Full text of "The elements of structural botany..."

See other formats

SAG at

MAGOUN & SPOTTON.

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2008 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation

http://www.archive.org/details/elementsofstructOOmacouoft

Gage's Educational Series,

THE ELEMENTS

SeRUCTURAL BOTANY

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE STUDY

CANADIAN PLANTS.

TO WHICH IS ADDED A

SELECTION OF EXAMINATION PAPERS.

JOHN MACOUN, M.A., F.L.S.,

Professor of Botany in Albert University.
AND

H. BS. SPOTTON,. M.A.,
Head Master of Barrie High School.

ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHORS.

TORONTO:

W. JI. GAGE & COMPANY,
11 WELLINGTON ST. WEST.
1879.

abrver

Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Office of the F
Minister of Agriculture, by ADAm MiLveEr & Co., in the year 1879.
*

The work, of which the present little volume forms
the first part, has been undertaken, at the suggestion
of several eminent educationists, to supply a palpable
want. The works on Botany, many of them of great
excellence, which have found their way into this
country, have been prepared with reference to climates
differing, in some cases, very widely from our own.
They consequently contain accounts of many plants
which are entirely foreign to Canada, thus obstructing
the search for descriptions of those which happen to be
common to our own and other countries ; and, on the
other hand, many of our Canadian species are not men-
tioned at all in some of the Classifications which have
been in use. It is believed that the Classification which
is to form the second part of this work will be found to
contain all the commonly occurring species of the
Provinces whose floras it is designed to illustrate, with-
out being burdened with those which are either ex-
tremely rare, or which do not occur in Canada at all.

The present Part is designed to teach the Elements
of Structural Botany in accordance with a method which
is believed to be more rational than that commonly
adopted; and it will be found to supply all that is
requisite for passing the examinations for Teachers’
Certificates of all grades, as wellas any others demand-
ing an elementary knowledge of the subject. It
contains familiar descriptions of common plants, illus-
trating the chief variationsin plant-structure, with a view
to laying a foundation for the iitelligent study of
Systematic Botany with the aid of the second part;
then follow a few lessons on Morphology; and the

Ministry of Education, Ontario
Historical] Collection

foe ae By,

ay, PREFACE,

Elements of Vegetable Histology are treated of in as
simple and brief a manner as was thought to be con-
sistent with the nature of the subject.

The Schedules, the use of which is very strongly
recommended, were devised by the late Professor Hens-
low, of Cambridge University, to fix the attention of
pupils upon the salient points of structure. They will
be found invaluable to the teacher as tests of the accu-
racy of his pupils’ knowledge. The cost of striking off
a@ few hundred blanks of each sort would be very
trifling, and not worth considering in view of the
resulting advantages.

The wood-cuts are from drawings from living speci-
mens, except in two or three instances where assistance
was derived from cuts of well-known excellence in
standard works on Botany. It need hardly be said
that the engravings are not in any sense intended to
take the place of the living plants. They are designed
chiefly to assist in the examination of the latter, and
whilst it is hoped that they may be of service to those
who may desire to read the book in the winter season,
it is strongly urged upon teachers and students not to
be satisfied with them as long as the plants themselves
are available.

The works most frequently consulted in the prepar-
ation of the text are those of Hooker, Gray, Bentley and
Oliver.

Finally, the Authors look for indulgence at the hands
of their fellow-teachers, and will be glad to receive sug-
gestions tending to increase the usefulness of the work,
and to extend a taste for what must ever be regarded as
one of the most refining as well as one of the most
practically useful of studies,

September, 1879.

DESCRIPTION OF CUTS.

= Fig. : Page
: 1. Fibrons root of Battercap.........0ee0eeceeeceeeee, 2
| 2. Magnified tip of rootlet .............2......00..., %
enone, DUMODONT os. Side ee sok vs Mes Cocke cee 4

Per eememahGRGO! WaMO) so... ks. fois. Duele ccel Ebel
5. Back view 91 one of the flowers of samo ............ 5
O. Beotion of flower of same ...................00.0, 7
ST ea ane a a it
8. Stamen discharging pollen.......................... 7
9. Head of carpels of ELD LGU CELI N wrens Sr Siietaca see TO 7
{0. A carpel magnified, and showing ovaleswaes sd coe cee. fi
11. Stigma of Buttercup, greatly magnified .............. 8
ER OR ONE pase ter EE Ces oun oe ee 8
ERE COPE ale. .s nees REE lacey ie eee 9
14, Ripened carpel of MOLARS 6.0 v2 Skee wads coasts 10
1b. Vertical ection of same..............02.......0..., 10
16. Section of aseed, showing position of embryo ........ 10
_ 217. Pollen-grain developing its tube :................... 12
18. Section of ovule, showing micropyle ................ 12
ERE Ore oh 5c Oe a Shy Lae 14
Single flower of same, with bracts underneath........ 15
eum ahearpols of tame ages. i026 a8 o éavoce.. ok 16
MO Me Ne Sic ews Nie ie bog Bees, oe 16
Marsh-Marigold ....... Grape wletwrarein' alo Mies Satathters.S Cae 17
BE OL ORIG GE BUNGE) 2255255 « vonkieicodu-22,..0, Lea 18
Single carpel of same, split QP SD ."«; sia mreterdel aera ates Se 18
TES ES NA a eee RS 21
EM NE ose is anit. Po og ects alee 22
Tetradynamous stamens of same.................... 22
EE font aril oo 8 oon BRL 23
The same with one lobe removed to show seeds ...... 23
Monnd-leaved Mallow... .... 2... .0c0scesceveccce lw. 24
Section of flower of same ................0......... 24
La a a ee Cie ean as 24
Ring of carpels and persistent calyx of same.......... 24
Pen RRMA POR 6. oy eso dd dhe bu ooo eae oes 27
EEE OE SURD Co asians dias dabre ence scege Reiter 27
- Diadelphous stamens of same ..... av eit wie: v deplanaenean es 27
Ses ere a nee tty 27
Sepa EMER (notin, os ina hn Noe Soe 27
. Flower of Great Willow-herb ...... Sie eters Sate ate wiacvars 29
- Pistil of same bursting dpen........................ 30
Semin OF BAERO SS OU Sc ep Sack Sabet Oss yo 30
Petes Of Sweet Brier ica: siwieevenx€ec «sss ccukk 32
Section of flower of same.......................... 32
45. Section showing carpels and hollow receptacle of same.. 33
6. Flower of Crab-Apple........................ rte.

vr DESCRIPTION OF CUTS.

. As SCHON Of BAING: 2. se ssdeb sn ae vee sae meine aces
. 48. Cross section of Crab-Apple .........0+..0s.ess0-
49. Compound umbel of Water-Parsnip..............-
BO.rpingle flower of SAME’ .,.... <i <’cie's = ane cr Uae Ors
Blpection Of pistil:of AMG: , <0: <0 pele steckee erence

52. Section of flower of Dandelion .............c+«+<-

Ho. oingle floret.of Dandelion «<..)\.5,-.isss > once

64. Ligulate corolla of same with epipetalons stamens .

55. Syngenesious stamens of Dandelion .............

56. aepnces HREOC. OL SAING ie tertte tel sicierkei= wiereielseeentat eke eee

Owerjor Catnip) 17 asieiciet> eietiale helenae

57. Single

wee

wae

58. Front view of same, showing didynamous stamens ....

BOs EIStil OF SAME < o.ce caeistele Sietticccrela hare ileccce Enea even
GU CanpGlsof Same. 26.' os. S hale Oe rae eee
Dlswberiilesower of Cucumber! .. «cca eee
62. Sterile ower of SAME... 2 ssc scl cow rem ree
Od-soperie caticinyoL Willow \..../s(ousicle toe clarwteieral aes
Gastiertile catkin of \sAMe | .....cyc.seimisaris aeteeie ss eee
65. Single staminate flower of same .................
66. Single fertile flower of same ...........-....+.---
fy. SEP KAN BOA 2/2 cape -roiet eel i sehdieyel yoke aero ere Roe
68. same showing cotyledons). <2... =... ~<a ees
69.- Same showing plamule ©. 2).cs cele esain a's) dee er ee
70. Bean showing cotyledons and radicle .............
Hales AMES AOWAN ET, PLUWAUTILO, <p vege. mies cle lea tole) tatoleoeteron ene
re OMS TOOK MIOLSbA cosy ciee opus wie elms hate oie eaten eeteeteee
Pep EAS TU CLG SAMO) sare te cm isiazo)oels ae uslonetauct Mctarstal or eate ele ate ae
PEE CIIOMNOL OVEN an le lc [cisis'ei aici ain a: siete ele sy aloo eaten nee
fio Abatlin hea epeetaum occas oo ace © pista wthctake ST Oke eee
fGen PeCtion! OL Ovary OL SANG... j<,00xc.y lore mehoiel> stare ate
77. Net-veined leaf of same ........... shia shorel clans cad ouster
Hee lho hee 4 Mrin eth) eae mnooae Se odp do oso sao c os od ee
BO ce PALME OL SHE fs a1c/c) se ratetel lola ie foie = /ebotate ere eee rars
SO, Heriilelspadi= Of Same).\..c,<iij-1- sive sleleioe a siete
SIF Sterileispadix of, SAME 1. <iaiei\e dieteteie = (ls shale letersi

82. Spadix and spathe of Calla ............-.-..-

Bo; eal OF SAME = e's ws: secvers.eepene wnat cera delein: eksne renee eee

Bo. Showy Orchis. sapaweescis escort te nite eee
66: Single flower, Of SAME <= ce mes sho aerate sree
Si), Collen-mans Of SAMO. ..fe ve sii wie e's ales em elt ee
88. Single flower of Timothy ............... 3 eases
89. Same opened to show parts ........sceeccccseces

90. Section of a grain of Indian Corn ..............

Oi Eimpryo Of GSMO! sos ein wos oes scam dete
2, Pechon, Of EMBL! «c's. baja <m ce cles hele eee eee ere
98.) Tap-root of Dandelion 2.2). <iclascre os opened tte
94, ‘Tap-root of Carrot ......5....0ssccsecescesanene
95. Fascicled xoots of Peony? ... - «<< set anes oe
96, Secondary roots of Verbena ...,.,. AH oncani Atos

sae

eee

wee

DESCRIPTION OF OUTS. Vil

RUPEE MODOTEL OF CLEDO. nic cicwis s «Sirens aie syncs sc. Soiree a tere 66

Mberaear-tendril Of Pes... ee cce es dices oe Sia wate siete Cte 67

Hues baIDeETs Of Potato... sce ns vosles eas cw ae ca Ae ie 67
MUPNMMBERETUOIINE =, Cic/aie ta chu sdae ois nal Sarecacaigt CetMe Sah a: aimele \e 6/858 68
Eee eouon OF Onion HUlDs. 0... ccsaevse espn sn reewneamse 69
fos. Daily bulb’: ..:200 sees EER SEC ORR CIR ar oi 69
SPIO (Ol EP AMRLDOLN «ais /ciy sere sie.o ala'e Wels o'aye se salsa @raeiye 70
Bt PriGikles Of Welt BIGOP 6c cc eee veces er cceseresdene 70
f0o. Wrorled leavesiof Galinm ...........0..ccesenceesee 71
106. Simple radiate-veined leaf of Mallow ................ TL
PeieaeOMMpOUNG IGAt Of Clover’. cc 0c. cee cess ew eway esas 71
OO Tool GAC eRe Sgn: Cima ean cic Rae Cicero se: 72
109. Digitate leafof Virginia creeper be Ite EIEIO RIC ee 73
MUA CIOUIAN IOAVEH OL: PING. cooker ce cacdcenscescescne eu 74
111—134. Various forms of leaves..............2.0e00:: 74—79
Seeermmtecy HTH Of 2 COLVIN satu cisiv's. vlan sisal, s'erayacwie. a/s)5's,cie Seqeiniers 83
ee CHEUOUTIC LAGGINO) vical ere: ciein aio iemin since wisi vie aiscvieteisia ei 83
Be eROEIIN Oh, CAVING aie: o/0:'010) 010 cieic wee oe ane eles, © a el cere wie, rele Wome 84
SRE OUR MOL GALOGH EAN K 4/3 5/0. tive. c.e ciple Vos 9 sia # Viale wales ye ela 86
139. Tubular corolla of Honeysuckle -...............008- 87
140. Funnel-shaped corolla of Bracted Bindweed .......... 87
a4, Salver-shaped corolla of Phlox... 2.0... ...sc0cecsseens 87
142. Labiate corolla of Turtle-head ...................00- 87
feo Earsonate corolla of Toadflax.). «2. sic sa sc's 2's <n eic.e:sjnisin 87
144. Stamen with adnate anther ............-scecccccece 88
fap. Stamen with innate anther... <......0ssecssseavencces 88
146; Stamen with versatile anther... ........ 0.05 ee cnce stone 88
Py. -Anther opening’along MArgin os... 20. ees cence cases 89
148. Anther of Blue Cohosh with uplifting valves.......... 89
149. Anther of a Heath with pores at the apex ...........-. 89
150, 151. Ovary of Mignonette with seeds on the walls...... 91
152, 153. Ovary of Pink with seeds on a central column.... 91
a TOE BS SESS oe ee 92
Meme Lanp GRORIG) Of ABMG.. < ae ccc se alaa viene nae Sor aruigala lets 92
156. One of the winged seeds of same .......... soueeictit 92
MEMMMLULUILE OL ESIC DOTT Soto e 9a ai <iain Ss cleiniore soe wn, waseielaste'e 94
158. Section of unripe Strawberry.........-cssecccecscess 94
MEER TO IING! OF OSI oso. arn, 0,0 cab wa sin, 40 ale alo e'a board ofs(eloars-e 95
mebersticie OF Garcon, SOCK ....4. 00 cs scac sie cee s ease siaies sc 96
MEMNEELU EIS Ofek OFEIMISCA) «Fos anis « ud ease de a Savapien oc cae eee ss 96
MEE AIIEER OF MADIO > c\c(bss.0>sc sis Laveicis she Seo wes hiealatinlece & 96
163. Loosely packed cells of the pith of Elder ............ 99
164. Hair from leaf of a Petunia, showing cellular structure. 99
164. (a) Hair from leaf of Geranium................e0e00- 99
165. Tapering and overlapping cells of woody tissu. Sct waar 102
MIPMBMIENELCC QUOE. crt ainicieera daca sinew sa ciatiniaiw se’ s,< 01<6's'ge ola 103
167. Section of a young exogenous stem........ Sins wine 104
168. The same at a later period of growth ..............-+ 104
169. Section of am endogenousstemM .......0 ee cece ee eeee 105
Bee PICHL-HEOMABEG. . ce nccccceeivecessesessesvescceseccee LOY

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
PAGE
| Examination of a Buttercup .................cccceeeeeee
yr CHAPTER II.
Functions of the Organs of the Flower................e00 11

CHAPTER III.

_ Examination of Hepatica and Marsh-Marigold— Resemblances
between their flowers and that of Buttercup .......... 13

CHAPTER IV.

Examination of other common plants with hypogynous
stamens—Shepherd’s Purse—Round-leaved Mallow.... 21

CHAPTER V.

Examination of common plants with perigynous stamens—
| Garden Pea—Great Willow-herb—Sweet-Brier—Crab-
PONTE CRN cia let et aaln eo of tiara aia ora wtetat aye (a le ax ais) spitaicis. oieleskc ceroee 26

CHAPTER VI.

5 Examination of a plant with epigynous stamens—Water-
% TRUSTS a Satay olatar'aym seria) ae i w.o <[o%s a (asa a o/' simi 5, 8iV Seis eA Oe 35

CHAPTER VII.

Be
_ Examination of common plants with epipetalous stamens—

PETRI TI — CALI IPN are oro’ sisi sini mah snicierals alan aie aintcha ms ate 36
2 CHAPTER VII.
; Examination of plants with Monecious and Diccious

_ Characteristics possessed in common by all the plants
previously examined—Structure of the seed in Dicoty-
UIC DIE CAAT ACUI IERC ECR EIROOC EI CH or 1 RR IC TRC AE ICI 45

CHAPTER X.

Examination of common plants continued—Dog’s-tooth
Violet — Trillium — Indian Turnip — Calla — Orchis—
PPP ie isan clocks sek pes eas ees ge ese waseegs AT

CHAPTER xL

nmon characteristics of the plants a examine
Structure of the seed in Monocotyledons............ oe

= CHAPTER XII. :
OM orphology of Roots, Stems and Foliage-Leaves ........ -

CHAPTER XIII.

“Morphology of Flower-Leaves—The Calyx — The ote :
The Stamens—The Pistil—The Frnit—The Seed—Ger-
-Mination
CHAPTER XIV.

On the minute structure of Plants—Exogenous and Endo- -
genous Stems—Food of Plants

CHAPTER XV.
Classification of Plants according to the Natural System....
a ss The Herbarium
Index and Glossary
Examination Questions

=
ut

~/
a-%
tio

é : =
Oe) Co deny | Sve

o0 Fave

t
‘ 4

‘TABLE OF THE COMMON PLANTS EXAMINED, TO-
_ ‘GETHER WITH THE FAMILIES TO WHICH THEY
=

BELONG.

_ Buttercup, Hepatica, Marsh-Marigold.Crowroor Famizy.
Meepnepherd’s Paurse...... «.--..-+.> Cress Faminy.
-Round-leaved, MEOW dese nen css vale Mattow Famity.

Garden Pea..... a heie wen chigeas erat dn 6 Putse Faminy.

"Great SWIMMER DE os cla: iolenel oye 30 Ss Evenrnec-Prowrose Faminy.
‘Sweet-Brier, Orah-Appla. ..... 6. «2. Rose Faminy.

§ Water-Parsnip NS AGG ae aN ParsteY Famity.

ME RELLLISING Ge Yas 2(-cin ot c\ 6a. b.e ayciatcigiain ‘aie Composite Famity.
Oe ACI ICIEE OP OTC Mint Faminy.
SS Sy oar Gourp Famiy.
: 8 URE OO CE Ce BERE Witiow Faminy.
ie z Dog’s-tooth Violet, Trillium ........ Liry Famiry.
indian Turnip, Calla ........0...02- Arum Famtty.
ie. Se eer e Oxcuis Famtuy.
; MMOURY ©... cea vee Stans alent aire Grass Famiiy.

si.

fae LE MENTS

BIRUCTURAL BOTANY.

1. The study of Botany is commonly rendered unat-
tractive to the beginner by the order in which the parts
of the subject are presented to him. His patience be-
comes exhausted by the long interval which must neces-
sarily elapse before he is in a position to do any practical
work for himself. In accordance with the usual plan,
some months are spent in committing to memory a
mass of terms descriptive of the various modifications
which the organs of plants undergo; and not until the
student has mastered these, and perhaps been initiated
into the mysteries of the fibro-vascular system, is he
permitted to examine a plant as a whole. In this
little work, we purpose, following the example of some
recent writers, to reverse this order of things, and at
the outset to put into the learner’s hands some com-
mon plants, and to lead him, by his own examination
of these, to a knowledge of their various organs—to

2 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

cultivate, in short, not merely his memory, but also,
and chiefly, his powers of observation.

It is desirable that the beginner should provide him-
self with a magnifying glass of moderate power for
examining the more minute parts of specimens; a
sharp penknife for dissecting; and a couple of fine
needles, which he can himself insert in convenient
handles, and which will be found of great service in
separating delicate parts, and in impaling fine portions
for examination with the aid of the lens.

CHAPTER I.

EXAMINATION OF A BUTTERCUP.

2. To begin with, there is no plant quite so suitable
as our common Buttercup. This plant, which has
conspicuous yellow flowers, may be found growing in
almost every moist meadow. Having found one, take
up the whole plant, loosening the soil a little, so as to
obtain as much of the Root as possible. Wash away

the earth adher-
ing to the latter
part, and then
proceed to ex-
amine your spec-
imen. Begin-
ning with the
Root, (Fig.1)the
Fig. 1. first noticeable

thing is that it is not of the same colour as the rest of

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 3

the plant. Itis nearly white. Then it is not of the
same form as the part of the plant above ground,
It is made up of a number of thread-like parts which
spread out in all directions, and if you examine one of
these threads through your magnifying glass, you will
find that from its surface are given off many finer
threads, called rootlets. These latter are of great im.
portance to the plant; it is largely by means of their
tender extremities, and the parts adjacent to these,

that it imbibes the nutritious fluids contained in the

soil.

Whilst you are looking at these delicate rootlets, you
may perhaps wonder that they should be able to make
their way through the soil, but how they do this will be
apparent to you if you examine the tip of one of them
with a microscope of considerable power. Fig. 2 repre-
sents such a tip highly magnified. It is to
be observed that the growth of the rootlet
does not take place at the very extremity,
yy---6 but immediately behind it. The extreme
“ tip consists of harder and firmer matter than

Fig.2. that behind, and is in fact a sort of cap or
thimble to protect the growing part underneath. As
the rootlet grows, this little thimble is pushed on first
through the crevices of the soil, and, as you may sup-
pose, is soon worn away on the outside, but it is as
rapidly renewed by the rootlet itself on the inside.

Another difference between the root and the part
above ground you will scarcely have failed to discover:
the root has no leayes, nor has it any buds.

You may describe the root of the Buttercup as fibrous.

Fig. 3
ties, either in flowers or in flower-buds.

BLEMETS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

3. Let us now look at the
Stem. (Fig.3.) Itis upright,
pretty firm, coloured green,
and leaves spring from it at
intervals. As there is scarce-
ly any appearance of wood in
it, we may describe it ‘as
herbaceous. At several points
along the main stem branches
are given off, and you will
observe that immediately
below the point from which
every branch springs there
is a leaf on the stem. The
angle between the leaf and
the stem, on the upper side‘
is called the azil of the leaf
(axilla, an armpit), and it is
a rule to which there are
scarcely any exceptions, that
branches can only spring
from the axils of leaves.

The stem and all the
branches of our plant termi-
nate, at their upper extremi-

4. Let us now consider the Leaves. A glance will
show you that the leaves of this plant are not all alike.
Those at the lower end of the stem have long stalks, (Fig.
4) which we shall henceforward speak of as petioles. Those
a little higher up have petioles too, but they are not

quite so long as the lower ones, and the highest leaves
have no petioles at all. They appear to be sitting on
the stem, and hence are said to be sessile. The lowest

wh leaves ot all, as they seem to spring from
No the root, may be described as radical,
SQQVAE whilst the higher ones may be called
al a cauline (caulis, a stem). The broad part
of a leaf is its blade. In the plant we
are now examining, the blades of the
leaves are almost divided into distinct
pieces, which are called lobes, and each of
these again is more or less deeply cut.
Both petioles and blades of our leaves are
covered with minute hairs, and so are said
to be hairy.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 5

Fig. 4.

Hold up one of the ieaves to the light, and you will
observe that the veins run through it in all directions,
forming a sort of net-work. The leaves are therefore
net-veined,

The points along the stem from which the leaves
arise are called nodes, and the portions of stem between
the nodes are called internodes.

5. Let us next examine the Flowers. Each flower in
our plant is at the end either of the stem or of a branch
of the stem. The upper portions of the stem and its
branches, upon which the flowers are raised, are called
the peduncles of the flowers.

Take now a flower which has just opened.
\ : >) Beginning at the outside, you will find five
) little spreading leaves, Somewhat yellowish
in colour. Each of these is called a sepal,
and the five together form the calyx of the

6 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

flower. If you look at a flower which is a little older,
you will probably not find any sepals. They will have
fallen off, and for this reason they are said to be decidu-
ous. So, in like manner, the leaves of most of our
trees are deciduous, because they fall at the approach of
winter. You will find that you can pull off the sepals
one at a time, without disturbing those that remain.
This shows that they are not connected together. They
are therefore said to be free, and the calyx is described
as polysepalous.

Inside the circle of sepals there is another circle of
leaves, usually five in number, bright yellow in colour,
and much larger than the sepals. Hach of them is
called a petal, and the five together form the corolla of
the flower. Observe carefully that each petal is not in-
serted in front of a sepal, but in front of the space be-
tween two sepals. The petals can be removed one at a
time like the sepals. They, too, are free, and the cor-
olla is polypetalous. If you compare the petals with one
another, you will see that they are, as nearly as possi-
ble, alike in size and shape. The corolla is therefore
regular.

6. We have now examined, minutely enough for our
present purpose, the calyx and corolla. Though their
divisions are not coloured green, like the ordinary leaves
of the plant, still, from their general form, you will have
no difficulty in accepting the statement that the sepals
and petals are in reality leaves. It will not be quite so
apparent that the parts of the flower which still remain
are also only modifications of the same structure. But
there is good evidence that this is the case. Let us,

iii ie

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 7
however, examine these parts that re-
main. There is first a large number of
little yellow bodies, each at the top of a
little thread-like stalk. Each of these
Fig. 6. bodies, with its stalk, is called astamen.
The little body itself is the anther, and the stalk is its
filament. Your magnifying glass will show you that
each anther consists of two oblong sacs, united length-
wise, the filament being a continuation of the line of
union. (Fig. 7.)
Tf you look at a stamen of a flower which
~ has been open some time, you will find that
“each anther-cell has split open along its
outer edge, and has thus allowed a fine
yellowish dust to escape from it. (Fig. 8.)
This dust 1s called pollen. A powerful
Fig.?7. Fig 8 Magnifier will show this pollen to consist of
grains having a distinct form.
As the stamens are many in number, and free from
each other, they are said to be polyandrous.
VE 7. On removing the stamens there is still left
<p a little raised mass, (Fig. 9) which with the aid
| of your needle you will be able to separate into
a number of distinet pieces, all exactly alike, and
looking something like unripe seeds. Fig. 10
shows one of them very much magnified, and cut
», through lengthwise. These little bodies, taken
| separately, are called carpels. Taken together,
they form the pistil. They are hollow, and
Fig 10. each of them contains, as the figure shows, a
little grain-like substance attached to the lower end of
its cavity. ‘This substance, in its present condition, is
the ovule, and later on becomes the seed.

