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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
EUEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition,
published in three volume*, 1768— 177 1.
SECOND
t*
,, ten ,
1777—1784.
THIRD
1*
„ eighteen ,
1788-1797-
FOURTH
ft
„ twenty ,
, 1801 — 1810.
FIFTH
ft
„ twenty ,
, 1815—1817.
SIXTH
ft
„ twenty ,
, 1823—1824.
SEVENTH
»t
„ twenty-one ,
, 1830—1842.
EIGHTH
**
„ twenty-two
« 853— 1860.
NINTH
It
„ twenty-five ,
1875—1889.
TENTH
tt
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes.
1902—1903.
ELEVENTH
u
publiihcd io twenty-nine volume
•8, 1910— I9II.
THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXI
PAYN to POLKA
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1911
Copyright, in the United States of America, 191 1,
by
TheEacyclopMdia Britaaoica Gmipany.
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXL TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A.B.R.
A.F.P.
A. 6.
A.6.T.
A.H.*
A.H.C
Aa El b>
A.Hw-8.
A.H.8.
A.J.G.
A.J.H.
A.J.L.
A.B.
Alfsid Bakton Remdle, M.A., D.Sc.. F.R.S., F.L.S.
Keeper. Department of Botany, Britiah Muaeum. Author of Texi Book om OasH-
fitchOH ai PumeriMg Plonis; Ac
Albest Fudesick Pollaid, If .a., F.R.Hist.S.
Profeaaor of EnsUah History in the Univerwty of London. Felknr of All Souls'
College, Oxford. Aosittant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biograpky, 1893-
1001. Lothian Prixeman, Oxford, itez; Arnold rrizeman. 1898. Author of
atg^and under Ik* Protector Somerset; Hemry VIIL; Lijt qf Thomas Crammeri ftc.
Majok Axthuk Geokce Fkedekick GsinxTHS (d. 1908).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons. 1878-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Nemgflte
Secrets of the Prison House; &c.
Akthuk Geokge Tansley, M.A., FX.S.
Lecturer in Botany in the University of Cambridfe. Formerly Assistant Plroiessoi
of Botany, University College, Loooon.
AuEKT Hauck. D.Th.. D.Ph.
{
PluilK ClassiJUoHom,
Pini0» Andifw*
4
F61to*.
Pluiti: Anatowty.
essor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, a
Icclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Rirchenrat of
Prof<
of Ecclesiastical Archaeology
and Director of the Museum
the Kingdom of Saxony.
Member of the' Royal' Saxon Academy of Sciences and Corresponding Member of '
the Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of KirchengesckickU Deu
Ac Editor of the
Theologie mnd Kirehe.
KirchengesckickU Deutscklands;
edition of Henog's RealencyUofidie jUr ^oleslantiscke
PilgrillUlf*.
Sa AsTHUE Herbebt CButCR, M.A.. D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A. f _, .
Professor of Chemistry, Royal Academy of Arts. London. Author of Ckeniistry \ FVBonfl.
0f Paints and Painting ; Engfisk Eartkenwart ; Englisk Porcelain ; &c I
AtTHUR HOSSLET HlNTON (1863-1908).
Editor of The Amateur Pkotopapker, 1 897-1908, and the PhOopaphic
Caeette, 1904-1908. Author of Practical Pictorial Photoirapky; Ac.
Snt A. HoxrruM-ScsiNDLEK, CLE.
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak.
Rev. Aechibalo Henry Sayce, D.D., LL.D., Lxrr.D.
See the bio^irapfaical article: Saycb, A. H.
Rev. Alexander Jaices Grieve, M.A., B.D.
Trades \ Photography: Pictorial.
{
I Pmepolli {in part).
PnsiR: Geography and
Statistics.
College, Bradford. Sometime
Mysore F.diicational Service.
Alfred J. HmoNS, F.S.A. (1826-1903).
H
Pressor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United liidependent
Registrar of Madras University, and Member of
Formerly Member of Council and Hon. Curator of the Royal College of Music,
London. Member of Committee of the Inventions and Music Exhibition, 1885:'
of the Vienna Exhibition. 1893; and of the Paris Exhibition, 1900. Author of
Plymonth Bnttmn {in pert).
PlaDoforte {in part);
Pitch, MnsieaL
{
Editor of the Rio News \ Pwu: Geography and StalisHa.
Andrew Jacksov Lamouretjx.
Librarian. College of Agriculture, Cornell University.
(Rio de Janeiro), i879-i90i,
Alexander Macalister, M.A., LL.D., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. [ PhraDOlogy;
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's ^ Phvsloraorav
College. Author of Text Booh of Human A natomy ; Ac. I ■^•v •«v»"w«v-
Alfred Newton, F.R^.
See the biographical article: Newton, Alprbo
PMeoek; PeDean;
Penguin; Petral;
Pheasant; Pigeon;
Pipit; PitU;
Plover; Poehard.
* A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
V
VI
A.8L
A.S.WO.
A.T.L
B.B.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
an.
C.B.*
C.B.A.
C.B.H.
ao.K.
C.L.K.
apt.
ap.j.
cr.s.M.
C.S.P.
C.T.*
C.W.R
D.O.H.
AoAM Sedgwick, M.A., F.R.S.
Profesaor of Zoology «t the Imperial Colleffe of Sdeoce and Technolosy, London.
Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity CoOege, Cambridge. Profeaaor of Zoology
in the Univenity of Cambridge, 1907-1909.
AsTHUR Shadwell, M.A., M.D., LL.D.
Member of Council of Epidemiological Society. Author of Tk$ London Water-
Supply; Industrial ^JBkieucy; Drink, Temperance and Legislation.
Andrew Seth Pringlr-Pattison. M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
Pressor of Logic and Metaphviics in the University of Edinbui
Lecturer in the linivernty of^ Aberdeen, 191 1. Fellqwof the British Academy.
>urgfa. Gifford
Author of Man's Plau in the Cosmos-, TIk FkHosopkical Radicals i &c
Arthur Sioth Woodward, LL.D., F.R.S.
Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of
the Geological Society of London.
Alexander Taylor Innes, M.A., LL.D.
Scotch Advocate. Autnor of Jdm Knox; Law ^ Creeds in Scodand; Studies in
Scottish History; ftc.
Six Bovsrton Redwood, D.Sc., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.I.C., AssocInst.C.E.,
MJNST.M.E.
Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of
London, and Port of London Authonty. President of the Society ot Chemical'
Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Membo" of Council of
Institute of Chemistry. Author of " Cantor " Loctmres on Petndeum; Petroleum
and its Products; Chtmical Technology; ftc.
Rzv. Charles Bigg, M.A., D.D. (18A0-1908).
Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford, and Canon
Ptripttoi.
PIlglM [in parOf
PhQosoplv.
PlMloiRiinii.
Pilate, PonUns.
Pttroltiim.
of Christ Church, 1901-1908. Formcriy Senior Student and Tutor of Christ Church.
Headmaster of Brighton College. Author of The Christian PlatonisU of Alexandria;
Ac
Charles Everitt, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, ChdotA.
Charles Edward Akers.
Formeriy Times Correspondent in Buenos Aires. Author of A History of South
America. 1854-1904.
Charles Edward Moss, D.Sc
Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Curator of the University Herbarium.
Cargill Gilston Knott, D.Sc
Lecturer on Applied Mathematio, Edinburgh University. Professor of Physics,
Imperial University of Japan, Tokyo, 1883-1891. Author of Electricity and
Magnetism ; Physics ; Ac
Charles Lethbridce Kincseord, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.S.A.
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of L^e qf Hemry V. Editor
of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey ef London,
Carl Theodor Mirbt, D.Th.
Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of PuMixistih
im Zeitalter Cregor VII. ; Quellen ntr Ceschichte des Papstthums; Ac
Christian Pfister, D. is. L.
FVofessor at the Sorbonne, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of
Etudes sur le rhpu de R^tert le Pieux,
Charles Pierfoint Johnson (1791-1880).
Editor of J. A. Sowerby's
Phno (tfi part).
Phosphates.
Psni: History {in part).
Ptents: Ecology.
PhotonMliy.
PlJIM, PM«.
Plus R.;
Pobqr, CoOoqay oL
PlffUi L-m.
Plus.
Psni: History {in pari).
Pm1» Sir Robert
Lecturer on Botany, Guy's Hospital, London, 1830-1873.
En^ish Botany; &c Aathar oi Ferns ttf Great Britain; Ac
Sir Clements Robert Marxram, R.C.B., F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Markham, Sir Clements Robert.
The Rt. Hon. Charles Stuart Pareer, LL.D^D.CL. (1839-1910).
M.P. for Perthshire, 1868-1874: M.P. for Perth City, 1878-1892. Honofsry FeAow,
formeriy Fellow of University College, Oxford. Author of Life ef Sir Rooert Peel;
Ac
Rev. Charles Taylor, M.A., D.D.. LL.D. (1840-1908). r
Master of St John's College, Cambridge. 1881-1908. Vioe-Chanoellor, 1887-1888. J Pfrks Aboth.
Author of Geometrical Contcs; Ac 1
Major-General Charles Walker Robinson, C.B., D.C.L.
Assistant Military Secretary, Headquarters of the Army, l89<>-l892. Ueut
Governor and Seonetary, Royal Military Hospital, Chelsea, 1893-1898. Author
Strategy ef the Peninsular War; Ac
David George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. I Pifft;
Fellow of the British Academy. Ejccavated at Paphos, 1888: Naucratb, i899<{ Pngamnm;
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut. 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
'^1
PeolBniter Wtr.
D.a
B.A.X.
E.A.80.
B.Br.
B.a
B.Gr.
B.J.a
ELM.
B.H.a
B.0'1.
B.Fir.
B.R.B.
B.S.*
E.TL
F.A.P.
p.ap.
p.j.a
p.ua
P.V.
P.W.Oft.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
▼u
Davd HAmuT.
Fonneriy Brittth Vice-ConMd at Baroeloaa. Aufhor dl Skcrt Hishry ef At Royal
Fboiw Admhttl; P»pft;
PMouB, Haiqab of;
Peter L-IV. of Angon;
PMtr of Ciitili;
Pbiti and PInqr: Hu«0ry;
Poo, Edgw ABu;
PoluiA: ffiHtfry {in pert).
E. A1.FRED Jones. f
Author of OU £M|fuA CM PtaH; OU Ckmnk Plate of the Ide of Man; Old Siher
Soeramomtal Vtssdt of Foreitn ProlostooU Ckunkes tn Emtlamd; lUustnled Cala- < Plate (in ^arii
loiMo ofUopoU do Rothsckilis CoUocHom tif OU Plalo; AFrSatt Caialopu cf tko\ ^ '^''
Royal Plaio ai Windsor CaslUi ftc. "^ L
Edwaio Adolf Somnknschein, M.A., Litt.D. f
ProfeMor of Greek and Latin in the Univenity of Binningham. Hon. Secretary J
of the ClaMical AcMciatioa. Profeaaor of Greek and Latin in MaKm CoUese, |
Binningham, I883-1900. Editor of wveral of the playt of Plautiu. I
Ernest Baxkee, llA.
[EST Baxkee, IfLA. r
Fellow and Lecturer in Modem History. Sc John's College, Oxford. Formerly 1 P^tW tht Htmitt.
FcUow and Tutor of Mertoa CoUege. Craven Scholar, 1895. I
|piodaitei.
•[plUgiUs.
EOMTTHD OOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: GoMB, Edmund.
ExNEST AxTHUE Gasdnes, M.A.
See the biographical article: Gakonbk, Pbecy.
Piv6i»
Pmia: Ancioia Hishryi
{
Pwttomdi;
Plutfjmgttii;
PhkUtik
Edwaid Joseph Bent. M.A., Mus.Bac.
Formerly FcUow of King's CoUege. Cambridge.
Eouaxd Meyee, Pb.D., DXrrr., LL.D.
Professor of Andent History in the Univerrity of Berlin. Author of Cosikickio
dosAUorOmmu\Co%ckiekUdotallonAtgypUms;Du Israolilon umd ikn NackborUdotmo,
Edwasd Morell Holmes.
Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London.
Edmund Owen, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.
Consulting Surnoa to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital.
Gmt Ormond Street. London. Cheviuier of the Lesion of Honour. Late Examiner
in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge. London and Durham. Author of A
Mammal ^ AmaUmyfor Souior Stitdonts.
Elizabeth O'Neill, M.A. (Mrs H. O. OT^exll).
Formerly Univenity Fellow and Jones Fdknr of Manchester University.
Edcae Pbestage.
Special Lecturer in Pbrtuguese Literature in the Universttv of Manchester. Ex-
aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, Ac. Com-
mendador. Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon'
Royad Academy of Sciences. Lisbon Geographical Soaety; &c Editor of LeUors
of a Porlmgaaao Num; Azurara's Ckrouido of Cuinoa; ftc.
Edwth Robebt Bevan, M.A. , «. ,„_ , .- _. „ ^
New College, Oxford. Author of Tho Houso of SeUucus; Jonualom under tkei "P* L, IL, and V. Of
Hitfi Priests, I doote.
Emil ScBthtEB. D.Ph. (1844-1910).
Formerly Professor of New Testament
Kiel and GfiCtingen. Author of Cesckickte
/poeUiBm,
John.
PiBB, Rkj do;
Pinto, Ptenio Mondot.
Exegesb in the Um'versities of Giessen, I vhlln Um hnr£S
Ue dis jtdisckon Volkos imZoUaUor Jesu\ *™" ^** '^'^
i Ptotanh (>» ^off).
r Ponte: History, 1405-1884 {U
Rev. Etkelbzd Luke Taunton (d. lOo?)* f bau rmwAtm»t
ha^hx^TkoEntUsh mack Monks of Si Bonedia; History of the JesmiU in Engfand-X^'^ Ctrainu.
Fbedebick AriBOBP Palsy. LL.D.
See the biographkal artkle, Palbv, F. A.
Fbedebick Gymek Pabsons, F.R.C.S., TZS., F.R.Antbbop.Inst. r
Vioe-Plerident, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Phliyni;
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medidne for Women, i Phttttntl-
London. Fomcrly Huntcrian Professor at the Royal CoUege of Surgeons. [
Majob-Genebal Snt Fbedebxc John Goidsmid.
See the biographical article: Golosmid (family).
Fbanos Llewellyn GBXTrrrB, M.A., Ph.D., F.S A
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey
and Archaeological Reports of the Esypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Formeriy Assistant Professor of Egyptology'
in Univenity CoUege, Loodon. Author of Stories of the Hitk Priests of Mem^\
Ac.
FBDnov Nanben.
See the biographical article: Namsen, Fbidtjov.
Fbedebick William Gamble. D.Sc., M.Sc., F.R.S.
Professor of Zoology, Bimungfaam University. Fo
Zoological Laboratories, and Lecturer in Zoolo.. .
hoOne td Amknal Ufe, Editor of ManbaU and Hunt's Pra«l»ca/^ZM(oty: Ac.
Pilaiiam;
Phinoli;
PhUae;
Ptthom.
•fpotar Bogions {in part).
Professor of Zoology, Birmfngfaam Univer^ty. Formeriy Assistant Director of the J WtnirlBm;
Zoologfcal Laboratories,^ and Lecturer in Zoology. Univmityof Manchester.] PtetfOinilB.
(
▼Hi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. W. tL* FiEOBUCK WiLLiAif RuDLCR, I.S.O., F.G.S. r PMMot: Fhoirtiftlai'
0. A. C.* Rev. George Albert Cooke, D.D. f
Orid'Profeaaor oi the InteracietatioD of Holy Scripture. Oxford, snd Fellow of 1 Petn;
Oriel College. Canon of Rochester. Hon. Canon of St Mary'a Cathedral. 1 PluMBldft.
Edinburgh. Author <A Text Book oj North StmitU IuscripHaiu;8DC I
G. A. Gr. GsoiGE Abraham Grierson, C.I.E., Ph.D., D.Lttt.
Indian Civil Service, iSt^-iooa. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 189S-
1903. Gold Medallist, Koffd Asiatic Sodety. 1009. Vioe-President of the Royal
Asiatic Society. Formeriy r dlow of Calcutta Untverrity. Author of Tkt Laugnaies
rf India; 8dc
O, Ol George Chrystal, M.A., LL.D. f
Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University. < PmaClIll MottOB.
Hon. Fellow and formeriy Fellow and Lecturer, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, t
G.H.PO.
G. C. W. George Charles Wiluamson, Litt.D.
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miitiatmres; Life of Richard
Cosway, RA.\ George Enj^heart; Portrait Drawings; Ac Editor of New Editkm'
of Brum's Dictionary tff Painters and Engraeers,
PHttot, Jata; PMitot, J.Loolv
Flnwdil, OMig» John;
PDmar, Andraw;
PDmar, HaflumM;
.nnmtafo Dnwliip.
G. K Rzv^GeorgeEomundson, M'.A.^ F.R.Hist.S.
Uege, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Fenric
Histifry (mi part).
r. George Eomundson, m.A.. F.R.Hist.S. r
Formortv Fellow and Tutor of Brasenote College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1900. J FenriOBinr;
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society; anid Foreign Member, Netherianos 1 Ptom* Hisi
Association of Literature. j^«^w«. «•*•
ish\
G. B.^ Robert Geottret Elus.
Peterhouae, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Jdnt-cditor of Engjlish
Reports, Author of Peerage Lam and History,
G. B. C. George Earl Chttrch. f pigta, Rio dt la.
See the biographical article: Church, G. E. \
G. G. P ^ George Grenville PHXLLncoRE,'M.A., B.C.L. / ph^a tim A,m»\
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Uw, Middle Temple. \ "** ^"* '""^•
G. H. Bo. Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A. r
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formeriy Hebrew Master, Merchant Taylors' JuiLuUjiijjiii 12^ A^■-#^
School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, Univemty of Oxford. 1908-1 "V"««I K^ pari),
1909. Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah; Ac [
George Herbert Fowler, F.Z.S.. F.L.S., PB.D. r
Formeriy Berkeley Research Fellow, Owens College, Manchester, and Assistant J PlailklOIL
Professor of Zoology at University College, London. 1
G. W. B. George William Redway. r Potmbuig ^^mp*^*
Author of The War of Secession, 1861-1862; Frederichshnrg: a Stndy in IFor, \ {1864-1865).
BL BL Hiram Bingham, A.M., Ph.D. #
Assistant Professor of Latin-American Histoiy, Yale Univernty. Albert Shaw I «^ «.-_._- t.i.«j.. jt'-j^
Lecturer on Diplomatic History, Johns Hopkuis University. Author of Jommal\ ""Wl^ WMM* atOary,
of an Expedition across Venexueta Md Colombia; &c [
BL CL Snt Hugh Charles Clifford, R.C.M.G. /
Colonial Secretary, Cevlon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute. Formerly 1 ^ __
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 190^1907. Author •{ FnUf.
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c Joint-author of A DicHosury I
^ the Malay Language. \
BL Do. HiFPOLYiE Delehaye, S.T. r
Assistant in the compilation of the BoUandist publicatioos: AnaUcta Botlandittua < Ptflgilii BL
tMd Acta Sanctorum, L
BL K Karl Hermann Eth£, M.A., Ph.D. r
Professor of Oriental Languages, Umversty College, Aberystwydi (University of I r ■rata tiumM^mm
Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscnpts in, Ae India Office Library, 1 ""•• "'^^Mn.
London (Clarendon Press) ; &c t
B. F. 6. Hans Frieorich Gaoow, F.R.S., Ph.D. r
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge. \ PbororiiaOQS.
Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles " in the CamMdgjs Natural Htstory. \
B. G. do W. Hermann
B. BL T. Herbert Hall Turner, M.A., D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S. r _
Savilian Pressor of Astnmomy in the University of Oxford and Fdlow of New! Photocnplty, Celattlal;
College. President of the Royal Astronomical Society. 1903-1904. Author of 1 FhoUuMliy, flnhnttal
Modan Astronomy; Ac I
BL L. BL Hamiei L. Hxmxzssy, M J). (Brox.), LJLCPX, LJLC.SX / ^JJ^^J^/*^*^^'
H. M. W. Harrt Marshall Ward, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (d. 1905).
Formerlv Professor c^ Botany. University of Cambridge, and Fellow of Sidney
Sussex Cblltte. President of the British Mycological Soaety. Author of Timber,
and Some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures am the Physiohgy ef PtanU;
Dieeases in Plants; &c.
Fluits: Palholcgy.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
flu Bb_H»
H* Wtm Bu
E.R.H.
H.B.T.
H.Se.
as. J.
H.W*
H.W.C.D.
LA.
LG.
J.A.H.
J. A. 8.
J.Bt
J.D.&
J.B.8.*
J. F. P.
XGa.
J.G.aA.
Rabby Recihaio Holland Hall. MA. f
Awbtant in the Department of Egyptian and Awyrian Antiquitio, British Muacum. i Ftato (in part).
Haixt Robsxt Kexpe, MJnst.C.E. f
Electrician to the Gcseral Pott Office, Lmidon. Author of Tk$ Engineer*s Yeari Pneninatle Dinitgk*
HXTOR ROBEKT MiLL. D.Sc., LL.D. f
Director of British Rainfall Organliatkm. Editor of BriUsh Rnnfall. President
of the Royal Meteorological Society, 1007-1008. Hon. Member of Vienna Geo- J poi>r Recloiii.
naphical Society. Hon. Corresponding MemDer of Geographical Societies of Paris, 1 «•»«»«*
Berlin, Budapest. St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c Author of Ths Rtalm of Nature; I
^Tfee IntenaiwHal CtOffapky\ &&' I
Henxt Richaxd Teddex, F.S.A.
Secretary and Librariaa of the Athenaeum Qub, London.
Henxt Scbeksxn, F.Z.S. f
Asristant Natural History Editor of The FiM. Author of Popular History of< PlBtypas (m part).
Animals for YoumiPeopUi Pond amdRoek Pools; &C. {
Exxm Sweet, M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.
{
Periodinb.
I
unrveraty iceader in rnoneocs, unora. ^.xMresponaing Memoer 01 the Academics J
of Munich, Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsinfffors. Author of A Hi^ory of Engfisk |
Sonnds sime tie Earliest Pertod; A Primortf Phonetics; Ac I
{
PbtoL
Sn Henet Seton-Kaxk, C.M.G., M.A.
M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906^ Author of My Sporting Holidays; ftc.
Hekky Stuast Tones, M.A. r
Formeriy Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J m.^^ / •« a/,-«\
School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. ] "^^ ^*^ P*^''
Author of The Roman Empire', Ac. I
Haxold W. T. Wages, F.R.S. f
H.M. Inspector of Secondary Schools, Board of Education. London. President, J \
Botanical Section, British Assodatioo, 190S.
ef the Fujiiiii d(C
Author of Memoirs on the Structure
■{
Pluits: Cytology.
Peter dM RochM.
Henet Williav Cailess Davis, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of AH Souls* College, Oxford
1895-1902. Author of Engfaud under the Normans and A ngeoius ; Charlemag;ne.
IsBAEL Abrahams, M.A.
Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J PeriM, J08e|lb.
Formeriy President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Slutrt
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; Judaism ; &c.
ISBAEL GOLIANCZ, M.A., LiTT.D.
{
Professor of English Language and Literature,* King's College, London, and Dean J p^«rl Tha.
of the Faculty of Arts, iTniversityof London. Fellow and Secretary of the British 1 ■^'* ^"^
Academy. Editor of The Pearl; The " Temple " Shakespeare ; &c I
OHN Aliah Howe. B.Sc. f Jf^*"*
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of ■{ FlelstoceiM;
The Geology of Building Stones. - [ Pliocene.
OHN AooiNGTON Symokds, LL.D., D.C.L.
See the biofpaphical article: Symonds, J. A. .
{Petnuvh; Peggie;
PoUtiBD.
AMES BaBTLETT.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at Kind's
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior '
Engineers. Author of Quantities.
AMES David Boubchieb, M.A., F.R.G.S.
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of TTu Times in Soufh-Eastem Europe. .
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
OHN Edwin Sandys, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D.
PlBster-werk.
PhlUppL
PUny the Elder;
f__^ ,
Public Orator in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of St John's College, i pii^ thu VAunrAr
the British Academy. Author of Htstory of Classical Scholarship; &c [ '^"^ "*' xounger.
Fdlowof
AMES FXTZMAUBICE-KeLLY, LiTT.D., F.R.HIST.S.
Gilmour Prc^essor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McColl L.ecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. '
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
AlphoDSO XIL Autnor ot A History of Spanish Literature ; &c
08EPR Fbank Payne, M.D., F.R.C.P. (1840-1910).
Formeriy Harveian Librarian, Royal College of Physicians. Hon. Fellow of.
Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow df University of London. Author of Lectures
onAi^lo-Saxon Medicine ; &c
AMES Gaibdneb, C.B., LL.D.
See the biographical article: Gaibdneb, Jambs.
OHN Gbobce Clabb Andebson, M.A.
PeredB, Jos6 Maria de;
P^res Galdos, Benite;
Plearesqae Novel, Hie.
Plague (in part).
< Percy: family {in part).
ir OEOBCE ULARB ANDEKSON, m./l. PeSSlDUS.
Student, Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln <
College. Craven Fellow (Oxford), 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. I
z
J.H.A.B.
J.H.H.
J.H.V.a
J.L.H.
I.UW.
J. ML
J.H.H.
J.Ra
J.B.Gr.
I.S.P.
l.T.Ba.
XT.a
J.Wa.
J.WaL*
i.w.a
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
I
Jakxs Geokoe Fsazes, MA., D.C.L.. LLJ)., Lm.D. .
Profeaaor of Social Anthropoloey, Liverpool University, and Fdlow of Trinity J bmm«m f£^ A.-i\
Collese. Cambridge. Feilow <^ the Bntidi Academy. Author of Ths CoUat\ '•'■'•• V»» Port),
Bwih; ftc.
ORN Hensy Arthuk Hast, M.A.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.
Phlrii6M.
Director
. _- the South
Kenaingtoo Museum, 1893-1896. Author of The Engraoed Gems of Qasskai
Timtsi lUummaUi Matnucripts in Oasskal and Mtdia4mU Twus,
OHN Horace Roxtmd, M.A., LL.D.
Phigalia (in part);
Plnturlcehlo.
N Horace Roxtmd, M.A., LL.D. . f p««». a,-.;/*. /.•- a-^n.
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Ptudai En^andi Studies in Petrage and Family] IT^- J^^^^^ ^*" ^^'»
History; Fterage and Pedigr^ ^ [VlMatagWtL
OHN Henry Verrdider Crowe.
Lieut-Colonel. Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of
Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History
and Tactics at the Royal Militaiy Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome erf tke
Russo-Tnrkisk War, 1877-1878; &c
OHN Linton Myres, M.A., F.S.A.. F.R.G.S.
Wykeham Professor of Ancient Histoiv in the University of Oxford, and Fellow
of Magdalen College. Formerly Gladstone Professor 01 Greek and Lecturer in
Andent Geography, University of Liverpool. Lecturer in Cbasical Archaeology'
in University of Oxford, and Student and Tutor of Christ Qiurch. Author of
A History efRome; ftc.
1S8IB Lazdlay Weston.
Author of Artknrian Romances mnrepreseiUod in Malory,
AMES M0F7ATT, MA., D.D.
Plsvni.
PtiRsgiaiii.
{
PtttsvaL
ES M0F7ATT, MA., D.D. f MiflMnAii*
Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Author of Historical New Testa-i llSu^t JL
wi€nt;8Bc. [RuunHtiis,
Epistto to the.
OHN Malcolm Mrcheli.
Sometime SchoUu* of Queen's CoUe^, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics. East London
College (University oiLondon). Joint-editor of Grote's History ^ Greece.
OHN Peroval Postgate, M.A., LiTT.D.
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow
Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the
Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Laiinorum ; Ac
06EPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.
Assistant to the Profea
Dublin. Editor of and edition
of Trinity College,!
Classical QuartenyA
Msistntns;
FetopomMslan War;
Fmla: History (Transition
Periodf);
Ptutarah (in part).
Phiadnis.
M.A. r
of Naturd and Expcrimentol Phik)sophy, Trinity College. ] PhosphonsetDOed
ition of Pkeston's Theory a/ Heat. [
08KPH Reynolds Green. MA., D.Sc., F.L.S., F.R.S. .
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Downing Collcse, Cambridge. Formeriy Hartley J iM«M«a. dl..^^i^.^.
Lecturer on Plant Physiok)gy, University of Liverpool. Author of History cf] """• Physiology,
Botany; 8cc '
' j .
OHN Smith Flett, D.Sc., F.G.S.
Petrographer to the Geological S
on Petrology in Edinburgh Uni
Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society of London.
Petrographer to the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Formeriy Lecturer .
on Petrology jn Edinburgh^ University. ^ NeiU Medallist^ of the Royal Society of
Psgmttite; Peridotite;
Perllte; Petrology; Phonollte;
Phosphates: Mineral Phos-
phates (in part); Phylllte;
Plerits; Pltebstone;
PMamfttolysls.
OHN Thomas Bealby. rPwm (i« part);
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe, Formeriy Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ PodoDR (in part);
Magaune. Translator of Sven Hedin's Througf^ Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c I Pofamd, RussUn (in part).
OSEPH Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S. r
Lecturer on Zoology at the South-western Pdytedinic, London. Formerly Fellow I PBUi;
of University CbUege, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the 1 PQchard.
University 01 Edinbutig^. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I
AMES WiLUAMS, MA., D.C.L., LL.D. f
All Souls' Reader in Ronun Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln \ PWSODtl Property.
College. Barrister of Lincdn's Inn. Author of WHls and Succession ; &c t
AMES WaTERHOUSB.
Major-General, Indian Army fretired). Asnstant Surveyor-General of India in
chaige of Photographic and Lithograpnic Branch, Calcutta, 1866-1897. President •
of the Rml Photographic Society, 1905-1906. Author of The Preparation of
Drawings for Photographic Purposes; Ac,
AiCES Walker, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Garendon Laboratory. Formerly! polarization of Ulht
Vice-Pwsident of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Ltght;^ -^w-..— u u ..«..•.
&c
Photography: Apparatus.
'■■[
Whtfly Dixon.
Captain. R.N. Nautical
to the Court of AppeaL
I Pilot (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
K. Q. Kail Fucobich GnoNEX, Ph.D. f
PpoCcnor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology in the University of Marburg. -{ Pttnia: Lttngmte.
Anthor ct Veduckt Siuditm; Ac t
K. Lb Rsv Kissopp Lakz, MA. f
Lincoln College. Oxford. Profeaaor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J Peter* Saint;
ment Exegesis in the Univerrity of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New TeUa- \ Petar. EDistlfiS oL
ment,Tk»Huton€alEMden€€fortkeRtSMnteiumo/JesmsCkrist;&c. ' I * '^
Pedal Clarliiet;
K. S. Katklekn Scrlksinger.
Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Ankaootogy, Author of Tko Instruments of the
Onkestnu s ^
Xk
H.D.
H.1I.T.
H.aB.a
M.V.
K.D.H.
lf.H.
Phttomel; Physharmonlea;
Pianoforte {in part);
Plooolo; Pipe and Tabor;
U CouicT LtJrrow, Lrrr D., Ph-D., F.R.G.S.
Chamberlain of H.M. tht Emperor of Austria, IGng of Bohemia. Hon. Member
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy, &c. Author'
of Bohemta, a Htstoncal Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (Ikhester Lecture,
Oitfofd, 1904); Tho L^e and Timts of John Bus; ftc.
L. G. Rxv. Lewb Campbell, D.CX^ LL.D. J
See the tnographical artide: Campbell, Lewis. \^
L. P. ViPH. Leveson Fbamos Vernon-Habcouet, M.A., M.Imst.C.E. (1839-1907). f
Prafenor of Civil Engineering at University College. London. 1882-1905. Author J
I..J.9.
PodAnd, Geoist oL
Plato.
of Rwers and Canals; Harbours and Dochs; Civil Engineering as applied in Con- 1
strtution; ftc \
r .«.««.» T*w«i Q.*..^.^ -u A f P«ov»Ute; Petaltte;
LEONAW JAIOS SPEMCEX,M.A._., _ _ Wiarm.«««M«rt«-
Aaristant in Department of Mineralogy. British Museum. Formeriy Scholar of
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Schohu-. Editor 01 the Miner-
alogical Magaaino.
"Loan Macaulat.
PharmafloaJderite;
Phenaeite; Ptallllpslte;
Phlogoplte; Phosgenito;
I Pltehblende; Plagiodase.
D Macaulat. /w**
See the biographical article: Macaulay, Thomas Babingtom Macaulay, Baron. \ ^'^
Malcolm Bell. /ptowtv.
Author clFomler Plate; too. -j^-^wk*.
Rev. Mabcus Dbos, D.D. r n.i..i«.
See the biographical article: Doos.MABani -j^FBiacnn.
Mabcus Niebuhb Too, M.A. r
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College. Oxford. Urnvtrnty Lecturer ii) Epigraphy. < p^ifoeeL
Jotnt-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. {
Maxxmiuan Ono Bismabce Caspabz, MA. f PMopidas; Perlander;
Reader in Ancient History at London Univeruty. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -\ Perieks; Phoclon;
Unxvernty, 1905-1908.
V
Max Vebwobk, D.Sc., M.D.. Ph.D.
Phoels; Plataea.
E VEBWOBK, D.SC., M.D.. FH.D. f
Professor of Physiology and Director of the Physiological Institute in the UniverBxty < Physiology.
ofBosm. Aaxhoe 61 Allgemeine Fhysiologie; &c L
Newton Dennison Mebeness, A.M., Ph.D. f Philippine Idandsr
Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Prooimu, \ Geography and Stali^ics.
NoBMAN McLean, MA. f
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer. Christ's < phflOTftnUf.
CoU^e, Cambridge. Joint-editor of the laiger Cambndgit-Septuagint, [
K. V. Joseph Mabie Noel Valois.
Member of Acadtoie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Paris. Honorary Archivist
at the Archives Natwnales. Formeriy President of the Sod6t6 de I'Histoire de .
France and the SodM de TEcole des Chartes. Author of La France a le grand
schisms d'Occident; dtc
1. W. T. NoBTncoTE WmTBiDGE Thomas, M.A.
Pba, Connefl oL
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the 1 _. ,_< m. _
Sod«t< d'Anthropolpgie of Pkris. Author 3i Thought Transferenu; Kinship audi Pnysttl Phenomena.
Marriage in Australia; Stc [^.
UNO AiBY, M.A., LL.D. r
H.M. Inspector of Schods and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of I n... iimii«m
Edocatioo. London. Author of Louis XIV. and the Entfih Restoration; Charles i ^°°* WUliam.
//.;&& Editor of the lAndcrdo^Papsri; Ac. [
'AID Babbon, F.S.A. f _ . .. ., .
Editor of Tho Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hoo. Genealogy to Standing Council of the < FOM {famUy),
Honourable Society of the Barooetage. I
'. Owen Chablbs Whitehouse, M.A., D.D. f ^„^,^^
Senior Theological Tutor and Lecturer in Hebrew. Cheshunt College, Cambridge, -j Pemecoit,
Principal of the Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt. 1895-1905. L
O. A. Osmund Aiby, M.A., LL.D.
0. Bm. Oswald Babbon, F.S.A.
' ~ho Ancesti., ., ,-^ _
Society of the Barooetage.
O. C W. Rev. Owen Chablbs Whitehouse, M.A., D.D.
Principal of the Countess of Huntingdon's College, Cheshunt, 1895-1905.
0. H. Olaus Magnus Fbiedbich HENBia, Ph.D.. LL.D^ F.R.S. f
I^xrfessof of Mechanks and Mathematics In the Central Technical College of the j partnaeilva.
City and Guilds oL London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent] '^•i^"««*
Figures; &c. L
P. A. K. Punch Peteb Alexeivxtcr Kbopotein. f ^•™ (*'» t^'h
See the biographical article : Kbopotein, Pbincb P. A. i PodoUa (<n part) ;
I Poland, Russian (m parO*
P.A.T.
p.as.
P.O.
P.GL
P.U.
p. Sol
P.V.
B.Q.
B.LP.
B.K.D.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
B.1..^
B.H.B.
BaPOU
B.P.&
B.s.a
B.W.
flLiua
S.F.B.
P. A. Tklb.
Formerly Librarian. Utrecht UniverBity. Author of BiagrapkUal and Historical
Memoir on Iko VoyagjU <4 tk* Dutch NannUors, ftc
PiTBS Chaimess Mitchell, M^, T^ELS., T2^S,, D Sc., LL.D.
Secretary of the Zodogical Soaety of Loodoo. Univentty Demonstrator in
Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Author of Outlines oj otology', &c
PncY Gasdner, LL.D^ F.SA^ DXirr.
Seethe biographical article: Gardner, Pbrct.
Piter Giles, M.A., LL.D , LiTr.D
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College. Cambridge, and Univerrity
Reader in Comparative Philology Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological
Society.
PBILIF Lake, M.A.. F.G.S.
Lecturer on Physical and Reslonal Geography in Cambridge University Formerly
of the Geological Survey of India Author of Monoeraph of Briiuk Camhnan
Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Keyaer^s Cm/iaroltss CM^.
PSXSERVEO SkITR, Ph.D.
Rufus B. Kellogg University Fellow, Amherst College. U.S^
Pasqualb Villari.
See the biographical article . Villari. Pasqualb.
Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb, LL.D., D C.L.
See the biographical article: Jebb, Sir Richard CLAVERHOOSBi
Richard Garnett, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Garnett, Richard.
Reginald Innes Pocock, F.Z.S.
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London.
Sir Robert Kennaway Douglas.
Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed
Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1893-1907. Member 01 the Chinese Consular <
Service. 1858-1865. Author of The Lanpiage and Literature of Ckina\ China\
Europe and the Far East; &c
Richard Ltoeeker, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S.
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Eeptiles and Birds in the British Museum i The
Deer of all Lands; &a
Robert Nisbet Bain (d. 1009).
Assistant Librarian. British Museum.. 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia; the
Political History of Denmarh, Norway and Sweden, 1$ 13-1000', The First Romanovs,
2613-1725; Slavonie Europe: The Political History ol Poland and Russia from
i46gtoJ7g6;&c
Ren£ Poupardin, D. fis L. «-
Secretary of the £cole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Biblioth^ue I
Nationafe. Paris. Author of Le Royaume de Frooence sous les Carolinpens; RocueU \
des chartes de Saint-Germain ; &c \
R. Ph£n£ Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. f-
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President ol Architectural Association/ Associate and Fellow of King's College,.
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. 1 Editor of r eiigusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c
Ralph Stockman, M.D., F.R.S.(Edin.), F.R.C.P.(Edin.).
Professor of Materia Medica and Therapeutics in the University of plasgow.
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt.
ProfessOT of Latin and Indo-Eurofiean Philolosy in the University of Manchester.
Fmnieriy Professor of Latin in University College. Cardiff, and Fellow* of Gonville'
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author oL The Italic Dialects,
Robert Wallace, F.R.S.(Edin.), F.L.S.
Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at Edinburgh Univerdty, and Garton
Lecturer on Colonial and Indian Agriculture. Professor of Agriculture, R.A.C.,
Cirencester, 1883-1885. Author of Farm Live Stoch of Great Britain, The Agri--
culture and Rural Economy of Australia and New Zealand; Farming Industries of
Cape Colony; &c
Stanley Arthur Coox, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formeriy Fellow. Gonville and Caius College,
Cambrid^ Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-'
scripHons; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on (M
Testament Hidory; Rdigion of Ancient Palestine; &c
Sidney Frederic Harmer, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.Z.S. r
Keeper of Zoology. Natural History Department. British Museum. Fellow. J PhONDldM.
formeriy Tutor and Lecturer, King's College, Cambridgie. Joint-editor of The"]
Cambridge Natural History, L
Ftaiifln.
Pliosphonneiios: in Zoology.
Pheldlas.
PhOolocy (m parih
Pmii: Geology.
Ptni L and n.
PlndRT (ffi parCi.
Petooeh; Thomas Lore.
Pedipalpl; Pentastomlda.
Pddng.
Peocuy; Peeon;
Pin Da?id*8 Deer;
Perissodactyla;
Pbalanger; Phenseodiis;
Pica; Polecat
Paxminy; PechllD;
Peter L and IIL of Russia;
Petdfl, Alexander; PhOaret;
Piper, Carl;
Poland: History {in part).
Phnip the Bold;
Philip the Good.
Pier {in arckitecttire).
{
{
Phaimacology.
Pleenom {in part).
Pig {in parii.
PhlBstliiei*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xiu
&H.V.*
T. As.
T.Bl.
T.P.C.
T. G. Br.
riLL.
TIlH.
T.S.*
T.W^D.
T.W.H.
T.W.B.D.
W.CSa.
W.D.C.
W.D.W.
W.deW.A.
W. B. G. P.
w.rt.
W.P.C
W.Ga.
W.HL
W.B.P.
Sydney Howaso Vines, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.
Sherardian ProfeMor of Botaii)r, University of Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen
College. Fellow of the University of London. President of the Linnean Society, ,
Formerly Reader in
1^00-1904.
Fellow and Lecturer of Christ'i
&c
r in Botany in the University o' Cambridge and
B College. Author of A Studenfs Ttxtbook oj Botany;
SmoN Nbwcokb, D.Sc., LL.D.
See the biogxaphical article: N^wcomb. Simon.
I^OMAS AssBY, M.A., D.Lttt.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Fomerly Scholar of Christ
Church. Oxford. Craven Fellow. 1807. Conington Prizeman. 1906. Member of
the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Top<h
grapky of Ike Roman Campagna,
SzK Thomas Barclay
{
PbUlli: iiorphohgy.
PbuMt;
Planet^ Klnor.
Peragia;
Pleenum (in part);
Pipenio.
r Peace;
Member of the Institute of International Law. Oflficer of the Legion of Honour. J n^'m^^,^,^^
Author of Problems of Inlematumal PraOice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. fori ?*** ConferMie«;
Blackburn. iQia iPliato and Piracy: La».
{pittsUL, IV. and V.
Blackburn, 191a
Theodore Freyunghuysen Collier, Ph.D.
Assisunt Professor of History, Williams CoUegie, WUUanutown. Mass.. U.S.A.
T&OMAS Gregor Brooie, M.D., F.R.S.
Professor Superintendent. Brown Animal Sanatory
London. Professor of Physiology, Ro^l Veterinary Colkge, London. Lecturer'
on Physiology, London School m Medicine for Women.
Jnstitutlon. Univer&tty of
Jon. Lectu
Fellow of King's College.
Phacoeytotls.
London. Author of Essentials of Experimeniai Physiology.
Rev. Thomas Martin Lindsay, LL.D., D.D. r
Principal of the United Free Church College. Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the J pivmAnCh RMthtMn /im a«.i\
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of 1 *^v""""" BTCUIfWI (m part).
jPciiepoUa {in part).
Lecturer on Chemistry \ PobOIL
•[ Poetry.
Hilary of the Rtformation ; Life of LtUher; &c
Theodor NOloeke, Ph.D.
See the biographical article: NOldbkb, Theodor.
Sir Thomas Stevenson, M.D., F.R.C.P. (i8t&-i9o8).
Formerly Senior Scientific Analyst to the Home Office,
and Forensic Medicine at Guy's Hospital, London.
Walter Theodore Watts-Dunton.
See the biographical article: Watts*Ddntom, Walter Theodore.
Thomas Wentworth Higginson, A.M., LL.D. / wuini-- t»^^ «■
Author of Atlantic Essays; Cheerful Yesterdays; History of the United States; Ac. \ '™™P^ WendelL
Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D., Ph.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. Preudent of the
Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of •
Royal Anatic Society, 188V-IQ03. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Boohs of the
Buddhists ; Early Buddhism ; Buddhist India ; Dialogues of the Buddha ; &c
Walter Coventry Summers, M.A.
Professor of Latin in the University of Sheffield. Formerly Fellow of St John's
College. Cambridge. Craven Scholar, 1890. Chancellor's Medallist. 1892. Author *
of A Study of Valerius Flaccus; &c
William Douglas CarOe, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Trinity College. Cambridge. Architect to the Ecclesiastical Conunissaon and the •{ Peanon, John LoagllbQrOQflh.
Charity Commission, London. ' ^^
William Dwigrt Whitney.
See the biographical article: Whitney, William Dwight.
Sir William de Wivelesue Abney, K.C.B., D.C.L., D.Sc, F.R.S.
Adviser in Science to the Board of Education for England. Member of the
Advisory Council for Education to the War Office. Formerly President of Roval
Astronomical Society. Physical Society and Royal Photographic Society. Author
of InstruOion in Phologjraphy; Colour Vision; 9tc
WiLUAM Edward Garrett Fisher. M.A.
Author of The Trasuvaal and the Boas,
WiLUAM Fream, LL.D. (d. 1906). r
Formerly Lecturer on Agricultural Entomology. University of Edinburgh, and < Pig (m part).
Agricultural Correspondent of The Times. [
WiLUAM Feiloen Craies, M.A. r
Barrister-at-Law. Inner Temple and Lecturer on Criminal Law, King's College. *{ Pleading.
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (23rd edition). L
Walter Garstang, M.A., D.Sc
Professor of Zoology in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln
College. Oxford. Scientific Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council
for tM Expkvatioa of the Sea. 1901-1907. Author of The Impcverishment of the
5m: Ac
Wheelton Hind, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. f
Sureeon. North Staffs Infirmary. Lyell Medallist. Geological Society. 1902. Author < Pendleslde Series,
of British Carboniferous Lambalibranckiata; &c I
Snt William Henry Flower, F.R.S.
See tbe biogxaphical article: Flower, Sir W. H.
Pipiiwa.
Perslos;
Petronlus {in part).
I
I Philology (m part).
Photograplij.
-I Phylloxera.
PbclonttiiN.
jPlfttypns (hi part).
XIV
Wr« ift* Ka
W.M.Ra.
* W.P.C.
W.R.IL
W.R.S.
W.R.S.*
W.S.R.
W. T. T.-D.
W. W. R.«
W.Y.S.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
WiLLiAif Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article: Rossetti, Damtb G.
Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, LL.D., D.C.L.. DJjtt.
See the biographical article: Ramsay, Sir W. M.
WiLUAM Prtoeauz Courtney.
See the article: Courtney. Baron.
William Richard Morvtll, M.A. (d. 1910).
Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Langu^es in the University
of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russta\
Slavonic Liieraiurt; &c
William Robertson Smith, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson.
William Roy Smith, M.A., Ph.D.
Associate Professor of History, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. Author of
Sectionalism in Pennsybnuia dnnng the ResoUUton ; &c.
WiLUAM Smyth Rockstro.
Author of A Great History of Music from the Infancy of the Creek Drama to the
Present Period; and other works on the history of music.
SiK William Tuknee Thiselton-Dyee, F.R.S., R.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc., LL.D.,
Ph.D., F.L.Sv
Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secratary of State for Colonies, 1903-1906.
Joint-author of Hora of Middlesex.
William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theou
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New YorL
William Young Sellar, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Sellar, W. Y.
fPerino del Vaga;
IPanigioo, Pietro.
{
Phiygia; Pfsldk.
/ Peterborongh and HonmooUi,
I EadoL
Poland: Literature,
/phylaeteiy (m part).
Polk, JaoMf Knox.
Plain Song.
Pianto: Distribution,
{
Pius VL, VIL, and Vnt
I POlronliis {in part).
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES,
PMdk
Piar.
Pwt
Ptteblesshira.
Ptombroks, Barli oL
Pembroks.
Ptombrokishln.
Pen.
PendL
PenttentiaL
Pennine Chain.
Pennqrivania.
PennqriYania, Untvenity
Pensaeotau
Pension.
Penianee.
Peoria.
4>L
Pe^er.
Peppennint
Perfnmeiy.
Pirier.
Perignenx.
Peripatetfos.
Perjorj.
Pemambneo.
Penault
Perrot.
Personality.
Perth (HJI.).
Perthshire.
Pessiinisin.
Peterborough.
PeUUon.
Philadelphia.
Philately.
Phllostratus.
Phonograph.
Phorminm.
Phosphorus.
Photios.
Photoehemlstiy.
Physioeratle SehooL
Physlolofus.
Pieardy.
PieeolomlnL
Piehegm.
Pletisin.
Pigeon-flying.
PUgrlnL
Pin.
Ptaik.
Pipe.
Piquet
PIstoia.
Piteher PlantiL
Pittsburg.
Ptamtation.
Ptatinum.
Pleurisy.
Pleuro-Pneumonla.
Ploek.
Ptough and Ploughing.
Plum.
Plymouth (U.S.A.).
Pneumatie Gun.
Pneumonia.
Pnom-Penh.
PolUers.
Poker.
PoUu
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XXI
PATH, JAMES (x830-i898)» English novelist, was born at
Cl^tenham, on the 28th of February 1830, bis father being
clerk to the Thames Commissioners and treasurer to the county
(^ Bcricshire. He was educated at Eton, and afterwards
entered the Military Academy at Woolwich; but his health was
not equal to the demands of a military career, and he proceeded
in 1847 to Trinity College, Cambridge. He was among the
most popular men of his time, and served as president of the
UnioD. Before going to Cambridge he had published some
verses in Leigh Hunt's Journal^ and while still an undergraduate
pat forth a volume of Stories from Boccaccio in 1852, and in
1853 a vcriome of Poems. In the same year he left Cambridge*
and shortly afterwards married Miss Louisa Adelaide Edlin,
sister of Sir Peter Edlin. He then settled down in the Lake
district to a literary career and contributed regularly to Household
Words and Chambers's Journal. In 1858 he removed to Edin-
burgh to act as joint-editor of the latter periodical. He became
sole editor in 1859, and conducted the magazine with much
fiKcess for fifteen years. He removed to London in x86x. In
the pages of the Journal he published in 1864 his most popular
story. Last Sir Massingherd. From this time he was always
engaged in novel-writing, among the most popular of his
productions being Married Beneath Him (1865), Carlyon*s Year
(1S68), By Proxy (1878), and The Talh of the Town (1885). In
1883 he succeeded Leslie Stephen as editor of the Comhill
Magazine and continued in the post imtil the breakdown of his
health in 1896. He was also literary adviser to Messrs Smith,
Elder & Company. His publications included a Handbook
to the English Lahes (1859), and various volumes of occasional
esays, Maxims by a Man of the World (1869), Some Private
Views (1881), Some Uterary Recollections (1884). A posthumous
woxl:. The Backwater of Life (1899), revealed much of his own
personality in a mood of kindly, senile reflection upon familiar
topics. He died in London, on the 25th of March 1898.
A biographica] introduction to Tks BathBottr of Life was fumiabed
by Sir Leslie Stephen.
PATHE, PETER (c. 1380-1455), English Lollard and Taborite,
the son of a Frenchman by an English wife, was bom at Hough-
<m-tbe-HiU near Grantham, about X380. He was educated at
Oxford, where he adopted Lollard opinions, and had graduated
as a master of arts before the 6th of Octobtf 1406, when he was
concerned in the irregular proceedings through which a letter
declaring the sympathy of the university was addressed to the
Bohemian reformers. Prom 14x0 to 14x4 Payne was principal
oi St Edmund Hall, and during these years was engaged in
controversy with Thomas Netter of Walden, the Carmelite
defender eA Catholic doctrine. In X4X4 he was compelled to
leave Oxford and taught for a time in London. Ultimatdy
he had to flee from England, and took refuge in Bohemia, where
he was received by the tmiversity of Prague on the X3th of
February 141 7, and soon became a leader of the reformers.
He joined the sect of the " Orphans," and had a prominent part
in the discussions and conferences of the ten years from 1420
to X430. When the Bohemians agreed to send representatives
to the Council of Basel, Payne was naturally chosen to be one
of their delegates. He arrived at Basel, on the 4th of January
1433, and his unyielding temper and bitter words probably
did much to prevent a settlement. The Bohemians left Basd
in ApriL The party of the nobles, who had been ready to make
terms, were attacked in the Diet at Prague, by the Orphans
and Taborites. Next year the dilute led to open war. The
nobles were victorious at Lipau on the 29th of May 1434, and
it was reported in England that Payne was killed. When soon
afterwards the majority of the Orphans joined the moderate
party, Payne allied himself with the more extreme Taborites.
Nevertheless his reputation was so great that he was accepted
as an arbitrator in doctrinal disputes amongst the reformers.
In February 1437 the pope desired the emperor Sigismund
to send Payne to be tried for heresy at Basel. Payne had to
leave his pastorate at Saas, and took refuge with Peter Chelcicky,
the Bohemian author. Two years later he was captured and
imprisoned at Gutenstein, but was ransomed by his Taborite
friends. Payne took part in the conferences of the Bohemian
parties in 1443-1444, and again' in X4S2. He died at Prague in
1455. He was a learned and eloquent controversialist, and a
faithful adherent to Wydiffe's doctrine. Payne was also known
as Clerk at Oxford, as Peter English in Bohemia, and as Freyng,
after his French father, and Hough from his birth place.
BiBLioCRArHT.— The chief facts of Payne's English career are
given in the Loci e libro veriiatum of T. Gascoigne (cd. Tborold
Rogers, O^ord, 1881). For his later life the principal sources are
contained in the Monumenta conciliorum gitnerahum saeculi v..
SaecuU X9., or saeculi quintodecimi, vds. L-iii. (Vienna, 1857-1894).
For modem authorities consult Palacky, Cesckichie von Bdkmen,
viL-ix., and Creighton's History of the Papacy. The biography
by James Baker, A Forgotten Great Endiskman (London, 1894)
Utti) partial (C L. kT
PATMTER (or Paimtks), WnUAM (c. X540-X594), English
author, was a native of Kent He matriculated at St John's
0>llege, Cambridge, in X554. In r56x he became clerk of the
ordnance in the Tower of London, a position in which he
appears to have amatwrd a fortune out of the public funds. In
X586 he confessed that he owed the govenmient a thousand
pounds, and in the next year further charges of peculation were
brought against him. In 1591 his son Anthony owned that
he anid his father had abused their trust, but Paynter retained
his oflke untfl his death. This event probably followed
PAYSANDU— PEA
imiiK(liatd]i upon his wiD, whkh wu nuDcupilivc
diledlhe i^lh ofFcbniary ijm. Tht firal volumt ofl
oj PUoiUjt appeared in is66, and wu dedicated \a 1
Warwicli. ll included >u(y laics, and wu [oUowcd ic
year by a second volgme conlaining Ihiny-lbur new
•Kond iraprD«d edition in 1575 contained seven ne
Paynter bonDwi Irom Herodotus, Plutarch, AuliE
Adian, LIvy, Tadim, Quintus Cuniusi (iVDi Giialdi
Mattes Bandello, Scr Giovanni FiorcDliaa, StrapUD
Margani of Navarre and othets. To the vogue of
similar collections we owe the Italiaa leiiing of so lu
■ e Eliiabethan drama. The early tra
Appiui
t VirgiTiii
/rom TAi Palou ,
derived from the book are the ShaLespeari
AU'i WtU that Emii Well (from Cilelta of Narbonne). 1
and Fletcher's TriHmpM nf Dttik and Shirley's Lim'i '
Tlu Potaa of PUottrt was edited by Jdcpb Hailewoo
PAYSMTDA, or PusAimA, a town and liver port ol
and capital of a department of the same name, on tbe
of the Uiuguay River about jm m. N.W. of MoBtevi
which it is connected by rail. Pop. (iQaA cslimate).
lOrlh; i
is at the head of Id
on the Uruguay River, and is in regular st<
with Montevideo and Buenos Aires-
There are some good public building, including two
a hospital, a theatre and the government offices,
eiports cattle and sheep and salted meats, )
tongues, wool and other animal pn>ducts. There is
curing establiahmeut [saladertt) at Gua\'iy1^, in the
Tbe toWD was named in honour of Pay, or Pai (Falhc
.arded 1
a partly destroyed ia 1865 hy a
richest stock-iaisin
PATSOH, EDWARD (17S3-1S17), American Cong
procher, ms horn on the ijlh of July 17E3 at Rin
Hampshire, where his father, Seth Payson (1758-1!
pastor of the Congregational Church. His unde, Philli
(i1]6-iSoi). pastor of a chutch in Chelsea, Mass
was a phyucist and astronomer. Edward Payson 1
at Harvard hi jSoj, wis then principal of a school at
Maine, and in i&>) became junior pastor of the Cong
Church al Portland, where he remained, after 1811,
pastor, until his death on the Hid of October 1817.
The most complete collection of his ■ermons, with a 1
Ab Cummingi originally published in igig, is the Mm
TiOLilas and Strmtmi eflki laU Ra. Edmird Foyum (i \
land. 1B46: Philadelphia. i9yj). Based on ihi* is th
Mtmniua ^Eimari Payun (New York. iBri), by the I
Janes of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
PiZHiKT, PftTEH (is!0-i637), Hungarian can
statesman, ms bom at Nagyvirad on the jih of Ocii
4Ukd educated at Nagyvirad and ELolozsvir. at wh
place he quitted the Calvinist confession for the Ra
munion (1583). In isB? he entered tbe Jesuit order,
went Ihrou^ Us prolMtian at Craci>w, took his
Vienna, end studied theology at Rome, azid finally roir
academic course at the Jesuit college at Gnu. In iS
Lo the order's esublishmenl at Sellye, i'
n back hundreds ti
includ
lo the archbishop o( Esatcrgom, and In the foUowinc ytu
attracted attention by his denunciation, in the Diet, of (he 8th
point of the peace of Vienna, which prohibited the Jesuits from
acquiring bnded properly in Hungary. At about the same
time the pope, on the petition of the emperor Matthias U.,
rehiased Plamlo]' from his monkish vowi. On the ajlh of
April i6i£ be was made dean of TurAci, and on the 18th of
Soptemlicr lietame primate gf Hungaiy. He (ectived the red
hai from Urban VUI. in 1610. VLiaAay wu the soul of the
Roman Catholic reaction in Hungaiy. Paniculaily rematkable
ia his liozsAf^a wwts Katata (Gitidt tc Tntih), which a[>peaied
in t6ij. This manual united all the advantages of scientific
dcplb, methodical amngement and popular style. As the chief
putor ot the Hungarian church Ftzminy used every means
whidl bad ti
candidates at Nagyssombat, and in ifiij laid the foundations
of a ti'wiTir institution at Vienna, tbe still famous FaEinanaeura.
florins towards the foundation of a Hungarian university.
He also built Jesuit colleges and schools at Prcssburg, and
Franciscan monasleriei at EtsfkCijvir and KarmtKablinya.
In politics he played a consideisble pact. It was chiefly due
to him that the diet of 161B elected the archduke Ferdinand
lo succeed the childless Mallhiu II. He also repeatedly
thwaitcd the mart ial ambitions of Gabriel Bethlen, and prevented
George Rik&ay L, over whom be had a great inSuence, from
combining with the Turks and the Protestants, But Piiminy's
most unforgetable service to his countty was his creation of tbe
Hungarian literary language. As an orator be well deserved
the ^ilhet ol " the Hungarian purple Ciccio." Of his numerous
woriis the chief are: r*e four Bvtts oj Tkomia » Ktmpii
en Ike imimiUm af Ckriil (Hung.. i6oj), of which then ate
many editions; Dislribt Uadeika dt vijibili Ciriul j* Inrii
iulaia (Giai. 161s); Viacfiiije tcl/iiaiiUiu (Vienna, 1610};
Srmaiii fur curry Sunday IB l*( Vear (Hung., Ptessbutg, i6j6);
Tit Tiiumph 0/ Trulk (Hung.. Prcssburg. 1614).
See VilnvAi FraknISi. PiUr PSiminy anf Ml Tiwu "
tlPitmUnyOi™.
>dUtir
Lthed
PAZ SOUAH. HARIAHO FEUPB (iSii-iSSe), Peruvian
historian and geographer, was bom at Aiequipa, on the iind
of August iSii. He studied law, and after holding some minor
judicial olhces, wu minister to New Granada in 1853. After his
return he occupied himself with plans for the establishment
of a model penitentiary al Lima, which he wu enabled to
accomplish thnugh the support of General Culilli. In 1860
CutUla made him director of public works, in which capacity
L ■-fended the erection of the Umi . - ..
n the refon
y by (I
withdrawal of the dcbas( ,.
his great alias of the republic of Peru, and in 1868 the Gist
volume of his history of Peru after the acquisition of her inde-
pendence. A second volume followed, and a third, bringing
the history down to 1830. wu published after his death by his
Piesident Balla, but shortly aiterwardi retired iiom public
life to devote himself to liis great geographical dictionary of
Peru, which wu published in 1S77. During the disutious
vrar with Chile he sought refuge at Buenos Aires, where he was
made professor in the National College, and whett he wrote
and published a hisioiy of the war (1^). He died on tbe
31st of December 1S86.
PEA (Fuim), a genus of the order Legumitunae. conusiing
of herbs with compound pinnate leaves ending in lendriK by
means of which the weak stems are enabled to support themselve*,
and with large leafy stipules at the base. The Bowers (Eg. i)
an typically " papDionaceous," with a " standard " 01 large
petal above, two ^de petals or wings, and two front petali
below forming the ked. The stamens an ten— nine united,
the tench usually free or only alightly joined lo the othen*
PEABODY, A. P.
Fkn Kpantiini ilkm ippniadi to tbe bodty riiidi b KcretH]
1 Ihc but o( tlie lUmijul tube. The amy b pidongcd
into ft Jong, thick, bent it^c, cocn-
preocd fnnn aide to side at the tip
od friDgcd with litdn. The Emit b
cbitacleristic " legume " or pod
(Gg. 7), bunling when ripe into lulvci,
whicb bear tbe large globular leeds
(peas} OD their edges. These seeds
are on sbon stalks, the upper a-
-tremily of which 'a dilated into •
■ 'low cup (eriO; the two leed-leava
■, ALu. « winn. lalyUdina) an Illicit and Sesby, with
mr. Carina, at KecL a radicle bent along Ihdr edges oa
one tide. The genus is erceedingly dose to Loihynu, being
only diitinguiih«l tcchoically by the style, which in the latter
genus is comprfsaed irom above downwards add not thick.
It is not surprising, therefore, that under
the general name " pea " aperies both of
Pis^m and of Lalkyni are included. The
leaflets is Fisum otaut, which is culti-
vated In all temperate parta of the globe,
but which, according to the Italian
botanista. is truly 1 native of centiat and
ssuihein Italy; it has puiple flower*.
The garden pea, P. latiniM, which hu
white flowen, to more lender thin the
preceding, and its origin is not known.
It has not been found in a wild state
anywhere, and it is considered that it
may be a form o( P. annul, hiving,
however, from four to six leaflets to
ri^ vtoc^ ^M4emi^ "eh leaf and ^ofmlar seeds of uniform
f^d^Vci P. lalinM «u known to Theoplinitui;
F,C I.— TTic Pod '"d Ot Candc^le (Orip* iif CnUaaui Plama.
,rZiJr^ dudMihai the ptawa.knoumtolht Aryans.
':i2^ and waa pcrhip. brought by them into
*■=«=»■ Crcm ancTluly. Pcu have been found
is ibe SwiB laiLfrdwelliufi of ihe brons period. The garden
pEu (liifer comJderaWy in liie. dupe of pod, degree ct produclive-
nmfonn ii>dcolaurDr«Td,&c. The sugar peas are those in which
[be inner lining fj the pod 11 vny [hiti InUead of bdng nmewhal
hviry, » that the whole pod can be eaten. Unlike most papilion-
keoui ptanrs. peaflnven are perfrcily fertile without the aid of
EBect^ andlhntdDnot inlFrcrtMH freely as most similar pfantt do.
Oaihcotherhand.acaH ja known wherein the pollen from a purple-
poddH pra applin] id ihe bijgma of one of the gr«n-poddrd Higar
poi produced a purpjr pod. ihowingthal not only the ovule ^1 even
cbii^y by •elerticin. Pels conitltute 3 highly nutrilioui article of
The sweet pea, cidiivated for tbe beauty and fragnnce of its
&»(rv is a species of the allied genus Laliyria (L. tdatalia), a
Diiive of uuthtm Europe. The chick pea (ft.) {Cktr ari/il-
am). not cultivated in England, is siill farther removed from
Ibt inie peas. The evcrbsling pea of gatdtnt is a apccica of
Liiliyrai (L lalilatius) wiih very deep Hcshy roots, bold foliage,
11^ beautilul but scentless flowers: the Geld pea | /■riun orpcnir)
B Idler adapted than the bean to light soils, and is best culli-
r.^ed in rows of such a width as lo admit ol horse-hocing.
Tbe early stage at which the planLi faU over, and forbid further
tulure, renders it evon more needful than in the case of b«ans
tniow tfaeni only on bnd already dean. II annual wced« can
be krpt ia check until the peas once get a close cover, they then
occupy the ground so compJeLrly that nothing eke can live
isder them; ud tbe ground, after th^ removal, is found in
tile choicesl condition. A thin crop of peas should never be
tllowedtosluid,u the land is sue to get perfectly wild. The
PEABODY, E. P.— PEACE
Harvard University and Plummer professor of Christian morals
from i860 to x88x, and was professor emeritus from x88x until
his death in Boston, Massachusetts, on the xoth of March 1893.
On the walls of Appleton Chapel, Cambridge, U.SJV.,isabron2e
tablet to his memory.
Bettdes many brief memmra and'articlet, he wrote: Christianity
the RdigioH of Nature (aid ed., i86a), Lowell Institute Lectures;
Reminiscences of European Travel (1868); A Manual of Moral
Philosophy (1873): Christian Belief and Life (1875), and Harvard
Reminiscences (1888). See the Memoir (Cambridge, 1896) by
Edward J. Young.
PEABODY, BUZABBTH PALMER (1804-1894), American
educationist, was bom at Billerica, Massachusetts, on the x6th
of May 1804. Eariy in life she was assistant in A. Bronson
Alcott's school in Boston, Mass., the best account of which is
probably her Record of Mr AkoU*s School (1835). She had been
instructed in Greek by Emerson at Concord when she was
eighteen years old. She became interested in the educational
methods of Froebel, and in x86o opened in Boston a small school
resembling a kindergarten. In X867 she visited Germany for
the purpose of studying Froebel's methods. It was largely
through her efforts that the first public Idndeigarten in the
United States was established in Boston in 1870. She died at
Jamaica Plain, Boston, on the 3rd of Januaxy X894. She was
the sister-in-law of Nathaniel Hawthorne and of Horace Mann.
Among her publicattonB are: Kindergarten in Italy (187a);
Reminiscences of William EUery Channine (1880); Lectures in the
Training Schools for Kindertartners (1888); and Last Evening with
AUstcn, and other Papers (1886).
PEABODY, GEORGE (x 795-1869), American philanthropist,
was descended from axi old yeoman family of Hertfordshire,
England, named Pabody or Pebody. He was bom in the part
of Dan vers which is now Peabody, Mass., on the x8th of February
I79S' When eleven years old he became apprentice at a
grocery store. At ,the end of four years he became assistant to
his brother, and a year afterwards to his uncle, who had a
business in Cveorgetown, District of Columbia. After serving as a
volunteer at Fort Warburton, Maryland, in the War of x8t2, he
became partner with Elisha Riggs in a dry goods store at George-
town, Riggs furnishing the capital, while Peabody was manager.
Through his energy and skill the business increased with astound-
ixig rapidity, and on the retirement of Riggs about 1830 Peabody
found himself at the head of one of the largest mercantile con-
cerns in the world. About 1837 he established hixnself in London
as merchant and money-broker at Wanford 0>urt, in the dty,
and in 1843 he withdrew from the American business. The
number of his benefactions to public objects was very large.
He gave £50,000 for educational purposes at Danveis; £200,000
to found and endow a scientific Institute in Baltimore; various
sums to Harvard University; £700,000 to the trustees of the
Peabody Educational Fund to promote education in the
southern states; and £500,000 for the erection of dwelling-houses
for the working-classes in London. He received from Qutcn
Victoria the oflfer of a baronetcy, but declined it. In 1867 the
United States Congress awarded him a special vote of thanks.
He died in London on the 4th of November X869; his body
was carried to America in a British warship, and was buried
in his native town.
See the Life (Boston. 1870) by Phebe A. Hanaford.
PEABODY, a township of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, a m. N.W. of Salem.
Pop. (1905) 13,098; (1910) I5J2X. It is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad. The township covers an area of 17 sq. m. Its
principal village is also known as Peabody. It contains the
Peabody institute (1852), a gift of Cveorge Peabody; in 1909 the
institute had a library of 43,200 vols., and in connexion with it is
the Eben Dale Sutton reference library, containing 4100 vols.
In 1909. In the institute is the portrait of Quetn Victoria given
by her to Mr Peabody. Among the pUces of interest in the
township are the birthplace of George Peabody, the home of
Rufus (^hoate (who lived here from 1823 to 1828), and the old
burying-ground, where many soldiers of the War of Indepen-
dence are buried; and the town has a Lexington monument,
dedicated in 1835, and a soldiers' monument, dedicated in x88i.
Manufacturing is the principal industry, and leather is the
principal product; among other manufactures are shoes, gloves,
glue and carriages. The value of the factory products in
X905 was $10,236,669, an increase of 47-4% over that for X900,
and of the total the leather product represented 77*3%.
Peabody was originally a part of the township of Salem. In
X752 the district of Danvers was created, and in 1757 this district
was made a separate township. In 1 85 5 the township was divided
into Danvers and South Danvers, and in 1868 the name of South
Danvers was changed to Peabody, in honour of George Peabody.
See Old Naumheag (Salem, 1877), by C. H. Webber and W. H.
Nevins.
PEACE, a river of western Canada. It rises in the Rocky
Mountains near 55^ N., and breaking through the moiintains,
flows N.E. into Slave River, near lake Athabasca. The district
between 56* 40' and 6o* N., and between 1 1 2* W. and the Rocky
Mountains is usually known as the Peace River district.
PEACE (Lat. pax; Fr. paix\ Gcr. Friede), the contrary of
war, conflict or turmoil, and the condition which follows their
cessation. Its sense in international law is the condition of
not being at war. The word is also used as an abridgment for
a treaty of peace, in such cases as the Peace, of Utrecht (17x3)
and the Peace of Amiens (1802).
Introduaion. — Peace until quite recently was merely the
political condition which prevailed in the intervals between
wars. It was a purely negative condition. Even Grotius, who
reduced the tendencies existing in his time to a sort of orderly
expression, addressed himself to the law of war as the positive
part of international jurispmdencc and dealt only with peace
as its negative alternative. The very name of his historic
treatise, De jure belli ac pads (1625), shows the subordination
of peace to the main subject of war. In our own time peace has
attained a higher status. It is now customary among writers
on international law to give peace at any rate a volume to itself.
Peace in fact has become a separate branch of the subject. The
rise of arbitration as a method of settling international difficulties
has carried it a step further, and now the Hague Peace Con-
ventions have given pacific methods a standing apart from war,
and the preservation of peace has become an object of direct
political effort. The methods for ensuring such preservation
are now almost as precise as the methods of war. However
reluctant some states may be to bind themselves to any rulies
excluding recourse to bmte force when diplomatic negotiations
have failed, they have nevertheless unanimously at the Hague
Conference of 1907 declared their " firm determination to co-
operate in the maintenance of general peace " (la ferme volonti
de concourir au mainiien de la paix glniraUy^ and their resolution
" to favour with all their efforts the amicable settlement of
international conflicts " (preamble to Peace Convention). The
offer of mediation by independent powers is provided for (Peace
Convention: art. 3), and it is specifically agreed that in matters
of a " legal character " such as " questions of interpretation and
application " of international conventions, arbitration is the
*' most efficacious and at the same time most equitable method "
of settling differences which have not been solved by diplomacy
(Peace Convention: art. 38). In the final act, the conference
went farther in agreeing to the " principle of compulsory arbi-
tration," declaring that " certain disputes, in particular those
relating to the interpretation and application of the provisions
of international agreements, are suitable (susceptible) to be
submitted to compulsory arbitration without any restriction.**
These declarations were obviously a concession to the wide-
spread feeling, among civilixed nations, that peace is an object
in itself, an international political condition requiring its code of
methods and laws just as much as the domestic political conditions
of nations require their codes of methods and laws. In other
words peace among nations has kow become, or is fast becoming,
a positive subject of international regulation, while war is
* This has been incorrectly rendered in the English official trans-
lation as " the sincere desire to work for the maintenance of general
peace."
PEACE
eoauog, UDODg progretdve peopks, to be lecurded merdy as an
accidental distnrbanoe of that hannony and concord among
mankind which oationi require for the fostering of their
domestic wdfare.
ThOu^ the idea of preserving peace by general international
regulation has had several exponents in the course of ages, no
ddibecate plan has ever yet been carried into effect. Indirectly,
however, there have been many agencies which have operated
towards this end. The earliest, known to history, is the Amphi-
ctyonic Council (q.v.) which grew out of the common worship
<rf the Hellenes. It was not so much a political as a religious
body. " If it had any daim," says Freeman,^ " to the title of a
general councO of Greece, it was wholly in the sense in which we
speak of general councils in modem Europe. The Amphictyonic
Coundl represented Greece as an ecclesiastical synod rq;>re-
sented western Christendom. Its primary business was to
regulate the concerns of the temple of ApoUo at DelphL The
Amphictyonic Council which met at Ddphi was only the most
famous of several bodies of the same kind." "It is easy,
however,** adds Freeman, "to understand how the religious
functions of such a body might assume a political character.
Thus the old Amphictyonic oath forbade certain extreme
measures of hostility against any dty sharing in the common
Amphictyonic worship, and it was forbidden to raae any Amphi-
ctyonic dty or to cut off its water. As the only deliberative
body in which most Greek communities were represented, its
dec^ioos were those of the bulk of the Hellenic people. Itsank
eventually into a mere political tool in the hands first of Thebes,
and then under Philip of Macedonia."
The so-called p(u romana was merely peace within an
empire governed from a central authority, the constituent
parts of which were held together by a network of centralised
authority.
The feudal system again was a system of offence and defence,
and its object was effidency for war, not the organized regulation
of peace. Yet it had dements of federation within the bonds of
to hierardi]»
The apiritoal influence of the Church again was teerted to
preserve relative peatt among feudal princes. The " Truce of
God " was established by the clergy (originally in Guyenne in
103 1) to ts^< advantage of holy days and festivals for the purpose
of restricting the time available for bloodshed.
The "grand design" of Henry IV. (France), which some
Uatoriaas regard merely as the fantastic idea of a visionary, was
probably a scheme of his great minister Sully to avert by a
federation the conflict which he probably foresaw would break
oat sooner or later between Catholic and Protestant Europe,
and which, in fact, broke out some fifteen years later in the
Thirty Years* War.
The Holy Roman Empire itself was in some respects an agent
lor the preservation of peace among its constituent states. In
the same way the federation of Swiss cantons, of the states of the
Nwth American Union and of the present German Empire have
served as means of reducing the number of possible parties to war,
■ad consequently that of its possible occasions.
Not only the number of possible war-making states but also
the territorial area over which war can be made has been
fcdooed in recent times by the creation of neutralized states such
•s Swftzerland, Belgium, Luxemburg and Norway, and areas
soch 9% the Congo basin, the American lakes and the Suez Canal.
The " balance of ^mtc" which has played in the history of
Bodem Europe such an important part, is inherent in the
Botkm of the independence SLiid stability of states. Just as in
Italy the common weal of the different republics which were
crowded within the limited area of the peninsula required that
no one of them should become so powerful as to threaten the
tadfpfiidfnr* of the others, so western Europe had a similar
danger to counteract. France, Spain and Use Empire were
competing with each other in power to the detriment of smaller
ttates. Great Britain and the Netherlands, Prussia and Russia,
^History cf Federal Ctmrnment in Cntu end Italy (and ed.,
1893}. p. 97*
had interests in the preservation of the sUUus qw^ and wars were
waged and treaties conduded to adjust the strength of states in
the common interest of preventing any one of them from obtain-
ing undue predominance. Then came the break up of what
remained of feudal Europe and a readjustment under Napoleon,
which Idt the western world with five fairly balanced homo-
geneous nations. These now took the place of the old hetero-
geneous areas, governed by their re^>ective sovereigns without
reference to any idea of nationality or of national representation.
The leading nations asstmied the hegemony of the west, and in
more recent times this combination has become known as the
" concert of Europe." This concert of the great powers, as
its name implies, in contradistinction to the "balance of
power," was essentially a factor for the preservation of peace.
For a century back it has played the part of an upper council in
the management of Europe. In all matters affecting the Near
East, it considers itself supreme. In matters of general interest
it has frequently called conferences to which the minor states
have been invited, such as the West African Conference in Berlin
in 1885, and the Anti-Slavery Conference at Brunds in 1889-
1890, and the Conference of Algedras in 1906. Meanwhile the
concert has admitted among its members first in 1856 Turkey,
Uter in 1878 at the Congress of Berlin the United States, and
now undoubtedly Japan will expect to be induded as a great
power in this controlling body. The essential feature of the
concert has been recognition of- the advantage to all the great
powers of common action in rderence to territorial changes in
the Near East, of meeting together as a coundl, in prderence
to unconcerted negotiation by Uie powers acting severally.
A departure of more recent origin has been the calling together
of the smaller powers for the settlement of matters of general
administrative interest, conferences such as those which led to
the condusion of the conventions creating the Postal Union,
the Copyright and Industrial Pnq;>erty Unions, &c
These conferences of all the powers serve in practice as a sort
of common coundl in the community of states, just as the
concert of the great powers acts as a kind of senate. We have
thus the nudeus of that international parliament which idealist
peacemakers have dreamt of since the time of Henry IV.'s
" grand design."
This brings us down to the greatest deliberate effort ever made
to secure the peace of the world by a general convention. It
was due to the initiative of the young tsar Nicolas U., who,
in his famous rescript of the 34.th of August 1898, stated that
he thought that the then moment was "very favourable for
seeking, by means of international discussion, the most effectual
means of assuring to all peoples the benefits of a real and durable
peace." " In the course of the last twenty years," added the
rescript, " the preservation of peace had become an object of
international policy." Economic crises, due in great part to the
existing system of excessive armaments, were transforming
armed peace into a crushing burden, which peoples had more and
more difficulty in bearing. He therefore proposed that there
should be an international conference for the purpose of focusing
the efforts of all states which were " sincerely seeking to make
the great idea of imiversal peace triumph over the dements
of trouble and discord." The first conference was held in 1899,
and another followed it in 1907: at the earlier one twenty-six
powers were represented; at that of 1907 there were forty-four,
this time practically the whole world. The conventions drawn
up at the second conference were a deliberate codification of
many branches of international law. By them a written law
has been substituted for that unwritten law which nations had
been wont to construe with a latitude more or less corre-
sponding to thdr power. At the conference of 1899, moreover,
a court of arbitration was instituted for the purpose of dealing
judicially with such matters in dispute as the powers agreed to
submit to it.
In the interval between the two Hague Conferences, Great
Britain and France concluded the first treaty applicable to
future difficulties, as distinguished from the treaties which had
preceded it, treaties which rdated in all cases to difficulties already
Fnnch nwdel, hu mode refer
encelothe Hague Coi
rallmatleisw
hichcan
u awird of damages or da m
at .Heel any*
italnil
Tbe third HAguc Confcrei
to be t
Me«nwhile t. conference of 1
the maritime
powen
London in iQoS-igog Eoc Ibc i
:laboralioii of ;
marilime law in lime ol war,
to be .pplied
1 in the
Court o( Pii«, which had been proposed in
ad ttfaatdum it the Hague Conference ol
. efforts
odMini ud confined lo Ihem. TUi treaty nude (tUiraiian soienuneot tnoouiacemenl, . tbe Fiench-ipeiking popuUtido.
tppUobleto lU miltennol (fleeting" ulionil honour or viul Poland ii UKitber cue of tbe difficulty of muuging a populMlod
IstereiLi." Since ibea * network of linulit treitici, adopled wbich ipeilu i language not that of the goveming majority, and
with each other and baaed on Ihe Anglo- Russia^ in trying to solve one problern by absorbing Finland
rtolAtbilta- ialo the national »yilem, i> burdening heueli wiih anotbcr
bcsetltedby whicb may work out in cailurics of unieit, if not in domeilic
onal interest, violence. Not very long ago Pan-Germans vere paying much
eld in 1917. attenlion to the Cennan settlers in the Braiilian province ol
was held in RioGraadedaSul.wherelargevilUgesspokcnolhingbutGennan,
international and Gennan, as the only language known on Ihe spot, bad become
inlPTUBtional tbe tongue in which municipal businru was ILansacted. Tbe
:nlion signed Braailian government, in view of the danger Co whicb such a
state of things might give rise, lolloweil Ihe eiample ol tbe
wbich have United States in dealing with the language questioP'
been made by different powers to assure Ihe idgn of justice Thus while in tbe one case homogeneity of tanguage within
and judicial methods among the itatn of the world was the pro- stale boundaries seems to be one ol Ihe conditions making fat
posal of Secretary Knoi of the United Stain to insert in the peace, Ihe avoidance of interference with a well-marked homo-
instniment of ratification of tbe Intemaiional Priie Court geneous am like Finland would seem to contribute equally to
Convention (adopted at the Hague in 1897) a clause staling the same end.
that tbe International Piiie Court thill he Invoted with Ihe Meanwhile the difficulties in the way ol coniemporary nation-
dutic* and functions of a court of arlulral justice, such as making are fosLered by many extraneous influences, as well as
KOHDmended by the first Voai of tbe Final Act of the con- by dogged resislancE of Ihe nccs in tfueslion. N'ot the least
Eerence. The object of tkia proposal was to give eEIect to the important of these infiucncs is Ihe sentimental sympathy felt
idea that the existing " pennanent " court tacked the essential for rhoK who are supposed to be deprived of the use of their
at all timrs to hear cases, and at needing to be specially con- an alien one. The hardship ioGicled on those who have to
■tiluled for evtiy case submilled to it. The new court would leam a second language is very easily eiaggeralcd, though it
be permanently in session at the Hague, the full panel of is to be regretted that in the case of Hungary the second language
Judges to assemble in. onliiiary ot emaatdiDary session once is not one more useful for intemaiional purposes.
CmUfapoiiuy Stalarafl. — Nation-making has hilherlo been
J are increaang, and w
?wlh due lo Ihe play of circumstance and c
ilso at worl
:, as in Canada;
gradually
Canada in
ion of the
British Empire
Blablisbing a judiciary to adjust their differences in accordance where Ihe genius of st^
with it.' dominion with all the at
The CtUTOU Crmpiit 'f ManhW ami Nallim-matiiit.— Australia lias not learnt Ihe lesson of Can,
In tbe cODJulidaiion of peace one of the most Important value miy attach to the
factors is unquestionably the grouping of mankind Id accordance itself as a factor in spreaauig me peace wnicn reigns wiinin 11,
with the final territorial and racial limiialions ol their apparent it is also a great contrihulion lo tbe peace of Ihe world that the
destiny. Language has played a nial part in the formation British race should have founded practically independent state*
cd Germany and Italy. The language question still disturbs like Ihe Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth ol Australia,
the tranquillity of the Near East. The Hungarian govcmment the South African Union and the Dominion ol New Zealand,
ii regarded by the Slav, Ruman and Geiman inhabitants These self-governing colonies with Ihdr spheres of influence,
body within the realm to leam Ihe Magyar bnguage. The whicb is dissociated from Ihe methods of an over-peo}Jed
" Young Turkish " government has problems to face which will Europe, and among Ibem tbe preservation of peace it
be equally difficult, if it invsis on endeavouring to institute the direct object and condition of their progressive develop-
cintialized government in Turkey on tbe French modeL ment. Uke the United States, Ihey have or will have their
Whereas during the i(>th century slates were being cut out Monroe doctrine. Colonized by the steady industrial peoples
CO suit the existing distribution of language, in Ihe lotb the ol northern Europe, there is no danger ot Ihe turbulence
tendency seems lo be to avoid furtber rearrangement of boon- of the industrially iudolcnt but more passionate peoples of
daries, and lo complete the homogeneity, thus far attained, by Central and South America. As in Europe, these noclhem
tbe artificial method ol forcing reluctant populations to adopt peoples wilt hold the. power which intelligent democracies are
the language of the predominant or governing race. In the consciously absorbing, and the British faculty for statecralt is
United Suiei this artificial method has became a necessity, to gradually welding new nalionson the British model, wiihout Ihe
prevent tbe upgrowth of alien communiiifs, which might at some obsolete traditions and without that human sediment whicb too
later date cause domestic trouble of a perilous chsrsctec. For Irequenlly chokes the currenlsol national vitaUly b the oldo-
with British rule, many years ago migrated and setlled in Uililariim. — ll is often staled, as if it were incontrovenible,
Hassachuseits, they found none ol the tolerance they had that conscription and brge standing armies are a menace to
been enjoying in Canada for their French schools and the peace, and yet, although throughout the civilised worid, except
CermaD-Bpeaking imnugcanlt are gradually displacing, under the system employed lor Ihe recruiting of the national forces
ol both defence and offence, lew ol these countries show any
' " " le United Stales, with a popublion about equal to that of
rest ol the American continent, and of Great Britain, an
on. pbces both
(!&«>! the Abb* St Pierre', elaboration (t. ITOo) o( Henry IV.'. J
"grand deiivn " <iec tupra): Jeremy Bcntham's Inlfmationat
I>>»«iial (l7&-ITgq); K^nl't FlrmaMlOmpta ^ Naltimi ani >
tidnt. have all conlribuceil 10 populaciilng In
t tbe idea of a (edntio* o( ouaUBd foe the '
d absolute
need ollarge i
itM
iding am
lies..
and rcoden
lan
ngsj-stem
feasible which
luUbe t
luiie
inadequate
foe
.f armies on the
Ft,
inchorC
n scale. De:
progress
on the Conti
It ha^
howt
bed
PEACE
ooBscriptioii as a feature in the equalization of the citizen's ri^ts
and liabilities. Just as in Anglo-Saxon lands a national ideal
is gradually outerializing in the principle of the equalization of
^•*"«»'-^ (or all citizens, so in continental Europe, along with
this equalisation of chances, has still more rapidly developed
tl^ ideal of an equalization of obligations, which in tum> leads to
the cbim for an enlargement of political rights co-eztensive
vith the obligations. Thus universal conscription and universal
suffrage tend to become in continental political development
compleznentazy conditions of the citizen's political being. In
Germany, moreover, the military service is designed not only to
make the recruit a good soldier, but also to give him a healthy
physical, moral and mental traiiiing. German statesmen, under
the povcrful stimulus of the emperor William n., have, in the
eyes of some cdtics, carried this secondary object of conscript
training to such eaccess as to be detrimental to militaiy efficiency.
To put it shortly, the Germans have taught their soldiers to
think, and not merely to obey. The French,- who naturally
k»ked to German methods for inspiration, have come to apply
them more particulariy in the development of their cavalry and
artillery, especially in that of the former, which has taken in the
French army an ever higher place as its observing and thinking
organ.
Militarism on the Continent has thus become allied with the
very factors which made for the reign of reason. No agitation
kx the development of national defences, no beating of drums
to awaken the military spirit, no anti-foreign damour or
invasion panic, no parading of uniforms and futile clash of
amis, are necessary to entice the groundling and the bumpkin
kuo the service. In Germany patriotic waving of the flag, as a
ptrfitical method, is directed more especially to the strengthen-
ing of imperial, as dbtinguished from local, patriotisuL Where
cnucription has existed for any appreciable time it has sunk
Into the national economy, and men do their military service
with as little concern as if it were a dvil apprenticeship.
As imi^led above, military training under conscription does
not by any meam necessarily tend to the promotion of the
militaxy spiiit. In France, so far from taking this direction,
it has resulted, under democratic government and universal
saffnige, in a widespread abhorrence of war, and, in fact, has
converted the French people from being the most militant
ifilo being the most pacific nation in £urop>e. The fact that
erery family throughout the land is a contributory to the
ffliGtary forces of the country has made peace a family, and
bcQce a national, ideal. Paradoxical as it may seem, it is the
logicsl conclusion of such comparisons that militarism only
costs in countries where there are no dtizen armies, and that,
vlxre there are dtizen armies, they are one of the elements
vhich Bbake for permanent peace.
Nvmtd Nature of Peace. — America has been the pioneer of
the view that peace is the normal condition of mankind, and
tkat, when the causes of war are eliminated, war ceases to have
znis9md*lire. The objects and causes of war are of many kinds.
War for fitting's sake, although in the popular mind there may
be, daring most wars, only the ezdtement and the emotion of
a great gamble, has no consdous place among the motives of
those who determine the destinies- of peoples. Apart, however,
from self-defence, the main causes of war are four: (i) The
desire for territorial expansion, due to the overgrowth of
popuUtioii, and insuffidency of the available food-supply; if
the aecesaary tenitory cannot be obtained by negotiation,
oooqaest beconxs the only alternative to emigration to fordgn
hnls. <s) The jvompting of national ambition or a desire to
wipe out the icoord of a humiliating defeat. (3) Ambitious
potentates again may seek to deflect popular tendendes into
<4Miip»«M4fc ncne satisfactory for their dynasty. (4) Nations, on
the other hand, may grow jealous of each other's commercial
ncoess or material power. In many cases the apparent cause
Bay be of a nobler character, but historians have sddom been
OBBteat to accept the allegations of those who have claimed to
nny oa war from duinterested motives.
Oi the Aaiiericaa oonlinent South and Central American
states have had many wars, and the disastrous effects of them
not only in retarding their own devdopment, but in impair-
ing their national credit, have led to earnest endeavours on
the part of their leading statesmen to arrive at such an under-
standing as will banish from thdr international polity all
excuses for resorting to armed conflicts. In 1881 Mr Blaine,
then U.S. secretary of state, addressed an instruction to the
ministers of the United States of America accredited to
the various Central and South American nations, directing
them to invite the governments of these countries to par-
tidpate in a congress, to be hdd at Washington in 1882,
" for the purpose of considering and discussing the methods
of preventing war between the nations of America." Owing
to different drcumstances the conference was delayed till the
autumn of 1889. At this conference a plan of arbitration
was drawn up, imder which arbitration was made obligatory
in all controversies whatever their origin, with the single
exception that it should not apply where, in the judgment of
any one of the nations involved in the controversy, its national
independence was imperilled, and even in this case arbitration,
though optional for the nation so judging, was to be obh'gatory
for the adversary power. At the second International Confer-
ence of American States, which sat in the dty of Mexico from
the 22nd of October 1901 to the 31st of January 1902, the same
subject was again discussed, and a scheme was finally adopted as
a compromise which conferred authority on the government of
Mexico to ascertain the views of the different governments
represented in the conference, r^arding the most advanced
form in which a general arbitration convention could be drawn
up that would meet with the approval and secure ratification
by all the countries represented, and afterwards to prepare a
plan for such a general treaty. The third Pan-American
Conference was hdd in the months of July and August 1906,
and was attended by the United States, Argentina, Bolivia,
Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, the Dominican
Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador and Uruguay. Only
Haiti and Venezuela were absent. The conference, bdng held
only a year before the time fixed for the second Hague Conference,
applied itself mainly to the question of the extent to which
force might be used for the collection of pecuniary claims against
defaulting governments, and the forwarding of the principle
of arbitration under the Hague Conventions. The possible
causes of war on the American continent had meanwhile been
considerably reduced. Different states had adjusted their
frontiers. Great Britain in British Guiana had settled an out-
standing question with Venezuela, France in French Guiana
another with Brazil, Great Britain in Newfoundland had re-
moved time-honoured grievances with France, Great Britain in
Canada others with the United States of America, and now the
most difficult kind of international questions which can arise,
so far as the American continent is concerned, have been removed
from among existing dangers to peace. Among the Southern
Republics Argentina and Chile conduded in 1902 a treaty of
arbitration, for the settlement of all difficulties without dis-
tinction, combined with a disarmament agreement of the
same date, to which more ample reference will be made
hereafter. Thus in America progress is being rapidly made
towards the realization of the idea that war can be super-
annuated by elimination of its causes and the development of
positive methods for the preservation of peace (see Pan-
American Conferences).
With the American precedent to inspire him, the emperor
Nicolas II. of Russia in 1898 issued his invitation to the powers
to hold a similar conference of European states, with a more or
less similar object. In 1899 twenty-six states met at the Hague
and began the work, which was continued at the second con
fcrence in 1907, and furthered by the Maritime Conference
of London of 1908- 1909. The creation of the Hague Court and
of a code of law to be applied by it have further eliminated
causes of difference.
These efforts in the two hemispheres aze based on the idea
-8 PEACE
thit bleiutlcmil dlBereoca cu be tdjoilid withoot •ni, SecnUiy Eboi ilio propoKil tlut i tunbra eubliag cUuK bt
where the putia ue hanally iggrievcd. With thii adjiut- imetud pcondinc thai the Inlemitioiul Court ol Friie be
meat of eiiiling casa the number o[ pouible precuu for the cantpetenl to uttpt Junidictioa in ill mitlen, ariiing beinen
eioplDVDieot ot force i> beinjE npidly diminiihed. ilfutotit*, lubituiteil to it, the Court lo til at fiinl periodi
Puiii Prsadurt lautiT lit Hiiu CdukWuiu. — The Btgm evHy yew •od to be compcDed (ccoiding to Che puel which
Pace CoDventioa oE 1907, which re-cnicts the cBaenti&i parti of wodnwn up at the Hague. Thit court, which the AinericaD
ttie earlier one of 1B99, aeti out £ve ways of adjusting inter- govenunent proposed lo call a " Couit of Arbitral Juatice/^
■utional conflicts without iccounelowu. Finely, the litiiatoir would laie the place of that which It was proposed to institute
powers have undertaken lo UM their best eSorti loetuure the under Van No. i of the Final Act of the conference of 1907.
pacific settlement ol iotcmalional difficulties. Thia is a general The Intention of the Hague dnf t anneied to the Fa was to
dctlaiation of intention to lend themselvea to the peaceable create a petinanent court a> distinguished Inm that etiabliibed
adjustment of difficulties and employ their diplomacy to this b 1S99, which, though called permanent, wu not so, having to
end. Secondly, in case of serious disagreement, diplomacy be put together ad koc as the occasion arose. The new court, if
having failed, they agree to have recourae, as far u drcumstancei adopted, would hold regular and continuous lesaions, conusl of
allow, to the good offices or mediation of one or more friendly the same Judges, and pay due heed lo the precedents created by
powen. Thirdly, the lignitory powers agree that il shall not its prior dediions. The two courts would have separate ^faetes
be regarded as an unf tieodly act if one or more powers, atrangert of activity, and litigants would practically have the option of
to the dispute, on their own initiative offer their good offices or submiltingtbeirdiSerencestoaJudidal court nhich would regard
mediatioQ to the states in disagreement, or even during hostUi- itself as being bound by the letter of the law and by judicial
ties, if war has already broken out. Fourthly, tbe coDvention method) or to 1 ipecial court created od ktc with a purely
recommends thai in disputes of In Intemitionil nature, involving aitntrative character,
neither national honour nor vital interests, and arising from a Tki Plact cf Dipltmaey. — The ulilily of the diplomatic lervlce
difletence of opinion on poiou of fact, Che parties who have not has been consldenbty diminished through the increuing
been able to come lo an agreement by means of diplomacy efficiency of the public preu u a medium of tnfonnalion. It is
should Institute an iniematlonal commission of inquiry to not too much to say that at the present day an experienced
(acililaie a solution ol these ditpulei by an investigation of the journalist, ia a place like Vienna or Berlin, can give more
facts. Lastly, the high conlnciing parties have agreed that infotmaiion to an ambassador than the ambassador can give 10
in tiucilions ol a legal nature, and eapedally in interpretation bim. It is even true to aay that an ambusadoc is practically
or application of intcrpationai conventions, arbitration is recog- debarred from coming Into actual touch with currents of publk
niied as the most efleccivc, and al the same time the mod feelingandthepasainginfluenceawhich,lnlhIsBgeofdBnocracy,
equitable, means of settling disputes which diplomjicy bu failed determine the course of events In the political life of peoples.
to sdjust. The diplomatist has therefore lost one of bis chief functions aa
Down to loio no niggeition of mediation had actually been u InfOTmant ol the accrediting govemmeDC. The other chief
carried out, but a number of case* of arbitration had been tried [uscUoo of diplomacy is to be the courteous medium of conveyinf
by the Hague Court, created by the Hague Peace Conventloa messages from one govenimenc lo another. Even this functioQ
{see AiBrTiiA'nOH,I)nEiHa'noNat},acidonecase, vli.thatofthe jt losing iu significance. The ciphered telegram leaves little
Dogger Bank incident, was submitted to a commiuion oflDquity, discretion to the envoy, and written notes are exchanged whicb
which sat in January 1005,' are practically a mere transcription ol the deciphered telegram
If Secretary Knox's proposal (see lupra) to convert the or draft prepared at the instructing foreign office. Nevenbe-
Intemalional Prize Court into a permanently sitting court of ]ca, the personality of an ambassador can play a great part, if be
arbitration is adopted, a detailed procedure and jurisprudence poatenes charm, breadth of understanding and interest In Ibc
will no doubt grow out of a continuity which is lacking ia the sodal. inleUectual and Industrial life of the country 10 which he
present lyitem, under which the court is recruited from a large jg accredited. There are several instances of such men in Europe
panel for each special case. Secretary Kooi'i idea, aa expiesied and America, but Ibey are so rare that some reformers consider
b the identical circular note addreued by him on the iSth of them as hairlly justifying the large eipenditure necessary la
October i;a9tothepoHeia,wu to invest the International Priie m.mi.in the existing system. On the other hsnd, the utlllly
Court, proposed lo be established by the convention of the iSlh of the consular service has concurrently increased. Adtnlnit-
of Occober 1907, with the functions of a "Court of arbitral irativc Indifference to the eminently uselul officials forming the
justice." The court contemplated by the cooveatloB was a service has ted, b many cases, to diminishing iotteid of bcreaa-
court of appeal for reviewing prize decisions of national courta jng tbdr number and their salaries, but It it obvious that llie
both as to facts and as to the law applied, and, m Che exercise extension of tbdr duties and a corresponding raising of tbdr
of ItsjudidaldisctetIon,notonlytoco[iGrmbwholeorlnpart the status would be much more Ln accordance with the national
national dedsioD or the contrary, but also to certify its Judgment bterest. The French, with that practical sense which dlslin-
lo the national court for enforcement thereof. The adoption of gulshes so much of their recent adminiatntive work, have
this jurisdiction would have Involved a revision of the judidal connected the two services. A consul-general can be promoted
systems of probably every country accepting It- The United ig a diplomatic poit, and take with him to his higher office the
States government theielore proposed that the ilgnatoties should practical eiperience a consul gains of the material bteiettiof
Insert m the act of ntificitloo a reservation to the effect Ihal the country to which be belongs.
resort to the International Prize Court, b respect of decisions of There is thus still good work for diplomacy todo, and [f, in tbe
their national tribunals, should take the form of a direct claim selection of diplomatic representatives, states followed on the
fnr mrrnpnsation. Tbi) in any case wotdd remove the United one hand the above-mentioned French example, and on tbe
slitutlonal objection to tbe establishment of the other band tha American example of selecting for the beads oi
' ' ' D with thb enabling clause Mi di[domatlc minions men who are not necessarily d( laconlr^
diplomacy n^t obtain a new lease of acIiviCy,aDd become once
' The pnodure adopted by the eommls^n was afterwaids more an extremely useful part of the admlnlitntlve machiaety
Incorporated In the convention of '^- 'f?*?,''^"|'|^^°'^' by which slates malntab good buabess Klatlon* a* well ii
SlJ^^''S!r,l2fjiiS?SJ«lIilS'to"^.S£t^£^uSSia!' friendly poUtlcalbtercoutse with one another.
:SS£?5 a2'™S2SS;?S7i!;3 S«T.3SSrS^^Sr^ /»;en,S«^ E^t^hn h T™.y.-It .e^n. a truism to »y
tiK eliclliiH U further infonaatloa; and Ihey may not Interrupt that among the agendes which most effectively tend to the
the witness when be Is In coarse of makini Us •utemenl, but th<y preservation of peace are treaties which regulate the relalloin
SS-^UJtES^Ihe^pniuTdMie^S^H:;^ ofaUtealntl^lrbtercou^withotherstMe. Such treatJ...
Coon, wbiiewiiae-ea ate Samined. however, are of quite recent ongm. 1
PEACE
the ipural cei adopted at the South African
Cboference at Berlin in 1885, which laid down the principle,
wfaidi has since become of still wider application, that " any
Power which henceforth takes possession of a tract of land on
the coast of the African continent outside of its present pos-
sessioas or which, being hitherto without such possessions, shall
acquire them . . . shall accompany the act rdating to it with a
notification thereof, addressed to the other Signatory Powers
flf the present act, in order to enable them, if need be, to make
good any claims of their own," and, furthermore, that " the
Sgaatory Powers of the present act recognize the obligation
to ensure the establishment of authority in the regions occupied
by them on the coasts of the African continent sufficient to
imtcct existing rights, and, as the case may be, freedom of trade
sad transit under the conditions agreed upon." Under these
sitides occupation of unoccupied territory to be legal had to be
elective;. Tliis led to the creation and determination of spheres
ef imjluence. By fixing the areas of these spheres of influence
oval states in western and central Africa avoided conflicts and
pfcserved their rights until they were able to take a more
efective part in their development. The idea of " spheres of
^*'»«*^«^ " has in turn been applied even to more settled and
dvXsed countries, such as China and Persia.
Other cases of regulation by treaty are certain contractual
engagements which have been entered into by states for the
preservation of the status quo of other states and territories.
The Anglo- Japanese Treaty of the X2th of August 1905 sets
oat its objects as follows>—
a. "The cooaoUdatioa and maintenance of the general peace
iathermoQsof Eastern Asia and India;
k " The preservation of the common interests of the Powers in
Ckba, of insurix^ the independence and the integrity of the Chinese
mpini. and the principle of equal opportunities for the coauoerce
sad iadastry oif aU nations in Cnina:
c "The maintenance oi the territorial rights of the hieh con-
tCKtiiv parties in the regions of Eastern Asia and of India, and
t^^pfriy^ of thiar tptdaS interests in such regions."
It ii a treaty for the maintenance of the status qua in certain
ports of Asia in whidi the parties to it have dominant interests.
He same principle underlies different other self-denying arrange-
■eots aikl dedaratioos made by the powers with reference to
CUaese integrity.
Ihe Treaty <k Algeciras is essentially a generalization of the
Fcsaco-Gcrman agreement <A the 28th of September 1905. By it
afl the powers represented agree to respect the territorial integrity
of Motocco, subject to a possible intervention limited to the
porpose of jtreserving order within it.
JX^mog from these general acts in not being contractual Is
tke Monroe doctrine, which is a policy of ensuring the mainte-
BiBce of the territorial status quo as regards non-American
powers thrott^ioat the American continent. If necessary, the
ka£ag zepubiics of South and Central America would no doubt,
however, further ensure respect for it by treaty.
With these precedents and current instances of tendency to
place the territorial relations of the powers on a permanent
footing of respect for the existing status quo, it seems possible
to fD bey<»Ml the mere enunciation of principles, and to take
8 step towards their practical realization, by agreeing to respect
ikttgrntonal status quo throughout still larger tracts of the world,
■ettralise them, and thus pla^ them outside the area of possible
A third ocmtractoal method of avoiding conflicts of interest
has been the signing of agreements for the maintenance of the
"open-door." The discussion on the question of the "open-
door" in connexion with the Morocco difficulty was useful
in calling general public attention once more to the undesir-
ahfilty of allowing any single power to exclude other nations
bem trading on territory over which it may be called to exercise
a pratcctorate, espedaUy if eqxiality of treatment of foreign
tnde had beoi practised by the authority ruling over the
territory in question before its practical annexation under the
■ame oi protectorate. The habitable parts of the world are a
inltcd area, cxcfaisioii from any of which is a diminution of
the available markets of the nations excluded. Every power,
is, therefore, rightfully interested in the prevention of such
exdusicm.
The United States government in 1899 called attention to
the subject as regards China, without, however, going into any
question of principle. It thought that danger of international
irritation might be removed by each power making a declaration
respecting the " sphere of interest " in China to which it laid
claim. Lord Salisbury informed Mr Choate that H.M. govern-
ment were prepared to make a declaration in the sense desired.
AU the powers concerned eventually subscribed to the declara-
tion proposed by the United States government.
The principle of the " open-door " in fact has already been
consistently applied in connexion with certain non-European
areas. As these areas are practically the only areas which of
late years have come within the scope of European regulation,
the time seems to be approaching when the principle may be
declared to be of general application. From the point of view
of diminishing the possible causes of conflict among nations,
the adoption of this principle as one of international contractual
obligation would be of great utility. While putting an end
to the injustice of exclusion, it would obviously reduce the danger
of nations seeking colonial aggrandizement with a view to im-
posing exclusion, and thus one of the chief temptations to
colonial adventure would be eliminated.
