS. — Lat. fr. gr. amugda-
lon, an almond. Generic name
of the almond tree.
AMYLA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. amy'lum,
starch. Starchy; of the nature
of starch.
ANA'BAS. — fr. gr. anabaino, I ascend,
I embark. A genus of fishes that
crawl on the land, and live for a
time out of water, (p.95, Bookiv.)
A'NAL. — Belonging or relating to the
anus. The arUil fin obtains its
name from being near the anus.
AXA'LCIME. — Cubizite: it is found in
grouped crystal s deposited by wa-
ter, in the fissures of hard lavas.
ANA'LOGOUS. — Having ' analogy, or
resembling.
AN'ALOGUE. — A substance or article
having ana'logy to others may be
called the an'alogue of those things
with which its properties or points
of resemblance are comparable.
ABTA'LOGY. — fr. gr. ana, between ;
logos, reason. Resemblance or
relation things bear to each other,
although not exactly alike in all
respects.
AXA'LYSIS. — fr.gr. analuo, I dissolve.
The separation of bodies into
their component parts.
AXAMO'RPHIC. — fr. gr. ana, above ;
niorphe, form. Applied to crys-
tals which have a nucleus re-
versed.
Ax AMOH'PHOSIS. — fr. gr. ana, again ;
morphosis, formation. Applied to
plants which, from morbid dege-
neration, assume a new or unu-
sual shape, so that, in some in-
stances, they are not recognisable.
ANA'NAS. — Portuguese. Pine-apple.
AXAX'CHYTES. — fr. gr. a, priv. (n for
euphony) ; agko, I strangle or
squeeze. A genus of fossil echi-
no^errns or sea-urchins, (p. 62,
Book viii.)
ASAIB — fr. gr. nessa, a duck, from
«co, I swim.
duck tribe.
The name of the
2X
AXASTOMO'SE. — Vessels or nerves
that communicate with each
other are said to anastomose.
Ax ASTOMO'SI s. — fr. gr. ana, between ;
stoma, mouth. The communi-
cation between two vessels or
nerves.
ANA'TID^. — Lat. The duck tribe.
AXA'TIFA. — Plur. anatifee : fr. lat.
ana*, anatis, a duck ; fero, I bear.
A genus of cirrhopods. It was
for a long time believed that cer-
tain ducks were derived from the
metamorphosis of these animals;
and for this reason they were
called ana'tifa.
AXATI'XA.— Name of bivalves which
resemble the Solens.
AN A'TOMY. — fr. gr. ana, through ; te*n-
no, I cut; the description of the
structure of animals. The word
anatomy properly signifies dissec
tion ; but it has been appropri-
ated to the study and knowledge
of the number, shape, situation,
structure, and connexion, in a
word, of all the apparent proper-
ties of organised matter, whether
animal or vegetable.
ANATO'MICAL. — Relating or belong-
ing to anatomy.
AXATRO'POUS — fr. gr. anatrepd, to
turn upside down. Inverted ; a
term applied to a condition of
ovules in many plants, as in the
apple.
AN'CHYLOSED. — fr. gr. agkulos, crook-
ed. A joint that has become stift
and immoveable is said to be an-
chylosed.
AXCI'PITAL. — fr. lat. anceps, two-
edged. Double-edged.
ANCYLO'CERAS. — fr. gr. agkulos,
curved or hooked ; keras, horn.
A genus of coleopterous insects.
Also, a genus of fossil cephalo-
pods.
AXCYLOCHE'IRA -- fr. gr. agkulos,
hooked ; cheir, the hand. A ge
nus of coleopterous insects.
14
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ANCYLO'CLADUS. — fr. gr. agkulos,
curved ; klados, a branch. A ge-
nus of plants.
ANCTL'ODON. — fr. gr. agkulos, curved ;
odous, odontos, a tooth. A genus
of fishes.
ANHALU'SITE. — A mineral first ob-
served in Andalusia in Spain. It
is very hard arid infusible, and
consists chiefly of alu'mina and
si'lica. Made.
ANDRO'CEUM. — fr. gr. a»icr, man ; oi-
kos, a house. A term applied to
the male apparatus in .plants,
commonly called the stamens.
ANDRO'GYNOUS. — fr. gr. oner, a man ;
gune, woman. Producing both
sexes on the same root, or in the
same flower. Hermaphrodite.
AJSDRO'PHORE. — fr. gr. andros, the
genitive of aner, man ; anther,&nd
phoreo, I bear. Anther-bearer. A
kind of sheath to the pistil.
ANDRO'PHOHUM:. — Lat. Androphore.
ANEL'LIDA. ) fr. lat. anelius, a little
ANEL'LIDES. £ ring. It is, also,
written annelida, and annelides.
A class of articulate animals.
ANEL'LIDJE. ) Plur. of anellida and
ANNE'LIDJE. £ annelida.
ANE'NTEROUS. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; en-
tera, bowels. Applied to infuso-
rial animalcules which have no
intestinal canal.
ANFRA'CTUOSE. — Full of turnings
and winding passages : spiral.
ANFRACTUO'SITY. — fr. lat. anfractus,
the bending or winding of a way.
An irregular hollow or groove.
ANGEI'OCARPOITS. — fr. gr. aggeion, a
vessel ; karpos, fruit. Applied to
plants which have their fruits
seated in envelopes not forming
part of the calyx: as the acorn,
which is seated in a cupula.
ANGIO'STOMA. — fr.gr. aggeion, a ves-
sel; stoma, mouth. A tribe of
mollusks. (p. 56, Book v.)
ANGIOSPE'RMJA (angeiospermia). — fr.
gr. aggeion, a vessel ; sperma, seed.
A Linnaean order of plants.
ANGEIOSPEBMOTTS. — Applied to those
plants which have their seeds en-
closed in a vessel, or pericarp ; as
in the leguminosaj or bean-tribe.
ANGLE. — fr. lat. angulus, which is
derived from the Greek agkulo^n
curve. The space intercepted
between two lines that meet at a
point. The Facial angle is formed
by two lines, one of which passes
vertically along the face from the
incisor teeth, and the other is
drawn horizontally from the ex-
ternal opening of the ear to the
same teeth.
ANGLE OF DIP. — In Geology: the dip
of strata is the point of the com-
pass towards which they slope
while the angle they form with
the plane of the horizon is called
the angle of dip.
AN'GLICUS. — Lat. English.
AN'GUILLA. — Lat. An eel.
ANGUIL'LIFORMES. — fr. lat. anguilla
eel; forma, shape. Eel-shaped
Systematic name of a tribe of eel
shaped fishes.
ANGUI'NA. — Lat. from anguis, a ser
pent. Systematic name of a fa
mily of ophidians.
AwGtri'ifus. — Lat. Belonging or re
lating to serpents.
AXGUIS. — Lat. A snake.
ANGU'LINERVE. — fr. lat. angulus, a
corner, an angle; nervus, a nerve
or sinew. Having straight nerves
which form angles with each
other.
ANGULO-DENTATE — Angularly tooth-
ed, or angular and toothed.
A'NHTDRITE. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; udor,
water. A mineral sulphate of
lirne occurring in crystals which
contain no water.
AN'HTDROUS. — fr. gr. a, without;
udor, water. Without water. Ap-
plied to salts and certain acids
when destitute of water.
ANIMAL. — fr. lat. animalis — a name
given to every animated being
provided with digestive organs.
ANIMAL KINGDOM. — That depart-
ment of natural history whioh
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
embraces the study of animals.
Cuvier distributed them into four
large groups: viz., Vertebrata,
Mollusca, Articulata, and Radiata.
More recent writers have modi-
fied this arrangement and intro-
duced new terms, as may be seen
in the following table :
I. Sub-kingdom. VERTEBRATA.
My'elence'phala, (Owen.)
Spinice'rebrata, (Grant.)
Class 1. Mammalia.
" 2. Aves.
" 3. Amphibia.
Class 4. Reptilia.
« 5. Pisces.
II. Sub-kingdom. ARTICULATA.
Homoganglia'ta, (Owen.)
Diploneu'ra, (Grant.)
«/?nnu/o'sa, (Macleay.)
Class 1. Cirrhopoda.
« 2. Annellida.
" 3. Myriapoda.
Class 4. Insecta.
u 5. Arachnida.
" 6. Crustacea.
III. Sub-kingdom. MOLLTTSCA.
Heteroga'ngliata, (Owen.)
Cycloganglia'ta, (Grant.)
Class 1. Cephalopoda.
44 2. Gasteropoda.
« 3. Brachiopoda.
Class 4. Pteropoda.
" 5. Conchifera.
« 6. Tunicata.
IV. Sub-kingdom. RADIATA.
Cycloneu'ra, (Grant.)
Nematoneu'ra, (Owen.) d'crita, (Macleay).
Class Radia'ria. Lamarck.
Echinode'rma. Cuvier. Acale'pha. Cuvier.
Class Polypi, Cuvier.
Ciliobrachia'ta, Farre. Anthozo'a, Ehrenberg. Nudibrachia'ta, Farre.
Class Entozo'a, Rudolphi.
Coelelmi'ntha, Owen. Sterelmi'ntha, Owen.
Class Infuso'ria, Cuvier.
Rotif era, Ehrenberg.
Polyga'stria, Ehrenbtrg.
16
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ANIMA'LITT. — fr. fr. animalite. The
peculiar vital property or charac-
ter which belongs to and distin-
guishes animals.
ANIMA'LIA. — Lat. Animals.
ANIMA'LCULE. — fr. lat. animalculum,
a diminutive animal.
ANIMA'LCULA. — Plur. of animalcu-
lum : animals that are only per-
ceptible by means of the micro-
scope.
ANISO'BRYOUS. — fr. gr. anisos, une-
qual ; bruo, to grow. That which
grows unequally.
ANISOSTE'MONOUS. — fr. gr. anisos,
unequal ; stemon, a stamen. Ap-
plied to plants in which the num-
ber of stamens does not corre-
spond with the number, or any
power of the number, of the pe-
tals, or of the sepals.
ANNEL'LIDAN. — An animal of the
class annel'lida. A worm.
ANNELLIDES A class of animals
without vertebrae.
A'NNUAL. — fr. lat. annus, a year.
Yearly. A plant which rises from
the seed, reaches perfection and
perishes within a year.
AN'NULAR — In form of a ring.
ANNULA'RIA. — fr. lat. annulus, ring.
Generic name of a fossil plant,
(p. 41, Book viii.)
ANNULA'TED.— fr. lat. annulus,^. ring;
marked in rings.
ANNULA'TIONS. — Rings or circles.
ANNULO'SA. — fr. lat. annulus, a ring.
Name given by Macleay to Cu-
vier's division of Articulata.
AN'NULUS. — Plur. annuli. Lat. A
ring.
ANO'BIUM. — fr. gr. and, above, up-
wards; baino, I ascend. Generic
name of certain beetles.
ANODO'NTA.— fr.gr. a, without; odous,
odontos, tooth. Systematic name
^f a kind of mussel, (p. 149,
Book viii.)
ANODO'NT;E. — Plur. of Anodonta.
ANO'LIS — A kind of saurian, called
vnoli, in the Antilles.
ANO'LIUS. — Lat. Generic name of
the Anolis.
ANOMALY. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; omalos,
equal. Irregularity; deviation
from the common rule.'
ANO'MALOUS. — Unequal, irregular.
ANO'MIA. — fr. gr. a, priv.; nomos,
law. Systematic name of certain
mollusks. (p. 74, Book v.)
ANO'MIA. — Plur. of Anomia.
ANOPLOTHE'RITJM. — fr. gr. a, with-
out; oplon, arm, or anoplos, un-
armed-, therion, beast. An ex-
tinct fossil quadruped, (p. 82,
Book viii.)
ANOMOC'RA. — fr. gr. anomos, irregu-
lar ; oura, tail. A division of
crusta'ceans.
ANO'RMAL. — Irregular ; abnormal.
ANOU'RA. — fr. gr. a, or an, priv.;
cmra, tail. Without a tail. Name
of a family of batrachians.
ANSER. — Lat. A goose.
ANTEN'NA. — Lat. A yard-arm. A
tubular, jointed, filiform organ,
placed on the head of insects, and
some other animals. A feeler.
AXTEN'NJE. — Plur. of antenna.
ANTE-OPER'CULUM. — A part of the
gill-cover, or operculum of fishes,
which is before the operculum
proper, (p. 79, Book iv.)
ANTEPEC'TUS. — fr. lat. ante, before ;
pectus, the breast. The under sur-
face of the first ring of the thorax
in insects.
ANTEPENULTIMATE. — fr. lat. ante, be-
fore ; pene, almost; ultimus* the
last. That which is immediately
before the next to the last; or,
that which is immediately before
the penultimate.
ANTERIOR. — Before. The anterior
valve of a shell is that in which
the ligament is not placed.
ANTESTER'NVM. — fr. lat. ante, be-
fore ; sternum, the breast-bone.
The fore part of the middle line
of the breast-plate ; the centre of
the antepectus.
A'NTHER. — fr. gr. anthera, a flowery
herb. That part of a plant which
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
rs
has hitieito been considered as
the fertilizing organ. It is innate,
when attached to the filament by
its base ; adnate, when attached
by its back, and versatile, when it
is attached to the filament by a
single point of the connective,
from which it lightly swings.
AJTTHERIDI'DIA. — Little anthers.
ANTHERI'DIUM. — A mass of pollen.
AKTHKRI 'FERGUS. — Bearing anthers.
AN'THEROID. — Resembling anthers.
ANTHOCA'RPOUS. — fr. gr. anthos, a
flower; karpos, fruit. Applied to
multiple fruits formed by masses
of inflorescence ^in a state of ad-
hesion, as the pine-apple.
ANTHOPHT'LLITE. — fr. gr. anthos, a
flower ; phullon, a leaf,
sive mineral.
A mas-
ANTHOPHO'RA. — Plur. anthophorae ;
fr. gr. anthos, a flower ; phero, I
bear. Name of a genus of hy-
menopterous insects. Applied
also to insects whose habits are
analogous to bees.
ANTHOZO'A. — fr. gr. anthos, a flower ;
ZOOM, an animal. A class of po-
lyps.
A'NTHRACITE. — fr.gr. anthrax, char-
coal. Mineral charcoal. A kind
of stone-coal difficult to inflame.
A'NTHRACITI'FEROUS. — fr. lat. an-
thracite, fero, I bear. Containing
anthracite.
A'WTHRACOTHE'RIUM. — fr. gr. an-
thrax, a coal ; therion, a beast. A
fossil pachyderm, found in lignite
and coal of the tertiary strata.
A'NTHBOPOMO'RPHOUS.— fr.gr. anthro-
pos, man ; morphe, form. Having
a form resembling man.
AN'THUS. — Lat. Name of the Tit-
lark or Meadow-lark.
ANTICLI'NAL AXIS. ~) fr. gr. anti,
ANTICLINAL LINE, j against; kli-
nein, to incline. An imaginary
line towards which strata, dip-
ping in opposite directions, rise,
(p. 160, Book viii.)
ANTIQ.UATED. — In conchology, lon-
gitudinally furrowed, but inter-
rupted by transverse furrows, a.$
if the shell had acquired ne\v
growth at each furrow.
ANTIQ.UA'TUS. — Lat. Antiquated,
out of date, abolished.
ANTLER. — fr. fr. andouiller — properly
the first branch of a stag's horns;
but it is applied to all the brancnes.
A'NTLIA. — Lat. a pump. The spiral
organ of butterflies, and allied in-
sects, by which they pump up
the juices of plants.
A'NUS. — The outlet or inferior open-
ing of the intestines.
A'ORTA — fr. gr. aorte, a vessel. The
great primary artery which con-
veys blood to all parts of the
body.
AOR'TIC. — Belonging to the aorta.
A'PATITE. — A mineral ; phosphate
of lime.
APERTURE. — The mouth or opening
of a shell.
APETA'LEJE. — fr. gr. a, without; pe-
talon, petal. Systematic name of
a group of plants.
APE'TALOUS. — Applied to flowers
that have a calyx and no corolla,
or neither.
A'PEX. — The top, summit, or end.
When applied to a leaf, it is the
point most remote from the base.
The tip or point of the spire of a
shell. In botany, the apex of a
seed is the extremity opposite to
the base; the apex of a fruit is
the part where the remains of the
style are found.
APHANI'PTERA. — fr. gr. aphanes. ob-
scure ; pteron, wing. The flea-
tribe.
A'PHANITE. — fr. gr. aphanes, indis-
cernible. A greenstone rock con-
taining amphibole as its principal
ingredient; it is so named be-
cause its constituents are indis~
cernible.
A'PHID;E. — Lat. Plant-lice.
A'PHIS. — Lat. Plant-louse.
APHTHOUS. — In botany, resembling
something covered with little ul-
cers.
2X2
18
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
APHT'LLOUS. — fr.gr. a, priv. ; phuUon,
a leaf. Leafless.
AFIA'STER. — Lat. from apis, a bee.
The specific name of the common
Bee-eater.
A'PICAL. — Belonging to the apex.
API'CULATE. — Terminating in a lit-
tle point.
API'CULUS. — Lat. A small point.
When the midrib projects beyond
the leaf, forming a little point, or
when a small point is abruptly
formed, it is termed apiculus.
APIO'CRINITEB. — fr.gr. apion.a pear;
krinon, lily. The pear encrinite
(p. 149, Book viii). A sub-genus
of fossil encri'nites, in which the
stem is rounded and dilated, at
its upper part, into a pyriform
shape.
API'VOROUS. — fr. lat. apis, a bee ;
vorare, to eat. Bee-eating. One
that eats bees.
APLY'SIA. — fr. gr. aplusia, unclean-
ness; that which cannot clean
itself. Systematic name of Sea-
hares, to which the ancients attri-
buted many fabulous properties.
APLT'SIA. — Plur. of Aplysia.
APOCA'RPOTJS. — fr. gr. apo, from ; kar-
pos, fruit. Applied to fruits formed
of a single carpel.
A'PODA. — fr. gr. a, without ; pous, po-
dos, a foot. Without feet. Ap-
plied to birds of Paradise, because
it was once supposed they had no
feet.
APO'DES. — Lat. Applied to an order
of fishes.
APODOUS. — Without feet.
APOXEUROSES. — fr. gr. apo, from ; neu-
ron, a nerve. (The ancients called
every white part neuron.) Mem-
branous expansions of muscles
and tendons are so called.
APOPHY'LLITE. — -fr. gr. upophullidzo,
to strip off leaves. Ichthyo 'phthal-
ntite, or fish-eye stone. A scarce
mineral, having a pearly lustre,
like the species of feldspar called
moonstone. It owes its name to
its lamellar structure.
APO'PHTSIS. — fr.gr. apo, from; phuo,
I rise. An eminence or process
of bone. A swelling beneath the
theca of a moss.
AP'OPLEXY. — fr. gr. apo, from ; plessd,
I strike : a disease of the brain,
an obstruction of the nervous
principle which deprives the body
suddenly of sensation and motion.
APOTHE'CIA. — fr. gr. apo, upon ; theke,
a capsule. Little shields; ap-
plied to the reproductive organs
of lichens.
APOTHE'CUM. — fr. gr. apotheke, a re-
pository.
APPARATUS. — Lat. ad, for ; parare, to
prepare : a collection of instru-
ments or organs for any operation
whatever. An assemblage of or-
gans.
APPENDICES. — Plur. of appendix.
APPENDI'CULATE. — That which has
small appendages.
AP'PENDIX. — Lat. ad, to ; pendere, to
hang; something added. Any
part that adheres to an organ, or
is continuous with it.
AP'PENSE. — Being hung up as a hat
is upon a pin; an approach to
pendulous.
APPRESSED. — When hairs lie flat
upon the surface of a plant, they
are said to be oppressed.
APTEJTODY'TES. — fr. gr. a, priv.; pte-
nos, winged, with the power of
flying, and dutes, a diver. The
systematic name of Penguins.
A'PTERA. — fr. gr. a, priv.; pteron, a
wing. A series of insects cha-
racterized by the absence of
wings.
AP'TEROUS. — Without wings.
APUS. — fr. gr. apous, without feet.
Bird of Paradise. Specific name
of the common martin.
AQ.UA'TIC. — fr. lat. aqua, water. Re-
lating or belonging to water.
AQ.UA'TICA. 7 Lat. Aquatic. Relat-
AQ.UA'TICUS. 5 i»g or belonging to
water.
A'o.UEOUs ROCKS. — Rocks composed
of matter deposited by water.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
19
Those of one class especially are
named metanwrphic, because they
are supposed to have undergone
a remarkable change in the course
of their formation. From being
found invariably in strata or lay
ers, aqueous rocks are also termed
stratified.
AQ.XTILA. — Lat. An eagle.
AQ.UILI'ITA. — Lat. Of or like an
eagle ; rapacious.
ARA. 7 Systematic names of a
ARACARI. 5 maccaw.
ARACH'JTIDA (arak'-ne-da). — fr. gr
arachne, a spider. A class of ar-
ticulated animals.
ARACH'NID^. — Plur. of arachnida.
AHACH'NIDANS. 7 Animals of the
ARACH'NIDES. 5 class arachnida
ARANE'IDA (Plur. arane'idae). — fr
lat. aranea, a spider. A tribe of
.pulmonary arach'nidans.
ARACH'NOID. — fr. gr. arakne, a spi-
der's web; eidos, resemblance. Re-
sembling a spider's web. A thin,
transparent membrane, which co-
vers the brain.
ARAUCA'RIA. — (From Jlrauco, a dis-
trict of Chile.) Fir-trees with
very rigid branches, having leaves
like scales, either small and sharp-
pointed, or stiff", spreading, and
lanceolate. The Norfolk island
pine is one of this genus.
AR'BOR. — Lat. A tree.
ARBORE'A. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to a tree ; branched like a
tree.
ARBO'REOUS. — Being a tree, as dis-
tinguished from frutescent or
shrubby.
ARBORE'SCEJTT. — fr. lat. arbor, a tree.
Branching like a tree.
AR'CA. — Lat. An ark or coffer.
Systematic name of certain mol-
lusks.
AR'C^E (ar-kay}. — Plur. of Area.
ARCHES OF THE BRANCHIAE. — A sys-
tem of small bones joined toge-
ther by ligaments, which sup-
ports a series of pectiniform vas-
cular fringes, constituting the gills
of fishes. The branchial arches
which are generally four in num-
ber on each side, are attached by-
one extremity to an intermediate
chain of bones, situated in the
middle line behind the hyoid
bone, while by their opposite ex-
tremity they are connected by
ligaments to the under surface of
the cranium. They are perfectly
flexible, and so arranged as to
prevent food, taken into the mouth,
from being forced out through the
branchial fissures with the issiP
ing streams of water; so that in
reality, these pieces fulfil in their
way, the same office as the epi-
glottis of mammals.
ARCHIPE'LAGO. — fr. gr. arche, begin-
ning; pelagos, sea. An extent of
sea sprinkled with islands.
ARC'TOS. — Gr. A Bear.
ARC'TOMTS. — fr. gr. arctos, a bear;
mus, a mouse. The marmot.
ARC'XTATE. — fr. lat. arcuo, I bend like
a bow. Bent like a bow ; bow-
shaped.
ARCUA'TA. — Lat. Arched; bent like
a bow.
ARDEA. — Lat. ' A heron.
A'REA OF SUBSIDENCE. — A geological
expression used to designate a
space which has settled.
AREXA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. arena, sand.
Sandy; of the nature of sand.
ARENA'RIUS. — Lat. Growing in
sand.
ARENTICO'LA (Plur. arenicolae). — fr.
lat. arena, sand ; co/o, I inhabit.
A genus of annellidans.
ARE'OLA. — A small area or circle.
E'OL^. Little spaces or areas.
ARE'OLATE. — Divided into small
spaces, as applied to surfaces.
AROALI. — A wild ram.
ARGENTI'FEROUS. — fr. lat. argentum,
silver ; /ero, I bear. Containing
silver.
ARGIL. — fr. lat. argttla, clay, formed
fr. gr. argos, white ; because when
pure, it is white. Old name of
alu'mina.
2U
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ARGILLA'CEOUS. — Of the nature of
clay.
ARGILLA'CEOUS-SCHIST. — Clay slate,
or argillite.
AR'GII.LITE — A slaty rock of fine
texture, with a faintly glistening,
or earthy surface of fracture, and
mostly of a dark colour. Roofing
slate, and nova'culite or hone-slate
are varieties of argillite.
ARGILO-AREITA'CEOTJS. — Partaking of
the nature of both clay and sand.
AR'GONAUT. — fr. gr. Jlrgo, name of
a vessel; Nautes, a navigator. The
Grecian princes who attempted
the conquest of the Golden Fleece,
in the ship drgo, under the com-
mand of Jason, were called Argo-
nauts. Systematic name of a ce-
phalopod. (p. 28, Book v.)
AR'GOWAU'TA. — Lat. Argonaut.
AR'GUS. — The name of a hero in
mythology, who was said to have
had a hundred eyes, fifty of which
were open while the other fifty
slept; after his death,Juno changed
him into a peacock. From the
spots in its tail, sometimes called
eyes, this name has been applied
to a species of pheasant.
ARIES. — Lat. A ram.
ARIETI'NA. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to a ram.
A'RIL. — A coat or covering of cer-
tain seeds, formed by the expan-
sion of the funicula or placenta.
ARI'LLUS. — Lat. Aril.
ARI'STATE. — Awned.
ARISTOLOCHI'A. — fr. gr. arisos, excel-
lent; lochas, female; because it
was supposed to be excellent for
females in particular conditions.
Name of a family of plants.
AR'KOSE. — A name given to different
metamorphic sandstones.
ARMADI'LLO. — Sp. diminut. of arma-
da, armed. An edentate mammal,
named Tatou in Brazil.
A.RM'ATURE. — Armour. The arma-
ture of the mouth consists of the
teeth, &c.
A.RMETU'ACA. — Lat. Armenian.
AROMA' TIC. — fr. gr. aroma, an odour
Spicy; fragrant.
ARTER'IAL. — Belonging or relating
to arteries.
ARTERIAL'ISED. — When venous or
dark blood, by the process of res-
piration, is converted into arterial
blood, it is said to be arterialised.
ARTE'RT. — fr. gr. aer, air ; terein, to
preserve ; because it was anciently
believed that the arteries were
filled with air like the windpipe.
The vessels which convey blood
from the heart to~all parts of the
body, are called arteries.
ARTE'SIAN. — From Jlrtois, name of
a province of France where es-
pecial attention has been given
to a means of obtaining water,
which consists in boring vertical
perforations of small diameter in
the exterior crust of the earth,
frequently of great depth. These
are termed Artesian wells.
ARTI'CUIAR SURFACE. — The surface
of that part of a bone which
forms an articulation or joint.
ARTICTTI-A'TA.— The same derivation
as articulate. Animals whose
bodies seem to consist of a series
or succession of rings. They con-
stitute the third BRANCH of the
animal kingdom, which includes
Insects, Crustacea, Worms, &c.
ARTICULATE. — fr. lat. articulus, the
diminutive of artus, a limb, de-
rived fr. gr. arthron, a joint. To
join or joint. To form words ; to
utter.
ARTICULA'TIOIT. — fr. lat. articulus, a
joint. A joint betwixt bones.
ARTOCA'RPTTS. — fr. gr. artos, bread ;
karpos, fruit. Generic name of
the bread-fruit tree.
ARUNDINA'CEOTJS. — fr. lat. arundo, a
reed. Resembling reeds.
ARVA'LIS. — Lat. Relating to fields.
ARVE'NSIS. — Lat. from arvum,a, field.
Relating to fields.
ARVICOLA. — Lat. arvum, a field ; co-
lere, to cultivate. Generic name
of field mice.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
21
A SAPHUS. — fr. gr. asaphe$, obscure.
A name devised to express the
obscure nature of a genus of tri-
lobites, or fossil crustaceans, (p.
38, Book viii).
ASBE'STUS, or ASBESTOS. — fr. gr. as-
bestos, unconsumable. A fibrous
soft mineral, composed of easily
separable filaments of a silky
lustre. It consists essentially of
si'lica, magnesia and lime.
ASCA'RIDES. — A genus of worms.
ASCI. — fr. gr. askon, a leather bag.
Small tubes in which the sporules
of cryptogamic plants are placed.
ASCI'DIA — fr. gr. askos, a bottle or
pouch. Systematic name of cer-
tain mollusks.
ASCI'DI*. — Plur. of Ascidia.
A.SCI'DIUM. — fr. gr. askos, a bottle or
pitcher. A kind of leaf.
ASCI'GEROUS. — Having asci.
ASCITI'TJOUS. — Supplemental, addi-
tional.
ASE'PTIC. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; sepd, to
putrefy. Applied to substances
free from the putrefactive process.
ASINUS. — Lat. An ass.
ABPARAGI'NEJE. — fr. gr. sparasso, I
tear, or asparagos, a term applied
to the tender shoots of plants.
Systematic name of a family of
plants.
ASPE'RGILLUM — Lat. A watering-
pot.
ASPERGI'LLIFORM. — fr. lat. aspergil-
lus, a brush ; forma, form. Brush-
like; divided into minute ramifi-
cations, as the stigmas of grasses.
ASPHA'LTUM. — A black or brown
bitumen.
ASPHODE'LEB. — fr. gr. asphodelos,
name of a flower. Systematic
name of a family of plants.
ASPHYX'IA. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; sphuxis,
pulse. Suspended animation.
ASPHYX'IATE. — In a state of suspend-
ed animation.
ASSIMILA'TIOX. — The act by which
living bodies (plants or animals)
appropriate and transform into
their own substance, matters with
which they may be placed in
contact. Assimilation is there-
fore a part of the function of nu-
trition.
ASSO'LEMEWT. — Fr. The art of ar-
ranging crops in proper succes-
sion, according to the soil, to se-
cure the greatest production.
ASSU'RGEXT. — Rising upward.
ASTA'CUS. — Lat. A lobster.
ASTA'RTE'. — Name of a Syrian Ve-
nus. A genus of fossil bivalve
shells, resembling the modern Ve-
nus. (Figs. 104, 105, Book viii.)
A'STER. — fr. gr. aster, a star. Name
of a genus of plants.
ASTEROI'DA. — fr. gr. aster, a star;
eidos, resemblance. AM order of
the polypi'pherous radiata.
ASTRA'GALTJS. — Name of the bone
of the foot which articulates with
the tibia in the ankle joint.
ASTRE' A. — fr. gr. aster, a star. A genus
of polypa'ria. (p. 141, Book viii.)
ASTRE'.B. — Plur. of Astrea.
ASTRO'NOMY. — fr. gr. astron, a star;
nomos, law. The natural history
of the heavenly bodies.
AS'TUR. — Systematic name of the
Goshawks.
ATE'LES. — fr. gr. aides, imperfect. A
genus of American monkeys, so
named because their fore hands
(anterior) have only four fingers.
Athenians, who were exempt
from certain taxes, were called
Aleles, or imperfect.
ATEU'CHCS (a-tue-kus). — fr. gr. ateu-
ches, without arms. A genus of
copro'phagous insects.
ATHLE'TA. — Specific name of a mol-
lusk.
ATMOSPHERE. — fr. gr. atmos, vapor ;
sphaira, a sphere or globe. The
air which surrounds the earth.
ATOLL. — A chap let or ring of coral,
enclosing a lagoon or portion of
the ocean in its centre.
ATRA'CHIA. — fr. gr. a, priv.; trad, to
perforate. A tribe of bivalve
mollusks, destitute of eifhons for
imbibing food.
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
A.TRotfA'sus.— - Specific name of the
Minnow.
AT'ROPA. — fr. gr. atropos, " the God-
dess of Destiny; so called from
its fatal effects. Name of a ge-
nus of plants.
AT'ROPHIED. — fr.gr. a, priv. ; trophe,
nourishment : without nourish-
ment. Wasted : when the whole
bulk of the body is progressively
and morbidly diminished, or
wasted, it is said to be atrophied,
or in a state of atrophy.
A'TROPOS. — Greek name of one of
the Fates. A genus of insects.
A'TROPOCS. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; trepo, to
turn. That which is not inverted ;
in botany, applied to the erect
ovule.
ATTENUATE. — Made thin or slen-
der: tapering.
AUCHE'NIA. — fr.gr. auchen, the neck.
The genus of animals to which
the Llama belongs, is so called,
probably from having a long neck.
AUDITO'HIUS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to the sense of hearing.
AU'DITORY. — Belonging or relating
to the sense of hearing.
AU'GITE. — fr. gr. auge, lustre. A
mineral, the same as pyroxene.
AU'GITIC-PORPHYRY. — Crystals of
Labrador feldspar, and of augite
in a green or dark-grey base.
ATJXOSTO'MIDES. — fr. gr. aulos, flute,
tube; stoma, mouth. A family of
fishes characterised by the head
being elongated like a tube.
AURA. — Lat. An air or emanation.
The specific name of a kind of
vulture.
ACRANTIA'CE^. — fr. lat. aurantium,
an orange. Name of an order of
plants.
AUKA'NTIUM. — Lat. An orange.
AURA'TUS. — Lat. Gilded; golden.
AURE'LIA.— fr. lat. aurum, gold. Chry-
salis. A fanciful name for the
nymph or pupa state of insect
life, from the glittering spots of
golden hue, with which it is some-
times speckled.
AU'REUS. — Lat. Golden. Relating
to gold.
AUR'ICLE. — fr. lat. auri'cula, the di
minutive of auris, ear. A part
of the heart is so called from its
resemblance to an ear. Also ap-
plied to a part of the ear.
AURI'CULA. — fr. lat. owns, an ear.
Name of a shell, from its resem
blance to the human ear.
AURI'CTJLATE. — fr. lat. auricula, a
little ear. A form of leaf which
has ear-like lobes or projections
at the base.
AuRi'ctrLO-VES'TRi'cui.AR (opening).
— The aperture betwixt the au-
ricle and ventricle of the heart is
so called.
AU'RIFORM. — fr. lat. auris, ear ; for-
ma, shape. Ear-shaped.
AUROCH. — A sort of wild bull.
AUTOMA'TIC. — fr. gr. autos, self; ma-
ten, easily; or automates, sponta-
neously. That which acts of it-
self. Automatic movements, are
those which depend on the struc-
ture of the body, and are inde-
pendent of the will, such as that
of respiration, the circulation of
the blood, &c.
AUTUMNA'LIS. — Lat. Autumnal.
AVALA'NCHE. — A mass of hardened
snow, which, becoming detached
from lofty mountains, and acquir-
ing enormous bulk and momen-
tum in its descent, overturns eve-
rything in its way, often causing
great destruction. Applied also
to slides of earth and clay.
AVA'BTTURIXE. — fr. fr. par aventure,
by chance. A variety of quartz,
containing mica spangles.
AVELLAXA'RIUS. — fr. lat. avellana, a
filbert. Relating or belonging to
filberts.
A'VEXA. — Lat. Oats.
A' YES. — Lat. Birds. The fourth
class of vertebrate animals.
AVI'CULA. — fr. lat. avis, a bird. Name
of a genus of bivalve mollusks.
(Fig. 95, p. 75, Book v.)
ATICULA'BIS. — fr. lat. aviculat the
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
diminutive of avis, a bird. Re-
lating or belonging to birds.
AWL-FORM. — Having a sharp point,
curved to one side.
AWN. — The beard or arista of corn.
A stiff bristle.
AWNED. — Terminating in a long
hard bristle.
A'XIL. — fr. lat. axilla, arm-pit. The
angle or point at which a leaf or
branch unites with the stem.
AXILLARY. — fr. lat. axilla, the arm-
pit. Belonging to the arm-pit.
A'xis OF ELEVA'TIOX. — Line of ele-
vation.
AXOLO'TL. — Mexican. Name of a
kind of batrachian.
AX'OLOTUS. — Lat. Generic name
of the axolotis.
A'ZOTE. — fr. gr. a, priv. ; zoe, life.
A name given to nitrogen because
it will not support animal life.
It is one of the component parts
of the atmosphere.
BAC'CA. — Lat. A berry.
BACCATE. — Berried ; having a suc-
culent texture.
BAC'CILAH. — fr. lat. bacca, a berry.
Berry-like.
BACCI'FEROUS. — Bearing berries.
BACILLA'KIA. — fr. lat. bacillum, a di-
minutive stick. A family of ani-
malcules. They inhabit every
pond, lake and sea. Fossil spe-
cies exist. A simple siliceous
shell, of a prismatic shape, which
often appears in a zig-zag, in con-
sequence of incomplete self-divi-
sion : each link is an individual
animalcule.
BACTRIA'NUB. — Lat. Bactrian. Re-
lating or belonging to Bactria.
BA'CULITES. — fr. lat. bacculum, a
stick. A genus of tetrabranchiat
cephalopods, the chambered shells
of which are quite straight, but
differ from those of the orthoce-
ratites in having sinuous or undu
lated partitions with lobated mar-
gins: in this structure they are
allied to the ammonites, (p. 72,
Book viii.)
BAG-SHOT SAND. — A siliceous bed
which overlies the London clay
formation, corresponding in age
with the Paris basin.
BAL^E'NA. — Lat. A whale.
BALA'NI. — Plur. of balanus.
BALA'NUS. — Lat. A barnacle.
BALEN. — fr. lat. balana, which is fr.
gr. phalaina, a whale. Wnale-
bone. The substance put into
ladies' corsets, and used to form
part of the frame of an umbrella.
BALIS'TES. — Systematic nameoi cer-
tain fishes of the family of Sclero-
dermi, given to them by Artedi,
from their Italian appellation,
Pesce balestra, (Cross-bow-fish ,)
which is derived from a supposed
similitude between the motion of
their great dorsal spine, and that
of a cross-bow.
BAL'LONS. — Fr. ballon, a ball. Round-
ed mountains are so called. A
system of upheaval, (p. 191,
Book viii.)
BAMBU'SA. — Bamboo.
BANNER. — Vexillum. The upper, and
commonly the largest petal of a
papiliona'ceous flower.
BARB. — fr. lat. barba, a beard. The
filaments which are attached to
two sides of the stalk of a fea-
ther, are called barbs or beards.
In botany, a straight process arm-
ed with teeth pointing backwards.
In conchology, anything that grows
in place of a beard.
BAR'BULE. — The diminutive of barb,
and is applied to designate the
filaments which are found on the
edges of the barbs, composing a
feather.
BAR'BARUS. — Lat. Foreign; barba-
rous; cruel.
BARBA'TUS. — Lat. Bearded; having
a beard.
BARB' us. — The generic name of the
barbels.
BARK. — The covering of vegetables.
24
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
The bark consists of as many
layers as the tree upon which it
grows has years ; every year a
new layer is formed from the
cambium ; the newest layer is
termed liber.
BARRA'NCO — Sp. A ravine.
BARRED. — Crossed by a paler colour,
in spaces resembling bars.
BARREN. — Producing no fruit. Con-
taining stamens only.
BARRIER REEF. — A coral production
similar to the Atoll. It runs pa-
rallel with the shore, separated
however from the land, by a broad
and deep lagoon channel, and
having the outer side, as steep as
in the lagoon islands.
BART'TA. ") fr. gr. barus, heavy. An
BARY'TES. j alkaline earth, the
heaviest of all the earths.
BASA'LT. — A rock essentially com-
posed of feldspar, and augite of a
compact texture, and dark green,
grey or black colour. It occurs in
columnar masses. When light-
coloured, with the feldspar pre-
dominating, it is sometimes called
greystone. Basalt closely resem-
bles greenstone.
BASA'LTIC. — Of the nature of ba-
salt.
BASE OF SUPPORT. — The space com-
prised between the points by
which an object supports itself
upon a resistant body. In conch-
ology, the base is that part of a
univalve shell by which it is fixed
to rocks, &c. : the end opposite to
the apex.
BASILIS'CUS. — Lat. A basilisk ; a
kind of saurian
BASIX. — In geology, a formation or
deposit lying in a certain cavity
or depression in older rocks. The
" Paris basin" and " London ba-
gin" are deposits of this kind.
BASQ.UES. — The inhabitants of Bis-
cay, a province of Spain, are so
called.
BASSET. — Outcrop, or emergence of
strata at the surface.
BASTERO'TI. — Specific name of a fos-
sil Astarte. (p. 90, Book viii).
BATA'TAS. — Sweet potatoes.
. — Batrachi-
BATRACH'IAN (Ba-trak'-e-an). — fr. gr.
batrachos, frog. A name given to
those reptiles which resemble
frogs in their mode of organiza-
tion.
BEAK. — The bill or horny mouth of
a bird. The continuation of the
body of univalves in which the
canal is situate.
BEAKED. — Terminating in a process,
shaped like the beak of a bird.
BEARD. — The process by which
some bivalve shells adhere to
rocks, &c.
BEC-FIGUE. — Fr. Name of the Titlark.
BECCAFICA. — It. Name of the Titlark.
BELE'MNITES. — fr. gr. belemnon, a
dart. A genus of fossil dibran-
chiate cephalopods, tl^e shells of
which are chambered and perfo-
rated by a siphon, but internal.
They are long, straight, and coni-
cal ; and commonly called " thun-
der stones." (p. 55 and 74, figt.
76-138, Book riii).
BELLE'ROPHON . -»— A mythological
name. A genus of fossil mol-
lusks found in transition rocks, (p.
38,yig. 33, Book viii).
BEI/LYING. — Distended in the mid-
dle.
BELO'XE. — fr. gr. 6e/one, point of an
arrow ; a kind of fish. Specific
name of the Sea-pike.
BERG, or ICE-BERG. — Swedish, berg,
a mountain. A mountain of ice
met with in the polar seas. Flat
sheets of wide-spread ice are
called fields; and small portions
floes, because they are found float-
ing.
BERG'MEHL. — Ger. Mountain-meal.
An earth, resembling fine flour,
celebrated for its nutritious quali-
ties. It is composed entirely of
the shells of loricated animal-
cules.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
25
BERRY. — A juicy fruit with the seeds
imbedded in the pulp, without
any intermediate covering.
BB'KUS. — Specific name of the com-
mon viper, given by Linnaeus.
This name was only used by au-
thors of the middle century.
BE'RYL. — A variety of emerald.
BE'VEL. — One side of a solid body
is said to be bevelled with respect
to another, when the. angle con-
tained between their two sides,
is greater or less than a right
angle.
BJE'ZOAR. — From the Persian beaza-
har, antidote. A stone formed in
the bodies of certain animals, to
which Arabian physicians have
attributed great virtues, chiefly
that of resisting the effects of poi-
son. An ancient chemical pre-
paration to which the same pro
perties were attributed. Mineral
Bezoar, an oxyd of antimony.
Vegetable Bezoar, a stony concre-
tion found in cocoa trees. The
word is also applied to other na-
tural stony concretions.
t*i. 1 Lat. Two; twice; a pair.
BINUS. > A prefix. Also used to
Bis. ) form the names of cer-
tain saline compounds, into which
two proportions of acid enter for
one of base, as bi-carbonate.
BIAIT'GULATED. — Having two angles
or corners.
BIARTI'CULATE. — Having two joints.
BIAURI'CULATE. — Having two auri-
cles.
BICOLOR. — Lat. Particoloured.
BICO'RDATE. — fr. lat. bis, twice ; cor,
cordis, the heart. Double heart-
shaped.
BICOHDA'TUS. — Lat. Bicordate.
Biron'ifES. — fr. lat. bis, two; cornu,
horn. Anthers with two horns.
BICRE'NATE. — fr, lat. bis, two; crena,
a notch, a slit. Doubly crenate.
Bictr'spiUATE.— .fr. lat. bis, two; cus-
pis, a point. With two points.
BIDA'CTYLE. — fr. lat. bis, twice; dac-
tylus, finger. Two-fingered. Ap-
plied to the chelae, or claws of crus-
taceans.
BID'EXS. ") fr. lat. bis, two ; dens,
BIDEXTATE. 3 tooth. Having two
teeth.
BIE'NNIAL. — fr. lat. bis, two ; annus,
year. A term applied to plants
which grow one year and flower
the next, after which they perish;
they only differ from annuals in
requiring a longer time* to pro-
duce fruit.
BIFA'RIOUS. — Parting in opposite di-
rections. Arranged in two rows.
BJ'FID. — fr. lat. bis, twice; findere,to
split. Split or divided into two
separate parts.
BIFO'LIATE. — Conjugate. When two
leaflets are developed at the end
of a petiole.
BIFO'RATE. — fr. lat. bis, two ; foro, I
pierce. Having two perforations.
BI'FOHINES. — fr. lat. bis, two; foro, I
pierce. Minute oval bodies found
in the leaves of some araceous
plants. When placed in water,
they discharge innumerable spi-
culse from each extremity, until
they become entirely emptied.
BI'FURCATE — fr. lat. bis, twice ; fur-
ca, fork. To divide or separate
into two branches. Divided or
separated into two branches.
BIFURCATION. — fr. lat. bis, twice;
furca, a fork. The point where
two branches separate.
BIGLA'XDULAR.— Having two glands.
BIJU'OATE. ) fr. lat. bis, two ; jugum,
BIJUGOUS. $ yoke. A leaf formed
of two pairs of leaflets.
BILA'BIATE. — fr. lat. bis, two ; labium,
lip. A corolla with two lips. In
conchology, furnished with both,
an outer and inner lip.
BILE. — A yellow, greenish, viscid,
bitter, nauseous fluid, secreted by
the liver, to aid in the process of
digestion. The gall.
BILO'BATE. — Having two lobes.
BILO'CDLAR. — fr. lat. bis, two; loru
lus, partition. Having two cells.
BI'MAXA. — fr. lat. bin, two ; manutt
2Y
26
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Land. Having two hands. The
first family of the class of mam-
mp^-t.
BIMA I^INATE. — Furnished with a
double margin, as far as the lip.
BINE RVATE. — Two-nerved ; as the
wings of certain insects.
BIN'OCULAR. — Having two eyes.
BIO'CELLATE. — Having two eyelets,
or eye^like spots.
BIOCULA'TA. — fr. lat. bis, two 5 oculus,
an eye. Two-eyed.
BI'NATE. — fr. lat. bis, two ; natus,
grown. A form of leaf composed
of two leaflets.
BIPA'RTITE. — Parted in two.
BI'PED. — fr. lat. bis, twice; pes, foot.
Animals that walk on two feet
are biped.
BIPE'CTINATE. — Having two mar-
gins toothed like a pecten or comb.
BIPE'DES. — Lat. plur.; from bis, two;
pes, foot. Having two feet. Ap-
plied to saurians that have abdo-
minal extremities alone.
BIPEI/TATE. — Having a defence like
a double pelta or shield.
BIPHO'RA. — fr. gr. bis, double ; phoreo,
I bear. A genus of tunicate mol-
lusks. (p. 90, /ig. 114, Book v).
BIPHO'RA. — Plur. of Biphora.
BIPIN'NATE.— Doubly pinnate. When
both the leaf and its subdivisions
are pinnate.
BIPINNATIFID. — Twice pinnatifid.
Both the leaf and its segments
being pinnatifid.
BIPT/PULATE. — Having an eye-like
spot with two dots within it, as
on the wing of a butterfly.
BIRA'DIATE. — Having two rays.
BISCU'TATE. — fr. lat. bis, two ; scuta,
shields. Resembling two buck-
lers, placed side by side.
BI-SERRATE. — Doubly serrate.
BISE'TOUS. — Having two setae.
BISE'XUAL.— Having both sexes.
BISPI'NOSE. — Having two spines.
BISU'LCATE.— Applied to a foot which
rests upon two sulci or hoofed
digits.
BITE'RNATE. — Doubly ternate. The
petiole supporting three ternate
leaves.
BITU'MEN. — fr. gr. pitus, the pitch-
tree ; because it resembles pitch.
A variety of inflammable mineral
substances, which, like pitch, is
included under this term.
BITU'MENIZED. — Converted into bi-
tu'men.
BITU'MINOUS. — Of the nature of bi-
tumen.
BITU'MINOUS SHALE. — A slaty rock
containing bitumen.
BI'VALVE. — fr. lat. bis, two; valves.
doors. Having two doors. Shells
composed of two pieces united
by a hinge are termed bivalves.
BLADED. — When a mineral is com-
posed of long and narrow plates
or laminae, like the blade of a
knife, it is said to have a bladed
structure.
BLAND. — Fair, beautiful.
BLASTE'MA — fr. gr. blastano, to bud.
The rudamental mass of an organ
in a state of formation.
BLASTOCA'UPOUS. — fr. gr. blastos, a
shoot ; karpos, fruit. Applied to
those plants in which germina-
tion takes place within the fruit
before it falls, as in the mangrove.
BLA'STUS. — fr. gr. blastos, a shoot. A
term sometimes applied to the
plumule of grasses.
BLENDE. — fr. eer. blenden, to dazzle.
Sulphuret of zinc, a common shin-
ing zinc ore. Black j nek of Eng-
lish miners.
BLOTCHED. — Spotted in an irregular
way.
BLUBBER. — That part of a whale
from which the oil is obtained.
BLUFFS. — High banks, presenting a
precipitous front to the sea or a
river.
BLUMENBA'CHII. — The name of Blu-
menbach latinized.
BLUNT. — Obtuse ; not acute.
BOG-EARTH. — An earth composed of
light siliceous sand, and about 25
.per cent, of vegetable fibre in a
decomposing state.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
27
BOG IROIC ORE. — A ferruginous de-
posit, occurring in the bottom of
peat mosses, and marshy places,
owing to the presence of oxide of
iron, in solution in almost all wa-
ters. These ferruginous matters
sometimes form, below the soil, a
plate or pan, which is impermia-
ble to the roots of trees.
BOLE — A species of soap-stone ; a
friable earthy substance ; also,
termed Lemnian earth.
BOLE'TUS. — fr. gr. bolos, a field. A
fungus. Spunk, a kind of tinder
is manufactured from one species
of it.
BOLUS. — Lat. A mass, lump, or
mouthful. A ball.
BOMBY'CES. — Plur. of bombyx.
BOMBYCI'LLA. — fr. gr. bombux, a silk-
worm. The systematic name of
the chatterers.
BO'MBYX. — fr. gr. bombux, a silk-
worm. A genus of insects.
BOPT'RUS. — A genus of crustaceans
which resembles the extinct tri-
lobite.
BoRAGi'xEfl?, or BORAGIWA'CE;E. —
Name of a family of plants of
which the Borago is the type.
BORDER. — The brim or spreading
part of a corolla.
BOREALTS. — Lat. Northern.
BORIC'HTHTS. — fr. fr. borgne, one-
eyed or blind, and the Gr. ichthus,
a fish. Blind fish.
Bos. — Lat. An ox ; a bull.
BOSSE. — Fr. A hillock; a rounded
projection or elevation.
BOTRT'OIDAL. — fr. gr. botrus, a bunch
of grapes; eidos, resemblance.
Clustered like a bunch of grapes ;
covered with smooth, rounded
masses.
BO'TRUS. — Lat. A cluster of grapes.
BO'TAXY. — fr. gr. botane, a plant.
Natural history of plants.
BOTRY'LLUS. — fr. gr. botrus, a bunch
of grapes. A little cluster of
berrv-shaped bodies.
BOULDERS. — Erratic Blocks. A pro-
vincial term for large rounded
blocks of stone, lying on the sur-
face of the ground, or sometimes
imbedded in loose soil, different
in composition from the rocks in
their vicinity, and therefore sup-
posed to -have been transported
from a distance, (p. 93, Book viii).
BOURGEON. — Fr. Leaf-bud.
BOUTON. — Fr. Flower-bud.
BOVEY COAL. — A kind of brown coal.
BRAC'CATE. — fr . lat. bracca, breeches.
A term applied to the feet of
birds when concealed by long
feathers descending from the tibia.
BRACH'IAL (bratt-e-al}. — fr. lat. bra-
chium, an arm. Belonging or re-
lating to the arm.
BRACII'IATE. — Branches opposite, and
each pair at right-angles with the
preceding.
BRAC'HIOPOD (bra'ke-o-pod). — fr. gr.
brachion, arm ; pous, foot. A mol-
lusk with a two-lobed mantle and
bivalve shell, (p. 88, Book v).
BRACT. — fr. lat. bractea, a thin leaf
of metal. A floral leaf different
in colour from other leaves.
BRA'CTEJB. — Lat. Bracts.
BRACTEA'TE. — Having bracts.
BRACH Y'PTER^.— -fr. gr. brachus, short ;
pteron, a wing. Having short
wings. The systematic name of
a family of divers.
BRACHY PTEROUS. — Applied to birds
whose folded wings do not reach
the base of the tail.
BRACHY'PHY'LLUM. — fr. gr. brachus,
short; phullon. leaf. A genus of
fossil plants. (Fig. 94, p. 61,
Book viii).
BRA'CHYU'RA. — fr.gr- brarhus, short;
aura, tail. A tribe of crusta'ceans.
BRADFORD CLAY. — An English bed
of the great o'olite, usually con-
sisting of a pale greyish clay, con-
taining a small proportion of cal-
careous matter, and inclosing thin
slabs of tough brownish lime-
stone. It abounds in fossil apio-
crinites.
BRA'DYPUS. — fr. gr. bradus^ slow
pous, foot. The sloth.
y;.
31
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
BRA'MA. — Systematic name of the
Castagnoles.
BRANCH. — From the word branca,
derived fr. lat. brachium, an arm.
The branches of trees were view-
ed as their arms. Any member
or part of the whole; any section
or subdivision. The first divi-
sion of the animal kingdom i?
into BRANCHES.
BRA'NCHiA(6ra«'A;-ea). — Lat. A gill.
BHAXCH I.M. — Lat. fr. gr. bragchos, the
throat. The gills of fishes. They
are the respiratory organs of fishes,
but are very different from lungs,
both in their form and structure.
BRANCH'iAL^ran^'-e-a/). — Belonging
or relating to the branchiae. Bran-
chial arches, see ARCHES OF THE
BRANCHING. Branchial openings,
apertures for the passage of water
from the gills.
BRANCHI'FERA.— fr. lat. branchiae, gills ;
fero, I bear. Gill-bearing. Sys-
tematic name of a family of ba-
trachians,
BHANCHIOSTE'GOUS. — fr. gr. bragchia,
the branchiae or gills; stego, I co-
ver. Belonging or relating to the
gill-cover. The great fissure that
exists on each side between the
head and shoulder of an osseous
fish, wherein the gills are situ-
ated, is not closed merely by the
opercular bones, but likewise by
a broad membranous expansion,
called the Branchiostegous mem-
brane, which is adherent to the
hyoid bone, and assists in forming
the great valve of the operculum.
This membrane is supported by
a series of slender bones, derived
from the external margin of each
branch of the hyoid bone, and
these are named from their office,
the Branchiostegous Rays.
BRANCHJ is (brank'-e-is). — Lat. plur.
(ablative.) Branchiis liberis; with
free branchiae. Branchiis fixis ;
with fixed branchiae
BHANCHLET. — A twig; subdivision
of a branch.
BRASH — A provincial word used in
England to describe the alluvial
mass or quantiiy of broken and
angular fragments of subjacent
rock, found usually between the
vegetable mould and the regular
rocks. It is also called rubble.
BRE'CCIA (bresh'-ea}. — It. A rock
composed of an agglutination of
angular fragments. When the
fragments are rolled pebbles, it
constitutes a conglomerate rock
called pudding stone.
BREVIFO'LIA. — fr. lat. brevis, short j
folium, leaf. Short-leaved.
BREVIPE'NNKS. — fr. lat. brevis, short;
penna, a wing. Having short
wings. The systematic name of
a family of the order of wading
birds.
BRINDED. — Streaked.
BRISTOL STONES or DIAMONDS. — Small
brilliant crystals of quartz found
near Bristol, England.
BRITTLE. — In rniriei atogy ; not tough,
frangible. The brittleness of mi-
neral bodies does not depend on
their hardness ; those of which
the particles cohere in the high-
est degree, and are immovable
amongst each other, are the most
brittle. Diamond, quartz, and sul-
phur, vary greatly as to hardness ,
they are all brittle, the first only
in particular directions.
BRON'CHIA. — The singular of
BRON'CHIJE. — fr. gr. brogchos, the
throat. The two branches of the
wind-pipe which convey air to
the lungs.
BRONGNIA'RTII. — Specific name of a
fossil in honour of M. Brongniart,
the eminent French naturalist.
BROWN COAL. — Bovey coal. An im-
perfect kind of coal, also termed
Bituminous wood.
BU'BALUS. — Lat. An animal of the
genus ox.
BUBO. — Lat. An owl.
BUC'CJE (buk-say}. — Lat. plur. of
bucca, cheek. Buccte loricalaet
mailed cheeks.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
29
BUC'CAL. — fr. lat. bucca, cheek. Be-
longing or relating to the cheeks.
BUC'CINA. — Lat. Plur. of Biicciruim.
BUCCIXOI'DKS. — fr. lat. buccinum, a
horn, and I'r. gr.eit/os, resemblance.
Systematic name of a family of
shells, the characters of which
resemble those of the Buccinnm.
BUC'CINUM. — Lat. A trumpet or
horn. Name of a genus of mol-
lusks. (p. 90, Book viii).
BU'CEROS. — fr. lat. bucerus, horned.
The systematic name of the Ca-
laos or hornbills.
BU'CHII. — The name of Von Bucli
latinized.
BUCKLA'JJDII. — Specific name of cer-
tain fossils, given in honour of
the geologist, Dr. Buckland.
B0D. — The residence of the infant
leaf and flower.
BU'FO. — Lat. A toad.
BU'FONJTK — A fossil fish.
BULB. — fr. gr. bolbos, a round root.
A name given by anatomists, to
various parts which resemble cer-
tain bulbous roots in shape. A
collection of fleshy scales ar-
ranged like those of a bud, of
which the bulb is a slight modifi-
cation, separating spontaneously
from the stem to which it belongs,
and emitting roots from its base.
For example, the roots of the
onion, of the,tulip, &c.
BU'LBOUS — Resembling a bulb.
BULBOTU'BER — A short, roundish
underground stem, resembling a
bulb.
BUL'BUS. — Lat. A bulb. Bulbus
glandulosus, is the second stomach
of birds.
BULGING. — Swollen out.
BU'LLATE. — Of a bli^ered appear-
ance.
BUXGA'RUS. — Lat. The generic name
of the Rock-snakes.
BTNTER SASUSTKIN. — A fine-grained
solid sandstone.
BUPHA'GA. — fr. gr. bous, an ox ; pha-
gein. to eat. Systematic name of
a genus of birds ; the beef-eaters.
BUPRE'STES. — Lat. Noxious insocts.
Certain beetles.
BURR, or BUHR STOXE. — A nearly
pure siliceous rock in which cal-
careous and other matters, origi-
nally forming part of it, has been
parted with and become replaced
by silica, so that the casts of fos-
sils are perfectly preserved in it.
BUTEO. — Lat. A Buzzard.
BYSSI'FKRA. — fr.gr. bussos, fine flax;
and lat./ero, I bear. A family of
acephalous mollusks, which are
attached to foreign bodies by
means of a byssus.
BT'SSOLITE. — fr. gr. bussos, byssus ;
lilhos, a stone. A massive fila-
mentous mineral, implanted like
moss on certain stones, at the foot
of Mont Blanc.
BT'SSUS. — fr. gr. bussos, fine flax. A
bundle of silky filaments, secreted
by a gland at the foot of certain
bivalves, and serving as an organ
of adhesion to submarine rocks
and other foreign bodies. In cryp-
toga'mic botany, the term byssus
has been given to all those fila-
mentous plants which inhabit cel-
lars and subterranean abodes, and
are now ascertained to consist of
fungaceous plants in an early state
of growth.
CACHALOT. — Fr. The spermaceti
whale. Used to designate a va-
riety of cetaceans, which has teeth
in both jaws.
CAC'TI. — Lat. Plur. of cactus.
CAC'TUS. — fr. gr. kaktos, spiny plant.
Name of a genus of the family
of Cactu-f-eae. Cactus coccinellifer.
The cochineal cactus. Cactux
opuntia. Indian fig.
CAD'MIUM. — A white metal, much
like tin. Its ores are associated
with those of zinc. Discovered
in 1818.
CADU'COUS. — fr. lat. cado, I fall. In
botany, when a part is temporary,
and sooi disappears or falls orf*
sooner than deciduous.
2Y 2
30
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
. — fr. lat. cacus, blind.
Systematic name of a kind of ba-
trachian, which has very small
eyes, and sometimes none.
CBMENTA'RIA. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to mortar.
C^E'SIUS.— Lat. Caesious; grey.
CJESPITO'SA. — Lat. From c&spes. turf
or sod. Belonging or relating to
turf.
C.S/SPITOSE. — Growing in little tufts.
CAILLET'TE. — Fr. A name of the
fourth stomach of ruminating ani-
mals, derived from cailler, to cur-
dle. The fourth stomach of a calf
is used, under the name of rennet,
for the purpose of curdling or co-
agulating milk.
CAIMA'N. — Sp. Alligator.
CAIRNGORM. — A variety of rock crys-
tal named after a mountain in
Scotland, where it was once plen-
tiful.
CA'LAMINE. — Impure carbonate of
zinc.
CALA'MITES. — fr. gr. kalamos, a reed.
Common fossil plants in the coal
strata. Cala'mites usually consist
of jointed fragments which are
supposed to be portions either of
the trunk, or branches of a plant,
which appears, from some of the
larger specimens, to have attained
the dimensions of a tree. Both
stem and branches were deeply
ribbed along their whole length,
and the ribs or furrows were
crossed by horizontal rings at ir-
regular intervals, (p. 42, Book viii).
CA'LAMUS. — A genus of phaneroga-
mous plants of the family of
palms. Ca'lamusdraco. An East
Indian plant which yields an
astringent substance called Dra-
gon's blood. Ca'lamus rotan. The
rattan plant. Also, a term ap-
plied to all fistular, simple stems,
without articulations, as those of
the rushes.
CALCA'IRE GROSS'IER. — Fr. Marine
limestone : an extensive series of
strata found in the Paris basin,
belonging to the eocene tertiary
period.
CAICA'IRE SIU'CEUX. — Fr. Fresh
water or siliceous limestone.
CAL'CARATE. — fr. lat. calcar, a spur.
Spurred, or spur-shaped.
CALCA'RKOUS. — fr. lat. calx, calcis,
lime. Belonging or relating to
lime. Calcareous rocks are those
of which lime forms a principal
part.
CALCA'REOUS GRITS. — Sandy beds,
intermixed with calcareous mat-
ter, found in the o'olite. (p. 62,
Book viii).
CALCA'REOUS SPAII. — Crystal ized car-
bonate of lime.
CALCEDONY. — See Chalcedony.
CALCE'IFORM. — Formed like a little
shoe.
CALCE'OLA. — fr. lat. calceolus, a little
shoe. A fossil bivalve shell, (p.
33, Book viii).
CALCKOLA'RIA. — fr. lat. calceolus, a
little shoe. A remarkable genus
of phanerogamous plants of the
family of Scropholariiceae.
CALCI'FEROUS. — fr. lat. calx, .lime;
fero, I bear. Containing lime.
CALCINA'TIOX. — The reduction of
bodies to a calx or friable condi
tion by the action of fire.
CAL'CINED. — fr. lat. calx, lime. Con-
verted into calx *r a friable sub-
stance by the action of fire.
CALCIS. — Lat. (Genitive of calx). Of
the heel.
CAL'CIUM. — fr. lat. calx, calcis, lime.
A metal discovered by Sir H.
Davy in 1807, which united with
oxygen forms oxide of calcium or
lime.
CALC-SINTER. — Ger. sintern, to drop.
A German term for limestone de-
posited from springs and waters
containing it. Travertin.
CALCTUFF. — An alluvial formation
of carbonate of lime, probably
deposited from calcareous springs.
CA'LICES. — Lat. Plur. of calyx.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
31
CALIFORXIA'NCS. — Lat. Californian.
CALLI. — Small callosities, or rough
protuberances.
CAL LITRIX. — fr. gr. kallithrijc, hav-
ing luxuriant hair. A genus of
aquatic plants. Also the name
of a genus of American monkeys.
CALLO'SITY. — Hartl ness, induration,
and thickness of the skin; a pro-
tuberance.
CAI/I.OUS. — fr. lat. callus, hardness.
That which is hard, or indurated.
CAL'LUS. — In conchology ; is com-
posed of two short ribs, united at
the base, and converging at the
apex towards the hinder part of
the shell. The thickening of ena-
mel on a shell resembling a tu-
mour, as in the inner lip of the
olives.
CALMA'RIKS. — fr. fr. calmar, an ink-
stand, or a pen-case. Name of a
family of cephalopods. (p. 29,
Book v).
CALO'RIC — fr. lat. caleo, I am warm.
The term used by chemists to
designate the matter of heat.
CALOHI'FIC. — Belonging or relating
to caloric.
CAI/VUS. — Lat. Bald. Specific name
of a product us.
CALT'CIFORM. — Shaped like a calyx.
CALY'CIXE. — Belonging to the calyx.
CALY'CCLATE. — Having bracteolae re-
sembling an external or additional
calyx.
CALY'MEXE. — fr. gr. kekalumene, con-
cealed. A name of a genus of
fossil crustaceaus, allied to the
trilobites. (p. 29, Book viii).
CALY'PTRA. — fr. gr. kaluptra, a co-
vering, an extinguisher. Part of
the capsule of a moss.
CALY'PTRATE. — Having a covering
like an extinguisher.
CALYPTR«;'A — fr. gr. kaluptra, a co-
vering. Name of a genns of gas-
teropods. (p. 59, Book v).
CALYPTR^'^ — Plur. of Calyptrae'a.
CALYPTRIFO'RMIS.— -Lat. Shaped like
a calyptra.
CA'LYX. — The cup of a flower.
CA'MBIUM. — A low Latin word fa
liquid which becomes glutinous.
An organic vegetable fluid, or
tissue-forming juice. In its de-
scent between the bark and the
wood it forms every year, the
new wood externally to the old,
and the new, internally to the old
bark. (p. 59, Book vii).
CAM BUI AX SYSTEM. — From Cambria
in Wales. A name given by ge-
ologists to the lowest sedimentary
rocks, characterized by fossil re-
mains of animals, lowest in the
scale of organization, such as co-
rallines, &e. It is also called the
schistose system, on account of its
slaty nature, (p. 27, Book viii).
CAME'LEOPA'RDALIS. — fr. gr. kamelos,
a camel ; pardalis, a leopard. The
ancient name of the giraffe.
CAMEL'LIA. — A genus of the family
of Aurantia'ceae, named in honour
of Kamel, a botanist.
CAMELUS. — Lat. Camel.
CAM'EKA — Lat. A chamber.
CAM'ERIXES. — fr. lat. camera, cham-
ber. Name of certain microsco-
pic shells, (p. 32, Book v).
CAMPAGXOL. — Fr. The field-mouse.
CAMPA'NULATE.— Bell-shaped.
CAMPANU'LIFORM. — fr. lat. campanu-
la^ a little bell ; forma, shape. In
shape of a bell.
C AMPHORA. — Lat. Camphor. Be-
longing or relating to camphor.
CANADENSIS. — Lat. Canadian. Be-
longing or relating to Canada.