8 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

You will notice that the carpel ends, at the top, in a
little bent point, and that the convex edge is more or
sr less rough and moist, so that in flowers
whose anthers have burst open, a quan-
tity of pollen will be found sticking there.
This rough upper part of the carpel is
called the stiyma. Fig. 11 showsa stigma

Fig. 1. greatly magnified. In many plants the
stigma is raised on a stalk above the ovary. Such a
stalk is called a style. In the Buttercup the style is so
short as to be almost suppressed. When the style is
entirely absent the stigma is said to be sessile. The
hollow part of the carpel is the ovary.

In our plant the pistil is not connected in any way
with the calyx, and is consequently said to be free or
superior, and, as the carpels are not united together,
the pistil is said to be apocarpous.

8. Remove now all the carpels, and there remains
nothing but the swollen top of the peduncle. This
swollen top is the receptacle of the flower. To it, in the
case of the Buttercup, all four parts, calyx, corolla,
stamens, and pistil, are attached. When a flower has
all four of these parts it is said to be complete.

9. Let us now return to our statement that the strue-
ture of stamens and pistils is only a modi-
fication of leaf-structure generally. The

{) stamen looks less like a leaf than any other
part of the flower. Fig. 12 will, however,
serve to show you the plan upon which the
botanist considers a stamen to be formed.
=f The anther corresponds to the leaf-blade,

a and the filament to the petiole. The two
Fig. 12 cells of the anther correspond to the two

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 9

halves of the leaf, and the cells burst open along what
answers to the margin of the teaf.

10. In the case of apocarpous pistils, as that of the
Buttercup, the botanist considers each carpel to be
formed by a leaf-blade doubled lengthwise until the
edges meet and unite, thus forming the ovary. Fig. 13
will make this clear.

11. There are many facts which support this theory
as to the nature of the different parts of the flower.
Suffice it to mention here, that in the white Water-
Lily, in which there are several circles of sepals
and petals, it is difficult to say where the sepals
end and the petals begin, on account of the
§/ gradual change from one set to the other. And

Fig. 13, 20t only is there a gradual transition from se-
pals to petals, but there is likewise a similar transition
from petals to stamens, some parts occurring, which are
neither altogether petals, nor altogether stamens, but a
mixture of both, being imperfect petals with imperfect
anthers at their summits. We can thus trace ordinary
leaf-forms, by gradual changes, to stamens.

We shall, then, distinguish the leaves of plants as
foliage-leaves, and flower-leaves, giving the latter name
exclusively to the parts which make up the flower,
and the former to the ordinary leaves which grow
upon the stem and its branches.

12. You are now to try and procure a Buttercup
whose flowers, or some of them, have withered away,
leaving only the head of carpels on the receptacle. The
carpels will have swollen considerably, and will now
show themselves much more distinctly than in the

10 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

_ flower which we have been exam-
\\ ining. This is owing to the growth
wf) of the ovules, which have now
“ pecome seeds. Remove one of
ie 14: Fig.15. the carpels, and carefully cut it
through the middle lengthwise. You will find that the
seed almost entirely fills the cavity. (Figs. 14 and 15.)

This seed consists mainly of a hard substance |
called albwmen, enclosed in a thin covering. At
the lower end of the albumen is situated a very
Fig. 16, small body, which is the embryo. It is this
which develops into a new plant when the seed germi-

nates.

13. We have seen then that our plant consists of
several parts:

(1). The Root. This penetrates the soil, avoiding
the light. It is nearly white, is made up of fibres, from
which numbers of much finer fibres are given off, and
is entirely destitute of buds and leaves.

(2). The Stem. This grows upward, is coloured,
bears foliage-leaves at intervals, gives off branches from
the axils of these, and bears flowers at its upper end.

(3). The Leaves. These are of two sorts : Foliage-
leaves and Flower-leaves. The former are sub-divided
into radical and cauline, and the latter make up the
flower, the parts of which are four in number, Viz. :
calyx corolla, stamens, and pistil.

It is of great importance that you should make your-
selves thoroughly familiar with the different parts of the
plant, «as just described, before going further, and to
that end it will be desirable for you to review the pre-
sent chapter carefully, giving special attention to those

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 1J

parts which were not perfectly plain to you on your first
reading.

In the next chapter, we shall give a very brief ac-
count of the uses of the different parts of the flower. If
- found too difficult, the study of it may be deferred until
further progress has been made in plant examination.

CHAPTER II.
FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGANS OF THE FLOWER.

14. The chief use of the calyx and corolla, or flora
envelopes, as they are collectively called, is to protect the
other paris of the flower. They enclose the stamens and
_ pistil in the bud, and they usually wither away and dis-
appear shortly after the anthers have shed their pollen,
_ that is, as we shall presently see, as soon as their ser-
vices as protectors are no longer required.

15. The corollas of flowers are usually bright-colour-
ed, and frequently sweet-scented. There is little doubt
that these qualities serve to attract insects, which, in
_ search of honey, visit blossom after blossom, and, bring-
ing their hairy limbs and bodies into contact with the
open cells of the anthers, detach and carry away quan-
tities of pollen, some of which is sure to be rubbed off
upon the stigmas of other flowers of the same kind,
subsequently visited.

16. The essential part of the stamen is the anther,
and the purpose of this organ is to produce the pollen,
which, as you have already learned, consists of minute
grains, having a definite structure. These little grains
are usually alike in plants of the same kind, They are

12 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

furnished with two coats, the inner one extremely thin,
and the outer one much thicker by comparison. The
interior of the pollen-grain is filled with liquid matter,
When a pollen-grain falls upon the moist stigma it
begins to grow in a curious manner, (Fig. 17). The
inner coat pushes its way through the outer one,
at some weak point in the latter, thus forming the
beginning of a slender tube. This slowly pene-
trates the stigma, and then extends itself down-
vig.17, Wards through the style, until it comes to the
cavity of the ovary. The liquid contents of the pollen-
grain are carried down through this tube, which remains
closed at its lower end, and the body of the grain on the
stigma withers away.

The ovary contains an ovule, which is attached by
one end to the wall of the ovary. The ovule consists of
a kernel, called the nucleus, which is usually surrounded
/.\ __ by two coats, through both of which there is a
ry, minute opening to the nucleus. This opening
NZ, is called the micropyle, and is always to be

Fig. yg, found at that end of the ovule which is not
attached to the ovary. (Fig. 18, m.)

About the time the anthers discharge their pollen, a
little cavity, called the embryo-sac, appears inside the
nucleus, near the micropyle. The pollen-tube, with its
liquid contents, enters the ovary, passes through the
micropyle, penetrates the nucleus, and attaches itself to
the outer surface of the embryo-sac. Presently the
tube becomes empty, and then withers away, and, in
the meanwhile, a minute body, which in time developes
into the embryo, makes its appearance in the embryo-
sac, and from that time the ovule may properly be

called a seed,

ee aes LUO ee

eee ee

ee eee oe

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 13

17. In order that ovules may become seeds, it is
always essential that they should be fertilized in the
manner just described. If we prevent pollen from
reaching the stigma—by destroying the stamens, for
instance—the ovules simply shrivel up and come to
nothing.
Now it is the business of the flower to produce seed,
and we have seen that the production of seed depends
_ mainly upon the stamens and the pistil. These organs
may consequently be called the essential organs of he
flower. As the calyx and corolla do not play any direct
part in the production of seed, but only protect the
essential organs, and perhaps attract insects, we can
understand how it is that they, as a rule, disappear
early. Their work is done when fertilization has been
accomplished.

Having noticed thus briefly tae part played by each

_ set of floral organs, we shall now proceed to the exami-

nation of two other plants, with a view to comparing
their structure with that of the Buttercup.

a
Sa
%

CHAPTER III.

b 4 EXAMINATION OF HEPATICA AND MARSH-MARIGOLD—RESEM-
BLANCES BETWEEN THEIR FLOWERS AND THAT OF
BUTTERCUP.

_ 18. Hepatica. You may procure specimens of the
_ Hepatica almost anywhere in rich dry woods, but you
will not find it in flower except in spring and early
summer. It is very desirable that you should have the
plant itself, but for those who are unable to obtain

14 BLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

specimens, the annexed engravings may serve as @
substitute.

Beginning then at the root of our new plant, you see
that it does not differ in any great measure from that
of the Buttercup. It may in like manner be described
as fibrous.

Fig. 19.

The next point is the stem. You will remember that
in the Buttercup the stem is that part of the plant
from which the leaves spring. Examining our Hepa-
tica in the light of this fact, and following the petioles
of the leaves down to their insertion, we find that they
and the roots appear to spring from the same place—
that there is, apparently, no stem. Plants of this kind
are therefore called acaulescent, that is, stemless, but it
must be carefully borne in mind that the absence of the

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 15

stem is only apparent. In reality there is a stem, but
it is so short as to be almost indistinguishable.
The leaves of the Hepatica are of course all radicul.
They will also be found to be net-veined.
19. The Flowers of the Hepatica are all upon long
peduneles, which, like the leaves, appear to spring from
the root. Naked peduncles of this kind, rising from
the ground or near it, are called scapes. The flower-
stalks of the Tulip and the Dandelion furnish other
familiar examples.
Let us now proceed to examine the flower itself.
Just beneath the coloured leaves there are three leaf-
lets, which you will be almosi certain to regard, at first
sight, as sepals, forming a calyx. It will not be diffi-
cult, however, to convince you that this conclusion
would be incorrect. If, with the aid of your needle,
you turn back these leaflets, you will readily discover,
between them and the coloured portion of SOYA
_ the flower, « very short bit of stem (Fig. 20), Sy JZ
the upper end of which is the receptacle.
As these leaflets, then, are on the peduncle, iy
below the receptacle, they cannot be sepals. pig, 90.
They are simply small foliage leaves, to which, as they
are found beside the flower, the name bracts is given.
Our flower, then, is apparently without a calyx, and in
this respect is different from the Buttereup. The whole
four parts of the flower not being present, it is said to
be incomplete.
20. It may be expiained nere that there is an under-
standing among botanists, that if the calyx and corolla
are not both present it is always the corolla which is
wanting, and so it happens that the coloured part of
the flower under consideration, though resembling a

16 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

corolla, must be regarded as a calyx, and the flower it-
self, therefore, as apetalous.

21. Remove now these coloured sepals, and what is
left of the flower very much resembles what was left of
our Buttercup, after the removal of the calyx and cor-
olla. The stamens are very numerous, and are inserted
on the receptacle. The carpels are
_ also numerous, (Fig. 21) are inserted
“S\ on the receptacle, and are free from
= each other (apocarpous). And if you
Fig.21. Fig. 22. examine one of the carpels (Fig. 22)

you will find that it contains a single ovule. The
flower, in short, so much resembles that of the Butter-
cup that you will be prepared to learn that the two be-
long to the same Order or Family of plants, and you will
do well to observe and remember such resemblances as
have just been brought to your notice, when you set out
to examine plants for yourselves, because it is only in
this way, and by slow steps, that you can acquire a
satisfactory knowledge of the reasons which lie at the
foundation of the classification of plants.

22. Marsh-Marigold. This plant grows in wet
places almost everywhere, and is in flower in early
summer.

Note the entire aosence of nairs on the surface of tae
plant. It is therefore glabrous.

The root, like that of the Buttercup anc of the He-
patica, is fibrous.

The stem is hollow and furrowed.

The foliage-leaves are of two kinds, as in the Butter-
cup. The radical leaves spring from the base of the
stem, whilst the higher ones are cauline. The leaves

LS =

ee a i al
y J

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 1%

ie not lobed, as in the other two plants, but are in-
dented on the edge. They are also net-veined.

23. Coming to the flower (Fig. 23)
we find a circle, or whorl, of bright
yellow leaves, looking a good deal a |
like the petals of the Buttercup, but —/(~ yfjijs—)
you will look in vain for the corre- .* |

ZN SS Ss ¢
_ Latins a Tn | fo rp
sponding sepals. In this case there =? ZN WA
Zed

eas
is no whorl of bracts to mislead you. VZTA

Are we to say, then, that thereisno ~“~«" \
calyx? If we adhere to the under-
standing mentioned when describing
the Hepatica, we must suppose the
corolla to be wanting, and then the i]
bright yellow leaves of our plant will Fig. 23.

be the sepals, and will together constitute the calyx.
As to the number of the sepals, you will find, as in the
Hepatica, some variation. Whilst the normal number
is five, some flowers will be found to have as many as
pine,

24. The stamens are next to be examined, but you
should first satisfy yourselves as to whether the calyx
is polysepalous or otherwise, and whether itis free from
the other floral leaves or not. If your examination
be properly made, it will show you that the calyx
is free and polysepalous.

The stamens are very much like those of the Butter-
cup and Hepatica. They are numerous, they have both

thers and filaments, and they shed _ their pollen
through slits on the outer edges of the anthers. They
are all separate from each other ( polyandrous) and are

1 inserted on the receptacle. On this latter account
ey are said to be hypogynous.

18 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

25. Remove the stamens, and you have left, as be-
fore, a head of carpels (Fig. 24). Examine one: there
is the lower broad part, which you recognize
as the ovury, the very short style, and the
sticky stigma. To all appearance the carpels
are pretty much the same as those of the two
plants already examined. It will not do, how-
Fig. 24 ever, to trust altogether to appearances in this
case. Cut open a carpel and you find that, in-
stead of a single ovule at the bottom of the ovary, there
are several ovules in a row along that edge of the
ovary which is turned towards the centre of the flower.

The ovary is, in fact, a pod, and, when the seeds
‘| ripen, splits open along its inner edge. If you
« |) can find one which has split in this way, you can
. J hardly fail to be struck with the resemblance
Pig. 25,Which it bears to a common leaf. (Fig. 25.)

On the whole the resemblance between the structure
of the Marsh-marigold and that of the Hepatica and
Buttercup is sufficiently great to justify us in placing
it in the same family with them.

26. Having now made yourselves familiar with the
different parts of these three plants, you are to write
out a tabular description of them according to the fol-
lowing form; and, in like manner, whenever you ex-
amine a new plant, do not consider your work done
until you have written out such a description of it.

In the form the term cohesion relates to the union of
like parts; for example, of sepals with sepals, or petals
with petals; while the term adhesion relates to the
union of unlike parts; for example, of stamens with
corolla, or ovary with calyx. Neither cohesion nor ad-
hesion takes place in any of the three flowers we have

3
uy

a) > oaay ve , Fd

a ae j
sd ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 19

~ examined, and accordingly, under these headings in our
schedule we write down the terms polysepalous, poly-
petalous, &e., to indicate this fact.

The symbol © means “ indefinite,” or ‘‘ numerous,”
and may be used when the parts of any organ exceed
ten in number.

BUTTERCUP.

| |
Seen oe PAT iad COHESION. | ADHESION.

OF FLOWER. REMARKS.

Calyx.
Sepals. 5

Polysepulous. | Inferior,

Corolla. Polypetalous. | Inferior.
Regular,

Petals. 5

Stamens. | & | Polyandrous. | Hypogynous.

Filaments.

Anthers.

Pistil. Apocarpous.

Carpels. a
Ovary. Superior.

Bio) eeodan? 30s eee tes

——————S—_

20 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
HEPATICA.
ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. | REMARKS.
Calyx. Polysepalous.| Inferior. Coloured like a
Corolla.
Sepals. 7-12
|
1
Calyx. Wanting.
Petals. Porites ee
Stamens. & | Polyandrous. | Hypogynous.
Filaments.
Anthers.
Pistil. Avocarpous.
Carpels. ee re.
Ovary. Superior. Co ae

MARSH-MARIGOLD.

i
ee ——————————

e CHAPTER IV.

EXAMINATION OF OTHER COMMON PLANTS WITH HYPOGYNOUS
_ STAMENS, SHEPHERD'S PURSE. ROUND-LEAVED MALLOW.

27. We shall now proceed to examine some plants.
the flowers of which exhibit, in their structure, impor-
_ tant variations from the Buttercup, Hepatica, and
_ Marsh-Marigold. :

WW 7.
//
/

Fig 26.

22. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

Shepherd’s Purse. This plant, (Fig. 26). is one
of the commonest of weeds. Asin the Buttercup, the
foliage-leaves are of two kinds, radical and cauline, the
former being in a cluster around the base of the stem.
The cauline leaves are all sessile, and each of them, at
its base, projects backward on each side of the stem, so
that the leaf somewhat resembles the head of an arrow.
Such leaves are, in fact, said to be sagittate, or arrow-
shaped. The flowers grow in a cluster at the top of the
stem, and, as the season advances, the peduncle gradu-
ally elongates, until, at the close of the summer, it
forms perhaps half of the entire length of the stem.
You will observe, in this plant, that each separate
flower is raised on a little stalk ofits own. Each of ©
these little stalks 1s a pedicel, and when pedicels are
present, the term peduncle is applied to the portion of
stem which supports the whole cluster.

28. The flowers, (Fig. 27), are rather small,
and so will require more than ordinary care in
their examination. The calyx is polysepalous,
and of four sepals. The corolla is polypetalous,
_ and of four petals. The stamens, (Fig. 28), are
six in number, and if you examine them atten-
tively, you will see that two of them are shorter
than the other four. The stamens are conse-
quently said to be tetradynamous. Butif there —

Fig. 8, had been only four stamens, in two sets of two ;
each, they would have been called didynamous. The ©
stamens are inserted on the receptacle (hypogynous).
The pistil is separate from the other parts of the flower
(superior). .

29. To examine the ovary, it will be better to select
a ripening pistil from the lower part of the peduncl-. i

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 23

Itis a flat body, shaped something like a heart, (Fig 29)
_ and having the short style in thenotch. A ridge divides
it lengthwise on each side. Carefully cut or pull away
the lobes, and this ridge will remain,
presenting now the appearance of a nar-
row loop, with a very thin membranous
partition stretched across it. Around
the edge, on both sides of the partition,
seeds are suspended from slender stalks.
(Fig. 80). There are, then, two carpels ig. 99, Fig. 30
_ united together, and the pistil is, therefore, syncarpous.

The peculiar pistil of this flower should be carefully
noticed, as it is the leading character of a whole group
of plants. When you meet with such a pistil, you may
be pretty certain that the plant to which it belongs is a
member of the Cress or Crucifer family, so called from the
four petals sometimes spreading out like the arms of a
cross. We shall find, however, that there are cross-
shaped corollas belonging to plants of other groups.
SHEPHERD’S PURSE.

Petals. i ,
a ee ee ee
q }
Stamens. 6 | Tetradyna- Hypogynous.
| mous.
Filaments. /
|
Anthers. |

Pistil.
Carpels

The two cells
of the ovary se-
parated by a |

Superior. | thin partition.

| Syncarpous.

Ovary. |

9A ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

30. Mallow. The round-leaved Mallow (Fig. 31)
grows along
every way side,
and is a very
common weed
y,,1D cultivated
grounds. Pro-
cure, if possible,
a plant which
has ripened its
seeds, as well as
one in flower.
The root of this
plant is of a
different lind-
from those of the
three plants first
examined. It
consists of a
stout tapering
part, descending deep into the soil, from the surface of
which fibres are given off irregularly. <A stout root of
this kind is called a tap-root. The Carrot is another
example.

81. The leaves are long-pctioled, net-veined and in-
dented on the edges. On each side of the petiole, at
its junction with the stem, you will observe a little leaf-
like attachment, to which the name stipule is given.
The presence or absence of stipules is a point of some
importance in plant-structure, and you will do well to
notice it in your examinations. You have now made
yourselves acquainted with all the parts that any leaf
has, viz., blade, petiole and st*pules.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 25

32. Coming to the flower, okserve first that the parts
of the calyx are not entirely separate, as in the flowers
you have already examined. For about half their
length they are united together so as to form a cup.
The upper half of each sepal, however, is perfectly dis-
tinct, and forms a tooth of the calyx; and the fact that
there are five of these teeth shows us unmistakably that
the calyx is made up of five sepals. We therefore speak
of it as a gamosepalous calyx, to indicate that the parts
of it are coherent.

As the calyx does not fall away when the other parts
of the flower disappear, it is said to be persistent. Fig.
31, a, shows a persistent calyx.

33. At the base of the calyx there are three minute
leaf-like teeth, looking almost like an outer calyx. A
circle of bracts of this kind is called an involucre. The
three bracts under the flower of the Hepatica also con-
stitute an involucre. As the bracts in the Mallow grow
on the calyx, some botanists speak of them as an epi-
calyx.

The corolla consists of five petals, separate from each
other, but united with the stamens at their base.

34. The stamens are numerous, and as their fila-
ments are united to form a tube they are said to be
monadelphous. This tube springs from the receptacle, and
the stamens are therefore hypogynous. Fig. 82 will
help you to an understanding of the relation between
the petals and stamens.

Having removed the petals, split the tube of the
stamens with the point of your needle. A little care
: will then enable you to remove the stamens without in-
juring the pistil. The latter organ will then be found
to consist of a ring of coherent carpels, a rather stout

;

=a”

26 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

style, and numerous long stigmas. (Fig. 33.) If you
take the trouble to count the carpels and the stigmas,
you will find the numbers to correspond. As the seeds
ripen the carpels separate from each other. (Fig. 34.)

MALLOW.
ORGAN. No. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS.
! Calyx. Gamosepsa- | Inferior. Three bracts
lous. growing on the
Sepals. 5 Calyx.
Corolla Polypetalous. | Hypogynous.
Petals. 5
Stamens. * |Monadelphous| Hypogynous.
: United in a
Filaments. ring.
Anthers. One-celled.
ae ; =]
Pistil. Synearpous. | Superior.
|
Carpels. = Carpels as many|
Ovary. as the stigmas.
}
CHAPTER V.

EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS WITH PERIGYNOUS STAMENS
— GARDEN PEA. GREAT WILLOW-HERB, SWEET-BRIER,
CRAB-APPLE.

35. Garden Pea. In the flower of this plant, the
calyx is constructed on the same plan as in the Mallow.
There are five sepals, coherent below, and spreading out
into distinct teeth above (Fig. 35). The calyx is there-
fore gamosepalous.

Examine next the form of the corolla (Fig. 36).
One difference between this corolla and those of the
previous plants will strike you at once. In the flowers

=v. te

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 27

of the latter you will re-
member that each petal
was precisely like its
fellows in size and {*
shape, and we there-
fore spoke of the corolla
asreyular. In the Pea, |
on the other hand, one “=
of the petals is large,
broad, and open, whilst
two smaller ones, in the front of the flower, are
united into a kind of hood. We shall speak of this
corolla, then, and all others in which the petals are
unlike each other in size or shape, as irregular.

As the Pea blossom bears some resemblance to a
butterfly, it is said to be papilionaceous.

36. Remove now the calyx-teeth and the petals,
being very careful not to injure the stamens and the
pistil, enveloped by those two which form the hood.
Count the stamens, and notice their form (Fig. 37).
You will find ten, one by itself, and the other nine with
the lower halves of their filaments joined together, or
coherent. When stamens occur in this way, in two
distinct groups, they are said to be diadelphous ; if in
three groups, they would be triadelphous; if in several
groups, polyadelphous. In the Mallow, you will remem-
ber, they are united into one group, and therefore we
described them as monadelphous. —

You will perhaps be a little puzzled in trying to
determine to what part ot the flower the stamens are
attached. If you look closely, however, you will see
that the attachment, or insertion, is not quite the same
as in the Buttercup and the other flowers examined.

28 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

In the present instance, they are inserted upon the
lower part of the calyx, and so they are described as
perigynous, a term meaning “ around the pistil.”

37. But the pistil (Figs. 388, 39) is not attached to
the calyx. It is free, or superior. If you cut the ovary
across, you will observe there is but one cell, and if you
examine the stigma, you will find that it shows no sign
of division. You may therefore be certain that the
pistil is a single carpel.

You are now prepared to fill up the schedule descrip-

tive of this flower.
GARDEN PEA.

38. The beginner will be very likely to think, from
its appearance, that the largest of the petals is made
up of two coherent ones, but the following considera-
tions show clearly that this is not the case. In the
Buttercup, and other flowers in which the number of
‘epals and petals is the same, the petals do not stand

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 29

before the sepals, but before the spaces between them.
In the Pea-blossom this rule holds good if the large
petal is considered as one, but not otherwise. Again,
the veining of this petal is similar to that of a common
leaf, there being a central rib from which the veins
spring on each side; and lastly, there are some flowers
of the Pea kind—Cassia, for example—in which this
particular petal is of nearly the same size and shape as
the other four.

39. Great Willow-herb. This plant is extremely
common in low grounds and newly cleared land, and
you may easily recognize it by its tall stem and bright
purple flowers.

Observe the position of the flowers. In the three
plants first examined we found the flowers at the end
of the stem. In the Willow-herb, as in the Mallow,
they spring from the sides of the stem, and immedi-
ately below the point from which each flower springs
you will find a small leaf or bract
(Fig. 40.) Flowers which arise g
from the axils of bracts are said to —
be azillary, whilst those which are
at the ends of stems are called ter-
minal, and you may remember
that flowers can only be produced
in the axils of leaves and at the
ends of stems and branches. ; Fig. 40.