In the fourth place, there is the self-denying ordinance against
employment of arms for the enforcement of contractual obliga-
tions adopted at the Hague Conference of 1907. Under it the
high contracting powers have agreed not to have recourse to
armed force for the recovery of contractual debts claimed from
the government of one country by the government of another
country as due to its subjects. The only qualification admitted
under the new convention is that it shall not apply when the
debtor-state refuses or leaves unanswered an offer of arbitration,
or in case of acceptance renders the settlement of the terms of
arbitration impossible, or, after arbitration, fails to comply with
the award. The theory on which this convention is based is
known as the Drago theory, having taken a practical form during
the administration of Dr L. M. Drago, when he filled the post
of Argentine minister of foreign affairs. The doctrine, however,
is not new, having already been enunciated a century before
by Alexander Hamilton and reiterated since then by several
American statesmen, such as Albert Gallatin, William L. Marcy
and F. T. Frelinghuysen, as the view prevailing at Washington
during their respective periods of office.
Limitations of Disarmament. — Disarmament, or to speak
more correctly, the contractual limitation of armaments, has
become, of late years, as much an economic as a humanitarian
peace-securing object.
" The maintenance of universal peace and a possible reduction
of the excessive armaments which weigh upon all nations,
represent, in the present condition of affairs all over the world,
the ideal towards which the efforts of all governments should
be directed," were the opening words of the Note which the
Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Mouraviev, handed
to the diplomatic representatives of the different powers
suggesting the first Hague Conference.
" The ever-increasing financial burdens," the Note went on,
"strike at the root of pubb'c prosperity. The physical and
intellectual forces of the people, labour and capital, are diverted
for the greater part from their natural application and wasted
unproductively. Hundreds of millions are spent in acquiring
terrible engines of destruction, which are regarded to-day as
the latest inventions of science, but are destined to-morrow to
be rendered obsolete by some new discovery. National culture,
economic progress and the production of wealth are either
paralysed or developed in a wrong direction. Therefore the
more the armaments of each power increase the less they answer
to the objects aimed at by the governments. Economic dis-
turbances are caused in great measure by this system of excessive
armaments; and the constant danger involved in this accumula-
tion of war material renders the armed peace of to-day a crushing
lO
PEACE
burden more and more difficult for nations to bear. It conse-
quently seems evident that if this situation be prolonged it will
inevitably result in the very disaster it is sought to avoid, and
the thought of the horrors of which makes every humane mind
shudder. It is the supreme duty, therefore, of all states to place
some limit on these increasing armaments, and find some means
of averting the calamities which threaten the whole world."
A further Note submitting the programme proposed gave
more precision to this item, which thereupon took the following
form: " An understanding not to increase for a fixed period
the present effectives of the armed mibtary and naval forces,
and at the same time not to increase the budgets pertaining
thereto; and a preliminary examination of the means by which
even a reduction might be effected in future in the forces and
budgets above mentioned."
When the subject came on for discussion at the conference
the German military delegate stated his view that the question
of effectives could not be discussed by itself, as there were many
others to which it was in some measure subordinated, such,
for instance, as the length of service, the number of cadres
whether existing in peace or made ready for war, the amount
of traim'ng received by reserves, the situation of tly: country
itself, its railway system, and the number and position of its
fortresses. In a modem army all these questions went together,
and national defence included them all. In Germany, moreover,
the military system " did not provide for fixed numbers annually,
but increased the numbers each year."
After many expressions of regret at finding no method of
giving effect to the proposal, the commission confined itself to
recording its opinion that " a further examination of the question
by the Powers would prove a great benefit to humanity."
The Conference, however, were unanimous in the adoption
of the following resolution: —
" The Conference is of opinion that the restriction of militaiy
budgeu, which are at present a heavy burden on the world, is
extremely desirable for the increase of the material and moral
welfare of mankind ;"
and it passed also the following vceu : —
" That governments, taking into account the proposals made at
the Conference, should examine the possibility of an understanding
concerning the limitation of military and naval armaments, and
of war budgets."
The general public, more particularly in Great Britain and
France, shows an ever-increasing distrust of the rapid growth
of armaments as a possible cause of grave economic troubles.
A high state of military preparedness of any one state obliges
all the others to endeavour to be prepared on the same level.
This process of emulation, very appropriately called by the late
Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman " a policy of huge armaments,"
unfortunately is a policy from which it is impossible for any
coimtry to extricate itself without the co-operation, direct or
indirect, of other nations.
The subject was brought forward in view of the second Hague
Conference in both the French and Italian parliaments.
The declaration of the French government stated that. —
" France hoped that other nations would grow, as she had done,
more and more attached to solutions of international difficulties
based upon the respect of justice, and she trusted that the progress
of universal opinion in this direction would enable nation3 to
regard the lessening of the present military budgets, derlarcd by
the states represented at the Hague to be greatly desirable for the
benefit of the material and moral state of humanity, as a practical
possibility." (Chamber of Deputies, June I3, 1906.)
In the Itah'an Chamber of Deputies, an interpellation was
addressed to the minister of foreign affairs about the same time
asking " whether the Government had knowledge of the motion
approved by the British House of Commons, and of the under-
taking of the British government that, in the programme of the
coming Hague Conference, the question of the reduction of
armaments should be inserted, and in what spirit the Italian
government had taken or pro{)osed to take the propositions of
the British government, and what instructions it would give to
the Italian representatives at the conference."
The minister of fordgn afitairs, M Tittoni, in reply ezpreaaed
the adhesion of the Italian government to the humanitarian
ideas which had met with such enthusiasm in the historic
House of Parliament at Westminster. " I have always believed,"
he said, " that, as far 03 we are concerned, it would be a national
crime to weaken our own armaments while we are surrounded
by strongly armed European nations who look upon the improve^
ment of armaments as a guarantee of peace. Nevertheless, I
should consider it a crime against humanity not to sincerely
co-operate in an initiative having for object a simultaneous
reduction of armaments of the great powers. Italian practice
has always aimed at the maintenance of peace; therefore, I am-
happy to be able to say that our delegates at the coining
Hague Conference will be instructed to further the Fjigli«h
initiative."
The only existing case of contractual reduction of armaments
is that of the Disarmament Agreement of the 28th of May 1Q02
between the Chilian and Argentine republics, adopted " owing
to the initiative and good offices of His Britannic Majesty/'
which is as follows: —
Art. I. — In order to remove all cause of fear and distrust between
the two countries, the governments of Chile and of the Argentine
Republic agree not to take possession of the warships which they
are having built, or for the present to make any other acquisitions.
The two governments furthermore agree to reduce their respective
fleets, according to an arrangement establishing a reasonaUe
proportion between the two fleets. This reduction to be made
within one year from the date at which the present agreement shall
be ratified.
Art. II. — ^The two governments respectively promise not to
increase their maritime armaments during five years, unless the
one who shall wish to increase them shall give the other eighteen
months' notice in advance. This agreement docs not include any
armaments for the purpose of protccUng the shore and ports, and
each party will be at liberty to acquire any vessels {.maquinaflotatUe)
intended tor the protection thereof, such as submarines, &c
Art. III. — ^The reductions (<>. ships disposed of) resulting from
this agreement will not be parted with to countries having any
dispute with either of the two contracting parties.
Art. IV. — In order to facilitate the transfer of the pending orders
the two governments agree to increase by two months the time
stipulated for the beginning of the construction of the respective
ships. They will give instructions accordingly.
An agreement of this kind is obviously more feasible as among
states whose navies are small and of comparatively recent
origin than among states whose navies are composed of vessels
of many and widely different ages. It may be diffictilt to agree in
the latter case on a principle for assessment of the proportionate
fighting value of the re^)ective fleets. The break-up or
sale of obsolete' warships is a diminution of the paper effective
of a navy, and their purchase by another state a paper increase
of theirs. Even comparatively slight differences in the ages of
ships may make great differences in their fighting value. It
would be a hard, though probably not insurmountable, task to
establish " a reasonable proportion," such as provided for in
Art. II. of the Chile-Argentina Agreement, as between large
and old-standing navies like those of Europe.
On the other hand, as regards military power, it seems some-
times forgotten in the discussion of the question of armaments,
that the conditions of the present age differ entirely from those of
the time of the Napoleonic wars. With conscription a national
army corresponds more or less numerically to the proportion of
males in the national population. Great Britain, without con*
scription, has no means of raising troops in any such proportion.
Thus, so long as she refrains from adopting conscription, she
can only oury on defensive warfare. The object of her navy is
therefore necessarily defensive, imless it act in co-operation
with a foreign conscript army. As there are practically only
three great armies available for the purpose of a war of aggression,
the negotiation of contingent arrangements does not seem too
remote for achievement by skilful and really well-meam'ng
negotiation. The Hague Conference of 1907, owing to difficulties
which occurred in the course of the preliminary negotiations
for the conference, did not deal with the subject.
Principle and Capabilities of Neutralization. — Among the
different methods which have grown up practically in our own
PEACE
II
time for the exclusion of war is neutralization. We have been
4»*""g hitherto with the elimination of the causes of war;
aeutialization is a curtailment of the areas of war and of the
hctms in warfare, of territory on the one hand and states on the
•thcr. The neutralization of territory belonging to stales
which are not otherwise neutralized includes the neutralization
of waterways such as the Suez and Panama canals.
Under the General Act of Berlin of the 36th of February 1885,
" in case a power ezerdaing rights of sovereignty or protec-
torate " in any of the regions forming the basin of the Congo
and its afBuents, including Lake Tanganyika, and extending away
to the Indian Ocean, should be involved in a war, the parties
to the General Act bound themselves to lend their good offices
k orda that the territories belonging to .this power be placed
daring the war " under the rule of neutrality and considered
as t>»WM»ging to a neutral state, the belligerents thenceforth
abstaining from extending hostilities to the territories thus
■entrallzed, and from using them as a basis for warlike
operations " (art. 3).
Neutralization is not necesarily of general application.
Thns two Mates can agree to neutralize speciftc territory as
between them. For example between Costa Rica and Nicaragua
by a treaty of the 1 5th of April 1858 the parties agreed that " on
80 aocxHint whatever, not even in case of war," should " any
act of hostility be allowed between them in the port of San
Joan dd Norte nor on the river of that name nor on Lake
Nicaragua " (art. 2).^
Again, the Straits of Magellan are neutralized as between
Aigentina and Chile under a treaty of the 23rd of July 18S1.
Artide 5 provides that they are " neutralized for ever and their
free navigatk>n is guaranteed to the ilags of all nations. To
CHore this neutrality and freedom it is agreed that no fortlfica-
tioas or military defences which might interfere therewith shall
be erected."
Lozemburg was declared by the Treaty of London of the nth
of May X867 (art. z) to be a perpetually neutral state under the
guarantee of Gnat Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Swit-
aeriand, by a dedaration confirmed by the Treaty of Vienna, of
iSis (art. S4), likewise enjoys perpetual neutrality. And now
Norway has placed herself under a neutral r6gime of a similar
diaracter.
A neutralized state does not mean a state which is forbidden
to have fortifications or an army; in this it differs from neu-
tralized territory of a state not otherwise neutralized. Thus
Bc^um, which is a neutralized state, not only has an army but
bu fortifications, although by the treaties of 1831 and 1839
dK was recognized as a " perpetually neutral state, bound to
observe the same neutrality with reference to other states."
Of waterways, international rivers have been the chief subject
of neutralization. It has long been an established principle
m the intercourse of nations, that where the navigable parts of
a river pa» through difTerent countries their navigation is free
to alL The rivers Scheldt and Meuse were opened up in this
•ay to riparian states by a decree of the French O>nvention of
tfae i6th <^ November 1 7Q2. By the treaty of Vienna of the 9th of
Joe 1 8 1 5 , the powers whose territories were separated or traversed
by the same navigable river, undertook to regulate by common
all that regarded its navigation, and for this purpose to
cocnmissioners who should adopt as the bases of their
proceedings the principle that the navigation of such rivers
along their whole course " from the point where each of them
becomes navigable to its mouth, shall be entirely free, and shall
in respect of commerce be prohibited to anyone." The only
in Europe in which this internationalization of rivers has
maintained is that of the Danube. On the other hand
■etttralization has made progress in re^>ect of waterv^ays,
■Under the treaty of the 3C)th of March 1864. the courts of
Cieat Britain. France and Russia in thdr character of guaranteeing
pam^n of Greece declared with the assent of the courts of Austria
and Phnua that the islands of Corfu and Paxo as well as their
drpeadeucies ahoaU, after their union to the Hellenic kingdom, enjoy
Ihr advantages of perpetual neutrality, and the king of the Hellenes
wknuuk on his part to maintain such neutrality- (Art. 2),
natural as well as artificial. Thus the Bosporus and Dardanelles
under the Treaty of Paris of 1856 and by the Treaty of London
1 87 1 were and remain closed to the passage of foreign armed
vessels in time of war, though the Porte may permit their passage
in time of peace in certain cases. The Suez and the Panama
canals have been permanently neutralized, the former 'by a
convention among the great powers, and the latter by a treaty
between Great Britain and the United States.
Alongside this neutralization has grown up a collateral
institution, the purpose of which is in some respects similar.
We refer to "buffer" zones. "Buffer" zones are of quite
recent origin as a political creation,* i.e. where their object is
to establish upon the territory of two contiguous states a strip
or zone on either side of the frontier which the respective states
agree lo regard as neutral, on which the parties undertake to
erect no fortifications, and maintain no armed forces but those
necessary to enforce the ordinary respect of government. The
word " neutral " does not correctly describe the character of the
zone. It is not neutral in the sense of being recognized as such
by any third sta^e, and it necessarily ceases to be neutral in
case of war between the states concerned. The word " buffer "
comes nearest to the object, but even this term implies more than
is meant. Between Spain and Morocco a treaty of the 5th of March
1894 established between the Camp of Melilla and Moroccan
territory a zone within which no new roads were to be made,
no herds to be allowed to graze, no land to be cultivated, no
troops of either party, or even private persons carrying arms,
to set foot, no inhabitants to dwell, and all habitations to be
razed. The zone between Burma and Siam, established by an
agreement between Great Britain and France dated the 15th of
January 1896, declared " the portion of Siam which is comprised
within the drainage basin of the Mcnam, and of the coast streams
of a corresponding longitude," neutral as between them. Within
this area the two powers undertook not to " operate by their
military or naval forces, except in so far as they might do so in
concert for any purpose requisite for maintaining the indepen-
dence of Siam." They also undertook not to acquire within
that area any privileges or commercial facilities not extended
to both of them.
" Buffer " zones might fulfil a useful purpose even in Europe.
They would obviously react against the feeling known as
" esprit de frontierc," and diminish the danger of incidents
arising out of this feeling, and nught attenuate the rivalry of
neighbouring counter-armaments.
These considerations no doubt led the Swedish and Norwegian
governments, in their settlement of September 1905, to establish
a " buffer " zone of 15 kilometres on either side of the frontier
between the two states in question. Within these 30 kilometres
all existing fortresses are dismantled,' no new ones are to be
erected, and no armed troops to be maintained; any question
between the two states relative to the provisions respecting
the " buffer " zone to be decided by arbitration.
A rather special case of neutralization of a territorial area
• The institution of " buffer " zones in a more strictly correct
sense of the term is of very ancient origin. One is mentioned in the
annals of China two centuries before our era, between the terri-
tories of the Huns in the west and those of the Tunguscs in the
east — a vast area of some 300 to 400 m. on the opposite margin
of which the two peoples kept watch. In Europe, bands of territory
from time to time have been made desert to tetter establish sepa-
ration. The Romans and Germans protected themselves in this
way. In the middle ages the Teutonic Order established a frontier
belt on the side of Lithuania. Later, Austria dealt in the same
way in her policy in regard to Turkey in the organization of a
" military frontier." Sec Nys, Droit International (Brussels, 1904),
i. 418.
* It was stipulated that the dismantling should be controlled
by a technical commission of three officers of foreign nationality,
to be chosen, one by each of the contracting powers and the third
by the two officers thus appointed, or, in default of an agreement
on their part, by the prendcnt of the Swiss Confederation. The
dismantling of the forts in question has now been carried out. The
Commission was composed on the part of Sweden of an engineer
on the staff of the Austrian army, and on the part of Norway of
a colonel in the German army, and, by agreement of these, of a
colonel in the Dutch' army.
12
PEACE
is tbAt of the practical neutralization of the Great Lakes in
America. In 18x7, at the instance of John Quincy Adams, the
United States and Great Britain entered into a compact whereby
the Great Lakes, and the waterways from them to the ocean by
the §t Lawrence river, which divide the United States from the
Dominion of Canada, were practically excluded from any
possible hostilities. Through a simple agreement, ** conditions
which make for peace and prosperity, and the absence of those
which so often lead to disastrous war, have for neariy a century
reigned over these great inland waters, whose commerce, con-
ducted for the benefit ot the states and nations of Europe and
America, rivals that which passes through the Suez Canal or
over the Mediterranean Sea, and with a result foreshadowed
in these words of President Monroe in his communication to the
Senate commending the proposed agreement: 'In order to
avoid collision and save expense.' Forts which had been erected
at salient points on either side of the lakes and rivers dividing
the United States from Canada, which but for this agreement
would, in the natural course of events, have been enlarged,
increasingly garrisoned, and provided with modem implements
of destruction, at large expense, have remained substantially
as when the agreement was made, or now constitute but inter-
esting or picturesque ruins; and the great cost of constructing
and maintaining, through a long series of years, naval armaments
of ever-increasing power has hten. avoided." '
As we have already said, the Monroe doctrine is a means of
excluding European warfare from the American continent and
therefore is in the nature of a form of neutralization. A sort of
Monroe doctrine is growing into popular favour also throughout
the Australian Commonwealth, where it is felt that a continent
so far removed from European rivalries ought not to be exposed
to complications on account of them. ,
From time to time questions of adding to existing neutralized
areas are raised. When it was announced in 1905 that a British
fleet was about to manoeuvre in the Baltic Sea, several German
newspapers suggested that Germany should combine with other
Baltic powers to assure its neutralization.* No official observa-
tion on the subject, however, was made on the part of any
Baltic power. The Baltic is still an open sea for the whole
world, without restriction of any kind; and even hostilities
between any two non-Baltic powers could be carried on in the
Baltic, as elsewhere on the high sea, under the existing practice.
When the Dogger Bank incident occurred, the possibility
of operations of war being carried on within a few miles of
British home ports, and amid the busy traffic of the North Sea,
was brought vividly home to British minds.*
A movement set on foot at the instance of Edward Atkinson,
the well-known Boston economist, and warmly supported by
the Massachusetts State Board of Trade, seeks to establish by
treaty neutral zones from the ports of North America to the
ports of Great Britain and Ireland and the continent of Europe,
within which zones steamship and sailing vessels in the conduct
of lawful commerce should be free to pass without seizure or
interruption tn time of war. There is however no precedent of
neutralization of any such area of the high sea, and international
rivers, ocean canals and neutralized states are obviously no
criterion in discussing a proposal to neutralize a strip of the
ocean, which may be defined accurately enough on the map
and which skilful navigators could approximately determine,
but which might be vioUted without any practical means of
detection by a belligerent commander whenever be misread,
or it suited him to misread, his bearings.
Connected with the principle of neutralization is that of
guaranteeing the integrity of states. Several such guarantees
have been given in quite recent times. In November 1907 a
tmty was concluded between France, Germany, Great Britain
and Russia on the one part and Norway on the other, for the
maintenance of the integrity of Norway. This treaty differed
> Memoir of MassachuseUs State Board cf Trade (Feb. 13. 1905).
'This was merely reviving an idea which had come and gone
many times before. See Barclay, ProhUmt 0/ ItUemoHenal Practice
and Diplomacy (1907).
from the older one of 1855 in whidi France and Great Britain
guaranteed the integrity of Norway and Sweden, in the fact that
whereas the older treaty was for the protection of these two
states against Russia, the new treaty is intended, if it is to serve
at all as a protection against invasion, to protect Norway against
Sweden.
Another sodi guarantee of a vaguer character is that which
the North Sea powers recently entered into for the maintenance
of the stiOus quo of their respective North Sea territories; and
the similar one entered into by the Mediterranean powers for
the same objects in the Mediterranean. Lastly in the same
order of ideas Austria-Hungary and Russia are said to have
concluded an arrangement between them for the maintenance
of the ftolitf quo in the Balkans.
The future has no doubt still other extensions of the principle
of neutralization in store for us. Not the least interesting of
existing possibilities is the limitation of the area of visit and search
in time of war itself, as a restriction of belligerent right. It seems
contrary to common sense that neutral ships should be exposed
to being detained, taken out of their course, and overhauled
on mere suspicion of carrying contraband, when they are so ^
from the seat of war that there can be no presumption as to their
destination. Neutrals have a right to carry on their ordinary
business unmolested in so far as they do nothing to assist either
belligerent. When they are beyond a certain distance from the
seat of war it seems reasonable that the presumption that thQr
are merely carrying on their legitimate business should be
considered absolute. Such a limitation of the area of hostilities
is not only feasible, but it was actually put in practice by the
British government during the Boer War.*
In the course of the Russo-Japanese War the question came
up again, being raised this time by Great Britain. Lord Lans-
downe called the attention of the Russian foreign office to the
extreme inconvenience to neutral commerce of the Russian
search for contraband not only in the proximity of the scene of war,
but over all the world, and esptdaXlLy at places at which neutral
commerce could be most e£FectuaUy intercepted. H.M. Govern-
ment had become aware that a large addition was likely to be
made to the number of Russian cruisers employed in this manner,
and they had, therefore, to contemplate the possibility that
such vessels would shortly be found patrolling Uie narrow seas
which lie on the route from Great Britain to Japan in such a
manner as to render it virtuaUy impossible for any neutral
vessel to escape their attention. The effect of such interference
with neutral trade, he said, would be disastrous to legitimate
commerce passing from a British port in the United Kingdom
to a British port in the Far East. The British government
had no desire to place obstacles in the way of a belligerent
desiring to take reasonable precautions in order to prevent the
enemy from receiving supplies, but they insisted that the ri^t
of taking such precautions did not imply a " consequential right
to intercept at any distance from the scene of operations and
without proof that the supplies in question were really destined
for use of the enemy's forces, any articles which that belligerent
might determine to regard as contraband of war.'
»
' In January 1900 it was re|>orted that the British govemmeot
had isMicd instructions to British naval commanders not to stop
or search German merchant vessels at any places not in the vicinity
of the seat of war. There b no proper statement of the Britiia
position on this subject, the only official information having been
given by the German chancellor in a speech to the Reichstag.
According to this information, the area was ultimatdy limited as
north of Aden, and afterwards it was agreed that the immunity
from search should be extended to all places beyond a distance
from the seat of war equal to the distance from it of Aden. This
was substantially correct, though the telegrams sent by the Admiralty
can hardly be said to have fixed any precise area. As a fact, the
commanders-in-chief on the East Indies and Cape of Good Hope
stations were instructed that in consequence of the great practical
difficulty of proving — <U ports so ran<^ from the scene of war
operations as Aden and Perim — ^the real destination of contraband
01 war carried by vessels visiting those parts, directions were to be
given to the officers concerned to cease to search such vessels, and
to merely report to the commander-in-chief at the Cape the names
of ships suspected of carrying contraband, and the date of dearance.
I bawd OB thr " inlcifenncc " with
It uappafe ud Kucb of vcuell
D whfihet they luve contiabuid oi viy kind on
of the [icfad of tbc bcUigcnnl ncccsurily cnlitb cxlcniion o(
ibc <liiiia of the nrutnl. Tbc bclliErrrnI has in unquchioiwd
rj^t to " iTUerfcTc " with lU tieutivl vsseU nivigiiing in
t^ diRCIion of Ihc Kit of wir, for the purpoH of ufertiining
irikether they ire carrying my kind of contTibmd or not.
Uider the Declirition of London of the Ttilh of Febnjiry i^oQ
it d pnrided under iris. 37 and 35 thiL 1 sbip'i pipen in
oudusin proof as to the vaytff; on which she ii engifcd
HikB ibe 'a dearly out of the count indiaied by her pipen
Tha the interference, if the dcclintion ii ntified, will be
QoifiDed to an cximiution of the ihip'i pipcn w
ii not bound for 1 bellitercnt port (d.
AiWiif Proa ^{Heiimli. — Foremou unanf Uuidini peace
af ecuignti are, of coune, the Interutionil Hifue ConvenLioni
rtbtid^ directly to peace, agrcecnentK which have not only created
1 ipeciil peace jurisdictian for the Kltlement of inlcrnationa]
' ' s by judidil rncthodi but aba a written Law to ippty
ind nun or lets
now been followed
k of inltmational
Lhe wish for peace
0:ti>ber 14th t9i>3
AloncMde the Hafu
Peace Conve
tions
(DDontEd with them 1
re itindini Irca
hiic been entered into
by dlHerent nilioni f
tcpaiuely. The £i«
r whit may be
called
[hit between CrolBH
linindFrince.
by onx 1 bundrtd otben forming 1
network
« thit. It iny
■ nniverul zaoag minkind.-
'The followiiif lis
r .iindim irbi
nlioo
iftir Ibe ugidnc of the
Ainlo-Frencn In
«yor
[>xember 3, 1904,
,. Spain, Febfuary lO, 1904-
Thnc lie, however, t lir
lllhough not concluded with
where di£cullia hive iriien, tend in a
10 contract the itti of pouible difficiUiiea
for the regulation of inten
nilioni] un
venlioni obvioiuly remove occuioni
ind ire therefore imong the moit effective agenda
to the preiervition of peice among civiJiied
I mow citei inch eonventioia hive crated iniei-
iBS of ilitei for ill mitlen which [end tbtmiclves
inil co-opemion. The fir»t in order of dile wu
lioD. The lyjiem it iniugumed ha> now emended
tclegraphi, copyright, industrial properly, riilway
a of c
of n
me, being lhe cipilal
Cuslomi tariffi ind
miraliKd it Bniucli,
ions, however,
e-Sweden and Norway, July 9, iQt^.
5witiedand, December 14. 1904,
Brazil. April J, 1909.
Britain-France, October 14. rjoj.
Cermany. July I), 1904.
Italy. Febiulry I, 190J.
„ Nethcdind*, F^ruary 13. 1905
Colombii, December 30. 190a,
,. Sweden and Norway. AirEUit 11
Denmirk. October >s, 1904.
Portuga'^ November t£, 19(4.
.. Swimrlind. E^lovember 16, 1901
Auuria-Hgngirv, February 13. 1906,
Denmark, hfa-di ao, 1907.
'.'. NnKcrli^l! Oc'l^ T. 1904.
N«way ind Sweden, May 6. lops. (Suipended for
Norway by 1 new one dated December B, I90S.)
Ruflil-Nar^^iUd'S^en.' N^^bet 1«..I904.
SpaiR-CrHce.uccrmber j-iti. 1909.
Swiltcrllnd. May 14. 1907.
United SuiM-Spilii, April », 190S.
.. Denmirk. May iB. Ivot.
.. llaly. Manh 18, loosr
.. Iipan, Miy 5. ivot,
,. Netli<Tlancl>.>lay >. 1908.
Aijentina. 6ecember 13. 19"
Peru. December j, 190!.
Silvidnr, December II, 190I
Fnnct, February I. lOOS.
Ecuidor. January 7. 1909.
Bolivia. January 7. 1909-
Haiti. Jinuary ;, 1909.
CWli!']anut?ri3, 1909.
pSiiiaJrMii^h^ia.lw-
Chiu, October I. 190S.
Ibe wdghtt aad mttia
The general pulal ur
■ nsioD in Fuk and Ibe i
wuiigncdin Puis in iSjj (rcviicdalSl Fetenbucgii
by UDther Ihc ume yeu). Bolfa unions issue monlhl
and other publkalioiu giving useful iofofmatioD «
The imeiniikirul bureau of weigbu and mcuurc
•u crealed by a conveoliaa ligncdlhere in 1875, lor 1
of comparing and verifying wcighu and mcaaurcs on
lyitem, and preserving their identity tor the contnel
The double-slandud Lilin union moneliry s]
rounded by a ronventioa of iSfij, between Bclgiui
Italy and Switierland. In 1S6S it was joined by I
tingle standard union eaiiLs between Sweden, Nc
Denmark under a convention of 187].
vention signed in 1S74. The olTidil bureau of th
at Beme. It iasnes a periodical publication called
d'aalair ^ving information respecting [he law* o
stales relating to published matter of all kinds.
inner as miifhE inEerTupt gr ebiiniel lclc|^phk
Hther whotl)^ or oarEiallyr such punishment bei
:c to any dvil action for damages It alio pn>vi
Acls engaged in layfni or rcfairlnr submarine
L to the regulations it to fiinals which have bf
wiih ihe view o( preventini coUiuDni
ligwl in repiirint - ""- -■^"■'
k'^ibi
it of" OH oaulii
FaT?l '" t£
SiauS the ^^^^t a belligerent' woitid^TraTw ■
(a Bubmarine mbles is though the convcnlion did not
act ro carry into effect the above convention i> the
Teleftaph Act iSSs {48 A 40 Vict, c, «) which .
modified by JO Vict. i. 3. Section 3 ol the earlier act p
■ ■ in who injures the cable either wilfully or by cul
< 11 "guiiiy of a misdem
d wUfully, shall be liable
tinder the eonvenUoa dealing the tuslomt lariffi iintaa,
signed in iSgc. thirty (tale*, including Great Brilain and
most British colonies, are assodaled for the purpose of prompt
publication of euslom tarilla and their modihcalions.
The Bgriculluial institute, crealed by a convention of iga5
witb its scat at Rome, at the latest in dale is perhaps the most
intcrating of the Krio. It show* how deep and widespread
the tense si the utility of international stale co-operation has
institute, which a recent British official publication tiatet has
been joined by 38 ilitet, including Great Britain and all other
great powcn, aa follawi>
t. It shall be
lith
y of the in
tj^ed 10 agriculture, agriculiural locieliei, Kidcmies, learned
and fldmi nisi ration of any particular suit, muii be eicluded from
the iplKie of the iiuiitute. (An. 9).
Lastly, ihece it a clou of difTicutlies which might arise from
preferential treatment of trade frotn diflerent countries. To
obviate them tittcamen have been led to adopt the principle
o( the " most.favoured-nalion-clauM " — that il to say, a clause
provitltng that if any reductions of tariff or other advantages are
granted by cither contracting slate to any third state, the oih«n
shall have the benefit of it. In Europe this clause has been
uniformly treated as applying to all leduclions of tariS without
distinction. The United States interpretation, on the other
hand, distinguishes between reductions of a genera] character
and reductions made specifically in return for reductions by
of the clause, a
. Theta
only emiilcd I.
■usly tfl
thing has been given for Ihcm, the clause not covering advan-
tages granted in return for advantages. It b to be hoped that
this spetnal view of the meaning of the clause will be met in the
future, asinsomcrccenl treaties, by specifically dealing with the
eiceptiotia.'
Tile Ulitily tij PoptJo .E/ort.— Until quite recently it had been
a distinctive mark of practical wisdom lo treat private efforts for
the impnjvcment of interaalional rebtionj for the preservation
of peace, with the patroniiingtoleiaticecourlcous people of the
" ■■ ling of the
the leaders of popular opinion I
This new attitude has been c
interest displayed by the mereai
I the I
See Boaid ol Trade Cmrespondence on Protedion ol
Cables, primed on the 14th of July iM>; and Pariitme
C MIO: IS90.
Dent of Europe. Thai
■Set Barclay. PrM>
(I9«J. p. 137 ••«.
Lgainsi Great Brilain throughout thectmti.
some four hundred Briiiih manufacturers
u i4 InUnulisnal Practia and DiflematJ
PEACE
«5
and merchahts, representing about eighty chambers of commerce
of th^ United Kingdom, -should have swept aside all political
objedJons.azid'have boldly trusted to the efficacy of friendly
advances a& between jnan and man, appealed to the French
people. It Seems tp. have been the first great popular effort
ever made deliberately by a representative body of the middle
dass of a nation for the promotion of international friendship
without the aid of diplomacy and without official assistance or
even countenance of any. kind.
Otherwise,- private agencies Of a standing character which
contribute towards the promotion of peace may be divided into
four classes, viz. (i) those which, without having peace for their
direct object, promote friendship among men of different races
and nationalities; (a) those which directly address themselves
to the promoting of friendship and goodwill among peoples;
(3) thoie which r^arding peace as the immediate object of their
^arts, endeavoxir to educate democracy in this sense; (4) those
which endeavour to remove the causes of international friction
by the codification of international law and the promotion of the
international r^^ulation of common interests. Lastly, there are
two agencies which cannot be classed among the foregoing;
one a the International Parliamentary Union and the other the
Ikbd Prize Committee.
1. Agencies which are indirectly making for peace are of
many kinds. Science and medicine now bring men of all nations
together in periodical congresses. Technology, electricity,
mining, railways, navigation and many other subjects are now
dealt with in international congresses. International exhibitions
are always used as an occasion for holding many such meetings.
2. One of the most notable efforts directed to the deliberate
c»neoting of friendship has been the interchange of official
visits by municipal bodies. In the course of the Anglo-French
39tation which culminated in March 1903 with the visit of King
Edward to Paris, the French municipal councils passed many
resolutions in favour of the entente. After the conclusion of the
Ani^French standing treaty of arbitration (Oct. 14, 1903)
aid the arrangements for the general settlement of outstanding
difficulties with France (April 8, 1904), the municipal bodies in
France were prepared to go a step farther, and in IQ06 the Muni-
cipal Council of Paris was invited by the London County Council
to pay an offidal visit to England. This visit was followed by
a return visit to Paris and a similar exchange of visits between
the London City Corporation and the Paris Municipal Council,
exchange visits uf the city corporations of Manchester, Glasgow
and Edinburgh and Lyons, and a visit of the Manchester Corpora-
tion to Dibseldorf, Barmen and Cologne. A society, numbering
many thousands of working men among its members, which has
set itself the more special task of promoting the interchange of
visits between working men of different nations, is called the
" International Brotherhood Alliance," or, after the initials of its
cwtto, FraUmUas inter gentes, the F.I.G. Another agency,
caJkd the ** American Association for International Concili-
ntkMi,'* seeks by the publication of essays on the different aspects
o€ international friendship to promote the same cause.
3. The ** peace societies," which are scattered over the whole
worid, number several hundreds.* Their first International
Congress was held in London at the suggestion of Joseph Sturge
ia 1843. In 1848 a second congress was held at Brussels. The
third in 1849 took place in Paris, and was presided over by Victor
Hugo. Other congresses were held at Frankfurt, again in London,
and in i8s3 at Manchester, where Richard (^obden and John
Bright took part in the discussions. Then followed an interval
of wars during which the Pacifists were unable to raise their
TDMxs. At length in 1878 a congress was held at the Paris
luemalional Exhibition of that year, but it was not till the next
Paris International Exhibition of 1889 that these international
peace congresses became periodical. Since then numerous con-
gresses have been held, the seventeenth having sat in London
in 1908, and the eighteenth at Stockholm in 1910. These
have been supplemented by national congresses in
both Great Britain and France. Such congresses are doing
admirable . work in the popularizing of thought upon the
numerous questions which are discussed at the meetings,
such as compulsory arbitration, the restriction of armaments,
private property at sea in time of war, the position of subject
races, airships in war, &c.*
4. First among the bodies which try to remove the causes
of international friction is the Institute of International Law.
This is a body of international lawyers, consisting of sixty mem-
bers and sixty associates recruited by election — the members from
those who " have rendered services to international law in the
domain of theory or practice," and associates from those " whose
knowledge may-be useful to the Institute." It was formed
in 1873, chiefly through the efforts of M. Rolin-Jaequcmyn;.
The official language of the Institute is French, and i(s annual
meetings are held wherever the members at the previous meeting
decide to assemble.' Jts mode of operation is td work out the
matters it deals with during the intervals between the sessions,
in permanent commissions, among which the whole domain of
international law is divided up. .The commissions, under the
direction of their rapportcws or conveners, prepare reports
and proposals, which are printed and distributed among the
members some time before the plenary sittings at which they
are to be discussed. If the members are not agreed, the subject
is adjourned to another session, and still another, until they do
agree. Thus the resolutions of the Institute have the authority
attaching to a mature expression of the views of the leading
international jurists of Europe. Another body having a more or
less similar purpose is the International Law Association, which
was founded in 1873 as the " Association for the Reform and
Codification of the Law of Nations," with practically the same
objects as those which led to the constitution of the Institute
of International Law. It also meets in different countries, but
it differs from the Institute in the number of its members being
unlimited and in all respectable persons being eligible for mem-
bership. A report is published after each meeting. There are now
numerous volumes of such rep6rts, many of them containing most
valuable materials for international jurists. In 1895 the name
was changed to International Law Association.
A new society was recently (1906) formed in America called the
American Society of International Law, " to foster the study of
international law and promote the establishment of international
relations on the basis of law and justice." " Membership in the
society is not restricted to lawyers, and any man of good rnoral
character interested in the objects of the society may be admitted
to membership." The publications of this society have already
taken an important place among the literature of international
law.
Still more recently yet another sodety came into being in
Switzerland with objects ^hich seem to be similar to those of the
Institute of International Law.
The Inter- Parliamentary Union, which dates back to 1887,
owes its origin to the initiative of the late Sir W. R. Cremer.
It is composed of groups of the different parliaments of the
world, who meet periodically to " bring about the acceptance
in their respective countries, by Votes in parliament and by means
of arbitration treaties, of the prindple that differences between
nations should be submitted to arbitration and to consider
other questions of international importance."* The sixteenth
conference was held at Brussels in August-September, 1910.
■ See Anmuaire in nunaement pacjAste pour Fannie tgro, published
by the Bureau Intematioaal de la Paix. at Bern.
was
* At the third congress of the new scries, held at Rome in 1891.
IS created the Bureau International dc la Paix. This most useful
institution, which has its office at Bern, serves as a means of bringing
and keeping together all the known peace sodeties. Its Corre-
spondance btmemuelU and Annuaire du mouvement pacifiste arc well
known, and its obli^ng hon. secretary, Dr A. Gobat, is always ready
to supply information from the now considerable archives of the
Bureau. In this connexion we may mention that the secretary
of the London Peace Society,^ Dr Evnns Darby, has edited an
exhaustive collection of materials called International Tribunals.
His statements every two years on the progress of arbitration at
the International Law Association meetings also form an excellent
source of materials for reference.
* Art. I of Statutes revised Sept. 1908.
1 6 PEACE, BREACH OF THE— PEACE CONFERENCES
The Nolcl CoBunEttce ami lU cibtence to Ihc will ol Itae whlcfa the uldlcn nio>t uiinuied wilh the £rc uid puiion thii
late Alli«I B. Nobd (iS]i-i846).ibeiav«ilciTDl dynamite, who lud to victory luih forward to bayonet the l«. . . . Itiiailow'
left a eoDiiderablc fortune [oi the ennungemenl of men wbe able to decdve an enemy by fabricated despatchci puiponiog
■rDtk lor the beneGt of humanity. The interest of thii money to come from bii oirn Bit; by tampering with telegraph me*-
mt lo be divided into live equal puIi, to be didiibuied every U£ci; by apreadinc lalie inielligeDce in nenpapen; by sending
year aa rewards to the personlwbo had dcierved bat ol mankind pretended ipiei and deaeiten to give him untrue reports of the
io numbers or movements ol tbe troops; by employing false lignall
go to lure him into an ambuscade- On the use of the Hag and
' uniform ol an enemy for purposes of deception there has been
go lome controversyi but it is supported by high military aulbofity.
«: ... Hardly any one nil be ao confident ol the virtue of his
J[J tulen as to believe that every tm viich his country wages in
ol every pan cd its dominions with uncivilized as well as dviliaed
mi populations. Is just and necessary, and it is certainly prima
"K lade not in accordance with an ideal morality that men should
^ bind Ihemsetves absolutdy loi life or for a term oi years to kill
„ wilboul question, at tbe command ol Iheir supeiiDTS. those who
71 have penooally done them no wrong." ■
ebi Surely with all the eiisiing activity in tbe removal ol causes
"i bI war, in tbe reduction lo precise eiptessioB ol the rules o( law
ni governing the relations of slate* with one another, in the ciealion
Is of Inlemalional judicatures lor the application o[ thr« rules, In
be the conduding of treaties specifically iramcd to facilitate Ihe
" _ .... P»ci£c settlement of difficulties diplomacy may have failed to
Pact I. Wat.—VtMt is the olliinate objeet of all MUccnlt ,(|jujt_ in the promotion of democratic dvilian armies wilh
—peace in the devdopment ol the domestic activities of Ibe everything to lose by war,and aU the other agencies which have
salum adndanlered, and peace in the relations ol slates with i,„„ described above, the hope seem* watunted that, in
--- another. Fnr the purpose of ensuring peace an expensive „„ distant luture, life among nations wiU become tliU itiofe
by aU states, and to perpetuate it closely usimilated lo tile among diizcns of the same oalion,
treaties are entered into by sUle* with one another. Even war ^^ lepsUiion, administration, reform aU tending to the one
has no other avowed purpose than that of placing tpednc put object of law, oidet and peace among men. (T. Ba.)
international rebtions on a definite looting. Ultimate peace PEACE, BREACH OF THE. Theoretically »U crirrunal ofieiice*
b unilorraly pmUimed by every dictator al home, by every cognizable by English law involve a breach ol the king's peace
conquetor abroad, as the goal to which he is directing hia cHons. ,nj ^ indictmenU whether for oHencea against the common
And yet dissentient voices ate sometime* heard defending war ]„ or by lUlute conclude " against the peace ol our lord the
OS il it were an end in itself. Without going badi to the well- yng^ y, oo^ ,nd dignity." HistoKcally this phrase, oo*
known reply of Count Moltkc to Proleasor Blunlsehli respecting |eg^|y juperflgous, represents the last trace nt the procea by
the ifaifuf 0/ Ue Lams ef War drawn up by the Institute ol „|,ich the royal courts assume jurisdiction over all offences, and
International Law in iSSo,' we need only quote that highly pa^ually e«ruded the jurisdiction of the sheiiH and of lorda
up'to-aatcphilosopher,NietQche: It ismeremusionandpretty of manors and Irancbises, making crime a matter of national
sentiment," he observes, " to ezpecl much {even anything at „ncern as disUngnishcd from dvU wrongs or infractions of the
aU) Irom mankind il It loigels how to matt war. As yet no hgh„ ol local nugnito, ot of the rights ol the tribal chiels of
metna are known which c»U m mudl into action as a great war, ^^c Teutonic conquerors of Britain, The peace o( the king was
that tough energy bom of the camp, that deep impcrsonabty j„oin on hia accession ot full recognition, and the jurisdiction ot
bom of hatred, that conscience bom of murder and cold-blooded- |,j, courts lo punish all violations of that peace was gradually
ness, that fervour bom of eflMt in the annJulation ol the enemy, ,„tled. The completion ol this process is marked by the
that proud indifference to too. lo one's own easlence, lo that institution ol the oflice ol lustice ol the peace,
oi one'* fellows, to thai earthquakeike »ul-shaking which a hmodem timeslheeipression-'breadiol thepcace"Uusually
It is pleasant 10 contrast this neurotic Joy ol one onlooker oiict. Aite^ar™ "urt oJen™,alih™h 'th^ do noUaS'in*
with the matter-of-fact tcfleiiona tl another, the Ute W. E. H, ,he dass ol grave crimes docribed as Idonies, officers ol police
.,^ '■ :. -« „d never can be » mere and even private persons have larger powers and duties, as lo
July. It IS in lU essence, immediate arrest without waiting lor judidal warrant, thin they
uceess, to kindle into fierce possess as to other minor oflences (see AasEsi). Justices ol the
eiercise among great masses of men the destnidive and com- p^ce have under early statutes and the commission of the
bative passions-passl™ as fierce and as malendent as that p^u^ p„^ „ ^^j ,ur„ia ^f the peace from persons who are
with which the hound hunts the loi to its death ot the Kger threatening to commit a breach of the peace, and it is within
qnings upon ill ptty. Destruction is one ol iU chief ends, the power of any court on conviction of any misdemeanoui
Deception u one of It. chiel means, and one ol the gr»l arts ,„d of many Idonies to require the oflendcr lo enter into >
of skilful generalship 1. to deceive m order to destroy. Whatever recognizance {?,..) to keep the peace.
ts may mingle with and dignily war, this at least pucB COHFEREHCES, the offidal title of the two Inlet-
iluctaatly men may enter into national conlerences held at the Hague in iS« and 1007. Both
ey may endeavour lo avoid it, «re organized at the instance ol the emperor Nicholas 11. ol
,„=j now thai wben the scene ol carnage ha* once opened, [(„„;,. yhe chief object ol the fitil conlerence, as set oul in the
these things must be not only accepted and condoned, but noleol Count Mouraviev.lhe RuisUn minislerol lorngn affairs
itimulaled, encounged and applauded. It would be difficult (j„_ ,,^ ,g^) y„ [g ^^^^ at an "understanding not
to concdve a disporilion more remote Irom the morals ol u, increase lor a filed period tbe present effectives of the
onunary hie, not to speak ol Chnstiao ideals, Ihaa that with armed military and naval forces, and at the same lime not 10
■" Pmelittl peaee/; he, said, " is a dream^ and il ii not even increase the budgets pertaining thereto; and a preliminary
^:^'V'S3-.*"w/K^f™',i;:t,rd"'^'';^.^ es^inj^Uon ol the mean, by w^cb ,v» a reduction
end kiK iiKlf in imtcrialigm." might be eSecied m future m the force, and budget, above
' M€<uiUiilui, AllHtmiiuiUukii, No- 477- 'Til Uaf it{ Lift, tgra, pp. fi-^J.
PEACH, C. W. 17
aeatiooed."' The aMiferenoe, which was attended by lepre- VII. Convention relative to the converrion of merchant-ships
icBtathrea ol a6 ttates. lat dom the i8th of Blay to the aoth ^ w.T^''5^^'^ ...»
^TT* p •»««». »«. "Win UK toui w «•/ Lv uic «yui yjii Convcntion relative to the Uying of automatic submarine
01 July 1099. contact mines.
When the sabject of ezceadve armaments came up for dis- IX. Convention lespecting bombardment by naval forces in
cuasion, the objections of the German military delegate led to time of war.
its abandonment. Other very important matters, however, were ^ ^S?"^?''®"* fe*" ^^^ »«Japtation of the principles of the Geneva
J 1^ -^t jii. r »• j.j^ *-x)nvention to maritime war.'
dealt with, and three momentous conventions wereadopted.via.— xi. Convention reUtive to certain restricUons on the exercise
I. A coBvcotioii for the padfk settlement of hitcmational o^the right of capture in maritime war.*
^m^^^^^ !«*«' .■«."««»«. «• H.w.u.Mwu^ xn. Convenuon relative to the esubUshment of an international
U. A ooBveatkm lehidng to the laws and customs of war by land. *'"?fi?"?' ^„»:«„ -«-«--.^*«« •u- -r-u^- — j j .• ^ . •
IIL A cooventioo for tlfe adaptation to maritime warfare of the n„Ci« Sn ™^^t?i^rjr*^^ * "^*'^' •"** *'"^'" ^'^ ~"^"'
nrindples of the Geneva Convention of the 33nd of AuKust 1864. ^^v^ w ^^" ?^ *^*^* uw.- j- i. » • -. o. ,
•ThSTdedaratiSon the following matters were also^Sopt^:- haSL^.^^'*"**" prohibiUng discharge of projecules. &c, from
«. Probibitioo of the launching of projeailes and explosives from ^"^'o***'
baUoofis or by other similar new methods.* A draft Convention relative to the creation of a judicial
k Prohibition of the use of projectiles the only object of which arbitraU'on court was also drawn up in connexion with the first
in the human body, wch as bullets with a hard envelope, of i. The Conference calls the attention of the signatory powers
which the envdppe docs not entirely cover the core, or b to the advisabiUty of adopting the annexed draft convention for
piejced with incisions. *. , n • • ^*** creation of a judicial arbitration court, and of bringing it into
The coofcrenoe luitbermore passed toe followinjj resolutions:— force as soon as an agreement has been reached respecting the sclec-
*"**»**^ *?***^ .^,** present a heavy burden on the w«ld. b j. The Conlcrence expresses the opinion that, in case of war, the
mreiiietydeMzable for the increase of the nuite^ responsible authorities, civil as well as miliury. should make it
"■^■dnd. i. . -J • u !• • their special duty to ensure and safeguard the maintenance of pacific
The Copfcrence. taking into consideration the preliminary relations, more espccUUy of the commercial and industriiil relations
«eps UiDen by the Swiss Federal Government for the revision of between the inhabiunts of the belligerent sUies and neutral
the Geneva Convention, expresses the wish that steps may be shortly countries.
token for the assembling of a special Conference, having for iu 3. The Conference expresses the opinion that the powers should
*C* V*?. ^^V***** ^ ^"^^ Convention, regulate, by special treaties, the position, as regards miliury charges.
The following vonix were adopted, but not uiummously:— of foreigners residing within their territories.
. ..'• The Conference exprcnes the wish that the qu«tion of the 4. The Conference expresses the opinion that the preparation
nghts and dutMS of neutrab may be inserted in the programme of a of regulations relative to the laws and customs of naval war should
conference in the near future. . • u 1. u • • u fiK"re ••* 'he programme of the next conference.^ and that in any
'\ The Conference expresses the wish that the questions with case the powers may apply, as far as possible, to war by sea the
regard to nUes and naval guns, as considered by it. may be studied principles of the ConvenUon relative to the Uws and customs of
by the Govenunents with the object of coming to an agreement ^y^r qq land.
lenectiM the employment of new types and calibres.
*3. The Conference expresses the wbh that the Governments, Finally, the Conference recommended to the powers the
tiking into coMkkratjon the proposab made at the Conference, assembly of a Third Peace Conference, and it caUed their atten-
BMy examine the possibiuty of an agreement as to the limitation of .. . .u •. « • .1. r .l- tn.> j
srned foeees by Uodand wa. and <3 %irar budgets. ^^^^ ^^ *^« necessity of prcpanng the programme of this Third
** 4. The Conference expresses the wuh that the proposab which Conference a sufficient time in advance to ensure its deliberations
cantqnplate the declaration of the inviolability of private property being conducted with the necessary authority and expedition.
'^It^^S^!*^ "**^ ** referred to a subsequent conference for j^ 0^^^^ to attain this object the Conference considered that it
" S The Conference expresses the wbh that the proposal to settle " would be very desirable that, some two years before the probable
the ouestioQ of the bombardment of ports, towns and vilbges by date of the meeUng, a preparatory committee should be charged
oavaJ forces may be referred to a subsequent conference for by the governments with the task of collecting the various
coasadKnttoa. proposals to be submitted to the Conference, of ascertaining what
Great Britain signed and became a party to the three subjects are ripe for embodiment in an international regulation,
Conventions, but not to all the declarations, &c *"** ^^ preparing a programme which the governments should
The Conference of 1907, which was attended by representaUves ^ecide upon in sufficient time to enable it to be carefully examined
oC forty-four sUtes, sat from the isth of June to the i8th of by the countries mterestcd, and that this committee should
October. Again, m spite of the resolution and vau on arma- 'u^her be entrusted with the task of proposing a system of
ments handed down from the Conference of 1899 this subject orgamzation and procedure for the Conference itself. (T. Ba.)
was waived, but stlU more important convenUons than in 1899 PBACH. CHARLES WILUAM (1800-1886), British naturaUst
were adopted on other matters. These were as follows:- and geologist was born on the 30th of September 1800 at Wans-
_ -, . - . .i. _^., .#._...• 'o™ m Northamptonshire; his father at the ume was a saddler
L (Wation for the paafic settlement of international ^^^ harness-maker, and afterwards became an innkeeper
iT Convention respecting the limitation of the employment of farming about 80 acres of land. He received an elementary
force for the recovery ol contract debts. education at Wansford and at Folklngham in Lincolnshire; and
III. Convention relative to the commenccincnt of hostilities. assisted for several years in the inn and farm. In 1824 he was
^. Cooventioas coooenung the bws and customs of war on appointed riding officer in the Revenue Coast-guard at Weyboum
V. Convention respectiiig the rights and duties of neutral powers »n Norfolk. Seaweeds and other marine organisms now
and perwos in war on landT attracted his attention, and these he zealously collected. Hb
VL Convention relative to the status of enemy merchant-ships duties during the next few years led him to remove successively
«t the octbresk of hostibtics. ^^ Sheringham, Hasboro (Happisburgh), Cromer and Cley, aU in
* At the Cooferenoe the Russian government, further developing Norfolk. In. the course of his rambles he met the Rev. James
the proposal, submitted the foUowing detaib>- Layton, curate at Catficld, who lent him books and assisted in
of fi^ yS?^lStii" iJ2SSS?~ th?mS^St filraV 'iS '*>^"« ^^*^ foundations of accurate knowledge. About the year
peace eflStive oiSe ttrops kept up for home use. '830 he was transferred to Charmouth in Dorset, thence to Beer,
** 7. Fixation, in case of this underBtanding being arrived at, and Paignton in Devon, and to Gorran Haven near Mevagissey
•ad. if possible, of the figures of the peace effecuve of ^ the powers in Cornwall. Here he continued to pursue his zoological studies
csoeptiiw colonial troops.
" 3. Maintenaooe for a like term of five yean of the amount of * This b an amended edition of that of 1899.
the mifitary budgets at present in force." * This was practically a re-enactment of that of 1899.
' This Cooference was held at Geneva in June-July 1906. The * This has since been done to a large extent by the Conference of
fcvised Cooventioo, composed of 33 articles, b dated July 6, 1906. London (1908-1909). See Blockade, CoNiaABAND, iNTsaNATioNAL
•This iaao amrndrd edition of that of 18991 Law Pbacb. ^^
J 8 PEACH
uid nipfilitti nuny ipedmow to G. Jdmtton, iHo mi Ihtn the produnlH ud perpMiuUsn o( nrlnb*. At lo the orighi at
mpuiiit bil HiMrJiflki Britiik ZatpkyUi (i8i8). It m the ptKh iw v™ «re Md. tlu, o( Alphonie dc Cindolk, vho
tm wo tlui be tat fou»d 1»»U. i«i<.n.e of th. alder met. Ch[Si"'ort5r.,IS'Sl "^"Si'ty' ^'^^U'lli^lirb^lii.^
pMvkniily rcprded u UDfowUeroiii— Ihe ducovery ol irliidi «p«wl1y by D»n™, who kniu upon tht ««h u i modiSaiion
proved ihe pieienct ot Bik Bedi [Oidavid«ii or Lower Silutiin) o( the >Lmond.
lo Iheoeighboiiiliood ol Gornn Hivea. In 1841 he read » pipet '" "'«5™ Pt*"-.!^ P™*" " » now know it lui been nowhere
Urguuc Kemaini (oimd on the iou(h-eut cout ol Cornwall, evapc Ironi cultivAtKHi. Aichiion however lAihend in the
ud in 1S4J he broushl before Ihe RoyiJ Gcologlcfd Sociely ol K^ilrdinkht ravine in AI|haniHia 1 Eorm wiih^iDennt-ihincd
Comw»lI«ii»tiounlolhudis«)v«yof fishremaiiuiolheDevo. '"'" *">? ■•"' 9* 'he elmond. beinj lirier and flitter "The
oiin ilileg HIT Folpeno. FeKh ™ iriralened lor m lime ™™ fnS'tj^^.^^ STT?-- "f™?" 'V', '' '''1 '^'' iS
» Fowey; u>d In 1840 lo Scolknd, firjl 10 Pelerhad ind ihm lo .ild dnutid. Th^ ihole rtwb TelmblH^S^ whTi "r rallK
Wick (iSsj), where he made acquainUnce with Roberl Dick ol coniider a wHd lorni o( Ihe peach than thai ol the almond " 1* ii
Thuno. He collected the old red Sandilone hihei. and during •^"li"?^' .h«ever, by ill conipctenl bouniut ihat the almond
> Bo^oura K Dumoo he finl tound IobiIi In ihe Cambrian i"'™'li'**T;^'u?™^'''fc;'"'''°''''^"'^''*"J"""^']?.^"^
limestone (.Sh). Peach retired Irom the govcmmnil .ervice In |i".^^ha;iUun™I.S?«™k ™o to .?i™T,SaV
lUi. and died at Ediabuiib on Ibe iSth ol Febiuaiy 18S6. the tame word Ihat Ih^ anpiy to Ihe cultivated almoiid. The
Blographicil notice, viih portnii, in S. Smila't Kittrl Dkt. branchctof thelrccarecarTiril 1^ Ihepiiettt InielliliHiteetenigniei
«a**r, ifniaa. Gatapil and BelaiU (1878). ',' ■■ not knawn at a wild plani in China or Japan Ai to (he netia-
PBACH. the name ol a f rull lr«e which i. Included by Benlham "^'i^;^!^^!!^^^."^!?.^ ' E^SnlXuiril^.KMd
and Hooker (Cr.«™ ^«lafi,«, L 6.0) undo Ihe genu. P-««« the v^\n.^Vn!StSTth:t^7tiii^^i^"?^"*^^n
{Prunur prriiia), tit rcaemblance lo the plum it indeed obvious, thai nectarine ha^ been produced by bud-variation (rocn a peach.
Olhen have clised it wilh the almond as ■ dislinci genui, ""' f'^'^'r. P™''«e nttiarin«. or, a. eardenen mt. 'come
A«,iialu,: while other, again have considered it suffidenUy or'JVad.«^'"hS'.;!S, 'SS^ aXr^tarin;^
dislintlloconjliluleaaepamegenui, PerricB. mediate lorma beiween ihe peach and the aln^. So far a< wc
In general lermi Ihe peach may be said lo be a medlum-uaed know, however, no case hat ycx been recorded ol a peach or a necti-
tree, with Unceotale, alipulale leavet, borne on long, ilender, ""• producina an almond, or vin veraa. ahKoughil alt have had a
»i.ii,..i., ....^»„^w.^ >!.*«.- J _-.i. common onain luch an eii-ent Riiohl be emjeeted, Thuathebolanical
rdalively unbranched ahooH, and wilh .yUlence «^u to indicate thai the wllSISig^ it Ihe aource of
Ihe OoHen arranged iingly, 01 lo group) culiivaied almoodi. peachet and necurinei. aid csueqiiendy Ihal
ot two or more, at inlervalt along the Ibe peach waa Intioduced front Asia Minor or Pertla, whence the
ahoots ol Ihe ptevioua year's growlh. "™ fifitQi «iven lo the peach; and AitehitonV discovery in
The flower, h.« a hollow lube al the ffio"^Po^to°SSf ™™" hu. ol a -iW p.«± lend.
hue beating it it) free edge Eve sepall. On the other hand. Alphonae de Caodolle, from philologkal and
an equal number of petals, uiually cOB- other coniideialioiti, coniideia the peach 10 be of Chineee oritio,
cave ot ^loon-ahaped, pink or while, ^e peach basnot, it it iiue. been found wild in China, but iihjs
and a greal number of tlamaia. TTie ,^("11,™^ and t^-Col'lhe'^p'le; an<j i" iS'dei"g^^'"b?
pislil consislt ol a single carpel with Its , dinlacl name. " to " or " lao," 7 word found in the ivriiin^ li
^Vl- 1~^'?" 'l™f*' or 'lJrin"o™l^I^*'^irf^'ir7 ™« 4So"[™Ihet«h'«"l^'tefoi'Jh; Chri.IiTn e™.™Th'o,^'™
ol Peach cut lengthwiae. 7I- ,? v°^„ . JlX '™„ ^,^(3 cultivated la India, and afraoei wikf in Bme pan. ol IbTnotih.
(, Skin or epicarp. ^'^'I "?",'« \"^ ™"' 'J™ l«Pi- wett, and, aa »* have teen, pmbably ai» in Afffaniuao. it hai no
iB,Fleth or metocarp. c^rp) endo^ng the fieth of Ihe peach Sanakrit Bamei It ia not lienlioned in the ilebrcw ten of the
(.Scone or entloarp. (metocarp), tbeinneilaytnoflfaecarpd Scriplurc^ uit la the eaiUeat Creek timet. Xenophon maket lu
within wbKh is the becoming woody to lorm the alone, meolk>no[tliepeacii,thoughtbeTeoThouian<lmuuhavetmverted
Beedorfcemel. ~i,!i. ih. -»,!. t^*.*-. :~i~ ,1,. b^rr.*! the country vveie. accoidint to tome, the peach ii oaliveL but
while the ovule np«u mto "» kemd jho,,^™,'^ , ]„adaa yS, later, doet tpfiT ot It at a Persian
. . orsecd. Thuueiacllylhesltuctureof fruii, and De CaK«olle Biggest, thai il might have been introduced
the plum or apricot, and diSert fnm that ol Ihe almond, which Is into Cnece by Alesander. According to hi. view, the accdt ol Che
Identical in the hrst inalance, only in the circumilance that Ibe peach, cultivated for ages in China, might liave been earned by Ihe
floJiypartollheUtlereventuallybeconiesdryuidkathefyaod S,*''°Sr ^ES "i^,"^™' ^'^."/"^r ^p'"™'',.i!!i'J*^nL^
crack, open .long a line called the suture, ^ul^ixrJl^:^^i,^^«VT.c^:^. o!^
The nectarine Is a variation from the peach, mainly charac the other hand, by Cabul to north-weatem India, where in cultiva-
tcriied by the drcumilanco that, while the akin of the ripe tion ii not ancienl. While the peach hai been culiivaied in China
fniil it downy In the peach, it it ihinlng and destitute ol hairs in lor thouandsol yetia^ the almond doe. noi icow wild 10 ihai eountry
Ih. neclarint Thai ^ is no ^W difference between Ihe t'E'J^''S:'«'™' '" '^""^ n=t 10 go back lanhe, than the
two is, however, shown by the lads that the seeds ot the peach On the whole, greater weiglit it due to the evidence from bounical
will produce nectarines, and vice vosa, and that it is not v«y .ourcei than to that derived from philobgy. particularly unce (he
^.'^™ tiles'" b'" f'^i'r^' Mb"" r^^ib""* s^ASSnSsii'^i\'^:i^hl;;^"^ta'z.'toh;^^
Btttannes on the same branch and ftuiU which oombine in Ihra- j„„»] „ ^i^^ f roi tome p«*»i.tlnf and now ein^ torn
•eivet the characlenitics ol both nectiiuiea and peachs. The wbo« domdant. have ipread over Ihe whole geographic area
blostoDis ol Ihe peach are lormed the autumn previous to their mentioned ; but tbit ii a men ipeculallon, Ihoogh indiiKt evidence
ctpansian, and this tacl, together wilh the peeidiarilies of thai ■" '■■. "'?l^°rLI^*!'' *" -'—'—' '- •■- - " —
ut position, requires lo be borne in mind by the gardener -;;'^^„;^„m Xr;;i:hi5';^™Tt'Si'b7.^-u, .....
fnhapruningandlrtiiungoperalions. TTtoonlypomloipraclical offering the cbaiaderittjca ol a apecws in the scl of deveh^'i^
Inlercal requiring mention here is the very singular fact altealed fi»ll.
by all peach-growers, thai, while certain peaches are liable 10 the Thetieatmenl !n hoiticullure of the peach and nectarine is Ihe
allacki of mildew, other* are not. In Ihe case ot the peach this same in every le^iecl. To perpetuate and multiply the choicer
peculiarity is in aome way connected wilh the presence of small varieties, peaches and nectarines are budded upon plum or
^andulal oulgrowlhs on the stalk, ot al the base of the leaf, almond ilocki. For dry tiluationi almond stocks arc preferable,
Some peaches have globular, others reniform glandi, othen none but they are not tong-lived. while for damp or clayey loams it it
*t all, and these latter trees are much more subject to mildew better to use certain kinds of plums. Double-working is some-
than ire those provided wiih glands. times benehcial ; thus an ilmond budded on a plum slocV may be
The hiMory of the peach, almond and aecurine I. Interesting rebudded wilh a lender peach, greatly 10 the advantage of Ihe
■sd impwtaoi at refardi ihe question of Ibe origin d qiecieB and lalla. The peach border should be composed of turfy mellow
PEACH
loam, skA «t b stiubic for tbe Tiu uid lIuGc: Uuiihouldbi ™J^\
tatd in u rough » >UIC *1 pouible, or no! braken iraill lod fine
TIk bottom ifaouJd tiope (owAidi ihe outer edge, what ■ dnir
■hontd be cul. with as outlet, lad oo iHi ilopiog bol
be lud A thirhnfw of frum g in. to u in. of rough Dutouli,
■adi u bnAcD brick) « mott« lubbisfa, over which ihouM hi . ^^ . . .
(luxdaUyo-ofiou^luif with the gniayiidedainiwu4>,uid u^^^aaiMETL _ _ _
then the good louay loil ta [om the border, which ihould have ■ The [om 1 li Dmnouiier (fJaV}]. t
depth al ihont i ft. A in. The pacfa-tree h m«t |Ri>ductin meidy i n^nCDWiit on the Hootret
■heo the roots in kept neu the lulf ace, and the borden, which
■kwld be fiom 8 ft. to T 1 ft. wide, ihould not be cropped heavily
with culinary vegetabia, aa deep treDching i> very injurioua.
SkUy and unfTuiiful trees may ofteo be revived by bringing up
thar loou within s or 6 in. of the aurface. It ii quutionabic
whether it ii not belter, in cold loili and bleak tlluilioiD, to
abandon outdoor peach culture, and 10 cover the walla with ■
that the tn«* may be under •belter during the
Tbr fniit of the peach ii pnduad on the ripened ahoata of the
iRTediiiC yew. If Ibne be too luiurlul. tbey yield nolhiiu but
Iravn; and if too weali. tbey are iDcuaUe of devdoping DoWEr al
hivU. To Eumish young ahoc^fl In aumdenl abundance, and of it
RqititJie itrengtb, u the grst object of peach training and pniaing.
Tnti r* limia-xmwinf, twiggy habit nalurally fall moal leadily
iBlo the fan ftjem of tnioing, and accordingly thia hai eencnUy been
D- to begin witb a and
piMt— that la, a the
plant of the fim year after by
il ha> been budded. It ii fin™-. T!__ ,
"■" "■" a thoot J, the growth of w
heulcd down to five a< <
ly deftroying the uteteaa apray r above the bloaaoma, ai
o four ■houli. pincliing oR the poinU of Ihoie which are aeceiaary to perfect llw
ire trained in, the lalenli (ruit. A repliciiui ihool ii Ihiii obtained, to which the whole b
nailed lo the wall. II there invariably •tortcned at the end ol ibe year.
aie ihDnened back at the SeymoiiT'i form (fig. 53 approacbea more nearly to the Fmeh
luct other*, the two lower oetbod than any other pnctiied in England ; but the direct channel
he proceia if rneatfd till
Tee. The bnnchei may be
adopted, the main ahoott
lU length, insead of being
Flo. J.— Seymour'i Fan Training,
if the aap ia pot auppreaied, and thia reaulta in the production at
lint of thin leadini ihoot the encauragement of
ii aabseqiienDy pinched ofT that it' may not draw away too clow to the will, ge
nuch lA iHe lap. If the fruit aeti too abundantly, ii muit be blouomi, and genen
tUflned, Grat when aa large aa peaa. reducing the cluiten. and (hen duced, t>y taking car
when at large at nutt to disttitTute the crop equally; the ex- to prctcrve a numbc
tent of the thinning must depeiul on the vigour of the tree, wood, only pinching i
bat one or two fruitt ultimately lelt to each Huare foot of wall Ihu> t<rnned blouom
ia a (uH average crop. Tlie final thinning ihould take place after leaion. Thia praclic
Tlw lie«.placed healthy young iboot produced particularly in the nf
bodt at the taseol the bearing branch is lobe caiefu bunting
ifrti!^
benefit ir
w youne ihixM below, copinga
II Oie pmni of (he latte laken II
rer, though if the beari ' '"
wood. Itiail FiTti-i,— The pruning and Irainine ol the IreM in, the pcMh
., -„ and the ■
sss'.s.'seri,'^::. ;.„.;. ,. _.. .
Inn ooghi occatianaDy lo be wathed with the garden engine or lail. In the forcing of pcachn
thvoo^iy wyriwed, capecially during very hot aummera. After Ptcember or January; but ii r
inberuig ilir fran ail the wood not pcedcd («( culrndin) the trt« > Dioatb toontr. . The tmt i
PEACHAM— PEACOCK, G.
fiadinDy- ud *l Dnt the iatae ihouM be mmiy knN dcaed it ■
[Einptntun oC (bout 4S*, but the hat dwuld gnduJly incRue to
K'*1 nJEht by the time the treet m in Bower, Mnclia 60' when Ihe
llL b Kt, tittcT which thf htniH ihould be kept malat by •prinklini
thewalluiMl psihs, or by j^lng wMer (rouBhi on the letutn pipe^
(utbonhip, lUting thit they wen •rritten by > unieuke, " ■
divine, s tcholu and i tnvellei." The change wu, however,
ihem Thomu Dowlud the muiidui, Inigo Jones, snd Edwud
Wright the mttheouitidui. In i6» ippeued Peachain'i
mignum opuSi the Cvmpiai Ctniieman^ . Enlarged edition]
^)puTed in ifii6 and 1617, The 1617 edition wu leprtcled iti
i6j4, and a third, with additioni] notea on Ijlazoniy by Thomai
Blount (1617-1679), appeared in 1661. The book ia a leit-book
of manneia and polite leajning; it mdudea chapteia on cosmo-
graphy, geometry, poetry, music, antiquities, painting, the live;
of tlu
-erl.a
ig ■■ (Pe«
I ^ILon* of water-' Ore
— tbe painted 1 — '*
quently culli
■ wet tbe painted wood, u
re Irequentlyciillivatcdjn
B been mbvd-
h well-decayed
"a niaine
tultaQe or pitched
eld in
eight s
everaU wayes."
Tbe book diflera from the CnirKo
ofCastlglione
which had been
the guide of u eailier generati
n. Peacham
«» a Cavalier.
ent polemist in the r.
«ltnu
le, but the cenlial point
ofhiibool
is a mote or less Puritan sen
Peachahi was reduced
eny, and is uid
10 have wri
lien children's books
t a penny each
His last book
was published in ifi^', and it maj
be ooocluded that he died toon
works include: JfiKr
nflriiK
]), dedicated la
Henry, pri
ice of Wale.; TTu Ftntd if M
*nl>»
prince; riuiiia-i Banput (i6jo), ab.
imni «■ Loud™ U&^j), and Tlu
There ii a. ncMly complete collecli
l-S fc»S
e Bodleian. CWord.
Harici
n MS.
68sjpul.ir,a
Early Beatrice .
S,S5yYork
b.m.AuK.
RoyalCeorge . .
l:IK„' : :
Aug.
Dymond? . . .
Crimion Cslande
Aug.
Ute Admirable .
Cnwford'i Eaily
bl
^"1
a.
SeaEajle . . .
WalbunooAdmirabl
Grow Mignonne
b-
Salwey . . - .
NoblesK . .
b.
Princeuol Wales .
NuK,
<■«*
^t^"'"
"'•■
'A
Sri^'Rivef; :
S.
VioIettemU«; .
Balgowan . .
b.
a
Vicwria^undcrgli*.
Ehuge - . .
IS.
Su^k Eln,ge'
m of Jam
diawiDgs. Hii Qmi^JaU CenOemaH was edited by G. 5. Goidaii
in 1006 for the Clarendon Pre»: the Arl oj Lmnr is reprintoi
in Ihe Harleian llisc. a.:TitWMktl a Fiwy in E. Arber's Enrliiil
GunUT (voL vL 1SB3).
PEACOCK. SIH B&BHBS (iSio-iSgo). English Judge, was bon
in lAlo, the son of Lewis Peacock, a soticitor. After practising
as > special pleader, he wu called to the bat in 1836, and ic
tSu obtained great reputation by painting out the Baw wbicb
invalidated Ihe canviction of Daniel O'Connell and his fellon
defendants. In iSji he went to India as legal member of ibt
r-general's council- He here displayed great activity as ■
wrefon
>o little c
:k (under glass] m
.iiibiliiies. Tbe legiiUlive council was established
""■ soon »Iter his sirival, and although no orator, he was so frequent
a speaker that legislation enjoining councillois to deliver their
^"B- speeches sitting was said to have been devised with the sole
f^- object of testisining him. As a member of Lord Dalhou^e'l
Sept. council he su[>pDtted the anneiation of Oudh, and he sLoud by
Sept. Lord Canning all through the Mutiny- In iSjg he became chief
Sept' justiceof the Supreme Court- He relumed 10 England in 1870,
S||; and in 187J was pbced upon the judicial commiLtee of the privy
^*^' council, where Itis Indian experience rendered him invaluable.
He died on the jrd of December iSgo.
PEACHUI, BBMKT (c. 1S76-C. 164]). English wriler, was PEACOCK, OEOROB (1791-1858), EngUsh mathematician,
the son ol Henry Feacbam, curate of North Mimms, Hertford- was bom at Thornton Hall, Denloo, neat DacLngton, on tbe
ahire, and author ol a book on rhetoric called the Gardai of gib of April 1791- He was educated at Richmond, Yorkshire,
RWaiic (is7ji. The elder Peacham became in IS97 rector of andcnteredTriniiy College, Cambiidgq, in 1805- Hewassecond
Levetton, Lincolnshire. The son was educated at Trimly wrangler in 1811 (Sir J.F.W.Herschcl being senior), wu elected
College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in tS94-iS9i «nd fellow of his college in 1814, became assislanl lutor in iSiJ and
M. A. in 1598. He was lor some time a schoolmaster at Wymond- full tutor in i8]3. While itill an undergraduate he formed a
bam. Norfolk, but settled in London in 1611, earning his Uving league with John Heischel and Charles Babbage, to conduct the
as tutor to young men preparing for the universities- His first famous atniggle of " d-ism nrsiu dot-age," which ended in the
book was Crafkia (1606). a treatise on fien and water-colour introduction into Carabridgt of the continental notation in the
drawing, which, a) TAe CtMlimaa'i Earciii, passed through infinitesimal calculus to the eiclusion of the fluiional notation
three edilioni. The years 1613-1614 he spent abioad. part of ol Sir Isaac Newton. This wu an important lefoim, not so
the time as tutor to the three young sons of Thomas Howard much 00 account of the mere change of notation (for mathe-
(is8s-i64W.earlof Arundel, and partly on hisownaccount. He maticianl follow J. L. Lagrange in using both these notations),
travelled in Italy, France. Westphalia and the Nctbcttands. but because it signilied the opening 10 the malhematidani of
The table of Sir John Ogle, English governor of Utrecht, was. he Clambtidge of the vast storehouse of continental discoverica-
sayj.i"liiileacademy."wherehemet<oldiersand>cho1arsof all The analytical codcty thus formed in 181] published vaiioua
nationalities. When he returned to London be was acctued of memoiis. and translated S. P. Lacroii's Difftratial Calculnt in
hbcl on the king. Incriminating papers had been discovered in 1816. Peacock powerfully aided the movement by publishing in
the house of Edmond Peacham, rector of Hinton Saint George. iBio A CalUaiantf Eampla of iSe AttHcalum e/ llit Dijtrtnlitt
•ho, on being charged with an attack on tbe kinf denied the end Inlttrti CaUatui. In 1S41 he published a pam[dilet m tbt
PEACOCK, T. L.
21
udiveisitjf statutes, b which he indicated the necessity for
rdbnir;aiKf in iSsoand 1855 hewas a membcrof the commission
of inquiry relative to the unfversity of Cambridge. In 1837 he
was appointed Lowndcan professor of astronomy. In 183Q he
took tJie degree of D.D., and the same year was appointed by
Lord Melbourne to the. deanery of Ely. Peacock threw himself
with characteristic ardour into the duties of this new position.
He improved the sanitation of Ely, published in 1840 Obserw^ums
on Plans for Cathedral Rcjorm^ and carried out extensive works
of restoration in his own cathedral. He was twice prolocutor of
the lower house of convocation for the province of Canterbury.
He was also a prime mover in the establishment of the Cambridge
Astronomical Observatory, and in the founding of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society. He was a fellow of the Royal, Royal
Astronomical, Geological and other scientific societies. In 1838,
and again in 1843, he was one of the commissioners for standards
of wciights and measures; and he also furnished valuable infor-
mation to the commissioners on decimal coinage. He died on
the 8th of November 1858.
Peacock's original contributions to mathematical science were
concerned chiefly with the philosophy of its first principles. He
did good' service in systematizing the operational laws of
algebra, and in throwing light upon the nature and use of
imaginaries. He published, first in 1830, and then in an enlarged
form in 1842, a Treatise on Algebra, in which he applied his
phiI{»ophical ideas concerning algebraical analysis to the eluci-
dation of its elements. A second great service was the publica-
tion in the British Association Reports for 1833 of his " Report
<m the Recent Progress and Present State of certain branches of
Analysis." Modem mathematicians may find on reading this
brilliant summary a good many dicta which they will call in
question, but, whatever its defects may be. Peacock's report
remains a work of permanent value. In 1855 he published a
memoir of Thomas Young, and about the same time there
appeared Young's collected works in three volumes, for the first
two of which Peacock was responsible.
PEACOCK, THOMAS LOVE (1785-1866). English novelist and
poet, was bom at Weymouth on the i8th of October 1785. He
was the only son of a London glass merchant, who died soon after
the child's birth. Young Peacock was educated at a private
school at Englefield Green, and after, a brief experience of business
determined to devote himself to literature, while living with his
nrother (daughter of Thomas Love, a naval man) on their private
means. His first books were poetical. The Monhs of St Mark
(1804). Palmyra (1806), The Genius of the Thames (1810), The
Philosophy of Melancholy (181 2) — works of no great merit. He
also made several dramatic attempts, which were never acted.
He served for a short time as secretary to Sir Home Popham at
Flxisbing, and paid several visits to Wales. In 181 2 he became
acquainted with Shelley. In i8i5he evinced his peculiar power
by writing his novel Headlong Hall, It was published in 1816,
zad Mdinconrt followed in the ensuing year. During 181 7 he
lived at Great Marlow, enjoying the almost daily society of
SfKltey, and writing Nightmare Abbey and Rhododaphne, by far
the best of his long poems. In 1819 he was appointed assistant
examiner at the India House. Peacock's nomination appears to
have been due to the influence of his old schoolfellow Peter
Auber, secretary to the East India Company, and the i>apers he
prepared as tests of his ability were returned with the comment,
" Nothing superfluous and nothing wanting." This was char-
acteristic of the whole of his intellectual work; and equally
characteristic of the man was his marriage about this time to
Jane Griffith, to whom he proposed by letter, not having seen
her for eight years. They had four children, only one of whom,
a son, survived his father; one daughter was the fii^t wife of
(jeorge Meredith. His novel Maid Marian appeared in 1822,
The Misfortunes ofElphin in 1829, and Crotchet Castle in 1831;
and be would probably have written more but for the death in
1833 of his mother. He also contributed to the Weslminstrr
Review and the Examiner. His services to the East India Com-
pany, outsit the usual official routine, were considerable. He
dcfa&ided it successfully against the attacks of James Silk
Buckingham and the Liverpool salt interest, and made the subject
of steam navigation to India peculiarly his own. He represented
the company before the various parliamentary committees on
this question; and in 1839 and 1840 superintended the con-
struction of iron steamers, which not only made the voyage round
the Cape successfully, but proved very useful in the Chinese War.
He also drew up the instructions for the Euphrates expedition
of 1835, subsequently pronounced by its commander. General
F. R. Chesney, to be models of sagacity. In 1836 he succeeded
James Mill as chief examiner, and in 1856 he retired upon a
pension. During his later years he contributed several papers to
Eraser's Magazine, including reminiscences of Shelley, whose
executor he was. He also wrote in the same magazine his last
novel, Cryll Grange (i860), inferior to his earlier writings in
humour and vigour, but still a surprising effort for a man of his
age. He died on the 23rd of January 1866 at Lower Halliford,
near Chertsey, where, so far as his London occupations would
allow him, he had resided for more than forty years.
Peacock's position in English literature is unique. There was
nothing like his type of novel before his time; though there
might have been if it had occurred to Swift to invent a stoiy as a
vehicle for the dialogue of his Polite Conversation. Peacock speaks
as well in his own person as through his puppets; and his pithy
wit and sense, combined with remarkable grace and accuracy
of natural description, atone for the primitive simplicity of plot
and character. Of his seven fictions, Nightmare Abbey and
Crotchet Castle are perhaps on the whole the best, the former
displaying the most vis comica of situation, the latter the fullest
maturity of intellectual power and the most skilful grouping of
the motley crowd of " perfectibilians, deteriorationists, statu-
quo-ites, phrenologists, transcendentalists, political economists,
theorists in all sciences, projectors in all arts, morbid visionaries,
romantic enthusiasts, lovers of music, lovers of the picturesque
and lovers of good dinners," who constitute the dramatis personae
of the Peacockian novel. Maid Marian and The Misfortunes of
Elphin are hardly less entertaining. Both contain descriptive
passages of extraordinary beauty. Mdincourt is a comparative
failure, the excellent idea of an orang-outang mimicking humanity
being insufficient as the sole groundwork of a novel. Headlong
Hall, though more than foreshadowing the author's subsequent
excellence, is marred by a certain bookish awkwardness char-
acteristic of the recluse student, which reappears in Grj^ Grange
as the pedantry of an old-fashioned scholar, whose likes and
dislikes have become inveterate and whose sceptical liberalism,
always rather inspired by hatred of cant than enthusiasm for
progress, has petrified into only too earnest conservatism. The
book's quaint resolute paganism, however, is very refreshing in
an age eaten up with introspection; it is the kindliest of Peacock's
writings, and contains the most beautiful of his poems, " Years
Ago," the reminiscence of an early attachment. In general the
ballads and songs interspersed through his tales are models of
exact and melodious diction, and instinct with true feeling. His
more ambitious poems are worth little, except Rhododaphne,
attractive as a story and perfect as a composition, but destitute
of genuine poetical inspiration. His critical and miscellaneous
writings are always interesting, especially the restorations of
lost classical plays in the Horae dramaticae, but the only one of
great mark is the witty and crushing exposure in the Westminster
Review of Thomas Moore's ignorance of the manners and belief
he has ventured to portray in his Epicurean. Peacock resented
the misrepresentation of his favourite sect, the good and ill of
whose tenets were fairly represented in his own |>erson. Some-
what sluggish and self-indulgent, incapable of enthusiasm or self-
sacrifice, he yet possessed a deep undemonstrative kindliness of
nature; he could not bear to see anyone near him unhappy
or uncomfortable; and his sympathy, no less than his genial
humour, gained him the attachment of children, dependants,
and friends. In official life he was upright and conscientious; his
judgment ^zs shrewd and robust. What Shelley justly termed
" the lightness, strength and chastity " of his diction secures him
an honourable rank among those English writers whosa claims to
remembrance depend not only upon matter but upon style.
22 PEACOCK— PEALE, C. W.
lonner proi«g«._Sir Hcnty Colt wilh .nSdknt_iwm>ir b; hi! %"^„^*^^^^^^'zi^^J^\.Z^r^}^,^"
£ii|lud wlihin bis ncmoty,' and C. Dinda (Amimali akd
r-— ' - ,,---, ...,._, - -. - ._-^ Fiattii undtf Danustiaiiiow, L 399-391) icu iaduied to bdicvc it
(18911. Stpiiatt iio%t(. .re includrd in ■• Mj^mHlin-t lUuBrtltd only • vukty ; but iu Jirupt »ppHi™nce. which re
BurSrurndSw'"' '"'"' ' Ot- C ) d»y throw on the quHlion of evolutioii u eihibited in Iht origiii
PEACOCK (Lit. ffl», O. Eo,. fow, Du. ^»n., Co. P!», f" " •?«)»;" 1> •J""" bt itital thii the J.pin bird i. not
Ft. Fan), the bird » wcU known from the «.lw<lid plunucc of ^"" " ^ "lywhere u > wOd nn, though .M»™>ly k-IX
u the proverhiil pmoniScition of pride. Iti>« 'j" J»P»"' pe "co^pwyjn* jUiuUation ii co^ed ft
nitiveof lbeIndi.npJniii«il*u^Ion.iB»m.^.of whkh ^„™ ^^ J- W"^- R"*" " »■ <=■ Hli«'» ^""r
it [I very abundant. Setting aside iti imponalion to Palatine '*««""»«■
by Solomon (■ King, a, »; > aron. ia- „), il, .«gnn«nt in ^ "^T.'h^'S^nS '^£2!^,^^;
claBaicat mythology aa the favourite bird of Hen teMifica to the 'Uematiut thry aie niied to I
early acquaintance the Creeka must have had wiih it; hut, oioat are content to reganj tli«
though it ia mentioned by Arijtophanta and other older wiilera. 'C"?*^'"' ?''' *'""."' .'t
their knowledge of it wgt probably very (light until alter the d* Mr Ihem 'i.1^!^I^!bll^
conqucsu of Aleiandir. Throughout all Hicceeding time, lie aisutphf— ^-^^- ---'-"-
of a fam^y,
PuK i% Pelf
endcred iuelf to
y> highly stcemed for Ihclable,'
tkcoildbi
jma^. and the exiraordinary Length of the lecqndary
i^sas; ;s Snis?™ si",i;ir. ii'i^'s „,,.,. iSl'basis'L'biShS^iS
ut by the linpiiar develofH
PEIR, THE, a high Ubte-bnd in the north of Derbyihire.
England, included in the PenniDe range ol hiUa. The lucDe,
however, ii extended, without definite limits, to cover the whole
of the hUly diitrict north of Buiton. The table-land reaches an
eleviiion of >oB3 ft. in Kinder Scout. The geologicat lormatioa
ta millalone-fril, and the imderlyipg beds are not doRHid, but
cup-ihaped, dipping invard from the Banks of Lhe rnaia. The
project at intervals. The name ol this high plateau has from the
ijlh century been identified with " peak," the pointed or coniol
topoE a mountain, hut the very early references to the diitrict
and certain places in it show clearly, ai the Has Ea^iik
Dittimary pointa out. that thia conneiion ia unwatnDted. The
name appears in the OU Eotliik CluimiiU (914I as Ptedni, d
the district governed from the caalle of Peveril of the Peak (ice
Derbyshiu), and also In the name o[ the cavern under the hill
at Castlcton, Ptat'i Am. P(ac, it has been suggested, is the
nameol a local deity or demon, and possibly may be iodeniified
with Puck. For the etymology of " peak," pmnt. St, and it*
varianta or related words, " pick " and " pike," lec PlIE.
nUA CHARLES VILUOH (i;4i-iSi6l> Amerrcan portrait
painter, celebrated etpecially tor his portraiU of Waihingtoo,
was horn in Queen Anne county, Maryland, on the i61h of April
1741. During his infancy the family removed 10 Chestenown,
Kent county, Maryland, and afler the death ol his father
{a country Khoolmaslcr) in 17S0 they removed to ApnapoUa.
'k-ihouldcrrd " Pcafoi^ Here, at the a^ of ij, he was apprenticed to a saddler. About
1764 he began seriously to study art. He got some ■■i^*! ■>**■*
imali, iried or while varieties („„ Cusuvus Kesiclius, a Swedish portrait painter then Hving
l<Uu. ate not infrequently to „,„ AnnapcJis, and from John Singleton Copley ioBotton;
however, attends what is known as the Japanese or Japan in 1770 he opened a studio in Philadelphia, and met with
peacock, a form whith has received the name of P. nipifanis, immediate success. In 177', at Mount Vernon, Peale painted
aa though it were a distinct species. In this loim the cock, a three-quartera-lenph study of Washington (the earliest known
wing-coverts of a deep lustrous blue instead ol being mollled Thi» canvas b now in the L« Memorial Chapel of Wsshinglon
wilhhrownandwhite.whiielhehenisofamoreorlesigriailed- and Lee University. He painted various other portiails ol
while. It " breeds true "-, but occasionally a presumably pure Washington; probably the best known in a full.length, which
stock of birds of the usual coloration throws out one or more was made in 1778, and of which Peale made many copies. This
haying the Japan plumage. II is to be observed that the male poniail had been ordered by the Conlinenlal Congress, which.
to thai of the second indubitably gmd species, the P. mnlUia bought for a private collection in Philadelphia. Peale painted
{or P. i^i/ff of some wtileti) of Burma and Java, though the two miniatuteiof Mrs Waihington(i77iand 1777). and portraits
(baracter of the lalier*! crest— the feathers ol which are barbed (,[ many of the famous men of the lime, a number ol which
along their whde length instead of at the tip only— and its jre in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His portraila of
■ ClasKsl aulhon coniain many alluikini tc iti high appiTdal ion Washington do not appeal so Wrongly 10 Americans as do thete
■tthenoM tumptuom banquets; and medieval billi of fare on uaie of Gilbert Stuart, bul his admitted skill as a draughtsman fiveato
STiSM J!^ranMTh?I^UIWo'"on'uiiI*''*'™k'^' wlikh's^u all of his work considerable historical value. Peale removed to
liln been servad up gamidied wilb iu gaudy plumage. ■ A. Newton himadf regarded thii ai pnbabtt' iacorrcct.
PEALE, R.— PEAR
.8i
Pbiluldphia in ij;;, and trrvcd u ■ nvmbn ot ibc committR when the puc h lOBetinMi comidcnd irild, Ihen a *]*■<
al public alay; he lided in raising i mililii ctmpluiy. bccime i the doubt Ihil it miy not really be to. but (he produce of un
fieutenant and afleiwards a capuin, and look part in the battia utd ol a culliviled tree depoiited by bird* 01 olberwiK, whii
of TrcIoo, PriDceton and Cermaniown. In I77(ri7&>bewu bu dttenemted into the wild ipine-bearini tree known i
a moniKf ol tbe Pennsylvania asiembly, where he voted loi PynttammMmij^
the abolition of jlavny—tii freed bii own slaves whom be had Tlie cultivation ol the put eitends lo the ren>oIni aniiquit;
bmushl from Maiyland. In ifkil he undertook, largely at hii Traces ol it have been found in the Swiss likc-dweElings. it'
own expense, the eacavaiion of the ikeletons of two mutodont meationed in the oldest Greek wHiings, and bis cultivated h
in Ulster and Orange csunliei. New York, and in itoiheesUb- the Rooiaia. The word "pear " or in equivalent occurs in a
Uihcd at Philadelphia Ptale's Museum. He was one of Ibl IbeCellicUnguiges, whileinSlavonicandotherdi'alHttdiffeier
fouodets, in 1805, of tbe Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arti appellations, but still referring to the same thing, are found —
at Philadelphia. Al tbe age of eighty-one Peale painted a large diversity and mulUpUdly oE nomentbture which led Alphon
canvas, " Chrst Healing the Sick st Belhesda," and at eighty, de Candolle to infer a very ancient cultivation of the tree Iroi
three > full-leagth portrait of bim9df,now in the Academy of the the shores of the Caspian to those of the Atkslic. A certai
Fine Arts. He died at bis cQuclry home, near Ceimantown, nee of pean, with white down on tbe under surface of the
Penotjdvania, on the indol February 1816. leaves, itiupposed to have originated from P. Kimlis, and the
HBbrotheT,jAIiElPuu(t>49-iEji), also an artist, punted fruit i* cUeBy used in France in the manufacture ot Perry (si
(ws portraits of Washington (one now the properly of the New Cideb). Other snuU-fruiled pearl, distinguished by the
York Historical Society, and the other in Indepnideoce Hall, precocity and apple-like fruit, may be referred Id P. coriala.
Philadelphia), besides landscapes and historical compositions, species found wild in western France, and in Devonshire an
RUI. BKMBBUniT (i;;B-iS6o), American artist, was bom Cornwall
in Bocks county, Pennsylvania, on the Jind ol February 1778, K^ Itoch epniidmd Dial culliviled pea™ were the dncendmi
the spo of Cbiriea WiUson Peale (».».). He studied under his SLa^l^Tj^VifiS'^dp"™..) l'^^
lather, under Benjamin West in London (iSoi-iSoj), and in the ubjecl'ane ol cniKal iiudy lor 1 number ol yeais. and not onl
PinsiniSorand i9oo. Aseariy as ijflshehad begun from life inv«liE»td the wiW iDmn. but tarclully uuditd the pcciiliarill.
■ portrait of Washington. 01 this be made many replicas, the of the numerous ™rieii«i cullivMcd in the Jirdin des Flames 1
latest in iBjj, purchased by the United Slates government ^^ tavTin com™ lliSTdfvwJ^inwri^i diitaimlw I
in 183 >, and now in the Capitol of Washington, Pealc was one ,„ fgnn now ^ races: (t) the Cdi'.including P. ceriata; (i) ili.
■I the Gnt of American liihographert. He was an eicellenl Germanic, iochidint P. unwnnii, P. admi, and P. piraun: (jj
drmghtsman.butlncohiurhisworkcannotrankwilhhisfilher's. Ihe HeUeolc incluaini P. paniftn, P. tiwiU and others; iXl
5 ■»" !« -7"? "• ";• ""*>" !■"'"■ -"»'• ■ 'Tr ' 'SS S'S'^.'SE/JXS.'.X'S'fJiS'^a;
of teaching drawing and penmanship. His portraits include refcrcnmo ibc Celtic race 7 ignbli it is intemling is note its
those of PrESJdenl JeDeiwn, Mrs Madison, Commodores Pcny, connciuDn with Arthurian leiend and the Isle of Avakin or tile of
Decatur, and Baiabridge, Houdon, the sculptor, General Arm- Apples. An lilaDd in Loth Awehasa Cclik iMendcontaiBii^ilie
strong, and an equeWrian portrait of General Washington, now ET2Z£ ■■ '.S^ S^'ISStT-^iS" PteJ*"«rtStri aSSLS
in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. His " Court of Death " (ariiianyl wiih a view of iiTS^gatlBg these mailers, and brought
(iSr) is id the Detroit Art Gallery. In iSij Peale succeeded thence fniiii of a small bcrty-hkc pear. >h>ch were idenliEHl
Jofao Truoboll >a president of the American Academy of Fine with the Pynu ariaU of weuem France.
Alt) (founded in rSoi as the New York Academy of Fine Arts). CklfRofimi.— The pear may be readily raised by sowing the
aad be was one of the original membeii of the National pips of ordinary cultivated or of wilding kinds, these forming
Academy of Design. He wrote several books, among them what are known as free or pear stocks, on which the choicer
Saa M /tafy (iSji), RiwtiniicoKa ej Art and AililU [1S45}. varieties are gralled (or increase. For new varieties the flower*
He died in Philadelphia on the jrd ol October lUo. should be lertiliied with a view to combine, in ibe seedlings
A brother. Raphielle Pejoe (1774-igij), was one of the whichreaull ErDintheunion,thedesirab1equ>liiiesolthep(TcDit.
earliest of American still-liie painters; and another brother. The dwarf and pyramid trees, more usually planted in gardens,
TmAH RusEV Pe:IU (1800-1SS;). made numerous drawings, are obtained by grafting on the quince stock, the Portugal t;uince
some of Ibem in water-colour, in iUustralion of animal lile. being Ihe best: but this slock, from lis surface-moling habit.
Sec " Reinbnndl Peale." paRly autotnognphical. in C E. Lener's is most suitable For soils of a cold damp nature. The pear-slock,
ni ArUiU ffAmrriai (New York, 1B46). having an inclination 10 send its roots down deeper into the soU,
nAB (Pynu cemmxitii), a member of the natural order is the best (or Ighl dry soils, as the plants are not then id likely
Rosaccae, bdonging to the same genus as the apple (P. m3ui), 10 tuSer in dry seasons. Some of the flnet pears do not unite
iriDCh it resembles in floral iiruciun. In both cases the so- readily witb the quince, and in ihis case double working is
eiBed fruit is composed of the receptacle or upper end of the resoned to; that is to say, a vigorous-growing pear is first
fkmr-stalk (the so-called cilya tube) greatly dilated, and en- grafted on Ihe quince, and then the choicer pear is grafted on
contilute tbe "core " and are really Ihe true fruit. From the In selecting young pear trees for walls or espaliers, some
upper rim of Ihe receptacle are given ofl the five sepals, the £ve persons prefer ptanls one year old from the grsll, but trees two
and of the apple respectively, although usually characteristic planted immediately beforeorafler the IstI of IhelcaE, Thewill
esoiigh, is not by itself sufficient to distinguish them, (or there trees require to be planted (rom 15 to }o (t. apart when on free
ire pears which cannot by form alone be distinguished from slocks, and from 1; to 10 (t. when dwarfed. Where Ihe Itect
apples, and ar^es which cannot by superlicial appearance be ace trained as pyramids or columns they may siind S or to ft.
giad from pearv The main distinction is the occurrence apart, but standards in orchards should be allowed at least joft.,
with hard woody deposit in the case of the pear, contliluting In the formilian of the trees thesimeplin maybeidopled as
grit," while in the apple no such (oimiiioa of woody cells in the case ol the apple. For the pear orehard a warm situation
ce ol the tree — Ihe bark, the foliage, is very desirable, with a soil deep, subsiiniial, and thoroughly
-. usually quite characteristic in the drained- Any good free loam is suitable, but a calcareous loam
IWB species. Cultivated pean. whose number is enormous, are [s the best. Pear trees worked on the quince should have tbe
witboiil doubt derived from one or two wild species widely uock covered up to ils junction with ibe graft. This is effected
dsliibuted IhrougbBut Europe and SKHem Asia, asd wmelimes by niung upasmallmoundofrich compost around it. ■ conttiv-
fciming part o( tbe natural vegetation of the loreM*. In England, ince whidi induces the (tafi to emit iDOlt into the surlace soil.
j+ PEARCE— PEARL
•Bd al» keeps ihe U«k tittm becoming h»rd gi b«tk-bound. """y <« i™'™^'^ l
The Iruil o( ihe p«»r ii proi1u«d on ipun. which ippeu on ihooi* ihe^™5y''!i"iocMDiiji
more Ihin one year old. The mode moit tommoo]/ idoplel ^nlcr moih (C*rimoJo»i
>e prcJened, »
n Ociober ti
'licir CXEI in (he cr^icki and crevices in iht balk- The uicrgilbn
jtro««. iho h.if.f.. 0. .he hori»>nL.l i> n^.i >.i,.We. lo the ':it:fS^,i'-^^'fi;:^/]Z^^ '."^"^r'S'hjf
laller form old Uta. Ihe Kimmer pnining of whith hu been ln,ipt,i(a"BMriimB bore Ihtlr -Jiy ini
neglecled, are apt lo acquire an undue prO)eclion from the wall the up channels. I[ badly bond. Ihe
■ml become iciaggy, 10 mvoid whicb a pcotioo ol the old qiun
ibould be cut oul annually.
The lURimct ptuning o[ (stabliihed wall oc cspalier-nQ tna
coniisti chiefly in the limdy displacing, sfaonening back, oi
rubbing off of the superfluous shoots, so tiiat the winter pruning,
in hohiontal training, is httle more than adjusting the leading
shoots and thinning out Ihe sputi, which should be kept dole te
the wall and allowed to lelain but (mi or at moil three buds.
In [an-liaining the subordinate hisnchd must be icgulatcd, the
■PUTS thinned out, and the young laterals finally established in
Ibeir placei. When horizontal trees have faUen into disocdei, Ihe
biancha may be cut back to within o in. of the vertical Uen
and branch, and trained in afresh, or they may be grafted with
other Hrl!. if a variety ol kinds is wanted.
Summer and autumn pears should bt gathered before they are
fully ripe, otherwise they will not In general keep more than a
few days. The JargoncUe should be allowed lo remain on the
thus succeeding the produce of the wall trees. In the case of i. Leal >ho«ngEiDu|iic4cup(orBecidia. i. Early Mage of
the Craisane the crop should be gathered at three different ducaK. J, Cup*.
a week or ten days after that, and the third when fully ripe.
The Gnt galhering will come into eating laisi.and thus the
'''"'' ' nsiderably prolonged. It is
y be followed with other
colour, with a firm yellowish-green maitow-like pulp tunoundilg
a large seed. The pulp 1) much otcemed in the Wrat India and
a eaten as a salad, usiully with the addition of pepper, salt and
vinegar. The pulp contains much oil, which is used lor lighting
and soap-making, and the seeds yield a deep indelible Uack
slain which is used for marking linen.
Prickly prai is the popular name lor spedes ol Ofwiiia (see
The name wooden pear is applied to the fruiU of Xylaiidiim
woody, inversely peai-shapcd fruits which split into two
PUBCB, CHAHLEl SPRAOnS (iBji- ), American artist,
was bom at Boston, Massachusetts, on the ijth of October iSji.
In 187] he became a pupil of Urn, Bonnat in Paris, and after
iSSs he lived in Paris and at AuverMur-Oise. He painted
Egyptian and Algerian scenes, French peasants, and portraits,
and also decorative work, notably for Ihe Congressional Library
at Washington. He received medals a( the Paris Saloa and
ebcwheie. and was decorated wiih the Legion of Honour, the
order of Leopold, Belgium, the order of the Red Eagle, Prussia,
Pcai
Scab (FuiJsii
res or iiiMia,i.
'bornVoI
Wi
Injured by Ihe peart
•1
ale(.
ijS
le Decapitation of St John the Baptist"
mem .ol the fruit, (igBO.inthcAri In:
stiluleof Chicago; "Prayer" (18S4), owned
rjp,.i;:i "Sire; ^tocM-achu",
li., T^Ur.^ H-Unto Return c* the Foe
X'X^.^on and "Meditation."
k." in Ihe Bohemian Club, San Frandsco;
in the New York Mettopolitan Museum.
v«. Pear tree, may PEARL Pearis
ire calcareous conaetions of pecuhar lustre.
,:'ir^^^.' siv. '::^^^'^t
1 n»au«3. and valued as objects of personal
regular in shape and stunted in growth, or
PEARL
as
vhacb bear excrescenoes, or are honeycombed by boring pansites,
are those most likdy to yield pearls.
The substance of a pearl is essentially the same as that which
lines the interior of many shells and is known as " mothtf -of-
pearL" Sir D. Brewster first showed that the iridescence of this
substance was an optical phenomenon due to the interference of
rays of light reflected from microscopic corrugations of the surface
— an effect which may be imitated by artificial striations on a suit-
able medixim. When the inner laminated portion of a nacreous
shell is digested in add the calcareous layers are dissolved away,
leaving a very delicate membranous pdlide, which, as shown
by Dr Carpenter, may retain the iridescence as long as it is
undbturbed, but which loses it when pressed or stretched.
It is obvious that if a pearl presents a perfectly spherical form
it must have remained loose in the substance of the musdes or
other soft tissues of the mollusc. Frequently, however, the pearl
becomes cemented to the interior of the shell, the point of attach-
ment thus interfering with its symmetry. In this position it may
receive successive nacreous deposits, which ultimatdy form a
peari of hemispherical shape, so that when cut from the shell it
may be flat on one tide and convex on the other, forming what
jewders know as a *' perle bouton." In the course of growth
the peari may become involved in the general depodt of mother-
(rf-pcaxl. and be ultimatdy buried in the substance of the shell.
It has thus happened that fine pearls have occasionally been
unexpectedly brought to light in cutting up mother-of-pearl in
the workshop.
Wben a pnri oyster a attacked by a boring parasite the
moUusc protects itself by depositing nacreous matter at the point
of invaaon, thus forming a boUow body of irregular shape known
as a ** blister pearL" HoUow warty pearl is sometimes termed
in trade " coq de perle." Solid pearls of irregular form are often
(woduced by deposition on rough objects, such as small fragments
of wood, and these, and in fact all irregular-shaped pearls, are
termed *' perles baroques," or '* barrok pearls." It appears that
the Romans in the period of the Decline restricted the name unio
to the ^bular pearl, and termed the baroque margarilum. It
was fashionable in the i6th and X7th centuries to moimt curiously
shaped baroques in gold and enamel so as to form ornamental
objects of grotesque diaracter. A valuable collection of such
mounted pauls by Dinglinger is preserved in the Green vaults at
Dresden.
A pearl of the first water should possess. In jewelers' language,
a perfect " skin " and a fine " orient "; that is to say, it must be
of delicate texture, free from speck or flaw, and of dear almost
translucent white colour, with a subdued iridescent sheen. It
should also be perfectly spherical, or, if not, of a qrmmetrical
pear-diape. On removing the outer layer of a pearl the sub-
pcent surface is generally dull, like a dead fish-eye, but it
occaskmally happens that a poor pearl endoses a " lively kemd,"
and may therefore be improved by cardul peeling. The most
perfect pearl in existence is said to be one, known as " La Pelle-
grina," in the museum of Zesima in Moscow; it Is a perfectly
l^obolar Indian peari of singular beauty, weighing a8 carats.
The largest known pearl is one of irregular shape in the Beresford
Hiq;>e collection at the Victoria and Albert Museum. This
magnificent pearl weighs 3 oz., has a circumference of 4} in., and
is surmounted by an fnamellpd and jewelled gold crown, forming
a pendant of great value.