CANA'L. — A groove observed in dif-
ferent parts of certain spiral
shells, for the protrusion of the
siphon of the animal inhabiting
them.
CANALI'CULATED. — Channelled, or
furrowed j made like a pipe or
gutter.
CAKA'RIA. ") Lat. Belonging or
CAJfARiE'ifsrs. 3 relating to the
Canary Islands.
CAN'CELLATE. — Latticed ; resem-
bling lattice-work. Longitudi
nally and transversely ribbed
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CAK'CER. — Lat. A crab.
CAN'CROMA. — The generic name of
the boatbills.
CANDESCENT. "> Hoary; approaching
CANE'SCENT. 3 to white ; frost-
like.
CANIC'ULA. — Lat. A dog-fish.
CANI'CULATED. — Channelled or fur-
rowed.
CA'NINE. — fr. lat. cants, a dog. Teeth
which resemble those of a dog
are so called ; the canine teeth of
the upper jaw in man, are com-
monly called the eye-teeth.
CA'NIS. — Lat. Dog.
CANNA'BIS. — Lat. Hemp.
CANNABI'NA. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to hemp. The specific
name of the linnet.
CANNJEFO'RMIS. — Lat. fr. eawna, a
reed ; /ormts, form. Reed-shaped.
CAN'THARIS. — Lat. A kind of fly.
CANTHA'RIDES. — Plur. of cantharis.
CAOUT'CHOTJC. — Gum elastic ; India-
rubber, a substance obtained from
the Jatropha elastica, the Ficus
indica and the Urceola elastica.
CAPE'NSIS — Lat. Belonging or relat-
ing to the Cape of Good Hope.
CAPIL'LART.— fr. lat. capillus, hair.
Hair-like, small. The capillary
vessels are the extremely minute
terminations of the arteries and
commencing branches of the
veins.
CAPIS'TRUM. — The sides of a bird's
head immediately behind the bill.
CA'PITAL. — fr. lat. caput, head. An
assemblage of flowers on a com-
mon receptacle.
CAP'ITATE. — Growing in a head.
CAPITA'TI, flares. — Lat. Flowers col-
lected into heads, as thistles and
other plants, with compound flow-
ers growing with a head.
CAPI'TULAR. — Growing in small
heads.
CAI^'PULI. — Small heads.
CAPITU'LIFORM Formed like a
small head.
CAPI'TULUM. — Lat. A capital.
CAPITA'TUS. — Lat. Headed.
CA'PRA. — Lat. Goat.
CA'PPARIS. — Lat. Caper-bush.
CAPRIFOLIA'CE.E. — fr. Int. caprat
goat; folium, leaf. Systematic
name of a family of plants, the
type of which is the genus capri
folium.
CAPRIMU'LGXJS. — Lat. A milker of
goats. Systematic name of the
goatsuckers, which is derived
from a notion entertained by the
vulgar, that these birds suck goats,
and even cows.
CAPSU'LE. — fr. lat. capsula, a little
casket or chest. A form of fruit.
Dental capsules are membranous
pouches in which the teeth are
formed.
CA'PULUS. — Lat. A hilt or handle.
A genus of gasteropods. (p. 58,
Book v.)
CA'PULOI'BA. ) fr. lat. capulus, and
CA'PULOI'DES. £ the Gr., eidos, re-
semblance. A family of gastero-
pods.
CA'RABI. — Plur. of Carabus.
CA'RABUS. — A genus of insects.
CA'RAPACE. — The shell of crusta-
ceans.
CARAP'AX. — The systematic name
of the upper shell of tortoises.
CAR' BON. — fr. lat. carbo, charcoal. A
chemical element or undecom-
posed body. The diamond is
pure carbon. It is the basis of
anthracite, and of all the varie-
ties of mineral coal, and is one
of the principal constituents of all
organic bodies.
CAR'BOWATE. — A compound of car-
bonic acid with a salifiable base;
carbonate of lime, for example, is
a compound of carbonic acid with
lime, constituting chalk, lime-
stone, marble, &c.
CARBONA'CEOUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to carbon.
CARBONATED SPRINGS. — Springs of
water containing carbonic acid
gas.
CARBON'IC A'CID. — This is a gas
which neither supports com!: us-
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
tion nor respiration. It consti-
tutes an essential ingredient in
effervescing drinks, such as those
known under the name of soda-
water, mineral water, &c.
CARBONI'FEROUS. — fr.lat.car6o,coal ;
fero, I bear. Coal-bearing; con-
taining carbon. In geology the
term is applied to those strata
which contain coal, and to the
period when the coal measures
were formed.
CAR'BONISED. — Converted into car-
bon; burned to a coal.
CARBOXISA'TIOX. — The act of form-
ing or converting a substance into
carbon.
CAR'BOXOUS. — Of the nature of car-
bon.
CAR'BURET. — A combination of car-
bon with a metal or other sub-
stance ; steel and black lead are
carburets of iron.
CAR'BURKTTED. — converted into a
carburet ; containing carbon.
CARCHAR'IAS. — fr. gr. carcharos, rude,
snappish, wicked. The systema-
tic name of certain sharks.
CAR'DIA. — fr. gr. kardia, the heart.
The left opening of the stomach,
where the oesophagus enters it.
CAR'DIA. — Lat. Plur. of cardium, a
cockle. A genus of the family of
cardiacea. (p. 84, Book v).
CAR'DIAC. — fr. gr. kardia. the heart.
Belonging or relating to the heart.
CARPIA'CEA. — fr. lat. cardium, a
cockle. Systematic name of a
family of acephalous mollusks.
(p. 83, Book v).
CARDIA'CE;E. — Plur. of Cardiacea.
CAHDIXAL (tooth). — fr. lat. cardo. a
hinge. Belonging or relating to
the hinge, (p. 99, Book v).
CAK'DITA. — Genus of the family of
Cardiacea.
CAR'DIUM. — Lat. A cockle. A genus
of bivalve mollusks.
CARDUE'LIS. — Lat. A bird feeding
among thistles. Specific name of
the goldfinch.
CAHDCI. — Lat. Genitive of carduus,
a thistle. Specific name of a
butterfly.
CA'RICA. — Lat. A kind of dry fig.
CARI'WA. — Lat. The keel or bot-
tom part of a ship. A sort of
ridge or elevation ; also, the two
lower petals of papiliona'ceous
flowers.
CARI'X;E. — Lat. Plur. of carina.
CARIXA'RIA. — fr. lat. carina, a keel
A genus of heteropodous gastero-
pods. (p. 66, Book v).
CAHIXA'TA — Lat. from carina, a keel.
Carinate ; having a keel-like ele-
vation.
CARI'XATE. — Marked with a carina
or ridge.
CARIOP'SIS. — See Caryopsis.
CAR'IOUS. — Decayed.
CARNA'RIA. — fr. lat. caro, carnw, flesh.
The name of an order of animals.
CAKXE'LIAX. — fr. lat. caro, carnis,
flesh. A variety of flesh-coloured
agate.
CARXEOUS. — fr. lat. caro, carnis, flesh.
Belonging or relating to flesh ;
fleshy.
CARXI'VORA. — Lat. Carni'vorous.
Name of a class of insects, and
of a family of mammals.
CARXI'VOROCS. — fr. lat. caro, carnis,
flesh; voro, I eat. Flesh-eating j
applied to animals that feed on
flesh.
CAR'XOSE. — In botany; of fleshy
consistence.
CAROLIXEX'SIS. — Lat. Carolinian.
Belonging to Carolina.
CA'ROTID.— The great arterial trunks,
which convey blood to the head,
are called carotid arteries.
CAR'PAL. — Belonging or relating to
the carpus.
CA'RPEL. — fr. gr. karpos, fruit. Cer-
tain appendages or parts of the
pistil are called carpels.
CAR'PELLA. — The small parts out of
which compound fruits are formed.
CAR'PIO. — Specific name of the com-
mon carp.
CARPOLITKS. — fr. gr. karpos, fruit ; /»
thot, stone. Fossil fruits and seeds
34
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CAR'POLOGY. — fr. gr. karpos, fruit ; lo-
gos, discourse. The department
of botany which treats of .the
structure of fruits and seeds.
CAR'POPHORE. — fr. gr. karpos, fruit;
phero, I bear. The slender axis
which supports the achenia.
CAR'PUS. — fr. gr. karpos, the wrist.
That part which is between the
fore arm and hand.
CAR'TILAGE. — Gristle. A solid part
of the animal body of medium
consistence between bone and
ligament. In conchology, a flexi-
ble fibrous substance, situated
near the beak, by which the
valves of shells are united.
CARTILA'GINOUS. — Partaking of the
nature of cartilage.
CARTILA'GINOUS FISHES. — A term
used to designate that division of
the class of fishes which includes
only those having cartilaginous,
instead of bony skeletons.
CAR'UNCLE. — fr. lat. caruncula, the
diminutive of faro, flesh. A small
portion of flesh : a fleshy excres-
cence ; the gills of a cock, for ex-
ample.
CARYO'PHYLLUS. — Lat. A garden
pink. A genus of plants of the
family of caryophyl'leae. Caryo-
phyllus aromaticus. The clove-
tree.
CA'RYOPHY'LI.IA. — fr. lat. caryo'phyl-
lus, the garden pink. A genus of
Ma'drepo'ra. (p. 14 I, Book viii).
CARYOPHYL'LE;E. — fr. lat. caryo'phyl-
lus, the garden pink. Systematic
name of a family of plants.
CARYOPHYLLA'CEOUS. — Belonging to
the caryophyllete. Clove-like.
CARYO'PSIS — fr. gr. karuon, a nut;
opsis, resemblance. Name of a
form of fruit, as the grain of
wheat, for example.
CAS'SIS. — Lat. A helmet (p. 54,
Book v).
CASTA'NEA. — Lat. Chestnut.
CASTOR. — Lat. Beaver.
CASTO'REUM. — A substance obtained
from the beaver.
CASTTA'RIUS. — Lat. A cassowary.
CAT'S EYE. — A beautiful siliceous
mineral, penetrated by fibres of
asbestos, which, when polished,
reflects an effulgent, pearly light,
much resembling the mutable re-
flections from the eye of a cat.
CATACLY'SM. — A deluge.
CATE'NA. — Lat. A chain. Specific
name of an ammonite, (p. 152,
Book viii).
CA'TENATED. — fr. lat. catena, a chain.
Linked together.
CATENIPO'RA. — 1'r. lat. catena, a chain ;
jiora, pore. Generic name of a
polyp, (p. 31, Book viii).
CATHA'RTES. — fr. gr. kathartes, one
who purifies. The generic name
of certain vultures.
CA'TKIX. — A form of inflorescence.
CATODO'NTID^:.— fr. gr. cato, below ;
odous, odontos, a tooth. A family
of ceta'ceans, which includes the
cachalots.
CA'TULUS. — Lat. Properly, a whelp,
a young dog. Specific name of a
shark.
CA'TUS. — Lat. Sharp, quick, sly.
CA'TYLUS or CATILLUS. — Lat. A lit-
tle dish. A genus of fossil shells.
CAUCA'SIAJT. — Relating to Mount
Can'casus.
CAU'DA. — Lat. A tail. In conchol-
ogy ; the elongated base of the
venter, lip and columella.
CAU'DAL. — fr. lat. cauda, tail. Be-
longing or relating to the tail.
The caudal Jin, generally increases
the length of the tail.
CAU'DATE — Tailed: like a tail.
CAUDA'TUS. — Lat. Caudate; hav-
ing a tail.
CAU'DEX. — Lat. A trunk of a tree.
CAUDI'CULA. — A small membranous
process on which the pollen of
orchid eous plants is fixed.
CAULESCENT. — Acquiring a stem.
CAULINE. — Produced on the stem.
CAULIS. — Lat. The main stem of
a plant.
CAUS'TIC. — fr. gr. kaio, I burn. Ap-
plied to substances which have
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
35
the power of burning or disor-
ganizing animal tissue.
CAUSTICITY. — Having a burning
quality.
CAU'TERISE. — To burn with a cau-
tery or red hot iron. To apply
caustic.
CAVA. — Lat. Hollow. Vena cava,
the hollow or deep seated vein.
A name given to the two great
veins of the body, which meet at
the right auricle of the heart.
CAVK'HNOUS. — fr.lat. cavus, a hollow.
Containing hollows; excavated.
Cavernous texture is a term applied
by geologists to aggregated com-
pound rocks, characterized by the
presence of numerous small ca-
vities of a roundish, oval or other
form, as in lava.
CAVIA. — Genus of rodents, including
the guinea-pig.
CAVI'AR, or CAVIARE. — A culinary
preparation, much used by certain
people, and made on the shores
of the Black and Caspian Seas,
from the roe or eggs of the stur-
geon, mixed with salt and other
condiments.
CAVITA'RIA. — fr. lat. cavitas, a hol-
low, a cavity. An order of En-
tozoa, in which the intestinal ca-
nal is contained in a distinct ab-
dominal cavity.
CAWK. — Opaque sulphate of baryta,
or vitriolated heavy spar.
CELL. — A cavity or compartment;
applied to a capsule or seed-ves-
sel. Each cavity in a pericarp
that contains one or more seeds,
is called a cell. The pericarp is
one-celled, two-celled, &c., ac-
cording to the number of cells it
contains.
CEL'LULAR. — Composed of cells.
Any mineral presenting nume-
rous small cells or cavities is
termed cellular.
CELLULA'RES. — A division of plants
having cells but not spiral vessels.
CKMEKTA'TIOX. — When a solid body
is surrounded by the powder of
other substances, and the whole
heated tc redness, the process is
termed cementation. Iron is con-
verted into steel by cementation
with charcoal.
CE'MENTED. — Joined together by ce-
ment.
CENOMY'CE. — fr. gr. kenos, empty;
mukes, a diminutive fungus. A
kind of lichen.
CE'NTIGRADE (Thermometer). — fr
lat. centum, hundred ; gradus, a
degree. Division into a hundred
parts. The scale of the centi-
grade thermometer is made by
dividing the space between the
points of freezing, and boiling
water, into one hundred parts or
degrees.
CE'NTIPED. — fr. lat. centum, a hun-
dred ; pes, foot. A hundred legs ;
a genus of myriapods.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY. — The name
given to the point about which all
points of a body reciprocally bal-
ance each other.
CENTRONO'TCS. — Systematic name or
the pilot-fish.
CEPHALA'NTHIUM. — fr. gr. kephale,
head ; anthos, a flower. A head
of flowers.
CEPHALA'SPIS (kef-ala'spis}. — fr. gr.
kephale, head; aspis, shield. A
genus of fossil fishes, (p. 37,
Book viii).
CEPHA'LIC. — fr. gr. kephale, head. Be
longing or relating to the head.
CEPH'ALOID. — fr. gr. kephale, head ;
eidos, resemblance. Resembling
the head.
CEPHA'LOPOD — fr. gr. kephale, head;
pous, podos, a foot. Molluscous
animals whose mouth is sur-
rounded vith fleshy appendices
which serve them as feet.
CE'PHALOPO'DA. — Lat. Cephalopoda.
CE'PHALO-THORAX. — fr. gr. kephale,
head ; thorax, chest. That part
of the body of arachnidans, com
posed of the head and thorax.
CEP'HALUS (ke'-fa^lus'). — fr. gr. ke
phale, head, Systematic name of
36
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
the sun-fishes, given to them be-
cause they appear to have the
posterior part of the body cut off.
CERA. "> A coloured membrane in-
CKHE. 3 vesting the base of the
upper mandible: as in hawks,
and a few other birds.
CERA'CEOTTS. — Wax-like.
CE'HATOID. — fr. gr. keras, horn ; «-
dos, resemblance. Horn-like.
CKRA'STES. — -fr. gr. keras, a horn.
Specific name of the horned viper.
CEHA'SUS. — Lat. A cherry tree.
CE'RC^K. — fr. gr. kerkos, a tail. The
feelers which project from the
hind part of the body in some
insects.
CE'REAL. — fr. lat. ceres, corn. Ap-
plied to grasses which produce
the bread corns; as wheat, rye,
barley, oats, maize, rice and mil-
let.
CEREBE'LLTJM. — Lat. The diminu-
tive of cerebrum. The little brain.
That part of the brain contained in
the inferior portion of the cranium.
CEHEBRO-SPINAL. — Belonging or re-
lating to both the cerebrum and
spine.
CERE'BRUM. — The brain. The term
is sometimes applied to the whole
contents of the cranium; at oth-
ers, to the upper portion ; the pos-
terior and inferior being called
cerebellum.
CE'RITA. ) fr. gr. kerites, waxen.
CERI'THIUM. £ A genus of univalve
mollusks. (p. 54, Book v).
CERI'THIA. — Plur. of cerithium.
CERI'THIUM. — A genus of turricu-
lated univalve mollu^ks. hotli re-
cent arid fossil, (p. 80 and 151,
Book viii).
CERN'UOUS. — Nodding or drooping.
CE'ROID. — fr. gr. keros, wax ; eidos,
resemblance. Wax-like.
CKRTHIA. — Lat. The systematic
name of a genus of birds, which is
the type of the family of creepers.
CKR'VICAL. — fr. lat. cervix, the neck.
Belonging or relating to the neck.
CKII'VLS. — Lat. A stag.
CESTRA'CIOIT. — Fr. fr. gr. kestraios,
name of a fish. A fossil genus
of the family of sharks, (p. 45,
Book viii).
CETA'CEA. — fr. gr. ketos, a whale. A
genus of pisciform mammals that
have fins in place of feet, and
inhabit the sea. Name of an or-
der of aquatic mammals.
CETA'CEA. — Plur. of ceta'cea.
CETA'CEOUS. — Relating or belonging
to ceta'cea.
CETA'CEANS. — Mammals of the or-
der of cetaceae.
CHZTU'RA. — Systematic name of the
Swifts.
CHAFFY .—Bearing processes, or made
of membranes like chaff.
CHALAZA. — Gr. A small swelling.
A small brown spot observed at
the apex of some seeds, as of the
orange, formed by the union of
certain vessels proceeding from
the hilum.
CHALCE'DONY. — fr. gr. kalkedon, Chal-
cedon, in Asia, where the finest
specimens were originally found.
A semi-transparent siliceous mi-
neral, apparently formed by the
infiltration of siliceous matters in
a state of solution. The chalce-
do'nic varieties of quartz include
Chalcedony, Crysoprase, Carne-
lian, Sard, Agate, Onyx, Cat's-eye,
Flint, and Hornstone.
CHAI/CIDES. — fr. gr. chalkis, a serpent
with a head resembling that of
lizards. Generic name of a kind
of saurian.
CHALK. — fr. ger. kalk. Earthy car-
bonate of lime. Chalk was dis-
covered for the first time in the
United States, it is said, in Ala-
bama, 1845.
CHALK MARL. — Marl belonging to
the cretaceous formation.
CHALYBEATE WATERS. — Ferruginous
waters. Mineral waters whos?
predominating or active principle
is iron.
CHA'MA (ka-ma). — fr. gr. chao, I gape.
A cockle, (p. 151, Book viii).
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
37
CHAMA'CEA. — From chama, a cockle
Systematic name of a family of
acephalous mollusks. Clamp-
sliells. (p. 81, Book v).
CHAMX'LEO. — fr. gr. chamai, on the
earth; Icon, lion: (because it pur-
sues flies, as the lion does ani-
mals.) Systematic name of the
chameleons.
CHAM^LE'OXIB^ — fr. gr. chamaileon,
chameleon ; eidos, resemblance
Systematic name of animals that
resemble chameleons.
CHAMBERED SHELLS. — A term used
to designate those shells of mol-
lusks which are divided inter-
nally by partitions into cells or
chambers.
CHAMOIS. — fr. gr. kema,s, a roe-buck
A ruminating animal of the ge-
nus of Antelope.
CHAN'FRIN. — fr. lat. cawiws, a bit or
curb ; frenum, a bridle. That part
of the head of a horse, which is
between the brows, from the ears
to the nose.
CHANNEL-LEAVED.-— Folded together
so as to resemble a channel for
conducting water.
CHA'RA. — A genus of aquatic plants.
CHARCOAL. — The residue of animal,
vegetable, and many mineral sub-
stances, when heated to redness
in close vessels.
CHARA'URIUS. — Lat. (A bird, the
seeing of which, it was supposed,
cured those that had the jaun-
dice.) The generic name of the
plover.
CHATOYANT. — Fr. When different
collections of colours alternately
appear and disappear, according
to the position of the mineral, like
the changeable light observable
in the eye of a cat.
CHEIRO'PTKRA. — fr. gr. keir, hand;
pteron, wing Having winged
hands. Name of a family of
mammals, vulgarly called bats.
CHELA.— fr. gr. (Plur. chela;) chele,
pincers. A crab's claw.
CHELI CERA. — Plur. chelicerae, fr.gr.
4 2Z
chele, pincers; kcras, horn. Che-
licer. A term applied to append-
ages on the head of arachnidans.
CHE LOXIA. — fr. gr. chelvne, a sea-
tortoise. Systematic name of an
order of reptiles which includes
the tortoises.
CHELO'NIANS. — fr. gr. chelone, a sea-
tortoise. Animals of the tortoise
tribe.
CHENOPO'DEB. — fr. gr. chen, goose ;
pous. foot. Name of a family of
apetalous dicotyledons.
CHER'S^A. — Specific name of a vi-
per.
CHERT. — A siliceous mineral resem-
bling flint, but less homogeneous.
It is usually found in limestone.
CHICORA'CE^. — fr. gr. kicliore, garden
succory. Systematic name of a
family of plants.
CHIM^'RA. — A kind of fish, so call-
ed, from the fantastic figure it as-
sumes when carelessly dried.
CHI'TOX. — fr. gr. chiton, a garment.
Name of a cyclobranch gastero-
pod. (p. 62, Book v).
CHLAM'YPHORK. — fr. gr. chlamus, a
cloak ; phero, I bear. A genus of
mammals of the tribe of arma-
dillos.
CHLO'RITE. — fr. gr. chloros, green. A
soft, green, scaly mineral, slightly
unctuous.
CHLO'HITIC CHALK. — Chalk contain-
ing chlorite.
CHLO'RITIC SCHIST. — Schist contain-
ing chlorite.
CHLO'RITIC SAXD. — Sand coloured
green by an admixture of the
simple mineral chlorite.
CHLo'RopHYLLE.-fr. gr. chl6r6s, green ;
phullon, a leaf. The green co-
louring matter of leaves.
CHCE'TODOX. — fr. gr. cheo, I contain ;
odous, odontos, a tooth. Generic
name of certain fishes of the fa-
mily of squamipennes.
CHOKK-DAMP. — An accumulation of
carbonic acid gas in coal mines
is so called.
HOXD'RUS (kond'rus). — fr. gr. rhon
38
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
rfros, cartilage. Name of a genus
of sea-weeds. Name of a genus
of gasteropoda, (p. 40, Book v).
CHONDROPTER YGIAN. — fr. gr. chon-
dros, cartilage; pterux, pterugos,
fin or wing. Systematic name of
fishes with a cartilaginous skele-
ton.
CHONDROPTERYGII. — Lat. plur. of
chotidropterygius. Chond roptery-
gians. Chondropterygii branchiis
y?:ris,chondropteryiiians with fixed
branchiae. Chondropterygii bran-
chiis liberis, chondropterygians
with free branchiaa.
CHO'RION. — A clear limpid liquor
contained in a seed at the time of
flowering.
CHOROID. — fr. gr. chorion, the skin;
eidos, resemblance. The name of
several vascular membranes. A
thin membrane of a very dark
colour, which lines the sclerotica
internally.
CHOROIDES. — Plnr. of choroid.
CHROME. — fr.gr. chroma, colour. The
oxide of a metal called chromium.
Oxide of chrome is green and
furnishes a valuable colour for
porcelain.
CHRO'MULE. — fr. gr. chroma, colour.
The name of the colouring mat-
ter of plants.
CHRONO'LOGY. — fr. gr. chronos, time ;
logos, discourse. The science
which treats of the divisions of
time, and the order and succes-
sion of events.
CHRY'SAIID. ^ fr. gr. chrusos, gold.
CHRY'SALIS. j The second stage
of the metamorphosis of insects.
CHRYS'OLITE. — fr. gr. chrusos, gold ;
/I//JGS, a stone. Gold-stone.
CHRYSO'PHRIS (kris-o'-fris). — fr. gr.
chrusos, gold ; ophrus, eye-brow.
Golden eye -brow. Systematic
name of the Daurade, given to it
on account of a crescent-shaped
band of golden hue, which ex-
tends from one eye to the other.
CHYLE. — fr. gr. r/m/os, nutritious juice.
A nutritive fluid of a whitish ap-
pearance, which is extracted from
food by the action of the diges-
tive organs.
CHYLI.— Lat. Of chyle.
CHYLI'FEROUS. — fr. lat. chylus, chyle;
fero, I carry. Carrying or convey-
ing chyle.
CHYLIFIC A'TIOJT .-fr. lat. chylus, chyle ;
facere, to make. The formation
of chyle by the digestive pro-
cesses.
CHYME. — fr. gr. chumos, juice. A
kind of grayish pulp, formed from
the food after it has been for some
time in the stomach.
CHYMIFICATION.— fr.gr. e/mmos, juice,
fr. lat. facere, to make. The for-
mation of chyme.
CICA'DA. — Lat. A grasshopper.
CICA'TRICES. — Lat. plur. of cicatrix.
CICA'TRIX. — fr. lat. caecare, to conceal.
The scar which remains after the
healing of a wound. The u mus-
cular impressions" or points where
the adductor muscles are attached
in bivalve shells are called cica-
trices.
CICA'TRICULK. — fr. lat. cicatrix, a
scar. The scar formed by the se-
paration of a leaf from its stem.
A stem so marked is said to be
scarred or cicatrized.
CICIN'DELA — fr. \at.cicendela, a glow-
worm. Name of a genus of
beetles.
CICONIA. — Lat. A stork.
CIDA'RIS. — Lat. A cap or turban.
Name of a genus of echini'dere.
(p. 150, Book viii).
CIL'IA. — fr. lat. cilium, eye-lash. Ap-
plied to a peculiar sort of moving
organs, resembling microscopic
hairs. The terms ciliary motion,
and vibritile motion have been em-
ployed to express the appearance
produced by the moving cilia.
Any part is said to be ciliated
which is fringed with hairs.
CILIA'TO-DENTATE. — Toothed and
fringed with hairs like the eye-
lashes.
CILIA'TUS. — Lat. Ciliated. Hav-
USED IN NATURAL H STORY.
89
ing the margin guarded by par-
allel bristles, like the eye-lash.
CI'LICLE. — A small hair, like an
eye'-lash.
CIL'IOBIIACHIA'TA. — fr. lat. cilia, vi-
bratile hairs; brachium, the arm.
CIUOBHA'CHIATE. — A term applied
by Dr. A. Farre to those polyps,
whose arms are covered with
cilia, forming important agents in
securing prey. These are the
Eryozoa of Ehrenberg. and are
ranged among the tubular polyps
of Cuvier.
CI'MKX. — Lat. The " familiar'' bug.
CIXCHO'NA. — Name of Peruvian
bark, so called from the Spanish
Viceroy's lady, the Countess of
Cinchon, who was cured of fever
by it, at Lima, about 1638.
CIN'CLUS, — fr. gr. kigklos, name of a
bird. Generic name of the wa-
ter-thrush.
CIN'DFRS. — Matters remaining after
combustion.
CINEHA'CEUS.^J fr. lat. cineres, ashes.
CIN'EREA. I Belonging or relat-
CIN'ERKUS. f ing to ashes; ashy;
CIN'EROUS. J ash-coloured.
Ci NGULUM. — Lat. A girdle. A trans-
verse series of bony pieces con-
nected by flexible joints are term-
ed ringula. The neck of a tooth.
CIH'CINATE. — fr. lat. rircino, to make
a circle. Curled round like a
sharp hook: round, or rounded.
CIR'CUS. — Lat. A gentle falcon.
The generic name of the har-
riers.
CIRUHI'FKROUS. — Bearing tendrils.
CIR'KHOPOD. 7 A description of arti-
CiR'niPED. 3 ciliated animals.
CIH'RHOPODA. ) fr. lat. cirrus, a ten-
CIR'RIPEDA. £ dril ; pes, foot. A
class of articulated animals, cha-
racterized by having a number of
long, curled, articulated processes,
analogous to the feet of the crus-
taceans, which project from the
Central aperture of the multivalve
shell protecting them. They are
commonly called barnacles.
CIRRI. — Lat. plur. of cirrus.
CIRRO-CUMULUS. — A sondercloud ; a
kind of cloud. The cirro-cumulus
is intermediate between the cir-
rus and cumulus, and is composed
of small, well defined masses,
closely arranged.
CIRRHOSE. 7 Having tendrils, or
CIRRHOUS. 3 clampers.
CIHR OSO-PINNATE. — fr. lat. cir'rus,
a tendril; pinna, wing. A form
of pinnate leaf having tendrils at
the extremity.
CIRRO-STRATUS. — A wanecloud. The
cirro-stratus, intermediate be-
tween the cirrus and stratus, con-
sists of horizontal masses, sepa-
rated into groups, with which the
sky is sometimes so mottled as to
suggest the idea of resemblance
to the back of a mackerel.
CIR'RUS. — Lat. A tendril. A cloud.
Applied to certain appendages
of animals; as the beard from.
the end and sides of the mouth
of certain fishes. The cirrus, or
rurl cloud consists of fibres or
curling streaks which diverge in
all directions. It occupies the
highest region, and is frequently
the first cloud which is seen after
a continuance of clear weather.
CI'STUDE — fr. gr. kiste, a chest, a
coffer. Name of a kind of tor-
toise. The box tortoise.
CITRINE'LLA. — fr. lat. citrus, a citron
tree. The specific name of the
Yellow Bunting.
CITRU'LLUS. — Lat. Diminutive of
citrus.
CI'TRUS. — Lat. Lemon or orange
tree.
CIVE'TTA. — Lat. Civet. From the
Arabic, zebed, or zobad, froth, or
the peculiar secretion of the civet.
The civet.
CLASPING. — Surrounding the stem
with the base of the leaf.
CLASS. — fr. gr. klesis, from kaleo, I
call. The order according to
which persons or things are ar-
ranged or distributed
4,,
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
CLASSIFICATION. — The act of form-
ing classes. An arrangement.
CLAUSI'LIA. — fr. lat. clausus, closed.
A genus of land shells, so named
because the aperture of the shell
is closed internally by a spiral
lid. (p. 40, Book v).
CLA'VATE. — Club-shaped ; larger at
top than at the bottom.
CLAVELLA'TA. — Lai. (fr. clavulus, a
little nail.) Marked by little pro-
jections or points; knotted.
CLAVKi/LOSE.-Clubbed; having club-
like processes.
CLAVICLE. — fr. lat. clavis, a key. The
collar-bone.
CLA VICOR'NES. — fr. lat. clavus, a club ;
cor/m, horn. Name of a family
of insects.
CLAVIGE'LLA. — fr. lat. clavis, a nail.
A genus of* acephalous mollusks.
(p. 88, Book v).
CLAW. — The inferior part of a petal,
corresponding to the petiole of a
leaf.
CLAY. — An argillaceous rock of an
unctuous, soft, friable and dense
homogeneous structure, forming a
tenac-ious paste with water, and
of various colours. The varie-
ties of clay are essentially sili-
cates of alumina. Indurated clay
is a variety of trap rock. Kim-
meridge clay is a subdivision of
the upper oolite formation of a
blue or yellowish colour and more
or less slaty. Oxford clay, or
Clunrh day, .is a subdivision of
the middle o'olite formation, and
Weald flay is the upper portion
of the Wealden formation.
CLAY-SLATK. — A rock which resem-
bles clay or shale, but is gene-
rally di.~tiuguis.hed by its struc-
ture; the particles having been
re-arranged, and exhibiting what
is called slaty cleavage. It is
one of the metamorphic rocks.
CLEAVAGE. — The mechanical divi-
sion of the lamina of rocks and
minerals, to show the constant
direction in which they may be
separated.
CLEFT. — A space made by the sepa-
ration of parts ; a crack ; a cre-
vice. The line of separation be-
twixt the two mandibles of bird i
shows to what distance the beai
is cleft from its point.
CLEODO'IIA. — Name of a genus ol
pteropod mollusks. fp. 67, Book v)
CLiNA'NimiVM. — That part of the
column of on hideous plants in
which the anther lies.
CLINKSTONE. — See pho'nolite.
CLIO. — fr. gr. kleos, glory. A genus
of pteropod mollusks. (p. 67,
Book v).
CLO'ACA. — Lat. A common sewer;
fr. gr. Ar/uzo, I wash. The pouch
at the extremity of the intestinal
canal, in which the solid and li-
quid excretions are commingled
in birds, fishes, and reptiles.
CLO'STRES. — Fr. Elongated, spindle-
shaped cells.
CLOVES. — Small bulbs developed at
the base of parent bulbs.
CLU'PEA. — Lat. A herring; a shad
CLUPKJB. — Lat. plur. of clupea.
CLUSTKR. — When flowers are borne
on a common, irregularly branch-
ed peduncle, they form a cluster.
CLYME'NIA. — fr. gr. klumenon, the
marigold ? A genus of fossil ce-
phalopods of the Devonian sys-
tem, with a chambered shell ana-
logous to that of the ammonite,
(p. 33, Book viii),
CLY'PEATE. — Scutate ; scutiform.
Applied to the scales found on
the leaves of certain plants.
CLY'PEIFORM. — fr. lat. clypeus, a
shield ; forma, shape. Shield-
shaped. A term applied to the
large prothorax in beetles.
CLY'PEUS. — Lat. A buckler. Name
of that part of the head of insects
to which the labrum is attached.
COA'DNATE.
COAII UNATE.
COAI — A combustible mineral, con-
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
41
sisting of bitumen, carbon, and
earthy matter, in various propor-
tions.
COAL MEASURES. — The geological
formation in which coal is (bund.
The coal formation or carbonifer-
ous group.
COA'HCTATE. — fr. lat. coarcto, to com-
press. Applied to the pupa of
an insect, which is inclosed in a
case, giving no indication of the
parts contained in it.
CO'BALT. — fr. ger. kobold, a devil.
A brittle metal of a reddish-gray
colour. Its ores are always asso-
ciated with arsenic.
COBI'TIS. — fr. gr. kobitis, the name
of an unknown fish. Generic
name of certain fishes.
CO'BRA CAP'ELLO Portug., cobra,
snake; capello, a cawl, a hood:
hood-snake. Name of a venom-
ous serpent.
COB-WEBBED. — Covered with loose
hairs, as if with a cob-web.
COCCINE'LLA. — fr. gr. kokkinos, scar-
let. A genus of coleopterous in-
sects: commonly called ladybirds.
COCCIXELLOIDES. — fr. lat. coccinella.
cochineal, and gr. eidos, resem-
blance. Resembling the cochineal
insect.
Cocci' NEOCS. — Scarlet-coloured.
COCOO'N — fr. gr. kokkos, a berry.
The silken case which the larvae
of certain insects spin, to cover
them during a period of their
metamorphosis.
COCCO'STEUS — Name of a genus of
fossil fishes, (p. 32, Book viii).
COCCOTHRAU'STES. — fr. gr. kokkos, a
kernel, a grain ; thrauo, I break.
The systematic name of the gros-
beaks.
COC'CUM. — A grain or seed.
Coc'cus. — fr.gr. A-oA:A:os, a seed which
dyes scarlet. A genus of insects
of the order hemiptera. Coccus
lacca. A species of cochineal in-
sect.
COCCY'GIAN. — Relating to the coccyx,
which is an assemblage of small
bones appended to the sacrum :
if prolonged, it would constitute
a tail.
COCH'LEA. — Lat. A snail-shell. The
name of one of the three cavities
which form the labyrinth of the
ear.
CH'LEA;. — Shells of one piece;
univalves.
CO'CHLEATE. — fr. gr. kochlos, a conch.
Shell-shaped; shortly spiral like
a snail's shell.
CCE'CA, or C.KCA. — Lat. plur. of ctu-
cum.
CCE'CAL. — Belonging to the ccecum.
Cffi'cuM. — fr. lat. caucus, blind. The
blind gut, so called from its being
perforated or open at one end
only.
COE'LEBS. — Lat. Unmarried, solitary,
lonely.
C<ELELMI'WTHA. — fr. gr. koilos, hol-
low ; elmins, a worm. Intestinal
worms which are hollow, and
contain an alimentary tube in the
cavity of the body. These are
the cavitax^ intestinal worms of
Cuvier, and the nematoidea of Ru-
dolph i.
CCE'LIAC. — The name of one of the
arteries of the abdomen.
COIIE'REXT. — In minerals that are
brittle, their particles are strongly
coherent; in such as are friable
they are slightly coherent.
COKE. — The residue of coal, when
the volatile matters have been
driven off.
COLEOPHY'LLUM. — fr. gr. koleos, a
sheath ; phullon, a leaf. Coleop-
tile. The sheath within which
the young leaves of monocotyle-
donous plants are developed.
COLEO'PTERA. — i'r. gr. koleos, sheath ;
pteron, wing. Name of an order
of insects.
CoLEop'TERaB. — Plur. of coleop'tera.
COLEOP'TEROUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to coleop'tera.
COLKORHI'ZA. — Cr.gr. koleos, a sheath;
riza, a root. A root sheath in
which the radicle is enclosed
2Z2
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
COLLA'PSION. — In botany, the act of
closing or falling together.
COLLECTORS. — Applied to those
hairs with which the style of some
plants is often densely covered,
and which seem intended as
brushes to collect and clear the
pollen out of the cells of the an-
thers.
CO'LLUM. — Lat. Neck. The part
between the stem and root.
COLLU'RIO. — fr. gr. kollao, I join or
fasten together. The specific
name of the butcher bird.
COLO' BUS. — fr. gr. kolobos, mutilated.
A genus of monkeys which be-
long to the okl world. Colobus
comosus. A hairy monkey.
COLON. — A portion of the large in-
testine.
COLOURED. — In botany, different
from green, which is the common
colour of plants.
COL'UBER. — Lat. Name of a serpent.
COLU'BRIFORM. — fr. \at.coluber, a ser-
pent, an adder ; forma, shape.
Adder-shape. —
COL'UBUIS. — The specific name of a
humming-bird.
COLUM'BA. — Lat. A pigeon. A ge-
nus of birds. Columba migratoria.
Wild pigeon.
COLUM'BIUM. — Tantalum. A metal,
discovered in a mineral found in
Massachusetts by Mr. Hachett, in
1S01.
COLUME'LLA. — Lat. A little column,
or pillar. The axis of a shell
from top to bottom, around which
the whorls are convoluted, (p. 95,
Book v). In botany, it denotes
the axis from which the valves of
a fruit separate, on dehiscence ;
the axis which occupies the centre
of the sporangium of mosses, &c.
COLU'MNAR. — In the form of co-
lumns.
COLU'MNAR DISTINCT CONCRETIONS.
— The great, and small columns
in which certain iron ores and
other minerals are found.
COLUMNA'RE. — Lat. Columnar.
COLY'MBUS. — fr. gr. kolumbao, I dive.
Systematic name of the divers.
A genus of swimming birds.
CO'MA. — Literally, hair. A tuft of
bracts on the top of a spike of
flowers : the assemblage of
branches which forms the head
of a forest tree. Also, termed er-
roneously Cyma.
COMBU'STIBLE. — Any body suscep-
tible of combustion.
COMBU'STION. — The combination of
two bodies accompanied by the
extrication of heat and light.
When a body rapidly combines
with oxygen, for example, with a
disengagement of heat and light,
it is said to undergo combustion.
COMING TO DAT. — When a vein or
stratum crops out or appears on
the surface it is said, to come to
the day.
COM'MINUTED.— Fractured into small
pieces.
COM'MISSURE. — fr. lat. committo, I join
together. A point of union be-
tween two parts. A joint or seam.
The point where the two mandi-
bles of birds are joined is called
the commissure of the beak.
COMMU'NIS-E. — Lat. Common.
CO'MOSE. — In IJotany, a kind of inflo-
rescence which is terminated by
sterile bracte®.
COMPACT. — A mineral is compact
when no particular or distinct
parts are discernible ; a compact
mineral cannot be cleaved or di-
vided into regular or parallel por-
tions. It is often confounded with
the term massive.
COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. — The com-
parative study of the various parts
of the bodies of different animals.
COMPLICATED.— -In conchology, doub-
led together.
COMPLICATO-CARINATE. — In botany,
folded together so as to form a
kind of keel.
COMPO'SITA. — Lat. Compounded.
COMPO'SITJB. — A family of monope
talous plants.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
43
COM'POSITE. — Compound.
COMPOUND. — In botany, the union
of several tilings in one; simple
flowers united into one form a
compound flower, &c.
COMPRESSED. — Flattened at the sides
vertically, as the beak in certain
birds.
COMPTO'NIA. — A genus of fossil
plants named in honour of Henry
Cornpton, Lord Bishop of London,
(p. 88, Book viii).
CONCA'MERATED. — In conchology,
arched over, vaulted.
CONCAMERA'TIONS. — fr. lat. con, to-
gether ; camera, a chamber. The
compartments or divisions in cer-
tain shells.
CONCAVE. — Hollowed out like a
howl.
CONCK'NTRIC. — Having a common
centre.
CONCE'NTRIC-LAMELLAR. — A term
used in the description of such
minerals as, being of a spherical
form, have received successive
coatings or depositions. The con-
centric lamellar structure may be
illustrated by the section of an
onion.
CONCE'NTRICUS. — Lat. Concentric.
CONCEPT A'CULUM. — A species of
compound fruit.
CONCE'PTICLE. — Envelope of a spo-
rule.
CON'CHA. — The hollow part of the
cartilage of the external ear.
CON'CHS. — Shells consisting of two
or more pieces or valves.
CON'CHIFE'RA. — fr. gr. conche, shell ;
the Lat./ero, I bear. Shell-bear-
ing. Applied to mollusks with
bivalve shells.
CONCHI'FEROUS — fr.lat.cont/m, shell ;
fero, I bear. Shell-bearing.
CONCHI'LIAN. ) Consisting of, or con-
CONCHY'LIAN. £ taining shells.
CONCHO'LOGT. — fr. gr. kogchulion, a
shell; logos, a. discourse. A trea-
tise on shells.
CONCO'LOR. — Lat. Of the same co-
lour.
CONCRETE. — Hardened, or formed
into one mass.
CONCRE'TIONART FORMATION . — Con-
cretionary deposits. In geology, a
designation of those recent or al
luvial strata, which include calca-
reous and other deposits from
springs, stalactites, travertines,
bog-iron ore, and salt. (p. 183,
Book viii).
CONDE'NSABLE GAS. — Any gas that
is susceptible of being condensed
into a fluid, or solid.
CONDUCTOR. Those substances
which possess the property of
transferring caloric or heat, and
electricity, are termed conductors
of heat or caloric, and conductors
of electricity.
CONDUIT. — A water-pipe ; a canal.
CONDY'LE. — fr. gr. kondulos, a knot,
an eminence, a joint. A small
round eminence of bone entering
into the composition of an articu-
lation.
CONDYLO'PEDA. — fr. gr. kondulos, a
joint ; pous, podos, a foot. Articu
lated animals with jointed legs, as
insects, crabs, and spiders.
CONE. — In botany, the .fruit of the
fir-tribe of plants, consisting of a
conical amentum of which the
carpels are scale-like, spread open,
and bear naked seeds. Cone of
elevation is the hillock in which a
volcanic crater is formed, (p. 107,
Book viii).
CONFERRU'MINATE. — In botany, uni-
ted together so as to be uridistin-
guishable.
CONFE'HV^. — Tribe of plants of the
family of zoosperrnese. It includes
many sea-weeds.
CONFERVOID. — Like confervas.
CON'FLUENT. — Connate; growing to-
gether ; running together.
CON'FORMABLE. — In geology, when
the planes of one set of strata are
parallel to those of another set.
(p. 185, Book viii).
CON'GENEH. — fr. lat. con, with ; ge
nus, race Species belonging to
44
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
the same genus, are termed con-
geners.
COXGLO'BATE. — Collected into a
spherical form.
CONGLOMERATE. — fr. lat. conglomero,
I heap together. Any rock com-
posed of pebbles cemented toge-
ther by another mineral substance,
either calcareous, siliceous or ar-
gillaceous. In botany, crowded
together.
CO'NICA. — Lat. Conical.
CONICO-HEMISBHERICAL. — In botany,
between conical and round.
CONICO-OVATE. — In botany, between
conical and ovate.
CO'NIFKR. — fr. lat. conus, a cone ; /<?-
ro, I bear. A tree or plant which
bears cones, such as fir-trees, &c.
CONI'FER.E. — fr. lat. forms, a cone;
fero, I bear. Cone-bearing. A
family of plants which includes
the conifers.
CONIRO'STRES — fr. lat. conus. a cone ;
rostrum, a beak. The systematic
name of a family of Incessores or
perching birds.
CONI'UM. — fr. gr. koneion, hemlock.
CON'JUGATE. — fr. lat. con, together;
jugum, a yoke. Yoked or joined
together. In pairs.
CONJUNCTI'VA. — fr. lat. con, with ;
jungere, to join. The mucous
membrane which covers the an-
terior surface of the ball of the
^ eye, and unites it to the lids.
CON'NATE. — fr. lat. con, together ; na-
tus, grown. Joined together at
the base.
CONNEC'TIVE. — fr. lat. connecto, I join
together. That pnrt of the sta-
men in plants which Connects the
two lobes or ceils of the anther.
CONNI'VENT. — Converging, the ends
inclining towards each other.
CO'NOID. ) fr. lat. conus, a cone,
CONOIHAL. \ and the Gr. eidos, re-
semblance. Cone-shaped; like a
cone.
CONOIDEA. — Lat. Conoidal. Cone-
shaped.
CONTORTED. — fr. lat. contorqueo, I
twist about. Twisted ; or incum-
bent on each other, in an oblique
direction.
CONTTIACTI'LITT. — fr. lat. contraho,
to draw together. The property
by which a body contracts; by
which a fibrous tissue returns to
its former dimensions after being
extended ; by which the muscu-
lar fibre shortens itself on the ap-
plication of a stimulus.
CO'NUS. — Lat. A cone.
CONVOLUTED. — Rolled upon itself;
twisted spirally.
CONVOLU'TION. — fr. lat. convohere, to
entwine. The cerebral convolu-
tions are the round, tortuous pro-
jections observed on the surface
of the brain.
CONVO'LVULUS. — Lat. from convolve, I
bind together or entwine. Bind-
weed.
CONVOLVULA'CEJE.— Systematic name
of a family of plants.
CO'PUIS. — fr. gr. kopros, dung. A
genus of insects.
CO'PROLITES. — fr. gr. kopros, dung;
lilhos, stone. Fossil excrement,
(p. 44, Book viii).
COPHO'PHAGOUS. — fr.gr.Aropros,dung;
phago, I eat. Applied to animals
which feed on excrement.
COR. — Lat. The heart.
COR'ACOID. — fr. gr. korax, a crow ;
eidos, resemblance. Resembling
the beak of a crow. Name of a
thick, short, process of bone, situ-
ate at the anterior upper part of
the scapula in man. In birds
and reptiles this process is repre-
sented by a separate bone.
COR'AL. — fr. gr. koreo, I ornament;
als, the sea. The hard calcareous
support formed by certain polyps.
COH'ALLINE. — Belonging or relating
to coral. Corraline deposits are, in
geology, those recent or alluvial
strata, which consist of marine
banks, shoals, and islands, entirely
composed of corals.
COHALLI'NEB. — The corallines, &
tribe of calciferous polypi.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
45
CORALLIO'PHAGA. — fr. gr. korallion,
coral ; phagein, to eat. Coral-eating.
CORALLOI'DES. — fr. gr. korallion, co-
ral-, eidos, resemblance. Coral-
like. Specific name of a Devo-
nian fossil, (p. 33, Book viii).
CORAI, RAG. — Certain beds of the
middle o'olite, consisting chiefly
of corals, (p. 63, Book viii).
CORAI. RED. — The calcareous inter-
nal skeleton of a polypipherous
animal, coloured with oxide of
iron.
COH-AJT'GUINUM. — Lat. cor, heart;
anguinum, snake-like. Specific
name of a fossil, (p. 75. Book viii).
CORAX. — Lat. A raven.
COR'BIS. — Lat. A twig basket, or
pannier. Name of a genus of
acephalous mollusks which have
the external surface of the shell
marked by ribs and transverse
lines, resembling basket-work, (p.
84, Book v).
COR'CULUM. — fr. lat. cor. the heart.
Thf embryo or vital principle of
a seed, so named from its frequent
resemblance in form, to a little
heart.
COR'DATE. — Heart-shaped.
Con'niFOHM. — fr. lat. cor, cordis, heart ;
/orma, shape. Heart-shaped.
CORIA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. coriaceus, con-
sisting of leather. Leathery.
Formed of leather.
CORISANTHE'RE^E. — fr. gr. koris, St.
John's wort; anthos, flower. Sys-
tematic name of a class of plants.
COR'IUM. — Lat. The skin or hide.
CORM. — A subterranean stem.
CO'RMUS. — fr. gr. kormos, stem. The
representative of the stem in
bulbous plants.
CORN BRASH. — An o'olitic bed con-
sisting of clays and sandstones.
Its name is probably derived from
the excellence of the corn-land,
which results from the decompo-
sition of the limestones, and their
mixture with the sandstones and
clay.
COH'JTKA — fr. lat. cornw, horn. One
of the coats of the eye, so called
because it has some resemblance
to horn. It is the anterior, trans-
parent part, through whioh light
passes.
COR'STEJE. — Plur. of cornea.
COR'XEOUS.— Horny ; resembling the
colour or substance of horn ; as
the epidermis of some, and the
operculum of other spiral shells;
the albumen of many plants, &c.
COR'NEULE. — A diminutive of cor-
nea ; a term applied to the mi-
nute transparent segments which
defend the compound eyes of in-
sects.
CORXI'CULATB. — fr. lat. corniculum, a
little horn. Horned ; terminating
in a horn-like process. Horn-
shaped.
CORNU. — Lat. A horn.
CORXU AMMO'NIS. — See Ammonite.
CORNU'TUS. — Lat. Horned.
CORO'LLA. — Lat. A little crown.
Tiie internal envelope of the flo-
ral apparatus.
CORO'LLA. — Plur. of corolla.
CORONA. — Lat. A crown. A genus
of plants.
CoRo'if*. — Plur. of corona.
COR'ONAL. — Relating to the crown
or top of a shell.
COROXA'TA. — Lat. Crowned.
COR'ONATED. — Crowned, or girt to-
wards the apex.
COR'PUS. — Lat. A body. The body
of a shell, the last or great wreath
in which the aperture is situate.
CORPU'SCULK. — fr. lat. corpus, body.
A diminutive body.
CORRALLOI'DAL. — Resembling bran-
ches of coral.
CORRODED. — Containing numerous
cavities, as if worm-eaten.
CORRUGATE. "> fr. lat. con, together ,
CORRUGATED. 3 ruga, a wrinkle.
Wrinkled; folded up in every di-
rection.
CORSE'LET. — A light armour for the
front part of the body. The se-
cond segment or ring of the body
of insects.
46
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
COR'TET. — Lat. Bark. The skin or
epidermis of shells: the coarse
outer bark of plants.
CO'RTICAL. — fr. lat. cortex, bark. Be-
longing to, or partaking of the na-
ture of bark. ?x/*i-
CORU'NDUM. — Adamantine spar. A
crystallized or massive mineral of
extreme hardness, almost opaque,
and of a reddish colour. It is
allied to the sapphire, and is com-
posed of nearly pure alumina.
COR'VUS. — Lat. A Crow.
CORYDA'I.IS. — Helmet-like.
CO'RTMB. — fr. gr. korumbos, a helmet,
a summit. A form of inflores-
cence in which the lower stalks
are so long that their flowers are
elevated to the same level as that
of the uppermost flowers.
COR'YMBOSE. — Arranged like a co-
rymb.
CoRTM'BTJtosE.-Formed or arranged
in many small corymbs.
COSMOPOLITE.— fr. gr. kosmos, world ;
polites, citizen. A citizen of the
world. Peculiar to no country.
COS'T^B. — Lat. Ribs. In botany,
sometimes applied to the mid-rib
of a leaf, and sometimes to any
round projecting elevations, hav-
ing the same direction as the axis
of the fruit.
COS'TATED. — Ribbed ; having large
ribs.
COSTA'TUS. — Lat. Ribbed.
CO'TURXIX. — Lat. A Quail.
COTT'LEDON. — fr. gr. kotuledon, a ca-
vity. The seed-lobe of a plant.
COTTLE'DOVOUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to a cotyledon.
COT'TLOID. — fr. gr. kotule, a drinking
cup; eidos, resemblance. The
name of a hemispherical cavity
in a bone of the pelvis, which re-
ceives the head of the thigh bone,
forming the hip joint. It is also
called the aretabidum.
COURSER.— i-A race horse.
COVERTS.— The small feathers which
lie in several rows on the bones
of the wings are called the Lesser
coverts ; those that line the under
side of the wings, the Under co-
verts ; those feathers that lie im-
mediately over the quill feathers,
and secondaries, are the Greater
coverts,- and the Tail coverts, are
those feathers that cover the tail
on the upper side, at the base.
COWLED. — In botany, cuculate ; hav-
ing the end curved inwards in
such a manner as to represent
the cowl or hood of a monk.
COX'A. — Lat. Hip. The superior
portion of the leg of an insect.
CRAG. — A provincial term in Nor-
folk and Suffolk (England) for
certain tertiary deposits, usually
composed of sand with shells, be-
longing to the miocene period,
(p. 84, Book viii).
CHA'NIAL. — fr. lat. cranium, the skull.
Belonging or relating to the skull.
CRA'NIUM. — Lat. The skull.
CHASSATE'LLA. — A genus of bivalve
shells.
CRA'TER. — fr. lat. crater, a great cup
or bowl. The mouth of a vol-
cano, (p. 107, Book viii). Cra'ter
of elevation is more extensive than
the crater of eruption, and is sup-
posed to have been formed by
the elevation of the ground pre-
vious to a volcanic eruption.
CRATERI'FEROUS. — Containing cra-
ters.
CRATE'RIFORM. — In form of a crater.
CREKPING. — In botany, running ho-
rizontally or close to the surface
of the ground.
CHE'MOCARP. — fr. gr. kremao, to sus-
pend ; karpos, fruit. A kind of
fructification in which a pair of
achenia are supported by the car-
pophore.
CRE'NATE. ^ fr. lat. crena, a notch.
CRK'NATED. 5 Having rounded teeth.
Applied to shells which present
small indentations, generally of a
sharp and regular form, frequently
observed on the outer lip of spiral
shells, particularly on many of
the typical mitres. A leaf ii
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
47
said to be crenelled, when its mar-
gins have rounded teeth.
CREWA'TUM. — Lat. Crenate; hav-
ing rounded teeth.
CRE'NULATE. — Finely crenate.
CKEXULA'TION. — A rounded tooth,
or notch.
CREPI'DULA. — Lat. A slipper. A
genus of mol lusks. (p. 58, Book v).
CREPI'IKJLJE. — Lat. p In r. of crepidula-
CREPITANS. — Lat. Cackling, ring-
ing; making a noise; rattling,
chattering.
CREPUS'CULAR. — fr. lat. crepuscula,
twilight. Relating to twilight.
CHESTED; — Having an appearance
like a cock's comb.
CRETA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. creta, chalk.
Of the nature of chalk; relating
to chalk. The cretaceous system is
a geological series of rocks in
which calcareous matter predo-
minates, the flints arid other ex-
traneous minerals being subordi-
nate. It is a marine deposit.
CREX. — fr. gr. krex, a bird ; the rail.
CRIB'KIFOIIM. ) Full of holes like a
CRIB'ROSK. £ sieve.
CRI'CETUS. — Lat. The hamster.
Cm'tfKS. — Lat. Hairs.
CRI'NITUS. — Lat. Hairy.
CRINOIUE.K. — fr. gr. krinon, lily; ei-
t/os, resemblance. A family of
radiate animals.
CIUOCE'RATITES. — fr. gr.A;rios,aram ;
keras, a horn. A fossil cephalo-
pod. (p. (57, Book viii).
CRI'SKS. — Lat. plur. of crisis.
CRI'SIS. — Gr. The point of time
when any aflair comes to its
height.
Cnisp. — When leaves are very much
vndulated at the margin, they are
called crisp or curled.
CRISP A'TKD — Rough with waving
lines.
CRISTA'TA. ) Lat. Tufted, combed,
CRISTA'TUS. £ crested ; wearing a
crest.
CRIS'TATE. — Having a crest.
CROCODI'LIAN. — Any animal of the
tribe of crocodiles.
CROCOPI'LIDA. — fv.gr. krokodeilos, cro-
codile; eidos, resemblance. Sys-
tematic name of the family of
crocodiles.
CROCODI'LUS. — Lat. A crocodile.
According to some, fr. gr. krokos,
saffron; deilos, fearful, timid, be-
cause the land crocodile is afraid
of the sight and odour of saffron :
according to others, from kroke,
shore, and deilos, timid ; because
the water-crocodiles fear the shore,
where men set snares for them.
CROP, or CRAW. — A sort of prelimi-
nary stomach: in some birds,
formed by an expansion of the
oesophagus.
CROP OCT. — When a rock, in place,
emerges on the surface of the
earth, it is said to crop out.
CRO'TALUS. — fr. gr. krotaho, I make
a noise. A Rattlesnake.
CRU'CIATE. — Cross-like.
CRUCI'FER.E. — fr. lat. crwx, crucis, a
cross; fero, I bear. A family of
plants which have flowers in form
of a Maltese cross.
CRU'CIFORM. — Cross-shaped. Con-
sisting of four petals placed like
a cross.
CRU'STA. — The brittle, crustaceous
thallus of lichens; the bony co-
vering of the crab, lobster, &c.
CRUSTA'CEA. — fr. lat. crusta, a hard
covering. A class of free articu-
late animals, with articulated
limbs, a branchial respiration and
a dorsal or ventrical heart.
CRUSTA'CEJE. — Lat. plur. Crusta'-
ceans.
CRUSTA'CEAN. — Any animal of the
class of crusta'cea; a crab.
CHUSTA'CEOUS. — Of the nature, or
belonging to crustaceans.
CRT'OLITE. — fr. gr. kruos, frost; li-
thos, a stone. A very fusible mi-
neral which consists of the double
hydrofluate of alumina and soda,
occurring in gneiss.
CHT'PTA. — fr. gr. kruptos, concealed.
A term applied to the vesicular
receptacles of oil found in the
48
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
leaves of the orange, and of all
myrtaceous plants. A crypt.
CRYPTOBRANCHIA'TA. — fr. gr. krup-
tos, concealed ; bragchia, gills.
Molluscous and articulate ani-
mals which have no conspicuous
gills.
CRYPTOCEPHA'LOUS. — fr. gr. kruptos,
concealed ; kephale, head. Ap-
plied to insects in which the head
is concealed by the corselet.
CRYPTOCE'ROUS. — fr. gr. kruptos, con-
cealed ; keras, horn. Applied to
insects in which the antennas lie
hid in a groove.
CRYPTOGA'MIA. — fr. gr. kruptos, con-
cealed; gamos, marriage. Name
of a class of plants.
CRYPTO'GAMOUS — Belonging or re-
lating to cryptoga'mia.
CRYPTO NEU'RA. — fr. gr. kruptos, con-
cealed ; neuron, a nerve. A term
applied by Rudolphi to those ra-
diate animals in which no ner-
vous filaments or masses have
been discovered. They corre-
spond with the Jlcrita of Macleay,
and the Protozoa, and Oozoa of
other writers.
CRYPTO'NYX. — fr. gr. kruptos, con-
cealed ; onux, a nail. A genus of
birds; also, a genus of insects.
CRY'STAL. — fr. gr. krust alias, ice.
This term was originally applied
to those beautiful transparent va-
rieties of si'lica, or quartz, known
• under the name of rock-crystal.
When substances pass from the
fluid to the solid s-tate, they fre-
quently assume those regular
forms which are generally termed
crystals. A crystal is any inor-
ganic solid of homogeneous struc-
ture, bounded by natural planes
and right lines symmetrically ar-
ranged.
CRY'STALLIITE. — Relating to, or re-
sembling crystals.
CRY'STALLINE LENS. — A thick com-
pact humour, in form of a flattish
convex lens, situated in the mid-
dle of the eye.
CRYSTALLISA'TIOTT. — The process of
forming crystals.
CRYSTALLO'ORAPHY. — fr. gr. krustal-
los, a crystal ; graplio, to describe.
The science which treats of the
origin, structure, form and rela-
tions of crystals.
CTENOIDEANS. — fr. gr. kteis, ktenos, a
comb. An order of fishes, (p.
48, Book viii). *
CTE'NOBRANCHIA'TA. — fr. gr. kteis, a
comb; bragchia, gills. An order
of gasteropods which breathe by
means of pectinated gills.
CU'BITAL. — Relating to the cubitus.
CU'BITUS. — Lat. One of the bones
of the fore-arm, which is also
called ulna.
CU'CULUS. — Lat. Cufkoo.
CU'CULATE. — Hooded; having the
apex and sides curved inward.
CUCULLA'TUS.— Lat. Hooded, cow led.
CUCU'MIS. — Lat. A cucumber.
CUCURBITA'CEK. — fr. lat. cucurbita,
a gourd. Name of a family of
plants.
CUCURBITA'CEOUS. — Like gourds or
melons.
CU'LEX. — Lat. A gnat. A genus of
insects of the family of diptera,
and type of the tribe of culicides :
culex pipiens, the common gnat.
CUL-DE-SAC. — Fr. A blind alley;
literally, a bag bottom.
CULM. — fr. lat. culmus, a stem. The
stems of the grasses.
CULMI'FEROUS — Producing culms.
CUL'TRATE. — fr. lat. culter, a knife.
Sharp and cutting on the edges.
CULTRI RO'STRES.— fr. lat. culter, cultri,
a knife; rostrum, beak. Syste-
matic name of a family of gral-
latoriae, characterised by a J>eak
with sharp edges. Knife-bills.
CUMBRIAN GROUP. — A group of rocks
constituting the lower series of
the Clay-slate system.
CU'MULT. — Lat. plur. of cumulus.
CU'MULOSTRA'TUS. — Twain cloud:
it partakes of the appearance of
the cumulus and stratus.
CU'MULUS. — A form of cloud. A
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
49
convex aggregate of watery par-
ticles, increasing upwards from a
horizontal base, and assuming
more or less of a conical figure.
CUNI'CULUS. — Lat. A rabbit.
Cu'jfiATE. ") fr.lat.cimetts,a wedge.
CU'ITIEFORM. 5 Wedge-shaped.
Cup. — Same as corona.
CCJ'PIDO. — Lat. Desire, appetite,
gluttony.
CUP'ROUS. — Belonging to copper.
CU'PULA. — A form of inflorescence,
consisting of bracts not much de-
veloped till after flowering, when
they cohere by their bases, and
form a kind of cup.
CU'PULE. — A little cup.
CUPULI'FER.K. — fr. lat. cupulum, a
little cup ; fero, I bear. The oak
tribe of plants.
CU'PULATE. ^Shaped like a re-
CUPU'LIFOHM. 5 versed bell. .
CURRU'CA — Lat. Atom-tit; a hedge-
sparrow.
CURSO'RES. — fr. lat. cursus, a course.
Coursers; an order of birds.
CUR'VATE. — Bowed, bent.
CURVIRO'STRA. — fr. lat. curvus, bent,
bowed ; rostrum, beak. Having
the beak bent or bowed.
CU'SPIDATE. — fr. iat. cuspis, a point.
A form of leaf terminating in a
point.
CUTA'NEOUS. — fr. lat. cutis, skin. Be-
longing or relating to the skin.
CU'TICLE. — fr. lat. cutis, skin. The
scarf-skin. The external cover-
ing of plants.
CU'TIS. — Lat. The skin : the true
skin.
CUT-TOOTHED. — Cut and toothed at
the same time.
CUTIE'RI. — Lat. Of Cuvier.
CYA'THIFORM. — fr. lat. cyathus, a
drinking cup ; forma, shape. A
form of corolla.
CY'ATHOCRI'NITES. — fr. gr. kuathos,
a cup; krinon, lily. A genus of
crinoide'cE. (p. 38, Book viii).
CY'ATHOPHYL'LA. — Lat. plur. cyatho-
phyllum.
CY'ATHOPHYL'LUM. — fr. gr. kuathos, a
cup ; phullon, a flower. A genus
of polypa'ria. (p. 31, Book viii).
CYCA'DE^E. — From cycas, one of tlift
genera. An order of plants.
CY'CAS. — A name employed by tho
ancients to designate a little palm.
(Fig. 306, p. 196, Book viii).
CY'CLADES. — Lat. plur. of cyclas.
CY'CLAS. — fr. gr. kuklos, a circle. A
genus of fresh water gasteropods,
so named from the circular form
of the shell.
CY'CLOBRANCHI'ATA. — fr. gr. kuklos,
a wheel ; bragchla, gills. Name
of an order of mollusks.
CYCLO-GANGLIATA. — fr. gr. kuklos, a
circle ; gagglion, a nerve-knot.
The Mollusca of Cuvier, and He-
terogttngliata of Owen.
CYCLOI'DEANS. — fr. gr. kuklos, a circle.
An order of fishes, (p. 49, Book
viii).
CYCLO-NEURA. — fr. gr. kuklos, a cir-
cle; neuron, a nerve. The name
given by Dr. Grant to the Radiata.
CYCLO'SIS. — fr. gr. kuklos, a circle.
A circular movement of the glo-
bular particles of the sap in cer-
tain plants.
CYCLO'STOMA. — fr. gr. kuklos, a circle ;
sloma, mouth. A genus of gas-
teropods. (p. 48, Book v).
CYCLO'STOM^E. — Plur. of cyclostoma.
CYCLO'STOMI. — Lat. plur. of Cyclo-
stomus ; fr. gr. kuklos, circle ; sto-
ma, mouth. Systematic name of
an order of fishes.
CYG'NUS. — Lat. A swan.
CYiaifDRA'cEous. ") Having the form
CYLINDRICAL. 3 of a cylinder.
CYLINDRICO-CAMPA'NULATE. — Cylin-
drically bell-sharped.
CYM'BIFORM. — Carinate ; navicular,
or boat-shaped.
CY'MBIUM. — fr. gr. kumba, a boat.
Specific name of a shell.
CTMBU'LIA. — fr. gr. kumbalon, hol-
low. A genus of pteropoda, com-
monly called the gondola.
CYME. — A form of inflorescence re-
sembling an umbel and a corymb
the flower-stalks arise from a
3A
50
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
common centre, but are after-
wards variously subdivided.
CY'MOSE.— Resemblingacyme; flow-
ering in cymes.
CT'NIPS. — A genus of insects. The
gall-fly.
CYXOCE'PHALUS. — fr. gr. kuon, a dog ;
kephale, head. A species of mon-
key is so called, because its head
resembles that of a dog. It is
the baboon of the moderns.