40. Coming to the flower itself, direct your attention,
first of all, to the position of the ovary. You will find
it apparently under the flower, in the form of a tube
tinged with purple. It is not in reality under the
flower, because its purplish covering is the calyx, or

——s

80 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

more accurately the calya-tube, which adheres to the
whole surface of the ovary, and expands above into
four long teeth. The ovary therefore is inferior, and
the calyx of course superior, in this flower. As the
sepals unite below to form the tube the calyx is gam-
osepalous.

The corolla consists of four petals, free from each
other, and is consequently polypetalous. It is also
regular, the petals being alike in sizeand shape. Each
petal is narrowed at the base into what is called the
claw of the petal, the broad part, as in the ordinary
foliage-leaf, being the blude.

The stamens are eight in number (octandrous), four
short and four long, and are attached to the calyx
(perigynous).

41. The pistil has its three parts, ovary, style, and
stigma, very distinctly marked. The stigma consists
of four long lobes, which curl outwards after the flower
opens. The style is long and slender. The examina-
tion of the ovary requires much care. You will get the
best idea of its structure
by taking one which has
~.» just burst open, and begun
to discharge its seeds (Fig.
41). The outside will then
be seen to consist of four
pieces (valves), whilst the
centre is occupied by a
slender four-winged col-
umn, (Fig. 42), in the
grooves of which the seeds
are compactly arranged.
The pistil thus consists

—

Fig. 41.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. a

of four carpels united together, and is therefore
syncarpous. very seed is furnished with a tuft of silky
hairs, which greatly facilitates its transportation by the
wind.

42, The Willow-herb. furnishes an excellent example
of what is called symmetry. We have seen that the
calyx and corolla are each made up of four parts; the
stamens are in two. sets of four each; the stigma is
four-lobed, and the ovary has four seed-cells. <A flower
is symmetrical when each set of floral leaves contains
either the same number of parts or a multiple of the
same number.

Observe that the leaves of our plant are net-veined.

The schedule will be filled up as follows :

GREAT WILLOW-HERB.

— —eeeeeeeeeeSeSeSeSFSFSNSeFSFSee

ORGAN No. COHESION. ADHESION. | REMARES. }
Calyx Gamosepa- Superior.
lous.

Sepals 4

8 | Octandrous. Perigynous. |Fourshort and
four long.

4 Seeds provided
with tufts of hai

Spel ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

sepals of Sweet-
Brier are not en-
tirely distinct;
their lower halves
cohere to form a
tube, and the ca-
lyx is therefore
gamosepalous.

ys The corollacon-
= sists of five sepa-
rate petals of the
same size and
shape, and is
therefore both
(\ regular and poly-
Fig. 43. petalous.

The stamens are very numerous, and separate from
each other. As in the Pea and the Willow-herb, so in
this flower they will be found to be attached to the
calyx. They are, therefore, perigynous.

44. To understand the construction of the pistil, yu
must make a vertical section through the rouncish
green mass which you will find
on the under side of the flower.
You will then have presented to
you some such appearance as
that in Fig. 44. The green mass,
you will observe, is hollow. Its
outer covering is simply the con-
tinuation of the calyx-tube. The Fig. 44.
lining of this calyxr-tube is the receptacle of the flower; to
it are attached the separate carpels which together

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 33

constitute the pistil (Fig. 45), just as the
carpels of the Buttercup are attached to the
raised receptacle of that flower.

We must remind you again that when-
ever the ovary is enclosed in the calyx-tube,
and the calyx appears to spring from the
summit of the ovary, the latter is said to be inferior,
and the former superior.

Pig 45.

SWEET-BRIER.

ORGAN. NO. | COHESION. ADHESION, REMARKS.
Calyx. Gamosepalous| Superior.

Sepals. 5
Corolla Polypetalous. Superior.

Petals. 5
Stamens. | x eee Perigynous.
Pistil. Apocarpous. | Inferior. The hollow re-

ceptacle Lines

Carpels. e the calyx-tube

45, Crab-Apple. The flower of the Crab-Apple
(Fig. 46), is
in most re-
Spects, like
that of Sweet-
Brier. The
calyx is gam-
osepalous, its
parts being
united below
into a tube.
The corolla is
of five separ-

Fig. 47,

a4 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

ate petals. The stamens are numerous and are inserted
on the calyx.

The structure of the pistil (Figs. 47, 48), however, is
somewhat different. On making a cross-section through
the young apple, five cells containing the unripe seeds
are seen radiating from the centre. These seed-vessels
are imbedded in a fleshy mass, the outer limit of which
is marked by a circle of green dots, and outside these

dots is the flesh which constitutes the eatable part ot

the apple. The inner mass, which
encloses the core, belongs to the re-
ceptacle, whilst the outer edible por-
tion is the enlarged calyx. At the end
opposite the stem will be found the
persistent calyx-teeth. We have in
this flower, therefore, a syncarpous
pistil of five carpels, instead of an

apocarpous one, as in Sweet-Brier.

ro.

+ yet

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 85

CHAPTER VI.

EXAMINATION OF A PLANT WITH EPIGYNOUS STAMENS—
WATER PARSNIP.

46. Water-Parsnip. This is a common swamp
plant in Canada; but if any diffi-
* eulty be experienced in procuring
4% specimens the flower of the com-
mon Carrot or Parsnip may be
substituted for it, all these plants
being closely related, and differ-
ing but slightly in the structure
of their flowers.

Notice first the peculiar ap-
pearance of the flower cluster.

/ (Fig. 49.) There are several
¥ig.50. Fig. 49. pedicels, nearly of the same
3

length, radiating from the end of the peduncle,
and from the end of each pedicel radiate in like
manner a number of smaller ones, each with a flower
at its extremity. Such a cluster is known as an
umbel. If, as in the present case, there are groups of
secondary pedicels, the umbel is compound. As the
flowers are very small we shall be obliged to use the
lens all through the examination. Even with its aid
you will have a little difficulty in making out the calyx,
the tube of which, in this flower, adheres to the surface
of the ovary, as in Willow-herb, and is reduced above
to a mere rim or border, of five minute teeth. The
petals are five in number, and free from each other.
Observe that each of them is incurved at its extremity.
(Fig. 50.) They are inserted on a disk which crowns the

36 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

ovary, as are also the five stamens, which are hence said
to be epigynous. In the centre of the flower are two
short styles projecting above the disk, anda vertical
section through the ovary (Fig. 51) shows it to be two-
celled, with asingle seed suspended from the top of

each cell.
WATER-PARSNIP.

7.) eel
ORGAN. No. COHESION. ADHESION. | REMARKS.
% i |
Calyx. Gamosepalous.} Superior. Calyx-teeth al-
most obsolete.
Sepals. 5
Corolla. Polypetalous. Superior. Petals incurved.
Petals 5
Stamens. 5 Pentandrous. | Epigynous. |
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior,
Carpels. 2

CHAPTER VII.

EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS WITH EPIPETALOUS STAMENS
—DANDELION CATNIP-

47. Dandelion. The examination of this flower
will be somewhat more difficult than that of any we
have yet undertaken.

Provide yourselves with specimens in flower and in
seed.

The root of the plant, like that of the Mallow, is a
tap-root,

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 37

The stem is almost suppressed, and, as in the case of
the Hepatica, the leaves are all radical. They are also
net-veined.

The flowers are raised on scapes, which are hollow.
At first sight the flower appears to have a calyx of
many sepals, and a corolla of many
petals. Both of these appearances,
however, are contrary to facts. With

a sharp knife cut the flower through

! the middle from top to bottom. (Fig.

Fig. 52. 52.) It will then appear that the

flower or rather flower-head, is made up of a large

number of distinct pieces. With the point of your
needle detatch one of these pieces. At the iower
end of it you have a small body resembling an un-
ripe seed. (Fig. 53.) It is, in fact, an ovary.

Just above this there is a short bit of stalk, sur-

mounted by a circle of silky hairs, and above this

a yellow tube with one side greatly prolonged.

This yellow tube isa corolla, and a close examina- |g

tion of the extremity of its long side will show Fig. 53.

the existence of five minute points, or teeth, from

which we infer that the tube is made up of five coher-
ent petals. As the corolla is on the ovary it is said to
be Epigynous.

Out of the corolla protrudes the long style, divi-
ded at its summit into two stigmas.

To discern the stamens will require the greatest
nicety of observation. Fig. 54 will help you in
your task. The stamens are fivein number. They
| are inserted on the tube of the corolla (epipetalous)
and their anthers cohere (Fig. 55) and form a ring
about the style. When the anthers are united

38 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.
48. It appears, then, that the Dandelion, instead
.\\ of being a single flower, is in reality a compound

K of a great many flowers upon a common recep-
Ili taele, and what seemed at first to be a calyx is, in
Fig. 55. reality, an involucre, made up of many bracts.

But have the single flowers, or florets, as they are
properly called, no calyx? The theory is that they
have one, but that it is adherent to the surface of the
ovary, and that the tuft of silky hairs which we noticed
is a prolongation of it.

Now turn to your specimen having the seeds ready to
blow away. ‘The seeds are all single; the
little bit of stalk at the top has grown into
a long slender thread, and the tuft of hairs
has spread out like the rays of an umbrella
(Fig. 56). But though the seeds are inva-
riably single, it is inferred from the two-
lobed stigma that there are two carpels.

49. Flowers constructed on the plan of
the Dandelion are called composite flowers.
A very large number of our common plants Fig. 56.
have flowers of this kind. The May-weed, which
abounds in waste places everywhere, the Thistle, and
the Ox-Kye Daisy are examples.

a7. __DANDELION.
ORGAN No. | COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS. |
f Paro? oFyT ; The number of
Calyx. Gamosepalous.| Superior. sepals is inferred
at S |from analogy to
| gop ME Ea a PR |
| Corolla. Gamopetalous.| Epigynous. on
Petals. | 5 |
_ = = ri = {
Stamens. 5 | Syngenesious.| Epipetalous. |
|
= SS eS eee
iS ? Numberof car-
Pistil. Synearpous. | Inferior. pels inferred
from number

Carpels. 2 Peel Stk | of stigmas.

ELEMENTS OF: STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 89

50. Catnip. Note carefully the appearance of the
stem. It is square.

The flowers are in axillary clusters. The calyx isa
tube (Fig. 57) terminating in five sharp teeth, and you
may observe that the tube is a little longer on the up-
per side (that is, the side towards the stem)
than on the lower. The corolla is some-
what peculiar. It has somewhat the ap-
pearance of a wide open mouth, and is
known as a labiate or two-lipped corolla.
The upper lip is erect, and notched at the
apex. The lower lip spreads outward, and pig. 57.
consists of a large central lobe and two small lateral
ones. Altogether, therefore, there are jive lobes consti;
tuting the gamopetalous corolla. Pull out the corolla,
and with the point of your needle split its tube in front.
On laying it open, the stamens will be found to be in-
serted upon it (epipetalous). They are four in number,

a two of them shorter than the other two.
ap Hence they are described as didynamous. The
We anthers are peculiar in not having their lobes
M59 parallel (Fig. 58), these being wide apart at

i the base, in consequence of the expansion of
the connective, the name given to that part of
the anther which unites its two lobes or cells.

The pistil consists of a two-lobed stigma,a =,
long style, and an ovary which seems at first |
as if made up of four distinct carpels (Fig. 59).

But the single style and the two-lobed stigma

will warn you against this supposition. The

ovary really consists of two carpels, each of two

deep lobes, and, as the seeds ripen, these lobes

form four little nutlets (Fig. 60), each contain- pig. 59.
ing a single seed.

Fig. 58.

40 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

51. The group of plants to which Catnip
ry belongs is easily distinguished by the square
stem, irregular corolla, and four stamens.

CHAPTER VIII.

EXAMINATION OF PLANTS WiTH MONCCIOUS AND DIGCIOUS
FLOWERS—CUCUMBER, WILLOW.

52. Cucumber. You can hardly have failed to
notice that only a small proportion of the blossoms on
a Cucumber vine produce cucumbers. A great many
wither away and are apparently of no use. An atten-
tive inspection will show that some of the blossoms

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 41

have oblong fleshy cai Ly s

ees beneath them, whilst )\ bin
others are destitute of these WN \ Vai
attachments. Select a flower sy ‘ |
of each kind, and examine first \
the one with the protuberance
(Fig. 61), which latter, from
its appearance, you will prob-
ably have rightly guessed to be
the ovary. The situation of the
ovary here, indeed, is the same ee
as in the Willow-herb. The Fig.61.
ealyx-tube adheres to its surface, and is prolonged to
some little distance above it, expanding finally into five
teeth. The corolla is gamopetalous, and is adherent to
the calyx. Remove now the calyx and the adherent
corolla, and there is left in the centre of the flower a
short column, terminating in three stigmas, each two-
lobed.

There are’no stamens.

53. Now examine the other blossom (Fig. 62).

: _ Calyx and corolla have almost

exactly the same appearance as
“ before. Remove them, and you

have left three stamens grow-

ing on the calyx-tube, and

slightly united by their anthers

(syngenesious).

Fig. 62.
There is no pistil.
You see now why some blossoms produce cucumbers,
and others do not. Most of the blossoms have no
- pistil, and are termed staminate or sterile flowers, whilst
the others are pistillate or fertile. Flowers in which

AY, ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

either stamens or pistils are wanting are also called im-
perfect. When staminate and pistillate flowers grow on
the same plant, as they do in the case of the Cucumber,
they are said to be monecious.

54. In plants of this kind the pollen of one kind of
blossom is conveyed to the stigmas of the other kind,
chiefly by insects, which visit the flowers indiscrimin-
ately, in search of honey. The pollen dust clings to
their hairy legs and bodies, and is presently rubbed off
upon the stigma of some fertile flower.

55. In order to describe monecious flowers, our
schedule will require a slight modification. As given
below, the symbol + stands for ‘‘ staminate flower,”
and the symbol {| for ‘ pistillate flower.”

CUCUMBER.
ORGAN. No. | COHESION. | ADHESION. | REMARKS.
Calyx. Gamosepalous| Superior.
Sepals. 5
Corolla. Gamopetalous| Perigynous.
Petals. 5 |
+ Stamens. 3 |Syngenesious. | Perigynous |Twoanthersaro |
2—celled, and
one 1—celled.
+ Pistil. Wes
Carpels. | |
=o ~ ——$——— ee
} Stamens. | ° | | |
— - eal = —_
} Pistil. Synearpous. | Inferior. |

Carpels. 8

$$ $e

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 43

56. Willow. The flowers of most kinds of Willow
appear in spring or early summer, before the leaves.
They grow from the axils in long close clusters called
catkins or aments. Collect a few of these from the same
tree or shrub. You will find them
to be exactly alike. If the first
one you examine is covered with
yellow stamens (Fig. 68), all the
rest will likewise consist of sta-
Fig. 63. mens, and you will search in vain
for any appearance of a pistil. If, on the other hand,
one of your catkins is evidently destitute of stamens,
and consists of oblong pis-
tils (Fig. 64), then all the
others will in like manner
be found to be without
stamens. Unlike our Cu-
cumber plant, the stami
nate and pistillate flowers
of the Willow are borne Fig. 64.
on different plants. These flowers are therefore said to
be diwcious. As a general thing, staminate and pistil-
late catkins will be found upon trees not far apart.
Procure one of each kind, and examine first the stami-
nate one. You will probably find the stamens in pairs.
Follow any pair of filaments down to their
insertion, and observe that they spring from
the axil of a minute bract (Fig. 65). These
bracts are the scales of the catkin. There is
no appearance of either calyx or corolla, and
the flowers are therefore said to be achlamy-
deous, that is, without a covering. Now look
Fig.65 at the fertile catkin. Each pistil will, like

i. 2

A4 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

the stamens, be found to spring from the axil
of a scale (Fig. 66). The stigma is two-lobed,
and on carefully opening the ovary you observe | fis
that though there is but one cell, yet there are \ a
two rows of seeds. We therefore infer that the ges
pistil consists of two carpels. The pistillate
flowers, like the staminate, are achlamydeous.
In dicecious plants, the process of fertilization Fig. 66.
is assisted by insects, and also very largely by

the wind.

HEART-LEAVED WILLOW.

|
ORGAN | NO. | COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS.
Calyx 0
Corolla. 0 |
|
+ Stamens. 2 Diandrous. 0
1
aie, |
+ Pistil. 0
} Stamens. 0
+ Pistil. Syncarpous. 0

Carpels. 2

{
:

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. =

CHAPTER IX. a ia

CHARACTERISTICS POSSESSED IN COMMON BY ALL THE PLANTS
PREVIOUSLY EXAMINED, STRUCTURE OF THE SEED
IN DICOTYLEDONS.

57. Before proceeding further in our examination of
plants, we shall direct your attention to some characters
of those already examined, which they all possess in
common. The leayes of every one of them are net-
veined. Some leaves, at least, of each of them have dis-
tinct petioles and blades. The parts of the flowers we
found, as a general thing, to be in fives. In one or two
instances they were in fours, that is, four sepals, four
petals, and so on.

58. Now, in addition to these resemblances there are
others which do not so immediately strike the eye, but
which, nevertheless, are just as constant. One of these
is to be found in the structure of the embryo. Take
a cucumber or pumpkin seed, and having soaked it
for some time in water, remove the
outer coat. The body of the seed
will then readily split in two, except
where the parts are joined at one
: end. (Figs. 67,68, 69). The thick
Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. lobes are called cotyledons, or seed-
leaves, and as there are two, the embryo is dicotyledonous.
The pointed end, where the cotyledons are attached, and
from which the root is developed; is called the radicle.
Between the cotyledons, at the summit of the radicle,
you will find a minute upward projection. This is a
bud, which is known as the plumule. It developes into
the stem.

59. If you treat a pea or a bean (Figs. 70, 71), in the
same manner as the cucumber seed, you will find it to be

46 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

constructed on the same plan. The em-
bryo of the bean is dicotyledonous also.
But you will observe that in these cases
the embryo occupies the whole of the inte-
rior of the seed. In describing the seed
of the Buttercup, it was pointed out that
the embryo occupies but a very small
space in the seed, the bulk of the lat-
ter consisting of albumen. Seeds like those of the But-
tercup are therefore called albwminous seeds, while thoseof
the Bean and Pea are exalbuminous. But, notwithstand-
ing this difference in the structure of the seed, the embryo of
the Buttercup, when examined under a strong magnifier,
is found to be dicotyledonous like the others. In shoit,
the dicotyledonous; embryo is a character common to all
the plants we have examined—common, as a rule, to
all plants possessing the other characters enumerated
above. From the general constancy of all these char-
acters, plants possessing them are grouped together in -
a vast Class, called Dicotyledonous plants, or, shortly,
Dicotyledons.

60. Besides the characters just mentioned, there is
still another one of great importance, which Dicotyle-
dons possesses in common. It is the manner of growth
of the stem. In the Willow, and all our trees and shrubs
without exception, there is an outer layer of bark on the
stem, and the stem increases in thickness, year by year,
by forming a new layer just inside the bark and outside
the old wood. These stems are therefore called exogenous,
that is, outside growers.

Now, in all dicotyledonous plants, whether herbs,
shrubs or trees, the stem thickens in this manner, so
that Dicotyledons are also Exogens,

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 47
CHAPTER X.

EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS CONTINUED. DOG’S-TOOTH
VIOLET, TRILLIUM, INDIAN TURNIP, CALLA, ORCHIS,
TIMOTHY.

| 61. Dog’s-tooth Violet. This plant (Fig. 72)which
flowers in Spring, may be pretty easily recognised by

J
.
’
d
»

Fig. 72.
its peculiar blotched leaves, It may be found in rich

48 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

moist pasture lands and low copses. The name “ Violet”
is somewhat unfortunate, because the plant is not in
any way related to the true Violets. To obtain a com-
plete specimen requires some trouble, owing to the fact
that the root is commonly six inches or so below the
surface of the ground’; you must therefore insert a spade
or strong trowel sufficiently deep to avoid cutting or
breaking the tender stem. Having cleared away the
adhering earth, you will find that the roots proceed from
what appears to be the swollen end of the stem. This
swollen mass is coated on the outside with thin scales.
A section across the middle shows it to be more or less
solid, with the stem growing up through it from its
base. It is, in fact, not easy to say how much of this
stem-like growth is, in reality, stem, because it merges
gradually into the scape, which bears the flower, and the
petioles of the leaves, which sheathe the scape. The
swollen mass is called a bulb.

62. The leaves are two in number, gradually narrow-
ing at the base into sheaths. If you hold one of them
up to the light, you will observe that the veins do not,
as in the leaves of the Dicotyledonous plants, form a
network, but run only in one direction, namely, from
end to end of the leaves. Such leaves are consequently
called straight-veined.

63. In the flower there is no appearance of a green
calyx. There are six yellow leaves, nearly alike, ar-
ranged in two sets, an outer and an inner, of three
each. In such cases, we shall speak of the colored
leaves collectively as the perianth. If the leaves are free
from each other, we shall speak of the perianth as poly-
phyllous, but if they cohere we shall describe it as gamo-

at. oe. we lft

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 49

phyllous. Stripping off the leaves of the
perianth we find six stamens, with long
upright anthers which open along their
outer edges. If the anthers be pulled off,
the filaments will be found to terminate
in long sharp points.

The pistil (Fig. 73) has its three parts, at
ovary, style, and stigma, well marked. The
stigma is evidently formed by the union of
= three into one. ‘The ovary, when cut across,
Fig, 74, 18 seen to be three-celled (Fig. 74), and is
therefore syncarpous.

DOG’'S-TOOTH VIOLET.

ORGAN. No. COHESION. ADHESION, REMARES. |
Perianth. Polyphyllous. | Inferior,
Leaves. 6
ie = Filaments ter-
Stamens. 6 | Hexandrous. | Hypogynous. minating in
sharp points.

Carpels. 3

| Pistil. | Synearpous. Superior.

64. Trillium. This plant (Fig. 75) may be found
in flower about the same time as the one just described.
The perianth of Trillium consists of six pieces in two
sets, but in this case the three outer leaves are green,
like a common calyx. The stamens are six in num-
ber. There are three styles, curving outwards, the
whole of the inner side of each being stigmatic.

50 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

The ovary (Fig. 76) is six-
angled, and on being cut
across is seen to be three-
celled.

65. Comparing this flower
with that of Dog’s-tooth Vio-
let, we find the two to exhi-
bit a striking resemblance in
structure. But in one respect
the plants are strikingly un-
like: the leaves of the Trillium
are net-veined (Fig. 77), as in
the Exogens. From this cir-
cumstance we learn that we
cannot altogether rely on the
veining of the leaves as a con-
stant characteristic of plants
whose parts are not in fives.

TRILLIUM.
ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARES.
Perianth. Polyphyllous.| Inferior Sereis persist-
ent.
Sepals. 3
Petals. 3
Stamens. 6 oo Hexandrous. | Hypogynous.
Pist'l. | Syncarpous. | Superior. The inner face
of each style
Carpels. 3 stigmatic.

Leaves net-veined.

- '
eer : |
ar ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY, 51 ;

c 66. Indian Turnip. This plant may be easily met
_ with in our woods in early summer. If you are not
familiar with its appearance, the annexed cut (Fig. 78)

will help you to recognise it. Procure several speci-
mens; these will probably at first seem to you to be
alike in every respect, but out of a number, some are

Beeety sure to differ from the rest. Notice the bulb
— from which the stem springs. It differs from that of
_ the Dog’s-tooth Violet, and Lilies generally, in being a
4 pad mass. It is called acorm. Between the pair of

= an ee eR — S.<¢ ~~

59 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

1eaves you Ooserve a curious strip-
ed sheath, having an arching,
hood-hke top, and enclosing an up- .
right stalk, the top of which almost
touches the hood (Fig. 79). Can
this be a flower ? It is certainly
the only thing about the plant
which at all resembles a flower,
and yet how different it is from any
we have hitherto examined! Care-
fully cut away the sheaths from all
your specimens. Most, and per-
haps all, of them will then present
an appearance like that in Fig. 80.

Fig. 79. If none of them be like Fig. 81, it
will be well to gather a few more plants. We shall sup-
pose, however, that you have been fortunate in obtain-

ing both kinds, and will proceed with our
examination. Take first a specimen cor-
responding with Fig. 80. Around the
base of the column are compactly arrang-
ed many spherical green bodies, each
tipped with a little point. Separate one
of these from the rest, and cut it across.
It will be found to contain several ovules,
and is, in fact, an ovary, the point at the

Ee a

top being a stigma. In the autumn, a
great change will have taken place in the |
appearance of plants like the one we are ig g0, Fig.81 -
now examining. The arched hood will have disappear-
ed, as also the long naked top of the column, whilst the
part below, upon which we are now engaged, will have

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 58

vastly increased in size, and become a compact ball of
red berries. There can be no doubt, then, that we have
here a structure analagous to that found in the Cucum-
ber and the Willow, the fertile, or pistillate, flowers
being clustered together separately. But in the Cucum-
ber all the flowers were observed to be furnished with
calyx and corolla, and in the Willow catkins, though
floral envelopes were absent, each pair of stamens and
each pistil was subtended by a bract. In the present
plant there are no floral envelopes, nor does each pistil
arise from a separate bract.

67. But, you will now ask, what is this sheathing
hood which we find wrapped about our column of
pistils? There is no doubt that we must look upon it
as a bract, because from its base the flower-cluster
springs. So that, whilst the flowers of Indian-Turnip
are, like those of Willow, imperfect and diccious, the
clusters differ in having but a single bract instead of a
bract under each flower.