Ptarl Fisheries. — ^The andents obtained thdr pearls chiefly
from India and the Persian Gulf, but at the present time they are
also procured from the Sulu seas, the coast of Australia, the shores
of Central America and some of the South Pacific Islands. The
aadent fisheries of Ceylon (Taprobane) are situated in the Gulf
of Manaar, the fishing-banks lying from 6 to 8 ol off the western
sfame, a little to the south of the bUe of Manaar. The TinneveUy
fishery Is on the Madras side of the strait, near Tuticorin. These
Indian fishing-grounds are under the control of government
izapecton, who regulate the fisheries. The oysters yield the
best pearls at about four years of age. Fishing generally com-
■MDces in the teccmd week in March, and lasts for from foiur to six
weeks, according to the season. The boats are grouped in fleets
of from sixty to seventy, and start usually at midnight so as to
reach the oyster-banks at sunrise. Each boat generally carries
ten divejs. On reaching the bank a signal-gun is fired, and diving
commences. A stone weighing about 40 lb is attached to
the cord by which the diver is let down. The divers work in
pairs, one man diving while the other watches the signal-cord,
drawing up the sink-stone first, then hauling up the baskets of
oysters, and finally raising the diver himself. On an average the
divers remain under water from fifty to eighty seconds, though
exceptional instances are dted of men remaining bdow for as
long as six minutes. After resting for a minute or two at the
surface, the diver descends again; and so on, until exhausted,
when he comes on board and watches the rope, while his comrade
rdieves him as diver. The native descends naked, carrying only
a girdle for the support of the basket in which he places the peari
oysters. In his submarine work the diver makes skilful use of his
toes. To arm himself against the attacks of the sharks and other
fishes which Infest the Indian waters he carries ^ikes of iron-
wood; and the genuine Indian diver never descends without the
incantations of shark-charmers, one of whom accompanies the
boat while others remain on shore. As a rule the diver is a short*
lived man.
The diving continues from sunrise to about noon, when a gun
is fired. On the arrival of the fleet at shore the divers carry their
oysters to a shed, where they are made up into four heaps, one
of which is taken by the diver. The oysters are then sold by
auction in lots of 1000 each. The pearls, after removal from the
dead oysters, are " classed " by passing through a number of
small brass colanders, known as " baskets," the holes in the
successive vessels being smaller and smaller. Having been sized
in this way, they are sorted as to coloiur, weighed and valued.
Since the days of the Macedonians pearl-fishmg has been
carried on in the Persian Gulf. It is said that the oyster-beds
extend along the enture Arabian coast of the gulf, but the most
important are on sandbanks off the islands of Bahrein. The chid
centre of the trade is the port of TJngah. Most of the produtts
of this fishery are known as " Bombay pearls," from the fact that
many of the best are sold there. The shells usually present a
dark colour about the edges, like that of " smoked pearL" The
yellow-tinted pearls are sent chiefly to Bombay, wliile the whitest
go to Bagdad. Very small pearls, much below a pea in size,
are generally known as " seed-pearls," and these are valued in
India and China as constituents of certain dectuaries, while
occasionally they are caldned for ckunam, or lime, used with betel
as a masticatory. There is a small peari-fisheiy near Karachi
on the coast of Bombay.
From the time of the Ptolemies pearl-fishing has been
prosecuted along the coast of the Red Sea, espedaHy in the
neighbourhood of Jiddah and Koseir. This fishery is now
insignificant, but the Arabs still obtain from this district a
quantity of mother-of-pearl shells, which are shipped from
Alexandria, and come into the market as " Egyptians."
Very fine pearls are obtained from the Sulu Archipelago, on
the north-east of Borneo. The mother-of-pearl shells from the
Sulu seas are characterized by a yellow colour on the border and
back, which unfits them for many ornamental purposes. Peari
oysters are also abimdant in the seas around the Am Islands to
the south-west of New Gtiinea. From Labuan a good many
pearl-shells are occasionally sent to Singapore. They are also
obtained from the ndghbourhood of Timor, and from New
Caledonia. The pearl oyster occurs throughout the Pacific,
mostly in the dear water of the lagoons within the atolls, though
fine shells are also tovnd in deep water outside the coral reefs.
The Polynesian divers do not employ sink-stones, and the women
are said to be more skilful than the men. They anoint thdr
bodies with ofl before diving. Fine pearl-shells are obtained
from Navigators' Islands, the Sodety Islands, the Low Archi-
pdago or Paumota Isles and the Gambler Islands. Many of
the Gambler pearls present a bronzy tint.
Pearl-fishing Is activdy prosecuted along the western coast of
Central America, especially hi the Gulf of California, and to a le»
extent around the Pearl Islands in the Bay of Panama. ^The
PEARL
SihEDg-craaDib an En waur iboot 40 h. deq>, tad the Muoa
luu (or (our monlli*. An <itdiDiU7 Gshing-puty opecu to
obtiin kboat time loiuol tlieJU p«t day, uid iiitoliniuediliu
one ahdl ifl a iboiuiDd contiju a pe*ri. The peula are thippH
In burek from San FrandKO and Panama. Some peaili of me
beauty have been obtained from the Bay of Mulcge, near Loa
Coyela.inlhcgulfol CaliloniiaiandLniSSiapeariof 7Scanla,
Uie largisl on ncord Irom Ihu district, wu found dcu La Pu
(n CaUTomia. Tbe coail o[ CuayaquU alu yield! peadi.
Columbus found that psul-Sshing nai DUried on In hi) time [a
the Gulf of Menco, and praiU iiT still obtained [ram the Carib-
bean Sea. In the Wat India ihn beat pearit aie obtained [ram
St Thomas and from the island of Maigarita, d9 the coast o[
Veneiuela. Fmm Margarita PbiUp 11. of Spain is said to have
obtained in isyt a famoui pearl of ijo carats.
Of late years good pearls have btto found In Shark's Bay, on
the coiut of Welt Ausmlla, cspedilly In an inlet termed Uielaa
Harbour. Mother.of-peaT] shells are also fished at many other
points along the wolem coasi, between the 15th and 15th
parallels of south latitude. An important peail-fisheiy is alio
established in Tones Strait and on the coast ol Queendand.
Tbe shells occur in water from four to sli fathoms deep, ahd'tho
diven are gEuerally Malays and Papuans, (bough sometime*
native Australians. On the weatern coast of Australia the
peart-shells an obtained by dredging rather than by diving.
Peari-sfaells have alio been found at Port Darwin and In
According to the latest raeaichcs th
b In moat cases, perhaps in all, tl
within the tisnes of a moUuic, around which nacreous deposit la
secreted. Tbeparasile is asiage in the lifebisIOTy of a Trema-
tode in uma caia, in others of a Cestode^ that is to say of a form
tesemblini the ooBunon liver-fluke of the sheep, or o( a tape-
wotm. As biag ago as iSji FDippi of Turin showed that the
Bpcdca ol Tiematode Dultmitm dutHcaium wss the ausc of a
pearl fomutioD in tbe ftesfa-water mussel Analimia. Kuchen-
meiateT nbMquently investigated the question a< Eltler in
Saxony and came to a diBemt conclusion, namely that the
central body ol the peail was a amall specimen of a speciea ol
water mile which is a very common piniite of A twdmla. FDipiri
however slates that the mile is only rarely found within a
pearl, the Trematode occurring in (he great majority of cases.
R. Duboii and Dr H. Lyster Jsmeson have made spedat investi-
gation! of tbe pcocas in the common mussel llyliliu tdiJit.
The Utter Matn tbu the pearl b produced in a sac which is
^tuated beneath the epidermis ol tbe mantle and is lined by an
e^dthelium. This epithelium is not derived from (he cells of the
epidermis but from the interna] con]>eclive-tissue cells. This
statement, if correct. Is contrary to what would be eipected, for
calcareous matter is usually secreled by the eitemal epidermis
only. The sac or cyst is formed by the larva of a ^ledes of
Trematode belonging to the genus LeHciikedendtiitm, a spcdcs
closely Reembllng and probably identical with L. lemaUrial,
tarefulty iiiulaied which liva m the adult state in the eider duck. At BilUen,
5tSj^^'"f^te'tSS^"A(S?nSt'El'1iJ?1iSrf'^ Morbiban, in France, the host of the adult Trematode <$ another
h i. let. to ren lof tjTTBfteen years. Tbe Bsher-tolk open thi >pedes of duck, namely the common Scoter. Oflfmia «po, which
valvei of (he muMls with an Iron ionrumenc. and if they &ad lu Is notorious In the locality for its avidity for mussels. Trema-
pearl reslDie the muad to the water. todes of the family Distomldae. to which the parasite under
h.ErS.E^'Si^ ^n L'S^l^M^'Tri^ W-^^ «»»^'i«™Uon belong^ usuaUy have three hosts in «^ of which
t!^^^0^'Si'!^i:^^^^:^Ty:^Z'^. U»ypaMdifl.ren(..ag«oflheUfehis.ory. In this case the fim
dne. Iowa. Tbe eeasoo enends rmm Jone to October. Japan boat at Bdhers is a tpecm ol bivalve called Tapci itaamlia.XMt
— ■-- •—'- r pearls, found especisliy in the A%tiBmla at Kel in Lancashire (here are DO Tapes and tbe first stages of (he
.. f-,. L.. .1.. ^.. ""offi^'^f^ parasite are found In the common cockle. The Tnmatode
mris, ud use a targe qiu«fty'a[ mothwil-partfor decorative *»'*" the 1^ boat as a minute newly hatched embryo and
ai — .I..B twHity.twa eenturiea before our era pearls ' SWuthii ti|«i, L.. ii a Gutmind belonging to the family
jibuUDrtaiiBCUaaiaodtbeyareineiidoiied Strombida^ ot the order Pectinitnndua. Turiiii^la lulyiwiu,
western |ian of tbe enplic la the JU'ya. a Lan.. is a Gastnpod of the aame order.
larlEvp than innn m.^. A fwwMfl fw twrtrnmUff * PloOuia piitnia, L.. bclongS lO the faitlT' " ' --J--- '- :-
Mind on the sbons o( North Australia. Plan
- -- -. -, .- . ..,_ jelongs to tbe Ostrcai
PEARL, THE
Iwni it is l)w farm oJkd Cercula, whkh b mlb' tn imnutnre
tooditioa (rf the iduli. Tbc Cociiu mtket iu my into tbe
tana td a miuKl uul Iben becoma endoicd io the qnt
previoiBly dcKiibed. If tbe muaci b then mllowed by the
diKik EheCcTcanaedcvelopLntomdultTreniatodesorflukeaiii tbe
Gw or intatina of the biitL In tbe muHcLi whicb cscipe bdng
dcvoimd the puuta cumot devdop Juitber, mnd they die ud
baome embediled in tbe nacnoils dcpDdt ohldi (omu « pcul.
Dt Jusoon pointi out tbit, *> in otba cuta, ptiili in Mytiliu
m (OBUDon in oitaiii qxcinl loolilio and nm eJietrbcre, Mid
that the uid locilitici uc tboM wbeie tbc puuile utd it* hoMi
■le plentif uL
The &nt Biggeajoa that tbe moM valuable pcuti oblained
from pcail oyiten in tio(BcaI oceani migbt be due to paniaites
waa made by Kelaart in repotta to the govetnraeal d( Ceyton In
iSjT-tSsq. Recently a ipedal invcatifatian of the Ceylm pearl
fiiheiy baa been orjaiiiied by PnifeSMi Herdmui. Herdraaa ud
~ ~ " " ' 'e tbe pcail ojtter of Cej*)n Uaffarili/efa
c Dudeui ol tbe peail li. Id all ipedoiena
d, the larva of a Ccstode or tapewonn. Thii larva Ii of
and ii of the type known u a cyMIcemia. Ai in
numd the latva diet in Il> cyM and iti lemalu are
a depodt. to tlul, >s a Fiencb miter bai
It aaodated iu all ages with beauty and licbe*
ia nocfainf but the biilliaat larcophigui of a vonn.
The cyitkeicia detcribtd by Herdraan and Honietl bat on tbe
a papilla wtucb can be pTDtiuded. It waa at Gnt Identified a*
the laiva of a tapcmroi called Tetnthyncbua, and Piofewir
brdman cmcludcd that ihc life-biitoiy of the peari paiaiite
'"■■•"—' of lour naget, the firtt beinj exhibited by Irce larvae
wUchweictaLenat the turface of theses, the lecond that in the
peail DTiter, tbe third a form found in the bodiei of file-hibei
■Uch feed on the oyitera, and the lounh or adult itagc living in
awBC qiedet of lai^ ny. It hai not horever been proved Ihal
tbe peail puaiitc it a Tetrariiyschui, iwr that II it connected
»Rh the free larva or the form fonndin tbefile-fith,Btlittetjnor
Wi the adoll form been identifcd. M thai It certain it that
the pearh are due to the pnaence of a panaite whkb It tbe larva
al a Cstode; all the real it prabaUlity or potilbilily. A French
nainraliii, H. Scurat. atodying tbe pearl cvtlet of ibe Cannbier
Aidupdago in Ibe Pacific, found that pearl formation was due
to ■ parasite quite liniilar to that described by Herdman and
HontlL Thii paraaite was described by Proftttor Ciard at
ptear. and the neizKbouring ulanda, and it allrd Zan&bar and
HadaEiKar ibell Bombay ihell it anolher local fonn tibrd in
... B__!.- ^^if ,jj iJiippid via Bombay. The P-" -^
il^rpiiad thell. Anotiier variety occun
a sulit crfio lb per (wTor ibell'i. ii
ca byDr JaraHoa aacTini-^ "
PEARSALU-PEARSON, C. H.
!ram bei.
" I roiucd tat, lad Fell in rntt dii
Add, liihillg, u AyKlf iHid:
It keeps him from bei. In tbe very cflort
^ hid " (Uiyed below ". —
:"i pLcHJUEc*'
The poem con^ta of one hundred ud one sUzuu, eadi ol
twelve liocfl, with fbur ecccnLA, Hiymed ab. ab, ai, ab, be, be;
effecls add to the euy movemeoi uid lyiidl chum of the lino.
Five iteuzis (la one oie six), with the suae refnio, consiiiute
■ lectioa, oi which iccoriintfy then ve twenty in all, the whole
lequeoce beinfi linked together by the device oC raaUng the
£nt line of each etsiua oitch up the refnin of the previous
vene, the hut line of the poem t^fdiouig the fint line. The
■ulhot wu not the creitor of tliit form, uoi »u he the lut to
uie it. Tlie eit«nt pieces In the metre ue thon leligious poenu.
some of the later (c.f. CaTt Ctttt^'aM, Calsdy attributed to
Scottiah authorehlp) revealing the influence of Ptart.
The dialect Is West Midland, or rather Nonh-Wcat hfidlaad,
aiKi the vocabulary la remarJtable For the blending ot native
speech with Scandinavian and Romance elementa, the latter
partly Anglo-French, and partly learned French, due to the
■ulhor'9 knowledge ol French litcialure.
" While the main part of the poem," according to CoUanci,
" is a pajaphrasc of the closing chaptera oF the Apocalypse and
the parable of the Vineyard, the poet'i debt to the Remaaitt s/
Uu Rose a noteworthy, more particularly in the deacnption of
the wonderful land through which the dreamer wanden; and il
can be traced throughout the poetn, in the per^jnificatioo of
Pearl as Reason, b the form of the colloquy, in the deiails ol
dress and ornament, In many a charactetlilic word, phrase and
rdertncev ' The river from the thiDae,' in the Apocalypae.
here tneeli ' the waters of the wells ' devised by Sir Uinh lor
the Cardeo of the Rose. From thae two sources, the Book of
RevelalioD. with its almoat Celtic gUmour. and Tbe Awiuu k/
lit Rne. with its almost Oriental allegory, are derived much ol
the wealth and briUIancy oF the poem. The poet's Fancy revels
in the richness of the heavenly and the earthly paradise, but
his fancy ^^ subordinated to his earnestness and inlenaily."
The leading dumi/i oF Ptart are to be found in the' Gospel—
in the allegory of the merchant who sold hu all to purchase one
pearl of great price, and in the words, ao fraught with solace for
the chtld-bercfl. "for of luch is the Kingdom o( Heaven."
Naturally arising from the theme, and From tlieae moliji. some
Iheologicai problems of the time are touched upon, or treated
aomew hat too elaborately pcrhapa, and an at tempt has been made
to demonstrate that Pearl a melety allegolical and tbeolo^cal.
and not really a lament. Those who hold this view surely Ignore
or fail to recognise the subtle personal touches wheieby the
poem transcends all its theolo^cat iuierals, and nukes its
tiDiple and diied appeal to the human heart. Herein, too. ties
its abii^ng charm, over and above the poetical talent, the love
of nature, colour and the pictuteaque, the technical skill, and
the descriptive power, which in a high degree belonged to tbe
unkrHwn poet
Various theories have been advanced as to (he authorship of
Ptart and the otfaei poems in the manuscript. The claims of
Huchown "of the Awie Ryale" have been tigoiously (but
unsuccessfully) advocated; the case in favour of Ralph Strode
(Chaucer's " philosophiol Strode ") — tbe moat attractive ol aQ
the theories — is still, unfortunately, " noi proven." By inecing
together the personal ladicsiioos to be found in the poenii
an imaginary biogtipby of the poet may be consiructed. It
may safely be iolened that he was bom about ijjo, somewhere
in Lancashire, or a tittle to the north; that he delighted in open-
air life, in woodctalt and sport; that his early life was passed
amid the gay scenes that biighlened existence in medieval hall
and bower; that he availed hlnuelt of oppoitunilia of study,
tlMotao and romance alike claiming him; that he wedded, and
had a child named Matgeiy ot Marguerite— tbe Daisy, ot the
PEARSON, J.— PEARSON, J. L.
29
fenenny regarded as the most brilliant <^ an ezcq>tionaUy
able set, and in 1854 obtained a feUowship at Oriel College.
His constitutional weakness and bad eyesight forced him to
abandon medidoe, which he had adopted as a career, and in
i8s5 he returned to King's Collie as lecturer in English language
and literature, a post which he almost immediately quitted
for the professorship of modem history. He made numerous
journeys abroad, the most important being his visit to Russia
in i8s8, his account of which was published anonymously in
1859 under the title of Russia^ by a Recent TrateUer; an adven-
turous joum^ through Poland during the insurrection of 1863,
ol which he gave a sympathetic and much praised account in
the Spectator', and a visit to the United Slates in 1868, where
be gathocd materials for his subsequent discussion of the negro
problem in his National Life and Character. In the meantime,
besides contributing regularly, first to the Saturday Review and
then to the Spectator, and editing the NatiowJ Review, he wrote
the first volume of The Early and Middle Ages of Engfand (1861).
The woriL was bitterly attacked by Freeman, whosie " extrava-
gant Sazonism " Pearson had been unable to adopt. It appeared
in 1868 in a revised form with the title of History of ^gjUind
dmring ike Early and Middle Ages, accompanied by a second
vdimse which met with general recognition. Still better was
the recqption of his admirable Maps of England in the First
Thirteen Centuries (1870). But as the result of these bbours he
was threatened with total bh'ndness; and, disappointed of
receiving a professorship at Oxford, in 1871 he emigrated to
Australia. Here he married and settled down to the life of a
sheep-farmer; but finding his health and eyesight greatly
improved, he came to Melbourne as lecturer on history at the
university. Soon afterwards he became head master of the
Presbyterian Ladies' College, and in this position practically
organLted the vtbxAt system of higher education for women in
Victoria. On his election in 1878 to the Legislative Assembly
be definitdy adopted politics as his career. His views on the
land question and secular education aroused the bitter hostility
of the rich squatters and the clergy; but his singular nobility
ai character, no less than his powers of mind, made him one
of the most influential men in the Assembly. He was minister
without portfolio in the Berry cabinet (1880-1881), and as
minister of education in the coalition government of 1886 to 1890
be was able to pass into law many of the recommendations of
his report. His reforms entirely remodelled state education in
Victoria. In 1892 a fresh attack of illness decided him to return
to England. Here he published in 1893 the best known of his
works, National Life and Character. It is an attempt to show
that the white man can flourish only in the temperate zones,
that the yellow and black races must increase out of all propor-
ticm to the white, and must in time crush out his civilization.
He died in London on the 29th of May 1894.
A volume of his Reviews and Critical Essays was published in
1896. and was followed in 1900 by his autobiography, a work of
great interest.
PBARSOH. JOHM (161 2-1686), English divine and scholar,
was bom at Great Snoring, Norfolk, on the 28th of February
161 3. From Eton he passed to Queen's College, Cambridge, and
was elected a scholar of King's in April 1632, and a fellow in
1634. On Uking orders in 1639 he was collated to the Salisbury
prebend of Nether- A von. In 1640 he was appointed chaplain to
the lord-keeper Finch, by whom he was presented to the living
of Tborington in Suffolk. In the Civil War he acted as chaplain
to George Goring's forces in the west. In 1654 he was made
weekly preacher at St Clement's, Eastchcap, in London. With
Peter Gunning he disputed against two Roman Catholics on the
subject of schism, a one-sided account of which was printed in
Paris by one of the Roman Catholic disputants, under the title
Scismc UnmashH (1658). Pearson also argued against the
Puritan party, and was much interested in Brian Walton's
polyglot Bible. In 1659 he published in London his celebrated
Exposition of the Creed, dedicated to his parishioners of St
Qonent's, ^stcheap, to whom the substance of the work had I
been pleached wevml years before. In the same year he I
published the Golden Remains of the ever-memorable Mr John
Hales of Eton, with an interesting memoir. Soon after the
Restoration he was presented by Juxon, bishop of London, to
the rectory of St Christopber-le-Stocks; and in 1660 he was
created doctor of divinity at Cambridge, appointed a royal
chaplain, prebendary of Ely, archdeacon of Surrey, and master
of Jesus College, Cambridge. In 1661 he was appointed Lady
Margaret professor of divinity; and on the first day of the
ensuing year he was nominated one of the commissioners for
the review of the liturgy in the conference held at the Savoy.
There he won the esteem of his opponents and high praise from
Richard Baxter. On the 14th of April 1662 he was made master
of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1667 he was admitted a
fellow of the Royal Sodety. In 1672 he published at Cambridge
Vindiciae episloiarum S. Ignatii, in 4to, in answer to Jean
Daill^. His defence of the authenticity of the letters of Ignatius
has been confirmed by J. B. Lightfool and other recent scholars;
Upon the death of John Wilkins in 1672, Pearson was appointed
to the bishopric of Chester. In 1682 his Annates cyprianici were
published at Oxford, with John Fell's edition of that father's
works. He died at Chester on the i6th of July 1686. His last
work, the Txoo Dissertations on Ike Succession and Times of the
First Bishops of Rome, formed with the Annates Pauiini the
principal part of his Opera posthuma, edited by Henry Dodwell
in 1688.
See the memoir In Biographia Brilannica, and another by Edward
Churton, prefixed to the edition of Pearson's Minor Theological
Works (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). Churton also edited almost the
whole of the theological writings.
PEARSON. JOHN LOUGHBOROUGH (i8i7-i897)» English
architect, son of William Pearson, etcher, of Durham, was bom
in Brussels on the 5th of July 181 7. He was articled at the age
of fourteen to Ignatius Bonomi, architect, of Durham, but soon
removed to London, and worked under the elder Hardwicke.
He revived and practised largely the art of vaulting, and acquired
in it a proficiency unrivalled in his generation. He was, however,
by no means a Gothic purist, and was also fond of Renaissance
and thoroughly grounded in classical architecture. From the
erection of his first church of Ellerker, in Yorkshire, in 1843,
to that of St Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1864, his buildings are
Geometrical in manner and exhibit a close adherence to pre-
cedent, but elegance of proportion and refinement of detail lift
them out of the commonplace of mere imitation. Holy Trinity,
Westminster (1848), and St Mary's, Dalton Holme (1858), are
notable examples of this phase. St Peter's, Vauxhall (1864),
his first groined church, was also the first of a scries of buildings
which brought Pearson to the forefront among his contempor-
aries. In these he applied the Early English style to modem
needs and modem economy with unrivalled success. St Augus-
tine's, Kilburn (1871), St John's, Red Lion Square, London
(1874), St Alban's, Birmingham (1880), St Michael's, Croydon
(1880), St John's, Norwood (1881), St Stephen's, Bournemouth
(1889), and All Saints', Hove (1889), arc characteristic examples
of his matured work. He is best known by Truro Cathedral
(1880), which has a special interest in its apt incorporation
of the south aisle of the ancient church. Pearson's conservative
spirit fitted him for the reparation of ancient edifices, and among
cathedrals and other historical buildings placed under his
care were Lincoln, Chichester, Peterborough, Bristol and
Exeter Cathedrals, St George's Chapel, Windsor, Westminster
Hall and Westminster Abbey, in the surveyorship of which
last he succeeded Sir G. G. Scott. Except as to the porches,
the work of Scott, he re-faced the north transept of Westminster
Abbey, and also designed the vigorous organ cases. In his hand-
ling of ancient buildings he was repeatedly opposed by the ultra
anti-restorers (as in the case of the west front of Peterborough
Cathedral in 1896), but he generally proved the soundness
of his judgment by his executed work. Pearson's practice was
not confined to church building. Trebcrfydd House (1850),
Quar Wood (1858), Lcchlade Manor, an Elizabethan house
(1873), Westwood House, Sydenham, in the French Renaissance
style (1880), the Astor estate offices (1892) upon the Victoria
Embukmcnl, Londan. Ibc mnoddUng of tbe interion of od UDthct apedition to tbe Arctic regioni. Id tliii ud uib-
ClkvcdeiiHauM(iSg3}andNo.iSC(rltonHauKTcmcc(iS94), lequcnt eipedillani be nccived fiiunoal lid from Mr Monii
with nuiny puunigu, thav his ipiitude f^i dotnatic uthilcc- Jaup ind the Feity Amic Club. Tbc peitat loieihought
lun. Id gcaenl dcsigD he fint liincd at foRD, embncirg both wb3 batawcd upoD the orguiiutiDn of Ihe eipeditjon, i four-
pnfnrlicMi ADd coDlour; uid hii wtak miy be recogiiii«d by yan' prograiDme being laid dovm at the outlet and a lyitcm
accuntc icholanhip coupled wiib hansooious deUil. Its key- of relief expedilioiu provided for. A diiUnctive feature wai
lUrtel ue caaliouuieu and lefinemenl niber than boldness, the utililllioa of a minpany oi Eskimos. All hough unsiKCeufiU
He died on tbe nth of Dccembec 1897, and wu buried in tbe u ngaidi the North Pale, the eipcdiiion ichieved the accurate
Mvt of Walminiter Abbey, where his gnve is marked by the survey (1900) of the nonbem limit of the GieenhiBd continent
appropriate motlo 5iultiiiiil d iieiliiiiiil. He maelccted A.R.A. and Ibe demonstration thai beyond it lay a Polii ocean.
Ini874, R.A. in iSSo, was a fcUow of the Society of Antiquaries, In i«ai Feary with Henun and an Eskimo advanced as
and a fellow and member of the Council of tbe Royal Institute far nonh as I4I. 84* 1;' Ij', tbe highest point then reached
of British Archiieas. in the western hemisphere. Lieut. Pcuy hid oon been
The [ollawirg are isme of Peanon's more imporunl woilii. promoted to the rank of Commander, and on his return he
not already named: Ferriby chuieh {lUb}: Slow, Lincolnihiie wis elected president of tbe American Geographical Society.
Iresiorallon. iBjo); WeybiMfe, S..];.me.'.Ji85i);_F.«l.«l church, ,„ November .903 be went to England on a naval commission
10 inquire into tbe system of nival batncks in Great
Britain, and was presented wiib tbe UviiwtDne Gold Medal
of Ibe Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Commander Feary
IhCD began prcpantions for another eipedilion by the con-
struction of a special ship, named tbe " Roosevelt." tbe Eiit
ever built in the United Slates tor the purpose of Arctic
PBART, ROBERT EDWIN (iBj6-
tjpbrer, was bom at Crcsson, Fennsylvai
1S56. He graduated (1 Bowdoin College
became a civil engineer in the U.S. navy w
■nt. In 1S84 he wis appointed asustant
with tbe surveys tor the Nicaragua Ship Ci
be WIS in chaise of these surveys. In iS!
of Greenland. Fiam this point be made
hundred miles into the inleHor, and thi . .
him with the practicability of using this so-(aIled inland ice-cip the narrative of this journey, fftaral die PbU, wis published.
ai a highway for exploration. In iSgi he organised an c:(peili- In iqoS Feary started In the " Roosevelt " on tbe journey
tion under the auspices of tbe Academy of Nilural Sciences <^ which wu to biing him his final soccess. He left Elah on the
Philadelphia. The party of seven included Lieut. Peary's iSlh of August, winLertd in Grant Land, Indselforwirdovcrthe-
pcdition. Alter wintering in Ingleficid Gulf on the noilh- >ii Itirtcd with him, and moved in sections, one in front of
wal coast of Creenbnd, in tbe fallowing spring Lieul. Feaiy, another. They were gradually sent back as supplies diminished,
with a young Noiwegiin, Eivind Astrvp, crossed the inland AI the end of the mo
ice-cap along its nonbem limit to the north-east of Greenland man left with Peiiy, ai
and back. The practical geographical result of this journey blitude then eh'er reacnea. reary, wun nis negro servant ana
was to esUblish tbe insularity of Greenland. Valuable four Eskimos, pushed dn, and on Ibe 6lh of April 1909 reached
work WIS also performed by the eipedilion in the dose the North Pole. They remained some thirty hours, took obser-
aludy which wu made of the isolated tribe of the Cape vitiona, and on sounding, a few miles finm the pole, found no
York or Smith Sound Eskimos, the most northerly people in bottom it ijoo filhoms. The party, with the eireption of one
the world.' Lieul. Feiry wis able to fit out another Arctic drowned, returned silely to tbe " Roosevelt," which left her
eipedition In rSgi, ind wis igain accompanied by Mrs Peary, winter quarlen on tbe iStb of July and leiched Indlin Hirbour
who gave hiiLb to a daughter at the winter quarten in Inglefield on the jlh of September, Peary's TMt Nordi Pile; lli Diivntry
Gulf. The eupcdition lEiumed in tbe season of 1894. leaving M igog wu published in igio.
Peary with his coloured servant Henson and Mr Hu^ C.Lee Just before the news came of Peary's success another
Hiis they succeeded in doing, but without being able to cairy Greenland to Europe on a Danish ship, claimed that he
the work o( eiplotaiion any farther on (be opposite side of
Greenland. During a summer excursion to Mdvilte Bay in
1S94. Peaiy discovered three large meteorites, which supplied
reported by Sir John Rosq in iSiS, ind on his return in 1(95
be brought the two smaller ones wiih him. Hie remaining
meteorite wu brought to New York In it9;. la 189S Lieut.
Peary published JVgrUwrd ata Ou Grtal la, a record nl all his
and in tbe same year he started
i90i, hiving two yeirs'supplin on board. The " Rooseveh "
wintered on the north cout of Grant Lind, ind on the list of
Februuy a start wu made with sledges. Tbe parly esperienced
serious delay owing to open water between 84" and Bj". >M
fiilhei north tbe ice wu opened up during a sii dsys' gale.
bad been established. A steady easterly drift wu esperienced.
in tbe 6th of May
But on the irst of April, 1906, 8j*6' was reached— Ihe"l>rthat
1S7,. and in lUi
DOIIh " attained by man— by which time Peary and his com-
hersnkoflieulen-
panions were suSering severe privations, and had to make the
ineer in connexion
return journey in the face ol great difficulties. They reached
, lndiniSS)-i8&S
; obtained leave of
from which, after a week's rat, Peary made i sledge journey
on the wat cout
along the north coast of Grant Land. Returning home, the
lurney of nearly a
expedition teMhed Hebron, Labrador, on the i)Lh of October,
the" Roosevelt " having been nearly wrecked «i route. In 1907
'9.T'''ifh'it}^'.
by Mn Pf.™. and con._
the uJeof J^NlKtic /MrW.
bad reached the North Pole t
>n tbe >i
It of April i<
308. He had
ied an expedition
northwa
rd in .907,
attempt t
0 reach the Pole if ■
m'danotding
tohisowi
1 story had done 10,
.leaving
his party an
d taking only
someEsk
imos, earty in .90S.
Nothi,
,g had been
beard of him
since Mai
perished.
Cook's daim to have fore
stalled Pear
y was il Ant
credited
ud he
was given
> rapturous
1 scientific opinion in
England and
™a more reserved.
dually, after a prolonged
dispute, .
, special committee
of tbe ti
iniveraity of
Copenhagen,
PEASANT— PECAUT
i Lai. >af0uu,
FBiUnr (O. Fr. taynnl. Mod. faym
bekuifuig lo tbe fifw orcouDtiy; d. "pigin j,i counirynian
or mstic, eitbei vroikiiig for Qtben, or, mor? ipecificillv, owDin|
DC natinc md mikiDi by hii own labour ■ imjiU plot ol (round.
Tliou^ a word of ool very ilriet ipplkition, il U now (lequenlly
uicd o[ tbe ninl population oi luch counttin u Fnnu, where
the Und a chiefly held by snull holdera, " peaiant prDprietor^."
(See Aluxthemts and Metayacc).
ftABE. m««BP (i;67-iSs8). the foundcl of a famoui
induHrial Quakn family in the noclb of England, was born at
Dariinfton on the jisi of May 1767, hl> fiihec, JoKph Peaie
zeiired from thia buunen Edward PeaH made the acquainiance
of Geor^ Stephenson, and with him took a prominent pan in
cofutructing the railway between Stockton and Darlington.
He died at Darlington on the jiit of July 1858. Hit lecond
SOD, Joaeph Peue lijgr'^l')- "bo auiued bii lather in bii
railway enterprites, was M.P. {or South Durham from iBst t»
l&4t, being the fint Quaker to Kit in parliament. He vtl
iateresled in c^lieriea, quarries and ironstone mines in Durham
factorcs; and be was aclive in educational and philanthropic
work. AnoLber son, Heniy Peue (iSoj-igSi), wa> M.P. for
Soulb Durham from iSjT <<> 1865. Like all the memben of
bii (amily be was a nipportec of Ihe Peace Society, and in its
interests he visited the emperor Nicholas of Russia just before
the outbreak of tbe Crimean War, and later the emperor ol the
French, Napoleon Ol.
Jo«ph Pease's eldot ion, Sir Joseph Whilwell PttM (iBiS-
iqoi), was made X buosct in 1883. He wa* M.P, lor South
Dnrbani fnm 1865 to i83i and far Ihe Barnard Caitle division
of Durfaunfrora iSSj to iqoj. His elder son, Sir Alfred Edward
Pea^ (b. 1857), who succeeded to tbe baronetcy, became famous
u a boDlet o( big ^me, and was M.P. for Vork from i38s to
1891 and for the Cleveland division of Yorkshire from i8q; to
1901. A younger son, Joseph Albert PeiM (b. i860), entered
parliament in i8gi, and in 190S became chief Liberal whip,
lieing advanced to Ilie cabinet at cbasctUoi of the ducby of
AaHbei ion ol Joieph Pease wu Arthur Pease (1837-1898),
member ol parliaineBt from iSSo 10 iBSj atul again from 1895
(o 189S. Hi* son, Herbert Pike Pease (b. 1867), M.P. foe
Darliiilon 1S9S-1910, was one of the Unionist Whips.
nt Diana el E4mBri Pan wen edited by Sir Alfred PeaK In
PUT (poBibly connected with Med. Lai. feiia, ttcia, piece.
ultimately ol Celtic ori^i d. 0. Celt, fil, O. Ir. fit, Welsh fiU,
DOftioD). a product of deayed vegeutioo found in the form of
ly parts of the wodd. The a
.of be
ie United States »,ooo,ooo
Bcre^ Tbe plants which give origin to thescdeposils are mainly
aquatic, including reeds, rushes, sedges and mosvs. Sfkagnitm
b present in most peats, but in Irish peat Thocumilnm lanugina-
nm predominates. It seems that the disinlegration of Ihe
vegetable tissues is eHected partly by moist atmiepheric oiida.
liofi and partly by anaerobic bacteria, yeasts, moulds and fungi,
in depmions containing fairly still but not stagnant water,
which is retained by an impervious bed or underlying sinli.
As decomposition proceeds the products become waterbgged
and link to the bottom of the pool; in the courM of time the
diposils attain a considerable thickness, atul the lower layers,
under the superincumbent pressure of the water and bter
deposits, are gradually compressed and carbonised. The most
ual ti
npeiati
relou
between laliludes 4^ N. and 45° S.
Peal varies from a pale yellow or brown fibrous substance,
mpKned hay. <»ntaIidD| coiupicuauB pUnl
»yi*n-H»%.
land, with lesser
E specific gravity
reached recourse
are allowed to
ing occasionally
icacid tower,
ilphale which
rrcial akohsl.
4vd. In another
d by A. MDnia
. Nynmn, Put
linei ol Canada.
nationalist,
SalieideB<im,
laalorat SiHe*,
lUnluitboiitjr.
32
PECCARY— PECK
He wu ciMiequtnlly compelled (a reiign hii pastorale, *Dd for
(ome ycus occupied bimseU by uipng Ibe doimi of * liberal
ChrisEianity. Id i87g he conducEed a general inKpection of
primary education lor the French govemmtnl, aod levi
limiLirmi^uiit followed. His fame chielly luti ir. his succes
ceaseless toiL He died on Ihe jist of July tS^.
A Himmary of hit educalioml vlen ii given in his Public Eii
Urn o>id /Jolwiai Life (1897)-
PBCCART. the name of the New World rrpmentitiva
the swine {Suidiu:) of Ihc E.hembphcre.ol which they conilil
lbe<ub-[*DiiiyZ>Kiil>JuHu[orrii(»]iitii«}. (See
■nd SwlNI.)
The teeth of the peccaries differ from those of the typical Old
World pigs (Sm), numerically, in waniinglhe upper outer incis.
and the anterior premobr on each sidE of each jaw, the dent
c. 1, p. I, m. 1, total ]8. From IboM of 1
5iiinae. the upper canines, or tusks, difli
dowDWarda, nol outwwxii 1
The Collared Peccary (Piial)lti lajaia).
upwards; these being very sharp, with cutting hinder edges.
slightly curved backwards. 1
series, gradually increasing in
molars having squire four-(
much more complex than in
Tithe first to the last: the
rowns. The stomach is
n the true pigs, almost approacking
:a(arsal bones, which are completely
nited at their upper ends. On the
and tilth) outer Iocs are equally
« the hiod-fool, although the inner
small, c
landed, disk-lil
d there ii
.ernal
appearance of a ta.
Peccatlcs,Hhich range IromNewMeiico andTeias to Patagonia,
are represented by two main types, of which the £nt is the
coUued peccary, Dv-iHyUi (or rafsisu) lajacu, which baa an
alen^ve range in South America. Generally it is found singly
not inclined to attack oilier animals or human beings. Its
colour is dark grey, with a white or whitish band passing across
tie tbesi from shoulder to shoulder. The length of the head
and body is about 36 in. The second form is typified by the
white-lipped peccary or wairi, D. (or T.) labiaias, or pecarit
representing the sub-genus Olidoiui. Typically it fa rather
larger than the collared species, being about 40 in. in length,
irth.
farther north than Cnatemala, or south ol
met with in large droves of from £f ty to a '.
ore pugnacious di^mition tbaa tbe forn
ct appear to produce more tl
1 peccaries relenble to the modem genus
in the caverns and superficial deposit ol South America,
It in the earlier formations. Thb, coupled witb tb*
?nce ol earlier types in North America, indicates that the
is a northern one. Of the eitinct North American
ics, the typical Dkulylcs occur in the PHoccncwhile the
IE BolMriolaliij, which has tusks of the peccary type,
imalcs in ths structure of its cheek-teeth to tbe European
ic genus among the S^iniu. From this it may be inferred
he ancestral peccaries entered America in the Upper
me. Plalyimia is an aberrant type which died out in
the PlcisiocenE. (R.L.*)
FECHUH. KARL PREDBIK (ifio-tToe), Swedish poUtldu
id demagogue, son of the Hobteln minister at Stockholm, was
educated in Sweden, and entered t:
>ihera
jsbyb.
type far ezallcma of the corrupt and egoistic Swedish parlia-
mentarian of the final period of Ihe Frihetstiden [see Sweden:
Hillary); be received for many years the sobriquet of " Genetal
' ' RUisdag." Fechlin first appears prominently in Swedish
e the "Hats" from impeachmc
ccluded from power by their forn
*echlin*s expulvon from the 1
: Enraged 11
■ friend, the ■■
3 following Riksdag] .
procured Pi
In 1769 Pecniin soia ine " tiats " as De naa lormeriy sola toe
largely instrumental in preventing Ihe pro-
jected indispensable reform ol the Swedish constitution. During
ion of 1771 he scaped from Stockholm and kept
the background. In i^&t, when the opposition
lavus III. was gathering strength, Pechlin reappeared
in the Riludng as one of the leaden of the malcontents, and Is
' have been at tbe same time in tbe pay of the Russian
Id 1 789 he was ooe of the depuiio whom Giutavus III.
ider lock and key till he had changed the goverDmeoE
emi-absolute monarchy. It is fairly certain that Pechlin
tbe bottom of the plot for murdering Custavus b 1791.
On the eve of the assassination (March 16) the principal
coDSpiniots met at hb house lo make tbeir final preparations
' " icusi the form of govemmeoE which should be adopted
lie king's death. Pechlin undErtook to crowd tbe fatal
rrade with accomplices, but look care not to be there
personally. He was arrested on the i7thol March, but DOihiDg
'iGnite could ever be proved against bim. Nevertbclen ha
as condemned to imprisonment in tbe fortien of Vubeis,
bEre he died four years laicr-
^^ R. N. Bain. CuUni ///. and til CntmfvrwKi (Londao,
•905).
(R. N. B.)
PBCBORA, a river of N. Russia, rising Ui Ibe Drab, almott
in 61° N., in the government of Perm. It flows W. for a short
'bout 66' !□' N. It then describes a double loop, to N. and
Jt S., and after that resumes its N. course, finally emptying
nlo the Gulf of Pechora, situated belw.xn tbe White Set ud
±e Kara Sei. Its total length is 970 m. At Its mouth it formt
in elongated delta- Although IroEen in its upper reaches lor
190 days in the year and for ij8 days in its lower reaches, it
3 navigable thniughoul Che greater part of Iti courae. Its
Irainage baun covers an aies ol 117,100 sq. m. Tbe principBl
.ributaries are, on the right, the Ilycb and the Va, and on tb
eft the lihma. the Tsylma and the Sula.
PECK, a dry measure of capacity, Espedatly nird for |niD.
[t eontaini B quarts or a gallons, and is ) of a bnthcL TtA
PECKHAM— PECORA 33
impoul peck ooUiD* S54-S4> cob. la., In Ibe Unilal Sutet PBCOCK (or Pucoci), RBOIHALD (c. ijqs-t. Mte), Eogliih
of America U?'C cub. in. The word is in M.E. fii, and pnlate and wiil«, was piobably bom in Wain, and wu edu-
■ [osnd laliniatd aa ptccMm or ^ia. In Hed. Lat. an lound catcd at Orid College. Oitaid. Having been ordained prieu
tii^imms. " mfluuia fnunentaria/' and ^attUt " inensura in 1421, he aecurcd a maatenhip in London in 14^1, and soon
" (Du Cange, Giou. j.n.). Tbese worda Bcem to be became prominent by hia altadca upon \bt religious poaitioD
iiilh tbe Fi. fittltr, topeck, of a bird, and thi< would of Ihe LoUarda, In 1444 he became biifaop of St Aaapb. and
identify Ihe word with " prck," ■ variant ol " pkk," a lap 01 aii yean later blihop ol Chichester. He was in adherent of
tinike of Ibe beak, especially tued o( the action of a biid in the houieof Lancaslerandin 1454 became a Die mbcr of the privy
ticking up grain 01 other food. The sense-developinnit in thii council. In attacking the LoUirds Pecock put forward trligious
cuekvery obscure, and the name of tbe measure i* found much viewi tal in advance al hit age. Heauerted thai the Sciiplures
earlier than " peck " as ■ vatiant [oim of " pick." were not the only Handaid of light and wrong; he quetlioned
PECKHAM, JOBa (d. iiQi). ucbblshop of Canierbuty, was lome of the aitides of Ihe cteed and the inliUibihty of the
probaUy a native of Suuei, and received his euly education Cfauich^ he wished " hi deer witte diawe men into conseme of
from the Cluniac monkl of Lewea. About iijo he joined the irewe [eilh otherwise than hi Ere and twerd 01 bangemenL " and
Franciscan order and studied in th^ Oxford convent. Shortly in general he eiallcd the authority of leatoo. Owing to these
alierwaids be proceeded to the university of Paria, where he views the archbishop of Canterbuiy .Thomas Bourchiet, ordered
look his degm Di>der St Bonaventure and became regent in his writings to be examined. This was done and be was found
tbeolosy. Fof many yean Peckham taught at Paris, coming guilty of heresy. He was removed from the privy council and
inte contact with the greatest icbolaia of the day, among others he only saved hJTTHflf from a painful death by privately,
St Tboma* Aquinas. About 1370 be relumed lo Oxford and and then publicly (at St Paul's Croaa. Dec. 4, I4j;), icaounc-
taufht there, being elected in 1375 provindal miniater of the ing his opinions. Pecock, who bag been called "tfie only
FranciHina in England, but be was soon aflerwardi called great English Iheologiaa of the ijth cestuiy," was then
IS Rome aa later ntri ftlaiii, or theological lecturer in the forced to le^gn bis bishopric, and wa* removed to Tliomey
■dnls of the papal palace. In I i;q be relumed to England as Abbey in Cambridgeshire, where he doubtless temalned until hia
archbiibop of Canterbuty, being appointed by the pope on the death. The bishop's chief work is the famous fUprasor of
rejection of Robert Bumell, Edward I.'s candidate. Peckham ettr-mndi nwfiiif [blaming] s/ tia Cletpt. which was issued
was always a slienlioua advocate of the papal power, especially about 1455. In addition to its great importance in the hialory
as sbown in the council of Lyons in 1174- His enthronement of the LoUard movement the Repraior has an exceptloDal
in October 1379 marks the bcgiiming of an important epoch interest as a model of the English of tbe lime, Pecock being
in Ibe history of the English primacy. Its characteristic note one of the first writers to use tbe vernacular. In thought and
wu an insistence on discipline which oSended contemporaries, style alike il ia the work of a man of icaming and ability.
Pedtham'a leal was not tempered by discernment, and he ed tolheedilion cJ Ihe Jle^tier
had little gift at aymuthy or imagination. His first act on ■■ Bold Striei in I860, Pecock'a
™«l in Er^iand -„ « call a council at Re^, which met in ■^J.^'^itt^'^^M^
July I J7» Its mam object was ecclesiastical reform, but the pro- „h„ ,„j „„ " [ and tbe Ftintr
viiioa thai a copy of Magna Carta should be hung m all cathedral are eiunt in maouiciipl. Hit
and coDegiale churchea seemed to the king a political action, n the manuKcipI in the libiaiy
aad parliament declared vmd any action of thil council fiVZi- otbL ifijoT"'' ''"'
[oacliing DO Ihe n^ power. Nevertheless Peckhom'j relation* _,-„,_., , ,,,,,. .^'\ . ' 1 j ■
■itb Ibe king were often cordial, and Edward called on him for PECORA (plural of Lat. p«u,. atUe), a term employed-m a
bdp a brining order into conquered Wales. The chief note •""« restricted «nse-m pbce of the oldn title Ruminantia,
ol bis actlvily waa, however, cenolnly eecleiuaalicaL The f designate the group of ruminaUng arliodactyle urwulates
crime of " pluraLty," the holding by one cleric of two or more "^™°"^. *>> o"™' '^'^: goals, antelopes, deer, giraffes, &c
beoefico, was especially attacked, aa also clerical absenteeism ^ The leading charactera.ics of the P«ora are given in some
and ignorance, and laxity in the monastic life. Peckham'. ^^ "• Ibe article A.ttod.ctyl* (e-..); but n u newssary to
main^riNmnit -as > minnte syuem of " visllation," which he •""'l* '= • '"" "f ""« bcre. Pecora, or true ruminants *1
used with a frequency hitherto unknown. Dispute, resulted, 'bey nay be convemently called, have complex .tom«hs and
ud on some pobts Peckham gave way, but his powers as papal '^'T "■= ""'■ ""^ """ °° upper inctsor teeth; and the lower
Icffle complicated matters, and he did much lo atrengthen canmes are approximated 10 the outer mcisors in such a manner
Ihe court of Canterbury at the eq«nse of the lower courts. """■ the tiree mcisors and the one canine oi the two sides
■nie famous quarrd with St Thomaj of Cantilupe, bishop of coUecUvely form a conUnuous semicircle ot lour pairs ol nearly
Hereford aroe out of sindlar causes. A more a\tiaclive^de 'i''<^ '«tb. In the cheek-teeth Ihe component columns are
«i Peckham's career b hi. aflivity aa a writer. The numerous creKenl-shaped, constituting the »^"|-il 'JT*. In the fore-
Banusciipls of his works to be found in the libraries o( Italy, bmbs the bones corresponding to the third and fourth tneUcar-
Endand and Fiance, lalify to his industry as a philosopher P^j[ "b' P'tf '™t "f f"sed into a cannon-bone; and a umilir
ai comioenUtor. In philosophy he represents the Franciscan condition obtain, m the c^ of the correspondmg met. ™ls
■cbool whidi attacked the teaching of St lliomas Aquinas ^ 'bt hind-hmbs. There is generally no sagittal crest to the
CO the " Unity of Form." He wrote in a quaint and eUborate ''"^i "••^ 'be condyle of Ihe lower jaw Is transversely ebngated.
»k « Kientifie, scriptural and moral subjects and engaged Another general, although iwt universal characlmstic of the
>a much eontioversy in defence of the FrandKan nde and P«o™ " "b" presence of smiple or coin plea appendages oo the
mclke. He waa "an excellent maker of songs," and his forehead commonly known as horns. In a lew eusting speaes,
hynm. are characteriied by a lyrical tenderness which seems '"Ch aa Ihe musk-deer and the walcr-deer, these appendages
■Tpieally Francicaa. Printed examples of his work as com- "= .b«nt, and they are biewise locking ,n a large number
Deotalai ud hymn writer re^iectivdy may be found in the "i e"^" members of the group, m fact 'n aU "« ailieroaa.
nmtmlMM IriMM «din«„ (Paris, iju), and his offiee (or Tbey are, therefore, a speaab«d fealure, which baa only recenUy
Trail, Sunday ia the " unrefotmed " breviary. attained its full developmcnU
The chM aatheiity on Peckham ai archbidiop of Canterbury, These hom> present several distinct stractural lype^ which may
■ ihe Sttiamm frtlrij /ilkimu PetMkam. edited by C Trice beclaHi6eda^tollowJ^— , , . ,.,... .
Mania lor tbe Rolls Series (London, iMj-iMj). * ■ympathetic I. The BmpleMtyw u thai of the elraffe, in which^three bop^
^bkIci iwiMrtiei (Lyons. 1615. 16H)- See also the' article by •eparate from the underiyinE bone, and cpvenfd during life with
C L King^ixd in DkL ft'al «»*., and WUkb's Cotalia murnat (km, occupy the front surface of the pkuU. , The suminm of the
■ -. ."»^| . -J-, * CE.O'lf.) hind pair are wmnHuited by bnally ban In Ihe ertioct
34 PECORA
Sjmlktrlnm Aam an too ptin of tuch aiwDdiLteBi ot wUch tbe
bindcf iiT UTfVAiid wen probably covtfcd durinff life either with
■Un «c Udn Mrn. Ib tbe (inB« tbc Kpantion ^ tbe bonu Irom
the ikull mr b« ■ defenente duractcr,
II. In the AiUtic miinlju deer we Had w pair of ikin-covend
bonii. or '^pedidee,' correapODdinK to the paired homa of tbe
Dr Gadow b thai calm and Ian
age. The Bmdtu are thua bniu|
L the American prongbuck (tbe di
.— Hc«l ot SamCK Dor (Cant ulumbiirilni). ihowlas
lodaiy outarowtba, at fint covered
K BEDWth ol a rini of booe at the bu
iiially drve up aod Ipava bacT boa
the muntjac the bare boiiy part, oi
ji a' inu^ dead 'bo«
e coiuequeatly ibcd at
■lumal becamea past It* pnme, they aie larger than tba
BDT8. The perioaical thcdding ii alao nnxHary in order
an confined to the malca.
III. The third type of horn ii pcaenled by the
pronirbuclk or pr — ^ — ' — ■-:-l *. . __(.__
'npUceStahinft
ahed and renewed, although tj
akui to hair La itruclure, thui ■uncatioff amnity witi
aunikOUDiLng the firafle'i bonu. Femaie proogbudc hi
ii imaU Ja prDpoii.ivii ^v
■t the evpeiue ol the pcdici
Uke the SiameK deer {if >
dangeraui; aod the intle
fallow of
AuUiRof
-two-lobed
miaJmaied.
which were antied with « very
. HdlaMlunum waa aiau^
irnkaa tkulL Inun tbe PtiocfM
IomIc. In ibacqiiaUjr Urii
PECXJRA
Muihew then, however. Ikil tin ikdttoii ol
deer. Agiin, tlK
4 « Ivn number
tHigbuck, thereby
il gl the •kclewii.
ltd Uirycaia u
QBgbiick In rveiy
buck, u (nKtope
leltB view JTrn-
iQnl^ipendeBn,
type ctuiaclefinic tA AnHrncan dnr — with an ■nlilDpirw Type of
■Ku1[, tkeletDD ftod leelh in JJrrycodia ia a m«1 inltrnliDf and
unexpected feature. Mtrjcodus wai named many yran ago by
' aa Cturjx. lo nWh Bfiutoiilmii icemi to be allieif.
* dlacoveiy o( the tVeliton of tbe ^
d Ba Ciiaryr, lo wTucli Blastomays mma to be allkd
itai EUL the dlacovety of the "'"' "' " '"" "" — '^"' *~
Mi Mallhew waail poaublc t. , ,
the aflanilfea of thia remarkable ruminant-
AnlUeapndai.—'&v many modem wiiien the American proni-
buck, pninKhom « ^' anKfope." alone lorming the genua AxtiH.
type ala family — AnlUata^ridttc. The chatacleriilk of lh» iamily
leelh are laU-croviiEd (hypxtdoiitj, and lateral faoofi are wanting
Bavidar, — Lasily. we have the great family of hollow-hDmed
ruminanif or Brnidat. in which the homa (preHnt in the main et
Icaat di all the eiiitin^ ipeciea) lal« the form of umple non-deciduoua
bolkiw vbeath* nnwmg upon bony corea. At a rule the molart
ue tall-CTOwned (hypHxlDntl. Utnally only one orihre lo Ihe
lachrynui canal, uiualed inside Ihe rim ol the orbit, Ijch^miJ
moteoilen ate represented by Ihe hoofa ilone. njpportcd fronetiiree
by a very rudimenlaiy ikeleton, conaisling of mere irregular noduls
ot bone. Lower endi of the lateral metacarpals and metaiarsli
never preseni. Call-bladder almoit always present. Placenta
The BohIiii form a mo9t eitensive family, with membeti widely
distributed throughout the Old World, with Ihe exception of the
Auuialian nsion; but in Amerka Ihey aie len nvmerous, and
eonhoed lo the Arctic and norihcm lempente regions, no speciea
hcing iit^geiKHU dtfaer to South or Central America. The home
of Ihe fatmly was evidently the Old World, >hen» a unall number
now Bcrin; Strait. Il has already
Cfnidat oruinaled in. the northern ci
and il has been su^gesEcd thai the
of the Ibsvyi^'ao African origin of
36
PECS— PEDANT
muit for the present be sujipended. ^ For the various generic of simple working people, who, apart from their peculiarity.
tjjes^see Bovidab, and the special artKles referred to u^e£ that ^ave a good repuUUon; but their avoidance of profeiaional
** \ • / medical attendance has led to severe criticism at inquests on
Pics (Ger. Panfkircken), a town of Hungary, capital of chUdrcn who have died for want of iL
the country of Baranya, 160 m. S.S.W. of Budapest by rail. PEDAOOGUB, a teacher or schoolmaster^ a term usuaUy now
Pop. (i9oo),42,a5i. It Ues on the outskirts of the Mecsek Hills, appUed with a certain amount of contempt, implying pedantry,
and is composed of the inner old town, which is laid out in an dogmatism or narrow-mindedness. The Gr. reuiayuyif («uf .
almost regular square, and four suburbs. Pfe» is the see of a boy. AYcnrAj, leader, fty^w, to lead), from which the English
Roman Catholic bbhop. and its cathedral, reputed one of the >^ord is derived, was not strictly an instructor. He was a
oldest churches in Hungary, b also one of the finest medieval slave in an Athenian household who looked after the personal
buildings in the country. It was built in the nth century in safety of ^^ »»» of the master of the house, kept them from
the Romanesque style with four towers, and completely restored *»d company, and took them to and from school and the
ini88i-i89i. In the Cathedral Square is situated the 5ac«tf«m, gymnasium. He probably sat with his charges in scbooL The
a subterranean brick structure, probably a burial-chapel, dating boys were put m his charge at the age of six. The vaiiayury^',
from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th century, being a slave, was necessarily a foreigner, usually a Thradan or
Other noteworthy buildings are the parish church, formeriy a Asiatic The Romans adopted the paedagogiu or pedagogus
mosque of the Turkish period; the hospital church, also a former towards the end of the repubhc He probably took sonw part
mosque, with a minaret 88 ft. high, and another mosque, the »» the instruction of the boys (see Schools). Under the empire,
bbhop's palace, and the town and county halL Pto has the pedagogus was specifically the instructor of the boy slaves,
manufactories of woollens, porcelain, leather and paper, and ^bo were being trained and educated in the household of the
carries on a considerable trade in tobacco, gall-nuts and wine, emperor and of the rich nobles and other persons; these boys
The hills around the town are covered with vineyards, which lived together in a paedagogium, and were known as ptten
produce one of the best wines in Hungary. In the vicinity are paedagogiani, a name which has possibly developed into
valuable coal-mines, which since 1858 are worked by the Danube " P^se " (q.v.).
Steamship Company. PEDAL CLARINET, a contrabass instrument invented in
According 10 tradition P6cs existed in the time of the Romans "891 by M. F. Besson to complete the quartet of clarinets, as
under the name of 5<>mp/a«fl, and several remains of the Roman the contrafagotto or double bassoon completes that of the
and early Christian period have been found here. In the oboe fanuly; it is constructed on pracUcaUy the same principles
Frankish-Gcrman period it was known under the name of as the clarinet, and consisU of a tube 10 ft. tong, in which cylin-
Quinque ccclesiae; its bishopric was founded in 1009. King dncal and conical bores are so ingeniously combined that the
Ludwig I. founded here in 1367 a university, which existed acoustic principles remain unchanged. The tube is doubled up
until the battle of Mohics. In 1 543 it was taken by the Turks, twice upon itself; at the upper end the beak mouthpiece stands
who retained possession of it till 1686. out like the head of a viper, while at the tower a metal tube, in the
PBCTOIIAL, a word applied to various objccU worn on the *bape of a U with a wide gloxinea-shaped bell, is joined to the
breast (Ut. pectus) ; thus it is the name of the ornamental plate wooden tube. The beak mouthpiece is exactly like that of the
of metal or embroidery formerly worn by bishops of the Roman other clarinets but of larger size, and it is furnished with a single
Church during the celebraUon of mass, the breastplate of the or beaUng reed. There are 13 keys and a rings on the tube, and
Jewish high priest, and the metal plate phced on the breast of the fingering is the same as for the B flat clarinet except for the
the embalmed dead in Egyptian tombs. The " pectoral cross," eight highest semitones. The compass of the pedal clarinet ii
a small cross of predous metal, is worn by bishops and abbots as follows: —
of the Roman, and by bishops of the Anglican, communion.
The term has also been used for the more general " poitrel " or Notation—
" pcitrel " (the French and Norman French forms respectively),
the piece of armour which protected the breast of the war-horse
of the middle ages.
PECULIAR, a word now generally used in the sense of that
which soldy or exdusivdyb^ ^h^ instrument is in B flat two octaves bdow the B flat
fatic of, an individual; hen« strai^e, odd, qu^r. The Ut ^^. ^^ ^^ . .^ j^ ^ transposing instrument, the musk
pecutuxru meant pnmarUy " bdonging to pnvate P^Perty," ^ ^^ttek in a key a tone higher than thkt of the
and IS formed from puuhum pnvate property Particukrly eoir^osition, and in ord<i to avoid ledier lines a whole ocUv«
the property given by a paUrfamtluxs to his children, or by a highVbesidk The tone is rid, and fuU except for the lowest
master to his slave, to enjoy as their own. As a term of ecdesias- ~*;^ wk.vu ,^ ,.««^{^«ki„ . i;*f u «»..»». ;ZZ»»k*'^ k..* -.«-.w
Ucal law " peculiaV " is appUed to those ecclesiastical districts. °*^'«' ^**^^ are unavoidably a htUc rough m quahty, but mudi
UV4U WW P«.wii«. w Pi/*.»^ , •,.* more sonorous than the corresponding notes on the double
parishes chapeU or churehcs, once num^^^ ^^^^^^ The upper register re^bl« the dudumeau legistef
"V^u^'T^"' ^^* ^-J^T'' A K -^U • -^nn of the B flat dariMt, ^ reedy and sweet The inst^oit
which hey were situated, and were subjecljo a jun^c^^^^^^^^ is used as a fundamenul bass for the wood wind at Kndkr
" pecuhar to themsdves They were introduced ongmaUy^ ^^y ^„^ j^ has also been used at Covent Garden to accompei^
^. r"lT" ^^^^ authonly, in order to limK the poweni ^ ^^^ ^ p^ ^ ^^^^^ ^ ^ Nibdungtn RingT^
of the bishop in his diocese. There were royal peculiars, e^. ^^ * •
the Chapel Royal St James's, or St George's Windsor, peculiars Many attempts have been made since the beginning of the
of the archbishop, over certain of which the Court of Peculiars iQth century to construct contra clarinets, but all possesseoinhereat
exerdscd jurisdiction (see Arches, Court of), and peculiars fa"'5« »"<• »«vc been discarded (see Batyphone). A coatrabass
^r w:ci.«^ -«^ ^-.— A.-^ rk...»\ tu- :..m<.<4:^:^» »1.a rv«*«: clannet in F, an ocuve below the basset horn, constructed by
of bishops and deans (sec Dean). The jurisdiction and pnvi- ^,,^^ ^j g^^,^ i„ ,8^ ^^ ^^ l^,j^^ considered suocessflZ
leges of the peculiars were abolished by statutory powers but it differed in design ^m the pedal clarinet. (K. S.)
given to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners, by the Ecclesiastical
Commissioners Acts 1836 and 1850, by the Pluralities Act 1838, PEDANT, one who exaggerates the value of detailed emdillon
the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Act 1847, and other statutes. for its own sake; also a person who delights in a di^lay of the
PECULIAR PEOPLE, a small sect of Christian faith-healers exact m'ceties of learm'ng, in an excessive obedience to tbeoiy
founded in London in 1838 by John Banyard. They consider without regard to practioU uses. The word came into Englttli
themselves bound by the literal interpretation of James v. 14, in the latter part of the i6th century in the sense of schoolmaster,
and in cases of sickness* seek no medical aid but rely on oil, the original meaning of Ital. pedante, from which it b derived,
prayer anc^ nursing. The community is in the main composed The word is usually taken, to be an adaptation of Gr.
@=^s
Real Sound»~
tval
to tacfa. Otben connect «
(Ut. t*'. [>»0. oF in vsiur
PSDEM, ALBZANDEB ((. [6»
the kading ^nxs in the Cove
Auchindoich, Ayrahirc, aboul
Glueow Oi " ■
PEDEN— PEDIPALPI
ith in O. lul. ftian. to tnmp about
37
ulhidloltav
EjccIiDoit Aft ia i66j
tninpnB cooifort ind succour 10 d
»ny narrowly tjciping ciptuce H
i6t3 while holding ■ convcnikcic at
bt ibc privy council lo 4 ynis lad
ibc Bib Rock ud a (lutba ij 1
EdinbuTsb. In Dcccrnbcr 1678 h
KnicDced to banufanKnt lo the Air
pinjr ni libcnted in London, and
nn) niinaler o( New Luct
lispamh under Middkion'i
1 he Hindered far and wide.
untry ai
north o! Irel
if hii tifc tielweti
Hial
1! spent
died in 16&6. worn out by hard^ip >nd privgiioo.
S« A. Srarfhe, Un ■/l*c CcttnaiU. ch. iiiiv.
PDEBSBM, CHBimEKK (c i4Sa-isst), Danish wriler,
known u the " Calber of Dani^ lileiature, " was 1 canon o[ Ihe
calbedral oi Lund, and in 1510 went lo Pars, where he laak his
nuler'i degree in 1515 In Paris he edited Ihe proverbs of Peder
Lule and [i;i4l ibc /riilsru tfauics of Siio Ciairmalicus.
He dowed sign) of Ibc ipiril ol relonn, aueiiing thai the
pispeb should be translated into Ihe vernacular so thit ihe
CODiinon people might understand. He worked at a contmuation
«l the hiltory ol Saio Gramma ticus. and hecame secretary to
CbriMian II., whom he followed into eiUt in ijij. In Holland
lie iruslated Ihe New Teslamenl (ijiq) and the Psalon (15J1)
Inmi the Vulgale, and, becoming a convert 10 Ihe reformed
opinioD, he bsued several Lutheran tr^c
Deamrk ii
paUitbed a Danish version {KiSi
Uk French romance of Ogier tlie Uane, and
Charlemagne legends, which is probablr derivi
Inm the Norwegian KoWtmiiifiini lata. His gn
Danish vetsioo of Ihe Holy Scriptures, which is k
u " Cbriaian III 's Bible, " is an importan
Danish lilerature. It was founded on Luthci
vatedited by PederPalladius. bishop olZcaliind.
See C. PeifcTsen'. Bmiti S*ri/«r. edited by C
B. T. FengH-is vol»..Copmh^en, 1850-1856).
FESESTAL (Ft. pWtllfli, Hal. pudalillc. foe
lerm geoefally applied to a support, square
t-l. piiicHt, tl it pt, tntlptw, fttyt". ^c. It is geneially
accepteriibaiibewpointtoicoiTuplionolFr, ^dcgrnc, foot
of a crane, and that the probable reference is lo the marki
resembling the daw of a bird found in old genealogie) showing
the lines of descent. Such etymologies as Minshea's ^r detr^,
by degrees, ot ffre dtpti, descent by the father, are mere
PBOIMBNT (equivilenla. Cr dirii, Lai. JaslitnM, Ft.
pentmi), in classic irchilecture Ihe Uiangulii-shaped portion a!
roof behind it. The projecting mouldings of the cornice which
lolliei
ol the
ilplure. The pediment in classic
othe gable in Gothic ■rcbiteclure, i
itch. It was employed by the Creel
vt which covered Ihe main building,
onally, in
The eaiiiesi English fo
PEDIPALPI, Arachu
destroying lis original purpc
ibe wold i> fcrimrni vr ftremi
onol" pycimid. "
• ) related to the splden, ■
mplan.
He
I a Slain, a
. Although
in Syria. Asia Minor and Tunisia the Romans
rued the cotumiB ol their lemplet ot propylaea on square
pedestals, in Rome ilulf Ihey were employed only to give
giealei importance to isolated columns, such as those of Trajan
lad AaioDiout, or as a piJi»m to the columns employed decor.
sitvely in the Roman iriumphil arches, Tlie architects of the
^ived il;
boul a pedestal, and *i 1h
divide up and decorate a building in
I the pedestal wai carried through :
it of considerable dimensions, the pedestal is 1 j t
g( the ordinary height of ] lo s It.
pubokictcal symptoms in man due to the p
Ifidiali). either on the head (ptikului tapilii). b
trfirii. or nilituxlorum), or pubes IpriUuliii pw
FEDiaBEK a genealogical tree, a tabulaislilem
'ste CuEALOCv) The word 61st appears at th.
the isth century and takes an eitraordinary vai
ml of descent
beginning of
ely ol lorms.
lean tailed Pedipalp [ifoUrfs^oeliii t't""")-
t Amblypygl of w)iich Pkrymu is a commonly cited
! tactile appendages are eiccedingly long and lish-
isinlhe tailed division, Ihe Uropygi, of which Tbly-
'Tbrlyplionui and its allies, however, have a long tactile caudal
" " the homologue of ihe scorpion's slingi but its eiad
lown. A third division, theTartarides.asuboidinaie
group of the Uropygi, contains minute Arachnida diflering
" Iram Ihe typical Uropygi in having Ihe caudal process
lad short. Apart from tfes Tatlarides, the Pedipalp
38 PEDOMETER— PEEBLESSHIRE
tn Urte or medium-uicd Anchoidi. noctumal in hiUu ud Uwn. tht priodpd quarter, on the vHith of the Eddlolon, ud
^Mndinf llie diy uoder itono, lop of wand or loouDcd bark. Ibe old on the nonh, the Tweed ii croued by * huidionie Eve-
Some ipeds ol the Uropygi fTlidypbonidse) i^ bunowi; lod arcbed bridfe. Ftebln it i nolcd haunt of inglen. and tbc
b the east tbeie is ■ lamily ol Amblypyti, tbe Chanatidae, a[ Royal Compuy a( Atcbeis >)ioot hen periodically loi the silver
which maoy of tbe Ipecits live in the rtcCECS of deep caves, arrow (ivcn by Ihe burfh. The chiil public buildings are Ihe
Specimens ol anotha ipeda have been [ound under stones town and county halls, the com achaage, tbe hoepital. and
between tide marks in the Andaman Islands. The Fcdipalpi Chanibcn Instil ution. The last was once Ihe to»D house of the
feed upon insects, and like spiders, are oviparous. Tbe egp earlaof March, butwasprescntedloFeeblesbyWilliamChafnbeni
after bant laid are carried about by the mother, adherinj in a, Ihe publi^er, in 1859. The site o( the castle, which tlood till
glutinous mass 10 the underside of Ihe abdomen. Ihe beginning of Ihe i8Ih cenluty, is now occupied by the parish
Pcdipalpi date back to tbe Caibonilenius Period, occurring in church, built in iSS;. OlSt Andrew'! Churrb, founded in 1195,
depoaits ol that age both in Europe and North America. More- nolhmg remains but the tower, restored by William Chambos,
over, the two main diviiiani of the order, which were as sharply who was buried beside il in i88j. The thuitb tS the Holy
diSerenliated then as they are now, have eiisled practically Kood wai creeled by Aleunder HI. in iiiJi, lo eontaiu a
unchanged tiom that remote epoch, ' ... . . _
In spile of the untold ages they have been u exislence, Ihe
Fcdipalpi are more restricted in range than tbe scotpiona. The provide stones for a new pariril church. Pottioc
Uropygl are found only in Central and South America and in walls glUI eiisl, and there are also viullcd eel' ~
south and easlem Ava. from India and soulh China to the Solo- in the 16th and ijth centuries as hiding<pbces agamti noioer
mon Islands. The absence of the enliie order from Aliica a an freebooters. The old cross, which had stood fur several years in
Inleiesling fact. The distribution of the Amblypyff practically the quadrangle of Chambers Initilulion. was restored and
coverathatoflheUropygi.butinaddiliontheyeitendfromlndia erected in Higb Slreel in 1S45. The induslriet contiK of the
through Arabia into tropical and toulhem Africa. Both groups nunulactutei of woollens and tweeds, and ol meal and Sour
possibly of the eilrcme north! and in New Zealand. Very liltle The name of Peebles is said 10 be derived from the ptbylli. or
can be said with certainly about Ihe dill rib ulion of the Tartar- tcnls, which the Cadeni pitched herein Ihe diytof the Komans.
ides. They have been recorded from the Indian Region, West Theplace was earlyafavourile residence of the ScoU kings when
Africa and >uh-Iropiul America. (R. I. P.} they umc id hunt In Etliick forest. II probably received ill
FBDONEtEH (Lat. fa, foot, and Or. iihpBr, measure], an charter from Aleundei 111., was created a royal burgh in 136;
apparatus in the form of a watch, wliicfa, carried on the person and was Ihe scene of the poem of Ptblij u Uc Play, ascribed to
ol a walker, counts the number of paces he makes, and thus Jlmet I. In 1544 Ihe town sustained heavy damage in the
indicates approiimalely tbe distance travelled. Tlic ordinary eipediiioo led by the tst carl of Hcrlfoid,' alterwaids the
form hai a diatpbte marked lor yards and miles. The regis- protector Somerset, and in 1604 a brge portion of it utas
traliODisenectedbytbefallofaheavypendulum,uusedbythe destroyed by fire. Thougli James VI. eitended its charter,
pcrcusuon of each step. The pendulum is forced back to a Peebles lost its imporiance after the union ol Ihe Crowns. '
horiiontal position by a delicate spring, and with each stroke a On the north bank ol the Twceii. one mile west of Prcbtn. sands
fine-ioothed lalchet-whe*! connected with it is moved round a NcUlpaih Cauk. The ancient peel io*cr diit. probably Irom the
X'i"«'Jk'!'l«7ia^'Sn4r™rn"'?hf "'''■VuTiTm^^^^ Iro^ wffii ;l'iiS^y°"l°^^
mile or other known distance is walked and Ihe indication Cromwell in 1650. The third carl ol Twceddile <i64S-i;ij) Bid
thereby made on the dial-plalc observed. According as it is 100 "'?''" duke ol Queembcrry in 16S6. The carl of W«my» sue-
great or too small, the stroke of the pendulum is rfwttened or 'ecdm lo the Neidpaik property in 1810.
lengthened by a screw. Obviously the pedometer is liiile belter PEEBLESSHIRE, or Tweeddivle, a soutfaem inland county ol
than an ingenious loy, depending even for rough measuremcnls Scolbnd, bounded N and N.E. by Edinburghshire, E. and S.E.
on the uniformity ol pace nuunUincd throughout the journey by Selkirkshire, S. by Dumfriesshire, and W. by Lanarkshire.
measured. lis area is iii,sqq acres or 5478 sq. m. The surface consists
PEDRO II. {1815-1841), emperor of Braiil, came (0 Ihe throne of a suctoslon of hills, which are highest in ilie south, broken
in diildhood, hiving been bom on the ind of December iBis, by Ihe vale of the Tweed and the glens formed by its numerous
and nrorlaimed emnernr in Aoril 1811. uoon the abdication of tributaries. South of Ihe Tweed the highest pt^nts arc Brood
iw and Cnmall Craig on the confines of Selkirkshire (each
n Hei^ls (>3;i), Ttahcnna Hill (ngi), Fcnvalla (I'Tt^and
Ladyurd Hill (1714), and in the norih-west tbe Fentland emin-
ences of Mount Maw (i75]1, Byrehopc Mount (l7S>) and King
Seat (ijii). The lowest point above sea-level is on Ihe banks ol
his lather. He wa
s declared'
of fidl age in
1840. Fi
« a long
period few thrones
and his p
and beneficent ruli
! might have endured
throughoui
I his life
but for his want ol
te the sig
ns of Ihe
times. The rising
of Ihe imper
justly regauled as
ory, Ihe high.
er classes
had been
estranged by the en
lancipation
oftheshves,
andallth<
1 eipressio
n in a milita
which in
November .68? ov
renhrew the seemingly
solid edini
:e of the
Bruilian Empire in
afewboui
». DomPedi
■OKliredl.
.Europe,
and died in Paris
on the 5th of Dcccmbi
T iSot. Tbe chief
events ol his r«gn
had been
ie sbves,
in 1864-70.
Dom Fed
. The principal river is Ihe Tweed, and from the fad thai for the
first 36 m. of ils course ol 97 m, it flows through the soulh of
the shire, the county derives its illernalive name of Tweeddale.
Its affluents on Ihe right are the Stanhope, Dnmmeltier, Manor
and Qua>r;an Ihelell. the Biggar.Lyne, Eddlestone and Leilhen.
. The North Esk, risiog in Caimmuir, forms the boundary Ene
n Midlothian and Peeblesshire for about tour miles,
science and letters. He travelled in the United Suies (1876), at Habbie's Howe, where Allan Ramiay kid Ihe sceoeoltbe
and ihrice visited Europe (1371-1871, 1876-1877,1886-1880). Cniile Skrpierd. For 4 m. ol its course the South Mcdwin
PEEBLES, a royal and police burgh and county town of divides (he south-western part of the parish of Linton from
Peeblesshire. Scotbnd, situated at ihe junction of Eddlcston Unarkihire. Potlmoie Loch.asmallsheet of water i m. north-
Water with Ihe Tweed. Pop. {1901), 5166. It is 17 m. soutb ol cast ol Eddlestone church, lies at a hcighl of 1000 fl. above Ibe
Edinburgh by the North British Railway (» m. by road), and sia,andistheon1ylBkeinihccDunty. The dire is in favour with
is also tbe terminus of a branch line of the Caledonian vstem anglers. III streams being well stocked and
from Conuiri in Lanarkshire. Tbe burgh coDsisU of Ibe new restrictions being placed on Ibe fishing.
PEEKSKILU-PEEL, VISCOUNT
The hU'^dc icmcn i( Rommno (re coojectund, BDiewbM
[ucilully, to be remaini o[ a RomiD inelhod o( cullivllion. On
■iidtllhougb ibeyareuid lo hive been dcIuEed by King Anhur
al CidcRiuir in jio, Ibcy held the diitrict untU Ibe conuilidatioD
or (he kincdam ifler MiJcoJm It.'* victoiy at Carhao in lolS,
belon vhlch the lind. consliiitly fauried by Dan«, wu uoml-
nally Inctudtd in the teniioiy ol Nailhumbria. This iraci of
ScoUand it cJcoely usociated with the legend ot Uerlia. David I.
made the diitrict a deaneiy in the atthde«conry of Feeblci,
and it aJtcrwards fonned part of the dloceM <il Glasgow.
Toward! the middle of the iiih nniuty li wai placed under
the jurudiction of two iheriHi, one of whom wai HLtled It
cooauol a lowerdivuian. red and chocoUiIc marliand nndiloiM- Traqiiair and Ihe other at Peehin. Al Happrew, in the valley
a nkWlr diYiwn, vokanic rock^ pot^yriiM, tuffi, Sc., whkl. iri <^ ^^' L)'«p "« Engliih delealed Wallace in IJ04. The Scoltiih
diviBcn.siidHanand mnglonKnici. The <Duit-wm mtmniiy uplinds and Ihe adjoining (oreiU. Engliib armiei occaiionally
ii b.S^^2l^™ Sll'c"ctar«^ J^u ^ toS'nd ta**^ '""■'^ "" """•'^- *"" '"°" f'^"'"")' "« P"Pl* ""e harried
bctwen Saariu and OM Red nek. by Iwo irapocunl l.ulii. by Border raiders. Many FasLlei and peels were eiecled in Ibe
B«h CakHfcmH andxsne and Caibonifemu MmrXoni occur, valley of the Tweed from Ihe Bield 10 Berwick. Seve»1 we»
■itb niefal bed> ol eoal, timeilHie. iniulom. Gnclay and alum renowned in their day, among Ihem Oliver Caslle (buili
l^. Oliver Fruer in the reign ol David 1.), Dm:
ml. upofllh. h,gher g^ Thane's Caslle. and Neidpalh. Thre ■
Ihe valtyi. stand the ruins of Drochil CaKle.
L«eT OM Bed Sandslonc. lies soalh of Lintoi. Much glaiia'l t ™,'™ , " '"f Jt'?," V Vu '' "™""""
bouklei cla>,wiih gravel aod sand mis upon Ihe higher ground. Thanes Caslle, and Neidpalh^ Three miles south
CfiiHtf amd l*imslrici.-~Jbe annual nintaD avenges Irom Morion who wu behesdrd at Edinburgh in ijSi, and the
Si to «■ in-i Ihe Rieui temperature (or Ihe year is 47 ;* P., building wu never compleied. Uemonis of ihe Covenantcn
(or January J K* F, and (or July jo* F. The character ot the clmler around TWeedhopeloot. Tweedsha»f», Corehead, Tweeds-
seal varies considerably, peat, grave] and clay being ail tepre- muir, Talla Linns and other spots, tn the churchyard of
senled. The low-lying linds consist generally ol rich loam, Twecdimuir is the tombstone of John Hunter, the (Datlyr,
composed o! sind and clay The larming is pastoral rather than which was retellcred by " Old Mortality " The " men ol Ihe
arable. The average holding is about no acres of arable land, moss hags " did lillle Aghling in Pceblesihitr, but Manlrose hrH
wilb pulunge for (ram 600 lo Soo shnp. Roughly speaking, drew nin at Traquair House alter he wis delealed at Philip-
o«-Gllh of the total area i* under cullivation. Oils ire the haugh on the Yarrow in ifi*;. The plain of SheriOmuir near
ckiefgninaBd turnips Ihethief root crop. The bill paslutii are Lyne i) Ihe place where the Tweeddale wapinscbaws used to be
bettersnitedlosbeepthantocattie, but both flocksandherdtire held in Ihe IJth century. The Jacobite risings left the county
conparatively large. Cheviou and ha! 1 -bred s ire prelcrrtd for unlouched, and since the beginning ol the i^lh century Ihe ihirt
the grass lands, the heathery ranges being stocked with black- has been more conspicunus in literature than in politics.
m Ayrshires and shorthon
. „. J. B. Cuni
: Sir CeoijT Rcid
ig Aynhirc. Many o( Ihe horses are Oydesdales bred ^y ProfSLr Vcilrh) (Edjnbutih, 1M4) ; Profwor
inty. Pig-keeping is on the decline. A(ewacrohBve anif /-Kn o/ife Jmuti* BwJir (Edinburgh. 1S9J) _.._,
been laid down ai nuneriei and market gardens, and about (Edinbunh. i«9«); Rev W. S. Cmckeii, r*t StM Ctunlr, (Ed.
„ ^.,_ _ „. Apart from PBBKSKILt. a village of Westchester county, New York,
agrKolture. the only induslricsare the woollen lacloriesand flour USA., on the E. bank oi the Hudson River, about 41 m. N.
Bulliat Peebles and Innerleithen. of New York City. Pop. ti«io, censusj, 15,145. It il served
TheNonbBritish tailwaycrosscsthecounlyinthenonhFrom by the New York Centril & Hudson liver railway, and by
Leadbum to Dolphinton, and runs down the Eddleslone valley passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Hudson river.
rmnUadbumtoPeeble!aiidThomidee,whileinlhtsomhihe The village it Ihe home of miny New York business men.
Caledonian railway connects the county town with Bixgar in At PeekskiU are the Peekikill military academy (1833, doq-
Unaikihire. seclariinl; St Mary's school. Mount St Gabriel (Proteslanl
Pspwlmiai and AdmiHiitraHoH.—Jn 1901 the population Episcopd), a Khool (or girls esiabbshed by the sisterhood ot
Eembeied i;,o«or43 petvins to the K). m. In iijoi one person St Mary; Ihe Field memorial library; St Joseph's home (Roman
■mkeCaeliconly, 71 Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Catholic); the PeekskiU hospital, and aeveial »aBitori».
Peebles (pop sj64) and Innerleithen (jiSi) West Linton, on Near Ihe village is the (tale miliiaiy camp, where the national
Ly»e Water, is a hididay resort. The shire combines wiih guard ot the stale meets in annualencampment. Peekskillha*
Sdkirkshiie to return one member to parliament, the electors many manulactutes, and Ihe factory products were valued in
of Peehle* town voting with the county Peeblesshire (orms a 190s al *7.»S'.89J. " increase of 306.7% since i»oo. The site
4cri(tdain with the Loihians and a sheriH-substitute uis in was letlled early in Ihe 18th century, but the village itsell dales
■heCDanty lawn- There is a high school in Peebles, and one from about 1760. when !l look lis present name from the ad|acent
or moniebools in tlie county usually earn grants for secondary creek or "kill," on which a Dutch trader, Jans Peck, of New
tiocMtioa. York City, had esiablished a trading post. During Ihe lalter
Hijtory.-Thecounlry wasoriginallyoccupiedbytheCadeni. part ol Ihe War of Independence PeekskiU was an important
a British tribe, of whom there are many remains in the shape of ouipo^l ol the Conlinental Army, and m Ibe neighbourhood
camps and sepulchral mounds (in which stone coffins, aies and several small engagements were toughl between American and
hunnen have been found), while several place-names (such ai British scouling parties. The village wm incorporated >n 1816.
PttUes. Dalwick and Slobo) also allot their presence The PeekskiU was the country home of Henry Ward Beecher.
lUnding Moaa near the confluence of the Lyne and Tweed are PBBL. ARTHUR WBLLBSLST PEBU 1ST ViscOUNI
nppB«d to (omiBemoiate a Cymric chief. The natives were (iSjo- ). Englrsh statesman, youngest son o( the great
nduced by the Romans, rfjo have Ml Iran* of their military Sir Robert Peel, was bom on Ihe jrd of August 1819. and was
I* in the bM camp al Lyne. locally known ai Raodal's Walls, educated at Eton and Balliol College, Oxford. He unaucceasfully
+0
PEEL, SIR ROBERT
contested Coventry in 1863; in 1865 he was elected in the
UbenI interest for Warwick, for which he sat until his elevation
to the peerage. In December 1868 he wasappointed parliamentary
secretary to the poor law board. This office he filled until 187 1,
when he became secretary to the board of trade, an appointment
which he held for two years. In 1873-1874 he was patronage
secretary to the treasury, and in 1880 he became under-
secretary for the home department. On the retirement of Mr
Brand (afterwards Viscount Hampden) in 18S4, Peel waselectcd
Speaker. He was thrice re-elected to the post, twice in 1886, and
again in 1892. Throughout his career as Speaker he exhibited
conspicuous impartiality, combined with a perfect knowledge of
the traditions, usages and forms of the house, soundness of judg-
ment, and readiness of decision upon all occasions; and he will
always rank as one of the greatest holders of this important
office On the 8th of April 1895 be announced that for reasons
of health he was compelled to retire. The farewell ceremony
was of a most impressive character, and warm tributes were paid
from all parts of the house. He was created a viscount and
granted a pension of £4000 for life. He was presented with the
freedom of the City of London in July 1895. The public
interest m the ex-Speaker's later life centred entirely in his some-
what controversial connexion with the drink traffic. A royal
commission was appointed in April 1896 to inquire into the
operation and admmistration of the licensing laws, and Viscount
Peel was appointed chairman. In July 1898 Lord Peel drew up
a draft report for discussion, in five parts. Some differences of
opinion arose in connexion with the report, and at a meeting of
the commissioners on the i3th of April 1899, when part 5 of the
draft report was to be considered, a proposal was made to
substitute an alternative draft for Lord Peel's, and also a scries
of alternative drafts for the four sections already discussed.
Lord Peel declined to put these proposals, and left the room
Sir Algernon West was elected to the chair, and ultimately two
main reports were presented, one section agreeing with Lord
Peel, and the other — including the majority of the commis-
sioners— presenting a report which differed from his in several
important respects. The Peel report recommended that a
large reduction in the number of licensed houses should be
immediately effected, and that no compensation should be paid
from the public rates or taxes, the money for this purpose
being raised by an annual licence-rental levied on the rateable
value of the licensed premises; it at once became a valuable
weapon in the hands of advanced reformers.
Lord Peel married in 1862, and had four sons and two daughters
(married to Mr J. Rochfort Maguire and to Mr C. S. Goldman).
His eldest son, William Robert Welleslcy Peel (b. 1866), married
the daughter of Lord Ashton; he was Unionist M.P. for South
Manchester from 1900 to 1905, and later for Taunton, and also
acted as Municipal Reform leader on the London Cotmty
Council.
PEEL, SIR ROBERT. Bast, (i 788-1850), English statesman,
was born on the 5th of February 1788 at Chamber Hall, in the
neighbourhood of Bury, Lancashire, or, less probably, at a
cottage near the Hall. He was a scion of that new aristocracy
of wealth which sprang from the rapid progress of mechanical
discovery and manufactures in the latter part of the i8th
century. His ancestors were Yorkshire yeomen in the district
of Craven, whence they migrated to Blackburn in Lancashire.
His grandfather, Robert Peel, first of Peelfold, and afterwards of
Brookside, near Blackburn, was a calico-printer, who, appre-
ciating the discovery of his townsman Hargreaves, took to
cotton-spinning wit h the spinning- jenny and grew a wealthy ma n.
His father, Robert Peel (i 750-1830), third son of the last-named,
carried on the same business at Bury with still greater success,
in fMirtnership with his uncle, Mr Ha worth, and Mr Yates, whose
daughter, Ellen, he married. He made a princely fortune,
became the owner of Drayton Manor and member of parlia-
ment for the neighbouring borough of Tamworth, was a trusted
and honoured, as well as ardent, supporter of Pitt, contributed
munificently towards the support of that leader's war policy,
and was rewarded with abaronetcy (1800).
At Harrow, according to the accounts of his contemporaries.
Peel was a steady industrious boy, the best scholar in the school,
fonder of country walks with a friend than of school games,
but reputed one of the best football players. At Christ Church,
where he entered as a gentleman commoner, he was the first who,
under the new examination statutes, took a first class both in
classics and in mathematics. His examination for his B. A. degree
in 1808 was an academical ovation in presence of a numerous
audience, who came to hear the first man of the day. From
his classical studies Robert Peel derived not only the classical,
though somewhat pompous, character of his speeches and the
Latin quotations with which they were of ten happily interspersed
but something of his lofty ideal of political ambition. To his
mathematical training, which was then not common among
public men, he no doubt owed in part his method, his clearness,
his great power of grasping steadily and working out difficult
and complicated questions. His speeches show that, in addition
to his academical knowledge, he was well versed in English
literature, in history, and in the principles of law, in order to study
which he entered at Lincoln's Inn. But while reading hard be
did not neglect to develop his tall and vigorous frame, and, though
he lost his life partly through his bad riding, he was always a
good shot and an untiring walker after game. His Oxford
education confirmed his atachmcnt to the Church of England.
His practical mind remained satisfied with the doctrines of his
youth, and he never showed that he had studied the great
religious controversies of his day.
In 1809, being then in his twenty-second year, he was brought
mto parliament for the close borough of Cashel, which he after-
wards exchanged for Chippenham, and commenced his parlia-
mcntary career under the eye of his father, then member for
Tamworth, who fondly saw in him the future leader of the Tory
party. In that House of Commons sat Wilberforcc, Windham,
Ticiiiey, Grattan, Perceval, Castlcrcagh, Plunkett, Romilly,
Mackintosh, Burdett, Whitbread, Horner, Brougham, Pamell,
Huskisson, and, above all, George Canning. Lord Palmerston
entered the house two years earlier, and Lord John Russell
three years later. Among these men young Peel had to rise.
And he rose, not by splendid eloquence, by profound political
philosophy or by great originality of thought, but by the closest
attention to all his parliamentary duties, by a study of all the
business of parliament, and by a style of speaking which owed
its force not to high flights of oratory, but to knowledge of the
subject in hand, clearness of exposition, close reasoning, and tact
in dealing with a parliamentary audience. With the close of
the struggle against revolutionary France, political progress in
England was soon to resume the march which that struggle had
arrested. Young Peel's lot, however, was cast, through h»
father, with the Tory party. In his maiden speech in 1810,
seconding the address, he defended the Walchercn expedition,
which he again vindicated soon afterwards against the report of
Lord Porchcstcr's committee. It is said that even then his father
had discerned in him a tendency to think for himself, and told
Lord Liverpool that to make sure of his support it would be well
to place him early in harness. At all events he began official
life in 1810 as Lord Liverpool's under-secretary for war and the
colonies under the administration of Perceval. In 181 2 he was
transferred by Lord Liverpool to the more Important but
unhappy post of secretary for Ireland. There he was engaged
till x8i8 in maintaining English ascendancy over a country
heaving with discontent, teeming with conspiracy, and ever ready
to burst into rebellion. A middle course between Irish parties
was impossible, and Peel plied the established engines of coercion
and patronage with a vigorous hand. At the same time, it was
his frequent duty to combat Grattan. Plunkett, Canning and
the other movers and advocates of Roman Catholic emancipation
in the House of Commons. He, however, always spoke on this
question with a command of temper wonderful in hot youth,
with the utmost courtesy towards his opponents, and with warm
expressions of sympathy and even of admiration for the Irish
people. He also, thus early, did his best to advocate and
promote joint education in Ireland as a means of rcconcOinf
PEEL, SIR ROBERT
4»
sects and raising the character of the people. But his greatest
service to Ireland as secretary was the institution of the regular
Irish constabulary, nicknamed after him '* Peelers," for the
protection of life and pn^rty in a country where both were
insecure. His moderation of tone did not save him from the
violent abuse of O'Connell, whom he was ill advised enough to
challenge — an affair which covered them both with ridicule.
In x8x7 he obtained the highest parliamentary distinction of the
Tory party by being elected member for the university of Oxford
— an honour for which he was chosen in preference to Canning on
account of his hostility to Roman Catholic emancipation,
Lord Eldon lending him his best support. In the following
year he resigned the Irish secretaryship, of which he had long
been very weary, and remained out of office till 1821. But he
atin supported the ministers, though in the affair of Queen
Caroline he stood aloof, disapproving some steps taken by
the government, and sensitive to popular opinion; and
when Canning retired on account of this affair Peel declined
Loid liverpool's invitation to take the vacant place in the
cabinet. During this break in his tenure of office he Jiad some
tlBK for reftectjon, which there was enough in the aspect of the
pi^tical world to move. But early office had done its work.
It had given him excellent habits of business, great knowledge
and a hi^ position; but it had left him somewhat stiff and
pancttUoos, too cold and reserved and over anxious for formal
jiBtifications when he might well have left his conduct to the
judgment of men of honour and the heart of the people. At the
same time he was no pedant in business; in corresponding on
political subjecu he loved to throw off official forms and com-
]ii:micate his views with the freedom of private correspondence;
aftd where his confidence was given, it was given without
At this period he was made chairman of the bullion committee
on the death of Homer. He was chosen for this important
office by Huskisson, Ricardo and their feUow-economists, who
saw in him a mind open to conviction, though he owed hereditary
alkguDoe to Pitt's financial policy, and had actually voted with
his Pittite father for a resolution of Lord Liverpool's government
asKTting that Bank of En^nd notes were equivalent to legal
coin. The choi<% proved judicious. Peel was converted to the
currency doctrines of the economists, and proclaimed his con-
venion in a great q)eech on the a4th of May 1819, in which he
moved and carried four resolutions embodying the recommen-
dations of the bullion committee in favour of a* return to cash
payments. This laid the foundation of his financial reputation,
aiKi his co-operation with the economists tended to give a liberal
torn to his commercial principles. In the course he took he
•omewhat diverged from his party, and particularly from bis
father, who remained faithful to Pitt's depreciated paper, and
between whom and his schismatic son a solemn and touching
paaage occurred in the debate. The author of the Cash Pay-
ments Act had often to defend his policy, and he did so with
vigoar. The act is sometimes s&id to have been hard on debtors,
ioduding the nation as debtor, because it required debts to be
paid in cash which had been contracted in depredated paper;
asd Fed, as heir to a great fundholder, was even charged with
betog biaused by his personal interests. But it is answered that
the Bank Restriction Acts, under which the depreciated paper
lad drcolated, themselves contained a provision for a return to
oA pa3rments six months after peace.
la 1820 Peel married Julia, daughter of General Sir John
flqyd, w1k> bore him five sons and two datighters. The writers
vfao have most severely censured Sir Robert Peel as a public
aaa have dwelt on tl^ virtues and happiness of his private
tod domestic life. He was not only a most loving husband and
father bat a true and warm-hearted friend. In Whitehall
Gardens or at Drayton Manor he gathered some of the most
&tii^isbed intellects of the day. He indulged in free and
dieerful talk, and sou^t the conversation of men of science; he
took ddight in art, and was a great collector of pictures; he was
toad of farming and agricultural Improvements; he actively
piwaoted uaefol works and the advancement of knowledge; he
loved making his friends, dependants, tenants and neighbours
happy. And, cold as he was in public, few men could be more
bright and genial in private than Sir Robert PeeL
In 183 z Peel consented to strengthen the enfeebled ministiy
of Lord Liverpool by becoming home secretary; and in that
capacity he had again to undertake the office of coerdng the
growing discontent in Ireland, of which he remained the real
administrator, and had again to lead in the House of Commons
the opposition to the rising cause of Roman Catholic emandpa-
tion. In 1835, being defeated on the Roman Catholic question
in the House of Commons, he wished to resign office, but Lord
Liverpool pleaded that his resignation would break up the
government. He found a congenial task in reforming and
humanizing the criminal law, espedally those parts of it which
related to offences against property and offences punishable by
death. The five acts in which Peel accomplished this great
work, as well as the great speech of the 9th of March 1836, in
which he opened the subject to the house, will form one of the
most solid and enduring monuments of his fame. Criminal law
reform was the reform of RomUly and Mackintosh, from the
hands of the latter of whom Peel recdved it. But the masterly
bills in which it was embodied were the bills of Ped — not himself
a creative genius, but, like the founder of his house, a profound
appredator of other men's creations, and unrivalled in the power
of giving them practical and complete effect.
In 1837 the Liverpool ministry was broken up by the fatal
illness of its chief, anid under the new premier, George Canning,
Peel, like the duke of Wellington and other high Tory members
of Lord Liverpool's cabinet, refused to serve. Canning and Ped
were rivals; but we need not interpret as mere personal rivalry
that which was certainly, in part at least, a real difference of
connexion and opinion. Canning took a Liberal line, and was
supported by many of the Whigs; the seceders were Tories, and
it is difficult to see how their position in Canning's cabinet could
have been otherwise than a false one. Separation led to public
coolness and occasional approaches to bitterness on both sides in
debate. But there seems no ground for exaggerated complaints
against Ped's conduct. Canning himself said to a friend that
" Peel was the only man who had behaved decently towards
him." Their private intercourse remained uninterrupted to
the end; and Canning's son afterwards entered public life under
the auspices of Ped. The charge of having urged Roman
Catholic emandpation on Lord Liverpool in 1825, and opposed
Canning for being a friend to it in 1837, made against Sir Robert
Peel in the fierce corn-law debates of 1846, has been withdrawn
by those who made it.
In January 1838, after Canning's death, the duke of Welling-
ton formed a Tory government, in which Peel was home secretary
and leader of the House of Commons. This cabinet, Tory as it
was, did not fndude the impracticable Lord Eldon, and did
include Huskisson and three more friends of Canning. Its
policy was to endeavour to stave off the growing demand for
organic change by administrative reform, and by Ughtcning
the burdens of the people. The civil list was retrenched with an
unsparing hand, the public expenditure was reduced lower than
it had been since the Revolutionary war, and the import of com
was permitted under a sliding scale of duties. Peel also intro-
duced into London the improved system of police which he had
previously established with so much success in Ireland. But
the tide ran too strong to be thus headed. First the government
were compelled, after a defeat in the House of Commons, to
acquiesce in the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, Peel
bringing over their High Church supporters, as far as he could.
Immediately afterwards the question of Roman Catholic emand-
pation was brought to a crisis by the dection of O'Conndl for
the county of Clare. In August Peel expressed to the duke of
Wellington his conviction that the question must be settled.
He wrote that out of office he would co-operate in the settlement
but in his judgment it should be committed to other hands than
his. To this the duke assented, but in January 1839, owing to
the declared opinions of the king, of the House of Lords, and of
the Church against a change of policy, Wellington came to the
42
■
conclusion that without Peel's aid in oflke there was no prospect
of success. Under that pressure Peel consented to remain, and
all the cabinet approved. The consent of the king, which could
scarcely have been obtained except by the duke and Peel, was
extorted, withdrawn (the ministers being out for a few hours),
and again extorted; and on the sthof March 1829 Peel proposed
Roman Catholic emancipation in a speech of more than four
hours. The apostate was overwhelmed with obloquy. Having
been elected for the university of Oxford as a leading opponent
of the Roman Catholics, he had thought it right to resign his
seat on being converted to emancipation. His friends put him
again In nomination, but he was defeated by Sir R. H. Inglis.
He took refuge in the close borough of Westbury, whence he
afterwards removed to Tamworth, for which he sat till his death.
Catholic emancipation was forced on Peel by circumstances;
but it was mainly owing to him that the measure was complete,
and based upon equality of dvil rights. This great concession,
however, did not save the Tory government. The French
Revolution of July 1830 gave frtth strength to the movement
against them, though, schooled by the past, they promptly
recognized King Louis Philippe. The parliamentary reform
movement was joined by some of their offended I^testant
supporters. The duke of Wellington committed them fatally
against all reform, and the elections went against them on the
demise of the Crown; they were beaten on Sir H. Pamell's
motion for a committee on the dvil list, and Wellington took the
opportunity to resign rather than deal with reform.
While in office, Peel succeeded to the baronetcy, Drayton
Manor and a great estate by the death of his father (May 3,
1830). The old man had lived to see]iis fondest hopes fulfilled in
the greatness of his son; but he had also lived to see that a father
must not expect to fix his son's opinions — above all, the opinions
of such a son as Sir Robert Ped, and in such an age as that which
foUowed the French Revolution.
Sir Robert Ped's resistance to the Rdorm Bill won back for
him the alle^ance of his party. His opposition was resolute but
it was temperate, and once only he betrayed the suppressed fire
of his temper, in the hbtorical debate of the 2 and of April 1831,
when his speech was broken off by the arrival of the king to
dissolve the parliament which had thrown out reform. He refused
to join the duke of WeUington in the desperate enterprise of
forming a Tory government at the height of the storm, when the
Grey ministry had gone out on the refusal of the king to promise
them an unlimited creation of peers. By this conduct he secured
for his party the full benefit of the reaction which he no doubt
knew was sure to ensue. The general election of 1832, after the
passing of the Rdorm Bill, left him with barely 150 followers in
the House of Commons; but this handful rapidly swelled under
his nuinagement into the great Conservative party. He frankly
accepted the Reform Act as irrevocable, taught his party to
register instead of despairing, appealed to the intelligence of the
middle classes, whose new-born power he appredated, steadily
supported the Whig ministers against the Radicals and O'Conndl,
and gained every moral advantage which the most dignified
and constitutional tactics could afford. To this policy, and to the
great parliamentary powers of its author, it was mainly due that,
in the course of a few years, the Conservatives were as strong in
the reformed parliament as the Tories had been in the unrc-
formed. It is vain to deny the praise of genius to such a leader,
though the skill of a pilot who steered for many years over such
waters may sometimes have resembled craft. But the duke of
Wellington's emphatic eulogy on him was,. " Of all the men I
ever knew, he had the greatest regard for truth." The duke
might have added that his own question, "How is the king's
government to be carried on in a reformed parliament ? " was
mainly solved by the temperate and constitutional policy of Sir
Robert Ped, and by his personal influence on the debates and
proceedings of the House of Commons during the years which
foUowed the Reform Act.
In X834, on the dismissal of the Melbourne ministry, power
came to Sir Robert Peel bdore he expected or desired it. He
liurried from Rome at the call of the duke of Wellington, whose
PEEL, SIR ROBERT
sagacious modesty yidded him the first place, and became prime
minister, holding the two offices of first lord of the treasury and
chancellor of the exchequer. He vainly sought to indude in his
cabinet two recent seceders from the Whigs, Lord Stanley and
Sir James Graham. A dissolution gave him a great increase of
strength in the house, but not enough. He was outvoted 00
the dection of the speaker at the opening of the session of 1835,
and, after struggling on for six weeks longer, resigned on tha
question of appropriating part of the revenues of the Church in
Ireland to national education. His time had not yet come; but
the capadty, energy and resource he displayed in this shoct
tenure of office raised him immensely in the estimation of the
house, his party and the country. Of the great budget of
practical reforms which he brought forward, the plan for the
commutation of tithes, the ecclesiastical commission, and the
plan for settling the question of dissenters' marriages bore fruit.
From 1835 to 1840 he pursued the same course of patient and
far-sighted opposition. In 1837 the Conservative memben of
the House of Commons gave their leader a grand banquet at
Merchant Taylors' Hall, where he proclaimed in a great speech
the creed and objects of his party. In 1839, the Wliigs having
resigned on the Jamaica Bill, he was called on to form a govern*
ment, and submitted names for a cabinet, but resigned the
commission owing to the young queen's persistent refusal to part
with any Whig ladies of her bedchamber (see Victoria, Qtjeem).
In 1840 he was hurried into a premature motion of want of con*
fidence. But in the following year a similar motion was carried
by a majority of one, and the Whigs ventured to af^^eal to the
country. The result was a majority of ninety-one against them
on a motion of want of confidence in the autumn of 1841, upon
which they resigned, and Sir Robert Ped became first lord of
the treasury, with a commanding majority in both Hbuies
of Parliament.
The crisis called for a master-hand. The fiiiaxices were in
disorder. For some years there had been a growing defidt,
estimated for 1842 at more than two millions, and attempts to
supply this by additions to assessed taxes and customs duties
had failed. The great finander took till the spring of 184s to
nuiture his plans. He then boldly supplied the defidt by im«
posing an income-tax on all incomes above £150 a year. He
accompanied this tax with a reform of the tariff, by which pro-
hibitory duties were removed and other duties abated on a vast
number of articles of import, especially the raw materials of manu-
factures and prime artides of food. The increased consumption,
as the reformer expected, countervailed the reduction of duty.