CYPHEL'LJE. — fr. gr. kuphella, the hol-
lows of the ears. Pale tubercle-
like spots on the under surface of
the thallus of lichens.
CY'PREA. — fr. gr. kupris, Venus. A
genus of gasteropod mollusks. A
cowry. Cypreea moneta. The
money cowry.
Crmx'm. — Lat. plur. of Cypnea.
CYPRICAR'DIA. — fr. gr. kupris, Venus;
cardium, a cockle. A genus of
the family of chama'cea.
CYPRI'NA. — A genus belonging to a
group of cy'clades.
CYPRI'NUS. — Lat. A carp.
CTPHINI'DJE. > fr. gr. kuprinos, a
CYPRIXOI'DES. £ carp; eidos, resem-
blance. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.
CT'PRI s. — fr. gr. kupris, Venus. Name
of a genus of crustaceans.
CYP'SELA — fr. gr.kupsele, a bee-hive.
See Achenium.
CT'PSELUS — Lat. A martin or swal-
low.
CTRE'XA. — A genus of bivalve mol-
lusks.
CYTOBLAST. — fr. gr. kutos, a cavity;
blastano, to sprout. An element-
ary organ or nucleus observed in
the cellular tissue of plants.
DAC'TTLIS. — fr. gr. daktulos, a finger.
A genus of the family of grami-
nese. Dactylis ctespitosa. Tussock
grass.
DACTYLOP'TERTTS — fr. gr. daktulos,
finger; pteron, wing. Wing-fin-
gered. Systematic name of the
true flying-fishes.
DAMA. — Lat. A fallow-deer.
DAMPS. — Permanently elastic fluids
which are extricated in mines.
Choke Damp is carbonic acid gas ;
Fire Damp is light carburetted
hydrogen which explodes on com-
ing in contact with fire.
DAN'ICUS. — Lat. Danish. Belong-
ing to Denmark.
DAS'TPUS. — fr. gr. dasu*, thick, hairy;
pous, foot. Hairy foot. Generic
name of the armadillo.
DASY'URIDJE. — fr. gr. dasus, thick,
hairy; oura, tail. Ursine opos-
sums. A family of mammals.
DA'TA. — fr. lat. datum, given, a gift.
Admitted facts.
DAURADE. — Fr. Name of a fish.
DEBACLE. — Fr. Sudden escape of
water from a lake, following a
bursting of its barrier, (p. 128,
Book viii).
DEBRIS. — Fr. Wreck, ruins, re-
mains. In geology the term is
applied to large fragments, to dis-
tinguish them from detritus, or
those which are pulverized.
DECAGT'ITIA. — fr. gr. deca, ten ; gune,
pistil. Name of an order of
plants characterized by ten pis-
tils.
DECA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. deca, ten ; aner,
stamen. Name of a class of
plants characterized by ten sta-
mens.
DECAPHYL'LUS. — Lat. Ten-leaved.
DE'CAPOD. — Of the family of deca-
pod a.
DECAPO'DA. — fr. gr. deca, ten; pous,
foot. A family of crusta'ceans
characterized by ten ambulatory
feet.
DE'CIDUOTJS. — fr. lat. decido, to fall
off. Applied to plants whose
leaves fall in the autumn. Any
thing which falls off in a certain
stage of growth, as the terminal
whorls of pupaform land-shells,
the petals and sepals of certain
flowers, &c.
DE'CLIXATE. — fr. lat. declino, to bend
downwards. Bent downwards.
DECO'LLATED. — fr. lat. decollo, to be
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
51
head. Applied to those univalve
shells in which the apex or head
is worn off, in the progress of
growth.
DECOMPOSE. — When the chemical
constitution of substances is al-
tered, they are said to be decom-
posed. In a strict mineralogical
sense, the term is only applicable
to the result of chemical action
which occurs spontaneously. Cer-
tain ores of iron, &c., in which
sulphur predominates, decompose
on exposure to air.
DECOMPOUND. — Applied to those ra-
mifications of plants which are va-
riously compounded as to leaves,
in which the petiole bears second-
ary petioles. When the second-
ary petioles are divided into a
third set, such leaves are said to
be supradccompound.
DECOR'TICATED — Disbarked ; with-
out bark. Divested of epidermis
or skin : worn.
DE'CREMENT. — When the planes of
crystals decrease equally to a point,
they are said to arise from a sim-
ple decrement ; but when they do
not decrease equally on all sides,
the decrement is compound.
DECRE'PITATE. — When a mineral,
on exposure to heat, flies with a
crackling noise, it is said to decre-
pitate.
DKCUMA'NTTS. — Lat. Tenth. Huge,
fair, of a large size.
DECU'MBENT. — fr. lat. deaimbo, to lie
down. Lying prostrate but rising
from the earth at the upper ex-
tremity: applied to the directions
taken by plants.
DECUHHENT. — fr. lat. decurro, to run
down. Dccursive. Running down:
applied to leaves which are pro-
longed down the stem, giving it a
winged appearance.
DECCRSIVE. — Having a tendency to
run down.
DECUSSA'TION. — fr. lat. decusso, to
cross like an X. Applied to parts
which cross each other, as leaves
on a stem, when arranged in pairs
which alternately cross each other.
Also, to the lines or striae on shells
which intersect each other.
DEFLEXED. — Turned downwards.
DEFOLIATION. — Shedding leaves in
proper season.
DEFRA'NCII. — Lat. Of Defrance.
DEGRADE. — fr. lat. de, priv.; gradus,
step, degree. To lessen, to cut
down.
DEGRADA'TION. — The act of lessen-
ing; reduction.
DEGLUTI'TION. — fr. lat. deglutire, to
swallow. The act by which sub-
stances are passed from the rnouth
into the stomach, through the pha-
rynx and oesophagus.
DEIII'SCENT. — fr. lat. dehiscere, to gape
wide open. Applied to the spon-
taneous separation of the valves
of certain fruits for the discharge
of the seeds.
DEINOTHE'RIUM. — SeeDinotherinm.
DEJECTIONS. — Matters evacuated
from the bowels.
DELIQ,UE'SCENCE. — fr. lat. deliquesco,
to melt away. Becoming liquid
by absorbing moisture from the
air. When a panicle is so much
branched that the primary axis
disappears, it is said to be deli-
quescent.
DEL'TA. — The Gr. letter A. The
triangular deposits, shoals or isl-
ands, found at the mouths of cer-
tain rivers are called deltas.
DE'VTOID. — fr. gr. A, delta ; eidos,
resemblance. A form of leaf.
(Fig. 46, p. 41, Book vii).
DELTO'IDEA. — -Lat. fr. gr. letter A,
eidos, resemblance. Resembling
a delta A. (p. 65, Book viii).
DELPHI'NULA. — Lat. A little dol-
phin. Name of a genus of shells
of the family of troohoides.
DELPHI'NUS. — Lat. Dolphin. A ge-
nus of aquatic mammals.
DEL'PHIS. — The name of a priestess
of the temple of Delphos, which
Linnaeus gave to an animal of the
order of cetacea.
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
DEMI-ELY'TRA. — fr. fr. de'mi, half;
e'lytrum, wing-case. Half-wing
cases.
DENDRI'TIC. — fr. gr. dendritis. like
the growth of a tree. Arbores-
cent; tree-like. Applied to the
delineations seen on the surfaces
of certain minerals, &c.
DEN'SITY. — The compactness of bo-
dies, denoting the comparative
quantity of matter in different
bodies, which is contained under
a certain bulk.
DEN'TAL. — fr. lat. dens, a tooth. Re-
lating to the teeth.
DENTA'IIUM. — fr. lat. dens, a tooth.
A genus of cirrhopods.
DEN'TARY. — Relating to teeth.
DEN'TATE. — fr. lat. dens, a tooth.
Toothed or notched.
DENTA'TO-ciLiATE.-Having the mar-
gin dentate, and tipped with ciliae.
DENTA'TO-SINUATE. — Scolloped and
toothed.
DENTA'TUM. — Lat. Dentate.
DENTI'CULATE. — Having the edge or
border like teeth. Armed with
teeth.
DENTICTTLA'TION. — A tooth-like pro-
jection.
DEX'TIFORM. — fr. lat. dens, dentis,
a tooth ; forma, form. Tooth-
shaped.
DEN'TILE. — A small tooth, such as
the tooth of a saw.
DENTIRO'STRES. — fr. lat. dens, dentis,
a tooth ; rostrum, beak. Systema-
tic name of a family of passerine
birds.
DE'NTURES. — Teeth. The sharp
parts which separate the notches.
DENU'DATE. — Appearing naked, as
plants whose flowers appear be-
fore the leaves.
DENUDA'TION. — fr. lat. denudo, I
strip. A removal of a part of
the land, by the action of running
water, so as to Wy bare the infe-
rior strata.
DEN U'DE. — fr. lat. denudo, I strip. To
lay bare.
DEPAU'PERATED. — Few-flowered.
DEPENDENT. — Hanging down.
DEPOSITION. — fr. lat. depono, I let
fall. The falling to the bottom
of matters suspended or dissolved
in water or other liquid.
DEPRESSED (beak). — Flattened ho-
rizontally. When the spire of a
shell is very flat, low or shallow ;
pressed down horizontally.
DEPRESSOR. — Muscles whose func-
tion is to depress certain parts are
so called.
DEPRE'SSUS. — Lat. Pressed, sunk.
DER'MA.— Gr. The skin.
DERMES'TES. — fr. gr. derma, skin ;
esthio, I eat. Skin-eaters. A ge-
nus of insects.
DE'RMOSKE'LETON. — fr. gr. derma,
skin ; skeleton, a skeleton. The
hard integument which covers
most invertebrate, and some ver-
tebrate animals.
DES'PTJMATE. — To throw off in froth
or scum.
DE'TINENS. — Lat. Detaining; that
which has the power to detain.
DE'TRITUS. — A geological term ap-
plied to deposits composed of va-
rious substances which have been
comminuted by attrition. The
larger fragments are usually term-
ed debris; those which are pul-
verized, as it were, constitute de-
tritus. Sand is the detritus of
silicious rocks.
DEUS. — Lat. God.
DEVO'NIAN SYSTEM. — So called be-
cause it is largely developed in
Devonshire, England. It is syno-
nymous with the old red sandstone
formation. It is composed at first
of pudding-stone, and then passes
into sandstone, with which it al-
ternates at different places, (p.
32, Book viii).
DEW-POINT. — The temperature of
the atmosphere at which its mois-
ture begins to be precipitated.
DEX'TRAL. — fr. lat. dexter, the right
hand. When the aperture of a
spiral shell opens on the right
hand, it is said to be dextml ;
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
when it opens to the left, sinis-
tral.
DEXTRAR'SUM. — Twining from left
to right.
DIA. — Gr. Through: a prefix which
denotes extension, perversion, tran-
sition.
DIADE'LPHIA. — fr. gr. dis, two; del-
phos, brotherhood. Name of a
Linnaean class of plants.
DIADE'MA. — Lat. A diadem, acrown.
A germs of echini'dese. (p. 54,
Book viii).
DI'AGRAM. — fr. gr. dia, through ; gra-
plio, I write. A figure drawn for
illustration.
DIA'LLAOE. — fr. gr. diallage, differ-
ence. A mineral of foliated struc-
ture easily divisible in one direc-
tion, its natural joints and frac-
tures exhibiting a very different
lustre and appearance.
DIAMARNETIC. — If a bar of iron be
suspended between the poles of
an electro-magnet, it will be at-
tracted by both poles on the line
of force. But if a bar of bismuth
be suspended in the same man-
ner, it will be repelled by both
poles, and rest at right angles to
the line of force. Substances
which are attracted by both poles
of an electro-magnet are said to
be magnetic, and those which are
repelled by both poles are termed
diamagnetic.
DIA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. dis, two; aner,
stamen. Name of a class of
plants.
DIA'JTDROUS. — Having two stamens.
DIA'PUAXOUS. — fr. gr. dia, through ;
phainein, to shine. Permitting the
passage of light.
DI'APHRAGM. — fr. gr. diaphragma, a
partition. The fleshy or muscu-
lar partition between the cavity
of the chest and cavity of the ab-
domen. The midriff.
L i A'STOLE. — fr. gr. diastello, I open,
dilate. The dilatation of the
heart and arteries when the blood
enters their cavities.
DIBRA'X CHIAL. — Having double gills
or branchiae.
DI'BRANCHIA'TA. — fr. gr. dis, two;
bragchos, gills : two-gilled. Name
of a division of cephalopods.
DICE'RAS. — fr. gr. dis, two; keras,
horn. Generic name of a fossil
bivalve, (p. 64, fig. 106, Book
viii).
DICHO'TOMA. } fr.gr. dicha, divided;
DICHO'TOMUM. > tomos, section. Di-
DICHO'TOMUS. j cho'tomous. In zoo-
logy this term is applied to a spe-
cies of the genus Iris, the body
of which is bifurcate. In botany
it is applied to the stem, branches,
peduncles, leaves, hairs, styles,
&c., when they are bifurcated in
form.
JB. — fr. gr. dis, two; klinos,
bed. Name of a division of
plants.
us. — fr. gr. dis, two ; kline,
bed. Having the stamens in one
flower and the pistils in another.
Dicoc'cous. — Having two cocci;
containing two grains of seed.
DICOTY'LEDOX. — fr. gr. dis, two ; ko-
tulcdon, seed-lobe. A double seed-
lobe.
DICOTY'LEDONS. — fr. gr. dis, two;
kotuledon, seed-lobe. A division
of plants, according to the Natu-
ral Order.
DICOTYLE'DOSTOCS. — Relating to di-
cotyledons.
DfuA'cxYLE. — fr. gr. dis, twice ; dak-
tulon, a finger or toe. Two-fin-
gered. Applied to various ani-
mals which have two digits on
their extremities.
DIDEL'PHIDJE. — A tribe of marsupial
mammals.
Di DEI/PHIS. — fr. gr. dis, twice or
double; delphus, a wornb. The
name of a genus of the order of
marsupialia.
DIDEL'PHOUS. — fr. gr. dis, double;
delphus, womb. Applied to opos-
sums and other marsupial mam-
mals.
DI'DYMOUS. — Two united
3 A2
54
A GLOSSARY OP TERMS
DIDY'XAMOUS. — Relating to didyna-
mia.
DIDYXA'MIA. — fr. gr. dis, two; du-
namis, power. Name of a Lin-
njjean class of plants, having two
long and two shorter stamens.
DIFFORM. — Irregular; having two
forms.
DIFFRACTED. — Twice bent.
DIGITA'TA. — Lat. Digitate.
DI'GITATE. — fr. lat. digitus, finger.
Spread out like finyers.
DIGITA'TION. — fr. lat. digitus, finger.
A process resembling a finger.
DI'GITIFORM. — Formed like fingers.
DI'GITI GRADE. — Applied to animals
that walk without resting the
whole foot on the ground.
DIGITIGRADA. — fr. lat. digitus, a fin-
ger or toe ; gradus, a step. Name
of a tribe of animals that in
walking rest only their toes on
the ground.
DIGO XA. — fr. gr. dis, two; gone, an-
gle. Having two angles.
DIGY'XIA. — fr. gr. dis, two; gune,
pistil. Name of an order of
plants.
DIGY'XOUS. — Having two styles or
female organs.
DILATA'TA. — Lat. Dilated ; swelled
out.
Dnu'vi4L. — Relating to dilu'vium.
DILU'VIOX. ) fr. lat. diluo, I wash
DILU'VIUM. £ away. A superfi-
cial deposit, (p. 92, Book viii).
DIMID'IATE — Halved ; divided into
two parts.
DIMO'RPHOUS. — fr. gr. dis, twice;
morphe, form. Applied to mine-
ral substances which naturally
assume two crystalline forms, as
carbonate of lime ; bisulphuret of
iron, &c. There are about twenty
dimorphous minerals.
DIMYA'RIA. — fr. gr. dis, two ; mudn,
muscle. All those bivalves are
so called which have two distinct
and separate adductor muscles,
and consequently two correspond-
ing muscular impressions on each
valve.
. — Lat. plur. of dimyaria.
DIXO'RXIS. — fr. gr. deinos, great, ter-
rible ; onus, a bird. A genus of
fossil, or extinct birds.
DIXOTHE RIUM. — fr. gr. dinos, circu-
lar ; therion, a beast. A fossil
pachyderm, (p. 86, Book viii).
DI'ODOX. — fr. gr. dis, twice; odous,
odontos, tooth. Systematic name
of a genus of fishes which have
but two teeth.
DICE'CIA. — fr. gr. dis, two; oikia,
house. Name of a Linnaean class
of plants, characterized by hav-
ing the stamens and pistils in se-
parate flowers.
DKE'CIOUS. — Relating to dicecia.
DIOME'DEA. — The ancient name of
certain birds of the island of Dio-
medes, near Tarentum, which
were said to receive the Greeks
favourably, and to attack the bar-
barians. The systematic name
of the albatross.
DIOXJE'A. — One of the names of
Venus. A genus of plants. Di-
oncea musci'pula. Venus' fly-trap.
DI'ORITE. — A variety of trap rock
consisting of albite and horn-
blende.
DIP. — Direction of the inclination
of strata. "To take a dip," is to
measure the degree that a stra-
tum inclines or dips from a hori-
zontal line. (p. 185, Book viii).
DIPE'TALOUS. — fr. gr. dis, two ; peta-
Ion, a petal. Having two petals.
DIPHYLLI'DIA. — fr.gr. dis, two; phul-
lon, leaf. Name of a division of
gasteropods. (p. 62, Book v).
DI'PLO-GAXGLIA'TA. — fr. gr. diplous,
double; gagglion, nerve-knot. The
name given by Dr. Grant to the
Articulata of Cuvier.
DIPLO-XEURA. — fr. gr. diplous, dou-
ble; neuron, a nerve. Dr. Grant's
designation of a class of animals
embracing the various forms of
worms in which the nervous sys-
tem is arranged on the same plan.
DIP'TEHA. — fr. gr. dis, two ; pteron,
wing. An order of insects.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY
55
DIP'TERTE. — Lat. plur. of dip'tera.
DIP'TEROTJS. — Relating to dip'tera.
Two-winged : applied to certain
seeds which have their margins
prolonged in the form of wings.
DIP'TERYX. — fr. gr. dis, double; pte-
rux,a wing, in allusion to the two
appendages of the calyx. Ton-
quin bean. A genus of plants of
the family of leguminosse.
DIRECTION OF STRATA. — The Strike,
or line of bearing, (p. 185, Book
viii).
DIRT-BED. — (Portland.) A bed of
dark brown substance, seemingly
black loam, about a foot in thick-
ness, which occurs in the upper
oolite of Portland, (p. 145, Book
viii).
Dis' AGGREGATED. — fr. lat. de, priv. ;
aggrego, I gather together. Sepa-
rated, divided, broken up.
DISAGGREGA'TION. — The breaking
up of a mass into small parts.
DISCO'BOLI. — Lat. plur. of discobo-
lus, fr. gr. diskos, a disk; bullo, I
throw. A quoit-player. Syste-
matic name of a family of fishes
whose ventral fitjs form a disk.
DI'SCOID. — fr. gr. diskos, a quoit; ei-
dos, resemblance. This term is
applied to those univalve shells
of which the whorls are disposed
vertically on the same plane so
as to form a disc ; as in the Plan-
orbis. (p. 44, Book v). In botany,
when anything is dilated into
something which may be corn-
pared to a disk, the term discoid
is applied. When in Composite,
the florets are all tubular, the head
of flowers is said to be discoid.
DISCO'RDANT STRATIFICATION. — Un-
conformable stratification.
Dis'cus. — Disk. The fleshy annular
process that surrounds the ovari-
um of many flowers.
DIS'EXG AGED.— Separated from, freed.
DISINTEGRATE. — fr. lat. de, priv.;
integer, entire, whole. To sepa-
rate, or break up an aggregate into
twirts. When any mineral falls
to pieces without any perceptible
chemical action, it is said to be
disintegrated.
DISINTEGRATION. — The act of se-
parating, or dividing a whole into
parts.
DISK. — In conchology the middle
part of the valves, or that which
lies between the urnbo and the
margin.
DISLOCATE. — fr. lat. de, priv. ; lociu,
place. To put out of place.
DISLOCATION. — Displacement. In
geology, where strata or veins
have been displaced from the po-
sition where first deposited or
formed, they are said to be dislo-
cated.
DISPE'RMOUS.— Containing two seeds.
DISPOSITION. — fr. lat. dispono, I ar-
range. Arrangement, method, or-
der.
DISRUPTION. — fr. lat. disrumpo, I
break off. The act of breaking
asunder.
DISSEM'INATED. — When a mineral,
crystallized or not, is found here
and there, imbedded in a mass of
another substance, it is said to be
disseminated in that mass.
DISSE'PIMENT. — fr. lat. dissepio, to se-
parate. Septum. In botany, the
partition which divides a capsule
into two cells.
DI'STICHOUS. — fr. gr. dis, twice ; sti~
chos, a row. Bifariaus ; arranged
in two rows.
DisTo'RTioN.-fr. lat.rfg, from ; tortum.
twisted. The act of distorting, or
twisting out of place.
DITRICHO'TOMOUS. — Divided into
twos or threes ; a stem continu
ally dividing into double or treble
ramifications.
DIU'RNK. — Systematic name of a
division of the birds of prey.
DIU'RNAL. — fr. lat. dies, a day. Be-
longing to the day.
DIVA'RICATE. — Growing in a strag
gling manner. In con-.hology.
straddling, spreading out widely.
Di VA'BiCATiNG.-Spreading out near-
56
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ly at a right-angle from anything,
as branches from a stem.
DIVE' RGING. ") When the structure
DIVE'RGENT. 3 of a mineral is
fibrous, and the fibres are not
parallel, they usually diverge.
Tending to various directions or
parts from one point.
DIVERTI'CULUM. — Lat. A by-road :
Applied to a blind tube branch-
ing out from the course of a longer
one.
DoDECAGY'NiA.-fr.gr.</o£?eea, twelve;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants.
DoDECA'inmiA.-fr.gr.rforfeca, twelve;
aner, stamen. Name of a class
of plants.
I)OE. — A female deer.
DOKIMA'STJC AHT. — fr. gr. dokimazo,
to prove by trial. The art of as-
saying minerals and ores, in order
to determine the quantity of me-
tal which they contain.
DOLA'BELLA. — Lat. A little axe.
Name of a genus of gastero-
pods.
DOLAB'RIFORM — fr. lat. dolabra, an
axe ; forma, form. Axe-shaped ;
applied to a form of leaf.
DO'LERITE. — One of the varieties of
the trap rocks.
DOLICHODE'IRUS. — fr. gr. dolichos,
long; deire, neck. Long-necked,
(p. 57, Book viii).
DOLI'CHONYX. — fr. gr. dolichos, long ;
onux, a nail, a claw. Generic
name of the rice bird.
DO'LIUJVT. — Lat. A tun or tub. Name
of a genus of gasteropods.
DO'LOMITK. — Named after Dolomieu.
Magnesian marble: granular mag-
nesian carbonate of lime. Itco"n-
tains about 45 per cent, of carbo-
nate of magnesia. It is com-
monly more friable or crumbling
than pure limestone, and less du-
rable as a building material.
DOLOMISA'TIOTT. — The conversion of
common, into magnesian lime-
stone or dolomite, (p. 170, Book
viii).
DOME. — fr. lat. domus, house. A
rounded projection.
DO'MITE. — A tra'chytic rock. (p. 171,
Book viii).
DOMES'TICA. ) Lat. Domestic; re
DOMES'TICUS. $ lating to home.
DO'NACES. — Lat. plur. of Donax.
DO'NAX. — Lat. and Gr. an arrow.
Name of a genus of mollusks of
the family of chama'cea. (p. 84,
Book v).
DORCAS. — Gr. A gazel.
DO'RIS. — A sea goddess, the daugh-
ter of Ocean and Thetys. Name
of a genus of nudibranch gastero-
pods. (p. 65, Book v).'
DORMOUSE. — fr. lat. dormire, to sleep j
mus, a mouse. A mammal.
DO'RSAL. — fr. lat. dorsum, the back.
Belonging or relating to the back.
DOR'SIBRANCH. ) Havingdorsal
DOR'SIBRAN'CHIATE. £ branchiae or
gills. Relating todor'sibranchia'ta.
DOR'SIBRAJTCHIA'TA. — fr. lat. dorsum,
back ; branchiae, gills. An order
of annelidans.
DOR'SUM. — In conchology, the upper
surface of the body of the shell,
when laid upon the aperture or
opening.
DOTTED. — Punctured like a thimble.
DOWK. — fr. Danish, duun. Soft wool,
or tender hair ; fur. Soft feathers.
DRIFT. — Superficial deposits of wa-
ter-worn, transported materials,
consisting of gravel, boulders,
sand, &c. (p. 92, Book viii).
DROMEDA'RIUS. — Lat, fr. gr. dromos, a
race, speed. The dromedary; a
species of camel with one hump,
thus named from its swiftness.
DRUPA'CEOUS. — Bearing, or resem
bling drupes.
DRUPE. — fr. lat. drupce, unripe olives.
A pulpy fruit, without a valve or
outward opening, containing a
bony nut, as the cherry.
DRUSES. — Cavities whose interior
surface is lined with crystals.
DRUST. — fr. ger. druse, a gland. Ap-
plied to a mineral when its sur-
face is composed of small prom-
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
57
inent crystals of nearly equal
size.
DUCT. — A canal, pipe, or conduit.
DTTCT (Thoracic). — The canal or
duct which conveys the chyle in-
to the blood.
DUCTI'LITY. — fr. lat. duco, to draw.
That property of bodies by which
they admit of being drawn out
into wire.
DUCTOR — Lat. A leader.
DULCAMA'RA. — fr. lat. dulcis, sweet ;
amnra, bitter. Bitter-sweet. Sys-
tematic name of a genus of
plants.
DU'MOSE. — fr. lat. dumus, a bush
or bramble. Applied to shrubs
which are low and much branch-
ed.
DUXES. — Fr. Downs. Low hills of
blown sand. (p. 124, Book viii).
DUPLICATED. — Divided into plaits
or folds.
DUPLICATUHE. — A fold; any thing
doubled.
DUPLO — fr. lat. duo, two-, plica, a
fold. Two-fold. A prefix deno-
ting double the number or size.
DURA. — Lat. Hard. Dura mater is
a dense membrane, which covers
the brain, lying between it and
the skull.
DURA'MEN. — Lat. A hardening.
Systematic name of heart-wood.
DUVALII. — Lat. OfDuval.
DYKE or DIKE. — A provincial name
for wall. A geological term ap-
plied to a mass of igneous or un-
stratified rocks, when it appears
as if injected into a rent in the
stratih'ed rock, cutting across the
strata. A dyke differs from a vein,
in being larger, and in having par-
allel sides, (p. 118, Book viii).
DYITA'MIC. — fr. yr. dunamis, power,
force. Belonging or relating to
dynamics.
DTXA'MICS. — The doctrine of forces,
as exhibited in moving bodies
which are at liberty to obey the
impulses communicated to them.
The motions of celestial bodies in
their orbits, or of a stone falling
freely through the air, are em-
braced in the study of dynamics.
DYSTO'MIC. — fr. gr. dus, difficulty;
temno, to cut. Difficult cleav-
age.
DYTIS'CUS. — fr. gr. dutikos, diving,
expert in diving. Name of a ge-
nus of aquatic insects.
EARED. — Applied to lobe-like pro-
cesses observed on certain leaves,
and on shells.
EARTHS. — Formerly chemists, be-
lieving them to be simple bodies,
included the following substances
under the name of earths : — ba-
ryta, strontia, lime, magnesia, alu
mina or clay, silica, glucina, zir
coma, and yttria. Research has
shown that all have metallic or
metalloid bases; they are called
metallic oxides. Baryta, strontia,
lime, and magnesia are termed
alkaline earths.
EARTHQUAKE. — A sudden motion of
the solid surface of the globe,
probably occasioned by the same
causes as those which produce
volcanic eruptions, (p. 97, Book
viii).
EBULLI'TIOW. — The act of boiling.
E'CDYSIS. — fr. gr. ekdusis, the act of
stripping. Moulting of the skin.
ECHELETTE. — Fr. A little ladder.
Systematic name of the creepers.
ECHE'KEIS. — fr. gr. echo, I hold; na-
us, ship: a ship-holder, an anchor.
Systematic name of a family of
fishes, which the ancients sup-
posed were capable of arresting
the course of a vessel under sail.
E'CHIMYS. — fr. gr. echinos, spiny;
mus, a rat. A genus of mam-
mals; a sort of rat found in South
America.
ECHI'DNA. — fr. gr. A viper or snake.
The name of a monster, the up-
per part of whose body was in
the form of a beautiful woman,
and the lower part like that of a
hideous serpent. A genus of
68
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
EcHi'sriDJE. ") fr. gr.
ECHINI'DEJE. 3 hedg
mammals of the family of mono-
trema.
CHI'NATE. — fr. gr. echinos, a sea-
hedge-hog. Bristly ; set with
spines; covered with stiff hairs
or prickles: applied to certain
fruits.
echinos, a sea-
hedge-hog; eidos, re-
semblance. Systematic name of
the order of sea-urchins.
ECHIITODER'MATA. "> fr. gr. echinos, a
ECHI'NODERMS. 3 sea-liedge-hog;
derma, skin. A class of inverte-
brate animals, with a crusta'ceous
integument armed with tubercles
or spines.
ECON'OMY. — fr. gr. oikos, house ; no-
wos, a rule. The body of laws
which govern the organism.
ECO'STATE. — Without ribs or nerves ;
applied to leaves.
ECPTHO'SIS. — Gr. Destruction by fire.
ECTOZO'A. — fr. gr. ek, without ; zoon,
an animal. Parasitic animals
which inhabit the exterior of ani-
mal bodies, as fleas, &c.
EDENTA'TA. — fr. lat. c, priv. ; dens,
tooth. Without teeth. The name
of an order of mammiferous ani-
mals that are withoih teeth.
EDEN'TATE. — Without teeth.
E'DULIS. — Lat. Edible; that which
may be safely eaten.
EFFERVE'SCEXCE. — fr. lat. effervesco, I
grow hot. The commotion pro-
duced in fluids by the sudden es-
cape of gas, in the form of bub-
bles.
EFFLORF/SCENCE. — The pulverulent
covering formed on the surface of
saline substances, from which the
atmosphere has removed the wa-
ter of crystallization. When sa-
line substances give up their wa-
ter of crystallization to the air,
they are said to effloresce.
EFFOLIA'TION. — Premature falling of
leaves, from disease or accidental
causes.
EFFUSE. — Applied to inflorescence,
it means a kind of panicle with
a very loose, one-sided arrange-
ment. Spread out.
EFFU'SIOX. — fr. lat. effundo, I pour
out. The pouring out of a li-
quid.
EGRET or AIGRETTE. — The feathery
or hairy crown of seeds.
ELA'BORATE. ) fr. lat. labora're, to
ELABORA'TIOIT. ( work. — These
words are employed to signify the
separation and appropriation of
nutritive matter, by the action of
living organs, upon substances ca-
pable of assimilation. The ela-
boration of food in the stomach
produces chyme (p. 55, Book vii).
E'LAPS. — fr. gr. elaps, or elops, a par-
, ticular serpent. Systematic name
of certain vipers.
E'LATER. — fr. gr. elater, a leaper. A
genus of insects. Elaters are spi-
ral threads which are mingled
with the spores in certain crypto-
gamic plants.
ELEC'TUIC. — Belonging or relating to
electricity.
ELECTRIC 'ITT. — fr. gr. eleklron, am-
ber, the substance in which this
imponderable cause of certain
phenomena was first observed.
The property which certain bo-
dies, such as glass, wax, sulphur,
&c., acquire, by being rubbed, of
attracting or repelling each other.
In a more modern and extended
signification, the power and ac-
tion of a peculiar, imponderable
fluid, the accumulation of which
is manifested by sparks, and by
communicating to the nervous
system more or less powerful sen-
sations, and producing effects ana-
logous, if not identical with those
of lightning.
ELECTRI'CUS. — Lat. Electric. Pos-
- sessing electricity.
E'LEGANS. — Lat. Elegant.
ELEMENT. — A simple substance; a
substance which has not been
chemically resolved into different
substances, as iron.
ELEPHAS. — Lat. An elephant.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
59
ELEPHUS. — Lat. Belonging or re
lating to an elephant.
ELEVATING CAUSES. — Igneous agency.
Terms applied by geologists to
those causes which refer to the
operation of volcanoes, earth-
quakes, and gradually elevating
forces.
ELEVATOR. — Applied to muscles
whose function is to raise certain
parts.
ELLIP'SOID. — Like an ellipsis.
ELLIP'TIC-LANCEOLATE. — A form be-
tween elliptical and lanceolate.
ELOX'GATED. — Lengthened ; drawn
out.
ELOPS. — Specific name of a fish.
E'LTTRA. — Lat. plur. of elytrum.
E'LYTRUM. — fr. gr. elutron, a sheath.
A wing-cover. The first pair of
wings, when hard and horny, as
in beetles.
EMA'RGIJTATE. — fr. lat. e, from ; mar-
go, margin or edge. Having a
notch. This term is opposite to
immarginate. Crystals are said to
be emarginated when each of the
edges of their primary forms is
truncated by one face.
EMARGI'NULA. — fr. lat. e, from ; mar-
go, marginis, border or margin.
A genus of gasteropods, charac-
terized by a shell of simple coni-
cal form, but having a narrow
fissure, extending from the mar-
gin to near the summit, (p. 61,
Book v).
EMBERI'ZA. — Generic name of the
buntings.
EMBOSS. — fr. fr. bosse, a protuber-
ance. To cover with lumps or
bunches.
EMBOSSED. — Projecting in the cen-
tre, like the boss or umbo of a
round shield or target.
EMB RACING.— Amplexicaule ; clasp-
ing.
EM'BRTO. — fr. gr. embruon, from
bruo, I bud forth. A germ at the
early stages of development.
EMBRTO'TEGA. — fr. gr. embruon, em-
bryo; tegos, a covering. A small
callosity found in some seeds, not
far from the hilum ; at the timt
of germination it opens like a lid
for the emission of the radicle of
the embryo.
E'MERALD. — A mineral of a beauti-
ful green colour, much valued for
ornamental jewelry. It consists
of silica, alumina, glucina, oxide
of chromium, which is the colour-
ing matter, and a trace of lime.
EMER'SED. — Raised above water.
EMT'DIAJTS. — A family of reptiles
of the order of chelonia.
E'MYS. — fr. gr. emus, a water tortoise.
A genus of reptiles of the family
of emydians.
EXA'MEL. — The substance which co-
vers the crowns of the teeth. It
is of a white colour, very smooth,
and polished, and sufficiently hard
to strike fire with steel. Enamel
is thickest where the teeth are in
contact, and thinnest about the
neck of the tooth. The fibres of
the enamel are perpendicular to
the surface of the teeth, on which
they seem, as it were, planted.
This gives them a velvety appear-
ance when examined by the mi
croscope. The enamel has no
blood-vessels, and is not renewed
when removed.
EJ*CEPH'ALOX. — fr. gr. en, in ; kephale^
head. The contents of the cra-
nium : the brain and spinal mar-
row are at times included in this
term.
ENCRASICHO'LUS. — Specific name of
the anchovy.
ENCRI'XITES. — fr. gr. krinon, a \i\y.
A genus of echi'noderms. (p. 52,
Book viii).
ENDO. — fr. gr. endon, in, within. A
prefix.
EN'DOCARP. — fr. gr. endon, within;
karpos, fruit. An internal mem-
brane of fruits.
EN 'DOGEWS. "> fr. gr. endon, in ; g«.
EsrDo'cEifous. 5 nomai, to be pro-
duced. A plant which increases
in diameter by deposition in the
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
centre. Growing internally, (p.
22, Book vii).
ENDOPHLCE'UM. — fr. gr. phloios, bark.
The liber, or the innermost layer
of the bark of exogenous plants.
ENDOPHYI/LOUS. — fr. gr. phullon, a
leaf. Applied to the embryo of
plants in which the young leaves
are evolved from the leaf-sheath
or coleophyllum.
ENDOPLEU'RA. — fr. gr. pleura, side.
The innermost layer of the inte-
gument of the seed of plants.
ENPO'PTILE. — fr. gr. ptilon, a fea-
ther. Applied to the rnonocoty-
ledonous embryo, in consequence
of its plumule being enclosed
within the cotyledon.
EXDORRHI'ZOUS. — fr. gr. riza, a root.
The mode of germination of en-
dogenous plants, in which the ra-
dicles are emitted from within
the substance of the radicular ex-
tremity of the embryo.
EJTDO'SMOSE.— -fr.gr. osmos, impulsion.
The property by which a rarer
fluid passes through membranous
substances into a cavity or space
containing a denser fluid.
EN'DOSPEHM. — fr. gr. endon, within;
sperma, seed. The albumen or
body enclosing the embryo.
ENDOSPERMA'TIC. — Belonging or re-
lating to endosperm.
ENDO'STOME. — fr. gr. stoma, a mouth.
The foramen of the inner integu-
ment of the ovule in plants.
ENDOTHE'CIUM. — fr. gr. theke, a case.
The fibre-cellular lining of the
anther in plants.
ENGRAIT'LIS. — Generic natue of the
anchovy.
ENXEA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. ennea, nine ;
aner, stamen. Name of a class
of plants.
EnrtfEAGY'ifiA. — fr. gr. ennea, nine ;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants.
ENNEAPKT'ALOUS. — fr. gr. ennea,
nine ; petalon, a petal. Applied to
flowers which have nine petals.
ENO'JJJS. — Without joints or knots.
E'NSATE. ) fr. lat. ensis, a sword j
E'NSIFORM. £ forma, likeness. Gla-
diate. Sword-shaped ; lorate.
ENTEL'LTJS. — Lat. An ape, or gue-
non of Malabar.
EJTTHELMI'NTHA. — fr. gr. entos, with-
in ; elmins, a worm. Entozoa. In-
testinal worms.
ENTI'RE. — Even or whole on the
edge. When the opening of a
shell has neither a notch nor ca-
nal on its margin, it is said to be
entire, -i « ^*w
ENTOMO'LOGY. — fr. gr. entoma, in-
sects ; logos, discourse. That
branch of zoology which treats of
insects.
ENTOMO'PHAGOUS. — fr. gr. entoma, in-
sects ; phago, to devour. Insect-
eating.
E'NTOMO'STRACAWS. — fr. gr. entomos,
incised ; ostrakon, a shell. A di-
vision of the class of crusta'cea.
ENTOZO'A. — fr. gr. entos, in ; zoon, an
animal. Name of a class of
lowly organiaed creatures, which
live in the internal organs of other
animals.
E'OCE'NE. — fr. gr. eos, dawn ; kainos,
recent. In geology, a name for
the older tertiary formation, in
which the first dawn, as it were,
of existing species, appear, (p.
78, Book viii).
E'OLI'DIA. — A genus of gasteropods.
(p. 65, Book v).
E'OLIDIJB. — Lat. plur. of eolidia.
EPERZA'XUS. — Systematic name of
the smelt.
EPHE'MERA. — fr. gr. ephemeras, daily.
A genus of insects. Day-flies, so
called, because their last stage of
existence is generally limited to
twenty-four hours.
EPHE'MERJE.-— Lat. plur. of ephemera.
EPHE'MERAL. — fr. gr. epi, in ; emera,
a day. Lasting but a day. Fleet
ing, transient, momentary.
EPI. — Gr. Upon. A prefix, denot-
ing, over, all, through, besides.
E'PICARP. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; karpos,
fruit. The exterior portion of the
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
61
pericarp, commonly termed the
skin of the fruit.
EPICOROI/LE.E. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; co-
rolla. Name of a class of plants.
EPIUE'MIC. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; demos,
the people. A prevailing disease.
EPIDE'RMIC. — Relating or belonging
to the epidermis.
EPIDE'RMIS. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; der-
ma, skin. The external covering
of the derma. The cuticle or
scarf-skin.
EPIG'ENE. — fr. gr. genos, a kind. Ap-
plied to substances found natu-
rally crystallized in a form which
does not belong to themselves, but
to some other compound of the
same base.
EPI'GEOUS. — fr. gr. ge, the earth.
Applied to plants when they grow
close upon the ea"rth ; and to those
cotyledons which emerge from
the ground, and assume the colour
of leaves.
EPIGLOTTIS. — fr. gr. epi. upon ; glot-
tis, the glottis. A species of par-
tilaginous valve, situate at the up-
per part of the larynx, behind the
base of the tongue. It closes at
the moment of swallowing, and
thus assists in preventing the pas-
sage of alimentary substances
into the air tubes.
EPIGY'NEJE. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; gune,
pistil. Name of a class of plants.
EPIGY'NOUS. — That condition of the
stamens of a plant in which they
adhere both to the calyx and ova-
ri u m .
EPIMK'HAL. — fr. gr. meros, a part or
limb. The segment of an articu-
late animal which is above the
joint of the limb.
EPIPK'TALOUS. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; pe-
talon, petal. Inserted unon the
petal.
EPIPHYL'LOUS.— -fr. gr. «•/«', upon ; phul-
lon, a leaf. Inserted upon the leaf
of a plant.
EP'IPHYTE. — fr. gr. epi, upon ; phutos,
a plant. Applied to plants which
grow upon other plants.
E'PISPERM — fr. gr. epi, upon ; sper-
ma, seed. The integument of the
seed.
EPISPERMA'TIC. — Relating to epi-
sperm.
E'POCH.— The time from which dates
are numbered.
E'POCH OF FORMATION. — The period
of time during which a forma-
tion was produced, (p. 192, Book
viii).
EQ.UA'LIS. — Lat. Equal.
EQ.UA'TION. — fr. lat. cequare, to equal.
Equivalent. A mean proportion
between extremes.
EauiLi'sRiUM. — fr. lat.teque, equally;
libro, I balance. Equal balance.
EQ.UINOCTIAL FLOWERS. — Flowers
which open daily at stated hours.
EQ.UISE'TA. — Lat. plur. Equisetum.
. — fr. equise'tum, one
of the genera. A natural order
of plants.
. — fr. lat. equus, horse ;
seta, hair. A genus of plants.
E'Q.UITAJTT. — A mode of vernation,
or of arrangement of leaves with
respect to each other, in which
the sides or edges alternately
overlap each other.
E'Q.UITALVE. — When the two valves
of a bivalve shell are symmetri-
cal they are said to be equivalve.
(p. 97, Book v).
EQ.UUS. — Lat. A horse.
ERE'CTILE. — fr. lat. erigere, to become
erect. Susceptible of erection.
ERECTO - PATENT. — Between erect
and spreading.
E'REMACAU'SIS. — fr. gr. eremos, slow ;
kausis, burning. Slow combus-
tion or decay of organic matters
in air.
ERINA'CEUS — Lat. Hedgehog.
ERIX. — Generic name of a serpent.
ERMI'NEA. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to the ermine.
ERO'DE. — fr. lat. erodo, I gnaw. To
wear away, to corrode.
ERO'SE. — fr. lat. erosus, gnawed off.
Eroded. Gnawed ; having the
margin irregularly divided, as i.
3B
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
bitten by an animal : applied to
the margin of certain leaves.
ERO'SIOW. — The act of wearing
away.
EUO'SIVE. — Corroding, wearing.
EROSO-DENTATE. — The toothing be-
ing eroded.
ERRATIC BLOCK FORMATION. — (p. 93.
Book viii). See BOULDER.
ERU'PTIOX. — fr. lat. e, from ; rumpo,
I burst. The act of bursting from
any confinement.
EHYTHA'CUS — fr. gr. erithakos, an un-
known bird that was taught to
imitate words. The specific name
of the gray parrot.
ERYTHROCE'PHALUS. — fr. gr. eruthros,
red ; kephale, head. Red-head.
The systematic name of the wood-
pecker.
ESCA'RPMEJTT. — fr. it. scarpa, sharp ;
formed fr. lat. carpere, to cut or
divide. The steep face often
presented by the abrupt termina-
tion of strata where subjacent
beds "crop out" from under them.
ESCHAROIDES. — fr. gr. eschara, a fire-
place, a gridiron; «Wos, resem-
blance. Specific name of a coral.
ESCULE'XTA. — Lat. Esculent, edible.
E'SOCES. — Lat. plur. of esox.
Esox. — Lat. Generic name of the
pike.
ESPALIER. — fr. it. spalliere. Trees
which are attached to, and sup-
ported by a wall, in a row.
ESSE'JTTIAL OILS, or VO'LATILE OILS.
— Under this term are included
all those peculiar compounds ob-
tained by distilling vegetable sub-
stances with water ; and which
pass over along with the steam,
and are afterwards condensed in
the liquid, or solid form. They
appear to constitute the odorous
principle of vegetables.
ESTIVA'TIOJT. — See ^Estivation, (p.
76, Book vii).
ESTUARIES. — fr. lat. astus, the tide.
Inlets of the land, which are en-
tered by tides of the sea, and by
rivers.
ETJE'RIO. — fr. gr. etaireia^ a friendly
union. An aggregate fruit with
distinct ovaries and an indehis
cent pericarp, as the strawberry.
ETHE'RIA. — fr. gr. aitho, I shine.
Name of a genus of the family of
ostracea. (p. 75, Book v).
ETHE'RIJE. — Lat. plur. of Etheria.
ETHMOID. — fr. gr. ethmos, a sieve ;
eidos, resemblance. The ethmoid
bone, so called because its upper
plate is pierced by a considerable
number of holes, is situate at the
base of the cranium betwixt the
orbits.
ETHNOGRAPHY. — fr. gr. ethnos, a race ;
grapho, to describe. That depart-
ment of science which treats of
the origin, migrations and con
nexion of various peoples.
ETIOLATED. — Whitened ; bleached.
ETioLA'TiON.-The process of blanch-
ing plants, by. sheltering them
from the action of light.
EUNI'CE. — Gr. A genus of anneli-
dans.
EUOM'PHALUS. — fr. gr. eu, properly;
omphalos, the navel. A gastero-
pod mollusk. (p. 39, Book viii).
EU'PHOTIDE. — A rock composed es-
sentially of feldspar arid diallage.
EUPHORBIA'CEJE.— From eupho'rbium,
which was named in honour of
Euphorbus, physician to king Ju-
ba. Name of a family of plants.
EVEROREEW. — Applied to plants
which have persistent or peren-
nial leaves.
E' VOLUTE. — Unrolled.
EvoLu'TUS.-Lat. Unfolded, evolved.
ExALBu'MiNous.-Without albumen.
Applied to those plants the seedj
of which are without albumen.
EXCAVATED. — Hollowed out.
EXCE'LSA. — Lat. Noble, tall, stately.
EXCI'PULUS. — That part of the thai-
lus which forms the rim and basa
of the shields of lichens.
EXCO'RIATE. — Stripped of the bark
or skin.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
63
EXCORIA'TIOX. — Ir. lat. ex, from; eo-
rium, skin. An abrasion, mark of
a part having been rubbed from
the surface.
EXCO'RTICA. — Lat. Without bark.
EXCRE'TION. ) fr. lat. excer'nere, to
EXC-RE'TORY. £ separate from. The
throwing off" those matters which
are supposed to be useless, or in-
jurious to organic life, as the per-
spiration in animals. An excre-
tion is a secretion thrown off. An
excretory vessel, or duct, is one
which transmits the fluid, secret-
ed by a gland, either externally,
or into the reservoirs, in which it
has to be deposited. Excretory
organ means any organ charged
with the office of excreting : thus,
the skin is said to be an excretory
organ, because through it the per-
spiration or sweat is excreted.
EXCU'BITOR. — Lat. One that watch-
es by night. . A sentinel.
EXCU'RRENT. — fr. lat. excurro, to run
out. A mode of ramification in
plants in which the axis remains
always in the centre, all the other
parts being regularly disposed
around it. Projecting beyond the
edge or point of anything.
EXHALA'TION. — fr. lat. exkalare, to
throw out, to exhale. That which
exhales from any body. A func-
tion, by the virtue of which cer-
tain fluids obtained from the blood
are spread, in the form of dew,
on the surface of membranes, ei-
ther for the sake of being thrown
out of the body, or to serve for
certain purposes. The sweat is
an example of an exhalation as
well as of an excretion.
Exo. — Gr. A prefix signifying with-
out, on the outside.
Ex OCETUS. — Lat. Generic name of
a kind of flying-fish.
EXOCH'SATA — fr. gr. exochos, promi-
nent. A designation of the long-
tailed Crustacea.
EXO'GKNOUS. — fr. gr. geinomai, to be
produced. Outside-growing} in-
creasing in diameter by deposi
tion on the exterior. fr>. 22, Book
vii).
EX'OOESTS. — Exogenous plants.
EXO'GTHA. — fr. gr. exo, without; gt*-
ros, circle. Not circular. (Figs.
109, 115, 125, 135. Book viii). A
genus of unimuscular bivalves,
allied to the oyster.
EXO'LETE. — Worn or faded. Appli-
ed to shells.
EXO'SMOSE. — fr. gr. exo, outside ; 6s
mos, impulsion. The property by
which a rarer fluid passes through
membranous substances, out of a
cavity, into a vessel containing a
denser fluid.
EXO'TIC. — fr. gr. exotikos, foreign.
Anything introduced into one
country, from some other country,
is so termed.
EXPERIMENTUM cRccis. — Lat. Cru-
cial experiment. A decisive expe-
riment, so called because, like a
cross or direction-post, it directs
men to true knowledge.
EXPLO'SIOX. — A sudden bursting,
with noise and violence.
EXSE'RTED. — fr. lat. excertus, thrust
out. Applied to the stamens of
plants when they are longer than
the corolla.
EX'SICCATED. — Dried up.
EXSTI'PULATE. — Without stipules.
EXTEND. — To straighten ; to stretch
out. When a limb is straightened
it is said to be extended.
EXTEX siLE.-fr. lat. extendo, I stretch.
Susceptible of being extended or
lengthened. Having the power
to extend itself.
EXTEN'SORS — fr. lat. extenders, to
stretch out. The muscles whose
office it is to extend certain. parts.
EXTERNAL. — Outside. It is used in
relation to the middle line of the
body; for example, the little toe
is external, and the big toe inter-
nal ; the corner of the eye next
to the nose, is the internal corner
and the other the external corner
of the eye.
64
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
EXTER'NUS. — Lat. External.
EX'TINE. — fr. lat. extinus, outermost.
The outermost membrane of the
pollen-grain in plants.
EXTRA-AXILLARY. — Above, or on the
outside of the axils in plants.
EXTRA-EM'BRYO. — When the embryo
is simply applied to the surface
of the albumen or envelopes, it
is said to be extra (outside) from
its position.
EXTRA-FOLIA'CKOUS. — Away from
the leaves, or inserted in a differ-
ent place from tliem.
EXTRA'NEOUS. — Not belgnging to a
particular thing.
EXTRA'RIUS. — Lat. Outward, for-
eign, strange.
EXTUAVASA'TIOIT. — fr. lat. extra, out
of; vasa, vessels. Escape of flu-
ids from vessels containing them,
" and the effusion of those fluids
into the surrounding textures.
EXTREMITIES.— The limbs ; the legs,
arms, wings, fins, &c.
EXTROR'SE. — fr. gr. ex, outwards;
trepo, to turn. Applied to the an-
thers of plants which face out-
wards.
EXUDA'TIOX. — fr. lat. ex, from ; sudo,
I sweat. Transpiration.
Exu'vi*5. — fr. lat. exuo, to put off.
The sloughs or cast-skins, or shells
of animals.
EXUVIA'TIOX. — The process by
which crustaceous animals throw
off the old shell, and form a new
one.
FA'CET. ) Fr. The diminutive of
FACET'TK. ^ face. A small face:
the articular facette of a bone, is a
small circumscribed portion of its
surface.
FACIAL — fr. lat. fades, the face. Be-
longing or relating to the face.
Facial angle, (See ABTGLE).
FJEC'ULA. — See Fecula.
FA'LCATE. ) fr. lat. falx. a scythe
FALCIFORM. ) or sickle. Si*kle-
snaped. Linear and crooked.
FALCA'TO-SECTJWD. — Bent to one side
like a sickle.
FALCO. — fr. lat. falx, falcis, a hook, a
bill, a scythe. The falcon, so call-
ed from the shape of its beak.
Falco islandicus. The gerfalcon.
FAL'CONRY. — The art of hunting
with birds of prey.
FALSELY TWO-VALVED. — Having two
valves which are not of the same
nature as other valves.
FALUNS. — Fr. A name of certain ter-
tiary strata, abounding in shells,
resembling the " crag" of Norfolk.
FAMILIA'RIS. — Lat. Familiar. Bo-
longing or relating to a family.
Domestic.
FAMILY. — In natural history, the
term is applied to an assemblage
of several genera which resemble
each other in many respects.
FA'RINA. — Lat. Meal.
FARINA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. farina, flour.
Full of flour. Of the nature of
flour.
FARIXO'SA. — Lat. Meally; belong-
ing or relating to rneal.
FA'SCIA. — fr. lat. fastis, a bundle.
The aponeurotic expansions of
muscles which bind parts toge-
ther, are so termed.
FA'SCITE. — Lat. plur. of fascia.
FA'SCIATKD. — In conchology, filleted
or covered with bands.
FA'SCICLE. — A parcel or bundle: a
cluster. A form of inflorescence
resembling a corymb.
FASci'cuLATE.-Collected in bundles.
FASCI'CULI. — Lat. plur. of fasciculus.
FASCI'CULUS. — Lat. A bundle.
FASTI GIA'TA. — Lat. Sharpened at
top like a pyramid.
FASTI'GIATE. — fr. lat. fastigium, the
top of anything. A term in bo-
tany, to denote that the branches
of a tree are appressed to the
stem. In conchology, flat and
even at top.
FATHOM. — A measure of six feet.
FATJ'CES. — Lat. The swallow. The
gaping part, or orifice of a mono
petalous flower.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
65
FAULT. — fr. ger. fall, an accident,
sinking, fall. A sudden inter-
ruption of the continuity of strata,
in the same plane, accompanied
by a crack or fissure, varying in
width, which is generally filled
with broken stone, (p. 158. Book
viii).
FAU'NA. — fr. lat. faunus, the name
of a rural deity among the Ro-
mans. All animals of all kinds
peculiar to a country constitute
the fauna of that country.
FAU'N.K. — Lat. plur. of fauna.
FA'VOSE. — fr. lat. favus, a honey-
comb. Honey-combed; excavated
like a honey-comb.
FAWN. — The young deer.
FAUX. — Lat. The swallow or gul-
let-pipe. In conchology, what can
be seen of tlie cavity of the first
chamber of a shell, by looking in
at the aperture.
FE'CULA. — fr. lat. /<rx, a sediment.
When certain vegetable sub-
stances are bruised and mixed
with water, the pulverulent mat-
ter which subsides is called the
fecula; it is commonly of a starchy
nature, hence starch is often called
fecula.
FECULENT. — Muddy; thick with se-
diment.
FECUNDA'TION. — fr. lat. fecundo, to
make fruitful. The effect of the
vivifying fluid upon the germ or
ovum.
FELD'SPAR, or FELSPAR. — fr. ger.
feldspath. An important mineral
composed of si'lica, alu'rnina, and
potash, with traces of lime, and
often of oxide of iron. It enters
into the composition of granite.
FELUSPA'THIC. — Of the nature, or be-
longing to feldspar. Feldspathic
rocks are those of which feldspar
is the chief constituent, compris-
ing granite-, gneiss, claystone, la-
va, &c.
FEUS. — Lat. A cat. A genus of
mammals of the family of carni-
vora. Felis irbis. The panther.
FELT. — A sort of cloth made of
wool, or fur, united without weav-
ing. The fabric or foundation of
hats.
FEM'ORAL. — Relating to the femur.
FE'MUR. — Lat. The thigh bone.
FENES'TRA. — Lat. A window ; an
opening or hole.
FENK'STHATE. — Windowed. Appli-
ed to the incomplete dissepiment
of certain plants.
FERNS. — Th« filices; an order of
cryptogamic plants.
FEHO'CKS. — Thickly set with spines.
FERUI'FEROUS. — Containing iron.
FERHUOI'NEUS. — Lat. Ferruginous.
Of the colour of rusty iron.
FERRU'GINOUS. — fr. lat. ferrugo^ ru*t
of iron. Of the colour of ijnou
rust.
FER'TIM. — In botany, containing
perfect pistils and yielding fruit.
FERTILIZA'TIO*. — The function of
the pollen of plants upon the pis-
til, by means of which the ovules
are converted into seeds.
FIBER. — Lat. A beaver.
FIBRE. — fr. lat. fibra. An organic
filament, of solid consistence, and
more or less extensible, which
enters into the composition of eve-
ry animal and vegetable texture.
fibre'
FIBRIL'LOSE. — Covered with little
strings or fibres.
FIBRO-CARTILA'GINOUS. — Of the na-
ture of fibre-cartilage, which is an
organic tissue, partaking of the
nature of fibrous tissue, and of
that of cartilage. It is dense, re-
sisting, elastic, firm, supple, and
flexible.
FI'BROUS. — Composed of fibres.
FIB'ULA. — Lat. A clasp, a brace.
The name of the long, small bone,
situate at the outer part of the
leg: it assists materially in hold-
ing the foot in its proper position.
FICOI'DES. — fr. lat. jftcus, a fig-tree,
3B2
and gr. eirfos, resemblance,
cific name of a fossil plant.
Spe-
66
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Fi'cus. — Lat. A fig.
FIDDLE-LIPPED. — Having a lip re-
sembling the figure of a fiddle.
FIL'AMENT. — fr. lat. filamentum,
which is the diminutive of filum,
a thread. A very small fibre; a
fibril.
FILAME'NTOUS. — Of the nature of a
filament.
FILIA'HIA. — fr. lat. filum, a thread.
A family of thread-like cntozoa.
FILIA'RIJE. — Lat. plur. of filia'ria.
FI'LICES. — Lat. Ferns.
FI'LIFORM. — fr. lat. filum, a thread ;
forma, form, shape. Thread-like.
FIM'BRIATED. — fr. lat. fimbria. a
fringe. Fringed; having the mar-
gins bordered by filiform append-
ages.
FIST. — The limb of a fish, by aid of
which it balances itself, and di-
rects its course.
FINGER-PARTED. — In botany, divid-
ed into lobes, so as to resemble the
five fingers of the human hand.
FIN-RATS.— The rays or spines which
serve to sustain and spread the
fins.
FIO'RD. — Norwegian. A Frith.
FIOH'DUR. — Icelandic. A Frith.
FIRO'LA. — Name of a genus of gas-
teropods. (p. 67, Book v).
FIRO'L-K. — Lat. plur. of firola.
FIRMAME'NTUM. — Lat. The firma-
ment.
FIS'SILE. — fr. lat.yjrtrfo, I split. Ea-
sily split.
FISSI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. fastis, a cleft;
pario, to bring forth. A mode of
propagation by the spontaneous di-
vision of the body of the parent
into two or more parts, each of
which, when separated, becomes
a distinct individual.
FISSIPEN'NA. — fr. lat. Jindo, I split;
penna, wing. A genus of insects,
remarkable for the wings being as
it were split into separate parts.
FISSIPEN'NJE. — Lat. plur. of Fissi-
penna.
FISSIRO'STRES. — fr. lat. Jissura, a
slit, a fissure ; rostrum, a beak.
Fissure beaks. Systematic name
of a family of passerine birds.
FIS'SURE. — A crack, a separation;
a split.
FISSURE'LLA. — fr. lat. Jindo, I split.
A genus of gasteropods having a
split or opening in the top of the
shell.
FISSURE'LLA. — Lat. plur. of Fissu-
rella.
FISTULA'NA. — fr. lat. fatula, a pipe.
Name of a tribe of rnollusks. (p.
88, Book v).
FISTULA'NJS. — Lat. plur. of Fistu-
lana.
FIS'TCLAR. ") Cylindrical and hol-
FIS'TULOUS. 3 low, as the sterns
of grasses, &c.
FLAHEL'LIFORME. — fr. lat. flabellum, a
fan ; forma, form. Fan-shaped ;
plaited like the rays of a fan.
FLAC'CID. — Too limber to support
its own weight.
FLAGEL'LIFORM. — Like a whip-lash.
FLAM'MEUS. — Flame-coloured.
FLEX. — fr. lat. flectere, to bend.
FLEXI'LE. — Capable of being bent
in different directions.
FLEXOR. — A muscle whose office it
is to bend certain parts.
FIEXU'OSE.— In botany, having a bent
or undulating direction.
FLEXTJ'OSE-RECURVED. — Bent back-
wards in a flexuose manner.
FLEX'UOUS. — fr. lat. flecto, I bend.
Bending. Zigzag, with angles
gently winding. Serpentine.
FLEXU'RE. — A bending.
FLOCCI. — Lat. Little tufts like wool.
FLOC'CULI. — Lat. plur. of floculut, a
little lock of wool.
FLOETZ ROCKS. — fr. ger.flotz, a stra-
tum. A German designation of
the secondary strata, which were
supposed to occur most frequently
in flat, horizontal beds.
FLO'RA. — fr. lat. flora, goddess of
flowers. All the .plants of all
kinds of a country constitute the
flora of that country.
FLORJB HOROLO'GICJB. Flowers
which expand at particular hours
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
67
FLO'RAL. — Relating to flowers. Flo-
ral leaf is that one from the axil
of which the peduncle or pedicil
of a flower rises.
FLO'RAL ENVELOPES. — The calyx,
bractese, and corolla are so term-
ed, because they envelope the in-
ner parts of the flower.
FLO'RET. — A little flower. One in
an aggregate or compound flower.
FLORI'FEROUS. — Bearing flowers.
FLOS'CULAR. — Applied to tubular flo-
rets of compound flowers.
FLOS'CULOUS.— Applied to compound
flowers, consisting of many tubu-
lose monopetalous florets.
FLOWER. — That part in which the
germ of a new plant is produced.
FLU'ATE. — Any mineral containing
fluoric acid.
FLUVIA'TIC. — Of, or belonging to a
river.
FLUVIATI'LE. — Belonging to a river:
especially of frejh water.
FLUVIATI'LIS. — Lat. Fluviatile.
FOINA. — fr. lat. fuscina, formed from
fuscus, brown. The name of a
species of marten.
FOLIA'CEA. — Lat. Foliated.
FOLIA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. folium, a leaf.
Consisting of laminae or leaves.
Having the form of leaves.
FOLIA'TED. — fr. lat. folium, a leaf.
In form of leaves; leafy. In
conchology, bent into laminoe or
leaves.
FOLIA'TION. — Vernation. The man-
ner in which the young leaves of
plants are arranged in the leaf-
bud.
FO'LIOLE. — A leaflet.
FOL'LICLE. — fr. lat. folliculus, a little
bag. A diminutive glandular sac
or bag. A particular kind of
seed-vessel.
FOLLI'CULA. — fr. lat./o#is, a bag. A
little bag.
FO'LIUM. — Lat. A leaf.
FOOTSTALKS. — In botany, tlTfe stalks
of flowers, or of leaves ; used in-
stead of peduncle and petiole.
F'»HA.'jiKir. — Lat. A hole j frornybro,
I pierce. A cavity pierced through
and through. Also, the orifice ot
a canal.
FORAMINA. — Lat. plur. of foramen.
FORAMINI'FERA. — fr. lat. foramen,
hole ; fe.ro, I bear. Name of a
tribe of minute shells.
FOR'CEPS. — Lat. Pincers.
FORE-ARM. — That part of the upper
or anterior extremity, which ex-
tends from the elbow to the wrist.
FORFI'CULA. — fr. lat. forfex, a pair of
scissors. A genus of insects.
FORMA'TIOJJ. — Any group of rocks,
or mineral substances, of similar
character and age, in geology is
termed a formation.
FOR'MICA — Lat. An ant.
FORMI'CIDJE. — fr. lat. formica, an ant,
and the Gr. eidos, resemblance.
A family of insects.
FOR'XIX. — Lat. An arch. A term
applied to an assemblage of 'small
plates, or lamellae, which over-
arch the orifice of the flower in
certain plants. In conchology, the
excavated part under the umbo.
It likewise signifies the upper, 01
convex shell in the ostrea.
FOR' in c ATE — Arched.
FOS'SA. — Lat. From/ocifio, I dig. A
cavity of greater or less depth,
the entrance to which is always
larger than the base or bottom.
Fos's^. — Lat. plur. of fossa. The
nasal fossce, are two large, irregu-
lar cavities, situate between the
orbits below the cranium, and be-
hind the nose. The nostrils. The
temporal fossa, are the depressions
of the temples on the sides of the
cranium, towards its anterior up-
per part.
FOSSET'TE. — Fr. A little fossa, a
pit, a dimple.
FOS'SIL. — fr. lat. fodio, I dig. Any
organic body, or the traces of any
organic body, whether animal or
vegetable, which has been buried
in the earth by natural causes,
(p. 21, Book viii).
FOSSILI'FEROTJS. — Containing fossil*
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
FOS'SILIZKD.— Converted into a fossil.
FOSSO'RIAL. — fr. lat. fodio, I dig.
Eurrowing, digging: applied to
animals that dig in the earth.
FOURCHET'TE. — Fr. A fork. The
notch formed by the coracoid
bones and sternum, between the
wings of birds.
FOVI'LLA. — A viscous liquor con-
tained in the pollen-vesicle of
plants.
FRACTURE. — The surface presented
by minerals when broken ; the
fracture may be earthy, even, un-
even, conchoiJal, &c.
FHA'GILIS. — Lat. Fragile; easily
broken.
FHANGIBI'IITT. — The degree of fa-
cility with which mineral sub-
stances may be separated into
fragments ; the structure of some,
and the brittleness of other mi-
nerals render them easily fran-
gible. Soft minerals are not fran-
gible ; they are tough.
FRIABI'LITY. — fr. lat. /n'o, to crum-
ble. The property by which a
substance is capable of being
crumbled and reduced to powder.
f RICA'TOR. — Lat. A rubber.
FRINGIL'L^. — Lat. fringilla, a cha-
finch. A family of birds.
FRINGING REEF. — A coral produc-
tion, differing from the Barrier
Reef, in having a comparatively
small depth of water on the outer
side, and a narrower and shal-
lower lagoon channel, between it
and the main land.
FRITH or FIRTH. — A narrow and
deep inlet of the sea, especially
in a rocky and elevated coast.
FRONDES'CENCE. — fr. \at.frons, a leaf.
The time in which each species
of plants unfolds its leaves.
FHONDO'SE. — Leafy; leaf-like.
FRONS or FROND. — The leaves of
crypto'gamous plants.
FRONT. — The forehead. In conch-
ology, that part of a univalve
which is seen, when the aperture
is turned towards the observer.
FRONTLET. — The margin of the head
behind the bill of birds, generally
covered with stiff bristles.
FROSTED. — In botany, covered with
glittering particles, as if fine dew
had been congealed upon it.
FRUCTIFICA'TION. — The flower and
fruit with their parts.
FRUC'TUS. — Lat. The fruit.