68. We must now examine one of the other speci-
mens; and we shall have no difficulty in determining
the nature of the bodies which, in this case, cover the
base of the column. ‘They are evidently stamens, and
your magnifying-glass will show you that they consist
mostly of anthers, the filaments being extremely short,
and that some of the anthers are two-celled, and some
four-celled, all discharging their pollen through little
holes at the top of the cells.

69. The column upon which, in plants like Indian-
Turnip, the flowers are crowded, is known as a spadix,
and the surrounding bract as a spathe.

You will observe that the leaves of this plant are net-—
veined, as we found them in the Trillium.

54 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

INDIAN-TURNIP.

| ORGAN. | No. COHESION. ADHESION

_ po eee +——

t Pistil. Apocarpous. i)

Car pels. iy
|

+Stamens. 1 Monandrous. 0

Flowers crowded 01 a spadix, and surrounded by a spathe.
Leaves net-veined.

70. Marsh Calla. This plant must be looked for
in low marshy grounds, where it will be found in flower
generally in the month of June. With the knowledge
which you have of the structure of Indian-Turnip, you~
will hardly doubt that the Calla is closely related to it.
You will easily recognize the spadix and the spathe
(Fig. 82), though in the present instance the svadix

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 55

bears flowers to the .op, ana .ae spathe 1s open instead
of enclosing the column. Observe, however, that the
veining of the leaf (Fig. 83) is different, that of Calla
being straight, like the Dog’s-tooth Violet. There is
also a difference in the flowers. Those of Indian-Tur-
nip were found to be dicecious, but the spadix, in the
present case, bears both stamens and pistils, and the
lower flowers, if not all, are perfect ; some-
» It
times the upper ones consist of stamens KES
only. Fig. 84 shows one of the perfect ee PD
flowers much enlarged. The stamens, it

; Fig. 84.
will be observed, have two-celled anthers,
opening lengthwise.
MARSH CALLA.
ORGAN. No. COHESION: ADHESION. |

Perianth. Wanting.

- |

Stamens Ga Hexandrous. Hypogynous.
| Pistil. Apocarpous. | Superior.
| Carpels. 1 |

71. Showy Orchis. The flower of this plant
(Figs. 85, 86) is provided with floral envelopes, all col-
oured like a corolla. As in Dog’s-tooth Violet, we shall
call them collectively the perianth, although they are
not all alike. One of them projects forward in front
of the flower, forming the lip, and bears under-
neath it along hollow spur, which, like the spurs of
Columbine, is honey-bearing. The remaining five con-
verge together forming a kind of arch over the centre
of the flower. Each flower springs from the axil of a

9 os

“4

ve Sn . c
aa ; :

leaf-like bract, and is apparently raised on a pedicel.
What seems to be a pedicel, however, will, if cut across,

Fig. 86,

i; =
i. SE
< . Fg)

ss or ee =ee cue Pie eal , ee “ ae
_ ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. =

sto ~

eas h 3.8 ties - : ,
>

t= % e

mel

prove to be the ovary, which in this case is
inferior. Its situation is similar to the situ-
ation of the ovary in Willow-herb, and, as
in that flower, so in this the calyx-tube ad-
heres to the whole surface of the ovary, and
the three outer divisions of the perianth are
simply upward extensions of this tube. No-
tice the peculiar twist in the ovary. The
effect of this twist is to turn the lip away

Ss i a ? 4%

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 57

from the scape, and so give it the appearance of being
the lower petal instead of the upper one, as it really is.

72. The structure of the stamens and pistils remains
to be examined, and a glance at the flower shows you
that we have here something totally different from the
common arrangement of these organs. In the axis of
the flower, immediately behind the opening into the
spur, there is an upward projection known as the column.
The face of this column is the stigma; on each side of
the stigma, and adhering to it, is an anther-cell. These
cells, though separated by the column, constitute but
a single stamen. The stamen, then, in this case is united
with the pistil, a condition which is described as gynan-
drous.

73. If you have a flower in which the anther-cells are
bursting open, you will see that the pollen does not
issue from them in its usual dust-like form, but if you
use the point of your needle carefully you may remove

the contents of each cell in a shass. These pollen
masses are of the form shown in Fig. 87. The
grains are kept together by a fine tissue or web,
and the slender stalk, upon which each pollen
mass is raised, is attached by its lower end to
a sticky disk on the front of the stigma just
above the mouth of the spur. Insects, in their

Fig. 87.
efforts to reach the honey, bring their heads in contact
with these disks, and when they fly away carry the
pollen-masses with them, and deposit them on the
stigma of the next flower visited. In fact, without the
aid of insects it is difficult to see how flowers of this
sort could be fertilized at all.

58 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

SHOWY ORCHIS.

ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARES.
} }
ees
Perianth. |Gamoph;llous. Superior.
Leaves. 6 RSE i nas
! |
| eile | Pollen-grains
Stamens. 1 Monandrous. Gynandrous. collected in
| amasses.
Pistil. Syncarpous. Inferior.
Carpels. 3 Ovary twisted. |

74. Timothy. The top of a stalk of this well-known
grass is cylindrical in shape, and upon examination
will be found to consist of a vast number of similar
pieces compactly arranged on very short pedicels about

the stalk as an axis. Carefully separate one

of these pieces from the rest, and if the grass

has not yet come into flower the piece will

present the appearance shown in Fig. 88. In

Fig. g3, this Fig. the three points in the middle are the

protruding ends of stamens. The piece which you have

separated is, in fact, a flower enclosed in a pair of bracts,

and all the other pieces which go to make up the top

are flowers also, and, except perhaps a few at the very

summit of the spike, precisely similar to this one in
their structure.

75. Fig. 89 is designed to help you in
dissecting a flower which has attained a
greater degree of developement than the
one shown in Fig. 88. Here the two
bracts which enclose the flower have
been drawn asunder. To these bracts
the name glumes is applied. They are present in all

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 59

plants of the Grass Family, and are often found enclos-
ing several flowers instead of one as in Timothy.
Inside the glumes will be found a second pair of minute ©
chaff-like bracts, which are known as palets or pales.
These enclose the flower proper.

76. The stamens are three in number, with the
anthers fixed by the middle to the long slender filament.
The anthers are therefore versatile. The styles are two
in number, bearing long feathery stigmas. The ovary
contains a single ovule, and when ripe forms a seed-
like grain, technically known as a caryopsis.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANTS JUST EXAMINED.
STRUCTURE OF THE SEED IN MONOCOTYLEDONS.

77. It is now to be pointed out that the six plants
last examined, viz., Dog’s-tooth Violet, Trillium,
Indian Turnip, Calla, Orchis, and Timothy, though
differing in various particulars, yet have some charac-

60 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

ters common to all of them, just as the group ending
with Willow was found to be marked by characters
- possessed by all its members. The flowers of Dicoty-
ledons were found to have their parts, as a rule, in
fours or fives; those of our second group have them in
threes or sixes, never in fives.

78. Again, the leaves of these plants are straight-
veined, except in Trillium and Indian-Turnip, which
raust be regarded as exceptional, and they do not as a
rule exhibit the division into petiole and blade which
was found to characterize the Exogens.

79. We shall now compare the structure of a grain
of Indian Corn with that of the Cucumber or Pumpkin
seed which we have already examined (page 45). It
will facilitate our task if we select a grain from an ear
which has been boiled. And first of all, let us observe
that the grain consists of something more than the
seed. The grain is very much like the achene of the
Buttercup, but differs in this respect, that the outer
covering of the former is completely united with the
seed-coat underneath it, whilst in the latter the true
seed easily separates from its covering. Remove the
coats of the grain, and what is left is a whitish starchy-
looking substance, having a yellowish body inserted in
a hollow (Fig. 90) in the middle of one side. This latter
body is the embryo, and may be easily removed. All
the rest is ulbumen. Fig. 91 is a front view of the
embryo, and Fig. 92 shows a vertical
section of the same. The greater part
of the embryo consists of a single cotyle-
don. The radicle is seen near the base,
Fig. 90, Fig. 1 Fig.2. and the plumule above.

80. Comparing the result of our observations with

are 5 ae Ny

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 61

what we have already learned about the Cucumber
seed, we find that whilst in the latter there are ‘wo
cotyledons, in the present case there is but 9ne, and
this peculiarity is common to all the plants just exam-
ined, and to a vast number of others besides, which are
consequently designated Monocotyledonous plants,
or shortly Monocotyledons, ‘The seeds of this great
Class may differ as to the presence or absence of albu-
men, just as the seeds of Dicotyledons do, but in the
number of their cotyledons ‘they are all alike. The
Orchids, however, are very peculiar from having no
cotyledons at all.

81. In addition to the points just mentioned, viz :
the number of floral leaves, the veining of the foliage
leaves, the usual absence of distinct petioles, and the
single cotyledon, which characterize our second great
Class, there is still another, as constant as any of these,
and that is, the mode of growth of the stem, which is
quite at variance with that exhibited in Dicotyledonous
plants. In the present group the increase in the
thickness of the stem is accomplished not by the
deposition of circle after circle of new wood outside the
old, but by the production of new wood-fibres through
the interior of the stem generally, and the consequent
swelling of the stem as a whole. These stems are
therefore said to be endogenous, and the plants com-
posing the group are called PaGORSDS: as well as
Monocotyledons.

We shall explain more fully the structure of exogen-
ous and endogenous stems, wlen we come to speak of
the minute structure of plants in a subsequent chapter.

62 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY

CHAPTER XII.
MORPHOLOGY OF ROOTS, STEMS, AND FOLIAGE-LEAVES.

82. From what has gone before, you should now be
tolerably familiar with the names of the different organs
of plants, and you have also had your attention directed
to some modifications of those organs as they occur in
different plants. In all these cases, the adjective terms,
which botanists use to distinguish the variations in the
form of the organs, have been placed before you, and if
you have committed these carefully to memory, you will
have laid a good foundation for the lessons which follow
on Morphology, the name given to the study of the
various forms assumed by the same organ in different
plants, or in different parts of the same plant. In
some instances, the terms employed, being derived from
Latin and Greek, and specially devised for botanical
purposes, may seem difficult to learn. We believe,
however, that this difficulty will be found to be more
apparent than real. You will be surprised at the ease
with which the terms will occur to your mind if you
learn them with the help of plants which are every-
where within your reach—if you be not satisfied with
being mere book-botanists

With a good many terms you will find no difficulty:
whatever, since they will be found to have the same
meaning in their botanical applications as they have in
their everyday use.

~ ———

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 63

83. The Root. This organis called the descending
axis of the plant, from its tendency to grow downward
into the soil from -the very commencement of its devel-
opement. Its chief use is to imbibe liquid nourishment,
and transmit it to the stem. You will remember that
in our examination of some common seeds, such as
those of the Pumpkin and Bean (Figs. 67-71), we found
at the junction of the cotyledons a small pointed pro-
jection called the radicle. Now, when such a seed is
put into the ground, under favourable circumstances of
warmth and moisture, it begins to grow, or germinate,
and the radicle, which in reality is a minute stem, not
only lengthens, in most cases, so as to push the cotyle-
dons upwards, but developes a root from its lower ex-
tremity. All seeds, in short, when they germinate,
produce roots from the extremity of the radicle, and
roots so produced are called primary roots.

84. There are two well-marked ways in which a pri-
mary root may develope itself. It may, by the down-
ward elongation of the radicle, assume the form of a
distinct central axis, from the sides of which branches
or fibres are given off, or root-fibres may spring in be
cluster from the end of the radicle at the very
commencement of growth. If the root grow
in the first way, it will be a tap-root (Fig. 93),
examples of which are furnished by the Car-
rot, the Mallow, and the Bean ; -if in the see-
ond way, it will be a fibrous root, examples of
which are furnished by the Buttereup (Fig. 1)
and by the entire class of Monocotyledcnous
or Endogenous plants.

85. Tap-roots receive different names, ac-

64 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

cording to the particular shape they hap-
pen to assume. Thus, the Carrot (Fig. 94)
is conical, because from a broad top it tapers
gradually and regularly to a point. The
Radish, being somewhat thicker at the middle
than at either end, is spindle-shaped. The
Turnip, and roots of similar shape, are napi_
form (napus, a turnip).

Fig. 94, These fleshy tap-roots belong, as a rule, to bi-
ennial plants, and are designed as storehouses of food for
the plant’s use during its second year’sgrowth. Occasion-
ally fibrous roots also thicken in the same manner, as
in the Peony, and then
they are said to be fascicled
or clustered. (Fig 95.)

86. But you must have
observed that plants some-
times put forth roots in
addition to those develop-
ed from the end of the
radicle. The Verbena of
of our gardens, for ex-

?
1

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 65

ample, will take root at every joint, if the stem be laid
upon the ground (Fig. 96). The runners of the
Strawberry take root at their extremities: and nothing
is more familiar than that cuttings from various plants
will make roots for themselves if put into proper soil,
and supplied with warmth and moisture. All such roots
are produced from some other part of the stem than the
radicle, and are called secondary or adventitious roots.
When such roots are developed from parts of the stem
which are not in contact with the ground, they are
aerial.

87. There are a few curious plants whose roots never
reach the ground at all, and which depend altogether
upon the air for food. These are called epiphytes
There are others whose roots penetrate the stems and
roots of other plants, and thus receive their nourish-
ment as it were at second-hand. These are purasitic
plants. The Dodder, Indian-Pipe, and Beech-drops, of
Canadian woods, are well-known examples.

88. The Stem. As the root is developed from the
lower end of the radicle of the embryo, so the stem is
developed from the upper end, but with this important
difference, that a bud always precedes the formation of
the stem, or any part of it or its branches. Between
the cotyledons of the Bean (Fig. 71), at the top of the
radicle, we found a minute bud called the plumule. Out
of this bud the first bit of stem is developed, and during
the subsequent growth of the plant, wherever a branch
is to be formed, or a main stem to be prolonged, there
a bud will invariably be found. The branch buds are
always in the axils of leaves, and so are called
axillary. Adventitious buds, however, are sometimes
produced in plants like the Willow, particularly if the

66 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

etem has been wounded. The bud from which the
main stem is developed, or a branch continued, is of
course at the end of the stem or branch, and so is
terminal.

89. If you examine a few stems of plants at random,
you will probably find some of them quite soft and
easily compressible, while others will be firm, and will
resist compression. The stem of a Beech or a Currant
is an instance of the latter kind, and any weed will
serve to illustrate the former. The Beech and the

Currant have woody stems, while the weeds are herde ~

ceous. Between the Beech and the Currant the chief
difference is in size. The Beech is a tree, the Currant a
shrub. But you are not to suppose that there is a hard
and fast line between shrubs and trees, or between herbs
and shrubs. <A series of plants could be constructed,
commencing with an unquestionable herb, and end-
ing with an unquestionable tree, but embracing plants
exhibiting such a gradual transition from herbs to
shrubs, and from shrubs to trees, that you could not
say at what precise point in the series the changes
occurred.

90. The forms assumed by stems above ground are
numerous, and they are described mostly by terms in
common use. Tor instance, if a stem is weak, and
trails along the ground, it is trailing, or prostrate; and
if, as in the run-
ners of the Straw-
berry, it takes
root on the lower
side, then it is
creeping. Many
weak stems raise

foe. pe et ig * Se —) D

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 67

themselves by clinging to any support that may happen
to be within their reach. In some instances the stem
itself winds round the support, assuming a spiral form,
as in the Morning-Glory, the Hop, and the Bean, and
is therefore distinguished as teming. In other cases
the stem puts forth thread-like leafless branches called
tendrils (Fig. 97), which grasp the
support, as in the Virginia Creeper,
the Grape, and the Pea (Fig. 98), or
« sometimes the leaf-stalks serve the
same purpose, as in the Clematis or
_ Virgin’s Bower. In these cases the
stems are said to climb.

The stems of wheat and grasses
generally are known as culms, They
are jointed, and usually hollow except
at the joints. Fig. 98.

91. Besides the stems which grow above ground, there

Fig. 99.
7 are varieties to be found below the surface. Pull up

ee, ee
68 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

Potato plant, and examine the underground portion —
(Fig 99). It is not improbabie that you will regard
the whole as a mass of roots, but a very little trouble
wil: undeceive you. Many of the fibres are unaues-
tiovably roots, but an inspection of those having pota-
toes at the ends of them will show you that they are
quite different from those which have not. The former
wil: be found to be furnished with little scales, answer.
ing to leaves, each with a minute bud in the axil; and
the potatoes them-
selves exhibit buds of
the same kind. The
potato, in short. 18 |
only the swollen end oF |
Such swollen ex-
tremities are known
as tubers, Whilst the

Fig. 1€0. inde
underground stem 1s called a rovtstock, or rhizome, and

may always be distinguished from a true root by the
presence of buds. The Solomon's Seal and Toothwort
3g Canadian woods, and the Canada Thistle, are com-
mon instances of plants producing these stems. Fig.
100 shows a rhizome.

92. Take now an Onion, and compare it with a
Potato. You will not find any such outside appear-
ances upon the former as are presented by the latter.
The Onion is smooth, and has no buds upon its surface.
From the under side there spring roots, and this cir-
cumstance will probably suggest that the Onion must
be a stem of some sort. Cut the Onion through from
top to bottom (Fig. 101). It will then be seen to be

—

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 69

maae up of a number of coats.
Strip off one or two, and observe
that whilst they are somewhat
fleshy where the onion is broadest
they gradually become thinner to-
wards the top. The long green
tubes, which project from the top
of the Onion during its growth, are,
in fact, the prolongations of these
coats. But the tubes are the leaves
of the plant. The mass of our Onion, therefore, con-
sists of the fleshy bases of the leaves. But you will
observe that at the bottom there is a rather flat solid
part upon which these coats or leaves
are inserted, and which must consequent-
ly bea stem. Such a stem as this, with
its fleshy leaves, is called a bulb. If the
leaves form coats, as in the Onion, the
bulb is coated or tunicated ; if they do
not, as in the lilies (Fig. 102), it is scaly.

93. Tubers and bulbs, then, consist chiefly of masses
of nourishing matter ; but there is this difference, that,
in the latter, the nourishment is contained in the fleshy
leaves themselves, whilst, in the former, it forms a mass
more or less distinct from the buds.

94, The thickened mass at the base of the stem of
our Indian Turnip (Fig. 78) is more like a tuber than a
bulb in its construction. It is called a corm, or solid
bulb. The Crocus and Gladiolus of the gardens are
other examples.

95. In the axils of the leaves of the Tiger Lily are

Fig 101.

produced small, black, rounded bodies, which, on exami..

nation, prove to be of bulbous structure. They are, iv

‘2

70 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

fact, bulblets, and new plants may be grown from them.

96. Our Hawthorn is rendered
formidable by the presence of stout
spines (Fig. 103) along the stem and
branches. These spines invariably
proceed from the axils of leaves,
and are, in fact, branches, whose
growth has been arrested. They
are appendages of the wood, and
will remain attached to the stem, Fig. 103.
even after the bark is stripped off. They must
not be confounded with the prickles (Fig. 104)
of the Rose and Brier, which belong strictly to
the bark, and come off with it. :

97. Foliage-Leaves. These organs are
usually more or less flat, and of a green colour.
In some plants, however, they are extremely
thick and succulent ; and in the case of para-
sites, such as Indian-Pipe and Beech-drops,
they are usually either white or brown, or of
some colour other than green. The scaly leaves of
underground stems are also, of course, destitute of
colour.

98. As a general thing, leaves are extended horizon-
tally from the stem or branch, and turn one side towards
the sky and the other towards the ground. But some
leaves are vertical, and in the case of the common Iris
each leaf is doubled lengthwise at the base, and sits
astride the next one within. Such leaves are accordingly
called equitant.

99. As to their arrangement on the stem, leaves
are alternate when only one arises from cach node (T'ig.-
3). If two are formed at each node, they are sure to be

istry of Education, Ontario
Historical Collection

Fig. 104,

.
|

——

LLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. qT

on opposite sides of the stem, and so are described as
opposite. Sometimes thero are scveral
leaves at the same node, in which case
they are whorled or verticillaic (Fig.
105). -

100. Forms of Foliage-Leaves.
Leaves present an almost endless va-
riety in their forms, and accuracy in

Fig. 105. describing any given leaf depends a
good deal upon the ingenuity of the student in selecting

anl combining terms. The chief terms in use will be

given here.
Compare a leaf of the Round-leaved Mallow with one

of Red Clover (Figs. 106, 107). Each of them is fur-

Fig. 106. Fig. 107.

nished with a long petiole and a pair of stipules. In
the blades, however, there is a:difference. The blade o/

the yormer consists of a single piece ; that of the latter- is

in three separate pieces, each of which is called a leafict,
bat all of which, taken collectively, constitute the blade

72 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. “<5

of the leaf. The leaf of the Mallow is simple; that of
the Clover is compound. ;
Between the simple and
the compound ferm there
is every possible shade of
gradation. In the Mallow
leaf the lobes are not very
clearly defined. In the
Maple (Fig. 108) they are
well-marked. In other
cases, again, the lobes are
so nearly separate, that

»
Fig. 108.
the leaves appear at first sight to be really compound.

101. You will remember that in our examinations of

dicotyledonous plants, we found the leaves to be in-
variably net-veined. But, though they have this gener-
al character in common, they differ considerably in the
details of their veining, or venation, as it is called.
The two leaves employed as illustrations in the last
section will serve to illustrate our meaning here. In
the Mallow, there are several ribs of about the same
size, radiating from the end of the petiole, something
like the spread-out fingers of a hand. The veining in
this case is therefore described as digitaté, or radiate, or
palmate. The leaflet of the clover, on the other hand,
is divided exactly in the middle by a single rib (the
midrib), and from this the veins are given off on each
side, so that the veining, on the whole, presents the
appearance of a feather, and is therefore described as
pinnate (penna, a feather).

102. Both simple and compound leaves exhibit these
two modes of venation. Of simple pinnately-veined

re A eS he —~
i . :

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 73

leaves, the Beech, Mullein, and Willow supply familiar
instances. The Mallow, Maple,
Grape, Currant, and Gooseberry
/) coer Nave simple radiate-veined leaves.
1 =z - Sweet-Brier (Fig. 43), Mountain-
: —~ Ash, and Rose have compound
pinnate leaves, whilst those of
Virginia-Creeper (Fig. 109),
Horse-Chestnut, and Hemp are

Fig. 109

compound digitate.

As has already been pointed out, the leaves of Mono-
cotyledonous plants are almost invariably straight-
veined.

103. In addition to the venation, the description of
a simple leaf includes particulars concerning. (1)
the general outline, (2) the edge or Margin, (3)
the point or apex, (4) the base.

104. Outline. As to outline, it will be convenient
to consider first the forms assumed by leaves without
lobes, and whose margins are therefore more or less
continuous. Such leaves are of three sorts, viz: those
in which both ends of the leaf are alike, those in which
the apex is narrower than the base, and those in which
the apex is broader than the base.

105. In the first of these three classes, it is evident
that any variation in the outline will depend altogether
on the relation between the length and the breadth of
the leaf. When the leaf is extremely narrow in com-
parison with its length, as in the Pine, it is acieuigr
or needle-shaped (Fig. 110). As the width increases,
we pass through the forms known as linear, oblong, eval,
and finally orbicular, in which the width and length
are nearly, or quite equal (Fig. 111).

a ® +* Der, Ay : 4
7 - eat om the ‘ a5 I
74 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. J
Linear

- Oblong

A Oval

| Orbicular

i'l

Fig. 110

Fig. 111.

106. In the second class the different forms arise
from the varying width of the base of the leaf, and we
thus have subulate or awl-shaped (Fig. 112), lanceolate,
ovate, and deltoid leaves (Fig. 113).

Fig. 112. Fig. 113.

107. In the third class, as the apex expands, we have

Fig. 117. Fig.118. Fig.114. Fig.115. Fig. 116.

*
‘a
i>

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 75

the forms spathulate (Pig. 114), oblanceolate (that is, the
reverse of lanceolate) (Fig. 115), and obovate (Fig. 116).
108. In leaves of the second kind we frequently find
the base indented, and then the leaf
is cordate, or heart-shaped (Fig. 117).
The reverse of this, that is, when the
indentation is at the apex, is obcor-
date (Fig. 118). The hastate, or spear-
shaped (Fig. 119), sugittate, or arrow-
\ shaped (Fig. 120), and reniform, sr
r i kidney-shaped (Fig. 121), forms are
Fis, 119. modificrtions of the second class,

Fig. 120, Fig. 121. Fig. 122.

and will be readily understood from the annexed figures.
If the petiole is attached to any part
, of the under surface of the leaf, instead
\ of to the edge, the leaf is peltate (shield-
/ shaped) (Fig. 123).
109. Leaves which are lobed are
usually described by stating whether
Fig. 123. they are palmately or pinnately veined,
and, if the former, the number of lobes is generally

76 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

given. If the leaves are very deeply cut, they are said
to be pulmatifid or pinnatifid according to the veining
(Fig. 124). Ifthe leaf is palmately lobed,
and the lobes at the base are themselves
lobed, the leaf is pedate (Fig. 125), be-
cause it looks something like a bird’s
foot. If the lobes of a pinnatifid leaf
are themselves lobed, the leaf is bipinna-
tifid. If the leaf is cut up into fine
segments, as in Dicentra, it is said to be
multifid.