The income-tax was renewed and the reform of the tariff carried
still farther on the same prindple in 1845. The result was, in
place of a deficit of upwards of two millions, a surplus of five
millions in 1845, and the removal of seven millions and a half of
taxes up to 1847, not only without loss, but with gain to the
ordinary revenue of the country. The prosperous state <^ the
finances and of public affairs also permitted a reduction of the
interest on a portion of the national debt, giving a yeariy saving
at once of £625,000, and ultimately of a million and a quarter t<K
the public. In 1844 another great financial measure, the Bank
Charter Act, was passed and, though severely controverted and
thrice suspended at a desperate crisis, has ever since regulated
the currency of the country. In Ireland O'Connell's agitatioa
for the repeal of the Union had now assumed threatening pro->
portions, and verged upon rebellion. The great agitator was
prosecuted, with his chief adherents, for conspiracy and sedition;
and, though the conviction was quashed for informality, repeal
was quelled in its chief. At the same time a heah'ng hand was
extended to Ireland. The Charitable Bequests Act gave Romaa
Catholics a share in the adminbtration of charities and legal
power to endow thdr own rdigion. The allowance to Maynootb
was largely increased, notwithstanding violent Protestant
opposition. Three queen's colleges, for the higher education oC
all the youth of Ireland, without distinction of reUgion, were
founded, notwithstanding violent opposition, both Protestant and
Roman Catholic. The prindple of toleration once accepted, was
thoroughly carried out. The last remnaQts of the penal laws
PEEL, SIR ROBERT 43
■tn ncpt Iraa tbe lUtilW-boak, ud iaake «■• ateadtd to knd. In 1R4Q, in ■ ^Mcch 00 tbe Iiiih Poor Liwi, he Gnt
the RoiiBii Cubolic Churdi in Ciiuda ud MilU. la tlie umc lugnatcd, icd in the neii yeu be aided b C3tabliih[ng, 1 com-
■pint acli ven puied ioT daring trom doubt Iriifa PrabxterUn million to fidlitite tbe lile of eiEaln m ■ hopeleu itate ol
mniMpx, for miling the titled of ■ latft number of dinnlen' eacurabnoce. Tbe Enounbend Etuio Act nude no iiiempi,
thipd* in Entfand, and nmovinf th« mtmidpal diubilitia of like liter lepiluion, to kcuic by liw tbe unceitsin cuitomiry
the Jam. Tbe fnat lot Mliooil eduolloa mt trebled, and rifbu el Iriib lenaata, but It truiifened the land from ruined
an attempt wat made, though in vain, to inlioduce effective lacdkirdi to aolvent oimen oqiible oi pcifocming the duliei of
education rliiwii into ihe tactoiy MUa. To the alienation ol any pnpeny tomrdi the people. On tbe iSib ol June iBjo Sir
pan of the nvenua of the *'■'■"'■'■-' Church Sir Robert Peel Robert Feel made a great qieech on tbe Gntk queitioo againit
' ' 'x had ivued the ecdesaitical com- Lord Palmenton'i foreign policy of Inlerference. Thii ipeech
t better proviiion for a number of ma thought to ihow Ibit if necoaary he would return to office.
, , , otributkni of part of tbe revenuca of It ma hia iiit. On tbe following day he wat thrown from hii
the ClMn:b. Tbe wnkest. part of tbe conduct of this great harae on Conitllution Hill, and mortally injured by the fall
govenuDeat, peibapa, wa* ita failure to cootrot tbe railway Three dayi be lingered aod on the fourth (July 1, iSjo) be
mama, by pnoiptly laying down the lina on a goverameni plan. died. All the tributea which respect and gralilude could pay
It paaed an act in 1K44 which gave the government a right of were paid to him by the »vereigD, by puliuneui, by public men
purchase, and it had prepared a palliative meaiure in 1846, but of all pajtiei, by the country, by (he pren, and, above all, by
vu cooqitiled to lacrihce thli, IDie all other secondary meaiuro, the great towni and the mauei of the people (0 whom be had
to tbe repeal of ihe com lawi. ft failed alio, though not without given " bread unleavened with injuitice." He would have been
an efbil, to avert tbe great acbiim in the Church of Scotland, buried among the great men of England in Wcilminiter Abb^,
Abroad it tnt u piaperoui ai at home. It bad found diuiler but bii will deiired that he might be laid In Dnytoa church. It
and diifrace in Afghaniitan. It iprcdity ended (he war there, alio renounced a peerage for hii family, ai he had before declined
and in India the invading Sihha were df^troyed upon the Sullej. the garter for bimieit when it wai offered him by the Queea
The BR and dangenwi queitioni with France, touching Ibe IhroughLordAberdeen.
li^t ot leardi, the war in Morocco, and tbe Tahiti alfiir, and Thote who judge Sir Robert Fed will remember that he vaa
*ilh Ibe Uoilcd Stalea touching the Maine boundary aod Ihe bred a Tory in dayi when party wai a religion; that he entered
Oregon territory, were Killed by negolialion. parliament a youth, wii In offict at twenty-four and lecreury
Yet there were malmnienti In Sir Rubert Feel'i party. The for Ireland at twcnty-bve; that hii public life eitended over a
Young En^anden diiliked him because he had boiited the flag long period rife with change; and that hii own changea were all
s( CoKrvatim imtcad oi Toryism on Ibe morrow of tbe Reform forward and vilh (he advandng inleUecI of the tine. They will
BIB. Tbe ilnng philaDlhioiHili and Tory Chartiiti diiUked enumerate the great practical improvementt aod the great acta
Ura becauM he wa* a Oriel economiit and to upholder of the of legiilatlve juiiice of those dayi, and note bow large a (bare
ivw poor law. But the fatal question was protection. That Sir Robert Feel had, if not in originating, in ^ving tbOTOUgb
qaestioa was being fait brou^t to a ctiiii by pubUc opinion and practical eSect to aU. They will reflect that ai a parliamentary
diB Aiiti-C«n-Law League. Sir Robert Peel bad been recogniied ilatcinian he could not govern without a party, and that it ii
in 1B41 by Cobden u a Free Trader, and after eaperience In difficult to goyem at once for a party and for the whole people.
office be had becsme in principle more and more 10. Since his They will think of hli ardent love of hit country, of bii abitinenca
mart Ml to power he had bwered (he duties of tbe sliding tcale, from intrigue, violence and faction, of hit boundless labour
and thereby caused the seceuion from (he cabinet of the duke of (brough a long life devoted to the public service. Whether he
BudinghanL He had alarmed the farmen by admitting foreign wai a model of ttatesmanibip may be doubted. Modeli of
cattle and meat ander bii new tariff, and by admitting Canadian sutesmanihip are rare, if by 1 model of ilateunanibtp ii meant
ara. He had done hit best in bii spcecbci to put the maiote- a great adminiitrator and party leader, t great political pbilo-
nancc of tbe cino laws on low ground, and to wean tbe landed lopher and a great Independent orator, all in one. But if the
interest from thor reliance on protection. The approach of question 11 whether be wai a ruler loved and (mated by the
Ihe Irish famine In rSfj turned deciiively (he wavering balance. V.ngfi<>i people there is no arguing against the tears of a Dattoo-
Vboi at first Sir Robert proposed to hia cabinet the revision of
tbe en laws. Lord Stanley and tbe duke of Bucdeuch dil-
•ealcd. and Sir Robert nsigned But Lord John Russell failed
ta (ena a new government. Sir Robert again came into office;
aad now, with the consent of all the cabijvt but Lord Stanley,
who lelired, be. In a great speech on the 17th of January 1846,
bnight the rqwal of the com laws before tbe House of Commons.
Ii the kng and bene debate that ensued be sra* assailed, both
by frrlJTirrl aAd penonal erkemies, with the moat virulent
Bvective, which he bore wilh hii sronted calmneu, and to which
he Blade 00 retorts. His measure wai carried; hut immediately
•flemidt tbe offended protectioniili, led by Lord George Four of Sit Roberl'i five tons attained distinction. Tbe
BealiMk and Benjamin Diiraeli. coalesced with the Whip, eldest, Sia RoasaT Piel (iSii-iS^j), who became the jcd
lad Ihnw him out on tbe Iriib Coerdou Bill. He went home baronet on his father'i death, wat educated at Harrow and at
fm hit defeat, escorted by a great crowd, wbo uncovered as Christ Church, Oxford. He was in the diplomiLic service from
ke piated, and be immediately resigned. So fell a Conserva(ive 1844 to rSjo. when be succeeded hii father ai member of pirlia-
lonmmeot which would otherwise have probably ended only meol for Tamwonh, and he was chief secretary to the loid-
■kk Ihe life of ita chief. lieuleoani of Irebnd from iWi to 1865. He rrpresenied Tan-
Thou^ OBt o( office he was not out of power. He had " bst wotih until Ihe general declion of iSSo; in 1SS4 he became
■ ralty,but wonanation." The Whig ministry which lucceeded member for Hun(ingdon and in iSSs for Blackburn, but alter
taloat much on bissuppor1,with which he never taxed them, 1SS6 he ceased (o siL in Ihe House of Commons. Sir Robert
Beioined them in carrying forward free-trade principles by the described himself as a Liberat-Conscrvativc, bul in his Ulcr years
tqssl of Ihe navigation laws. He hdped them to promote Ihe he opposed the policy of Gladstone, allbougb after 1886 he
priedpk oi religious Uberly by Ihe bill for the emancipilian of championed the cause ol home rule (or Ireland. In 1S71 he sold
Ike Jews. One iinportani measure was his own. While in hit faihei's collection of pictures 10 Ihe Nnlional Gallery for
«Sct be btfd ptobcd. by tbe Devon commiuion of inquiry, the £75,000, and in his later life be wat troufaled by financial dlfficul-
tora of bdiad eonnecled Willi tbe owunhip and occupation at tie*. SiiRobeit waa ioterested in racing, and wat known on the
44
PEEL— PEELE
turf as Mr F. Robinson. He died in London on the 9th of May
1895, and was succeeded as 4tli baronet by his son, Sir Robert
Peel (b. 1867).
Sn FiEDERiCK Peel (1823-1906), the prime minister's second
son, was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College, Cambridge,
becoming a barrister in 1849. He entered parliament in that
year, and with the exception of the period between 1857 and 1859
he remained in the House of Commons until 1865. In 1851-1852
and again in 1853-1855 he was under-secretary for the colonies;
from 1855 to 1857 he was under-secretary for war; and from
1859 to 1865 he was secretary to the treasury. He became
a privy councillor in 1857 and was knif.hted in 1869. Sir
Frederick Peel's chief service to the state was in connexion with
the railway and canal commission. He was appointed a com-
missioner on the inception of this body in 1873, and was its
president until its reconstruction in z888, remaining a member
of the commission until his death on the 6th of June 1906.
The third son was Sik William Peel (i 824-1858), and the
youngest Viscount Peel (q.v.). Sir William was a sailor, who
distinguished himself in the Crimea, where he gained the Victoria
Cross, and also during the Indian Mutiny, being wounded at the
relief of Lucknow. He died on the 27th of April 1858. Sir
William wrote A Ride tkrough the Nubian Desert (1852), giving
an account of his travels in 1851.
Two of Sir Robert Peel's brothera were also politicians of
note. William Vatbs Peel (1789-1858), educated at Harrow and
at St John's College, Cambnc»[e, was a member of parliament
fiom 1817 to 1837, and a^n from 1847 to 1852; he was under-
secretary for home affairs m 1828, and was a lord of the treasury
in 1830 and again in 1834-1835. Jonathan Peel (i7{)9-i879) was
first a soldier and then a member of parliament during the long
Gtiod between 1826 and 1868, first representing Norwicii and then
untingdon. From 1841 to 1846 he was surveyor-general of the
ordnance, and in 1858-1859 and again in 1866-I867 he was a very
competent and successful secretary of ttate for war. General
Feel was also an owner of racehorses, and in 1844 his horse Orlando
won the Derby, after another horse. Running Rein, had been
disqualified.
For the history of the Ped family see Jane Haworth, A Memoir
^ the Family of Fed from the year 1600 (1836).
PBEI^ a seaport and watering-place of the Isle of Man, on
the W. coast, ii} m. W.N.W. of Douglas by the Isle of Man
railway. Pop. (1901), 3304. It lies on Peel Bay, at the mouth
of the small river Neb, which forms the harbour. The old
town consists of narrow streets and lanes, but a modem resi-
dential quarter has grown up to the east. On the west side of the
river-mouth St Patrick's Isle is connected with the mainland
by a causeway. It is occupied almost wholly by the ruins of
Ped castle. St Patrick is said to have founded here the first
church in Man, and a small chapel, dedicated to him, appears
to date from the 8th or loth century. There is a round tower,
also of very early date, resembling in certain particulars the
round towers of Ireland. The ruined cathedral of St German
has a transitional Norman choir, with a very early crypt beneath,
a nave with an early English triplet at the west end, transepts,
and a low and massive central tower still standing. There
are remains of the bishops' palace, of the so<alled Fenella's
tower, famous through Scott's Peveril of the Peak^ of the palace
of the Lords of Man, of the keep and guardroom above the
entrance to the castle, and of the Moare or great tower, while
the whole is surrounded by battlements. There are also a large
artifidal mound supposed to be a defensive earthwork of higher
antiquity than the castle, and another mound known as the
Giant's Grave. The guardroom is associated with the ghostly
apparition of the Moddey Dhoo (black dog), to which reference
is made in Peveril of the Peak. In 1397 Richard II. condemned
the earl of Warwick to imprisonment in Peel Castle for con-
spiracy, and in 1444 Eleanor, duchess of Gloucester, received
a like sentence on the ground of having compassed the death
of Henry VI. by magic. Ped has a long-established fishing
industry, which, however, has dcdined in modem times. In
the town the most notable building is the church of St German,
with a fine tower and spire. Peel was called by the Northmen
Helen (island, i.e. St Patrick's Isle); the existhig toame is Cdtic,
meaning " fort " (cf. the ped towers of the borderland of England
and Scotland).
PEEL, (i) The skin or rind of a fruit; thus " to ped " k
to remove the outer covering of anything. The etymology
of the word is dosdy connected with that of " pill," to plunder,
surviving in "pillage." Both words are to be referred to
French and thence to Latin. In French peler and ^i/ier, though
now distinguished in meaning (the first used of stripping bark
or rind, the second meaning to rob), were somewhat confused
in application, and a similar confusion occurs in English tUl
comparativdy late. The Latin words from which they are
derived are peUis, skin, and pHare, to strip of hair {pUus).
(2) The name of a class of small fortified dwelling-houses built
during the i6th century on the borders between Scotland and
England. They are also known as " bastd-houses," i^
" bastille-houses," and consist of a square massive tower with
high pitched roof, the lower part being vaulted, the upper
part containing a few living rooms. The entrance is on the
upper floor, access being gained by a movable ladder. The
vaulted ground-floor chamber served for the cattle when there
was danger of attack. The word appears in various forms,
e.g. pele, peil, and Latinized as pelum, &c.; " pile " is also found
used synonymously, but the New English Dictionary (s.v. pile)
considers the two words distinct. It seems more probable
that the word is to be identified with " pale," a stake (Lat.
palus). The earlier meaning of " ped " is a palisaded enclosare
used as an additional defence for a fortified post or as an
independent stronghold.
PEELB, OEORGB (iSS^- X598). English dramatist, was
bom in London in 1558. His father, who appears to have
belonged to a Devonshire family, was derk of Christ's Hospital,
and wrote two treatises on book-keeping. George Pede ^ras
educated at Christ's Hospital, and entered Broadgates Hall
(Pembroke College), Oxford, in 1571. In 1574 he removed
to Christ Church, taking his B.A. degree in 1577, and
proceeding M.A. in 1579. In 1579 the governors of Christ's
Hospital requested their d^rk to " dischuge his house of his
son, George Pede." It is not necessary to read into this
anything more than that the governors insisted on his beginning
to eam a livelihood. He went up to London about 1580, but
in 1583 when Albert us Alasco (Albert Laski), a Polish nobl^nan,
was entertained at Christ Church, Oxford, Pede was entrusted
with the arrangement of two Latin plays by William Gager
(fl. Z580-1619) presented on the occasion. He was also compli-
mented by Dr Gager for an English verse translation of one
of the Iphigenias of Euripides. In 1585 he was employed
to write the Deviu of the Pageant home before WoUston Dixie,
and in 1591 he devised the pageant in honour of another lord
mayor. Sir William Webbe. Tliis was the Descensus Asiraeae
(printed in the Harleian Miscellany, 1808), in which Queen
Elizabeth is honoured as Astraea. Pede had married as early
as 1583 a lady who brought him some property, which be
speedily dissipated. Robert Greene, at the end of bis Groats-
vorth of Wit, exhdrts Pede to repentance, saying that he hu,
like himself, " been driven to extreme shifts for a living." The
sorry traditions of his reckless life were emphasized by the use
of his name in connexion with the apocryphal Merrie conceited
Jests of George Peele (printed in 1607). Many of the stories
had done service before, but there are personal touches that
may be biographicaL He died before 1598, for Francis Meres,
writing in that year, speaks of his death in his PaUadis Tamia.
His pastoral comedy of The Araygnemcnt of Paris, presented
by the Children of the Chapel Royal before Queen Elizabeth
perhaps as early as 1581, was* printed anonymously in 1584.
Charles Lamb, sending to Vincent Novello a song from this
piece of Peele's, said that if it had been less uneven in execution
Fletcher's Faithful Shepherdess ** had been but a second name
in this sort of writing." Peele shows considerable art in his
flattery. Paris is arraigned before Jupiter for having assigned
the apple to Venus. Diana, with whom the final deduoo
rests, gives the apple to none of the competitors but to a
nymph called Eliza, whose identity is confirmed by the furthct
PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS— PEERAGE
4-5
ei|rilaBAtion, '* whom some Zabeta calL" Tke Panums Chronicle
ef King EdtBord tkejirslt sintamed Edward LongskankeSt naith his
rtime jroM the holy hind. Also the life of Ueuetlen, rebell
ts Wales. Lastly, the sinhing of Queen Etinor^ toho sunche
at Charingcrosse, and rose again at PoUcrs-hilh^ now named
Qmeenehith (printed 1593). This " chronicle history," fonnless
enough, as the rambling title shows, is nevertheless an advance
00 the old chronicle plays, and marks a step towards the Shake-
spearian historical drama. The Battdl of Alcazar — with the death
of Captaine Stuhdey (acted 1588-1589, printed 1594), published
anonymously, is attributed with much probability to Peele.
The Old Wives Talc^ registered in Stationers' Hall, perhaps
more correctly, as " The Owlde wifcs talc " (printed 1595),
was followed by The Love of King David and fair Bethsahe
(written c 1588, printed 1599), which is notable as an example
of Eliaabethan drama drawn entirely from scriptural sources.
Mr Fkay sees in it a political satire, and identifies Elizabeth
and Leicester as David and Bathsheba, Mary (^een of Scots
as Absalom. Sir Clyomon and Sir Oamydes (printed 1599)
has been attributed to Peele, but on insufficient grounds.
Among ha occaaonal poems are " The Honour of the Garter,"
wiiich has a prologue containing Peele's judgments on his
contemporaries, and "Polyhymnia" (1590), a blank-verse
description of the ceremonies attending the retirement of the
queen's champion. Sir Henry Lee. This is concluded by the
"Sonnet," *'His golden locks time hath to silver tum'd,"
cpioted by Thackeray in the 76th chapter of The Ncwcomes.
To the Phoenix Nest in 1593 he contributed " The Praise of
Chastity." Mr F. G. Fleay (Biog. Chron. of the Drama) credits
P^ck with The Wisdom of Doctor DoddipoU (printed 1600),
WHy Beguiled (printed 1606), The Life and Death of Jack
StraWf a nolaUe rebel (1587?), a share in the First and Second
Parts of Henry VJ., and on the authority of Wood and
Winslanley, Alphonsus, Emperor of Germany,
Fede belonged to the group of university scholars who. In
Greene's phrase, ** spent their wits in making playes." Greene
went <m to say that he was " in some things rarer, in nothing
inferior," to Marlowe. Nashe in his preface to Greene's Mena-
pkem called him " the chief supporter of plcasance now living,
the Adas of Poetrie and primus verborum artifex, whose first
encrease, the Arraignement of Paris, might plead to your
opinions his pregnant dcxteritie of wit and manifold varietie
of invention, wherein {me judice) hee goeth a step beyond all
that write." Tliis praise was not unfounded. The credit
given to Greene and Marlowe for the increased dignity of
Eo^ish dramatic diction, and for the new smoothness infused
into bUnk verse, must certainly be shared by Peele. Professor
F. B. Gummere, in a critical essay prefixed to his edition of The
Old Wives Tale, puts in another claim for Peele. In the contrast
between the romantic story and the realistic dialogue he sees
the first instance of humour quite foreign to the comic " business "
of eariier o>medy. The Old Wives Tale is a play within a play,
sE^ enough to be perhaps better described as an interlude.
Its background of rustic folk-lore gives it additional interest,
wd there is much fun poked at Gabriel Harvey and Stanyhurst.
Peiiups Huanebango,* who parodies Harvey's hexameters,
ud actually quotes him on one occasion, may be regarded as
rqnsenting that arch-enemy of Greene and his friends.
Peele's Works were edited by Alexander Dyce (1828, 1839-1839
u4 1861): by A. H. Bulicn (2 vols., 1888). An examination of
tke netrical peculiarities of his work is to be found in F. A. R.
Uaaerhirt's Ceorg Peele, Untersuchungen iber sein Leben und
trine Werke (Rostock. 1882). Sec also Professor F. B. Gummere. in
^epmenbUive English Comedies (1903): and an edition of The
Baadl of Atcaaar, printed for the Mabne Society in 1907.
PEEP^F-DAT BOYS, an Irish ProtesUnt secret s6dety,
forraed about 1785. Its object was to protect the Protestant
penantry, and avenge their wrongs on the Roman Catholics.
The " Boys " gained their name from the hour of dawn which
' Mc Fkay goes so far as to see in the preposterous names of
HoaaebancDS kith and kin puns on Harvey's father's trade.
" Pdymarnawopladdus " he interprets as " Polly-make-a-rope-
they chose for their raids on the Roman Catholic villages.
The Roman Catholics in return formed the society of "The
Defenders."
PEEPUL. or PiPtJi {Ficus religiosa), the " sacred fig " tree
of India, also called the Bo tree. It is not unlike the banyan,
and is venerated both by the Buddhists of Ceylon and the
V'aishnavite Hindus, who say that Vishnu was born beneath its
shade. It is planted near temples and houses; its sap abounds
in caoutchouc, and a good deal of lac is obtained from insects
who feed upon the branches. The fruit is about the size of a
walnut and is not much eaten.
PEERAGE (Fr. pairage, med. Lat. paragium; M.E. pere,
O. Fr. per, peer, later pair; Lat. pan's, " equal "). Although
in England the terms " peerage," " nobility," " House of Lords "
are in common parlance frequently regarded as synonymous,
in reality each expresses a different meaning. A man may be
a peer and yet not a member of the House of Lords, a member
of the House of Lords and yet not strictly a peer; though all
peers (as the term is now understood) are members of the
House of Lords either in esse or in posse. In the United
Kingdom the rights, duties and privileges of peerage are
centred in an individual; to the monarchial nations of the
Continent nobility conveys the idea of family, as opposed to
personal, privilege.
Etymologically " peers " are " equals " (pares), and in Anglo-
Norman days the word was invariably so understood. The
feudal tenants-in-chief of the Crown were all the
peers of each other, whether lords of one manor or fJJjS^jJ
of a hundred; so too a bishop had his ecclesiastical "*'^'*n
peer in a brother bishop, and the tenants of a manor their
peers in their fellow-tenants. That even so late as the
reign of John the word was still used in this general sense is
clear from Magna Carta, for the term " judicium parium "
therein must be understood to mean that every man had a right
to be tried by his equals. This very right was asserted by the
barons as a body in 1333 on behalf of Richard, earl marshal,
who had been declared a traitor by the king's command, and
whose lands were forfeited without proper trial. In 1233 the
French bishop Peter des Roches, Henry III.'s minister, dcrued
the barons' right to the claim set up on the ground that the
king might judge all his subjects alike, there being, he said, no
peers in England (Math. Paris. 389). The English barons
undoubtedly were using the word in the sense it held in Magna
CsLTta, while the bishop probably had in his mind the French peers
(pairs de France), a smaJl and select body of feudatories possessed
of exceptional privileges. In England the term was general,
in France technical. The change in England was gradual,
and probably gathered force as the gulf between the greater
barons and the lesser widened, until in course of time, for judicial
purposes, there came to be only two classes, the greater barons
and the rest of the people. The barons remained triable by
their own order (i.e. by their peers), whilst the rest of the people
rapidly became subject to the general practice and procedure
of the king's justices. The first use of the word " peers " as
denoting those members of the baronage who were accustomed
to receive regularly a writ of summons to parliament is found
in the record of the proceedings against the Dcspensers in 132 1
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. ii. 347), and from that time this restricted
use of the word has remained its ordinary sense.
Properly to understand the growth and constitution of the
peerage it is necessary to trace the changes which occurred in
the position of the Anglo-Norman baronage, first Aaghh'
through the gradual strengthening of royal supre- norman
macy with the consequent decay of baronial power Banaage,
locally, and subsequently by the consolidation of parliamentary
institutions during the reigns of the first three Edwards.
Before the conquest the national assembly of England (sec
Parliament) was the Witan, a gathering of notables owing
their presence only to personal influence and standing. TbeSaxoa
The imposition of a modified feudal system resulted WHeaa-
in a radical alteration. Membership of the Great tf""^
Councils of the Norman kings was primarily an incident of
46
PEERAGE
tenure, one of the obligations the tenants-in-chlef were bound
to perform, although this membership gradually became restricted
by the operation of the Royal prerogative to a small section
(rf the Baronial class and eventually hereditary by custom. The
Norman Councils may have arisen from the a^es of a Saxon
Witenagemot, but there is littk evidence of any historical
continuity between the two. The Church in England, as
in Christendom generally, occupied a position of paramount
importance and far-reaching influence; its leaders, not alone
from their special sanctity as ecclesiastics, but as practically
the only educated men of the period, of necessity were among
the chief advisers of every ruler in Western Europe. In
England churchmen formed a large proportion of the Witan,
the more influential of the great landowners making up the
rest of its membership.
In place of the scattered individual and absolute ownership
of Saxon days the Conqueror became practically the sole
owner of the soiL The change, though not imme-
diately complete, followed rapidly as the country
settled down and the power of the Crown extended
to its outlying frontiers. As Saxon land gradually passed
into Norman hands the new owners became direct tenants
of the king. Provided their loyal and military obligations
were duly performed they had fixity of tenure for themselves
and their heirs. In addition fixed money payments were exacted
on the succession of the heir, when the king's eldest son was
knighted, his eldest daughter married, or his person ransomed
from captivity. In like manner and under similar conditions
the king's tenants, or as they were termed tenants-in-chicf,
sub-granted the greater portion of their holdings to their own
immediate followers. Under Norman methods the manor was
the unit of local government and jurisdiction, and when
land was given away by the king the gift invariably took the
form of a grant of one or more manors.
When he brought England into subjection the Conqueror's
main idea was to exalt the central power of the Crown at the
expense of its feudatories, and the first two centuries following
the conquest tell one long tale of opposition by the great tenants-
in-chief to a steadily growing and unifying royal pressure. With
this idea of royal supremacy firmly fixed in his mind, William's
grants, excepting outlying territory such as the marches of
Wales or the debateable ground of the Scottish border, which
needed special consideration, were seldom in bulk, but took the
form of manors scattered over many counties. Under such
conditions it was practically impossible for a great tenant to
set up a powerful imperium in imperio (such as the fiefs of
Normandy, Brittany and Burgundy), as his forces were dis-
tributed over the country, and could be reached by the long
arm of royal power, acting through the sheriff of every county,
long before they could effectively come together for fighting
purposes. The tenants-in-chief were termed generally barons
(see Baron) and may be regarded historically as the parents
of the peers of later days. The pages of Domesday (1086),
the early Norman fiscal record of England, show how unevenly
the land was distributed; of the fifteen hundred odd tenants
mentioned the majority held but two or three manors, while
a favoured few possessed more than a hundred each. Land
was then the only source of wealth, and the number of a
baron's manors might well be regarded as a correct index of his
importance.
The king's tenants owed yet another duty, the service of
attending the King's Court {curia regis), and out of this custom
grew the parliaments of later days. In theory all
CoMit. * ^^^ king's tenants-in-chief, great and small, had a
right to be present as incident to their tenure.
It has therefore been argued by some authorities that as the
Conqueror's system of tenure constituted him the sole owner
of the land, attendance at his courts was solely an incident of
tenure, the Church having been compelled to accept the same
conditions as those imposed on laymen. But, as already pointed
out, the change in tenure had not been immediate, and there
\^ beqi no |eneral forfeiture suffered b^ frrletHtsticri bodies^
consequently throughour'the early years of William's reign
some of the English bishops and abbots attended his courts
as much by virtue of their personal and ecclesiastical importance
as by right of tenure. The King's Court was held regularly
at the three great festivals of the Church and at such other
times as were deemed advisable. The assembly for several
generations neither possessed nor pretended to any legislative
powers. Legislative power was a product of later years, and
grew out of the custom of the Estates granting suppUes only
on condition that their grievances were first redressed. The
great bulk of the tenants were present for the purpose of assenting
to special taxation above and beyond their ordinary feudal
dues. When necessary a general summons to attend was sent
through the sheriff of every county, who controlled a system
of local government which enabled him to reach every tenant.
In course Of time to a certain number of barons and high
ecclesiastics, either from the great extent of their possessions,
their official duties about the king or their personal importance,
it became customary to issue a personal writ of summons, thus
distinguishing them from the general mass summoned through
the sheriff. That this custom was in being within a century
of the Conquest is clear from an incident in the bitter fight for
supremacy between Archbishop Beckct and Henry II. in X164
(Stubbs, Const. Hist. i. 504), it being recorded that the king
withheld the Archbishop's personal summons to parliament,
and put upon him the indignity of a summons through the sheriff.
During the succeeding fifty years the line becomes even more
definite, though it is evident that the Crown sometimes dis-
regarded the custom, as the barons are found compbining that
many of their number deemed entitled to a personal summons
had frequently been overlooked.
The sequel to these compbints is found in Magna Carta,
wherein it is provided that the archbishops, bishops, abbots,
earls and greater barons are to be called up to the jn^^^
council by writ directed to each severally; and all aadi
who hold of the king in chief, below the rank of ^
greater barons, are to be summoned by a general mS^^m
writ addressed to the sheriff of their shire.^ Magna awoMs.
Carta thus indicates the existence of two definite
sections of the king's tenants, a division which had evidently
persisted for some time. The " greater barons " are the
immediate parents of the peerages of later days, every member
of which for more than four centuries had a seat in the House
of Lords. As for the rest of the tenants-in-chief, poorer in
estate and therefore of less consequence, it is sufficient here to
note that they fell back into the general mass of country families,
and that their representatives, the knights of the shire, after
some hesitation, at length joined forces with the city and burgher
representatives to form the House of Commons.
In 1254, instead of the general summons through the sheriff
to all the lesser tenants-in-chicf, the king requires them to elect
two knights for each shire to attend the council as ^^^
the accredited representative of their fellows. In ^os4.
the closing days of 1264 Simon de Montfort sum-
moned to meet him early in 1 265 the first parliament worthy of
the name, a council in which prelates, earls and greater barons,
knights of the shire, citizens and burghers were present, thus
constituting a representation of all classes of people. It has been
argued that this assembly cannot be regarded as a full parlia-
ment, inasmuch as Simon de Montfort summoned personally
only such members of the baronage as were favourable to his
cause, and issued writs generally only to those counties and
cities upon which he could rely to return representatives in
support of his policy. Stubbs holds the view that the fiist
assembly we ought to regard as a full parliament was the Model
Parliament which met at Westminster in 1 295. This 4fa*f
parliament, unlike Simon's partisan assembly of PmHiamnm
1265, was free and representative. To every spiritual •"*■*•
* Et ab habendum commune consilium rcgni . . . summooeri
facicmus archicpiacopos. epiacopos. abbates, comites et majcns
barones neillatim pjer littcras nostras ct praeterca fademus summoneii
in i^enerait f>cr virccomes ct ballivos nostros omnca illos qui de
nobis teneot in capite (cited in Stubbs, Const. ^iO, i. ^7 n.).
PEERAGE
47
and temporal baron accustonied to receive an individual
wzit, one was issued. Every county elected its knights and
every dty or borough of any importance was instructed
by the sheriff to elect and to return its allotted number of
lepresentatives. Slubbs's view (Const. Hist. ii. 223) may prob-
ably be regarded as authoritative, inasmuch as it was adopted
by Lord Mhboumc in the Norfolk peerage case of 1906 (Law
Rtparts [1907K A.C. at p. 15). Edward I. held frequent parlia-
ments throughout his reign, and although many must be
legafxkd as merely baronial councils, nevertheless year after
year, on all important occasions, the knights of the shire and
the dtixens appear in their places. The parliament of Shrews-
bury in 1283, for instance, has been claimed as a full parliament
in several peerage cases, but no dear d^ision on the point
has ever been given by the Committee for Privileges. It inay
be taken for granted, however, that any assembly held
snce 1295, which did not conform substantially* *"* the model
of that year, cannot be regarded constitutionally us a full
parliament. The point is even of modem importance, as in
order to establish the existence of a barony by writ it must
be proved that the claimant's ancestor was summoned by
individual writ to a full parliament, and that either he himself
or one of his direct descendants was present in parliament.
It is now convenient to consider the various grades into
which the members of the peerage are grouped, and their
.elative positions. An examination of the early writs
issued to individuals shows that the baronage con-
si^ed of archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, earb
and barons. In course of time every member of these classes
came to h<rfd his land by feudal tenure from the Crown, and
eveotuaUy in every instance the writs issued as an inddcnt
of tenure. It is Uierefore necessary to discover, if possible,
what combination of attributes dothcd the greater baron ^ilh
a right to receive the king's personal writ of summons. While
the archbishops and bishops recdved thdr writs with regularity,
the sommoiaes to heads of ecclesiastical houses and greater
barons were intermittent. The prelate held an ofiice which
lived 00 regardless of the fate of its temporary holder, and if
by reason of death, absence or translation the ofiice became
vacant, a writ still issued to the " Guardian of the Spiritualities."
The abbot, on the other hand, often outside the jurisdiction of
the English Church, and owing allegiance to a foreign order,'
vas but the personal representative of a land-holding community.
It has already been pointed out that the amount of land held
direct from the king by individuals varied greatly, and that
the extent of his holding must have had something to do with
a man's importance. A landless noble in those days was
inconceivable. The condusion, then, may be drawn that in
thec^ the issue of a writ was at the pleasure of the Crown, and
that in practice the moving factor in the case of the prelates
vs oflke and personal importance, and in the case of abbots
sad barons probably, in the main, extent of possession. There
is K>thing however to show that in the early years of the custom
any person had a right to daim a writ if it were the king's
pjexsure or caprice to withhold it and to treat everyone not
sommoned individually as being duly summoned under the
feneral writs issued to the sheriff of the county.
The next point for consideration is when did the peerage,
as the baronage subsequently came to be called, develop into
a body definitely hereditary ? Here again growth
jras gradual and somewhat obscure. Throughout
the reigns of the Edwards summonses were not
always nsiied to the same individual for successive parliaments;
ttd it is quite certain that the king never considered the issue
of one writ to an individual bound the Crown to its repetition
f<v the rest of his life, much less to his heirs in perpetuity.
A^'n we must look to tenure for an explanation. The custom
of (ffiroogeniture tended to secure estates in strict family
SKcesaon, and if extent of possession had originally extracted
tke acknowledgment of a personal summons from the Crown
it s moce than probable that as successive heirs came into their
i^eiitance they too would similarly be acknowledged. In
cariy days the summons was a burden to be suffered of necessity,
an unpleasant inddent of tenure, in itself undesirable, and
probably so regarded by the majority of recipients during at
ieasi the two centuries following the Conquest. The age of the
Edwards was in the main a rule of settled law, of increase in
population generally, of growing power in the large landowners
and of opportunities for those about the person of the king.
The times were changing, and in place of the idea of the writ
being a burden, its receipt gradually came to be looked upon
as a mark of royal favour, a recognition of position aiul an
opportunity leading on to fortune. Once such a view was
established it is easy to understand how desirous any individual
would be to preserve so valuable a privilege for his posterity;
and primogeniture with its strict settlement of estates pointed
out an easy way. The Crown was itself an hereditary dignity;
and what more natural than that it should be surrcunded by an
hereditary peerage? Thus the free and indiscriminate choice
of the Crown became fettered by the custom that once a
summons had been issued to an individual to sit in parliament
and he had obeyed that summons he thereby acquired a right
of summons for the rest of his lifetime; and in later years when
the doctrine of nobility of blood became established his
descendants were hdd to have acquired the same privilege by
hereditary right.
The earl's position in the baronage needs some explanation.
Various suggestions have been made as to Saxon or Norman
origin of a high offidal nature, but historical opinion
seems generally to incline towards the theory that
the term was a name of dignity conferred by royal prerogative
on a person already classed among the greater barons. At first
the dignity was official and certainly not hereditary, and the name
of a county of which he is said to have been an officer in the king's
name was not essential to his dignity as an carL There were
also men who, though Scottish and Norman earls, and commonly
so addressed and summoned to parliament, were rated in
England as barons (Lords Reports^ ii. 116, 120; Earldom of
Norfolk Peerage Case^ Law Rr ports (1907), A'.C. p. 18). Earls
received individual summonses to parliament by the name of
Earl (g.v.)', but there is reason to believe, as already mentioned,
that in early days at any rate they sat not in right of their
earldoms but by tenure as members of the baronage,
If we. review the political situation at the beginning of the
14th century a great change is evident. The line between
those members of the baronage in parliament and ivrtt
the rest of the people is firmly and clearly drawn. Supertedt*
Tenure as the sole qualification for presence in the '"•""'»•
national assembly has disappeared, and in its place there
appears for the baronage a system of royal selection and for
the rest of the people one of representation. The rules and
customs of law relating to the baronage slowly crystallized so
as to provide the House of Lords, the history of which for
generations is the history of the peerage of England, whilst
the representative part of parliament, after shedding the lower
dergy, ultimately became the House of Commons.
Until the reign of Richard II. there is no trace of any use
of the term baron (g.v.) as importing a personal dignity existing
apart from the tenure of land, barons owing their seats in parlia-
ment to tenure and writ combined. This is borne out by the
fact that a husband was often summoned to parliament in his
wife's right and name, and while she lived fulfilled those feudal,
military and parliamentary obligations attached to her lands
which the physical disabilities of sex prevented her from carrying
out in her own person (Pike, House of Lords, p. 103).
Primogeniture, a custom somewhat uncertain in early Anglo-
Norman days, had rapidly developed into a definite rule of law.
As feudal dignities were in their origin inseparable pg^^g^
from the tenure of land it is not surprising that they bttomtM a
loo followed a similar course of descent, although i^ruutal
as the idea of a dignity being exclusively pycrsonal *'*"'^'
gradually emerged, some necessary deviations from the rules of
law relating to the descent of land inevitably resulted. In the
eleventh year of his reign Richard II. created by letters patent
^B
48
PEERAGE
John Bcauchamp " Lord de Beauchamp and baron of Kyddcr-
mynster, to hold to him and the heirs of his body." These letters
patent vrere not founded on any right by tenure of land possessed
by Beauchamp, for the king makes him " for his good services and
in respect of the place which he had bolden at the coronation {i.e.
steward of the household) and might in future hold in the king's
councils and parliaments, and for his noble descent, and his
abilities and discretion, one of the peers and barons of the king-
dom of England; willing that the said John and the heirs-male
of his body issuing, should have the state of baron and should
be called by the name of Lord de Beauchamp and Baron of
Kyddermynstcr." The grant rested wholly on the grace and
favour of the Crown and was a personal reward for services
rendered. Here then is a barony entirely a personal dignity
and quite unconnected with land. From Richard's reign to
the present day baronies (and indeed all other peerage honours)
have continued to be conferred by patent. The custom of
summons by writ was not in any way interfered with, the patent
operating merely to declare the dignity and to define its devolu-
tion. Summons alone still continued side by side for many
generations with summons founded on patent; but after the
reign of Henry VIII. the former method fell into disuse, and
during the last two hundred and fifty years there have been
no new creations by writ of summons alone.* So from the
reign of Richard II. barons were of two classes, the older, and
more ancient in lineage summoned by writ alone, the honours
descending to heirs-general, and the newer created by letters
patent, the terms of which governed the issue of the summons
and prescribed the devolution of the peerage in the line almost
invariably of the direct male descendants of the person
first ennobled. The principle of hereditary succession so dearly
recognized in the Beauchamp creation is good evidence to show
that a prescriptive right of hereditary summons probably existed
in those families whose members had long been accustomed to
receive individual writs. By the time the House of Lancaster
was firmly seated on the throne it may be taken that the peerage
had become a body of men possessing well-defined personal
privileges and holding personal dignities capable ol descending
to their heirs.
The early origin of peerages was so closely connected with
the tenure of land that the idea long prevailed that there were
originally peerages by tenure only, i.e. dignities
j^H^^ or titles annexed to the possession (and so following
it on alienation) of certain lands held in chief of the
king. The older writers, Glanviile (bk. ix. cc. 4, 6) and Bracton
(bk. ii. c. 16), lend some colour to the view. They are followed,
but not very definitely, by Coke, Seldcn and ^ladox. Black-
stone, who discusses the question in his Commentaries (bk. i.
c. xil.), seems to believe that such dignities existed in pre-
parliamentary days but says further: " When alienations grew
to be frequent, the dignity of peerage was confined to the lineage
of the party ennobled, and instead of territorial became per-
sonal." The Earldom of Arundel case, in 1433, at first sight seems
to confirm the theory, but it may be noted that when in later
years this descent came to be discussed the high authority of
an act of parliament was found necessary to confirm the succes-
sion to the dignity. The case is discussed at some length in the
Lords Reports (ii. 115), the committee regarding it as an anomaly
from which no useful precedent can be drawn. Other cases
discussed in the same Report are those of De Lisle, Abergavenny,
Fitzwalter and Berkeley. The Berkeley case of 1S58-1861 (better
reported 8 H.L.C. 31) is essential for the student who wishes
to examine the question carefully; and may be regarded as
finally putting an end to any idea of bare tenure as an existing
means of establishing a peerage right (see also Cruise on Dignities,
and ed. pp. 60 et seq.).
The main attribute of a peerage is that hereditary and inalien-
' Not intentional at anv rate. In some cases where it was in-
tended to call a son up in his father's barony, a mistake in the name
has been made with the result that a new peerage by writ of sum-
mons has been created. The barony of Buller, of Moore Park
(cr. 1663). now in at)eyance, is said to be an instance of such a
mistake.
able quality which ennobles the blood of the holder and hit
heirs, or, as a great judge put it in 1625 in the Earldom of
Oxford case, " he cannot alien or give away this in-
heritance because it is a personal dignity annexed
to the posterity and fixed in the blood " (Dodridge,
J., at p. 123, Sir W. Jones's Reports). Were the theory of barony
by tenure accepted it would be possible for the temporary
holder of such a barony to sell it or even to will it away to a
stranger possessing none of the holder's blood, with the effect
that, ia the words of Lord Chancellor Campbell (Berkeley case,
8 H.L.C. 77), " there might be various individuals isnd various
lines of peers successively ennobled and created peers of parlia-
ment by a subject," an impossible condition of affairs in a
country where the sovereign has always been the fountain of
honour. Moreover, while no peerage honour can be extinguished
or surrendered, the owner of lands can freely dispose of such
rights as he possesses by sale or transfer. Finally we may accept
the verdict in the Fitzwalter case of 1669 (Cruise, ibid. p. 66),
which was adopted by the House of Lords in the Berkeley case:
" and the nature of a barony by tenure being discussed, it
was found to have been discontinued for many ages, and not ia
being, and so not fit to be revived or to admit any pretence or
right of succession thereupon."
Until the reign of Edward III. the peerage consisted only of
high ecclesiastics, earls and barons. The earls were banns
with their special name of dignity added, and their
names always appear on the rolls before those of the
barons. In 1337 King Edward created his son, the Black
Prince, duke of Cornwall, giving him precedence over the rest
of the peerage. The letters patent (under which the present
heir to the throne now holds the dukedom) limited the dignity
in perpetuity to the first-bom son of the king of England.*
Subsequently several members of the royal family were created
dukes, but no subject received such an honour until fifty years
later, when Richard II. created his favourite Robert de Vete,
earl of Oxford, duke of Ireland (for life). The original intention
may have been to confine the dignity to the blood royal, as with
the exception of de Vere i* was some years before a dukedom
was again conferred on a subject.
In 1385 Richard II. had created Robert de Vere marquess of
Dublin, thus importing an entirely new and unknown title into
the peerage. The grant was, however, only for life,
and was in fact resumed by the Crown in 1387, when
its recipient was created duke of Ireland. It was not until 1397
that another creation was made, this time in favour of one of
the blood royal, John de Beaufort, eldest legitimated son of
John of Gaunt, who became marquess of Dorset. His title was
shortly afterwards taken away by Henry IV 's first pariiaroent.
Subsequently creations were made only at long intervals, that
of Winchester (1551) being the only one (of old date) under
which an English marquess at present sits in the House of Lords
(see Marquess).
Under the name of viscount (q.v,) Henry VI. added yet another
order, and the last in point of time, to the peerage, creating in
1440, John, Baron Beaumont, Viscount Beaumont T||||„,,f,
and giving him precedence next above the barons.
The name of this dignity was also borrowed from the Continent,
having been in use for some time as a title of honour in the king's
French possessions. None of the new titles above mentioned
ever carried with them any official position; they were conferred
originally as additional honours on men who were already
members of the peerage.
The application of the hereditary principle to temporal
peerages early differentiated their holders from the ^iritual
peers. Both spiritual and temporal peers were
equally lords of parliament, but hereditary preten-
sions on the one side and ecclesiastical exclusiveness
on the other soon drew a sharp line of division between the tiro
orders. Gradually the temporal peers, strong in their doctrine
of " ennobled " blood, came to consider that theirs was an order
' . . . . prindpi et ipsius et haercdum tuonim Regum Aaffim
filiis primogenitis {The Prince's Case, 8 Co. Rep. 37a: 77 E.R. S>3)*
PEERAGE
49
abevB and beyond all other lords of ptriiament, and before Vmg,
arrogitcd to themselves the exdtinve right to be called peers,
and as such the only persons entitled to t^ privileges of peerage.
In early parliamentary dajfs it had been the custom to summon
RCttlarly to attend the Lords for deliberative purposes another
body of men — the judges. Less important than the prelates,
they also owed their summons to official position, and like them
vere eventually overshadowed by the hereditary principle.
The force of hereditary right gave to ennobled blood a position
ed by either judge or prelate. It is true the prelate,
point of antiquity, was senior to both earl and baron, and in
es superior in extent of possessions; but these attributes
bdonsed to bis office, the resignation or deprivation of which
woold at any time have caused him to lose his writ of summons.
The writ iBiied really to the office. The judge's position was
His judicial office evoked the writ, but at any
he might be deprived of that office at the arbitrary
of the Crown. It is doubtful whether the judges ever
had voice and vote in the same sense as the other lords of
pttfiament, and even if they had they soon came to be regarded
■ody as counsellors and assessors.
The pretensions of the lay peers were not admitted without
a straggle on the part of the prelates, who made the mistake
of aiming at the establishment of a privileged position for their
OVB order while endeavouring to retain every right possessed
by their lay brethren. They fell between two stools, lost their
position as peers, and were beaten back in their fight for ecde-
■if^^^^ privilege. In the reign of Richard II. the prelates are
fBond clearly defining their position. Neville, anchbishop of
Yo^ de Vere, duke of Ireland and others, were " appealed "
for treason, and the archbishop of Canterbury took the oppor-
tanity in pariiament of making clear the rights of his order.
He ssid " of right and by the custom of the realm of England
it bdoAgeth to the Archbishop of Canterbury for the time being
ss well as others his sufTragans, brethren and fellow bishops,
abbots and priors and oth^ prelates whatsoever, holding of
«v bed the king by barony, to be present in person in all the
klig's parliaments whatsoever as Peers of the Realm aforesaid,
and there with the other Peers of the Realm, and with other
petscms having the right to be there present, to advise, treat,
eidain, establish and determine as to the affairs of the realm
sad other matters there wont to be treated and to do all else
vkidi tl»re presses to be done." After this he went on to say
that as to the particular matters in question they intended to
be present and to take their part in all matters brought before
psfliament " save our estate and order and that of each of the
prdatcs in all things. But because in the present parliament
there b question of certain matters, in which it is not lawful
for as or anyone of the prelates according to the institute of the
Boly Canons in any manner, to take part personally " we intend
to letire " saving always the rights of our peerage " (Rot. Pari.
II Rich. IL No. 6 — ^printed iii. 236-237). At the desire of the
PRiates this statement of their rights was duly enrolled in parlia-
SKst, but their claim to be peers was neither denied nor admitted,
aad the proceedingi went on without them. For themselves
Chondhmen never claimed the privilege of trial by peers.
Vkenever they were arraigned they claimed to be altogether
sttside secular jurisdiction, and it was therefore a matter of
snail concern to them whether they were in the hands of peers
«rpcssants. Such was the attitude of Bccket towards Henry II.
(Stibbs, Cffnsi. Hist. i. $04), of Archbishop Stratford towards
Edward III. (Pike, pp. 188 seq.), and it was probably with
tbe bistc^ of these two cases in his mind thai the archbishop
sf Rkhard II. 's rdgn speaks of the saving rights of his order.
Tbese rights were never willingly admitted in England, and as
tbe p<^>e's power for interference waned so the prelates were
loiced under the ordinary law of the land. Henry VIII. cer-
binly never regarded ecclesiastics as peers, as may be gathered
boa a grant eariy in his reign to the then abbot of Tavistock
fcr bimself and each succeeding abbot the right to be " one of
tbe sfriritual and religious lords of parliament." As to abbots,
tbcsabscqoent dissolution of the monasteries put an end to the
.1 a
discusnon. In thb reign also Cranmer and Fisher, though the
former was archbishop of Canterbury, were tried by a common
jury, and they certainly claimed no privilege of peerage. The
Standing Orders of the House of. Lords for 1625 contain the
statement that " Bishops are only Lords of Parliament and not
Peers " (Lords JoumalSt iii. 349)> In 1640 the " Lords Spiritual "
were altogether excluded from the House of Lords by act of
parliament, and were not brought back until the second year
of the Restoration. From that period there has been no ques-
tion as to their position. Peers and holders by barony when
parliaments first met, by the end of the i sth century they had put
themselves outside the pale of the peerage. To-day their ancient
lands are vested in trustees (Ecclesiastical Commissioners),
and office alone constitutes a bishop's qualification, and
that only if he occupies one of the five great sees of Canterbury,
York, London, Durham and Winchester, or is of sufficient
seniority in appointment to fill one of the remaining twenty-one
places on the bench of bishops in the house — for there are now
only twenty-six seats for thirty-six prelates.
The reign of Henry VIII. brought about far-reaching changes
in the position of the peerage. When that king ascended Uie
throne the hereditary element was in a decided Umyvm^
minority, but the bsJance was gradually redressed •m4tko
until -at length a bare hereditary majority was '^•'ai*.
secured and the dissolution of the monasteries made
possible. The peers, many now grown fat on abbey lands,
at once began- to consolidate their position; precedents were
eagerly sought for, and the doctrine of ennobled blood began
to find definite and vigorous expression. So long, the peers
declared, as there is any ennobled blood, a peerage
must exist; and it can be extinguished only by act
of parliament, failure of heirs, or upon corruption
of blood by attainder. Stubbs writes nfith some contempt of
the doctrine (Const. Hist. iiL 458 n.), apparently on the ground
that it is absurd to speak of ennobled blood so long as the children
of a peer still remain commoners. The doctrine is neither
unreasonable nor illogical. By it is meant blood in which
there always exists a capacity to inherit a particular peerage,
and every person in whose veins the ennobled blood runs is
competent to occupy the peerage if the chances of nature should
remove those who are senior to him in the line of decent. A
good illustration is the popular use of the term " blood royal,"
which of course does not mean that an individual of the blood
royal necessarily occupies a throne but that he or she is in the
line of succession to it. Similarly, persons of " ennobled blood "
are not necessarily peers but in the line of descent to peerages,
to which they may or may not succeed. (See Nobiuty.)
The English peer is not like the continental noble the member
of a caste, but the holder for life of an office clothed with high
and exceptional legislative and judicial attributes entirely
dependent on his office and exercisable only in conjunction
with his fellow peers in parliament assembled. Such privileges
as he possesses are due primarily to his office rather than to his
blood. His children are commoners, who though accorded
courtesy titles by the usage of society have no legal privileges
not shared with the humblest of British subjects. It is this
peculiar official quality of an English peerage which saved
England from the curse of a privileged noble caste such as that
which so long barred all progress in France and Germany. As
a result there are hundreds of families in the tlnited Kingdom
who, commoners there, would yet, from their purity of blood,
position and influence, be accounted noble in any continental
country.
From the doctrine of nobility of blood is derived the rule
of law that no peerage (a Scots peerage is under Scots Law)
can be surrendered, extinguished, or in any way got
rid of unless the blood be corrupted. The rule is SrfliwSw*
well illustrated by the earldom of Norfolk case
(Law Reports [1907I, A. C. 10) in which its development was
traced, and the principle authoritatively confirmed. In 1302
the hereditary earldom of Norfolk (created in 1135) was in thb
possession of Hugh Bygod, one of the most powerful nobles d
so
PEERAGE
PlanUgenet days. The eari got into difficulties, and as some
say, for a consideration, and others, to spite his brother and
debtor, surrendered his earldom and all the lands thereto
belonging, to King Edward I. from whom he subsequently
received it back with an altered limitation to himself and the
heirs of his body. As he was a childless old man this was practi-
cally a short life interest to the exclusion of all his relatives, the
nearest of whom but for the surrender would have succeeided.
Soon after Bygod died, and the earldom fell into the hands of
Edward U. who granted it to his brother Thomas of Brothcrton
in 131a. Lord Mowbray, the lineal descendant of this Thomas,
recently came forward and claimed the earldom, but in 1906
the House of Lords decided against his claim on the ground
that in law Bygod's surrender was invalid, and that therefore
Edward II. had no valid power to grant this particular earldom
to Thomas of Brotherton. Historically there is little to support
such a decision, and indeed this rigid application of the law is
of comparatively recent date. Without doubt king, nobles and
lawyers alike were all agreed, right down to Tudor days, that
such surrenders were entirely valid. Many certainly were made,
but, according to the decision of 1906, any living heirs of line
of those nobles who thus got rid of their peerage honours can,
if their pedigrees be provable, come to the House of Lords with a
fair chance of reviving the ancient honours. Even as late as
1663 we find the Crown, naturally Svith the concurrence of its
legal advisers, stating in the barony of Lucas patent (1663) that,
on the appearance of co-heirs to a barony, the honour may be
suspended or extinguished at the royal pleasure. The royal view
of the law (at any rate as to extinction) was strongly objected
to by the Lords, who guarded their privileges in Stuart days
even more strictly than did the Commons. As early as 1626,
in the celebrated dispute over the earldom of Oxford, the lord
great chamberlainship and the l>aronics of Bolebec, Badlesmere
and Sandford, Mr Justice Dodridge, who had been called in by
the Lords to advise them, said that an earl could not give away
or alien his inheritance, because it was " a personal dignity
annexed to the posterity and fixed in the blood." Fourteen
years later, in the Grey de Ruthyn case, the Lords solemnly
resolved, " That no peer of the realm can drown or extinguish
his honour (but that it descends unto his descendants), neither
by surrender, grant, fine nor any other conveyance to the king."
In 1678 the Lords became, if possible, even more definite, in
view probably of the fact that the Crown had disregarded the
Grey de Ruthyn resolution, having in z66o taken into its hands,
by surrender of Robert Villiers, and viscount, the viscounty
of Purbeck. In 1676 the son of the second viscount applied
for his writ of summons, and on the advice of Sir William Jones,
the attorney-general, who reported that " this (surrender) 'was
a considerable question, never before resolved that he knew of,"
the king referred the whole matter to the Lords. The Lords
were very explicit, being " unanimously of the opinion, and do
resolve that no fine now levied, or at any time*hereafter to be
levied by the king, can bar such title of honour {i.e. of a peer
of the realm), or the right of any person claiming under him that
levied, or shall levy such fine." On these resolutions passed in
the seventeenth century, the Lords of 1906 find illegal a surrender
of 1302. The result seems strange, but it is, at any rate, logical
from the legal point of vie^ It was urged that in 1302 no
real parliament, in the sense applied to those of later years,
was in existence; and consequently, a resolution founded on
parliamentary principles should not apply. Tq this answer
was made: Although it may be true that the law and practice
of parliament had not then crystallized into the definite shape
of even a hundred years later, the " Model Parliament " was
summoned seven years before Bygod's surrender, and it is neces-
sary to have some definite occurrence from which to date a
legal beginning — a point of law with which an historian can have
little sympathy.
Briefly, perhaps, from the teaching of the case, it may be
permissible to state the rule as follows: In early days thd
Norman and Plantagenet kings took upon themselves to deal
with the barons in a manner which, though illegal, was suffered
because no one dared oppose them; but as time went on, becom-
ing stronger and more determined to enforce their privileges
and exalt their order the peers were able to compel recognition
of their rights, and their r^olutions in Stuart days were only
declaratory of law which had always existed, but had been
systematically disregarded by the Crown. This being so,
resolutions of the peers deliberately and expressly laid down
must, when in point, always be followed.
The application of the doctrine of corruption of blood to
peerages arises out of their cl<»e connexion with the tenure
of land, peerage dignities never having been regarded
as personal until well on into the 14th century. «atfi
Conviction for any kind of felony — ^and treason
originally was a form of felony — was always followed ■•■•*
by attainder. This resulted in the immediate corruption of
the blood of' the offender, and its capacity for inheritance was
lost for ever. Such corruption with all its consequences could
be set aside only by act of parliament. This stringent rule of
forfeiture was to some extent mitigated by the passing in 1 285
of the statute De Donis Conditionalibus (Blackstone's Commen-
lories f iL zz6) which made possible the creation of estates tail,
and when a tenant-in-tail was attainted forfeiture extended only
to his life interest. The statute De Donis was soon applied
by the judges to suchi dignities as were entailed {e.g. dignities
conferred by patent with limitations in tail), but it never affected
baronies by writ, which were not estates in tail but in the nature
of estates in fee simple descendible to heirs general. In the
reign of Henry VIII. an act was passed (1534) which brought
estates tail within the law of forfeiture, but for high treason only.
The position then became that peerages of any kind were for-
feitable by attainder following on high treason, while baronies
by writ remained as before forfeitable for attainder following
on felony. In 1708, just after the Union with Scotland, an
act was passed by which on the death of the Pretender and three
years after Quttn Anne's death the effects of corruption of blood
consequent on attainder for high treason were to be abolished,
and the actual offender only to be punished (stat. 7 Anne,
c. 21, § 10). Owing to the 1745 rising, the operation of this act
was postponed until the decease of the Pretender and all his
sons (stat. 17 Geo. II. c. 39, § 3). In 1814 forfeiture for every
crime other than high and petty treason and murder was re-
stricted to the lifetime of the person attainted (stat. 54 Geo.
III. c. 145). Finally in 1870 forfeiture, except upon outlawry,
was altogether abolished and it was provided that " no judgment
of or for any treason or felony should cause any attainder or
corruption of blood, or any forfeiture or escheat." The necessity
for ascertaining the exact condition of the law with regard to
attainder throughout the whole period of English parliamentary
history will be realized when it is remembered that there still
exist dormant and abeyant p)eerages dating from 1295 onwards
which may at any time be the subject of claim before the House
of Lords, and if any attainders exist in the history of such peerages
the law governing their consequences is not the law as it exists
to-day but as it existed when the attainder occurred. The
dukedom of Atholl case of 1764 is interesting as showing the
effect of attainder on a peerage where the person attainted does
not actually succeed. John first duke of Atholl died in 172s
leaving two sons James and George. George the younger was
attainted of treason in 1745 and died in 1760, leaving a son John.
James, the second son of the first duke, who had succeeded his
father in 1725 died in 1764 without issue. John his nephew then
claimed the dukedom, and was allowed it on the ground that
his father never having been in the possession of the dukedom
his attainder could not bar his son, who succeeds by reason
of his heirship to his uncle. It would have been otherwise
had the younger son outlived his brother, for he would then have
succeeded to the dukedom and so destroyed it by his attainder.
In many cases there have been passed special parliamentary
acts of attainder and forfeiture, and these, of course, operate
apart from the general law. In any event, attainder and
forfeiture of a dignity, whether resulting from the rules of the
common law or from special or general acts of parliament can
PEERAGE
SI
on] J be reversed by act of parliament. The procedure in
fevening an attainder and recovering a dignity is as follows.
The Crown signifies its pleasure that a bill of restoration shall
be prepared and signs it. The bill is then brought in to the
House of Lords, passed there, and sent to the G>mmons for
assent. The last bills of the kind became law in 1876, when
Earl Cowper procured the removal of the attainder on one of his
Ormond ancestors and so by purging the blood of corruption
became entitled to, and was idlowed, the barony of Butler of
Moore Park (created in 1663). There should also be noted the
Earldom of Mar Restitution Act 1885, which, while mainly con-
firmatory of a disputed succession, at the same time reverseii
any attainders that esdsted.
The House of Lords grew steadily throughout the Tudor
period, and during the reign of the first two Stuarts underwent
a stfll greater increase. In the Great Rebellion the majority of
the peers were the king's stoutest supporters and thus inevitably
invt^ved themselves in the ruin of the royal cause. Immediately
after the execution of Charles L the Republicans proceeded
to sweep away everything which savoured of mon-
archy and aristocracy. The House of Commons
voted the Lords " useless and dangerous," got rid of
them as a part of parliament by the simple expedient
€i a res(4«tion (Ccmms. Joums. 1648-1649, vi. iii) and placed
the sole executive power in Cromwell's hands, but there was
no direct abolition of the peerage as such. Evidently it took
Cromwell but little time to realixe the fallacy, in practice, of
r« single-chamber government, as he is found ten
years after the " useless and dangerous " resolu-
tion busy establishing a second chamber.^ What
to call it aroused much discussion, and eventually the unruly
Commons consented to speak of and deal with " the other
boose." It is very diffictilt to realize what was the constitution
of th» body, so short was its life and so contemptuous its treat-
BKot by the Commons. The members of " the other house "
were summoned by writs under the Great Seal, similar in form
to those used to summon peers of past days. Some sixty writs
were issued, and presumably their redpients were entitled
thoeby to sit for the duration of the parliament to which they
were summoned; but it may be considered as certain that
CromweO's lords were never regarded as hereditary peers.
They were entitled to the courtesy appellation " Lord " and
appear to have been in the main substantial men — existing
peers, judges, distinguished lawyers and members of well-known
county families. Judging from Cromwell's speech at the
opening of parliament, and subsequent entries in Whitelock's
daries, the new house appears to have had revising functions
both of a legislative and judicial nature and also the duty of
taking cognizance of foreign affairs. Cromwell certainly issued
two patents of hereditary peerage — the barony of Bumell
sad the barony of Gilsland (with which went the viscounty of
Howard of Morpeth), but neither title was recognized on the
Scstwation, and it does not appear that the possession of these
titles ever conferred on their holders any hereditary right to a
vfit of summons to sit in "the other house." Whiteiock
hrnsetf was promised a viscounty by Cromwell, but no patent
ever appears to have passed the Great Seal. Eventually business
between the two houses grew impossible, and Cromwell was
CDOpeOed to dissolve parliament. Richard's first parliament
abo contained Lords as well as Commons, the latter considerately
vociag *' to transact business with the persons sitting in the
otber bouse as an House of Parliament, saving the right of the
peers who had been faithful to the parliament," the saving
duse evidently a loophole for the future. The dissolution
«f this parliament and the retirement of the protector Richard
isto private life preceded by only a few months the restoration
to the throne of Charles II. With the king the peers returned
to their andent places.
From the reign of William of Orange the peerage has been
fac^ened by a steady stream of men who as a rule have served
'WUtdock's Uemoriats of Endish Affairs (In the retgn of
Ckuies L and up to the Restoration) (1853 ed. iv. 313).
their country as statesmen, lawyers and soldiers. Little of
note occurred in the history of the peerage until the reign of
Anne. By the Act of Union with Scotland (1707)
the Scottish parliament was abolished; but the
Scottish peerage were given the privilege of
electing, for each parliament of Great Britain, sixteen of
their number to represent them in the House of Lords.
Further creations in the Scottish peerage were no longer to be
made. The effect of this act was to leave the great majority
of the Scottish peers outside the House of Lords, as only sixteen
of their number were to become lords of parliament. Close
upon a hundred years later Ireland was united with Great
Britain, the Irish parliament being merged in the irM Ktpi^
parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain y^o^w
and Ireland. Twenty-eight Irish peers were to be ^'•'■'
elected for life by their order to represent it in the House of
Lords. One archbishop and three bishops were also chosen in
turn to represent the Irish Church in the House of Lords, but
when that Church was disestablished in 1867 the spiritual
lords lost their seats. The merger of the three kingdoms had
an important effect on their peerages. Every peer in his
own country had been a lord of parliament by hereditary right.
The English peer (and, as the Acts of Union were passed, the
peer of Great Britain and the p)eer of the United Kingdom)
continued by hereditary right a lord of parliament. The
Scottish and Irish peers lost this right though by the two Acts
of Union they retained every other privilege of peerage. Hence-
forth they were lords of parliament only as and when their
fellow peers elected them. Thus though not all were lords of
parliament in esse, every one was always so in posse, and in any
case it was the hereditary quality of the peerage which either
actually seated its holder in the House of Lords or made it
possible for him to get there by the votes of his fellows.
It now becomes possible to arrive at the modem meaning of
the term " a peerage," and we may define it as a dignity of
England, Scotland or Ireland, which, by its heredi- Modtrm
tary quaUty, confers on its holder for the time Mtmahyi
being the right to be or not to be elected a loid of •''^•'U*-'*
parliament. The term " peerage " is also used in a collective
sense.
The reign of Anne is remarkable for an attempt made by the
House of Lords to limit its numbers by law. The queen,
in order to secure a majority for the court party, Qm^BAam*
had created a batch of twelve peers at one time, a aadPteng*
considerable number in relation to existing p)eerages; '•*■*«<'•■•
and it was feared this expedient might be used as a
precedent. A peerage limitation bill was introduced into the
House of Lords in 1719. Six new creations were to be allowed,
but after these the Crown, except in the case of royal princes,
was to create a new peerage only when an old one became
extinct. Twenty-five hereditary peerages in Scotland were
to take the place of the sixteen representative peers for all time.
The bill passed the Lords, but was eventually thrown out in the
House of Commons, though not by an overwhelming majority.
In 1856 it was desired to strengthen the judicial element
in the House of Lords, and the Crown issued letters patent
creating Sir James Parke, one of the barons of the ^rtuMitydait
exchequer, Baron Wensleydale and a peer " for ca»9.
and during the term of his natural life." The
burden of an hereditary peerage is heavy, and many men
thoroughly well qualified in legal attainments have been known
to refuse it on the ground of expense alone. This life-peerage
was thought to be a way out of the difficulty, and it was on
Lord Chancellor Cranworth's advice that the Crown issued the
Wensleydale patent. The House of Lords at once realized
that the creation of h'fc-peers, at the will of the ministry of the
day, might put the hereditary section into an absolute minority,
and possibly in time, by form of law, get rid of it altogether.
Eventually it was decided by the house that " neither the said
letters patent nor the said letters patent with the usual writ of
summons enable the grantee to sit and vote in parliament,",
a formal resolution which closed the door in the face of every
52
PEERAGE
person whom the Crown might endeavour to nAke a lUe-peer.
The government of the day accepted the utuation, and soon
afterwards a new patent was made out which' followed the usual
limitation to heirs-male. The precedents in favour of the
Crown's actiod were not strong. The essential and outstanding
attribute of the house was its hereditary character. The whole
balance of the constitution worked on the pivot of the indepen-
dence of the peers.- They existed as a moderating force in the
counsels <^ parUament, and the alteration of the hereditary
character of the House of Lords might easily have rendered
it amenable to whatever pressure the government of the day
might see fit to exercise. In such drctmistanccs its position
as arbiter between people and government would tend to di>-
a|^)ear. A change fraught with so many serious possibilities
ought not, it was said, to be made by the simple prerogative
of the Crown. If so far-reaching an alteration in the law were
justifiable it was for parliament to make it. Further, it was
pointed out, there had been no life-creations for centuries, and
those that are recorded to have been conferred since the crys-
tallization of our parliamentary system were of such a nature
that the grantees never sat in the house by virtue of their life-
iiOQOurs, inasmuch as they were existing peers or women.. Soon
after the Wcnsleydale debates the government
introduced a bill into the House of Lords to authorize
the creation of two Ufc-pecrs, who were to be persons
of at least five years' standing as judges. They were to sit as
lords of appeal but to be peers for life. Eventually the bill
disappeared in the House of Commons. In 1869 Earl Russell
introduced another life-peerage biU of far wider scope. Twenty-
eight life-peerages might be in existence at any one time, but
not more than four were to be created in any one year. The
life peers would be lords of parliament for life. They were to be
seleaed'by the Crown from the peerages of Scotlaxid and Ireland,
persons who had sat for ten years in the Commons, distinguished
soldiers, sailors, civil servants and judges or persons distinguished
in science, Uterature or art. The bill received a rough handling
in committee of the Lords, and the time was evidently not ripe
for change, as the bill failed to pass its third reading.
In 1870 attempts were made in the House of Lords to alter
the position of the Scottish and Irish representative peers. In
S^gnU4 1876 the need of further judicial strength in the
A»AMns«0tf Lords was tardily admitted, and an act was passed
AManUnaa, authorizing the creation of two lords of appeal in
ordinary, and power was reserved to appoint two more
as certain judicial vacancies occurred. They were to be
entitled to the rank of baron during their lives but were to sit
and vote in parliament only so long as they hdd their judicial
office. Their dignities lasted for life only. Eleven years later
another act enabled all retired lords of appeal to sit and vote aa.
members of the House of Lords for life. To those inticrcstcd
in House of Lords reform the pages of Hansard's Parliamen-
tary Debates are the best^ authority. In 1888 reform bills were
introduced by Lords Dunraven and Salisbury, and in 1907 by
Lord Newton. In December 1908 the publication of a long
report with sweeping recommendations for reform ended the
labours of a House of Lords committee which had been appointed
to consider the question in detaiL In the session of 1910,
following the general election, long discussions took place in
both houses of parliament. Opinion generally was freely
expressed that the time had arrived for diminishing the number
of lords of parliament and for putting into practice the principle
that hereditary right alone should no longer confer lordship of
parliament. fSee Parliament.)
The Scottish peerage, like that of England, owes its origin
to feudalism. In Anglo-Norman days Scotland was a small
country, and for some generations after England
was settled the Scottish king's writ ran little b^nd
the foot of the Highlands, and even the Lord of the
Isles reckoned himself an independent sovereign until the
beginning of the 15th century. The weak and usually ineffective
contrd of the Crown resulted in opportunities for acqiuring
personal j)ower which the nobles were not slow to take advantage
of. Seldom accustomed to act In concert, they soon devdoped
particularist tendencies which steadily increased ()ie strength
of their territorial position. These conditions, of existence
were entirely unfavourable to the establishment of any system
of pariiamentary government such as centralization had made
possible in En^and, therefore it is not surprising to find that the
lesser barons were not relieved of their attendance at the national
assemblies until well on in the xsth century (Burton's Scotland,
iii. xzx). Again, when the Scottish earls axid barons came to
parlian^t, they did not withdraw themselv^ from the rest
of the people, it being the custom for the estates of Scotland
to deliberate together, and this custom perusted until the
abob'tion of their parliament by the Act of Union in 1707. The
territorial spirit of the nobles inevitably led them to ttgud the
honour as belonging to, and inseparable from, their land, and
until comparatively late in Scottish history there is nowhere
any record of the conferment of a personal dignity unattached
to land such as that conferred in England on Beauchamp by
Richard H. This expbuns the frequent surrenders and altered
grants which are so conmion in Scottish peerage history, and
which, in sharp distinction to the English rule df law, are there
regarded as perfectly legal. To-day there exists no Scottish
dukedom (except the toytl dukedom of Rothesay), marquessate
or viscounty created before the reign of James VI. of Scotland
(and I. of England). Of the existing Scottish peerages sixty-
three were created in the period between James's accession to
the En^ish throne and the Act of Union. There are now only
eighty-seven in all. Unlike one of the English peerages owing its
origin exclusively to a writ of summons, ancient Scottish
peerages do not fall into abeyance, and when there are <mly
heirs-general, the eldest heir of line succeeds.
Whenever a new pariiament is summoned, prodamatlon is
made in Scotland summoning the peers to meet at Holyrood
to elect sixteen of thdr number to represent them in such
pariiament. The Scottish peerages are recorded on a roll,
and this is called over by the lord derk register before the
assembled peers seated at a long table. Each peer answers to
the name of the peerage (it may be one or more) he possesses.
The roll is then read again and each peer in turn (but only <Mice)
rises and reads out the list of those sixteen peers for whom he
votes. Proxies are allowed for absent peers and are handed in
after the second roU-calL The votes are counted and the lord
derk register reads out the names of those dected, makes a
return, and signs and seals it in the presence of the peers
assembled. The return eventually finds its way to the House of
Lords. The Scottish representative peer so dected recdves no
writ of sununons to pariiament, but attends the House.<^ Lords
to take the oath, his right to sit being evidenced by the return
made. It might be thought that the rules of election In so
important a matter -woxild be more stringent, but the fact
remains that it is quite possible for an entirely unqualified person
to attend and vote at Holyrood. No evidence of identity tit
of a man's right to be present is required and the lord derk
register is compelled to receive any vote tendered except in
re^)ect of peerages for which no vote has been given since xSoo,
these being stiiick off the roll (10 & xz Via. c. 52). Any
person claiming to represent such a peerage must prove hb
right before the House of Lords, as was done in the case of the
barony of Fairfax in 1908. It is true that by the act last dtcd
any two peers may protest against a vote at Holyrood, and the
lord derk register thereupon reports the proceedings to the
House of Lords, who will consider the question if application
be made for an inquiry, but nothing is done unless an ai^qttion
is made. The ri^t to vote certainly needs better proof than
that now accepted. For many years the House of Lords main-
tained that the Crown could not confer a new peerage of Great
Britain on a ScotUsh peer, the ground being Uiat the Scottish
peerage was only entitled to the sixteen representative peers
given it by the Act of Union, but eventually in 1782 in the case
of the duke of Hamilton this contention was given up.
The Anglo-Norman conquerors of Ireland carried with then
the laws anid the system of tenure to which they were accustoiMd
PEERAGE
S3
in fagUnd, and consequently the growth of the baronage
and the estaUishment of parliamentary government in Irebnd
proceeded on parallel lines with the changes which
occurred in England. Until the reign of Henry VIII.
the Irish were without representation in par-'
Gament, but gradually the Irish were admitted, and by the
creation of new parliamentary counties and boroughs were
enabled to elect representatives. In 16x3 the whole coimtry
shared in representation (Ball's Legislative Systems of Ireland).
Jttst as James I. had added many members to the Scottish
peerage, so he increased the number of Irish peers.
In 1800 the Union of Great Britain and Ireland abolished
the parliament of Ireland. By the Act of Union the Irish peers
bccune entitled to elect twenty-eight of their number to r^re-
sent them in the Hoiise of Lords. The election is for life, and
only those peers are entitled to vote at elections of representative
peers wbo have proved their right of succession to the satisfaction
of the lord chancellor, who issues his notice to that effect after
cadi Individual proof. The names of such peers are added to
the voting-roll of the peerage, and when voting papers are
distributed — the Irish peers do not meet for election purposes
as do those of Scotland — they are sent only to those peers who
have proved their right to vote. If any claim to the right to
vote is rejected by the lord chancellor the claimant must prove
hb case b^ore the Committee for Privileges (barony of Graves,
X907). When an Irish peer has been elected a representative
peer be receives, as a matter of course, a writ of summons at
the beginning of each parliament. The great bulk of the Irish
pecnge owes its existence to creations during the last two
centuries, only seven of the existing peerages dating back
beyond the 17th century; of the rest twenty-two were created
daring the year of Union, and thirty-three have been added
since that date. Some hundred or more years ago ministers
Soond the Irish peerage a useful means of political reward, in
that it was possible to bestow a title of honour, with all
its social prestige, and yet not to increase the numbers of the
Bouse of Lords.
On the death of a representative peer of Scotland or Ireland
a vacancy occurs and a new election takes place, but in accor-
dance with modem practice promotion to a United Kingdom
peerage does not vacate the holder's representative position
(May's Parliamentary Practice, p. xx n.). Scottish and Irish
peers, if representative, possess all the privileges of peerage
and pariiament enjoyed by peers of the United Kingdom; if
BOQ-repcesentative all privileges of peerage, except the right to
a writ <d summons to attend parliament and to be present at and
vole in the trial of peers. A Scottish peer, if non-representa-
tive, h in the anomalous position of being disabled from serving
Ibs country in either house of parliament, but an Irish peer
may ait for any House of Commons constituency out of Ireland,
tboo^ whUe a member of the Commons his peerage privileges
abate.
Thod^ many peers possess more than one peerage, and
beqnently of more than one country, only that title is publicly
ved which is first in point of precedence. It was once argued
that whenever a barony by writ came into the possession of a
pmoo already a peer of higher rank, the higher peerage " at-
tracted" or overshadowed the lower, which thenceforth followed
tbe coone of descent of the dignity which had attracted it.
Thk doctrine is now exploded and cannot be regarded as apply-
iag to any case except that of the Crown (Baronies of Fitzwaltcr,
1660, and De Ros, 1666; Collins's Claims, x68, 261). Every
peerage descends according to the limitations prescribed in its
^Btoit of creation or its charter, and where these are non-
existent (as in the case of baronies by writ) to heirs-general.
(See Abeyakcz.)
In dealing with English dignities It is essential to realize
the difference between a mere title of honour and a peerage.
The Crown as tbe fountain of honour is capable of conferring
vpon a subject not only any existing title of honour, but
Bty even invent one for the purpose. So James I. instituted
a Older of hereditary knights which he termed baronets^
and Edward VII. created the duchess of Fife "Princess
Royal"— a life dignity. The dignities of prince of Wales,
earl marshal and lord great chamberlain have been cnmOiuu
for centuries hereditary, and though of high court and mmMib9
social precedence, of themselves confer no right to »a»rdtaM
a seat in the Hoiise of Lords — they are not peerages. ** ''**'*
The grant of a peerage is a very different matter; iu holder
becomes thereby a member of the Upper House of Parlia-
ment, and therefore the prerogative of the Crown in creat-
ing such an office of honour must be exercised strictly in
accordance with the law of the land. The Crown's prerogative
is limited in several directions. The course of descent must be
known to the law; and so, in the first pbce, it follows that a peer
cannot be created for life with a denial of succession to his
descendants (unless it be as one of the lords of appeal in ordinary
under the acts of 1876 and 18S7). The courses of descent of
modem patents are invariably so marked out as ultimately
to fix the peerage in sdme male line according to the custom of
primogeniture, though the immediate successor of the first holder
may be a woman or even a stranger in blood. The following
instances may be dted; Amabell, Baroness Lucas, was in 1816
created Countess de Grey with a limitation to the heirs-male of
her sister; a nephew afterwards succeeded her and the earldom
is now held by the marquess of Ripon. Other courses of descent
known to the law are as follows: Fee simple, which probably
operates as if to heirs-general, earldoms of Oxford (11 55) and
Noriolk (1x35), both probably now in abeyance; and Bedford
(i3<^7)» extinct; to a second son, the eldest being alive, dukedom
of Dover (1708), extinct, and earldom of Cromartie (1861) called
out of abeyance in X895; a son-in-law and his heirs-male by the
daughter of the first grantee, earldom of Northumberland (i 747) ;
to an elder daughter and her heirs-male, earldom of Roberts
(1901); to an elder or younger brother and his heirs-male,
viscounty of Kitchener (1902) and barony of Grimthorpe (1886).
It is, however, not lawful for the Crown to make what is called
a shifting limitation to a peerage, i.e. one which might vest a
peerage in an individual, and then on a certain event happening
{e.g. his succession to a peerage of higher rank) shift it from him
to the representative of some other line. Such a limitation
was held illegal in the Buckhurst case (1864). A peerage may
not be limited to the grantee and " his heirs-male for ever."
Such a grant was that ot the earldom of Wiltes in 1398. The
original grantee died without issue, but left a male hcir-at-Iaw,
whose descendants in 1869 claimed the earldom, but the original
limitation was held invalid.
There is no limitation on the power of the Crown as to the
number of United Kingdom peerages which may be created.
As to Scotland, the Act of Union with that country operates to
prevent any increase in the number of Scottish peerages, and
consequently there have been no creations since 1707, with the
result that the Scottish peerage, as a separate order, is gradually
approaching extinction. The Irish pycerage is supfwsed always
to consist of one himdred exclusively Irish peers, and the Crown
has power to grant Irish peerages up to the limit. When the
limit is reached no more peerages may be granted until existing
ones become extinct or their holders succeed to United Kingdom
peerages. Only four lords of appeal in ordinary may hold
office at any one time. The number of archbishops and bishops
capable of sitting in the House of Lords is fixed by various
statutes at twenty-six, but, as pointed out previously, the
spiritual lords are not now regarded as peers.
Since party government became the rule, the new peerages have
usually been created on the recommendation of the prime
minister of the day, though the Crown, especially
in considering the claims of royal blood, is believed jvkrmAw«.
in some instances to take its own course; and
constitutionally such action is entirely legal. By far the
greater number of peerage honours granted during the last
two centuries have been rewards for (wlitical services. Usually
these services are well known, but there exists several instances
in which the reasons for conferring the honour have not been
quite clear. Until the reign of George III. the peerage was
5+
PEERAGE
comparatively small, but that monarch issued no fewer than
388 patents of peerage. Many of these have become extinct
or obscured by higher titles, but the general tendency is in the
direction of a steady increase, and where the peers of Tudor times
might be counted by tens their successors of 19x0 were nxmibered
in hundreds. The full body would be 546 English peers.
There are also 12 ladies holding English peerages. The Irish
peerage has X7S members, but 82 of these are also peers of the
United Kingdom, leaving 28 representative and 65 without
seats in the House of Lords. Of 87 Scottish peers 51 hold United
Kingdom peerages, the remainder consisting of 16 r^resentative
and 20 without seats.
As centuries have gone by and customs changed, many
privileges once keenly asserted have either dropped out of
m^jf^ *»se or been forgotten. The most important now
•/Amm. ^ beins f^^ & scat in the House of Lords and the
nght to trial by peers. The right to a seat in
parliament is one sanctioned by centuries of constitutional
usage. The right of a peer in England to a seat in parliament
was not, as pointed out in the early part of this article, entirely
admitted by the Crown until late in the Plantagenet period,
the king's pleasure as to whom he should summon always
having been a very material factor in the question. Charles I.
made a deliberate attempt to recover the ancient discretion
of the Crown in the issue of writs of summons. The earl of
Bristol was the subject of certain treasonable charges, and
though he was never put on his trial the king directed that
his writ of summons should not issue. The excluded peer
petitioned the Lords, as for a breach of privilege, and a com-
mittee to whom the matter was referred reported that there
was no instance on record in which a peer capable of sitting in
parliament bad been refused his writ. There was a little dcby,
but the king eventually gave in, and the earl had his writ
(Lords Journals, iiL 544).
r At the beginning of a new parliament every peer entitled
receives a writ of summons issued under the authority of the
Great Seal; he presents his writ at the table of the House of
Lords on his first attendance, and before taking the oath. If
the peer be newly created be presents his letters-patent creating
the peerage to the lord chancellor on the woolsack, together
with the writ of summons which the patent has evoked. A
peer on succession presents his writ in the ordinary way, the
Journals recording, e.g. that Thomas Walter, Viscount Hampden,
sat first in Parliament after the death of his father (Lords
Journals, cxxxix. 4). The form of writ now issued (at the
beginning of a parliament: for the variation when parliament
is sitting see Lords Journals, cxxxix. 185) corresponds closely
to that in use so long ago as the Z4th century. It runs as
follows: —
George the Fifth by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of
Great Britain and. Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond
the seas King Defender of the Faith to our right trusty and well-
beloved Greeting VVhcrcas by the advice and consent of our Council
for certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning us the state and
the defence of our said United Kinedom and the Church we have
ONrdered a certain Parliament to be holden at our City of Westminster
on the . . . day of . . . next ensuing and there to treat and
have conference with the prelates great men and peers of our realm
We strictly enjoining command you upon the faith and allegiance
by which you arc bound to us that the wcightiness of the said
affairs and imminent perils considered (waiving all excuses) you be
at the said day and place personally present with us and with the
said prelates ^rcat men and peers to treat and give your counsel
upon the affairs aforesaid. And this as you reeard us and our
honour and the safety and defence of the said United Kin{^dom
and Church and despatch of the said affairs in no wise do you onut.
Formerly all peers were required to attend parliament, and
there are numerous recorded instances of special grants of leave
of absence, but nowadays there is no compulsion.
After the right to a summons the principal privilege possessed
-. _^ by a peer b his right to be tried by his "peers on a
tyr^tn. charge of treason or felony. Whatever the origin
of this right, and some writers date it back to
Saxon times (Trial of Lord Moricy, 1678, State Trials vii.
145), Magna Carta has always been regarded as its ood-
firmatory authority. The important words are: —
" nullus liber homo capiatur imprisonetur aut disaeisiatur de libero
tenemento suo vel libertaubus seu liberis consuetudinibus suis,
aut utlagetur aut exuletur nee aliquo modo distruatur nee dominus
rex super ipsum ibit nee super eum mittet nisi per legale judidmm
parium suorum vel per legem terrae."
The peers have always strongly insisted on this privilege
of trial by their own order, and several times the heirs of those
wron^^y condemned recovered their rights and heritage on the
ground that there had been no proper trial by peers (R.D.P.,
V. 24). In X442 the privilege received parliamentary con-
firmation (stat. 20 Henry VI. c 9). If parliament is sitting
the trial takes place before the Hotise of Lords in full session,
«^. the court of our lord the king in parliament, if not then
before the court of the lord high steward. The office of lord
high steward was formerly hereditary, but has not beoi so for
centuries and is now only granted pro hoc vice. When necessity
arises the Crown issues a special commission naming some peer
(usually the lord chancellor) lord high steward pro hoc vice
(Blackstone's Comm. iv. 258). When a trial takes place in
full parliament a lord high steward is also appointed, but his
powers there are confined to the presidency of the court, all
the peers sitting as judges of law as well as of fact.. Should
the lord high steward be sitting as a court out of parilament
he summons a number of p)eers to attend as a jury, but rules
alone on all points of law and practice, the peers present being
judges of fact only. Whichever kind of trial is in progress it
is the invariable practice to summon dl the judges to attend
and advise on points of law. The distinction between the two
tribunob was fully discussed and recognized in X760 (Trial of
Earl Ferrers, Foster's Criminal Cases,.i$g). The most recent trial
was that of Earl Russell for bigamy (reported xgox, A.C. 446).
Among others are the Kilmarnock, Cromarty and Balmeriiio
treason trials in parliament in 1746 (StaU Trials xviiL 441), and
in the court of the lord high steward, Lord Morley (treason, x666.
State Trials vL 777), Lord Comwallis (murder, 1678 StoU
Trials viL 145), Lord Delamere (1686, treason. State Trials xL
510). Recently some doubt has been expressed as to the
origin of the court of the lord high steward. It is said that
the historical document upon which the practice is fouiuied
is a forgery. The conflicting views are set forth in Vernon
Harcourt's His Grace the Strtvard and Trial of Peers, p. 429,
and in Pike's Constitutional History gf the Hotise of Lords, ^. 2x3:
In any case, whatever its historical origin, the court for
centuries as a matter of fact has received full legal recognition
as part of the constitution. The right to trial by peers
extends only to cases of treason and felony, and not to those
of misdemeanour; nor can it be waived by any peer (Co. 3
Inst. 29; Kelyng's Rep. 56). In the case of R. v. Lord Grams
(1887), discussed in Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, 3rd series,
vol. cccx. p. 246, Lord Halsbury points out that the question
of trial by peers is one of jurisdiction established by law rather
than a claim of privilege in the discretion of the accuseds
Scottish and Irish peers, whether possessing seats in the House
of Lords or not, are entitled to trial by peers, the same procedure
being followed as in the case of members of the House of Lords.
Peers with a seat in the House of Lords possess practically
the same parliamentary privileges as do members of the House
of Commons. Among other privileges peculiar to themselves
they have the right of personal access to the sovereign (Anson's
Law of the Constitution, i. 227). In the House of Lords,
when a resolution is passed contrary to his sentiments, any peer,
by leave of the house, may " protest," that is, enter his dinent
on the journals of the house (Blackstone, Comm. L 162).
Formerly a peer might vote by proxy (Blackstone, ilud.), but
since 1868 there has been a standing order discontinuing this
right. In accordance with resolutions passed by the two
houses, neither house has power by any vote or dedaratioo
to clothe itself with new privileges xmknown to the law and
customs of parliament (Commons Journal, xiv. 555). Peeresses
and non-representative peers of Ireland and Scotland have,
PEERLKAMP— PEESEMSKY
iu ittenduii pul
1 vidowed peera
CnUy y. Cmlty
pnbahly deprive!
acquired by min
The chiUnn ol
BbckKK." Sevti
koaovn br Ihcir F
bbTS du^i^anl
befm thnr CliriM
V oC doke< «nd ii
tf<vq " Lady," o*
Tk hme carniM
br the Crown, u
'cfiK^^dal
«UbeuDw
D Uk
loirkioii
J2" LoiX
>TU. W HN
cdU ovi vl abc:
UtUk baustlii
nUly a! Ibt Cr.
56
PEGASUS— PEGMATITE
Russian nobility, but bis more immediate progeniton were all
very poor, and xwable to read or write. His grandfather
ploughed the fields as a simple peasant, and his father, as
Peesemsky himself said, was washed and clothed by a rich
relative, and placed as a soldier in the army, from which he retired
as a major after thirty years' service. During childhood
Peesemsky read eagerly the translated works of Walter Scott
and Victor Hugo, and later those of Shakespeare, Schiller,
Goethe, Rousseau, Voltaire and George Sand. From the
gymnasium of Kostroma he passed through Moscow University,
and in 1884 entered the government service as a clerk in the
office of the Crown domains in his native province. Between
1854 and 1872^ when he finally quitted the civil service, he
occupied similar posts in St Petersburg and Moscow. His
early works exhibit a profound disbelief in the higher qualities
of humanity, and a disdain for the other sex, although he appears
to have been attached to a particularly devoted and sensible
wife. His first novel, Boyarstckina, was forbidden for its
unflattering description of the Russian nobility. His principal
novels are Tufak ("A Muff"), 1850; Teesicha dousk ("A
Thousand Souls "), 1862, which is considered his best work of
the kind; and Vtbalatnoucluneoe more ("A Troubled Sea"),
giving a picture of the excited state of Russian sodety about,
the year 1862. He also produced a comedy, Gorkaya soudhina
(" A Bitter Fate "), depicting the dark sides of the Russian
peasantry, which obtained for him the Ouvaroff prize of the
Russian Academy. In 1856 he was sent, together with other
literary men, to report on the ethnographical and commercial
condition of the Russian interior, his particular field of inquiry
having been Astrakhan and the region of the Caspian Sea.
His scepticism in r^^ard to the liberal reforms of the 'sixties
made him very unpopular among the more progressive writers
of that time. He died at Moscow on the 2nd of February x88i
(Jan. 21, Russian style). _
t PEGASUS (from Gr. vfufK, compact, strong), the famous
winged horse of Greek fable, said to have sprung from the trunk
of the Gorgon Medusa when her head was cut off by Perseus.
Bellerophon caught him as he drank of the spring Peirene on
the Acrocorinthus at Corinth, or received him tamed and
bridled at the hands of Athena (Pindar, 01. xiii. 63; Pausanias
ii. 4). Mounted on Pegasus, Bellerophon slew the Chiroaera
and overcame the Solymi and the Amazons, but when he tried
to fly to heaven on the horse's back he threw him and continued
his heavenward course (Apollodorus ii. 3). Arrived in heaven,
Pegasus served Zeus, fetching for him his thunder and lightning
(Hesiod, Tkcog. 281). Hence some have thought that Pegasus
is a symbol of the thundercloud. According to O. Gruppe
{Grieckiscke MytkotogU, i. 75, 123) Pegasus, like Arion the
fabled offspring of Demeter and Poseidon, was a curse-horse,
symbolical of the rapidity with which curses were fulfilled. In
later legend he is the horse of Eos, the morning. The erroneous
derivation from mrf^, " a spring of water," may have given
birth to the legends which connect Pegasus with water; e.g.
that his father was Poseidon, that he was bom at the springs
of Ocean, and that he had the power of making springs rise
from the ground by a blow of his hoof. When Mt Helicon,
enchanted by the song of the Muses, began to rise to heaven,
Pegasus stopped its ascent by stamping on the ground (Antoninus
Libcralis 9), and where he struck the earth Hippocrcne (horse-
spring), the fountain of the Muses, gushed forth (Pausanias
ii. 31, ix. 31). But there are facts that speak for an independent
mythological connexion between horses and water, e.g. the
sacrcdness of the horse to Poseidon, the epithets Hippios and
Equester applied to Poseidon and Neptune, the Greek fable
of the origin of the first horse (produced by Poseidon striking
the ground with his trident), and the custom in Argolis of
sacrificing horses to Poseidon by drowning them in a well.
From his connexion with Hippocrene Pegasus has come to be
regarded as the horse of the Muses and hence as a symbol of
poetry. But this is a modem attribute of Pegasus, not known
to the ancients, and dating only from the Orlando innamorato
of Boiardo.
See monograph by F. Hannig, Breslauer pkiMogisckg Akhani'
lungen (1902), voL viii., pt. 4.
PEOAU, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony,
situated in a fertile country, on the Ekter, 18 m. S.W. from
Leipzig by the railway to Zeitz. Pop. (1905), 5656. It has
two Evangelical churches, that of St Lawrence being a fine
Gothic structure, a 16th-century town-hall; a very old hospital
and an agricultural school. Its industries embrace the manu>
facture of felt, boots and metal wares.
FegBLU grew up round a monastery founded in X096, but does
not appear as a town before the close of the X2th century.
Markets were held here and its prosperity was further enhanced
by its position on a main road running east and west. In the
monastery, which was di^lved in 1539, a valuable chronicle
was compiled, the Antuues pegavienses, covering the period
from X039 to X227.
See FOssel, Anfangund Ende des'Khsters St Jacob au Pegau
(Leipzig. 18^7) ; and Uillner, Grdsael and GOnther, Altes und neues
aus Pewu (Leipzig, 1905). The Annates pegavienses are published
in Bd. XVI. of the Monumenta Cermaniae kistorica. Scriptores.
PEOMATITB (from Gr. vrjyua, a bond), the name given by
Haiiy to those masses of graphic granite which frequently occur
in veins. They consist of quartz and alkali feldspars in crystalline
intergrowth (see Petrology, Plate IL fig. 6). The term was
subsequently used by Naumann to signify also the coarsdy
crystalline veins rich in quartz, feldspar and muscovite, which
often in great nxmibers ramify through outcrops of granite and
the surrounding rocks. This appUcation of the name has now
obtained general acceptance, and has been extended by many
authors to include vein-rocks of similar stmcture and geological
relationships, which occur with syenites, diorites and gabbros.
Only a few of these pegmatites have graphic structure or mutual
intergrowth of their constituents. Many of them are exceedin^y
coarse-grained; in granite-pegmatites the feldspars may be
several feet or even yards in dUmeter, and other minerab such
as apatite and tourmaline often occur in gigantic crystals. Peg-
matites consist of minerals which are found also in the rocks
from which they are derived, e.g. granite-pegmatites contain
principally quartz and feldspar while gabbro-pegmatites
consist of diallage and plagiodase. Rare minerals, however,
often occur in these veins in exceptional amount and as very
perfect crystals. The minerals of the pegmatites are always
those which were last to separate out from the parent rock.
As the basic minerals are the first formed the pegmatites contain
a larger proportion of the add or more siliceous components
which were of later origin; In granite-pegmatites there is little
hornblende, biotite or sphene, but white mica, feldspar and quarts
make up the greater part of the veins. In gabbro-p^matites
olivine seldom occurs, but diallage and plagiodase occur in
abundance. In this respect the pegmatites and apUtes agree;
both are of more acid types than the average rock from which
they came, but the pegmatites are coarsely crystalline while
the aplites are fine-grained. Segregations of the early minerals
of a rock are frequent as nodules, lumps and streaks scattered
through its mass, and often dikes of basic character (lampro-
phyres, &c.) are injected into the surrounding country. These
have been grouped together as intrusions of melanocrate fades
(/ilXas, black, Kpieros, strength, predominance) because in
them the dark basic minerals preponderate. The aplites and
pegmatites, on the other hand, are leucocraU (Xa;«^, white),
since they are of add character and contain relatlvdy large
amounts of the white minerals quartz and feldspar.
Pegmatites are associated with plutonic or intruuve rodcs and
were evidently formed by slow crystallization at constderaUe
depths below the surface: nothing similar to them is kxK>wn
in lavas. They are very characteristic of granites, e^iedaUy
those which contain muscovite and much alkali fddspar; in
gabbros, diorites and syenites pregmatite dikes are comparatlvdy
rare. The coarsely crystalline structure may be ascribed to
slow crystallization; and is partly the result of the rocks, in
which the veins h'e, having been at a high temperature when the
minerals of the pegmatites separated out. In accordance
with this we find that pegmatite vdns are nearly always restricted
PEGNITZ— PEGOLOTTl 57
to the area occupied l>y the parent fock {e.g. the granite), or PBQNITZ, a river of Germany. It rises near Lindenhanl
to its immediate vicinity, and within the zone which has been in Upper Franconia (Bavaria) from two sources. At first it
greatly heated by the plutonic intrusion, via. the contact aureole, is called the Fichtenohe, but at Buchau it takes the name of the
Another very important factor in producing the coarse crystal- Pegnitz, and ftowing in a south-westerly direction disappears
lizatioii of the pegmatite^ veins is the presence of abundant below the small town of Pegnitz in a mountain cavern. It
water vapour and other gases which served as mineralizing emerges through three orifices, enters Middle Franconia, and
agents and faciliuted the building together of the rock molecules after flowing through the heart of the dty of Nuremberg falls
in large crystalline individuals. into the Regnitz at FOrth.
Proof that these vapours were important agents in the forma- See Specht, Das Pegnitxgebiet in Bnug auf seinen WasserhauskaU
tion of pegmatites is afforded by many of the minerab con- (Munkh, 1905).
tained in the veins. Boron, fluorine, hydrogen, chlorine and The Pegnits Order (Order of the society of Pegnitz shepherds),
other volatile substances are essential components of some of also known as " the crowned flower order on the Pegnitz," was
these minerals. Thus tourmaline, which contains boron and oneof the societies founded in Germany in the course of the 17th
fluorine, may be common in the pegmatites but rare in the century for the purification and improvement of the German
granite itself. Flnorine or chlorine are present in apatite, language, especially in the domain of poetry. Geoig Philin;>
another frequent ingredient of granite pegmatites. Muscovite Harsddrffer and Johann Klaj instituted the order in Nurembog
and gilbertite both contain hydrogen and fluorine; topaz is in 1644, and named it after the river. Its emblem was the passion
rich in fluorine also and all of these are abundant in some flower with Pan's pipes, and the motto Mil Nutten erfreulkh,
pegmatites. The stimulating effect which volatile substances or AUe xu einem Ton einstimmig. The members set themselves
ezert 00 crystallizing molten nuuses is well known to ezperi- the task of counteracting the pedantry of another school of
mental geologists who, by mixing tungstates and fluorides with poetry by imagination and gaiety, but kuJung imagination
fosed powders, have been able to produce artificial minends and broad views they took refuge in allegorical subjects and
wfaidi they could not otherwise obtain. Most p^matites are puerile trifling. The result was to debase rather than to raise
truly igneous rocks so far as their composition goes, but in their the standard of poetic art in Germany. At first the meetings
structixre they show relations to the aqueous mineral veins, of the order were held in private grounds, but in 1681 they were
Many of them for example have a comby structure, that is to transferred to a forest near Kraftshof or Naunbof. In 1794
say, their minerals are columnar and stand perpendicular to the the order was reorganized, and it now exists merely as a literary
walls of the fissure occupied by the vein. Sometimes they have society.
a banding owing to successive deposits having been laid down See Tittman, Die nUmberger DickterschuU (G^^ttingen, 1847);
of diffeient character; mica may be external, then feldspar, and »"<* 'he Festsckrifl ntr 250-jdkngen Jubelfeier des pegnesischen
in the centre a leader or string of pure quartz. In pegmatite ^'«««m^««" (Nuremberg, 1894).
veins also there are very frequently cavities or vugs, which are PEGOLOTTl, FRANCESCO BAtDUCCI (fi. X3XS~X34o),
lined by oystals with very perfect faces. These bear much Florentine merchant and writer, was a factor in the service
vesemUance to the miarolitic or drusy cavities common in of the mercantile house of the Bardi, and in this capacity we
granite, and Uke them were probably filled with the residual find him at Antwerp from 1315 (or earlier) to 131 7; in London
Iquid which was left over after the mineral substances were in 13x7 and apparently for some time after; in cfyprus from
dqxMited in crystals. X324 to X327, and again (or perhaps in unbroken continuation
Pegmatites are very irregular not only in distribution, width of his former residence) in X335. In this last year he obtained
and persntence, but also in composition. The relative abun- from the king of Little Armenia (i.e. medieval Cilida, &c.) a grant
dance of the constituent minerals may differ rapidly and much of privileges for Florentine trade. Between 1335 and X343,
from point to point. Sometimes they are rich in mica, in probably in X339-X340, he compiled his Libra di divisamenH
CBonnous crystals for which the rock is mined or quarried di paesi e di misuri di mercalamie e d*aUre cose hisognevcli di
(India). Other pegmatites are nearly pure feldspar, while others sapere a* mercatantif commonly known as the Pratica ddla
are locally (especially near their terminations) very full of mercatura (the name given it by Pagnini). Beginning with a
(piartz. They may in fact pass into quartz veins (alaskites) sort of glossary of foreign terms then in use for all kinds of taxes
some of which are auriferous (N. America), (^artz veins of or payments on merchandise as well as for " every kind of place
another type are very largely developed, especially in regions where goods might be bought or sold in cities," the Pratica
of slate and phyllite; they are produced by segregation of next describes some of the chief trade routes of the X4th century,
£si(4ved silica from the country rock and its concentration and many of the prindpal markets then known to Italian
into cracks produced by stretching of the rock masses during merchants; the imports and exports of various important
fcUing. In these segr<^tion veins, especially when the beds commercial regions; the business customs prevalent in each of
axe of feldspathic nature, crystals of albite and orthodase may those regions; and the comparative value of the leading moneys,
appear, in Urge or small quantity. In this way a second type weights and measures. The most distant and extensive trade
of p^matite (segregatbn pegmatite) is formed which is very routes described by Pegolotti are: (i) that from Tana or Azov
(fiflkttlt to distinguish from true igneous veins. These two to Peking via Astrakhan, Khiva, Otrar, Kulja and Kanchow
have, however, much in common as regards the conditions (Gittarchan, Organd, Ottrarre, Armalecco and Camexu in the
Q«kr which they were formed. Great pressures, presence of Praticq)\ (2) that from Lajazzo on the Cilidan coast to Tabriz
water, and a high though not necessarily very high temperature in north Persia via Sivas, Erzingan and Erzerum (Salvastro,
were the principal agendes at work. Arzinga and Arzerone); (3) that from Trebizond to Tabriz.
Gianice pegmatites are laid down after thdr parent mass had Among the markets enumerated are: Tana, Constantinople,
id^htA and while It wascoolmg down: sometimes thev contain Alexandria, Damietta, and the porU of Cyprus and the Crimea.
«idi mmerals as garnet, not found m the main mass, and showing » . ,.., ' ,. _ , 4 *u _*i. t X t>i l e
that the teropetSure of crystallixation was com^tively low. Pegolotti s notices of ports on the north of the Black Sea are very
Aaother special feature of these veins is the presence of minerals valuable; his works show us that Florentine exports had now
coacaining precious metals or rare earths. Gold occurs in not a few gained a high reputation in the Levant. In other chapters
m: rin in oth«». while sulphide such as copper pyrites are found an account is given of 14th-century methods of packing goods
abok Beryl IS the commonest of the mmerals of the second group: /^u ^ \ ^r « • -^1 a A / u \ r t.* .