FRUiT.-An assemblage of the germs
and protecting parts, destined to
become a new plant, or perfect
seed.
FRUGI'VORA.— fr.lat./rwges, all kinds
of fruit, serving for food, that the
earth brings forth ; vorare, to eat.
Animals that feed exclusively on
vegetable substances.
FRUGIVOROUS. — Fruit-eating.
FRUTES'CENT. — Becoming shrubby.
FRU'TEX. — A shrub.
FRU'TICOSE. — Shrubby.
Fu'ci. — Lat. plur. of fucus, a sea-
weed. *
FUCI'FEROUS. — fr. lat. fucus, sea-
weed ; voro, to eat. Applied to
animals which feed upon sea-
weeds.
Fu'cus. — Lat. Sea-weed.
FUGA'CIOUS. — That which lasts but
a short time.
Ftri/CRA. — Lat. piur. of fulcrum.
Props, supports ; as the peduncle,
petiole, &c.
FU'LCRUM. — Lat. A prop. The fixed
point on which a lever moves.
FU'LICA. — Lat. A coot.
FULI'GINOUS. — fr. lat. fuligo, soot or
smoke. Smoky.
FUL'VOUS. — Tawny; fox-coloured.
FUL'VUS. — Lat. Of a deep yellow,
or fawn colour.
FuM'AROLE.-Fr. Subterraneous emis-
sion of hydrogen gas in conse-
quence of the ebullition of certain
sulphurous waters. The hole or
orifice through which the gas es-
capes.
FUME^. — Vapours.
FUNGI. — Lat. plur. of fungus.
FUNGIFORM. — Fungus-like : applied
to certain mineral substances, as
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
69
calcareous stalactites which have
terminations like the head of a
fungus.
FUN'GOUS. — Resembling the sub-
stance of fungi or mushrooms:
growing rapidly and preternatu-
rally.
FUN'GUS. — Lat. A mushroom.
^UNC'TION. — fr. lat. fungor, I act.
The action of an organ or set of
organs. We see, for example, by
the function of the eye, and the
function or action of the ear ena-
bles us to hear.
FU'NICLE. — The little stalk by which
a seed is attached to the placenta.
FUNI'CULA. — fr. lat. funis, a cord.
A little cord.
FUNNEL-SHAPED. — Tubular at bot-
tom, and gradually expanding at
top.
Fun. — Soft hair of beasts. Skin
with soft hair, with which gar-
ments are lined for warmth, or co-
vered for ornament. (Sec DOWN).
FUR'CATE. — Forked.
FURFUHA'CEOUS. Scaly, mealy,
scurfy : resembling bran.
FCRO. — fr. lat. furvus, dark, black,
dusky. A name of a species of
marten, on account of its habit of
seeking game in dark holes or
burrows.
FUS'CATED. — Darkened ; obscured.
Fus'cous. — Blackish-brown.
Fus'cus. — Lat. Brown.
FUSIBI'LITY. — The property by
which solid bodies are capable of
assuming the fluid state on the
application of heat.
FTJ'SIFORM. — fr. lat./wsws, a spindle ;
forma, shape. Spindle-shaped:
intermediate between conical and
oval.
FUSION. — The act of melting ; state
of fusion, is being melted.
Fu'sus. — Lat. A spindle.
GADO'IDES. — fr. gr. gadus, a certain
fish ; eidos, resemblance. Syste-
matic name of a family of fishes.
GA'DUS. — Lat A codfish.
GAL'BULA. — Lat. Name of a bird.
GA'LBULUS. — Lat. A form of fruit,
resembling the strobile.
GALK'A. — Lat. A helmet. In Or-
thoptera, the extremity of the lobe
of the palpus, is so called. In
botany, the upper arched lip of
the corolla of several labiate flow-
ers.
GALF/NA. — fr. gr. galen, lead ore. A
mineral composed of sulphur and
lead : a natural sulphuret of lead.
GALEOPI'THECUS. — fr. gr.gale, a wea-
sel ; pithekos, a monkey. The
name of a tribe of mammals.
GALLS. — Protuberances found on
certain plants, occasioned by the
puncture of an insect.
GAL'LICUS. — Lat. Gallic. French.
GALLIXA'CEJSJ, — fr. lat. gallina, a hen.
The systematic name of an order
of birds.
GALLINA'CEOUS. — Belonging or relat-
ing to, or partaking of the nature
of the gallinacese.
GALLINA'ZA.— Sp. A turkey-buzzard.
GALL INSECTS. — Coccidce.
GALLI'NULA. — Systematic name of
the water-hens.
GALT. — A series of beds of chalk-
marl, found between the upper
and lower greensand in England.
GAL'LUS. — Lat. A cock.
GAL' VANISH. — From Galvani, a dis-
tinguished Italian philosopher.
That branch of electrical science
in which electricity is made ma-
nifest by the mediate contact of
different metals. Also, the phe-
nomena exhibited by living ani-
mal matter, when placed between
the poles or extremities of an ap-
paratus, for showing electricity by
the mediate contact of different
metals.
GAMOPE'TALOUS.— fr.gr. gamos, union ;
petalon, petal. A corolla com-
posed of a single piece is so called.
GAMOSE'PALOUS. — fr. gr. gamos, mar-
riage; sepal. Having the sepals
united together, forming a single
piece or sepal.
70
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
GANGEA'TICUS. ) Lat. Gangeatic ;
GANGE'TICA. £ belonging or re-
lating to the river Ganges.
GAN'GLIA.— Lat. plur. of ganglion.
GAN'GLIOIT. — fr.gr. gagglion, a knot.
A knot or enlargement along the
course of a nerve.
GA'STGLIOWEU'RA. — fr. gr. gagglion, a
nerve-knot ; neuron, a nerve. Ru-
dolphi's name for the articulate
and molluscous divisions of the
animal kingdom.
GANGLIO'NIC. — Consisting of, or re-
lating to ganglia.
GA'JVGUE. — A term applied to the
stones found in the cavities which
form the veins of metals, consti-
tuting the matrix of the ore.
GANOIDEANS. — Ganoid fishes, fr. gr.
ganos, splendour ; eidos, resem-
blance. A group of fossil fishes
found in the old red sandstone.
(p. 48, Book viii).
GAPING — A term applied to a bi-
valve shell, when any parts of
the margins do not meet each
other.
GA'RXET. — A mineral consisting of
silicates of alu'miria, lime, iron,
and manganese. There are seve-
ral varieties of this mineral. Gar-
net occurs imbedded in mica
slate, granite, and gneiss, and oc-
casionally in limestone, chlorite
slate, serpentine, and lava.
GAR'RULUS. — Lat. Chattering.
GAS. — fr. ger. geist, spirit. The name
given to all permanently elastic
fluids or airs, different from the
atmospheric air.
GA'SEOUS. — Of the nature of gas.
GA'STEROPO'DA. — Lat. Gasteropods.
GA'STEROPODS. — fr. gr. gas/cr, belly;
pous, foot. Systematic name of a
class of mollusks, comprehending
those which have a ventral mus-
cular disc, adapted for creeping.
GASTERO'PODOUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to gasteropods.
GA'STRIC. — fr. gr. gaster, the stomach.
Belonging or relating to the sto-
mach.
GASTROBRA'NCHUS. — fr. gr. gaster,
belly, bragchia, gills. Systematic
name of a genus of cartilaginous
fishes; because the openings of
their gills are situate under the belly.
GAS'TROCH^'NA. — fr.gr. gaster, belly;
chaino, I gape. A genus of bi-
valve mollusks, in which a large
hiatus or gape intervenes between
the closed valves, on the ventral
aspect of the animal, (p. 88,
Book v).
GAS'TROCHJE'ITS:. — Lat. plur. of gas-
trochaena.
GAULT. — A kind of clay. (p. 71,
Book viii).
GAZEL'LE, or GAZEL. — fr. Arab. al~
ghazal, gazelle. A species of an-
telope.
GECAR'CINUS — fr. gr. ge, the earth ;
karkinos, a crab. A genus of crus-
ta'ceans. Land-crab.
GECKO. — Name given to a species
of saurian of India, in imitation
of its cry.
GECKO'TIBA. — From gecko, and the
Gr. eidos, resemblance. Systema-
tic name of a family of saurians.
GECKO'TIAN. — Applied to animals of
the family of geckotida.
GE'JNE. — fr. gr. geinos, earthy. Hu-
mus or vegetable mould.
GEI/ATINE. — An animal or vegetable
substance, constituting the princi-
ple of jelly, and distinguished
from albumen by not becoming
consistent by heat.
GELA'TINOUS. — Of the nature of
jelly or gelatine: jelly-like.
GE'MIXATE. — Growing in pairs.
GE'MINI. — Lat. Twins.
GEMMA. — Lat. A leaf-bud.
GKMMA'CEOUS. — Belonging to a bud :
made of the scales of a bud.
GE'MMINAL. — fr. lat. gemma, a bud.
* Relating to buds.
GEMMI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. gemma, a
bud ; pario, to bring forth. Pro-
pagation by buds.
GE'MMULE. — A little bud.
GE'NERA. — Lat. plur. of genus.
GEWE'RJC. — Relating to geouf.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
71
GEWI'CULATE. — Knee -jointed ; bent
abruptly in the middle, as the
stems of many grasses.
GENI'CULUM. — Lat. A little knee or
joint. The node, or point of the
stem from which the leaves are
developed.
GE'NUS. — Lat. A kindred, breed,
race, stock, lineage, or family.
GEO'CORIS*. — fr. gr. ge, earth ; koris,
bug. A division of insects.
GE'ODES. — fr. gr. geodes, earthy. No-
dules of iron-stone, hollow in the
centre. Rounded pebbles having
an internal cavity, lined with crys-
tals, are also so called.
GE'OGENT. — fr. gr. ge, the earth, geino-
' mai, I beget. A science embrac-
ing the theories of the formation
of the entire universe.
GEOG'NOSY. — fr. gr. ge, the earth ;
gnosis, knowledge. Knowledge
of the mineral substances which
constitute the mountains, and strata
of the earth.
GEOGNO'STIC. — Relating to geognosy.
GEOLO'GICAL. — Relating to geology.
GE'OLOOIST. — One skilled in geology.
GE'OLOGT. — fr. gr. ge, the earth ; lo-
gos, discourse. That branch of
natural history, which treats of
the structure of the terrestrial
globe. It is divided into descrip-
tive geology ; dynamic geology,
which treats of the forces by
which the surface of the earth
has been modified; practical and
economic geology, embracing the
application of geological science
to mining, road-making, architec-
ture, and agriculture.
GEOPO'NIC. — Relating to agriculture.
GEOHT'CHUS. — fr. gr. ge, the earth ;
orusso, I dig. The lemming.
GEOTHE'RMAL. — fr. gr. ge, the earth ;
thermos, beat, temperature. Re-
lating to the temperature of the
earth.
GKH'FALCON. — fr. lat. gyrus, a circuit ;
falco, a falcon. The falcon that
flies in a circle. A kind of falcon.
GEB'MEIC. — The ovaty of plants ; the
germ Germen inferior, the fruit
below the flower.
GEH'MIXATK. — fr. lat. germen, a bud.
To grow after the manner of a
plant.
GERMINA'TION. — The process of the
development of the seed, and the
embryo which it contains.
GERMIJTA'TIVE. — Relating to germi-
nation.
GET'SEHS. — From an Icelandic word
signifying raging or roaring. Ce-
lebrated spouting fountains of
boiling water in Iceland, (p. 136,
Book viii)
GIANTS' CAUSEWAT. — A columnar
basaltic formation on the northern
coast of Antrim, in Ireland.
GIBBO'SITT. — fr. lat. gibba, a bunch.
A protuberance.
GIB'BOUS.— fr. lat. gibbus, a bunch or
swelling. Bulging or bunching
out.
GIGA'XTECM.
G^A'NTECS.
GIZ'ZARD.— The strong muscular sto-
mach of a bird.
GLABEI/LOUS. — Bald, without cover-
ing.
GLA'BER. — Lat. Glabrous.
GLAB'ROUS. — Smooth, bald, bare.
GLA'CIAL. — fr. lat. glades, ice. Be-
longing or relating to ice.
GLACIA'LIS. — Lat. Glacial.
GLA'CIERS. — Fr. Masses or beds of
ice formed in high mountains, de-
rived from the snows or lakes
frozen by the continued cold of
those regions, (p. 150, Book viii).
GLA'CIS.— An insensible slope or
declivity
GLA'DIATE. — Shaped like a short,
straight sword.
GLADIA'TOR. — Lat. A sword-player,
a fencer, a swords-man.
GLA'DIUS. — Lat. A sword. Syste-
matic name of a sword-fish.
GLAITCK. — fr. ger. glanz, splendour.
Applied to certain minerals which
have a metallic lustre.
GLAWD. — A word applied to desig-
nate those softish, granular, loba-
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ted organs, composed of vessels,
nerves, and a particular structure,
which form peculiar secretions.
In botany, a small mass of firm
cellular tissue, which is often
much harder and more coloured
than that which surrounds it.
Glands are termed utricular, when
they appear as elevated, distend-
ed bladders of the epidermis;
lenticular, when they exist as
brown oval spots upon the bark ;
internal, when of the nature of
cysts or nuclei, situated beneath
the cuticle.
GIAXDA'RIUS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to acorns.
GLAND'ULAR. — Composed of glands ;
resembling a gland.
GLAXI/ULAR PUB E'scExcE.-Hairs tip-
ped with little heads or glands.
GLAISTDULO'SUS. — Lat. Full of glands.
The bulbus glandulosus. is the se-
cond stomach of birds.
GLANS. — In botany, a compound in-
ferior fruit, with a dry pericarp,
one-celled, but proceeding from
an ovary which contains several
cells, and seated in a persistent
involucre called a cupule.
GLATJCE'SCENT. > fr. gr. glaukos, blue.
GLAU'CIITE. > Applied to the
GLAU'COUS ) bluish and pul-
verulent aspect which certain
plants present, such as the leaves
of cabbages, &c. Also used to
signify the bloom of the colour of
cabbage leaves, sometimes ob-
served on polished bodies.
GLAU'CUS. — fr. gr. glaukos, blue.
Name of a genus of mollusks.
(p. 66, Book v).
GIE'NOIJ». — fr. gr. glene, the pupil ;
eidos, resemblance. Any shallow
articular cavity, which receives
the head of a bone.
GLIM'MER. — A name occasionally ap-
plied to micaceous earths.
GLIS. — Lat. Dormouse.
GLOBA'TA. — Lat. Globate, rounded.
GLO'BOSE. "> Globe-like ; globular.
GLO'BULAR. j Globular distinct con-
cretion is applied to any mineral
which occurs in small round, or
roundish masses.
GZOB'TJIAR MASSKS. — Nodules. The
geological term for rocks of irre-
gular form, varying from a foot to
a mile or more, and imbedded
either in a stratified or massive
rock.
GLOB'ULE. — fr. lat. globulus, a small
globe.
GLOB'ULCTS. — A round deciduous
shield, formed of the thallus of
lichens, and leaving a cavity
when it falls off.
GIO'CHIDATE. — Armed with hairs,
the ends of which are split and.
hooked back, so that the hook is
double.
GLOCHIDA'TUS. — Lat. Glochidate.
GLO'CHIS. — fr.gr. glochis, a point. A
barb; a form of hair occurring in
plants : it is forked at the apex,
each division of the fork being
hooked.
GLOME.-A roundish head of flowers.
GLO'MERATE. — Gathered into a round
heap, or head.
GLOME'RTJLI. — Lat. dim. of glomi,
clews of thread. The heaps of
powdery bodies, which lie upon
the surface of the thallus of lich-
ens.
GLOME'RULUS or GLO'MUS. — A clus-
ter of capitula, enclosed in a com-
mon involucre.
GLOSSO'LOGT.— fr.gr. glossa, a tongue ;
logos, an account. The explana-
tion of the peculiar terms em-
ployed in any science.
GLOSSOPE'THA. — fr. gr. glossay a.
tongue ; petra, a rock. Odontope-
tre : lamiodontes. A designation of
the fossil teeth of certain fishes.
GLOT'TJS. — A small oblong aperture,
situate at the upper part of the
larynx.
GLUMA'CEOUS. — Applied to plants
whose flowers are like those of
grasses.
GLUME. — A husk. The envelope
of the floral apparatus in grasses.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
73
GLV'T«K.' — Lat. The viscid elastic [W self from the base of the calyx of
substance which remains when
wheat flour is wrapped in a
coarse cloth, and washed under
a stream of water, so as to carry
off the starch and soluble mat-
ters. It exists in many plants, and
• in animals. It is the basis of glue.
GLU'TINGUS.— Sticky, adhesive, gluey,'
Of the nature of glue.
GLYCT'MERA, or GLTCi'MEnrs.-Name
of a genus of bivalve mollusks.
(p. 86, Book v).
GNATHOTHE'CA. — fr. gr. gnathos, a
jaw ; theke, a sheath. The horny
covering of the mandibles of
birds.
GNEISS. — Ger. A rock resembling
granite in its constitution and ge-
neral characters; but it contains
more mica, and the colours are
banded, owing to the arrange-
ment of the minerals, especially
the mica, in parallel planes. In
consequence of this structure the
rock splits into coarse slabs, along
the planes of the mica, besides
having the cross fracture or cleav-
age of granite. It is often de-
scribed as a stratified or stratiform
granite. A rock intermediate be-
tween granite and gneiss is called
gneissoid granite. Gneiss is used
for building and flagging, (p. 25,
Book viii).
GOBIO. — Lat. A gudgeon.
GOM'PHOLITE. — fr.gr.gow/>Aos,anail ;
lithos, a stone. A name of certain
conglomerate rocks of the tertiary
series.
GON'OTLI. — fr. • gr. goggulos, round.
The grannies contained in the
shields of lichens.
GOW'IATITES. — fr.gr. gonia, an angle.
Fossil cephalopods characterized
by the angular markings, made
by the intersections of the walls
of the chambers with the outer
shell, (p. 38, Book viii).
GON'OPHORE. — fr. gr. gonos, offspring ;
phero, to bear. A prolongation of
the receptacle which elevates it-
certain flowers, and bears the nu-
merous stamens peculiar to them.
GOODHALLII. — Lat. of Goodhall.
GOSSY'PIUM. — Lat. Cotton.
GOC'HMAND. — Fr. A glutton. One
particular in his food.
Lat. Greek ; Grecian.
•--• I
IUS. £
3C
GRAIUS
GRAFTING. — An operation by which
one plant is joined to another in
vital union, (p. 60, Book vii).
GRALLATO'RIJE. — fr. lat. grallator, he
that walks on stilts; a stalker.
The systematic name of wading
birds.
GRA'LLE^. — Lat. Wading birds.
GRAMI'NE^E. — fr. lat. gramen, grass.
Systematic name of the family of
grasses.
GRAMIN'EOUS. — Culmiferous. Grass-
like.
GRAMPUS. — fr. fr. grandpoisson, big
fish ; pronounced by the Norrnans,
grapais, whence the English word
grampus. An animal of the or-
der of cetacea.
GRAN'IFOR.U. — Formed like grains of
corn.
GRA'NITE. — A crystalline aggregate
of quartz, feldspar, and mica. The
ingredients of granite vary in
their proportions, and the rock is
described as mica'ceous,'feldspathic
or qiwrtzose, according as mica,
feldspar, or quartz is the predo-
minating mineral. It is called
Porphyntic granite when the feld-
spar is uniformly disseminated in
large crystals; they appear like
white blotches, often of a rectan-
gular shape, over a worn surface
of the rock.
GRAXI'TIC. — Belonging or relating
to granite.
GRANI'YOROUS. — fr. lat. grawwm, a
grain, of any kind of corn ; t>orar«,
to eat. Grain-eating.
GRA'NULAR. — Giain-like; composed
of grains.
GRA'NULATED.— Marked by elevated,
closely-set, regular, grain-like dots.
74
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
GRA'IOTLE. — A diminutive grain.
GRA'PHITE. — fr. gr. grapho, I writeT
A mineral composed of carbon
and iron, constituting -carburet of
iron. It is known as plumbago,
and black lead; it is used in the
manufacture of lead-pencils.
GRAU'WACKE, and GRAYWACKE. —
Ger. Grey rock. A name given
to some of the older shales in the
geological series, and also to the
sandstones that accompany them.
GRA'YEL. — Small rounded stones va-
rying in size from a small pea to
a walnut, or something larger.
GRAVE'OLENB — Lat. Having a strong
odour.
GRAV'ITATE.— fr. lat. gravis, heavy.
To tend towards the centre of the
earth, as all bodies do from their
weight.
GREGA'RIOUS. — fr. lat. gregarius, of a
flock ; formed from grex, gregis, a
flock or herd. Going in flocks or
herds.
GREEN SAND. — A formation of thecre-
ta'ceous group, (p. 70, Book viii).
GREENSTONE. — A tough variety of
trap-rock, consisting chiefly of
hornblende.
GRES BKJAHHE. — Fr. A fine-grained
solid sandstone, sometimes white,
but more frequently of a red,
blue, or greenish colour. It is the
same as hunter sandstein.
GRIF'FIN. — fr. lat.gryphus, fr. gr.gru-
pos, curved, hooked. (A fabulous
monster, half lion, half bird.) The
systematic name of a tribe of
birds of prey. .;*.
GRILLO-TAL'PA. — fr. lat. grilus, a
cricket; talpa, a mole. Mole-
cricket.
GRIT. — A coarse-grained sandstone.
GROOVED. — Marked with grooves ;
furrowed, channelled.
GROSSIFICA'TION. — The swelling of
the ovary of plants after fertili-
zation.
GRU'MOUS. — fr. lat. grumus, a clot.
Clotted j collected into granular
masses, as the fecula in the stem
of the sago-palm.
GHUND'STEIN. — Ger. Greenstone or
diorite.
GRUN'NIENS. — Lat. Grunting like a
hog.
GRUS. — Lat. A crane.
GMT'LLUS, or GRILI.US. — Lat. A
• cricket.
GRY'PHEA — fr. gr. grupos, incurved.
A genus of fossil bivalves.
GRY'PHITE LIMESTONE.— A marl, so
called from containing gry'phea.
GRY'PHITENKALK:. — Ger. A name
sometimes given to zechstein. (p.
49, Book viii).
GRY'PHITES. — Generrc synonym of
the productus aculeatus. (p. 49,
Book viii).
GHY'PHUS. — Lat. A Griffin.
GUENON. — Fr. An ape.
GULO. — Barbarous Lat. The glutton.
GUM. — A vegetable product which
is tasteless and inodorous, and is
distinguished by being soluble in
water and insoluble in alcohol.
GYMNOCA'RPOUS. — fr. gr. guwmot, na-
ked ; karpos, fruit. Applied to a
form of fruit, which is not dis-
guised by the adherence of any
other organ than the calyx.
GYMNODON'TES. — fr. gr. gumnos, na-
ked ; odous, odontos, a tooth. Syste-
matic name of a family of fishes.
GYMNOSPE'RMIA. — fr. gr. gumnos, na-
ked ; sperma, a seed. Name of a
Linnsean order of plants.
GYMNOSPE'RMOUS. — fr. gr. gumnos,
naked ; sperma, a seed. Having
naked seeds.
GYMNO'TI. — Lat. plur. of gymnotus.
GYMNO'TCS. — Lat. The generic
name of the electric eel.
GYNJECE'UM. — fr. gr. gimeikeion, the
woman's part of the house. The
pistil: the female system of plants,
comprising the ovary, the style,
and the stigma.
GYNA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. gune, a wo-
man ; aner, a man. A class of
plants, (p. 102, Book vii).
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
75
G rxA'mmous. — Having the stamens
and style combined in one body.
GI'NOBASE. — fr. gr. gune, a woman ;
basis, a base. The receptacle in
plants, when it is dilated and
supports a row of carpels, which
have an oblique inclination to-
wards the axis of the flower.
GY'NOPHORE. — fr. gr. gune, pistil;
phoreo, I support. A support of
the pistil.
GYNOSTE'MIUM. — fr. gr. gune, a wo-
man; stemdn, a stamen. The con-
dition of the filaments in orchi-
daceae, in which they are com-
bined into a solid body, called the
columna.
GYPAE'TOS. — fr. gr. gupaietos, a kind
of eagle ; formed from gups, a
vulture, and aietos, an eagle.
GYPOGERA'NUS. — fr. gr. gups, a vul-
ture ; geranos, a crane. Generic
name of the Secretary bird.
GT'PSEOUS. — Of the nature of gyp-
sum.
GY'PSCM. — Native sulphate of lime.
The transparent varieties consti-
tute selenite, and the fine massive,
alabaster. Gypsum is converted
into plaster of Paris by heat.
GT'HATE. — fr.gr. guros, curved. Cir-
cinate. Curved in from apex to
base, as the fronds of ferns.
GY'RINUS. — fr. gr. guros, a circle. A
genus of coleopterous insects.
GYROG'ONITE. — fr. gr. gwros, curved :
gune, seed. The fossil seed-ves-
sel of plants of the genus Chara,
found in fresh water deposits.
GYHO'MA. — The annulus. The theca
of ferns. The shield or trica of
lichens.
GYROSE.—- Turned round like a crook.
HABIT. — The general appearance,
or features of a plant.
HABITAT. — Lat. He inhabits. Used
to designate the place in which
animals and plants are naturally
found.
HACKLY. — Applied to a fracture
which is peculiar to the malleable
metals, which, when broken, pre-
sent sharp, protruding points.
HJEMATO'PUS. — fr. gr. aimatopos,
having a fierce or sanguinary
look ; formed from aima, blood,
and ops, an eye. The generic
name of the oyster-catchers.
HAIRS OF PLANTS. — Minute filamen-
tous processes found on the cuti-
cle a-nd in the cavities of plants,
consisting of elongated cellular
tissue, and constituting, in the cot-
ton plant, the peculiar substance
which envelopes the seeds, and
is manufactured into muslin or
cotton cloth.
HA'LCYOU.— -fr. gr. alkuon, a king-
fisher. A genus of birds.
HAL'ICORE. — fr. gr. als, the sea ; kore,
a maiden. A sea-nymph ; a mer-
maid.
HALIO'TIDES. — Lat. plur. of Haliotis.
HA'LIOTIS. — fr. gr. als, the sea ; ons,
the ear. Name of a genus of gas-
teropods. (p. 60, Book v).
HAL'ITUS. — Lat. Vapour.
HALI^E'TUS. — fr. gr. als, the sea ; aie-
tos, an eagle. The specific name
of the fisher eagle.
HALMATU'RUS. — fr. gr. alma, a leap ;
oura, a tail. The kangaroo is so
called from leaping by the aid of
its tail.
HALTF/RES. — fr. gr. 'alteres, lumps of
lead held in the hands to aid per-
sons taking the exercise of leap-
ing, like the balancing-poles of rope-
dancers. Poisers. Two small bo-
dies, found beneath the aluiie
(little wings) of dipterous insects.
HA'MI. — Lat. plur. of hamus, a hook.
HA'MITES. — fr lat. hamus, a hook.
A genus of extinct ceplmlopods,
inhabiting chambered shells, los-
ing their spiral form after their
commencement, and then con
tinued for a considerable extent
with a single bend on themselves
like a hook. They are found in
the greensand of England.
HARDXESS. — The comparative mole
cular cohesion of minerals.
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
HAR'ENGUS. — Lat. The herring.
HAHMO'PHONOUS. — fr. gr. armos, a
joint; phuinomai, to appear. Ap-
plied to crystals in which the
lines of junction or joints are
visible.
HAR'PA. — Lat. A harp.
HARPT'IA. — Lat. fr. gr. arpitx, rapa-
cious. A harpy.
HA'STATE. — fr. lat. hastatus, spear-
shaped. Applied to leaves which
have three lance-shaped lobes,
(p. 36, Book vii).
HASTA'TO-LAN'CEOLATE. — Between
halbert-shape and lanceolate.
HASTATO-SAGITTATE. — Between hal-
bert-shape and arrow-shape.
HAULM. — Dead stems of herbs.
HATJS'TELLATE. — fr. lat. hau&tellum, a
little sucker. Applied to insects
that live by suction.
HEAD. — A dense, round collection
of flowers which are nearly ses-
sile.
HEART-WOOD. — Duramen. The hard,
interior portion of the stern and
branches of exogenous trees.
HELIA'NTHTTS. — fr. gr. elios, the sun ;
(intlios, flower. The sun-flower.
HE'LICES. — Lat. plur. of helix.
HELICI'NA.— A genus of gasteropods.
HE'LIX. — fr. gr. elix, a spiral, a whorl.
Name of a genus of gasteropods.
(p. 39, Book v).
HELMET. — The concave upper lip
of a labiate flower.
HELMINTHO'LOGY. — fr. gr. elmins, a
worm ; logos, a discourse. That
branch of zoology which treats of
worms.
HEMACH'RTMA. — fr. gr. aima, blood;
krumos, cold. Applied to animals
which have cold blood.
HEMI. — fr. gr. emisus, half. A pre-
fix, synonymous with the Lat.
semi, half.
HEMI'CARP. — The separated carpel
of a cremocarp.
HEMI'CTCLO'STOMA. — fr. gr. emisus,
half; kuklos, round ; stoma, mouth.
Name of a tribe of gasteropods.
(p. 49, Book v).
, a sheath.
A wing, of which one half is
opaque and firm, like an elytrum.
HEMI'GAMOUS. — fr. gr. gamos, mar-
riage. Applied to grasses when
one of two florets on the same
spikelet is either staminate or
pistilate, and the other floret is
neither.
HEMIP'TERA. — fr. gr. 'emisus, half,
pteron, wing. Name of an order
of insects.
HEMIP'TERA. — Lat. plur. of hsemip'
tera.
HEMI'SPHEHE. — fr. gr. emisus, half;
sphaira, sphere or globe. One
half of a sphere or globe, or glo
bular body; the brain is divided
into two hemispheres.
HEMI 'TROPE. — fr. gr. trepd, to turn.
Applied to twin crystals.
HEPTAGY'NIA — fr. gr. hepta, seven ;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants, (p. 103, Book vii).
HEPTA'TREMCS. — fr. gr. hepta, seven ;
trema, a hole or perforation. Ge-
neric name of certain fishes of
the order of cyclostorni.
HERB. — All that portion of a plant
which is not included in the root,
or in the fructification ; as the
stem, leaves, &o. A plant which
has not a woody stem.
HERBA'CEOUS. — In botany: herb-
like; that perishes every year.
An annual stem. Not woody.
HERBA'CEUM. — Lat. Herbaceous.
HERBAGE. — Every part of a plant
except the root and fructification.
HERBA'RIUM.— -A collection of .spe-
cimens of plants carefully dried
and preserved.
HERBI'VORA. — Lat. Herbivorous.
HERBIVOROUS. — fr. \&t.herba, plants ;
voro, 1 eat. Plant-eating; applied
to animals that feed on vegetables.
HERMA'PHRODITE. — fr. gr.ernies. Mer-
cury; aphrodite, Venus. An orga-
nized body combining in reality,
or appearance, the characteristics
of both sexes.
HERPE'TOLOGT. — fr. gr. erpeton, a
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
77
creeping thing, a reptile; logos, a
discourse. A treatise on reptiles.
HESPERI'DE or HJESPERI'DIUM. — A
form of fruit.
HKTEKO. — fr. gr. eteros, the other ;
01. e of two. A prefix denoting
difference.
HEfERocA'RPiEX. — fr. gr. karpos,
fruit. Applied to a form of fruit
which contracts adhesions with
other organs: commonly called
inferior.
HETEROCF/PHALOUS. — fr. gr. kephale,
head. Applied to those plants in
which some of the capitula are
composed entirely of male flow-
ers, and others of female flow-
ers.
HKTEROCE'RCAL. — fr. gr. 'eteros, op-
posite ; kerkos, a tail. Having the
spine prolonged, into the tail. (p.
49, Book viii).
HETERO'CLITAL. — Heterostrophe.
HETERO'GAMOUS. — fr. gr.gamos, mar-
riage. Applied to those capitula
in which the outer flowers are
neuter or female, and the inner
hermaphrodite or male.
HETEVOPANGLIA'TA.— fr. gr. gagglion,
a nervc-k.iot. The name given
by Owon io the mollusca.
HETRROGE'NEOUS. — fr. gr. genos, a
kind. Applied to substances the
parts of which are of different
kinds, and therefore of different
qualities.
HETEROME'HAX. — fr. gr. 'eteros, vari-
ous; meros, joint, leg. A section
of coleop'terous insects.
HETEROMO'RPHOUS. — fr. gr. morphe,
Ibnn. Of an irregular, or unusual
form.
HETERO'PHYLIA. — fr. gr. 'eteros, op-
posite; phrMon, leaf. Specific
name of a fossil plant, (p. 53,
Book viii).
HETERO'PHYLLOUS. — fr. gr. phullon, a
leaf. Applied to those plants
whose leaves are not of the same
form.
HE'TEROPO'^A Lat. Heteropods.
HE'TKROPOJM. — fr. gr. 'eteros, various ;
pous, foot. The name of an order
of gasterepods.
HETEHO'PODOUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to heteropods.
HETEROP'TERA. — fr. gr. 'eteros, vari-
ous; pteron, wing. A section of
the order hemip'tera.
HETEROP'TERA. — Lat. plur. of he-
terop'tera.
HETERO'RGANA. — fr. gr. organon, an
organ. A division of the vegeta-
ble kingdom, characterized by the
rotation or general motion of the
sap.
HETEROSTROPHE. — Reversed ; appli-
ed to shells whose spires turn in
a direction contrary to that which
is usual.
HETEHOTRO'PAL. — fr. gr. trepo, to
turn. Applied to that which has
a direction across the body to
which it belongs.
HEXA'GONAL. — fr. gr. 'car, six; gonia,
angle. Having six sides or angles.
HEXAPE'TALOUS. — Having six petals.
HEX'APOII. — fr. gr. 'ex, six ; pous, foot.
Having six feet. Applied to true
insects.
HIA'TUS. — Lat. A yawning, a gape.
The opening between the shells
of a bivalve which do not touch
when closed.
HIBERNA'CULUM. — A leaf-bud.
HIBER'NATE. — fr. lat. hibernare, to
winter, to be in winter quarters.
Animals that retire and sleep
throughout the winter are said to
hibernate.
HIBER'NATIOJT. — The act of hiber-
nating. Being in winter quarters.
HIBBERTJ. — Lat. of Hibbert.
HIEROFALCO. — Lat. Gerfalcon.
HIEROGLYPHIC. — fr. gr. ieros, sacred ;
gluphd, I engrave. Sculpture-
writing. The name is more pe
culiarly applied to a species of
writing, in use among the ancient
Egyptians.
HILOFERE. — The internal intepn-
ment of the seed, from the inse*
tion of the hilum on this part r4
the testa.
7*
3C2
78
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
HI'LTJM. — Lat. Umbilicus. The scar
or mark on the seed, indicating
the point by which it is attached
to the placenta. The base of the
seed.
HIND. — A female deer.
HINGE MARGIN. — The hinge of bi-
valves, composed of the ligament,
the cartilage, and the teeth.
HIPPO'CAMPUS. — fr. gr. ippos, a horse ,
kampe, crookedness. Systematic
name of the sea-horse.
HIPPO'GLOSSUS.— fr.gr. ippos, a horse ;
glossa, tongue. Systematic name
of the holibut.
HIPPO'NYX. — fr.gr. ippos, a horse;
onux, nail. Name of a genus of
gasteropods. (p. 58, Book v).
HIPPOPO'TAMI. — Lat. plur. of hippo-
potamus.
HIPPOPO'TAMUS.— fr. gr. 'ippos, horse ;
potamos, a river. The river-
horse.
HiPPOTHE'RiUM.-fr.gr. ippos. a horse ;
therion, a beast. A fossil quadru-
ped allied to the horse.
HI'PPURITES. — fr. gr. ippouris, horse-
tail : a certain fish. A genus of
extinct rnollusks, supposed to be
bivalve. The principal valve is
of a sub-cylindrical, or elongated
conical form, traversed by one or
more internal longitudinal ridges,
and closed by a small sub-circu-
lar valve like an operculum. (p.
68, Book viii).
HIRCUS. — Lat. A male goat.
HIRSU'TA. 7 T XT-
>• Lat. Hirsute.
HIRSU TUS. 3
HIRSUTE. — Covered with soft hairs.
HISPID. — Rough with stiff hairs.
HISTO'LOGY. — fr.gr. istos, a tissue ;
logos, a discourse. The doctrine
of the tissues which enter into
the formation of an animal, and
its various organs.
HOAR-FROST. — Frozen dew.
HOARY. — Covered with white down.
HOLERA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. Ao/ws, pot-
herbs. Suitable for culinary pur-
poses.
HOLO'PTICUS, and HOLOPTY'CHIUS. —
fr. gr. olos, the whole ; ptuchios,
folded. A fossil fish of the ganoid
order, the enamelled surface of
whose scales was marked by large
undulating furrows. It had sharp
conical teeth, (p. 44, Book viii).
HOMIO'MERAL. — fr. gr. omios, similar ;
meros, a part. Applied to two
substances of which all the parts
are exactly alike.
HO'MO. — fr. gr. omos, one and the
same. A prefix denoting resem-
blance.
HO'MOCERCAL. — fr.'gr. omos, joined;
kerkos, a tail. Applied to the tail
appended to the termination of
the spine, as in most of the fishes
now existing, (p. 49, Book viii).
HOMODRO'MAI. — fr. gr. dromos, a
course. Applied to the peduncles
of the cyme of monocotyledons,
when the direction of the spire is
the same as that of the central
stem : the antidromal direction is
the reverse of that of the central
stem.
HOMO'GAMOUS. — fr. gr. gamos, mar-
riage. Applied to those capitula
in which all the flowers are her-
maphrodite.
HOMOGA'NGLIA'TA. — fr. gr. gagglion,
a nerve-knot. Mr. Owen's name
for the articulata of Cuvier; the
annulosa of Macleay ; and the di-
ploneura of Grant.
HOMOGE'NEOUS. — fr.gr. genos,a kind.
Applied to substances consisting
of similar parts and properties.
HOMOLO'GUE. — fr. gr. logos, a de-
scription. The same organ in
different animals under every va-
riety of form and function.
HOMO'MALLOUS. — fr. gr. ma/los, hairs.
Applied to spikes in which all
the flowers incline to one and the
same side.
HOMOMO'RPHOTTS. — fr. gr. morphe,
form. Of the same, or similar
form. Applied to certain neurop-
terous insects, which, in their lar-
va state, are similar in form to the
perfect insect, though wingless.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
79
HOMOP'TERA. — fr. gr. omos, same ;
pteron, wing. An order of in-
sects.
HOMOP'TER^E. — Lat. plur. of homop'-
tera.
HOMOP'TERAN. — Of the order ho-
mop'tera.
HOMO'RGANA. — fr. gr. organon, an or-
gan. One of the primary classes
of plants, as divided with refer-
ence to the rotation, or general
motion of the sap.
HOMOTRO'PAL. — fr. gr. trepo, to turn.
Having the same direction as the
body to which it belongs, but not
being straight; applied to the em-
bryo of a seed.
HONEY-DEW. — A sweetish substance
ejected by aphides on the leaves
of plants ; also a substance seen
hanging occasionally in drops
from the points of leaves of plants.
HONEY-PORE. — The pore in flowers
which secretes honey.
HONEY-SCALES. — The scales in flow-
ers which secrete honey.
HONEY-SPOTS. — The spots in flowers
which secrete honey.
HOODED. — Curved or hollowed at
the end into the form of a hood.
HOR'DEUM. — Lat. Barley.
HORN. — Any long subulate process
in a flower.
HO'RNBLENDE. — fr. ger. horn; blen-
den, to dazzle : having the lustre
of horn, jlmphibole. A mineral
of dark green or black colour,
abounding in oxide of iron, and
entering into the composition of
several of the trap rocks. There
are three varieties; common, horn-
bleride-schist, and basaltic horn-
blende.
HORNBLENDE SCHIST. — A slaty va-
riety of hornblende.
HO'RRIDA. — Lat. Horrid ; spiny.
HORTULA'NA. — Specific name of a
bunting.
HORTUS srccus. — Lat. A dry gar-
den. Herbarium.
HU'MERAL CINCTURE. — A chain of
bones, forming a sort of belt,
which sustains the pectoral fin,
anterior extremity, of fishes.
HU'MERUS. — Lat. Shoulder. Name
of the bone placed between the
shoulder and elbow.
HUMMOCK. — A circular and elevated
mound. A sheet of ice, which
presents a surface generally level,
but here and there diversified by
projections, arising from the ice
having been thrown up by some
pressure to which it has been sub-
jected.
HU'MULUS. — Lat. Hops.
HU'MUS. — Lat. Moist earth. Vege-
table earth or mould.
HUSKS. — The dry envelopes of ei-
ther flowers or fruits.
HYAL^'A. — fr. gr. ualos, glass. A ge-
nus of beautiful pteropods, re-
markable for the transparency and
delicacy of the shell.
HY'ALINE. — fr. gr. ualos, glass. Of
a glassy, thin and semi-transparent
substance. The pellucid sub-
stance which determines (lie spon-
taneous fission of cells.
HY'BODONS. — fr. gr. uios, bent out-
wards; orfows, tooth. A division
of the shark family, (p. 44, Book
viiij.
HY'BRID. — Mule; partaking of the
nature of two species.
HY'DRA,-HYDRO. — fr. gr. udor, water.
A prefix, denoting the presence of
water.
HY'DRA. — A minute fresh water
polyp.
HY'DRATED. — fr. gr. 'urfor, water.
Containing water.
HY'DATIDS. — fr. gr. 'udatis, a blad-
der. Name of certain entozoa.
HYDA'TIS — Lat. fr. gr. uddr, water.
Specific name of a mollusk.
HYDRAU'LIC. — fr. gr. ud6r, water;
aulos, a pipe. Relating to liquids
in motion. Hydraulics is that
branch of natural philosophy or
physics which treats of force of
water and other liquids in mo-
tion.
HYDROCHLO'HIC ACID.— An acid com
80
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
posed of hydrogen and chlorine,
formerly known as muriatic acid.
HT DBOCO msm. — fr. gr. 'wrfor, wa-
ter ; koris, a bug. A tribe of in
sects, including the water-bug.
HYDROCYA'NIC. — fr. gr. udftr, water ;
kuanos, blue. The name of an
intensely poisonous and peculiar
acid.
HYD'ROGEIT. — fr. gr. uddr, water;
gennaein, to generate. A colour-
less, tasteless, inodorous gas, one
part of which, by weight, com-
bined with eight parts of oxygen,
forms water ; — combined with
sulphur, it constitutes sulphuretted
hydrogen; — and with carbon, car-
bur -etted hydrogen, the gas used
for illumination.
HYDRO'PHAWOUS. — fr. gr. uddr, wa-
ter ; phaino, to shine. Applied to
certain stones which become trans-
lucent when placed in water.
HYDROSTA'TIC. — fr. gr. uddr, water ;
stab, I stand. Relating to water
in a state of rest. Hydrostatics
is the science which treats of the
equilibrium and pressure of wa-
ter and other liquids.
HYDROZO'A. — Hydriform polyps.
HYDROPHYTES. — Water-plants.
HYD'RUS. — Lat. A water-snake.
HYEMA'LIS.— Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to winter.
HYLA. — fr. gr. ule, a wood ; trees.
Systematic name of the tree-frog.
HYLO'TOMOUS. — fr. gr. ulotolomos, a
wood-cutter. Applied to insects
that penetrate wood.
HYME'NIUM. — fr. gr. umen, a mem-
brane. That part of a fungaceous
plant in which the sporules im-
mediately lie.
H YMENOP'TERA.— fr. gr. umen, a mem-
brane ; pteron, wing. Systematic
name of a class of insects, cha-
racterized by membranous wings.
HYMEXOP'TEHJE. — Lat. plur. of Hy-
menoptera.
HY'oin.-fr. gr. u ; eidos, resemblance.
Resembling the shape or form of
the letter U. The os hyoides, the
hyoid bone, is a very moveable
bony arch, placed horizontally in
the substance of the soft parts of
the neck, at the root of the tongue.
It does not articulate with any
other bone of the skeleton, and is
only connected to it through the
medium of muscles and liga-
ments. The general characters
of the hyoid bone, are the same
in all vertebrate animals. In
fishes, its branches are composed
of several pieces, and give sup-
port to the branchiostegous rays.
HYOSCIA'MUS. — fr. gr. us, a swine ;
kuamos, a bean. Henbane.
HYPER. — fr. gr. uper, over or above.
A prefix denoting above or excess.
HY'PERSTHEUE. Labrador horn
blende. It contains iron, si'lica
and magnesia. Hypersthene rock
differs from common hornblende
only in its foliated crystallization,
and its pearly or metallic-pearly
lustre. It is a very tough rock,
with a structure resembling gneiss.
HYP,-HYPO. — fr. gr. upo, under. A
prefix denoting under or a defi-
ciency.
HYPXOIDES. — fr. gr. upnon, a sort of
moss; eidos, resemblance. Spe«
cific name of a fossil plant.
HYPOCRATE'RIFORM. — fr. gr. upo, un-
der ; krater, cup ; forme, shape.
Salver-shaped.
HY'POGENE. — fr. gr. upo, under; gei-
nomai, I am formed. A class of
rocks which have not assumed
their present form and structure
at the surface of the earth, but
are apparently of igneous origin
and thrust up from below.
HYPOGY'KOUS. — fr. gr. upo, under;
gune, pistil. Arising beneath the
ovary.
HYPOPE'TALOUS. — Relating to hypo-
petaleae.
HYPOPETA'LEJE.— fr. gr. upo, beneath ;
petalon, petal. Name of a class
of plants.
HYPOPH'YLLOUS. — Under the leaf
HYPO'THESIS. — fr. gr. upo, under;
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
81
tiihemi, I place. A theory, or sup-
position. A rational conjecture.
HYPO'THETICAL. — Of the nature of
hypothesis.
HYPOZO'IC SYSTEM. — fr. gr. zoon, an
animal. A geological term ap-
plied to those rocks of crystalline
slates which occur especially in
the central ridges of mountain
chains. They contain no organic
remains.
HYPSIPRYM'NUS. — fr. gr. ipsi, high;
prumnos, behind, extreme. The
Potoroo.
HY'RAX.-- fr.gr. urax, a shrew mouse.
A genus of mammals.
HYSTERA'JTTHOUS. — fr. gr. usteron,
afterwards; anthos, a flower. Ap-
plied to those plants in which the
leaves appear after the flowers.
HYSTIU x. — fr. gr. ustrix, formed from
tts, a hog; thrix, a bristle. The
porcupine.
IA'NTHIJCA. — See Janthina.
IA'NTHIS-^. — Oceanic shells.
I'BEX. — Lat. A wild goat. A ge-
nus of mammals.
I'BIS. — A genus of birds.
ICEBERG.— A floating mountain of ice.
ICED. — In botany; covered with par-
ticles like icicles.
ICE DROPS. — In botany; transparent
processes resembling icicles.
ICHNEUMON^ — .fr. gr. ichneuo, I pur-
sue, I follow in the track. The
Mangouste, or Pharaoh's rat.
ICHTHYO'COLIA. — fr. gT.ichthus, a fish ;
holla, glue. Fish glue. A kind
of glue prepared from fishes.
ICIITHYO'LOGIST. — fr. gr. ichthus, a
fish ; logos, a discourse. One skill-
ed in ichthyology.
ICHTHYO'LOGY.— fr. gr. ichthus, a fish ;
logos, a discourse. The natural
history of fishes.
ICHTHYO'SAUBUS. — fr. gr. ichthus, a
fish; saura, lizard. Fish-lizard.
Systematic name of a kind of fos-
sil, (p. 57, Book viii).
IcosAN'jmous.-Having about twenty
stamens growing on the calyx.
IC'TERUS. — Lat. Name of a yellow
bird, which, if one see, being sick
of the yellow jaundice, the perscn
recovers, and the bird dies. Sys
tematic name of the oriole.
IDJE'US. — Lat. Belonging or relat
ing to Mount Ida.
IGNEOUS HOCKS. — Are those rocks
whose structure is attributable to
the influence of heat, such as
granite and basalt. They are
distinct from stratified rocks, or
those formed by deposits from
water.
I'GUANA. — Name of a kind of sau-
rian.
I'GUANIAN. — Applied to saurians of
which the type is the Iguana.
I'GUANIDA. — From the aboriginal
name, iguana, and Gr. eidos, re-
semblance. A family of sauri-
ans.
IGUA'NODOX. — From iguana, and the
Gr. odous, tooth. An extinct ge-
nus of gigantic herbivorous rep-
tiles, discovered in the south of
England.
IL'IAC. — fr. lat. ilia, the flank. Re-
lating or belonging to the flank or
iliurn.
ILIA'CUS. — Lat. Name of a thrush.
IL'IUM. — The haunch bone.
ILLY'RICA. — Lat. Illyrian ; belong-
ing or relating to Illyria.
IMA'GO. — Lat. Image. Name given
to. insects after they have com-
pleted their metamorphosis.
IMBEDDED. — A mineral found in a
mass of another substance is said
to be imbedded.
IMBIBI'TJON. — fr. lat. in, in; 6160, I
drink. The act of absorbing or
soaking in.
IMBRICA'TA. — Lat. Imbricate, tile
like. Arranged like tiles.
IMBIUCATA'RIA. — Lat. As if imbri-
cated, or tile-like.
IMB'RICATE. — fr. lat. imbrex, a roof-
tile. Laid one over the other like
tiles or shingles.
IMPARI-PINNATE. — In botany; pin
nate with an odd leaf.
82
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
IMPENETRABILITY. — That property
by which a body occupies any
space, to the exclusion of every
other body.
IMPEN'NATE. — fr. lat. tm, priv.; pen-
no, a wing. Wingless.
IWPENNIS. — fr. lat. penna, a wing.
Systematic name of those pen-
guins which have very short
wings.
IMPERFECT. — In botany; wanting the
stamen or pistil.
IMPERFORATED. — Not pierced with
a hole; wanting an umbilicus.
IMPEHIA'LIS. — Lat. Imperial, royal.
IMPRE'SSA. — Lat. Impressed, en-
graven, marked.
iN-EauiLA'TERAL — Applied to bi-
valves, when the anterior and
posterior sides make different an-
gles with the hinge.
INJEQ,UIVA'LVIS. — Lat. Inequivalve.
Having unequal valves; having
one valve more convex than the
other.
IN ARTI'CULATE. — In conchology ; in-
distinct, not properly formed.
INCANDE'SCENCE. — fr. lat. incandes-
cere, to grow very hot, to be in-
flamed. The condition of great
heat, showing a certain light, as if
the heated substance itself were
burning. Melted.
INCANDE'SCENT. — Greatly heated.
INCARNATE. — In botany; flesh-co-
loured.
INCINERA'TION. — fr. lat. incinero, to
reduce to ashes. The reducing
to ashes by burning.
fNci'sA. — Lat. Cut, carved, cut off.
INCISED. — Cut; separated by inci-
sions.
INCISOR. — fr. lat. incido, I cut. Ap-
plied to those teeth which occupy
the anterior or centre of the upper
and lower jaws, because they are
used for cutting the food.
INCLINATION OF BEDS. — Dip. (p. 185,
Book viii).
INCLUDED. — Wholly received or con-
tained in a cavity.
INCLU'SA. — fr. lat. include, I enclose.
Name of a tribe of acephalous
rnollusks.
INCOHE'RENT. — fr. lat. in, not; am,
with ; h&reo, I adhere. Loose,
wanting cohesion.
INCOMPLETE. — Flowers destitute of
a calyx or corolla are termed in-
complete.
INCOMPRESSIBI'LITT.— That property
of substances, whether solid or
fluid, by which it resists being
pressed or squeezed into a small-
er bulk.
INCRA'SSATED. — Becoming thicker
by degrees. Larger toward the
end.
INCRUSTA'TION. — fr. lat. crusta, a
crust. A covering like a crust.
INCRUS'TED. — Anything covered by
a mineral substance is said to be
incrusted : crusted over.
INCUBA'TION. — fr. \at.incubatio. The
act of the female of oviparous
animals, in sitting and remaining
on her eggs for the purpose of
hatching them.
INCU'MBENT. — fr. lat. incumbo, to lie
upon. Applied to the cotyledons
of those cruciferous plants, which
are folded with their backs upon
the radicle. Lying against, 01
across.
INCTJRV'ED. — When a part is turned
inwards.
INCURVE -RECURVED. — Bending in
wards, and then backwards.
INDEHI'SCENT. — fr. lat. m, not; de-
hisco, I gape. Applied to those
fruits, in which the pericarp, when
arrived at maturity, continues per-
fectly closed. See DEHISCENT.
INDENTED. — Marked by depressions,
dots, cavities or lines: unequally
marked.
INBEX. "> fr. lat. indicare, to point
INDICA'TOR. j out, to indicate. The
fore-finger, the index-finger.
INDI'GENOUS. — Native to a country.
IN'DICA. > ^ ^.^
IN DICUS. £
INDUME'NTUM. — The plumage or
clothing of birds.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
83
INDURATED. — Hardened.
I.YDU'SIAL. — fr. lat. indusium, a tunic.
Applied to a fresh-water lime-
stone, which contains incalculable
numbers of indusia or cases of
larvae of the phryganea.
INDU'SIUM. — fr. lat. induo, to putori.
That portion of the epidermis of
ferns which covers the sori. Also,
applied to the peculiar form of
the hairs of the style in certain
plants, when they are united into
a cup, enclosing the stigma.
INDU'VIJE. — fr. lat. induvwe, clothes.
The withered remains of leaves,
which, not being articulated with
the stem, do not fall off, but de-
cay with it.
INDU'VIATE. — Covered with indu-
viae.
INEQ.UILA'TERAL. — fr. lat. inaqualis,
unequal ; latus, lateris, side. Hav-
ing unequal sides. When the an-
terior and posterior sides of a
shell make different angles with
the hinge.
lNE'q.inv*LVE — Where one valve is
more convex than the other, or
dissimilar in other respects, as in
the common oyster.
INFERIOR. — Below. A calyx or co-
rolla is inferior when it comes out
below a germ. A fruit or ovary
is termed inferior, when the ca-
lyx adheres to its walls. That
valve of adherent bivalves by
which they are united to other
substances is termed the inferior
valve.
IN'FEROBRANCHIA'TA — fr. lat. inferus,
below ; branchia, gills. Name of
an order of gasteropods which
have the branchiae below the
mantle, (p. 62, Book v).
INFILTRA'TION. — fr. lat. filtrare^ to
filter. The act of filtering through,
producing an accumulation of li-
quid.
INFLA'TED. — Blown up and hollow.
INFLE'XED — Bending inward.
INFLORE'SCENCE. — fr. lat. infloresco, to
flourish. The flowering of plants.
The arrangement of flowers upon
a branch or stem.
INFO'LDED. — Folded in.
INFUNDI'BULAR. ") fr. lat. infundi-
INFUNDIBU'LIFORM. j bulum, a fun-
nel. Funnel-shaped.
INFUSO'RIA. — fr. lat. infundo, I pour
in. A class of microscopic ani-
malcules, which are for the most
part developed in infusions of
decayed animal and vegetable
substances.
INFUSO'RIAL. — Belonging or relating
to the infusoria.
INGE'STA. — Food taken into the sto-
mach.
INGLU'VIES. — Lat. The crop of a
bird.
INNA'TE. — A botanical term, applied
to the anther, when it is attached
by its base to the apex of the
filament.
INOCE'RAMI'S — fr. gr. en, with ; ke-
ramos, earthenware. A genus of
bivalve fossil shells, which are
chiefly characterized by their
hinge and the fibrous structure of
their constituent substance. The
shell, in consequence of the ver-
tical arrangement of the fibres,
readily breaks to pieces, and it is
often extremely difficult to extri-
cate a specimen with the hinge
and beaks tolerably entire.
IN OPE'RCTTLAR. — fr. lat. in, not ; oper-
culum, a lid. A term applied to
univalve shells which have no
operculum.
INORGA'NIC — Without organs or or*
ganization.
INOSCULA'TION. — fr. lat. in, in ; oscu-
/wm, a little mouth. Anastomosis.
The union of vessels.
IN PLACE. — In their original position
where they were formed.
INQ.UIXA'TA. — Lat. Stained, dirty.
INSECT. — fr. lat. aecare, to cut. The
generic name of small animals
whose body is, as it were, divi-
ded or cut into several parts ; as
the chest and belly. ^ Insects have
neither a circulating apparatus,
84
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
nor vertebrae ; but they possess an
apparatus for breathing, have
jointed extrem':,ies, and generally
have wings.
INSEC'TA. — Lat. Insects.
INSECTIVO'RA. — Lat. Insectivorous.
lNSECTi'voRous.-^-fr. lat. insecta, in-
sects ; voro, I eat. Insect-eating.
INSERT'KD. — fr. lat. insere're, to en-
graft. Attached ; set in ; growing
out of.
INSESSO'RES — fr. lat. insideo, to sit
upon. Perchers. An order of
birds, characterized by having
the hinder toe on the same level
with those in front.
IN SITU. — Lat. In place.
INSTINCT. — That sense or principle,
which leads animals to act alike
under all circumstances. Instinct
is exercised without instruction or
experience; the spider spins its
•web. and the bird builds its nest
without being taught; and they
cannot improve in these acts. But
the acts of reason and intelli-
gence result from education and
experience, and are progressive
in improvement.
INTEGRAL PARTICLES. — The most
minute particles into which any
substance can be mechanically
divided, similar to each other, and
to the substance of which they
are parts.
INTEGUMENT. — fr. lat. tegere, to cover.
The skin. The covering of the
body.
INTEN'ERATING. — Having the power
of making tender, or of soften-
ing.
IN'TERAMBULA'CRA. — The irnper fo-
ra te plates which occupy the in-
tervals of the perforated plates,
or ambulacra, in the shells of
echinoderms.
INTERCALATED. — fr. lat. intercalo, I
place between. Placed between.
INTERCALATION. — The placing one
substance between others, as one
stratum between two others.
INTEHCE'LLULAR. — fr. lat. inter, be-
tween ; cellulce, little cells. Placed
between cells.
lNTERco'sTAL.-fr. lat. infer, between ;
costa, a rib. That which is situ-
ate between the ribs.
IN'TERGANGLIO'NIC. Applied to
nerves which are between gan-
glia.
INTER-MAXILLARY. — fr. lat. inter, be-
tween ; maxilla, the jaw. Bones
situate at the anterior part of the
upper jaw between its two sides.
INTERNAL. — See External.
LN'TERNODE. — The space between
one knot or joint and another.
INTERPETIO'LAR. — Between the peti-
oles or leaf-stalks.
INTERPOSED. — fr. lat. inter, between ;
pono, I place. Placed between.
INTERRUPTED.— Divided, separated.
A term denoting a disturbance of
a normal arrangement. A leaf is
said to be interruptedly pinnate,
when some of the pinnae are
much smaller than the rest, or
absent.
INTERSPINAL. — The interspinal bone*
form a series of strong, dagger-
like bones, deeply implanted in
the flesh along the middle line of
the body of fishes, between the
two great masses of lateral mus-
cles : their points generally pene-
trate to a little distance between
the spinous processes of the ver-
tebrae, to which they are connected
by a ligamentous attachment ;
whilst to their opposite extremity,
which may be compared to the
hilt of the dagger, the correspond-
ing fin-rays are affixed by a beau-
tiful articulation. Each interspi-
nous bone consists of two pieces
united by a suture ; one portion
representing the blade, the other
the handle of the dagger, to which
we have compared it.
INTERTROPICAL. — Between the tro-
pics.
INTERVE'NIUM. — fr. lat. inter, be-
tween ; vena, a vein. That por-
tion of the parenchyma of leaves,
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
85
which lies between two or more
veins.
INTE'XINE. — That coating of the
pollen-grain which is situated
next to the extine, constituting a
fourth layer of the pollen-grain
in certain plants.
IX'TINE. — The inner coat of the shell
of the pollen-grain in plants.
ISTOR'TA. — Lat. Twisted inwards.
INTO'RTIOX. — The turning or twist-
ing of a shell, in any particular
direction.
INTRAMA'RGINAL. — Within the mar-
gin.
IJTTRO'RSE. — Turned inwards.
INTRU'SION. — The act of thrusting or
forcing in.
INTUSSUSCE'PTIOX. fr. lat. intus,
within ; suscipio, I receive. The
mode of increase peculiar to or-
ganized bodies.
Ijfu'us. — One of the names of Pan,
the heathen god of shepherds,
and of flocks. The Barbary ape
has received this name.
IJTVAGIWA'TIOX. — fr. lat. in, in; va-
gina, a sheath. Intussusception. A
sheathing of one part within an-
other.
INVERTEBRA'TA. — fr. lat. in, with-
out; vertebra, a bone or joint of
the spine or back-bone. A divi-
sion of. the animal kingdom, em-
bracing mollusks, insects, and
other animals which have no ver-
tebrae, or internal bony skeleton.
INVER'TEBRATE.— Without vertebrae;
wanting the spinal column.
INVERSE. — Inverted.
IWVOLU'CELS. — The partial involu-
cra of umbelliferous plants.
IWVOLU'CRATED. — Covered with an
involucre.
IKTVOLU'CRE.— An accessory envelope
of a flower, formed of bracts. A
covering.
INVOLU'CRUM. — Lat. Involucre.
IN'VOLUTE. — Having the exterior lip
turned inwards at the margin.
INVOLUTION. — That part which in-
volves or inwraps another.
3D
IRI'DE.B. — A family of plants 01'
which the Iris is the type.
TRIBES. — Lat. plur. of Iris.
IRIDIS'CENT. — fr. lat. iris, a rainbow.
The property of shining with
many colours, like a rainbow.
I'RIS. — That part of the eye in
which die pupil is situate; a ver-
tical partition between the ante-
rior and, posterior chambers of the
eye.
IRIS'ATED. — Applied to any mineral
which exhibits the prismatic co-
lours, either externally or inter-
nally.
IRREGULAR BIVALVES. — Those bi-
valves which are not uniform in
shape throughout the species.
IRREGULAR COROLLA. — Having its
upper and lower sides unlike.
IRRITABI'LITT. — fr. lat. irrito, I pro-
voke. A power, possessed by all
living organized bodies, of being
acted upon by certain stimulants,
and of moving responsive to, or
consequently to such stimulation.
It is the ultimate vital property.
IR'RITANS. — Lat. Irritating.
ISCHI A'Tic.-fr. gr. ischion, the haunch.
Belonging or relating to the
haunch.
IS'CHIUM. — The hip-bone; the seat-
bone.
ISLA'NDICUS — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to Iceland.
Iso. — fr. gr. isos, equal. A prefix
denoting equality or similarity.
ISO'BRTOUS. — fr. gr. bruo, to grow.
Growing equally.
ISO'CARDIA. — fr. gr. isos, like ; kardia,
heart. Name of a genus of cha-
ma'cea. (p. 82, Book v).
ISO'CARDIA. — Lat. plur. of Isocardia.
ISOCHIM'ENAL. — fr. gr. isos, equal;
cheima, winter. Isochimenal lines
pass through all places where the
mean winter temperature is the
same.
ISOCLI'NIC LINES.— fr. gr. klino, to in-
cline. Lines of inclination or dip.
ISOCTC'LOUS. — fr. gr. kuklos. a circle.
Applied to animals winch are
36
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
composed of a succession of equal
rings.
ISOGEO'THERMAL. — fr. lat.tsos, equal ;
ge, the earth; thermos, heat. Ap-
plied to lines which are supposed
to pass through all parts of the
earth's structure, on the surface,
where the mean heat is the
same.
'SOLATKD. — fr. it. 'isola, an island.
Separated like an island.
ISOMO'RPHOUS. — fr. gr. morphe, form.
Having the same form.
ISOXO'MAL. — Under the same law.
Applied to crystals in which all
the decretions are equal.
ISO'POD. — Of the order Iso'poda.
ISO'PODA. — fr. gr. isos, equal ; pous,
foot. An order of crusta'ceans.
ISOSTE'MONOUS. — Applied to those
plants whose stamens are equal
in number to the petals.
ISOTHE'RIAL. — fr. gr. isos, equal ; the-
reios, having the heat of summer.
Isotherial lines are supposed to
be drawn through all places hav-
ing the same mean summer tem-
perature.
ISOTHEH'MAL. — fr. gr. isos, equal ;
thermos, heat. Isothermal lines
are supposed to pass through all
places where the mean tempera-
ture of the air is the same.
IS'PIDA. — Lat. A kingfisher.
ISTH'MUS. — fr. gr. isthmos, a narrow
tongue of land, joining a penin-
sula to a continent. Anatomists
have given the name isthmus fau-
cium, isthmus of the fauces, to
the strait or passage between the
mouth and pharynx.
JACULA'TOR. — Lat. A shooter; a
dart-flinger. Specific name of a
shooting-fish.
JAGGED. — In botany, irregularly di-
vided and subdivided.
JANTHI'NA. — fr. gr. ianthon, violet
colour. A genus of the family of
trochoides. (Jig. 54, p. 51, Book v).
JASMI'NEJE.— A family of plants of
which the jasmine is the type.
JASPER. — A siliceous mineral of va-
rious colours ; sometimes spotted,
banded or variegated. It takes a
fine polish.
JOINTS. — In geology, the fissures or
lines of parting in rocks, often at
right-angles to the planes of stra-
tification, (p. 187, Book viii). In
botany, the places at which the
pieces of the stem are articulated
with each other.
JOTA. — Sp. The least. Specific
name of a vulture.
JU'GA. — Lat. plur. of jugum. In bo-
tany, the ridges, or elevated por-
tions by which the carpels of um-
belliferous plants are traversed.
Ju'ouLAR.-fr. lat./ttgw/um, the throat.
Belonging or relating to the throat.
JU'GUM. — Lat. A yoke. Applied
to a pair of opposite leaflets on
the petiole of a pinnate leaf.
JU'LIFORM. — Formed like an amen-
tum or catkin.
JuNc'TURE.-The joiningofthe whorl
in univalves.
JURA LIMESTONE. — Limestone be-
longing to the oolite group, and
constituting the chief part of the
mountains of Jura.
JURA'SSIC. — Belonging or relating to
the Jura mountains. Applied to
a system of rocks of the middle
secondary geological period. Also
termed oolite.
JUXTAPOSITION. — fr. lat. juxta, near
to; ponere, to place. The mode
of increase, proper to minerals,
which is by the successive addi-
tion of new matter on the outside
of that which already existed. It
is opposed to intussusception.
KA'LIFORM. — Formed like iheSalsola
Kali, a sea-coast plant.
KEEL. — Carina. The longitudinal
prominence in the Argonauta.
KEH'NEL. — Nucleus.
KEU'PER. — Ger. The upper portion
of the new red sandstone forma-
tion, (p. 52, Book viii).
KIDNEY - SHAPED. Heart - shaped
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
87
without the point, and broader
than long.
KILLAS. — Clay -slate.
KI'MM BRIDGE CLAY. — A thick bed of
clay, of the oolitic group, found at
Kimmeridge. (p. 64, Book viii).