110. Apex. The principal forms of
the apex are the mucronate (Fig. 122),
when the leaf is tipped with a sharp Fig. 124.
point, as though the midrib
were projecting beyond the
blade ; cuspidate, when the leaf
ends abruptly in a very short,
but distinctly tapering, point
(Fig. 126) ; acute, or sharp; and
obtuse, or blunt.

Fig. 195. 111. It may happen that the
apcx does not end in a point of any kind. If A
it looks as though the end had been cut off Y,
square, it is truncate. If the end is slightly iV
notched, but not sufficiently so to warrant the SN fi
description obcordate, it is emaryinate. YW

Fig. 126.

112. Margin. If the margin is not indented in any
way, it is said to be entire. If it has sharp teeth, point-
ing in the direction of the apex, it is serrate, and will be
coarsely or finely serrate, according to the size of the

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTAYY. yy |

- ieeth. Sometimes the edges of large
teeth are themselves finely serrated,
and in that case the leaf is doubly
serrate (Fig. 127). If the teeth
point outwards, that is, if the two
edges of each tooth are of :
the same length, the leaf
is dentate, but if the teeth,

Fig. 127.
instead of being sharp, are rounded, the leaf is
crenate (Fig. 128). The term wavy explainsitself.

118. Base. There are two or three peculiar pig, 398
modifications of the bases of simple sessile leaves which
are of considerable importance in distinguishing plants.
Sometimes a pair of lobes project backwards and cohere
| gp 07 the other side of the stem, so that the stem
i) \ appears to pass through the leaf. This is the

J!) | case in our common Bellwort, the leaves of
(1 Ui / which are accordingly described as perfoliate
: (Fig. 129). Sometimes two opposite sessile
leaves grow together at the base, and clasp the
stem, asin the upper leaves of Honeysuckle,

Fig. 129. jn the Triosteum, and in one of our species of
Eupatorium. Such leaves are said to be connate or con-
nate-perfoliate (Fig. 130). In one of our Everlastings
the margin of the leaf is con- _
tinued on each side below the LEE

ES
| [Pens Pe
| . ee

———_

Fig. 30. | Fig. 131.
point ofinsertion, and the lodes grow fast to the sides
\~

i. bby c-4 )y

78 CLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL LDOTANY.

of the stem, giving rise to what is called the decurrent
form (Fig. 131).

The terms by which simple leaves are described are
applicable also to the leaflets of compound leaves, to
the sepals and petals of flowers, and, in short, to any
flat forms.

Fig. 132.

114. We have already explained that compound
leaves are of two forms, pinnate and palmate. In the
former, the leaflets are arranged on each side o y
the midrib. There may be a leaflet at the end,“ \ —
in which case the leaf is odd-pinnate, or the \—
terminal leaflet may be wanting, and then the leaf is

wriuptly pinnate. In the Pea, the ae

‘af is pinnate and terminates in a Li, /Z,
‘endril (Fig. 98). Very frequently ee
the primary divisions of a pinnate _., ae

leaf are themselves pinnate, and NYA
a Se

the whole leaf is then twice-pinnate -—~ 4 we
(Fig. 132). If the subdivision is “x/\SxS>3
continued through another stage, “sf?
the leaf is thrice-pinnate, and so on. a i iS

Sometimes, as in the leaves of the
Tomato, very small leaflets are
found between the larger ones, and
this form is described as interrupt- — \\)
edly pinnaic, (Fig. 188). Fig. 133,

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 79

Tn the palmate or digitate forms, the leaflets spread
out from the end of the petiole, and, in describing them,
it is usual to mention the number of divisions. If there
are three, the leaf is tri-foliolate ; if there are five, it is
quinquefoliolate.

115. In the examination of the Mallow, we found a
couple of small leaf-like attachments on the petiole of
each leaf, just at the junction with the stem. To these
the name séipules was. given. Leaves which have not
these appendages are exstipulate.

116. Besides the characters of leaves mentioned
above, there remain a few others to be noticed. With
regard to their surface, leaves present every gradation
from perfect smoothness, as in Wintergreen, to extreme
roughness or woolliness, as in the Mullein. If hairs are
entirely absent, the leaf is glabrous; if present, the
degree of hairiness is dcscribed by an appropriate ad-
verb; if the leaf is completely covered, it is villous or
villose ; and if the hairs are on the margin only, as in
our Clintonia, it is ciliate. Some leaves, like those of
Cabbage, have a kind of bloom on the surface, which
may be rubbeu otf with the fingers; this condition is
described as glaucous.

117. A few plants have anoma-
lous leaves. Those of the Onion
are filiform. The Pitcher Plant
of our Northern swamps has very
curious leaves (Fig. 134), appar-

ently formed by the turning in and
cohesion of the outer edges of an
ordinary leaf, so as to form a tube,
’ closed except at the top, and armed

Dis. 104.

80 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

on the inner surface with bristles pointing towards the
hase of the leaf.

118. Finally, as leaves present an almost infinite
variety in their forms, it will often be necessary, in de-
scribing them, to combine the terms explained above.
For instance, a leaf may not be exactly linear, nor ex-
actly lance-shaped, but may approximate to both forms.
In such a case the leaf is described as lance-linear, and
so with other forms.

The following form of schedule may be used with
advantage in writing out descriptions of leaves. Tiwo
leaves—one of Maple and one of Sweet-Brier—are
described by way of illustration. If a leafis compound,
the particulars as to outline, margin, apex, base, and
surface will have reference to the leaflets.

LEAF SCHEDULE.

"e:

AW OF -7..----) MAPLE. SWEET-BRIER.

1. Position. Cauline. Cauline.

9. Arrangement.| Opposite. Alternate. E
3. Insertion. Petiolate. mene ie
4, Stipulation. ae Stipulate. =
5. Division. é ee Odd ere, 7 ae
6. et cation, aa Ewe a
if one ‘ Roundish or oval. q

| 8. meee pre ay Doubly serrate.

SSS SS ee

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 81

Pointed. Acute.

Cordate. Hardly indented.

Glabrous above ; whitish ipowiy above e; covered
11. Surface. beneuth. with glands beneuth. |

CHAPTER XIII.

MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWER-LEAVES. THE CALYX. THE CO-
ROLLA, THE STAMENS. THE PISTIL. THE FRUIT.
THE SEED. GERMINATION.

119. From an examination of the various forms pre-
sented by foliage leaves, we proceed now to those of
the floral ones, and we shall first consider the chief
modifications in the arrangement of flowers as a whole,
to which the term inflorescence is applied.

120. It is found that inflorescence proceeds upon two
yvell-defined plans. To understand these, let us recur
to our specimens of Shepherd’s-Purse and Buttercup.
You will remember that, in the former, the peduncle
continues to lengthen as long as the summer lasts, and
new flowers continue to be produced at the upper
end. Observe, however, that every one of the flowers is
produced in the axil of a bract, that as the stem lengthens
new bracts appear, and that there is no flower on the end
of the stem. You will easily understand then, that
the production of flowers in such a plant is only
limited by the close of the season or by the exhaus-
tion of the plant. Such inflorescence is therefore
ealled indefinite, or indeterminate, or axillary.
It is sometimes also called centripetal, because if the
flowers happen to be in a close cluster, as are the upper

82 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

ones in Shepherd’s-Purse, the order of developement is
from the outside towards the centre.

121. Ifyou now look at your Buttercup, you will be at
once struck with the difference of plan exhibited. Tho
main axis or stem has a flower on the end of it, and its
further growth is therefore checked. And so in like
manner, from the top downwards, the growth of the
branches is checked by the production of flowers at their
extremities. The mode of inflorescence here displayed
is definite, or determinate, or terminal. It is also
called centrifugal, because the developement of the
flowers is the reverse of that exhibited in the first mode.
The upper, or, in the case of close clusters, the central
flowers open first. In either mode, if there is but one
flower in each axil, or but one flower at the end of each
branch, the flowers are said to be solitary.

122. Of indeterminate inflorescence there are
several varieties. In Shepherd’s-Purse we have an
instance of the raceme, which may be described as a
cluster in which each flower springs from an axil, and
is supported on a pedicel of its own. If the pedicels
are absent, and the flowers consequently sessile in the
axils, the cluster becomes a spike, of which the common
Plantain and the Mullein furnish good examples. Tho
catkins of the Willow (Figs. 63, 64) and Birch, and the
spadiz of the Indian Turnip (Figs. 80, 81) are also
spikes, the former having scaly bracts and the latter a
fleshy axis. If you suppose the internodes of a spike
to be suppressed, so that the flowers are densely
crowded, you will have a head, of which Clover and
Button-bush supply instances. If the lower pedicels
of a raceme are considerably longer than the upper
ones, so that all the blossoms are nearly on the same

én - + Ts
s i . 2 . ’ 4
a ald , “ es. Ap, a eas 7 a ies - ‘

-BLEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

Vee

Fig. 135. Pig. 136.
level, the cluster is a corymb (Fig. 135). If the
flowers in a head were elevated on separate pedicels of
the same length, radiating like the ribs of an umbrella,
we should have an wmbel, of which the flowers of
Geranium and Parsnip (Fig. 49) are examples. A
raceme will be compound (Fig. 136) if, instead of a
solitary flower, there is a raceme in each avril, and a
similar remark will apply in the case of the spike, the
corymb, and the umbel.

123. The inflorescence of most Grasses is what is
called a panicle. This is a compound form, and is
usually a kind of raceme having its primary divisions
branched in some irregular manner. If the panicle is

84 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

compact, as in the Grape and Lilac, it is what is called
a thyrse.

124. Of determinate inflorescence the chief
modification is the cyme. This is a rather flat-topped
cluster, having something the appearance of a com-
pound corymb, but easily distinguished by this peculi-
arity, that the central blossom opens first, then those at
the ends of the first set of branches of the cluster, then
those on the secondary branches, and so on until the
outer buds are reached. The Elder, Dogwood, and St.
John’s Wort furnish good examples of the cymose

Fig. 137.

structure. Fig. 137 shows a loose open cyme.

125. It has already been pointed out that cauline
leaves tend to diminish in size towards the upper part
of the stem, where the flowers are found. Such re-
duced leaves, containing flowers in their axils, are called
bracts. In the case of compound flower-clusters, this
term is limited to the leaves on the peduncle, or main
stem, the term bractlet being then applied to those oc-
curring on the pedicels or subordinate stems. In the

—_ ¥

A
#\
Ly
7
‘,

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 85

case of the wmbel and the head, it generally happens
that a circle of bracts surrounds the base of the cluster.
They are then called, collectively, an involucre, and in
the case of compound clusters a cirele of bractlets is
called an involucel. Bracts are often so minute as to be
reduced to mere scales. From our definition, it will be
evident that the spathe surrounding the spadix in
Indian Turnip is merely a bract.

126. It has already been stated that the parts of the
flower, equally with the foliage-leaves, must be regarded
as modifications of the same structure, and some proofs
of this similarity of structure were given. We shall
now proceed to consider in detail the variations in form
assumed by these organs.

127. The Calyx. As you are now well aware, this
term is applied to the outer circle of floral leaves. These
are usually green, but not necessarily so; in some Ex-
ogens, and in nearly all Endogens, they are of some
other colour. Each division of a calyx is called a sepal,
and if the sepals are entirely distinct from each other,
the calyx is polysepalous ; if they are united in any de-
gree, it is gamosepalous. A calyx is regular or irregular,
according as the sepals are of the same or different
shape and size.

128. In a gamosepalous calyx, if the sepals are not
united to the very top, the free portions are known as
calyx-teeth, or, taken collectively; as the limb of the
calyx. The united portion, especially if long, as in
Willow-herb, is called the calyx-tube, and the entrance
to the tube its throat. In many plants, particularly
those of the Composite Family, the limb of the calyx
consists merely of a circle of bristles or soft hairs,

86 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

and is then described as pappose. In other cases the
limb is quite inconspicuous, and so is said to be obsolete.
A calyx which remains after the corolla has disappeared,
asin Mallow (Fig. 81), is persistent. If it disappears
when the flower opens, as in our Bloodroot, it is cadu-
cous, and if it falls away with the corolla, it is deciduous.

We must repeat here, that when calyx and corolla are
not both present, the circle which is present is con-
sidered to be the calyx, whether green or not.

129. The Corolla. The calyx and corolla, taken
together, are called the jloxal envelopes. When both
envelopes are present, the corolla is the inner cne; it
is usually, though not invariably, of some other colour
than green. Each division of a corolla is called a petal,
and the corolla is polypetalous when the petals are com-
pletely disconnected; but yamopetalous if they are
united in any degree, however slight. The terms
requiar and irregular, applied to the calyx, are applica-
able also to the corolla, and the terms used in the
description of leaves are applicable to
petals. If, however, a petal is narrowed
into a long and slender portion towards
the base, that portion is known as the
claw, whilst the broader upper part is

Fig. 138. called the limb (Fig. 138). The leaf-
terms are then applicable to the limb.

130. Gamopetalous corollas assume various forms,
most of which are described by terms easily understood.
The forms assumed depend almost entirely on the
shape of the petals which, when united, make up the
corolla, If these, taken separately, are linear, and are

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 87

A} united to the top, or nearly so, the corolla
YY will be tubular (Fig. 139.) If the petals
I are wedge-shaped, they will by their union
| \ produce a fwnnel-shaped corolla. (Fig. 140.)
In the campanulate or bell-shaped form, the

1, enlargement from base to summit is more
gradual. If the petals are narrowed abruptly

into long claws, the union of the claws into a

Fig 139 tube and the spreading of the limb at right
angles to the tube will produce the
salver-shaped form, as in Phlox (Fig. <A" ‘
141). The rotate corolla differs from ‘NG
‘his in having a very short tube. The
corolla of the Potato is rotate.

131. The most important irregular
gamopetalous corollas are the ligulate,
which has been fully described in the
examination of the Dandelion, and the
labiate, of which we found an example in Fig. 140.
Catnip (Fig. 59). The corolla of Turtle-head (Fig.
142) is another example. When a labiate corolla pre-
sents a wide opening between the upper and lower lips,
itis said to be ringent, if the opening 1s closed by an

Fig. 141. Fig. 142. Pig. 143.

upward projection of the lower lip, as in Toadflax (Fig.
148), it is said to be personate, and the projection in

8&8 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

thiscese is known as the palate. A good many ccroi

las such as those of Toadflax, Dicentra, Snapdragon,
Columbine, and Violet, have protuberances or spurs at
the base. In Violet one petal only is spurred; in
Columbine the whole five are so.

1382. The Stamens. As calyx and corella are
called collectively the floral envelopes, so stamens and
pistil are spoken of collectively as the essential organs of
the flower. The circle of stamens alone is sometimes
called the andrecium. A complete stamen consists of a
slender stalk known as the /ilament, and a small sac
called the anther. The filament, however, is not un-
commonly absent, in which case the anther is sessile.
As a general thing, the anther consists of two oblong
cells with a sort of rib between them called the connec-
tive, and that side of the anther which presents a dis-
tinctly grooved appearance is the face, the opposite side
being the back. The filament is invariably attached to
the connective, and may adhere through the entire
length of the latter, in which case the anther is adnate

Fig. 144. Fig. 145. Fig. 146.

(Fig. 144), or the base of the connective may rest on
the end of the filament, a condition described as innate
(Fig. 145), or the extremity of the filament may be
attached to the middle of the back of the connective, so
that the anther swings about; it is then said to be
versatile (Fig. 146). In all these cases, if the face of

a2 >
ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. ‘89

the anthor is turned towards the centre of the flower, it
35 said to be introrse; if turned outwards, extrorse.

2 AN: _ 183, The cells of anthers commonl7

i open along their outer edges to dis-

| charge their pollen (Fig. 147). In

most of the Heaths, however, the pol-

len is discharged through a minute

aperture at the top of each cell (Hig.

#o. 47. Tigi. Fig.48. 148), and in our Blue Cohosh each cell

38 provided with a lid or valve near the top, which
opons on a kind of hinge (Fig. 149).

——15i, Stamens may be either ertirely distinct from

oach other, in which case they are described as dian-

. drous, pentandrous, octandrous, &¢., according to their

number (or, if more than twenty, as indefinite), or they

may be united in various ways. If their anthers are

uniteé in a circle, while the filaments are separate

(Fig. 52), they are said to bo syngenesious; but if tho

filaments unite to form « tube, while the anthers remain

distinct, they are said to be monadelphous (Fig. 82) ; if

they are in two groups they are diadelphous (Fig. 37) ;

+f in three, triadelphous ; if in more than three, polya-

delphous.

135. As to insertion, when stamens are inserted on
the receptacle, they are hypogynous ; when borne on
tho calyx, perwynous ; when borne on the ovary, epiqy-
nous; and if inserted on the corolla, epipetalous. They
may, however, be borne evex on the style, as in Orchis,
and then they are described as gynandrous.

136. If the stamens are four in number, and in two
pairs of different lengths, they are said to be didyna-
mous (Fig. 58); if six in number, four long and two
short, they are tetrad?mamous (Fig. 28), ond, finglly,

90 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

if the stamens are hidden in the tube of a gamopetalous
corolla, they are said to be included, butif they protrude
beyond the tube they are exserted (Fig. 139).

137. The Pistil. Thisis the name given to the
central organ of the flower. It is sometimes also called
the gynecium. As in the case of the stamens, the
structure of the pistil must be regarded as a modifica-
tion of the structure of leaves generally. The pistil
may be formed by the folding of a single carpellary
leaf as in the Bean (Fig. 159), in which case it is
simple ; or it may consist of a number of carpels, either
entirely separate from each other, or united together in
various ways, in which case it is compound. If the car-
pels are entirely distinct, as in Buttercup, the pistil
is apocarpous ; if they are united in any degree, it is
syncarpous.

138. In our examination of the Marsh Marigold (Figs.
24, 25) we found an apocarpous piustil of several carpels.
We found also that each carpel contained a number of
seeds, and that, in every case, the seeds were attached to
that edge of the carpel which was turned towards the centre
of the flower, and that, as the carpels ripened, they
invariably split open along that edge, but not along the
other, so that the carpel when opened out presented
the appearance of a leaf with seeds attached to the

the seeds are thus attached, is called the ventral suture,
the opposite edge, corresponding to the mid-rib of a
leaf, being the dorsal suture.

: If we suppose a number of simple carpels to
oppro each other, and unite in the centre of a flower,
uf evident that the pistil so formed would contain as

many cells as there were carpels, the cells being separ-

tee: The inner edge of a simple carpel, to which

4 S
_ * \

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 91

ated from each other by a double wall, and that the
seeds would be found arranged about the centre or axis
of the pistil; and this is the actual state of things in
the Tulip, whose pistil is formed by the union of three
earpels. When the pistil ripens, the double walls sepa-
rating the cells split asunder. To these separating
walls the name dissepiment or partition is given.

140. But it often happens that though several car-
pels unite to form a compound pistil, there is but one
cell in the ovary. This is because the separate carpel-
lary leaves have not been folded before uniting, but
have been joined edge to edge, or

rather with their edges slightly € 3) af
turned inwards. In these cases the Vey,
seeds cannot, of course, be in the \e
centre of the ovary, but will be found
on the walls, at the junction of the carpels
(Figs. 150, 151). In some plants the ovary
© is one-celled, and the seeds are arranged
Y ound a column which rises from the bottom
| of the cell (Figs. 152, 153). This case is
Figs. 152, 153. explained by the early obliteration of the
partitions, which must at first have met in the centre of
the cell.

141. In all cases the line or projection to which the
seeds are attached is called the placenta, and the term
placentation has reference to the manner in which
the placentas are arranged. In the simple pistil the
placentation is marginal ov sutural. In the syncarpous
pistil, if the dissepiments meet in the centre of the
ovary, thus dividing it into sc parate cells, the placenta-
tion is central or axile ; if the ovary is one-celled and

Fig. 151. Fig. 150.

bears the seeds on its walls, the placentation is partetu’s

92 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

andif the seeds are attached to a central column, it is
JFree central. .

142. Besides the union of the ovaries there may also
be a union of the styles, and even of the stigmas.

143. A very exceptional pistil is found in plants of

27m the Pine Family. Here the ovules, in-
stead of being enclosed in an ovary, are
f# usually simply attached to the inner sur-
Fig. 154. face of an open carpellary _
leaf or scale, the scales forming what is @ 0
known as a cone (Figs. 154, 155, 156).
The plants of this family are hence called Figs. 155, 153.
gymnospermous, or naked-seeded.

144. The Fruit. In coming to the consideration of
the Fruit, you must fort he present lay aside any popu-
lar ideas you may have acquired as to the meaning of
this term. You will find that, in a strict botanical
sense, many things are fruits which, in the language of
common life, are not so designated. For instance, we
hardly speak of a pumpkin or a cucumber as fruit, and
yet they are clearly so, according to the botanist’s defi-
nition of that term. A fruit may be defined to be the
ripened pistil together with ary other organ, such as the

calyx or receptacle, which may be adherent to it. This
definition will perhaps be more clearly understood after
a few specimens have been attentively examined.

145. For an example of the simplest kind of fruit let
us revert to our Buttercup. As the carpels ripen, the
style and stigma are reduced to a mere point. On
cutting open one of these carpels when fully ripe, we
find it contains a single seed, not quite filling the
cavity, but attached at one point to the wall of the
latter. What you have to guard against, in this

‘har ghee"
weal

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 93

instance, is the mistake of considering the entire
carpel to be merely a seed. It is a seed envel-
oped in an outer covering which we called the ovary
in the early stages of the flower, but which, now
that it is ripe, we shall call the pericarp. This pericarp,
with the seed which it contains, is the fruit. The prin-
cipal difference between the fruit of Marsh-Marigold
and that of Buttercup is, that, in the former, the peri-
carp envelopes several seeds, and, when ripe, sp/its open
down one side. The fruit of Buttereup does not thus
split open. In the Pea, again, the pericarp encloses
several seeds, but splits open along both margins. The
fruits just mentioned all result from the ripening of
apocarpous pistils, and they are consequently spoken of
as apocarpous fruits.

146. In Willow-herb, you will recollect that the
calyx-tube adheres to the whole surface of the ovary.
The fruit in this case, then, must include the calyx.
When the ovary ripens, it splits longitudinally into four
pieces (Fig. 41), and, as the pistil was syncarpous, so
also is the fruit.

147. In the Peach, Plum, Cherry, and stone-fruits or
drupes generally, the seed is enclosed in a hard
shell called a putamen. Outside the putamen is
a thick layer of pulp, and outside this, enclosing
the whole, is a skin-like covering. In these fruits
all outside the seeds is the pericarp. In one
respect these stone-fruits resemble the fruit of the
Buttercup: they do not split open in order to discharge
their seeds. All fruits having this peculiarity are said
to be indehiscent, whilst those in which the pericarp
opens, or separates into pieces (called valves), are de-
hiscent.

904 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY

148. In the Apple (Fig. 48) and Pear, the seeds are
contained in five cells in the middle of the fruit, and
these cells are surrounded by a firm fleshy mass which
is an enlargement of the calyx. In fact, the remains of
the five calyx-teeth may be readily detected at the end
of the apple opposite the stem. As in Willow-herb,
the calyx is adherent to the ovary, and therefore calyx
and ovary together constitute the pericarp. These
fleshy-fruits, or pomes, as they are sometimes called,
are of course indehiscent.

149. In the Currant, as in the Apple, you will find
the remains of a calyx at the top, so that this fruit, too,
is inferior, but the seeds, instead of being separated
from the mass of the fruit by tough cartilaginous cell-
walls, as in the Apple, he imbedded in the soft juicy
pulp. Such a fruit as this is a berry. The Gooseberry
and the Grape are other examples. The Pumpkin and
other gourds are similar in structure to the berry, but
besides the soft inner pulp they have also a firm outer
layer and a hard rind. The name pepo is generally
given to fruits of this sort.

150. A Raspberry or Blackberry (Fig. 157)
proves, on examination, to be made up of a
large number of juicy little drupes, aggre-
gated upon a central axis. It cannot,
therefore, be a true berry, but may be caiied

an aggregated fruit.

151. A Strawberry (Fig. 158) is a fruit
consisting chiefly of a mass of pulp, havy-
ing its surface dotted over with little

carpels (achenes) similar to those of the
Buttercup. The flesh of the Strawberry ie.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 95

is simply an enlarged receptacle ; so that this fruit,
also, is not a true berry.

152. The fruit of Sweet-Brier (Fig. 45) consists of a
red fleshy calyx, lined with a hollow receptacle which
bears a number of achencs. This fruit is therefore
analogous to that of the Strawberry. In the latter the
achenes are on the outer surface of a raised receptacle,
while, in the former, they are on the inner surfaco of a
hollow receptacle.

153. The Cone of the Pine (Fig. 154) is a fruit which
differs in an important respect from all those yet men-
tioned, inasmuch as it is the product, not of a singlo
flower, but of as many flowers as there are scales. It
may therefore be called a c»/lective or multiple fruit.
The Pine-Apple is another instance of the samo
thing.
154. Of dehiscent fruits there are some varieties
which receive special names. The fruit of the Pea, or
; Bean (Fig. 159), whose
pericarp splits open
along both margins, is
called a /equme ; that of
Marsh-Marigold (Tig.
Fig. 159. 25), which opens down
one side only, is a follicle. Both of these are apocar-
pous.