£do.»^ is another example, and there is mudi reason tShoTd (^*»- ;9); of assaying gold and silver (di. 3$); of shipment;
t diamond is a native of some of the pegmatites of Brazil and of London m England m itsdf (ch. 62); of monastenes
btfia. tho«^ this is not yet incontestably proved. The syenite- in Scotland and England (" Scotland of England;" Scozia di
pegmatites of south Norway are ren^ble both for their coarse Jnghilterra) that were rich in wool (ch. 63). Among the latter
oyaulfazatioa and for the great number of rare minerals they have . " M*«Ka»#i- n.i^.*:..^^ rs.^.. rv..«fJ^i:.^ n. j.^»..-
fidded. Among these may be mentioned laavenite. rinkitc. rosea- If Newbattle,BaImcnno Cupar, Dunfermhne, Dundrennan,
White, nosandrite, pyrochlore. perofskite and lamprophyllitc. Glenluce, Coldmgham, Kelso, Newmmster near Morpeth,
(J. S. F.) Fumess, Fountaixis, Kirkstall, Kirstead, Swlneshead, Sawley
■ad Cildcr. PcgalolU'a intcrot In Engluid ud Soolbod ii
chiefly cormected with the moj tiftde^
Then i> only ok MS. of tbe PnHa. vii. No. 1441 Id tbt Ricar-
duo Ubmry He Flormct (24E Eo1*.» occupyiriE tne whole volume),
FnncocD PoEpioi'i Bella Dtcima i iiUt altn pntat imptM iai
umwu di Firaul [Liitwn shI Luca-'mllr FUmKX— 17M) ;
Sic Henry Yyli, Caliay. ii. 1^9-lf>i^ Ininlited into Eoglith the
ajmA>"n, Hnkluyl SceSy, iwl"." Soe'^ wI^HeydTcmlwH
Jn XoMf. ii.. 13, JO, ii, ;S-J9, Bs-86, 111-1ID (Leipiii, iSSb): H,
Kicpcrt. in ^ilmnknctu ^ ttilni.-tiil. Cl. rfrr tnliiur AkuJ.,
p. ^1, ftc. (BeKiii, iSai); C R- Bouhy. Son iif Jfg^m
Cwiro^^, iu. J34-JJI. Jjo, MS (Oxrord, 190*}.
PBOn, 1 tOHn ud fbnnel capital of Lower Bunna, ^ving
it! name to ■ district and ■ diviiion. The town ii lituated
on a river of the ume name, 47 m. N£. of Rangoon by nil ;
pop. U901), 14.131. It ii itiJl unrounded by the old walls,
about 4a h. wide, on which have been built ihe midenccs of
the Britiih oSdali. Tbe moit ouitiiicuaus object ii the Sbwe-
■naw-daw pagoda, J14 ft. high, moiidenbly larger and even
mare holy than the Shwe-dagon pigoda at Rangoon. Pegu ,
li laid to have been foimded in 573, aa the first capital of the
Talaingi; but it waa as the capital of the Toungoo dynaaly ,
that it became known to Europeans in the 16th century. About
the middLfl of the iBth century it waa destroyed by Alompra;
but It rose again, and was important enough to be the Krne
of fighting In both the fint and tccood Buimcae Wan. It gave
tta name to tbe province (induding Rangoon} which wasarmeied
by the British in 1851.
The district, which was formed in tSSj, consists of an alluvia]
tnut betweeu the Pegu Yoma range and the Sitlang rivet:
area, 4Jj6 sq. tn.; pop. (1901), 339,S7'. showing an increase of
43% in the decade. Chriitinns nurabeied nearly 9000, mostly
Karens. Almost the only crop grown is rice, whidi is exported
in large quantities to Rangoon. Hk district is traversed by
the railway, and also crossed by the Fegu-Siltang canal, navi-
pble [or 8 s m., with locks.
Tbe diviiion of Pegu comprises the Eve districts of Rangoon
dty, Hanthawaddy, Tharrawaddy, Pegu and Prome, tying east
of the Irrawaddy: vtA 13,084 sq. m.; pop. (1501), 1,810,638.
Tegu has also given its name to the Pegu Yoma, a range of hills
running north and south for about aoom., I>et ween the Irrawaddy
and Siltang rivers. The height nowhere exceeds looo ft.
but the slopes are steep and rugged. The forests yield teak
and other valuable timber. Tbe Pegu river, whidi rises in
this range, falls hito the Rangoon river just below Rangoon
dty, after a course of about tSo m.
PEILB, JOHH (iBjS-iyio), English philologist, was bom
■t Whitehaven on the i4lh of AprU i8j8. He was educated at
Septan and Giiigt's College. Carabiidge. After a distinguished
career (Craven schohir, senior classic and chancellgr's medallist),
philology in the universily (1584-1841), and in 1S87 was elected
master of Christ's. He took a great interest in the higher
education of women and became president of Newnham College.
He was the first to introduce the great philological works of
Ceoigc Cuitius and WUhclm Consen to the English student
in his Itilraiudim It Cretk and Lalia Bymtloty (iK<j), He
died at Cambtidge on the glh of October iflto, leaving
practically completed his eihaustive histoiy of Christ's College.
PEINB, a town of Germany, hi the Prussian province of
Hanover, 16 m. by rail N.W. of Brunswick, on the laUway to
Hanover and Hamburg. Pop. (t^os), 15,411. The town has
a Roman Catholic and a Pmtestant church and several schools.
Its indusliiel mclude iron and steel works, breweries, distilleries
and brickyards, and tbe manufacture of starch, sugar, malt,
maihinery and artificial manure. There are also large hone
udcattk markets held here. Peine was at one lime a strongly
fortified place, and untU 1803 belonged to the bishopric of
Hildesheim.
PBIMB FORTB R DURB (French (or " hard and severe
punfahment "), ihelerm fot a baihatous loKure ioflktcd on those
wbo, ifnisned of felony, refused to plead aod stood silenl, or
-PEIRCE
challenged more than twenty Jnton, whidi wu deemed • con-
tumacy equivalent to a icfnsil to plead. By eariy English bv
a prisoner, befoie he could be tried, muu plead " gi^ly " «
'■ not guilty." Before the ijth century it was usual to imprison
and starve till submiiuon, but in HSiiy IV. 's reign tbe faiu
or was pressed to death. Pressing to death was abolished In
1771^ "standing mute "on an arraignment of felony being then
niade equivalent to coavictioa. By an act of iBiS a plea of
" not guilty " was to be entered agaioM any prisoner refusing
to plead, and that Is the rale to-day. An alternative to the
feim was tbe tying of the thumbs tightly together with whip-
cord until pain forced the prisoner to ^Kak. lliis was said to be
■ common practice at tlie Old Bailey up to the 19th centuiy.
•pea king derinvily of
invr of York " (is86)i
e munlec of his childreB
n\ia friends ol Slraag-
p[ the penalty in
1, was
of tbe
lake of north-west Runia,
^itei at Salem. 'Sum-
it refusing to plead, was
PBIPS8, or Ceudskoye Omo, a
Esthonia. Including its sonibem oiecsion
as Lake Pskov, it has an area of iJsA sq.
flat and sandy, and in part wooded^ its wi
aflord valuable fishing. The lake is fed by tbe Vehkaya,
they
the Embach, which
flows in hall way up its western shore; it drains into the Gulf of
Finland by the Narova, which issues at its north-east comes.
PBIHABUS, or Pibazus (Ci. Ibvanh), the port town
of Athens, with which ils history is inseparably connected.
Pop. (J907), 67,g8i. It consists of a rocky promontory, contain-
ing three natural harbours, a large one on Che north-west which
is still one of the chief commercial bar bonis of the Levant, and
two smaller ones on the east, which were used chiefly for naval
purposes. Themistodcs was the first to urge the Aiheniani
to take advantage of these harbouis, mstesd of using tbe sandy
bay of Pbalcron; and tbe fortification of the Pelraeus waa begun
in 493 B.C. Later on it was connected with Athens by the Long
Walls in 4fip I.e. The town of Peiraeus was laid out by the
architect Hippodamus of Miletus, probably in the time of
Pericles. The promontory Itself consisted of two part*— the
hill of Munychia, and the projection of Actc; on tbe opposite
side of the great harbour was the outwork of Eetioneta- The
of M onychia by Thrasybulus and the exiles from Phyle, and Ibc
consequent dcstmclion of the " 30 tyrants " In 404 B.C. Tlie
Zea and Canlharui, and they conlained galley slips for Si, igt
and 94 ships respeclivdy in the 4th century a.c
See undtr Athens. AI» Angelnpoutos, Uffi nn/mtk irsf rfir
t-^lOt^ •i'gS (Athens, 189K).
PEIRITB, BEHJAHIK (1809-1S80), American matbematkiaii
4lh of April 1S09. Graduating at Ilarvard College in 1S19,
he became mathematical lutot there in 1B31 and professor b
183]. He liad already assisted Nathaniel Bowditch In his
translation ol the Mlcaniqat iHcilt, and now produced a »erk«
of mathematical leitbooks cbaracieriied by tbe brevity and
terseness which made his teaching unnttroctive to inapt pti[^
Young men of talent, on the contrary, found
most stimulating, and after Bowditch's death ln_iS3S F
stood first among American malhematidans. Z
into the perturbations of Uranui and Neptune {Pfc. Amir.
, IM) g»«
(mk; be became bi 1S49 cod-
iian NaUicBl Almamu, ud foi
thit aatk pnpurd df* laUei of tbe nwon (iSji). A docuuioc
gi tbc equiblirium of Siiurn'i rlnta [ed him to conclude ia lEjj
that Ibey must be of 1 fluid uiuie. From iK; 10 187* he wu
■opeiiDlaukot of the Coui Simey. In 1857 be published his
belt known umk, ibe Syilcm cf AruiylUat Uakanki, which
was, bowevei, >iu[«utd in brilliant originality by hii Linai
Aanalae Alfeira DitboiTapbed privately ia • few copies,
iSjo; npRDted in tbe Amtr. Jnm. ifalk., iSSi}. He died at
Cambridge, Mass., on the 6(h of October i&ga
^__ .._ ._._ -<--■— --adiipipyMd Dana), toI. ml. (1B61);
_- -.;! .„. «,,yrr. nii. 607: R. Cnnl,
I. of Camints in Rboda, Greek epic poet, >up-
r flourished about 640 B.C. He waa tbe author
of a Heradoa, in which be lotioduced a new conception of the
Lero, the Hon'i skin and dub taking tbe place of tbe older
Hoomc equipment. He ia also said to have filed the number
if tbe " labouisof Hercules " at twelve. Tbe work, which accord-
inf to Clement of Akaandria {Stromaia, vt. cb. 3) was simply
1 plagiarism fiom an unknown PisinuB of Lindus, enjoyed
to ta^ a reputation that tbe Aleaandrian critics admitted tbe
sBthor to the epic canon. From an epigram (10) of Theocritus
ve leain that a statue was erected in honour of Peisander by
bis OHmtiymea. He is to be distlnguitbed (mm Peiucder
of Laranda in Lycia, who lived during the reign of Alexander
Smrua(jU>' iii-ijsl.andwiDtcapaemon the miird mauiago
«f nds nod moitals, after the manner of the Eoici of Hesiod.
SeefiviBnitsinC. Kinkr!. EpUantm raaanm I'aptunLi f.\9jSi\
■ki V. C. Welckrr. Kltim Sckrifla, vgl. L (iSm). on Ibe Iwelve
hbous vi HerruWfl in Fetsander.
PnSUTHATm, (Soi?-ji7 B.C.), Athenian statesman, was
Ikiaa of Hippocrates. He wai named after Peiiiiiraiui, the
jnngat Km of Nestor, tbe alleged ancestor of his family; he
ns BEcmd oMsin on bis mother's tide to Solon, and numbered
!■«( his ancestors Gidnis tbe last great king of Athens. Tbua
aasof tbooe who became " tyrants " in tbe Greek world he
piocd his position as one of the old nobility, like Pbalaiil of
Agrifeatom, and Lygdamis of Naxos; but unlike Orthagoras of
Sicjtm, who had previously been a cook. Peisistratua, though
Sokia's junior by thirty years, was bis lifelong friend (though this
adenied), aos did tbeir friendship suffer owing to their political
uutooiim. From this widely accepted belief arose the almost
onainl/ false statement that Peisistralus took pan in Solon's
BuaaifiJ wai against Megara, which necessarily took place
txfore Solan'a arcbonsbip (probably in 600 B.C.). Aristotle's
Qatfiliilini 0f AUimi (ch. 17) carefully distinguishes Solon's
Higsrian War from a second m which Peisistratus was no doubt
h commaiHl, undertaken belveen 570 and S65 to recapture
Rjbea (the port of Megara) which bad apparently been recovered
^ the Uegarians since Solon's victory (see Sandys on The
Ct^ilaliom of Atkeni, cb. 14. i, note, and E. Abbott, Hhlory
•jCnat, voL L app. p. $44). Whatever be the trueeaplanalion
tl Ibis problem, it is certain (1] thai Pcisisttatus was regarded
ti a l*f'f'"g soldier, and {2) that his position was strengthened
ij the prestige of his family. Furthermore {3) he was a man
ol great ainbitiDD, penuiBvt eloquence and wide generosity;
quiities wbicb eq>MialIy appealed at that time to Ihe classes
fioiB whom be was 10 draw his support— hence the warning of
Scilaa (Frag- II. B); "Fools, you are treading in the footsteps
iJlbe foa; can you not read the hidden meaning of these charm-
ing words?" Lastly, (4) and most iinportant, the limes were
tipe for revolution. In the article on Solon (ad fin.) it is shown
ihal Ilu Solonian reforms, though they made a great advance
B some dirrclioTis, failed on the whole. They were too moderate
to ploue the people, too democratic for the noble). It was
fouBd that tbe govetiunent by BouK and Eccksia did not mean
pt^aiar ontrol in tbe full sense; it meant govemDent by tbe
PEISANDER— PEISISTRATUS
I feuds whose origia we ca
to three greal
a split up
trace, the Athenian people
■-- Plain (PoiiB,)
lilies; the Shore
IS knot
I Hill or
ie Ecclesi
hetdsmtn
led by Lycurgus andMUliadi
(Paroli) led by tbe Alcmaecnidae, representci
Mcgades, who was strong in hii wealth and by h
with Agarisle, daughter of Clelslhenes of Sic
Upland (DiaoHi, DiacrO) led by Peiitslralua
owed his influence among these hillmen partly
of large estates at Marathon. In the two toimer divtsiou
tbe influence of wealth and birth predominated; the hillmea
were poorly housed, poorly clad and unable to make use of the
privileges which Solon had ^ven them.' Henre their attachment
to Peisistratus, the " man of the people," who called upon them
10 sweep away the last barriers which separated rich and poor,
nobles and commonera, dly and countryside. Lastly, there
was ■ class of men who were discontented with ibe Solonian
constitution: some had lost by his Seisaihtbeia, others bad
vainly hoped for a general redistribution. These men saw their
only hope in a revolution. Such were tbe factor* which enabled
him to found bis tyranny.
To enter here into an eihaualive account of tbe various theories
which even before, though eipcdally after, tbe appearance of
the Conttilntum of Alhtns have been propounded as to tb*
chronology of tbe Feiststratcan lyraimy, b impoasible. For
a summary of these hypotheses see J. E. Sandys's edition of the
CanUUiUiim of AUuhs (p. 56, c r* no:e). The following Is in
brief the sequence of events: In ^ s.c. Peisbtratus dmve
into the market-place, showed to an indignant assembly marks
of violence on himself and Us mutes, and claimed to be the
victim of assault at the hands of political enemies. The people
unhesitatingly awarded their "cfaampion" a bodyguard of
Gity men (afterwards [aur hundred) armed with duba. With
thb force h« proceeded to make himself master of the Acropolis
and tyrant of Athens. The Alcmaeonids fled and Feisutralua
remained in power for about Eve years, during which Solon's
death occurred. Id m or 554 n.c a coalition of the Plain
and the Coast succeeded in eipelling him. His property was
confiscated alTd sold by auction, but in his absence the strife
between the Plain and the Coast was renewed, and Megsdea,
unable to hold his own, invited him to return. The csndiliOD
was that their families should be allied by the marriage of
Pdsistratus to Mcgades' daughter Coeiyra. A second cdii^ d'Uat
was then effected. A beautiful woman, it is said, by nsnie
Phya. was disguised as Athena and drove into the Agora with
the goddess herself was restoring Feisistratus to Athena. The
ruse was successful, but Feisistratus soon quarrelled with
Mcgacles over Coesyla. By a former marriage he already had
hrsl tyranny or his gist eiile he married an Argive, Timonoisa,
by whom he had two other sons lophon and Hegesistrstus, Ibe
latter of whom is said to be identical with Thcssalus iAA. Pit.
c. 1;), though from Thucydidca and Herodotus we gather that
a bastard, and Thucydides says that lliessalus was legitimate.
Further it is suggested that Pebbttatus was unwilUng la have
The result was that in the seventh year (or month, see Alk. Pal.
[. 15. I, Sandys's note) Megacles accused him of neglecting hla
daughlcr, combined once mare with Ibe third faction, and
drove Ihe tyrant into an elite lasting apparently for ten or devcn
rears. During this period he bved Gist at Rhaecdus and later
near Mt Pangaeus and on the Sirymon collecting resources af
men and money. He came finally to Eretria, and, withthchdp
3l the Thebans and Lygdamis of Naios, whom he afterwards
Ihe Athenian forces at Ihe battle of Pallenb or Pcllene. From
Ihis time till hisdeath he remained undisputed master of Athens,
nte Alcmaeonids were compelled 10 l''ave Athens, and from
1 1t is niggeited with prDbability that (he Diacrii were rather
the miners of the Uurium district (P. M. Ure. Jcun. HiU. SIml,
1906, pp. 131-143).
Uu other noble tunilia which RnMiaed be ended tea boitiga
whom he put ui the are of hii ally Lygdunii.
Id the heyday of the AtbcniiD democnty, dtisens both
conienrativc ud progrcBive, polJLiciuu, phQoaophcn uid
hUtoiiAoi were unanimous in their denunciation of *' tyranny."
Yet tbere is no doubt that the rule of Feisistratus was most
beneficial to Atheni both id her foreign and in her interna]
relations, {i) During his enforced absence Irom Athens he
hid evidently acquired a [ir more eitended idea of the future
of Athens than had hithetto d*wned on the somewhat parochial
minda of her leaden. He was IHendly with Thebes and Argos;
his son Hegesiitialus he set in power at Sigcum (see £. Abbolt,
fill', tj Cr, voL i. tv. g) and bia [lisnd Lygdamis at Naios.
From the mind ol Thrace, and perhaps fiom the harbour dues
■nd froni the mines of Laijriura, he derived > large [evenue;
under his encouragement, Miltlida had planted an. Atbenian
colony an the shota of the Thradan CbFrtonoei he had even
made Iriends with Tfassaly and Macedonia, ai It evidenced by
the hospitality (aiendid by ihem to Hipiuai on his final ei-
pulslon. Finally, he did not allow his friendliness with Argos
to involve him in war with Sparta, towards whom he pursued a
policy of moderation- (3) At home it is admitted by all authori-
lid that his nile wu moderate and beneficent, and that he was
careful to preserve at least the form of the ealabliahed coaalitu-
tfon. It is even said that, being accused of murder, he was ready
to be tried by the Areopagus, Everything which he did during
his third period of rule was in the interests of discipline and order.
Thus he hired a mercenai> bodyguard, and utilized for his own
purpcoea the public revenues; be kept the chief magistracies
(through whicb he ruled) in the bands of his family; he imposed
a general tai' o( 10% (perhaps reduced by Hippiaa to 5%)
on the produce o( the land, *Dd tbua oblaioed control over the
fleet and spread the burden of it over all the dliiens (see the
spurious tetter of Peisiilnitua la Solon, Dint, Labi. s. jj; Tliuc.
vi. M and Arnold's note at Ix.; Boeckh iU. 6; Tfairiwalt c li.,
PP' 7>~T4; and Cnite). But the great wisdooi of Feisistratus is
ihoon most deariy in the skill witb which he blinded the people
to his absolutism. Pretending to maintain the Solonian can-
stilution (as be could well afford), be realiied that people would
were ensured. Secondly, he knew that the greater the propor-
tion of the Athenian} who were prosperously at work in the
country and therefore did not Iroubte to interfere in the wotli
of government the lets would be the danger of sediiion, whose seeds
■R in a crowded city. Hence he appears to have encouraged
■griculiure by abating the tax on small farms, and even by
assiiling them with money and slock. Secondly, he esublished
deme law-courts to prevent people froni having recourse to
the dly Itibunalai it is said that be himself occasionally " went
on circuit," and on one of these occasiona was so struck by the
plaints of an old farmer on Hymcttus, that he remitted all
taxation on his land. Thus Athens enjoyed immunity from
war and internecine struggle, and lor the first time for years
was in enjoyaienl of settled financial prosperity (see CoHilUuligH
ij AlktiH, c. lO. 7 A trl Kfimi 01a).
Construction of roads and public buildings. Like Cleistbenes
of Sicyon and I^riander of Corinth, he realized that one great
aource of strength to the nobles had been their presidency over
the local cults. This he diminished by iorreasing the splendour
of the Panathenaic festival every fourth year and the Dionysiac'
rites, and so created a national rather than a local religion.
With the same idea he built the temple of the Pythian Apollo and
began, though he did not finish, the temple of Zeus (the magni-
Gc«nt columns now standing belong to the age of Hadrian).
Tohim are ascribed also the original Pattbeoon on tb
afterwarda burned by the Fenians, and replaced by thi
ol Fetidea. It is said that he gave a great impetus to the
dramatic representations which belonged to ibe Dionysiac
cult, and that it was under his encouragement that TbeSj^
of Icaria, by impersonating character, laid the foundation of
the great Greek drama of the sth and 4th centuries. Lastly.
■' ■ ■ Dtlo,, the Bscred
as; all ll
light and joy.
le of the god of
We have spoken of his services to the state, to the poor, to
religion. It remains to mention bis alleged services to literature.
AH we can reasonably believe it that he gave encouiagemenl
10 poetry as be had done to architecture and the drama; Onoma-
critus, the chief of the Orphic succession, and collector of the
oracles of Uusacut, was a member of bil household. Honestly,
or to impress the people, Peiiiilralus made considciable use ol
oracles Ce.f. at the battle of Pellene), and his descendants, by
the oracles of Onomacrilus, persuaded Darius to underiake
Ihdr restoration. As to the library of Peisisttatui, we have no
good evidence; it may perhaps be a fiction of an Aleuwdoad
writer. There is strong reason for believing the tloiy that he
first collected the Homeric poems and that his waa the tttt
which uttinutely prevailed (see IliMEa}.
It appears that Feisistratus was benevolent to the last, and,
like Julius Caesar, sbon-ed no resentment against enemies and
calumniiton. What Solon said of him in his youth was true
throughout, "there is no belter-disposed man in Athena, lave
lor hii amiHiion." He waa succeeded by his sons Hippiaa
and Hipparchus, by whom the tyianny was in various wayi
brought into disrepute.
It should be observed that the tyranny of Pei^tntua ia one
of themanyepochsof Greek history on which opinion has almcHt
entirely changed since the age of Grole. Shortly, his servico
to Gmce and to the worid may be summed up under three heads:
In foreign policy, he sketched out the plan on which Athens
was to act in her eitemal relations. He advocated (a) alliancci
with Argos, Thessaly and MacedoB, (t) ascendancy in the Aegean
(Nai» and Delos), (c) control of the Heilespontine route
(Eigeum and the Cheisoncsc), (<f) control of the Sttymon valley
(Mt Pangacus and the Sliymon). Further, hit rule exemplifies
what is characletislic of all the Greek tyrannies — the advantage
which the andent monarchy had over the republican fora
of government. By means of hit sons and his deputia (or
viceroys) and by his system of moirimonial alliances he gave
and bnjugbt her into conneiion with Ibe growing tDuim
of trade and production in the eastern pant of the Greek
world, (i) Hit importance in Ibe tpheie of domestic policy
has been frequently undemtrd. It may fairly be held that
the tefotlns of Solon would have been futile had they not been
fulfilled and ampUfied by the genius ol Pelsisltatut. (j) It
literature. From this period we musl date the 1
of Athenian h'tcraty ascendancy. But lee Athehe.
■It ihoul
d as against this, the 1
Thucydides. ipezkiiii apparently with
■s .Iwr* (s%); the Con^ ' ' - ' "
i»«4(ioll).
• DionyiuH. ai the (rad (
teems likely that Peiiiitn
the Gly-IHHytia.
U. M. M.)
, ,^, PKKIH. a dty and the county-seat of Tazewell county,
he tii Illinois, U.S.A., on the Illinois river, in the cenirtl part of Ibe
miLir] state, about 11 m. S. of Peoria, and about s6m. N. of Springfield.
,. , Pop. (rgie), oS(i7. It is served by the Atchison, Topcka
^.[PP™ ft Sanu Ft, the Chicago ft Alion, Ihe Chicago, Peori« k
lirwted StLoub.the IllinoisCenttal.the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Cbicajo
& St Louis, the Peoria Railway Terminal Company, the Peoria
PEKING
6i
k FduB Union mnd (for freight between Peoria and Pekin) the
IQuxNS Valley Belt railways. Situated in a rich agricultural
region and in the Illinois coalfields, Pekin is a shipping point
and grain market of considerable importance, and has various
mannlactmei. The value of the factory products in xgos was
$i,iii,jjo. Pekin was first settled about 1830, was incorpor-
ated in 1839, ^^ re-incorporated in 1874.
PBXIM6, or Pekin, the capital of the Chinese Empire, situated
in 39* 57' N. and 116" 29' E., on the northern extremity of the
great alluvial delta which extends southward from its walls for
700 m. For nine centuries Peking, under various names and
undo' tlie dofoinion of successive dynasties, has, with some
short intervals, remained an imperial city. Its utuation near
the northern frontier recommended it to the Tatar invaders as
a ooovenient centre for their power, and its peculiarly fortunate
position as regards the supematuial terrestrial influences per-
taimng to it has inclined succeeding Chinese monarchs to accept
it as the seat of their courts. In 986 it was taken by an invading
force of Khitan Tatars, who adbpted it as their headquarters
and named it Nanking, or the " southern capitaL" During the
early part <rf the 12th century the Chinese recaptured it and re-
doced it from the rank of a metropolis to that of a provincial
city of the first grade, and called it Yen-shan Fu. In 1151 it
leQ into the hands of the Kin Tatars, who made it a royal
residence under the name of Chung-tu, or " central capital"
Less than a century later it became the prize of Jenghia Khan,*
who, luLving hb main interests centred on the Mongolian steppes,
declined to move his court southwards. His great successor,
Koblai Khan (1280-1294), rebuilt the town, which he called
Yenklng, and which became known in Chinese as Ta-tu, or
" great court/' and in Mongolian as Khanbalik (Cambaluc), or
"dty of the khan." During the reign of the first emperor of
the dynasty (1368-1399) which succeeded that founded by
Jen^hiz Khan the court resided at the modem Nanking, but
the succeeding sovereign Yung-lo (1403-1425) transferred his
ooort to Pe-king {i^ " north-court "), which has ever since been
the seat of government. For further history see Cambaluc
During the periods above mentioned the extent and boundaries
of the dty varied considerably. Under the Kin dynasty the
vaOs extended to the south-west of the Tatar portion of the
present city, and the foundations of the northern ramparts of
the Khan-balik of Kublai Khan are still to be traced at a distance
of about 2 m. north beyond the existing walls. The modem
dty conssts of the net ck*hii,or inner dty, commonly known to
loragners as the ** Tatar dty," and the vtai ch'ing, or outer
dty, known in' the same way as the " Chinese dty." These
UBies are somewhat misleading, as the inner dty is not endosed
vithin the outer dty, but adjoins its northern wall, which, being
knger than the net ck'ing is wide, outflanks it considerably at
both ends. The outer walls of the double dty contain an area
of aboat 25 sq. m., and measure 30 m. in drcumfcrence. Unlike
the walls of mo^ Chinese dties, those of Peking are kept in
pofact OTder. Those of the Tatar portion, which is the oldest
psrt of the dty, are 50 ft. high, with a width of 60 ft. at the base
ud 40 ft. at the top, while those of the Chinese dty, which were
built by the emperor Kia-tsing in 1543, measure 30 ft. in hdght,
lad have a width of 25 ft. at the base and 1 5 ft. at the top. The
tcnt^^dein 0 weD and smoothly paved, and is defended by a
"mrflafyd parapet. The outer faces of the walls are strength-
eaed by square buttresses built out at intervals of 60 yds., and
OQ the sammits of these stand the guard-houses for the troops
oe duty. Each of the sixteen gates of the dty is protected by
a lemi-circular encdnte, and is surmounted by a high tower
boft In galleries and provided with countless loopholes.
Pddng suflTered severdy during the Boxer movement and the
Kge of the legations in the summer of 1900. Not only were
■ost of the foreign buildings destroyed, but also a large number
of iBq)ortant Chinese buildings in the vicinity of the foreign
garter, induding the andent Hanlin Yuen, the boards of war,
rites, Itc Almost the whole of the business quarter, the
ocailnest part of the Chinese dty, was laid in ashes (see
Ctana: History).
The population of Peking is reckoned to be about 1,000,000,
a number which is out of all proportion to the immense area
endosed within its walls. This disparity is partly accounted
for by the facts that large spaces, notably in the Chinese dty,
are not built over, and that the grounds surrounding the imperial
palace, private residences and temples are very extensive. One
of such enclosures constitutes the British legation, and most
of the other foreign legations are similarly, though not so
sumptuously, kxlged. Viewed from the walls Peking looks like
a dty of gardens. Few crowded ndghbourhoods are visible,
and the characteristic features of the scene which meets the eye
are the uptumed roofs of temples, palaces, and mansions, gay
with blue, green and yellow glazed tiles, glittering among the
groves of trees with which the city abounds. It is fortunate
that the dty b not dose-built or crowded, for since the first
advent of fordgners in Peking in i860 nothing whatever had been
done until 1900 to improve the streets or the drainage. The
streets as originally laid out were wide and spacious, but bdng
unpaved and undrained they were no better than mud tracks
diversified by piles of garbage and foul-smelling stagnant pools.
Such drainage as had at one time existed was allowed to get
choked up, giving rise to typhoid fever of a virulent t3rpe. Some
attempt has been made to improve matters by macadamizing
one of the prindpal thoroughfares, but it will be the labour of a
Hercules to deanse this vast dty from the accumulated filth of
ages of neglect.
Endosed within the Tatar dty is the Hwang ck*ing, or
" Imperial city," which in its turn endoses the Tsse-kin ck*ing,
or " Forbidden dty," in which stands the emperor's palace.
On the north of the Tsu-kin ck'ing^ and separated from it by
a moat, is an artifidal mound known as the /Ctn^jAan, or " Pros-
pect Hill." This mound, which forms a prominent object in
the view over the dty, is about 150 ft. high, and is topped with
five summits, on each of which stands a temple. It is encirded
by a wall measuring upwards of a mile in drcumfcrence, and is
prettily planted with trees, on one of which the last emperor
of the Ming dynasty (1644), finding escape from the Manchu
invaders impossible, hanged himsdf. On the west of Prospect
Hill is the Si yuan, or ' Western Park," Which forms part of
the palace grounds. This park is tastefully laid out, and is
traversed by a lake, which is mainly noticeable from the remark-
ably handsome marble bridge which crosses it from east to west.
Directly northwards from Prospect Hill stands the residence of
the Titu, or "governor of the city," and the Bell and the Drum
Towers, both of which have attained celebrity from the nature
of their contents — the first from the huge bell which hangs in it,
and the second from the appliances it contains for marking the
time. The bell is one of five which the emperor Yung-lo ordered
to be cast. In common with the others, it weighs 120,000 lb,
is 14 ft. high, 34 ft. in circumference at the rim, and 9 in. thick.
It is struck by a wooden beam swung on the outside, and only
at the changes of the night-watches, when its deep tone may be
heard in all parts of the dty. In the Dmm Tower incense-sticks,
spedally prepared by the astronomical board, are kept burning
to mark the passage of time, in which important duty thdr
accuracy is checked by a depsydra. Another of Yung-lo's
bells is hung in a Buddhist temple outside the north-west angle
of the dty wall, and is covered both on the inside and outside
with the Chinese texts of the Lank&vatdra SMra, and the Sad-
dktarma pundarika Sutra.
Turning southwards we come agun to the Forbidden City, the
central portion of which forms the imperial palace, where, in halls
which for the magnificence of their proportions and barbaric
splendour are probably not to be surpassed anywhere, the Son
of Heaven holds his court. In the eastern and western portions
of this dty are situated the residences of the highest dignitaries
of the empire; while beyond its confines on the south stand the
offices of the six official boards which direct the affairs of the
eighteen provinces. It was in the " yamto " of one of these
boards— the Li Pu or board of rites— that Lord Elgin signed
the treaty at the condusion of the war in i860 — an event which
derives especial interest from the fact of its having been the first
62
PELAGIA, ST— PELAGIUS (POPES)
occasion on which a European plenipotentiary ever entered
Peking accompanied by all the pomp and circumstance of his
rank.
Outside the Forbidden CiVy the most noteworthy building is
the Temple of Heaven, which stands in the outer or Chinese
dty. Here at eariy morning on the 3ist of December the
emperor offers sacrifice on an open altar to Shang-ti, and at
periods of drought or famine presents prayers for relief to the
same supreme deity. The altar at which these solemn rites
are performed consists of a triple circular marble terrace, 210 ft.
wide at the base, 150 in the middle and 90 at the top. The
uppermost surface is paved with blocks of the same material
forming nine concentric circles, the innermost consisting of nine
blocks, and that on the outside of eighty-one blocks. On the
central stone, which is a perfect circle, the emperor kneels.
In the same temple stands the altar of prayer for good harvests,
which is surmounted by a triple-roofed circular structure 99 ft.
in height. The tiles of these roofs are glazed porcelain of the
most exquisite deep-blue colour, and add a conspicuous element
of splendour to the shrine.
The other powers of nature have shrines dedicated to them in
the altar: to the Earth on the north of the city, the altars to the
Sun and Moon outside the north-eastern and north-western
angles respectively of the Chinese city, and the altar of agricul-
ture inside the south gate of the Chinese dty. Next to these
in religious importance comes the Confucian temple, known as
the Kwo-lsit-kien. Here there is no splendour; everything b
quite plain; and one hall contains all that is sacred in the
building. There the tablets of "the soul of the most holy
ancestral teacher, Confudus," and of his ten prtndpal disdplcs
stand as objects of worship for their countless followers. In one
courtyard of this temple are deposited the celebrated ten stone
drums which bear poetical inscriptions commemorative of the
hunting expeditions of King SOan (827-781 B.C.), in whose reign
they are believed, though erroneously, to have been cut; and
in another stands a series of stone tablets on which are inscribed
the names of all those who have obtained the highest literary
degree of Tsin<ki for the last five'centuries.
In the south-«astern portion of the Tatar dty used to stand
the observatory, which was built by order of Kublai Khan in
1296. During the period of the Jesuit ascendancy in the reign
of K'ang-hi (1661-1721), the superintendence of this institution
was confided to Roman Catholic missionaries, under whose
guidance the bronze instruments formerly existing were con-
structed. The inhabitants of Peking being consumers only,
and in no way producers, the trade of the dty is very small,
though the dty is open to fordgn commerce. In 1897 a railway
was opened between Tientsin and Peking. This was only
effected after great opposition from the ultra-Conservatives,
but once accomplished the facilities were gladly accepted by all
classes, and the traffic both in goods and passengers is already
enormous. Out of deference to the scruples of the ultra-Conser-
vatives, the terminus was fixed at a place called Lu-Kou-ch'iao,
some 4 m. outside the walls, but this distance has since been
covered by an electric tramway. The trunk line constructed
by the Franco-Belgian syndicate connects Lu-Kou-ch'iao, the
original terminus, with Hankow — hence the name Lu-Han by
which this trunk line is generally spoken of, Lu bdng short for
Lu-Kou-ch'iao and Han for Hankow.
Bibliography.— .\ Williamson, Journeys in North China, Man-
churia and Eastern Mongolia (a vols., London, 1870) ; S. W. Williams,
The MiddU Kingdom, revised ed. (New York. 1883): A Favtcr.
Pihing, histoire et description (Peking, 1900— contains over 800
illustrations, most of them reproductions of the work of Chinese
artists) ; N. Oliphant, A Diary of the Siege of the Legations in Peking
during the Summer of ipoo (Condon, 1901); A. H. Smith, China in
Convtdsion (3 vols., Edinburgh, 1902). (R. K. D.)
PELAGIA, ST. An Antiochene saint of this name, a virgin of
fifteen years, who chose death by a leap from the housetop
rather than dishonour, is mentioned by Ambrose {De virg. iii.
7i 33: ^P' xxxvii. ad Simplic.), and is the subject of two sermons
by Chrysostom. Her festival was celebrated on the 8th of
Octob^ (Wright's Syriac Martyrology). In the- Greek synaxaria
the same day is assigned to two other saints of the name of
Pelagia — one, also of Antioch, and sometimes called Margarito
and also " the sinner "; the other, known as Pelagia of Tarsus,
in Cilida. The legend of the former of these two is famous.
She was a celebrated dancer and courtesan, who, in the fuU
flower of her beauty and guilty sovereignty over the youth of
Antioch, was suddenly converted by the influence of the holy
bishop Nonnus, whom she had heard preaching in front of a
church which she was passing with her gay train of attendants
and admirers. Seeking out Nonnus, she overcame his canonical
scruples by her tears of genuine penitence, was baptized, and»
disgubing herself in the garb of a male penitent, retired to a
grotto on the Motint of Olives, where she died after three yeu%
of strict penance. This story seems to combine with the name
of the older Pelagia some traits from an actual history referred
to by Chrysostom {Horn, in Malth. Ixvii. 3). In associating
St Pelagia with St Marina, St Margaret (9.V.), and others, oi
whom dther the name or the legend recalls Pelagia, Hermann
Usener has endeavoured to show by a series of subtle deductions
that this saint is only a Christian travesty of Aphrodite. But
there is no doubt of the existence of the first Pelagia of Antioch,
the Pelagia of Ambrose and Chrysostom. The legends which
have subsequently become connected with her name Are the
result of a very common development in literary history.
See Acta sanctorum, October, iv. 248 seq.; H. Usener, Legendeu
der heiligen Pelagia (Bonn. 1879): H. Dclehaye, The Legends of lk§
Saints (London, 1907), pp. 197-305. (H. Ds.)
PELAGIUS, the name of two popes.
Pelagius I., pope from 555 to 561, was a Roman by birth,
and first appears in history at Constantinople in the rank of
deacon, and as apocrisiarius of Pope Silverius, whose over-
throw in favour of Vigillus his intrigues promoted. Vigilius
continued him in his diplomatic appointment, and he was
sent by the emperor Justinian in 542 to Antioch on eccle-
siastical busines.^; he afterwards took part in the synod at
Gaza which deposed Paul of Alexandria. He had amassed some
wealth, which on his return to Rome he so employed among the
poor as to secure for himself great popularity; and, when Vigilius
was summoned to Byzantium in 544, Pelagius, now archdeacon,
was left behind as his vicar, and by his tact in dealing with ToUla,
the Gothic invader, saved the dtizens from murder and outrage.
He appears to have followed his master to Constantinople, and
to have taken part in the Three Chapters controversy; in 553,
at all events, he signed the " constitutum " of Vigilius in favour
of these, and for refusing, with him, to accept the decrees of the
fifth general council (the 3nd of Constantinople, 553) shared
his exile. Even after Vigilius had approved the comdemnatioo
of the Three Chapters, Pelagius defended them, and even pub-
lished a book on the subject. But when Vigilius died (June 7,
555)1 be accepted the council, and allowed himself to be desig-
nated by Justinian to succeed the late pof>e. It was in these
circumstances that he returned to Rome; but most of the dergy,
suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some
share in the removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship.
He enjoyed, however, the support of Narses, and, after he had
publicly purged himself of complicity in Vigilius's death in the .
church of St Peter, he met with toleration in his own immediate .
diocese. The rest of the western bishops, however, still held
aloof, and the episcopate of Tuscany caused his name to be
removed from the diptychs. This elidtcd from him a drcular,
in which he asserted his loyalty to the four general councils,
and declared that the hostile bishops had been guilty of schism.
The bishops of Liguria and Aemilia, headed by the archbishop
of Milan, and those of Istria and Venice, headed by Paulinus of
Aquileia, also withheld their fellowship; but Narses resisted
the appeals of Pelagius who would have invoked the secular
arm. Childcbert, king of the Franks, also refused to interfere.
Pelagius died on the 4th of March 561, and was succeeded by
John III.
Pelagius II., a native of Rome, but of Gothic des(;ent, was
pope from 579 to 590, having been consecrated successor of
Benedict I., without the sanction of the emperor, on the 26th of
PELAGIUS
63
November. To nuke hb apologies for this irregularity he sent
Dcacoa Gicfory, wlio afterwards became Pope Gregory the Great,
as hb apocnsiarius to Constantinople. In 585 he sought to
beal the schism which had subsisted since the time of Pelagius I.
ia coaprgirm with the Three Chi4>ters, but his efforts were
without mcms. In 588 John, patriarch of Constantinople, by
icvhriog the old and disputed claim to the title of oecumenic
patfiafcli, didted a vigorous protest from Pelagius; but the
decretai which professes to convey the exaa words of the
docioiic&t is now known to be false. He died in January 590,
and was succeeded by Gregory L
PBJUIiUS ie. 360- c, 430), early British theobgian. Of the
origin ol Pelagius almost nothing is known. The name is
soppoaed to be a graedied form o( the Cymric Morgan (sea-
begotten). His contemporaries understood that he was of
British (probably of Irish) birth, and gave him the appellation
BrJto. He was a large ponderous person, heavy both in body
and mind (Jerome, ''stolidissimus et Scotorum pultibus prae-
gravatos")* He was influenced by the monastic enthusiasm
which had been kindled in Gaul by Athanaslus (336), and which,
thnm^ the energy of Alartin of Tours (361), rapidly communi-
cated itself to the Britons and Scots. For, though Pelagius
itmalned a layman throughout his life, and though he never
appcan in any strict connexion with a coenobite fraternity,
he yet adhered to monastic discipline ("veluti monachus")i
and distinguished himsdf by his purity of life and exceptional
sanctity (" ^;regie Christianus ")• He seems to have been one
of the earliest, if not the very earh'est, of that remarkable series
of men who issued from the monasteries of Scotland and Ireland,
and carried back to the Continent in a purified form the religion
tbey hMd received from it. Coming to Rome in the beginning of
the 5th century (his earliest known writing is of date 405), he
iooDd a scandalously low tone of morality prevalent. But his
were met by the plea of human weakness. To
this plea by exhibiting the actual powers of human
■stare became his first object. It seemed to him that the
Aofostiaian doctrine <rf total depravity and of the consequent
boadage ol the will both cut the sinew of all human effort and
tkrew upon God the blame which really belonged to man. His
hvoorite maxim was, "HI ought, I can."
The views <rf PeUgius did not originate in a conscious rraction
ipnat the influence of the Augustinian theology, although each
of these systems was developed into its ultimate form by the
oppoBtion of the other. Neither must too much weight be
sBovcd to the circumstance that Pelagius was a monk, for he was
saqoestionably alive to the delusive character of much that
paind for monkish sanctity. Yet possibly his monastic training
Bay have led him to look more at conduct than at character,
and to believe that holiness could be arrived at by rigour
of (bdpline. This view of things suited his matter-of-fact
tenpcrament. Judging from the general style of his writings,
ba rd^knis development had been equable and peaceful, not
Bsxked by the prolonged mental conflict, or the abrupt transi-
tioQs, which characterized the experience of his great opponent.
With no great penetration he saw very clearly the thing before
hia, and many of his practical counsels are marked by sagacity,
isd are expressed with the succinctness of a proverb (" corpus
BOQ frangendum, sed regendum est "). His interests were
prunarfly ethical; hence his insistence on the freedom of the will
aad his limitation of the action of divine grace.
The peculiar tenets of Pelagius, though indicated m the
coauaentaries which he published at Rome previous to 409,
m^^ not so speedily have attracted attention had they not
been adapted by (^lestius, a much younger and bolder man than
hk teacher. Coelestius, probably an Italian, had been trained
ss a bwyer, bat abandoned his profession for an ascetic life.
When Rome was sacked by the Goths (410) the two friends
to Africa. There PeUgius once or twice met with
but very shortly sailed for Palestine, where he justly
wpected that hb opinions would be more cordially received.
Codestios remained in (^rthage with the view of receiving
Bvt Aurdius, bbhop of Carthage, being warned
against him, stunmoned a synod, at which Paulinus, a deacon
of Milan, charged Codestius with holding the following sue
errors: (i) that Adam would have died even if he had not sinned;
(2) that the sin of Adam injured himself alone, not the human
nice; (3) that new-bom children are in the same condition in
whicb Adam was before the fall; (4) that the whole hunum race
does not die because of Adam's death or sin, nor wiU the race
rise again because of the resurrection of Christ; (5) that the law
gives entrance to heaven as well as the gospd ; (6) that even before
the coming of Christ there were men who were enlirdy without
sin. To these propositions a seventh b sometimes added, " that
infants, though unbaptized,have eternal life," a corollary from
the third. Codestius did not deny that he hdd these opinions,
but he maintained that they were open questions, on which the
Church had never pronounced. The synod, notwithstanding,
condemned and excommunicated him. Codestius, after a futile
appeal to Rome, went to Ephesus,and there received ordination.
In Palestine Pelagius. lived unmolested and revered, until in
415 Orosius, a Spanbh priest, came from Augustine, who in the
meantime had written hb De peccatorum mtrUis^ to warn Jerome
against him. The result was that in June of that year Pelagius
was dted by Jerome bdore John, bishop of Jerusalem, and
charged with holding that man may be without sin, if only he
desires it. Thb prosecution broke down and in December of
the same year Pelagius was summoned before a synod of fourteen
bisliops at Diospolis (Lydda). The prosecutors on thb occasion
were two deposed Gallican bishops, Hcros of Aries and Lazarus
of Aix, but on account of the illness of one of them neither could
appear. The proceedings, being conducted in various languages
and by means of interpreters, lacked certainty, and justified
Jerome's application to the synod of the epithet " mberable."
But there b no doubt that Pelagius repudiated the assertion of
Codestius, that " the divine grace and help b not granted to
individual acts, but consists in free will, and in the giving of the
law and instruction." At the same time he affirmed that a
man b able, if he likes, to live without sin and keep the command-
ments of God, inasmuch as God gives him this ability. The
synod was satisfied with these statements, and pronounced
Pelagius to be in agreement with Catholic teaching. Pebgius
naturally plumed himself on hb acquittal, and provoked Augus-
tine to give a detailed account of the synod, in which he shows
that the language used by Pelagius was ambiguous, but that,
being interpreted by hb previous written statements, it involved
a denial of what the Church understood by grau and by man's
dependence on it. The North African Church as a whole
resented the decisions of DiospoHs, and in 416 sent up from
their synods of Carthage and Mileve (in Numidia) an appeal to
Innocent, bbhop of Rome, who, flattered by the tribute thus
paid to the see of Rome, decided the question in favour of the
African synods. And, though his successor 2^imus wavered
for some time, he at length fell in with what he saw to be the
general mind of both the ecclesiastical and the civil powers.
For, simultaneously with the largely attended African synod
which finally condemned Pdagianism in the West, an imperial
edict was issued at Ravenna by Honorius on the 30th of April
418, peremptorily determining the theological question and
enacting that not only Pelagius and Coelestius but all who
accepted their opinions should suffer confiscation of goods
and irrevocable banishment. Thus prompted, 2U>simus drew
up a drcular inviting all the bishops of Christendom to subscribe
a condemnation of Pelagian opinions. Nineteen Italian bbhops
refused, among them Julian of Eclanum in Apulia, a man of good
birth, approved sanctity and great capadty, who now became
the recognized leader of the movement. But 'not even his
acuteness and zeal could redeem a cause which was rendered
hopeless when the Eastern Church (Ephesus, 431) confirmed the
decision of the West. Pelagius himself disappears after 420;
Codestius was at Constantinople seeking the aid of Nestorius
10428.
Pdagianism. — The system of Pelagius is a consistent whole,
each part involving the exbtence of every other. Starting from
the idea that " ability limits obligation," and resolved that men
64 PELAGIUS
■IkmIiI Cm! their wipciMlliiBtY. bt InuMd tbit mia m utile to da (929)- howevH. which ceaitnatd ScniptUiiuImi, did n vhb
■U that God csmnindi, ud Uiu Ihtn ii, mnd cu be, no lin when Ihe ligni&cul rnltkiion Ihat predeninitian 10 rvil w*i dm ts be
the will it not mbioluMly fm— aUa to chome good or evil. The Uughl— * minciiDii u igieeable 10 the Eenenl (criiDE o( the
favourite [VUgiu [oRDuli, "Si nmnititii at. piccatiini nan eS; Church Ihii, thiee ceniurici liter, CmlKhalk wu Knmccd to be
11 voluBtatiit vituj pocott" had an appcanncc oi finality whkh decided {mm the pricxhood, ecourged and impriaooed for teachiaf
impoad on HpecCdal mindi. The Iheoni of the will involved in nprotstion. The qimtjona niied bjr PcUgiue continually lecur.
relemd to God, who haa bestowed thli on Hit creature; the other ovenv> The
two, the wilLand the act, muft be referred toman, becauK they flow lenuand the
from the fountain oi fna will " (Aug., Dt p. CkniH. ch. 4). But at aupenuliciui
other timet he admiCi a much nder laiwe to grace, to at to make iLnf or t^Dt
Auguitine doubt whether hit neanin^ u not, alter all, orthodox, believinv it, the fabily and cnicUy engendered and ixnpantr^
But, when he ipcakt of grace " lanctifyir^" "uilitin^,'* and to by ihcldeailut in theChurch'icau«all wtapoot were juAibablr,
it only that
ct of grace " lanctifyiiii," "utlitine,'* and to by ihcldeailut in theChurch'icau«all wtapoot were iuAibbI
I nan may "more ttuSy' accompUdi what he Ihetevicet were undoubtedly due to tite belief that the viable chun
could with more diflVculty accompHih without Erace. A decikive wat the tole divinely-appointed repository of fii£t.
puage occuri in the letter he tent to the tee of Rome along with hu iharply accentuated lone in which Auguitiniaiiltn] aAim
Cnfiiiie fiiii: " We maintain (hat free will exiui generally in all inability quicVencd the craving for that grace or direct i
in Chrixiani. jewt and Centiin; they have all equally Cod upon the 1
iD-civm iL by nature, but In ChiiHiani only it it atuled by gi — -j-t-s- — 1 -i.
but, though bit arnimenti nnvailcd, they did not wholly coDvlnce, to di
and the r& of Semipelai^uilaB-an attempt to hold a middle coune failt .
between the hanhneiaof Auguitlniaidfem and the obvloua erron of ilitgDdleH.lhali1kDowi.anuacrK9iuBnuw, nutning «■ imnnpiiaH
E'elagianiim — it full of ilgniKancb Thit camen and conciliatory and thai it n dDrninaled by an empty Eormalitm {a aotioihl nyibo-
movenent ditcovercd itidi iiiniUaaeo«ul|r in North Afika and in mice at no angle puinl to actual (|uaflUlieh
aouihem Caul, la the lainer Church, which naturally desred to ination c«uiu> o( thcer coniradiciiona. In the
adheietotheviewisf ill own great Iheologian.ihemonlii of Adrum- octrine wat Harmed by PcUigiui— and in fact
etum found themtelvta either lunk to the verge of detpair or pr^ with all the accommodalioni to which he
VDked to licentioumeet by hit predcttinarian leaching- When Ihit u not a novelty. Bui id iia fundanotal
waa reported 10 Aunitlioe he wrote two elaboiate treatliea u ibow ther, il was an innovuioo becaLieit abasdooed
that when God ordaina Ihe end He alto ordaina the meant, and if mmodatioot in eipreataon, the pc4e of the
any nun it ordained to Ufe eternal he it thereby ordained to holinen redemnion, which Oie Church bad tttadfuthr
and leakiui effort. But meiniddle tome of the monk* IhemKlvn ide witli Ihe doctrine of freedom."
had Kruck out a tiS ludui which aacnbcd to Cod tovereign grace mlroveray tome of the fundamental diSennre*
and yet kfl intact man't mponiibility. A limilar icheme waa ind Wettem theologiea appear. The former laid
adopted by Caiuan of Maneilln (hence Semipeligiini are often riutural character of Chrirtlanity at ■ fact ia
tpoken of aa iiauilioiay. and wafl afterwards ably advocated by the objective worid "anddcveloped the doctrioea of the Trinity and
Vincent of Lerini and Fsuttut of Rhcgium, Thete writot, in the Incarnation Mhe Wcttem flnphaated " Ihe wpematnnl cbarac-
oppodtion to FelagiUB. maintained that man wai damaged by ter of Chiiuianity at an agency in the uibjective world " a^
Ihe fall, and teemed indeed diuued 10 puirhaK a certiteate of devrlopnl the doctiinei of Bn and ^race- AH the Greek falhcn
(raoac, muicae motiturae, ftc.). The diflerentia of Scmipclagianiun loath lo make tin a nalur^power, though of coune admittiag a
b Ihe tenet that iniTgencntion, and all that rewlu from it. Ihedivine general lUte of Hnfulntat. The early Britiih monaBeriea had bea
and (he human will are co-openting (lynergittic) cocAdenl factora. connecled with the Orient. PeUgiui wai familiar with the Greek
After flnding consderable acceptaacc. Ihit theory wu uliimaiely Itnguage and Ihlnloiy. and when he ame Id Rome he wat moch la
condemned, oeceuK it retained Ihe root-prindple of Peltgianiim — the company of Rubnui nod hit drele who wen dkdckYOdffi^ to
that man hat tome ability lo will good and lliai ihe beginning a< propagate Creek theology in the Latin Church,
lahnlioa may be with nun. The Coundli of Orange and Valence LlTlkAmu.— Pelagnit't CnmnlarW « tfiiMat ftM, UUtm
PELASGIANS— PELEUS
65
fin mi lumounUmm And EfiUota ad Denutriadem are preserved
n Jcfome'ft works (vol. v. 01 Martiani's ed., vol. xi. of Va
/allani's).
Tbe laat-aamed was also published separately by Semler (Halle,
1775). There are of oourae nuiay citations in the Anti-PelaKian
Treatises of Ausustine. On the Commentaries see Joumai of Tkeol.
SudieSf viL s6«, viii. 526; an edition a being prepared for tbe
Cambridge Texts and Studies by A. Souter.
See also F. Winers, DarsteUunt des Augnstinismns und Pelagtanis-
wna (2 vob.. Bemn, 1831-18^: Ene. trans, of vol. i.. by R. Emerson,
Aadovcr, >8ao); J* l^ Jacobi, Die Lehre d, Pelagius (Leipzig, 1843);
F. Klaaen. Du tnnere Entwiekeluni des Pdagianismus (Freiburg,
.1883); B. B. Warfield, Two Studies tn Ike History of Doctrine (New
York, 1893): A. Haniack. History of Dogmas Eng. trans., v. 168-203;
F. Loofs, Dogmengeuhisckte and art. in Hauck-Hcrzog's Real-
encyUa^ fOr pntt, Tneoloeie u. Kircke (end of vtA. xv.), where a full
liiuagraphy b given. (M. D.)
PBLASGlAllS* M, name applied by Greek writers to a pre-
historic people whose traces were believed to exist in Greek lands.
If the statements of ancient authorities are marshalled in order
of tbrir date it will be seen that certain beliefs cannot be traced
back bejrood the age of this or that author. Though thb does
•ot prove that the beliefs themselves were not held earlier, it
ioggests caution in assuming that they were. In the Homeric
poenis there are Pelasgians among the allies of Troy: in the
catalogue, Iliads ii. 840-843, which is otherwise in strict geogra-
phical order, they stand between the HcUespontinc towns and
the Thracians of south-east Etiropc, i.e. on the HcUespontine
bofder oC Thrace. Their town or district is called Larissa and
is fertile, and they are celebrated for their spearmanship. Their
dneb are Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus son of
Tcutamus. .Iliad, x. 428-439, describes their camping ground
between the town of Troy and the sea; but this obviously
pcofcs DOtbing about their habitat in time of peace. Odyssey,
xviL 175-177, notes Pelasgians in Crete, together with two appa-
icatly indigenous and two immigrant peoples (Achaeans and
Dorians), but gives no indication to which class the Pelasgians
bdoog. In Lemnos {IKad, vii. 467; xiv. 330) there are no
Pdu^ans, but a Minyan dynasty. tWo other passages (Iliad,
i. 681-^84; xvL 233-235) apply the epithet " Pclasgic " to a
district called Argos about Mt Othrys in south Thcssaly, and
to Zens of Dodona. But in neither case are actual Pelasgians
OKstioaed; the Thessalian Argos is the specific home of Hellenes
aod Achanns, and Dodona is inhabited by Perrhacbians and
Aeoiancs {Iliads ii. 750) who arc nowhere described as Pclasgian.
It looks therefore as if '* Pelasgian " were here used connota-
Ufdy, to mean either " formerly occupied by Pclasgian " or
smpfy *' of immemorial age."
Hesiod expands the Homeric phrase and calls Dodona " scat
of Masgians " (fr. 225); he speaks also of a personal Pcbsgus
as father of Lycaon, the culture-hcro of Arcadia; and a later
epic poet, Asius, describes Pclasgus as the first man, whom
tke earth threw up that there might be a race of men. Hccataeus
Pclasgus king of Thessaly (expounding Iliad, ii. 681-684);
applies this Homeric passage to the Peloponncsian
AifH, and engrafts the Hesiodic Pelasgus, father of Lycaon,
into a Peloponnesian genealog>'. Hcllanicus a generation btcr
fepeau this blunder, and identifies this Argive and Arcadian
Fefasgtts with the Thessalian Pclasgus of Hecataeus. For
Acxfayha {jSupplices x, sqq.) Pelasgus is earthbom, as in Asius,
tad rules a kingdom stretching from Argos to Dodona and the
1; but in Promeihetu 879, the " Pelasgian " land simply
Aifoa. Sophocles takes the same view {Inackus, fr. 256)
■ad for tbe first time introduces the word " Tyrrhenian " into
the story, apparently as synonymous with Pelasgian.
Herodotus, like Homer, has a denotative as well as a'conno-
Ulive use. He describes actual Pelasgians surviving and
■BtuaDy intelligible (a) at Plade and Scylace on the Asiatic
of the HeUe^nt, and (b) near Creston on the Strymon;
the huter area they have " Tyrrhenian " neighbours. He
to other districts where Pelasgian peoples lived on under
nanses; Samothrace and Antandrus in Troas are
pnbcddy instances of this. In Lemnos and Imbros he describes
t Pdasgian population who were only conquered by Athens
dboftly before 500 B.C., and in this connexion he tells a story of
raids of these Pelasgians on Attica, and of a temporary
settlement there of HeUespontine Pelasgians, all dating from a
time *' when the Athenians were first beginning to count as
Greeks." Elsewhere " Pelasgian " in Herodotus connotes
anything typical of, or surviving from, the state of things in
Greece before the coming of the Hellenes. In this sense all
Greece was once " Pclasgic "; the clearest instances of Pclasgian
survival in ritual and customs and antiquities are in Arcadia,
the " Ionian " districts of north-west Pcloponnesc, and Attica,
which have suffered least from hcUcnization. In Athens itself
the prehistoric wall of the citadel and a plot of ground close
below it were venerated in the slh century as " Pelasgian "; so
too Thucydides (ii. 17). We may note that all Herodotcan
examples of artual Pclasgi lie round, or near, the actual Pclasgi
of Homeric Thrace; that the most distant of these b confirmed
by the testimony of Thucydides (iv. 106) as to the Pelasgian
and Tyrrhenian population of the adjacent seaboard: also
that lliucydidcs adopts the same general Pclasgian theory of
early Greece, with the refinement that he regards the Pelasgian
name as originally- specific, and as having come gradually into
this generic use.
Ephorus, relying on Hesiodic tradition of an aboriginal Pelas-
gian type in Arcadia, elaborated a theory of the Pelasgians as a
warrior- people spreading (like " Aryans ") from a " Pclasgian
home," and annexing and colonizing all the parts of Greece
where earlier writers had found allusions to them, from Dodona
to Crete and the Troad, and even as far as Italy, where again
their settlements had been recognized as early as the time of
Hcllanicus, in close connexion once more with " Tyrrhenians."
The copious additional information given by btcr writers
is all by way either of interpretation of local legends in the light
of Ephorus's theory, or of explanation of the name" Pclasgoi ";
as when Philochorus expands a popular etymology " stork-folk "
{irtkaayol — ireXap7o() into a theory of their seasonal migrations;
or Apollodorus says that Homer calls 2^us Pclasgian " because
he is not far from every one of us," 6rt rrjt 7^ ir^Xas iarh.
The connexion with Tyrrhenians which began with Hcllanicus,
Herodotus and Sophocles becomes confusion with them in the
3rd century, when the Lemnian pirates and their Attic kinsmen
are plainly styled Tyrrhenians, and early fortress-walls in Italy
(like those on the Palatine in Rome) are quoted as " Arcadian "
colonics.
Modem writers have either been content to restate or amplify
the view, ascribed above to Ephorus, that " Pelasgian " simply
means " prehistoric Greek," or have used the name Pclasgian
at their pleasure to denote some one element in the mixed *
population of the Aegean — ^Thracian, Illyrian (Albanian) or
Semitic. G. Sergi {Origine e difusione delta stirpc mediter-
ranea, Rome, 1895; Eng. trans. The Mediterranean Race,
London, 1901), followed by many anthropologists, describes
as " Pelasgian " one branch of the Mediterranean or Eur-African
race of mankind, and one group of typ>es of skull within that race.
The character of the ancient citadel wall at Athens, already
mentioned, has given the name ** Pclasgic masonry " to all
constructions of large unhewn blocks fitted roughly together
without mortar, from Asia Minor to Spain.
For another view than that here taken see Achaeans; also
Greece: Ancient History, § 3, " Homeric Age."
Bibliography. — Besides sections on the subject in all principal
histories of Greece and bibliographies in G. Busolt, Cr. Ceschickle,
i • (Gotha, 1803, 164-182) : and K. F. Hermann (Thumser), Gr. Slaats-
allerthUmert § 6, sec S. Bruck, Quae vcUres de Pelasgis tradiderint
(Brcslau, 1884); B. Giseke, Thrakisck-pclasgische Stdmme auf der
Balkanhalbinsd (Leipzig, 1858); F. G. Hahn, Albanesische Studien
(Jena, 1854); P. Volkmulh. Die Pelasgcr als Semiten (Schaffhauscn,
i860); H. Kicpert, Monalsbcricht d. berl. Akademie (1861), pp. 114
sqq.; K. Pauli, Eine vorgriechische Inschrift auf Lemnos (Leipzig,
1886); E. Meyer, " Oie Pclasger " in Forsckungen t. alien Ceschickle
(in Journal of .. . .
peJasgicae (Cambridge, 1815); L. Bcnloew. La Crkce avant Us Crecs
fpanl 1877). U- L. M.)
PELEUS, in Greek legend, king of the Myrmidones of Phthia
in Thessaly, son of Aeaais, king of Aegina, and brother (or
66
PELEW ISLANDS— PELHAM (FAMILY)
intimate friend) of TeUmon. The two brothers, jealous of the
athletic prowess of their step-brother Phocus, slew him; but the
crime was discovered, and Peleus and TeUmon were banished.
Pdeus took refuge in Phthia with his uncle Eurytion, who
purified him from the guilt of murder, and gave him his daughter
Antigone to wife, and a third of the kingdom as her dowry.
Having accidentally killed his father-in-law at the Calydonian
boar-hunt, Peleus was again obliged to flee, this time to lolcus,
where he was purified by Acastus. The most famous event in
the life of Peleus was his marriage with the sea-goddess Thetis,
by whom he became the father of Achilles. The story ran that
both Zeus and Poseidon had sought her hand, but, Themis
(or Prometheus or Proteus) having warned the former that a
son ol Thetis by Zeus would prove mightier than his father,
the gods decided to marry her to Peleus. Thetis, to escape a
distasteful union, changed herself into various forms, but at
last Peleus, by the instructions of Chiron, seized and held her
fast till she resumed her original shape, and was unable to
offer further resistance. The wedding (described in the fine
EpitfuJamiutn of Catullus) took place in Chiron's cave on Mt
Pelion. Peleus survived both his son Achilles and his g^^dson
Neoptolemus, and was carried away by Thetis to dwell for ever
among the Nereids.
See ADoUodorus tit. I3, 13: Ovid, Afr/am.* xi. Pindar, IsthmiOt
viii. 70, Nemea, iv. 101 ; Catullus, Ixiv.; schol. Apoll. Rhod. iv. 816;
Euripides, Andromache, 1242-1260.
PELEW ISLANDS (Ger. Palauinseln, also Pdao), a group of
twenty-sijc islands in the western Pacific Ocean, between 2** 35'
and 9** N., and 130** 4' and 134*° 40' E., belonging to Germany.
They lie within a corai barrier reef, and in the south the islands
are of coral, but in the north of volcanic rocks. They are well
wooded, the climate is healthy, and the water-supply good.
A few rats and bats represent the indigenous mammals, but the
sea is rich in fish and molluscs; and Dr Otto Finsch {Journ. des
Museum Codefroy, 1875) enumerated 56 species of birds, of
which 12 are peculiar to the group. The total area is 175 sq. m.,
the largest islands being Babcltop (Babelthuap, Baobeltaob and
other variants), Uniktapi (Uruklhopcl), Korror, Nyaur, Peleliu
and Eilmalk (Irakong). The popubtion is about 3100. The
natives are Micronesians, and are darker and shorter than their
kinsmen, the Caroline Islanders. They usually have the frizzly
hair of the Melane»ans,and paint their bodies in brilliant colours,
especially yellow. The men vary in height from 5 ft. to 5 ft. 5 in.,
the women from 4 ft. 0 to 5 ft. 2 in. The skull shows a strong
tendency to brachycephalism. Two curious customs may be
noted — the institution of an honourable order bestowed by the
king, called klilt\ and a species of mutual aid society, sometimes
confined to women, and possessing considerable political influ-
ence. There are five kinds of currency in the islands, consisting
of beads of glass and enamel, to which a supernatural origin is
ascribed.
The islands were sighted in 1543 by Ruy Lopez de Villalobos,
who named them the Arrccifos. The origin of the
name Islas Palaos is doubtful. The islands were bought by
Germany from Spain in 1899, and are administered together
with the western Carolines, Yap being the administrative
centre.
Sec K. Semper, Die Pahu-InsHn (Leipzig, 1873); I. S. Kubary,
Die sotialen Etnricktungen der Palauer (Berlin, 1 88s); A. A. Marche,
LufOH et Palouan (Pans, 1887).
PELF, a term now chiefly used of money and always in a
derogatory sense. The word originally meant plunder, pillage
(O. Fr. pelf re, probably from Lat. pilare, to deprive of hair, pilus),
and this significance is still kept in the related word " pilfer," to
make petty thefts.
PELHAM, the name of an English famfly, derived from Pelham
in Hertfordshire, which was owned by a certain Walter de
Pelham under Edward I., and is alleged to have been in the
poasesuon of the same family before the Norman conquest.
The family dignities included the barony of Pelham of Laughton
(1706-1768), the earidom of Clare (1714-1768), the dukedom of
Newcaitle (1715-1768), the barony of Pelham of Stanmer from
1762, the earldom of Chichester from 1801 and the earldom of
Yarborough from 1837.
John de Pelham, who was one of the captors of John II. of
France at Poitiers, acquired land at Winchelsea by his marriage
with Joan Herbert, or Finch. His son, John de Pelham (d.
X429), was attached to the party of John of Gaunt and his son
Henry IV. In 1393 he received a life appointment as constable
of Pevensey Castle, an honour subsequently extended to his
heirs male, and he joined Henry on his invasion in 1399, if he
did not actually land with him at Ravenspur. He was knighted
at Henry's coronation, and represented Sussex in parliament
repeatedly during the reign of Henry IV., and again in 1422 and
1427. As constable of Pevensey he had at different times the
charge of Edward, duke of York, in 1405; Edmund, earl of
March, with his brother Roger Mortimer in 1406; James L of
Scotland in 1414; Sir John Mortimer in 1422, and the queen
dowager, Joan of Navarre, from 1418 to 1422. He was con-
stantly employed in the defence of the southern ports against
French invasion, and his powers were increased in 1407 by hii^
appointment as chief butler of Chichester and of the Susses
ports, and in 141 2 by the grant of the rape of Hastings. He
was treasurer of England in 141 2-1413, and although he was
superseded on the accession of Henry V. he was sent in the
next year to negotiate with the French court. He was included
among the executors of the wills of Henry IV., of Thomas, duke
of Clarence, and of Henry V. He died on the X2th of February
14 29, and was succeeded by hb son John, who took part in
Henry V.'s expedition to Normandy in 141 7.
In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Sir William Pelham (c. 1530-
1587), third son of Sir William Pelham (d. 1538) of Laughton,
Sussex, became lord justice of Ireland. He was captain of
pioneers at the siege of Leith in 1560, and served at the siege
of Havre in 1562, and with Coligny at Caen in 1563. He that
returned to Havre, at that time occupied by English troops
and was one of the hostages for the fulfilment of its surrender
to Charles IX. in 1564. After his return to England he fortified
Berwick among other places, and was appointed lieutenant-
general of ordnance. He was sent to Ireland in 1579, when he
was knighted by Sir William Drury, the lord justice. Drury
died in October, and Pelham was provisionally made hb
successor, an appointment subsequently confirmed by Elizabeth.
Alarmed by the proceedings of Gerald Fitzgerald, xsth eari of
Desmond, and his brother John Desmond, he proclaimed the
earl a traitor. Elizabeth protested strongly against Pelham's
action, which was justified by the sack of Youghal by Desmond.
Thomas Butler, loth earl of Ormonde, was entrusted with the
campaign in Munster, but Pelham joined him in February 1580^
when it was believed that a Spanish descent was about to be
made in the south-west. The English generals laid wa^
northern Kerry, and proceeded to besiege Carrigafoyle Castle,
which they stormed, giving no quarter to man, woman or child.
Other strongholds submitted on learning the fate of Carrigafoyle,
and were garrisoned by Pelham, who hoped with the concourM
of Admiral Winter's fl^et to limit the struggle to Kerry. He
vainly sought help from the gentry of the county, who sym-
pathized with Desmond, and were only brought to submisuon by
a series of " drives." After the arrival of the new deputy. Lord
Grey of Wilton, Pelham returned to England on the ground of
health. He hod retained his oflice as lieutenant-general of
ordnance, and was now made responsible for debts incurred
during his absence. Leicester desired his services in the Nether-
lands, but it was only after much persuasion that Elizabeth set
him free to join the army by accepting a mortgage on his estaUet
as security for his liabilities. The favour shown by Leicester
to Pelham caused serious jealousies among the English ofl^cen^
and occasioned a camp brawl in which Sir Edward Nonit
was injured. Pelham was wounded at Doesburg in ks86, aad
accompanied Leicester to England in 1587. Rcturping to the
Netherlands in the same year he died at Flushing on the S4th of
November 1587. His half-brother. Sir Edmund Pdham (d.
1606), chief baron of the exchequer in Ireland, was the fint
English judge to go on circuit in Ulster.
PELHAM, H.— PELIAS
67
Sir William married Eleanor, daughter of Henry NeviUe,
earl of Westmorland, and was the ancestor of the Pelhams of
Brocklesby, Lincolnshire. In the fourth generation Charles
Pelham died in 1763 without heirs, leaving his estates to his
grcat-nephcw Charies Anderson (1749-1823), who thereupon
assumed the additional name of Pelham, and was created Baron
Yarborough in 1794. His son Charles (i 781-1846), who was
for many years commodore of the Royal Yacht Squadron, was
created earl of Yarborough and Baron Worsley in 1837. Charles
Alfred Wonley, the 4th earl (b. 1859), exchanged the name of
Anderson- Pelliam for that of Pelham in 1905. He married in
i836 Marda Lane- Fox, eldest daughter of the lath Baron
Conyers, who became in 1893 Baroness Conyers in her own
rigfaL
Sir Nicholas Pelham (1517-1560), an elder half-brother of
Sir WiHiaiii Pelham, defended Seaford against the French in
1545* and sat for Arundel and for Sussex in parliament. He
was the ancestor of the earls of Chichester. His second son.
Sir Thomas Pelham (d. i 6 24) , was created a baronet in 1 6 1 1 . H is
descendant. Sir Thomas Pelham, 4th baronet (c. 1650-17 12),
represented successively East Grinstead, Lewes and Sussex in
parliament, and was raised to the House of Lords as Baron
Pelham ol Laughton in 1706. By his second marriage with
Grace (d. 1700), daughter of Gilbert Holies, 3rd earl of Clare,
and sister of John Holies, duke of Newcastle, he had five daugh-
ters, and two sons — Thomas Pelham, earl of Clare, duke of
Newcastle-on-Tyne and ist duke of Newcastlc-undcr-Lyme (see
Newcastle. Dukes of), and Henry Pelham (^.r.). The duke
of Newcastle died without heirs, and the dukedom of Newcastle-
nnder-Lyme descended to his nephew, Henry Ficnnes Clinton,
ifttrwards known as Pelham-CUnton, and his heirs, but the
birooy of Pelham of Laughton became extinct. In 1762
Newcastle had been created Baron Pelham of Stanmer, with
reversion to his cousin and heir-male, Thomas Pelham (1728-
1S03), who became commissioner of trade (1754), lord of the
idauialty (i 761-1 764), comptroller of the household (1765-
1774). privy councillor (1765), surveyor-general of the customs
of London (1773-1805), chief justice in eyre (i774-i775) and
kerper of the wardrobe (i 775-1 782), and was created earl of
CUdiester in 1801. His third son, George (1766-1827), was
nccessi^iely bishop of Bristol, Exeter and Lincoln. Thomas
Peiham, and carl of Chichester (i 756-1826), son of the ist
earl, was surveyor-general of ordnance in Lord Rockingham's
nioistry (1782), and chief secretary for Ireland in the coalition
sdnistry of 1783. In 1795 he became Irish chief secretary
aoder Pitt's government, retiring in 1798; he was home secre-
tity from July 1801 to August 1803 under Addington, who
C3de him chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster in 1803.
Pcflam went out of ofUce in 1804, and in the next year
yjcaedtd to the eaiidom. He was joint postmaster-general
from 1807 to 1823, and for the remaining three years of his
fife postmaster-general. His son and heir, Henry Thomas
Pelham (i 804-1 886). 3rd earl, was an ecclesiastical commissioner
from 1850 until his death, and was greatly interested in various
lefigioia. philanthropic and educational movements; and two
etlier cons were well-known men — Frederick Thomas Pelham
(1808-1861), who became a rear-admiral in 1858, and subse-
qcenily lord-commissioner of the admiralty, and John Thomas
Pcftam (18 II- 1894), who was bishop of Norwich from 1857 to
1803. The third earl's son, Walter John Pelham (1838-189 2),
nccecded his father in 1886, and his nephew Jocelyn Brudenell
PeSam (b. 1871) became 6th earl of Chichester in 1905.
FCLHAIf, HENRY (1696- 17 54), prime minister of England,
yvausser brother of Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle,
«3S bom in 1696. He was a younger son of Thomas, ist Baron
Pdham of Laughton (1650-1712; cr. 1706) and of Lady Grace
HaXks, daughter of the 3rd earl of Gare (see above). He was
etbated by a private tutor and at Christ Church, Oxford,
vkicfa he entered in July 17 10 As a volunteer he served in
Donner's regiment at the battle of Preston in 1715, spent some
tisKoothe Continent, and in 1717 entered parliament for
Seaford, Sussex Through strong family influence and the
recommendation of Walpole he was chosen in 1721 a lord of the
Treasury. The following year he was returned for Sussex county.
In 1724 he entered the ministry as secretary of war, but this
office he exchanged in 1730 for the more lucrative one of
paymaster of the forces. He made himself conspicuous by
his support of Walpole on the question of the excise, and in
1743 ft union of parties resulted in the formation of an adminis-
tration in which Pelham was prime minister, with the office of
chancellor of the exchequer; but rank and influence made his
brother, the duke of Newcastle, very powerful in the cabinet,
and, in spite of a genuine attachment, there were occasional
disputes between them, which led to difl!iculties. Being strongly
in favour of peace, Pelham carried on the war with languor and
indifferent success, but the country, wearied of the interminable
struggle, was disposed to acquiesce in his foreign policy almost
without a murmur. The king, thwarted in his favourite
schemes, made overtures in 1746 to Lord Bath, but his purpose
was upset by the resignation of the two Pelhams (Henry and
Newcastle), who, however, at the king's request, resumed office.
Pelham remained prime minister till his death on the 6th of
March 1754, when his brother succeeded him. His very defects
were among the chief elements of Pelham's success, for one with
a strong personality, moderate self-respect, or high conceptions
of statesmanship could not have restrained the discordant
elements of the cabinet for any length of time. Moreover, he
possessed tact and a thorough acquaintance with the forms of the
house. Whatever quarrels or insubordination might exist
within the cabinet, they never broke out into open revolt. Nor
can a high degree of praise be denied to his financial policy,
especially his plans for the reduction of the national debt and
the simplification and consolidation of its different branches.
He had married in 1726 Lady Catherine Manners, daughter of the
2nd duke of Rutland; and one of his daughters married Henry
Fiennes Clinton, 2nd duke of Newcastle.
Sec W. Coxe, Memoirs of the Pelham Administration, (a vols.,
1829). For the family history sec Lower, Pelham Family (1873);
also the Pelham and Newcastle MSS. in the British Museum.
PELHAM. HENRY FRANCIS (1846-1907). English scholar
and historian, was born at Berg Apton, Norfolk, on the 19th
of September 1846, son of the Hon. John Thomas Pelham
(18x1-1894), bishop of Norwich, third son of the 2nd earl of
Chichester. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity College,
Oxford, where he took a first class in litcrae humaniores in
1869. He was a tutor of Exeter College from 1869 to 1890. In
1887 he became university reader in ancient history, and two
years later was elected to the Camden professorship. He
became curator of the Bodleian library in 1S92, and in 1897
president of Trinity College. He was also a fellow of Brasenose
College, honorary fellow of Exeter, a fellow of the British
Academy and of other learned societies, and a governor of
Harrow School. His chief contribution to ancient history was
his article on Roman history in the 9th edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica (1886), which was republished with additions
as the Outlines of Roman History (1890). His university lectures,
though perhaps lacking in inspiration, were full of original
research and learning. His death on the 13th of February 1907
not only prevented the publication in systematic form of his own
important researches, but also delayed the appearance of much
that had been left in MS. by H. Fumeaux and A. H. J. Greenidge,
and was at the time under his charge. Apart from the Outlines
he published only The Imperial Domains and the Colonate (1890),
The Roman Frontier System (1895), and articles in periodicals
of which the most important was an article in the Quarterly
Review on the early Caesars (April, 1905). He did much for the
study of archaeology at Oxford, materially assisted the Hellenic
Society and the British School at Athens, and was one of the
founders of the British School at Rome. He married in 1S73
Laura Priscilla, daughter of Sir Edward North Buxton.
PELIAS, in Greek legend, son of Poseidon and Tyro, daughter
of Salmoneus. Because Tyro afterwards married her father's
brother Cretheus, king of lolcus in Thessaly, to whom she bore
Aeson, Pheres and Amythaon, Pelias was by some thought to be
68
PELICAN— PfeLISSIER
the son of Crethcus. He and his twin-brother Neleus were
exposed by their mother, but were nurtured by a herdsman.
When grown to manhood they were acknowledged by their
mother. After the death of Crethcus, Pclius made himself master
of the kingdom of lolous, having previously quarrelled with
Neleus, who removed to Messenia, where he founded Pylos.
In order to rid himself of Jason, Pelias sent him to Colchis in
quest of the golden fleece, and took advantage of his absence
to put to death his father, Aeson, his mother and brother.
When Jason returned he sought to avenge the death of his
parents, and Medea persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut in
pieces and boil their father, assuring them that he would thus
be restored to youth. Acastus, son of Pelias, drove out Jason
and Medea and celebrated funeral games in honour of his father,
which were celebrated by the poet Stesichortis and represented
on the chest of Cypselus. The death of Pelias was the subject
of Sophocles' Rhizotomoi (Root-cutters), and in the Tyro he
treated another portion of the legend. Peliades (the daughters
of Pelias) was the name of Euripides' first play.
PELICAN (Fr. Pelican; Lat. Pelccanus or PeHcanus), a large
fish-eating water-fowl, remarkable for the enormous pouch
formed by the extensible skin between the lower jaws of its long,
and apparently formidable but in reality very weak, bilL The
ordinary pelican, the Onocrotalus of the ancients, to whom it was
well known, and the Pdecanus onocrokdus of ornithologists,
is a very abundant bird in some districts of south-eastern
Europe, south-western Asia and north-eastern Africa, occasionally
straying, it b believed, into the northern parts of Germany and
France; but the possibility of such wanderers having escaped
from confinement is always to be regarded,* since few zoological
gardens are without examples. Its usual haunts are the shallow
margins of the larger lakes and rivers, where fishes are plentiful,
since it requires for its sustenance a vast supply of them. The
nest is formed among reeds, placed on the ground and lined with
grass. Therein two eggs, with white, chalky shells, are com-
monly laid. The young during the first twelvemonth are of a
greyish-brown, but when mature almost the whole plumage,
except the black primaries, is white, deeply suffused by a rich
blush of rose or salmon-colour, passing into yellow on the crest
and lower part of the neck in front. A second and somewhat
larger species, Pelccanus crispus, also inhabits Europe, but has
a more eastern distribution. This, when adult, is readily dis-
tinguishable from the ordinary bird by the absence of the blush
from its plumage, and by the curled feathers that project from
and overhang each side of the head, which with some difference
of coloration of the bill, pouch, bare skin round the eyes and
irides give it a wholly distinct expression. Two specimens of the
humerus have been found in the English fens {Ibis, 1868, p. 363;
Proc. Zool. Society, 187 1, p. 702), thus proving the existence of
the bird in EngUmd at no very distant period, and one of them
being that of a young example points to its having been bred
in this country. It is possible from their large size that they
belonged to P. crispus. Ornithologists have been much divided
in opinion as to the number of living species of the genus Pelc-
canus (cf. op. cit.f 1868, p. 264; 1869, p. 571; 1871, p. 631) — the
estimate varying from six to ten or eleven; but the former is the
number recognized by M. Dubois {Bull. Mus. de Belgique, 1883).
North America has one, P. erythrorhynckus, very similar to
P. onocrotalus both in appearance and habits, but remarkable
for a triangular, homy excrescence developed on the ridge of the
male's bill in the breeding season, which falls off without leaving
trace of its existence when that is over. Australia has P.
conspicUlatus, easily distinguished by its black tail and wing-
coverts. Of more marine habit are P. philippensis and P.fuscus,
the former having a wide range in Southern Asia, and, it is said,
reaching Madagascar, and the latter common on the coasts of
the warmer parts of both North and South America.
The genus Pdecanus as instituted by Linnaeus included the
* This caution was not neglected by the prudent, even ao long ago
as Sir Thomas Browne's days; for he, recording the occurrence oia
pelican in Norfolk, was careiul to notice that about the same time one
of the pelicans kept by the king (Charles II.) in St James's Park,
had been lost.
cormorant {q.t.) and gannet (9.9.) as well as the true pdicana,
and for a long while these and some other distinct groups, as the
snake-birds (9.9.), frigate-birds {q.v.) and tropic-birdi (9>**)t
which have all the four toes of the foot connected by a web» were
regarded as forming a single family, Pelecanidae\ but this name
has now been restricted to the pelicans only, thou{^ all are
still usually associated in the suborder Sttganopodes of Cioonii-
form birds. It may be necessary to state that there b no founda-
tion for the venerable legend of the pelican feeding her sroung
with blood from her own breast, which has given it an important
place in ecclesiastical heraldry, except that, as A. D. Bartlett
suggested {Proc. Zo<d. Society, 1869, p. 146), the curious bloody
secretion ejected from the mouth of the flamingo may have
given rise to the belief, through that bird having been mistaken
for the " Pelican of the wilderness."" (A. N.)
PEUON, a wooded mountain in Thessaly in the district of
Magnesia, between Volo and the east coast. Its highest point
(mod. Plcssidi) is 5340 ft. It is famous in Greek mythdogy;
the giants are said to have piled it on Ossa in order to scale
Olympus, the abode of the gods; it was the home of the centaurs,
especially of Chiron, who had a cave near its summit, and
educated many youthful heroes; the ship " Argo " was buHt
from its pine-woods. On its summit was an altar of Zeus
Actaeus, in whose honour an annual festival was held in the
dog-days, and worshippers clad themselves in skins.
PEUSSB (through the Fr. from Lat. pdlidax sc vesUs, a
garment made of fur, pdlis, skin), properly a name of a doak
made of or lined with fur, hence particularly used of the fur-
trimmed " dolman " worn slung from the shoulders by hussar
regiments. The word is now chiefly employed as the name id. a
long-sleeved cloak df any material worn by women and children.
P&ISSIBR, AIMABLB JEAN JACQUES (1794-1864), duke
of Malakoff, marshal of France, was bom on the 6th of November
1794 at Maromme (Seine Inf6rieure), of a family of proqwrous
artisans or yeoman, his father being employed in a powder-
magazine. After attending the military college of La FUdie
and the special school of St C3rr, he in 1815 entered the army as
sub-lieutenant in an artillery regiment. A brilliant examination
in 1819 secured his appointment to the staff. He served as
aide-de-camp in the Spanish campaign of 1823, and in tlie
expedition to the Morea in 1828-29. In 1830 he took part in
the expedition to Algeria, and on his return was promoted to
the rank of chef d'escadron. After some years' staff service in
Paris he was again sent to Algeria as chief of staff of the province
of Oran with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and remaiiied there
till the Crimean War, taking a prominent part in many important
operations. The severity of his conduct in suffocating a nHiole
Arab tribe in the Dahra or Dahna caves, near Mustaganem, where
they had taken refuge (June 18, 1845), awakened such incfig-
nation in Europe that Marshal Soult, the minister of war, public^
expressed his regret; but Marshal Bugeaud, the govemor-genccd
of Algeria, not only gave it his approval, but secured
for P^lissier the rank of general of brigade, which he hdd till
1850, when he was promoted general of division. After the
battles of October and November 1854 before Sevastopol,
Pelissier was sent to the Crimea, where on the i6th of May i8s$
he succeeded Marshal Canrobert as commander-in-chief of the
French forces before Sevastopol (see Crimean Wae). Hii
command was marked by relentless pressure of the enemy and
unalterable determination to conduct the campaign withoat
interference from Paris. His perseverance was crowned wtJk
'The legend was commonly believed' in the middle
Epiphanius, bishop of Constantia. in his PkysiclotHS (1588),
that the female bird, in chcrishins her young, wounds them
loving, and pierces their sides, and they die. After three^ days tit
male pelican comes and finds them dead, and hi* heart is paiaM.
He smites his own sde, and as he stands over the wounds of the dei4
young ones the blood trickles down, and thus are they made afivt
apain. The pelican " in his piety "—».«. in this pious act of revir'-*
hts offspring — was a common subject ion 15th-century cmh
books; It became a symbol of self-sacrifice, a type of Chrii
redemption and of the Eucharistic doctrine. The device
adopted by Bishop Fox in 1516 iat his new college of Coq;NM Chfiidb
Oxford.— IH. Ch.1
PELL— PELLETAN
69
in the stonniog of the Ilfalakoff on the 8th of September.
On the i2th he was promoted to be marshaL On his return to
Pkm he was named senator, created duke of MalakofI (July 32,
1856), and rewarded with a grant of 100,000 francs per annum.
From March 1858 to May 1859 he was French ambassador in
London, whence he was recalled to take command of the army
of observation on the Rhine. In the same year he became
gnnd chancellor <rf the Legion of Honour. In x86o he was
appointed govvnor-general of Algeria, and he died there on the
asnd of May 1864.
Sec Marbaud. Le MarSchal PHissUr (1863); Castilk;, PortraiU
Autorf^ws. and aeries (1859).
PELL* lOHN (z6zo-x685), English mathematician, was bom
on the kst of March x6io at Southwick in Sussex, where his
fuher was minister. He was educated at Steyning, and entered
THnity CoDege, Cambridge, at the age of thirteen. During his
anivctBty career he became an accomplished linguist, and even
before he took his MA. degree (in 1630) corresponded with
Henry Briggs and other mathematicians. His great reputation
and the influence -of Sir William Boswell, the English resident,
with the states^general procured his election in 1643 to the chair
of mathematics in Amsterdam, whence he removed in 1646,
on the invitation of the prince of Orange, to Breda, where he
remuned till 1652.
From 1654 to 1658 Pell acted as Cromwell's political agent
to the Protestant cantons of Switzerland. On his return to
TjH^wiA he tock orders and was appointed by Charles II. to
the rectory <rf Fobbing in Essex, and in 1673 he was presented
by Bohop Sheldon to the rectory of Laindon in the same county,
lb devotion to mathematical science seems to have interfered
ifike with h» advancement in the Church and with the proper
■uBsfcment of his private a£fairs. For a time he was confined
ts s debtor in the king's bench prison. He lived, on the
ianriLation of Dr Whistler, for a short time in z68a at the College
€f Physicians, but died on the X2th of December 1685 at the
kooK of Mr Cothome, reader of the church of St Giles-in-the
Fklds. Many <rf Pell's manuscripts fell into the hands of Dr
Binby, master of Westminster School, and afterwards came into
the possession of the Royal Society; they are still preserved in
■oethlng like forty folio volumes, wUch contain, not only
Fdl's own memoirs, but much of his correspondence with the
Bathematicians of his time.
1^ Diophantine analyss was a favourite subject with Fell;
he lectdred on it at Amsterdam; and he is now best remembered
far the indeterminate equation ax*+i •■y, which is known by his
■jse. This problem was propoacd by Pierre de Ferroat first to
Berahard Fretude de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematicians.
FdTs cooaeaon with the problem simfdy consists of the pubttcation
flf the sotations of John Wallis and Lord Brounker in his edition of
JwcAcr's TroHslatton ef Rhonitu's Alffsbra (1668). His chief works
aie: AOronamical History cf Obsertnhons of Heavenly Motions and
(1634); Eatpiua prognostica (1634): umiroversy vnth
wmmm^ns conceming the Qitadrature of the Circle (1646?):
of the Maikematics^ lamo (1650) ; X Table (^ Ten Thousand
(foL; 167a).
the capital of ancient Macedonia imder Philip IL
(who tnwsferred the seat of government hither from Edessa)
and Aknoder the Great, irbo was bom here. It seems to have
Ktaned some importance up to the time of Hadrian. Scanty
RBims exist and some springs in the neighbourhood are still
kaowB as the baths of PeL The site (identified by Leake) is
occnpied by the viUage of Neochori (Turk. Yeni-Keui) about
j2 m, Borth-west of Salonika.
PBLLAORA (ItaL pdle ajya, smarting skin), the name given,
fmra one of its eariy symptoms, to a peculiar disease, of com-
paativdy modem origin. For some time it was supposed to
be (Mictically confined to the peasantry in parts of Italy (particu-
hify Locnbardy) and France, and in the Asturias (mo/ de la
mm), Romania and Corfu. But it has recently been identified
k vaijoos outlying parts of the British Empire (Barbadoes,
IaiS&) and in both Lower and Upper Egypt; also among the
and Basutos. In the United States sporadic cases had
(^served op to 1906, but since then numerous cases have
n^orted. It is in Italy, however, that it has been most
A%
prevalent. The malady is essentially chronic in character.
The indications usually begin in the spring of the year, declining
towards autumn, and recurring with increasing intensity and
permanence in the spring seasons following. A peasant who
is acquiring the malady feels unfit for work, suffers from head-
aches, giddiness, singing in the ears, a burning of the skin,
especially in the hands and feet, and diarrhoea. At the same
time a red rash appears on the skin, of the nature of erysipelas,
the red or livid spots being tense and painful, especially where
they are directly exposed to the sun. About July or August
of the first season these symptoms disapptcar, the spots on the
skin remaining rough and dry. The spring attack of the year
following will probably be more severe and more likely to leave
traces behind it; with each successive year the patient becomes
more like a mummy, hb skin shrivelled and sallow, or even
black at certain spots, as in Addison's disease, his angles pro-
truding, his muscles wasted, his movements slow and languid,
and his sensibiUty diminished. Meanwhile there are more special
symptoms relating to the nervous system, including drooping
of the eyelid, dilatation of the pupil, and other disorders of
vision, together with symptoms rebting to the digestive sjrstem,
such as a red and dry tongue, a burning feeling in the mouth,
pain on swallowing, and diarrhoea. After a certain stage the
disease passes into a. profound disorgam'zation of the nervous
system; there b a tendency to melancholy, imbecility, and a
curious mummified condition of body. After death a general
tissue degeneration is observed.
The causation of this obscure disease has recently come up
for new investigation in coimcxion with the new work done in
relation to sleeping-sickness and other tropical diseases. So
long as it was supposed to be peculiar to the Italian peasantry,
it was associated simply with their staj^e diet, and was regarded
as due to the eating of mouldy maize. It was by his views in
this regard that Lombroso (f.v.) first made his scientific r^uta-
tion. But the area of maize consumption is now known to be
wider than that of pellagra, and pellagra is found where maize
is at least not an onlinary diet. In 1905 Dr L. W. Sambon, at
the meeting of the British Medical Association, suggested that
pellagra was probably protozoal in origin, and subsequently
he announced his belief that the protozoon was communicated
by sand-flies, just as sleeping-sickness by the tsetse fly; and this
opinion was supported by the favourable action of arsenic in
the treatment of the disease. His hypothesis was endorsed
by Sir Patrick Manson,' and in January 19 10 an influential
committee was formed, to enable Dr Sambon to pursue his
investigations in a pellagrous area.
PELLCTAN, CHARLES CAMILLB (1846- ), French
politician and journalist, was bora in Paris on the 28th of June
1846, the son of Eugene Pelletan (18x3-1884), a writer of some
distinction and a noted opponent of the Second Empire.
Camille Pelletan was educated in Paris, passed as licentiate
in laws, and was qualified as an "archiviste palfographe."
At the age of twenty he became an active contributor to
the press, and a bitter critic of the Imperial Government.
After the war of 1870-71 he took a leading place among
the most mdical section of French politicians, as an opponent
of the " opportunists " who continued the policy of Gambeita.
In 1880 he became editor of Justice, and worked with success
to bring about a revision of the sentences passed on the
Communards. In 1881 he was chosen member for the tenth
arrondisscment of Paris, and in 1885 for the Bouches du
Rhone, being re-elected in 1889, 1893 and 1898; and he was
repeatedly chosen as " reporter " to the various bureaus. Dur-
ing the Nationalist and Dreyfus agitations he fought vigorously
on behalf of the Republican government and when the coalition
known as the "Bloc" was formed he took his place as a Radical
leader. He was made minister of marine in the cabinet <rf
M. Combes, June 1903 to January 1905, but his administration
was severely criticized, notably by M. de Lanessan and other naval
experts. During the great sailors' strike at Marseilles in 1904
he showed pronounced S3rmpathy with the socialistic aims and
methods of the strikers, and a strong feeling was aroused that
^o
PELLICANUS— PELLICO
his Radical sympathies tended to a serious weakening of the
navy and to destruction of discipline. A somewhat violent
controversy resulted, in the course of which M. Pelletan's
indiscreet speeches did him no good; and he became a common
subject for ill-natured caricatures. On the fall of the Combes
ministry he became less prominent in French politics.
PBLUCANU8, CONRAD (147S-1556), German theologian,
was bom at Ruffach in Alsace, on the 8th of January 1478.
His German name, KUrsner, was changed to Pellicanus by his
mother's brother Jodocus Callus, an ecclesiastic connected with
the university of Heidelberg, who supported his nephew for sucteen
months at the university in 1491-1493. On returning to Ruffach,
he taught gratis in the Minorite convent school that he might
borrow books from the library, and in his sixteenth year resolved
to become a friar. This step helped his studies, for he was sent
to Tubingen in 1496 and became a favourite pupil of the guardian
of the Minorite convent there, Paulus Scriptoris, a man of
considerable general learning. Ihere seems to have been at
that time in south-west Germany a considerable amount of
sturdy independent thought among the Franciscans; Pellicanus
himself became a Protestant very gradually, and without any
such revulsion of feeling as marked Luther's converuon.. At
Tubingen the future " apostate in three languages " was able
to begin the study of Hebrew. He had no teacher and no
grammar; but Paulus Scriptoris carried him a huge codex of
the prophets on his own shoulders all the way from Mainz. He
learned the letters from the transcription of a few verses in the
Star of the Masiak of Petrus Niger, and, with a subsequent hint
or two from Rcuchlin, who also lent him the grammar of Moses
l^limbl, made his way through the Bible for himself with the help
of Jerome's Latin. He got on so well that he was not only
a useful helper to ReuchUn but anticipated the manuals of the
great Hebraist by composing in 1501 the first Hebrew grammar
in the European tongue. It was printed in 1503, and afterwards
included in Reysch's MargarUa philosophica. Hebrew remained
a favourite study to the last. Pellican's autobiography de-
scribes the gradual multiplication of accessible books on the
subjects, and he not only studied but translated a vast mass of
rabbini(^ and Talmudic texts, his interest in Jewish literature
being mainly philological. The chief fruit of these studies is
the.vast commentary on the Bible (Zurich, 7 vols., 1532-1539)1
which shows a remarkably sound judgment on questions of the
text, and a sense for historical as opp(»ed to typological exegesis.
Pellicanus became priest in 1501 and continued to serve his
order at Ruffach, Pforzheim, and Basel till 1526. At Basel
be did much laborious work for Froben's editions, and came to
the conclusion that the Church taught many doctrines of which
the early doctors of Christendom knew nothing. He spoke his
views frankly, but he disliked polemic; he found also more
toleration than might have been expected, even after he became
active in circulating Luther's books. Thus, supported by the
dvic authorities, be remained gjuardian of the convent of his
order at Basel from 15 19 till 1534, and even when he had to
give up his {XMt, remained in the monastery for two years,
professing theology in the university. At length, when the
position was becoming quite untenable, he received through
Zwingli a call to Zurich as professor of Greek and Hebrew, and
formally throwing off his monk's habit, entered on a new life.
Here he remained till his death on the 6th of April 1556.
Pellicanus's scholarship, though not brilliant, was really
extensive; his sound sense, and his smgularly pure and devoted
character gave him a great influence. He was remarkably free
from the pedantry of the time, as is shown by his views about
the use of the Gennan vernacular as a vehicle of culture {Chron.
X35> sO* As a theologian his natural aflSnitics were with
Zwingli, with whom he shared the advantage of having grown
up to the views of the Reformation, by the natural progress
of his studies and religious life. Thus he never lost his sym-
pathy with humanism and with its great German representative,
Erasmus.
Pdlicanus's Latin autobiography (Chronicon C.P.R.) is one of the
most interesting documents of the period. It was first published
by Riggenbsch in 1877, and in this volume the other sources for Im
life are rtgistered. ^ also Emit Silberstcin. Conrad PeUicamu;
tin BtUn^ ntr Ctuhickte des Studiums der hebr. Sprackt (BerliD,
1900).
PELUCIBR, QUILLAUMB (c. 1490-1568), French prelate
and diplomatist, was educated by his uncle, the bishop of
Maguelonne, whom he succeeded in 1529. In 1536 he bad
the seat of hu bishopric transferred to Montpellier. Appmnted
ambassador at Venice in 1539, he fulfilled his mission to the
entire satisfaction of Francis I., but on the discovery <rf the
system of espionage he had employed the king had tolWall him
in 1542. Returning to his diocese, he was imprisoned in the
ch&teau of Beaucaire for his tolerance of the Reformers, so he
replaced his former indulgence by severity, and the end of his
episcopate was disturbed by religious struggles. He was a
man of wide learning, a humanist and a friend of humanists,
and took a keen interest in the natural sciences.
SteJ.7A:llet,LaDiplomatiefraHiaise . . . d'apris le eontspomdamc§
de G. PeUicier (Paris. 1881) ; and A. Tausscrat-Radd, CornspOHdamu
politique de CuiHaume PeUicier (Paris, 1899).
PELLICO. SILVIO (i 788-1854), Italian dramatist, was bom
at Saluzzo in Piedmont on the 24th of June 1788, the earlier
portion of his life being passed at Pincrolo and Turin under
the tuition of a priest named Manavella. At the age of ten
he composed a tragedy under the inspiration oi Caesarotti*s
translation of the Ossianic poems. On the marriage of his twin
sister Rosina with a nutemal coudn at Lyons he went to reside
in that city, devoting himself during four years to the study <rf
French literature. He returned in 1810 to MUan, where be
became professor of French in the Collegio degli Orfani Militari.
His tragedy Francesca da Rimini^ was brought out with success
by Carlotta Marchionni at Milan in 1818. Its publication was
followed by that of the tradcgy Eufemio da Messina^ but the
representation of the latter was forbidden. PclUco had in the
meantime continued his work as tutor, first to the unfortunate
son of Count Briche, and then to the two sons of Count Porro
Lambertenghi. He threw himself heartily into an attempt to
weaken the hold of the Austrian despotism by indirect educ»>
tional means. Of the powerful literary executive which gathered
about Counts Porro and Confalonieri, PcUico was the aUe
secretary — the management of the ConcUiatore, which appeared
in 1818 as the organ of the association, resting largely upon him.
But the paper, under the censorship of the Austrian officials,
ran for a year only, and the society itself was broken up by the
government. In October 1820 PcUico was arrested on the
charge of carbonarism and conveyed to the Sanu Margherita
prison. After his removal to the Piombi at Venice in Februarf
1821, he composed several Cantiche and the tragedies EsUr d^Em^
gaddi and Iginia d'Asti. The sentence of death pronounced
on him in February 1822 was finally commuted to fifteen yean
carcere dura, and in the following April he was placed in the
Spielberg at BrUnn. His chief work during this part of' his
imprisonment was the tragedy Leoniero da DertonOt for the
preservation of which he was compelled to rely on his memory.
After his release in 1830 he commenced the publication of his
prison compositions, of which the Ester was played at Turin
in 183K, but immediately suppressed. In 1832 appeared hb
Cismotida da Mendrizio, Erodiade and the Leoniero, under the
title of Tre nuovi tragedie, and in the same year the work wUdi
gave him his European fikme, Le Mie prigioni, an account of
his sufferings in prison. The last gained him the friendship
of the Marchesa di Barolo, the reformer of the Turin prisons*
and in 1834 he accepted from her a yearly pension of 1200 francs.
His tragedy Tommaso Moro had been published in 1833, his
most important subsequent publication being the Optrt inedilt
in 1837. On the decease of hb parents in 1838 he was recnved
into the Casa Barolo, where he remained till his death, asasting
the marchesa in her charities, and writing chiefly upon religions
themes. Of these works the best known is the Dei DoverideglU
uomini, a series of trite maxims which do honour to his piety
rather than to his critical judgment. A fragmentary biography
of the marchesa by Pcllico was published in Italian and En^lidl
after her death. He died on the 31st of January 1854, and
PELLISSON— PELOPONNESIAN WAR
71
buried IB the Campo Santo at Turin. His writings are defective
in virility and breadth of thought, and his tragedies display
ndtl^r the inught into character nor the constructive power
ol a great dramatist. It is in the simple narrative and naive
egotism of Lt Mie prigioni that he has established his strongest
daim to remembrance, winning fame by his misfortunes rather
than by his genius.
See PfefD Bftaroncelfi. Adiineni atU mie prigumi (Paris, i8m):
the biographies by Latour; Gabricle RosaeUi; Didier, Rewe des
4tia momdes (September 1842); De Lom^nie, GaUrie des conlemp.
iUustt. hr. (1843); Chiala (Turin. 1852): Nollet-Fabert (1854;:
" ' ~' 10 (1854): Bourdon (1868): Rivieri (189^1901).
U PAUL (1624-1693), French author, was bom at
Bte'ers on the 30th of October 1634, of a distinguished Calvinist
family. He studied law at Toulouse, and practised at the bar
of Castzes. Going to Paris with letters of introduction to
Valentin Coniart, who was a co-religionist, he became through
him acquainted with the members of the academy. Pellisson
■ttdertook to be their historian, and in 1653 published a Rdatum
t/oaUMMt Vkistain de racadtmU Jranqaw. This panegyric
«u rewarded by a promise of the next vacant place and by
permissioa to be present at their meetings. In 1657 Pellisson
became secretary to the minister of finance, Nicolas Fouquet,
and when in x66z the minister was arrested, his secretary was
imprisoned in the Bastille. Pellisson had the courage to stand
by his fallen patron, in whose defence he issued his celebrated
Mfmeut in z66i, with the title Discours au rci, par un de ses
ftHUs smj^ sur le proUs de M. de Fouquet, in which the facts
is favour of Fouquet arc marshalled with great skilL Another
paBq)hlet, Seconde difense de M. Fouquet, followed. Pellisson
«u ideased in 1666, and from this date sought the royal favour.