KINGLET. — A little king. A name
of the wren.
Kir K ED, or KXEE-JOINTED. — Bent like
the knee-joint.
KXOBBED. — In thick lumps.
KXOBBER. — The name of a young
stag when the first rudiments of
the horns appear in the form of
a tubercle or knob.
KCPFERNICKEL. — Ger. Sulphuret of
nickel.
KU'PFERSCHI'EFER. — Ger. Copper-
slate, (p. 47, Book viii).
LABEL'LTIM. — Lat. A little lip. The
undermost or lip-like petal of or-
chidaceous plants.
LA'BIAL. — fr. lat. labium, lip. Be-
longing or relating to the lips.
LABIA'T^. — fr. lat. labium, lip. Hav-
ing lips. A family of plants
known by having a labiate or
two-lipped corolla, (p. 124, Book
vii).
LABIATE. — Having lips, or very
large lips.
LA'HIUM. — Lat. A lip. The lower
lip of insects.
LABRA. — In conchology; the lips.
LA'HRADORITE. — Labrador spar. It
consists of silicate of alu'mina,
lime, and soda, with traces of ox-
ide of iron. It is a variety of
feldspar.
LA'BRAX. — Gr. Specific name of a
kind of perch.
LA'BRUM. — Lat. The extremity of
the lips; the brim of any vessel.
The upper lip of mammals; the
external lip of univalve shells,
and one of the pieces of the
mouths of insects, called the up-
per lip.
LABYRINTH. — fr. lat. labyrinthus, fr.
gr. laburinthos, a place full of
turnings, the exit of which is not
easily discoverable. Anatomists
have given this name to the ag-
gregate of parts, constituting the
internal .ear.
LABYRI'NTHICA. — Lat. Labyrinth-
like.
LABYRI'NTHODON.— fr. gr. laburinthos,
a labyrinth; odous, tooth. An ex-
tinct genus of batrachians, cha-
racterized by teeth of a peculiarly
complicated structure. The re-
mains of this genus peculiarly
characterize the Kenper forma-
tion in Germany, and the corre-
sponding sandstones in England.
(p. 196,/g. 307, Book viii).
LABYRIXTHI'FORM. — fr. gr. laburin-
thos, a labyrinth ; and Lat. forma,
form, shape. Systematic name
of a family of fishes.
LAC-Lux^. — Moon-milk. A snow-
white substance resembling chalk.
LACE'RTA. — Lat. A lizard.
LACE'RTIAN. — fr. lat. lacerta, a lizard.
Any animal of the lizard tribe.
LACKRTI'NIDA. — fr. lat. In cert a, a liz-
ard, and Gr. eidos, resemblance.
Systematic name of a family of
saurians.
LACH'RYMAL.— — fr. lat. lacryma, a tear.
Relating to the tears.
LACHRYMA'LIA. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to the tears.
LACI'NIJE. — Segments of anything.
LACI'NIATE. — fr. lat. lascinia, the
fringe of a garment. Jagged, or
cut into irregular segments.
LACTE'SCENT. — Yielding a milky
juice.
LACU'XA. — Lat. A pit; a hollow;
a vacuity.
LACU'N;E. — Lat.plur. of lacuna. The
air-cells, found in the tissue of
plants are termed lacuna.
LA'CUNOSE. — Having the surface co-
vered with pits.
LACU'STRIXE-. — fr. lat. lacus, a lake
Belonging or relating to lakes.
L-EMER-GEYER. — Ger. Lamb-vul
Lasvis. — Lat. Smooth, bare, bald
Sft
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
LAGOO'N. — An extensive sheet of
shallow water.
LAGO'PUS.— fr. gr. lago's, a hare ; potts,
foot: hare-footed. The Ptarmigan.
LAMANTIN. — The manatus. The sea-
cow. A genus of mammals of
the qrder of cetacea.
LAMBE'RTI. — Lat. Of Lambert.
LAMEL'LA. — Lat. A thin plate or
piece.
LAMEL'LJE — Lat. plur. of lamella.
LAMELLAR. > Composed of lamel-
LAMELLATED. £ lae.
LAMEL'LI BRANCH. — Belonging to the
lamel'libranchia'ta.
LAMEL'LIBRANCHIA'TA. — fr. lat. /a-
mella, a thin plate; branchia, gills.
An order of acephalous mollusks.
LAMEL'LI CORNES. — fr. lat. lamella, a
plate; cornu, a horn. A section
of coleopterous insects.
LAMELLI'FEROUS. — Having a struc-
ture consisting of thin plates, or
leaves, like paper.
LAMKL'LIFORM. — Shaped like a thin
plate or leaf.
LAMELLIRO'STRES. — fr. lat. lamella,*
thin plate ; rostrum, beak. Sys-
tematic name of a family of
birds.
LAM'INA. — Lat. A plate, or thin
piece of metal or bone.
LA'M'INJS. — Lat. plur. of lamina.
LAM'INAR. — Composed of laminae.
LAM'INATED. — Divided into distinct
laminae.
LAM'PYRA. — fr. gr. lampuris, a glow-
worm. A genus of insects.
LANA'TA. — Lat. Lanate : woolly.
LAN'CEOLATE. — Lance-shaped.
LANCKOLA'TO-SUBULATE. — Between
lanceolate and subulate.
LAJTCEOLA'TUS. — Lat. Lanceolate.
LANCE'OVATK. — Between lanceolate
and ovate.
LANDSLIP, or LANDSLIDE. — In geo-
logy, the removal of a portion of
land down an inclined surface,
from its attachment being loosened
by the action of water beneath, or
by an earthquake.
LANIA'RIFORM. — fr. lat. Jam'o, to cut
or tear; forma, shape. Shaped
like the canine teeth of the car-
nivora, which are called laniares,
from their office.
LANIGE RA. — Lat. Lanigerous.
LANIGE'ROUS. — fr. lat. /ana, wool j
gerere, to bear. Wool-bearing.
LAN'IUS. — Generic name of shrikes.
LANU'GINOUS. — Wool ly.
LAPIDIFICA'TION. — fr. lat. lapis, a
stone ; fio, to become. The pro-
cess of conversion into stone.
LAPIL'LI. — fr. lat. lapillus, a little
stone. Small volcanic cinders.
LAPIS LA'ZULI. — A mineral belong-
ing to the aluminous silicates, of
an azure blue colour.
LAPIL'LUS. — Lat. A little stone.
LA'RUS. — Lat. A Sea-mew or Gull.
LAR'VA. — Lat. A mask. An insect
after it has left the egg, and be-
fore it assumes the form of a chry-
salis, is called a larva, because in
this state it is, as it were, tnasked.
LARVAE. — Lat. plur. of larva.
LARVI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. larva ; pa-
rio, to produce. Applied to in-
sects which produce their young
in the form of larvce.
LA'HYNX. — fr. gr. larugx, a whistle.
The apparatus of voice. It is
situate at the superior and ante-
rior part of the neck ; and at the
top of the trachea, with which it
communicates.
LATENT HEAT. — Heat, not indicated
by the thermometer, upon which
the liquid and aeriform conditions
of bodies depend, and which be-
comes sensible during the conver-
sion of vapour into liquids, and
of liquids into solids.
LA'TERAL. — fr. lat. latins, the side
Belonging to the sides. The late-
ral teeth of bivalves, where they
exist, are on one or both sides of
the cardinal teeth, which are al-
ways central.
LATERA'LIS. — Lat. Lateral.
LA'TEX. — Lat. A peculiar fluid in
plants, which is usually turbid,
and of a red, white, or yellow co-
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
lour, contained in the latici'ferous
vessels, (p. 58, Book vii).
LA'TTTCDE. — fr. lat. latiludo, breadth.
The extent of the earth reckoned
from the equator to either pole.
Latitude is measured by degrees
and minutes. The latitude of
any place is its distance from the
equator towards either pole.
LAT'TICED. Having longitudinal
lines or furrows crossed by others.
LAURI'NEJE. — fr. lat. laurus, a laurel
or bay tree. Name of a family
of plants.
LAVA.-ln geology, substances which
flow in a melted state from a vol-
cano. Lavas vary in consistence
and texture.
LAX — Limber, flaccid.
LAYERING. — The process of propa-
gating young plants from a pa-
rent stalk, by laying down a
branch, and then separating it
from its parent.
LEAF. — In botany, the digestive or-
gan of a plant: an expansion of
the bark, at the base of a leaf-
bud, prior to which it is deve-
loped.
LEAF-BUD. — That part of the plant
by which the individual is pro-
pagated.
LEAFLETS. — Little leaves. The small
parts of compound leaves.
LEAF-STALK. — Petiole. That part of
a leaf which connects the blade
with the stem.
LECTULA'RIUS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to a bed.
LKGU'MK. — fr. lat. legu'men, all kinds
of beans, peas, &c. A form of fruit.
LKGU'MEN. — fr. lat. lego, to gather.
A legume: a one -celled, two-
valved, superior fruit, dehiscent
by a suture along its face, and its
back, and bearing seeds on each
margin of its ventral suture.
LEGCMI:NO'S.B, — fr. lat. legumen, a
bean. A family of plants.
LEGU'MIWOCS.— Belonging or relating
to the leguminoseae.
LEMM'US. — Lat. A lemming.
3D2
LE'MTJR. — A name given to certain
quadrumanous mammals.
LENGTH OF SHELLS. — Spiral shells
are measured from the tip of tho
spire to the base, and therefore
perpendicularly. The length of
bivalves is taken horizontally.
LK'NTA. — Lat. Slow, heavy, stupid.
LENTICELLJE. — Lenticular glands, or
brown oval spots found on the
bark of many plants.
LENTI'CULAR. > fr. lat. knticula, a lit-
LEN'TIFOIIM. \ tie lens, a lentil.
Shaped like a lens.
LEO. — Lat. A lion.
LEONI'NA. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to a lion.
LEPA'NTHIUM. — A petaloid nectary
LEPIUODE'NPRON. — fr.gr. lepis, scale;
dendron, a tree. A genus of fossil
plants, having a scaly bark.
LEPIDODE'NDRA. — Lat. plur. of lepi
dodendron.
LEPIDO'PTERA. — fr. gr. lepis, a scale ;
pteron, a wing. An order of insects
characterized by scaly wings.
LEP'ROUS. — Covered with spots or
scales.
LEPORI'NA. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to a hare.
LEPTE'NA. — A synonym of the genus
productus. (p. 30, Book viii).
LEP'TUS. — fr. gr. leptos, slender. A
genus of arachnidans.
LEPUS. — Lat. A hare.
LEUCI'SCCS. — Lat. Generic name of
the roach.
LEucocE'pHALUs.-fr.gr.fettfcos, white;
kephale, head. White-headed.
Specific name of the bald eagle.
LEVA'TOR. — A muscle whose office it
is to raise or elevate certain parts.
LEYMERII.— -Lat. of Leymerie.
LIAS. — Provincial corruption of the
word layers. In geology, a divi-
sion of the secondary formation.
It is also called the liassic, Juras-
sic, and oolitic system of rocks,
(p. 54, Book viii).
LIBEL'LULA. — Lat. A dragon-fly. A
genus of insects.
LI'BER. — Lat. Bark. Endophlr.um
90
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
The interior fibrous portion of
the bark, lying immediately upon
the alburnum.
LI'CHEKTS. — An order of cryptoga-
mous plants. They include va-
rious mosses.
LID. — In botany, the calyx which
falls off" from the flower in a sin-
gle piece.
LIG'AMENT. — fr. lat. ligare, to tie. A
name given to fibrous structures,
which serve to unite bones, and
form articulations. The external
substance by which the shells of
bivalves are united, and is, in
fact, the true hinge. The internal
part is called the cartilage.
LIG'NKOUS. — fr. lat. lignum, wood.
Woody ; of the nature of wood.
LIG'NIN. — Solid matter found in the
elongated cells of wood.
LIGNIPE'RDOUS. fr. lat. lignum,
wood; perdo,lo destroy. Applied
to insects which destroy wood.
LIG'NITE. — fr. lat. lignum, wood. A
kind of coal.
LI'GULA. — Lat. A thong, a strap.
A part of the lower lip of insects.
A peculiar membranous process,
at the top of the sheath in grasses,
between the sheath and the blade.
LI'GULATE. — Strap, or ribbon-like.
LILIA'CK^ — A family of plants.
LILIA'CEOUS. — Belonging or relating
to the lily.
LI'MA. — Lat. A file. Name of a
genus of bivalves.
LIMA'CES — Lat. plur. of limax.
LI'MAX. — Lat. A slug, a snail.
LIMB. — The spreading part or bor-
der of a leaf or petal. The mar-
gin of bivalve shells.
Li M' BATE. — Having a coloured, or
dilated surface.
LIM'BUS. — Lat. An edge. That
part of a petal which is above
the claw.
LIMN#/A. — fr. gr. limne, a pool.
Name of a genus of fresh-water
snails. (Jig. J8, p. 33, Book v).
LI'MULUS. — fr. lat. limus, mud. A
genus of crusta'ceans.
LINE. — A rope, or cord. The tenth
part of an inch. Line of bearing
Strike, (p. 185, Book viii).
LI'NEAR. } Marked with lines. In
LI'NEATE. 3 botany, when the two
sides are parallel.
LINEAR-ENSATE. — Long sword sha-
ped.
LINEA'RIS. — Lat. Linear; line-like.
LiNiA'RiFo'Lius.-Lat. Linear-leafed.
LIN'GUIFORM. 7 T,
T , > longue-shaped.
LlN GULATE. 3
LIN'GULA. — Lat. A little tongue.
Name of a genus of bivalves, (p.
89, Book v).
LI'NGULJE. — Lat. plur. of lingula.
LI'NUM. — Lat. Flax.
LIP — The upper or under side of
the mouth of a labiate flower.
The outer edge of the aperture
of univalves.
LIPPED. — Having a distinct lip.
LIPS OF SHELLS. — The two sides of
the aperture of spiral shells. The
inner lip joins, and folds over the
lower part of the columella.
LITHO'GENOUS. — fr. gr. lithos, a stone ;
genao, to form. Applied to po-
lyps which form coral.
LITHOGRA'PHIC. — fr. gr. lithos, stone ;
grapho, I write. Lithographic
stone. A slaty compact limestone,
used for the purposes of litho'-
graphy. (p. 65, Book viii).
LITHO'DOMI. — Lat. plur. of lithodo-
mus.
LITHO'DOMUS. — fr. gr. lithos, stone ;
demd, I build. Name of a genus
of bivalves, found in rocks and
stones, inhabiting cavities which
they form for that purpose.
LI'THOFA'LCO. — fr. gr. lithos, a stone,
and Lat. falco, a falcon. Specific
name of the merlin.
LITHOTDAL. — Having a stony struc-
ture. Resembling stone.
LITHOLO'GICAL.— A term denoting
the stony structure or character
of a mineral mass.
LITHO'PHAGI. — fr. gr. lithos, stone;
phago, I eat. Small worms found
in slate which give it a red colour.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
91
LITHU'ITES and LITU'ITES. — fr. lat.
lituus, a crooked staff. Fossil
chambered shells, curved or bent,
at one end. (Jig. 8, Book viii).
LITTER. — A brood of young.
LIT'TOBAL. — Belonging to the shore.
LITTO'REUS. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to the sea-shore.
LITTORA'LIS. — Lat. Littoral; be-
longing or relating to the sliore.
LITTORI'NA. — fr. lat. litus, the sea-
shore. A genus of the family of
trochoides. (p. 49, Book v).
LLANOS. — Sp. Planes.
LOAM. — A mixture of sand and clay.
LO'BATE (foot). — Toes furnished on
the sides with broad plain mem-
branes.
LO'BATKD. — Rounded at the edges.
LOBE. — A round projecting part.
LOBKD. — Composed of lobes.
LO'BELETS. — Small lobes.
LOC'ULAMENTS.-— Partitions or cells
of a seed-vessel.
LOC'ULAR — A fruit is called unilocu-
lar, if it contains but one cell ;
bilocular, if two cells; trilocular,
if three, and so on.
LOCULI'CIDAL. — fr. lat. loculus, a cell ;
ceedo, to cut. That mode of de-
hiscence of fruits in which the lo-
culi, or cells, are severed at their
backs.
LOCUS'TA. — Lat. A cray-fish. A ge-
nus of crusta'ceans.
Loctrs'TjE. — Lat. plur. of Locusta.
LODES. — Veins containing metallic
ores. Live lodes contain metallic
ores ; dead lodes contain only
stony matters.
LOESS or Loss. — A German geologi-
cal term, applied to a tertiary al-
luvial deposit, which occurs in
patches between Cologne and
Basle. The term is applied by
the English to a peculiar yel-
low loam with calcareous concre-
tions.
LO'LIGO. — Lat. A calmary.
LOLIGO'PSIS. — A calmaret; a little
calmary.
LO'LIUM. — Lat. Darnel.
LO'MENT. — A form of fruit: a kind
of legume falling in pieces when
ripe.
LOMK'NTUM. — Lat. A loment.
LOMENTA'CEOUS. — Lat. Bearing lo-
ments.
LONDON CLAY. — An extensive depo-
sit of bluish clay found near the
surface in the counties of Middle-
sex, Essex and Suffolk, England,
(p. 78, Book viii).
LONGIPKN'NES. — fr. lat. longu*, long ;
penna, a wing. Long -winged.
Systematic name of a family of
web-footed birds.
LONGIRO'STRES. — fr. lat. longus, long;
rostrum, beak. Long-beaked. Sys-
tematic name of a family of wa-
ding birds.
LONGIRO'STRIS. — fr. lat. longus, long ;
rostrum, beak. Long-billed.
LONGISCA'TA. — Lat. A little longer.
LONGITU'DINAL. — The length of the
shell from the apex to the base.
LOON. — The name of a bird, from
loom, which in the language of
the Laplanders, signifies lame, as
it cannot walk well.
LOPHOBRAN'CHI'AN. — fr. gr. lophos, a
tuft, or top-knot; bragchia, gills.
Applied to fishes of the order of
lophobranchii.
LOPHOBRANCH'H. — Lat. plur. of lo-
phobranchus. Same derivation as
the last. Systematic name of an
order of fishes.
LOPHOPHO'RCS. — fr. gr. lophos, a tuft;
phoros, bearer. A genus of birds
of the order gallinaceae.
LORATE. — Shaped like a thong or
strap.
LORE. — A naked line leading from
the beak to the eye in birds.
LORI'CA. — Lat. A coat of mail.
LORICA'TA. — Lat. Loricate. Armed
with a coat of mail ; clad in ar-
mour.
LORIS. — The name of a kind of
monkey.
LOTA. — Systematic name of the ling
LOXIA. — fr. gr. loxos, oblique. Syste-
matic name of the grosbeaks
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
LOZEKGE SHAPE. — Shaped like a lo-
zenge, which is a figure with four
equal sides, forming two acute,
and two obtuse angles, thus ; <>
LU'BRICATE. — To make smooth or
slippery.
Lir BUI 'CITY. — Smoothness of sur-
face; slipperiness.
LUCA'NUS. — fr. gr. lukos, a kind of
insect. A genus of beetles.
LUCID. — In botany, bright, shining.
LUCI'FUGA. "> fr. lat. lux, light ; fugo,
LUCI'FUGUB. 5 I fly from. 'Light-
avoiding.
Lu'cius. — Lat. A pike.
LUGDUNE'NSIS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to Lyons.
LUMACHEL'LA. — It. Conchilian mar-
ble. Fire-rnarble : a variety of
shell-limestone. (Note, p. 67, Book
viii).
LUM'BAR. — Relating to the loins.
LUM'BBICI. — Lat.plur. of lumbricus.
LUM'BRICUS. — A genus of anneli-
dans, and also a genus of entozo'a.
LU'N ATE. } fr. lat. luna, the moon.
LU'NIFORM. > In the shape of a cres-
LU'NULATE. } cent, or half-moon.
LUNGS. — The organs of respiration
in mammiferous animals. Vul-
garly called "the lights."
I-U'NULE.— In conchology, a cres-
cent-like mark or spot, situated
near the anterior and posterior
slopes of bivalves, (p. 99, Book v).
LUNU'LATED. — Crescent shaped.
LU'NULE. — A crescent-like spot or
mark, situated near the anterior
and posterior slopes in bivalve
shells.
LU'PULUS. — Lat. Little hops.
LU'PUS.T— Lat. A wolf.
LU'RID. — A colour between purple,
yellow and grey.
LUSCI'NIA. — Lat. A nightingale. '
LUSTRE. — -The aspect of minerals as
to colour and brilliancy.
LU'TEUM. — Lat. Yellow; dirty;
made of clay, A specific name.
LUTRA.— »-Lat. An otter.
LUTUA'BIA — Genus of the family of
inelusa,
LYCOPODIA'CE^. — fr. gr. lukos, a
wolf; pous, foot. A natural or-
der of plants which includes the
lycopodium.
LY'COSA. — fr. gr. lukos, a wolf. A
genus of arachnidans.
LY'CUSJL — Lat. plur. of lycosa.
LYELLII. — Lat. Of Lyell.
LYMNK'A. — See LIMNEA.
LYMPH. — A name given to the fluid
contained in the lymphatic ves-
sels, and thoracic duct of ani-
mals.
LYMPHA'TIC. — Partaking of the na-
ture of Lymph. Relating or be-
longing to lymph.
LYRATE. — Lyre-shaped : pinnatified,
with a large roundish leaflet at
the end. (jig. 31, p. 37, Book vii).
MAASTRICHT ROCKS. — A chalk for-
mation which lies immediately
above the chalk of England.
MACA'CUS. — Lat. The macaque.
MACA'Q.UE. — Fr. The macaco, a spe-
cies of ape with a tail.
MACI'UGO. — It. A hard siliceous
sandstone.
MAC ROCE'PHA LOUS. — Big-headed.
MACUOCK'PHALUS. — fr. gr. makros,
large ; kephale, head. A genus of
insects. The specific name of a
mammal.
MACLED CRYSTAL. — A hemitrope
crystal is sometimes so termed.
MACRODA'CTYLI. — fr.gr. makros. long;
daktulos. a finger or toe. Long-
fingered. A tribe of wading birds.
MACRODA'CTYLOUS. — Having long
toes or fingers; applied to birds.
MACRO'POBAL. — fr. gr. makros, large ;
pous. podos, a foot. Large-footed ;
applied to a modification of the
monocotyledonous embryo in
which the radicle presents an un-
usual protuberance, as in wheat.
MACuop'TEROus.-rfr. gr. makros, long ;
pteron, a wing. Having long
wings.
MACROU'RA.— A section of decapod
crusta'ceans.
MACROL'ROUS. — fr. gr. ma&ros, great j
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
ottra, tail. Having a long or large
tail.
MAC'TRA. — Lat. A kneading-trough.
Name of a genus of bivalves.
MACULATED.— Spotted ; marked with
spots.
MADREPO'RA. — Lat. fr. fr. madre,
spotted, and Lat. porus, pore. A
genus of corals, (p. 14 1, Book viii).
MAI/REPORE.— A genus of zoophytes.
MJE'NAS. — fr. gr. menis, wrath. Spe-
cific name of a crab.
M^KNU'RA, or M^U'RA. — Probably a
corruption fr. gr. pandoura, a mu-
sical instrument resembling a
lute. Generic name of the lyre-
birds.
MAJOR. — Lat. Greater, larger.
MAGNESIAS. — Containing magnesia.
MAGNE'SIAN LIMESTONE. — Lime-
stone which contains magnesia.
An extensive series of beds lying
above the coal measures.
MAGNE'SITE. — Native carbonate of
magnesia.
MAGNET. — Loadstone is the natural
magnet, which has the property
of attracting iron. Artificial mag-
nets are prepared so as to possess
the peculiar attractive properties
of the loadstone.
MAGNE'TIC. — Having properties of
the magnet or loadstone.
MAGNETISM. — The science which
investigates the phenomena pre-
sented by natural and artificial
magnets, and the laws by which
they are connected.
MAG'NU:M. — Lat. Great.
MAGOT. — Fr. A baboon.
MA'GUS. — Lat. Magical.
MALACO'LOGT.— fr. gr. malakos, soft ;
logos, a description. That depart-
ment of natural history which
treats of the mollusca, compre-
hending the examination of both
the animal and its shell.
MALACOPTERT'GIAN.— fr. gr. malachos,
soft; pterux, fin. Soft -fin. Ap-
plied to fishes that have no bony
fin-rays.
MALACOPTERT'GII.— Lat. plur. of ma-
lacopterygius. Systematic name
of an order of fishes.
MALAPTE'RURI. — Lat. plur. of ma-
lapterurus, fr. gr. mala, much;
pteron, tin ; red, I fall off. Imper-
fect fins. Generic name of a fish
of the family of siluroides.
MALAR (bone). — fr. lat. malum, an
apple; so called from its round-
ness. The cheek-bone.
MALLEABI'LITT.-A property of some
metals, by which they are capa-
ble of being beaten out into thin
plates by a hammer.
MALLE'OLUS. — Lat. A little ham-
mer. In the botanical process of
layering, this term is applied to
the layer, which is separated from
the parent plant, from its lower
end resembling a hammer-head,
of which the new plant repre-
sents the handle.
MAL'LEUS. — Lat. A hammer. A ge-
nus of ostracea.
MA'LUS. — Lat. An apple-tree.
MALVA'CEJE. — Name of a family of
plants.
MAM'MA. — Lat. The breast, pap.
nipple, or teat.
MAM'MA. — Lat. plur. of mamma.
MAM'MAL. — A milk-eating animal :
any animal that is suckled while
young, is called a mammal.
MAMMA'LIA. — fr. lat. mamma, breast.
Systematic name of the class of
animals that suckle their young.
MAMMALA'TED. — Studded with nip-
ple-like projections.
MAMMALi'FERous.-Containing mam-
mals, or their fossil remains.
MAMMA'LOGY.— fr. lat. mamma, breast,
and Gr. logos, a discourse or trea-
tise. That part of natural his-
tory which treats of mammifer-
ous animals, or mammals.
MAM'MART.— fr. lat. mamma, a breast.
Belonging or relating to the breast.
MAMMI'FERJE. — fr. lat. mamma, a
breast ; fero, I carry. Animals
that have teats. Mammals.
MAMMI'FKROCS. — Belonging to mam-
mifent; having mammae.
94
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
MAMMIL'LARY. — fr. lat. mammilla, a
little nipple. Studded over with
small rounded projections.
MAMMOTH. — An extinct animal of
the family of proboscidiana.
MANATr." — Lat. plur. of manatus.
MAN'ATUS — Lat. A genus of mam-
mals. The lamantin.
MAN'DIHLE. — fr. lat. mandibulum, a
jaw. Applied to the lower jaw
of mammals, and to both jaws of
birds. In insects it is applied to
the upper or anterior pair of
jaws ; the inferior are termed
maxillcE or true jaws.
Af ANDI'BULATE — fr. lat. mandibulum,
a jaw. Having the mouth fur-
nished with mandibles, or jaws,
adapted for biting and bruising;
applied to certain insects.
MANIUJCA'TION. — fr. lat. manduco, I
chew. The act of chewing; mas-
tication.
MANTEL'LIA. — A genus of fossil cy-
ca'dea>, named in honour of Mr.
Mantell.
MAN'TLE. — The external, soft, con-
tractile skin, of mollusks which
covers the viscera and a .great
part of the body, like a cloak.
MANYPLIES. — The third stomach of
ruminating animals.
MARHLE. — A term applied to every
limestone which is finely coloured
and capable of receiving a high
polish, or of being worked into
statuary.
MARCE'SCENT. — fr. lat. marceo, I wi-
ther. Applied to leaves that wi-
ther before they fall.
MA'RGARETI'FERA. — fr. lat. margari-
tum, a pearl ; fero, I bear. Pearl-
bearing.
MA'RGIN. — The whole circumfer-
ence or outline of the shell in bi-
valves.
MA'RGIJTATEI). — Having a promi-
nent, margin or border.
MARIXE. — fr. lat. mare, the sea. Re-
lating to the sea. Marine conglo-
merates are deposits formed of
sand thrown by the sea upon its
shores, mixed with the remains
of shells and corals, which are
agglutinated by a calcareous ce-
ment.
MAHI'NUS. — Lat. Marine; of the
sea.
MAIUTI'MTTS.— Lat. Maritime. Grow-
ing near the sea.
MAKL. — Argillaceous carbonate of
lime. There are several varie-
ties of marl.
MARSU'PIAI,. — fr. lat. marsupium, a
pouch. Any animal having a pe-
culiar pouch in front, or on the
abdomen.
MARSUPIA'LTA. 7 fr- lat- marsupium, a
MARSUPIA'TA. 3 purse, pouch or
bag. Marsupials. Animals that
have on the anterior surface of
the body, a pouch, formed of the
skin, for the accommodation of
their young.
MARTES. — Lat. A marten ; a ferret.
MAR'TIAL. — Fr. Mars, the god of
war. Applied to preparations of
iron.
MASSIVE. Applied to minerals
which have a crystalline struc-
ture, but not a regular form.
MASTICA'TION. — fr. gr. mastichao, I
chew. The act of chewing food,
to impregnate it with saliva, and
prepare it for the digestion it has
to undergo in the stomach.
MAS'TICATORT. — fr. gr. mastichao, I
chew. Relating to mastication, or
the act of chewing the food.
MASTI'VUS. — Lat. fr. it. mastino, a
large dog. The mastiff.
MAS'TODOX. — fr. gr. mastos, a nipple ;
odous, tooth. A genus of exiinct
quadrupeds allied to the elephant.
MASTO'ID. — fr. gr. mastos, a nipple ;
eidos, resemblance. A process or
projection of the temporal bone,
(behind the ear,) is so called, on
account of its shape.
MA'TER. — Lat. Mother. Protector.
MATH. — An old term for crop.
MA'TRIX.— Lat. The stony substance
in which metallic ores and crys-
talline minerals are imbedded.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
95
Gangue. A place where any-
thing is generated or formed.
MA-r'TER.-Whatever occupies space,
and possesses extension and im-
penetrability : all bodies are mat-
ter with fixed boundaries.
MATUHA'TIOX. — The act of ripening.
MAX'ILLA. — Lat. The cheek-bone ;
a mandible.
MAXIL'LJE. — Lat. plur. of maxilla.
The lower jaws of insects.
MAXIL'LARY. — Relating to the max-
illae.
MAX'IMA. 1
MAX'IMUM. > Lat. The greatest.
MAX'IMUS. )
MEAGRE. — In mineralogy, applied to
the feel or touch of minerals.
. Chalk is said to be very meagre to
the touch.
MEANDRI'NA. — A. genus of polyps,
(p. 141, Book viii).
MEANDRI'N^. — Lat. plur. of mean-
drina.
MEA'TCS — Lat. A passage, a pore.
MECHANICAL ORIGIN — In geology,
rocks composed of sand, pebbles
or fragments are termed Rocks of
mechanical origin, to distinguish
them from those of a uniform
crystalline structure, which are of
chemical origin.
ME'DIA. — Lat. plur. of medium.
ME'DIO-PEC'TUS. — fr. lat. medius, the
middle; pectus, breast. The cen-
tre of the breast of insects, (p. 15,
Book vi).
ME'UIO-STER'NUM. — The central por-
tion of the sternum or breast of
insects, (p. 15, Book vi).
ME'DIUM. — The substance or matter
in which bodies exist, or through
which they pass in moving from
1 one point to another. The air, for
example, is a medium, in which
we exist; fishes live in another
medium.
MEDUL'LA. — Lat. Marrow. Pith.
MEDC'LLARY. — fr. lat. medulla, the
marrow ; pith. Belonging or re-
lating to nervous matter : to pith.
MEDU'LLARY RATS. — fr. lat. medulla,
marrow. The vertical plates of
cellular tissue which radiate from
the centre of the stem, through
the wood, to the bark in exoge-
nous plants. Medullary sheath, is
the sheath which immediately
surrounds the medulla or pith, of
exogenous plants.
MEDUL'LIN. — The porous pith of
the sunflower.
MEDU'SA. — A genus of marine ani-
mals of the class acale'pha.
MEDU'SJE. — Lat. plur. of medusa.
Sea-nettles.
MEG ALI'CHTHYS. — fr.gr. megas. gieat ;
ichthus, fish. An extinct genus of
fishes, including species of great
size.
MEGA'LODOIT. — fr. gr. megas, great;
odous, tooth. A genus of peculiar
fossil bivalve shells.
MEGALO'NYX. — fr. gr. megas, great;
onux, a claw. A large fossil mam-
mal, found in Virginia.
MEGALOSAU'RUS. — fr.gr. megas, great;
sauros, reptile. A fossil saurian,
(p. 58, Book viii).
MEGATHE'RIUM. — fr. gr. megas, great ;
therion, beast. Name of an ex-
tinct fossil quadruped, (p. 92,
Book viii).
MELAIN. — fr. gr. melas, black. The
colouring matter of the ink of the
cuttle-fish.
MELAN AE'TOS. — fr. gr. n\flanos, black ;
aetos, an eagle. A specific name
of the common eagle.
MELA'NIA. — fr. gr. melas, black. Ge-
nus of fresh-water gasteropods.
MELANO'COMOUS. — Black-haired.
MELA'PHTRY, and MELA'PHYRE. — fr.
gr. melas, black. A kind of por-
phyry, the constituents of which
are united by a black cement, (p.
173, Book viii).
MELEAGRI'ITA. — fr. gr. meleagris, a
guinea-hen. A genus of the fa-
mily of ostracea.
MELEA'GRIS. — Lat. A turkey.
ME'LES — Lat. A badger.
MELU'FEROUS. — Honey-bearing
ME'LO. — Lat. A melon.
96
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
MELOFO'RMIS.— fr. lat. wieZo, a melon ,
forma, shape. Melon-shaped.
MELONI'DE.— A form of fruit.
MELO-LON'THA. — fr. gr. melon, an ap-
ple; antkos, flower. Generic name
of a kind of beetle.
MEMBRANA. — Lat. A membrane.
MEMBRANE. — A name given to dif-
ferent thin organs, representing
species of supple, more or less
elastic, webs.
MEMBRANA'CEOUS. ~) Belonging to, or
MEM'BHANOUS. 5 partaking of
the nature of a membrane.
MENIDES. — fr. lat. meena, or niena, a
kind of fish. Systematic name
of a family of fishes.
MENOBRAN'CHUS. fr. gr. menos,
strength; bragchia, gills. Syste-
matic name of a genus of batra-
chians.
MENOPO'MA. — fr. gr. menos, strong:
poma, cover. A genus of reptiles
of the family of salamanders,
Specific name of a batrachian.
MKN'TUM. — Lat. The chin.
MENU'RA. — A genus of passerine
birds. The menura superba, the
lyre-bird.
MEPHIT'IC. — fr. mephitis, the goddess
of foul smells. Applied to im-
pure or foul exhalations.
MEPHI'TIS. — Lat. A stink, an un-
pleasant smell. The name given
to the skunk on account of its
odour.
MERCURY. — Quicksilver. A metal
which is liquid at ordinary tem-
peratures.
MERE'STCHYMA. — fr. gr. meros, a part ;
fgchuma, an infusion. Spltceren-
chyma. The spherical variety of
the parenchyma of plants.
MER'GTTS. — fr. lat. mergo, I put under
water. Generic name of the mer-
gansers.
ME'RICARP. — fr. gr. meros, a part;
karpos, fruit. A half of the fruit
of umbelliferous plants.
MERIWO. — Sp. Wandering or fe-
moving from pasture to pasture.
The name of a kind of sheep with
very fine wool, originally from
Spain.
MERITHAL'LUS — fr. gr. meros, a part ;
thallus, a young shoot. The inter-
nodium of botanists ; that part of
the axis of a plant which is be-
tween two nodes.
MERLA'NGUS. — Lat. fr. fr. merlan, a
whiting. Systematic name of the
whiting.
MERLCC'CITTS. — Specific name of the
hake.
ME'ROPS. — Lat. A bird that eats
bees. Generic name of the bee-
eaters.
MER'CLA. — Lat. A black-bird.
MESKKTE'RIC. — Relating to the me*
sentery.
MES'ENTERY.— fr. gr. mcsos, in the
middle; enteron, an intestine. A
term applied to several duplica-
tures of the peritoneum, which
maintain the different portions
of the intestinal canal in their
respective situations; allowing,
however, more or less mobility.
MESO.— fr. gr. mesos, middle. A pre-
fix denoting, the middle; in the
centre.
ME'SOCARP. — fr. gr. mesos, middle;
karpos, fruit. The central enve-
lope of fruit.
MESOPHLCE'UM. — fr. gr. phloios, bark.
That portion of the bark of plants
which lies between the epiphlce-
um and the endophlosnm, or li-
ber.
MEsopHYr/LtTM. — fr. gr. phullon, 9.
leaf. The diachyma, diploe, or
the cellular substance of the
leaves of plants.
MESOSPERM. — fr. gr. sperma, seed.
The middle one of the three
membranes by which seeds are
sometimes enveloped.
ME'SOTHORAX. — fr. gr. mesos, the
middle; thorax, the chest. The
middle ring of the thorax of in-
sects, (p. 14, Book vi).
MESPILUS.- — fr. gr. mesos, half; pile,
bullet ; the fruit resembling a half
ball. The medlar.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
97
META'BOLA. ) A term applied to
METABO'LIAN. £ those genera of
insects which undergo metamor-
phosis, or pass through the larva,
pupa, and imago states of insect
existence.
METACARPUS. — fr. gr. meta, after;
karpos, the wrist. That part of
the hand which is between the
wrist and fingers.
METAL'LIC OXIDE.— A union of a me-
tal with oxygen.
METALLi'FERous.-Containing metal.
METALLO'GRAPHY. — That branch of
science which treats of metals.
METALLOID. — Literally, resembling
metal. The metals obtained from
the alkalis and earths are called
metalloids.
METALLURGY. — fr. gr. metallon, a
metal ; ergon, work. The separa-
tion of metals from the ores, com-
prising the operations of assaying,
refining, smelting, &c.
METAMOR'PHIC. — fr. gr. meta, indi-
cating change ; morphe, form. Me-
tamorphic rocks are those which,
owing to the presumed action of
heat, have undergone change of
structure. Altered rocks ; includ-
ing gneiss, mica-schist, clay-slate, &c.
METAMO'RPHISM. — fr. gr. meta, indi-
cating change ; morphe, form. In
geology, mineralogy, &c., the doc-
trine of metamorphosis, (p. 177,
Book viii).
METAMOR'PUOSES. — Lat. plur. of me-
tamorphosis.
METAMOR'PUOSIS. — fr. gr. meta, in-
dicating change; morphe, form.
Transformation. The change
which insects undergo.
METATA'RSCS. — fr. gr. meta, after; ;
tarsos, the instep. That part of
the foot which is between the in-
step and toes.
MKTATHo'RAX.-fr.gr. meta, between ;
thorax, chest. The third ring of
the thorax of insects, so called,
because it is between the chest
and abdomen.
METKO'HIC a-roxiis.-jlerolites. Stones
9
or mineral masses which have
fallen through the air, accompa-
nied by the disengagement of
light and a noise like thunder.
METEOUO'LOGT.— fr. gr. meteoros, float-
ing in the air ; logos, a description.
The investigation of all the phy-
sical causes which affect the at-
mospheric condition of our globe.
MIA'SMA. ) fr. gr. miaino, I conta-
MIA'SMATA. £ minate. Applied to
any emanation from animal or
vegetable substances, or from the
earth, which may prejudicially
influence the health of those per-
sons who may be exposed to it.
MI'CA. — fr. lat. mico, I shine. A mi-
neral generally found in thin elas-
tic lamina?, soft, smooth and of
various colours and degrees of
transparency. It is one of the
constituents of granite.
MICA'CEOUS. — Of the nature of mica.
Glittering; shining.
MICA-SCHIST. — Ger. fr. gr. schistos.
slaty, easily split. Mica-slate. A
lamellar rock composed of quartz,
ordinarily grayish, and a great
quantity of brilliant lamellae of
mica arranged in scales, or ex-
tended leaves.
MICRO'PYLE. — fr. gr. mikros, small ;
pule, a gate. The foramen of the
ripe seed, comprising the exostome
and the endostome of the ovule,
which lead to the internal portion
of the ovule, or the nucleus.
MI'CROSCOPE. — fr.gr. mikros, little;
skopeo. I view. An optical instru-
ment which enables us to exa-
mine objects too small to be seen
by the unassisted eye.
MICROSCO'PIC. — fr. gr. mikros, little;
skopeo, I view. Diminutive. Not
easily seen without the aid of a
magnifying-glass.
MIDDLE EPOCH. — A geological epoch
characterized by the presence of
the new red sandstone.
MID'RIB. — Costa. The principal
vein, or continuation of the peti-
ole and the axis of the leaf; from
3E
98
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
this all the other veins diverge,
either from its sides or its hase.
MIGRA'TION. — The act of going from
one country to dwell in another.
WGUATORIA. )t Mi
Ml GRATORIUS.
MI'GHATORY. — fr. lat. migrare, to
move from one place to another.
Applied to animals which ha-
bitually change their place of resi-
dence.
MILK YESSELS. — Lacticiferous tissue :
vital vessels; vessels of the latex.
A peculiar tissue, consisting of
branched anastamozing tubes, ly-
ing in the bark or near the sur-
face of plants, and containing a
milky juice.
MILI.-F.POHA. — fr. lat. mt7, a thousand ;
pori, holes. A genus of stony po-
lyps, or corallines.
MILIA'RIA. — Lat. A bird that feeds
upon millet. Specific name of
the common bunting.
MIL'IART. — Granulate ; resembling
many seeds.
MIL'LIOLITES, or MILI'OLA. — fr. lat.
milium, a millet seed, and gr. lithos,
stone. A genus of foramini'ferous
fossil-shells found in the neigh-
bourhood of Paris.
MILLSTONE GRIT. — Coarse-grained,
quartzose sandstone.
MILVUS. — Lat. A kite.
MI'MOSA. — fr. lat. mimus, a comedian,
in allusion to its numerous varie-
ties. A genus, and a tribe of
plants.
MINE. — Ger. Any subterraneous
work or excavation which has for
its object 'the extraction of any
mineral products, as metallic ores,
coal, &c.
MINERAL. — Any inorganic natural
object, whether solid, liquid or ga-
seous.
MINERALIZA'TION. — The process of
converting a substance into a mi-
neral.
MINERA'LOGY. — fr. lat. minera, a mi-
neral or mine, and Gr. Zogos, a dis-
course. That branch of natural
science which treats of the pro-
perties of minerals.
MINIA'TITS. — In botany, scarlet, ver-
milion colour.
Ml'NIMA 7 T T
MINIMUM. 5 Lat Least"
MINOR. — Lat. Less, smaller
MINUS. — Lat. Little.
MINTJ'TA. — Lat. Minute, very small.
MIOCENE. — fr. gr. melon, less; kai-
wos, recent. In geology, a name
of a group of rocks of the tertiary
period, (p. 78, Book viii).
MIRA'GE. — Fr. A kind of natural
optical illusion, arising from the
unequal refraction of the lower
strata of the atmosphere. The
illusive appearance of water in
deserts is explained in this man-
ner.
MIST. — Visible atmospheric vapor.
MI'TRA. — Gr. A head-band, or dia-
dem. A genus of gasteropods.
MI'TRAL. — Of the form of a mitre,
or bishop's bonnet. The name
of two valves of the heart.
MI'TRIFORM. — Shaped like a mitre.
MODERN FORMATION. — Modern epoch.
Any geological formation which
is contemporaneous with man.
(p. 95, Book viii).
MODIO'LUS. — Lat. A bucket. A ge-
nus of mussels.
MOLA'SSE. — Fr. A fine-grained sand-
stone, usually soft and loose, but
sometimes sufficiently hard for
building purposes.
MOLAR. — fr. gr. mulos, a millstone,
or grindstone ; or fr. lat. mo/o. I
grind. That which bruises or
grinds. The grinders; jaw-teeth.
MO'LECTILE. — An atom ; a minute
portion of an aggregate.
MOLLIS'SIMA. — Lat. Softest.
MOLOS'SUS. — Lat. A species of large
dog.
MoLLtrs'cA.-fr.lat. woZfts, soft. Name
of the second branch of the ani-
mal kingdom.
MOLLUS'COUS. — Belonging to mol-
lusca.
MOLLUSK. — fr. lat. tnoWw, soft. Any
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
99
soft animal which inhabits a shell,
as oysters.
Mow-Mo NO. — fr. gr. monos, single.
A prefix, denoting unity.
MONAD. — IV. gr. monos, unity. The
smallest of all visible animal-
cules. An elementary particle
of an organic body.
MONAD E'LPHIA. — See Monodelphia.
MONAHE'LPHOUS. — Having the fila-
ments cohering in a tube.
MONA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. monos, single;
aner, stamen. Name of a class
of plants.
MONA'NDROUS. — fr. gr. monos, single ;
aner, stamen. Having but one
stamen.
MONE'DUXA. — Lat. A jackdaw.
MONE'TA. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to money.
MONI'LE. — Lat. Belonging or relat-
ing to a necklace.
MONIL'EFORM. — fr.lat. monile, a neck-
lace ; forma, shape. In the form
of a necklace, or string of beads.
MOXILEFO'RMIS. — Lat. Monileform.
MONITOR. — Lat. A genus of sau-
rian reptiles.
MONOCA'RPOUS. — fr. gr. karpos, fruit.
Bearing fruit only once, and dying
after fructification, as wheat.
MONO'CKROS. — fr. gr. monos, single ;
keras, horn. Unicorn. Having one
horn.
MONOCHLA'MTDOUS — fr. gr. monos,
one; chlamus, cloak ; eidos, resem-
blance. Seemingly having but
one covering.
MoNOCOTr'LEDOsr.-fr. gr. monos, one ;
kotuledon, seed • lobe. A plant
whose seeds have but one seed-
lobe. Mo'nocoty'ledons. A class
of plants having but one seed-
lobe in the embryo.
MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS. — Having but
one seed-lobe.
MONODA'CTYLE. — fr. gr. monos, sin-
gle; dakiulos, finger. Having one
finger.
MONODE'LPHIA. — fr. gr. monos, single ;
delphos, brotherhood. Name of a
Linnsean class o** plants in which
the filaments are all united in
one tube.
MONODE'LPHOCS. — Relating to one
brotherhood.
MONODOX. — fr. gr. monos, single;
odous, tooth. Name of a genus of
aquatic mammals. The narwhal.
A genus of mollusks of the family
of Trochoides.
MONODON'TA. — Lat. Monodons.
MONCE'CIA. — fr. gr. monos, single;
oikia, house. Name of a Linnaean
class of plants, in which the sta-
mens and pistils grow on sepa-
rate flowers, but on the same in-
dividual plant.
MON<E'CIOUS. — Having flowers with
stamens alone, and flowers with
pistils alone on the same plant.
MONOO'AMOUS. — fr. gr. monos, one ;
gamos, marriage. Those animals,
the male and female of which
are paired for life, are said to be
monogamous.
MONOG'AMY. — fr.gr. monos, one, sin-
gle; gamos, marriage. The state
or condition of being married only
to one person.
MONOOA'STRIC. — Having but one
stomach.
MONOGY'NIA. — fr. gr. monos, single;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants.
MONOHTPOOT'XIA. — fr. gr. monos, sin-
gle; upo, below; gune, pistil.
Name of a class of plants.
MONOLITH. — fr. gr. lithos, a stone.
A pillar consisting of a single
stone.
MONOME'RA. — fr. gr. meros, a part.
Applied to insects in which the
tarsi have only one joint.
MOXOMOR'PHOUS. — fr. gr. morphe,
form. Of a single form. Applied
to insects, which, in their larva
state, are similar in form to the
perfect insect, though wingless.
MONO'MTA'RIA. — fr.gr. monos, single;
muon, muscle. Bivalves which
have only one adductor muscK
MONONEU'RA.— fr. gr. neuron, a nerve.
Rudolphi's name for animal*
100
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
which possess the ganglionic sys-
tem of nerves only 5 as mollusks
and insects.
MONOFERIGY'NIA. — fr. gr. monos, sin-
gle ; peri, around : gune, pistil.
Name of a class of plants.
MONOPETA'LE.E. — fr. gr. monos, sin-
gle ; petalon, a petal. Name of a
class of plants.
MONOPE'TALOUS. — Consisting of one
petal.
MONOPHYL'LOUS. — fr. gr. phullon, a
leaf. Monosepalous : gamosepalous.
Cohesion of the sepals.
MONOSE'PALOUS. — fr. gr. monos, one,
and sepal. Consisting of one se-
pal.
MONOSPERXA'TIC. ) fr. gr. monos, sin-
MONOSPE'RMOUS. £ gle ; sperma,
seed. Having one seed.
MONOTHA'LAMOUS. — fr. gr. lhalamot,
a chamber. Having a single
chamber or cavity ; applied to
shells.
MONOTRE'MATA. — fr. gr. monos, sin-
gle ; trema, a perforation or hole.
The name of a family of ovo-
vivi'parous mammals found in
New Holland.
MONSOO'NS. — fr. Malay, mooseem, a
season. Winds which blow six
months in one direction, and in
the opposite direction for the same
time, changing periodically.
MONSTER.— Any organic body which
is unusual in the size, or number
of its parts.
MONTA'NUS. Lat. Mountainous.
Relating to mountains.
MORAI'NES. — Longitudinal deposits
of stony detritus found at the
bases, and along the edges of all
the great glaciers, (p. 131, Book
viii).
MORDANT. — That which enables ve-
eetable matter or tissue to receive
dyes or colouring matter.
MORPHO'LOGT. — fr. gr. morphe, form ;
logos, a description. The history
of the modifications of form which
the same organ undergoes in dif-
ferent animals or plants.
MORRHUA. — Systematic name of the
cod -fish.
MO'RUS. — Lat. A mulberry tree.
MOSAIC. — fr. gr. mouseion, mousion,
mosion, which signify the same
thing in the Greek of the middle
ages, as the musivum opus, of the
Latins, a museum, a place de-
signed for study. Some add, that
it is because cabinets or muse-
ums were ornamented at first
with works of this kind. A work,
in which, by means of small
stones and little pieces of differ-
ently coloured glass, figures or
even entire pictures are repre-
sented.
MOSASAU'RUS. — From Meuse, name
of a river, and the Gr. sauros, a
lizard. A genus of fossil reptiles,
(p. 75, Book viii).
MOSCHA'TUS. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to musk. Perfumed with
musk.
Moscm'FERtrs. — fr. lat. moschus, fero,
I bear. Musk-bearing.
MOSCHUS. — fr. gr. moschos, musk. A
genus of mammals from which
musk is obtained.
MOSSES. — Crytogamous parasites of
the family of Lycopode'nese.
MOTACILLA. — Lat. A wag-tail.
MOTHER OF PEARL. — Nacre of cer-
tain shells, which is composed of
alternate layers of coagulated al-
bumen and carbonate of lime.
MOTI'LITT. — The power of moving.
MOTIVE. — fr. Jat. moveo, I move.
That which moves or causes mo-
tion.
MOTOR. — fr. lat. moveo, I move. That
which causes motion. A mover.
MOTTLED. — Marked with blotches
of colour of unequal intensity,
passing insensibly into each other.
MOU'ETTE. — Fr. A sea-mew, a gull.
MOULT. — To change the feathers ;
to cast the skin.
MOULTING — Changing of the plu-
mage, which occurs naturally and
periodically.
MOUNTAIN. — Any earthy elevation
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
101
of more than two thousand feet
in height. A mountain chain, is a
series of mountains having a con-
tinuous base. A hill is merely a
small mountain.
MOTA. — Sp. Mud poured out from
volcanoes during eruptions.
MUCEDI'NE.E. — Lat. plur. Moulds.
MU'CJLAGE. — A mixture of gum and
water.
MUCOS'ITT. — A fluid which resem-
bles mucus, or contains a certain
quantity of it.
Mu'cous. — Belonging or relating to
mucus.
Mu CRO/VATE. — fr. lat. mucro, a sharp
pom.:. Ending in a sharp, rigid
point, (p. 35, Book vii).
MUCHONA'TUS. Lat. Mucronate.
Pointed ; sharp-pointed.
MUCRO'NULATE. — Having a little
hard point.
Mu'cus, — Animal mucilage. A pe-
culiar fluid secreted by mucous
membranes.
MUGIL — Lat. A mullet.
MUGILOI'DES. — fr. lat. niugil, a mul-
let, and Gr. eidos, resemblance.
Systematic name of a family of
fishes.
MULCH. — To place manure about the
roots of trees on the surface of
the ground.
MULCT. — Fr. A kind of field-mouse.
MULLOI'DES. — fr. lat. mullus, a bar-
bel, a red-mullet, and gr. eidos. re-
semblance. Systematic name of
a family of fishes.
MUL'LUS. — Lat. A barbel, a red-
mullet.
MULTI FA' RIOUS.— Arranged in many
rows: very numerous.
MULTILO'CULAR. fr. lat. vnultus,
many; loculus, a lodge. Many-
chambered ; consisting of several
divisions.
MULTIPA'RTITE. — fr. lat. multus, ma-
ny ; pars, partis, a part. Having
very deep and very distinct divi-
sions, (fig. 56, p. 43, Book vii).
MUL'TIPLEX. — Much multiplied.
MU'LTIVALVE. — fr. lat. multus, many ;
valvce, valves. Composed of seve-
ral, or more than two calcareous
pieces or valves.
MURJE'NA. — fr. gr. muraina, a kind
of fish resembling an eel. Syste
matic name of eels
MUR^E'NJE. — Lat. plur. of muraena.
MU'RAL. — fr. lat. murus, a wall. Be-
longing or relating to a wall.
MU'REX. — Lat. A shell-fish. A ge-
nus of univalve mollusks.
MURICA'TA. — Lat. Full of sharp
prickles or points.
MU'RICATED. — Clothed with short,
sharp spines.
MURICATO-HISPID. — Covered with
short, sharp points, and rigid hairs
or bristles.
Mu'RiCES.^-Lat. plur. of murex.
MU'RIFORM. — Wall-like.
Mus. — Lat. A mouse.
MUS'CA. — Lat. Fly,
MUSCHELKALK. — fr. ger. muschel, a
shell ; kalk, lime. Shell limestone,
(p. 50, Book viii).
Mu'sci. — Lat. plur. Mosses.
MUSCI'PULA. — Lat. A fly or mouse
trap.
MUSCICA'PA. — fr. lat. musca, a fly,
capio, I seize. Fly-catcher.
Musci'ii£. — fr. lat. musca, a fly, and
Gr. eidos, resemblance. A section
or division of the class of insects,
which includes flies.
MUSCLE. — An organ of motion ; the
flesh of animals. Fleshy fibres
capable of contraction and relaxa
tion.
MU'SCULAR. — Belonging or relating
to muscle. Muscular impressions,
are those indented marks in ace-
phalous bivalves, which indicate
the insertion of those muscles by
which the animal is attached to
its shell.
MUS'CULUS. — Lat. A little mouse.
MUSK.— An animal substance of a
very diffusible odour, bitter tasto,
and deep brown colour. It is
used as a medicine and perfume
The name of an animal.
MU'SSEL. — A bivalve mollusk.
3E2
102
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
MUSSEL BAND. — The black shale of
coal-mines, containing imbedded
mussel-shells.
MUSTA'CHES. — fr. gr. mustax, the up-
per lip ; the beard on the upper
lip. The beard that is permitted
to grow long on the upper lip.
The hairs which many animals
have growing about the mouth.
MUSTELA. — Lat. A weasel.
MU'TICOUS. — fr. lat. muticus, beard-
less. Having no point.
MUZZLE. — That part of the head of
the dog, and certain other ani-
mals, which comprises the mouth
and nose.
MT'A. — fr. gr. mu6n, a muscle. An
acephalous mollusk.
MYCE'LIA. — fr. gr. mukes, a mush-
room. The rudiments of fungi,
or the matter from which fungi
are produced.
MYELENCE'PHALA. — fr. gr. muelos,
marrow ; egkephalon, the brain.
Owen's name for the Vertebrata,
of Cuvier, and the Spinicerebruta,
of Grant.
MYELOXEU'RA. — fr. gr. muelos, mar-
row ; neuron, nerve. A group of
animals, having a ganglionio ner-
vous system in form of a cord,
resembling the spinal marrow of
the vertebrata.
MY'GALE. — fr. gr. mugale. a field-
mouse. A large kind of spider.
(fig. 57, p. 64, Book vi).
MYOPIA. — fr. gr. wws, a mouse; ops,
sight. Because mice were sup-
posed to be short-sighted. Near-
signtedness.
MYOPO'TAMUS. — fr. gr. mus, a rat;
potamos, a ri ver. A genus of gna w-
ing mammals.
MYOTHE RA.-^-fr. gr. mtts, a mouse;
therad, I hunt, I catch. The sys-
tematic name of the ant-catchers.
(The word would be better, myr-
mothera, from murmex, an ant, and
thereto.}
MYOXUS. — fr. gr. mus, a mouse ; oxus,
sharp -pointed. A rat with a
pointed nose.
MY'RIAPOD. — Of the class my'ria-
pod a.
MY'IIIAPODA. — fr: gr. murias, ten
thousand ; pous, podos, foot. A
class of articulate animals.
MYRMECO'PHAGA. — fr. gr. murmex, an
ant; phago, I eat. Ant-eaters.
M Y'RMOTHERINE. — fr. gr. murmex, an
ant; therad, to chase. Applied to
birds that feed upon ants.
MYRTA'CEJS. — Name of a family of
plants.
M YSTECE'TUS. — fr. gr. mustus, a nose ;
chaite, a bristle. A name given
to a species of cetacea, that has
w-halebone.
MYTJLA'CEA. — fr. gr. mytilos, a mus-
sel. Name of a family of mol-
lusks.
MY'TILUS. — Lat. A mussel.
MYXINE. — fr. gr. muxinos, formed
from muzo, I suck. Systematic
name of the hag-fish, (p. 127,
Book iv).
NA'CRE. — fr. sp. nacar, mother-of-
pearl.
NA'CREOUS. — Of the nature of mo-
ther-of-pearl. Having a pearl-
like lustre.
NA'GELFLUE. — Ger. A coarse con-
glomerate.
NAI'ADKS. — A family of fresh-water
conchiferous mollusks.
NAKED. — In botany, destitute of
parts usually found.
NAXA. ") fr. gr. nanos, a dwarf.
NANCS. 5 Dwarfish ; very small.
A specific name.
NAP. — Tomentose : downy.
NA'PIFORM. — fr. lat. napus, turnip ;
forma, shape. Turnip-shaped.
NA'PTHA. — A limpid bitumen; a
thin, fluid, volatile mineral.
NAHCI'SSE^. — Name of a family of
plants.
NARCO'TIC. — fr. gr. narke, torpor.
Medicines which produce drow-
siness, sleep, and stupor, are term-
ed narcotics.
NARES. — Lat The nostrils.
NASAL. — fr. lat. nasus, a nose. Be
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
103
longing, or relating to the nose.
Nasal fossae. See Fossa.
NA'SSA. — Lat. A net, a snare. A
genus of gasteropoda.
NA'TANT. — Swimming, or floating.
NA'TATORY. — fr. lat. nato, I swim.
Swimming, floating.
NA'TATIOW. — fr. lat. natatio, swim-
ming. The act of swimming, or
supporting one's self, or moving
upon the water.
NA'TICA. — Lat. Name of a genus
of gasteropods. (Jig. 20, p. 34
Book v).
NATROX. — A subcarbonate of soda.
NATURAL JOINT. — In mineralogy,
the plane in which any two la-
mime of a crystallized substance
are united.
NATURAL ORDER. — In botany, that
arrangement in which groups of
plants are formed by the associa-
tion together of those genera,
which have the greatest resem-
blance one to another in all their
characters taken together.
NAUCRA'TES. — fr. gr. watts, a vessel;
krated, I have power over. Sys-
tematic name of certain fishes.
NAUCUM. — In botany, the exterior
coat of a drupe.
NAUSEA. — fr. gr. waus, a ship; be-
cause those unaccustomed to sail-
ing are so affected. Sickness. A
desire to vomit.
NAU'TILUS. — fr. gr. Nautilos, name
of the Argonaut. A genus of ce-
phalopods.
NAVI'CULA. — Lat. A little boat.
NAVI'CULAR. — Boat-shaped.
NECK. — In botany, the upper, taper-
ing end of bulbs.
NECTAR. — fr. gr. nektar, formed from
ne, a negative; ktao, I kill, be-
cause nectar imparted immorta-
lity. The drink of the heathen
gods. A certain product of flow-
ers, which is found in the corolla,
but which does not belong to it.
NECTARI'FEHOUS. — Bearing honey.
NE'CTABT. — That part of a flower
which secretes nectar or honey,
(p. 76, Book vii).
NEMATONEU'RA. — fr. gr. wema, nema-
tos, thread ; neuron, a nerve. Ow-
en's name for a division of the
Radiata of Cuvier, in which the
nervous matter is filamentous.
NE'MORAL. — fr. lat. nemus, a wood.
Belonging or relating to a wood
or grove.
NEOCO'MIAN and NEOCOMIEN. — Fr.
The lower beds of the cretaceous
system in the south of France
and elsewhere, are described by
the French geologists under this
name.
NEPTU'NIAN. — From Neptune, god
of the sea. Belonging or relating
to water.
NERI'NEA. — A genus of fossil uni-
valves, resembling both cere'thi-
um and turritella. (p. 63, Book v).
NERI'TA. — Lat. A shell-fish. A ge-
nus of gasteropods. (p. 51, Book v).
NERITI'NA. — Lat. Dimin. of Nerita.
A genus of gasteropods. (p. 51,
Book v).
NERVA'TION. — Venation. The dis-
tribution of the vascular tissue
through the limb of the leaf. (p.
33, Book vii).
NERVED. — In botany, marked with
nerves, so called, though not or-
gans of sensibility.
NERVES. — In botany, parallel veins;
the strong veins upon leaves or
flowers. In zoology, rounded
cords of nervous matter.
NEHVIMOTION. — The power of mo-
tion in leaves.
NERVINE. ") In botany, composed of
NERVOSE. 3 nerves.
NERV'OUS. — Belonging or relating to
the nerves.
NER'VURES. — Veins of leaves. The
horny tubes in the wings of insects,
which serve to stretch them.
NESTOR. — An extinct bird.
NEURO'PTERA. — -fr. gr. neuron, a
nerve ; pteron, wing. An order
of insects.
104
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
NEUHO'PTERIS. — A genus of fossil
plants, (p. 41, Book viii).
NEUTER. — Neither male nor female.
NEW RED SANDSTONE. — Variegated
sandstone. In geology, a system
of rocks of the secondary forma-
tion, consisting chiefly of sandy
and argillaceous strata, the pre-
dominant colour of which is brick-
red, though it contains portions
which are greenish gray. (p. 47,
Book viii).
NICKEL. — A white metal. It is the
basis of " German Silver."
NICTA'TION. — The act of winking.
NICTITANS. — Lat. Winking. The
membrana nictitans, is a sort of
internal eyelid, found in many
mammals.
NICOTIA'NA. — Generic name of the
tobacco plant, derived from Nicot,
a Frenchman, who first sent to-
bacco to France, about the year
1560.
NIDAME'NTAL. — fr. lat. nidus, a nest.
Relating to the protection of the
egg and young; especially applied
to the organs which secrete the
materials of which many animals
construct their nests.
NIDIFICA'TION. — fr. lat.nidus, a nest ;
facere, to make. The act of build-
ing a nest.
NIDIFO'RMIS. — Lat. In form of a
bird's nest.
NID'ULANT. — Nestling; lying as a
bird in its nest.
£lGER<?Lat. Black.
NlGRA 3
NILO'TICA. J Lat. Belonging to the
NILO'TICUS. £ river Nile.
NILSO'NIA. — A genus of fossil plants.
KIM wus. — The cumulo-cirro-stratus.
A rain cloud.
Nisus. — Lat. A sparrow-hawk.
NIT. — A louse's egg.
NI'TED. — fr. lat. niteo, I shine. Glossy.
NITE'LA.— Lat. A sort of field-mouse.
NI'TENT. — Highly polished; very
smooth.
NIT'IDA. — Lat. Neat, clean, bright.
NITROGEN. — fr. gr. nitron, nitre-
gennao, I beget. A simple, perma-
nently elastic fluid or gas, which
constitutes four-fifths of the atmo-
sphere, and is the basis of nitric
acid. (p. 53, Book vii).
NIVA'LIS. — Lat. Snowy.
NOCTILU'CUS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to the moon.
NOC'TUA. — Lat. An owl.
NOCTUR'NJE. — Systematic name of
nocturnal birds of prey.
NOCTTTR'NAL. — fr. lat. nox, the night.
Belonging or relating to the night.
Nocturnal animals are those which
sleep during the day, and are ac-
tive only in the night.
NODDING. — In botany, having a
drooping position.
NODE. — fr. lat. nodus, a knot. In bo-
tany, the thickened part of a stem
or branch from which a leaf is
developed. The space between
two nodes is termed the internode.
NODI. — Lat. plur. Nodes; knots.
NODO'SE. — Knotty; having many
knots.
NODO'SUS. — Lat. Knotty.
NOD'ULAH. — Having globular eleva-
tions.
NO'DULE. — fr. latvnorfws, a knot. A
rounded irregular lump or mass.
NOMENCLATURE. — fr. gr. onoma, a
name ; kaleo, I call. A collection
of names or words peculiar to a
science or art.
NON-CONDUCTOR. — Applied to sub-
stances which do not possess the
property of transmitting electri-
city, or heat.
NOR'MAL. — fr. lat. norma, a rule. Ac-
cording to the peculiarities of a
family or genus, without the least
departure. In geology, normal
groups are certain rocks, taken as
a rule or standard.
NORWICH, or NORFOLK CRAG. — A ter-
tiary formation which rests on the
London clay or chalk, and in-
cludes marine shells, (p. 84, Book
viii).
NOSTRILS. — When they are open in
birds, and may be seen through
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
105
from side to side, as in gulls, &c.,
nostrils are said to be pervious.
Nostrils are termed linear when
they are extended lengthwise in
a line with the beak, as in di-
vers, &c.
NOTACAN'THOUS. — fr. gr. nofos, the
back; akantha, a spine. Having
spines on the back; applied to
certain insects.
NoxcH-FLOWERED.-Having the flow-
er notched at the margin.
NOTOJTE'CTAL. — fr. gr. notes, the
back ; neklos, that swims. Habi-
tually swimming on the back;
applied to certain insects.
NOTOH'NIS. — An extinct bird.
NOTOTHE'RIUM. — A fossil genus of
marsupial mammals.
NUCAMEXTA'CEOUS -Producing nuts.
NU'CHA — Lat. The nape of the
neck.
NU'CLEATED. — Having a nucleus, or
central particle.
NU'CLEUS. — A kernel. A centre
around which matter has accumu-
lated.
ND'CULA. — fr. lat. nux, a nut. A ge-
nus of bivalve shells with nume-
rous teeth like those of a comb.
NUCULA'NIUM. — A superior, indehis-
cent, fleshy fruit, containing two
or more cells, and several seeds,
as the grape.