155. Any syncarpous fruit, having a dry dehiscent
pericarp, is called a capsule. A long and slender cap-
sule, having two cells separated by a membranous
partition bearing the sced, and from which, when ripe,
the valves fall away on each side, is called a silique

96 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. |

(Fig. 160). If, as in Shepherd’s Purse (Fig.
29), the capsule is short and broad, it is
called a silicle. If the capsule opens
€ horizontally, so that the top comes

\/ off like a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. .
Fig.161. 161), it is a pywis.

156. Any dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit
is called an achene, of which the fruit of
Buttercup (Fig. 14) is an example. In
Wheat the fruit differs from that of Butter- pig i¢9,
cup in having a closely fitting and
adherent pericarp. Such a fruit is called
a caryopsis oY grain. A nut is usually
syncarpous, with a hard, dry peri-
carp. A winged fruit, such as that
of the Maple (Fig. 162), is called a

Fig. fae samara or key.

157. The Seed. The seed has already been de-
scribed as the fertilized vvule. It consists of a nucleus,
enveloped, as a rule, in two coats. The outer one,
which is the most important, is known as the testa.
Occasionally an additional outer coat, called an aril, is
found. In the Euonymus of Canadian woods, the aril
is particularly prominent in autumn, owing to its bright
scarlet colour. The stalk, by which the seed is attached
to the placenta, is the funiculus, and the scar, formed
on the testa where it separates from the seed-stalk, is
called the hilum. In the Pea and the Bean this scar is
very distinct.

158. Germination of the Seed. When aseedis
lightly covered with earth, and supplied with warmth
and moisture, it soon begins to swell and soften, owing
to the absorption of water, and presently bursts its

i ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 97

goats, either to such a degree as to liberate the cotyle-
_ dons completely, or so as to permit the escape of the
radicle and the plumule. The former immediately
_ takes a downward direction, developing » root frem its
- lower end, and either elongates through its whole
length, in which case the cotyledons are pushed above
the surface, as in the Bean, or remains stationary, in
which event the cotyledons remain altogether under
- ground, as in the Pea and in Indian Corn.

Before the root is developed, and the little plantlet
is thereby enabled to imbibe food from the coil, it has to
depend for its growth upon a store of nourishment
supplied by the parent plant before the seed was cast
adrift. ‘The relation of this nourishment to the embryo
is different in different seeds. In the Bean and the
Pumpkin, for example, it is contained in the cotyledons
- of the embryo itself. But in Indian Corn, as we have
already seen, if constitutes the bulk of the seed, the
embryo merely occupying a hollow in one side of it. In
such cases as the latter, it will be remembered that the
term albumen is applied to the nourishing matter, as
distinguished from the embryo.

159. As to the number of cotyledons, it may be re
peated that, as a rule, seeds are either dicotyledonous
or monocotyledonous. Some plants of the Pine Fam-
ily, however, exhibit a modification of the dicotyledo-
nous structure, having severak cotyledons, and being
consequently distinguished as polycotyledonous.

98 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

CHAPTER XV.

ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS—EXOGENOUS AND
ENDOGENOUS STEMS—FOOD OF PLANTS.

160. Up to this point we have been engaged in
observing such particulars of structure in plants as are
manifest to the naked eye. It is now time to enquire a
little more closely, and find out what-we can about the
elementary structure of the different organs. We have
all observed how tender and delicate is a little plantlet
of any kind just sprouting from the seed; but as time
elapses, and the plant developes itself and acquires
strength, its substance will, as we know, assume a
texture varying with the nature of the plant, either
becoming hard and firm and woody, if it is to be a tree
or a shrub, or continuing to be soft and compressible
as long as it lives, ifit is to be an herb. Then, as a
rule, the leaves of plants are of quite a different consis-
tency from the stems, and the ribs and veins and
petioles of foliage leaves are of a firmer texture than
the remaining part of them. In all plants, also, the
newest portions, both of stem and root, are extremely
soft compared with the older parts. It will be our
object in this chapter to ascertain, as far as we can, the
reason of such differences as these; and to accomplish
this, we shall have to call in the aid of a microscope of
much higher power than that which has hitherto
served our purpose.

161. If a small bit, taken from a soft stem, be boiled
for a while so as to reduce it to a pulp, and a little of
this pulp be examined under the microscope, it will be
found to be entirely composed of more or less rounded

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 99

or oval bodies, which are either loosely thrown together
(Fig. 163), or are pressed into a more or less compact

Fig. 163. Fig. 164. Fig. 164 (a).

mass. In the latter case, owing to mutual pressure
’
they assume a somewhat angular form. These bodies

‘are called cells. They are hollow, and their walls are

usually thin and transparent. The entire fabric of
every plant, without any exception whatever, is made
up of cells ; but as we proceed in our investigation, we
shall find that these cells are not all precisely alike,
that as they become older they tend, as a rule, to
thicken their walls and undergo changes in form, which,
t> a great extent, determine the texture of the plant's

. ubstance.

162. A fabric made up of cells is called a tissue. A
collection of such cells as we found constituting our
pulp, and as we should find constituting the mass of
all the soft and new parts of plants, as well as of some
hard parts, is called cellular tissue. The cells com-
posing cellular tissue vary a great deal in size in different
plants, being, as a rule, largest in aquatics, in which
they may sometimes be observed with the naked eye.
Ordinarily, however, they are so minute that millions
of them find room in a cubic inch of tissue.

163. When young, the walls of the cells are quite
unbroken. Each cell is lined with an extremely thin
mewbrane, and a portion of its cavity is occupied by a

100 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

soft body called the nucleus. The space between the
nucleus and the lining of the cell is filled with a thick-
ish liquid called protoplasm, and the microscope re-
veals to us the fact that, as long as the cells are living
cells, a circulation or current is constantly kept up in
the protoplasm of each. To this curious movement the
term cyclosis has been applied. As the cells become
older, the nature of their contents is altered by the
introduction of watery sap, in which other substances
are found, notably starch, sugar, chlorophyll (to which
leaves owe their green colour), and crystals (raphides)
of various salts of lime. The substance of which the
cell-wall is composed is called cellulose, and is a
chemical compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
In the protoplasm nitrogen is found in addition to the
three elements just mentioned.

164. The growth of a plant consists in the multiplication
of its cells. Every plant begins its existence with a
single cell, and by the repeated division of this, and the
growth of the successive sections, the whole fabric of
the plant, whether herb, shru), or tree, is built up. The
division of a cell is accomplished by the formation of a
partition across the middle of it, the nucleus having
previously separated into two pieces. The partition is
formed out of the lining of the cell. Each half of the
cell then enlarges, and, when its full size is attained,
divides again, and so on, as long as the cells are living
cells.

165. Butin order to increase their size, food of some
kind is essential. Growing plants supply this to their
cells mainly in the form of sap, which is taken in by
the root-fibres, and mide suitable, or elaborated, or
assimilated, by chemical action in the plant itself. By

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 101

very curious process, the liquids absorbed by the root
pass from cell to cell, though each is quite enclosed,
until they reach the leaves, where the elaboration is
performed. ‘The process is carried on under the law,
that if two liquids of different density be separated by
a thin or porous diaphragm, they will permeate the
diaphragm, and change places with greater or less
rapidity according to cireumstances, the liquid of less
density penetrating the diaphragm more rapidly than
the other. The cells of plants, as we have said, contain
dense liquid matter. ‘The moisture present in the soil,
and in contact with the tender root-hairs (which are
made up of cells, you will remember), being of less den-
sity than the contents of the cells, flows into them, and
is then passed on from cell to cell on the same princi-
ple. The supply of assimilated matter is thus renewed
as fast as it is appropriated by the newly divided and
growing cells.

166. If a plant, during its existence, simply multiplies
its cells in this way, it can of course only be a mass of
cellular tissue as long as it lives. But we see every-
where about us plants, such as trees and shrubs, whose
stems are extremely firm and enduring. How do these
stems differ from those of tender herbs? How d» they
differ from the soft parts of the plants to which they
themselves belong? A moment's consideration will
make it evident that, as every plant begins with a single
cell, and increases by successive multiplications of it,
every part of the plant must at some time have been
composed cf cellular tissue, just as the newer portions
are at present. The cells of those parts which are no

102 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

longer soft must, then, have undergone a change of
some kind. Let us try to understand the nature of
this change. It has been stated that the walls of new
cells are extremely thin ; as they become older, however,
they, as a rule, increase in thickness, owing to deposits
of cellulose upon their inner surface. It sometimes
happens, indeed, that the deposits are so copious as to
almost completely fill up the cavity of the cell. The
idea will naturally suggest itself, that this thickening of
the walls must impede the passage of the sap, but it is
found that the thickening is not uniform, that there
are, in fact, regular intervals which remain thin, and
that the thin spot in one cell is directly opposite a cor-
responding thin spot in the wall of its neighbour.
Eventually, however, these altered cells cease to convey
sap.

167. The hard parts of plants, then, differ from the
coft parts in the different consistency of their cell-walls.
But they differ also in the form of the cells
themselves. In those parts where toughness
and strength will be required, as, for ex-
ample, in the inner bark, in the stem, and
in the frame-work of the leaves, the cells
become elongated and their extremities as-
sume a tapering form, so that they overlap
each other, instead of standing end to end as
in ordinary cellular tissue (Fig. 165). To
this drawing-out process, combined with the
hardening of the walls, is due the firmness

Fig. 165.
of wood generally, and the tissue formed by these modi-

fied cells is known as woody tissue. On account of
the great relative length of the cells found in the inner

£LEMENTS OF StRUCTURAL BOTANY. 108

bork, and the consequent toughness conferred upon
that part, the tissue formed by them is specially dis-
tinguished as bast tissue. Associated with the wood.
cells are commonly found others, differing from them
chiefly in being larger in diameter, and formed out of
rows of short cells, standing end to end, by the disap-
pearance of the partitions which separated them.
These enlarged cells, produced in this way, are <==
called vessels or ducts, and a combination of f°”
them is known as vascular tissue. Duets in-
variably show markings of some sort on their
walls. The one figured in the margin (Vig.
166) is a dotted duct, the dots being spaces 9
which have not been thickened by deposits of :
cellulose. Other ducts are spirally marked on £ *
their inner surface, but in this case the mark- te a af
: ings are themselves the thickened part of the Fig. Pt,
.

cell-wall. It is convenient to speak of the mixtun of
woody and vascular tissue as the /ibro-vaseular system.

The name parenchyma is commonly applied to ordi-
nary cellular tissue, whilst tissue formed of long cells
is called prosenchyma,

it will be understood, then, that all cells of every
description, found entering into the composition of a
plant, are only modifications of one original form, the
particular form ultimately assumed by the cells depend-
ing mainly on the functions to be discharged by that
portion of the plant in which the cells occur,

EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS STEMS, 7

168. It has already been hinted that the two great
classes of plants, Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons,
differ in the mode of growth of their stems, We shall

_—

104 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

now explain somewhat more in detail the nature of this
difference. Bearing in mind the fact stated in the pre-
ceding part of the chapter, that old and new parts differ
mainly in the shape of their component cells and the
toy tuze of the cell-walls, it will be found that the dis-

tinction between Exogenous aad Endogenous growth

depends mostly upon the relative situation of the new
cells and the old omes—of the parenchyma and the
prosenchyma. meas

169. Let us begin with the stem of a Dicotyledon.
Fig. 167 shows a section of a young shoot. The whole
of the white part is cellular tissue,
the central portion being the pith.
The dark wedge-shaped portions
are fibro-vascular bundles, consist-
ing mainly of woody tissue, a few
vessels, easily recognised by their
larger openings, being interspersed.
As the shoot becomes older, these
bundles enlarge, and others are formed between them,
so that the radiating channels of cellular tissue which
separate them are in the end re-
duced to much smaller compass
than in the earlier stages of growth
(Tig. 168). The narrow channels
are the medullary rays. The
cells of which they are composed
are flattened by compression.
Eventually, a ring of wood is Fig. 168.
formed, the medullary rays intersecting it in fine lines,
ws the sawed end of almost any log willshow. Outside
the zone of wood is the bark, which at first consists
altogether of cellular tissue. As the season advances,

Fig. 167.

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 105

however, long bast cells are formed in the inner part,
next the wood, which part.is thereafter specially desig-
nated the liber. The outer ring of all, enclosing the
whole stem, is the epidermis or skin.

170. It isnow to be observed that, year after year, the
rings of wood are increased in thickness by the multipli-
cation of their outer cells. There is, consequently,
always a layer of soft cells between the wood and the
bark. This is known as the cambium layer, and it
is here that the whole growth of an exogenous stem
takes place. The soft cells on its inner side are gradu-
ally transformed into woody tissue and vessels, whilst
those on its outer side become the bast cells of the
liber, and others form the extension of the medullary
rays.

Bear in wind, then, that the exogenous stem is char-
acterized (1) by the formation of its wood in rings, (2)
by the presence of the continuous cambium-layer, and
(3) by the presence of a true bark.

171. Let us now consider the structure of an endo-
genous stem. Fig. 169 represents a section of one.

a Here, again, the white portion is

‘49% > ».. cellular tissue, whilst the dark
[ lee a’ 2 cite parts are the fibro-vascular bundles.

<= * \ This stem is at once distinguished
“4 @ g°*~ from the other by the isolation of
¢ 4, »»/ these bundles. They never co-

s 5 alesce to form a ring. That por-
Fig. 169. tion of each bundle, which is nearest
the centre of the stem, corresponds to the wood of the
~ exogen, whilst the outer portion of each consists of
~ eells which resemble the exogenous bast-cells, but there

106 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

is no cambiwm-layer, and consequently no arrangement
for the indefinite continuance of the growth of the
bundles. Once formed, therefore, they remain un-
changed, and the growth of the stem consists in the
production of new ones. These (which originate at the
bases of new leaves) being introduced amongst the
older ones, act as wedges, and swell the stem as a

whole.
THE FOOD OF PLANTS.

172. A word or two is necessary on this subject in
addition to what has already been said. The nature of
a plant's food may be determined by making a chemical
analysis of the plant’s substance. As already stated,
the chemical elements found in plants are chiefly four,
carbon, oxygen, hydrogen. ana nitrogen, the latter elc-
ment occurring in the protoplasm of activo cells. What,
then, are the sources from which the plant obtains these
materials of its growth? In the atmosphere there is
always present a gas known as carbon dioxide, or car-
bonic acid. This gas, which is a compound of carbon
and oxygen, is produced largely in the lungs of animals,
anc by them exhaled. It'is readily soluble in water, zo
thai rain-drops in their passage through the air dissolve
it and carry it with them into the soil. Again, wherever
anima, or vegetablc matter is decaying there is pro-
duced a gas called ammonia, a compound of nitrogen
and hydrogen, and, like carbonic acid, readily soluble,
so that thic also is present in rain-water. And when it
is considered that « very large proportion of the air con-
sists of free nitrogen, soluble to some extent in water, and
that: tho elements of water itself arc oxygen and hydro-
gen it will be cvidont that the moisture in tho
earth contains a supply of ever~ one of the elementc

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 107

c chiefly required by the plant. Now it is a matter of

common experience that, with rare exceptions, a plant

will wither and die unless supplied with adequate mois-
ture. We therefore come to the conclusion, that at
any rate the greater part of the nourishment of plants
is imbibed in liquid form through the roots. The law
of endosmose, in accordance with which this imbibing
goes on, has already been explained. The sap, as it is
called, ascends through the newer tissues, and is at-
tracted to the leaves by the constant evaporation going
on there, and the consequent thickening of the contents
_ of the cells in those organs.

173. And this leads to the question—How does the
water-vapour make its escape from the leaves? The
microscope solves this difficulty for us. A leaf almost
always presents one surface towards the sky and the
other towards the ground. It is protected on both sides
»y an epidermis or skin, consisting of very closely
packed cells. The side exposed to the sun is almost

Fig. 170.

unbroken, but the lower side is seen, under
the microscope, to be perforated by innu-
merable little openings, which lead into the
body of the leaf. These openings, to which
the name stomata, or stomates (Fig. 170)
has been given, have the power of expanding
when moistened by damp air, and contract-
ing when dry. By this wonderful contriv-
ance, the rate of evaporation is regulated,

and a proper balance maintained between the supply
at the root and the loss from the leaves. The stomates,
it may be noticed, serve also as means whereby carbonic
acid may be directly absorbed from the air. In those
plants whose leaves float on water the stomates are

108 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

found on the upper surface, and in vertical leaves they
occur pretty equally on both surfaces. Immersed leaves
are without stomates.

174. The crude sap, then, which ascends into the
leaves is concentrated by the evaporation of its super-
fluous water. When so concentrated, the action of sun-
light, in connection with the green colouring matter
existing in the cells of the leaves, and known as chloro-
phyll, decomposes the carbonic acid, contained in the
sap, into its carbon and oxygen. The latter gas issues
from the leaves into the air, whilst the carbon is retained
and combined with the remaining elements to form
claborated sap, out vt which the substance of new
cells is constructed.

175. It thus appears that the chemical action which
goes on in the leaves of plants is precisely the reverse
of what takes place in the lungs of animals. The latter
inhule oxygen, combine it with the carbon of the blood,
and exhale the resulting carbonic acid. The former take
in carbonic acid, decompose it in the leaves and other
green parts, and exhale the oxygen. Plants may there-
fore be regarded as purifiers of the air.

176. It remains to be added, that besides the four
substances, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
which are called the organic elements, many others
are found in the fabric of plants. When a piece of
wood is burnt away, the organic elements disappear,
but a quantity of ash remains behind. This contains
the various mineral substances which the water absorb-
ed by the plant has previously dissolved out of the soil,
but which it is not necessary to our present purpose to
enumerate here.

FO Oe res

ey ey eae, eee eee we

—

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY, 109

CHAPTER XVI.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL
SYSTEM,

177. Hitherto, our examination of plants has been
confined to a few selected specimens, and we have
examined these chiefly in order to become acquainted
with some variations in the details of growth, as exem-
plified by them. ‘Thus, we have found plants which
agree in exhibiting two cotyledons in the embryo, and
others, again, which are monocotyledonous. Some
members of the former group were found to exhibit
two sets of floral envelopes, other only one, and
others, again, were entirely without these organs. And
so on through the various details. We now set out
with the vegetable world before us—a world populated
by forms almost infinite in number and variety. If,
therefore, our study of these forms is to be carried on to
advantage, we shall have to resolve upon some definite
plan or system upon which to preceed; otherwise we
shall merely dissipate our energies, and our results will
be without meaning. Just as, in our study of language,
we find it convenient to classify words into what we
call parts of speech, and to divide and subdivide these
again, in order to draw finer distinctions, so, in our
study of plants, it will be necessary to arrange them

110 _ ELEMENTS OF S ?UCTURAL BOTANY,

first of all into comprehensive groups, on the ground of |
some characteristic possessed by every member of each
group. Just as, in Latin, every noun whose genitive
case is found to end in @ is classed with nouns of the
first declension, so in Botany, every plant presenting
certain peculiarities will be placed in a group along
with all the other plants presenting the same peculiar-
ities,

178. Some hints have already been given you as to
the kind of resemblances upon which classification is
based. For instance, an immense number of plants
are found to produce seeds with a dicotyledonous
embryo, while an immense number of others have
monocotyledonous embryos. ‘This distinction, there-
fore, is so pronounced, that it forms the basis of a divis-
ion into two very large groups. Again, a very large
number of dicotyledonous plants have their corollas in
separate petals; many others have them united, whilst
others again have no petals at all. Here, then, is an
opportunity to subdivide the Dicotyledons into poly-
petalous, gamopetalous, and apetalous groups. And
so we go on, always on the plan that the more widely
spread a peculiarity is found to be, the more compre-
hensive must be the group based on that peculiarity ;
and so it happens, that the smallest groups of all come
to depend upon distinctions which are, in many cases,
by no means evident, and upon which botanists often
find themselves unable to agree.

179. As our divisions and subdivisions will neces-
sarily be somewhat numerous, we shall have to devise
a special name for each kind of group, in order to avoid
confusion of ideas. We shall, then, to begin with,
dvaw a broad line of <istinction between those plants

rae En eee

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY, 111

which produce flowers of some kind, and those which do
not, and to each of these great groups we shall give tha
name Series. We thus havo the Flowering, or, to
use the Greek term, Phanerogamous, Series, and th3
Flowerless, or Cryptogamous, Series ; or we may
speak of them briefly as Phanerogams and Crypto-—
gams. ‘Then, leaving the Cryptogams aside fox the
moment, we may break up the Phanerogams into two
great Classes, Exogens (or Dicotyledons) and
Endogens (or Monocotyledons), for reasons al-
ready explained. By far the greater number of Exogens
produce seeds which are enclosed in a pericarp of some
kind ; but there is a remarkable group of plants (repre-
sented in Canada only by the Pines and their imme-
diate relatives) which dispense with the pericarp alto-
gether, and whose seeds are consequently naked. §o
that we can make two Sub-Classes of the Exogens, on
the basis of this difference, and these we shall call the
Angiospermous Sub-Class, and the Gymnosper-
mous (naked-seeded) Sub-Class. The first of theso_
may be grouped in three Divisions, the Polypetalous,
Gamopetalous, and Apetalous, and the Endogens aiso
in three, the Spadiceous, the Petaloideous, and the
Glumaceous, types of which we have already examined
in the Marsh Calla (spadiceous), Trillium (petaloideous),
and ‘Timothy (glumaceous), and the distinctions between
which are sufilciently obvious.

The Cryptogams are divided into three great
Classes, viz.: Acrogens, embracing Ferns, Horse-
tails and Club-mosses; Anophytes, embracing Mosses
and Liverworts; and fhallophytes, em bracing Lichens,
Seaweeds, and Musiirocms.

ee § eh.
~

Aba 2 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

So far, then, our classification is as follows:

Fach of the Divisions is sub-divided into 2 number of
Families or Orders; each Order into a number of
Genera; and each Genus into Species. A species is
the sum o% all the individual plants whose resemblances
in all essential respects are so great as to warrant the
belief that they have sprung from one common stock.
De Candolle has this statement: ‘‘ We unite under ‘he
designation of 2 species all those individuals that mutu-
ally bear to each other so close a resemblance as to
allow of our supposing that they may have proceeded
originally from a single being or a single pair.” We
may also speak of each one of these individual plants as
a species. For example, you may say, after finishing
the first lesson of this book, that you have examined a
species of Buttercup. Mere differences-of colour or size
are not sufficient to constitute different species. The
Balsams of our gardens, for instance, are of various
colours, and the plants vary greatly in size, yet they all
belong to one species. These minor differences, which
are mainly the result of caro and cultivation, give rise
to varieties. These are of great interest to the horticul-

( ( ( Sub-class 1—Angiosper'ms
Polypetalous Divisien.
S Class I.—Exogens ...< Gamopetalous “
6 |
8 Series I. Apetalous
& Phanero- | (Sub-class 2-Gymnosperms
4 gams mes
eI 4 Spadiceous Division.
E Class See Petaloideous Division.
3 L Glumaceous Division.
2 | ,
9 : (Class III.—Acrogens.
Series EI. |
+ Class IV.—Anophytes.
Cryptogams. |
M \Class V.—Thallophytes.

ee ee eee ee

j
4

ss |S?

ie ee ae

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 113

turist , but the study of species is the great end and
aim of the botanist.

180. Those Species which are considered to resem-
ble each other most nearly are grouped into Genera,
and the Genera, in like manner, into Orders ;
but these particular groupings are more or less
artificial, and are subject to continual alteration in con-
sequence of our imperfect knowledge. As, year by
year, new facts are brought to light, modifications in
arrangement take place. In the Classification which
constitutes the Second Part of this work, the Divi-
sions spoken of above are placed in the order named.
In the Polypetalous Division, those Orders are put
first which embrace plants with hypogynous stamens
and apocarpous pistils, the parts of the flowers being
consequently separate; then those with similarly in-
serted stamens, but syncarpous pistils; then those with
perigynous stamens; and, generally, we proceed from
plants whose flowers have all their parts separate
to those exhibiting more or less cohesion and adhesvon,
and finally to those having one or more parts of the
flower wanting.

181. In looking up the name of a plant, it will be
your object to determine the Genus to which it belongs,
and also the Species. The name of every plant consists
of two parts: its Genus first, and then its Species. The
name of the Genus is a Latin noun, and that of the
Species a Latin adjective agreeing with the noun. The
Buttercup, for example, which we examined at the
outset, belongs to the Genus Ranunculus. In this
Genus are included many Species. The particular one
examined by us is known as aeris ; so that the full name

y - » »
ee)

PY shoes
ry

beat +!

yh i met

oh er

» de Pe.

E ; a if
" ad sae

a a ~ ae a

114 ELEMENTS oF STRUCTURAL BOTA

“>
ar
a?

ae. 2.
eee |
=
>
4

4
of the plant is Ranunculus acris. In like manner, the
name of the plant popularly called Marsh Marigold is
Caltha palustris.

182. The Key which is prefixed to the Classification
will enable you to determine without much difficulty :
the Order to which a plant belongs, but nothing more.
Having satisfied yourselves as to the Order, you must
turn to the page on which that Order is described, and,
by carefully comparing the descriptions there given
with the characters exhibited by your plant, decide
upon its Genus, and, in the same manner, upon its
Species.

‘

THE HERBARIUM.

Those who are anxious to make the most of their
botanical studies will find it of great advantage to
gather and preserve specimens for reference. A few
hints, therefore, on this subject will not be out of place.
It will, of course, be an object to collectors to have
their specimens exhibit as many of their natural char-
acters as possible, so that, although dried and pressed,
there will be no difficulty in recognizing them; and to
this end neatness and care are the first requisites.