He became historiographer to the king, and in that capacity
*n(e a fragmentary Histoue de Louis XI V., covering the yean
1660 to 1670. In 1670 he was converted to Catholicism and
riftaiaed rkh ecclesiastical preferment. He died on the 7th
of February 1693. He was very intimate with Mile de
SoMKry. in whose novels he figures as Herminius and Acante.
His tteiiing worth of character made him many friends and
jeitificd Btnsy-Rabutin's description of him as "encore plus
kmsCte horaoie que bel eq>rit."
See Sainte-Beuve, Canseries du lundi, vol. xiv. ; and F. L. Maroon,
Etade sur la vie ei Us eeuores de PeUisson (1859).
PBLUTORT* in botany, the common name for a small hairy
perennial herb which grows on old walls, hedgcbanks and
uiiar localities, and is known botanically as Parictaria offici-
waUs (Lat. paries, a wall). It has a short woody rootstock from
vfckh spring erect or spreading stems i to 2 ft. long, bearing
iknder leafy branches, and axillary clusters of small green
tovefSw It belongs to the nettle order {Urlicauac), and is
nearly allied to the nettle, Urtica, but its hairs are not stinging.
FILLOUZ, LUIOI (183^ ), Italian general and politician,
«as bom on the ist of March 1839, at La Roche, in Savoy, of
parents who retained their Italian nationality when Savoy was
annexed to France. Entering the army as h'eu tenant of artillery
in 1857, he gained the medal for military valour at the battle
of Coitoaaa in 1866, and in 1870 commanded the brigade of
wnSSof whkh, battered the breach in the wall of Rome at Porta
PSa. He was elected to the Chamber in 1881 as deputy for
Lq^hont, which he represented until 1895, ^^^ joined the party
flf the Left. He had entered the war office in 1870, and in 1880
becaaie general secretary, in which capacity he introduced many
■aefol reforms in the army. After a succession of high military
"'■^■Mndf he received the appointment of chief of the general
fia5 in 1S96. He was minister of war in the Rudini and Giolitti
cabinets of 1891-1893. In July 1896 he resumed the portfolio
of war in the Rudini cabinet, and was appointed senator. In
May 1897 he secured the adoption of the Army Reform Bill,
fuBg Italian mililary expenditure at a maximum of £9,560,000
a year, bat in December of that year he was defeated in the
Gbmber on the question of the promotion of officers. Resigning
«fioe, he was in May 1898 sent as royal commissioner to Ban,
vkcR, without recourse to martial law, he succeeded in restoring
public order. Upon the fall of Rudini in June 1898, General
Pelloux was entrusted by King Humbert with the formation
of a cabinet, and took for hiniself the post of minister of the
interior. He resigned office in May 1899, but was again en-
trusted with the formation of the ministry. He took stem
measures against the revolutionary elements in southern Italy,
and his new cabinet was essentially military and conservative.
The Public Safety Bill for the reform of the police laws, taken
over by him from the Rudini cabinet, and eventually promul-
gated by royal decree, was fiercely obstructed by the Socialist
party, which, with the Left and Extreme Left, succeeded in
forcing (General Pelloux to dissolve the Chamber in May 1900,
and to resign office after the general election in June. In the
autumn of 190X he was appointed to the command of the Turin
army corps.
PBLOMTZA, so named by R. Greeff, a genus of Lobose
Rhizopoda {q.v.), naked, multinucleate, with very blunt rounded
pseudopodia, formed by eruption (see Amoeba), often containing
peculiar vesicles (glycogen?), and full of a symbiotic bacterium.
It inhabits the ooze of decomposing organic matter at the
bottom of ponds and lakes.
PEIX)PIDA8 (d. 364 B.C.), Theban statesman and general
He was a member of a distinguished family, and possessed
great wealth which he expended on his friends, while content
to lead the life of an athlete. In 385 B.C. he served in a Theban
contingent sent to the support of the Spartans at Mantineia,
where he was saved, when dangerously wounded, by Epami-
nondas iq.t.). Upon the seizure of the Theban citadel by the
Spartans (383 or 383) he fled to Athens, and took the lead in a
conspiracy to liberate Thebes. In 379 his party surprised and
killed their chief political opponents, and roused the people
against the Spartan garrison, which surrendered to an army
gathered by Pelopidas. In this and subsequent years he was
elected boeotarck, and about 375 he routed a much larger Spartan
force at Tegyra (near Orchomenus). This victory he owed
mainly to the valour of the Sacred Band, a picked body of 300
infantry. At the battle of Leuctra (371) he contributed greatly
to the success of Epaminondas's new tactics by the rapidity
with which he made the Sacred Band close with the Spartans.
In 370 he accompanied his friend Epaminondas as boeotarck
into Peloponnesus. On their return both generals were unsuc-
cessfully accused of having retained their command beyond
the legal term. In 369, in response to a petition of the Thessa-
lians, Pelopidas was sent with an army against Alexander,
tyrant of Pherae. After driving Alexander out, he passed into
Macedonia and arbitrated between two claimants to the throne.
In order to secure the influence of Thebes, he brought home
hostages, including the king's brother, afterwards Philip II.,
the conqueror of Greece. Next year Pelopidas was again
called upon to interfere in Macedonia, but, being deserted by
his mercenaries, was compelled to make an agreement with
Ptolemaeus of Alorus. On his return through Thessaly he was
seized by Alexander of Pherae, and two expeditions from
Thebes were needed to secure his release. In 367 Pelopidas
went on an embassy to the Persian king and induced him to
prescribe a settlement of Greece according to the wishes of the
Thebans. In 364 he received another appeal from the Thessalian
towns against Alexander of Pherae. Though an eclipse of the
sun prevented his bringing with him more than a handful of
troops, he overthrew the tyrant's far superior force on the ridge
of Cynoscephalae; but wishing to slay Alexander with his own
hand, he rushed forward too eagerly and was cut down by the
tyrant's guards.
Plutarch and Ncpos. Pelopidas; Diodorus xv. 62-81; Xenophon,
Heilenica. vii. 1. See also Thebes. (M. O. B. C.)
PELOPONNESIAN WAR, in Greek history, the name given
specially to the struggle between Athens at the head of the
Delian League and the confederacy of which Sparta was the
leading power.* According to Thucydides the war, which was
* Some historians prefer to call it the Second Peloponnedan War,
the first being that of 457, which ended with the Thuty Years'
Peace.
72
PELOPONNESIAN WAR
in his view the greatest that had ever occurred in Greece, lasted
from 431 to the downfall of Athens in 404. The genius of
Thucydides has given to the struggle the importance of an
qx)ch in world history, but his view is open to two main criti-
cisms—(i) that the war was in its ultimate bearings little
more than a local disturbance, viewed from the standpoint
of universal history; (3) that it cannot be called a war in the
strict sense. The former of these criticisms is justified in the
article on Greece: History (g.v.). Unless we are to believe
that the Macedonian supremacy is directly traceable to the
mutual weakening of the Greek cities in 431-4031 it is difficult
to see what lasting importance attaches to the war. As regards
the second, a few chief difficulties may be indicated. The very
narrative even of Thucydides himself shows that the " war "
was not a connected whole. It may be divided into three main
periods— (i) from 431 to 421 (Lysias calls it the " Archldamian "
War), when the Peace of Nicias, not merely formally, but actually
produced a cessation of hostilities; (3) from 431 till the inter-
vention of Sparta in the Sicilian War; during these years there
was no " Peloponnesian War," and there were several years in
which there was in reality no fighting at all: the Sicilian expedi-
tion was in fact a side issue; (3) from 4x3 to 404> when fighting
was carried on mainly in the A^ean Sea (Isoorates calls this
the " Decelean " War). The disjointed character of the struggle
is 80 obvious from Thucydides himself that historians have come
to the conclusion that the idea of treating the whole struggle as
a single unit was ex post facto (see Greece: History, $ A,
" Ancient " ad fin.).
The book itself affords evidence which goes far to justify this
view. A very important problem is presented by bk. v., which is
obviously put in as a connecting link to prove a theory. Thucy-
dides expressly warns us not to regard the period of this book
as one of peace, and yet the very contents of the book refute
his argument. In 419 and 417 there is practically no fighting:
the Mantinean War of 418 is a disconnected episode which did
not lead to a resumption of hostilities: in 420 there are only
obscure battles in Thrace: in 416 there is only the expedition
to Melos; and finally from 421 to 413 there is official peace.
Other details may be cited in corroboration. Book v. (ch. 36)
contains a second introduction to the subject; 68t 6 r6\inot in
i. 83 and iv. 48 is the Archidamian or Ten Years* Wj^; in v. 36
we read of a rpuros ir6Xc/i09, a tertpot ir6\qtot and an iyanaxh'
Some critics think on these and other grounds that Thucydides
wrote and published bks. i.-v. 25 by itself, then bks. vi. and
vii. (Sicilian expedition), and finally revising his view joined
them into one whole by the somewhat unsatisfactory bk. v. 36
and following chapters, and began to round off the story with
the incomplete bk. viii. (on this see Greece: History, as above).
It is perhaps most probable that he retained notes made con-
temporarily and worked them up some time after 404, in a few
passages failing to correct inconsistencies and dying before
bk. viii. was completed. The general introduction in bk. 1.
was unquestionably written shortly after 404.
The causes of the war thus understood are complex. The
view taken by Thucydides that Sparta was the real foe of
Athens has been much modified by modem writers. The key
to the situation is in fact the commercial rivalry of the Corin-
thians, whose trade (mainly in the West) had been seriously
limited by the naval expansion of the Delian League. This
rivalry was roused to fever heat by the Athenian intervention
in 434-33 on behalf of Corcyra, Corinth's rebellious colony (see
Corfu) and from that time the Corinthians felt that the Thirty
Years' Truce was at an end. An opportunity soon offered for
making a counter attack. Potidaea, a Dorian town on the
western promontory of Chalddice in Thrace, a tributary ally
of Athens— to which however Corinth as metropolis still sent
annual magistrates — was induced to revolt,' with the support
of the Macedonian king Pcrdiccas, formerly an Athenian ally.
Tlie Athenian Phormio succeeded in blockading the dty so that
* The tmporunce of this revolt lay in the fact that it immediately
involved danger to Athens throughout the Chalddic promontoriea,
and her north-east possessions generally.
its capture was merely a question of time, and this provided the
Corinthians with an urgent reason for declaring war.
Prior to these episodes Athens had not been in hostile contact
with any of the Peloponnesian confederate states for more than
ten years, and Pericles had abandoned a great part of his imperial
policy. He now laid an embargo upon Megara by whidh the
Megarians were forbidden on pain of death to pursue trading
operations with any part of the Athenian Empire. The drcum-
stances of this decree (or decrees) are not material to the present
argument (see Grote, History of Greece, ed. 1907, p. 370
note) except that it turned s[)edal attention to the commercial
supremacy which Athens claimed to enjoy. In 433 a conference
of Peloponnesian allies was summoned and the Corinthian envoys
urged the Spartans to dedare war on the ground that the power
of Athens was becoming so great as to constitute a danger to the
other states. This might have been urged with justice before
the Thirty Years' Truce (447); but by that truce Athens gave
up all her conquests in Greece proper except Naupactus and
Plataea, while her solitary gains in Amphipolis and Thurii
were compensated by other losses. The fact that the Corinthian
argument failed to impress Sparta and many of the delegates
is shown by the course of the debate. What finally im^led
the Spartans to agree to the war was the veiled threat by the
Corinthians that they would be driven into another alliance
(t.e. Argos, i. 71). We can hardly regard Sparta as the deter-
mined enemy of Athens at this time. Only twice since 461 had
she been at war with Athens— in 457 (Tanagra) and 447, when she
deliberately abstained from pushing the advantage which the
revolt in Eubo€ia provided; she had refused to hdp the oli-
garchs of Samos in 440. Corinth however had not only strong,
but also immediate and urgent reasons (Potidaea and Corcyra)
for desiring war. It has been argued that the war was ulti-
matdy a struggle between the prindplcs of oligarchy and
democracy. This view, however, cannot be taken of the enHy
stages of the war when there was democracy and oligarchy on
both sides (see ad fin.); it is only in the later stages that the
political difference is prominent.
The Opposing Forces. — ^The permanent strength of the
Pelopoimesian confederacy lay in the Pdopbnncsian states, aO
of which except Argos and Achaea were united under Sparta^
leadership. But it induded also extra-Pdoponnesian states^
viz. Megara, Phods, Boeotia and Locris (which had formed
part of the Athenian land empire), and the maritime colonics
round the Ambradan Gulf. The organization was not elaborate.
The federal assembly with few exceptions met only in time oC
war, and then only when Sparta agreed to summon it. It
met in Sparta and the ddegates, having stated thdr views
before the Spartan Apella, withdrew till the Apella had come
to a decision. The delegates were then invited to return and
to confirm that decision. It is dear that the link was purely
one of common interest, and that Sparta had little or no contid
over, e.g. so powerful a confederate as Corinth. Sparta was
the chief member of the confederacy (kegemon), but the states
were autonomous. In time of war each had to provide two-thirds
of its forces, and that state in whose territory the war was to take
place had to equip its whole force.
The Athenian Empire is described elsewhere (Deuan Lxacui,
Athens). Here it must suffice to point out that there was
among Uie real and technical allies no true bond of interest, and
that many of the states were in fact bound by dose tics to
members of the Pdoponnesian confederacy (e.g. Potidaea to
Corinth). Sparta could not only rely on voluntary cooperation
but could undermine Athem'an influence by posing as the
champion of autonomy. Further, Thucydides is wrong on Us
own lowing in saying that Sparta refused to tolerate deirK>cntic
government in confederate dties: it was not till after 418 that
this policy was adopted. Athens, on the other hand, had nn-
doubtedly interfered in the interest of democra<7 in varioM
alUed states (see Delian League).
No detailed examination of the comparative miUtary aal
naval resources of the combatants can here be attempted. Ok
land the Pelopormesians were superior: they had at knst jo^OW
PELOPONNESIAN WAR
73
fcopfitcs not fnrtwting 10,000 from CMtnl Greece and Boeotia:
tboe nidicxt were highly trained. The Athenian army was
mdonbtedfy smaller. There has been considerable discussion
as to the exact figures, the evidence in Tbucydides being highly
OBofosiiig, but it is most probable that the available fighting
force was not more than half that of the Peloponnesian confed-
oacy. Even of these we learn (Thuc. iii. 87) that 4400 died
in the great plague. The only light-armed force was that of
Boeotia at Ddium (10,000 with 500 peltasts). Of cavalry Athens
had looOy Boeotia a nnular number. The only other cavalry
loice was that of Thessaly, which, had it been loyal to Athens,
would have nwant a distinct superiority. In naval power the
Athenians xmdoubtedly had an overwhelming advantage at the
hfginmng, both in numbers and in training.
. FnuadaUy Athens had an enormous apparent advantage.
She began with a revenue of xooo talents (including 600 from
•4pm»X*)> *n^ 1^ Also, in spite <A the heavy expense which
the bidding schemes of Pericles had involved, a reserve of 6000
tdknts. The Pdoponnesians had no reserve and no fixed
assessment. On the other hand the Peloponnesian
were unpaid, while Athens had to sptud considerable
oa the payment of crews and mercenaries. In the last
of the war the issue was determined by the poverty of
AtbcBsand Persian gold.
The events of the strug^e from 43 1 to 404 may be summarized
la the three periods distinguished above.
I. The Ten Years' or Arckidawtian War. — The Spartans sent
to Athens no formal declaration of war but rather sought first
Is create some spedous casus hdli by sending requisitions to
Atbcaa. The first, intended to inflame the existing hostilities
I0uist Pericles {q.v.) in Athens, was that he should be expelled
^ dty as being an Alcmaeonid (grand-nephew of Cleisthenes)
and ao inqilicated in the curse pronounced on the murderers
sf Cykm aeariy 300 years before. This outrageous demand
VBS foOowed by three others — that the Athenians should (i)
vithdnw from Potidaea, (a) restore autonomy to Aegina, and
(3) withdraw the embai^ on Megarian commerce. Upon the
Rftnl of aO these demands Sparta finally made the maintenance
sf peace contingent upon the restoration by Athens of autonomy
to all her allies. Under the guidance of Pericles Athens replied
tibt die would do nothing on compulsion, but was prepared
to sobmit difficulties to amicable arbitration on the b^is of
■■taal concessions. lEtefore anything could come of this
pnpoad. matters were precipitated (end of March 431) by the
attack of Thebes upon Plataea (g.v.), which immediately sought
aad obtained the aM of Athens. War was begun. The Spartan
kisg Arrhidamus assembled his army, sent a herald to announce
Uiapuoach, marched into Attica and besieged Oehoe.
McanwfaJIe Pericles had decided to act on the defensive, i.e.
to abandon Attica, cdlect all its residents in Athens and treat
Athens as an island, retaining meanwhile command of the sea
ad making descents on Peloponnesian shores. The policy,
•Uch Thucydides and Grote commend, had grave defects —
theniifar it is bjr no means easy to suggest a better; e.g. it meant
the r«n of the landed class, it tended to spoil the moral of those
who from the walls of Athens annually watched the wasting of
ttor homesteads, and it involved the many perils of an over-
cmwded city — a peril increased by, if not also the cause of, the
plsgae. Moreover sea power was not everythiog, and delay
V^TTHtH the financial reserves of the state, while financial
rnaaikialinii^ as we have seen, were comparatively unimportant
to the Pdoponnesians. The descents on the Peloponnese were
te3e in the extreme.
Atriiidamos, having wasted much territory, including Achar-
•ae, retired at the end of July. The Athenians retaliated by
tt^»Vw*y Methone (which was secured by Brasida8),by successes
b the West, by expelling all A^inetans from Aegina (which was
■ade a deruchy), and by wasting the Megarid.
In 4JO Aichidamus again invaded Attica, systematically
the coontry. Shortly after he entered Attica plague
OA in Athens, borne thither by traders from Carthage
Egjpt (Hobn, Gruk History, iL 346 note). The effect upon
the overcrowded popuUtion of the dty was terrible. Of the
xaoo cavalry (induding mounted archers) 300 died, together with
4400 hoplites: altogether the estimate of Diodonis (xii. 58} that
more than 10,000 dtizens and slaves succumbed is by no means
excessive. None the less Pericles sailed with 100 triremes, and
ravaged the territory near Epidaurus. Subsequently he re<
turned and the expedition proceeded to Potidaea. But the plague
went with them and no results were achieved. The enemies of
Perides, who even with the aid of Spartan intrigue had hitherto
failed to harm his prestige, now succeeded in inducing the
desperate dtizens to fine him for alleged malversation. The
verdict, however, shocked public feeling and Perides was
reinstated in popular favour as strategus (r. Aug. 430). About
a year later he died. In the autumn of 430 a Spartan attack
on Zacynthus failed and the Ambradots were repulsed from
Amphilochian Argos. In reply Athens sent Phormio to Nau-
pactus to watch her interests in that quarter. In the winter
Potidaea capitulated, recdving extremely favourable terms.
In 420 the Peloponnedans were deterred by the plague from
invading Attica and laid siege to Plataea in the interests of
Thebes. The Athenians failed in an expedition to Chalddice
under Xenophon, while the Spartan Cnemus with Chaom'an
and Epirot allies was repulsed from Stratus, capital of Acamania,
and Phormio with only 30 ships defeated the Corinthian fleet
of 47 sail in the Gulf of Corinth. Orders were at once sent from
Sparta to repair this disaster and 77 ships were equipped. Help
sent from Athens was diverted to Crete, and after much
manoeuvring Phormio was compelled to fight off Naupactus.
Nine of his ships were driven a^ore, but with the other 1 1 he
subsequently defeated the enemy and recovered the lost nine.
With the reinforcement which arrived afterwards he established
complete control of the western seas. A scheme for operating
with Sitalces against the Cbalddians of Thrace fell through,
and Sitalces joined Perdiccas.
The year 438 was marked by a third invasion of Attica and
by the revolt of Lesbos from Athens. After delay in fruitless
negotiations the Athenian Clcippides, and afterwards Pacbes,
besieged Mytilene, which appealed to Sparta. The Pelopon-
nesian confederacy resolved to aid the rebels both directly and
by a counter demonstration against Athens. The Athenians,
though their reserve of 6000 talents was by now almost exhausted
(except for 1000 talents in a ^)edal reserve), made a tremendous
effort (raising 200 talents by a special property tax), and not
only prevented an invasion by a demonstration of 100 triremes
at the Isthmus, but sent Asopius, son of Phormio, to take his
place in the western seas. In spring 427 the Spartans again
invaded Attica without result. The winter of 428-427 was
marked by the daring escape of half the Plataean garrison under
cover of a stormy night, and by the capitulation of Mytilene, which
was forced upon the oligarchic rulers by the democracy. The
Spartan fleet arrived too late and departed without attempting
to recover the town. Paches cleared the Asiatic seas of the
enemy, reduced the other towns of Mytilene and returned to
Athens with upwards of 1000 prisoners. An assembly was
held and under the invective of Geon {q.v.) it was decided to kill
all male Mytileneans of military age and to sell the women and
children as slaves. This decree, though in accordance with the
rigorous customs of ancient warfare as exemplified by the treat-
ment which Sparta shortly afterwards meted out to the Plataeans,
shocked the feelings of Athens, and on the next day it was
(illegally) rescinded just in time to prevent Paches carrying it
out. The thousand^ ob'garchic prisoners were however executed,
and Lesbos was made a deruchy.
Meanwhile there occurred dvil war in Corcyra, in which
ultimately, with the aid of the Athenian admiral Eurymedon,
the democracy triumphed amid scenes of the wildest savagery.
In the autumn of the year Nidas fortified Minoa at the mouth
of the harbour of Megara. Shortly aften^ards the Spartans
* So Thuc. iii. 50. It is suggested that this number is an error
for 30 or 50 ((.«., A or N for a). It seems incredible that 1000
could be described as " ringleaders " out of a population of perhaps
5000.
74
PELOPONNESIAN WAR
planted an unsucceasful colony at Heradea in the Ttachinian
territory north-west of Thermopylae.
In the summer of 426 Nidas led a predatory expedition along
the north-west coast without achieving any positive victory.
More important, though equally ineffective, was the scheme of
Demosthenes to march from Naupactua through Aetolia, sub-
duing the wild hill tribes, to Cytinium in Doiii (in the upper
valleys of the Cephissus) and thence into Boeotia, which was
to be attacked simultaneously from Attica. The scheme was
crushed by the courage and sidll of the Aetolians, who thereupon
summoned Spartan and G>rinthian aid for a counter attack on
Naupactus. Demosthenes averted this, and immediately after-
wards by superior tactics inflicted a complete defeat at Olpae
in Acamania on Eurylochus at the head of a Spartan and
Ambracian force. An Ambracian reinforcement was annihilated
atone of the peaks called Idomene,and a disgraceful truce was
accepted by the surviving Spartan leader Menedaeus. This
was not only the worst disaster which befell any powerful state
up to the peace of Nidas (as Thucydides says), but was a serious
blow to Corinth, whose trade on the West was, as we have seen,
one of the chief causes of the war.
The year 425 is remarkable for the Spartan disaster of Pylos
iq.t.). The Athenians had de^;>atched 40 triremes under
Eurymedon and Prodes to Sicily with orders to call first at
Corcyra to prevent an expected Spartan attack. Meantime
Demosthenes had formed the pkn of planting the Messenians of
Naupactus in Messenia — now Spartan territory — and obtained
permission to accompany the expedition. The fleet was, as it
chanced, delayed by a storm in the Bay of Navarino, and rough
fortifications were put up by the sailors on the promontory of
Pylos. Demosthenes was left behind in this fort, and the
Spartans promptly withdrew from their annual raid upon
Attica and their projected attack on Corcyra to dislodge him.
After a naval engagement (see Pylos) a body of Spartan hoplites
were cut off on Sphacteria. So acutdy did Sparta feel their
position that an offer of peace was made on condition that the
hoplites should go free. The eloquence of Cleon frustrated the
peace party's desire to accept these terms, and ultimately to the
astonishment of the Greek world the Spartan hoplites to the
number of 293 surrendered imconditionally (see Cleon).
Thu4 in 424 the Athenians had seriously damaged the prestige
of Sparta, and broken Corinthian supremacy in the north-west,
and the Pdoponnesians had no fleet. This was the zenith of
their success, and it was unfortunate for them that they declined
the various offers of peace which Sparta made. The next
two years changed the whole position. The doubling of the
tributeiii 425 pressed hardly on the allies (see Deuan League):
Nidas failed in a plot with the democratic party in Megara to
seize that town; and the brilliant campaigns of Braudas {q.v.)
in the north-east, culminating in the capture of Amphipolis (422),
finally destroyed the Athenian hopes of recovering their land
empire, and entirely restored the balance of success and Spartan
prestige. Moreover, the admirably concaved scheme for a
simultaneous triple attack upon Boeotia at Chaeronea in the
north, Delium in the south-east, and Siphae in the south-west
had fallen through owing to the ineffidency of the generals.
The scheme, which probably originated with the atticizing party
in Thebes, resulted in the severe defeat of Hippocrates at Delium
by the Boeotians under Pagondas, and was a final blow to the
poUcy of an Athenian land empire.
These disasters at Megara, Amphipolis and Delium left Athens
with only one trump card — ^the possession of the Spartan hoplites
captured in Sphacteria. This solitary success had already in
the spring of 423 induced Sparta in spite of the successes which
Brasidas was achieving in Thrace to accept the " truce of
Laches " — which, however, was rendered abortive by the rdusal
of Braddas to surrender Sdone. The final success of Brasidas
at Amphipolis, where both he and Cleon were killed, paved
the way for a more permanent agreement, the peace parties at
Athens and Sparta being in the ascendant.
9. Prom 421 <o 413. — Peace was signed In March 421 on the
basis <^ each side's surrendering what had been acquired by
the war, not induding those dties wluch had been acquired bf
capitulation. It was to last foj fifty years. Its weak points,
however, were numerous. Whereas Sparu had been lost ol
all the aUies interested in the war, and apart from the campaign!
of Brasidas had on the whole taken little part in it, her alliea
benefited least by the terms of the Peace. Corinth did not
regain SoUium and Anactorium, -while Megara and ThAtt
respectivdy were indignant that Athens should retain Nisaea
and recdve Panactum. These and other reasons rapidly led
to the isolation of Sparta, and there was a general refueul to
carry out the tenns of agreement. The history of the nest
three years is therefore one of complex- inter-state intrigoet
combined with internal political convulsions. In 421 Sparta
and Athens concluded a ddensive alliance; the S^hacterim
captives were released and Athens promised to abandon Pyios.
Such a peace, giving Sparta everything and Athens noUdng
but Sparta's bare alliance, was due to the fact that Nidas and
Aldbiades were both seeking Sparta's friendship. At this
time the Fifty Years' Truce between Sparta and Argot was
expiring. The Peloponnesian malcontents turned to Arfos
as a new leader, and an alliance was formed between Argos,
Corinth, Elis, Mantinea and the Thraceward towns (410).
This coalition between two different dements— «n anti-oligarduc
party and a war party — had no chance of permanent eziatenoe.
The war party in Sparta regained its strength imder new cphors
and negotiations began for an alliance between Sparta, Aifos
and Boeotia. The details cannot here be. discussed. The result
was a re-shu£9ing of the cards. The democratic states of the
Petoponnese were*^driven, partly by the intrigues of AldUadcs*
now anti-Laconian, into aUiance with Athens, with the object ol
establishing a democratic Pdoponnese under the leadership of
Argos. These unstable combinations were soon after upset
by Aldbiades himself, who, having succeeded in - **^T^fTiy
Nidas as slrategus in 419, allowed Athenian troops to hd^ is
attacking Epidaurus. For a cause not easy to determins
.Mcibiades was defeated by Nicias in the dection to the post ol
strategus in the next year, and the suH>idons of the Pdopon-
ncsian coalition were roused by the inadequate assistance sent
by Athens, which arrived too late to assist Argos when the
Spartan king Agis marched against it. Ultimately the Spsrtaas
were successful over the coalition at Mantinea, and sooB
afterwards an oligarchic revolution at Argos led to an aUiance
between that city and Sparta (c. Feb. 417). This oUgardqr
was overthrown again in June, and the new democracy having
vainly sought an agreement with Sparta rejoined Athoas.
It was thus Idt to Athens to expend men and money oa
protecting a democracy by the aid of which she had hoped
practically to control the Pdoponnesus. All this time, however,
the alliance between her and Sparta was not officially broken.
The unsatisfactory character of the Athenian Pek>p«uieaiaB
coalition was one of the negative causes which led up to Iht
Sicilian Expedition of 415. Another negative cause may ht
found in the failure of an attempt or attempts to subdue the
Thraceward towns. By combining the evidence of Plutarch ^
]as comparison of Nicias and Crassus), Thuc. v. 83, and the in-
scription which gives the treasury payments for 418-415 (IQcto
and Hill, Gr. Hist. Jnscr. 70), we can scarcdy doubt that thos
were expeditions in 418 (Euthydemus) and the sununer of 417
(Nidas), and that in the winter of 417 a blockading squadroa
under Chaeremon was despatched. This policy — whkb wst
presumably that of Nicias in opposition to Aldbiades — Shaving
failed, the way was deared for a reassertion of that policy of
western conquest which hod always had advocates fnsi
Themistodes onward in Athens,^ and .was psit of ths
democraUc programme.
The tragic fiasco of the SidUan expedition, involving the desth
^ In 451 Athens made a treaty with SegesU ^nacr. Hides and
Hilt, Gruk Hist. Inscr. 34): in 433 with Rbegium and I^conttsi
(Hicks and Hill. 51 and 52: d. Thuc iii. 86. vSiuiA «vmmx<« «itk
Chalddic towns in Sidly) : in 444 the colony of Thurii was foondsd:
in 427 (see above) fy> ships were sent to Sidly; and if we aMy
bdieve Aristophanes iJEq. 1302) Hyperbdus asked for 100
for Carthage.
PELOPONNESIAN WAR
75
of I6dM and the loM ol thonsiiidfl of men and hundreds of ships,
«M a blow from iriiidi Athens never recovered (see nnder
SfBACUSB and Sicily). Even before the final catastrophe
Ihr Spartans had reopened hostilities. On the advice of
Aldbiades (f a), exiled from Athens in 415, they had fortified
Decekn in Attica within fifteen mUes of Athens. This place
not only senned as a permanent headquarters for predatory
cqicditioas, but cut off the revenue from the Laurium mines,
fiiiaiihfil a ready asylum for runaway slaves, and rendered the
Hainference of supplies from Euboea considerably more difficult
(ix. by the sea round Cape Sunium). Athens thus entered
the third tUf/s of the conflict with exceedingly poor
5. Tkf lomian ar DeceUat IFar.— From the Athenian stand-
peiBt this war may be broken up into three periods: (i) period of
levolt of allies (4x3-4x1), (a) the rally (4x0-408), (3) the relapse
(407-404). As contrasted with the Archidamian War, this
was fooght ahnoat exclusively in the Aegean Sea, the enemy
primarily Sparta, and the deciding factor was Persian gold.
Fvthcrmofe, apart from the gradual disintegration of the
CBfire, Athens was disturbed by political strife.
in 412 many Ionian towns routed, and appealed either to
Agii at Decdca or to Sparta direct. Euboea, Lesbos, (Hiios,
Erjrthrac led the way in negotiation and revolt, and simul-
laacoosly the court of Susa instructed the satraps Phamabazus
lad Tissaphcmes to renew the collection (tf tribute from the
Qmk dties of Asia Minor. The satraps likewise made over-
twB to Sparta. The revolt of the Imiian allies was due in part
to Aldbiades also, whose prompt action in co-operation with his
fnad tbe ephor Endius finally confirmed the Chian oligarchs
k their purpose. In 4x1 a treaty was signed by Sparta and
ThMplMiim; against Athens: the treaty formally surrendered
to the Persian king all territory which he or his predecessors
hid held. It was subsequently renewed in a form somewhat
hn (fisgraccf ul to Greek patriotism by the Spartans Astyochus
and Theramenes. On the other hand, a democratic rising in
SiBos pievented the rebellion of that island, which for the
tnwindrr of the war was invaluable to Athens as a stronghold
bnsg between the two great centres of the struggle.
After the news of the SicQian disaster Athens was compelled
It hst to draw on the reserve of 1000 talents which had lain
nconched in the treasury.* The revolt of the Ionian allies,
sad (In 4x1) the loss of tl^ Helle^wntine, Tbradan and Island
tribetcs (see Deuan League), vef>' seriously crii^>led her
fiaaaoes. On the other hand, Tissaphemes undertcdi to pay
the Pdoponnesian sailors a daily wage of one Attic drachma
Uftcrwards reduced to | drachma). In Attica itself Athens
lost Oenoe and Oropus, and by the end of 41 1 only one quarter
of (he empire remained. In the meanwhile Ussaphemes began
10 play a double game with the object of wasting the strength
tt the combatants. Moreover Aldbiades lost the confidence
rf the Spartans and passed over to Tissaphemes, at whose
Aposal he placed his great powers of diplomacy, at the same
for his restoration to Athens. He opened
with the Athenian leaders in Samos and urged
to upset the democracy and establish a philo-Persian
After daborate intrigues, in the course of which
AMHarirt played false to the conspirators by forcing them to
■*^~fir the idea of friendship with Tissaphemes owing to the
CHifaitant terms proposed, the new govemraent by the Four
was set up in Athens (see Theramenes). This
It (which recdved no support from the armament in
1) had a brid life^ and on the final revolt of Euboea was
by the old democratic system. Aldbiades {q.v.) was
Ma afterwards invited to return to Athens.
He war, which, probably because of financial trouble, the
had nc^ected to pursue when Athens was thus in the
of political convulsion, was now resumed. After much
ivring and intrigues a naval battle was fought at Cynos-
*She had already aboItBhed the system of tribute in favour of
a 5% mi taUrtm tax on all imports and exports carried by tea
*^ , bcr poru and those of the allies.
senut in the Hellespont In which victory on the whole rested
with the Athenians (Aug. 4x1), though the net result was
inconsiderable. About this time the duplidty of Tissaphemea^
who having again and again promised a Phooiidan fleet and
having actually brought it to the Aegean finally rtUmUfo^ {t
on the excuse of trouUe in the Levant— 4nd tho vigorous honesty
of Phamabazus definitdy transferred the Peloponnesian forces
to the north-west coast of Asia Manor and the HellesponL
There they were regulariy finanred by PhanuUiaxus, while the
Athenians were compelled to rely on forced levies. Inspite of this
handicap Aldbiades, who had been seised and imprisoned by
Tissaphemes at Sardis but effected his escape, achieved a remark-
able victory over the Spartan Minduus at Cyxicus (about April
410). So complete was the destruction of the Pdoponnesian
fleet that, according to Diodorus, peace was offered by Sparta
(see ad /fi.)and would have been accepted but for the warlike
speeches of the "demagogue" Cleophon representing the
extreme democrats.* Another result was the return to aUi^iance
(409) of a number of the north-east dties of the empire. Great
attempts were made by the Athenians to hold the Hellespont
and then to protect the com-supply from the Black Sea. In
Greece these gains were compensated by the loss of Pylos and
Nisaea.
In 408 Aldbiades effectivdy invested Chalcedon, which
surrendered by agreement with Phamabazus, and subsequently
Byzantium also fell into his hands with the aid of some of its
inhabitants.
Phamabazus, weary of bearing the whole cost of the war for
the Peloponncsians, agreed to a period of tmce so that envoys
might visit Susa, but at this stage the whole position was changed
by the appointment of Cyrus the Younger as satrap of Lydia,
Greater Phrygia and Cappadoda. His arrival coindded with
the appointment of Lysander (c. Dec. 408) as Spartan admiral —
the third of the three great commanders (Brasidas and Gylippus
being the others) whom Sparta produced during the war. Cyrus
promptly agreed on the special request of Lysander (9.9.) to pay
slightly increased wages to the sailors, while Lysander establishMl
a system of anti-Athenian dubs and oligarchic goveraments
in various dties. Meanwhile Aldbiades (May 407), having
exacted levies in Caria, returned at length to Athens and was
elected strategus with full powers (see Steatecus). He raised
a large force of men and ships and endeavoured to draw Lysander
(then at Ephesus) into an engagement. But Cyrus and Lysander
were resolved not to fight till they had a dear advantage, and
Aldbiades took a small squadron to Phocaea. In spite of his
express orders his captain Antiochus in his absence provoked a
battle and was ddeated and killed at Notium. This failure and
the rdusal of Lysander to fight again destroyed the confidence
which Aldbiades had so recently regained. Ten strategi were
appointed to supersede him and he retired to fortified ports in
the Chersonese which he had prepared for such an emergency
{f. Jan. 406). At the same time Lysander's year of office expired
and he was superseded by C^llicratidas, to the disgust of all those
whom he had so carefully organized in his service. Callicratidas,
an honourable man of pan-Hellenic patriotism, was heavily
handicapped in the fact that Cyrus declined to afTord him the
help which had made Lysander powerful, and had recourse to
the Milesians and Chians, with whose aid he fitted out a fleet of
140 triremes (only xo Spartan). With these he pursued (^non
(chid of the ten new Athenian strategi), captured 30 of his 70
ships and besieged him in Mytilene. Faced with inevitable
destruction, Conon succeeded in sending the news to Athens,
where by extraordinary efforts a fleet of 1 10 ships was at once
equipped. Callicratidas, hearing of this fleet's approach, with-
drew from Mytilene, leaving Eteonicus in charge of the blockade.
Forty more ships were collected by the Athenians, who met
and defeated Callicratidas at Arginusae with a loss of more than
half his fleet. The immediate result was that Eteonicus left
Mytilene and Conon found himself free. Unfortunately the
victorious generals at Arginusae, through negligence or owing
'Xenophon. Bdl. does not mention it: Thucydides*s history
had by this rime come to an end.
76
PELOPONNESUS— PELOTA
to a stonn, failed to recover the bodies of those of their crews from its resemblance to a mulberry-leaf in shape, and thb name
who were drowned or killed in the action. They were therefore is still current in popular speech.
recalled, tried and condemned to death, except two who had PBL0P8, in Greek legend, the grandson of Zeus, son ol Tantalus
disobeyed the order to return to Athens. and Dione, and brother of Niobe. His father's home was oa
At this point Lysander was again sent out, nominally as Mt Sipylus in Asia Minor, whence Pelops is spoken of as a
secretary to the official admiral Aracus. Cyrus, recalled to Lydian or a Phrygian. Tantidus one day served up to the
Susa by the iUness of Darius, left him in entire control of his gods his own son Pelops, boiled and cut In pieces. The gods
satrapy. Thus strengthened he sailed to Lampsacus on the detected the crime, and none of them would touch the foiod
Hellespont and laid siege to it. Conon, now in charge of the except Demeter (according to others, Thetis), who, distracted by
Athenian fleet, sailed against him, but the fleet was entirely the loss of her daughter Persephone, ate ol the shoulder. The
destroyed while at anchor at Aegospotami (Sept. 405), Conon gods restored Pelops to life, and the shoulder consumed by
escaping with only i a out of 180 sail to Cyprus. In April 404 Demeter was repUced by one of ivoiy. Wherefore the dcsces-
Lysander sailed into the Peiraeus, took possession of Athens, dants of Pelops had a white mark on their shoulder ever after
anddestroyed the Long Walls and the fortifications of Peiraeus. (Ovid, Metam. vi. 404; Virgil, Ctcrgics, m. 7). This tale h
An oligarchical government was set up (see Ckitias), and perhaps reminiscent of human sacrifice amongst the Greeks.
Lysander having compelled the capitulation of Samos, the last Poseidon carried Pelops off to Olympus, vrhtxt he dwelt with the
Athenian stronghold, sailed in triumph to Sparta. gods, till, for his father's sins,^ he was cast out from heaven.
Two questions of considerable importance for the full understand- '^^^* ^**^« ""^ ^^'5. "^^ 5!5' ^ crowed oy«r from Asia
ine of the Peloponncsian War may be selected for special notice: to Greece. He went to Pisa m Ehs as smtor of Hippodameta,
(1) how far was it a war between two antagonistic theories of govern- daughter of king Oenomaus, who had already vanquished in
ment, oligarchic and democratic ? and (2) how far w« Athenian i^e chariot-race and ilain many suitors for his daughter's band.
•ta^«manship at fault m dechmng the o&er. of peace which Sparta p^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^j Poseidon, who lent hfan winged steeds, ot
1. A common theory is that Sparta fought throughout the war of Oenomaus's charioteer MyrtOus, whom he or Hippodameia
as an advocate of oligarchy, while Athens did not seek to interfere bribed, Pelops wa^ victorious in the race, wedded Hippodameia,
with the constitutional preferences of her allies. The view is based and became king of Pisa (Hyginus, Fab. 84). The race of
partly on Thuc. 1. 19, according to which the SparUns took care that i>.i«„ *„ uu m^T*. m«» k. • ^^i,*:m^rx^^t »k.M*i» «.*.^:«.««
their allies should adhere to a Jolicy convenient to themselves. This P^^^P* '^^ *»» ^'« "^^ °f * reminiscenceof the wriy practice ti
idea is disproved by Thucydidcs' own narraUve, which shows that mamage by capture. When Myrtilus dauned his promued
down to 418 ^the battle 01 Mantinea) Sparta tolerated democratic reward, Pelops flung him into the sea near Geraestus in Eubocs,
governments in Peloponnesus itself-«.£. Elis, ManUnea. Sicyon. and from his dying curse sprang those crimes and sorrows of the
democratic. In point of fact, it was only when Lysander became fruitful themes (Sophocles, Eledra, $0$, with Jebb's note).
the representative of Spartan forei^ policy — 1.«. in the last years Among the sons of Pelops by Hippodameia were Atreus, Thyestcs
^ A** J!*'~^^\ Sparu was identified with the oligarchic policy, and Chrysippus. From Pisa Pelops extended his sway over the
E,S« « r™ct'^ii«'r«^S'S2Ld*::^n"?«'i3iriJ'd.1±S; nei^bo«n„g01ympj., where he cdeb».«i the OlympUn t^
type of government (of. Thuc i. 19. vui. 64; Xen. Pol. i. 14, IleU. with a splendour unknown before. His power and fame were SO
ill. 47; Arist. Pol. viii. 60). It is true that we find oligarchic govern- great that henceforward the whole peninsula was known to the
ment in Chios and L«bos (up to 428) and in Samos (up to 440), ancients as Peloponnesus, " island of Pelops " (i^ffot. island).
but this IS discounted bv the fact that all three were autonomous' j ^^ ^j p^j honoured at Olympia above aU other
allies. Moreover, in the case of Samos there was a democracy in * «"*«» *«wf» «« hvhwuh^m «. y^ijui^im, '^^^ «" wmt
439. though in 412 the government was again oligarchic. The heroes; a temple was built for him by Heracles, his descendant
case of Selymbria (see Hicks and Hill, op. cit. 77) is of little account, in the fourth generation, in which the annual magistrates sacn-
because at that time (409) the Empire was iff «x/remti. In general ficed to him a black ram.
we find that Athenian orators take special crcdit>on the ground that
the Athenian had given to her allies the constitutional advantages From the reference to Asia in the tales of Tantalus, Niobe and
which they themselves enjoyed. Pelops it has been conjectured that Asia was the original seat cf
2. In view of the disastrous issue of the war. it is important to these legends, and that it was only after emigration to Greeoe ^at
notice that on three occasions— (a) after Pvlos, (6) after Cyzicus, the people localized a part of the ule of Pelops in their new boas.
(c) after Arginusae — ^Athens refused formal peace proposals from In the time of Pausanias the throne of Pelops was still shown ea
Sparta, (a) Though Cleon was probably wise in opposing peace the top of Mt Sipylus. The story of Pelops is told in the fint
negotiations before the capture of the Sparuns in Sphactena. it Olympian ode of Pindar and in prose by Nicolaus Damascenus.
seems in the light of subsequent events that he was wrong to refuse
the ternw which were offered after the hoplites had been captured. PBLOTA (Sp. " little baU," from Lat. pQa), a baU game whicL
No doubt, however, the temper in Athens was at that time pre- «„--;«ai;««» #.««»iir,-e a»^ ;n *i»* Ra./i.t* nvMv'n/.^ t.mV..,ir..iTl
dominantly warlike, and the surrender of the hoplites was a umVe ?"8»»^aling centuries a^ m the B^ue province*, has developed
triumph. Possibly, too, Qeon foresaw that peace would have into several forms of the sport. Epigrams of Martial show thtt
meant a triumph for the philo-Laconian party (h) The peace there were at least three kinds of pelota played in his timBi
proposals of 410 are given by Diodorus. who says that the ephor Blatd, practically hand fives against the back wall of a cooftil
Si,X.r2^ IhJj A»?S^iZH*.^r??i*p"iJL*1 ^ ?l ^ stiU played on both sides of the Pyrenees. It is so popular thU
possuutts, except that Athens should evacuate Pylos and Cythera, .^. ^u •»• l j .^ * u-j •. 1- • 1 .. j .•;"\T^ ^1
and Sparta, Decclea. Cleophoft, howver. perhaps doubting **>« authonties had to forbid its being pUyed against Ihe w-"-
whether the offer was sincere (cf. Philochorus in Schol ap Eunp. of the cathedral at Barcelona. In uncovered courts of laife 1
Orest. 371: Fra^w. ed. Didot, 117, 118). demanded the status auo there are two varieties of pelota. One, the favourite pastil
Vi^Jiii^^ ?^i':oil^;Iif l^^i^l f^v: r"^*J™^ ^'y/j^b. , the Basque, is pUyed against a front waU (JranUm), either «,«•.
34. were on toe same hnes, except that Athens no longer had Pylos ,. . T^ -.l 1 .u j 11 i-i J^T^
andCythera.andhadlostpracticallyhalf her empire. At this time handed, with a leather or wooden long glove-hke protector
peace must therefore have been advantageous to Athens as showing (cesta), or with a chistera strapped to the wrist, a sicUc-shaped
the worid that in spite of her losses she was still one of the great wicker-work implement three feet long, much like a hansom-wlMl
Ef*!!^. .i!i!f^" P- ^'^P^'i" »"»*»«. ^>«h SMrta would have basket mud-guard, in the narrow groove of which the bal b
meant a check to Persian intenerence. It is probable, again, that . ^ j * i.« l .1. 1 . fi. ■ « j j •.
party interest was a leading motive in Qeophon's minrsince a ?»?ht and from which, thanks to the leverage afforded, it Ctt
peace would have meant the return of the oligarchic exiles and the be huned with tremendous force. There are several playcn tot'
establishment of a moderate oligarchy. side, frequently an uneven number to allow a handicap. Thi
•• Ki7pS™5!:"^u ^^^^^' .-**^*' ^^-^h' ^i S- '^^^ "; S^"^^' score is announced by a cantara, whose melodious vocal dtatt
Uv Peloponnesische Krieg is essential. AU histories o( Greece ^,. . ... ^^. ,.. i^.» «,^,^«.«-«.!^ «y.r«.'.^».»» ;« •!.• ^^^ t«
may be consulted (sec Gsebcb: History, Ancient, section mate lum not the least appreciated partiapant in the pme. !•
" Authorities "). Q, M. M.) the other form of the game, played neany exclusively by pfofci
sionals (pdoiaris), there are usually three players on eadi tfdib
PELOPONNESUS ("Island of Pelops"), the andent and two forwards and a back, distingiushed by a coloured sash or cap^
modern Greek, official name for the part of Greece south of the The server (buUeur) slips off his chistera to serve, boundng tht
Isthmus of Corinth. In medieval times it was called the Morea, ball on the but, a kind of stool, about 30 ft. from the waU, sad
PELOTAS— PEMBA
77
stxiklng it low against the walL The side that wins the toss has
the first service. The ball must be replayed by the opposing
ade at the wall, which it must hit over a line 3 ft. from the
base of the wall and under the net fixed at the top of the wall.
The game is counted 15, 30, 40, game, reckoned by the number
of faults made by the opposing side. A fault is scored (a) when
after the service the bail is not caught on the voUcy or first
boanGe, (6) when it does not on the return strike the wall within
the pccscribed limits, (c) when it goes out of the prescribed limits
of the court, (d) when it strikes the net fixed at the top of the
court. The side making the fault loses the service. A game like
this has been played in England by Spanish professionals on a
oouit 250 ft. long, against a wall 30 ft. high and 55 ft. wide. The
ball used, a trifle smaller than a base-ball, is hard rubber wound
with yam and leather-covered, weighing 5 ounces. The server
bottoces the ball on the concrete Boor quite near the fronton, and
hits it with his ckisUra against the wall with a force to make it
ffrixMuid beyond a line 80 ft. back. It usually goes treble that
PBLOTAS* a dty <A the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil,
OS the left bank ol the SSo Con^alo river near its entrance into
die LagAft dos Patos, about 30 m. N.W. of the dty of Rio
Grande. Pop. (xgoo), dty, about 24,000; municipio (commune,
1037 sq. iB.),43/>9X. The Rio Grande Bag£ railway communi-
cates with the dty of Rio Grande, and with the railways extend-
ing to Bafl£, Cacequy, Santa l^Iaria, Passo Fundo and Porto
Akpe. The Sic Gongib river is the outlet of Lagfta Mirim,
aad Pdotas is therefore connected with the inland water routes.
Ik dty is built on an open grassy plain {campo) little above the
kvd of the lake (28 ft. above sea-level). The public buildings
adnde the church of SAo Francisco, dating from the early part
of the xgth century, the munidpal hall, a fine theatre, the
ICKriootdia hospital, a public library containing about 25,000
fohmcs and a great central market. Pdotas is the centre of the
arfM or canu Mcea~(jerked beeQ industry of Rio Grande do Sul.
h its outskirts and the surrounding couniiy are an immense
iBBber of xarqmeadas (slaughter-houses), with large open yards
«hae the dressed beef, lightly salted, is exposed to the sun and
■r. There are many factories or packing houses where the by-
pndocts aie |»epared ior market. Pdotas was only a small
lettkment at the beginning of the XQth century and had no
parochial organization until x8x3. It became a vUla in 1830 and
a dty in 1835.
FBU>UZB» THiOPHILB JULES (1807-1867), French chemist,
ns bom at Valognea, in Normandy, on the 26th (or 13th) of
Fcfaraaxy 1807. His father, Edmond Pelouze (d. 1847), was an
■idaRrial rhr'wn^ and the author of several technical handbooks.
Ihe son, after ^pending some time in a pharmacy at La Fire,
acted as laboratory assistant to Gay-Lussac and J. L. Lassaigne
(i8oo-t8s9) at Puis from X827 to X829. In 1830 he was ap-
pointed associate professor of chemistry at Lille, but returning
to Puis next year became rep^titeur, and subsequently professor,
at the tccAt Poljrtechnique. He also held the chair of chemistry
s yw CoOige de France, and in 1833 became assayer to the mint
aad ia 1848 praident of the G>mmission des Monnaies. After
the €9mp fiUU in X85X he resigned his appointments, but con-
lined to oooduct a laboratory-school he had started in 1846.
Be died in Faxis on the xst of June 1867. Though Pdouze made
ao dacovtry of outstanding importance, he was a busy investi-
ptor, his work induding researches on salidn, on beetroot sugar,
•B variooB organic adds— gallic, malic, tartaric, butyric, lactic,
oenanthic ether (with Liebig), on the nitrosulphates, on
and on the composition and manufacture of glass.
carried out determinations of the atomic weights of
dements, and with £. Fr6my, published TraiU de chimie
(1847-1850); Abrigfi de ckimie (1848); and Notions
de ckimie (1853).
JEAH CHARLES ATHANASB (1785-1845), French
bom at Ham (Somme) on the 22nd of February
He was originally a watchmaker, but retired from
about the age of thirty and devoted himself to experi-
and observational sdence. His papers, which are
1785.
numerous, are devoted in great part to atmospheric elect naty,
waterspouts, cyanometry and polarization of skylight, the
temperature of wa(er in the spheroidal state, and the boiling-
point at great elevations. There are also a few devoted to curious
points of natural history. But his name will always be associ-
ated with the thermal effects at junctions in a voltaic arcuit
His great experimental discovery, known as the " Peltier effect,"
was that if a current pass from an external source through a
circuit of two metals it co<As the junction through which it passes
in the same direction as the thermo-electric current which uould
be caused by directly heating that junction, while it heats the
other junction (sec THERMO-ELECTRiaTY). Pdtier died in Paris
on the 27th of October 1845.
PELTUINUM [mod. Civiu Ansidonia], a town of the Vcstini,
on the Via Claudia Nova, 12 m. E.S.E. of Aquila. It was
apparently the chief town of that portion of the Vcstini who
dwelt west of the main Apennine chain. Remains of the town
walk, of an amphitheatre, and of other buildings still exist.
PELUSIUM, an andcnt city and port of Egypt, now repre-
sented by two large mounds dose to the coast and the edge of
the desert, 30 m. £. of Port Said. It lay in the marshes at the
mouth of the most easterly (Pclustac) branch of the Nile, which
has long since been silted up, and was the key of the land towards
Syria and a strong fortress, which, from the Persian invasion at
least, played a great part in all wars between Egypt and the East.
Its name has not been found on Egyptian monuments, but it may
be the Sin of the Bible and of Assur-bani-pal's inscription.
Pdusium (" the muddy ") is the FaramA of the Arabs, Pere-
moun in Coptic; the name Tina which clings to the locality seems
etymologically connected with the Arabic word for clay or mud.
The site, crowned with extensive ruins of burnt brick of the
Byzantine or Arab period, has not yidded anv important
remains. (F. Li.. G.)
PELVIS (Lat. for " basin," cf. Gr. irSXXtf), in anatomy, the
bony cavity at the lower port of the abdomen in which much of
the genito-urinary apparatus and the lower part of the bowels are
contained (see Skeleton, { Appendicular).
PEMBA, an island in the Indian Ocean off the east coast of
Africa, forming part of the sultanate of Zandbar. Pemba lies
30 m. N.N.E. of Zanzibar island between 4*^ 80' and 5** 30' S.,
and 39** 35' and 39^ 50' E. It is some 40 m. long and 10 across
at its broadest part, and has an area of 380 sq. m. It is of coral-
line formation. On the side facing the mainland the coast is
much indented. From its luxuriant vegetation it gets its Arabic
name of Al-huthera — " The Green." The interior is diversified
by hills, some of which exceed 600 ft. The land is chiefly owned
by great Arab proprietors, who work thdr plantations with
Swahili labour, and with negroes from the mainland. Prior to
1897 the labourers were all slaves. Their gradual manumission
was accomplished without injury to the prosperity of the island.
The population is estimated at between 50,000 and 60,000, of
whom 20QP to 3000 are Arabs. Most of the inhabitants are of
Bantu stock, and are known as Wapemba. In the ports there
are many Hindu traders and a few Europeans. The plantations
are nearly all devoted to cloves (the annual average output being
10,000,000 lb) and coco-nut palms (for the preparation of
copra). The number of coco-nut plantations is very small
compared with those devoted to doves. Yet doves need much
care and attention, and yidd small profit, while the coco-nut
palm yidds a fairly uniform crop of nuts and will grow almost
anywhere. Hie preponderance of dove plantarions dates from
a cyclone which in 1872 destroyed nearly all the dove-trees in
the island of Zanzibar. Thereupon, to benefit from the great
rise in the price of cloves, the Pemba planters cut down their
palms and planted cloves. The value of the doves exported in
1907 was £339,000, or 92 % of the total exports. India, Germany
and Great Britain are, in the order named, the chief purchasers.
Other exports include fire-wood, skins and hides, mother-of-pearl,
wax and small quantities of rubber, cowries, tortoisesheU and
so-called tortoise-nail. The " tortoise-nail " is the valve with
which a shell-fish closes its shell. The Llandolphia rubber-vine
is indigenous, and since 1906 Ceara rubber-trees have been
78
PEMBROKE, EARLS OF
extensively planted. Rice, the chief of Pemba's imports, could
easily be grown on the island. Cotton cloths (Kangas) form the
next most considerable item in the imports.
Pcmba has three ports, all on the west side of the island.
Shaki-Shalu, the capital and the centre of trade, is centrally
situated at the head of a shallow tidal creek partly blocked by
dense growths of mangroves. Mkoani is on the south-west
coast, Kishi-Kashi on the north-west coast; at the last-named
port there is a deep and well-sheltered harbour, approached
however by a narrow and dangerous channeL
Pemba is administered as an integral part of the Zanzibar
dominions, and yields a considerable surplus to the exchequer,
mainly from a 25% duty imposed on cloves exported. There is
a weekly steamship service to Zanzibar, and in IQ07 the two
islands were connected by wireless telegraphy (sec Zanzibar).
PEMBROKE, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Pembroke
has been held successively by several English fanulies, the
jurisdiction and dignity of a palatine earldom being originally
attached to it. The first creation dates from 1138, when the
earldom of Pembroke was conferred by King Stephen on Gilbert
de Clare (d. 1148), son of Gilbert Fitz-Richard, who possessed
the lordship of Strigul (Estrighoiel, in Domesday Bock), the
modem Chepstow. After the battle of Lincoln (1141), in which
he took part, the earl joined the party of the empress Matilda,
and he married Henry I.'s mistress, Isabel, daughter of Robert
de Beaumont, earl of Leicester.
Richard de Clare, 3nd earl of Pembroke (d. 11 76), commonly
known as " Strongbow," son of the first earl, succeeded to his
father's estates in 1148, but had forfeited or lost them by 1168.
In that year Dermot, king of Leinster, xlriven out of his kingdom
by Roderick, king of Coimaught, came to solicit help from
Henry IL He secured the services of Earl Richard, promising
him the hand of his daughter Eva and the succession to Leinster.
The carl crossed over in person (11 70), took both Waterford and
Dublin, and was married to Eva. But Henry II., jealous of
this success, ordered all the troops to return by Easter 11 71.
In May Dermot died; this was the signal of a general rising, and
Richard barely managed to keep Roderick of Connaught out of
Dublin. Immediately afterwards he hurried to England to
solicit help from Henry U., and surrendered to him all his lands
and castles. Henry crossed over in October 11 72; he stayed in
Ireland six months, and put his own men into nearly all the
important places, Richard keeping only Kildarc. In 1173 he
went in person to France to help Henry II., and was present at
Vemeuil, being reinstated in Leinster as a reward. In 11 74 he
advanced into Connaught and was severely defeated, but for-
tunately Raymond le Gros re-established his supremacy in
Leinster. Early in 11 76 Richard died, just as Raymond had
taken Limerick for him. Strongbow was the statesman, as the
Fitzgeralds were the soldiers, of the conquest. He is vividly
described by Giraldus Cambrensis as a tall and fair man, of
pleasing appearance, modest in his bearing, delicate in features,
of a low voice, but sage in council and the idol of his soldiers.
He was buried in the cathedral church of Dublin, where his
efiigy and that of his wife are still preserved.
See Giraldus Cambrensis. Expunnatio hibcmiai; and the Song of
Dermot, edited by G. H. Orpen (1892).
Strongbow having died without male issue, his daughter
Isabel became countess of Pembroke in her own right, and the
title was borne by her husband, Sir WauAM Marshal, or
Le Mar^chal, second son of John le Mar6chal, by Sibylle, the
sister of Patrick, earl of Salisbury. John le Marichal was a
partisan of the empress Matilda, and died about 1164.
. The date of Sir William Marshal's birth is uncertain, but his
parents were married not earlier than 1141, and he was a mere
child in 11 53, when he attracted the notice of King Stephen.
In 1 1 70 he was selected for a position in the household of Prince
Henry, the heir-apparent, and remained there until the death
of his young patron (1183). He undertook a pilgrimage to the
Holy Land, where he served as a crusader with distinction for
two years. Although he had abetted the prince in rebellion he
was pardoned by Henry II. and admitted to the royal service
about 1 188. In 1189 he covered the flight of Henry II. from
Le Mans to Chinon, and, in a skirmish, unhorsed the undutiful
Richard Coeur de Lion. None the less Richard, on his accessioiiy
promoted Marshal and confirmed the old king's licence for his
marriage with the heiress of Strigul and Pembroke. This match
gave Marshal the rank of an earl, with great estates in Wales
and Ireland, and he was included in the council of regency iriiidi
the king appointed on his departure for the third -crusade (1x90).
He took the side of Prince John when the latter expelled the
justiciar, William Longchamp, from the kingdom, but he soon
discovered that the interests of John were different from those
of Richard. Hence in 1193 he joined with the loyalists in
making war upon the prince. Richard forgave Marshal his first
error of judgment, allowed him to succeed his brother, John
Marshal, in the hereditary marshalship, and on his death-bed
designated him as custodian of Rouen and of the royal treasure
during the interregnum. Though he quarrelled more than once
with John, Marshal was one of the few English laymen who dung
to the royal side through the Barons' War. He was one of John's
executors, and was subsequently el^ed regent of the king and
kingdom by the royalist barons in 1 3 16. In spite of his advanced
age he prosecuted the war against Prince Louis and the rebels
with remarkable energy. In the battle of Lincoln (May 12x7)
he charged and fought at the head of the young king's army, and
he was preparing to besiege Louis in London when the war was
terminated by the naval victory of Hubert de Burgh in the
straits of Dover. He was criticized for the generosity of the
terms he accorded to Louis and the rebels (September 12x7);
but his desire for an expeditious settlement was dictated by
sound statesmanship. Self-restraint and compromise were the
key-notes of Marshal's policy. Both before and after the peace
of 1217 he reissued Magna Carta. He fell ill early in the year
1 3 19, and died on the 14th of May at his manor of Caversham
near Reading. He was succeeded in the regency by Hubert de
Burgh, in his earldom by his five sons in succession.
See the metrical French life. Ilistoire de GuiUauwu le MarkJiai
(ed. P. Meyer, 3 vols.. Paris, 1891-1901) ; the Mincriiy of Henry III^
by G. J. Turner {Trans, Royal Hist. Soc., new aeries, voL xviS.
pp. 245-295) ; and W. Stubbs, Constitutionid History, das. ziL and'
XIV. (Chdord, 1896-1897}.
Marshal's ddest son, William Marshal (d. 1231), snd eail of
Pembroke of this line, passed some years in warfare in Wales and
in Ireland, where he was justidar from 1234 to 1226; he also
served Henry lU. in France. His second wife was the king's
sbter, Eleanor, afterwards the wife of Simon de Montfort, but
he left no children. His brother Richard Marshal (d. X234),
3rd earl, came to the front as the leader of the baronial party*
and the chief antagonist of the foreign friends of Henry IQ..
Rearing treachery he refused to visit the king at Gloucester is
August 1333, and Henry declared him a traitor. He crossed to
Ireland, where Peter des Roches had instigated his enemws to
attack him, andlD April 1 334 he was overpowered and wounded,
and died a prisoner. His brother Gilbert (d. 1241), idio
became the 4lh eari, was a friend and ally of Richard, etil of
Cornwall. When another brother, Anselm, the 6th nrl, died
in December 1 245, the male descendants of the great earl minhsl
became extinct. The extensive family possessions were now
divided among Anselm's five sisters and their descendants, the
earldom of Pembroke reverting to the Crown.
The next holder of the lands of the earldom of Pembroke was
William de Valence (d. x 396), a younger son of Hugh de Lusignan,
count of La Marche, by his marriage with Isabella of AngouMne
(d. 1346), widow of the English king John, and was bwn st
Valence, near Lusignan. In 1347 William and his'brothen»
Guy and Aymer, crossed over to England at the invitation of thdr
half-brother, Henry III. In 1350 Aymer (d. 1360) was dectcd
bishop of Winchester, and in 1347 Henry arranged a toaniafi
between William and Joan de Munchensi (d. 1307) a grsnd*
daughter of William Marshal, ist earl of Pembroke. The
custody of Joan's propehy, which induded the castle and kndsUp
of Pembroke, was entrusted to her husband, who in 1295 vtl
summoned to parliament as eari of Pembroke. In Sooth Waki
PEMBROKE, EARLS OF
79
Valence tried to rcfain the pftUtine rights wluch bad been
attadied to the earidom of Pembroke. But his energies were
not <^9f*<«"^ to South Wales. Henry IIL heaped lands and
boooon upon him, and he was soon thoroughly hated as one of
the most prominent of the rapacious foreigners. Moreover, some
troobie in Wales kd to a quarrel between him and Simon de
Uootfort, and this soon grew more violent. He would not
comply with tlie provisions of Oxford, and took refuge in Wolvesey
Castle at Wincbester, where he was besieged and compelled to
surrcrder and leave the country. In 1259 he and EarlJSimon
were formally reconciled in Paris, and in 1261 he was again in
England and once more enjoying the royal favour. He fought
for Henry at the battle of Lewes, and then, after a stay in France,
he landed in Pembrokeshire, aiKl took part in 1265 in the siege
of Gloucester and the battle of Evesham. After the royalist
victory he was restored to his estates and acoynpanied l^ince
Edmrd, afterwards Edward I., to Palestine. He went several
times to France on public business; he assisted in the conquest of
North Wales; and he was one of Edward's representatives in
the famous suit over the succession to the crown of Scotland in
1291 and 1293. He died at Bayonne on the 13th of June 1296,
Ik body being buried in Westminster Abbey. His eldest
nrviving xm, Aymes (c. i 265-1324), succeeded to his father's
ettstes, but was not formally recognized as earl of Pembroke
omil after the death of his mother Joan about 1307. He was
appointed guardian of Scotland in 1306, but with the accession
of E;dward II. to the throne and the consequent rise of Piers
Gsveston to power, his influence sensibly declined; he became
pvominent among the discontented nobles and was one of those
vbo were appointed to select the lord ordainers in 131 1. In
1312 he captured Gaveston at Scarborough, giving the favourite
a promise that his Ufe should be q>ared. Ignoring this under-
takii^ however, Guy Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, put Gaveston
to death, and consequently Pembroke left the allied lords and
attadied himself to Edward II. Valence was present at Bannock-
bnn; in 13 17, when returning to England from Rome, he was
taken prisoner and was kept in Germany until a large ransom was
paid. In 13 18 he again took a conspicuous part in making peace
between Edward and his nobles, and in 1322 assisted at the
fomal condemnation of Earl Thomas of Lancaster, and received
some of his lands. His wife, Mary de Chatillon, a descendant
of King Henry III., was the founder of Pembroke G>llege,
Caaabridge.
In 1339 LADRescE, Lokd Hastings (d. i348)> a great-grand-
son of William de Valence, having inherited through the female
iae a portion of the estates of the Valence earls of Pembroke
•as created, or recognized as, earl of Pembroke. His son John
(d. i$j6) married Margaret Plantagenct, daughter of King
Edward III., and on the death without issue of his grandson
ia 1389 the earldom of Pembroke reverted again to the Crown,
whSe the barony of Hastings became dormant and so remained
tifl 1840.
In X414 Humphrey Plantagenet, fourth son of King Henry
IV^ was created duke of Gloucester and earl of Pembroke for
fife, these titles being subsequently made hereditary, with a
sevowm as regards the earldom of Pembroke, in default of
kms to Humphrey, to William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk.
AomtKngly, on the death of Humphrey, without issue, in 1447
this m^M^Twa" became earl of Pembroke. He was beheaded in
I4SD Aod his titles were forfeited. In 1453 the title was given to
Sir Jasper Tudor, half-brother of King Henry VI. Sir Jasper
a Lancastrian, his title was forfeited during the pre-
of the house of York, but was restored on the
of Henry VII. On his death without heirs in 1495,
bii title became extinct.
DoTDif his attainder Sir Jasper was taken prisoner by SiK
WuiAM Herbert (d. 1469), a zealous Yorkist, who had been
ailed to the peerage as Baron Herbert by Edward IV., and for
this flenrice Lord Herbert was created earl of Pembroke in 1468.
Ks aoo William (d. 1491) received the earldom of Huntingdon
m Ecu of that of Pembroke, which he surrendered to Edward IV.,
nho thereupon conferred it (1479) on his son Edward, prince
of Wales; and when this prince succeeded to the thrbne as
Edward V., the earldom <k Pembroke merged in the crown.
Anne Boleym, a few months previous to her marriage with
Henry VIII., was created marchioness of Pembroke in 1532.
It is doubted by authorities on peerage law whether the title
merged in the royal dignity on the marriage of the marchionesa
to the king, or became extinct on her death in 1536.
The title of eari of Pembroke was next revived in favour of
Sir Wiluam Herbert (c. i 501-1570), whose father, Richard,
was an illegitimate son of the ist earl of Pembroke of the house
of Herbert. He had married Anne Parr, sister of Henry VIU.'s
sixth wife, and was created eari in 1 55 1 . The title has since been
hel<Lby his descendants.
An executor of Henry VIII.'s will and the recipient of valuable
grants of land, Herbert was a prominent and powerful personage
during the reign of Edward VI., both the protector Somerset and
his rival, John Dudley, afterwards duke of Northumberland,
angling for his support. He threw in his lot with Dudley, and
after Somerset's fall obtained some of his lands in Wiltshire and
a peerage. It has been asserted that he devised the scheme for
settling the English crown on Lady Jane Grey; at all events he
was one of her advisers during her short reign, but he declared for
Mary when he saw that Lady Jane's cause was lost. By Mary
and her friends Pembroke's loyalty was at times suspected, but
he was employed as governor of Calais, as president of Wales
and in other ways. He was also to some extent in the confidence
of Philip II. of Spain. The earl retained his place at court under
Elizabeth until 1569, when he was suspected of favouring the
projected marriage between Mary, queen of Scots, and the duke
of Norfolk. Among the monastic lands granted to Herbert was
the estate of Wilton, near Salisbury, still the residenqe of the
earls of Pembroke.
His elder son Henry {e. 1534-1601), who succeeded as 2nd earl,
was president of Wales from 1586 until his death. He married
in 1577 Mary Sidney, the famous countess of Pembroke (c. 1561-
162 1), third daughter of Sir Henry Sidney and his wife Mary
Dudley. Sir Philip Sidney to whom she was deeply attached
through life, was her eldest brother. Sir Philip Sidney spent the
summer of 1580 with her at Wilton, or at Ivychurch, a favourite
retreat of hers in the neighbourhood. Here at her request he
began the Countess of Pembroke* s Arcadia^ which was intended
for her pleasure alone, not for publication. The two also worked
at a metrical edition of the Psalms. When the great sorrow of
her brother's death came upon her she niade herself his literary
executor, correcting the unauthorized editions of the Arcadia
and of his poems, which appeared in 1590 and 1591. She also
took under her patronage the poets who had looked to her brother
for protection. Spenser dedicated his Ruines of Time to her,
and refers to her as Urania in Colin Clout's come home againe; in
Spenser's Astrophd she is " Clorinda." In 1 599 Queen Elizabeth
was her guest at Wilton, and the countess composed for the
occasion a pastoral dialogue in praise of Astraea. After her
husband's death she lived chiefly in London at Crosby Hall,
where she died.
The Countess's other works include: A Discourse of Life and
Death, translated from the French of Plessis du Momay (lS93)i and
Antoine (1592), a version of a tragedy of Robert Garnier.
Wiluam Herbert, 3rd earl of Pembroke (1580-1630), son of
the 2nd earl and his famous countess, was a conspicuous figure
in the society of his time and at the court of James I. Several
times he found himself opposed to the schemes of the duke of
Buckingham, and he was keenly interested in the colonization
of America. He was lord chamberlain of the royal household
from i6i5toi625 and lord steward from 1626 to 1630. He was
chancellor of the university of Oxford in 1624 when Thomas
Tesdale and Richard Wightwick refounded Broadgates Hall and
named it Pembroke College in his honour. By some Shake-
spearian commentators Pembroke has been identified with the
" Mr W. H. " referred to as " the onlic begetter "of Shakespeare's
sonnets in the dedication by Thomas Thorpe, the owner of the
published manuscript, while his mistress, Mary Fitton (q.v.), has
been identified with the " dark lady " of the sonnets. In both
8o
PEMBROKE
cases the identification rests on very questionable evidence (see
Shakespeare, William). He and his brother Philip are the
"incomparable pair of brethren" to whom the first folio of
Shakespeare is inscribed. The earl left no sons when he died in
London on the loth of April 163a Clarendon gives a very
eulogistic account of Pembroke, who appears, however, to have
been a man of weak character and dissolute life. Gardiner
describes him as the Hamlet of the English court. He had
literary tastes and wrote poems; one of his closest friends
was the poet Donne, and he was generous to Ben Jonson,
Massinger and others.
His brother, Philip Herbekt, the 4th earl (1584-1650), was
for some years the chief favourite of James I., owing this position
to his comely person and his passion for hunting and for field
sports generally. In 1 605 the king created him earl of Montgomery
and Baron Herbert of Shurland, and since 1630, when he succeeded
to the earldom of Pembroke, the head of the Herbert family has
carried the double title of earl of Pembroke and Montgomery.
Although Philip's quarrelsome disposition often led him into
trouble he did not forfeit the esteem of James I., who heaped
lands and offices upon him, and he was also trusted by Charles I.,
who made him lord chamberlain in 1626 and frequently vi^ted
him at Wilton. He worked to bring about peace between the
king and the Scots in 1639 and 1640, but when in the latter year
the quarrel between Charles and the English parliament was
renewed, he deserted the king who soon deprived him of his office
of chamberlain. Trusted by the popular party, Pembroke was
made governor of the Isle of Wight, and he was one of the repre-
sentatives of the parliament on several occasions, notably during
the negotiations at Uxbridgc in 1645 and at Newport in 1648, and
when the Scots surrendered Charles in 1647. From 1641 to 1643,
and again from 1647 to 1650, he was chancellor of the university
of Oxford; in 1648 he removed some of the heads of houses from
their positions because they would not take the solemn league
and covenant, and his foul language led to the remark that he was
more fitted " by his eloquence in swearing to preside over Bedlam
than a learned academy." In 1649, although a peer, he was
elected and took his scat in the House of Commons as member for
Berkshire, this " ascent downwards " calling forth many satirical
writings from the royalist wits. The earl was a great collector
of pictures and had some txiste for architecture. His eldest
surviving son, Philip (1621-1669), became 5th earl of Pembroke,
and 3nd earl of Montgomery; he was twice married, and was
succeedcdjn turn by three of his sons, of whom Thomas, the 8th
earl (c. 1656-1733), was a person of note during the reigns of
William III. and Anne. From 1690 to 1692 he was first lord
of the admiralty; then he served as lord privy seal until 1699,
being in 1697 the first plenipotentiary of Great Britain at the
congress of Ryswick. On two occasions he was lord high admiral
for a short period; he was also lord president of the council and
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, while he acted as one of the lords
justices seven times; and he was president of the Royal Soaety
in 1689-1690. His son Henry, the 9th earl (c. 1689-1750), was a
soldier, but was better known as the " architect earl." He was
largely responsible for the erection of Westminster Bridge. The
title descended directly to Henry,ioth earl (i 734-1 794), a soldier,
who wrote the Method of Bracing Horses (1762); George
Augustus, I ith earl (i 759-1827), an ambassador extraordinary to
Vienna in 1807; and Robert Henry, 12th earl (i 791-1862), who
died without issue. George Robert Charles, the 13th earl
(1850- 1895), was a grandson of the nth earl and a son of Baron
Herbert of Lea (q.v.), whose second son Sidney (b. 1853) inherited
all the family titles at his brother's death.
See G. T. Clark. The Earls, Earldom and Castle of Pembroke (Tenby.
1880); J. R. Planch6. "The Earls of Strigul'^ in vol. x. of the
Proceedings of the British Archaecioncal Association (1855); and
G. E. CCokayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895).
PEMBROKE, a town of Ontario, Canada, capital of Renfrew
county, 74 m. W.N.W., of OtUwa by rail on the south shore of
Allumette Lake, an expansion of the Ottawa river, and on the
Canadian Pacific and Canada Atlantic railways. Pop. (1901),
5156. It is the s^t of a Roman Catholic bishopric, an
important centre in the lumber trade, and contaaB saw, grist
and woollen mills, axe factory, &c. The Muskntt river affonb
excellent water-power.
PEMBROKE {Penfro), an ancient municipal borou^ a
contributory parliamentary borough and county-town of Pem-
brokeshire, Wales, situated on a narrow peninsula at the bead of
the Pennar tidal inlet or " pill " of Milford Haven. Pop. (1901),
4487; together with Pembroke Dock 15,853. Pembroke is a
station on the South Wales system of the Great Western railway.
The old-fashioned town, consisting chiefly of one long broad
street, retains portions of its ancient walls. A large mill-dam is
a conspicuous feature on the north oi the town. St Mary's
church in the centre of the town possesses a massive tower of the
1 2th century. Near the ruined West Gate is the entrance to
Pembroke Castle, a q^lendid specimen of medieval fortified
architecture. The circular vaulted keep erected by Eari William
Marshal (c. 1200), remains almost intact. Close to the keep
stands the ruined chamber wherein, according to local tradition,
Henry VII. was bom in 1457. Beneath the fine banqueting haU,
a flight of steps descends into " the Wogan," a vast subterranean
chamber giving access to the harbour. Facing the castle, on the
western side of the pill, stand the considerable remains ol
Monkton Priory, a Benediction house founded by Eari William
Marshal as a cell to the abbey of S6cz or Sayes in Nonxumdjr,
but under Henry VI. transferred to the abbey of St Albans.
Hie priory church, now the parish church of the suburb ol
Monkton, contains monuments of the families of Meyrick of
Bush and Owen of Orielton. St Daniel's chapd forms a
prominent landmark on the ridge south of the town.
Pembroke Dock (formerly known as Pater, or Paterchurch), a
naval dockyard and garrison town, is situated dose to Hobb's
Point, at the eastern extremity of Milford Haven, It forms the
Pater Ward of Pembroke, from which it is distant a m. to the
north-west. The place owes its origin to the decision of the
government in 1814 to form a naval d6p6t on Milford Haven.
The dockyard, enclosed by high walls and covering 80 acres, is
protected by a powerful fort — the construction and repairing of
ironclads arc extensively carried on here. There is a submarine
d£p6t at Pennar Gut, and also accommodation for artillery and
infantry. Ferry boats ply frequently between Pembroke Dodt
and Neyland on the opposite shore of the Haven.
Pembroke b probably an Anglo-Norman fonn^ of the Cymric
Penfro, the territory lying between Milford Haven and the
Bristol Channel, now known as the Htmdred of Castlemartin.
During the invasion of South Wales under William Rufus,
Arnulf de Montgomeri, fifth son of Roger earl of Shrewsbuiy,
seems to have erected a fortress of stone {c. 1090) on the site of
the castle. The first castellan of this new stron^(4d was
Giraldus de Windsor, husband of the Princess Nest of South
Wales and grandfather of Giraldus Cambrensis. Thxoog^ioiit
the 1 2th and i3ih centuries the castle was strengthened and
enlarged under successive carb palatine of Pembroke, who mads
this fortress their chief seat. As the capital of the pslstinstf
and as the nearest port for Ireland, Pembroke was in Plantagenet
times one of the most important fortified cities in the kingdom.
The town, which had grown up under the shadow of the almost
impregnable castle, was first incorporated by Henry L in 1109
and again by Earl Richard de Clare in 11 54 (who also encircled
the town with walls), and these privileges were confirmed and
extended under succeeding earls palatine and kings of F-ngl^iML
In 1835 ^be corporation was remodelled under the MuniripsI
Corporations Act. Henry II. occasionally visited Pemtnoke^
notably in 11 72, and until the close of the Wars of the Roteii
both town and castle played a prominent part in the hist<»y of
Britain. With the passing of the Act of Union of Wales and
England in 1536 however, the jura regalia of the county pslatfaw
of Pembroke were abolished, and the prosperity of the town
began to decline. Although acknowledged as the county tofm
of Pembrokeshire, Pembroke was superseded by Haverfordwdt
as the judicial and administrative centre of the shire on acconal
of the more convenient position of the latter place. By the act
of 1536 Pembroke was declared the leading borough in tht
PEMBROKESHIRE 8i
Ptakbroke parliamentary district, yet the town continued to Jhe Umcitwic appears again farther south at Pembroke. Caldy
dwindle until the selllenient of the government dockyard and ISftP^^^tJi^T^V^^^' CTJiw illS ST*!**;'"* ^'^^w^fe!
i_ «>•!# -J u A^.u .Z I- «.u /^' •!»»/ .u Miliord Haven being occupied by Old Red Sandstone With infolded
•orkaooMilford Haven. At the outbreak of the CivU Wars the strips of Silurian. A faiVly Ufge tract of blownsand occurs in
town and castle were garrisoned for parliament by the mayor, Frr^hwater Bav south of Milford Haven. Silver-bearing lead has
John Poyer, a leading Presbyterian, who was later appointed been mined at LUnfymach.
governor, with Rowland Laughame of St Brides for his lieu- Climate and Industries.— The climate is everywhere mfld, and
tenant. But at the lime of the Presbyterian defection in 1647. in the sheltered valleys near the coast subtropical vegetation
Poyer and his lieutenant-governors, Uughamc and Powell, flourishes in the open air. In the south the rainfall is small, and
decUrcd for Charies and held the castle in the king's name. In the districts round Pembroke suffer from occasional droughts.
Jane 1648 CromweU himself proceeded to invest Pembroke The chief industry is agriculture, wherein stock-raising is
Castle, which resisted with great obstinacy. But after the preferred to the growing of cereals. Of cattle the long-horned,
water^upply of the garrison had been cut off, the besieged were jet-black Castlemartin breed is everywhere conspicuous. South
forced to capitulate, on the i ith of July 1648, on the condition of Pembroke has long been celebrated for its horses, which are bred
wrrendenng up the three chief defenders of the castle. Poyer, !„ great numbers by the farmers. The deep-sea fisheries of
Laugfajime and Powell were accordingly brought to London, jenby and MiUord are valuable; and fresh fish of good quality
bat finaUy only Poyer was executed. The magnificent ruin of i, exported by raU to the Urge towns. Oysters are found at
Pembroke Castle b the nominal property of the Crown, but has Ungwm and near Tenby; lobsters and crabs abound on the
been held on lease since the reign of James II. by the family of western coast. The South Wales coalfield extends into south
Pryse of Gogerddan in Cardiganshire. Pembroke, and coal is worked at Saundersfoot, Begelly, Temple-
PBHBBOKESHIRB (Sir Benfro, Dyfed), the most westeriy ton, Kilgetty and other pUces. There are sUle quarries at
county of South Wales, bounded N.E. by Cardigan, E.by Carmar- Glogue, Cilgerran and elsewhere; copper has been worked near St
then. S. by the Bristol Channel and W. and N.W. by St Bride's Davids, and lead at Uanfymach.
Bay and Cardigan Bay of St George's Channel. Area 615 sq.m. Communications.— The South Wales branch of the Great
The whole coast is extremely indented, extending over 140 m. in Western railway enters Pembrokeshire from the east near
kagth. The principal inlets are Milford Haven, St Bride's Bay, Clynderwen Junction, whence the main line leads to Fishguard
Freshwater Bay, Fishguard Bay and Newport Bay. The chief Harbour with its important Irish traffic. Other lines proceed
promontories are Cemmaes, Dinas, Strumble, St David's, St to Neyland and Milford Haven by way of Haverfordwest, and
Ann's and St Cowan's Heads. Five islands of moderate size lie a branch bne from Clynderwen to Goodwick joins the main line
off the coast, via. Ramsey, Grassholm, Skomer and Skokholm at Utterston. The Whitland-Cardigan branch traverses the
a St Bride's Bay, and Caldy Island ( Ynys Pyr) opposite Tenby; north-east by way of Crymmych and CUgerran. Another line
the last named having a population of about 70 persons. Rare running south-west from Whftland proceeds by way of Narberth
birds, such as peregrine falcons, ravens and choughs are not and Tenby to Pembroke Dock.
uacommon, whUe guiUemots, puffins and other sea-fowl breed in Population and Administration.— The area of Pembrokeshire
immense numbers on the Stack Rocks, on Ramsey Island and at is 395,151 acres with a population in 1891 of 89,138 and 1901
various points of the coast. Seals are plentiful in the caves of of 88.732, showing a slight decrease. The municipal boroughs
St Bride's Bay and Cardigan Bay. The county is undulating, are Pembroke (pop. 15,853); Haverfordwest (6007); and
aod large tracts are bare, but the valleys of the Cleddau, the Tenby (4400). The hamlet of Bridgend and a part of St
Nevem, the Teifi and the Gwaun are weU-wooded. The DogmcU's parish are included within the municipal limits of
PreseUey Mountains stretch from Fishguard to the border of Cardigan. Newport (TrCfdracth) (1222), the chief town of
Carmanhen. the principal heights being Presclley Top (1760 ft.) the barony of Kemes, or Cemmaes, stiU possesses a mayor and
and Cam Englyn (1022 ft.). Trcffgam Rock in the Plumstone corporation under a charter granted in 121 5 by Sir Nicholas
Mountains is popubrly supposed to mark the northern limit of Marteine, lord of Kemes, whose hereditary representative
the ancient settlement of the Flemings. The principal rivets are still nominates the mayor and aldermen, but its surviving
the Teifi, forming the northern boundary of the county from municipal privileges are practically honorary. Milford Haven
\hefcych to Cardigan Bay; the Nevem and the Gwaun, both (5,02), Narberth (1070) and Fishguard (2002) are urban districts,
falliag into Cardigan Bay; and the Eastern and Western Cleddau, Other towns are St Davids (1710), St Dogmells (Llandudoch)
fonaing the Daugleddau after their junction below Haverford- (1^86); and Cilgerran (1038). Pembrokeshire Ues in the South
west AU these streams contain trout and salmon. There are Wales circuit, and assizes are held at Haverfordwest. Two
■0 lakes, but the broad tidal estuaries of the Daugleddau and members are returned to parliament; one for the county, and
other rivers, which faU into MUford Haven and arc locally called one for the united boroughs of Pembroke, Haverfordwest,
'•pais.'' consUtute a peculiar feature of south Pembrokeshire Tenby. Fishguard, Narberth, Neyland. MUford and Wiston
*'"*9^' «._.,.. J. .... . . (Caslell Gwys). Ecclesiastically, the county contains 153
-.SSF'T-'V^terS^.-," ^'T^^^^' '"*^ *. """J^TS P°?'°" parishes and lies wholly in the diocese of St Davids.
ouHUKd mainly by Ordovician and Silunan strata, which have been *^ „ . . t> l i u- • -1 1 . .■_ «tf • 1.
•objected to pressures from the north, the ktrikc of the beds being //u/^ry.— Pembrokeshire, anciently known to the Welsh
«iiJi-«c9t-north-ea»t: and a southern portion, the westerly con- as Dyfed, was originally comprised in the territory of the
of the South Wales coalfield, with associated Lower Dimetae. conquered by the Romans. During the 6lh century
^S^^'t^ ^^ Sandrtone and narrow Wis cf Silurian gj p^vid, or Dewi Sant. moved the chief seat of South Welsh
neks, the whole havmg i)een considerably folded and faulted by .• j 1 • >• 1 I'r r r* 1 f 1 . l-
—— from the »outh, which has produced a ccneral north-west- monastic and ecclesiastical hfe from Caerleon-on-Lsk to his
strike. In the neighbourhood of St Lhivids are the Pre- native place Menevia, which, known in consequence as Tyddewi.
ran granitk rocks (Dimetian) and volcanic rocks (Pebedian). or St Davids, continued a centre of religious and educational
T^ne are surrounded by belts of unconf^^ activity until the Reformation, a period of 1000 years. On
l!S3S,?n5"B^5"SSr) ':t^i'l^ti%^^r^L'^?;:Si the death of Rhodri Mawr in 877. Dyfed fell nominally under the
coBipriae gabbros and diabases of Strumble Head. Fishguard. »way of the pnnces of Deheubarth, or South Wales; but their
Lknvada. Prrscelly; diontes north-west of St Davids. tx>stonites hold was never very secure, nor were they able to protect Che
V^ P???T"*" ***"^ Abercastle and the basaltic Uccolite of Pen coast towns from the Scandinavian pirates. In 1081 William
Caer, brikks vanous contemporaneous acid lavas and tuff*. The .u/- ..j . r-c. r\-..;j- »i.^.^ u^ :-
Onkrncun and Silurian rock, extend southward to the neighbour- the Conqueror penetrated west as far as St Davids, where he is
*ood of Narberth and Haverfordwest, where Arenig. Llandeilo and *aid to have visited St David's shnne as a devout pilgrim.
Bib beds (Slade and Red Hill beds; Sholeshook and Robcston In log J Arnulfde Montgomeri. son of Roger, earl of Shrewsbury,
W«Wie« Umestone) and Llandovery beds are recorded. The Coal did homage to the king for the Welsh lands of Dyfed. With
oSSle«''Ctori:;"Sir:"<3 SrterBa?:Th^e'y a^bSri;^ the building of Pembroke Castle, of which Gerald de Windsor
es t\m north and sooth-east by the Millstone Grits. Carboniferous was appointed castellan, the Normans began to spread over
Linescooe series and Old Red Sandstone. On account of the folding southern Dyfed; whilst Martin de Tours, landing In Fishguard
XXI 3* la
d2
PEMBROKESHIRE
Bay and building the castle of Newport at Tr^draeth, won for
himself the extensive lordship of Kemes (Cemmaes) between
the river Teifi and the Preseiley Mountains. The systematic
planting of Flemish settlers in the hundred of Rhds, or Roose,
in or about the years 1106, 1108 and 11 11 with the approval
of Henry I., and again in X156 under Henry IL, nutrks an
all-important episode in the history of Pembrokeshire. The
castles of Haverfordwest and Tenby were now erected to protect
these aliens, and despite the fierce attacks of the Webh princes
their domain grew to be known as ** Little England beyond
Wales," a district whereof the language, customs and people
still remain characteristic. In 11 38 Gilbert de Clare, having
previously obtained Henry I.'s permission to enjoy all lands
he might win for himself in Wales, was created earl of Pembroke
in Stephen's reign with the full powers of an earl palatine in
Dyfed. The devolution of this earldom is dealt With in a
separate article.
In 1536, by the Act of Union (27 Heniy Vin.)t the king
abolished all special jurisdiction in Pembrokeshire, which he
placed on an equal footing with the remaining shires of Wales,
while its borders were enlarged by the addition of Kemes,
Dewisland and other outlying lordships. By the act of 1536
the county returned to parliament one knight for the shire
and two burgesses; one for the Pembroke boroughs and one
for the town and cotmty of Haverfordwest, both of which since
1885 have been merged in the Pembroke-and-Haverfordwest
parliamentary division. The Reformation deprived the county
of the presence of the bishops of St Davids, who on the partial
dismantling of the old episcopal palace at St Davids removed
their chief seat of residence to Abergwiliy, near Carmarthen.
Meanwhile the manor of Lamphey was granted to the family
of Devereuz, earls of Essex, and other episcopal estates were
alienated to court favourites, notably to Sir John Perrot of
Haroldstone (151 7-1592), afterwards lord-deputy of Ireland.
During the Civil Wars the forces of the parliament, commanded
by Cobnel Laugharne and Captain SMranley, reduced the royal
forts at Tenby, Milford and Haverfordwest. In February
1797 some French frigates appeared off Fishguard Bay and
landed about 1400 Frenchmen at Llanwnda. The invaders
soon capitulated to the local militia, practically without striking
a bbw. The 19th century saw the establishment of the naval
dockyard at Paterchurch and the building of docks and quays
at Neyland and Milford. In 1906 extensive works for cross-
traffic with Ireland were opened at Fishguard Harbour.
Many of the old Pembrokeshire families, whose names appear
prominent in the cotmty annals, are extinct in the county itself.
Amongst these may be mentioned Perrot of Haroldstone,
Devereux of Lamphey, Barlow of Slebech, Barrett of GilUswick,
Wogan of Wiston, Elliot of Amroth and Owen of Hcnllys.
Amongst ancient families still existing are Philipps of Lydstep
and Amroth (descendants of the old Webh lords of Cilsant);
Philipps of Picton Castle (a branch of the same house in the
female line); Lort of Stackpole Court, now represented by Earl
Cawdor; Scourfield of Moate; Bowen of Llwyngwair; Edwardcs,
Lords Kensington, of St Brides; Meyrickof Bush; Lort-PhiUpps
of Lawrcnny; Colby of Ffynone; Stokes of Cuffem; Lloyd of
Newport Castle (in which family is vested the hereditary lord-
ship of the barony of Kemes); Saunders-Davies of Pentre; ami
Cower of Castle Malgwyn.
AnliquUies. — Hiere are few remaining traces in the county
of the Roman occupation of Dimetia, but in British encamp-
ments, tumuli, cromlechs and monumental stones Pembrokeshire
is singularly rich. Of the cromlechs the best preserved are those
at Longhouse, near Mathry; at Pentre Evan in the Nevem
Valley; and at Llech-y-dribedd, near Moylgrove; whilst of the
many stone circles and ah'gnments, that known as Pare-y-Marw,
or " The Field of the Dead," near Fishguard, is the least injured.
Stones inscribed in Ogam characters are not tmcommon, and
good examples exist at Caldy Island, Bridell, St Dogmells
and Cilgerran. There are good specimens of Celtic floriated
churchyard crosses at Carew, Penally and Nevem. Interesting
examples of medieval domestic architecture are the ruins
of the former episcopal mansions at Uawhaden, St Davidf
and Lamphey, the two latter of which were erected by Bishop
Cower between the years 1328-1347. With the exception A
the cathedral at St Davids and the principal churches of Haver-
fordwest and Tenby, the pari^ churches of Pembrokeshire
are for the most part small, but many are ancient and possess
fine monuments or other objects of interest, especially in
" Little England beyond Wales." Amongst the more note-
worthy are the churches at Stackpole Elidur, Carew, Burton.
Gumfreston, Nevem, St Petrox and Rudbaxton, the last-named
containing a fine Jacobean monument of the Hay ward family.
Pembrokeshire has long been famous for its castles, of which the
finest examples are to be observed at Pembroke; Manorbier,
built in the 12th century and interesting as the birthplace and
home of Giraldus Cambrensis; Carew, exhibiting many interest-
ing features both of Norman and Tudor architecture; and
Picton, owned and inhabited by a branch of the Philipps family.
Other castles are the keep of Haverfordwest and the mined for-
tresses at Narberth, Tenby, Newport, Wiston, Benton, Upton and
Cilgerran. There are some remains of monastic houses at Tenby
and Pembroke, but the most important religious communities
were the priory of the Augustinian friars at Haverfordwest
and the abbey of the Benedictines at St DogmeUs. Of tlus
latter house, which was founded by Martin de Tours, first lord
of Kemes, at the close of the nth century, and who owned the
priories of Pill and Caldy, considerable mins exist near the left
bank of the Teifi about i m. below Cardigan. Of the ancient
preceptory of the Knights of St John at Slebech scarcely a trace
remains, but of the college of St Mary at St Davids founded by
Bishop Houghton in 1377, the shell of the chapel survives in
fair preservation. Pembrokeshire contains an unusually large
number of county seats, particularly in the south, which indwks
Stackpole Court, the residence of Earl Cawdor, a fine mansioB
erected in the i8th century; Picton Castle; Slebech, once the
seat of the Barlows; Orielton, formerly belonging to the Owens;
and Ffynone, the residence of the Colby family.
CtuUoms, (re. — The division of Pembrokeshire ever since the
1 2th century into well-defined Englishry and Welshry has
produced two distinct sets of languages and customs within the
county. Roughly speaking, the English division, the AngjU^
TranswaUiana of Camden, occupies the south-eastern half and
comprises the hundreds of Roose, Castlemartin, Narberth and
Dungleddy. In the Welshry, which includes the hundreds of
Dewisland and Cilgerran together with the old barony of Keniet»
the language, customs, manners and folk-lore of the inhabitants
are almost identical with those of Cardigan and Cammrthen.
The old Celtic game of Knappan, a pastime partaking of the
nature both of football and hockey, in which whole paridwi
and even hundreds were wont to take an active part, was pre*
valent in the barony of Kemes so late as the i6th centuiy,
as George Owen of Henllys, the historian and antiquary, records;
and the playing of knappan lingered on after Owen's day.
Amongst the settlers of the Englishry, who are of minted Angto-
Saxon, Flemish, Welsh and perhaps Scandinavian dcaceot,
many interesting superstitions and customs survive. TIm
English spoken by these dwellers In " Little England beyond
Wales " contains many curious idioms and words and the promw-
elation of some of the vowels is peculiar. Certain pictureM^
customs, many of them dating from pre-Reformation tineii
are still observed, notably in the neighbourhood of Tenby.
Such are the sprinkling of persons with dewy evergreens os
New Year's morning; the procession of the Cutty Wren on 9l
Stephen's day, and the constmcting of little huts at Lammastidi
by the farm boys and giris. As early as the opening ytan el
the 19th century, cripples and ophthalmic patients were in tht
habit of visiting the ancient hermitage at St Gowan*s Head fee
bathe in its sacred well; and Richard Fenton, the county histOfiMi
alludes (c. 1808) to the many cmtches left at St Gowan's diapri
by grateful devotees. Belief in ghosts, fairies, witches, IPC*
is still prevalent in the more remote places, and the drcia ol
t he fishwives of Langwm near Haverfordwest is highly pJctmciqpM
with its short skirt, scarlet shawl and buckled shoes.
;
^
\
PEMMICAN— PEN
Fattr^cakin ILandan. IJ
IITID.— Ridunf FnilDn. A Hiltarial Taia ltm|'
' - ■ - ■ -■ |L»M.Hutorjrrfi.iHJ,a,,
. ILjjiHun, 1900,; uul jHnandE. A. Fimur
f*M«>/ SI Dirv}4i ILoDdiiD. I8}6), ftc.
1 Noilh An»iic»o Indian (Ctw) worf (ot
meat prepared in uich a wty u to conlaia Lhe greatest junom
of fiourLtfaaiCDt 1b the mat compact JorrrL Ai made by tb
Indiana il was composed oE the lean parts of the meat, dried ii
the tun. and pounded or sHltddcd and miied into a pule will
mrlleil [al. II n Savoured with add brnies. If kept dry i
■ill keep Sot an indffiniie time, and is thus paniculatty service
83
CCr.
>le).a!
whkl
' other
Cefman {Fedtr], oriciDalTy m
' 1 Ibe il '
ant a wing-
leal her.
h IpiMm
mc not quflls. The cirliHt wiiling implemeal was probably
ike iiiliu (Ct. 7>>a^i), a pointed bodkin of tnelsl. bone or ivory,
vcd foe produdng incised or engraved lellers on bojrwood
ttbtea corered with wax. 'niecalamiisfCr.riXafiot)or anirtdo,
Ibe hoOBV tubular tUlk of grasia growing in manhy lands,
■as ite true andenl reptctenlativeor the modern pen; hoUow
jointi of bunboo were similarly employed.
ABcarlyspeciGcaUutiontDthe quill pen occurs in the wiitingi
a(S< Isidore of Seville (eariy pan ot the 7tb ceoiuryt.' buUhete
iRute date. The quiUs st
Imn ibe wings of the goo
Bnnah devised and patented a machine
qiS iDlo separate aibi by dividing the bart
ku patls, and cutting these transversel)
fani aad some into five lengths." Bram
bmfllariied the public wi£h the appcannc
^iped into a holder. In i«i8 Charles Wa
tor tikliag and preparing quills and pens, wh
St Ike precursor of the (cJd pen. But s more oisimct aavance
n( tftttedia iSii, when J. I. Hawkins >nd S. Mordan patented
[ke appliotion of horn and torlDise-sbell 10 the EOTQialion of
p^hfliba. the points ol which were rendrred durable by small
pieces of diamond, ruby or other very hard sulsTaiice, or by
Ivping a small piece of thin sheet gold over the end of Ihc
large
y employed
mong Western
ned principally
(see
FcniEi),
n >9og Joseph
Bryan Donkin In 180S was made of two sepa
nearly so, with the flat sides placed opposite c
the sUl, or all email vely of one piece. Bat and i>
the usual form, bent to the proper angle fo
lube which conililulcd the holder. To Joh
ably belongs I he ctedii ol introducing ma
rings, saw Perry's I
ot making thrm.
, and when they burs
>e it principally knowi
kave rmw ulcerated lurfaca.
■ nnbcallby 01 neglected cl
fns^'fmr faliactml, aHecta the whole body, and gniduali]
psove* fataL Peniphigut of an acute septicaemic type ocnir
m bulcben or iboee who handle bides, and a diplococcus ha:
beea isolated by William Bullock. The Irestment is mainl]
tiHBtitulioiud, by mean* of good nourishment, warm balhs
local sedatives and tonica. In chronic pemphigus, ilreplococc
kive been found in the blebs, and the opsonic index was Ion
tfi streptococci. Improvement has been known to lake place
a the injection ol a vuxioe of streptococci,
m (Lil. ftnua, a feather, pen), an iostr
lo popularize the 1
himself in communication
t he begin lo make barrel
81Q. Petiy, who did much
'hidi consistol in loraiing ekHigaied poinii
The metal used consists of rolled sheets of
1. Th(
a bath of dilute sulphuHc 1
d scale, are mlled between sl<
)bonsol an even Ihickness.a
1 with tl
Uperfon
fleidbility is obtained. After another
innealing, the blanks, which up to this point are flat, are
' T3iscd " or rounded between diem into Ihe familiar semi-
cylindrical shape. The neil process is lo baidea aod temper
ibem by healing them in inn boifs in a mufBe-fumace, plunging
:hem in oil, and iben healing them over a gre in a rotating
:ylindrical vessel till iheir surfaces attain the dull blue lini
:baracl eristic of spring^leel elaslidty. Subsequently they
ire " scoured " in a bath of dilute add, and polished in a
evolving cylinder. The grinding ol the points with emery
ollows. and then the ceninl slit is cut by the aid ol two
tne^dged cutters. Finally Ihe pens are again polished.
■ylind
J by b
eing healed c
ie cases art coated with a varnish of shellac
iuslry, sad continues its principal centre,
on a large scale was begun in the United Si
It Camden. N.J,, where the Esterbrook Steel Fen
11 incorporated in 1866.
ly be regarded
Dr W. H. WoUaiton
lurable, but Ihe metal is too toft lor tb
uickly unless protected by some hard
hnue pen found at Pompeii is in the Naples Museum-were
^.-_ liitte used until the igth cenmry and did noi
^^ become common tiU near the middle of that cen.
urpose iridium is widely employed, by
. with a blowpipe.
Various devices have been adopted ia
SsMid HaiTBoa. msde a steel pen for Dr Joseph Pnestley
ime for which a pen can be used wilhoul
■ 17&1 Sled pens made ind sold in London by a certain
liese fall inio two main classes. In 0
Woe in i8oj were in ihe form of a tube or barrel. Ihe edges of
1 added, lo enlarge ihe ink capacily; 1
IkeaeolanoidiuryquliL Theirprice wasaboul fiveshillings
'hicb is by far the more important, lb
Ikey wete not in great demand. A metallic pen patented by
'"luraoenla WTibae obmui et penna; ei hii rnim vert™
D the nib. Pens of the second class, a
dvanlage of being portable, are heard
ggi^^Mcur: sed calamus arboris «. peen. .vis. cujii. acumen
eginning of the iSlh cenluiy, but il «
ilhoul s tresh supply ot in
PENALTY— PENANG
PBHAHQ IPyltu Pinant. it. Anu-nui Iiluuf), ttie tows
and iiluid which, fl[icr Singapore, form (be mou imfioffUAt
Employ a lu'bf of lilvcr or oihcr mclal so lUo thiLi it could portioo ol ihc crown colony ol the Stnilt Scttleineiiu. Tbt
tie rculiJy tqueued out o[ ibape, (he ink Mithin it being thui iiland iiiitiuied in 5° 14' N.snd too* 11' E..ind diXaalaboiU
forced out to the nib, and another wu to Bt the tube with a i\ m. From the west coast o[ the Malay Peninsula. 'Tie idaad il
piston that could llide dawn the interior and thui eject inlc. about ij) m, long by io| m. wide at its bnadeit point. Itima
In modeiD fountain pens a feed bacconveyi. by clpUlacy iclioo, is tsraething ovei 107 tq. m. The town, which is built oaapio-
a fieth supply ol ink to replace that which has been Icli on the montoiy at a point ncami 10 the munUnd,b largely occupied bjr
paper in the act ol writing, mfua being also provided by which Chinneand Tamils, though the Malays are also well repitMDIcd.
air can pass into the r«ervoir and fill the space lelt empty by Behind ihe town, Penang Hill rises to a height o[ some 1700 (l.,
tbe outflowing ink. In another Eorm of reservoir pen, which and upon it are built several govcmment and private bungalowi.
ia usually distinguislied by the name stylograph, there b no The town possesses a fine European club, a racecourse, and good
nib, but the ink flows out Ihiough a minute hole at the end goli links. Coco-nui> ate grown in coiuiderable quantilica
of the holder, which terminates in a conical point. An iridium along the seashore, and rice is cultivated *t Bllck Fdlau and in
needle, held in place by a fine spring, projects slightly Ibion^ the interior, but the jungle still spreads over wide areas. Pentni
(he hole and normally keeps the aperture closed; but when hai an eiceilenl harbour, but has suffered from ill prorimiljr
tbe pen is pressed on the paper, the needle is pushed back and to Singapore. There are a Church of England and a Roman
allows a thin stream o[ ink to flow out. Catholic church in the town, and a training college under the
See J. P. Maginnii. " Rnervoli. Stylscisphic and Fountain Roman Catholic miuionaiies of the SociHf des Miuou
Pens," CtMsr uaxni, Society of Arts (1903). EitangfH* it PDIau TIkus, a (e« miles outside tbe town.