NU'CULE. — Glans: a form of fruit.
NCDA. — Lat. Naked.
NC'DI BRANCH. — Relating to the nu-
dibranchiata.
NU'DIRRANCHIA'TA. — fr. lat. nudus,
naked ; branchia, gills. Name of
an order of gasteropods.
NUME'NIUS. — fr. gr. neos, new ; wime,
moon, on account of their cres-
cent-shaped beak. Generic name
of the curlews.
Lat' A Guinea-fowl-
NUMMULA'RIA. — Nummulites.
NUMMULI'TES. — fr. lat. nwmmuj, mo-
ne>, and fr. gr. lithos, stone. Fos-
sil money. An extinct genus of
cephalopods, of a thin lenticular
shape, divided internally into
small chambers. Nummulite lime-
stone obtains its name from the
presence in it of these shells in
great abundance. In Alabama
there is a mountain range entirely
composed of one species of num-
mulite.
NUT. — A dry, bony, indehiscent,
one-celled fruit, proceeding from
a pistil of three cells, and enclosed
in a cupule, as the acorn, &c.
NUTRI'TION. — The animal function,
by which the various organs re-
ceive nutritive substances (previ-
ously prepared by the several or-
gans of digestion), necessary to
repair their losses and maintain
their strength.
NU'TRITIVE. — Affording nourish-
ment.
NTM'PHA. — Lat. Nymph. The se-
cond stage of metamorphosis of
insects.
OB. — A prefix, signifying inversion.
OBCOXIC. — Conic with the apex
downward.
OB'COHDATE. — Inversely cordate, (p.
35, Book vii).
OBLA'NCEOLATE — Lanceolate, with
the base narrowest.
OBLI'Q.UE. — In botany, a position
between horizontal and verti-
cal.
OB LONG. — Longer than oval, with
the sides parallel.
OBLONGA'TA. — Lat. Elongated —
lengthened.
OB'LOXG-O'VATE. — Egg-shaped, or
oval.
| OBLO'NGUS. — Lat. Oblong.
OBOVA'TA. — Lat. Obovate.
OBO'VATE. — fr. lat. 06, for, opposite ;
ouwm, egg. Ovate or egg-shaped,
but inverted.
OBSCURA. — Lat. Dark; obscure.
OBSI'DIAN. — Named after Obsidius.
A glassy lava. Volcanic glass.
It consists of si'lica and alumina
with a little potash and oxide of
iron.
i06
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
OB'SOLETE. — Indistinct, not well de-
fined.
OB'TCSE. — Blunt or dull.
OB' VOLUTE — Rolled over. A form
of aestivation or vernation, in
which the margins of one leaf
alternately overlap those of the
leaf which is opposite to it.
OCCI'PITAL. — Relating or belonging
to the occiput.
OC'CIPUT. — The back part of the
head. The hind-head in opposi-
tion to the fore-head.
Oc'ctusiox. — Being shut up, as the
chick in the egg.
OC'ELLAR. — Relating to ocelli.
OC'ELLATA. — fr. lat. oculus, an eye.
Having marks resembling an eye.
OC'KLLATI*. — fr. lat. oculus, an eye.
Having marks resembling an eye.
OC'ELLI. — Lat. plur. of ocellus, a lit-
tle eye.
O'CHREJS. — Lat. A boot. Stipules, the
margins of which cohere, form-
ing a membranous tube which
sheathes the stem. (p. 34, Book
vii).
OCHKA'CEOUS. ) Of the colour of yel-
O'CHREOUS. £ low ochre.
OCHROLEU'COUS. — Whitish yellow,
cream-colour.
OCTA'GONAL — fr. gr. octo, eight; go-
nia, angle. Relating to an octa-
gon, a figure contained in eight
sides, and having eight angles.
OCTAGT'NIA. — fr.gr. odd, eight ; gune,
pistil. Name of an order of plants.
OCTA'XDRTA. — fr. gr. odd, eight ; aner,
stamen. Name of a class of
plants.
OCTA'NUUOUS. — Having eight sta-
mens.
OCTOGY'JTOUS. — Having eight styles.
OCTOPLICA'TA. — fr. lat.or/o. eight; pli-
ca'ta, folded. Having eight folds.
OCTOPO'DIA. — A tribe of cephalo-
pods.
O'CTOPUS. — fr. gr. oklo, eight ; pous,
foot. A genus of cepbalopods.
CEDEM'EROUS. — fr. gr. aided, I swell ;
meros, a thigh. Applied to insects
with enlarged and arcuate thighs.
(ESOPHA'GEAL. — Belonging to the
oesophagus.
(ESOPHA'GCS. — fr. gr. oiso, I carry ;
phagein, to eat. The gullet. The
membranous canal which con-
veys food from the mouth to the
stomach.
CEs'Tni. — Lat. plur. of (Estrus.
CEsxRus. — fr. gr. oistros, strong de-
sire ; a gad-fly. Systematic name
of a family of insects, (p. 59,
Book vi).
ODORI'FEROUS. — fr. lat. or/or, a scent $
fero, I bear. Scent, or odour-
bearing.
OFFICINA'LIS. — fr. lat. qffidna, a shop.
Officinal. Applied to what is
ready prepared.
OFF-SET. — Propagulum. A short
branch of certain herbaceous
plants, which is terminated by a
tuft of leaves, and is capable of
taking root when separated from
the parent plant.
OF'FUSCATED. — Darkened, clouded,
dimmed.
OGYGI'AN DELUGE. — A great inunda-
tion mentioned in fabulous his-
tory, supposed to have taken place
in the reign of Ogyges. in Attica,
who died B.C. 1764.
OID, — OIDES. — fr. gr. eidos, resem-
blance. An affix denoting resem-
blance, as petaloid, like a petal.
OLD RED SANDSTONE. — A formation
immediately below the carboni-
ferous group. Devonian formation.
(p. 37, Book viii).
O'LEA. — Lat. An olive tree.
OLEA'GINOUS. — fr. lat. oleum, oil.
Oily; unctuous.
OLERA'CEOUS. — Esculent, eatable.
OLFAC'TORT. — fr. lat. olfactus, the
smell. That which belongs or
relates to the sense of smell.
OL'IGO. — fr. gr.oligos, little, few. A
prefix denoting the number u small,
not indefinite.
OLIGO'PHTLLOUS. — Having but few-
leaves.
OLI'VA. — Lat. An olive. A genus
of gasteropods
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
107
OIIVA'CEOUS. — Being of a greenish
olive colour ; of the quality of
olives.
OMA'SUM. — Lat. The manyplies, or
third stomach of ruminants.
OMNI'VOROUS. — fr. lat. onmis, all ; vo-
rare, to eat. Applied to animals
that eat all kinds of food, both
animal and vegetable.
OMPHALO'DIUM. — fr. gr. omphalos, the
umbilicus. The centre of the hi-
lum of the seeds of plants, through
which the nutrient vessels pass
to the embryo.
ON AGOA. — fr. gr. onos, an ass ; agrios,
wild. The mountain horse, or a
wild ass.
ONCHI'DIUM. — A genus of gastero-
pods. (p. 41, Book v).
Ojfis'cus. — Lat. A wood-louse.
ONOCRO'TALTJS. — fr. gr. CMOS, an ass ;
krotos, noise. Systematic name of
the pelican.
ONTO'LOGT. — fr. gr. ontos, a being ;
logos, a description. A descrip-
tion of organized beings.
O'OLITE. — fr. gr. oon, an egg; lithos,
stone. A granular variety of car-
bonate of lime, frequently called
roestone. (p. 58, Book viii).
O'OLITIC. — Belonging or relating to
o'olite.
O'OLOGY. — fr. gr. oon, an egg ; logos,
a description. That department
of ornithology which treats of
eggs and nests.
OOZO'A. — fr. gr. oon, an egg; zoon,
an animal. Carus' name for one
of the primary divisions of the
animal kingdom.
O'PAL. — A brittle mineral, charac-
terized by its iridescent reflection
of light. It consists of silica with
about ten per cent, of water.
O'PALKS'CEJTT. — Resembling opal.
OPALIZED WOOD. — Wood which has
acquired a structure resembling
that of opal, being petrified by
siliceous earth.
OPA'Q.UK.— fr. lat. opacus, dark. In-
capable of transmitting light,
OPEII'CULA.— Lat. plur. of operculurn.
OPER'CULAR. — Belonging to opercu-
lum. Covered with a lid.
OPERCU'LIFORM. — Having the figure
arid position of a round lid of
something.
OPER'CULUM. — fr. lat. operire, to co-
ver. The small door or cover
which closes the entrance to a
shell. A bony, moveable plate
which, in a great many fishes,
.covers the gills or branchiae.
OPHI'DIA. — fr. gr. ophis, serpent. Sys-
tematic name of an order of rep-
tiles.
OPHI'DIAN. — Any reptile of the or-
der of ophidia.
OPHI'DIOUS. — Of the nature of, or
belonging to serpents.
OPHIO'LOOT. — fr. gr. ophis, a serpent j
logos, description. That branch
of herpetology which treats of
serpents.
OPPOSITE. — Standing against each
other on opposite sides of the
stem.
OPHTHA'LMIC. — fr. gr. ophthalmos, the
eye. Belonging to the eye.
OPSIG'OSTAL. — fr. gr. opse, late ; geino-
mai, to be produced. Produced
at a late period.
OP'TIC. — fr. gr. optomai, I see. Re-
lating to vision. The principal
nerve of vision is so called.
O'RAL. — fr. lat. on'*, the mouth. Be-
longing or relating to the mouth.
O'RAHGERY. — A kind of gallery, for
the preservation of orange-trees,
during the winter.
ORBI'CULA. — fr. lat. orots, a circle.
A genus of brachiopod mollusks.
(p. 90, Book v).
ORBI'CTJLAR.—— Spherical, circular,
round.
ORBI'
ORBI'CULAH. "> fr. lat. orbis, an orb.
ORBI'CULATE. 3 A plane surface,
having a circular outline, (p. 42,
Book vii).
lat. orbis, a circle, The
10Q
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
circular, bony cavities in which
the organs of vision are lodged,
are named the orbits.
OR'BITAL. ) Belonging or relating to
OR'BITAR. £ the orbit.
ORCHID'EOUS. — Relating to the genus
orchis.
OH'CHIS. — A genus of plants of the
family of orchid'ese, named from
most of the species being marked
by two tubercles.
ORDER. — An arrangement, disposi-
tion. The first subdivision of a
class.
ORDINA'RIA. — Lat. Ordinary, com-
mon.
ORES. — fr. ger. erze. Mineral bodies
from which metals are extracted.
OREILLARD. — Fr. Having long ears.
The name of a kind of bat.
ORGAN. — fr. gr. organon, an instru-
ment. Part of an organized be-
ing, destined to perform some par-
ticular function ; the ears are or-
gans of hearing, the muscles or-
gans of motion, &c.
ORGA'NIC. — Relating to an organ.
Organic remains, are the fossil re-
mains of organized beings.
ORGA'NISANS. — Lat. fr. gr. organoo,
I arrange, or provide with organs.
Organizing, constructing.
OR'GANISM. — The arrangement of
organs; the assemblage of their
different functions.
ORGANIZA'TION.— The mode or man-
ner of structure of an organized
being.
OR'GANISED. — Composed of organs ;
having a mode of structure.
ORGANO'GRAPHY. — fr. gr. organon, an
organ; grapho, I describe. A de-
scription of the structure of plants.
ORIO'LUS. — fr. lat. aureolus, of the
colour of gold. Systematic name
of the orioles. A genus of birds.
ORTSMO'LOGY. — fr. gr. orismos, term ;
logos, a discourse. Nomenclature;
terminology.
ORNITHOLOGY. — fr. gr. ornis, ornitkos,
a bird ; logos, a discourse. The
natural history of birds.
ORNITHORYN'CHITS. — fr. gr. ornis, or-
nithos, a bird ; rugchos, a beak. A
genus of mammals, having the
beak of a duck.
O'RNUS. — Lat. A wild ash.
ORO'LOGY. — fr. gr. oros, a mountain ;
logos, discourse. That branch of
geology which treats of the struc-
ture of mountains.
ORTHOP'TERA. — fr. gr. orthos, straight ;
pteron, wing. An order of insects.
ORTHOP'TERJE. — Lat. plur. of orthop'-
tera.
ORTHOTRO'POTJS. fr. gr. orthos,
straight; trepo, to turn. Applied
to the ovule in plants, because it
is not turned from its original di-
rection.
ORTHIS. — A genus of fossil bivalve
shells, (p. 29, Book viii).
ORTHOCE'RAS. ) fr. gr. orthos,
ORTHO'CERATITE. £ straight; ke-
ras, horn. An extinct genus of
cephalopods. (p. 38, Book viii).
OR'TYX. — fr. gr. ortux, a quail. Sys-
tematic name of a kind of par-
tridge.
ORYCTO'GTTOSY. — fr. gr. oruktos, dug
up ; gnosis, knowledge. Orycto-
logy. That branch of science
which treats of fossil organic re-
mains.
ORYZIVO'RA. ) fr. gr. oruza, rice,
ORYZIVO'RUS. £ and the Lat. vorare,
to eat. Specific names of certain
buntings.
ORY'ZA. — Lat. Rice.
Os. — Lat. Bone.
OSCIZLA'TION. — fr. lat. oscillum, an
image, hung on ropes and swung
up and down in the air. The
act of moving backwards and
forwards like a pendulum.
OsciLLA'xoRY.-Swinging backwards
and forwards like a pendulum.
OSME'HUS. — Generic name of the
smelt.
OS'SEOUS. — fr. lat. os, bone. Bony,
composed of bone. Osseous brec-
cia is any cemented mass of frag-
ments of bones of extinct animals,
found in caverns and fissures.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
109
OS'SIFICATIOW. — fr. lat. os, bone ; fa-
cere, to make. The formation of
bone. The process by which bone
is formed.
OS'SIFIED. — fr. lat. os, bone. Con-
verted into bone.
OSSIFUA'GA. — fr. lat. ossa, bones \ fran-
gere, to break. Name of a kind
of vulture.
OSSIFRA'GUS. — Lat. Specific name
of an eagle.
OSTEO'LOGT. — fr. gr. osteon, a bone ;
logos, a discourse. That branch
of organography which treats of
bones.
OS'TIOLUM. — fr. lat. ostium, a door.
The orifice of the perithecium of
some fungaceous plants.
OSTRA'CEA. — A family of bivalves
which includes the oyster.
OSTHA'CIOJT. — fr. gr. ostrakon, a shell,
a scale. Generic name of the
trunk-fish.
DS'TREA. — Lat. An oyster. Name
of a genus of the family of os-
tracea.
O'TION. — fr. gr. otion, a small ear.
A genus of cirrhopods.
OTIS. — fr. gr. otis, a bustard. Gene-
ric name of the bustards.
OTUS. — fr. gr. otos, an owl ; formed
from ous, 6tos, an ear. Generic
name of a kind of owl.
OuRANG-OuTAjro. — From the Malay,
ourang, a reasonable being, a man,
and outang, wild. The wild-man.
A quadrumanous mammal.
OUTCROP. — The emergence of a
rock, in place, at the surface.
OUTLIER. — A hill or range of strata
occurring at some distance from
the general mass of formation to
which it belongs.
O'VA — Lat. plur. of ovum.
OVA'RIA. — Lat. plur. of ovarium.
O'VAHIES. — Female organs which
contain the ova or eggs.
OVA'RIAN. — Relating to the ovary.
OVA'RIUM. — Lat. An ovary. The
omrmm of plants is the hollow
10 3 F
case at the base of the pistil, en-
closing the ovules, or young seeds.
O'VART. — fr. lat. ovum, an egg. The
ovaries are the organs in which
the eggs are formed in oviparous
animals. A hollow case, enclos-
ing the ovules or young seeds,
which ultimately become fruit.
O'VATE. — Shaped like the longitudi-
nal section of an egg.
OVATO - ACU'MINATE. — Egg - shaped
and tapering to a point.
OVATO - CYLINDRA'CEOUS. — Egg-sha-
ped, with a convolute cylindrical
figure.
OTATO- DELTOID. — Triangularly egg-
shaped.
OVATO-ROTUNDATE. — Roundly egg-
shaped.
OVA'TUS. — Lat: Ovate, egg-shaped.
OVERLAPPING. — When the margin
of one thing lies upon that of an-
other, it is said to overlap.
OVERLTING. — When one stratum
lies over, or overlaps another, it
is said to be overlying.
O'viDucT. — fr. lat. ovum, an egg;
duco, I conduct. The tube which
conveys the ovum from the ovary.
OVIGE'ROUS. — fr. lat. ovum, an egg;
gero, I bear. Applied to parts
which contain, or support the egg.
OVINE. — Relating to sheep.
OVI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. ovum, an egg;
pario, I produce. Applied to ani-
mals whose young are born from
eggs.
OVIPOS'ITOR. — fr. lat. ovum, an egg ;
pono, I place. The instrument
by which insects deposit their
eggs.
Ovis. — Lat. A sheep.
O'VOID. — Oval. Egg-shaped.
OVO-YIVI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. ovum, egg ;
vivus, alive ; parere, to bring forth.
Animals that multiply by means
of eggs, which are hatched be-
fore they are laid.
O'VULK. — A young seed of a plant
contained in the ovarium.
O'VULA. — fr. lat. ovum, an egg. A
genus of gasteropods.
no
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
O'YULJE. — Lat. plur. of ovula.
OVULA'TIOST. — The production of
eggs.
O'vuw. — Lat. An egg.
OXFORD CLAY. — Clunch clay ; an ar-
gillaceous bed interposed between
the lower and middle oolite, (p.
62, Book viii).
OXIDA'TION. — The process of con-
verting metals or other substances
into oxides.
O'XIDE. — fr. gr. oxus, acid; eidos,
form. A compound, which is not
acid, containing oxygen.
OX'YGEN. — fr. gr. oxus, arid, sour ;
gennao, I engender. The genera-
tor of acid, as it was believed to
be, exclusively, when this name
was given to it. A gas which
constitutes about one-fifth of our
atmosphere, which is necessary
to the respiration of animals, and
consequently, indispensable to an-
imal life. But it cannot be breathed
alone for any considerable time
with impunity, requiring to be
mixed with about four parts of
nitrogen (azote), as is the case in
our atmosphere to render it suita-
ble for respiration.
OXYO'PIA. — fr. gr. oxus, sharp ; ops,
vision. Unusually acute vision.
OZO'NE. — fr. gr. 026, I smell of some-
thing. The odorous matter per-
ceived when electricity passes
from pointed bodies into the air.
PACHYDE'RMS. — An order of quad-
rupeds, including the elephant,
horse, pig, &c., distinguished by
the thickness of their hides.
PA'cHrDE'itMA. — Lat. fr. gr. pachus,
thick : derma, skin. Thick-skin-
ned
PACHYUER'MATA. — fr. gr. pachus,
thick; derma, skin. An order of
mammals; pachyderms.
PA'CHYDE'RMATOUS.— Relating to pa'-
chyde'rms.
PA'cHYeuA'TUS.^Lat. fr. gr. pachus,
thick; gnathos. jaw. Specific
name of the labyrinthodon. (p
197, Book viii).
PA'GINA. — The surface of a leaf.
PAGU'RUS. — Lat. The hermit-crab.
PAL^'MON". Generic name of
prawns.
PALJSONI'SCUS. — fr. gr. palaios, an-
cient ; oniskos, a wood-louse. A
fossil crustacean. Also, a fossil
fish. (fig. 56, p. 48, Book viii).
PALJEONTO'LOGIST. — One skilled in
palaeontology.
PALJEONTO'LOGY. — fr. gr. palaios, an-
cient; on, creature; logos, a dis-
course. That branch of zo'olo-
gical science which treats of fossil
organic remains.
PAL-EOPHYTO'LOGY. — fr. gr. palaios,
ancient; phuton, a plant; logos, a
description. That part of natu-
ral history which treats of fossil
plants. Fossil botany.
PAUEOTHE'RIUM. — fr. gr. palaios, an-
cient ; therion, beast. A fossil ge-
nus of pachydermatous mammals,
(p. 83, Book viii).
PALEOZOIC. — fr. gr. palaios, ancient ;
zoe, life. Relating to ancient life ;
belonging or relating to fossils.
PALAP'TERYX. — fr. gr. palaios, an-
cient; apteryx, (fr. gr. a, priv. ;
pteros, wing) wingless. A genus
of fossil birds, discovered in New
Zealand.
PALATE. — The mouth of a ringent
flower.
PALATI. — Lat. Of the palate.
PA'LATINE. — Relating to the palate.
PA'LEA.— Lat. Chaff.
PA'LEJE. — Lat. plur. of palea.
PALEA'cEous.-Chaffy ; covered with
membranous scales.
PAL'LIAL. — Belonging or relating to
th e pa 1 1 i um . Pallia I impression i s
the mark formed in a bivalve
shell by the pallium.
PA'ILITJM. — Lat. A cloak. The
mantle of mollusks is so called.
PALMA'CEJB. — Name of a family of
plants.
PALMACI'TES. — A genus of fossil
plants.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
Ill
PAL'MAR. — fr. lat. palma, the palm of
the hand. Belonging or relating
to the palm. Also applied tq the
feet of web-footed birds.
PAL'MATE. — fr. lat. palma, the palm.
Having the form of the palm,
from the toes or fingers being
united by a membrane. Also,
applied to a form of leaf. (fig. 29,
p. 37, Book vii).
PAL'MATED. ) Divided so as to re-
PALMA'TIFID. £ semble a hand.
PALMA'TO-LOBATE. — A form of leaf :
having lobes which give it some
resemblance to the hand, (fig- 28,
p. 36, Book vii).
PALMIXE'RVE. A form of leaf,
which hasseveral primary nerves,
which diverge from each other at
the base of the blade, like the
ribs of a fan.
PALMI'PEDES. — fr. lat. palma, palm;
pcs, pedis, a foot. Systematic name
of web-footed birds.
PAL'PEBRAL. — fr. lat. palpebra, the
eye-lid. Belonging or relating to
the eye-lid.
PAL'PI. — Lat. plur. of palpus.
PAI/PUS. — Lat. A feeler. An or-
gan attached in pairs to the labi-
urn and maxilla of insects.
PALUDI'NA. — fr. lat. palus, a marsh.
A genus of fresh-water gastero-
pods.
PALUDI'ICJE. — Lat. plur. of paludina.
PALU'DIXE. 7 fr- lat.pa/t**, a marsh.
PALUS'TIUNE. 5 Belongingtoamarsh.
PAW'CREAS — fr. gr. pan, all ; Arms,
flesh. All fleshy. A gland deeply
seated in the abdomen, which re-
sembles the salivary gland in its
structure, and has been called the
abdominal salivary gland.
PAXCREA'TIC.— Belonging to the pan-
creas.
PAN'DION. — Generic name of the os-
preys.
PANDU'RATE. ) fr. lat. pandus, bent
PANUU'RIFORM. £ inward at the
middle. Fiddle-shaped. Applied
to a form of leaf. (fig. 38, p. 39,
Book vii).
PA'NICLE.-A loose irregular bunch of
flowers with subdivided branches.
PAPA. — Sp. The Pope. Specific
name of a vulture.
PAPA'VER. — Lat. A poppy.
PAPAVERA'CE^. — Name of a family
of plants.
PAPIL'LA. — Lat. A nipple. A nip-
ple-like eminence.
PAPII/L.K. — Lat. plur. of papilla.
PAP'ILLATED.— Covered with papillae.
PAPI'LIO. — Lat. A butterfly.
PAPILIONA'CE^. — fr. lat. papilio, a
butterfly. Name of a family of
plants whose flowers are sup-
posed to resemble a butterfly.
PAPILIOWA'CEOUS. — Applied to a
form of corolla resembling a but-
terfly, (fig. 94, p. 75, Book vii).
PA'PILLOSE. — Pimpled, dotted.
PA'PILLOUS. 7 Having the surface
PA'PILLARY. 3 covered with pim-
ples or dots.
PAPPUS. — fr. gr. pappos, the down of
the cheek. The leathery append-
age which crowns the fruit of
many composite plants, being, in
fact, a reduced calyx.
PAP'ULOSE. — Producing small glands
like pimples.
PAPYRA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. papyrus, a
sort of paper. Thin as paper.
PAPTRIFE'RA. — fr. lat. papyrus, a
kind of paper; fero, I bear. Spe-
cific name of a plant.
PAPT'RUS. — Lat. A genus of plants
of the family of cyperacese. The
papyrus antiquorum yields the sub-
stance used as paper by the an-
cient ^Egyptians.
PARA. — Gr. A prefix, denoting
through, near, for, about, &c.
PARACHUTE. — fr. gr. para, against,
and fr. fr. chute, a fall. A machine,
somewhat in the form of the top
of an umbrella, used to moderate
the descent of those who ascend
in balloons, and guarantee them
against the effects of a sudden
fall.
PARADI'S^SA. — Generic name of the
Birds of Paradise.
112
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
PARADO'XUS. — Lat. Strange, won-
derful, unusual.
PARASI'TA. — Lat. Parasite. An or-
der of " familiar " insects : the
louse tribe.
PARASI'TJE. — Lat. plur. of parasita.
PARASITE. — fr. gr. para, near ; sitos,
corn. One who is near the food.
A hanger-on.
PARASI'TIC. — Of the nature of a pa-
rasite.
PAR'DUS. — Lat. A panther.
PAHE'NCHYMA. ") fr.gr. paregchuein,
PARENCHY'MATA. 5 to strain through ;
the spongy and cellular tissue of
organized bodies.
PARENCHY'MATOUS. — Of the nature
of, or relating to pare'nchyma.
PARI'ETAL. — The eminences in the
middle part of the parietal bones,
which form the upper and lateral
parts of the head, are named pa-
rietal protuberances. In botany,
being attached to the sides of an
ovarium instead of its axis.
PAHI'KTKS. — fr. lat. pari'es, a wall.
The sides or parts forming an en-
closure ; the limits of different
organic cavities are so termed.
PARI-PINNATE. — Equally pinnate ;
abruptly pinnate.
PARIS HASIN. — See, Basin, p. 79,
Book viii.
PARMACE'LLA.-fr. lat. parma, a round
buckler. A genus of naked gas-
teropods.
PARO'TID. — fr. gr. para, about; ous,
the ear. A large salivary gland
situated near the ear is so called.
PARTEi).-In botany, deeply divided ;
more than cleft.
PARTI'TE Deeply divided. Ap-
plied to a leaf the segments of
which are divided nearly to the
base. (p. 43, Book vii).
PARUS. — Generic name of the tits.
PAS'SERES. ^ fr. lat. passer, a
PAS'SERINES. V sparrow. Mi-
PAS'SERINE BIRDS. } gratory birds.
A varied and extensive order of
birds, not easily characterized.
PABSIFLO'RA — Abbreviation of flos,
flower, and passionis, of the pas-
sion. Passion-flower, so called
from a supposed resemblance be-
tween its floral organs, and the
instruments of the Passion of our
Saviour. An extensive and beau
tiful genus of plants.
PATAGO'NICA. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to Patagonia.
PATEL'LA. — Lat. The knee-pan. A
genus of gasteropods. (p. 61,
Book v).
PATEL'LJE. — Lat. plur. of patella.
PATENT. — Spread out; expanded.
PATENTI-REFLF/XED. Spread out,
and turned back.
PA'TUXOUS. — Wide-open ; gaping.
PAUNCH. — The first stomach of ru-
minants.
PAVO. — Lat. A peacock.
PEARL. — A spherical concretion of
carbonate of lime and albumen,
formed within the pearl oys-
ter.
PEAT. — Turf. The natural accumu-
lation of vegetable mutter on the
surface of lands not in a state of
cultivation; always moist to a
greater or less degree, varying,
according to the kind of plants,
to the decay of which the forma-
tion of peat is due. (p. 143, Book
viii).
PECO'PTERIS. — fr. gr. pekos, sheep-
skin ; pteris, a fern. A genus of
fossil ferns.
PECTEN. — Lat. A comb. The name
given to a folded membrane, situ-
ate in the back part of the eye in
birds, destined to regulate the fo-
cal distance between the crystal-
line lens and the sentient surface
of the retina. A genus of bivalve
mollusks. (p. 73, Book v).
PECTEN'IFORM.— fr. lat. pecten, a comb ;
forma, form, shape. Comb-shaped
like a comb.
PECTINA'TA. — Lat. Pectinate 5 hko
the teeth of a comb.
PEC'TINATE. — fr. lat. pecten, a comb.
Resembling the teeth of a comb.
PECTI'NIB'RANCH fr. lat. pecten,
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
113
comb ; branchia, gills. Relating
to the pectinibranehiata.
PECTISUBRANCHIA'TA. — Name of an
order of gasteropods.
PEC'TOHAL. — fr. lat pecius, pertoris,
the chest, the brenst. Belonging
or relating to the chest.
PBCTU'NCI;I.US — Lat. A genus of
the family of ostracea. (p. 78,
Book v).
PEC'TUS. — Lat. The breast. The
inferior surface of the thorax of
an insect.
PEDA'LINEUVE. ) fr. lat. pes, pedis, a
PE'IJATE. £ foot. Applied to
a form of a compound leaf, the
divisions of which give it a re-
semblance to a foot with out-
spread toes. (Jig. 72, p. 49, Book
vii).
PEDA'TUID. — Cut into lobes, the la-
teral ones of which do not ra-
diate from the petiole like the
rest.
PE'DICEL. — One of the ramifications
of that part of the flower called
peduncle.
PEDI'CELLATE. — Having pedicles ;
slightly stalked.
PED'ICIE. — A little foot: a support.
PEDI'CULUS. — Lat. A louse.
PE'DIFORM. — Foot-shaped.
PEDIMA'N A — fr. lat. pe$, pedis, a foot ;
manus, a hand. A family of mam-
mals that have a thumb on the
hind feet, which fits them to per-
form the office of hands.
PEDIPA'LPI. — fr. lat. pes, foot; palpo,
I feel. Pe'dipalps. A tribe of
arach'nidans.
PE'DUXCLE. — A foot-stalk, or tube on
which anything is seated. That
part of the inflorescence which
proceeds immediately from the
stem.
PEDU'NCULATE. — Growing on pe-
duncles or foot-stalks.
PEGA'SUS. — fr. gr. pege, a fountain.
The celebrated winged horse of
the poets, which, by a single kick,
caused the fountain of Hippo-
crene to gush forth on Mount He-
10*
3F2
licon. The genius of poetic in-
spiration.
PELA'GIC. — Belonging to the deep
sea.
PELA'GICA. — Lat. Belonging or re
lating to the sea.
PELA'AITS. — A genus of fishes; the
bonita. Also, a genus of reptiles.
PELA'SGIC. — After a mythological
name of Jupiter. Relating to the
Pelasgii, the most ancient people
of Greece.
PELICANUS. — Lat. A pelican.
PEL'LKT — A little ball.
PE'LLICLE — fr. lat. pellis, a skin. A
thin skin, or crust.
PELT*'TE. > fr. la.t.pelta,a shield.
PE'LTINERVE. £ Applied to a form
of leaf, in which the petiole is in-
serted in the centre of the under
surface, (fig. 45, p. 40, Book vii).
PEL'THT. — fr. lat. pellis, skin or hide.
The name given to dried skins of
animals from which furs are pre-
pared.
PELVIS. — Lat. A basin. The name
of the bony structure at the lower
part of the trunk, in mammals,
which forms the inferior boundary
of the abdomen, gives support or
place of foundation to the spinal
column, and affords points of ar-
ticulation for the thigh-bones, con-
stituting the hip-joint.
PEM'MECAN. — The name given by
certain North American Indians
to the 9 muscular fibre of beasts,
after it has been dried and pow-
dered without the addition of any
salt. This article has the quality
of remaining good, and fresh for
a long time, and is used by voy-
agers and travellers as a conve-
nient article of diet, forming,
when boiled in water, a fresh,
nutritious soup. The best pein-
mecan is made of the flesh, of
the buffalo. The flesh of the
musk ox is also prepared in this
way.
PENDENT, or PEWDAWT — fr. lat pen*
do, I hang. Hanging.
114
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
PE'NETRANS. — Lat. Penetrating.
PENICIL'LATE. — Supporting one or
several pencils of hairs.
PENINE FORMATION.— New red sand-
stone, (p. 47, Book viii).
PEN'NINEHVE. — Applied to leaves
in which the midrib, or central
nerve gives off to the right and
left, secondary nerves, like the
feathers 01 a pen, as in Jig. 22, p.
35, Book vii.
PENI'NSULA. — fr. lat. pene, almost;
insula, an island. Land almost
surrounded by water, and con-
nected to a continent by a neck
of land.
PEXTA'STDHOUS. — Having five sta-
mens.
PENTAGY'NIA. — fr. gr. pente, five;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants.
PENTALAS'MIS. — The Anatifa ; a ge-
nus of cirrhopods. (Jig. 70, p. 81,
Book v).
PENTAME'RAN. — fr. gr. pente, five ;
meros, joint. A section of cole-
opterous insects.
PENTA'MEROUS. — Consisting of five
parts.
PENTAME'RUS. — fr. gr. pente, five ;
meros, a part. A fossil bivalve,
characterized by being divided
internally into five cells, (fig. 16,
p. 31, Book viii).
PENTA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. pente, five;
aner, stamen. Name of a class
of plants.
PENTA'NGULA'TUS. — Lat. Having
five angles.
PENTATO'MA. — A genus of hemip'-
terans.
PENULTIMATE. — fr. ]&t.pene, almost;
ullimus, the last. That which is
immediately next to the last.
PEPERI'NO. — It. A kind of volcanic
rock, formed by the cementing
together of volcanic sand, cinders,
scoriae, &c.
PK'PO. — A gourd; a three-celled,
fleshy indehiscent fruit, with pa-
rietal placenta.
PER, — PERI. — Gr. A prefix, signi-
fying around, about, through.
PERCA. — Lat. A perch.
PEHCNOP'TERI. — Lat. plur. of Pero*
nopterus.
PERCOIDES. — fr. lat. perca, perch '
and Gr eidos, resemblance. Sys-
tematic name of a family of fishes
PER'COLATE. — fr. lat. per, through,
colo, I strain. To strain, or drip
through.
PEHCNOP'TERUS.— fr. gr. perknos, spot-
ted ; pteron, wing. Systematic
name of certain Vultures.
PERI>ICI'N.K. — fr. lat. perdix, a par-
tridge. Perdicine birds or par-
tridges ; a family of Rasores, or
scratching birds.
PEREDIO'LA. — fr. gr. perideo, I bind
around. The investing membrane
of the sporules of algae.
PERE'NNIAL — fr. lat. per, through ;
annus, year. Those plants whose
roots remain alive more years
than two, but whose stems flower
and perish annually, are termed
perennial.
PERE'NCHYMA. — A term applied to
the amylaceous granules contained
within the tissue of plants.
PERFECT FLOWER. — One which pos-
sesses stamens and pistils and
produces fruit.
PERGAME'NEOUS. — Parchment-like.
PERFO'LIATE. — fr. lat. per, through;
folium, a leaf. Applied to a leaf
which is pierced by its stem. (Jig.
37, p. 39, Book vii).
PE'RI ANTH. — fr. gr. peri, around ; an-
thos, flower. The tegumeutary
parts of a flower.
PERICA'RDIUM. — fr. gr. peri, around ;
kardia, the heart. The pericar-
dium is a membranous sac, which
envelopes the heart, and the arte-
rial and venous trunks that pass
from, or into it.
PE'RIC ARP. — fr. gr. peri, around ; kar-
pos, fruit. Parts surrounding the
seeds.
PERICLA'DIUM. — fr. gr. klado»> a
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
115
young branch. Applied to the
lower part of a petiole, when it
sheathes the branch.
PERICHJB'TIUM. — fr. gr. chaite, seta,
a hair. Applied to the peculiar
leaves which surround the base
of the seta, or stalk of the spo-
rangium or seed-vessel of mosses.
PERICLI'IUUM. — fr. gr. kline, a couch.
Cassini's name for the involucrum
of composite plants.
PE'RIDOT. — Prismatic chrysolite, (p.
121, Book viii).
PE'RIGOX. ) fr. gr. peri, around ;
PERIGO'NIUM. £ geinomai, I grow.
A floral envelope, which partakes
of the nature both of calyx and
corolla.
PERIGY'NOXJS. — fr. gr. peri, around ;
gune, pistil. Surrounding the pis-
til.
PERIO'STRACUM. — fr. gr. ostrakon, a
shell. The epidermis, or mem-
brane analogous to scarf-skin,
which covers certain shells.
PERIPO'LYGOU. — A prism with very
numerous faces.
PE'RI SPERM. — fr. gr. peri, around ;
sperma, seed. Another name for
the albumen of the seed of plants.
PERISTA'MINE.E. — Name of a class
of plants.
PERISTO'MIUM. — fr. gr. stoma, the
mouth. Peristome. The mem-
brane, or series of tooth-like pro-
cesses, which closes the orifice of
the theca of mosses.
PERITHE'CIUM. — fr. gr. thece, a case.
Perisporium. Peridium. The case
which contains the reproductive
organs of certain fungi.
PERITONEUM. — fr. gr. peri, around ;
teino, I stretch. A serous mem-
brane which lines the abdominal
cavity, and covers, entirely or in
part, all the organs contained in it.
PERITRE'MA. — fr. gr. trema, a hole.
The raised margin which sur-
rounds the breathing -holes of
scorpions.
PERITRO'PAL. — fr. gr. trepo, I turn.
Applied to the embryo of the
seed of plants when it is directed
from the axis to the horizon.
PE'RLITE. — Pearl stone, a gray va-
riety of obsidian.
PER'MANKNT GAS. — Any gas which
remains in the aeriform state un-
der ordinary circumstances. Any
part of a plant is said to be per-
manent when it remains longer
than is usual for similar parts in
most plants.
PERMEABILITY. — That property of
certain bodies by which they ad-
mit the passage of other bodies
through their substance.
PER'MIAIT. — After the ancient king-
dom of Permia. A name ap-
plied by Mr. Murchison to a sys-
tem of rocks, consisting of an
extensive group of fossiliferous
strata, intermediate in their geo-
logical position, between the car-
boniferous and triassic systems,
the latter being the upper portion
of the New Red Sandstone for
mation.
PE'RNA. — Lat. A gammon. A ge-
nus of the family of ostracea. (p.
75, Book v).
PE'RN^E. — Lat. plur. of perna.
PE'RNIS. — fr. gr. pernes, a certain bird
of prey. The generic name of
the honey-buzzards.
PE'ROXATE. — fr. lat.pero, a high shoe.
In botany, applied to the stipes of
fungaceous plants, when thickly
laid-over with a wooly substance,
ending in a sort of meal.
PERO'XIDE. — The highest degree of
oxidizement of which a metal
or other substance is susceptible
without becoming an acid.
PE'RSICA. — Lat. Persian.
PERSI'STENT. — Permanent. Not fall-
ing at the usual period.
PE'RSOXATE. — fr. lat. persona, a mask.
A form of corolla, which has the
mouth closed by a prominent pa-
late, (fig. 91, p. 74, Book vii).
PERTU'SSUM. — Lat. Broken, cracked.
PES-PELICA'NI. — Lat. Pelican foot.
PE'TAL. — fr. gr. petalon, leaf. A part
116
A GLOSSARY OP TERMS
of the corolla, analogous to a
leaf
PETALO'CEROTJS. — fr. gr. petalon, a
petal ; keras, a born. Having an-
tennae which terminate in a folia-
ceous mass.
PK'TALOID. — Like a petal.
PE'TIOLATE. — Having a petiole ; not
sessile.
PE'TIOLE. — That portion of a leaf
which connects the limb or lamina
of a leaf with the stem; the foot-
stalk.
PKTIO'LULES. — The leaf-stalks or
stalklets of leaflets.
PKTRACO'LA. — fr. lat. petra, a stone ;
colo, I inhabit. Name of a family
of ostracea. (p. 85, Book v).
PETREL. — The dimin. of Peter. The
name of a web-footed bird, that
seems to walk on the water.
PETRIFA'CTIONS.— Stony matters in-
crusted upon organized substan-
ces, or deposited within their in-
terstices.
PETRO'LEUM. — fr. lat. petra, a rock ;
oleum, oil. Rock-oil, often called
Barbadoes tar. A brown, liquid
bitumen, found in the West Indies,
Europe, &c.
PETROMYZON. — fr. gr. petra, rock ;
muzo, I suck. Rock-sucker. Sys-
tematic name of the lampreys.
PK'TROUS. — fr. gr. petra, a rock, a
stone. A part of the temporal
bone, which contains the internal
organs of hearing, is so called
from resembling a stone in hard-
ness.
PHACOCHJE'RE. Fr. ) fr. gr. phake, a
PHACOCH-B'RUS. Lat. £ wart; choiros,
a hog. A gen-js of mammals
of the order of pachydermata,
allied to the hogs.
PHJEITO'GAMOTJS. — Phanero'gamous.
PHJBTON. — fr. gr. phaethon, bril-
liant. Generic name of the tropic
bird.
PHALACROCO'RAX. — fr. gr. pKalakros,
bald ; korax, a raven. The sys-
tematic name of the cormorants,
which latter name is a corruption
of the French words, corbeau ma-
n'n, sea-crow.
PHALENJE — fr. gr.phalaina, a moth,
(of the kind that flutter about
lamps.) Systematic name of a
family of insects.
PHALA'NGER. — The name of an ani-
mal which is remarkable for the
singular conformation of its pha-
langes.
PHALA'NGES. Lat. plur. of pha-
lanx.
PHALANGIS'TA. — Lat. Phalangers.
PHALAN'GIUM. — Lat. A genus of
arachnidans, including those in
which all the legs are very long
and slender.
PHA'LANX. — fr. gr. phalagx, a file of
soldiers. The bones composing
the fingers and toes. They are
named first, second, and third
phalanges.
PHALARO'PUS.— fr. gr. phalaris, a coot ;
pous, foot. Having lobed feet like
the coots. Systematic name of
the phalaropes.
PHANEROGA'MIA — fr. gr. phaneros,
evident; gamos, marriage. The
division of the vegetable kingdom
in which all the plants bear flow-
ers, and are multiplied by means
of true seeds.
PHANERO'GAMOUS. — Belonging or re-
lating to phaneroga'rnia.
PHARAO'NIS. — Lat. Relating or be-
longing to Pharaoh.
PHARYN'GEAL. —Belonging or relat-
ing to the pharynx.
PHARYN'GEAU. — Applied to certain
fishes.
PHAR'TNX. — fr. gr. pharugx, the pha-
rynx. The swallow. The supe-
rior opening of the oesophagus.
PHASCO'LOMYS. — fr. gr. phasolos, a
pouch. The name of a genus of
marsupials.
PHASIANE'LLA. — fr. gr. phasianos, a
pheasant. A genus of gastero-
pods. (p. 50, Book v).
PHASIA'NUS. — fr. gr. phasianos, a
pheasant, so called from the river
Phasis, in Colchis, near the Black
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
117
Sea. The systematic name of the
pheasants.
PHENO'JTENA. — Lat. plur. of pheno-
menon.
PHENO'MENOIT. — fr. gr. phainomai, I
appear. Appearance; visible qua-
lity.
PHILE'XOR. — Gr. Husband-loving.
Specific name of a butterfly.
PHILOSOPHY. — fr. gr. phileo, I love;
sophia, wisdom or knowledge. A
clear and distinct knowledge of
things. The pursuit of truth.
PHLEGRJB'AN. — fr. gr. phlego, to burn.
Campi Phlegrcei, or burnt fields
around Naples.
PHLCECM. — fr. gr. phloios, bark. Pe-
ridermis. One of the layers of the
bark.
PHO'CA. — Lat. A seal. A genus of
aquatic mammals, embracing the
common seal or Phoca vitulina ;
the Harp seal or P. oceanica y the
Hare-tailed seal or P.lagura; the
sea-lion ; sea-wolf; sea-elephant ;
sea-cow, &c., &c.
PHO'C^E. — Lat. plur. of phoca.
PH(ECE'NA. — The systematic name
of porpoises.
PHCBNICOP'TERUS. — fr. gr. phoinix,
red ; pteron, wing. Red-winged.
The generic name of the Fla-
mingo.
PHO'LADES. — Lat. plur. of pholas.
PHO'LAS. — fr. gr. pholeos, a den, a
lurking-place. A genus of mol-
lusks. (p. 87, Book v).
PHO'LODOMY'A. — A genus of mol-
lusks.
PHO'NOLITE. — fr. gr. phoneo, I re-
sound; lithos, a stone. Clinkstone;
a species of compact basalt, which
is sonorous when struck, (p. 171,
Book viii).
PHORA'ITTHIUM. — fr. gr. phero, to
bear ; anthos, a flower. Clinan-
thium. Thalamus. The receptacle
of composite plants.
PHOSPHORES'CENCE. — fr. gr. phos,
light; pherd, I carry. The emis-
sion of light by substances at
common temperatures;
PHOSPHO'RIC ) fr. gr.phos, light ;
PHOSPHORE'SCEWT. £ phero, to bear.
Emitting light in the dark, at com-
mon temperatures, without sensi-
ble heat.
PHRENO'LOGY.— fr.gr. phren, the mind ;
logos, an account. That branch
of knowledge which treats of the
mental faculties, as being respec-
tively located in special parts of
the brain.
PHHYGA'NEA. — A genus of four-
winged insects, the larva of
which, called caddis-worms, are
used as a bait by anglers.
PHTHI'SIS. — fr. gr. phthio, I fade.
Consumption.
PHYLLI'DIA. — fr. gr. phullon, a leaf.
Name of a tribe of mollusks. (p.
62, Book v).
PHYLLO'MIUM. — fr. gr. phullon, a leaf.
An expanded and leafy petiole
supporting an abortive lamina,—
as in some plants of the acacia
tribe.
PHYLLO'PODOTTS. — Leaf-footed.
PHYLLOS'TOMA. — fr. gr. phullon, a
leaf; stoma, a mouth. The name
of a kind of bat.
PHY'SA. — fr. gr. phusa, a bubble. A
genus of fresh-water snails, (p.
42, Book v).
PHYSA'LIA. ) fr. gr. phuse, a vesicle.
PHYSA'LIS. £ A genus of animals
of the family of acalepha. The
Portuguese man-of-war belongs to
this genus. A genus of plants of
the family of solanucese. Physali$
edulis, the Cape gooseberry.
PHYSCOSTE'MON. — fr. gr. phusao, to
swell; stemdn, a stamen. The
disk. A fleshy body found in cer-
tain plants between the base of
the stamens and the base of the
ovary.
PHYSETER. — fr. gr. phusaft, I blow.
A blower. Name of a genus of
mammals of the family of cetucea.
PHYSIO'LOGIST. — One skilled in phy-
siology.
PHYSIO'LOGY. — fr. gr. phusis, nature ;
logos, a discourse. The science
118
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
which treats of the functions of
animals or vegetables.
PHYTI'YOROUS. — fr. gr.phuton, plant ;
voro, I eat. Plant-eating.
PHYTOLO'GICAL. — fr. gr. phuton, plant ;
logos, discourse. Belonging or re-
lating to plants.
PHYTO'LOGY. — fr. gr. phuton, a plant ;
logos, an account. That branch
of science which treats of the
forms and properties of plants.
PHYTOMO'HPHOUS. — Plant-shaped.
PHYTO'PHAGOTTS — fr. gr. phuton, a
plant; phagd, to eat. Plant-eating.
PHYTO'TOMY. — fr.gr. phuton, a plant;
temno, to cut. Vegetable anatomy.
PHYTOTY'POLITE. — fr. gr. phuton, a
plant; tupos, an impression; li-
thos, a stone. In geology, an im-
pression of a plant on a stone or
other mineral.
PICA. — Lat. A magpie.
PI'CA. — Lat. Black as pitch.
PICTUS. — Lat. Painted, speckled,
spotted.
Picus. — Lat. A woodpecker.
PILA'RIS. — Lat Belonging to any-
thing round. The specific name
of a thrush.
PI'LEATE. — Having a cap or lid like
the cap of a mushroom.
PILEO'PSIS. — fr. gr. pilos, a hat. A
genus of gasteropods. (p. 58,
Book v).
PI'LEUS. — Lat. A cap, helmet. The
top of an agaric or mushroom.
PI'LI. — Lat. plur. of pilus, hair.
PiLi'mtJM. — The orbicular, hemi-
spherical shield of lichens.
PILI'FEROUS. — Bearing hairs.
PI'LIFORM.— Formed like down or
hairs.
PI'LLAR. — The internal continuation
of the columella ; it extends
from the base to the apex in uni-
valves.
PILOSE. — Slightly hairy.
PILO'SITT. — Hairy ness.
PILO'SUS. — Lat. Hairy.
PIMK'NTO. — Allspice; Jamaica pep-
per.
PIMPLED.— In botany, covered with
minute pustules resembling pim-
ples.
PINION. — The joint of the wing re-
motest from the body.
PIN'NA — Lat. A fin, a wing. A
genus of the family of ostracea.
PIN'NA. — Lat. plur. of pinna. Seg-
ments of a pinnated leaf.
PIN'NATE. — fr. lat. pinnatus, feather
ed. Winged. Having leaflets ar-
ranged along each side of a com-
mon petiole, like the feather of a
quill, (p. 42, Book vii). In orni-
thology, a pinnate foot is one in
which the edges of the toes are
scalloped or notched, as in the
coots.
PINNATI'FIDA. — Lat. Pinnatifid. A
leaf is so called when it is di-
vided into lobes from the margin
nearly to the midrib.
PINTA'DO. — Sp. Mottled. Generic
name of the Guinea fowl.
PIPA. — A genus of batrachian rep-
tiles. A kind of toad.
PI'PIENS. — Lat. Peeping like a
chicken.
PIPISTREL'LUS. — Lat. A kind of bat.
PI'SCES. — Lat. Fishes.
PIS'CIFORM. — fr. lat. piscis, a fish;
forma, form. Of the shape or
form of a fish.
PISCIFO'RMIS. — Lat. Fish-shaped ;
formed like a fish.
PISCI'VOROTTS. — fr. lat. piscis, a fish ;
vorare, to eat. Fish-eating. Ap-
plied to animals that feed on fish.
PI'SIFORM. — Formed like peas.
PI'STIL. — fr. lat. pistillum, a pestle.
The female apparatus of plants;
a columnar body situate in the
centre of a flower, consisting of
the ovarium, style, and stigma.
PIS'TILLATE. — Having pistils, but no
stamens.
PISTILLIFO'RMIS.— -Lat. In form of
a pistil.
PI'SUM. — Lat. A pea.
PITCHERS. — In botany, hollow leave*
are so called.
PITH. — The medulla occupying th»
centre of a stem.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
119
PITC'ITART. — fr. }at.pituita, phlegm.
The lining membrane of the nose
is called the pituitary membrane.
PITU'ITOUS. — Discharging mucus.
PLACE' XTA. — Lat. A cake. The
organ by which the embryo of
mammals is attached to its mo-
ther. In botany, that part of the
ovary from which the ovules
arise.
PLACOIDEANS. — fr. gr. plax, a broad
plate; eidos, resemblance. An or-
der of fishes, (p. 48, Book viii).
PLACU'NEA. — Lat. fr. gr. plakoeis,
broad, flat, even. A bivalve mol-
lusk.
PLAGIH2BDRAL. fr. gr. plagWS, ob-
lique ; Wra, a side. Having ob-
lique faces ; applied to crystals.
PLAGIO'STOMA. — fr. gr. plagios, ob-
lique ; stoma, mouth. A genus of
bivalve tnollusks.
I'LANO'RBIS. — fr. lat. planus, flat ; or-
bis, a circle. A genus of marsh
snails, (fig. 29, p. 42, Book v).
PLAXO-COMPRKSSED. Compressed
down to a flattish surface.
PLAWTIGRA'DA. Plantigrade ani-
mals.
PLANTIGRADE. — fr. lat planta, the
sole of tlie foot; gradi, to walk.
Applied to certain mamrniferous
animals that, in walking, rest the
entire sole upon the ground.
PLA'NTULE. — A diminutive plant.
PLA'NUS. — Lat. Flat.
PLASTER OF PARIS. — A substance
prepared by heating gypsum.
PLASTIC CLAY. — Potters' clay. (p.
78, Book viii).
PLAS'TRUM. — The inferior shell of a
tortoise.
PLATALE'A. — fr. gr. platus, flat. The
generic name of the spoonbills.
PLA'TEAIT. — Fr. An elevated plane,
or table land.
PLA'TEAUX. — fr. plur. of plateau.
PLATES'SA. — fr. gr. platus, broad, flat.
Systematic name of the plaice.
PLA'TIJTA 01 PLA'TINUM. — fr. sp.pla-
fa, silver, on account of its colour.
A metal of a whitish colour, ex-
ceedingly ductile, malleable, and
of difficult fusion.
PLA'TURUS. — Generic name of cer-
tain ophidians.
PLATTSO'MUS. — fr. gr. platus, flat ;
soma, a body. A genus of fos-
sil fishes, (fig. 57, p. 48, Book
viii).
PLECTO'GNATHI. fr. gr. phktos,
twined, joined together; gnathos,
jaw, cheek. Systematic name of
an order of fishes.
PLEIO'CEUE. 7 fr- gr. pleion, more ;
PLIO'CEBTE. 3 kainos, recent. A
term applied by geologists to the
newer tertiary formation, because
there is found fossilized in it a
greater number of existing than
of extinct species, (pp. 78, 89,
Book viii).
PLESIOSAU'RUS. — fr. gr.pleisot, most;
saura, a lizard. The systematic
name of a fossil saurian, (p. 57,
Book viii).
PLEIS'TOCENE. — fr. gr. pleistos, the
most; kainos, recent. The newer
pliocene formation, or newest ter-
tiary.
PLETJRE'NCHYMA. — fr. gr. pleura, the
side; egchunia, infusion. The
woody tissue of plants.
PLEUROBRA'ifCHi.-Lat. plur. of pleu-
robranchus.
PLEUHOBRA'ircHrs. — fr. gr. pleura,
side ; bragchia, gills. A genus of
gasteropods. (p. 63, Book v).
PLEUROITE'CTES. — fr. gr. pleura, the
side; nectes, fin. Systematic name
of a family of fishes : the floun-
der tribe.
PLEURO'TOMA. — fr. gr. pleura, side ;
tome, a notch. A genus of uni-
valve mollusks, having a notch
in the side of the shell, (fig. 116,
p. 94, Book v).
PLEUROTOMA'RIA. — A tribe of mol-
lusks.
PLI'CA.— -Lat. A fold.
PLI'CATE. — fr. lat. plicatus, plaited.
Folded like a fan. Folded or
plaited, as in the pillar of the vo-
lute tribe.
120
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
PLICA'TULA. — fr. lat. plica, a fold. A
genus of mollusks. (Jig. 128, p
72, Book viii).
PLOPOCA'RPIUM. — A form of fruit
consisting of several follicles unit
ed in a single flower.
PLOTUS. — fr. gr.pluo, I swim. The
generic name of the darters.
PLOVER. — fr. lat. pluvia, rain. A bird
so called, from making its appear-
ance in the rainy season.
PLUMAGE. — fr. lat. pluma, a soft fea
ther. The feathery coat of a bird.
PLUMB-LINE. > fr. lat. plumbum, lead
PLUMMET. £ An instrument, con-
sisting of a string with a weight,
usually of lead, attached to a
straight staff, for the purpose of
ascertaining the direction of gra-
vitation, or the perpendicular to
the horizon.
PLUME. — A feather of a bird.
PLUMO'SE. — Having a feathery ap-
pearance.
PLU'MULA. — The young leaves in the
embryo.
PLU'MULE. — fr. lat. plumula, a little
feather. A young diminutive
stem.
PLURiLo'cuLAR.-Having many cells.
PLUTO'JTIC. — After Pluto, the god of
fire. Relating to fire. Plutonic
rocks are unstratified crystalline
rocks, probably formed at great
depths beneath the surface by
igneous fusion. Volcanic rocks are
formed near the surface.
PKEUMATO'PHOHOUS. — fr.gr. p-neuma,
air ; phoreo, I carry forward. Air-
conveying. Applied to the tubes
or vessels which circulate air in
the substance of plants.
PWEUMOGA'STRIC. — fr. gr. pneumon,
the lung; gasler, the stomach.
The name of a nerve which is
distributed chiefly to the organs
contained in the chest and abdo-
men.
POD. — A kind of dry seed-vessel,
not pulpy.
PO'DICEPS. — The generic name of
the grebes.
PODOOT'ITIUM. — fr. gr. pous, podo»t a
foot; gune, a female The stalk
upon which the ovary is seated
in certain plants.
PO'BOSPERM. — fr. gr. pous, foot ; sper-
ma, seed. The seed-stalk, or little
stem which attaches the seed to
the placenta.
POIKILI'TIC. — fr. gr. poikilos, varie-
gated. A name applied to the
new red sandstone formation in
consequence of the varieties of
colours it exhibits.
POL,-POLLT. — fr. gr. polus, many. A
prefix, denoting many, or much.
POLAKE'NIUM. — A fruit consisting of
several akenia, or achania.
PO'LLEK. — The fertilizing powder of
plants.
POLTADE'LPHIA. — fr.gr. polus, many;
delphos, brotherhood. Name of a
Linnaean class of plants.
POLTA'JTDRIA. — fr. gr. polus, many;
aner, stamen. Name of an order
of plants.
POLTANTHOCA'RPOUS.— fr. gr. polus,
many ; ant has, flower ; karpos, fiuit.
Applied to a form of fruit com-
posed of many flowers.
POLTCA'RPOUS. — fr. gr. karpos, fruit.
Applied to a plant which has the
power of bearing fruit many
times without perishing.
POLYCOTTLE'DOJTOUS.— Having seeds
with more than two cotyledons.
POLYGA'MIA. — fr. gr. polus, many ;
gamos, marriage. Name of a Lin-
nean class of plants.
POLY'GAMOUS. — fr. gr. polus, many ;
gamos, marriage. When animals
do not live in pairs, but on the
contrary, one individual is united
to several of the opposite sex,
they are said to be polygamous.
POLTGAS'TRIC. — fr. gr. polus, many;
gaster, stomach. Having many
stomachs.
POLTGAS'TRICA. — Lat. Polygastric.
POLTGLOT'TUS. — fr. gr. polus, many ;
glossa, tongue. Many -tongued.
Specific name of the mocking-
bird.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
121
POLT'GOIT. — A figure having more
than four sides.
POLYGO'XAL. — fr. gr. polus, many;
gona, angle. Having many sides
and many angles.
POLYGY'IHA. — fr. gr. polus, many;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants.
POLY'GYNOUS. — fr. gr. polus, many;
gune, a female. Applied to flow-
ers with an indefinite number of
pistils.
POLYHE'DRAL. — fr. gr. polus, many ;
edra, seat. Relating to a polyhe'-
dron, a geometrical figure, bound-
ed by many faces or planes.
POLYMO'RPHA. — Lat. fr. gr. polus,
many; morphe, form. Many-
shaped. A specific name.
POLYO'DOIT. — fr. gr. polus, many ;
odous, odontos, tooth. Name of a
kind of sturgeon.
PO'LYP. — fr. gr. polus, many ; pous,
foot. A radiated animal which has
a cylindrical or oval body, or sac,
with an opening at one extremity,
around which are long feelers.
POLYP A'KIA, and POLYPI A'RIA. —
Groups of polyps or animalcules
which form coral.
POLYPA'RICM. The skeleton or
frame-work formed by coral ani-
malcules. When this frame-work
is of a stony hardness it consti-
tutes coral. In fossils the polypa-
rium alone remains.
POLYPE'TALE.E. — fr. gr. polus, many ;
petalon, a petal. Name of a class
of plants.
POLYPE'TALOUS. — Having many pe-
tals.
POLYPHTL'LOUS. Having many
leaves; applied to the calyx.
PO'LYPI. — Lat. plur. of polypus.
POLYP'JDOM. — fr. gr. polupous, a po-
lyp ; dome, a fabric, or frame. The
calcareous structure produced by
the organic functions of the coral-
line polyps.
PO'LYPUS. — Lat. A polyp.
POLYSE'PALOUS. — Having many se-
pals.
11
3G
PoLYSPE'RMOus.-Having many seeds.
POLYTHA'LAMOCS. — fr. gr. polus, ma-
ny ; thalamos. chamber. Having
many chambers.
POME. — An apple ; a form of fruit.
POMERA'NUS. — Lat. Relating or be-
longing to Pomerania, a province
of Prussia.
PON'TICA. — fr. lat. pontus, the sea.
Belonging or relating to the sea.
PONTO'PHIDAN. — fr. lat. pontus, the
sea. and Gr. ophis, a serpent. A
sea-serpent.
POR'CATE. — Marked with raised lon-
gitudinal lines.
PORCELLA'NA. — Lat. Porcelain.
PORCEL'LUS. — Lat. The dimin. of
porous, a hog. A pig.
PORC-EPIC. — Fr. A porcupine.
POR'CUPIXE. — fr. lat. porcus, a hog;
spicatus, from spica, a head of
wheat, a spine. An animal re-
sembling a hog, with the skir
armed with spines.
PO'ROCS. — Containing pores.
PORPHYRI'TIC. — Of the nature of
porphyry.
POR'PHYROID. Resembling por-
phyry.
PORPHYRY. — fr. gr. porphura, purple.
Originally applied to a red rock
found in Egypt. A compact feld-
spathic rock containing dissemi-
nated crystals of feldspar; the
latter, when polished, forming
small angular spots, of a light co-
lour, thickly sprinkled over the
surface. The rock is of various
colours, dark green, red, blue,
black, &c.
PORPOISE. — fr. lat. porcus, a hog;
piscia, a fish. Hog-fish. An aqua-
tic mammal.
PORRE'CTA. — Lat. Extended.
PORRE'CTED. — Projecting.
PORTA. — Lat. A gate. The part of
the liver, where its vessels enter
as by a gate. The vena porta is a
vascular apparatus, which con
veys black blood to the liver.
PORTLAND-BED.— A name given by
geologists to the superior division
122
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
of the upper o'olite or lias sys-
tem. The " Portland stone" is a
kind of limestone found in the
south of England, and more par-
ticularly in the Isle of Portland.
In this series of strata is a silice-
ous sand known as the " Portland
Sand." (p. 64, Book viii).
PORTU'WUS. — fr. lat. portus, a port,
bay, or haven. Name of a group
of crusta'ceans.
POSIDO'ITIA. — fr. gr. poseidon, Nep-
tune. A genus of bivalves, (fig.
64, p. 52, Book viii).
POSTERIOR MARGIN. — That side of
the bosses of acephalous bivalves
which contains the ligament.
POST-(ESOPHA'GEAL. — Situate behind
the oesophagus.
POST-PEC'TUS. — fr. lat. post, behind ;
pectus, the breast. That part of
the breast of insects which cor-
responds to the meta-thorax.
POST-STER'»UM. — The posterior part
of the sternum in insects.
POZZTJOLA'WA and POUZZCOLAITI. —
Volcanic ashes used in the manu-
facture of mortar which hardens
under water : exported from Poz-
zuoli, near Naples.
PHJEFLORA'TION. — JEstivation.
PH^MORSE Abrupt. Bitten off.
PRJENO'MEN. — The first name of se-
veral | in botany it is the same as
the generic name.
PBATE'NSIS. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to a meadow.
PRECIPITA'TIOX. — The action, by
which a body abandons a liquid
in which it is dissolved or sus-
pended, and becomes deposited
at the bottom.
PREDA'CEOUS. — Living on prey.
PREHEN'SILE.— — fr. lat. prehendere, to
lay hold of. Having the power
to grasp or lay hold of objects.
PREHEN'SION. — The act of taking
hold of. The prehension of food
consists in laying hold of and con-
veying it to the mouth.
FUE-OPERCULUM. — A part of the gill-
cover, (fig. 42, p. 79, Book iv).
PRESBYO'PIA. — fr. gr. presbus, an old
man ; dps, an eye. Longsighted-
ness.
PRESSIRO'STRES. — fr. lat. pressus,
pressed ; rostrum, beak. Syste-
matic name of a family of gralla-
toriae.
PREY. — Food gotten by violence
PRICKLE. — A thorn which is fixed
to the bark only, and not to the
wood.
PHI'M ARIES, (Primary quills.) — The
largest feathers of the wings.
PRIMARY FORMATION. Primary
rocks. A term applied by geolo-
gists to designate the different
rocks which were formed prior
to the creation of plants and ani-
mals.
PRIMIGE'NUTS. — Lat. Original; first
of its kind.
PRIMINE. — The first or outermost
sac of the ovule of plants.
PRIMTTLA'CE*. — fr. lat. primula, a
primrose. Name of a family of
plants.
PRI'MUM Mo'BiLE.-Lat. That which
first imparts motion.
PRISM. — A solid bounded by three
planes, two of which are equal.
PRISMATIC. — Belonging or relating
to a prisrn. Having several pa-
rallel, flat sides.
PRISME'NCHYMA. — The prismatical
variety of the parenchyma of
plants.
PHISTIS. — Lat. Generic name of
the saw-fish.
PROBOSCI'DIAN. — fr. gr. proboskis, a
proboscis or trunk. Applied to
mammals of the family which
includes the elephant.
PROBOSCIDIA'NA. — A family of ani-
mals which includes the elephant.
PHOBO'SCIS. — Lat. A trunk, a pro-
longation of the nose.
PROCELLA'RIA. — fr. lat. procella, a
tempest at sea. A genus of birds
of the family of palmipedes.
PRO'CESS. — fr. Jat. procedo, I go be-
fore. An eminence of bone } a
bony projection.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
123
PROCKSSIONWE'A. — Lat. That goes
in procession.
PRocu'MBENT.-Lying on the ground.
PRO'CYOX. — Lat. A raccoon.
PROD'ROMUS. — fr. gr. pro, before;
dromos, a course. That which
precedes another.
PRODC'CED. — Lengthened out.
PRODU'CTUS. — A genus of extinct
bivalve mollusks. (fig. 9, 10, p.
30, Book viii).
PROGXA'THIC. > fr. gr. pro, in front ;
PROOXA'THOUS. \ gnathos, the jaw.
Having the face or jaws project-
ing forward.
PROGNOSTIC. — fr. gr. pro, before;
ginosko, I know, I judge. A con-
jecture or opinion of what is yet
to happen.
PROGRE'SSIOX. — fr. lat. pro, before ;
gradus, a pace or step. A move-
ment in advance, a going for-
ward. The movement of pro-
gression is peculiar to animals
PROJE'CTILE. — fr. lat. projicere, to
throw in advance, or to a dis-
tance. Any heavy body thrown
into the air, and abandoned to the
action of its own weight. That
which is capable of being cast or
thrown forward. Having the
power of sudden extension.
PROIEGS. — The wart-like tubercles
which represent legs on the hin-
der segment of caterpillars.
PROM'FETIOUS. — fr. lat. proles, off-
spring; /ere. to bear. Applied to
a flower which produces another
flower from its centre.
PROLI'GEROUS. — fr. lat. proles, a race ;
gero, I bear. Applied to that part
of the egg in which the embryo
is placed. The proligerous disc.