Specimens should be collected when the plants are
in flower, and, if possible, on a dry day, as the flowers
are then in better condition than if wet. If the plant
is small, the whole of it, root and all, should be taken
up ; if too large to be treated in this way, a flower and
one or two of the leaves (radical as well as cauline, if
these be different,) may be gathered.

As many of your specimens will be collected at a dis-
tance from home, a close tin box, which may be slung
over the shoulder by a strap, should be provided, in
which the plants may be kept fresh, particularly if a
few drops of water be sprinkled upon them. Perhaps a
better way, however, -is to carry a portfolio of conveni-
ent size—say 15 inches by 10 inches—made of two
pieces of stout pasteboard or thin deal, and having a
couple of straps with buckles for fastening it together.
Between the covers should be placed sheets of blotting
paper, or coarse wrapping paper, as many as will allow
the specimens to be separated by at least five or six

sheets. ithe advantage of the portfolio is, that the
: 16

116 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY.

plants may be placed vetween the sheets of blotting
paper, and subjected to pressure by means of the straps,
as soon as they are gathered. If carried in a box, they
should be transferred to paper as soon as possible. The
specimens should be spread out with great care, and the
crumpling and doubling of leaves guarded against. The
only way to prevent moulding is to place plenty of
paper between the plants,and change the paper frequently,
the frequency depending on the amount of moisture
contained in the specimens. From ten days to a fort-
night will be found sufficient for the thorough drying
of almost any plant you are likely to meet with. Havy-
ing made a pile of specimens with paper between them,
as directed, they should be placed on a table or floor,
covered by a flat board, and subjected to pressure by
placing weights on the top ; twenty bricks or so will
answer very well.

When the specimens are thoroughly dry, the next
thing is to mount them, and for this purpose you will
require sheets of strong white paper ; a good quality of
unruled foolscap, or cheap drawing paper, will be suit-
able. The most convenient way of attaching the spec-
imen to the paper is to take a sheet of the same size as
your paper lay the specimen carefully in the centre,
wrong side up, and gum it thoroughly with a very soft
brush. Then take the paper to which the plant is to
be attached, and lay it carefully on the specimen. You
can then lift paper and specimen together, and, by
pressing lightly with a soft cloth, ensure complete ad-
hesion. To render plants with stout stems additionally
secure, make a slit with a penknife through the paper
immediately underneath the stem; then pass a narrow
band of paper round the stem, and thrust both ends of

———S lee

———s se ee ee ee ee ee

ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. T17

the band through the slit. The ends may then be
gummed to the back of the sheet.

The specimen having been duly mounted, its botan-
ical name should be written neatly in the lower right-
hand corner, together with the date of its collection,
and the locality where found. Of course only one
Species should be mounted on each sheet; and when a
sufficient number have been prepared, the Species of the
same Genus should be placed in a sheet of larger and
coarser paper than that on which the specimens are
mounted, and the name of the Genus should be written
outside on the lower corner. Then the Genera of the
same Order should be collected in the same manner,
and the name of the Order written outside as before.
The Orders may then be arranged in accordance with
the classification you may be using, and carefully laid
away in a dry place. If a cabinet, with shelves or draw-
ers, can be specially devoted to storing the plants, so
much the better.

; Rel aL ania iret (ted aed
Bey gs cae he on eS eunhlat 5.

rake 3 ore VP GRE AGT Boreas ne? WES
| I et se ae esl Sar fie
Tee
iets i Ce tant yay CAG eer
COPIER nce te sant bean. eat Wate
Ty VRE ee ee 8 4 se Se

‘ri

: 7 » |

3 : er at 5A asit5 abe ES

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

The references are to the Sections, unless Figures are specified.

Abruptly pinnate, 114.

Absorption by roots, ?, 165, 172.

Acaulescent : apparently without a stem, 18.

Accessory fruits: such as consist chiefly of an enlargement of
some organ, such as the calyx or receptacle, not organically
united with the pistil, 151, 152.

Achenium or Achene, 156

Achlamydeous : having neither calyx nor corolla, 56

Acicular, Fig. 110.

Acrogens, 179.

Acuminate : with a long tapering point.

Acute: sharp-pointed, 110.

Adherent: » term applied to the union of unlike parts; e.g.
stamens with corolla, &c.

Adnate (anthers), 132.

Adventitious : occurring out of the natural position.

Adventitious roots, 86.

Adventitious buds, 88.

Aerial roots, 86.

Aestivation : the folding of the floral envelopes in the bud.

Aggregate fruits, 150.

Air-plants (epiphytes), 87.

Albumen (of the seed): solid nourishing matter distinct from the
embryo, 12.

Albuminous seeds, 59.

Alternate (leaves), 99.

Ament or Catkin, Figs. 63, 64.

Amplexicaul: clasping a stem.

Anatropous : a term applied to ovules when inverted, so that the
micropyle is close to the point of attachment.

Andrecium: the cirée of stamens collectively, 132.

Androus: an ending of adjectives descriptive of stamens, ¢.g.,
monandrous, polyandrous, &c. 3

Angiospermous : applied to plants whose seeds are enclosed in an
ovary.

Annual: a plant which grows from the seed, flowers, and dies,
in the same season.

Anophytes, 179.

Anthe : the essential part of a stamen, containing the pollen, 132.

Apetalous : without a corolls ; having only ono sot of floral
envelopes, 20 , 4

a29 fi

120 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Apocarpous: applied to pistils when the carpels are free from

each ether.

Appendage: anything attached or added.

Appressed : in contact, but not united.

Aquatic: growing in the water, whether completely, or only
partially, immersed.

Arborescent: resembling a tree.

Aril, 157.

Arrow-shaped, Fig. 120.

Ascending: rising upward in a slanting direction; applied chiefly
to weak stems.

Ascending axis : the stem of a plant.

Ascidium : a pitcher-shaped leaf, Fig. 134.

Ashes of plants, 176.

Assimilation, 165.

Auriculate: same as awricled, having rounded lobes at the base ;
applied mostly to leaves.

Awl-shaped, Fig. 112.

Awn : a bristle, such as is found on the glumes of many Grasses,
Barley for example.

Axil, 3.

Axile : relating to the axis.

Axillary : proceeding from an axil.

Axillary buds, 88.

Axillary flowers, 120.

Axis: the stem and root.

baceate: like a berry.

Bark, 169.

Bast, 167.

Bearded: furnished with hairs, like the petals of some Violets,
&e.

Bell-shaped, 130.

Berry, 149.

Biennial: a plant which grows from seed in one season, but pro-
duces its seed and dies in the following season.

Bifoliolate : having two leaflets.

Bilabiate: two-lipped, Fig. 142.

Bipinnate: twice pinnate, Fig. 132.

Bipinnatifid : twice pinnatifid, Fig. 123.

Blade ; the broad part of a leaf or petal.

Bracts, 19, 125.

Bracteate : subtended by a bract.

Bractlets : secondary bracts growing on pedicels, 125.

Branches: growths from the sides of a stem, originating in axil-
lary buds, 3.

Breathing-pores (stomates), 173.

Bud: an undeveloped stem or branch,

Bulb, 92,

a ee ae ee ee oe

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 121

Bulbiferous : producing bulbs.
Bulblets, 95.
Bulbous: like a bulb in shape.

Caducous, 128.

Calyx, 5.

Cambium layer, 170.

Campanulate, 130.

Capillary: fire and hair-like.

Capitulum: same as head, 122.

Capsule, 155.

Carina, or keel: the two coherent petals in the front of a flower
of the Pea kind, Fig. 36.

Caryopsis, 156.

Carpel, 7.

Carpellary : relating to a earpel, e.g., carpellary leaf, &G.

Cartilaginous: tough.

Catkin, Figs. 63, 64.

Caulescent : with an evident stem.

Caulicle: another name for the radicle.

Cauline: relating to the stem, e.g., cauline leaves, &c., 4.

Cell: the hollow in the anther, which contains the pollen. See
also 161.

Cell-multiplication, 164.

Cellular tissue, 162.

Cellulose, 163.

Centrifugal inflorescence, 121.

Centripetal inflorescence, 120.

Chalaza : the part of an ovule where the coats are united to
the nucleus.

Chlorophyll, 163, 174.

Ciliate, 116.

Cirecinate : curled up like the young frond of a Fern.

Circulation in cells, 163.

Circumcissile: opening like a pyxis, Fig. 161.

Classification, 177.

Claw (of a petal), 40, 129.

Climbing stems, ‘0.

Club-shaped: with the lower part more slender than the upper,
as the style of Dog’s-tooth Violet, Fig. 73.

Cohesent: a term applied to the union of like parts, 26.

Cohesion, 26.

Collerm, or neck : the junction of the stem and root.

Collactive fruits, 153.

Column, 72.

Coma: atuft of hairs, such as that on the seed of Dandelion
Fig. 56. :

Complete, 8.

Compound, or Composite, flowers, 49,

122 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Compound leaf, 100.

Compound spike, corymb, &c., 122.
Cone, 143.

Coniferous : bearing cones.
Connate: growr together.
Connate-perfoliate, Fig. 130.
Connective, 132.

Convolute: rolled inwards from one edge.
Cordate, 108.

Corm, 66.

Corolla, 5.

Corymb, Fig. 135.

Corymbose: like a corymb.
Cotyledons, 58.

Creeping, 90.

Crenate, Fig. 128.

Cruciform : cross-shaped, as the flowers of Shepherd's Purse, &c.
Crude sap, 174.

Cryptogams, 179.

Culm, 90.

Cuneate : wedge-shaped.

Cuspidate, Fig. 126.

Cyclosis, 163.

Cymeo, 124.

Cymose: like a cyme.

Decandrour : with ten separate stamens.

Deciduous 5.

Decompoun : spplied to leaves whose blades are divided and
subdivided.

Decumbent: applied to stems which lie on the ground but turn
upward at the extremity.

Decurrent, Fig. 131.

Decussate: applied to the arrangement of leaves, when successive
pairs of opposite leaves are at right angles, as in the plants
of the Mint family.

Definite inflorescence, 121.

Deflexed: bent down.

Dehiscent, 147.

Dehiscence of anthers, Figs. 147, 148, 149.

Deliquescent: applied to stems which dissolve into branches,

Deltoid, 146.

Dentate, 112.

Depauperate: unnaturally small.

Depressed: flattened down.

Descending axis: the root, 83.

Determinate inflorescence, 121.

Diadelphous: applied to stamens, 36.

Diandrous: with two separat~ stamens,

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 123

Dichlamydeous: having both sets of floral envelopes.

Dicotyledonous, 58.

Dicotyledons, 59.

Didynamous (stamens). 50

Digitate, 101.

Dicecious, 56.

Disk : in flowers of the Composite Family, the centre of the head
as distinguished from the border ; a fleshy enlargement of
the receptacle of a flower.

Dissected: finely cut.

Dissepiment, 139.

Distinct: not coherent, (see Coherent).

Divergent : separating from one another.

Dodecandrous: with twelve distinct stamens.

Dorsal suture, 138.

Dotted ducts, Fig. 166.

Double flowers : abnormal flowers which stamons and carpels
bave been transformed into petals. ;

Downy : covered with soft hairs.

Drupe, 147.

Drupelet, a little drupe.

Duets, 167.

Earthy constituents of plants, 176.

Elaborated sap, 174.

Elementary constituents of plants, 176.

Elementary structure, 160.

Elliptical : same as oval, 105.

Emarginate, 111.

Embryo, 12.

Embryo-sac, 16.

Emersed : raised above the surface of water.

Endocarp: ‘* When the wallsof a pericarp form two or more Jay-
ers of dissimilar texture, the outer layer is called the Eipicarp,

the middle one Mesocarp, and the innermost Endocarp.”—
Gray.
Endogen, 81.
Endogenous growth, 171.
Endosmose, 172, 165.
Enneandrous : with nine distinct stamens.
Entire, 112.
Ephemers : lasting one day only.
Epicalyx, 33.
Epicarp : see Endocarp.
Epidermis, 169.
Epigynous : inserted on the ovary, 46.
Epipetalous : inserted on the corolla, 47.
Epiphytes, 87.
Equitant (leaves), 98.

124 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Essential organs, 17.

Evergreen : retaining foliage during winter.

Exalbuminous, 59.

Excurrent: said of main stems which are distinet, and well-
marked to the top,as in the Pine and Fir; the reverse of
deliquescent.

Exhalation, 175, 173.

Exogen, 60.

Hxogenous growth, 169.

Exserted protruding, 136.

Exstipulate, 115.

Extrorse, 132.

Fascicle: a close bundle, either of leaves or flowers.

Fascicled roots, 85.

Feather-veined: same as pinnately-veined, 101.

Fertile flower, 53.

Fertilization, 17.

Fibrous thread-like, 2.

Fibro-vascular system, 167.

Filament, 6.

Filiform, 117.

Fimbriate: fringed.

Fleshy fruits, 148.

Fiora: adescription of the plants of a district; a collective name
for the whole of the species of a district.

Floral envelopes, 14.

Floret, 48.

Flower: the part of a phanerogamous plant in which the stamens
and pistil are situated.

Flower-leaves, 11.

Flowering plants, 179.

TPlowerless plants, 179.

Toliaceous : like a leaf in appearance.

Toliolate : having leaflets.

Follicle, 154.

Tree, 5.

Fruit, 144.

Fugacious: falling away early.

Funiculus, 157.

Funnel-shaped, Fig. 140.

Furcate: forked.

I'usiform: same as spindle-shaped, 85.

Gelea: an arching petal or sepal, as the two upper onesin Catnip,
ip. 57.

Camoplizllous, 63.

Gamopetalous, 129,

Csmosepalous, 127,

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 125

Genera: plural of genus.

Genus, 179.

Germ : same as embryo.

Germination, 158.

Gibbous : swollen on one side.

Glabrous, 116.

Gladiate : sword-shaped.

Glands: applied generally to cells or hairs on the surfaces of
plants, in which resinous or oily matters are secreted; but
the term is also used to describe any projection, the use of
which is not clear.

Glandular: bearing glands.

Glaucous, 116.

Globose: like a globe or sphere.

Glumaceous : bearing or resembling glumes.

Glumes, 75.

Gourd, 149.

Grain, 156.

Granules : particles.

Gymnospermons, 143.

Gymnosperms, 179.

Gyneecium, 137.

Gynandrous, 135.

Habitat: a term applied to the region most favourable to the
growth of a plant : the place where it grows naturally.

Hairs, 116.

Hairy, 4.

Halberd-shaped, Fig. 119.

Hastate, Fig. 119.

Head, 122.

Heart-shaped, 108.

Heptandrous: with seven distinct stamens.

Herb, 89.

Herbaceous, 89.

Herbarium : a botanist’s collection of dried plants.

Hexandrous: with six distinct stamens.

Hilum, 157.

Hirsute : rough with hairs.

Hispid : covered with stiff hairs. =

Hoary : densely covered with fine grayish hairs

Hortus siceus: same as herbarium.

Hybrids: plants resulting from the crossing o. nearly related
species.

Hypogynous, 135.

Imbricate : overlapping like shingles on a roof.
Immersed : wholly under water.
Imperfect, 53.

126 INDEX AND GLOSSARY:

Included, 136.

Incomplete, 19.

Incurved (petals) Fig. 50.

Indefinite, 26, 134.

Indefinite inflorescence, 120.

Indehiscent, 147.

Indeterminate inflorescence, 120.

Indigenous: naturally growing in a country.

Inferior: underneath; farthest from the axis; the.ovary is
inferior when the calyx adheres to it throughout ; the calyx
is inferior when free from the ovary. :

Inflorescence, 119.

Innate, 132.

Inserted : attached to.

Insertion : the point, or manner, of attachment.

Internodes, 4.

Interruptedly pinnate, Fig. 133.

Introrse, 132.

Involucel, 125.

Involucre, 125.

Inyolute: rolled inwards from both edges.

Irregular, 35.

Isomerous: haying the parts equal in number.

Joints: a name sometimes given to the nodes of a stem.

Keel, see Carina.

Kernel, 16.

Key-fruit, 156.
Kidney-shaped, Fig. 121.

Labellum (or lip), 71.

Labiate, 50.

Lanceolate, Fig. 113.

Leaf, 97.

Leaf-arrangement, 99.

Leaf-green, see Chlorophyll.

Leaflet, 100.

Leafstalk, 4.

Legume, 154.

Leguminovs: producing or relating to legumes.

Liber, 169.

Ligneous: woody.

Ligulate, 131.

Ligule: a strap-shaped corolla n Grasses, a seale-liko projec-
tion between the blade of a leaf and the sheath.

Limb, 129, 130.

Lip, see Labellum.

Linear, Fig. 111.

“ E n ec "
d INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 1Sf:.3

“Lobe, 4, 100. |
Loeulicidal (dehiscence) : splitting midway between the partitions.

_ Loment: a jointed legume.
Lyrate : pinnately-lobed, with the terminal lobe much larger than

the others.

Marcescent: withering persistent.

Marginal: relating to the margin.

Markings*(on cells), 167.

Medullary rays, 169.

Membranous : thin, like a membrane.
Mesoearp: see Endocarp.

Micropyle, 16.

Midrib, 101.

Monadelphous, 134.

*“Monandrous: with a single stamen, 72.
Monochlamydeous; with only one set of floral envelopes.
Monocotyledonous, 80.
Monocotyledons, 81.

Moneecious, 53.

Morphology, 82.

Mucronate, 110.

Multifid, 109.

Multiple fruits, 153.

Naked flowers : those which are destitute of calyx and corolla.

Naked seeds: those not enclosed in an ovary, 143.

Napiform, 85.

Natural system of classification, 177, &e.

Naturalized : introduced from other countries, but growing spon-
taneously from seed.

Neck, see Collum.

Nectary : that in which nectar is secreted.

Needle-shaped, Fig. 110.

Net-veined, 4.

Neutral flowers: those having neither stamens nor pistil.

Nodding: hanging with the top downwards, like the fiower in
Fig. 72.

Node, 4.

Normal: regular; according to rule. -

Nucleus (of an ovule), 16, 157 ; (of a cell), 163.

Nut, 156.

Nutlet: a small nut, or nut-like body, 50.

Obeordate, 108.

Oblanceolate, 107.

Oblique: having the sides unequal.
Obliteration (of partitions), 140.
Qblong, 105.

4128 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Obovate, 107.

Obtuse, 110.

Ochrea: a tube formed by the union of both edges of a pair of
stipules.

Ochreate: having ochree.

Octandrous: having eight separate stamens.

Offset: a short, prostrate branch, rooting at the end.

Opposite, 99.

Orbicular, 105.

Orders, 179.

Organic clements, 176.

Organs: the parts or members of a living body.

Organs of Reproduction: the parts of the flower.

Organs of Vegetation: root, stem, and leaves.

Orthotropous: applied to ovules when straight, so that the micro-
pyle is as far as possible from the »oint of attachment.

Oval, 105,

Ovary, 7.

Ovate, 106.

Ovoid: egg-shaped.

Ovule, 7.

Palate, 131.

Palet, 75.

Palmate, 101.

Palmately-lobed, 109.

Palmatifid, 109.

Panicle, 123.

Papilionaceous, 35

Pappoze, 128.

Pappus: a circle of bristles or hairs representing the limb of the
calyx in flowers of the Composite Family, 48.

Parallel-veined: same as straight-veined, 62.

Parasites, 87.

Parenchyma, 167.

Parietal : on the walls, 141.

Parted: almost completely cut through.

Pectinate: pinnatifid with lobes like the teeth of a comb.

Pedate, Fig. 125.

Pedicel, 27.

Pedunele, 5.

Peltate, Fig. 123.

Pentandrous : with five distinct stamens.

Pepo, 149.

Perennial: a plant which continues to grow year after year.

Perfect : having both stamens and pistil.

Perfoliate, 113.

Perianth, 63.

Pericarp, 145.

Sig os gah FN es
* a ~~, .

0 i “ -
ae 1 q ns”

INDEX AND GLOSSARY

Porigynous, 36.
Persistent, 32.
Personate, 131. ; ;
Petal, 5. ; oe
- Petiolate: having petioles. =

Petiole, 4. : xa

Phanerogamous or Phmenogamous, 179. a:

Pilose : having long soft hairs. :

Pinna’? a primary division of a pinnately compound leaf.

Pinnate, 101.

Pinnately-lobed, 109.

Pinnatifid, 109.

Pinnule: a secondary division of a pinnately compound leaf.

Pratl 137, 7.
Pistillate: having a pistil, 53.

_ Pitcher-shaped (leaf), Fig. 134.
pee eth, 169,
Placenta, 141.
- Placentation, 141.
_ Plumose: feathery.
Plumule, 58.
Pod: a dehiscent fruit.
Pollen, 6. ;
Pollen-tube, 16. 7
Pollinia : pollen-masses, Fig. 87.
Polyadelphous, 134.
Polyandrous : with numerous distinct stamens.
Polycotyledonous, 159.
Polygamous: having perfect as well as imperfect flowers.
- Polypetalous : having separate petals.
Polysepalous : having separate sepals.
Pome, 148.
Posterior: next the axis.
Preeflvration, see Astivation.
Prefoliation : the disposition of leaves in the bud.
Prickles, 96.
Procumbent: lying on the ground.
Prosenchyma, 167.
Prostrate, 90. =
Protoplasm, 163.
Pubescent: covered with fine down.
Mt a: having transparent dots, like the leaves of St. John’s —
ort.
Putamen, 147.

Pyxis, 155.

~ Quinquefoliolate: having five leaflets. =a

y. - Raceme, 122.

130 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Racemose: like a raceme.

Rachis: an axis.

Radiate, 101.

Radical: pertaining to the root.

Radical leaves, 4.

Radicle, 58.

Raphides, 163.

Ray: the marginal florets of a composite flower, as distinguished
from the disk.

Receptac'e, 8.

Recurved: curved backwards.

Reflexed: bent backwards.

Regular: with parts of the same size and shape.

Reniform, Fig. 121.

Reticulated: netted.

Retuse : slightly notched at the apex.

Revolute : rolled back.

Rhizome, 91.

Pibs, 101

Ringent, 131.

Root, 2, 83.

Root-hairs, 165.

Rootlet, 2.

Rootstock, 91.

Rotate, 130.

Rotation in cells, 163.

Rudimentary : imperfectly developed.

Rugose: wrinkled.

Runcinate: with teeth pointing backwards, as in the leaf c?
Dandelion.

Runner, 90.

Sagittate, Fig. 120.
Salver-shaned, Fig. 141
Samara, Fig. 162.

Sap, 172, 174.

Sareocarp : the flesh of a drupe.
Scabrous: rough.

Scandent: climbing.

Scape, 19.

Scar, 157

Scion: a young shoot.

Seed, 17, 157, 158.
Seed-vessel, see Ovary.

Sepal, 5.

Septicidal (dehiscence) : splitting open along th partitions.o
Septum : a partition.

Series, 179.

Serrate, 112

Soe Ss eo

Sessile, 4.

Setaceous: like a bristle.

Sheath : a tube surrounding a stem, 62.

Sheathing: surrounding like a sheath.

Shield-shaped, see Peltate.

Shoot: a newly formed branch.

Shrub, 89.

Silicle, 155.

Silique, 155.

Simple (leaves), 100 ; (pistil), 137.

Sinuate : wavy on the margin.

Solitary, 121.

Spadiceous, 179.

Spadix, 69.

Spathe, 69.

Spathulate, 107.

Species, 179.

Spike, 122.

Spikelet, a secondary spike.

Spindle-shaped, 85.

Spine, 96.

Spiral markings, 167.

Spores: the reproductive bodies in Cryp.ogams which correspond
_ to the seeds of Phanerogams.

Spur, 131.

Stamen, 6, 132.

Staminate (flower): having no pistil, but only stamens.

Standard : the broad upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla.

Stem, 5, 88.

Stemless, 18.

Sterile (flower) : having no pistil.

Stigma, 7.

Stigmatic : bearing the stigma.

Stipulate: having stipules, 115.

Stipule, 31, 115.

Stolon: a short branch which droops to the ground and takes

root.

Stomate, 173,

Stone, see Putamen.

Stone-fruit, see Drupe. >

Strap-shaped, see Ligulate.

Striate: marked lengthwise with lines or furrows.

Strobile: same as Cone.

Style, 7.

Gub-class, 179.

Subulate, Fig. 112.

Succulent: juicy ; fleshy.

Sucker: an underground branch, at length emerging and form~

ing a stem.

L~ 4 =o 7 F

a, Pe,

182 INDEX AND GLOSSARY.

Superior, 7, 37, 44.
Suppression : absence of parts.
Suspended: hung from above.
Suture, 138.

Symmetrical, 42.

Syncarpous, 29.
Syngenesious, 47

Tap-root, 84.

Teeth (of calyx), 32.

Tendril, 90.

Terete: cylindrical.

Terminal: at the end of a stem or branch.
Ternate : in threes.

Testa, 157.

Tetradynamous, 28, 136.

Tetrandrous: having four distinct stamens.
Thalamiflorous : having the stamens inserted on the receptacle.
Thalamus: the receptacle.

Thread-shaped, see Filiform.

Throat (of cilyx), 128.

Thorn, see Spine.

Thyrse, 123.

Tissue, 162.

Tomentose: woolly.

Toothed, see Dentate, 112.

Torus: same as receptacle.

Tree, 89.

Triadelphous, 134.

Triandrous: having three distinct stamens.
Triennial: lasting three years.
Trifoliolate : having three leaflets.
Truncate, 111.

Trunk: the main stem.

Tube, 34, 128,

Tuber, 91.