PENALTY (Lat, /him, punishment), in its original meaning. ^ if miniiiroi^n.— Since 18^7 Penang has been under Ibe
ol mtlduct. Although still Ircely used In ita original sense in to the governor of the Straits. He is aided in his duties bl
luchphTases,lore]iample, as "tbe death penalty." "the penalty officers ol tbe Straits Civil Service. Two unoSdal mcmbcn
of rashness," &c.. the more usual meaning attached to the word of Ihe legisUlive council ol the colony, which holds it* aittinp
is that of ■ pecuninty mulct. Penalty is used speciflcally tor in Singapore, art nominated by the governor, with tbe sasclloB
a sum ol money recovered by virtue o( a penal statute, or re- ' ' ......
covetable in a court of sumtnary jurisdiction for infringement
of a statute. A sum of moi»y agreed upon to be paid in case
of non-performance of a condition in a bond or in breach of a
coninct or any stipulation of il u also termed a penalty (see
DaiuoEs).
PENAIICE (Old Ft. fnama, fr. Lat. fmUnlia, penitence),
strictly, repentance of sins. Thus in the Douai version of the
New Testament the Greek word fierdwiia is rendered " penance."
where the Authoriaed Version has " repentance." The two census of igoi was uS.Sjo, o^whom Sjjiyo were males (69,110
words, similar in their derivation and orifpnal sense, have over and 15,860 under 15 yearsof age), andjj, 160 were ietnalB
however come to be symbolical of conflicting views of the essence (18,715 over and 15,035 under ij years ol age). Tbe populaliOB
of repenunce. arising out of the controversy as to the respective was composed of 71,461 Chinese, u,iit Malays, 18,740 Tamib
merits ol " faith " and " good works." The Reformen, ufJkold- and other natives ol India, i6ao Eurasians, 093 Europeans ant
ing the doctrine of justification by faith, held that repentance Ameriuns, and 1699 penoos ol other nalionaliiics. As in othi^
and sold ((iii7T|iti*«9ai, Matt. liii. tj^Luke aaii. ji), and that than the women. The total population of the settlement ot
the Divine foi^veness ioUowcd true repentance and confession Penang. which includes not only the island but FrsviDC*
to Cod without any (epilation of " works." This il the view Wellcsley and the Duidinp, was 118,107 in 1901.
generally held by Protestants. In the Roman Cathdic Church SAififiig.— The number of ships which enteied and left tbe pen
tbe sacrament ol penance consists of three parts; timlrilia. of Penang duting 1906 was »i^ with an igiiiTiatc tonnage^
,.C«Uri/« is in fact repentance as Protesti '■"■" "'■••—" b^...i. —i. r
of the secrelar
^Of St
itefo
r the colo.
lies, to repre:
lent Penang.
Their term of .
office is for t
ive years.
Theoflkial
name of tk
island is Prince
ofWi
lesM
indandlhi
U ol the tow
n it Ceoige-
lown;neilher of these
is in geneial '
use. A=^
the Malays Pe
nang ii
lUy spokei
of as Ti-ji
«1«-Tbe
Cape," on sect
lunt of
ther
iromontory
upon which
the town it
situated. The
hy a munii
ripal couDdl
o^c«.
ialed,and.
elected membeii
fo^Blim.-
-The popula
lion ol Pe
timeof Iba
Ting4fl during tba
theologians gnoerstana 11, i.e. sonow lor sin arising iiom mve p,-„ .jj^jj,, ,|„ „„mber of vessels entering and leaving the B«t
of God. and long before the Reloraiation the schoolmen debated g ji,. with an agjiegale tonnage of VtCiaiM. This
ition whether complete " oonttilion " was or was not c to the construction oi the railway which runs lto« a
■,,ffiri^ni In Alu4m ilv nivinp ruiivlnn Tbr rcHinril ' mainland oppoHie to Peiung. ihmiHh the Fedfntcd
sulhcienl to obtain tn* uivineparooiL 1 lie council .of P*rah,Selin|wa«lihe NWMmSlan to Malaria,
t, however, decided that " reconciliation could not .„^ ,0 ^j,„ pj,,, jbJ eventuaMy to *^-~~-— — -2
It tbe other parts ot tbt saci
I of it (si'itc lacrinenf j kIb, 9*od in ilia iacfu^Iir
.bed from -itlrilion " (aUriti.). U^ '^''l^'' .\t K^'rl'^.S'n'i? "'"SKi;:;
th<
; benefits of the sacn
imcnt:thispoi
nt was
aisoseti
■Com
icil of Trent, »
hich decided tl
lat am
in
capable of obtaining the justi
ficition
1 of the !
also inspin.-d by God ai
Id thus disposes the :
loultob
r grace
; of the sacrami
The .
■■ appUed to 1
Ihe wh
ole sacrs
als
mposed by the
th(
ilent. U- the
t {p««a
icssol
theoflen
[led.
In the middl,
■ ages "doing
penan
a terrible and
. the p
enilcnt i
possibly
edifying to the
Church. Pot
lUc pen
lances ha
■r. lonK been ibolis
hed in aU branches
ol the
Ch
urcb.
(SeeCOHFissi
OS.)
Ashmen., it was questioned 7^^ee;i'„''of&^St.;^"o."^Tm.'S";:.'a':^'.^,
, , ij ...o:^ . — .. ^ I ^ ,, i9,s8s Immlaod Rvenue:»i)9.i9 ■
1. The espendiiure for 1006 amounted 10 (sj>7*4M, i
'3<^>97 was spent on adminiitiative cslabiiihiMalh -;
the uplieep o« existing public works; f4IS.<7S on O* ;
The imports in Iw6 wen valued at tu.546,ii*< •
the cipotis at (90,709^)3, Ol the imports t57,88o.U9 weaA r
came from Ihe United Kingdom or from British ppaaeMJOBa K ^
and 13,906,141 fioiii the Dindines, Malacca and Singapore. Of da ':
exporifh. Si3,iii.947 went to the United Kingdom, or to Beilia i
pmvfMtonsoT pTDUCIoiatcs: I3? .671. 031 went 10 foreign coualitel ^
and ti.7j4.:3B weni to the Dindinga. Klalacai or Singapore.
Hijiory— Penang was founded on the i7tb of July iM "J.
o the East India Company by the
1 i;Ss by an acreement with Capt ' ' ' '
tSvkta n
Mr — f
PENARTH— PENATES
H
daagod to $6000^ in perpetuity; for some yean Uter this was
laised to $xo,ooo, and is still annually paid. This final addition
was made wlien Province Wellealey was purchased by the East
Imfia Company for $2000 in 1798. At the time of the cession
Penang was almost uninhabited. In 1796 it was made a penal
aettleineiit, and 700 convicts were traiuferred thither from the
Andaman Islands. In 1805 Penang was made a separate
picsidency» ranking with Bombay and Madras; and when in
1826 Sing^wre and Malacca were incorporated with it, Penang
f9fi^^f»tifirl to be the seat of government. In 1829 Penang was
feduced from the rank of a presidency, and eight years later
the town of Singapore was made the capital of the Settlements.
In 1867 the Straits Settlements were created a Crown colony,
In which Penang was included.
See Siraits SdtUmenls Blue Book 1906 (Singapore. 1907); The
Straits Dinclory (Singapore, 1907) ; Sir Frank Swettenham. British
Malaya (London. 1906). (H. Cl.)
fniARTH* an urban district and seaport in the southern
pariiamentary division of Glamorganshire, Wales, 166 m. by rail
from London, |ucturesquely situated on rising ground on the
tooth side of the mouth of the Ely opposite Cardiff, from which
It B 4 m. distant by rail and a m. by steamer. Pop. (1901), 14,228.
The place derives its name from two Welsh words, " pen," a head,
and ** garth," an enclosure. Penarth was a small and imimpor-
tint village until a tidal harbour at the mouth of the Ely was
opened in 1859, and a railway, 6 m. long, was made about the
saaK time, connecting the harbour with the Taff Vale railway
at Radyr. A dock, authorized in 1857, was opened in 1865,
iriicn an three undertakings, which had cost £775,000, were
leased in perpetuity to the Taff Vale Railway Company. The
aooopoly which the Biite Docks at Cardiff had previously
enjoyed in shipping coal from the valleys of the Taff and Rhondda
VIS thus terminated. The town is frequented in summer as a
bathing-place, and the Rhaetic beds at the head are of special
nterest to geolo^ts. On this head there stood an old church,
pfobably Norman, which served as a landmark for sailors.
The remains of an old chantry have been converted into a barn.
Besides two Established and one Roman Catholic church, the
principal buildings of Penarth are its various Nonconformist
chapeb. intermediate and techm'cal school (1894), custom house,
dock offices, and Turner House with a private art gallery which
k thrown <^>en on certain days to the public. Three miles to
Uk west is Dinas Powis Castle. In 1880-1883 gardens were
laid out along the cliff, in 1894 a promenade and landing-pier
vith a length of 630 ft. were constructed, and in 1900 a marine
Mbvay open at all times for foot passengers was made under
the rhrer Ely. The dock, as first constructed, comprised 17 J
aocs, was extended in 1884 at a cost of £250,000, and now
covets 23 acres with a basin of 3 acres. It is 2900 ft. in length,
has a minimum depth of 26 ft., and is furnished with every
Boikm appliance for the export of coal, of which from 20,000
to 3fo^ooo tons can be stored in the sidings near by. The
PlEurth-Ely tidal harbour has a water area of 55 acres with
a Biairaum depth of 20 ft., and a considerable import trade is
cuzied 00 here mainly by coasting vessels; but as only one of
itsfidcs has wharves (about 3000 ft. along) scarcely more than 5 %
el the total shipping of the port is done here. It has commo-
warehouses, also tanks to hold about 6000 tons of oil.
(from Lat. penus, eatables, food), Roman gods of the
and kitchen. The store-room over which they
was, in old times, beside the atriumf the room which
as kitchen, parlour, and bedroom in one; but in later
the store-room, was in the back part of the house. It was
by the presence of the Penates, and none but pure
sad chaste persons might enter it, just as with the Hindus
tke kitdien is sacred and inviolable. They had no individual
■OKS, but were always known under the general designation,
hstes. Closely associated with the Penates were the Lares
(m) another spedes of domestic deity, who seem to have
tm the deified spirits of deceased ancestors. But while each
^bd^ had two Penates it had but one Lar. In the household
Me the image of the Lar (dressed in a toga) was placed
between the two images of the Pen&tes, "wHch werr represented
as dancing and elevating a drinking-horn in token of joy and
plenty. The three images together were sometimes called
Penates, sometimes Lares, and either name was used metaphori-
cally for" home." The shrine stood originally in the atrium,
but when the hearth and the kitchen were separated from the
atrium and removed to the back of the house, and meals were
taken in an upper storey, the position of the shrine was also
shifted. In the houses at Pompeii it is sometimes in the kitchen,
sometimes in the rooms. In the later empire it was placed
behind the house-door, and a taper or lamp was kept burning
before IL But the worship in the interior of the house was also
kept up even into Christian times; it was forbidden by an
ordinance of Theodosius (a.d. 392). The old Roman used, in
company with his children and slaves, to offer a morning sacrifice
and prayer to his household gods. Before meals the blessing
of the gods was asked, and after the meal, but before dessert,
there was a short silence, and a portion of food was placed on
the hearth and burned. If the hearth and the images were not
in the eating-room, either the images were brought and put
on the table, or before the shrine was placed a table on which
were set a salt-cellar, food and a burning lamp. Three days
in the month, viz. the Calends, Nones and Ides (i.e. the first,
the fifth or seventh, and the thirteenth or fifteenth), were set
apart for special family worship, as were also the Carutia
(Feb. 22) and the Saturnalia in December. On these days as
well as on such occasions as birthdays, marriages, and safe
returns from journeys, the images were crowned and offerings
made to them of cakes, honey, wine, incense, and sometimes a
pig. As each family had its own Penates, so the state, as a
collection of families, had its public Penates. Intermediate
between the worship of the public and private Penates were
probably' the rites (sacra) observed by each clan (gens) or collec-
tion of families supposed to be descended from a common
ancestor. Tht other towns of Latium had their public Penates as
well as Rome. The sanctuary of the whole Latin league was at
Lavinium. To these Penates at Lavinium the Roman priests
brought yearly offerings, and the Roman consuls, praetors
and dictators sacrificed both when they entered on and when
they laid down their office. To them, too, the generals sacrificed
before departing for their province. Alba Longa, the real
mother-city of Latium, had also its ancient Penates, and the
Romans maintained the worship on the Alban mount long after
the destruction of Alba Longa. The Penates had a temple of
their own at Rome. It was on the Vclia near the Forum, and
has by some been identified with the round vestibule of the
church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. In this and many other temples
the Penates were represented by two images of youths seated
holding spears. The Penates were also worshipped in the neigh-
bouring temple at Vesta. To distinguish the two worships
it has been supposed that the Penates in the former temple
were those of Latium, while those in the temple of Vesta were
the Penates proper of Rome. Certainly the worship of the
Penates, whose altar was the hearth and to whom the kitchen
was sacred, was closely connected with that of Vesta, goddess
of the domestic hearth.
The origin and nature of the Penates was a subject of much
discussion to the Romans themselves. They were traced to the
mysterious worship of Samothrace; Dardanus, it was said, took
the Penates from Samothrace to Troy, and after the destruction
of Troy, Aeneas brought them to Italy and established them at
Lavinium. From Lavinium Ascanius carried the worship to
Alba Longa, and from Alba Longa it was brought to Rome.
Equally unsatisfactory with this attempt to connect Roman
religion with Greek legend are the vague and mystic speculations
in which the later Romans indulged respecting the nature of
the Penates. Some said they were the great gods to whom we
owe breath, body and reason, viz. Jupiter representing the
middle ether, Juno the lowest air and the earth, and Minerva
the highest ether, to whom some added Mercury as the god
of speech (Scrvius, on Acn. ii. 296; Macrobius, Sat. in. 4, 8;
Amobius, Adv. Nat. iii. 40). Others identified them with Apollo
86
PENCIL— PENDA
and Neptune (Macrob. Hi. 4, 6; Arnob. loc. cit.; Servius, on
Aen. iiL 1 1 y). The Etruscans held the Penates to be Ceres, Pales
and Fortuna, to whom others added Genius Jovialis (Servius on
Aen. ii. 325; Arnob. loc. <U.). The late writer Martianus Capella
records the view that heaven was divided into sixteen regions, in
the first of which were placed the Penates, along with Jupiter,
the Lares, &c. More fruitful than these misty speculations is
the suggestion, made by the ancients themselves, that the
worship of these family gods sprang from the ancient Roman
custom (common to many savage tribes) of burying the dead
in the house. But this would account for the worship of the
Lares rather than of the Penates. A comparison with other
primitive religious beliefs suggests the conjecture that the
Penates may be a remnant of fetishism or animism. The Roman
genii seem certainly to have been fetishes and the Penates were
perhaps originally a ^)ecie8 of geniL Thus the Penates, as
simple gods of food, are probably much more ancient than
deities like Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo and Minerva.
With the Penates we may compare the kindly household gods
of old Germany; they too had their home on the kitchen hearth
and received offerings of food and clothing. In the castle of
Hudemiihlen (Hanover) there was a kobold for whom a cover
was always set on the table. In Lapland each house had one
or more spirits. The souls of the dead are regarded as house-
spirits by the Russians; they are represented as dwarfs, and are
served with food and drink. Each house in Servia has its
patron-saint. In the mountains of Mysore every house has its
bhuta or guardian deity, to whom prayer and sacrifices arc
offered. Hie Chinese god of the kitchen presents some curious
analogies to the Penates: incense and candles are burnt before
him on the first and fifteenth of the month; some families bum
incense and candles before him daily; and on great festivals,
one of which is at the winter solstice (nearly corresponding to
the Saturnalia), he is served with cakes, pork, wine, incense,
&c., which arc placed on a table before him.
Sec Roman Religion. (J. G. Fr.;X.)
PENCIL (Lat. penkillus, brush, literally little tail), a name
originally applied to a small fine-pointed brush used in painting,
and still employed to denote the finer camel's-hair and sable
brushes used by artists, but now commonly signifying solid
cones or rods of various materials used for writing and drawing.
It has been asserted that a manuscript of Theophilus, attributed
to the 13th century, shows signs of having been ruled with a
black-lead pencil; but the first distinct allusion occurs in the
treatise on fossils by Conrad Gesner of Zurich (1565), who
describes an article for writing formed of wood and a piece of
lead, or, as he believed, an artificial composition called by some
stimmi annlicanum (English antimony). The famous Borrowdate
mine in Cumberland having been discovered about that time,
it is probable that we have here the first allusion to that great
^d of graphite. While the supply of the Cumberland mine
lasted, the material for English pencils consisted simply of the
native graphite as taken from the mine. The pieces were
sawn into thin sheets, which again were cut into the slender
square rods forming the " lead " of the pencil.
Strenuous efforts were made on the continent of Europe and
in England to enable manufacturers to become independent
of the product of the Cumberland mine. In Nuremberg, where
the great pencil factory of the Fabcr family iq.v.) was established
in 1760, pencils were made from pulverized graphite cemented
into solid blocks by means of gums, resins, glue, sulphur and
other such substances, but none of these preparations yielded
useful pencils. In the year 1795 N. J. Cont6 (9.V.), of Paris,
devised the process by which now all black-lead pendls, and
indeed pencils of all sorts, are manufactured. In 1843 William
Brockedon patented a process for compressing pure black-lead
powder into solid compact blocks by which he was enabled to
use the dust, fragments, and cuttings of fine Cumberland lead.
Brockedon's process would have proved successful but the
exhaustion of the Borrowdale supplies and the excellence of
Conti's process rendered it more of scientific interest than of
commercial value.
The pencil leads prepared by the Cont^ process consbt of s
mixture of graphite and clay. The graphite, having been pulver-
ized and subjected to any necessary purifying processes, is
** floated " through a series of settling tanks, in each of which
the comparatively heavy particles sink, and only the still finer
particles are carried over. That which sinks in the last of the
series is in a condition of extremely fine division, and is used
for pencils of the highest quality. The day, which must be free
from sand and iron, is treated in the same manner. Clay and
graphite so prepared are mixed together in varying propor-
tions with water to a paste, passed repeatedly throu^ a
grinding mill, then placed in bags and squeezed in a
hydraulic press till they have the conustency of stiff dougli,
in which condition they are ready for forming pencil rods. For
this purpose the plastic mass is placed in a strong iipri^
Cylinder, from which a plunger or piston, moved by a tacw,
forces it out through a perforated base-plate in a continuous
thread. This thread is finally divided into suitable lengthii
which are heated in a closed crucible for some hours. Tlie two
factors which determine the comparative hardncsaand bladmess
of pencils are the proportions of graphite and clay in the leads
and the heat to which they are raised in the crucible. According
as the proportion of graphite is greater and the heat lover the
pencil is softer and of deeper black streak.
The wood in which the leads are cased is pencil cedar from
Juniperus wrginiana for the best qualities, and pine for the
cheaper ones. A board of the selected wood, having a thickness
about equal to half the diameter of the finished pencil and at
wide as four or six pencik, is passed through a machine whidi
smooths the surface and cuts round or square grooves to receive
the leads. The leads being placed in the grooves the board is
covered with another ^milarly grooved board, and the two
are fastened together with glue. When dry they are taken
to rapidly revolving cutters which remove the wood between
the leads. Hie individual pencils thus formed only need to
be finished by bdng dyed and varnished and stamped with
name, grade, &c. Instead of wood, paper has been tried for
the casings, rolled on in narrow strips which are torn, off to
expose fresh lead as the point becomes worn down by use.
Black pendls of an inferior quality are made from the dust oi
graphite melted up with sulphur and run into moulds. Such, with
a little tallow added to give them softness, are the pencils commonly
used by carpenters. Coloured pencils consist of a mixture of day,
with appropriate mineral colounng matter, wax, and tallow, treated
by the Conti method, as in making lead pencils. In indelible aad
copving pencils the oolouring matter is an aniline preparation mind
with day and gum. The mixture not onl^ malres a streak which
adheres to the paper, but. when the writing is moistened with water,
it dissolves ana assumes the appearance and properties of an ink.
PENDA, king of Mercia (d. 654 or 655), son of Pybba, probably
came to the throne in 626, but it is doubtful whether he actnaOy
became king of Mercia until 633, the year of the ddeat and deatk
of Edwin of Norihumbria. According to the An^o-Sami
Chronide he was eighty years old at his death, but the
of his administration and the evidence with regard to the
of his children and relatives render it almost impossible. la
628 the Chronicle records a battle between him and the Weil
Saxons at Cirencester in that year. In 633 Penda and CeadwaOn
ovci threw Edwin at Hatfield Chase; but after the defeat of
the WcUh king at Oswald at " Hefenfdth " in 634, Meida
seems to have been for a time subject to Northumbria. la
642 Penda slew Oswald at a place called Maerfeld. He was '
continually raiding Northumbria and once almost succeeded '
in reducing Bam borough. He drove Cenwalh of Wessex, who
had divorced his sister, from his throne. In 654 he attacked tht *
East Angles, and slew their king Anna (see East Anolu).
In 654 or 655 he invaded Northumbria in spite of the attempts
of Oswio to buy him off, and was defeated and slain on tht"
banks of the " Winwaed." In the reign of Penda the distridi
corresponding to Cheshire, Shropshire and Herefordshire wot
probably acquired, and he established his son Peadm at a
dependent prince in Middle Anglia. Although a pagan, ha;
allowed his daughter Cyneburg to marry Alchfrith. the MB dl.
PENDANT— PENDLETON, E.
87
Oivio, and it was in his reign that Christianity was introduced
into Middle Anglia by his son Peada.
See Bede. Hist. Bed. (cd. C. Plammer. Oxford. 1896) ; Ang^Saxon
Ckmici* (ed. Earle and Plummcr. Oxford, 1899).
FBmAlfT (throtigh Fr. from Lat. penderc, to hang), any hang-
iog object, such as a jewel or other ornament hanging from
I broodi, bracelet, &c., or the loose end of a knight's bell left
banging after passing through the buckle, and terminating in
in omamental end. In architecture the word b applied to an
doogated boss, either moulded or foliated, such as hangs down
hom the intersection of ribs, especially in fan tracery, or at the
end of hammer beams. Sometimes long corbels, under the wall
pieces, have been so called. The name has also been given to
ihe bxse masses depending from enriched ceilings, in the later
■orks of the Pointed style. " Pendants " or *' Pendent posts "
ue those timbers which are carried down t^ side of the wall
troin the i^te, and receive the hammer braces.
FBmniTIVI^ the term given in architecture to the bridging
icraas tlw angles of a square haU, so as to obtain a circular base
br a dcmie or drain. This may be done by corbelling out in
ihe an^es, in which case the pendent ive may be a portion of a
heini^>here of which the half diagonal of the square hall is the
nufius; or by throwing a series of arches across the angle, each
ring as it rises advandng in front of the one below and being
carried by it during its construction; in this case the base
obtained is octagonal, so that corbels or small pendentives
aie nequired for each angle of the octagon, unless as in the church
of SS. Sergius and Bacchus at Constantinople a portion of the
ioott is set back; or again, by a third method, by sinking a
Kfflidrcular niche in the angle. The first system was that
employed in St Sophia at Constantinople, and in Byzantine
chardies generally, also in the domed churches of Perigord and
Aqidtaliie. The second is found in the Sassanian palaces of
Serfaistan and Firuaabad, and in medieval architecture in
Ea^and, France and Germany, where the arches are termed
** squinchcs." The third system is found in the mosque at
Damascus, and was often adopted in the churches in Asia
Ifiaor. There b still another method in which the pendentivc
sad cupola arc part of the same hemispherical dome, and in
this case the ring courses lie in vertical instead of horizontal
phnes, examples of which may be found in the vault of Magnesia
OB Macandcr in Asia Minor, and in the tomb at Valence known
as k pemdeiUif de Valence. The problem is one which has taxed
the ingenuity of many builders in ancient times; the bas-reliefs
foaod at Nimnid show that in the 9th century B.C. domes were
evidently built over square halls, and must have been carried
OB poidentives of some kind.
PDRIEB. SIR JOHN (1816-1896), British cable pioneer, was
ham in the Vale of Leven, Scotland, on the loth of September
xSi6, and after attending school in Glasgow became a successful
■ecdhant in textile fabrics in that city and in Manchester.
IEs name is chiefly known in connexion with submarine cables,
of wUch on the commercial side he was an important promoter.
Hr WIS one of the 345 contributors who each risked a thousand
ponds in the Transatlantic Cable in 1857, and when the Atlantic
Tdegraph Company was ruined by the loss of the 1865 cable he
foned the Anglo-American Telegraph Company to continue
^wotl, but it was not till he had given his personal guarantee
ht a qaarttr of a milb'on pounds that the makers would undcr-
tale the noanufacture of a new cable. But in the end he was
jorti&ed, and telegraphic communication with America became
a eoBanerrial success. Subsequently he fostered cable enter-
priK in all parts of the world, and at the time of his death,
vfckh occurred at Footscray Place, Kent, on the 7th of July
1I96, he controlled companies having a capital of is millions
■ofog and owning 73,640 nautical miles of cables. He repre-
taud Wick Burghs in parliament from 1872 to 1885 and from
^ to 1896. He was made a K.C.M.G. in 1888 and was pro-
iMiad ia 1S92 to be G.C.M.G. His eldest son James (b. 1841),
^ vas M.P. for Mid Northamptonshire in 1895-1900, was
Qtafcd a baronet in 1897; and his third son, John Denison
^ 1S55), ^"^^ created a K.C.M.G. in 1901.
PBNDLESIDE SERIES, in geology, a series of shales between
the upper division of the Carboniferous Limestone and the
Millstone Grits occurring in the Midlands between Stoke-on-
Trent and Settle. It consists of black limestones at the base,
followed by black shales with calcareous nodules, which pass
into sandy shales with ganister-Uke sandstones. In places
the series attains a thickness of 1 500-1000 ft., and where it is
thickest the Millstone Grits also attain their maximum thickness.
The peculiarities of the series, which is characterized by a rich
fauna with Producius giganteus, P, striatus, Dibunopkyilum,
Cyathaxonia cornu and Lomdalcia fioriformis, can be best
studied on the western slope of Pendle Hill, Lancashire, in the
valley of the Hodder, dividing the counties of Lancashire and
Yorkshire, at Mam Tor and the Edale valley in Derbyshire, and
Morredge, the Dane valley in north Staffordshire, Bagillt and
Teilia in North Wales, and Scarlett and Poolvash, Isle of Man.
The limestones at the base are hard, compact and fissile, often
cherty, and vary much in the amount of calcium carbonate which
they contain, at times passing into calcareous shales.
These limestones and shales contain a distinct fauna which
appears for the first time in the Midlands, characterized by
PterinopecUn papyraceus^ PosidonicUa iaevis, Posidonomya
Bechcri, Posidonomya membranaceat Nomismoceras rotiforme
and Gyphioceras striatus. Immediately below beds with this
fauna are thin limestones with Prolecanites eompressus, Strobo-
ceras .HsMlcaius, many trilobites, and corals referable to the
genera Cyathaxonia^ Zaphrentis and Amplexizaphrentis. The
fauna characteristic of the Carboniferous Limestone becomes
largely extinct and is replaced by a shale fauna, but the
oncoming of the age of Goniatitcs is shown by the presence
in the upper part of the Carboniferous Limestone of numerous
species and genera of this group, Glyphioccras crencstria being
the most common and having the wider horizontal range.
The whole Pendleside series can be divided into zones by the
different species of Goniatites. At the base ProlecanUes eom-
pressus characterizes the passage beds between the Carboniferous
Limestone and the Pendlcsidcs; Nomismoceras rotiforme and
Gyphioceras striatus are found in a narrow zone immediately
above. Then Gyphioceras retictdatum appears and reaches
its maximum, and is succeeded by Gyphioceras diadema
and Gyphioceras spiralCf while immediately below the
Millstone Grits Gyphioceras hUingue appears and passes up in
that series. The Millstone Grits are characterized by the
presence of Gaslrioceras Listcri. The Pendleside scries is
therefore characterized by an Upper Carboniferous fauna,
Pterinopecten papyraceus, PosidonicUa iaevis and some other
species which pass up right ihiough the Coal Measures appearing
for the first time, and the base of the series marks the division
between Upper and Lower Carboniferous times.
The scries passes eastward into Belgium and thence into
Germany, when the same fossil zones are found in the basin of
Namur and the valley of the Dill. Traced westward the series is
well developed in Co. Dublin and on the west coast of Cos. Clare
and Limerick. There can be no doubt that the Pendleside series
of the Midlands represents the Lower Culm of Codden Hill,
north Devon, and the Lower Culm of the continent of Europe.
The faunas in these localities have the same biological succession
as in the midlands.
See Whcclton Hind and J. Allen Howe, Quart. Joum. Ceog.
Soc. vol. Ivii. (1901), and numerous other papers by the first-named
author. (W. Hi.)
PENDLETON, EDMUND (i 721-1805), American lawyer and
statesman, was bom, of English Royalist descent, in Caroline
county, Virginia, on the 9th of September 1721. He was
self-educated, but after reading law and being admitted to the
bar (1744) his success was immediate. He served in the
Virginia House of Burgesses from 1752 until the organization
of the state government in 1776, was the recognized leader of
the conservative Whigs, and took a leading part in opposing
the Britbh government. He was a member of the Virginia
committee of correspondence in 1773, in 1774 was president
of the Virginia provincial convention, and a member of the first
PENDLETON, G. H.— PENGUIN
a pRddcM oC the pioviiKuI the iludy. Id 1B17 he wu inMruncMal in .._..._ ._..
It coiutituliaii [or Viigiaii, ol Ibe Tocquiy Mcchinics' Iruiitutc, in 1844 tuidy owini to
at arew up \ne inairuciiDni to xar Vicginii mcaibcn o[ Congrcn bii enei(y the Totquiy Nitunl History Soricty wu fMudnl,
ditccllng ifaeiii la lulvacaie ihf indrpcndcncc of the Amcricui and in ifkSi he uiiated in lounding the Devonihire AnocUtioa
R>1oni«. In the ume year he became proident o[ the Virginii for the Advincemem o[ Literature. Science ud Ail. Meano'liite
comnitlce of safety, and in October wu clioien the £nl he had been occupied in collecting louili fnni many parll
(pealier of the [loux ol Delegates. With JeHenon and Chan- of Devon and Comwafl, and in i860 the Binmeii Buidetl-
cellor George Wythe he drew up a new law code tor Virginia. CouIIs acquired and presented then to the OiTord Museum,
He was picsdent o( the court of chancery in I7j7-i)afl, and where they lorm " The Pengeily Collection." Through the
froni 1770 unlU bis dsith wu pre^denl oi the Viijinia court ol genercoily of the same lady be was called upon to cxaoilM
appeals. He wu an enthusiaatic advocate ol the Federal consti' the lignites and days of Bony Trwrey, in conjunctioa with
tution. and in 1788 eierted strong influence to secure its nti£- Dc Cbwald Hetr. who undertook the delenninBtion of the
cation by his native Hale. He was a leader of the FedcnllM planl-remoins. Their report was published by the Royal
party In VirginU until bis death at Richmond, Va., od tbe Society (tWi), and Pengeily was elected F.R.S. in iStj. He
jjrd of October iSoj. aided in the inv«li(alioni ol the Britham bone-cavern ItoB
PEMDLETOH. GBOROB BOMT (i8]j~i98g), Americui lawyer the dale of Its discovery in 185S. the luU report being inutd
and legislator, was bom in Cinciniiati, Ohio, on the >5th ol in 1873; and he was the maineiplorer of Kent's Hole, Torquay.
July iSij. He was educated at the university ol Heidelberg, and from 1864 lor mote than fifteen yean he laboured with
studied law, wu ndnilited to the bar, and began (o practise unflagging energy in examining and lecoiding the eiocl positioB
at Cincinnati. He was a membtir of the Ohio Senate In 1S54 ol the numeroua organic remains thai were disinlerttd during
and liss. "^ '"in '^SJ to 186; was a Democratic member ol a lyitemalic investigation ol [his cave, carried on with the aid
the national House of Representatives, in which he oppcoed of grants from the British Auocialioo. He £nt attended the
■he war policy of Lincoln. In 1864 be was tbe Democratic British Association at the Cbtltenhlm meeting in 1S56, and was
one of the earliest champions of the "Ohio idea" (which 1884) until 18B9. His observations aasltltd in eslablishini
he is said 10 have originated), demanding that the government the Importun fact ol the contcmporandty of Palaeolithic man
should pay the principal of 111 s-»-y« 6% Imnds in the with various Pleiwoctne mammalia, aucb as the mammoth,
"greenback" currency instead ol in coin. Tbe agricultural cave-bear, cave-lion, ftc. He was awarded the Lyell medal
classes ol the West regarded this as a means of relief, and by the Geological Society of London in 1886. He died al
Fendlclon became their rccogniced leader and a candidate lor the Tortiuay on the i6lh of March 1S94-
Deniocntic nomination to Ihc presidency in 1868, but he failed See Mtmnr tj WiUiam Pnrdlf. edited by hu danthler Heua
10 receive the requisite two-third, majofily. In i86g he was Ihe r'"''7-/^n •J!:'"!"?^, "^ ^^ •™>'ti*i: wfl= by i6e Rev. Pi»
Democratic candidate for governor of Ohio, but was defeated _' l-t-- "oaocy UWJ-
by Rulherlord B. Hayes. For the ne.t ten year, he devoted ""OmM. tbe name of a flightless sea-bird,' but. u farai
himself to the practice of bw and 10 the supervision of Ihe '» "o""- ""' P*"" "> °'" ■°h»biling the seas ol Newfound-
Kentucky Railroiul Company, ol which he had become president '"'■ ",'" ""•* Voyage to Cape Breton, isj6 (Hohluyt,
in 1865. From 18,9 10 1885 he was a Democratic member of "<«"'«"■ ■"■ "M-tJo). "hicb subsequently becune knows
the United States Scnale, and introduced the ionralled Pendleton " "le great aul or garelowl (,.».); though the French equivl-
Act ol 1883 for reforming Ibe civil service, hostility to which !«"' "'^"•"' P"™™ "» <>" application, the word pengvia
lost him his scat in iSSs- He was minister 10 Germany Irom " *'>' £'«"«' omithdogists always used for certain luda
188; to the summer ol 18B0, and died at Brutselj on Ihe I4lh inl"*!"''"! •he Southern Ocean, called by Ibe French Uaackti,
of November 1889. '*" Sfkaticidat of omithologiiti. For a long while their
PBHBLOPE, ill Greek legend, wife of Odysseus, daughter of P™''™ ™ "fy ""ch misundetslood, some lyMeiDatisIS
Icarius and the nvraph Fcriboea. During the long absence °*™« ,P'»™ ""™ '""' «« ''«M« " A"^ "■ "lucl" iW
ol her husband alter the fall ol Troy many chidtainsof Ilhaca w" only a relationship of analogy, m indeed had been petttivtd
and the islands round about bcfame her suilors; and, to rid *" » f«" orailhologisis, who recogni«d in Ihe penguin* a vey
herself ol the importunities of the wooert. the bade Ihem wail ''■>'"'." "j""' '"f""'- L. Slejneger (Sb.mi^ Hal. HiM.
lill she had woi-en a winding-sheet for old LaWes. Ihe lalber *"*•■. ■'• ^oiton, i88sJ «ive the /k^mi independent rank
ol Odysseus. But every night she undid the piece which she "I"""'"' » "« «>' of Cannale birds; M. A. Mendiia
hail woven by day. This ihc did forlhree years, till her maids ''^"'l- ""^^ ''■ ''"•ft". Moscow, 1887) took a licnibr
revealed the secret. She was relieved by the arrival of Od)-sseua, '""'■ "■ FUrnring" *» *f»l W show their relalioD U
who returned alter an absence ol twenty yean, and slew the P'tKcUanliirma, and this view b now generally acdptii.
KODCTS. The character ol Penelope is less Cavourable in late 'Of Ihe Ihirr .dcHviIions assigned to this nme. the fini ta br '
wriicrs than in Ihe Homeric story. During her husband's absence S?*"!!:" '*' J '^<:'»^'""'.SiM.g9), where
she is Sai'l fo hnvi. hwwme Ihp mnlliiT nr P.n Kv H,.m-. ....t P^.'Pr'vP' wluW. llMd_ JlbtiCCOnd
his return, repudiated her as unfaithful (Herodotus which idea haagivtn origin to iheC
nd schol.). She thereupon withdrew to Sputa and birds; ihc ihirdiuppeaHii tobet
thence 10 Maiitincia. where she died and where her tomb was "«'■ W.'Ury, 4ih ki , ,.
shown. According to another «counl ri« married Telegonu. ?" ™mr3r«"^"^i-.5irni''""^
Ihc ion ol Od>'sseus and Circe, otur he had killed his lather, bctntuppaitedonihegrBUDdtkail^onsai
and dn-eli with him in the island ol Acala or in the Islands of cloKly allied to Welsh were afquainted i
thcmcjt(Hyginus,Frf. 117). that the conHwoojiswhiw pitthn 00
PBHOmV, WILUAH (,S,t-.Bm). English geologist and te^li5'p"^)oW«SilSfli"l3i«
anthropoiogist, was bom at East Looe in Cornwall on Ihe l.th and it theSfci^in™! besides which Ihe '
ol January iHii, thesonof the captain oTa small coasting vessel. >wcr<ed to be the aullnrsof Ibe name| lui
He began life as a sailor, »(let an demenlaiy education in Drake" and hit mm. Jn supfurl of the il
h" r'J", '"t'^S!:. '"' ™ -""l \*^^'^''>^ ; """"" 'i'"- ro'u'^f'i,^"? :iS''.^i:''Efii"'Si'f
He had developed a pawjn tor learning, and about 1836 he " pin wing." Sktafi inquiry (Ik. nK.), wh
temoved to Torquay and started a school; in 1846 he became alter all be South American, Is 10 heanmen
a private tulor in mathematics and nalutal science. Geology T^j'" t ^"''J^ '°^' " ""T™" '<> Jt'
had in early year, atlraclcd his attention, bul il was not uMil ^CW/™^, ^fiTb^i^ bT^ 1
U was about 30 years dI age ihat he began seriously to cultivate corruption el Ctirfui/ or GarclowV
PENHALLOW— PENINGTON 89
Tlcn i> ■ total mm of quilli [n their wingi, which ■reincipib)! ihm can be well djiiinpiiihed, u poinird oul by E. Ceuei la
el Inun, Iboueh Ibey move fredy it Ihe iboutdcr-ioinl, and fix. Aea4. ef Hal. Sii. if PhUadilfkia, lijt (pp. 1
It kut ol Ihc tpma occuioiully mlkc uM ol IhFB
t thty tn mow efficii
, Tliepluniafc, which dorfaea thft whale body, geaenlly decurvcd, from which Pygourtit,
t mM\ icak-Jike (eathen, many of Lhen
edy of JL lUinple shaft without the developmeat of \
MV«fal of tbe apeaea have the head decorated with lor
tuft!, and in sunc the tail-quiils, which are vtry
■R atu long.' In standing iheie birdi prtwcve an upright
■alkint or lufuiing ihii 'a Icept neariy
Aplctudyla.raiAy iccofnixed by ili long and ihtn bill, ilighlly
a hardly dfilmguiahable ; {1) Endyplri, in which the bill is
le shortish bill is compresaed and the mjuilla ends in a conspi-
JOus hook- Aplenodyki contains the largest species, among
lem ihoM known as Ihe " Empetot " and " King " penguins
.. palcitniia and A. lontirtilrii. Thm others belong also
''"■" """ "", if Pyiouttii be not rccogniud, h " '"
ksopfmngd by the toes alone. not to require any particutar renark. Eiidyptct, containing
iSe own northerly limit of the penguini' range in the the crested penguins, known to lailors as " Rock-bopper^ "
AthnliciiTristand'Acunha.and in the Indian Ocean Amslerdim or" MaurDnb,"woulclappetrlo have Gvelficcies, and Spktnit-
bland.but theyalsooccuroRlbeCapeoECoodHoprandalong eta four, among which S. mtnUcalKt, which occurs in the
the csut of Aanralii, is well ta on the south and east of New Galapagos, and therefore hu the moil northerly tinge of the
Ztahnd, wbile in tbc Pacific one spedes at least extends whole group, alone need* notice here. (A.N.)
■knc ibe wcit coast of South America and to the Galapagos: The jenrric amt .pedfic distribution of thepenguins is the subject
wason tbev Rsort Id the most desolate lands in higherioutheiB Uti kUvis nalirtUa for 1^ (vd i<..ii. 9, pp. 2j-8i): we also
Uliltule.. and indeed have been met with is far to the south- "« R«o"l>o( ihe Anurciic E.pedll,oo. >90i-iw
wanl u nivigalon have penetrated. Possibly the Falkland pKHHAUOW, SAMUEL (i66s-i)i6), American colonist
Uaod* m itehcM in ^ledes, though, as individuals, they ,nd historian, wax born at St Mabon. Cornwall, Entfand,
on the ind of July 1665. From i6Sj 10 16S6 he attended a
schod at N'ewington Creen (near London) conducted by Ihe
Rev. Charics Morton (1617-7698), a dissenting clergyman,
with whom he emigrated to Massachusells in 16S6. He was
commissioned hy the Society for Ihe Propagation of thcGospel
in New England 10 study the Indian bnguages and to preach
Removing to rotlsmoulh. New Hampshi
daughter o( John --
of New Ifampshi
IE present site of Portsmoui
in 170a he w.u speaker of tbe AsMinbly and in 1701 became >
member of Ihe Provincial Council, hut was suspended by
Lieut.-Covemor George Vaugban (1676-1714)- Fenhillow,
however, was sustained by Governor Samuel Shule (1661-1741),
and Vtughan was removed from oBice in 1716. In 1714
Penhillow was appointed a justice of the superior court oi
i;i6, and assccKlaiy of the province in 1714-17 16. Kc died at
Portsmouth on the iiid of December 1716. lie wrote a valuable
Hillary of Ou Wat ef Km Entload wilk Ua Ecslna /mfiuni,
Ku^-Ptn^mn{Apltm!iilylapauujilii. tr a NarratiK tf Iteir Cenliimid Pttfidy and CnuUy (1716;
, L ; i- _i -n., reprinted in the Csllatioia of tbe New Hampshire Historical
: Society, vol I., 1814, and again at Cincinnati in iSsq), which
1613
679-
t6a
6go
), president oi the prov
a successful merehanl
posaeaswn
ol c.
fish and vegclahle
ig colonies, known as " tookeries." Tht
■phalopods and other >«'«)'. "■'^ ";> '"4, »no aga
matter The birds '"*"* ''" !»'"" i™'" 'JOJ t"
PEHIHGTOH, SIR ISAAC (c. 1587-1661}, lord mayor of London,
iri S3' 1 .T™ 3':;'?; h-.i-'Cs •»». «..i «^» f.
•robably in isS). His
■Uu M greenish eggs are laid. The young penguins,
h thick down, are bom blind and an led by the parent
B iwwially long lime before taking to tht water. PenL „,„„„.„, ,„ ,„,. ,.,,, -„,„
to »wgely when molested, but art easily trained and ^l^i^iiJ^iJ^^i^^l, ETw™
Norfolk and SuRolk, whii
iroperty in Buckinghamshire
i6jg Isaac '
The Sp^tmucidat have been divided into at least eight geni
cr for the city of London, and immediately
DicivkKniDh' I ha I of ih n are well "" "*" '"^'■'™ """ '""VOr of LomJon,
■■dett ha* »l»rved IFiK, Zatl.Str., i,B79..,PP;, 6-9) that! elected lord mayor
mtmn, to " the shedding of the skin in a serpent.- lieutenant of the Tower in which capacity nc was pre!
"TtthwrnetatarsabinthepenguiiMarenot, asinotlierbinti. Ihe eaeculion of Laud; hut. though one of the commiJ
■ind tv tbc whole of their kngih, but onlji at the eitiemiiies,ihui (or the trial of Charles L, he did not sign the death w
!S^ a .portion of tWr oririnallydmLnct niiienw^ a (act ^,^„ ,],„ yng., j,,,), Peningion scrN'cd on Cromwell's ■
latii>i)Hba«> in an independent eondiiion. iervices were rewarded hy considerable grants of land.
go
PENINSULA— PENINSULAR WAR
knighthood conferred in 1649. lie was tried and convicted
of treason at the Restoration, and died while a prisoner in the
Tower on the 17th of December 1661. He was twice married,
and had six children by his first wife, several of whom became
Quakers.
Isaac Penincton (1616-1679), Sir Isaac's eldest son, was
one of the most notable of the 17th-century Quakers. He
was early troubled by religious perplexities, which found expres-
sion in many voluminous writings. No less than eleven religious
works, besides a political treatise in defence of democratic
principles, were published by him in eight years. He belonged
for a time to the sect of the Independents; but about 1657,
influenced probably by the preaching of George Fox, whom he
heard in Bedfordshire, Penington and his wife joined the Sodety
of Friends. His wife was daughter and heiress of Sir John
Proude, and widow of Sir William Springett, so that the worldly
position of the couple made them a valuable acquisition to the
Quakers. Isaac Penington was himself a man of very consider-
able gifts and sweetness of character. In x66i he was imprisoned
for refusing to take the oath of allegiance, and on several subse-
quent occasions he passed long periods in Reading and Aylesbury
gaols. He died on the 8th of October 1679; his wife, who wrote
an account of his imprisonments, survived till 1682. In 168 1
Penington's writings were published in a collected edition,
and several later editions were issued before the end of the i8ih
century. His son John Penington (1655-17 10) defended his
father's memory against attack, and published some con-
troversial tracts against George Keith. Edward Penington
(1667-1711), another of Isaac Penington's sons, emigrated to
Pennsylvania, where he founded a family. Isaac Penington's
stepdaughter, Gulielma Springett, married William Penn.
See Maria Webb, Tlie Penns and Peningtons of the tytk Century
(London, 1867); Lord Clarendon, HUtory of the Kebdlion and Civtl
Wars in England (7 vols.. Oxford, 1839); Bulstrodc Whitdocke.
Memorials of English Affairs: Charles I. to the Restoration (London,
1733): J- Gumev Sevan, Life of Isaac Penington (London, 1784);
Thomas Ellwooa. History oj the Life of Elhvood by his own hand
(London, 1765); Willem Sewel, History of the Quahers (6th ed., 2
vols., London, 1834).
PENINSULA (Lat. paeninsula, from paette, almost, and itisula,
an island), in physical geography, a piece of land nearly sur-
rounded by water. In its original sense it connotes attachment
to a larger land-mass by a neck of land (isthmus) narrower than
the peninsula itself, but it is often extended to apply to any
long promontory, the coast-line of which is markedly longer than
the landward boundary.
PENINSULAR WAR (1808-14). This imporUnt war, the
conduct and result of which greatly enhanced the prestige of
British arms, had for its main object the freedom of the Peninsula
of Spain and Portugal from the domination of Napoleon; and
hence it derives its name, though it terminated upon the soil
of France.
Nelson having destroyed the French fleet at Trafalgar,
Napoleon feared the possibility of a British army being landed
on the Peninsular coasts, whence in conjunction with Portuguese
and Spanish forces it might attack France from the south. He
therefore called upon Portugal, in August 1807, to comply with
his Berlin decree of the 21st of November 1806, under which
continental nations were to close their ports to British subjects,
and have no communication with Great Britain. At the same
time he persuaded the weak king of Spain (Charles IV.) and
his corrupt minister Godoy to permit a French army to pass
through Spain towards Portugal; while under a secret treaty
signed at Fontainebleau on the 27th of October 1807 Spanish
troops were to support the French. Portugal was to be sub-
sequently divided between Spain and France, and a new princi-
pality of the Algarve was to be carved out for Godoy. Portugal
remonstrated against Napoleon's demands, and a French corps
{30,000) under General Junot was instantly despatched to
Lisbon. Upon its approach the prince regent fled, and the
country was occupied by Junot, most of the Portuguese troops
being disbanded or sent abroad. Napoleon induced the king
of Spain to allow French troops to occupy the country and to
send the flower of the Spanish forces (15,000) under the marquis
of Romana * to assist the French on the Baltic Then Dupont
de I'Eung (25,000) was ordered to cross the Bidasaoa on the
32nd of November 1807; and by the 8th of January x8o8 he had
reached Burgos and Valladolid. Marshal Moncey with a corps
occupied Biscay and Navarre; Duhesme with a division entered
Catalom'a; and a little later Bessidres with another corps had
been brought up. There were now about 100,000 French
soldiers in Spain, and Murat, grand duke of Berg, as "lieutenant
for the emperor," entered Madrid. During February and
March 1808 the frontier fortresses of Pampcluna, St Sebastian,
Barcelona and Figueras were treacherously occupHed and Spain
lay at the feet of Napoleon. The Spanish people, in an outburtt
of fury against the king and Godoy, forced the former to abdicate
in favour of his son Ferdinand; but the inhabitants of Madrid
having (May 2, 1808) risen against the French, Napoleon refused
to recognize Ferdinand; both he and the king were compdled
to renounce their rights to the throne, and a mercenary councfl
of regency having been induced to desire the French emperor to
make his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, king, he acceded to their
request.*
The mask was now completely thrown off, and Spain and
Portugal rose against the French. Provincial '* juntas " (com-
mittees of govemmcni) were organized; appeals for assistance
made to the British government, which granted arms, money
and supplies, and it was resolved to despatch a British force
to the Peninsula. Before it landed, the French under Dupont,
Moncey and Marshal Bcssicres (75,000) had occupied parts
of Biscay, Navarre, Aragon and the Castilcs, holding Madrid
and Toledo, while General Duhesme (14.000) was in Catalonia.
Moncey (7000) had marched towards the city of Valencia, but
been repulsed in attempting to storm it (June 28); Bessifres
had defeated the Spanish general Joachim Blake at Medina
de Rio Seco (June 14, 1808) and Dupont (13,000) had bees
detached (May 24) from Madrid to reduce Seville and Cadiz in
Andalusia. Spanish levies, numbering nearly 100,000 regulars
and militia, brave and enthusiastic, but without organization,
sufficient training, or a commander-in-chief, had collected
together; 30,000 being in Andalusia, a similar number in Galida,
and others in Valencia and Estremadura. but few in the centra^
portion of Spain.
At this juncture Dupont, moving upon Cadiz, met with arevene
which greatly influenced the course of the Peninsular War. On
the 7th of June 1808 he had sacked Cordova; but while he was
laden with its spoils the Spanish general Castafios with the army
of Andalusia (30,000), and also a large body of armed peasantry,
approached. Falling back to And u jar, where he was reinforced
to 22,000 strong, Dupont detached a force to hold the mountaia
passes in his rear, whereupon the Spaniards interposed betwcca
the detachment and the main body and seized Baylen. FaiUim
to dislodge them, and surrounded by hostile troops and as
infuriated peasantry, Dupont capitulated with overi
20,000 men. This victory, together with the in-
trepid defence of Saragossa by the Spanish general'*''
Jos6 Palafox (June 15 to August 13, 180S) tempoiarily
paralysed the French and created unbounded enthusiasm fa
Spain. Duhesme, having failed to take Gerona, was Uockadsd
in Barcelona, Joseph fled from Madrid (Aug. i, 1808), and ibt
French forces closed to their rear to defend their communicaUons
with France. The British troops were directed towards Lisbon
and Cadiz, in order to secure these harbours, to prevent tlie
subjugation of Andalusia, and to operate up the bauns of the
Guadtana, Tagus and Douro into Spain. The British force
consisted of 9000 men from Cork, under Sir Arthur Welleslqf—
at first in chief command; 5000 from Gibraltar, under Gcncial
(Sir Brent) Spencer; and 10,000 under Sir John Moore oomiog
from Sweden: Wcllesley and Moore being directed towsrdi
Portugal, and Spencer to Cadiz. On the ist of August il
' They subsequently escaped from Jutland, on British
and reached Santandcr in October 1808.
• The king, the queen and Godoy were eventually
Rome, and Ferdinand to Valcn^ay in France.
PENINSULAR WAR
9«
Weflcdey began to land his troops, unopposed, near Figueira da
Fn at the mouth of the Mondego; and the Spanish victory of
Baylen having relieved Cadiz from danger, Spencer now joined
hiiDr, and, without waiting for Moore the army, under 15,000 in
sO (which included some Portuguese)* with z8 gims, advanced
towards Lisbon.
Cmmpaipt in Portugal, 1808.— Tht first skirmish took place
at Obkloa on the xsth of August 1808, against Delaborde's
(fivHum (5000 men with 5 guns), which fell back to Rolcia
(Rxwiga or Roh'ca). A battle took place here (Aug. 17) in which
Sir Arthur WeUesley attacked and drove him from two successive
poBtions. The allied loss was about 500: the French 600 and
three guns.' On the 20th of August the Allies, strengthened
by the arrival of two more brigades (4000 men), occupied some
kdgfats north of >^miera (Vimeira or Vimeiro) where the roads
bonch <^ to Torres Vedras and Mafra. WeUesley meant to
turn the defile dt Torres Vedras by Mafra at once if possible;
bat on this ni^t Sir Harry Burrard, his senior, arrived off
Vimiera, and though he did not land, gave instructions to wait
for Sir John Moore. On the 21st of August the Allies were
sttacked by Junot at Vimiera, who, leaving a force at Lisbon,
had come up to reinforce Delaborde. In this battle the Allies
numbered about 18,000 with 18 guns, French nearly
14,000, with 30 guns. Junot, believing the allied
"'• left to be weakly held, attacked it without recon-
^* noitring, but Wellesley's regiments, marched thither
behind the heights, sprang up in line; and under their volleys
tod bayonet charge, suj^rarted by artillery fire, Junot 's deep
columns were driven off the direct road to Lisbon. The losses
were: Allies about 800, French 2000 and 13 guns. It was now
again Wellesley's wish to advance and seize Torres Vedras; but
Sir Hew Dalrymple, having at this moment assumed command,
deckled otherwise. On the 2nd of Augrist Junot, knowing
of the approach of Moore with reinforcements, and afraid of
a revolt in Lisbon, opened negotiations, which resulted in the
Convention of Gntra' (Aug. 30, 1808), under which the French
evacuated Portugal, on condition that they were sent with
their artillery and arms to France. Thus this campaign had been
rapidly brought to a satisfactory conclusion; and Sir Arthur
WeOesley had already given proof of his exceptional gifts as
a leader. In Eng^d however a cry was raised that Junot
dxmid have been forced to an absolutely unconditional surrender;
and Sir Arthur WeUesley, Sir Hew Dalrymple and Sir Harry
Burrard' were brought before a court of inquiry in London.
This acquitted them of blame, and Sir John Moore in the mean-
time after the departure of Dalrymple (Oct. 6, 1808) had assumed
ol the allied army in Portugal, now about 32,000
M9§t^s Campaign in Spain, t8o8-g.— The British govem-
Bcst notified to Sir John Moore that some 10,000 men were
to be sent to Corunna under Sir David Baird; that he, with
sojooo. was to join him, and then both act in concert with the
Spanish armies. As the conduct of this campaign was largely
iaflucnced by the operations of the Spanish forces, it is necessary
t» BKotion their positions, and also the faa that greater reliance
had been placed, both in England and Spain, upon them than
fotve events justified. On the 26th of October 1808, when
Moore's troops, had left Lisbon to join Baird, the French still
leM a defensive position behind the Ebro; Bessi^res being in the
banof Vitoria, Marshal Key north-west of LogroiVo, and Moncey
covering Pampeluna, and near Sanguessa. With the garrisons
of Biscay. Navarre, and a reserVb at Bayonne, their strength
VIS about 7S*ooo men. Palafox (20,000) was near Saragossa and
Sanguessa; CasUfios with the victors of Baylen
' la this account of the war the losses and numbers engaged in
Merest battles are given approximately only; and the former
ivMe killed, wounded and missing. Historians differ much on
ibese Bsatters.
! ' it was not. however, signed at Cintra. but at Lisbon, and was
i aatiiy negotiated near Torres Vedras. . o. . t.
•The two latter were recalled from the Penmsula; Sir Arthur
Wrikaley had pnxxeded to London upon leave, and had only signed
dbeanaiccice with Junot, not the convention itself.
(34,000) west and south of Tudela and near Logrofto; Blake
(32,000) east of Reynosa, having captured Bilbao; Count de
Belvedere (11,000) near Burgos; reserves (57,000) were assem-
bUng about Segovia, Talavera and Cordova; Catalonia was held
by 23,000, and Madrid had been reoccupied.
Moore had to decide whether to join Baird by sea or land.
To do so by sea at this season was to risk delay, while in moving
by land he would have the Spanish armies between him and the
French. For these reasons he marched by land; and as the
roads north of the Tagus were deemed impassable for guns, while
transport and supplies for a large force were also difficult to
procure, he sent Sir John Hope, with the artillery, cavalry and
reserve ammunition column, south of the river, through Badajoz
to Almaraz, to move thence through Talavera, Madrid and the
Escurial Pass, involving a considerable ddtour; while he himself
with the infantry, marching by successive divisions, took the
shorter roads north of the Tagus through Coimbra and Almeida,
and also by Alcantara and Coria to Ciudad Rodrigo and Sala-
manca. Baird was to move south through Galicia to meet him,
and the army was to concentrate at Valladolid, Burgos, or
whatever point might seem later on to be best. But as Moore
was moving forward, the whole situation in Spain changed.
Napoleon's forces, now increased to some 200,000 men present
and more following, were assuming the offensive, and he himself
on the 30th of October — had left Paris to place himself at
their head. Before them the Spaniards were routed in every
direction: Castaftos was defeated near LogroAo (Oct. 27);
Castaflos and Palafox at Tudela (Nov. 23); Blake at 2U>moza
(Oct. 20), Espinosa (Nov. 11) and Reynosa (Nov. 13); and
Belvedere at Gamonal, near Burgos (Nov. 10). Thus when
Moore reached Salamanca (Nov. 28) Baird was at Astorga;
Hope at the Escurial Pass; Napoleon himself at Aranda; and
French troops at Valladolid, Arevalo and Segovia; so that the
French were nearer than either Baird or Hope to Moore at
Salamanca. Moore was ignorant of their exact position and
strength, but he knew that Valladolid had been occupied, and
so. his first orders were that Baird should fall back to Galicia
and Hope to Portugal. But these were soon changed, and he
now took the important resolution of striking a blow for Spain,
and for the defenders of Madrid, by attacking Napoleon's
communications with France. Hope having joined him through
Avila, and magazines having been formed at Benaventc, Astorga
and Lugo, in case of retreat in that direction, he moved
forward, and on the 13th of December approached the Douro,
at and near Rueda east of Toro. Here he learnt that Madrid
had fallen to Napoleon (Dec. 3) after he had by a brilliant
charge of the Polish lancers and chasseurs of the Guard forced
the Somosierra Pass (Nov. 30) and in another action stormed
the Retiro commanding Madrid itself (Dec. 3) ; that the French
were pressing on towards Lisbon and Andalusia; that Napoleon
was unaware of his vicinity, and that Souk's corps, isolated on
the Carrion River, had been ordered towards Benavente. He
then finally decided to attack Souk (intending subsequently to
fall back through Galicia) and ordered up transports from
Lisbon to Corunna and Vigo; thus changing his base from
Portugal to the north-west of Spain; Blake's Spanish army,
now rallying under the marquis de la Romafia near Leon, was
to co-operate, but was able to give little effective aid.
On the 20lh of December Baird joined Moore near Mayorga,
and a brilliant cavalry combat now took place at Sahagun, in
which the British hussar brigade distinguished itself. But on
the 23rd of December, when Moore was at Sahagun and about
to attack Soult, he learnt that overwhelming French forces
were hastening towards him, so withdrew across the Esla, near
Benevente (Dec. 28), destroying the bridge there. Napoleon,
directly he realized Moore's proximity, had ordered Soult to
Astorga to cut him off from Galicia; redaUcd his other troops
from their march towards Lisbon and Andalusia, and. with
50,000 men and 1 50 guns, had left Madrid himself (Dec. 22). He
traversed over 100 m. in less than five days across the snow-
covered Escurial Pass, reaching Tordcsillas on the Douro on the
26th of December. Hence he wrote to Soult, " If the English
92
PENINSULAR WAR
pass to-day in their position (which he believed to be Sahagun)
they are lost." But Moore had passed Astorga by the 31st of
December, where Napoleon arrived on the ist of January iSog.
Thence he turned back, with a large portion of his army towards
France, leaving Soult with over 40,000 men to follow Moore.
On the " Retreat to Corunna " fatigue, wet and bitter cold,
comtnned with the sense of an enforced retreat, shook the
discipline iif Moore's army; but he reached Corunna on the nth
of January 1809, where he took up a position across the road
from Lugo, with his left on the river Mero. On the X4th of
January the transports arrived; and on the i6th Soult attacked.
Bstthot In this battle the French numbered about 20,000 with
Conmam, 40 guns; the British 15,000 with 9 very light guns.
^M»|j«0''*» Soult failed to dislodge the British, and Moore was
'^^ about to deliver a counter-attack when he himself
fell mortally wounded. Baird was also wounded, and as night
was approaching, Hope suspended the advance, and sul^
quently embarked the army, with scarcely any further loss. The
British casualties were about 1000, the French 200a When the
troops landed in England, half clothed and half shod, their
leader's conduct of the campaign was at first blamed, but his
reputation as a general rests solidly upon these facts, that
when Napoleon in person, having nearly 300,000 men in Spain,
had stretched forth his hand to seize Portugal and Andalusia,
•Moore with 30,000, forced him to withdraw it, and follow him to
Corunna, escaping at the same time from his grasp. Certainly a
notable achievement.
Campaign in Portugal and Spain^ j8og. — On the 22nd of April
180Q Sir Arthur Wcllcslcy reached Lisbon. By this time,
French armies, to a great extent controlled by Napoleon from a
distance, had advanced — Soult from Galicia to capture Oporto
and Lisbon (with General Lapisse from Salamanca moving on
his left towards Abrantcs) and Marshal Victor, still farther
to the left, with a siege train to take Badajoz, Merida and subse-
quently Cadiz. Soult (over 20,000), leaving Ney in Galicia, had
taken and sacked Oporto (March 29, 1809); but the Portuguese
having closed upon his rear and occupied Vigo, he halted,
detaching a force to Amarante to keep open the road to Braganza
and asked for reinforcements. Victor had crossed the Tagus, and
defeated Cucsta at Mcdcllin (March 28, 1809); but, surrounded
by insurgents, he also had halted; Lapisse had joined him, and
together they were near Merida, 30,000 strong. On the allied
side the British (25,000), including some German auxiliaries,
were about Lciria: the Portuguese regular troops (16,000) near
Thomar; and some thousands of Portuguese militia were observ-
ing Soult in the north of Portugal, a body imder Silveira being
at Amarante, which Soult was now approaching. Much progress
had been made in the organization and training of the Portuguese
levies; Major-Gcncral William Carr Beresford, with the raijk of
marshal, was placed at their head. Of the Spaniards, Palafox,
after his defeat at Tudcia had most gallantly defended Saragossa
a second time (Dec. 20, 1808-Fcb. 20, 1809); the Catolonians,
after reverses at Molins de Rey (Dec. 21, 1808) and at Vails
(Feb. 25, 1809) had taken refuge in Tarragona; and Rosas had
fallen (Dec. 5, 1808) to the French general Gouvion St Cyr who,
having relieved Barcelona, was besieging Gcrona. Romafia's
force was now near Orcnsc in Galicia. A supreme junta had been
formed which could nominally assemble about 100,000 men,
but jealousy among its members was rife, and they still declined
to appoint any commander-in-chief.
On the 5th of May 1809, Wellesley moved towards the
river Douro, having detached Beresford to seize Amarante,
from which the French had now driven Silveira. Soult
Pasutgtoi expected the passage of the Douro to be attempted
ih9 Douro, near its mouth, with fishing craft; but Wellesley, by
May 12,1809. j^^ daring surprise, crossed (May 12) close above
Oporto, and also by a ford higher up. After some fighting
Oporto was taken, and Soult driven back. The Portuguese
being in his rear, and Wellesley closing with him, the only good
road of retreat available lay through Amarante, but he now
learned that Beresford had taken this important point from
Silveira; so he was then compelled, abandoning his guns and
much baggage, to escape, with a 4o5s of some 5000 men, over the
mountains of the Sierra Catalina to Salamonde, and thence to
Orense.
During the above operations, Victor, with Lapisse, had forced
the passage of the Tagus at Alcantara but, on Wellesley return-
ing to Abrantes, he retired. News having been received that
Napoleon had suffered a serious check at the battle of Aq>em,
near Vienna (May 32, 1809), Wellesley next determined — leaving
Beresford (20,000) near Ciudad Rodrigo— to moVe with 23,000
men, in conjunction with Cuesta's Spanish army (40,000)
towards Madrid against Victor, who, with 35,000 supported
by King Joseph (50,000) covering the capital, was near Talavera.
Sir Robert Wilson with 4000 Portuguese from Salamanca, and
a Spanish force under Venegas (25,000) from Carolina, were to
co-operate and occupy Joseph, by closing upon Madrid. Cuesta,
during the advance up the valley of the Tagus, was to occupy
the pass of Baftos on the left flank; the Spanish authorities were
to supply provisions, and Venegas was to be at Arganda, near
Madrid, by the 22nd or 33rd of July; but none of these arrange-
ments were duly carried out, and it was on this that the remain-
der of the campaign turned. Writing to Soult from Austria,
Napoleon had placed the corps of Ney and Mortier under his
orders, and said: " Wellesley will most likely advance by the
Tagus against Madrid; in that case, pass the mountains, fall on
his flank and rear, and crush him."
By the 20th of July Cuesta had joined Wellesley at Oropesa;
and both then moved forward to Talavera, Victor falling back
before them: but Cuesta, irritable and jealous, -,^^. .
would not work cordially with Wellesley; Venegas — Takntn,
counter-ordered it is said by the Spanish junta — did Jmly2r,it,
not go to Arganda, and Wilson, though he advanced '"*'
close to Madrid, was forced to retire, so that Joseph joined
Victor, and the united force attacked the Allies at Talaven
de la Reina on the Tagus. The battle lasted for two days,
and ended in the defeat of the French, who fell back towards
Madrid.* Owing to want of supplies, the British had fought
in a half-starved condition; and Wellesley now learnt to his sur-
prise that Soult had passed the mountains and was in his rear.
Having turned about, he was on the march to attack him, when
he heard (Aug. 23) that not Soult's corps alone, but three Frendi
corps, had come through the pass of Bafios without opposition;
that Soult himself was at Naval Moral, between him and the
bridge of Almaraz on the Tagus, and that Cuesta was retreating
from Talavera. Wellesley's force was now in a dangerous
position: but by withdrawing at once across the Tagus at
Arzobispo, he reached Jaraicejo and Almaraz (by the south
bank) blowing up the bridge at Almaraz, and thence moved,
through Merida, northwards to the banks of the Agueda,
commendng to fortify the country around Lisbon.
Elsewhere in the Peninsula during this year, Blake, now
in Catalonia, after routing Suchet at Alcaniz (May 23, i8oq),
was defeated by him at Maria (June 1 5) and at Belchite (June
18); Venegas, by King Joseph and S^basliani, at Almonadd
on the nth of August; Del Parque (20,000), after a previoiis
victory near Salamanca (Oct. 18), was overthrown at Alba de
Tormes by General Marchand (Nov. 28) : the old forces of Vencgtt
and Cuesta (50,000), now united under Areizaga, were dcdsiv^
routed, by King Joseph at Ocafia (Nov.19); and Gerona after
a gallant defence, had surrendered to Augereau (Dec xo).
Sir Arthur Wellesley was for this campaign created BaroQ
Douro and Viscount Wellington. He was made captain-geneial
by Spain, and marshal-general by Portugal. But his experience
after Talavera had been akin to that of Moore; his exp^ctatiooi
from the Spaniards had not been realized; he had bom alnKMt
intercepted by the French, and he had narrowly escaped fron a
critical position. Henceforth he resisted all proposals for Joiaft
operations, on any large scale, with Spanish armies not under
his own direct command.
* After the battle the Lii^ht Di>nsion, under Robert CianfiwdL-
t'oincd Wellesley. In the endeavour to reach the field in ttae k
lad covered, in heavy marching order, over 50 m. in as boon, it
hot July weather.
PENINSULAR WAR
93
Campaiim in Pcftugdt j8io. — Napoleon, having avenged
Aspern by the victory of Wagram (July 6, 1809), despatched to
Spain Urge rdnforcements destined to increase his army there
to about 370,000 men. Alarshal Mass^na with 1 20,000, including
the corps of Nqt, Junot, Rcynier and some of the Imperial
Guard, was to operate from Salamanca against Portugal; but
first Soult, appointed major-general of the army in Spain
(equivalent to chief of the staff), was, with the corps of Victor,
Morticr and S^basliani (70,000), to reduce Andalusia. Soult
(Jan. 31, 1810) occupied Seville and escaping thence to Cadiz,
the Supreme Jimta resigned its powers to a regency of five
BMmbers (Feb. a, 1810). Cadiz was invested by Victor's corps
(Feb. 4), and then Soult halted, waiting for Mass^na, who arrived
tt ValladoUd on the 15 th of May.
In England a party in parliament were urging the withdrawal
of the Britli^ troops, and any reverse to the allied arms would
kave strengthened its hands. Wellington's policy was thus
cautious ami defensive, and he had already commenced the since
famous lines of Torres Vedras round Lisbon. In June 1810 his
headquarters were at Celorico. With about 35,000 British,
jo.ooo Portuguese regular troops and 30,000 Portuguese militia,
be watched the roads leading into Portugal past Ciudad Rodrigo
to the north, and Badajoz to the south of the Tagus, as also the line
of the Douro and the country between the Elga and the Ponsul.
Soult having been instructed to co-operate by taking Badajoz
and Eivos, Mass^na, early in June 18 10, moved forward, and
Ciudad Rodrigo surrendered to him (June 10). Next pushing
back a British force under Craufurd, he invested Almeida,
tiLing it on the a7th of August. Then calling up Reynier,
«ho during this had moved on his left towards Alcantara,
he marchnl down the right bank of the Mondcgo, and
entered Viseu (Sept. ai). Wellington fell back before him
down the left bank, ordering up Rowland Hill's force from
the Badajoz road, the peasantry having been previously
calkd upon to destroy their crops and retire within the lines of
Torres Vedns. A Uttle north of Coimbra, the road which
Massina followed crossed the Sierra de Bussaco (Busaco), a very
strong position where Wellington resolved to offer him battle.
Mass^na, superior in numbers and over-confident, made a direct
attack upon the heights on the ayth of September 1810: hu
^ strength bdng about 60,000, while that of the Allies
was about 50,000, of whom nearly half were Portu-
guese. After a stem conflict the French were
repulsod, the loss being five generals and nearly 5000
men, wlule the Allies lost about 1300. The next day Mass^na
tweed the Sierra by the Boyalva Pass and Sardao, which latter
place, owing to an error, had not been occupied by the Portu-
guese, and Wellington then retreated by Coimbra and Leiria
to the lines, which he entered on the nth of October, having
within them fiilly 100,000 able-bodied men.
The celebrated " Lines of Torres Vedras " were defensive
works designed to resist any army which Napoleon could send
against them. They consisted of three great lines,
strengthened by about 150 redoubts, and earthworks
of various descriptions, mounting some 600 cannon;
the outer line, nearly 30 m. bng, stretching over
heists north of Lisbon, from the Tagus to the sea. As Moss^na
advanced, the Portuguese closing upon his rear retook Coimbra
(Oct. 7), and when he neared the lines, astounded at their strength,
he sent General Foy to the emperor to ask for reinforcements.
After an effort, defeated by Hill, to cross the Tagus, he withdrew
(Nov. 15) to Santarcm. This practically dosed Wellington's
operations for the year 1810, his policy now being not to lose
Ben in battle, but to reduce MasUna by hunger and distress.
In other parts of Spain, Augereau had taken Hostalrich (May
»); captured Lerida (May 14); Mequinenza (June 8); and
invested Tortosa (Dec 15). The Spanish levies had been imable
to contribute much aid to the Allies; the French having subdued
•Imoit all Spain, and being now in possession of Ciudad Rodrigo
ud Almeida. On the other hand Welb'ngton still held Lisbon
•ith parts of Portugal, Elvas and Badajoz, for Soult had not
Mt disposed to attempt the capture of the last two fortresses.
jr.aMfL
Campaign of tSir.—'Szpcliton, whose attention was now
directed towards Russia, refused to reinforce Mass^na, but
enjoined Soult to aid him by moving against Badajoz. Soult,
therefore, leaving Victor before Cadiz, invested Badajoz (Jan.
26, 181 1) and took it from the Spaniards (March 10). With the
hope of raising the blockade of Cadiz, a force under Sir Thomas
Graham (aften^ards Lord Lynedoch [g.v.\) left that harbour by
sea, and joining with Spanish troops near Tarifa, advanced by
land against Victor's blockading force, a Spamsh general. La
PeAa, being in chief command. As they neared Barrosa, Victor
attacked them, the Allies numbering in the battle about 13,000
with 3 1 guns, 4000 being British; the French 9000, actually
engaged, with 14 guns; but with 5000 more a few miles off and
others in the French lines. Hard fighting, chiefly
between the French and British, now ensued, and
at one time the Barrosa ridge, the key of the position
left by La Pefta's orders, practically undefended, ''"*
fell into the French hands: but Graham by a resolute
counter-attack regained it, and Victor was in the end driven
back. La Pefia, who had in the battle itself failed to give
proper support to Graham, would not pursue, and Graham
declining to carry on further operations with him, re-entered
Cadiz. The French afterwards resumed the blockade, so that
although Barrosa was an allied victory, its object was not
attained. The British loss was about laoo; the French aooo,
6 guns and an eagle.
On the day of the above battle Mass6na, having destroyed
what guns he could not horse, and skilfully gained time by a
feint against Abrantes, began his retreat from before ^,,^,^
the lines, through Coimbra and EspinhaL His jt^^Mt '
army was in serious distress; he was in want of food
and supplies; most of his horses were dead, and his men were
deserting. Wellington followed, directing the Portuguese to
remove all boats from the Mondego and Douro, and to break
up roads north of the former river. Beresford was detached
to succour Badajoz, but was soon recalled, as it had fallen to
Soult. Ney, commanding Mass6na's rearguard, conducted
the retreat with great ability. In the pursuit, Wellington
adhered to his policy of husbanding his troops for future offensive
operations, and let sickness and hunger do the work of the sword.
This they effectually did. Nothing could well exceed the horrors
of Mass6na's retreat. Rearguard actions were fought at Pombal
(March 10), Rcdinha (March 1 2) and Condeixa (March 13). Here
Ney was directed to moke a firm stand; but, ascertaining that the
Portuguese were at Coimbra and the bridge there broken, and
fearing to be cut off also from Murcclla, he burnt Condeixa,
and marched to Cazal Nova. An action took place here (March
14) and at Foz d'Arouce (March 15). Wellington now sent off
Beresford with a force to retake Badajoz; and Mass^na, sacri-
ficing much of his baggage and ammunition, reached Celorico
and Guarda (March 21). Here he was attacked by Wellington
(March 39) and, after a further engagement at Sabugal (April 3,
181 1), he fell back through Ciudad to Salamanca, having lost
in Portugal nearly 30,000 men, chiefly from want and disease,
and 6000 in the retreat alone.
The key to the remaining operations of 181 1 Ues in the import
tance attached by both Allies and French to the possession of
the fortresses which guarded the two great roads from Portugal
into Spain — Almeida and Ciudad Rodrigo on the northern, and
Badajoz and Elvas on the southern road; all these except Elvas
were in French hands. Wellington, on the 9th of April 181 1,
directed General Spencer to invest Almeida; he then set off
himself to join Beresford before Badajoz, but after reconnoitring
the fortress with his lieutenant he had at once to return north
on the news that Mass£na was moving to relieve Almeida. On
the 3rd of May Loison attacked him at Fucntes d'Onor near
Almeida, and Mass^na coming up himself made a more serious
attack on the sth of May. The Allies numbered g^^^i^ ^
about 33,000, with 43 guns; the French 4S»ooo with Pifat—
30 guns. The battle is chiefly notable for the steadi- ^^.^'^'f,
ness with which the allied right, covered by the Light ^V'"""
Division in squares, changed position in presence of the French
94
PENINSULAR WAR
cavalry; and for the cxtraoidiiiary feat of arms of Ci^taiii
Norman Ramsay, R.I1.A., in charging through the French cavalry
with his guns. Massina failed to dislodge the Allies, and on
the 8th of May withdrew to Salamanca, Almeida falling to
Wellington on the nth of May i8ix. The allied loss in the
fighting on both days at Fuentes d'Onor was about 1500: the
French 3000.
In the meantime Soult (with 23,000 men and $<> Suns)» ad-
vancing to relieve Badajoa, compdled Beresford to 8uq;)end
the siege, and to take up a position with about 30,000
men (of whom 7000 were British) and 38 guns
behind the river Albuhera (or Albuera). Here
Soult attacked him on the x6th of May. An unusu-
ally bloody battle ensued, in which the French efforts were
chiefly directed against the allied right, held by the Spaniards.
At one time the right appeared to be broken, and 6 guns were
mi.
lost, when a gallant advance of Sir Lowry Cole's division^ "gallantry of the troops made i^ successful, thou{^ with
restored the day, Soult then falling back towards Seville. The
allied loss was about 7000 (including about half the British
force); the French about 8000.
After this Wellington from Almeida rejoined Beresford and
the siege of Badajoa was continued: but now Marshal Marmont,
having succeeded Mass^na, was marching southwards to join
Soult, and, two allied assaults of Badajoz having failed, Welling-
ton withdrew. Subsequently, leaving Hill in the Alemtejo, he
returned towards Almeida, and with 40,000 men commenced
a blockade of Ciudad Rodrigo, his headquarters being at Fuente
Guinaldo. Soult and Marmont now fell back, the former to
Seville, the lattor to the valley of the Tagus, south of the pass of
Bafios.
. In September, Marmont joined with the army of the north
under General Dorsenne, coming from Salamanca— their total
force being 60,000, with 100 guns — and succeeded (Sept. 35) in
introducing a convoy of provisions into Ciudad Rodrigo. Before
so superior a force, Wellington had not attempted to maintain
the blockade; but on Inlarmont afterwards advancing towards
him, he fought a reaiguard action with him at El Bodon (Sept.
25), notable, as was Fuentes d'Onor, for the coolness with which
the allied squares retired amidst the enemy's horsemen; and
again at Fuente Guinaldo (Sept. 25 and 36) he maintained for
30 hours, with 15,000 men, a bold front against Marmont's
army of 60,000, in order to save the Light Division from being
cut off. At Aldea de Ponte there was a further sharp engage-
ment (Sept. 27), but Wellington taking up a strong position near
Sabu^, Marmont and Dorsenne withdrew once more to the
valley of the Tagus and Salamanca respectively, and Wellington
again blockaded Ciudad Rodrigo.
Thus terminated the main operations of this year. On the
38th of October 181 1, Hill, by a very skilful surprise, captured
Arroyo de bs Molinos (between Badajoz and TrujiUo), almost
Annihilating a French corps under Gfrard; and in December 181 1
the French were repulsed in their efforts to capture Tarifa near
Cadiz. In the east of Spain Suchet took Tortosa (Jan. i, 181 1) ;
Tarragona (June 38); and Murviedro (Oct. 26), defeating Blake's
relieving force, which then took refuge in Valencia. Macdonald
also retook Figueras which the Spaniards had taken on the 9th
of April 181 1 (Aug. 19). Portugal had now been freed from the
French, but they still held Qudad Rodrigo and Badajoz, the
two main gates into Spain.
Campaign in Spain^ t8i2\ — ^The campaign of 181 3 marks an
important stage in the war. Napoleon, with the Russian War in
prospect, had early in the year withdrawn 30,000 men from
Spain; and Wellington had begun to carry on what he termed a
war of " magazines." Based on rivers (the navigation of which
greatly improved) and the sea, he formed d£p6ts or magazines
pf provisions at many points, which enabled him always to take
and keep the field. Tlie French, on the other hand, had great
difficulty in establishing any such reserves of food, owing to
their practice of depending for sustenance entirely upon the
country in which they were quartered. Wellington assumed
the offensive, and by various movements and feints, aided the
guerrilU bands by iordng the French coips to assemble in their
districts, which not only greatly harassed them but also materi-
ally hindered the combination of their corps for concerted action.
Having secretly got a battering train into Almeida and directed
Hill, as a blind, to engage Soult by threatening Badajos, be
suddenly (Jan. 8, 181 3) besieged Ciudad Rodrigo.
The French, still nimibering neariy 300,000, now hdd the
following positions: the Army of the North — Dorsenne (48,000)—
was about the Pisuerga, in the Asturias, and along the northern
coast; the Army of Portugal — Marmont (50,000) — mainly in
the valley of the Tagus, but ordered to Salamanca; the Army <rf
the South — ^Soult (55,000) — in Andalusia; the Army of the Centre
— ^Joseph (19,000) — about Madrid.
The siege of Ciudad Rodrigo was calculated in the ordinary
course to require twenty-four days: but on it becoming known that
Marmont was moving northward, the assault was
delivered after twelve days only (Jan. 19). The
19, laa.
the loss of Generals Craufuc4 and McKinnon,and 1300
men, and Marmont's battering train of 150 guns here
fell into the allied hands. Then, -after a fdnt of passing on into
Spain, Wellington rapidly marched south and, with 32,000 men,
laid siege to Badajoz (March 17, 181 3), Hill with 30,000 covering
the si^e near Merida. Wellington was hampered by want of
time, and had to assault prcmaturdy. Soult and Marmont
having begun to move to xelieve the garrison, the assault
delivered on the night of the 7th of April, and
though the assailants failed at the breaches, the
carnage at which was terrible, a very daring escalade Mantirf
of one of the bastions and of the castle succeeded, '**'*''• **^
and Badajoz fdl, Soult's pontoon train being taken in it. After
the assault, some deplorable excesses were committed by the
victorious troops. The allied loss was 3600 in the assault alone
and 5000 in the entire siege.
The Allies had now got possession of the two great gates into
Spain: and Hill, by an enterprise most skilfully carried out,
destroyed (May 19) the Tagus bridge at Almaraz, by which
Soult to the south of the river chiefly conunimicated with Mar-
mont to the north. Wellington then, ostentatiously making
preparations to enter Spain by the Badajoz line, once more
turned northward, crossed the Tonnes (June 17, 1812), and
advanced to the Douro, behind which the French were drawn
up. Marmont had erected at Salamanca some strong forts,
the reduction of which occupied Wellington ten days, and cost
him 600 men. The Allies and French now faced each other along
the Douro to the Pisuerga. The river was high, and Wellingt<Hi
hoped that want of supplies would compel Marmont to retire
but in this he was disappointed.
On the 15th of July 181 2, Marmont, after a feint against
Wellington's left, suddenly, by a forced march, turned ha
right, and made rapidly towards the fords of Huerta and Alba
on the Tormes. Some interesting manoeuvres now took place,
Wdlington moving parallel and close to Marmont, but more
to the north, making for the fords of Aldea Lengua and
Santa Marta on the Tormes nearer to Salamanca, and bdng
under the belief that the Spaniards held the castle and ford at
Alba on tliat river. But Marmont's manoeuvring and marching
power had been underestimated, and on the 21st of July while
Wellington's position covered Salamanca, and but indirectly
his line of communications through Qudad Rodrigo, MarmoM
had reached a point from which he hoped to inteipose between
Wellington and Portugal, on the Ciudad Rodrigo road. Th»
he endeavoured to do on the 22nd of July 18 12, whidi brou^it
on the important battle of Salamanca {q,v.) in which
Wellington gained a decisive victory, the French
falling back to Valladolid and thence to Burgos, f^^*
Wellington entered Valladolid (July 30), and thence ^^
marched against Joseph, who (July 21) had reached Blasoo
Sancho with reinforcements for Marmont. Joseph retired
before him, and Wellington entered Madrid (Aug. 12, iSxa),
where, in the Retiro, 1700 men, 180 cannon, two eagles, and a
quantity of stores were captured. Soult now raised the siege
of Cadiz (Aug. 26), and evacuating Andalusia joined Sucbet
PENINSULAR WAR
95
00.21.
with some ssjooo men. Wellington then brought up Hill to
Madrid.
On the ist of September 1812, the French armies having begun
«nce more to collect together, Welh'ngton marched against the
^Army of the North, now under General Clausel, and
laid siege to the castle of Burgos (Sept. 19) to secure
the road towards Santander on the coast. But the
strength of the castle had been underrated;
Wellington had insufficient siege equipment and
transport for heavy guns; five assaults failed, and Soult (having
left Suchet in Valencia) and also the Army of Portugal were
both am>foacliing, so Wellington withdrew on the night of the
aist of October, and, directing the evacuation of
Madrid, conunenccd the " Retreat from Burgos."
In this retreat, although military operations were
ikilfttlly conducted, the Allies lost 7000 men, and discipline, "as
in that to Corunna, became much relaxed.
By November 181 2, Hill having joined him at Salamanca,
Wellington once more had gone into cantonments near Ciudad
Rodrigo, and the French armies had again scattered for con-
fcnieoce of supply. In spite of the failure before Burgos, the
successes of the campaign had been brilliant. In addition to
the decisive victory of Salamanca, Madrid had been occupied,
the si^e of Cadiz raised, Andalusia freed, and Ciudad Rodrigo
and Badajoz stormed. Early in January also the French had
abandoned the siege of Tarifa, though Valencia had surrendered
to tl^m (Jan. 9). One important result of the campaign was
that the Spanish Cortes nominated Wellington (Sept. 7i, 181 a)
to the unfettered command of the Spanish armies. For the
operatKms of this campaign Wellington was created earl, and
subsequently marquess of Wellington; duke of Ciudad Rodrigo
by Spain, and marquis of Torres Vedras by Portugal.
Campaign in Spain and the South of France, i8jj. — ^At the
opening of 1813, Suchet, with 63,000 men, had been left to hold
Valencia, Aragon and Catalonia; and the remainder of the
Fnmcfa (about 137,000) occupied Leon, the central provinces and
Biscay, giiarding also the communications with France. Of
these about 60,000 under Joseph were more immediately
opposed to Wellington, and posted, in scattered detachments,
from Toledo and Madrid behind the Tonnes to the Douro, and
along that river to the Esla. Wellington had further organized
the Spanish forces — Castafios (40,000), with the guerrilla bands
of Mina, Longa and others, was in Galicia, the Asturias and
northern Spain; Copons (10,000) in Catalonia; Elio (30,000) in
Morcia; Del Parque (ia,ooo) in the Sierra Morena, and O'Donell
(x5/}oo) in Andalusia. More Portuguese troops had been
raised, and reinforcements received from England, so that the
Allies, without the Spaniards above alluded to, now numbered
some 75,000 men, and from near the Coa watched the Douro and
ToniMS, their line stretching from their left near Lamego to the
pass oi Ba&os, Hill being on the right. The district of the Tras-
os-Montes, north of the Douro, about the Tamega, Tua and
SaboTt was so rugged that Wellington was convinced that
Joseph would expect him to advance by the south of the river.
He therefore, moving by the south bank himself with Hill, to
confirm Joseph in this expectation, crossed the Tormes near and
above Salamanca, having previously — which was to be the
deceive movement — detached Graham, with 40,000 men, to
make his way, through the difficult district above mentioned,
towards Braganza, and then, joining with the Spaniards, to turn
Joseph's right. Graham, crossing the Douro near Lamego,
cirried out his laborious march with great energy, and Joseph
letired precipitately from the Douro, behind the Pisucrga. The
aSied army, raised by the junction of the Spanish troops in
Galida to 90,000, now concentrated near Toro, and moved to-
wards the Ksueiga, when Joseph, blowing up the castle of
Burgos, fell back behind the Ebro. Once more Wellington
tnroed his right, by a sweeping movement through Rocamunde
sad Poente Arenas near the source of the Ebro, when he retreated
hduod the Zadorra near the town of Vitoria.
Santander was now evacuated by the French, and the allied
inc of communications was changed to that port. On the 20th
of June Welh'ngton encamped along the river Bayas, and the
next day attacked Joseph. For a description of the decisive
battle of Vitoria (June 21, 1813), see Vitowa. In it Baai»0i
King Joseph met with a crushing defeat, and, after vifrtt,
it, the wreck of his army, cut off from the Vitoria- Jmmtli,
Bayonne road, escaped towards Pampeluna. Within '*"'
a few days Madrid was evacuated, and all the French forces,
with the exception of the garrisons of San Sebastian (3000),
Pampeluna (3000), Santona (1500), and the troops under Suchet
holding posts in Catalonia and Valencia, had retired across the
Pyrenees into France. The Spanish peninsula was, to all
intents and purposes, free from foreign domination, although
the war was yet far from concluded. The Fiendi struggled
gallantly to the dose: but now a long succession of their leaders
— ^Junot, Soult, Victor, Mass6na, Marmont, Joseph — had been
in turn forced to recoil before Wellington; and while their troopa
fought henceforward under the depressing memory of many
defeats, the Allies did so under the inspiriting influence of great
successes, and with that absolute confidence in their chief
which doubled their fighting power.
For this decisive campaign, Wellington was made a field
marshal in the British army, and created duke of Victory'
by the Portuguese government in Brazil. He now, with about
80,000 men, took up a position with his left (the Spaniards) on
the Bidassoa near San Sebastian. Thence his line stretched
along the Pyrenees by the passes of Vera, Echallar, Maya and
Roncesvalles, to Altobiscar; his immediate object now being
to reduce the fortresses of San Sebastian and Pampeluna. Not
having sufficient matfnel for two sieges, he laid siege to Sah
Sebastian only, and blockaded Pampeluna. Sir Thomas Graham
commenced the active siege of San Sebastian on the loth of
July 1 813, but as Soult was approaching to its relief, the assault
was ordered for daylight on the 24th. Unfortunately
a conflagration breaking out near the breaches
caused it to be postponed until nightfall, when, the •'■6''^^^
breaches in the interval having been strengthened, *"*
it was delivered unsuccessfully and with heavy loss. Wellington
then suspended the siege in order to meet Soult, who endeavoured
(July 25) to turn the alh'ed right, and reach Pampeluna:
Attacking the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles, he obliged their
defenders to retire, after sharp fighting, to a position
close to Sorauren, which, with 25,000 men, he th»i
attempted to carry (July 28). By this lime Welhng- m09M,Jufy*9
ton had reached it from the allied left; reinforcements Sii*'**'*
were pressing up on both sides, and about 1 2,000 allied
troops faced the French. A struggle, described by Wellington as
" bludgeon work," now ensued, but all efforts to dislodge the
Allies having failed, Soult, withdrawing, manoeuvred to his right
towards San Sebastian. Wellington now assumed the offensive,
and, in a scries of engagements, drove the French back (Atig. 2)
beyond the Pyrenees. These included Roncesvalles and Maya
(July 25); Sorauren (July 28 and 30); Yanzi (Aug. i); and
Echallar and Ivantelly (Aug. 2), the total losses in them being
about — Allies under 7000, French 10,000. After this, Wellington
renewing the siege of San Sebastian carried the pUce, excepting
the castle, after a heavy expenditure of life (Aug. 31). Ufwn
the day of its fall Soult attempted to relieve it, but siorm9tSam
in the combats of Vera and St Mardal was repulsed. SebaMtiaa,
The castle surrendered on the 9th of September, ^^^^'*
the losses in the entire siege having been about —
Allies 4000, French 2000. Wellington next determined to throw
his left across the river Bidassoa to strengthen his own position,
and secure the port of Fuenterrabia.
Now commenced a series of celebrated river passages, which
had to be effected prior to the further invasion of France. At
daylight on the 7th of October 18x3 he crossed the Bidassoa in
seven columns, and attacked the entire French position,
which stretched in two heavily entrenched lines from north
^ Duque da Victoria, often incorrectly duke of Vitoria. The
cmncioence of the title with the place-name of the battle which had
not yet been fought when the title was conferred, is curious, but
accidental
I
96
PENINSULAR WAR
of the Irun-Bayonne road, along mountain spurs to the Great
Rhune, aSoo ft. high. The decisive movement was a passage in
f^^gggg strength near Fuenterrabia, to the astonishment of
otau the enemy, who in view of the width of the river
BUatBoa, and the shifting sands, had thought the crossing
Octobtrf, impossible at that point. The French right was
'^'^ then rolled back, and Soult was unable to reinforce his
right in time to retrieve the day. His works fcU in succession
after hard fighting, and he withdrew towards the river Nivelle.
The loss was about — Allies, 1600; French, 140a The passage
of the Bidassoa " was a general's not a soldiers' battle "
(Napier).
On the 31st of October Pampduna surrendered, and Welling-
ton was now anxious to drive Suchet from Catalom'a before
further invading France. The British government, however,
in the interests of the continental powers, urged an immediate
advance, so on the night of the 9th of November 181 3 he
brought up his right from the Pyrenean passes to the northward
of Maya and towards the Nivelle. Soult's army (about 79,000),
in three entrenched lines, stretched from the sea in front of St
Jean de Luz along commanding ground to Amotx and thence,
behind the river, to Mont Mondarin near the Nive. Each army
had with it about 100 guns; and, during a heavy cannonade,
Wellington on the loth of November 1813 attacked this extended
Am«m* ^ position of x6 m. in five columns, these being so
thaWvdht directed that after carrying Soult's advanced works
Nov. 10, 4 mass of about 50,000 men converged towards the
"^ French centre near Amotz, where, after hard fighting,
it swept away the 18,000 of the second line there opposed to it,
cutting Soult's army in two. The French right then fell back to
St Jean de Luz, the left towards points on the Nive. It was now
late and the Allies, after moving a few miles down both banks
of the NiveUe, bivouacked, while Soult, taking advantage of the
respite, withdrew in the night to Bayonne. The allied loss was
about 2700; that of the French 4000, 51 guns, and all their
magazines. The next day Wellington closed in upon Bayonne
from the sea to the left bank of the Nive.
After this there was a period of comparative inaction, though
during it the French were driven from the bridges at Urdains
and Cambo. The weather had become bad, and the Nive
unfordablc; but there were additional and serious causes of
delay. The Portuguese and Spanish authorities were neglecting
the payment and supply of their troops. Wellington had also
difficulties of a similar kind with his own government, and also
the Spanish soldiers, in revenge for many French outrages, had
become guilty of grave excesses in France, so that Wellington
took the extreme step of sending 25,000 of them back to Spain
and resigning the command of their army, though his resignation
was subsequently withdrawn. So great was the tension at
this crisis that a rupture with Spain seemed possible. These
matters, however, having been at length adjusted, Wellington,
who in his cramped position between the sea and the Nive could
not use his cavalry or artillery eflectivcly, or interfere with the
French supplies coming through St Jean Pied de Port, deter-
mined to occupy the right as well as the left bank of the Nive.
He could not pass to that bank with his whole force while Soult
held Bayonne, without exposing his own communications
through Irun. Therefore, on the 9th of December 1813, after
making a demonstration elsewhere, he effected the passage with
PmasMgtot ^ portion of his force only under Hill and Beresford,
tb0NJv», near Ustaritz and Cambo, his loss being slight, and
Dtc9, thence pushed down the river towards ViUcfranquc,
'**'• where Soult barred his way across the road to
Bayonne. The allied army was now divided into two portions
by the Nive; and Soult from Bayonne at once took advantage
of his central position to attack it with all his available force,
first on the left bank and then on the right. On the morning
of the loth of December be fell, with 60,000 men and 40 guns,
upon Hope, who with 30,000 men and 34 guns held a position
from the sea, 3 m. south of Biarritz on a ridge behind two lakes
(or tanks) through Arcangues towards the Nive. Desperate
fighting now ensued, but fortunately, owing to the intersected
ground, Soult was compelled to advance slowly, and in the end,
Wellington coming up with Beresford from the right bank, the
French retired baffled. On the nth and 12th of BatUga
December there were engagements of a less severe ^^^_
character, and finally on the 13th of December Soult
with 35,000 men made a vehement attack up the oun^Z"
right bank of the Nive against Hill, who with about Dw. W'MM,
14,000 men occupied some heights from Villefranque ''Al.
past St Pierre (Lostenia) to Vieux Moguerre. The conflict about
St Pierre (Lostenia) was one of the most bloody of the war; but
for hours Hill maintained his ground, and finally repulsed the
French before Wellington, delayed by his pontoon bridge over
the Nive having been swept away, arrived to his aid. The losses
in the four days' fighting in the battles before Bayonne (or battlei
of the Nive) were — ^Allies about 5000, French about 7000. Both
the British and Portuguese artillery, as well as infantxy, greatly
distinguished themselves in these battles.
In eastern Spain Suchet (April 11, 1813) had defeated Elio*s
Murdans at Yccla and Villcna, but was subsequently routed
by Sir John Murray* near Castalla (April 13), who then besieged
Tarragona. The siege was abandoned after a time, but was
later on renewed by Lord W. Bentinck. Suchet, after the
battle of Vitoria, evacuated Tarragona (Aug. 17) but defeated
Bentinck in the combat of Ordal (Sept. 13).
Campaign in the South of France, 1814. — When operations re-
commenced in February 1814 the French line extended from
Bayonne up the north bank of the Adour to the Pau, thence
bending south along the Bidouze to St Palais, with advanced
posts on the Joyeuse and at St Jean Pied de Port. Wellington's
left, imder Hope, watched Bayonne, while Beresford, with Hill,
observed the Adour and the Joyeuse, the right trending back
till it reached Urcuray on the St Jean Pied de Port road. Exclu-
sive of the garrison of Bayonne and other places, the available
field force of Soult numbered about 41,000, while that of the
Allies, deducting Hope's force observing Bayonne, was of much
the same strength. It had now become Wellington's object
to draw Soult away from Bayonne, in order that the allied army
might, with less loss, cross the Adour and lay siege to the place
on both banks of the river.
At its mouth the Adour was about 500 yds. wide, and its
entrance from the sea by small vessels, except in the finest
weather, was a perilous undertaking, owing to the shifting sands
and a dangerous bar. On the other hand, the deep sandy soil
near its banks made the transport of bridging matirid by land
laborious, and almost certain of discovery. Wellington, con-
vinced that no effort to bridge below Bayonne would be expected,
decided to attempt it there, and collected at St Jean Pied de
Port and Passages a large number of country vessels (termed
chasse-marUs). Then, leaving Hope with 30,000 men to watch
Bayonh^, he began an enveloping movement round Soult's
left. Hill on the 14th and 15th of February, after a combat
at Garris, drove the French posts beyond the Joyeuse; and
Wellington then pressed these troops back over the Bidouze
and Gave* de Maulcon to the Gave d'Oleron. Wellington's
object in this was at once attained, for Soult, leaving only xo,ooo
men in Bayonne, came out and concentrated at Orthes on the
Pau. Then Wellington (Feb. 19) proceeded to St Jean de Lus
to superintend the despatch of ix)ats to the Adour. Unfavour-
able weather, however, compelled him to leave this. to Sir
John Hope and Admiral Penrose, so returning to the Gave
d'Oleron he crossed it, and faced Soult on the Pau (Feb. 35).
Hope in the meantime, after feints higher up the Adour, suc-
ceeded (Feb. 22 and 23) in passing 600 men across Pmrttgff
the river in boats. The nature of the ground, tbaA^mmn
and there being no suspicion of an attempt at this ^tk.2iim
point, led to the French coming out very tardily to ^fc**'^
oppjose them; and when they did, some Congreve rockets
(then a novelty) threw them into confusion, so that the right
bank was held until, on the morning of the 24th, the flotilla of
* Commander of a British expedition from the Mediterranean
islands.
* "Cave" in the Pyrenees means a mountain stream or toncat*
PENINSULAR WAR 97
itiiw mnhi ^ipeind (roirt St Jon it Lui, preceded by mea- tbc i6lh of Januu?, iiucktd Suclict it Molini de Rcy and
Dl-nr boau. Scvcnl men and vcucls -nm l»t ia ciussing Ibe blofkided Bircclani (Ffb. ^)■, Ihc French po5t> ol Lciidi,
W^ but by HOOD on tbc i6lb of Fcbruiiy Ili« bridgs of nb Mcquiacnu and Monzon had alio been yielded up, and Sucbet,
iBSdt had bttn ihroini and iwiitcd; batioirs and a boom on ihe md ol March, had rmsidd the Pyrgnrrj into France
[licrd 10 protect it, 8000 troops pused aver, aod the eneitiy's Figueru surrendered 10 Cucslaberaic the end of May; and peace
pmbcBta driven up the river. Bayoone vaa then invesled on wtl lomially signed al Paris on the joth o[ May.
both banka aa a preliminary lo the ucge. Thus lerminaled the long and sanguinary ilrxiggle of the
Ob Uk i;tli of February WeUinglon, having with lillle Ion PeouuuLicWar. TheBrlLishlroopi were partly tent to England,
drcted the pauage of the Pau below OnhD, attacked Soull. and partly embarked at Bordeaui for America, with which
blhahaltlE the AUiesand French were ol about equal strenglh country war bid broken out (see AUEalcaM Wai 01 iSiI-ts);
Ijifloo): the former having ^S guni, the lallcr 40. Soult held Ihe Portuguese and Spanish rccrosjed the Pyrenees; the French
■— >.^ a tlTOng position behind Orthes on heights fommand- army was dispersed throughout France: Louis XVIII was
Hk ing the mads to Dai and St Sever. Bcresford wai restored to the French throne; and Napoleon was permitted
f^tr, directed to turn his right. If possible cutting bim off to reside in the island of Elba, Ihe sovereignly of which had been
*^ from Dai, and Hill his left towards the St Sever road, conceded to him by the allied powers. For the operatuni
Bertjfori's aHack, after hard fighting over difficult ground, was of this campaign Welhngton was created marquess of Doura
Ionised, when Wellington, perceiving that the pursuing French and duke of Wellington, and peerages were conferred upon
bid kit a central part of the heights unoccupied, tbnist up the Bercslord, Graham and Hill,
light Diviuon into it, between Soult's right and centre. At Ihe The evcnls of the Peninsular War, especially as namled
tiat lime Hitl, having found a ford above Oilhes, was turning in Ihe Wellington Despatches, are replete with Instruction not
lie French led, when Soull retreated just in time lo save bong only for Ihe soldier, but also for Ihe civil administrator. Even
est oS. withdrawing towards St Sever, which he readied on the in > brief summary of Ihe war one salient fact is itoticeable,
ilih of February. The allied loss WIS about leooj Ihe French that all Wellington's reverses were in conneiion with his sieges,
isoD icd 6 moa. lor which his means were never adequate. In his nuuy battles
Hwards to Aire, "here he he was always victorious, his tltalcgy emincniiy successlul,
Toulouse, Bercslord. with his organizing and »dministrative power exceptionally great,
Ij.ocD mm, was now sent to Bordeaux, which opened its gates as his practical resource unlimited, his soldiers most courageous;
pnniiei 10 the Allies. Driven by Hill from Aire on the 3nd of hut he never had an army fully complete in its departmenU
hUrth [B14, SouJt retired by Vic Bigorte, where then was a and warlike equipment. He had no adequate cori>s ol sappen
Ctfnbal (March rg), and Tatbes, where there was a severe action and miners, or tran^wrt train. In 1813 tools and material
(March 10), to Toulouse behind the Garonne. He endeavoured of war lor his sieges were often insufficient. In 1813, when he
aba lo rouse the French peasantry against the Allies, but In was before San Sebastian, the ammunition ran shorti a batlering
Tain, foe Wcllinglon's justice and moderation afforded them no train, long demanded, reached him not ordy some time after
. , . . J i^ji^ Garonne above it was needed, hut even then with only one day's provision of
the south — iti weakest shot and shell. For the siege of Burgos heavy guns were avail-
Soult and Suchet. But finding it able In store on the coast; but he neither had, nor could procure,
operate in that direction, he left HOI on the the transport to bring them up. By resource and dogged
•mrst Side and creased at Grenade below Toulouse (April 3). determination Wellington rose superior to almost every di&
WbcB BcRsford, who had now rejoined Wellington, had passed cully, but he could not overcome all; and the main leaching of
me, the bridge was swept away, which left him isolated on the the Peninsular War turns upon tbc value ol an army that u
i^^ btnk. But Soult did not attack; the bridge (April 8) comptelcly organized in ils various branches before hostilities
wti nstcired; Wellington crossed Ihe Garonne and the Ers, and break out. (C. W. R.)