Germinative disc. JBlastoderma.
Germinal membrane. Germ.
PROPA'GO. — The branch laid down
in the process of layering.
PROPA'GULUM. — An offset.
PROPENDEXT. Hanging forward
and downward.
PBOPO'LIS — fr. gr. pro, before ; polls,
a city. A kind of cement ob-
tained by bees from certain flow-
ers, which they use to close the
external openings of their hive.
PROSE'XCHTMA. — That form of pa
renchyma in plants, in which the
cells taper to each end and over-
lap each other; parenchyma being
restricted to that form of the tis-
sue, in which the cells have trun-
cated extremities.
PRO'TEUS. — fr. gr. protos, first. Name
of a particular reptile.
PROTHO'R*X. — The first ring of the
thorax of insects.
PROTOZO'IC STSTKM — fr. gr. proton,
first; zoon, an animal. A geolo-
gical term, applied to the lowest
system of rocks in which the
traces of any organic structure
have been found.
PROTRA'CTILE.— Susceptible of being
extended or stretched out. Ca-
pable of extending itself.
PROVEXTRI'CULUS. — fr. lat. pro, be-
fore; ventriculus, a little stomach.
The second stomach of birds.
PRU'NUS. — Lat. A plum tree.
PSALTE'RIUM. — A name of the third
stomach of ruminants.
PSAMMO'BIA. — fr. gr. psammos, sand.
A genus of bivalves.
PSKUDOMO'RPHOUS. — fr. gr. pseudcs,
false ; morphc, form. Applied to
substances which, not possessing
a crystalline structure, are found
in the form of regular crystals.
PSEUDO-PI WXATE. — Falsely or im-
perfectly pinnate; not resolving
at any time into separate leaflets.
PSEUDO-STRATA. — Table layers. Ex-
tended plates df rocks, not di-
vided into parallel laminae.
PSIT'TACUS. — fr. gr. psittakos. a par-
rot. Systematic name of parrots.
PSO'PHIA. — fr. gr. psophia, I make a
noise. Systematic name of the
trumpeters.
PTERI'CHTHTS. — fr. gr. pteron, a
wing; ichihos, a fish. A genus of
fossil fishes, (fig. 20, p. 32, Book
viii).
PTERO'CEBA. — fr. gr. pteron, wing.
124
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
keras, a horn. A genus of gas-
teropods. (p. 55, Book v).
PTERODA'CTTLI. — Lat. plur. of pte-
rodactylus.
PTERoi)A'cTYLUS.-fr. gr.pteron, wing;
daktulos, finger. Name of a fos-
sil, (fig. 83, p. 57, Book viii).
PTERO'MTS. — fr. gr. pteron, a wing;
wtts, a mouse. The systematic
name of the flying-squirrels.
PTEHO'PHORA. — fr. gr. pteron, wing ;
hero, I bear. A genus of noc
turnal lepidopterous insects.
PxERo'pHYLLUM.-fr. gt.pteron, wing;
phullon, leaf. A genus of fossil
plants.
PTERO'PODA. — fr. gr. pteron, a wing;
pous, foot. Name of a class of
rnollusks. (p. 67, Book v).
PTKRo'ptrs. — fr. gr. pteron, wing;
pous, foot. A genus of mammals
of the tribe of bats, termed Rous-
settes.
PTERTGO'D A — Two small, moveable,
epaulet-like bodies, found near the
base of the first legs, in lepidop-
terous insects.
PTKR'TOOID. — fr. gr. pterux, wing;
eidos, resemblance. Name of a
bone which is connected to the
palate bones.
PUHK'SCEWCE. fr. lat. pubescent.
Downy.
PUB is. — The anterior and middle
part of the pelvis.
PU'DICA. — Lat. Modest.
PcDinxe-STONE. — Conglomerate.
PU'LEX. — Lat. A flea.
PUL'LTTLATIXG. — Budding.
PULMOJTA'RIA — Lat. Pulmonary.
PU'LMONAHT. — Belonging or relating
to the lungs.
PUL'MOJTATES. Mollusks which
breathe air. •.«;.?
PULMOWE'A — Lat. Pulmonary.
PULP. — The soft, juicy, cellular sub-
stance found in berries, and simi-
lar fruits.
PrLVEUA'TOH. — fr. lat. pulverare, to
cover with dust. Applied to
those birds that wallow in the
dust.
PULYE'RULENT. — Dusty. Appearing
as if covered with powder.
PUL'VINATE. Become cushion-
shaped.
PULVI'NULI. — Little cushions.
PUMICE. — Vesicular obsidian.
PU'MILA. — Lat. Dwarfish, little.
PUNCTA. — Lat. plur. of punctum.
Points.
PUNC'TIFOBM. — Formed like points.
PUNC'TATE. ^ fr. Jat. punctum, a
PUNC'TUATKD. 3 point. Having
small hollows like the punctures
of a thimble.
Pu'ifGENT.— Applied to leaves which
terminate in a sharp point, like
the leaves of thistles.
PU'PA. — Lat. A puppet; a baby
wrapped up in swaddling bands.
The chrysalis or nymph. The se-
cond stage of metamorphosis of
insects is so called. A genus of
snails.
PU'PX, — Lat. plur. of pupa.
PUPI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. pupa, a baby;
pario, to produce. Applied to
insects which bring forth their
young in the pupa state.
PUPIL. — The aperture of the iris,
through which the rays of light
pass, to paint the image of an ob-
ject on the retina.
PURBECK LIMESTOXE. — Strata of the
Wealden group which intervene
between the greensand and oolite.
PUR'PUHA — Lat. Purple. A genus
of the family of buccinoides. (p.
53, Book v).
PUTA'MEW. — fr. lat. pitto, to prune.
The endocarp. A hard shell.
PUTO'RIUS. — fr. lat. putor, a stink.
The systematic name of the pole-
cat.
PYCXODO'ITTIC. — fr. gr.puknos, thick ;
odous, odontos, a tooth. Thick-
toothed ; having short, stout teeth.
PTGAR'GUS. — fr. gr. puge, behind ;
argos, white. A bird of prey with
a white tail.
GM^'US.— Lat. Small, little, dwart-
ish, pigmy.
PYLO'KU*. — fr. gr. pule, a gate; ouros,
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
125
a guardian. The lower or right
orifice of the stomach.
PYR'RHULA. — Generic name of the
bullfinches.
PYR'GITA. — Generic name of the
sparrows.
PY'RIFORM. — fr. lat. pyrum, a pear;
/orma, shape. Pear-shaped.
PY'HITES. — A compound of sulphur
and iron.
PYHOGE'NOUS. — fr. gr. pur, fire; gei-
nomai, I beget. Applied to rocks
which owe their origin to the ac-
tion of fire, as granite.
PYROSO'MA. — fr. gr. pur, fire; soma,
body. A genus of mollusks. (p.
92, Book v).
PT'ROXENE. — fr gr. pur, fire; zenos,
a stranger. The augite, supposed
to have pre-existed in the volca-
nic minerals containing it, and
not to have been formed by fire.
PYROXE'NIC. — Of the nature of py-
roxene.
PY'RUS. — Lat. A pear-tree.
PT'THON. — fr. gr. puthon, a serpent.
Generic name of certain ophidi-
ans.
Ger. Thelower
cretaceous beds in Germany: any
sandstone fit for building purposes.
QUADRANGULAR. — fr. lat. quutuor,
four; angulus, angle. Having four
angles or sides.
QUADRICOR'NIS. - fr. lat. quatuor,
four; cornu: horn. Specific name
of a crusta'cean.
QUADIUFA'RIOUS. — Arranged in four
rows or ranks.
QUA'DRIFID. — Divided four times.
QUADRIGLA'NDULAR. — Having four
glands.
QUA'URIPLICATED. - Having four
pUiits.
QUAURU'MANA. — fr. lat. quatuor, four;
manus, hand. The name of the
order of mammals that possess
four hands.
QUADRU'M ANGUS. — Four-handed.
QUAD'RUPED. — fr. lat. quatuor, four;
pes, a foot. Having four feet.
QuAQ.tr AVE'RSAL.-Turning each way,
or in all directions from a centre.
QUARRY. — A stone mine; a place
where stones are due.
QUA'RTINE. — The fourth membrane
or envelope of the nucleus in
plants.
QUATE'RNARY. — fr. lat. quaternarius,
the number four. Relating to
four; succeeding by fours.
QUATERNATE - PINNATE. — Pinnate,
the pinnae being arranged in
fours.
QUATRE'NNIAL. — Every fourth year.
QUATE'RNATE — Applied to a leaf
which has four leaflets growing
from a common petiole, (fig, 61,
p. 44, Book vii).
QUARTZ. — Ger. Rock crystal. A
constituent of granite and some
other rocks.
QUA'RTZOSE. — Of the nature of
quartz.
QUE'RCUS. — Lat. An oak tree.
QUI'NARY. — Relating to five.
QUI'NATE. — IV. lat. quinque, five. In
fives. Applied to a leaf- which
has five leaflets growing from one
common petiole. (Jig. 62, p. 45,
Book vii).
QUINCUNX. — In botany, a form of
aestivation or vernation in which
there are five leaves, two of which
are exterior, two interior, and the
fifth covers the interior with one
margin, while its other margin is
covered by the exterior, as in the
rose.
Qui'xauEFiD. — Five cleft.
QUINQ.UEFO'LIATE. — fr. lat. quinquf,
five ; folium, a leaf. See QUINATE.
QUI'NTINE fr. lat. quintus, fifth.
The fifth membrane or envelope
of the nucleus of plants. The sac
of the embryo.
QUI'NTUPLE. — Five times multiplied.
Quis'cAtus.-Generic name of black-
birds.
RA'CEME. — fr. lat. racemus, a bunch
of grapes. A form of inflores-
cence in which the flowers are
11*
3G2
126
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
arranged around a filiform simple
axis, each particular flower being
stalked.
RA'CEMOSE — Flowering in racemes.
RA'CHIS. — fr. gr. rachis, the spine. A
branch, which proceeds in nearly
a straight line from the base to
the apex of the inflorescence of a
plant.
RA'DIAL. — Belonging or relating to
the radius.
RADIA'TA. — fr. lat. radius, a spoke.
The name given to the fourth
BRANCH of the animal kingdom,
on account of their configuration.
RA'DIATE.— - fr. lat. radius, a ray.
Furnished with rays. Radiate an-
imals are those of the lowest de-
gree of organization in the animal
kingdom. A flower is said to be
radiate or radiant, when, in a clus-
ter or head of florets ; those of
the circumference or ray are long
and spreading, and unlike those
of the disk.
RADIA'TION. — The emission of rays
of light, or of heat, from a lumi-
nous or a heated body.
RA'DICAL.— Proceed ing from the root.
RA'DICAXT. — In botany, producing
roots from the stem.
RA'DICATED. — In conchology, applied
to a shell when fixed by its base
to another body.
RA'DICLE. — A little root ; a rootlet.
RA'DICULE. — That end of the em-
bryo which is opposite to the co-
tyledons.
RA'DIOLITES. — A genus of fossil
shells, the inferior valve of which
is in the shape of a reversed cone,
the superior valve convex, (p. 69,
Book viii).
RA'UICS. — Lat. A spoke. One of
the bones of the fore-arm, so called
from its shape. In botany, the
ray of a compound flower.
RA'DIX. — Lat. A root. The lower
part of a plant, which performs
the office of attracting moisture
from the soil, and communicating
:t to the other parts of the plant.
RAFT. — Trunks of trees and othe
vegetable debris matted togethei,
by natural causes, and sunk in a
river or stream.
RAO. — Coarse, shelly limestone, (p
59, Book viii).
RAIA. — Lat. A ray-fish.
RAINET'TE — Fr. A tree-frog.
RALLUS. — Lat. Generic name of the
rails.
RAME'NTA— Lat. Filings. In bota-
ny, the thin, brown, foliaceous
scales, which appear on the back
of the fronds of ferns, &c,
RAMENTA'CEOUS. — Covered with ra-
menta.
RAMI'FEROUS. — Producing branches.
RAMIFICA'TION. Branching ; a
branch. A subdivision of roots
or branches.
RA'MIFIED. — fr. lat. ramus, a branch.
Branched.
RAMO'SE. — fr. lat. ramosus, branched.
Applied to those spines upon
shells which send out others in
a lateral direction. In botany,
branchy.
RAMPHA'STOS. — fr. gr. ramphos, a
beak. Generic name of the tou-
cans.
RAMULI. — Twigs or small branches.
RA'MUS. — Lat. A branch.
RAM'USCUI.E.— fr. lat. remits, a branch.
A diminutive branch.
RANA. — Lat. A frog. A genus of
reptiles.
RAPA'CES. — fr. lat. rapax, ravenous,
devouring. Systematic name of
the order of birds of prey.
RA'PHE. — In botany, the channel of
vessels which connects the cha-
laza with the hilum in seeds; in
umbelliferous plants it is the line
of junction of the two halves of
which their fruit is composed.
RA'PHIDES. — fr. gr.raphis, a needle.
Small acicular crystals, found
within the cells of the parenchy-
ma of certain plants.
RAPI'LLI. — Small volcanic cinders.
S.-fr. lat. raptor, a snatcher.
Birds of prey.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
127
RASO'RF.S. — fr. lat. rado, to scratch.
Scratchers; an order of birds.
RATTUS. — Barbarous Lat. A rat.
REA'LGAR. — Red sulphuret of ar-
senic. A compound of sulphur
and arsenic.
REACTION. — The force exerted by
two bodies which act mutually on
each other.
RECE'PTACLE. — In botany, a dilated
portion of the peduncle, contain-
ing nutritive matter.
RECEPTA'CULCM. — Lat. A recepta-
cle ; a reservoir. That part of
the fructification which supports
the other parts.
RECESSES. — In botany, the bays or
sinuses of I "bed leaves.
RECLINED. ) In botany, bending
RECLINING. £ over, with the end
inclining toward the ground ; as
in the bramble.
REC'TRICES. — fr. lat. rectrix, a govern-
ess. The long feathers of the tail
which serve to steer the bird.
RE'CTCM. — The terminating portion
of the intestine.
RECURVED. — Bent backward.
RECURVIRO'STRA. — fr. lat. recurvo, I
bend back ; rostrum, beak. Sys-
tematic name of birds whose
beaks are curved upwards.
RECURVO-PATENT. — Bent back and
spreading.
RED-CHALK. — Red clay j an argilla-
ceous iron-stone ore.
RED MARL. — A name of new red
sandstone.
REEF. — A bed of rocks, sand or co-
ral, a few feet beneath the sur-
face of the ocean.
REFLEC'TED. >
REFLEXED. £
REFLEXED RECESSES. — Sinuses of
leaves which are bent back from
the ordinary direction of the sur-
face of the leaf.
REFRA'CTED. — Abruptly bent, as if
broken.
RKFRA'CTION. — fr. lat. refractus, bro-
ken. The deviation of a ray of
light from its rectilinear course,
Bent backwards.
caused by passing through a trans-
parent substance. The degree of
refraction depends upon the den-
sity of the medium through which
the ray of light passes.
REFRA'CTORY. — Applied to minerals
which are hard to break, or strong-
ly resist the application of heat.
REG'IMEN. — fr. lat. regere, to govern.
'The rational and methodical use
of food, and everything essential
to life ; both in a state of health
and disease. It is often restricted
in its meaning to diet.
REGMA. — fr. gr. resso, to break. Cap-
sula tricocca. A fruit consisting of
three or more cells, each of which
bursts from the axis with elasti-
city, into two valves. The cells
of this kind of fruit are called
cocci.
REG'ULUS. — Lat. Dimin. of rex, a
king. A wren.
REGU'RGITATE. — fr. lat. re, again;
gurges, a gulf, or stream. To
throw back. The word is used
to describe the return of food to
the mouth in ruminants after it
has been once swallowed.
REGURGITA'TION. — The act of throw-
ing back into the mouth food that
has been swallowed.
REM'IGES. — The strong feathers of
the wings of birds.
REMO'RA. — Lat. A hindrance. The
name of a fish.
RE'NAL. — Belonging or relating to
the kidney.
RE'NIFORM. — Kidney-shaped.
RENNET. — The fourth stomach of
ruminants. When the fourth sto-
mach of the calf is salted and
dried, it possesses the property oi
coagulating milk, when a portion
of it is soaked in water, or wine,
and the infusion is added to the
milk.
REpA'ifD.-With a serpentine margin.
REPANDO- DENTATE. — Repand a-id
toothed.
RE'PANDATE. — fr. lat. repandus, bent.
Applied to a leaf which has an
128
A GLOSSARY
TERMS
undulated, and unequally dilated
margin, (fig. 34, p. 38, Book vii).
RE'PENT. — Creeping.
RE'PLICATE. ) Folded so as to form
RE'PLICATED. $ a groove or chan-
nel. Folded back.
REPLUM. — Lat. A leaf of a door.
In botany, the framework formed
by the separation of the two su-
tures of a legume from its valves.
RE'PTILE. — fr. lat. repere, to crawl.
A term applied to any animal
that moves naturally upon its
belly, or on very short legs, as
serpents.
REPTI'LIA.- — The class of reptiles :
it comprises those vertebrate ani-
mals which have cold blood, an
aerial respiration, and an incom-
plete circulation.
RESIDA'CE.E. — From Resida, one of
the genera. Name of a family of
plants.
RE'SIN. — A vegetable substance, dis-
tinguishable by its solubility in
alcohol, and insolubility in water.
RE'SINOTTS. — Of the nature of resin.
RESPIRA'TION. — fr. lat. respiro, I take
breath. The act of breathing. A
function proper to both animals
and plants.
RESPI'RATORY. — Belonging to the
function of respiration.
RESU'PINATE. — Inverted in position
so that what was in front becomes
at back. Upside down.
RETI'CULAR. ) fr. lat. rete, a net,
RETI'CULATE. ( net-like. In botany,
the reliculur vessels are cylindrical
tubes, the surface of which being
covered by oblong, transverse
spots, gives them the appearance
of a net.
RETICULATED. — In the form of the
meshes of a netj made of net-
work.
RETI'CULUM. — The second stomach
of ruminants. The honeycomb.
RET'INA. — fr. lat. rete, a net. The
essential organ of vision, situated
within the eye-ball : on it the im-
ages of objects are impressed.
RETRA'CTILE. — Susceptible of being
drawn back.
RETROFLE'CTED. — Bent backwards.
RETROU'SSE. — Cocked up ; turned
up.
RETROVE'RTED. — Turned back.
RETUN'DATED. — Blunted, or turned
at the edge.
RETU'SE. — Ending in an obtuse si-
nus.
RETU'SUS. — Lat. Retuse; blunted.
REVERSE SHELLS.-Shells which have
the aperture, when placed in front
of the spectator, opening on the
left side. Reverse fpire is when
its volutions turn the reverse way
of a common cork-screw.
REVOLU'TA. — Lat. Turned back ;
tumbled,
RE'VOLTJTE. — Rolled backwards.
RHEA. — Synonyme of struthio, an
ostrich.
RHIXO'CEROS. — fr. gr. rin, rinos, a
nose ; keras, a horn. A genus of
pachyderms.
RHINOLO'PHUS. — fr. gr. rin, rinos, a
nose; lophos, a tuft or crest. The
name of a kind of bat.
RHIPIP'TERA. — fr. gr. ripis, a fan ;
pteron, wing. An order of insects.
RHIZOCA'RPOUS. — fr. gr. riza, a root ;
karpos, fruit. Applied to those
polycarpous fruits, whose roots
endure many years, but whose
stems perish annually.
RHI'ZOME. — fr. gr. riza, a root. A
subterranean stem.
Riio'MBoiD.-Rhomb-shaped ; acorn-
pressed parallelogram.
RHOMBOID AL. — Lozenge-shaped.
RHTNCHOPS. — fr. gr. rugchops, a beak.
A genus of birds : the skimmers,
or scissor-bills.
RIB. — In botany, the projecting vein
of anything.
RIBBED. — Marked with parallel
ridges or veins.
RI'CINUS. — Lat. A tick.
RIDDANCE.— A word employed to de-
signate the refuse matter thrown
out by animals in digging their
burrows. The matter thrown out,
USED IN NATURAL HISTORV.
120
or delivered by a saw, in its pas-
sage through any substance, may,
perhaps, be thus designated.
RI'MA. — Lat. A fissure. The in-
terstice between the valves of a
shell when the hymen is removed.
RIMO'SE. — Fissured, or irregularly
cracked, like the bark of a tree.
R ix GENT. — fr. hit. rmgo, to grin. In
botany, applied to certain corollas,
the petals of which cohere into
the form of a mouth, which gapes
on pressing the sides.
RIPPLE-MAIIKS. — In geology, the un-
dulations which occur on the sur-
face of many rocks, resembling
the ridges and indentations left
on mud and sand by small waves
of water. They are most distinct
on surfaces where a change of
deposit has taken place, as where
sandstones alternate with thin
clay partings.
RO'BUK. — Lat. An oak ; strength.
ROCK.— Any mineral aggregate, whe-
ther hard or soft; the term there-
fore includes sand, marble, clay,
granite, &c.
ROCK CRYSTAL. — A pure crystallized
variety of quartz.
ROCK-SALT. — Common salt found in
masses or beds in the new red
sandstone.
RODE'NTIA. — fr. lat. rodere, to gnaw.
An order of mammals.
RODENTS. — Gnawers; animals of
the order of rodentia.
ROITELET. — Fr. Dimin. of rot, a
king. A wren.
ROLLED FLINTS. — Pebbles, (p. 129,
Book viii).
ROOTING. — In botany, sending out
lateral roots.
ROU'Q.UAL. — A kind of whalebone
whale.
ROSA'CEJE. — Name of a family of
plants, which includes the rose.
ROSE'OUS. — Rose-coloured.
Rosso'us. — The Sun-dew, or Dro-
sera.
HOSTEL. — In botany, the pointed
part of the embryo which tends
6*
downward at the first germina-
tion of the seed.
ROSTELLA'RIA. — fr. lat. rostellum, a
little beak. A genus of univalvo
mollusks. (p. 85, Book viii).
ROS'TRATE. Furnished with a
beak.
ROS'THUM. — Lat. A beak. The ex-
tension of that part of the shell
in which the canal is situated. In
botany, any rigid prolongation of
considerable length.
RO'SULATK. — fr. lat. rosa, a rose. In
botany, applied to parts which
are not opposite, but which never-
theless become apparently so by
the contraction of the joints of the
stem, and lie packed closely over
one another, like the petals of a
double rose.
ROTA'TA. Lat. Rotate; wheel
shaped.
RO'TATE. — Wheel-shaped. Applied
to a monopetalous corolla, when
the limb is flat, and the tube very
short.
ROTA'TIOST. — In botany, a special
motion of the sap, observed in
plants of low organization. It
consists of a special circulation 01"
the fluid contained in the interior
of each cell, the rotation in one
cell never interfering with that
in another cell.
ROTA'TOR. — fr. lat. ro/a, a wheel. A
name given to muscles, which
turn the parts to which they aro
attached on their axes.
ROTATO'RIA. — Lat. Rotatory.
ROTHE-TODTE-LIEGENDE. Ger. NeW
red sandstone. (Note, p. 47, Book
viii).
ROTHOMAGK'NSIS. — Lat. from rotho-
ma'gum, a temple of Roth, a di-
vinity of that part of Gaul, now
called Normandy; hence too the
name of the city Rouen. Belong-
ing or relating to Rouen. Specific
name of an ammonite.
RO'TULA. — The patella.
ROTU'JTD. — Round, circular, spLcri
cal.
I
130
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
ROTUNDO-OYATE. Roundly egg-
shaped.
ROTU'NDA. 1
ROTU'NDUM. > Lat. Round.
ROTU'NDUS. 3
RUBBLK. — Angular and broken frag-
ments of subjacent rock lying be-
neath the superficial mould. See
BRASH.
RUB En. — Lat. Red.
RUBIA'CE^. — Name of a family of
plants.
RUBICO'IA. — Specific name of a
stonechat or motacilla.
RU'BUS. — Lat. A blackberry bush.
RUDI'STES. — fr. lat. rurfis, unacquaint-
ed, because the characters of the
animal were unknown. Name
of a family of extinct mollusks, in
the shells of which neither the
hinge, the ligament of the valves,
nor the muscle of attachment is
discoverable. The family con-
tains six genera: Spherulites, Ra-
diolites, Calceola, Birostrites, Disci-
«a, and Crania.
RU'FOUS. — Of a reddish colour.
RU'FCS. — Lat. Reddish.
RU'GOSA. — Lat. Rugose, wrinkled.
RU'GOSK. — Rough or coarsely wrin-
kled.
RTTGOSITT. — A wrinkling.
RU'GULOSE. — Finely wrinkled.
RU'MEN. — The paunch, or first sto-
mach of ruminants.
RU'MINAXT. — An animal thatchews
the cud.
RU'MINATE — To chew the cud.
RU'MINATED. — In botany, applied to
the albumen of certain plants
when it is perforated in various
directions by dry cellular tissue,
as in the nutmeg.
Ru'MiNANTiA.-The systematic name
of animals that ruminate.
RUMIWA'TION.— fr. \at.ruminatio. The
act of chewing the cud.
RUN'CINATE. — Hooked back; ap-
plied to the lobes of leaves. Hav-
ing large teeth pointing back-
wards.
In botany, a prostrate ae'-
rial stem, forming at its extremity
roots and a young plant, which
itself gives origin to new runners,
as in the strawberry.
RUPICAPHA. — fr. lat. rupes, a rock ;
capra, a goat. The systematic
name of the chamois.
RUPICO'XA. — fr. lat. rupes, rvpis, a
rock ; colere, to inhabit. Generic
name of Cocks of the Rock.
RUSTICA. — Lat. Rustic ; belonging
to the country.
RUSTICOLA. — Specific name of the
woodcock.
SABEL'LA. — A genus of cirrhopods.
SABEI/LX. — Lat. plur. of sabella.
SACCATE. — Bagged ; having a bag or
pouch.
SACCHARI'NE. — Sugary; relating to
sugar.
SACCHAROID. — fr. lat. saccharum, su-
gar, and gr. eidos, resemblance.
Resembling loaf-sugar in texture.
SACCHA RUM. — Lat. Sugar.
SA'CRAL. — Relating to the sacrum.
SAC'HUM. — Lat. Sacred. The bone
which forms the posterior part of
the pelvis, and is a continuation
of the vertebral column.
SA'GITTATE. — fr. lat. sagitta, an ar-
row. Applied to leaves which
resemble the head of an arrow.
(fig- 27, P. 36, Book vii).
SAGOUIN. — Fr. A marmoset. A sort
of monkey. All American mon-
keys whose tails are not prehen-
sile, are so called.
SAJOU. — Fr. A species of marmoset.
;KKIS I A genus of monkeys.
SA'Q.UIS. }
SAL-AMMO'NIAC. — A compound of
ammonia and hydrochloric acid.
Muriate of ammonia.
SALI'FEROUS FORMATION. — New red
sandstone, (p. 47, Book viii).
SA'UNES. — Natural deposits of salt;
salt springs.
SALI'VA. — The fluid secreted in the
mouth by the salivary glands. Its
use is to assist in the process of
digestion, by mixing wilh the
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
131
alimentary ball during mastica-
tion.
SA'LIVART. — Relating to saliva.
SAL'MO. — Lat. A salmon.
SALMONI'DES. — Systematic name of
a family of fishes,
SALT. — Any combination of an acid
with a salifiable substance.
SALTP'ETRE. — Nitre ; nitrate of pot-
ash.
SALVER-FORM. — Hypocrateriform.
SAHARA. — A two or more celled su-
perior fruit bordered by wing-like
expansions, as in sycamore.
SANDALI'NA — Lat. Sandal-like.
SAJTDSTKIN. — Ger. Sandstone.
SANDSTONE. — Any rock consisting of
aggregated grains of sand.
SANGUIV A'CEOUS. — Of a blood colour,
or resembling blood.
SANGUINOLA'RIA. — fr. lat. sanguis,
blood. Name of a genus of ace-
phalous mollusks.
SAp.-The ascending nutritious liquid,
or blood of plants
SAPAJOU.T— Fr. A species of monkey.
SA'PPHIRE. — A very haFd gem con-
sisting essentially of crystallized
alumina. It is of various colours;
the blue variety being usually call-
ed sapphire ; the red, the oriental
ruby ; the yellow, the oriental to-
paz.
SARCJTEL'LA. — fr. lat. sarcio, I patch.
A genus of moths.
SA'RCOCARP. — fr. gr. sarx, flesh ; kar-
pos, fruit. The pulp or flesh of
the fruit.
SAR'CODERM. — fr. gr. sarx, flesh; der-
ma, skin. The substance found
between the integuments of the
seed, analogous to the sarcocarp
of fruits.
SARDINA. — Lat. A sardine.
SARCOP'TES. — A genus of arachni-
dans.
SARCORA'MPHUS. — fr. gr. sarx, sarkos,
flesh ; raniphe, knife : because its
bill cuts flesh like a knife. Gene-
ric name of a kind of vulture.
SARIGUE. — Fr. An opossum.
S ARGUS. — Lat. Name of a fish.
SAR'MENTOSE. — Producing sarments
or runners. Running on the
ground and striking roots from the
joints, as tlie strawberry.
SARME'NTUM. — Lat. In botany, a
runner.
SA'TIVCS-A-UM. — Lat. That which
may be planted or sown.
SAU'RIA. — fr. gr. sauros, a lizard.
The name of an order of reptiles
with long, scaly bodies, and long
tails, resembling a lizard.
SAURIAX. — Any reptile of the order
of sauria.
SAUUOID. — fr. gr. sauros, a lizard;
eidos, resemblance. Resembling
a lizard.
SAUVEGARDE. — Fr. Name of a sau-
rian.
SAVAWSTA. — Prairie ; a vast plain.
SAWED. — Resembling the teeth of a
saw.
SAXICO'LA. — fr. lat. saxum, a rock;
colere, to inhabit. Systematic name
of a genus of warblers.
SAXI'OKXOUS. — fr. lat. saxum, rock,
and gr. geinomai, I produce. Rock-
producing; rock-forming.
SCA'BRA. — Lat. Rough.
SCA'BROUS. — fr. lat. scaber, rough.
Rough, harsh, rugged, or like a
file.
SCAL-I'RIA. — fr. it. scala, a ladder, or
series of stairs. Name of a ge-
nus of gasteropods.
SCALES. — In botany, any small pro-
cesses resembling minute leaves;
also the leaves of the involucrum
of composite).
SCA'LLOPED. — Indented at the edges.
SCA'NDENT. — Climbing.
SCAJJSORI.E. — fr. lat. scando, I climb.
Systematic name of the order of
climbing birds.
SCAPE. — A stem rising from the root
and bearing nothing but flowers,
(p. 21, Book vii).
SCAPHI'TES. — fr. gr. skaphe, a boat.
The boat ammonite. (./?£• 132, p.
72, Book viii).
SCA'PULA. — The shoulder-blade.
SCAPULARS (Scapularies). — The fea-
132
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
thers that take their rise from the
shoulders of birds, and cover the
sides of the back.
SCA'PUS — Lat. A stalk. That part
of the feather of a bird which
forms the stem, including the quill
or calamus.
SCARABE'US. — Lat. A beetle, a chaf-
fer.
SCA'RIOSE. ") In botany, membranous
SCA'IUOCS. j and dry. Having a
thin membranous margin.
SCHIST. — fr. gr. schizein, to divide.
A sort of stone which separates
into leaves or plates like slate,
but not to the same extent. A
generic name given by geologists
to all minerals which split or di-
vide into very thin plates.
SCHI STO'SE. — Slaty.
SCIENCE. — fr. lat.scientia, knowledge.
Any art or species of knowledge,
arranged in order, or on some
plan.
SCIENOIDES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.
SCINCOIDEA. ") fr. gr. skigkos, a sort of
SciircOiDES. 3 crocodile; eidos, re-
semblance. Systematic name of
a family of saurians.
SciifauE. — Fr. A kind of saurian.
SCION. — A shoot intended for a graft.
A shoot proceeding laterally from
the root, or bulb of a root.
SCIU'RUS. — Lat. A squirrel.
SCLERODE'RMJ. — fr.gr. skleros, hard ;
derma, skin. Hard-skinned. Sys-
tematic name of a family of
fishes.
SCLE'ROGEN. — fr. gr. skleros. hard ;
gennao, to produce. The matter
of lignification which is deposited
on the inner surface of the cells
of plants, contributing to their
thickness.
SCLE'ROPS — fr. gr. skleros, hard ; ops,
eye. Specific name of a kind of
crocodile.
SCLERO'TICA. — fr. gr. sklerofi, I har-
den. A hard, resisting, pearly
white, opaque membrane, which
forms the posterior jour-fifths of
the external coat or covering of
the eye-ball.
SCO'LOPAX. — fr. gr. skolopax, a snipe ;
a woodcock. Generic name of
the snipe.
SCOLOPEN'DRA — Lat. Generic name
of centipedes.
SCOMBER. — Lat. A mackerel. f
SCOMBE'RIDJE. ) fr. gr. skombros,
SCOMBEROI'DES. £ mackerel ; eidos,
resemblance. Systematic name
of a family of fishes.
SCOPA'RIUM. — fr. lat. scopa, butcher's
broom, milfoil. Specific name of
a plant.
SCO'PIFORM. — fr. lat. scopa, a broom;
forma, shape. Broom-shape. In
mineralogy, applied to any aggre-
gate of small diverging crystals,
or fibres.
SCOPS.,— fr. gr. skops, an owl. The
systematic name of an owl.
SCORBI'CULATE. — Pitted; having the
surface covered with hollows.
SCO'RIJE. — Lat. plur. of scoria, dross.
Volcanic cinders. Cinders and
slags of basaltic lavas of a red-
dish brown and black colour.
SCORIA'CEOUS. — Of the nature of
scoriae.
SCO'RIFORM. — In form of scoriae.
SCOH'PIO. — Lat. A scorpion.
SCOK'POID. — In botany, applied to
unilateral racemes which are re-
volute before they expand.
SCROBIC'ULATE. — In botany, exca-
vated into little pits or hollows.
SCHOPHA, or SCROFA. — Lat. A sow.
SCRO'TIFORM.— Formed like a double
bag.
SCURF. — The thin flat membranous
disks, with ragged margin, formed
jof cellular tissue, springing from
the epidermis of plants.
SCURFY. — In botany, covered with
scales resembling scurf.
SCU'TATE. — Formed like an ancient
round buckler. Covered with
large scales.
SCUTEL'LUM. — Lat. A little shield.
Apothecium. In botany, the little
coloured cup or disk found in the
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
133
substance of lichens; it is sur-
rounded by a rim and contains
the asci, or tubes filled with spo-
rules.
BCU'TELLATED. ^ fr. lat. scutum, a
SCUTEL'LIFORM. > shield. Shield-
SCU'TIFORM. ) shaped.
SCI-'TELLATED (legs). — fr. lat. scu-
tum, a shield. Having the tarsi
covered with scaly plates.
SCUTIBRANCHIA'TA. — fr. lat. scutum,
a shield ; branchia, gills. An or-
der of gasteropods.
SCU'TUM. — Lat. A shield.
SCYL'LIUM. — fr. gr. skullo, I tear in
pieces. Systematic name of the
shark.
SEAM. — The line formed by the
union of the valves of bivalve
shells.
SEAMS. — Thin layers or strata inter-
posed between others.
SECA'LE. — Lat. Rye.
SECONDARIES. — Those quills that
rise from the second bones of the
wings of birds.
SE'COSTDART FORMA'TIOX. — A series
of stratified rocks with certain
characters by which they are dis-
tinguished from the primary rocks.
By the term formation geologists
understand a series of rocks of
the same age. Those rocks which
were first formed are called pri-
mary • those formed next in suc-
cession are secondary • and so on.
SECRE'TE. — fr. lat. secernere, to sepa-
rate. To select and take from
the organic fluids, materials pecu-
liarly adapted to the purposes of
the organ or agent that secretes.
SECRETED. — Separated by the action
of organs.
SKCRE'TIOX — fr. lat. secernere, to se-
parate. The process by which
organic structure is enabled to
separate from the fluids circulat-
ing in it, oilier different fluids.
Each organ according to its pecu-
liar structure, differs from the rest,
and hence we have the formation
of the different fluids, as bile, sa-
liva, milk, &c. The fluid? thus
separated, are termed secretions.
SECRE'TORT. — Belonging or relating
to secretion.
SECTILE. — fr. lat. seco, I cut. Ap-
plied to minerals which are half
way between brittle and mal-
leable.
SE'CULAR. — fr.lat. seculum, a century,
or period. Semlar elevations are
those which take place gradually
and imperceptibly, through a long
period of time. Secular tides are
those which are dependent upon
the secular variation of the moon's
mean distance from the earth.
Secular refrigeration is the periodi-
cal cooling and consolidation of
the globe from a supposed origi-
nal state of fluidity from heat.
SECUSTD. — In botany, unilateral; ar-
ranged on one side only.
SECUNDINE. — In botany, that sac of
the ovule which rests immedi-
ately on the primine, and often
contracts an adhesion with it.
SEED. — The seed of a plant is the
ovule in its matured state, (p. 66,
Book vii).
SEED-LOBE. — The envelope in which
the seed in plants is formed.
SEDENTARY. — Not migratory.
SE'DIMEWT.— fr. lat. sedeo, I sit. That
which subsides, or settles to the
bottom of any liquid ; dregs.
SEDIMENTARY. — Belonging or relat-
ing to sediment.
SE'GMEXT. — A section ; a part cut
off.
SEGREGA'TA. — fr. lat. segregatus, se-
Name of an order of
An order
12
3H
pirated.
plants.
SELACHI i. — fr. gr. selachos.
of cartilaginous fishes.
SELE'NITE. — fr. gr. selene, the rroon ;
from its silvery appearance. A
variety of gypsum, or sulphate of
lime.
SELLA. — Lat. A saddle.
SEMI. — A prefix, denoting a half.
SEMT-AMPLE'XICAUL.~ Half stem-era
bracing.
134
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
SEMIBIVA'LVULAR. — Half divided
into two valves.
SEMICOR'DATE. — Half heart-shaped
SEMICOR'NEOUS. — fr. lat. semi, half
cornu, horn. Half or partly horny
in its nature.
SEMICRY'STALXIUE. — Partly crystal
line.
SEMILU'WAR. — In shape of a half
moon.
SE'MINAI.. — Belonging to the seed
Seminal leaves are the first leaves
of a plant, or those formed from
the cotyledons.
SEMIXA'TIOX. — Seeding.
SE'MINULES. — Diminutive seeds.
SEMIORBI'CULAR. — In shape of a
half globe.
SEMIPELLU'CII). — Somewhat pellu-
cid, or shining.
SE'MITIC. — Applied to the languages
of the descendants of Sem, or the
Orientals.
SUMNOPITHECUS. — fr. gr. semnos, ve-
nerable ; pithekos, a monkey. Ge-
neric name of the -'slow monkey."
SEMPER' VIRENS. — Lat. Persistent;
evergreen.
SENSE. — The faculty of receiving
impressions from external objects.
SENSIBILIT*. — The ability or faculty
of receiving impressions from sur-
rounding objects, and being con-
scious of them.
SE'PAL. — That part of the calyx of
a flower which resembles a leaf.
SE'PIA. — Lat. A cuttle-fish. A kind
of paint made from this animal.
A genus of cephalopods.
SEPTA — Lat. plur. of septum. The
partitions that divide the interior
of the fruit.
SEPTA'RIA. — Flattened balls of stone,
which have been more or less
cracked in different directions and
cemented together by mineral
matter which fills the fissures.
SEPTICI'DAL fr. lat. septum, a divi-
sion ; ccedo, I cut. Applied to
that kind of dehiscence of fruits
in which the septa separate, each
into two lamina?.
SEPTI'FEROCS. — Bearing septa
SE'PTIFOHM. — fr. lat. septum, a parti-
tion. In the shape of a parti-
tion.
SEPTI'FRAGAL. — fr. lat. septum, a di-
vision ; frago, I break. Applied
to that kind of dehiscence of
fruits, in which the backs of the
carpels separate from the septa,
which adhere to the axis.
SEPTUM. — Lat. A partition.
SERIA'LE'. — Lat. fr. seria, a jar. Jar-
like.
SERI'CEOUS — Silky.
SEROTI'NUS. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to the evening.
SERPEJTTA'RIUS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to serpents. Specific name
of the secretary or serpent bird.
SERPE'NTIA. — Systematic name of a
family of ophidians.
SERPENTI'NA. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to a serpent.
SER'PENTINE. — A magnesian rock of
various colours and often speckled
like a serpent's back. It is gene-
rally dark green.
SER'PULA. — fr. lat. serpo, I creep. A
genus of anneli'dans which inha-
bit a calcareous tube, usually ad-
herent to the shells of mollusks.
SER'RATE. ) fr. lat. serra, a saw.
SER'RATED. £ Having a rough edge
like the teeth of a saw.
SERRICOR'XES. — fr. lat. serra, a saw ;
cornu, a horn. A family of coleop-
terous insects.
SE'RRCLATEI). — Very minutely ser-
rated.
SERRULA'TIOXS. — Notchings, like
saw-teeth.
SER'TULUM. — A simple umbel.
SES'SILE. — fr. lat. sessilis, dwarfish.
Without a pedicle or support.
SE'TA. — Lat. A bristle.
SE'T;E. — Lat. plur. of seta.
SETA'CEOUS. — Resembling a bristle
in shape. Of the nature of setae.
SETA'CEO-ACU'MINATE. — Applied to
leaves which terminate in a
bristle-like point, (fig. 24, p. 2f;
Book vii
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
135
SETA'CEO-ROSTRATE.— Having a beak
with the figure of a bristle.
SETI'FKROUS. — Bearing bristles.
SETIFORM. — Formed like a bristle.
SETI'GKROUS. — Having or bearing
seUe.
SETOSE. — Bristly; covered with bris-
tles.
SETO'SUS. — Lat. Bristly.
SHAFT. — A cylindrical hollow space,
or pit, in mines, made for the pur-
pose of extracting ores, &e.
SHALE. — An indurated slaty clay, or
clay-slate.
SHEATH. — In botany, the lower part
of a leaf that surrounds the stem.
SHINGLE.— Loose, water-worn gravel
and pebbles on the sea-shore.
SHOOTS. Slips. Branches from
which gardeners cause adventi-
tious roots to grow, and which
they afterwards separate from
the parent plant, (p. 63, Book vii).
SHRUB. — A plant with a woody
stem, which branches out nearer
the ground than a tree, and is
usually smaller.
SIER'RA. — Sp. A mountain chain.
SIGARE'TCS. — A genus of gastero-
pods.
SIGILLA'RIA. — fr. lat. sigillum, a seal.
Fossil plants found in the coal
formation.
SI'LEX. — fr. gr. chalis, a pebble. The
principal constituent of quartz,
rock-crystal, flint, and other silice-
ous minerals.
SI'LICA. — Siliceous earth ; the oxide
of silicon (the elemt?ntary basis of
silica), constituting almost the
whole of silex or flint. It com-
bines with many of the metallic
oxides, and is hence sometimes
called silicic acid.
SI'LICATE. — A compound of silicic
acid and a base; silicate of iron
is a compound of silicic acid and
oxide of iron ; plate-glass and win-
dow-glass are silicates of soda and
potassa, and flint-glass is a similar
compound with a large addition
of silicate of lead.
SILICATED. — In botany, coated or
mixed with flint.
SILI'CEOUS.— Containing silica: flinty.
SILI'CIFIKD. — Petrified or mineral-
ized by siliceous earth.
SILI'CCLA. ) Dimin. of siliqua. A
SILICCLO'SA. £ silicle. The small
round pod of cruciferae.
SI'LIQ.UA. — Lat. A pod.
SILIQ.UE. — The long taper pod of
cruciferae.
SILIQ.UA'RIA. — fr. lat. siliqua, a pod.
A genus of gasteropoda tubuli-
braiK-hiata.
Sri.iQ.uosK. — Having siliques.
SILT. — The name given to the sand,
clay, and earth which accumulate
in running waters.
SILU'RI. — Lat. plur. of silurus.
SILU'RIAN STSTEM.-A series of rocks
formerly known as the greywacke
series. So called after the Silures
or Siluri, the ancient Britons who
inhabited the region where these
strana are most distinctly deve-
loped. They are entirely of ma-
rine origin.
SILURUIUES. — fr. gr. tiloitrns, name
of a particular fish ; vidot, resem-
blance. Systematic name of a
family of fishes.
SILU'RUS. — Lat. Name of a fish.
SILVA. — A forest or woods.
SI'MIA. — Lat. A monkey.
SIMPLE. — In botany, not divided,
branched, or compounded.
SIMPLE MINERAL. — A term applied
to individual mineral substances,
as distinguished from rocks, which
are aggregates of minerals.
SINA'PIS. — Lat. Mustard.
SINE'NSIS. — Lat. Chinese; belong-
ing or relating to China
SI'NISTER. — The left.
SINTER. — Ger. A scale. Calcare-
ous sinter is a variety of carbonate
of lime composed of successive
concentric layers. Siliceous sinter
is a variety of common opal.
SINUA'TA.- Lat. Hollow, excavated.
SI'NUATE. > fr. lat. sinus, a bay or
SI'XUOSE. £ CAvily. Having a w»vy
136
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
margin, produced by alternations
of projecting lobes and indenta-
tions. (Jig. 32, p. 37. Book vii).
SINUA'TO-DKNTATE. Sinuate and
toothed.
STN'UOUS. — Relating or belonging to
a sinus. Partaking of the nature
of a sinus.
SINUO'SITY. — A hollow ; an irregu-
lar, winding excavation or hollow.
SI'NUS. — Lat. A bay, or recess. A
groove or cavity. In anatomy,
any cavity, the interior of which
is more expanded than the en-
trance; in this respect, being the
reverse of fossa. Venous sinus is
a venous canal into which a num-
ber of vessels empty
SI'PHON — fr. gr. siphon, a lube. A
sucker. A cylindrical canalj per-
forating the partitions of multilo-
cular shells. A hydraulic instru-
ment used for emptying liquids
from one vessel into another, with-
out disturbing the mass of the
liquid.
SIPHONA'RIA. — fr. gr. siphon, a tube.
An order of cephalopods.
SIPHONO'STOMOUS. — fr. gr. siphon, a
tube; sloma, a mouth. Applied
to animals which have a tube-
like or suctorial mouth.
SIPKU'NCLE. — A small siphon. A
cylindrical canal perforating the
partitions in polythalamous shells.
SIPHU'NCULUS. — Lat. A siphuncle.
SIPC'NCULUS. — fr. lat. sipo, siponis, a
tube. A siponcle. A genus of
radiate animals which dwell in
mud and sand near the sea. One
species of this mud-worm is eaten
by the Chinese.
SIREN, or STRKN. — fr. gr. seira, a
chain, from the supposed strength
of its charms. A fabulous mon-
ster. Name of a kind of batra-
chian.
SITTA. — fr. gr. sitto, I cry. Generic
name of the nuthatches.
SKELETON. — fr. gr. skdlo, I dry. The
aggregate of the hard parts of the
body, or the bones.
SKIN. — The dense, elastic mem-
brane, which envelopes the body.
It consists of three layers or lami-
nae; the derma, the epidermis, and
rete mucosum, the last being situate
between the other two. The co-
lour of the different races of men
depends upon the colour of this
rete mucosum (mucous net) ; the
other two layers being alike or
nearly so, in the whole human
family.
SLAG. — The glassy compounds pro-
duced during the reduction of
metallic ores, by means of mixes.
SLATE. — A well known rock, which
is divisible into thin plates or
layers.
SMARA'GD — fr. gr. smaragdos, green.
A name for the emerald.
SMELTING. — The reduction of me-
tallic ores, for the purpose of ex-
tricating the pure metal.
SNOW-LIKE. — That limit of elevation
in every latitude at which the air
attains the temperature of freez-
ing water.
SO'BOLKS. — A kind of stem ; a slen-
der stem of certain plants, which
creeps horizontally below the sur-
face of the earth, emitting roots
and new plants at intervals.
SOBOLI'FEROUS. — Producing young
plants from the root.
SODDENED. — Soaked.
SOIL. — The external thin layer of
earth in which plants grow, com
posed of fragments of minerals,
vegetables and animals, reduced
to a great degree of tenuity.
SO'IAU — fr. lat. sol, the sun. Be-
longing or relating to ihe sun.
SOLA'NE;E. — From Solanum. Name
of a family of plants.
SOLA'NUM.— Lat. Nightshade.
SOLA'RIUM. — Lat. A sun-dial. A
genus of the family of trochoides.
(p. 46, Book v).
SOLK/A. — Lat. A sole.
SOLEMT'A. — A genus of mollusks of
the family of inclusa. (p. 86.
Book v).
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
137
SO'LEW. — fr. gr. solen, a tube. A ge-
nus of acephalous mollusks. (p.
86, Book v).
SOLFATA'HA. — It. A volcanic vent
emitting sulphur and sulphurous
compounds, (p. 115, Book viii).
SOLIPKDE. — fr. lat. solidus, solid ; pes,
a foot. The term is applied to
those animals that have but one
hoof on each foot, as the horse.
S«»MMA. — It. Certain volcanic crests
about Mount Vesuvius, (p. 103,
Book viii).
SOMATK'IUA. — Systematic name of
the eider.
SOMNI'FERUM. — fr. lat. somnus, sleep;
fero, I bear. Sleep-inducing. Spe-
cific name of a poppy.
SOREDI'FEROUS. — Bearing soredia.
SORKX. — Lat. A shrew, or field-rat.
SORI. — Soredia. The patches of fruc-
tification on the back of the fronds
of ferns.
SO'ROSK. 7 fr. gr. soros, a heap. A
'ROSE. ~) fr. gr.
RO'SIS. 3 forn
SORO'SIS. 5 form of fruit consisting
of a juicy spike or raceme, hav-
ing all its ovaria and floral enve-
lopes cohering into a single mass,
as the pine-apple, mulberry, &c.
SO'RUS. — fr. gr. soros, a heap. The
botanical term for each cluster
of sporuliferous thecEe developed
on the under surface of the fronds
of ferns.
SPA'DIX. — A form of inflorescence
in which the flowers are arranged
around a fleshy rachis, and en-
closed within a kind of bract,
called a spathe, as in palms.
SPALAX. — The name of a species of
rodentia.
SPAR. — (Ger. Spath.^) Applied to
certain crystallized mineral sub-
stances, which easily break into
cubic, prismatic, or oilier forms.
SPAR'RY. — Of the nature of spar.
SPARSE. — fr. lat. sparsus, scattered.
SPAROIUES. — fr. lat. sparus, a kind of
fish, and Gr. eitfas, resemblance.
Systematic name of a family of
fishes.
SPA'HTIUM. — Lat. Broom.
12*
3H2
SPA'RUS. — Lat. Name of a kind of
fish ; a dart.
SPATA'NGUS. — fr. gr. spataggos, a spe-
cies of echinus. A genus of sea-
urchins, having the mouth situated
laterally, and but four rows of
pores.
SPATIIA. — A broad sheathing leaf,
enclosing flowers arranged upon
a spadix.
SPATHA'CEOUS. — Furnished with a
spatha.
SPA'THE. — Gr. a ladle. A form of
involucre. A sheathing calyx
opening lengthwise on one side,
and consisting of one or more
valves, as in the oniun.
SPA'THULATE. ) fr. lat. aputhula, a
SPA'TULATE. £ sort of slice or
broad knife. Rounded and broad
at one end, and becoming narrow
like a battledore or spatula. A
form of leaf. (Jig. 44, p. 40, Book
vii).
SPATULA'RIA. — Systematic name of
a kind of sturgeon.
SPE'CIES. — A kind ; a subdivision
of genus. Extinct species is a
term applied to those kinds of
organized beings, whether plants
or animals, which are not fount.1
living upon the face of the earth.
SPECIFC. — Relating or belonging to
species.
SPECIFIC WEIGHT, or SPECIFIC GRA-
VITY.— The relative weight of
one body with that of another of
equal volume.
SPECIO'SA. } Lat. Handsome. A
SPECIO'SUM:. > word used as a spe-
SpEcio'srs. ) cific name.
SPECTA'BILIS. Lat. Visible, re-
markable, notable.
SPE'CULAR. — fr. lat. speculum, a look-
ing-glass. Applied to minerals
which have a smooth, brilliant
surface, which reflects light. Spe-
cular iron is a kind of iron ore of
granular structure, and metallic
lustre, sometimes shining.
SPERMATOCTSTI'DIUM. — fr. gr. sper~
ma, a seed ; kustis, a bladder In
138
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
botany, the male organ of mosses :
it is a pedunculated oblong sac,
containing a fluid mixed with a
granular pulp, which is discharged
with some force from the sac on
the application of water.
SPERMATO'PHOHA. — fr. gr. sperma, a
seed ; phoro, to carry. The mov-
ing filaments ; cylindrical sheaths
in the cephalopods which contain
the sperma.
SPERMA TO zo' A. — fr. gr. sperma, a
seed 5 ZOOM, an animal. Animal-
cules found in animals, and also
in cryptogamic plants.
SPE'RAIODEIIM. — fr. gr. sperma, seed ;
derma, skin. Seed-covering; the
external membrane of the seed
of plants.
SPHA'CELATE. — In botany, withered
or dead.
SPJRNO'PTKHIS -fr. sr. sphen, a wedge;
ptcris, a fern. A genus of fossil
plants.
SPHJSHE'NCHTMA. — fr. gr. sphaira, a
sphere ; egchuma, anything poured
in. Merenchyma, The spherical
variety of the parenchyma in
plants.
SPHA'LERO-CA'HPIUM. — fr. gr. sphale-
ros, delusive; karpos, fruit. Nux
baccaia. An indehiscent, one-
seeded pericarp, enclosed within
a fleshy perianth.
SPHENOID. — fr. gr. sphen, a wedge;
eidos, resemblance. A bone, situ-
ate on the middle line, and at the
base of the cranium. It articu-
lates with all the other bones of
the cranium, and strengthens their
union, acting very much like the
key-stone of an arch.
SPHE'NOPHY'LLITES. — fr. gr. sphen,
wedge ; phullon, leaf; lilhos, stone.
A family of fossil plants.
SPHEHOI'DAL. — Resembling a sphere
or globe.
SPHE'RULA. — Lat. A little sphere.
The globose peridium of some fun-
gaceous plants, having a central
opening through which sporidia
are emitted, mixed with a gelati
nous pulp.
SPHE'RCLES. — Minute spheres.
SPHE'HULITF.S. — fr. gr. sphaira, a
sphere ; lithos, a stone. A variety
of obsidian or pearlstone which
occurs in rounded grains.
SPICA'TA. — Lat. Having spikes;
eared like corn.
SPIKE. — An assemblage of axillary
flowers arranged on a simple
axis. This form of inflorescence
differs from a raceme only in hav-
ing its flowers sessile.
SPIKE'LET. — Locusta. A little spike.
SPI'NAL. — Belonging or relating to
the spine.
SPINE. — The back bone. In botany,
a thorn, or small conical projection,
consisting of a hardened branch,
sometimes bearing leaves. It con-
tains woody fibre in its structure,
and in this, differs from the prickle.
SPISTE'LLE, or SPINB'I.. — Fr. A sub-
species of ruby.
SpiNi-CEHEBRA'TA.-Dr. Grant's name
for those Vertebrata which have a
spinal marrow and brain, pro-
tected by a vertebral column and
cranium.
SPI'NIFOIOI:. — Formed like a spine.
SPIN'NERETS. — Spinners. The arti-
culated, tubes or organs with
which insects spin their silk, or
web.
SPINO'SA. ) Lat. Spinous; covered
SPINO'SUM. £ with spines.
SPI'NOUS. } Covered with thorn-
SPI'NULOSE. > like processes or
SPI'NT. } spines.
SPINULE'SCENT.— In botany, having a
tendency to produce small spines.
SPI'RACLE.— fr. lat. spirare, to breathe.
A breathing-hole or nostril in
aquatic animals. Spiracles are ilia
breathing-holes of insects.
SPI'RAL. — Twisted like a corkscrew.
Circularly involved. Spiral ves-
sels are long cylindrical tubes,
which constitute the vascular tis-
sue of plants.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
139
SPIRE. — All the whorls of univalve
shells, except the one in which
the aperture is situated, which is
termed the body.
SPI'RIFER. — A genus of brachiopod
mollusks. (fig. 11, p. 30, Book viii).
SPIRIGXA'THA. — fr. gr. speira, a spi-
ral ; gnat has , a jaw. In entomo-
logy, a filiform ligula or tongue,
used as an organ of suction ; when
at rest it may be rolled up. It is
observed in the sphynx, or hawk-
moth.
SPLEEN. — One of the organs of the
abdomen, the precise use of which
is not known.
SPOXGELET. i fr. lat. spongiola, a little
SPONGI'OLE. \ sponge. The ab-
sorbing extremity of the fibril of
a root, consisting of extremely
lax cellular tissue and mucus.
SPON'DTLUS. — fr. gr. spondulos, a ver-
tebra. A genus of bivalves, in
which the teeth of the hinge lock
into each other, like the vertebras
of the spine.
SPORANGIUM. — fr. gr.spora, a spore;
aggeion, a vessel. The theca or
ease which contains the spores of
cryptogam ic plants.
SPORES. — The seeds of lichens, and
cryptogamous plants.
SPORI'DIA. — Granules resembling
sporules.
SPOIU'FKROCS. — fr. gr. spora, a spore ;
and Lat. fero, I bear. Bearing
spores.
SPO'RULES. Diminutive spores ;
parts in cryptogamic plants which
correspond to the seeds in other
plants.
SponuLi'rERous. — Bearing sporules.
SPUMA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. spuma, foam.
Foamy.
SPUR. — Calcar. In botany, a petal
which is lengthened at the base
into a hollow tube ; any horn-like
process formed by a flower.
SQ.UA'LI. — Lat. plnr. of squalus.
SUUA'LIDES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.
SQUA'LUS. — Lat. A shark.
SQ.UA'MA. — Lat. A scale. In
any kind of bract which has a
scaly appearance.
SQ.UA'MIFORM. — Scale-like.
SQ.UA'>IOSE. — fr. lat. squama, a scale
Soaly.
Sq.UAMiPE'xxES. — fr. lat. squama, a
scale ; penna, a feather. Syste-
matic name of a family of spiny-
finned fishes.
SQ.UAR'ROSE. ) In botany, applied to
SQ.UAR'ROUS. £ parts which are
spread out at right-angles from a
common axis.
SQ.UAR'ROSE-SLASHED. — Applied to
leaves slashed with minor divi-
sions at right -angles with the
other divisions.
STALA'CTITES.— fr. gr. stalasso. I drop.
Conical concretions of carbonate
of lime attached to the roofs of
calcareous caverns, and formed,
by the gradual dropping of water
holding the carbonate in solution.
STALA'OMITES. — fr. gr. stalagmos, a
dropping. S't'alactical formations
of carbonate of lime, found on
the floors of calcareous caverns.
STA'MEN. — Lat. The male appara-
tus of a flower.
STA'MINA. — Lat. plur. of stamen.
STA'MIXATE. — Having stamens, but
no pistils.
STAMisA'cEous.-Straw-libe ; straw-
coloured.
STAMINI'DIA. — Small stamen-like or-
gans occurring in some cryptc.^Ji-
mous plants.
STAMINI'FEROUS. — Producing stami-
na.
STAXDARD. — Vexillum. The upper,
erect, and expanded petal of a
papilionaceous flower.
STAPES. — Lat. A stirrup. The in-
nermost of the small bones of the
ear, so called because it resem-
bles a stirrup.
STARCH. — Fccula ; aniylin. A vege-
table substance which exists in
many tuberous roots, the stalks of
palms, and in the seeds of *.h<»
cereal grasses.
140
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
STATION. — Habitat. In botany, f
term used to denote the peculiar
nature of the locality where each
species of plants is accustomed
to grow.
STAU'ROTIDE. — fr. gr. xtauros, a cross ;
eidos, form. Cross-stone. Prisma-
tic garnet. It is very abundant
in New England.
STI:V AS. — Lat. Stars.
STEL-A'TE. — fr. lat. Stella, a star.
Star-shaped.
STE'LLATED. — Consisting of star-like
figures.
STEL'LIO. — Lat. A kind of saurian.
STEI/LUI.ATE. Resembling little
stars.
STEM.— A general supporter of leaves,
flowers and fruits.
STEMLESS. — In botany, having no
stem properly so called, but only
a scape.
STEM'MULE. — A little stem.
STEP'PE. — Fr., formed fr. lat. stipes,
a landmark. Aterm applied to
the Savanahs of Tartary, of the
Crimea, &c., and salt deserts of
Northern Asia.
STERNA. — Systematic name of the
terns or sea-swallows.
STERNAL. — Belonging or relating to
the sternum.
STERNUM. — fr. gr. sterros, solid. The
breast bone.
STERILE. — Barren.
STI'GMA. — The superior terminating
part of the pistil: the female or-
gan of a flower.
STIGMA'RIA. — fr. gr. stigma, an im-
pression. A vegetable fossil. (Jig.
47, p. 43, Book viii).
STIGMA'TA. — Lat. plur. of stigma.
The spiracles or breathing-holes,
which form the external openings
of the tracheae or air-vessels, in
insects.
STI'MULANS. — Lat. Pricking, irri-
tating.
STI'MULI. — Lat. plur. of stimulus.
In botany, stings; stinging hairs.
STIPE. — The stem of endogenous
trees j the stalk which supports,
the pileus of mushrooms, (fig
12, p. 22, Book vii). Also, thi
stem of the down of seeds; the
stalk of germs, seeds, &c., which
is superadded to the pedicel.
STI'PELLATE. — Having stipules or
stipelles.
STI'PULE. — fr. lat. stipula, the husk
of straw. Stipelle. A small leaf-
like organ, attached to the base of
the petiole of the leaf in many
plants, (fig. 16, p. 33, Book vii).
STI'PITATE. Stalked ; furnished
with a stipe. The term does not
apply to the petiole of a leaf, or
to the peduncle of a flower.
STIPULA'CEOUS. — Having stipules.
STI'PULAR. — Belonging to stipules.
STI'PULARY. — Occupying the place
of stipules.
STOLE. — fr. lat. stolo, a shoot or scion.
A kind of branch which differs
from the soboles or sticker in pro-
ceeding from the stem above the
surface of the earth, into which
it afterwards descends and tanes
root.
STOLONI'FEROUS. — Having creeping
roots or stoles.
STOLONS. — Root-shoots.
STO'MATA. ) fr. gr. stoma, a mouth.
STO'MATE. £ In botany, an oval
space, lying between the sides of
the cells in the epidermis of
plants, and opening into a cavity
in the subjacent tissue, (fig. 5, p.
14, Book vii).
STHA'TA. — Lat. plur. of stratum.
STRATI FICA'TION. — An arrangement
in beds or layers.
STRA'TIFIED. — Arranged in strata.
STRA'TCJM. — Lat. A bed, a layer.
STRA'TCS — A fall-cloud : it consists
of horizontal layers, and includes
fogs and mists; its under surface
usually rests upon the land or sea,
and it is therefore the lowest of
the clouds.
STRI'A. — Lat. In the plural stria.
A diminutive channel or create.
STRIJE. — Lat. Diminutive channels
or creases.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
141
STRTA'TA. — Lat. Striated ; marked
with striae.
STRI'ATKD. — Scored, or covered with
fine thread-like lines. Streaked.
STRIG.B. — In botany, little, rigid, un-
equal, irregular hairs.
STRI'GOSE. — fr. lat. strigosus, scraggy.
Hispid. Applied to a surface co-
vered with sljarp, appressed, rigid
hairs.
STRUCK. — The direction of strata ;
the line of bearing, (p. 185, Book
viii).
STRIX. — Lat. An owl.
STRO'BIIE. — Cone. An amentiform
fruit, the carpels of which are
scale-like, spread open, and bear
naked seeds.
STRO'MA. — A fleshy body occurring
in fungaceous plants, to which
flocci are attached.
STHO'MBUS. — Lat. In Gr. strombos.
a shell-fish. A genus of gastero-
pods.
STRO'PHIOL^. — Carunculce. Irregu-
lar protuberances sometimes oc-
curring about the umbilicus of
seeds.
STROPH'IOLATE.— Surrounded by pro-
tuberances.
STRUMA. — Bourrelct. A dilatation
of the petiole of a leaf, at the ex-
tremity where it is connected
with the lamina. A wen ; a pro-
tuberance.
STRU'MOSE. ) Covered with strumse
STRU'MOUS. £ or protuberances.
STHU'THEOUS. — Of the nature of an
ostrich.
STRU'THIO. — fr.gr. stroulhion, an os-
trich. Systematic name of the
ostrich.
STU'FAS. — Jets of steam issuing from
fissures in volcanic regions, at a
temperature often above the boil-
ing point.
STU'RIO.— Lat. The common stur-
geon.
STURIO'NES.— Systematic name of an
order of fishes. The sturgeon-
tribe.
STU'RNUS. — Lat. A starling.
STTLE. — That part of the pistil be-
tween the stigma and ovary.
STTLET. — Dimin. of style. A slen
der process or needle-like projec-
tion of bone.
STY'LIFORM. — In shape of a style.
STTLOID. — fr. gr. stulos, a style, a
peg, a pin ; eidos, resemblance,
shape. Shaped like a peg or pin.
STYLOSTE'GIUM. fr. gr. stule, a
style; stego, to cover closely. Or-
biculus. Corona. A peculiar ap-
pendage of the petals of certain
plan-ts.
SUB. — Lat. Under. A prefix de-
noting beneath, somewhat.
SUB'ACUTE. — Somewhat acute.
SUBA'PEXNINE. — Applied to a por-
tion of the pliocene strata. Low
hills which border the Apennines.
SUBAR'CUATED. — Somewhat arched.
SUBBRA'CHIAX. — Applied to fishes of
the order of subbrachiati.
SUBBRACHIA'TI. — fr. lat.swft, beneath ;
brachium, arm. Applied to an or-
der of fishes that have the ven-
tral beneath the pectoral fins, that
is, the arms.
SUBBU'TEO. — fr. lat. sub, under, next,
after ; buteo, a kind of hawk. Spe-
cific name of a falcon.
SUBCAU'DAL. — fr. lat. sub, under;
cauda, tail. Applied to that which
is beneath the tail.
SUBCLA'TIAN. — fr. lat. sub, under;
clavis, the clavicle. That which
is under the clavicle.
SUBCO'XIC. — Somewhat conical.
SUBCUTA'JTKOUS — fr lat. sub, under;
cutis, the skin. That which is
under the skin.
SUBDI A'PHANOUS — Somewhat trans
parent.
Su'BERosE.-fr. lat. suber, cork. Corky ;
having a texture like cork.
SUBLI'NGUAI. — fr. lat. sub, under;
lingua, the tongue. That which
is under the tongue.
SUBLIMA'TIOW. The process by
which volatile substances are
raised by heat, and again con-
densed into th? solid form. Th*
142
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
substances so obtained are called
sublimates.