Tuberous: like a tuber.

Tunicated, 92.

Twining, 90.

Two-lipped, see Labiate, 50.

Umbel, 122.
Umbellet : a secondary umbel.
Unguiculate: having a claw.

Valvate : edge to edge, but not overlapping.
Valve, 41, 133, 147.

Valved: having valves.

Varieties, 179.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY,

Vascular tissue, 167.

Veins : the finer parts of the framework of a leaf.
Venation, 101.

Ventral suture, 138.

Vernation, same as Prefoliation.

Versatile, 132.

Vertical leaves, 98.

Verticillate, 99.

Vessels, 167.

Villose, 116.

133

Wavy : with alternate rounded hollows and projections, 112.

Wedge-shaped : like a wedge, the broad wart being the a~ex.
Wheel-shaped, see Rotate.

Whor!: a circle of three or more leaves at the same node.
Woody tissue, 167.

ACP PE INpape ra.

Selections from Geaminatton Papers.

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO.

1. Define suckers, stolons, offsets, runners, tendrils,
thorns, and prickles, describing their respective origins
and uses, and giving examples of plants in which they
occur

2. What are the functions of leaves? Describe the
different kinds of compound leaves.

8. What is meant by inflorescence? Describe the
different kinds of flower-clusters, giving an example of
each.

4. Mention and explain the terms applied to the
yarious modes of insertion of stamens.

5. How are fruits classified ? What are multiple or
collective fruits? Give examples.

6. Relate the differences in structure between endo-
genous and exogenous stems. Describe their respective
modes of growth.

7. What is the food of plants? how do they obtain
it ? and how do they make use of it ?

8. Describe the component parts of a simple flower.
How is reproduction effected ?

9. Describe the anatomical structure of a leaf, and
the formation and office of leaf-stomata.

10. Explain the consequences of flowering upon the
health of a plant, and shew how these effects are reme-
died in different climates. What practical bearing has
this upon horticulture ?

11. Trace the development of a carpel from a leaf.

Describe the different forms assumed by placente in
134

APPENDIX. 185

compound ovaries, aud explain the origin of these
variations.

12. Mention the principal modes in which pollen
gains access to the stigma. What are hybrid plants,
and how are they perpetuated ?

18. Describe the ‘anatomy of a leaf. What are
stomata ?

14. What is the placenta in a seed vessel ? Describe
the different modes of placentation. Shew how the
varieties of piacentation agree with the “ altered-leaf
theory ” of the pistil.

15. Give the characters of the Composite. How is
the order subdivided ? Describe the composite flower,
and mention some of the common Canadian examples
of this order.

16. Give the peculiarities of Endogens in seed-leaf,
leaf, and stem. Subdivide the class. Describe shortly
the orders Aracew and Graminee.

17. Deseribe the wall of a seed-vessel, and notice its
varieties of form.

18. What is meant by the dehiscence of a capsule ?
Shew the different modes in which pods dehisce, and
give examples of each.

19. Give the characters and orders of Gymnosper-
mous Exogens.

20. Give the charazters of Ranunculacee. Describe
shortly some of the principal plants of the order.

21. Give some account of the special forms which the
leaves of plants assume.

99. What are stipules? What their size and shape ?

23. What is meant by Imperfect, Incomplete, and
Unsymmetrical flowers respectively ?

24, Describe Papilionaceous-and Labiate corollas.

25. Write notes on Abortive Organs, Gymmnosper-
mous Pistil, and Pollen Granule.

96. Distinguish between the essential and non-essen-
tial materials found in plants, and notice the non-es-
sential.

97. What is vegetable growth ? Illustrate by a ref-

136 APPENDIX.

erence to the pollen granule in its fertilization of the
ovary.

28. What is an axil? What is the pappus ?

29. What are the cotyledons? What is their fune-
tion, and what their value in systematic Botany ?

30. Distinguish between HKpiphytes and Parasites ;
Describe their respective modes of growth, and give ex-
amples of each.

31. What is the difference between roots and subter-
ranean branches ? Define rhizoma, tuber, corm, and
bulb, giving examples of each. How does a potato differ
botanically from a’ sweet-potato ?

82. Describe the calyx and corolla; what modifica-
tions of parts take place in double flowers ?

33. What is a fruit in Botany ? Explain the struct-
ure of an apple, grape, almond, strawberry, fig, and
pineapple.

34. What organs appear in the more perfect plants ?
In what two divisions are they comprised ?

35. Weak climbing stems distinguished according to
the mode in which they support themselves, the direc-
tion of their growth, the nature of their clasping organs.

36. Structure and parts of a leaf: What is most im-
portant in their study? Give the leading divisions,
and mention what secondary distinctions are required
in specific description ?

37. Function of the flower : its origin: its essential
and accessory parts: names of the circles and their
component organs: circumstances which explain the
differences among flowers.

38. Parts of the fully formed ovule and distinctions
founded on their relative position.

39. Sub-kingdoms and classes of the vegetable king-
dom.

SECOND CLASS TEACHERS’ CERTIFICATES,
PROVINCE OF ONTARIO.

1. Name the parts of the pistil and stamens of a
flower and give their uses

APPENDIX. 137

2. What are Perennial plants? Describe their
mode of life. .

3. “There are two great classes of stems, which differ
in the way the woody part is arranged in the cellular
tissue.” Fully explain this.

4. Describe the funetions of,leaves. How are leaves
classified as to their veining’

5. Name and describe the organic constituents of
plants.

6. Name the organs of reproduction in plants, and
describe their functions.

7. Give, and fully describe, the principal parts of the
flower.

8. What are the different parts of a plant ? Describe
the functions of each part.

9, State all the ways by which an Exogenous stem
may be distinguished from an Endogenous.

10. Describe the functions of leaves. What is the
cause of their fall in autumn? Draw and describe a
maple leaf.

11. Name the different parts of a flower, and deseribe
the use of each part. Draw a diagram showing a sta-
men and a pistil and the parts of each.

12. What is the fruit? Why do some fruits fall
from the stem more easily than others ?

13. Of what does the food of plants consist? In
what forms and by what organs is it taken up, and how
is it asssimilated? Name the substances inhaled and
those exhaled by plants, and the uses of each in the
economy of nature.

14. Describe fully (1) the plant in Vegetation; (2)
the plant in Reproduction.

15. Describe Fibrous roots, Fleshy roots, and differ-
ent kinds of Tap-root.

16. Describe the structure and veining of leaves.

17. ‘The nourishment which the mother plant pro-
vides in the seed is not always stored up in the embryo.”
Explain and illustrate.

“8. Describe the various modes in which Perennials

138 APPENDIX.

“provide a stock of nourishment to begin the new
growth.”

19. Describe fully the organs of reproduction in a
plant. Describe the process of germination.

20. What are the parts of a flower? Give illustra-
tions by diagram, with a full description.

21. Name and describe the principal sorts of flowers.

22. What elementary substances should the soil con-
tain for the nourishment of plants ?

23. How are plants nourished before and after
appearing above ground ?

24. Tell what you know about the various forms of
the calyx and the corolla.

25. Explain the terms Cotyledon, Pinnate, Root-
stock, Filament, and Radicle.

26. Explain the terms Papilionaceous, Cruciferous,
Silique, and Syngenesious; and in each case name a
family in the description of which the term under con-
sideration may be properly applied.

27. Give the characters of the Rose family.

28. Deseribe the various modes in which biennials
store up nourishment during their first season.

29. Explain the meaning of the terms Sepal, Bract,
Raceme, and Stipule. Describe minutely the Stamen
and the Pistil, and give the names applied to their
parts.

30. Are the portions of the onion, the potato, and the
turnip which are capable of preservation through the
winter, equally entitled to the name of roots? Give
reasons for your answer.

FIRST CLASS CERTIFICATES.

1. What are the cotyledons? Describe their fune-
tions, &c. State their value in systematic botany.

2. Describe the difference in structure and modes ot
growth of exogenous and endogenous stems.

8. Describe the circulation in plants. ‘In the ac
of making vegetable matter, plants purify the air for
animals.’ Explain this fully.

APPENDIX. 139

4. What are Phoenogamous plants 9 Define Raceme,
Corymb, Head, Panicle, Ament.

5. Give the characters of (a) The classes Exogens
and Endogens; /b) The Mint and Lily families.

6. To what family do the Cedar, Clover, Mustard,
and Dandelion respectively belong ?

7. Why does a botanist consider the tuber of the po-
tato an underground stem ?

8. Give the philosophical explanation of the nature
of a flower considered as to the origin and correspond-
ences of its different parts.

9. Draw a spathuiate, an obcordate, a truncate, a
palmately-divided and aw odd pinnate leaf.

10. Explain the constitution of a pome or apple-
fruit.

11. What organs appear in the more perfect plants,
and in what divisions are they comprised ?

12. Give the function of the flower, its origin, and its
essential and accessory parts.

18. Describe the nature and chief varieties of roots,
and distinguish between them and underground stems.

14. “As to the Apex or Point leaves are Pointed,
Acute, Obtuse, Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, Obcor-
date, Cuspidate, Mucronate.”’ Sketch these different
forms.

15. “There is no separate set of vessels, and no open
tubes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream,
in the way people generally suppose.” Comment on
this passage.

16. The great series of Flowering Plants is divided
into two classes. Describe these classes.

17. Give the chief characteristics of the order cruci-

fere (Cress Family), and namé some common exam-

les of this order.

18. State the difference between definite and indefin-
ite inflorescence, and give examples of the latter.

19. Of what does the food of plants consist ? in what
form is it found in the soil ? How isit introduced into
the plant? What inference may be drawn respecting
the culture of the plant ?

140 APPENDIX.

29. Distinguish weak climbing stems according to
the mode in which they support themselves, the direc-
tion of their growth, and the nature of their clasping
organs.

21. Name the thice classes of Flowerless Plants, and
give an example of cach.

23, Explain the terms Spore, Capsule, Bract, Stip-
ule, Afbumen, and Epiphyte.

23. What are tendrils, and of what organs are they
supposed to be modifications ?

24, Give the characters of the Cress Family, and
name as many plants belonging to it as you can.

25. Tell what you know about the minute stracture
and the chemical composition of vegetable tissue.

26. Describe the origin of the different kinds of pla-
centas ; aud of the different parts of the fruit of the
plum, the oak, and the maple.

27. Describe fully the proc2ss by which it is sup-
posed that water is carried up from the roots of plants.

28. Give the meaning of the terms stomate, indehis-
cent, thyrse, glume, pyxis. Distinguish epiphytes from
purasites.

29. Describe any plant you have examined; if you
can, tabulate your description.

30. Name all the families of monoyetalous dicotyle-
dons which you remember, and give the characters of
any one of them.

McGILL UNIVERSITY.

1. Describe the germination of a plant.

2. Explain the differences in the structure of the
embryo.

3. Explain the functions of the icoot.

4. Describe the structures in a leaf, ana expiain their
action on the air.

5. Mention the several parts of the stamen and the
pistil, and explain their uses.

6. Describe an Achene, a Samara, a Drupe and a

Silique.

oy ee ie

APPENDIX. 141

7. Describe the differences in the stems of Exogens
and Endogens, and the relations of these to the other
parts of the plant and to classification.

8. Explain the terms Genera, Species, Order.

9. What is an excurrent stem, an axillary bud, bud
scales ?

10. Explain the terms primoraval utricle, parenchyma,
protoplasm, as used in Botany.

11. What are thefunctions of the nucleus in a living cell?

12. Explain the movements of the sap in plants.

13. Describe the appearance under the microscope of
raphides, spiral vessels, and dise-bearing wood-cells.

14. Describe the structure of the bark of an Exogen.

15. Describe freely the anatomy of a leaf.

16. Describe shortly the parts and structures denoted
by the following terms, spime, aerial root, phyllodium,
cambium, stipule, rhizoma.

17. Give examples of phawnogams., cryptogams, exogens
and endogens, properly arranged.

18. Describe the principal forms of indeterminate
inflorescence.

19. In what natural families do we find siliques,
didynamous stamens, labiate corollas, or pappus-bearing
achenes. Describe these structures.

20. State the characters of any Canadian Exogenous
Order, with examples.

21. Describe the cell-walls in a living parenchymatous
cell.

22. Describe the fibro-vascular tissues in an Exogen-
ous stem.

93. Describe the appearance of stomata and glan-
dular heirs under the microscope.

24. Define prosenchyma, corm, cyclosis, thallus.

25. Explain the sources of the Carbon and Nitrogen
of the plant, and the mode of their assimilation.

26. Describe the pericarp, stating its normal struc-
ture, and naming some of its modifications.

97. Explain the natural system in Botany, and state
the gradation of groups from the species upward, with
examples.

142 APPENDIX,

ONTARIO COLLEGE OF PHARMACY.

1. What do plants feed upon ?

2. What do you understand by the terms Acaulescent,
Apetalous, Suffrutescent, Culm ?

3. Name some of the different forms of Primary,
Secondary, and Aerial Roots, giving examples.

4. Explain the following terms descriptive of forms
of leaves, giving sketch:—Ovate, Peltate, Crenate,
Serrate, Cleft, Entire, Cuspidate, Perfoliate.

5. Explain difference between Determinate and In-
determinate inflorescence, giving three examples of
each.

6. What organs are deficient in a sterile and a fertile
flower ?

7. Give the parts of a perfect flower, with their rela-
tive position.

8. Give the difference between simple and compound
Pistil, with example of each.

9. Name the principal sorts of buds, and explain
how the position of these affects the arrangement of
branches.

10. Give description of multiple and primary roots,
with two examples of same; also explain the difference
between these and secondary roots.

11. Name the principal kinds of subterranean stems
and branches, and explain how you would distinguish
between these and roots.

12. In the classification of plants explain difference
between classes and orders: genus and species.

13. Name three principal kinds of simple fruit.

14. When roots stop growing does the absorption of
moisture increase or decrease ? Give reason for it.

15. Upon what do plants live? Indicate how you
would prove your answer correct.

16. In what part of the plant, and when, is the work
of assimilation carried on ?

17. Name three principal kinds of determinate, and
some of indeterminute inflorescence ; name the essential
organs of a flower.

——

APPENDIX. 148

18. In what respects do plants differ from inorganic
matter? And from animals ?

19. Describe a Rhizome, Tuber, Bulb; and say if
they belong to the root or stem ; which are Rheum,
Jalapa, Sweet Potato, Onion ?

20. Define the difference between natural and special
forms of leaves ; between simple and compound leaves.
Give example of each. Sketch a connate-perfoliate leaf.

21. Mention the parts of an embryo. Ofaleaf. Of
a pistil. Ofastamen. Ofa seed.

22. What is meant by an albuminous seed? By
diwcions flowers? By a compound ovary ?

23. What is the difference between determinate and
indeterminate inflorescence ? How do they influence
growth of the stem? Give three principal kinds of
each.

24. Name the parts of a flower. What office is
performed by the ovule ? Name two kinds.

25. Name the parts of a vegetable cell. What are
spiral ducts ?

26. In what parts of the plant is the work of absorp-
tion carried on? In what part the work of assimila-
tion? How do plants purify the air for animals ?

27. Explain the natural system of classification in
Botany? Name and characterize the classes of plants.

28. Explain the structure and functions of the Leaf,
Bud, Root.

929. Give some of the terms used in describing the
shape of a simple leaf as concerns (a) its general con-
tour, (5) its base, (c) its margin, (d) 1ts apex.

30. Name the organs in a pertect flower ; describe
fully the structure of the anther and pollen. What is
coalescence and adnation of the parts of a flower ?

31. Explain the terms Raceme, Pappus, Coma, Rhi-
zome, Pentastichous.

39. State the distinction between Exogens and Endo-

ens.
33. What are cellular structures as distinguished
from vascular? What is chlorophyll ?

144 APPENDIX.

34. Mention the organs of fructification, and explain
the process of fertilization in a flowering plant.

35. Explain the structure of a seed, and describe in
a few words the process of germination.

36. D fine what is meant by the following terms :—
Morphology, Polycotyledonous, Epiphyte, Pedunele,
Stipules. r

87. Describe briefly the root stem, leaf, and flower
of the common dandelion, giving the functions or office
of each.

38. Name some of the most common forms of leaves,
giving a few rough outlines.

39. Of what part of the flower does the fruit nomin-
ally consist ? What additional parts are in some inr
stances present ?

40. Define the terms Drupe, Pollen, Gynandrous,
Pome, Adnate.

41. Explain the process of fertilization in flowering
plants, and mention the different ways in which it is
brought about.

49, Enumerate the different varieties of tissue recog-
nized by botanists, and give their situation in an Endo-
genous stem.

THE END,

EXAMINATION PAPERS.

ARITHMETIC,

By J. A. McLetian, LL.D., Inspector High Schools, and
THos. KiRKLAND, M.A., Science Master, Normal School,
Toronto. SEcOND EDITION.

PRICE $1.00.

From the GUELPH MERCURY.

. . « The work is divided into six chapters. The first is on the
Unitary Method, and gives solutions showing its application to a
variety of problems, in Simple and Compound Proportion ; Percentage,
Interest, Discount, Profit and Loss ; Proportional Parts, Partnership;
Chain Rule, Exchange, Alligation; Commission, Insurance. &c.,
Stocks; and Miscellaneous Problems. The second is on Elementary
Rules, Measures and Multiples, Vulgar and Decimal Fractions. The
third contains Examination Papers fer entrance into High Schools and
Collegiate Institutes, the fourth for candidates for third-class_certifi-
cates, the fifth for candidates for the Intermediate Examination and
second-class certificates, and the sixth for candidates for third-class
certificates and University Honours. It will be observed that the work
begins with the fundamental rules—those principles to be acquired
when a pupil first enters upon the study of Arithmetic, and carries
him forward till prepared for the highest class of certificates and for
Honours of the University. . . . Teachers will find in it a necessary
help in supplying questions to give their classes. Those who aspire to
be teachers cannot have a better guide—indeed there is not so good a
one—on the subject with which it is occupied.

From the ADVERTISER,

es By all who are groping after some method better than
they have at present, this volume will be cordially welcomed, and
many who have never suspected the possibility of accomplishing so
much by independent methods, will be, by a perusal of the introduc-
tory chapter, impelled to think for themselves, and enabled to teach
their pupils how todoso. . . It is far superior to anything of the
kind ever introduced into this country. . . . The typographical
appearance of the work is of a very high character—quite equal, in
fact, to anything of the kind issued by the best publishing houses of
London or New York,

From the TELESCOPE.

: . The plan of the work is excellent, the exercises being
arranged progressively, each series preparing the student for the next.
The problems are all original, and so constructed as to prevent the
student using any purely mechanical methods of solution. . . . We
should really feel proud of our Canadian Authors and publishing
houses, when we consider the infancy of our country and the progress
it has made and is making in educational matters, and particularly in
the recently prSNlished educational works,

Miller & Co.’s Educational Series.
HAMBLIN SMITH’S

MATHEMATICAL WORKS,

ARE USED ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY

In the Normal and Model Schools, Toronto,
Upper Canada College; Hamilton and
Brantford Collegiate Institutes; Bow-
manville, Berlin, Belleville. and a large
number of leading High Schools in We
Province.

HAMBLIN SMITH’S ALGEBRA,

With Appendix, by Alfred Baker, B.A., Mathematical Tutor, Univer
sity College, Toronto. Price, 90 cents.

THOMAS KIRKLAND, M.A., Science Master, Normal School.

“Tt is the text-book on Algebra for candidates for second-class
2ertificates, and for the Intermediate Examination. Not the least
valuable part of it is the Appendix by Mr. Baker,”

GEO. DICKSON, R.A., Head Master, Collegiate Institute, Hamilton.

“Arrangement of subjects good; explanations and proofs exhaus-
tive, concise and clear; examples, for the most part from University
and College Examination Papers, are numerous, easy and progressive.
There is no better Algebra in use in our High Schools and Collegiate
Institutes.”

WM. R. RIDDELL, B.A., B.Sc., Mathematical Master, Norma)
School, Ottawa.

“The Algebra is admirable, and well adapted as a general text-
book.”

W. E. TILLEY, B.A., Mathematical Master, Bowmanville High School.

**1T look on the Algebra as decidedly the best Elementary Work on
the subject we have. The examples are excellent and w ell arranged.
The explanations are easily understood.

R. DAWSON, B.A., T.C.D., Head Master, High School, Belleville.

** With Mr. Baker’s admirable Appendix, there would seem to be
nothing left to be desired. We have now a first-class book, well
adapted in all respects to the wants of pupils of all grades, from the
Leper in our Public Schools to the most advanced student in our

Collegiate Institutes and High Schools. Its publication is a great buon
lo the over-worked mathematical teachers of the Province

NEW ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC
ON THE UNITARY METHOD.

By Tuomas Kirxianp, M.A., Science Master Normal School,
and Wit. Scorr, B.A., Head Master Model School,

Toronto.
Intended as an Introductory Text-Book to Hamblin Smith's
Arithmetic,
Cloth Extra, 176 Pages. Price 25 Cents.

W. D. DIMOCK, A.B., Head Master Provincial Model Schools,
Nova Scotia.

The Elementary Arithmetic by Kirkland and Scott I can
heartily recommend to our teachers. As a preparatory Arith-
metic | have not seen itsequal. The young pupil, ty the arrange-
ment of the principles presented and the exercises laid down, is
led almost unconsciously to the great field of the unknown, by a
step, that makes his earlier arithmetical studies a pleasure and @
profit

A. H. McKAY, Principal ot Pictou Academy and Public Schools.

: Ihave examined your Elementary Arithmetic on the unitary
neg by Kirkland and Scott, and have no hesitation in saying
that I consider it the best Elementary Arithmetic which I have
yet seen. Itis admirably adapted to the requirements of grades
Ist, 2nd and 3rd of our schools, as it offers, in addition to our
present text-book, a copious and well selected assortment of ex-
ercises, a good arrangement and conciseness in definition and
explanation.

W.E. SPRAGUE, Head Master, Model and Public Schools,
Cobourg.

Since failures in Arithmetic are mainly due to a want of
power in independent analysis—to a lack of knowledge of the
unitary method and of skillinits application—this volume which
discusses the problems on independent methods will be cordiaily
welcomed by teachers. Asa discipline of the mind in tea hing
the pupil to think and reason, Arithmetic is pre-eminentif taught
by logical methods ; and this work places it in the power of the
younger classes to be benefitted by such methods. A very praise-
worthy feature of the book is the large number of examples and
problems peculiar to so small a work.

JAMES DUNCAN, Principal Hissex Model and Windsor Central
chook

After a thorough perusal of the Elementary Arithmetic by
Kirkiand & Scott, Pas no hesitation in saying that it is
better adapted to the schools of this country than any similar
book that has come within the range of my twenty-seven years
experience. The arrangement is natural and comprehensive.
The questions are in clear, terse, attractive language.

W. BR. RIDDELL, B.A., LL.B., &c., Math. Master Ottawa
Normal School.

I consider it well adapted for the purpose for which it is in-
cended.

JOHN DEARNESS, Public School Inspector, East Middlesex.

Lhave examined this book with increasing pleasure and can
speak of it in almost unqualified recommendation. It is,in my
opinion the best alementary Arithmetic I have examined.

THREE EDITIONS SOLD IN SIX MONTHS

HAMBLIN SMITH’S ARITHMETIC,

ADAPTED TO CANADIAN CURREMCY BY

THOMAS KIRKLAND, M.A., Science Master Normal
School, Toronto, and

WM. SCOTT, M.A., Head Master Model School, Ontario.

4th Edition, Price, - 75 Cents.

Authorized by the Minister of Education, Ontario.
Authorized by lhe Council of Public Instruction, Quebso.
Recommended by the Senate of the Univ. of Halifax.
Authorized by the Chief Supt. Education, Manitoba.

FROM NOVA SCOTIA.

A. C. A. DOANE, Inspector of Schoois, Barrington, N. &

“ Hamblin Smith’s arithmetic seems very suitable to the neces-
sities of our public schools. The exercises are admirable, and the
eXamination papers are invaluable as aids to teachers in thorough
training. They will also prove of great service to pupils desirous
of passing the grade tests. The author appears not torelyso much
on set rules as upon explanations and the clearing of seeming
obscurities, so that pupils may readily comprehend the questions
and proceed to the solutions. I cordially recommend its use to all
those desirous of obtaining an acquaintance with this branch of
useful knowledge.

Cc. F. ANDREWS, Inspector for Queen’s Co., Nova Scotia.

“J have much pleasure in certifying to the superiority of the
Canadian edition of Hamblin Smith’s Arithmetic over any text
book on that subject that has yet come under my notice. It is
prscrigal, complete and comprehensive. The appendix and exam-

ation papers are important and valuable features. I shall be
pleased to recommend its early introduction.”

W. 8. DANAGH, M.A., Inspector of Schools, Cumberland, N. 8.

HAMBLIN SMITH’s ARITHME110.—“ It has a value for candidates
preparing for public examination, as the examples have been
mostly culled from Examination papers, indeed I may say that I
have not seen any other work on this branch that is so specially
calculated to assist the student in passing with credit official tests.
I therefore think that Hamblin Smith's Arithmetic should be
Placed on the authorized list of books for public schools.”

Ie,

s ae

My ay
Pap ace pe

—

™

es hi
Bet

4 VILE z

Z
Cy EEL LEE Z
DATTA D AAT IAAMEID DED OEAII LAT IOD LALIT OL MEMATIIIIE SP tty TLE PIPE I

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The elements of structural botany..."

See other formats