SUBMARINE. — Beneath tbe sea.
SUBMA'XILLARY. — fr. lat. sub, under
maxilla, jaw. That which is be
neath the jaw.
SUBME'RGED. — Immersed or covered
by water.
EuBffi'sopHAGEAi.. — Placed beneath
the oesophagus.
SUBOPER'CULUM. — The most inferior
of the three pieces of the opercu-
lum or gill-cover of fishes.
SUBPLICA'TA. Lat. Sorhewhat
plaited.
SCB'ROTUITD. — Nearly globular.
SUBSES'SILE. — Nearly sessile.
SUBSER'RATE. — Slightly serrate.
SUBSOIL. — An under soil.
SUBSTRA'TA. — Lat. plur. of substra-
tum.
SUBSTRA'TUM. — An under-layer or
bed.
SUBTERRA'NEOUS — In botany, grow-
ing and flowering under ground.
SUB'ULATE. — Awl-shaped. (Jig. 18,
p. 34, Book vii).
SUCCI'NKA. — fr. lat. succinum, amber.
A genus of gasteropods, so called
from the transparent texture, and
amber-colour of the shell.
SUC'CULENT. — Juicy.
Suc/cus. — Lat. The sap.
SucKER.-Swrcu/tts. Soboles. A branch
M'hich proceeds from the neck of
a plant beneath the surface of the
ground, and becomes erect as
soon as it emerges from the earth,
producing leaves and branches,
and subsequently roots.
SUCTO'HIAL. — fr. lat. sugo, I suck.
Applied to those tribes of in-
sects, crustaceans and annelidans,
which are provided with suckers.
SUFFHUTEX. — An under shrub.
SUFFRU'TICOSE. — Shrubby in a slight
degree.
SULA. — fr. gr. sula, plunder, booty.
Generic name of the boobies.
SULCA'TA. ") Lat. Sulcate ; grooved
SULCA'TUS. 5 or furrowed.
SU'LCATED. — Furrowed.
Su'ici. — Lat. plur of sulcus.
SU'LCUS. — Lat. A furrow; a ridge.
SULPHATISA'TION. — The act of con-
verting into compounds contain-
ing sulphur.
SULPHU'RIC. ") Relating to sulphur.
SULPHU'ROUS. 5 Applied to acids
composed of sulphur and oxygen.
SUL'PHURET. — A compound of sul-
phur with another solid.
SUI/PHURETTED. — Containing sul-
phur; as hydrogen, containing
sulphur, is called sulphuretted hy-
drogen.
SU'MMIT. — The tip or apex.
SU'PEHFICIES. — fr. lat. super, above;
fades, face. The surface.
SUPE'RFLUA. — Lat. Superfluous.
SUPERXA'TAWT. — Floating on the
surface of anything.
SUPER-O'VART — Applied to flowers
which have the perianth and sta-
mens above the ovary.
SUPERPO'SED. — fr. lat. super, upon ;
pono, I place. One lying upon or
placed on another.
SUPRACRETA'CEOTS. — fr. lat. supra,
above ; creta, chalk. Applied to
certain rocks or strata which are
situated above the chalk.
SUPRA-DECOMPOUND. Doubly de-
compounded. Many times sub-
divided.
SUR'CULOSE. — fr. lat. surculus, a suck-
er. Producing numerous suckers.
SURMULOT. — Fr. Name of a kind
of large rat.
SURMULUS. — Lat. A surmullet.
Sus. — Lat. A hog, a sow.
SU'RCULI. — Lat. plur. Young shoots.
SUTURE. — fr. lat. suo, I stitch. A
seam or line of junction. In anato-
my, a kind of immoveable articu-
lation or joint, in which the bones
unite by means of serrated edges,
which are, as it were, dovetailed
into each other. The articulations
of the bones of the cranium are
of this kind. In conchology, the
seam, or fine spiral line which se-
parates the whorls or wreaths of
a spiral shell. In botany, the
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
.43
line of junction of the two valves
of a seed-vessel.
SYCHNOCAR'POUS. — ft. gr. suchnos, fre-
quent; Ararpos, fruit. Polyrarpous.
Applied to plants which bear
fruit many times without perish-
ing.
SY'CONE. — fr. gr. sukon, a fig. A form
of fruit.
SYENITE and SIETTITE. — A granitic
rock from Syene or Siena, in Egypt.
It consists of quartz, feldspar and
hornblende. It is tougher than
granite, and a more durable build-
ing stone.
STL'VIA. — Generic name of certain
warblers.
STLVA'TICUS. — Lat. Sylvan. Wild.
SYMME'TIUCAL — fr. gr. sun, with;
metron, measure. A term applied
to those parts of the body, which,
if seated on the middle line, may
be divided into two equal, and
perfectly like halves: or which,
if situate — the one to the right
and the other to the left of this
line — have a similar conforma-
tion, and a perfectly analogous
arrangement.
Sri*. — fr. gr. sun, with. A prefix
denoting with, together.
SYNANTHE'REJE. — fr. gr. sun, with ;
anthos, flower. Name of a family
of plants.
SYNCAR'PIUM — fr. gr. sun, with ; kar-
pos, fruit. A union of fruits. An
aggregate fruit, in which the ova-
ries cohere into a solid mass, with
a slender receptacle.
SYNTA'RPOUS. — fr. gr. tun, with ; kar~
pos, fruit. Applied to fruits form-
ed of several carpels.
SYXCLI'NAL. — fr. gr. sun, with ; kli-
nein, to incline. In. geology, syn-
clinal axis is where strata incline
towards each other, and is the re-
verse of the anteclinal axis, in
which the strata incline from each
other, like the two sides of the
roof of a house, (p. 160, Book
viii).
SYN'COPE. — fr.gr. sugkopto, I fall
down. Fainting; complete loss
of sensation and motion, with
considerable diminution or entire
suspension, of the pulsations of
the heart and the movements of
respiration. Hence, syncope re-
sembles deatfe.
STNDA'CTTLE. — fr. gr. sun, together;
daktulos, toe. Having the toes
joined. Systematic name of a
family of passerine birds.
SYNDA'CTYLOUS. — Having the toes
in part or entirely united.
SYUGENE'SIA. — fr. gr. sun, together ;
geinomai, to grow. Name of a
Linncean class of plants.
SYNGENE'SIOUS. — fr. gr. sun, with ;
genesis, growth. Synantherous. Ap-
plied to the anthers of plants
which grow together by their
margins.
SY'NONYM. — Another name for the
same thing.
SYNO'PSIS.— fr. gr. sun, with, together;
optomai, 1 see. That which is
seen at a glance or at one view.
STNO'PTICAL. — Belonging or relating
to a synopsis. Partaking of the
nature of a synopsis.
SYXO'VIA. — fr. gr. sun, with; don, an
egg. The lubricating fluid of the
• joints, which enables the surfaces
of the bones and tendons to glide
smoothly over each other.
SY'PHOJ*. — fr. gr. siphon, a tube. A
bent tube, one leg or branch of
which is longer than the other,
ussd for transferring liquids from
one vessel to another.
STPHO'STOMA — fr. gr. siphon, a tube ;
stoma, mouth. A genus of anne-
lidans.
SYR'NICM. — fr. gr. surnion, an owl.
Systematic name of the hooting
owls.
SYS'TEM. — fr. gr. sun, together^ iste-
mi, 1 place. An arrangement ac
cording to some plan or method.
SYSTEM OF UPHEAVAL. — An assem-
blage of upheavals on the same
line, and in parallel directions,
(pp. 189, 191, Book viii).
144
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
STSTOLE. — fr. gr. sustello, I contract.
The contraction of the heart, by
which it gives impulse to the
blood, or causes its progression in
the blood-vessels. It is opposed
to the diastole of this organ.
TABAC'CUM. — Lat. Tobacco.
TABASHEER. — Bamboo milk. Bam-
boo camphor. Bamboo salt. A si-
liceous substance found in the
joints of bamboo, sometimes fluid,
but generally in a concreted state.
TABLE-LAND. — An elevated plane.
A flat extended surface of land,
having a mountain-like elevation
above the level of the sea.
TABLE-LAYERS. — Pseudo-strata. In
geology, extended plates of rock
not divided into parallel la-
minae.
TA'BULAH. — In form of a table; ho-
rizontal : applied to fiat crystals.
TACHYDRO'MOUS.— fr.gr. tachus, swift;
dromos, a race. Having speed.
Applied to certain birds, insects,
and reptiles.
TACHTPE'TES. — fr. gr. tachus, swift ;
petomai, to fly. Systematic name
of the frigate bird.
TACT. — The sense which gives the
perception of touching. Touch is
active ; tact passive.
TACTILE SENSIBILITY. — The sensi-
bility which enables. us to per-
ceive impressions through the
means of the sense of touch.
TADPOLE. — fr. sax. tad, toad ; pola, a
young one. The young of the
batrachians are called tadpoles.
TJE'XIA. — fr. gr. tainia, a fillet. A
tape-worm.
TJBSTIOI'DES. — fr. lat. t<pnia, a ribbon,
and Gr. eidos, resemblance. Sys-
tematic name of a family of
fishes.
TAILS. — In botany, the long feathery
or hairy terminations of certain
fruits.
TALC. — A foliated magnesian mine-
ral of an unctuous feel, often used
for tracing lines on wood, cloth,
&c., which are not so easily effaced
as those of chalk.
TAL'COSE. — Of the nature of talc.
TALI'TRA. — A genus of crustaceans-
TALOX. — The claw of a bird of prey.
TAL'PA. — Lat. A mole.
TA'LUS. — A sloping heap of frag-
ments accumulated at the foot of
a steep rock.
TANA'GRA. — Systematic name of the
tanagers.
TAP-ROOT. — Fusiform. A kind of
root which consists of one fleshy
elongated centre, tapering to the
extremity.
TARA'NDTJS. — Lat. formed from Ta-
rande. The reindeer.
TAR'DA.— Lat. Slow, tardy.
TARDIGRA'DA. — fr. lat. tardus, slow :
gradus, a step. The systematic
name of the sloths.
TARDIGRADE. — Slow-stepping.
TAHA'NTULA. ) From Tarentum, a
TAREN'TULA. £ town in Italy. A
genus of arachnidans.
TAR'SI. — Lat. plur. of tarsus. The
articulated feet of insects which
are formed of five, or a less num-
ber of joints.
TAR'SCS. — fr. gr. tarsos, any row, the
sole of the foot. The posterior
part of the foot, which, in rnan,
consists of seven bones, and forms
the heel and instep. A thin plate
of cartilage seated in the sub-
stance of the free edge of each
eye-lid. The fifth section or di-
vision of the leg of insects, or
foot.
TARTA'REOUS. — Consisting of tartar.
TAHTA'RICA. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to Tartary.
TAU'RUS. — Lat. A bull.
TAXIDE'RMY. — fr. gr. taxis, an ar-
rangement ; derma, the skin. The
art of removing, mounting or sei
ting-up, and preserving the skins
of animals in life-like form, for
the cabinet or museum of the na-
turalist.
TAXIDE'RMIST. — One who practices
taxidermy.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
145
TAXO'XOMT. — fr. gr. taxis, an ar-
rangement; womos, a rule. The
methods of classifying plants.
TEARS. — The fluid secreted by the
lachrymal gland, and poured be-
tween the globe of the eye and
the eye-lids, to facilitate the mo-
tions of those parts.
TEATED. — In botany, resembling the
.figure of the nipple or teat of a
mammal.
TKCTIBRATTCHIA'TA. — fr. lat. tego, I
cover, and Gr. branchia, gills.
Name of an order of gastero-
pods.
TKC'TIFORM. — fr. lat. tectutn, roof of
a house ; /orma, form. Roof-
shaped.
TEC 'TRICES. — fr. lat. tego, I cover.
In ornithology, the coverts; small
feathers, which lie upon the wing-
bones, and cover the origin of the
quills, or great wing-feathers.
TEGENA'RIA. — fr. lat. tegere, to con-
ceal. A name applied to the fa-
mily of spiders.
TEGMEW. — Endophura. In botany,
the internal integument of the
seed: also, the glume of grasses.
TEG'MENTA.— Lat. plur. of tegmentwn,
a covering. In botany, the scales
of the bud.
TEO'UMENT. — fr. iat. tego, I cover. A
covering; the skin, for example.
TEGUME':NTART. — fr. lat. tegumen, a
covering. Belonging or relating
to the tegument or skin.
TELLI'NA. — fr. gr. idling a species
of mussel. A genus of acephalous
mollusks.
TEi/tiirjE. — Lat. plur. of tellina.
TEM'PERATURE. — A definite degree
of sensible heat.
TEM'PORAL. — fr. lat. tempus, time, the
temple, so called, it is said, be-
cause on this part, the hair begins
to turn white, and indicate age.
Belonging or relating to the tem-
ples. The temporal bone, is placed
at the lateral and lower part of
the skull, of which it forms a
part, and contains within it the
13 31
organs essential to the sense of
hearing.
TEITA'CITY. — The degree of force
with which the particles of bo-
dies cohere, or hold together.
TE'WAX. — Lat. Tenacious.
TKN'DINOUS. — Belonging to, or par-
taking of the nature of tendon.
TEN'UON. — fr. gr. teino-, I stretch.
Strong, white, fibrous cords, which
connect the muscles to the bones
which they move. The tendons
may be considered as so many
cords, for transmitting the motion
of the muscles to the bones, or
levers.
TEN'DRIL. — Cirrhus. Ji clasper. A
particular form of the petiole in
certain plants. A curling, twin-
ing organ, by which some plants
lay hold of others.
TEJT'TACLE. — fr. lat. tentaculum, a,
holder. Certain appendages about
the mouth of insects, &c.
TENTA'CULA. — fr. lat. tento, to feel.
Feelers: organs by which certain
animals attach themselves to sur-
rounding objects.
TENTA'CULAR. — Belonging or relat-
ing to tentacles.
TEXTA'CULUM. — Lat. A feeler.
TENCIRO'STRES. — fr. lat. tenuis, slen-
der ; rostrum, beak. Systematic
name of a family of passerine
birds.
TERCIITE. — In botany, the epidermis
of the nucleus of the ovule, when
it separates in the form of a third
covering or integument
TEREBE'I-LUM. — fr. lat. terebro, I bore.
A genus of gasteropod mollusks.
TEBEBI'NTHINATE. — Consisting of
turpentine.
TERE'BRA. — fr. lat. terebro, I bore
A genus of gasteropods.
TEREBRAN'TTA. — fr. lat. terebro, I
bore. A section of hymenopter-
ous insects.
TEREBRA'TING. — fr. lat. terebro, to
bore. Applied to testaceous ani-
mals which form the:r abode
within other substances.
146
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TXREBRA'TULA — Lat. A genus of
acephalous mollusks. (p. 89, Book
v).
TEREBRA'TITI.*. — Lat. plur. of tere-
bratula.
TERE'DIWES. — Lat. plur. of teredo.
TERE'DO. — Lat. A ship-worm.
TEHE'TE. — fr. lat. teret, round. Ta-
per, round and long.
TERGE'MIKATE. — In botany, a form
of leaf in which each of two se-
condary petioles bears towards
its summit one pair of leaflets,
and the common petiole bears a
third pair, at the origin of the two
secondary petioles.
TERIBEI/LA. — A genus of anneli-
dans.
TERRICO'LA. — fr. lat. terra, earth;
cote, I inhabit. A division of an-
nelidans.
TER'MIITAI,.— -Belonging to the end.
In botany, applied to flowers at
the extremity of the stem.
TERMI WO'IOGT. — fr. gr. terma, a term ;
logos, a description. Nomenclature.
An explanation or definition of the
technical terms of any science.
TJSR'MITES. — fr. lat termes, a branch
of a tree. A tribe of neuropter-
ous insects. White-Jlnts.
TER'WARY. — Relating to three.
TER'NATE. — fr. lat. ternus, three and
three. Growing together in threes.
A form of leaf in which three
leaflets arise from one petiole.
(fig. 59, p. 44, Book vii).
TERRA'RIUS. — Lat. A terrier dog.
TERRE'STRIA. — Lat. Terrestrial.
TERRX - JTOVJB. — Lat of Newfound-
land.
TER'TIART FORMA'TION, or STRATA.
— A series of sedimentary rocks
which lie above the primary and
secondary strata, and distinguish-
ed from them by their organic re-
mains. Tertiary System is a com-
prehensive term for ail the regu-
lar deposits newer than the chalk.
(p. 77, Book viii).
TE'SBELATED. — Chequered like a
chess-board.
TESSELA'TUS. — Lat. Tesselated.
TESTA. — Lat. A shell. In botany,
the integument of a seed. Sper
moderm.
TESTA'CEA. — fr. lat. testa, a shell.
An order of acephala covered
with a testaceous shell. ;
TESTA'CEA. — fr. lat. testa, a shell.
Testa 'ceans ; animals provided
with an external shelly cover,
composed chiefly of carbonate of
lime.
TESTACE'IXA. — A genus of snails,
(p. 39, Book v).
TESTA'CEOUS. — fr. lat. testa, a shell.
Consisting of carbonate of lime
and animal matter. In botany,
having a pale brown colour.
TESTU'DO. — Lat. Tortoise. A ge-
nus of reptiles of the order of
chelonians.
TESTumirA'RiA. — A tribe of chelo-
nian reptiles. '
TE'TRAX. — Gr. Systematic name of
the bustard.
TE'TR A BRANCH. — Having four bran-
chiae.
TETRABHAWCHIA'TA. — fr. gr. tetteres,
four; bragchia, gills. Name of
an order of gasteropods.
TETRACHO'TOMOUS. — fr. gr. tetteres,
four ; temno, to cut. Applied to
a stem that ramifies in fours.
TETRADTBTA'MIA. — Name of a Lin-
naean class of plants.
TETRADT'ITAMOUS. — fr. gr. tetteres,
four; dunamis, power. Applied
to plants having four long, and
two short stamens.
TE'TRAGO'JTA. — fr. gr. tetra, four ; go-
nos, angle. Having four angles ;
applied as a specific name.
TE'TRAGOXAI,. — Four cornered.
TETRAGT'NIA. — fr. gr. tetteres, four ;
gune, pistil. Name of an order
of plants.
TETRA'NDRIA. — fr. gr. tttteres, four ;
aner, stamen. Name of a ilass
of plants.
TETRA'WDROUS. — Relating to tetran-
dria. Having four stamens.
TETRAME'RAJTS — fr. gr. tetteres, fourj
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
147
mero«, joint. A division of cole-
opterous insects.
TETRA'O. — Lat. A bustard. Syste-
matic name of the grouse.
TETRAPE'TALOUS. — Having four pe-
tals.
TETRASE'PALOTTS. — Having four se-
pals.
TET'RODOW. — fr. gr. tetra, four ; odous,
odontos, tooth. Systematic name
of certain fishes.
TEXTURE. — In geology, the mode of
aggregation of the mineral sub-
stances of which rocks are com-
posed.
THA'tAMtrs. — Lat. A bed. Torus.
Receptacle. In botany, the dilated
summit of the peduncle upon
which the carpels are seated.
THA'HTJS. — A flat membrane be-
longing to cellular plants.
THAi/LOGENS.-fr. gr. thallo , to sprout ;
gennao, to produce. Thallophytes.
Flowerless plants, without stems,
roots or leaves.
THE'A. — A genus of plants of the
tribe of carnellese. The'a bohea,
Bohea tea ; Thea viridis, green
tea.
THE'CA. — fr. gr. theke, a case. In bo-
tany, the cavity of the anther;
the sporangium of ferns ; the urn
of mosses, &c.
THE'INE. — The proximate principle
of tea.
THE'CAPHORE — fr. gr. theke, a cap-
sule ; pher&, to bear. Gynophore.
Podogynium. The stalk upon
which the ovary of plants is
sometimes seated.
THECos'TOMEs.-fr. gr.theke, a sheath ;
stoma, a mouth. Insects which
have a sucking-apparatus contain-
ed in a sheath, are so named.
THELPHU'SA. — A genus of crusta-
ceans.
THER'MAL. — fr. gr. thermos, heat.
Warm ; belonging or relating to
heat.
THE'RMOMETER. — fr. gr. therme, heat ;
metron, measure. An instrument
for measuring heat.
THEU'TYES. — Systematic name of a
family of fishes.
THIIT OUT. — Strata are said to thin
out when they diminish in thick-
ness.
THO'RACIC.— Thonging to the thorax.
THO'RAX. — fr. gr. thorax, the chest.
It is bounded posteriorly by the
vertebrae; laterally, by the ribs
and scapula ; anteriorly, by the
sternum ; above, by the clavicle ;
and below, by the diaphragm. It
is destined to lodge and protect
the chief organs of respiration
and circulation :— the lungs and
heart.
THORN. — A sharp process from the
woody part of a plant.
THREADS. — In botany, long delicate
hairs.
THROAT. — In botany, the orifice of
a flower.
THT'MALLUS. — Systematic name of
the graylings.
THTN'IOJS. — Systematic name of the
tunny.
THT'RSE. ) In botany, a kind of
THY'RSUS. £ cluster. A compact
panicle, the middle branches of
which are longer than those of
the apex, or of the base, as lilac.
THVRSOID. — Resembling a thyrsus.
THYSAITOU'RA. fr. gr. thusanai,
fringes ; owro, tail. An order of
insects.
TI'BIA. — Lat. A flute. The largest
bone of the leg is so called. A
leg.
TI'BIJB. — Lat. plur. of tibia.
TI'GRIS.— Lat. A tiger.
Ti'ifCA. — Lat. A tench.
TI'DAL. — Relating to tides. Tidal
wave is the elevation of the water
of the ocean produced by the at-
traction of the moon.
TI'MIDUS. — Lat. Timid.
TI'NEA. — Lat. A moth-worm, that
eats clothing, books, &c.
TI'NEK. — Lat. plur. of tinea.
TICHODRO'MA — Systematic name of
certain creepers.
TI'SSUE. — fr. lat. texere. to weava.
148
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
The interlacement or union of
many things which form a body,
as threads of flax, silk, wool, &c.,
of which cloths and stuffs are
made. From analogy the term is
employed to describe the sub-
stances of which the organs of
plants and animals are composed.
TOLA'MEN. — A border.
IOMENTOSE. — In botany, closely and
densely hairy.
TOME'NTUM. — In botany, applied to
the hairs of plants when they are
entangled, and closely pressed to
the stem.
TOOTHED. — In botany, divided so as
to resemble teeth.
TOOTHIETTED. — In botany, furnish-
ed with little teeth.
TO'PAZ. — A crystallized mineral,
harder than quartz, of a yellow
wine colour.
TOHO'SE. — In botany, uneven ; alter-
nately elevated and depressed.
In conchology, swelling into knobs
or protuberances.
TORPE'DO. — Lat. Numbness, Name
of a fish.
Toa'dUiLLA.— fr. lat. torqueo, I writhe,
I twist. Systematic name of the
wryneck.
TOR'TRIX.— Generic name of certain
ophidians.
TOK'TUOSK. — Twisted.
TOR'ULOSE. — Slightly torose.
TO'RUS.— - Thalamus. The terminaj
portion of the pedicil,
TOTIPALMA'T^. — fr. lat. totus} the
whole ; palma, the palm. Syste-
matic name of a family of web-
footed birds.
TOUGH.— Minerals which show de-
pressions or bruises from frequent
blows, in the attempt to fracture
them, are said to be tough.
TOIT'IIMAI.I!*E.— A mineral substance
consisting of a boro-silicate of alu-
mine, harder than quartz, but not
as hard as topaz.
TOX'OTES. — fr. gr. toxotes, an archer.
Systematic name of certain fishes.
TKA'CHEA. — fr. gr. trachus, rough ; ar-
teria, an artery, which is formed
from aer, air, and terein, to keep.
The canal which conveys the air
to the lungs. The windpipe.
TRA'CHEAI.. — Relating to trachea.
TRA'CHEJE. — Lat. plur. of trachea.
Tubes or vessels in the structure
of plants, as well as of insects,
which are supposed to convey air.
TRACHEA'RIA. — Lat. Tracheal; hav-
ing tracheae.
TRACHE'NCHTMA. — fr. gr. tracheia,
air-tube ; egchuma, anything pour-
qd in. The vascular tissue of
plants, consisting of spiral vessels,
which resemble the trachea of in-
sects.
TRA'CHTTE. — fr. gr. trachus, rough.
A variety of lava. A feldspathic
rock, which often contains glassy
feldspar and hornblende, When
the feldspar crystals are thickly
and uniformly disseminated, it is
called trachytic porphyry.
TRANSI'TIOIT FORMA'TIOI*. — A geolo-
gical designation of the upper
metamorphic rocks, which form
a kind of link between the pri-
mary and secondary rocks, par-
taking of the characters of both.
(p. 26, Book viii).
TRAifSLu'cENT.-fr. lat. trans, through;
luceo, to shine. Permitting the
passage of light, but not sufficient
to define objects.
TBA»rspA'RENT.-fr. lat. tran$> through;
pareo, to appear. Permitting the
passage of light to the extent of
enabling qne to perceive the form
of objects.
TRAKSVE'RSE. — Placed crosswise.
When the breadth pf a shell is
greater than its length, it is term-
ed transverse.
TRAP.— From the Swedish trappa, a
flight of stairs, because trap rocks
frequently occur in large tabular
masses, rising one above another
like the successive steps of a stair-
case. Applied to certain igneous
rocks composed of feldspar, au-
gite and hornblende.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
149
TRAPE'ZIFORM. — Shaped like a tra-
pezium.
TRAPEZOID. ) In form of a trape-
VRAPEZOIDAI.. £ zium.
^RA'PPEAN. — Relating to trap rocks.
TRA'VERTI N. — fr. it. travertine. Lime-
stone deposited from water hold-
ing carbonate of lime in solution.
It is found in the sweet springs
of Virginia, and at the hot springs
of the Washita, in Arkansas, as
well as in many other places.
TRE'MOLITE. — A mineral, often of a
fibrous structure, generally con-
taining silica, magnesia, and car-
bonate of lime, originally found
in the valley of Tremola on St.
Gothard,
TRENCHANT. — Cutting.
TRIADK'LPHOUS. — fr. gr. treis, three ;
adelphia, brotherhood. In botany,
applied to the filaments of plants
which are combined into three
masses.
TRIAKE'NIUM. — A fruit consisting of
three achsenia or cells.
TRIA'NDRIA. — fr.gr. treis, three; aner,
stamen. Name of a class of
plants.
TRIA'NDROUS. — Having three sta-
mens.
TRI'AS. — fr.lat. tres, three. Synonym
of the triassic system of rocks,
consisting of the Bunter Sand-
stein, the Muschelkalk, and Keuper,
a group of sandy marls of varie-
gated colours. (p.49, Book viii^
TRIA'SSIC. — Of the nature of trias.
TRICHE'CHUS. — fr. gr. trix, hair. Sys-
tematic name of the morse.
TRICKO'TOMOTTS. — fr. gr. trecha, in
three parts ; temno, to cut. In bo-
tany, applied to inflorescence and
branching, when the divisions oc-
cur in threes.
TRICOC'COUS. — fr. gr. treis, three;
kokkos, a seed. In botany, split-
ting into three indehiscent carpels.
TRICO'LOR. — Lat. Three-coloured.
TRICO'RNIS. — fr. lat. trcs, three ; cor-
nu, horn. Three-horned.
TRICU'SPIB. — fr. lat. tres, three ; cug-
13
312
pis, a point — having three points.
The three valves situate in the
right auriculo-ventricular opening
of the heart are thus named.
TRicuspiDATE.-Having three points.
TRIDA'CHTA.-^A genus of mollusks of
the family of chamacea.
TRIDA'CTYLOUS. — Having three toes
or fingers.
TRIDA'CTYLUS. — fr. gr. treis, three ;
daktulos, a finger. Three-fingered.
TRIDENTA'TA. — Lat. Three-toothed ;
having three teeth.
TRIE'NNIAI. — Every three years.
TRIFA'RIOUS. — Arranged in triple
ranks.
TRI'FID. — Three-cleft: divided in
three.
TRIG O'N AI.. — Th ree-cornered .
TRIGONA'LIS. — Lat. fr. gr. treis, three ;
gonia, angle. Having three an-
gles or corners.
TRIGO'NIA. — fr. gr. trigonos, three-
cornered. A genus of bivalve
mollusks most of which are ex-
tinct.
TRIGONOCE'PHALI. — Lrat. plur. of tri-
gonocephalus.
TRI'GONOCE'PHALUS. — fr. gr. treis,
three; gonos, an angle; kephale,
head. A genus of very venom-
ous serpents. Trigonoce'phalus Ian-
ceola'tus. Lance-head viper.
TRIGO'NITLA. — Lat. Having three
little angles.
TRIGY'NIA. — fr. gr. treis, three ; gttne,
pistil. Name of an order of plants.
TRI'IO BATE. -Formed of three lobes;
a form of leaf. (fig. 30, p. 37.
Book vii).
TRI'LOBED. — fr. lat. tres, three ; lobus,
lobe. Formed of three lobes.
TRI'LOBITE. — fr. lat. tres, three ; lobus,
lobe. A fossil crustacean, (fig. 4,
p. 28, Book viii).
TRILO'CULAR. — Having three cells.
THIME'RANS. — fr. gr. treis, three; me-
ros, a joint. A division of coleop
terous insects whose tarsi consist
of three joints.
TRI'MEROUS. — Consisting of three
parts.
150
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
THIO/CIA. — fr. gr. treis, three ; oikos.
house. Name of a Linnaean class
of plants.
TBI'ONTX — fr. gr. treis, three ; orator,
nail. Having three nails. Gene-
ric name of certain tortoises.
TRIPE'TALOID. — Appearing as if fur-
nished with three petals.
TRIPE'TALOUS. — fr. gr. treis, three
petalon,peia\. Having three petals
TRIPI'NNATE. — A form of leaf in
which a common petiole has bi-
pinnate leaves on each side. (Jig.
67, p. 47, Book vii).
THI'POD. — fr. gr. treis, three ; pous, a
foot. Having three feet.
TRIQUETROUS. — Having three sides
or angles.
TRIRA'DIATE. — fr. lat. tres, three ;
radius, ray. Three-rayed.
TRI'STIS. — Lat. Sad, sorrowful.
TRITE'RNATE.— - Three times three-
leaved.
TRI'TICUM.— Lai. Wheat.
TRI'TOX. — fr. gr. treis, three ; tonos, a
tone. The name of a fabulous
god, that accompanied Neptune,
blowing a shell as a trumpet.
Most sea-gods are called Tritons,
and are generally represented in
the act of blowing shells. A ge-
nus of mollusks.
TRITO'NIA.— A genus of gasteropods.
TRITO'RES. — Lat. Grinders; tritu-
rators.
TRITURATED. — Reduced to powder
by pounding.
TRITURA'TIOX. — fr. lat. tritus, rub-
bed. The act of rubbing or grind-
ing.
TRIVIAL-NAME. — In botany, the spe-
cific name.
TRO'CHI. —Lat. plui of trochus.
TRO'CHILUS. — Systematic name of
the humming-birds.
TRocHo'iDES.-fr. gr. trochos, a wheel ;
eidos, resemblance. Name of a
family of gasteropods.
TRO'CHUS. — A genus of gasteropods.
TROGLODYTES. — fr. ar. trogle, a cav-
ern or hole ; duo, 1 enter. Syste-
matic name of the wrens.
THO'PHI. — fr. gr. trophos, a nourisher.
In insects, the organs which form
the mouth, consisting of an upper
and an under lip, and comprising
the mandibles, maxilke, and palpi,
or the parts employed in acquir-
ing and preparing food.
TROPHOPOLLEN. — The septum of the
anther of plants.
TRO'PHOSPERM. — fr. gr. trepho, I nour-
ish ; sperma, seed. That part of
the carpel from which the seeds
spring.
TRUN'CATE. — Terminating very ab-
ruptly, as if a portion had been
cut off.
TRUN'CATED. — Cut short. Cut ab-
ruptly, or square off.
TRUNCA'TUS. — Lat. Truncate.
TRUNK. — The body without includ-
ing the head or extremities. The
proboscis of an elephant. In bo-
tany, the main stem of trees.
TRUTTA. — Specific name of the
trout.
TRYMA. — A syncarpous fruit.
TUBE. — In botany, the lower hollow
cylinder of a monopetalous co-
rolla.
TU'BER. — Lat. A bunch, a knot, a
lump. A form of annual root.
TU'BERCLE. — A small tuber; a lit-
tle knot or knob.
TUBE'RCULATED. — Knotted or pim-
pled.
TUBER'CULOUS. — Composed of, or
containing tubercles.
TUBERO'SITIES. — Prominent knobs
or excrescences.
TUBERO'SUM. — Lat. Tuberous. Of
the nature of a tuber.
TU'BEROUS. — Bearing solid, fleshy,
roundish roots, like the potato.
TUBICO'LA. — fr. lat. tubus, a tube ;
co/o, I inhabit. A genus of anne-
lidans.
TU'BICOLE. — Tube-inhabiting.
TU'BIFORM. — Tube-shaped.
TU'BULAR. — Consisting of tubes or
pipes : relating to a tube.
TU'BULATE. — Hollow ; tubulous.
TUBULIBRANCHIA'TA.— fr. lat tubus9
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
151
tube; branchta, gills. An order
of gasteropods which have the
branchiae lodged in a tube. (p.
59, Book v).
TU'FA. — It. A volcanic rock, com-
posed of an agglutination of frag-
mented scoriae.
TUFA'CEOUS. — Having the texture of
tufa.
TU'NICA. — Lat. A tunic; a coat or
covering of an organ.
TUNICA'TA. — Name of an order of
acephalous mollusks.
TU'NICATE. — fr. lat. tunica, a tunic.
Coated.
TURBINA'TA. ) Lat. Shaped like
TURBIXA'TUM. £ a top.
TUB'BIXATED. — Shaped like a top
or pear; having a screw -like
form.
TU'RBO. — Lat. A whirling or twist-
ing. A tribe of gasteropods. (fig-
43, p. 47, Book v).
TUR'DUS. — Lat. A thrush.
TU'RGID. — Swollen.
TU'RIO.— In botany, a scaly bud, de-
veloped from a perennial subter-
ranean root.
Tu'RatroisE. — A blue mineral found
in Persia; its colour depends on
the presence of the oxide of cop-
per.
TU'RRETED. ) Resembling a
TlIRRl'cULATED. $ tOWCT With
turrets.
TCR'RILITES. — A fossil mollusk, the
shell of which is spiral, turricu-
lated and multilocular. (fig. 131,
p. 72, Book viii).
TCRRITE'LLA. — Lat. A little tower
or turret. A genus of gastero-
pods.
TWI'NINO. — In botany, ascending
spirally.
TYM PANCM. — Lat. A drum. The
drum of the ear.
TTPU'LOPS. — Gr. One who is blind.
Name of an ophidian.
Tr'poLiTK. — fr.gr. tupos, a figure;
lithos,a. stone. The fossil impres-
sion of an animal or plant in a
rock.
TYHA'STTUS. — Lat. A tyrant. A ge-
nus of birds.
ULI'GINOUS.— fr. lat. uligo, uliginis,
ooziness. In botany, growing in
damp or rrrarshy situations.
UI/NA. — The bone of the fore-arm,
which forms the prominence of
the elbow, during the flexion of
that joint.
UI/ITAH. — Relating to the ulna.
U'LULA. — Lat. An owl.
UM'BEL. — fr. lat. umbella (fr. umbra,
a shadow), a screen; a round
head of flowers. A form of in-
florescence in which several pe-
duncles expand, so as to produce
a flower somewhat resembling a
parasol, when open.
UMBELLI'FEHJE — fr. lat. umbella, a
round head of flowers ; fero, I
bear. Name of a family of plants.
UMBELLI'FEROUS. — Belonging to um-
belliferse. Bearing umbels.
UM'BELLULES. — The divisions of an
umbel.
UMBE'LUJS. — Lat. Specific name of
the ruffed grouse.
UMBILI'CATED. — Having a depres-
sion in the centre, like an umbi-
licus.
UMBILI'CUS. — Lat. dimin. of umbo.
The hollow axis of spiral shells;
the aperture or depression in the
centre, round which the shell is
convoluted. In botany, the syno-
nym of Lilian.
U'MBO. — Lat. A protuberance or
boss of a shield. In conchology,
that point in a bivalve which con-
stitutes the nucleus or apex of
each valve, and which is gene-
rally situated above the hinge,
and always near to it.
UM'BONATE. Bossed; having a
raised knob in the centre.
UM'BOITES. — Lat. plur. of umbo.
UMBRI'N A. — Generic name of a fish.
UNARMED. — In botany, destitute of
prickles or spines, which are th»
arms of plants.
U»ARTI'CCLATEI/. — Not jointed.
152
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
UVci. — Lat. plur. of uncus. Hooks.
UNCINA'TA. — fr. lat. uncus, a hook.
Hooked; having hooks.
UN'CINATE. — Hooked.
UNCON FO'RMABLE — A geological term
applied to strata, when their
planes are not parallel to those
of another set which are in con-
tact. See CONFORMABLE.
UA'CTUOTJS. — Fat, oily. In mine-
ralogy, having a surface which
to the touch seems greasy.
UNDER-SHRUB. — Suffrutex. The un-
der-shrub differs from the shrub in
perishing annually, either wholly
or in part ; and from the herb, in
having branches of a woody tex-
ture, which frequently exist more
than one year. It is between the
herb and shrub.
UN'DULATE. — fr. lat. undula, a little
wave. Serpentine ; having the
edges irregularly waved, (fig 40,
p. 39, Book vii).
UN'DULATED. — Waved; having a
waved surface; applied to the
colouring of shells.
UNDULA'TION. — A wave ; arranged
in a wave-like manner. A tre-
mulous motion or vibration ob-
servable in a fluid, whereby it
alternately rises and falls like
waves.
UNDULA'TO-RUGOSE. — In botany, ru-
gose, or rugged and waved.
UNWULA'TXJS. — Lat. Waved ; hav-
ing a waved surface.
UN E Q.UALLT-PINNATE. — Impari -pin-
nate.
UNGUICULA'TA. — fr. lat. unguis, a
(finger) nail. Animals that have
small nails on their fingers or toes.
Clawed animals.
UNGUI'CULATE. — fr. lat. unguis, a
claw. Having a claw. Having
small nails.
Uiren'FORM. — fr. lat. unguis, a hu-
man nail ; forma, shape. Of the
form of a nail.
UN GUIS. — Lat. A nail. In botany,
the lower part of a petal which
tapers conspicuously towards the
base.
UNGULA'TA. — fr. lat. ungula, a hoof.
Hoofed animals. Animals hav-
ing large nails or hoofs.
UN'GULATE. — Having hoofs.
U'NICORN. — fr. lat. unus, one ; cornu,
a horn. Having one horn. The
name of a fabulous animal.
UNILA'TERAL. — One-sided.
UNILO'CULAR. — fr. lat. unus, one ; lo-
culus, partition. Having but one
chamber or compartment.
UNI'O. — Lat. A pearl. A genus of
mussels, (p. 81, Book v).
UNIO'NES. — Lat. plur. of unio.
UNISE'XUAL. — Of one sex.
U'NIVALVE. — Consisting of one piece
or valve.
UNSTRA'TIFIED. — Not stratified; not
disposed in beds or strata.
UPHEAVAL. — The elevation of land
by earthquakes, (p. 99, Book viii).
UPTILTED. — Tilted up; raised at
one end.
U'PUPA. — Lat. A hoopoo.
UR'BICA. — Lat. Belonging or relat-
ing to a city.
URCE'OLATE. — fr. lat. urceus, a pitch-
er ; pitcher-shaped. Swelling in
the middle like a pitcher.
U'RENS. — Lat. Burning.
URE'TER. — The tube or canal, which
passes from the kidney to the
bladder.
URI'A. — Generic name of the guille-
mots.
URN. — The peculiar thecaor capsule
of mosses, containing the spores.
It is placed at the apex of a stalk
or seta, bearing on its summit a
hood or calyptra, and is closed by
a lid or operculum.
URODE'LA. — Systematic name of a
family of batrachians.
UROGA'LLTJS.— -Specific name of the
great heath cock.
URSI'NUS. — Lat. Belonging or re-
lating to bears.
URTI'CEJE. — fr. lat. urtica, a nettle
Name of a family of plants.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
153
UH'SXJS. — Lat. A bear.
U'RUS. — Lat. A buffalo.
USITATI'SSIMUM. — Lat. Most com-
mon; familiar.
USTULA'TION. — The roasting of ores,
to volatilize the sulphur, or any
of their volatile ingredients.
UTRI'CULA — fr. lat. utriculus, a little
bottle. Utricle. A little bladder
or sac in the structure or tissue of
plants, (figs. 2, 3, p. 11, Book vii).
UTRI'CULE. — Lat. plur. of utricula.
U'TRICLE. — In botany, a caryopsis
which does not adhere to the
seed.
UTRI'CULAR. — Of or relating to utri-
cula or vesicles.
VA'CUUM. — fr. lat. vacuus, empty. A
portion of space void of matter.
VAGI'NA. — Lat. A sheath. In bo-
tany, a leafy expansion surround-
ing the stem in some plants.
VAGIXA'LIS. — fr. lat. vagina, a sheath.
A genus of birds.
VA'GIN ATE. — Applied to a leaf when
it embraces or sheathes the stem.
Also, to those polyps which are
enclosed in a calcareous sheath
or tube.
VAGI'NULA. 7 Lat. A little sheath
VAGI'NULUS. 3 or scabbard. A ge-
nus of naked gasteropods.
VALESXE'RIA. — Generic name of an
aquatic plant,channel weed, upon
which the canvass -back ducks
feed, and to which the peculiar
and delicious flavour of their
flesh, is said to be attributable.
The specific name of the canvass-
back duck.
VALLEY. — A space lying between
opposite ridges of mountains or
hills.
VALLEYS OF DISLOCATION. — (See p.
163-4, Book viii).
VALLEYS OF ELEVATION. Closed
valleys, (p. 161, Book viii).
VALVA'TA. — A genus of fresh-water
snails, (fig. 48, p. 48, Book v).
VALVE. — fr. lat. valvce, folding-doors,
small door. Any membrane or
7*
doubling of membrane which pre-
vents fluids from flowing back in
the vessels and canals of the ani-
mal bod^fc In botany, valves are
the parts of the seed-vessel, into
which it finally separates; also,
the leaves which make up a
glume, or spatha. In conchology,
the pieces which constitute the
covering of acephalous mollusks
or bivalves.
VALVED. ? In botany, consisting
VAL'VULAR. £ of valves or seed-
cells.
VANE'LLUS. — Generic name of the
lapwing.
VANES'SA — fr. gr. phanes, one of the
names of Venus. A genus of
butterflies.
VAPORIZA'TION-. — The conversion of
a liquid or of a solid body into
vapour by the application of heat.
VA'POUR. — A light, expansible, and
generally invisible gas, which in
its mechanical properties, while
it exists, resembles air, but is sub-
ject to be condensed into the li-
quid or solid form by reduction
of its temperature.
VA'RIANS. — Lat. Varying, chang-
ing.
VA'RicosE.-Swollen here and there.
VARI'ETIES. — Individuals subordi-
nate to species. The variety dif-
fers from the species in points of
structure which are developed
only under particular circum-
stances, and which are not essen-
tial to the species. The characters
on which a species is founded
should be invariable under all
circumstances.
VA'RICES. — fr. lat. varix, a swollen,
vein. Longitudinal ribs in uni-
valve shells.
VAS'CULAR. — fr. lat. vasculum, a little
vessel. Having numerous ves
sels. Vascular plants is a term
applied to the two great divisions
of plants called Exogens and £n-
dogenst owing to the high devel-
opement of vascular tissue in them,
154
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
and in order to distinguish them
from Cellular or cryptogamic
plants.
VASCULAR TISSUE. — Trache'nchyma.
A tissue in plants, consisting of
simple membranous tubes taper-
ing to each end, but often ending
abruptly, either having a fibre
generated spirally in the inside,
or having their walls marked by
transverse bars, arranged more or
less in a spiral direction.
VAC'LTED. — Arched like the roof of
the mouth.
VEGETABLE EARTH. ") The thin exter-
VEGETABLE SOIL. 3 nftl crust of
the earth in which plants grow,
composed of fragments of mine-
rals, vegetables, and animals, re-
duced to a great degree of tenuity,
(p. 14, Book viii).
VEGETA'TIVE. — Belonging or relat-
ing to vegetation.
VEGETA'TIVE LIFE. — Life of nutri-
tion.
VEIN. — The veins are vessels for
the conveyance of black blood
from all parts of the body to the
heart. They are found wherever
there are arteries. In geology, a
crack or fissure in rocks filled up
by substances different from the
rock, which maybe either earthy
or metallic. A dyke. (p. 118,
Book viii).
VEINED. — In botany, having the di-
visions of the petiole irregularly
branched on the under side of the
leaf.
VE INLET. — A little vein.
VEINS OF PLANTS. — The ramifica-
tions of the petiole among the
cellular tissue of the leaf.
VEL'UM. — Lat. A veil. The hori-
zontal membrane connecting the
margin of the pileus of a fungus
with the stipes.
VKLUTI'NUS. — Lat. Velvety.
VE'NA. — Lat. A vein. Vena porta,
a vein of the liver.
VENA'TION. — The distribution of the
veins of the leaves of plants.
VENE'NIFLUA. — Lat. Flowing with
poison.
VE'NERICA'RIUA. — fr. Venus, and car-
dium. A genus of bivalve mol-
lusks.
VENERU'PIS. — A genus of cardiacea.
VE'NOUS. — Relating to veins.
VE'NTER. — Lat. The belly. The
most prominent part of the shell
when the aperture is turned to-
wards the observer.
VEN'TRAL — Belonging or relating to
the belly.
VEN'TRICLE. — fr. lat. ventriculus, a
little belly, formed from venter, a
belly. A name given in anatomy
to various parts. A part of the
heart. The second stomach of
birds is so called.
VENTHICO'SA. — Lat. Ventricose; in-
flated, swelled in the middle.
VEN'TRICOSE. — Inflated ; swelled in
the middle.
VENTRI'CULAR. — Belonging to a ven-
tricle ; of the nature of a ven-
tricle.
VE'NCS. — A genus of the family of
cardiacea.
VE'HA. — Lat. True.
VERME'TCS.-A genus of gasteropods.
(p. 59, Book v).
VERMI'CULAR. — Belonging or relat-
ing to worms. The'motion of the-
intestines is vermicular, that is,
resembling that of a worm.
VER'MIFORM. — fr lat. vermis,a. worm ;
forma, form. Worm-shaped ; like
a worm. An epithet applied to
certain carnivorous animals, on
account of their ability to pass
through narrow openings.
VER'NAL. — In botany, appearing in
the spring.
VERNA'LIS. — Lat. Vernal. Relat-
ing to the spring.
VERNA'TION. — Germination. The
manner in which the leaves of
plants are arranged in the unex-
panded or bud state.
VERNI'CIFLUA. — Lat. Flowing with
varnish.
VER'NIX. — Lat. Varnish.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
155
VEHRU'CX. — fr. lat. verruca, a wart.
Cellulur glands. Seminal spongi-
oles. Warts or sessile glands, pro-
duced upon various parts of plants,
and extremely variable in figure.
VE'RRUCOSE. — fr. lat. verruca, a wart.
Warted.
VERSATILE. — fr. lat. versatility that
turns.easily. Oscillating; adher-
ing slightly by the middle, so that
the two halves are nearly bal-
anced, and swing backwards and
forwards; a term applied to the
anthers of plants, when they are
attached to the filament by a sin-
gle point of the connective.
VERSICO'LOR. — Lat. Changing co-
lour ; of various colours.
VERTA'GUS. — Lat. Name of a par-
ticular kind of dog.
VER'TEBRA. — fr. lat. vertere, to turn.
A joint or bone of the back-bone
or spine.
VER'TEBRA. — The plural of verte-
bra.
VER'TEBRAL. — Belonging or relating
to vertebrae.
VE'RTEBRAL COLTJMK. — The spine or
back-bone.
VERTEBRA'TA. — Animals that pos-
sess vertebras. Systematic name
of the first branch of the animal
kingdom.
VER'TEBRATE. — Having vertebrae, or
a spine.
VER'TEX. — Lat. The uppermost
point. The top or crown of the
head.
VER'TICAUT COMPRESSED. De-
pressed.
VERTICE'LLUS. — Lat. A whorl.
VEH'TICIL. — fr. lat. vertere, to turn.
In botany, a whorl ; an arrange-
ment of leaves which is seen
when more than a single pair
spring from the same node and
form a circle around the stem.
VERTICILLA'STER. — The cyme when
reduced to a very few flowers.
VrRTicii/LATE. — fr. lat. verticillum, a
peg. Arranged in a circle, like
the leaves of certain flowers
around a stem. Arranged in a
whorl. ^
VER'TICOSE.-— Whorl-like.
VERTILI'XEAR. — Rectilinear.
VE'SCA. — Lat. Edible; anything
that may be eaten.
VESICATO'RIA. — Lat. Vesicating ;
blistering. Specific name of the
Spanish-fly.
VE'SICLE. — A diminutive bladder.
VESI'CULAR. — Composed of vesicles.
A mineral is said to be vesicular,
when it has small and somewhat
round cavities, both internally
and externally.
taining vesicles.
VES'PA. — Lat. A wasp.
VESPERTI'LIO. — Lat. A bat.
VESPER'TINE. — Applied to flowers
which open in the evening.
VES'PIART. — A wasp's nest.
VES'TIBULE. — fr. lat. vestibulum, ves-
tibule. A room at the entrance
of an edifice, which only serves
as a passage to other apartments.
The first part of the second ca-
vity of the ear is so called.
VETCH — A kind of bean.
VEXI'LLUM. — Lat. A standard. The
upper petal of a papilionaceous
corolla is so called, from its erect
and expanded state.
VI'BRATILE. — Moving to and fro.
VI'BRIO. — A microscopic, eel-like
animalcule.
VIBRIS'S^. — Hairs that stand for-
ward like feelers; in some birds
they are slender, as in fly-catchers,
&c., and point both upwards and
downwards, from both the upper
and under sides of the mouth.
VICU'NNA. — Lat. A vicunia: or vi-
cuiia.
VILLO'SITT. — Velvet-like; a cover-
ing of soft hairs, forming a nap
like velvet.
VILLO'SUS. — Lat. Velvety.
VII/LOUS. — In botany, shaggy with
long loose hair.
VI'MEN. — A long and fieri ble shoot
of plants.
156
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
VINE. — In botany, a stem which
trails along the ground without
rooting, or entangles itself with
other plants, to which it adheres
by means of its tendrils.
VINI'FERA. — fr. lat. vinum, wine ;
fero, I bear. Wine-bearing.
VINI'FERJE. — Name of a family of
plants.
VIOLA'CEJE. — Name of a family of
plants.
VIOLA'CEOUS. — Violet-coloured.
VI'PERA — Lat. A viper.
VI'RENS. — Lat. Flourishing, green.
VIRE'SCENT. — Green, flourishing.
VIR'GATE. — fr. lat. virga, a twig.
Twiggy. In botany, a virgate
stem differs from avimineous stem
only in being less flexible. Long
and slender; wand-like.
VIRGINIA'NA. ) Lat. Belonging to
VIRGINIA'NUS. £ Virginia.
VI'RGULA. — Lat. A little rod.
VIR'GULTUM. A young, slender
branch of a /tree or shrub. A
small twig.
VI'RIDIS. — Lat. Green.
VI'ROSE. — Nauseous to the smell ;
poisonous.
Vis. — Lat. Force. Vis inertia. In-
ertness, or the principle of inac-
tivity, by which a body perse-
veres in the same state of rest or
motion, in a straight line, unless
obliged, to change it by a foreign
force.
Vis'cin. > Glutinous, sticky, tena-
Vis'cous. £ cious.
Vis'cus. — Lat. Any bowel, or en-
trail, or internal part, as the heart,
liver, lungs, brain, &e.
VI'SCERA. — Lat. plur. of vi&cii:?.
WSCERAL. — Relating to viscera.
VISCI'VORUS. — Systematic name of
a thrush.
VITAL AIR. — A term applied to oxy-
gen gas, from its being indis-
pensable to the maintenance of
life
VITA'TA. — Lat. Avoided, shunned.
Specific nam^ of a fly.
MhMBRAivK. — The deli-
cate tissue which envelopes the
yolk of an egg.
VITE'LLUS. — Lat. The yolk of an
egg. In botany, a fleshy sac oc-
casionally interposed in seeds be-
tween the albumen and the ovule,
enveloping the latter.
VI'TES. — Lat. plur. of vitis.
VI'TIS. — Lat. A vine.
VI'TREOTTS. — fr. lat. vitrea, glass.
Resembling glass; of the nature
of glass.
VI'TREO-RES'INOUS. — Partaking of
the nature of glass and resin.
ViTRiFiCA'Tioir.-fr. lat. vitrea, glass ;
yio, to become. The conversion
of a substance into glass.
VIT'RIFIED. — fr. lat. vitrea, glass.
Converted into glass.
VITRI'NA. — fr. lat. vitrea, glass. A
genus of fresh-water gasteropods.
VIT'TJB. — fr. lat. vitta, a riband. In
botany, little clavate vessels of
oil found in the coat of the fruit
of umbelliferous plants.
VITULI'NA. — fr. lat. vitulus, a sea-calf.
Belonging or relating to seals.
VIVE'RRA. — Lat. A ferret.
VIVI'PAROUS. — fr. lat. vivus, alive;
pario, I bring forth. Animals
whose young are born without
being hatched, are said to be vi-
viparous.
VIVIPA'RUM. — Lat. Viviparous.
VOCI'FERUS.— Lat. Vociferous, noisy.
VO'LATILE. — fr. lat. vo/o, I fly. Ca-
pable -of assuming the state of
vapour, and flying off.
VOLA'TILIZE. — To become volatile.
VOL'CAK. ) fr. Vulcanus, the fable-
VOLCA'TTO. £ god of fire. A vent
for subterranean fire. A burning
mountain. A communication be-
tween the surface of the earth
and its interior, for the passage of
hot or incandescent matters ; as
lava, mud, water, &c. (p. 102,
Book viii).
VOLCA'NIC. — Relating to a volcano.
VOLCANIC BOMBS. — Masses of melt-
ed lava sometimes thrown out by
volcanoes ; these, as they fell, as-
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
157
sume rounded forms, like bomb-
shells, and are often elongated
into the shape of a pear.
VOLCA'NIC FOCI. — The subterranean
centres of action in volcanoes,
where the heat is supposed to be
in the highest degree of energy.
VOLT'ZIA.—A genus of fossil co'nifers.
VOLTA'IC. — Applied to electricity
produced after the manner of
Volta, an Italian philosopher.
VO'LUBLE. — fr. lat. volvo, to twist.
Twining; applied to plants which
twine around other bodies.
VoLUME.-The bulk of a body ; or the
apparent space a body occupies.
VOLUNTARY. — Under control of the
WILL.
VOLU'TA. — Lat. A whorl. A ge-
nus of gasteropods.
VOLU'TION. — fr. lat. volutus, rolled.
In malacology, a whorl.
VO'LVA. — Lat. A wrapper. The
wrapper, or involucrum-like base
of the stipes of agaric. Origi-
nally it was a bag enveloping the
whole plant, which, when the
plant elongated and burst through
it, was left at the foot of the stipe.
(fig. 128, p. 108, Book vii).
VO'MER.— Lat. A thin, flat bone,
which constitutes a part of the
partition between the nostrils.
VO'SGEAN. — Belonging or relating to
Vosges.
VULGA'RIS. — Lat. Common.
VUL'PES. — Lat. A fox.
VUL'TUR. — Lat. A vulture. Vultur
papa. The king of vultures.
VuL'vA-In conchology, a spatulated
mark, in several bivalve shells,
formed on the posterior and an-
terior slopes, when the valves are
united.
VUL'VIFORM. — In botany, like a
cleft or fissure with projecting,
rounded edges.
VULTURI'NUS. — Lat. Belonging or
relating to a vulture.
WACKE. — A simple trap rock nearly
allied to basalt,
14
3K
name of plumbago or
black lead.
WAL'CHIA — A genus of fossil co'ni-
fers. (fig. 48, p. 43, Book viii).
WARM-BLOODED ANIMALS. — A term
applied to two classes of verte-
brate animals ; namely, mammals
and birds.
WARP. — The deposit from muddy
waters artificially introduced up-
on low lands. The operation of
warping is performed by arresting
the flow, or rendering the water
stagnant, that the mud in it may
subside.
WATER OF CRTSTALXIZA'TION. — That
portion of water which combines
in a dry state with many sub-
stances, forming an essential con-
dition of their crystalline charac-
ter.
WATERSHED. — The general declivity
of the face of a country which
determines the direction of the
flowing of water.
WATER-SPOUT. — A meteorological
phenomenon of the same class
probably as the whirlwinds which
raise pillars of sand in the de-
serts of Africa. A column of wa-
ter, in the form of an inverted
cone, is observed to descend from
a cloud, until it meets a conical
column rising from the sea ; the
two cones unite, assuming the
form of an hour-glass, and often
move with great rapidity, until
they meet with some opposing
wind, or other cause, which de-
stroys them.
WAV r. — Undulated.
WEALD. — Name of a part of Kent
and Surrey, in England. The
Wealden clay and Wealden deposit
are found in this part of England,
(p. 69, Book viii).
WELK.
WHELK.
WHILK.
WEN. — A kind of tumour.
WHELP. — A pup; a young dog.
Any young beast of prey.
>», j.
•I
A kind of small she!
158
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
WHIN'STOSK. — A Scotch name for
greenstone and other trap rocks.
WHOHL. — A wreath, or turning of
the spire of univalve shells; a
complete turn of the spire of a
spiral shell. In botany, leaves
inserted around a stem are termed
whorls.
WING. — In botany, a membranous
border of many seeds by means
of which they are supported in
the air when floating from place
to place. Also, a side petal of a
papilionaceous flower.
Wi'THEHS.-The joining of the shoul-
der-bones at the bottom of the
neck and mane, towards the
upper part of the shoulder in
horses.
WOOD. — The most solid parts of the
trunks of trees and shrubs.
WOODT TISSUE. -Pleure'nchyma. Elon-
gated cells, tapering to each end,
and constituting the elementary
structure of wood.
XA'KTHOPHYLL. — fr. gr. xanthos, yel-
low ; phullon, a leaf. Jinihoxan-
tine. The yellow colouring mat-
ter which appears in the leaves
of plants in autumn.
XA'NTHOUS. — fr. gr. xanthos, yellow.
Applied to races of mankind pos-
sessing brown, auburn, yellow,
flaxen, or red hair.
XI'PHIAS — Lat. A sword-fish.
XI'PHOSCRA. — fr.gr. xiphos, a sword ;
oura, tail. Name of a tribe of
crustaceans.
XTLO'PHAGI. — fr. gr. xulon, wood;
phagd, to eat. Wood -eaters; a
family of coleopterous insects.
XTLO'PHAGOUS. — fr. gr. xulon, wood ;
phago, to eat. Wood-eating.
YOU-STONE. — Chinese jade.
Yumc. — fr. gr. xunx, the wryneck.
Generic name of the wrynecks.
ZA'MIA. — fr. gr. zemia, loss or dam-
age A genus of plants of the
order cyca'deae.
ZE'A. — fr. gr. zed, I live. Generic
name of Indian corn or maize.
ZBCH'STEIIT. — Ger. A magnesian
limestone, lying under the red
sandstone.
ZI'BKLLINA. — Lat. Relating to the
sable.
ZOANTHA'IUA. — fr. gr. zdon, an ani-
mal ; anthos, a flower. Animal-
flowers ; a class of zoophytes.
ZONED. — Surrounded with one or
more girdles.
ZONKS. — In botany, stripes or belts.
ZO'OCARPES. — fr. gr. zoon, an animal ;
karpos, fruit. Organized beings
which partake of the nature of
both animals and plants. They
are found among the lower forms
of alga of botanists, as the diato-
ma, the fragillaria, &c.
ZOO'GRAPHT. — fr. gr. zoon, an animal ;
grapho, to describe. Zoology.
ZOOLO'GICAL. — Belonging or relating
to zoology.
ZOO'LOGIST. — One skilled in. or de-
voted to the study of zoology.
ZOO'LOGT. — fr. gr. zoon, an animal ;
logos, a discourse. That part of
natural history which treats of
animals.
It is estimated that the number of
species embraced in zoology, or the
animal kingdom is as follows : —
Species.
Mammals 2,000
Birds 6,000
Reptiles 2,000
Fishes 10,000
Mollusks 15,000
Insects 80,000
Crustaceans, arachnidans j ^Q QQQ
annelidans,infusorials,&c. » '
Radiates 10,000
Fossil species ... - - 7,000
Or an aggregate of 252,000
The following Table exhibits Cu-
vier's arrangement of the subjects
included in zoology; showing the
Divisions, Classes, Sub-classes, and
Orders of the Animal Kingdom,
with an example of each.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
159
Div. I. VEBTEBRATA.
Vertebrates : animals characterized by an internal skeleton and a spine.
Class.
I. MAMMALIA.
Mammals: milk-eating ani-
mals, when young.
II. AYES.
Birds.
III. REPTILIA.
Reptiles.
IV. PISCES.
Fishes.^
Sub-class.
I. OSSEOUS.
Order.
'I. Bimana.
2. Quadrumana.
3. Carnivora.
4. Rodentia.
5. Edentata.
6. Pachyderma.
7. Ruminantia.
. 8. Cetacea.
' 1. Accipitres.
2. Passeres.
3. Scansores.
4. Gallinae.
5. Grallce.
,6. Palmipedes.
'1. Chelonia.
2. Sauria.
3. Ophidia.
4. Batrachia.
Example.
Man.
Monkeys.
Hyaena.
Rabbit.
Sloth.
Elephant.
Cow.
Whale.
Eagle.
Sparrow.
Parrot.
Pheasant.
Heron.
Duck.
Tortoise.
Lizard.
Serpent.
Frog.
-1. Acanthopterygii. Perch.
2. Malacopterygii ) pike
Abdominales. £
3. Malacopterygii 5
Sub-brachiuti. j
4. Malacopterygii £
Apodes. £
5. Lophobranchii,
6. Plectognathi.
Cod.
Eel.
Hippocampus.
Sun-fish.
Sturgeon.
Shark.
Lamprey.
Div. II. MOLLUSC A.
Mollusks : soft, invertebrate, inarticulate animals, often protected by a shell.
I. CEPALOPODA. ) ,_N Cuttle-fish,
II. PTEROPODA.
Fin-footed: pteropods.
.) P«"OP<*U- CUo.
160
A GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Class.
Order.
Example.
'1.
Pulmonibranchia.
Snail.
2.
Nudibranchia.
Glaucus.
3.
Inferobranchia.
Diphyllidia.
III.
GASTEROPODA.
Belly-footed : gasteropods.
4.
5.
6.
Tectibranchia.
Heteropoda.
Pectenibranchia.
Bulla.
Carinaria.
Whelk.
7.
Tubu libranchia.
Vermetus.
8.
Scutibranchia.
Sea-ear.
9.
Cyclobranchia.
Chiton.
IV.
ACEPHALA. t 1.
Testacea.
Oyster.
Headless: acephals. \ 2.
Nuda.
Ascidia.
V.]
SRACHIOPODA. ") ,
n«.) Brachiopoda.
Lingula.
VI.
CIRROPODA. ") ,
w.) Cirropoda.
Barnacle.
Div. III. ARTICUI.ATA.
Jlrticulatts : animals whose bodies are enclosed in a case composed of ring*.
I. ANNELIDA. C 1. Tubicola.
Wormshell.
Ring-bodied animals: anne- < 2. Dorsibranchia.
Lobworm.
lidans. ^3. Abranchia.
Earth-worm.
Sub-class. f I. Decapod a.
Lobster.
I. MALACOSTRA- I 2. Stomapoda.
Sea-mantis.
II. CRUSTACEA.
CIA. Crusta-'S 3. Amphipoda.
Shrimp.
Crustaceous
ceous-shelled. • 4. Lsemodipoda.
Whale-louse.
animals:
L 5. Isopoda.
Cymothoa.
crustaceans.
II.ENTOMOSTRAOg Branchiopoda.
Monoculus.
£ 7. PoBcilopoda.
shelled. j
King-crab.
Ill ARACHNID A. I 1. Pulmonata.
Tarantula.
The spider-tribe : arachnidans. { 2. Trachearia.
Mite.
1. Myriapoda.
Centipede.
2. Thysanoura.
Spring- tail.
3. Parasita.
Louse.
4. Suctoria.
Flea.
5. Coleoptera.
Beetle.
IV. IKSECTA.
6. Orthoptera.
Ear-wig.
Insects.
7. Hemiptera.
Bug.
8. Neuroptera. <
Myrmelion,
ant-lion.
9. Hymenoptera.
Wasp.
10. Lepidoptera.
Butterfly.
11. Rhipiptera.
Stylops.
.12. Diptera.
Fly.
USED IN NATURAL HISTORY.
161
Div. IV. RADIATA.
Radiates: wheel-shaped animals.
Class. Order.
I. ECHIHODERMA. ( 1. Pedicellata.
Bristle-skinned : echinoderms. ) 2. Apoda.
II. INTEST-IITA.
Intestinal worms.
III. ACALEPHA.
Sea-nettles: acalephs.
IV. POITPI.
Plant-like animals : polyps.
V. INFUSORIA.
( 1. Cavitaria.
( 2. Parenchyma.
( 1. Simplex.
( 2. Hydrostatica.
1. Carnosa. v
2. Gelatinosa.
3. Corallicola.
1. Rotifera.
2. Homogenea.
Example.
Star-fish.
Sipunculus.
Guinea- worm.
Tape-worm.
Medusa.
Portuguese man
of war.
Lea-anemone.
Vorticella.
Coral.
Wheel-insect.
Globe-animalcule.
ZOOMO'RPHOUS. — fr. gr. zdon, an ani-
mal ; morphe, form. Bearing some
resemblance to the form of an
animal.
ZOOXO'MIA. — fr. gr. zoon, an animal ;
nomos, a law. Animal physiology.
ZOO'NOMY. — fr. gr. zoon, an animal ; j
nomos, a law. The science which !
treats of the laws of organic life.
Z^O'PHAGOUS. — fr. gr. zoon, an ani- j
mal ; phago, to eat. Animal-eat-
ing; applied to a division of ce-
taceous animals, and to a tribe of
carnivorous gasteropods. I
ZO'OPHTTB. — fr.gr. zoon, an animal;
phuton, plant. A plant-animal,
which seemingly partakes of the
properties of both plants and ani-
mals.
ZOSTE'RA. — fr. gr. zoster, a riband.
Sea-wrack grass. A genus of
plants of the family of fluviales.
ZOO'TOMY. — fr. gr. zoon, an animal ;
temno, to cut. Comparative ana-
tomy.
ZTOODA'CTTLJE. — fr. gr. zugos, a bal-
ance ; daktulos, a toe. Systematic
name of the order of climbers.
THE END.
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