Iltacked Soalt on the lolh of April. In ihe battle of Toulouse
t^ French numbered about 40,000 (eiclusive ol the local
Naluoal Guards] with £0 guns; the AHies under 57,000 with 64
gnus, Soult's position to the north and east of the
dly was eiceedin^y strong, consisting of the canal
of iHaogucdoc, some lartified suburbs, And (to the
oewBld with redoubts and earthworks, Wellington's columns,
Bftte Beresfofd, were now called upon to make a flank mareh
(i amt two miles, under artillery, and occauonally musketry,
in, being threatened also by cavalry, and then, while the
Spaaidi troops aiaaulted the north of the ridge, to wheel up,
BdtBl the exstem slope, and cany the works. .The Sparuards
■BE Rpobed, but Beresford gallantly took Mont Rave and
Seofc fell back behind the canal. On the t ilh of April Welling-
!■ Hhuced to invest Toulouse from Ihe loulh, but Soull on
tie Bi^ of Ibe ttth had retreated towards Villelranque, and
Vdlington then entered the city. The allied loss was about
foa. the FiEoch >cdo. Thus, in Ihe last great battle of the
nr, the coinage and resolution of the soldiets ol the Pcninsubr
ifaiy were conspicuously illustrated.
On Ibe ijlh ol April 1814 officers arrived with Ihe announce-
■cnt to both armies ol the capture ol Paris, Ihe abdication of
iSth 1 cooventbn, which included Suchct's locce." was entered
■to bnwteo Wellinglon and Soult. Unfortunalely, alter
Tgdcme had fallen, Ihe Allies and French, in a sortie Inm
Wymoe oa Ihe 14th of April, each lost about rooo men; so
■kii noie 10,000 men fell alter peace had virtually been made,
ii Ihe east, duriw Ihli yeu (1814), Sir W. Clmlon had, on
r
98
PENISCOLA— PENITENTIARY
Censral Craufurd and his Li^ Divisum (London, 1891) ; ^1
Larpcnt, Private Journal of F. S. Larpenl durine the Peninsular War
Sr Geoive
. during the Peninsular V^r
(London, 1853); Major-oeneral H. D. Hutchinson, Orations in
the Peninsula, 1808-9 (London, 1905); The Dickson MSS., betnt
Journals of Major-Ceneral Sir Alexander Dickson during the Penin-
sular War (Woolwich, 1907).
PEAISCOLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Cas-
teU6n de la Plana, and on the Mediterranean Sea, 5 m. by road
S. of Benicarl6. Pop. (1900), 3142. Pefiiscola, often called the
Gibraltar of Valencia, is a fortified seaport, with a lighthouse,
built on a rocky headland about 220 ft. high, and only joined
to the mainland by a narrow strip of sand. Originally a
Moorish stronghold, it was captured in 1233 by James 1. of
Aragon, who entrusted it to the Knights Templar. In the
14th century it was garrisoned by the knights of Montesa, and
in 1420 it reverted to the Crown. From 141 5 it was the home
of the schismatic pope Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna), whose
name is commemorated in the Bufador de Papa Luna, a curious
cavern with a landward entrance through which the sea-water
escapes in clouds of- spray.
PENITENTIAL (Lat. poenitenlide, lihdlus poenitentialis,
&c.), a manual used by priests of the Catholic Church for
guidance in assigning the penance due to sins. Such manuals
played a large r61e in the early middle ages, particularly in
Ireland, England and Frankland, and their iniSuence in the
moral education of the barbarian races has not received
sufficient attention from historians. They were mainly com-
posed of canons drawn from various councils and of dicta from
writings of some of the fathers. Disciplinary regulations in
Christian communities are referred to from the very borders of the
apostolic age, and a system of careful oversight of those admitted
to the mysteries developed steadily as the membership grew
and dangers of contamination with the outside world increased.
These were the elaborate precautions of the catechumenate, and
— as a bidwark against the persecutions — ^the rigid system known
as the Discipline of the Secret (disci fdina or cant). The treat-
ment of the lapsed, which produced the Novatian heresy, was
also responsible for what has frequently been referred to as
the first penitential. This is the lihdlus in which, according
to Cyprian {Ep. 51), the decrees of the African synods of 251
and 255 were embodied for the guidance of the clergy in dealing
with their repentant and returning flocks. This manual,
which has been lost, was evidently not like the code-like com-
pilations of the 8th century, and it is somewhat misleading to
speak of it as a penitential. Jurisdiction in penance was still
too closely limited to the upper ranks of the clergy to call forth
such literature. Besides the bishop an official well versed
in the penitential regulations of the Church, called the poeni-
tentiarius, assigned due penalties for sins. For their guidance
there was considerable condliar legislation {e.g. Ancyra, Nicaea,
Neocaesarea, &c.)> ftnd certain patristic letters which had
acquired almost the force of decretals. Of the latter the
most important were the three letters of St Basil of Cacsarea
((i- 379) to Bishop Amphilochus of Iconium containing over
eighty headings.
Three things tended to develop these rules into something
like a system of penitential law. These were the development
of auricular confession and private penance; the extension of
the penitential jurisdiction among the clergy owing to the
growth of a parochial priesthood; and the necessity of adapting
the penance to the primitive ideas of law prevailing among the
newly converted barbarians, especially the idea of compensation
by the wergild. In Ireland in the middle of the 5th century
ipp^Lied the " canons of St Patrick." In the first half of the
next century these were followed by others, notably those of
St Finian (d. 552). At the same time the Celtic British Church
produced the penitentials of St Davjd of Menevia (d. 544) and
of Gildas (d. 583) in addition to synodal legislation. These
furnished the material to Columban (d. 615) for his Liber de
poenitentia and his monastic rule, which had a great influence
upon the continent of Europe. The Anglo-Saxon Church
was later than the Irish, but under Theodore of Tarsus (d.690),
archbishop of Canterbury, the practice then in force was made
the basis of the most important of all penitentials. The
Poenitenliale Tkeodort became the authority in the Church's
treatment of sinners for the next four centuries, both in Kngbn^
and elsewhere in Europe. The original text, as prepared by
a disdple of Theodore, and embodying his decisions, is given
in Haddan and Stubbs's Councils and Ecclesiastical DocumenU
rdating to Great Britain and Irdand (iii. 173 seq.). A
Penitentiale Commeani (St Cumian), dating apparently from
the early 8th century, was the third main source of Prankish
pem'tentials. The extent and variety of this literature led the
Gallican Church to exercise a sort of censorship in order to
secure uniformity. After numerous synods. Bishop Haltigar
of Cambrai was commissioned by Ebo of Reims in 829 to prepare
a definitive edition. Haltigar used, among his other materials,
a so-called poenitenliale romanum, which was really of Prankish
origin. The canons printed by David Wilkins in his ConcSi*
(1737) as being by Ecgbcrt of York (d. 767) are largely a transla*
tion into Anglo-Saxon of three books of Haltigar*s penitentials.
In 841 Hrabanus Maurus imdertook a new Liber poeniterUittm
and wrote a long letter on the subject to Heribald of Auxerre
about 853. Then followed the treatise of Reginon of Pnim
in 906, and finally the collection made by Burchard, bishop of
Worms, between 1012 and 1023. The codification of the canon
law by Gratian and the change in the sacramental position <tf
penance in the Z2th century closed the history of penitentials.
Much* controversy has arisen over the question whether
there was an official papal penitential It is claimed that
(quite apart from Haltigar's poenitenliale romanum) sudi a
set of canons existed early in Rome, and the attempt has been
made by H. J. Schmitz in his learned treatise on penitentiab
{BuszbiUker und das kanonische Buszverfahreny 1883 and 1898)
to establish their pontifical character. The matter is still in
dispute, Schmitz's thesis not having met with univetial
acceptance.
In addition to the works mentioned above the one important woilc
on the penitentials was L. W. H. Wasserachleben's epoch-makiag
studv and collection of texts. Die Bustordnungen der abendldndi$ckem
Kirche nebst einer rechtsgeschuhtlichen Einlettung (Halle, 1851).
Se«t articles in Wctzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon, Hauck's Ail-
encyklopadie, and Haddan and Stubbs's Councils. See also Seehw
in Zettschrift fUr Ktrchengeschuhte, xviii. 58. On the canoos of
St Patrick see the Life of Sir Patrick by J. B. Bury (pp. 233-275).
PENITENTIARY (med. Lat. poenitenttarius, from poenitmik,
penance, poena, punishment, a term used both as adjective ai4
substantive, referring either to the means of repentance or
that of punishment. In its ecclesiastical use the word is uaad
as the equivalent both of the Latin poenitenliarius, " pmitmtiMy
priest," and pomitentiaria, the dignity or office of a ^mmVirf
arius. By an extension of the latter sense the name is appfiei
to the department of the Roman Curia knOwn as the apostoMc
penitentiary {sacra poenilentiaria aposlolica), presided over
Dy the cardinal grand penitentiary {major poenUentiarim,
Ital. penitetaiere maggiore) and having jurisdiction more paitict*
larly in all questions in Jforo interna reserved for the Holy Sm
(see CuKiA Romana). In general, the poenitenttarius , or pdfr
tentiary priest, is in each diocese what the grand penitcnliuy
is at Rome, i.e. he is appointed to deal with all cases of conacicaBi
reserved for the bishop. In the Eastern Church there are vof
early notices of such appointments; so far as the West is
cerned, Hinschius {Kirckenrecht, i. 428, note a) quotes frat-j
the chronicle of Bemold, the monk of St Blase (c xo54-zxos||^/
as the earliest record of such appointment, that made hr^
the papal legate Odo of Ostia in X054. In 1215 the fonitt^
Laterata Council, by its zoth canon, ordered suitable mca
be ordained in all cathedral and conventual chozdies, to
as coadjutors and assistants to the bishops in hearing confc
and imposing penances. The rule was not immediately
universally obeyed, the bishops being slow to delegate
special powers. Finally, however, the council off l^w&t
xxiv. cap. viiL de reform.) ordered that, " wherever it
convem'ently be done," the bishop.should appoint in his «
a poenitentiarius, who should be a doctor or licentiate in
or canon law and at least forty years of age.
PENKRIDGE— PENN, WILLIAM
99
See P. Hinflduus, Kirckenreckt, I 4^, &c. (Beriin. 1869); Du
Canae. Glossariitm i.». " Poenitentiarius " ; Henog-Hauckt Real-
€mcjU0pid$0 (ed. 1904), sj9. " POnitentiarius."
a town in the western parliamentary division
of Staffordshire, England; 134 m. N.W. from London by the
London & North-Westem railway, on the small river Penk.
Pop. (1901), 2347. . Trade is chiefly agricultural and there are
stone-qaanies in the vicinity. The church of St Michael and
An Angds, formerly collegiate and dedicated to St Mary, is a
fine building principally Perpendicular, but with earlier portions.
The Roman Watling Street passes from east to west 3 m. south
of Penkridge. In the neighbourhood is Pillaton Hall, retaining
m psctnresque chapel of th6 15th century.
PIBLETp WOUAM SYDNEY (1852- ), En^Ush actor,
was bom at Broadstairs, and educated in London, where his
father had a schooL He first made his mark as a comedian
by his ezceedin^y amusing performance as the curate in The
Prifole Secretary, a part in which he succeeded Beerbohm
Tree; but he is even more associated with the title r61e in
Braadon Thomas's ChcrUyi's Aunt (1892), a farce which had
u onprecedcntedly long nm and was acted all over the world.
raniARC'H, a village of western France in the department
oC Finist^, x8 m. S.W. of Quimper by road. Pop. (1906), of
tke village, 387; of the conunune, 5702. On the extremity of
tke pminwla on which it is situated are fortified remains of a
town which was of considerable importance from the 14th to
the i6th centuries and included, besides Penmarc'h, St Gu6nol6
and Kerity. It owed its proq>erity to its cod-banks, the dis-
appearance of which together with the discovery of the New-
iMudlasd cod-banks and the pillage of the place by the bandit
La Fmxtendle in 1595 contributed to its decadence. The
dnirch of St Nouna, a Gothic building of the early i6th century
at Pcnmarc "h, and the church of St Gu6nol6, an unfinished
tower ol the xsth century and the church of Kerity (15th
tatniy) are of interest. The coast is very dangerous. On
the Point de Penmarc 'h stands the Phare d'Eckmxihl, with a
Ight visble for 60 miles.' There are numerous megalithic
Manments in the vicinity.
PBDI, WILLIAM (162X-1670), British admiral, was the
m of Giles Penn, merchant and seaman of BristoL He served
Us apprenticeship at sea with lus father. In the first Civil
War be fought on the side of the parliament, and was in com-
■tad <tf a ship in the squadron maintained against the king
B the Irish seas. The service was arduous and called for both
and good seamanship. In 1648 he was arrested and
to London, but was soon released, and sent back as rear
•dnixal in the " Assurance " (33). The exact cause of the
arrest is unknown, but it may be presumed to have been that
he was suspected of being in correspondence with the king's
nppocters. It is highly probable that he was, for until the
Kesoration he was regularly in communication with the Royal-
ktM, wbSie serving the parliament, or Cromwell, so long as their
was profitable, and making no scruple of applying for
of the confiscated lands of the king's Irish friends.
IW character of " mean fellow " given him by Pcpys is borne
•^ by nxiach that is otherwise known of bim. But it is no less
CBtate that he was an excellent seaman and a good fighter.
Aflcr 1650 be was employed in the Ocean, and in the Mediter-
ttMaa in pursuit of the Royalists under Prince Rupert. He
vas so active on this service that when he returned home on
the 18th of March 1651 he could boast that he had not put foot
for more than a year. When the first Dutch War
oat Penn was appointed vice-admiral to Blake, and was
at the battle of the 28th of September off the Kentish
Ik the three days' battle off Portland, February
lifj, he omimanded the Blue squadron, and he also served
«ilh <Srtinction in the final battles of the war in June and July.
Ii December he was included in the commission of admirals
aai feoerals at sea, who exercised the military command of
he ieet, as well as " one of the commissioners for ordering and
the affairs of the admiralty and navy." In 1654 he
to cany the fleet over to the king, but in October i>f
the same year he had no scruple in accepting the naval command
in the expedition to the West Indies sent out by Cromwell,
which conquered Jamaica. He was not responsible for the
shameful repulse at San Domingo, which was due to a panic
among the troops. On their return he and his military colleague
Venables were sent to the Tower. He made himiblc submission,
and when released retired to the estate he had received from
confiscated land in Ireland. He continued in communication
with the Royalists, and in 1660 had a rather obscure share in
the Restoration. He was reappointed commissioner of the
navy by • the king, and in the second Dutch War served as
*' great captain commander" or captain of the fleet, with
the duke of York (afterwards Ring James II.) at the battle
of Lowestoft (June 3, 1665). When the duke withdrew from
the command, Penn's active service ceased. He continued
however to be a commissioner of the navy. His death occurred
on the i6th of September 1670, and be was buried in the church
of St Mary Reddiffe, Bristol. His portrait by Lely is in the
Painted HaU at Greenwich. By his wife Margaret Jasper, he
was the father of William Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania.
Though Sir William Penn was not a high-minded man, he is
a figure of considerable importance in British naval hi&tory.
As admiral and general for the parliament he helped in 1653
to draw up the'first code of tactics provided for the navy. It
was the base of the " Duke of York's Sailing and Fighting
Instructions," which continued for long to supply the orthodox
tactical creed of the navy.
See the Memorials of the Professional Life and Times of SirWiUiam
Penn, by Granville Penn. (D. H.)
PENN. WILLIAM (1644-1718), English Quaker and founder
of Pennsylvania, son of Admiral Sir William Penn (162 1-1670)
and Margaret Jasper, a Dutch lady, was bom at Tower Hill,
London, on the i4tb of October 1644. During his father's
absence at sea he lived at Wanstead in Essex, and went to schodi
at Chigwell close by, iji which places he was brought under
strong Puritan influences. Like many children of sensitive
temperament, he had times of spiritual excitement; when about
twelve he was " suddenly surprised with an inward comfort,
and, as he thought, an external glory in the room, which gave
rise to religious emotions, during which he had the strongest
conviction of the being of a God, and that the soul of man was
capable of enjoying communication with Him." Up>on the
death of Cromwell, Penn's father, who had served the Protector
because there was no other career open, remained with his family
on the Irish estates which Cromwell had given him, of the value
of £300 a year. On the resignation of Richard Cromwell he
at once declared for the king and went to the court in Holland,
where he was received into favour and knighted; and at the
elections for the convention parliament he was returned for
Weymouth. Meanwhile young Penn studied under a private
tutor on Tower Hill until, in October 1660, he was entered as a
gentleman commoner at Christ Church. He appears in the
same year to. have contributed to the Threnodia, a collection
of elegies on the death of the young duke of Gloucester.
The rigour with which the Anglican statutes were revived,
and the Puritan heads of colleges supplanted, roused the spirit
of resistance at Oxford to the uttermost. With this spirit Penn,
who was on familiar terms with John Owen (1616-1683), and
who had already fallen under the influence of Thomas Loe
the Quaker, then at Oxford, actively sympathized. He and
others refused to attend chapel and church service, and were
fined in consequence. How far his leaving the university
resulted from this cannot be dearly ascertained. Anthony
Wood has nothing regarding the catise of his leaving, but says'
that he stayed at Oxford for two years, and that he was noted
for proficiency in manly sports. There is no doubt that in
January 1662 his father was anxious to remove him to Cambridge,
and consulted Pepys on the subject; and in later years he speaks
of being " banished " the college, and of being whipped, beaten
and turned out of doors on his return to his father, in the
anger of the latter at his avowed Quakerism. A reconciliation,
however, was effected; and Penn was sent to France to forget this
lOO
PENN, WILLIAM
folly. TbeplanwasforatimesuccessfuL Penn appears to have
entered more or less into the gaieties of the court of Louis XIV.,
and while there to have become acquainted with Robert Spencer,
afterwards earl of Sunderland, and with Dorothy, sister to
Algernon Sidney. What, however, is more certain is that he
somewhat later placed himself imder the tuition of Moses
Amyraut, the celebrated president of the Protestant college
of Saumur, and at that time the exponent of liberal Calvinism,
from whom he gained the patristic knowledge which is so
prominent in his controversial writings. He afterwards travelled
in Italy, returning to England in Augrist 1664, with " a great
deal, if not too much, of the vanity of the French garb and
affected manner of speech and gait."'
Until the outbreak of the plague Penn was a student of
Lincoln's Inn. For a few days also he served on the staff of
his father — now great captain commander — ^and was by him
sent back in April 1665 to Charles with despatches. Returning
after the naval victory off Lowestoft in June, Admiral Penn
found that his son had again become settled in seriousness and
Quakerism. To bring him once more to views of life not incon-
sistent with court preferment, the admiral sent him in February
1666 with introductions to Ormonde's pure but brilliant court
in Ireland, and to manage. his estate in Cork round Shannan-
garry Castle, his title to which was disputed. Penn appears
also later in the year to have been " clerk of the cheque "
at Kinsale, of the castle and fort of which his father had the
command. When the mutiny broke out in Carrickfergus Penn
volunteered for service, and acted imder Arran so as to gain
considerable reputation. The result was that in May 1666
Ormonde offered him his father's company of foot, but, for
some imexplained reason, the admiral demurred to this arrange-
ment. It was at this time that the well-known portrait was
painted of the great Quaker in a suit of armour; and it was at
this time, too, that the conversion, begun when he was a boy
by Thomas Loe in Ireland, was completed at the same place
by the same agency.'
' On the 3rd of September 1667 Penn attended a meeting of
Quakers in Cork, at which he assisted to expel a soldier who
had disturbed the meeting. He was in consequence, with
others present, sent to prison by the magistrates. From prison
he wrote to Lord Orrery, the president of Munster, a letter,
in which he first publicly makes a claim for perfect fre^om of
conscience. He was immediately released, and at once returned
to his father in London, with the distinctive marks of Quakerism
strong upon him. Penn now became a minister of the denomi-
nation, and at once entered upon controversy and authorship.
His first book, Truth Exalted^ was violent and aggressive in the
extreme. The same offensive personality is shown in The Guide
Mistaken^ a tract written in answer to John Clapham's Guide
to the True Religion. It was at this time, too, that he appealed,
not unsuccessfully, to Buckingham, who on Clarendon's fall
was posing as the protector of the Dissenters, to use his efforts
to procure parliamentary toleration.
Penn's first public discussion was with Thomas Vincent, a
London Presbyterian minister, who had reflected on the
" damnable " doctrines of the Quakers. The discussion, which
had turned chiefly upon the doctrine of the Trinity, ended
uselessly, and Penn at once published The Sandy Foundation
Shaken, a tract of ability sufficient to excite Pepys's astonish-
ment, in which orthodox views were so offensively attacked
that Penn was placed in the Tower, where he remained for nearly
nine months. The imputations upon his opinions and good
citizenship, made as well by Dissenters as by the Church, he
repelled in Innocency vnth her Open Face, in which he asserts
his full belief in the divinity of Christ, the atonement, and
justification through faith, though insisting on the necessity
of good works. It was now, too, that he published the most
important of his books. No Cross, No Crown, which contained
an able defence of the Quaker doctrines and practices, and a
ithing attack on the loose and unchristian lives of the clergy.
* Pcpys, August 30, 1664.
* Webb. The Penns and Penningtons (1867). p. 174.
While completely refusing to recant Penn addressed a letter
to Arlington in July 1669, in which, on grounds of religious
freedom, he asked him to interfere. It is noteworthy, as
showing the views then predominant, that he was almost at
once set at liberty.
An informal reconciliation now took place with his father,
who had been impeached through the jealousy of Rupert and
Monk (in April 1668), and whose conduct in the operations of
1665 he had publicly vindicated; and Penn was again sent on
family business to Ireland. At the desire of his father, whose
health was fast failing, Penn returned to London in x67a
Having found the usual place of meeting in Gracechurch Street
closed by soldiers, Penn, as a protest, preached to the peofde
in the open street. With William Mead he was at once arrested
and' indicted at the Old Bailey on the zst of September for
preaching to an unlawful, seditious and riotous assembly,
which had met together with force and arms. The Conventicle
Act not touching their case, the trial which followed, and which
may be read at length in Penn's People's Ancient and Just
Liberties Asserted, was a notable one in the history of trial by
jury. With extreme courage and skill Penn exposed the
illegality of the prosecution, while the jury, for the first time,
asserted the right of juries to deckle in opposition to the ruling
of the court. They brought in a verdict declaring Penn and
Mead " guilty of speaking in Gracechurch Street," but refused
to add " to an unlawful assembly "; then, as the pressure upon
them increased, they first acquitted Mead, while returning
their original verdict upon Penn, and then, when that verdict
was not admitted, returned their final answer " not guilty *
for both. The court fined the jurymen 40 marks each for their
contumacy, and, in default of payment, imprisoned them,
whereupon they vindicated and established for ever the right
they had claimed in an action (known as Bushell's case from the
name of one of the jurymen) before the court of common pleit,
when all twelve judges imanimously declared their imprisonmait
illegal.
Penn himself had been fined for not removing his hat in court,
had been imprisoned on his refusal to pay, and had eamestJ[f
requested his family not to pay for him. The fine, however,
was settled anonymously, and he was released in time to be
present at his father's death on the i6th of September 1670^
at the early age of forty-nine. Penn now found himsdf ia
possession of a fortune of £1500 a year, and a claim on the
Crown for £16,000, lent to Charles II. by his father. Upon his
release Penn at once plunged into controversy, challenging a
Baptist minister named Jeremiah Ives, at High Wycombe, to
a public dispute and, according to the C^ker accoimt, tuSfy
defeating him. No account is forthcoming from the otbcr
side. Hearing at Oxford that students who attended Friendif
meeting were rigorously used, he wrote a vehement and abuiivt -
remonstrance to the vice-chancellor in defence of reUgiooi
freedom. This found still more remarkable expression in tkt -
Seasonable Caveat against Popery (Jan. 167 1).
In the beginning of 167 1 Penn was again arrested for imndtaag
in Wheeler Street meeting-house by Sir J. Robinson, tkt
lieutenant of the Tower, formerly lord mayor, and known as a
brutal and bigoted churchman. Legal proof being wantiag -
of any breach of the Conventicle Act, and the Oxford or Hvt
Mile Act also proving inapplicable, Robinson, who had soas
special cause of enmity agamst Penn, urged upon him the oatk
of allegiance. This, of course, the Quaker would not tdt%
and consequently was imprisoned for six months. During thllk
imprisonment Penn wrote several works, the most impMtai^r!
being Tlte Great Case of Liberty oj Conscience (Feb. xftjij^j
a noble defence of complete toleration. Upon his release
started upon a missionary journey through Holland
Germany; at Emdcn he founded a (^aker sodety,
established an intimate friendship with the princess
Elizabeth.
Upon his return home in the spring of 1672 Penn
IGulielma Springett, daughter of Mary Pennington by Iwr
husband. Sir William Springett; she appears to iMve
PENN, WILLIAM
lOI
equaOy remarkable for beauty, devotion to her husband, and
firmness to the religious principles which she bad adopted when
Ettle more than a child.^ He now settled at Ricknuns worth
in Hertfordshire, and gave himself up to controversial writing.
To this year, 1672, belong the Treatise on Oaths and England's
Present Interest Considered. In the year 1673 Pcnn was still
inore active. He secured the release of George Fox, addressed
the Quakers in Holland and Germany, carried on public
controversies with Thomas Hicks, a Baptist, and John Faldo, an
Independent, and published his treatise on the Christian Quaker
ad his Divime Testimony Vindicated, the Discourse of the General
Ride ^ Faith and Practice* Reasons against Railing (in answer
to Hicks), Counterfeit Christianity Detected, and a J ist Rebuke
to One-amd-twenty Learned Divines (an answer to Faldo and to
Quakerism no Christiarnty). His last public controversy was
in 1675 ^tl> Richard Baxter, in which, of course, each party
daimed the victory.
At this point Penn's connexion with America begins. The
province of New Jersey, comprising the country between the
Hudson and Debware rivers on the east and west, had been
granted in March 1663- 1664 by Charles H to his brother, James
in turn had in June of the same year leased it to Lord Berkeley
and Sir G. Carteret in equal shares. By a deed, dated iSth
of March 1673-1674, John Fenwick, a (^aker, bought one of
the shares, that of Lord Berkeley (Stoughton erroneously says
Carteret's) in trust for Edward Byllingc, also a Fncnd, for
£ioool This sale was confirmed by James, afler the second
Dutch War, on the 6th of Augxist i68a Disputes having arisen
between Fenwick and Byllinge, Penn acted as arbitrator; and
then. Byllinge being in money difficulties, and being compelled
to sell his interest in order to satisfy his creditors, Pcnn v>iis
added, at their request, to two of themselves, as trustee. The
deputes were settled by Fenwick receiving ten out of the hundred
parts into which the province was divided,' with a considerable
sun of money, the remaining ninety parts being afterwards
pot op for sale. Fenwick sold his ten parts to two other Friends,
Ehiridge and Warner, who thus, with Penn and the other tii^'O,
became masters of West Jersey, West New Jersey, or New West
Jeney, as it was indifferently called.* The five proprietors
appointed three commissioners, with instructions dated from
London the 6th of August 1676, to settle disputes with Fenwick
(who had bought fresh land from the Indians, upon which Salcm
was built, Penn being himself one of the settlers there) and to
parchase new territories, and to build a town — New Beverley,
or Burlington, being the result. For the new colony Penn drew
q> a constitution, under the title of " Concessions." The
greatest care b taken to make this constitution "as near as
may be conveniently to the primitive, ancient and fundamental
lavs of the nation of Enghnd." But a democratic clement
is introduced, and the new principle of perfect religious freedom
stands in the first place (ch. xvi.). With regard to the liberty
of the subject, no one might be condemned in life, liberty or
estate, except by a jury of twelve, and the right of challenging
vas granted to the uttermost (ch. xvii.). Imprisonment for
dd)C was not abolished (as Dixon states), but was reduced to a
■ammum (ch. xviii.), while theft was punished by twofold
icMitution either in value or in labour to that amount (ch.
xxviii.). The provisions of ch. xix. deserve special notice.
AB causes were to go before three justices, with a jury. " They,
the said justices, shall pronounce such judgment as they shall
nceive from, and be directed by the said twelve men, in whom
oafy the judgment resides, and not otherwise. And in case of
tkcir neglect and refusal, that then one of the twelve, by consent
flf the rest, pronounce their own judgment as the justices should
have done." The justices and consubles, moreover, were
^ For a very charmins account of her, and the whole Pennington
coanexioo. see Maria \Vcbb's The Penns and Penningtons,
■Sec on this Stoughton *> Penn, p. 1 13.
' The deed by which Fenwick and Byllinge conveyed West New
hnty to Penn, L^wry and Nicholas Lucas is dated the loth of
February 1674-1675.
* The Hne of partition was " from the east side of Little Egg
KarbottT, straight north, through the country, to the utmost branch
of Delaware River."
elected by the people, the former for two years only (ch. xli )
Suitors might plead in person, and the courts were public
(ch. xxii.). (^estions between Indians and settlers were to be
arranged by a mixed jury (ch. xxv) An assembly was to
meet yearly, consisting of a hundred persons, rhosen by the
inhabitants, freeholders and proprietors, one for each division
of the province. The election was to be by ballot, and each
member was to receive a shilling a day from his division, " that
thereby he may be known to be the ser\'ant of the people "
The executive power was to be in the hands of ten commissioners*
chosen by the assembly Such a constitution soon attracted
large numbers of Quakers to West Jersey.
It was shortly before these occurrences that Penn inherited
through his wife the estate of Worminghurst in Sussex, whither
he removed from Rickmansworth He now (July 25, 1677)
undertook a second missionary journey to the continent along
with George Fox, Robert Barclay and George Keith. He
visited particularly Rotterdam and all the Holland towns,
renewed his intimacy ^ith the princess Elizabeth at Herwerden,
and, under considerable pnvations. travelled through Hanover,
Germany, the lower Rhine and the electorate of Brandenburg,
returT\ing by Bremen and the Hague It is worthy of recollec-
tion that the Germantown (Philadelphia) settlers from Kirch-
heim, one of the places which responded in an especial degree
to Penn's teaching, are noted as the first who declared it wrong
for Christians to hold slaves. Pcnn reached England again on
the 34th of October He tried to gain the insertion in the bill
for the relief of Protestant Dissenters of a clause enabling Friends
to affirm instead of taking the oath, and twice addressed the
House of Commons' committee with considerable eloquence
and effect. The bill, however, fell to the ground at the sudden
prorogation.
In 1678 the popish terror came to a head, and to calm and
guide Friends in the prevailing excitement Penn wrote his
Epistle to the Children of Light in this Generation. A far more
important publication was An Address to Protestants of all
Persuasions, by William Penn, Protestant, in 167Q; a powerful
exposition of the doctrine of pure tolerance and a protest against
the enforcement of opim'ons as articles of faith. This was
succeeded, at the general election which followed the dissolution
of the pensionary parliament, by an important political manifesto,
England's Great Interest in the Choice of this New Parliament, in
which he insisted on the following points, the discovery and
punishment of the plot, the impeachment of corrupt ministers
and councillors, the punishment of " pensioners," the enactment
of frequent parliaments, security from popery and slavery, and
ease for Protestant Dissenters. Next came One Project for the
Good of England, perhaps the most pungent of all his political
writings. But he was not merely active with his pen. He was
at this time in close intimacy with Algernon Sidney, wh(^ stood
successively for Guildford and Bramber. In each case, owing
in a great degree to Penn's eager advocacy, Sidney was elected,
only to have his elections annulled by court influence. Toleration
for Dissenters seemed as far off as ever. Encouraged by his suc-
cess in the West Jersey province, Penn again turned his thoughts
to America. In repayment of the debt mentioned above he
now asked from the Crown, at a council held on the 34th of June
1680, for •' a tract of land in America north of Mar>'land, bounded
on the east by the Delaware, on the west limited as Maryland
[i.e. by New Jersey], northward as far as plantable "; this
latter limit Penn explained to be " three degrees northwards."
This formed a tract of 300 m. by 160, of extreme fertility, mineral
wealth and richness of all kinds. Disputes with James, duke
of York, and with Lord Baltimore, who had rights over
Maryland, delayed the matter until the 14th of March 1681,
when the grant received the royal signature, and Pcnn was made
master of the province of Pennsylvania. His own account of
the name is that he suggested " Sylvania," that the king added
the " Penn " in honour of his father, and that, although he
» Penn*» letter of the 26th of August 1676 says twelve, and Clark-
son has followed this; but the Concessions, which were not assented
to by the inhabitanu until the 3rd of March 1676-1677, say ten.
I02
PENN, WILLIAM
Strenuously objected and even tried to bribe the secretaries, he
could not get the name altered. It should be added that cariy
in 16S2 Carteret, grandson of the original proprietor, transferred
his rights in E^st Jersey to Pcnn and eleven associates, who
soon afterwards conveyed one-half of their interest to the carl
of Perth and eleven others. It is uncertain to what extent
Pcnn retained his interest in West and East Jersey, and when
It ceased. The two provinces were united under one governor
in 1699, and Pcnn was a proprietor in 1700. In 1702 the
government of New Jersey was surrendered to the Crown.
By the charter for Pennsylvania Pcnn was made proprietary
of the province. He was supreme governor; he had the power
of making laws with the advice, assent and approbation of the
freemen, of appointing ofhcers, and of granting pardons. The
laws were to contain nothing contrary to English law, with a
saving to the Crown and the privy council in the case of
appeals. Parliament was to be supreme in all questions of
trade and commerce; the right to levy taxes and customs was
reserved to England; an agent to represent Pcnn was to reside
in London; neglect on the part of Penn was to lead to the passing
of the government to the Crown (which event actually took place
in 1692); no correspondence might be carried on with countries
at war with Great Britain. The importunity of the bishop of
London extorted the right to appoint Anglican ministers,
should twenty members of the colony desire it, thus securing
the very thing which Penn was anxious to avoid — the
recognition of the principle of an establishment.
Having appointed Colonel (Sir William) Markham, his cousin,
as deputy, and having in October sent out three commissioners
to manage his affairs until his arrival, Pcnn proceeded to draw
up proposals to adventurers, with an account of the resources of
the colony. He negotiated, too, with James and Lord Balti-
more with the view, ultimately successful, of freeing the mouth
of the Delaware, wrote to the Indians in conciliatory terms,
and encouraged the formation of companies to work the infant
colony both in England and Germany, especially the " Free
Society of Traders in Pennsylvania," to whom he sold 20,000
acres, absolutely refusing, however, to grant any monopolies.
In July he drew up a body of " conditions and concessions."
This constitution, savouring strongly of Harrington's Oceana^
was framed, it is said, in consultation with Sidney, but the
statement is doubtful. Until the council of seventy-two (chosen
by universal suffrage every three years, twenty-four retiring
each year), and the assembly (chosen aimually) were duly elected,
a body of provisional laws was added.
It was in the midst of this extreme activity that Penn was
made a Fellow of the Royal Society. Leaving his family
behind him, Penn sailed with a hundred comrades from Deal
in the " Welcome " on the ist of September 1682. His Last
Farewdl to England and his letter to his wife and children contain
a beautiful expression of his pious and manly nature. He
landed at New Castle on the Delaware on the 27th of October,
his company having lost one-third of their number by small-pox
during the voyage. After receiving formal possession, and
having visited New York, Penn ascended the Delaware to the
Swedish settlement of Upland, to which he gave the name of
Chester. The assembly at once met, and on the 7lh of December
passed the " Great Law of Pennsylvania." The idea which
informs this law is that Pennsylvania was to be a Christian state
on a Quaker model. Philadelphia was now founded, and within
two years contained 300 houses and a population of 2500. At
the same time an act was passed, uniting under the same govern-
ment the territories which had been granted by feofifment by
James in 1682. Realistic and entirely imaginative accounts (cf.
Dixon, p. 270), inspired chiefly by Benjamin West's picture,
have been given of the treaty which there seems no doubt Penn
actually made in November 1683 with the Indians. His con-
nexion with them was one of the most successful parts of his
management, and he gained at once and retained through life
their intense affection.
Penn now wrote an account of Pennsylvania from his own
observation for the " Free Society of Traders," in which he
shows considerable power of artistic description. Tales of
violent persecution of the Quakers, and the necessity of settling
disputes, which had arisen with Lord Baltimore, his neighbour
in Maryland, brought Pcnn back to England (Oct. 2, 1684)
after an absence of two years. In the spnng of 1683 he had
modified the original charter at the desire of the assembly, but
without at all altering its democratic character.^ He was, in
reference to this alteration, charged with selfish and deceitful
dealing by the assembly. Within five months after his arrival
in England Charles II. died, and Penn found himself at once in
a position of great influence. Penn now took up his abode
at Kensington in Holland House, so as to be near the court
His influence there was great enough to secure the pardon of
John Locke, who had been dismissed from Oxford by Charles,
and of 1200 Quakers who were in prison. At this time, too,
he was busy with his pen once more, writing a further account
of Pennsylvania, a pamphlet in defence of Buckingham's essay
in favour of toleration, in which he is supposed to have had some
share, and his Persuasive to Moderation to Dissenting Christians^
very similar in tone to the One Project for tiie Good of England.
When Monmouth's rebellion was suppressed he appears to have
done his best to mitigate the horrors of the western commission,
opposing Jeffreys fo the uttermost.' Macaulay has accused
Penn of being concerned in some of the worst actions of the court
at this time. His complete refutation by Forster, Paget,
Dixon and others renders it unnecessar>' to do more than allude
to the cases of the Maids of Taunton, Alderman Kiffin, and
Magdalen College (Oxford).
In 1686, when making a third missionary journey to Holland
and Germany, Penn was charged by James with an informal
mission to the prince of Orange to endeavour to gain his assent
to the removal of religious tests. Here he met Burnet, from
whom, as from the prince, he gained no satisfaction, and wIm>
greatly disliked him. On his return he went on a preaching
mission through Engbnd. His position with James was
undoubtedly a compromising one, and it is not strange that,
wishing to tolerate Papists, he should, in the prevailing temper of
England, be once more accused of being a Jesuit, while he was
in constant antagonbm to their body. Even Tillotson took up.
this view strongly, though he at once accepted Penn's vehement
disavowal. In 1687 James published the Declaration of Indul-
gence, and Pcnn probably drew up the address of thanks 00
the part of the Quakers. It fully reflects his views, which are
further ably put in the pamphlet Good Advice to the Church
of England, Roman Catholics, and Protestant Dissenters, in
which he showed the wisdom and duty of repealing the Test
Acts and Penal Laws. At the Revolution he behaved iirith
courage. He was one of the few friends of the king who remained
in London, and, when twice summoned before the council, ipokt
boldly in his behalf. He admitted that James had asked Urn
to come to him in France; but at the same time he asserted bis
perfect loyalty. During the absence of William in 1690 he was
proclaimed by Mary as a dangerous person, but no evidence ol
treason was forthcoming. It was now that he lost by death
two of his dearest friends, Robert Barclay and George Fox.
It was at the fimeral of the latter that, upon the information
of the notorious informer William Fuller (1670-1717?), an
attempt was made to arrest him, but he had just left the ground;
the fact that no further steps were then taken shows bow litUe
the government believed in hb guilt. He now Ijved in retire*
ment in London, though his address was perfectly wdl known
to his friends in the council. In 1691, again on Fuller's evidence^
a proclamation was issued for the arrest of Penn and two otbcn
as being concerned in Preston's plot. In 1692 he began to write
again, both on questions of Quaker discipline and in defence ol
the sect. Just Measures in an Epistle of Peace and Love, Tht
New Athenians (in reply to the attacks of the Athenian Mercmry),
and A Key opening the Way to every Capacity are the prindpil
publications of this year.
Meantime matters had been going badly in Pennsyhraiuau
* Dixon, p. 276.
' Burnet, iii. 66 ; Dalrymple, i. 282.
PENN, WILLIAM
103
Feim had, in 1686, been obliged to make changes in the com«
posation of the executive body, though in 1689 it reverted to
the original constitution; the legislative bodies had quarrelled;
and Penn could not gain his rents. The chief difficulty in
Fexuisylvama was the dispute between the province — i.e. the
country given to Penn by the charter — and the " territories,"
or the lands granted to him by the duke of York by feoffment in
Augn^ 1682, which were under the same government but had
differing interests. The difficulties which Quaker principles
placed in the way of arming the colony — a matter of grave
importance in the existing European complications — ^fought
most hardly against Penn's power. On the 21st of October
169J an order of council was issued depriving Penn of the
govemoiship of Pennsylvania and giving it to Colonel Benjamin
Fletcher, the governor of New York. To this blow were added
the illness of his wife and a fresh accusation of treasonable
correspondence with James. In his enforced retirement he
wrote the most devotional and most charming of his works —
the oiUection of maxims of conduct and religion entitled The
Fniis o§ SUUudt. In December, thanks to the efforts of his
frioids at court, among whom were Buckingham, Somers,
Rochester, and Henry Sidney, he received an intimation that
DO further steps would be taken against him. The accusation,
however, had been public, and he insisted on the withdrawal
being equally public. He was therefore heard in full council
before the king, and honourably acquitted of all charges of trea-
son. It was now that he wrote an Essay Unoards Ike Prcsatt
emd Future Peace oj Europe, in which he puts forth the idea of
I great court of arbitration, a principle which he had already
axried out in Pennsylvania.
In 1694 (Feb. 23) his wife Gulielma died, leaving two
sons, Springett and William, and a daughter Lctitia, afterwards
Dunied to William Aubrey. Two other daughters, Mary and
Hannah, died in infancy. He consoled himself by writing his
Acuumt of ike Rise and Progress of tke People called Quakers.
The coldness and suspicion with which he had been regarded by
his own denomination had now ceased, and he was once more
Rgarded by the Quaker body as their leader. About the same
time (Aug. 20) he was restored to the governorship of
Pbrnsylvania; and he promised to supply money and men for
the defence of the frontiers. In 1695 he went on another
proching mission in the west, and in March 1696 he formed
1 second marriage, with Hannah Callowhill, his son Springett
djrijig five weeks later. In this year he wrote his work On Primi-
theCkristianity, in which he argues that the faith and practice of
tbe Friends were those of the early Church. In 1 697 Penn removed
to Bristol, and during the greater part of 1698 was preaching
with great success against oppression in Ireland, whither he
had gone to look after the property at Shannangarry.
la 1699 he was back in Pennsylvania, bnding near Chester
on the jolh of November, where the success of Colonel Robert
Qoary, judge of the admiralty in Pennsylvania — who was in the
interests of those who wished to make the province an imperial
colony — and the high-handed aaion of the deputy Markham in
opposition to the Crown, were causing great difficulties. Penn
anicd with htm particular instructions to put down piracy,
»luch the objections of the Quakers to the use of force had
icodered audacious and concerning which (^uary had made
strong representations to the home government, while Markham
aad the inhabitants apparently encouraged it. Penn and
Qoary. however came at once to a satisfactory understanding
00 this niatter, and the illegal traffic was vigorously and success-
fully attacked. In 1696 the Philadelphian Yearly Meeting
had passed a resolution declaring slavery contrary to the first
priaciplcs of the go^>eL Penn, however, did not venture upon
cmaadpation; but he insisted on the instruction of negroes,
penntaoon for them to marry, repression of polygamy and
adoitery, and proposed regulations for their trial and punishment.
The assembly, however, a very mixed body of all nations, now
Rfnsed to accept any ojf these proposals except the last-named.
His great succesa was with the Indians; by their treaty with
m 1700 they promised not to help any enemy of England,
to traffic only with those approved by the governor, and to sell
furs or skins to none but inhabitants of the province. At the
same time he showed his capacity for legislation by the share
he took with Lord Bellomont at New York in the consolidation
of the laws in use in the various parts of America.
Affairs now again demanded his presence in England. The king
had in 1701 written to urge upon the Pennsylvania government
a union with other private colonics for defence, and had asked
for money for fortifications. The difl culty felt by the Crown
in this matter was a natural one. A bill was brought into the
lords to convert private into Crown colonies. Penn's son
appeared before the committee of the house and managed to
delay the matter until his father's return. On the 15th of
September Penn called the assembly together, in which the
differences between the province and the territories again broke
out. He succeeded, however, in caUning them, appointed a
council of ten to manage the province in his absence, and gave
a borough charter to Philadelphia. In May 1700, experience
having shown that alterations in the charter were advisable,
the assembly had, almost unanimously, requested Penn to revise
it. On the 28th of October 1701 he handed it back to them in
the form in which it afterwards remained. An assembly was
to be chosen yearly, of four persons from each county, with all
the self-governing privileges of the English House of Commons.
Two-thirds were to form a quorum. The nomination of sheriffs,
coroners, and magistrates for each county was given to the
governor, who was to select from names handed in by the free-
men. Moreover, the council was no longer elected by the
people, but nominated by the governor, who was thus practically
left single in the executive. The assembly, however, who, by
the first charter, had not the right to propound laws, but might
only amend or reject them, now acquired that privilege. In
other respects the original charter remained, and the inviol-
ability of conscience was again emphatically asserted. Penn
reached England in December 1701. He once more assumed
the position of leader of the Dissenters and himself read the
address of thanks for the promise from the Throne to maintain
the Act of Toleration. He now took up his abode again at
Kensington, and published while here his More Fruits of
Solitude.
In 1703 he went to Knightsbridge, where he remained until
1706, when he removed to Brentford, his final residence being
taken up in 1710 at Field Ruscombe, near Twyford. In i /04
he wrote his Life of Bulstrode Whitclocke. He had now much
trouble from America. The territorialists were openly reject ing
his authority, and doing their best to obstruct all business in the
assembly; and matters were further embarrassed by the inju-
dicious conduct of Governor John Evans in 1706. Moreover,
pecuniary troubles came heavily upon him, while the conduct of
his son William, who became the ringleader of all the dissolute
characters in Philadelphia, was another and still more severe
trial. This son was married, and had a son and daughter, but
appears to have been left entirely out of account in the settle-
ment of Penn's proprietary rights on his death.
Whatever were Penn's great qualities, he was deficient in
judgment of character. This was especially shown in the choice
of his steward Ford, from whom he had borrowed money, and
who, by dexterous swindling, had managed, at the time of his
death, to establish, and hand down to his widow and son, a
claim for £14,000 against Penn. Penn, however, refused to pay,
and spent nine months in the Fleet rather than give way. He
was released at length by his friends, who paid £7500 in composi-
tion of all claims. Difficulties with his government of Penn-
sylvania continued to harass him. Fresh disputes took place
with Lord Baltimore, the owner of Maryland, and Penn also felt
deeply what seemed to him the ungrateful treatment which
he met with at the hands of the assembly. He therefore in
1 7 10 wrote, in earnest and affectionate language, an address
to his " old friends," setting forth his wrongs. So great was the
effect which this produced that the assembly which met in
October of that year was entirely in his interests; revenues were
properly paid; the disaffected were silenced and complaints
I04
PENNANT—PENNINE CHAIN
were hushed; while an advance in moral sense was shown by
the fact that a bill was passed prohibiting the importation of
negroes. This, however, when submitted to the British parlia-
ment, was cancelled. Penn now, in Februaxy 1712, bdng in
failing health, proposed to surrender his powers to the Crown.
The commission of plantations recommended that Penn should
receive £12,000 in four years from the time of surrender, Penn
stipulating only that the queen should take the Quakers imder
her protection; and £xooo was given him in part payment.
Before, however, the matter could go further he was seized with
apoplectic fits, which shattered his understanding and memory.
A second attack occurred in 17 13. He died on the 30th of May
17 18, leaving three sons by his second wife, John, Thomas and
Richard, and was buried along with his first and second wives at
Jourdans meeting-house, near Chalfont St Giles in Buckingham-
shire. In 1790 the proprietaxy rights of Penn's descendants
were bought up for a pension of £4000 a year to the eldest male
descendant by his second wife, and this pennon was commuted
in 1884 for the sum of £67,000.
Penn's Life was written by Joseph Besae, and prefixed to the
collected edition of Penn's Works (1726) ; see also the bibliographical
note to the article in DicL Nat. Btog. W. Hepworth Dixon s bio-
mphy, refuting Macaulay's charges, appearea in 1851. In 1907
Mrs Colquhoun Grant, one of Penn's descendants, brought out a
book, Quaker and Courtier: the Life and Work of William Penn.
(O.A.)
PENNANT, THOMAS (1726-1798), British naturalist and
antiquary, was descended from an old Welsh family, for many
generations resident at Downing, Flintshire, where he was bom
on the 14th of June 1726. He received his early education at
Wrexham, and afterwards entered Queen's College, Oxford,
but did not take a degree. At twelve years* of age he was
inspired with a passion for natural history through being
presented with Francis Willughby's Ornithology; and a tour in
Cornwall in 1 746-1 747 awakened his strong interest in minerals
and fossils. In 1750 his account of an earthquake at Downing
was inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, where there also
appeared in 1756 a paper on several coralloid bodies he had
collected at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. In the foUowing year,
at the instance of Linnactis, he was elected a member of the
Royal Society of Upsala. In 1766 he published the first part
of his British Zoology, a work meritorious rather as a laborious
compilation than as an original contribution to science. During
its progress he visited the continent of Europe and made the
acquaintance of Buffon, Voltaire, Haller and Pallas. In 1767
he was elected F.R.S. In 1771 was published his Synopsis
0/ Quadrupeds, afterwards extended into a History of Quadrupeds.
At the end of the same year he published A Tour in Scotland in
17 6g, which proving remarkably popular was followed in 1774
by an account of another journey in Scotland, in two volumes.
These works have proved invaluable as preserving the record
of important antiquarian relics which have now perished.
In 1778 he brought out a similar Tour in Wales, which was
followed by a Journey to Snawdon (pi. L 1781; pt. ii. 1783),
afterwards forming the second voliune of the Tour. In 1782
he published a Jovmey from Chester to Loruion. He brought
out Arctic Zoology in 1 785-1 787. In 1790 appeared his Auount
of Jjmdon, which went through a large number of editions, and
three years later he published the Literary Life of the late T.
Pennant, written by himself. In his later years he was engaged
on a work entitled Outlines of the Globe, vols. i. and ii. of which
appeared in 1798, and vols. iii. and iv., edited by his son David
Pennant, in 1800. He was also the author of a number of
minor works, some of which were published posthimiously.
He died at Downing on the i6th of December 1798.
PENNAR, or Penner, two rivers of southern India, distin-
guished as North and South. The native name is Pinakini.
Both rise near the hill of Nandidrug in Mysore state, and flow
eastward into the Bay of Bengal. The northern is the more
important and has a total length of 355 m., that of the southern
being 245 m. This latter bears the alternative name of the
Ponniar. The Pennar (northern) river canal system comprises
more than 30 m. of canals, irrigating 155,500 acres
PENNB, a town and episcopal see of Italy, in the province
of Teramo, 26 m. S.E. of Teramo, and 16 m. inland from the
Adriatic, 1437 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 10,394. The
cathedral has been much altered; in its treasury is some fine
13th (?) century silversmiths' work; the church of S. Giovanni
has a fine cross by Nicola di Guardiagrele, and that of S. Maria
in CoUeromano, outside the town, a Romanesque portaL Many
of the houses have fine terra-cotta friezes. It occupies the site
of the ancient Pinna, the chief dty of the Vestini, who entered
into alliance with Rome in 301 B.C. and remained faithful to
her through the Hannibalic wars and even during the revolt
of the Italian allies in 90 b.c No remains of the Roman period
exist, even the dty waUs bdng entirdy medieval.
See G. Colasanti. Pinna (Rome, 1907); V* Bindi, MonwnemH
degli Abrutn (Naples. 1889, pp. 565 sqq.).
PENNELL, JOSEPH (i860- ), American artist and author,
was bom in Philadelphia on the 4th of July i860, and first
studied there, but like his compatriot and friend, J. M. Whistkr,
he afterwards went to Europe and made his home in London.
He produced niunerous books (many of them in collaboration
with his wife, Elizabeth kobins Pennell), but his chief distinction
is as an original etcher and lithographer, and notably as an
illustrator. Their dose acquaintance with Whistler led to
Mr and Mrs Pennell undertaking a biography of that artist in
1906, and, after some litigation with his executrix on the right
to use his letters, the book was published in 1908.
PENNI, OIANFRANCESCO (1488-1538), Italian painter,
sumamed "H Fattore," from the relation in which he stood
to Raphad, whose favourite disdple he was after Giulio Romano,
was a native of Florence, but spent the latter years of his life;
in Naples. He painted in oil as well as in fresco, but is chiefly
known for his work in the Loggie of the Vatican.
PENNINE CHAIN, an extensive system of hills in the north of
England. The name is probably derived from the Cdtic pen,
high, appearing in the Apennines of Italy and the Pennine Alps.
The English system is comprised within the following physical
boundaries. On the N. a weU-marked depression, falling below
500 ft. in height, between the upper valleys of the Irthing and
the south Tyne, from which it is known as the Tyne Gap,
separates the Pennines from the system of the Cheviots. On
the N.E., in Northumberland, the foothills extend to the North
Sea. On the N.W. the Eden valley forms part of the boundary
between the Pennines and the hills of the Lake District, and the
division is continued by the upper valley of the Lune. For the
rest the physical boimdaries consist of extensive lowlands —
on the E. the vale of York, on the W. the coastal bdt of Lan-
cashire and the plain of Cheshire, and on the S. and S.E. the
valley of the river Trent. The Pennines thus cover parts of
Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland, Lancashire
and Yorkshire, Cheshire and Derbyshire, while the southern
foothills extend into StaHordshire and Nottinghamshire.
The Pennine system is hardly a range, but the hills are in
effect broken up into numerous short ranges by valleys cut badt
into them in every direction, for the Pennines form a north and
south watershed which determines the course of all the larger
rivers in the north of England. The chain is divided into two
sections by a gap formed by the river Aire flowing east, a member
of the Humber basin, and the Ribble flowing west and entering
the Irish Sea through a wide estuary south of Morecambe Bay.
The northern section of the Pennine system is broader and
generally higher than the southern. Its western slope is generally
short and steep, the eastern long and gradual; this distinction apply-
ing to the system at large. In the north-west a sharp escarpment
overlooks th^ Eden valley. This is the nearest approach to a true
mountain range in the Pennine system and indeed in England.
It is known as the Cross Fell Edge from its highest point, Cross Fell
(2930 ft.), to the south-east of which a height of 2780 ft. is reached
in Milburn Forest, and of 2591 ft. in Mickle Fell. This range u
marked off eastward by the upper valleys of the south Tyne and the
Tees, and, from the divide between these two, branch ranses spriM
eastward, separated by the valley of the Wear*, at the head of wbidi
are Bumhope Scat (2452 ft.) and Dead Stones (2326 ft.). . In the .
northern range the highest point is Middlehope Moor (2206 ft.), and
in the southern^ Chapel Fell Top (2294 ft.). It is thus seen>that tkl <
PENNSYLVANIA 105
kMcr dmdocK. Ilk* dB •MfpiT iloeo. Ha tinnnli tbc vat. Radiof, Tbt Buth-wcit pan i> ■ nonh^tuum pralonntlon o<
Cn»FtDE(9|rt(nmiiUB>intliniitU(hi|!ipM(>boiiti4<»it.) tbt Virfini* Piedmont, li Eoown u Iht Cumberland Prone, and
bMwm tbi brvl erf the BcUh, a Iribuu/y ol [be Edm, and Ibe CKtndl N.N.E. thnugh Ibc BUIh part al Cumberland caunty,
Cru, ■ eribataiy itf Ibe TcB. Tbk paia k foUowcd-by U» Tebay In tb« Reading Prone meat c4 Ibc bilti rile 9<iD-iaoa li abi>vc iht
Uld Barnaid Caatla line of [be Ndctb Eaiuni laihny. The billa aea and about one-hali thai hFl|h[ above the lunoundini caun[[y:
i)n[Ll. on tbe Maryland bwderj [bey riie aioa It. above [be lea
known at the Trentcm Pmng. emendi liwn [be northmi luburba
Delavare. Lancailer and Yurk coun[iea. bu[ [brae rin'only 4CO-6OO
1[. above the us and have Tew Heep ilopea. Both at tbeae nniee
al billi arr comniKd at bard uyiialline roclu, and between Ibem
liH tbe Lowlancf emled on ibe -reaker landMODCa and aedimenti.
la Bucki and Monioomery countiea is a lane aandilanc area:
■ - - ■ Valley with a
The Kntlieni eectiDa of the iyiCem aOt [or len detailed DMicc. le younitr Ap-
Ihr wefl-ltmn nak <§a.\ nl Dstiyiliiic B«li ben and thiDueh-
e« thr lymni tbe HauBiti of the hiUi aic bl(b upbnda. (Danded
fir aearly flat. eflUHtiiw of heatbeiyepeaty Bocnud or hiO pi
Tbc pnSle of IbePeiiBlMa b thu not nrikbif ■• a rale, but
HdknPo
iryini hardneiBt
n ingleboraiKh itadf an ibe InilebuRHiah avc, near [be ioldioi the
k 1 rTI^ GbvU, over 3S0 tt. deep: Helln or (onninf a low
lie 3S9 '■- ^tp- <uly Biceeded by Row ic nl the entin
M (^5lt.)iiEai WberapdeiaiKluayDtben. MaUumTun,
^UH^nb i^iuflM«malilM7«t^~thedin>af~
jT the Aire, li dnlaed by a ttnun whicb quickly
^appean below aRvikd. and the Mn ittetf la fed by a brook
mpiein Derbyibinjilhediiippearvicvof (beWye[n[o '400 ft. or more
._^ afier which it liavenet Pooled Caw. cicitc lo Builan. 0 KHM (I. above
CaKWoa (f.*.). Lalvi arv few and amall in the Pennine diitrkt, cmt linca are olten ol nearly qnilonn height lor imlea and aencfaliy
but in lonK d tbe uplind vall>7a. audi as [base at [he Nidd and (h* tn Utite broken ctcept by an ooaaloaal V-ihaped wind gap. a
Ethiniw. natfvoita have been fonned for [be sipply of the populoui lumw water np or a minded knob. Tbe valleyi nrely eicccd
^uuEKtuiiru district! al l.ancuhire and [he Weit Riding of York- ntore (ban a lew milea in widlh, an usully •[eep-iided. and (ic-
^MK, which M on either flank of the syilcn] between the Ain gap quently are travened by iDnBitadinal rangea cd hilla and ctchb ridgea;
and the PqJl (For geology aee Ekclahd and attidea on tlw but the Pennaylvania poition of the Appalachian or Gr«a[ Valley.
■evBal DDuntiea.) which forma a diRiact division of the central prDviace and lie*
nuaTLVAKIA. a Nortb Allaniic ilate ol the United beiw«n the Son[h M«iB[aiu and the lonj rarnoan of BIm
S|«» of Anie™ «id »ne of Ihe ori^d^ .hirteen. lying for M^nuin^.^abo^t^.n^Ja^^ .0
lie moil pan between lati[udcs 39 « 16] and « N. and ot it ii a slate belt ihai h»» been much dii
belwtcn longitudel T4 4<i andSo ji 36 W. The itale la in but Ihe souib^eait part it a gently mllini
Ik form of a lectanik, except in the Donb-wcit where a occa»onally a steep hDI detcendi [ron t.- .
r.^»Hi*..«»«:^iT.t-i *«i*nH!nDin j^^Ti^'V lir mir.4it • ah.^rj- pUieau. into which the centra] province merHes ai lu nDnii.eBBi
lniiWilarproiecliDn,«teiidingl0 4i is N.Uil-.Bve* t aiiore- P, / ;, , ^tUma.ion of (he CattkiirpUteau louthwaid
line oi tlmoit 40 m. on Lake Ene, on Ihe eait while the Dela- ,,^ ,g^ y^ ,nj ^o^^ Wayne, Pike and Monroe lountie. and
nniivetwilhlwolargcbcndiKpanlait from New York and the east portion ol Carbon county, ttt tuiface it underlaid by a
New Jersey, and in [he louth-east where Ibe arc ol a circle which hard tandstone and conglonierate which erode slowly, and Ihe general
•n iWrihi^ with a II m ladius liom New Caille Delaware upland level, which it 14<»->8oo ft. above tbe lea, is l.i[le broken
, '™'^''"™ """ * _ "■■ ., J i , Tu r' J .J eicept by shallow valleys and occasional knobs. Tbe Alleghany
fciniB Ibe botmdary between It and Delaware. The tort y.second |„4„ '.^^h entendt from the crest of [be Alleghany Front 10
pitilld of N. latitude foimi the boundary between it and New ^^j beyorid [he west and north bonien of Pennsylvania and
it ind Maryland and Wesl Virginia on Ibe wiutb and a norlb In Tioga and Pottercountinon^n^h middle bord« ilriin
and Moth line marka the boundary belween il and West lii-1300 l[ in [he south-wesl and^o-
Virpnia and Ohio on the weit. The total ares u iS,"^ iq- °i- det. and in Erie county [here it a Hidden
' --' " - •rewatersurlace. le Erie plain. In [he iwnhcrn. middle
cp and occasionally eoo-iooo ft. deep.
the uplands are bruder anrT [he viille^
Hi of the Pennsylvania ibore ot Lake
saBdandclay50-1aaft.il ' ' '^-
hly a narrow beach, hi*' '-
tr anrflhe valley
lia shore ot Uk
ft. in height am
ut in tronr of th,
formed a ipit. known as Pretqu*
plateau, nearly aU of the central and •Hith.east
;Ce nor[h4ai[ portion of the AUeghany plateau are
,.. in e.<.«K.u I..I »~ ™- jw ... ■. . , _£eairf DSi"waie"Biys: the grea[er part ol [he Alleghany
i lowland of [he lSedmDr[ region, or. a> the Pennsylvania platHU il_draiDnl by the Allegheny and, Monongnhela nvcrs inio
Mati~ plain which haa been produced by [he wearing away ol and the eHreme weiteni portion of the »uth*ast province ar*
weak ■rSnone*. 4c. On the north anJ »H[ bordrn ol [his drained by tributanet ot the Potomac: the Erie plain is drained by
The Poconr
I. bui bolh Ihe Susqudunni uia iV Dcliwiir. logiihcc
with Ibtif principal tiibguriM, flow ioi" iKe moil part Iraninnr
(a Ihe itologkBl itnictuir. and in the jorin and walcr-Bipi Ihiouih
PENNSYLVANIA
TT BubJHt to CMMsivc
■s:
■ pmieelio
comminion '
, and .k.
n Ihc Unittd S
^S
» the iialc iHiaLitufT paiHd ar
■ lownihip if Ihr '— ^
louth-cail pcDViDCe H about u* F.;
ml pnvinH tai to <7' — >— 5^ — —
]f tKe Alkvliany plal«d
e. At Phi&delplifithc
idber. lamuiv ind Ffbnuryl i
mtf OuV July a»d Augu.) i
?fr'g.?.'V^
Sr,«^.i'
itaic lanscd Imm lOT^^ai Yorit.
uly T90I. ID -41' al Smilhpon. McKcan counly.
July i) the warmcit monih in all puti o( tit
ii ihe ojldtn in lomc and February in olbm.
ral rainlall it 44 in^ It it 50 in. or morr in tooK
■ (wilh-caR border oT ibe irououin dinrict 01
, r ,- whrmhrrainiareoccajiorully heavy, audit it
in tiir tpanely tcltled rwioni. The avifauna inrlude— among thr inUL during (he tummer it aboul ( in. more than
bird) (4 prey— (he jvd-^ouldcred hawk, rrd-railcd faawk, marth auTumnorwinterandj in. morethaAlbuduring
hawk, Cooper'i hawk, tbarp-ehinned bawk and wnTTowhawk;(be lOunlaJn Tfgion and in the vidniEy of Lake Erie
arenot uneominon in the moLintaLnoutrTgianialontllwbrgcT riven. "'^ "' -■-^■
Tnl^Sj'lli'iSrrnJlS'™ rJfr^lJSiK. quaittS'EwliJrphe^;
<wbiehhavoincreaied rapidly under protection), betiaet woockock.
mipe. many spccinulduckBand a few Canada geeae. The song and
a^"«dtiai-^"th
ii-^^£»i:'«Tt,
,. DeU.
IS^CSCS
tlheyartfrwiueMlyinu
S'C
.^and .n CheHeT VjJIey^where .1 u denv-e<j
•isi'/.
s«
alued ai 8s4.*JJ.ooo) »a) greater than Ihal of any
I Union tucept New York. Hiy ii grown in lai-geu
e ihaiT oric-hall of the crop acreage in 1^ wa*
ptiviie'fore.n, ' It eicrtded only in New York. The number of
Ormaa.— The lemperalurr it quite mild and "I"'*'' '" ^^' flgcloatcd iomewhal. but then »er* 917.000 in
n'^'ttSon from tb^rMa windt. The creiti of ihc higher ridgei 1509 and lO'o vr from Ihe Yar Bati of the
ha (catnl previnM an dellglitfully cool in Kiiamer, but tht tpattmnil of Agnculture.
le
PENNSYLVANIA
107
."iitr.irs'i.'i'S
)t OU CfmI. at Tiiuivillc; it
IS taiTcl. nn pgmped fmm
1 which moo K) JOOO barrdi
3W b«n (oini dry, iiid whfn.
Hodilvlo 9.«*^S in 1908.
I, Tout and Ohio. rTdnS^
caped, and in ■ [ew buuncn
ig «am in lh« boikn at <bc
loo. wdl> which HR dtilkd
later, about 1S6S •ucohCuI
■ ■Danulacluri.w iur\. and in
eU aubliahed ^r Titu.vilk
nillHit incnaKd fn>m appioii-
imanly $l9.Mi/m la i8Sa.
. ri.».!™,.nd,h.in.«v.,H?g
luilry vaj p«tly promrted in
■oon atter the ducovery, in iB^t. of deposiLi
kVillinnuport. Lycoming county, and the in-
overed and l3r« quanlitia of
ing or the Uhigb Canal. Com-
y the hnt tuccnaful Portland
1 in 1870. Tha autput of the
e1> (valued al
oT thai ot the
ItSsJ.iM) Id
iihi ^rcy or mollled- Tlowever
t brouDht more deilrabfe nonet
iHdHvcly ia Philadelphia and
^rard CollegE and the United
bsllaw and for road making. The toial value o( the KmeHoue
oulpul in ijoS amounted 10 tl.057.47'. and the - ' '
atone quarried «• I6J7I.IS>. In Dauphin wl
, of blniih-btswn Triuac landKoK ihat baa btn
for building and f*
:i"i4% JS'ih
Lie'found in ci>»
1 one of tiK oioil
ind NonhamplDr
Atlintic •obo*:
for iliii product ii
dance of coldiu c
in the Mpply tM I
PENNSYLVANIA
(be uite and of Readint. Harrufauii
Pottitovn, LtbanoD. PlweniiviJIr ai
Ion, Soath Betfakboi^
villr in (be mtt pan.
pc-^t'L, and picldira
, , „ JuUeriS
Philadelphia.
Tnmipon and Conmrrcf.— The new road cut ihrouEh the Juniau
retion in the nrnich of the army of Btindicr-Gcnerarji^n ForbcL
aninK Fort Duqueue in I7}8, wai a mult of the influenoe d
nniuylvaria, for it wa> conbdared even thm a matter of treat
imponance to the firtuR profperity of the prDviace that iti tapoft,
Philadelphia, be connected with na^eation on thr Ohio by (Ik
eaiiett bne o( conoiunication (bat could be bad wholly within iu
lijniia. Aa early ai (76> David Rittenbouie and otheiT inadc a
■irvey for a canal to connect (be Schnylliill and the Suiquchanni
liven, and in 1791 a comnlttee of the ilaH leiulacure lepincd
in favour of a pR>jecE for eatablithing conmunioKbn by canab
and river inprovement fnui Philadelphia to UikJe Erie by way
ol the Suqacbanu river. Before anythin| wai done, the need cf
Impraved meana of InuponukM between PhilaiHphia and Ibe
nnthiarite coal-6e1di became the more pceaauig. The Schuylkill
Canal Conpany, chartered in iSis^bNan (he conatTuction of a
cuiatahini the SchuylUII river from Philadelphia la Mount Caibon.
Scbuylliill cwinly. In 1816. and complMed it in 1816. In iSiS the
Lehigh NavigatuHi Company wat formed to improve ihe navifa-
mouth a the Lehifh
the Suiquchinru to Readiai
, ...-> itatc legislature authoriaed
minion to explore route! from tbc Schuvl'
im the Wnt Branch ol the Sumuehaaai
r four uccceding van the
KicEUive eyAtem of internal
toCotumbia
Jobnitownon
Kblmninetat,
, ..40. when (be compleleil er
portioni enbnced a nilway fnin Philadelphia
'(^iDmbia to*kol»(b^uii. a p«we n^way
' nigb BUir'i Cap in (be Allegbany Front to
—■^ -■- ™l down the Concmauth.
Iltibtirg. a canal up (be
York banter,
branch from Ihemi
n Noflh^uint
ith of (be Lehigh : comideiable
onnect (be Ohio - —. - „
iCopped. in 1(140. before the ^^em wai completed becauK of the
Intcnte popular diicontent anting from """" "" "■""" "' "'"'■" -*■"-'-
had been atsumed and became the taa
wat then fully aauted. In (845 the ttale begin to
and lailwayi (0 private corporationi and ihr ulp
in iSjt. THte weitera divuion of the >)
Ibe new ownen In ISCJ and the worked pc
burden of rkbt whidi
^p product!, coi
iron, |l07.45S-'6:
(he,D
tbeDelawa
ion of IHB
:be Federal
er below Philadelphia which abw
in 1^ the Fed
tV -™'*-
All^i
^nt htn much improved the navlnlion of ihe MonontaheLi and
lezhenr rtven and ii commiltrd 10 a piojni lor uack-water
IZ-.i .1- n..;- ..i.:.v : 1 .„ .:„. pimburg com-
.«., «« ,«.-., ... ..-V -....^ JJ by ihe Lehigh
COil A Naviutnn Company tram Mavth ChunV to i» miiH,
a n. (fiuanc but (hie wu only a gravity road down which an
loaiied wi(h coal deicended by their own gravity and up which the
n PhlladcfphiT'io cXmlria'. but
rheTwi"^
If further was done ui
..__ _, ...-'lined pLinei, fi^-e on each iide of ih. ._
•I Blair'a Cap and cari were drawn up iheie by niiionary enginer.
Bolh the Philadelphia ft Columbia and the Aileghenv Piinage
railwiyi were completed ia tin- From Iheie and other befin-
ningi the Mate'a railway mileage gradually inereaied to 1140 ■■
In 1(50, to 4fise m. ia 1B7D, to 8639 m. in 189a and (0 11.J73B.M
PENNSYLVANIA 109
•be have beco dtbeni o( the UnilBl Sulci foe ode moath,
oidcDti of Ihc itMt tot ODc yeu and of the diction dulrict
0[ two monllu Irniotiliilely pcccedisg the electioD, have the
igbt of luSnge, providrd they have paid withia two yean a
itale or county lai, which ahali have been aneSKd at Icail
wo moDthi and paid at leut one month btten the election.
rhe Auitnlian or " ManachuietU " baHot. adf^ted in 1891
indei a law which laila 10 require personal legiilratiaii, by a
)rovi>ion like thai in Ncbruka maket it eaiy lo vote a iliaifbt
icket; paity name) are airan^ on the ballot acconilng to
ri, oporti chiefly pMmlnini. coal, grain and tlour, tod J>e number of votei tecureU by each pany at the laM pnceding
efly iron on. Hilar, dnigi and cbemkati. nunLifactured dectioo,
I, Jure aod fUi. [a t?09 the value of iu npoiti. Eimdat. — Tlwoffice of pjyeinor, wperaeded in iTTfibyaptm-
r Yixk. and ihe value of iu impnni, lr8,00]4&4, wu nnttilulion the zovemor eervei for four ynn and ii inelinble Cor
D Oat of any euepi New York and Boilon. Pillibulf the nen lucnedinc tenn. The Bcvernnr and Lieuteiun|.KOveiiw
■nong the "«>rBr pprtt of the rauniy in fonign |bu,i be ,, tan 30 yean old, ciiiieni of the United, Statea. and
ha domeMic cominerce. Erie i> quile unimportaDt no member of Conireia or penon boldinj any office under (he
lake pon> in Coieicn comiTKice, but hii a laiie dDiacatlc United Sutei or l^nuiylvania may be govenmr nc lieutenant-
II on. copper, wheat and flour. govemor. The govemot coninili a lirsE anuninl of palnmaae.'
-.-Tie P^l™ of Pe^Bylvania "« 4MJ7J :P£r«.'i."*i^ ^^t «,iS^n™hh^Sd ^."^^
01.365 in iSoo. 810,091 in 1810, i/Mfl,4J» in >"•>, ^^^ plajure. and a wperintendcnt of publk iutfuctios fir fow
aiS3Oii,7i4.0JJuiiS4o;i.3ii,7S«ui 1S50; 3,906,115 ytara. and nay EU vacanda in varioua officei whicb occur durinf
tiS"-9Si >» 1S70: 4>>S>,S9i in iSSe; 5,138,014 in tbe nxca of the renate. He hai a right of veto, oRcnding to Iteiu
j.iIS in 1000; 7,661,111 ioioia Ofthctolalln 1000, 'o appropriatiMi Kilt whkh may be overriddca by a Iwo-thirda
' _ --y ' t Zli !„.__ hjc D , «»^ ....».« vote in each houie. Hia oower of pardon la hmited. being ubHct
I^ T ^C^ iJd ™ W^^ " "" F™"™"-!*'™ <^'"« n-mbe™ of a bowd whi^ani^
% of the fareien-bom IRU composed of nalivei ol general and Kcieiaiy of inlemiJ aflain. The other' eieculivc
[iiirtSj), I-eland (Jos,oofl), Great Brilain (180,670), "EfS'*'' •" 't", li™"enan|.govnT»r and the aecretary of inttfoal
1. . . ■ /I VVTi iiii \o ■ I .1 aHai™, elecled lor four yea™, the aadilor^eneril. elecled for ihiee
,,3S81. Austna (6;,49i). Italy (6MS5), Ruaa (50,959), yan.\i,t lreuu«r. ele«3 Sr two yean. Md (all appointed by the'
47,Mj) and Sweden (14,130). 01 the native popula. governor) the Kcrelary of the tommonweallh. the atlomey-gcBeral
S.fl*S) 90-7% were bom within the state and a little and a Biperinlendcnt of public instniclion. All tbs« cfwn by
I two-fifths of the iimainder were natives ol New e>Ktion are ineligible lor a tecond conjtcutive term empt the
lylaad. Ohio. New JetKy, ViiginU, New England, ^„Ti"?'o?'i"'b^;/!X W ^^^t^l' ^t^JSITUf^
aiid Weit Virginia. Almut two-thiidsof ihelndtani icrvice, u«Hmenu, indunrial lUtiKics, and nilnvdh caula,
-DVbeiiand county where, at Carlisle, is a United telegraphs and telcphonra. There are alio many ilatutor^ admini-
tian Indusirial School. In 1906 the lota] number ol •iratiwofficialiard bMtd^ >ucliMtheadjutani.grneral^™ran«
II of fUflerenl reliidous denominations in the s1at< commissioner, board of health, hoard of agnculture, board of pubbc
e PioTeslanla and 1,314,734 mining Inspeclorm.
an CaiboUci. There is a large number of the imailei Lipiiature. — During the cohinial period and the eady yean
•ecu in the itaie; the principal denominaiiona, Kai^ood the legiiUmie wai comixBed of one bouse, tui tl
i^nbei of communion., ol each in 1,06, are: Metho. ^STt^'^T.^.TeeSS^S? /Sir'^rd'ToiZ^tely^
.Mj), Lutheran (335,64^). Presbytenan _(3)i,S4I), hundred representatives, elected for two yean. _&aatan mint I
i;o). Baptist (i4i,£94). Prolntant at lean 15 years aid. dliiens and inhabiunu of the stale for four
lurch (45.430). Disciples of Chrul (16,498), Germui niptaenlativa must be at Icait 11 yean old and muu have lived
relhrcn (13,176), Eastern Orthodoi Churches (u,l)3), in the state three yean and in the ditt rid from which elected one
ea (16,517), Congregational (14,811), Evangelical Asao- yearneit before election. To avoid the pombility of metropolitan
i,i94). Friends (1J.4S7), Church ol Cod or "Wmae- ^"''^'™^'™''%'^''^V^^'^%i^^"^ "^^g^^
at '■ Cii,iS;), and Moravian (5311). ireTi^niat." Tlw^wen of the iwS''i«us^ ai?^ same eacipt
j.lnmiit.iloninl900.).llJJ37,orsi-l*/.,wewurtan{i.r. that ihe senate exercises the usual right of conlinnlngappoinlmeDtl
ationolioooor marc), 761,846, or II'I5%, indaf ullin^asa court of impeachment, while the House of Re^'
,nied places) .^Fioin 189a ia'1900 the urban populatioF by the voters of the stale al bree. Minority repieseniation is
iiafimrtued only 55,195. or 1-4 */o- The poputaiions oi ihc number ol judgci to be chosen at each election. The state is
' " > follows: Philadelphia. 1,193,697 divided into Ihret uiprcme judicial districts, the eastern, the middle
t6 (lubsKiuently anncied it and the western. This court was formerly very much overworked,
ding. 7S,96t; Erie. 51.73] but it srat relieved by an act of Ihc 34th ol June 1895 establishing
w>.i67! Lancaster, 41459 a superior court (now of seven iudgei} irilh appellate jurisdiction.
f. .. ......,!, ^ There were in toio fiftv-iia district courts of common pleas, one lot
taVji^!'"
i:'1g^»
J^iil
Ii WUliari
on. i5,i3B:'^oniwown. 11,165: Sheaaodoah counries in a district. The judees of the common pleas are also
— Peniuyivaoia has beeii governed undo R?"" '"'' ■'"™' ^"'^'^''^'^'l'' f^.'^jL^'P'""'' "^^^ Jl^^^
776, 1790 and l8j8 ; the present gOvemmem having a po^lalion o? more than one hundird and fitly ihou™
..:..,.: — t( [[,5 iSth ol Dece™!— .a,, ^'il r — 1.^ Ji ."i. 1 1 : .. j: — :_.. i_; L. ..
s adopted on the slh of November 1901. Al townships. In the colonial period nil judges were appoi ., ...
,., .K,mfi.liiMili.n mhf. Aimed must be anomvcf Eovcmor durinjt good behaviour. The conslitnlKm of t776 provided
,„ ,h, mn.i,iMi,™ in he aimptcQ must De approvw p ,,nn,o( -v^S venn. ihnt of 170O rastoicd the life tena.and that
ily of the members elected 10 each house of Ibi
mibly io two successive legisl!
inteJbylb
./76provide-
[79orBtorcd the life tend, and that
of the gCDCra memof iSsoprovidedthalallJudResihouldbcclcctedby thepnple.^
an the adoptioi 1 jj,, tonstilution of 1673 made provision for minority lepresen-
yean of age, ution as follows: " Whenever two judgeaol Ibe supreme court ve
no PENNSYLVANIA
At pment aupRme nurt Judnt Ki
iiKl«ibk for tHlKtioB. Superior
•erve For ten ytun, mud juRico of tl
Lmpeadwd for miidenicmiHnir in oft
gtrmX mBCDibtv, for any eubodj
BilBcitnl injanil lof iqmichi
Laul ammmtnL— The Idc— .
tlic county nWnn of the South uid the I
Ensbiid. The coiuitv olGcen ue iherile.
. EleUed Eoc Ihiee ytm. The thi
% ID each county are choaen by the u
t •upieme<ouTt jjdflc*, thus allowing
ity part);. Pcnna^Ivania hii ■uflere
the people rt PhiUdclphii hit &Trri \o contribule nore thin
tMiooiifaa lor the coiutniction of > ciiy-hilL To giunt ifunit
— u 1. :- .^ (utuie the comtituiion -SI 1873 mffntd
tlooe upon ipcdal le^iUtBin. The object
T, hiu been in ■ lane meuure nulUficd by
-' - idet which Phlladelphii it the
EC of the " Rlppei BiU " of 1901
■choot-boDld iB~uie» n exempt from levy and leJe on execution oj
by dittreu for mt ; and the exemption exlendi ta the widow uu
cdildren unles there la ■ Ben on the property for purchate money
The child-labour law of lim fortndi the emphiyment of chadrn
under eighteen yeari of age in bUiC fumaco, ta—*-^— — — »—
Bremen, engineer!, motonnen and in other poiition oi iunilar
character. Tlie tame law piacfibo condllioni usdcf which
children between fourteen and^eighleen yean uf age may be on-
ploycd in the manufacture of white-lad. rn1-lead| |iainta. phn-
phonii, pcnnnoui acidt. tobacco or ciian, in meitanlile eetabbih-
mcnti, >tom. botelt. oRica or in other place* requiring protection
to ih«r linlrh or ulely; and it forbidt the employment of boye
under liiteen yeart of aEc or of eItIi under eiEhteen ycart of age in
tl be iQ prepare lor a ahort day| or for moie than lilty-eialit houra
PENNSYLVANIA iii
lovei viUey of the Delanre River Id ifiij-i6Si. Btlw«n
1650 And 1660 George Fox uid a fcvr other prominent memben
of the Society oF Fiiendi had begun to urge the estahliAhineiit
luSering peneculion under the " Clarendon Code." William
Penn Ig.t.) became interested in the plan at least ai early u
l«66. For hii cbanen of 16S0-1681 and the growth of the
colony under him lee Penh, Wiluau.
During Penn 't life the colony nu involved in Knoiu boundary
diiputea with Maryland, Virginia and Ncn Vock, A decree ol
Lord Chancellor HaidwicLe, in ijso, lellleddhe Maryland.
Delawan dispute and led to Ihe survey in i;6]-i767 ol Ihe
boundary between Fenniylvanii and Maryland (lat. ]9° 43'
ifi'j' N.), called the Mason and Diion line in honour of the
ing the Iree and the slave stales. In 1784 Virginia agreed to
limit (the present boundary between Pennsylvania and Ohio)
u the meridlui liom a paint on the Mason and Diion line five
degrees of longitude west of the Delaware river. The 4ind
parallel wu Simlly )decled as the norlbem boundary in 1784,
in 17^1 the Federal govenunent told to Pennsylvania Ihe
■Dull triangular strip' of territory north of it on Lake Erie. A
territorial dispute with Connecticut over the Wyoming Valley
waa leiUed in favour of Pennsylvania in 1781 by a court of
Upon William Penn^a death, his widow became proprietary-
Sir WiUiam Keilh, her deputy, waa hostile to the council, which
he practically abolished, and waa popular with the asHmbly,
which be assiduously courted, hut waa discharged by MrsPenn
after he had quarrelhxl with James Logan, secretary of the
province. His successors, Patrick Gordon and George Thomas,
during the Seven Years' War Ihe assembly wilhslood the gov.
emor, Robert Hunter Morris, in the malterof grants lor Diililary
eipcnses. But the assembly did its part in assisting Gener^
Biaddock to outfit; and after Braddock't defeat all wcslem
Pennsylvania suffered terribly (rom Indian attaclis. After the
proprietors subscribed fjcoo for the protection of the colony
the assembly momentarily gave up it) contest for a tai on the
proprietary estates and consented to pass a money bill, without
this provision, fo( Ihe expenses of the war. But in 1760 the
assembly, *ith the help of Benjamin Franklio as agent in
England, won the great victory of forcing the proprietor! to
pay a lai (£566) to Ihe colony; and Iheieaflei the siwrnbly
had little Is contest for, and the degree of civil liberty atliined
in the province waa very high. But the growing power ol the
Scotch-Irish, the resentment of the Quakers againal the pro-
prietors for having gone hack to tbe Church of England and
many other circumstances strengthened the ^ti-proprietaty
the able
id Joseph
t^ the absence aft'
er December 1764 ol
! Franklin
in England
OS itl agent. The
queition tost impor
tance as independence
In i7SS> volume
er militia had been a
eated and
wasted with
in .756 a
line of forla
was begun to hold
the Indiana in check.
. In the same year a
nder John Armatron
g of Carii!
lie surprised
and destroyed the
Indian village of K
.itlanning
(or AtiquO
on Ihe Allegheny river. But the Iron
istutbed by
Indian kttachl unti
Ponliac's
conspiracy.
In December 176J
__•!» Christian India
ns, Cones
togas, were
massacred by the
om Paito
n near Ihe
pre«nt Haniibuig;
the ladiau who had CKaped
were lakea
112
PENNSYLVANIA
to Lancaster for safe keeping bat were seized and killed by the
" Paxton boys," who with other backwoodsmen marched upon
Philadelphia early^ in 1764, but Quakers and Germans gathered
quickly to protect it and civil war was averted, largely by the
diplomacy of Franklin. The Paxton massacre marked the close
of Quaker supremacy and the beginning of the predominance of
the Scotch-Irish pioneers.
Owing to its central position, its liberal government, and its
policy of ^ligious toleration, Pennsylvania had become during
the 1 8th century a refuge for European immigrants, especially
persecuted sectaries. In no other colony were so many dififerent
races and religions represented. There were Dutch, Swedes,
English, Germans, Wcbh, Irish and Scotch-Irish; Quakers,
Presbyterians, Episcopalians, Catholics, Lutherans (Reformed),
Mennonites, Dunkers, Schwenkfelders, and Moravians. Most
of these elements have now become merged in the general type,
but there are still many communities in which the popiilar
language is a corrupt German dialect, largely Rheno-Franconian
in its origin, known as " Pennsylvania Dutch." Before the
Seven Years' War the Quakers dominated the government,
but from that time untU the failure of the Whisky Insurrection
(1794) the more belligerent Scotch-Irish (mostly Presbyterians)
were usually in the ascendancy, the reasons being the growing
numerical strength of the Sicotch-Irish and the increasing
dissatisfaction with Quaker neglect of means of defending the
province.
As the central colony, Pennsylvania's attitude in the struggle
with the mother country was of vast importance. The British
party was strong because of the loyalty of the large Church of
England element, the neutrality of many Quakers, Dunkers,
and Mennonites, and a general satisfaction with the liberal and
free government of the province, which had been won gradually
and had not suffered such catastrophic reverses as had em-
bittered the people of Massachusetts, for instance. But the
Whig party under the lead of John Dickinson, Thomas Mi£9in
and Joseph Reed was successful in the state, and Pennsylvania
contributed greatly to the success of the War of Independence,
by the important services rendered by her statesmen, by
providing troops and by the finandal aid given by Robert
Morris iq.v.). The two Continental Congresses (1774, and
X775~i78i) met in Philadelphia, except for the months when
Philadelphia was occupied by the British army and Congress
met in Lancaster and York, Pennsylvania, and then in Prince-
ton, New Jersey. In Philadelphia the second Congress adopted
the Declaration of Independence, which the Pennsylvania
delegation, excepting Franklin, thought prematura at the time,
but which was well supported by Pennsylvania afterwards.
During the War of Independence battles were fought at Brandy-
wine (1777), Paoli (1777), Fort Mifflin (1777) and Gcrmantown
(1777), and Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778
at Valley Forge; and Philadelphia was occupied by the British
from the 26th of September 1777 to the i8th of June 1778.
The Penns lost their governmental rights in 1776, and three
years later their territorial interests were vested in the common-
wealth in return for a grant of £120,000 and the guarantee of
titles to private estates held in severalty. They sUll own con-
siderable property in and around Wilkcs-Barr6, in Luzerne
county, and in Philadelphia. The first state constitution of
September 1776 was the work of the Radical party. It deprived
the Quakers of their part in the control of the government
and forced many Conservatives into the Loyalist party. This
first state constitution was never submitted to popular vote.
It continued the unicameral legislative system, abolished the
office of governor, and provided for an executive council of
twelve members. It also created a curious body, known as the
council of censors, whose duty it was to assemble once in seven
years to decide whether there had been any infringements of
the fundamental law. The party which had carried this con-
stitution through attacked its opponents by withdrawing the
charter of the college of Philadelphia (now the university of
Pennsylvania) because its trustees were anti-Constitutionalists
and creating in its place a university of the state of Pennsyl-
vania. The Constitutional party in 1785 secured the annulmfnt
by the state assembly of the charter of the Bank of North
America, which still retained a congressional charter; and the
cause of this action also seems to have been party feeling against
the anti-Constitutionalists, among whom Robert Morris oi the
bank was a leader, and who, eiH>ecially Morris, had opposed the
paper money i>olicy of the Constitutionalists. These actions
of the state assembly against the college and the bank probablty
were immediate causes for the insertion in the Federal Constitu-
tion (adopted by the convention in Philadelphia in 1787) of the
clause (proposed by James Wilson of Pennsylvania, a friend
of the college and of the bank) forbidding any state to past a
law impairing the obligation of contracts. The state ratified the
Federal Constitution, in spite of a powerful opposition — ^largdy
the old (state) Constitutional party — on the 22nd of Decembv
1787, and three years later revised its own constitution to make
it conform to that document. Under the constitution of 1790
the office of governor was restored, the executive council and
the council of censors were abolished, and the bicameral Init-
iative system was adopted. Philadelphia was the seat oi the
Federal government, except for a brief period in 1789-1790^
untU the removal to Washington in 1800. The state capital
was removed from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1799 and from
Lancaster to Harrisburg in 181 2.
The state was the scene of the Scotch-Irish revolt of 1794
against the Federal exdse tax, known as the Whisky Insurrection
{q.v.)&nd of the German protest (1799) against the house tax,
known as the Fries RebeUion from its leader John Fries (q.f.).
In 1838 as the result of a disputed election to the state house of
representatives two houses were organized, one Whig and the
other Democratic, and there was open violence in Harrisburg.
The conflict has been called the " Buckshot War." The Whig
House of Representatives gradually broke up, many membeit
going over to the Democratic house, which had possession ol
the records and the chamber and was recognized by the state
Senate. Pennsylvania was usually Democratic before the
Civil War owing to the democratic character of its country
population and to the close commercial relations between
Philadelphia and the South. The growth of the protectionist
movement and the development of anti-slavery sentiment,
however, drew it in the opposite direction, and it voted the
Whig national ticket in 1840 and in 1848, and the Republicas
ticket for Lincoln in i860. A split among the Democrats ia
1835, due to the opposition of the Germans to internal improve-
ments and to the establishment of a public school system,
resulted in the election as governor of Joseph Ritner, the anti-
Masonic candidate. The anti-Masonic excitement subsided
as quickly as it had risen, and under the leadership of Thaddeui
Stevens the party soon became merged with the Whigs. During
the CivU War (1861-65) ^he state gave to the Union 336,000
soldiers; and Generals McClcllan, Hancock, Meade and Resmoldt
and Admirals Porter and Dahlgren were natives of the state.
Its nearness to the field of war made its position dangerous.
Chambersburg was burned in 1862; and the battle of Gettys-
burg Quly 1863), a defeat of Lee's attempt to invade the North
in force was a turning point in the war.
The development of the material resources of the state unce
1865 has been accompanied by several serious industrial dit-
turbances. The railway riots of 1877, which centred at Pittsburg
and Reading, resulted in the destruction of about two thousand
freight cars and a considerable amount of other property. An
organized association, known as the Molly Maguires (q.v.),
terrorized the mining regions for many years, but was finall^
suppressed through the courageous cfTorts of President Franklla
Benjamin Gowen (1863-1889) of the Philadelphia & Reading rail-
road with the assistance of Allan Pinkcrton and his detectives.
There have been mining strikes at Scranton (1871), in the Ldu^
and Schuylkill regions (1875), at Hazlcton (1897), and one in the
anthracite fields (1902) which was settled by a board of arintrt-
tors appointed by President Roosevelt; and there were ttred
railway strikes at Chester in 1908 and in Philadelphia in 191a
The calling in of Pinkerton detectives from Chicago and Ncv
PENNSYLVANIA
MlettbaitrikeiaUKCuae^itcelinickiit Homalod
t prvdpitAted m. lenoui riot» in which about twenty pcnonft
kflkd. It wu DMcuuy to call out (wo bcigadcs of
c milicia bdCn the diwnlei wu Giully lupprenel
othntt
L took AdvuitB^ of this trouble
ku, JUJDois. Uinnaoti, Colondo ud MVdtl
I uiti'FmkenoD lUtutu iwHtJj it illtgiJ to
qudi lool
On tht politicjj .ude the duef feiiures in the
Uuot7 ol the itite lince iM; have b«n the idoption of the
' " ■' .*.-.- >o-Quay-Pcnro«
William MuUuD
BcnUmin Fictchf
WilCuiMuUun
Under the
le growth ol tic Cimi
. The a
I of the nion
i'lSjS, which
uper-
Bded that of lygo, atcndcfl the fuoctioiu of the Icgialilun,
fimiled the govcfoor't power of appointment, and deprived
■*!■■*■■ cl the light of auCfrage. The provialoo last Olentioned
the OHtniiutian of the United States. The chief object of the
III mil im [iCiiCiiiii filtjj) mil tn [iinlill ic Im n] and spedil
kgialaiion. It indiaied the number of senatora «nd represea-
latns, tmted the office of lieuleDini-govertiot, subtiliuied
lieiiiiiallHaiuiaalMuiouofthelegiilaiure, introduced miiiority
e higher Judiciary and of the
r oomotfviooen and auditon and provided (aa had an Bedjam
. PRiidcnl ol the Co
. Pinuient of Ihe Co
Dcputy-Govtmoi
1 iSjo) for
eelcclioii
fall jud
i;t7->7»«
„ i7»-';36
•ol l73*-'73«
K3l 1747-174*
r .746-1754
I754-I7S6
I75A-I7W
'.'■ ^ '•'^->It
of ihc Council 1771
nl'GDvenuir 1771-1773
Period of Sutehood (1776-
din. Chairman ol the Coninittee
I Donald Wllluir
(b. i8«o), ^hn^D
upon the ability of
Cunoa (f.>0 and itrengthened by hit
Ctnemo, Hatlbew Stanley Quay and Boil
> bucd upon the ccntiol of pationage, the
Inda anKHig favoured banha, the luppotl
n]w«)> md other great coiponlioni, on '
lU kadcr* to penuade the electon that 11 a ncceaauy to vote
be ttnitbt RejnibLican ticket to aave the protective ayitem.
lotcR E. Patliion (iSjo-1901), * Democrat, waa elected
picnni in 1SS3 and agiin in 1S91, but he waa handicapped by
'T-IJi"" Irgialatnre*. In 1905 a Democratic ilate Ireaiurer
*u elected.
l>Ein«TI.VAI«A C0V«aH0K«.
Under Dutch Rule (1634-1664)''
ComEi laeobaen Mey. ... - Director
imon Snyder
filli^™ Finley
Heph KciHer
David fSetenea de Vi
Water na TviUa
jpmh Ritner .
b. R. Porter .
F. R. Shunk
W. P. jDhnnoni
William Bigkr .
I6l4-l6]< tamei Pollock .
i6js-i6j6 Vv. p. Packer .
161S-1631 A. G. Cunio .
1631-16J3 John W. Geary .
I6ji-i6iS John P. Hanranft
i6jS-l6i7 henry M. Hoyt
3- Swediih Rule (l6]8-l6j
"3
he Council 1690-1691
Crown {1695-1695).
nur nouenaer ni4i-nnj Wiliiam A. Stooe
ISK;^- :■.:;::::::: !^!SS ^X's!sSn""'"
JSaOaiiSltrwnEb l6S4-'«SS Si™^%™"- " '
Under the Duke ol York (1664-1673).
lidHdNicalla 1664-1667
UenCarr f^pu't ■ ■ 1664-1667
UnNeedhas . . Commaodet on Ihe Dtliwai* 1664-1668
TMuLoidaa 1667-167I
fiteCwT .... CommanderonllK Delawaie 166S-167]
Uofct Dutch l$tile {1673-1674).
XidiSTCi4*e 1673-T674
(BBAlikha Deputy on the Delaware 1671-1674
Under the Duke of York (i674-'6«i).
bEfannd Audio* 1674-1681
Under the Propiietora {1681-1693).
1^ MaAbam .... Deputy-Govemor . 1661-1681
Rcpublicao .
ItelTarw 1
MsCook L .
kliaSiiica± f
MaEcUer' •>
mnU of A[riiyllve.
For the adminirtration of th
CsmnmiKilM at Pnuynini
imended November ;, I901 (I
of YarfsLawi. 1676-16S1 {Hit
taw of Pmnsytrania. ITOQ-
1797-lfeil); Laici if Ikl C
I77*-I777
Pnaident of the Council 1777
Pieiidenl o( the Council I77&-17«I
I78'-I7aj
','. 17SS-17W
^ .. . I7BS-1790
r-j — 1— 1790-1799
1SJ9-183S
1S35-1839
1839- 184s
ie4|-l84i
1SSI-18M
l8ss-l«ii
1 873-' 879
1879- '68j
1883-1887
1887-1891
1891-189S
189S-1899
I899-1903
te lee: Tin ConiiaiMnt of llu
, 1 n ^^ .A_ ,gj,
.I870S:A. J, Dalli»(e
S^jf'hiliJd^hl
■eoive tl eH
and Lana
l/rkl^o?'ih
d of the Dutch leltlen
PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF
of tbcH buildiDgt I> ibe law Khoal. betveen cbcMml
■nd SuiMia Streets, on J4tb Strttt. In * gnat (riuicuUi
block boundfd by Woodland Avenue, Spruce Street, ud J4lb
Street »re: the univeniiy libraiy, which but in 1909 ibont
J7i,ooo bound volumes snd so.ooo pamphlets, including the
Biddle Memorial lav libiscy (1XS6) of tojm volumo, the
Colwell and Heniy C. Carey collections in finance and eCDDomici,
the Francis C. Macauley Uhxry o! Italian, Spanish and Portn-
guese aulhois, wilb an occllent Danic collection, the claiakil
library of Ernst von Lcuitcb of Geiiingen, the philological
library of F. A. Pott of Halle, the Germanic Ubtary ol B. Bech-
ilein of Rostock, the Semitic libraiy of C. P. Cajpari of Copt^
hagen, the (Hebrew and Rabbinical) Marcus Jastrow Klenwrkl
library, the ethnological library of D. G, firinton, aiu] several
special medical collections: College Hall, vilh Ibe uiuversily
offices; Konard Houston Hall (iS^) the students' dubi Logan
HaU; the Robert Hare chemical laboratory; and {aciDss j6th
S'lecl) the Wiital institute of anatomy and biology. Imme-
diately east of this ttiingulai block are: BetiDeCl House; the
Ratidal Morgan laboratory of physics; the engineering building
(igoA): the laboratory of hygiene (iSigi); dental ball; and the
John Hirriun bbontory of chemistry. Fsnher etM art the
gymnasium, training quarters and Franklin (athlelk) field, vilb
brick grand-stands. South of Spruce Street are: the free
museum of science and art (iSgg), the □onh-weslem part al
tian, Semitic and Cretan collections, the last two being lb*
resulu in part of uaivcrsily eicavalions at Nippur (iBgS-igM)
and at Courrda (igot-ttKu); befaeeo ]4ib and 36th Strtcu
the large and well.equipped university hospital (1(174); laigB
dormitories, consisting in igog, of 19 distinct but cooDtcted
houses; medical laboratories; a biobgical haU and vivariuM;
and across Woodland Avenue, a veterinary hall and hoipilaL
college (giving degrees in arts, icicucc, biology, music, architec-
ture, &c.}, the graduate school (1S81], a department ol lav
(founded In 1790 and re-established is iSjo) and a depanmox
of medicine (first professor, 1756; first degrees giantni, ijM),
(he oldest and probably the most famous medical school ^
America. Graduation from the school of arts u '
this may be done in three, four or five yean;al the 60 co
11 must be required in studies (chemistry, ) units; English, 6;
foreign languages, 6; bisiory, logic and ctbica, mathematin, and
physics, 1 each); tS must be equally distributed in twootlliR*
" groups " — the 19 groups include astronomy, botiiny, cbcmisUT,
economics, English, fine arts, French, geology, German, Cntk,
history, Latin, mathematics, philosophy, physics, poUtkal
science, psychology, sociology and loology; and in tbeTemainla)
10 uniu the student's election is practically free. Spedal work
in the senior year ol the college counts S uniu lor the fiiii
year's work in Ibe department of Dtedicioe. College acboUi>
ships are largely local, two being in the gift of the govtmoc <f
the slate, fifty being for graduates of the public schiMlk ol ibi
city of Philadelphia, and five being for graduates ol Pennq^
vania public schools outside Philadelphia; In IQ09 there wen
twenty-eight scholarships in the college not locaL In it*
graduate school there are five fellowships lor research, oA
with an annual stipend of tSoo, twenty-one lellowabipi vahiMl
at tsoi each, for men ordy, and five feUowships lo^ tod^
besides special fellowships and 39 scholarships.
The corporation of the university is composed of a boanl (i
is a-efficio president. The directing head of the univerAA
and ihe head of Ibe university (acuity and of tbe faculty oi cad J
universities; the provost is president f" ttotp"' ol the h«ul
of iruslees. pf
In 1908-1909 the uidversity had 4J4 officers of [aalnicUN^ |r
o( whom >M were in the cr^ege arid 1^7 la tbc iic|iUtBa> k
"S
■oenlific Kbocd; 471 in the Whanon ichool, uul 15J m tfai become tecluiu
evcEiBs ■cbool of acrousu ind Gnuce; JS4 Id couna for ud the Inulea I
t«ub«i; ukd 4S I in the tummu school), ]J3 in the gndiute eadavoun ihit .
•chool. 317 in the drptnment of law, SS9 in the dcptitment tha memben ol
ol DBficiiie, jB; in the deputtoent ol dcDiiitiy, ud ijain Ibe {lomthcm . .
dcputmcnl ol vtlaioAxy medidne. thui Ibey were at
In Aojuit 1007 the em of the univenlty'* awti anr la Seplembn 1777
EihOitie* wu (13^39408 and the dauliom ror Ihe year were became rhilndeli:
•30S^'4. A ""jr li^r proportion of ilicunivenity". involmentt the lUle kgislati
■ in leal cKUe. eipedally in Ptaibdclphia. la 1907 Ibc total ^„„ :„ ,,<. ^„
nluc of real ouie {includlut the univmiiy buildinf >) wit . ri_i,[/l_j
The Penns and olhcn dcptculed Ihlt
lund Ihcnudva (i;&4} to " uie Iheit ulmost
. . (the original plan) be not tmnowcd.noi
ic Church ol England, nof rhOK diuenting
be put on any worse looting io thia leninaiy
lie lime of receiving the royal brief." Frotn
I June 177S college eiercisa were not held
la wai occupied by Biiliah tiuopa. In 1779
Lt the 11
caled
illege and cbattered a
of the UnivcTsily ol tbe Stale ol
Fenniylvanui "; in 1784 the college wu resloctd 10 ill rights
and ptopctty and Smith again became irs pnh'osi; ia 1791 tbe
college and the univenily of the Stale ol Peniuylvtnia were
united under the title, " the Univetiity ol Penniylvania."
whcae Inutcel were elected from Iheir own mcmbcra by the
board of trustees of the college and that ol the univenily. In
1801 the university purchased new grounds on Ninth Street,
between Market and Chcslnut, where Ihe post office building
now is; there until 1B19 the univenily occLpied Ihe building
erected for the administrative mansion of the president ol the
United Slatea; Iheie Hex buildings were erected after [819;
and from these the university removed to its present site In
1872.
rtfi-'rii^
toLii:a"daii"y7Tlii>™ujhmiTrife5);"he wrrk^OUpi
(ivnl; a camE nnnlhly, fto i^ici Brwt; a liteniv nantli
rhl M ami Bliti; a quaiteily ol the departmenl ol dcntiU
rW ram Drmtal /butikJ; u annual. Tht Riari; and Tin Aim
IqiOir (iS9«). a moatUy.
The provosU have been
William Smilh; in 17I9-1;
ol Pennsylvania, John Ewii
Franklin in 1J49 published a pamphlet; cntitted
iiiatiH[ Is li€ Edtualum il YeuUi in Ptniiltama,
1 tbe formation of a board of iweniy-lout trusted,
whom, on the 13th ol Novembet J7<9, met for
I and to promote " the Publick Academy in the
Cly of PhOadetphia," and elected Benjimin Fcanlclin president
d the bsud, an office which he hdd until 1756. So dosely
ns Franklin identified with the plan ihai Matthew Arnold
ollid the institulioo " the University of Franklm." On tbe
IK of February ijjo there wet conveyed to this board ol
tnata ihe " New Building " on Fourth Street, near Arch,
(Udi had been erected in 1 740 for a charity tchool— a use to
■faichitbadDot bernput — andaaa" houseof Publick Worship,"
iaiUch Ceorge WhSttfield had preached in November 1740;
llKoriginal truslea (including Franlilin) ol the " New Building "
" ■ 'is projected charity school date Irom 1740, and therefore
b-niity attache* 10 its seal the words " lounded 1740." ^^
Is the " New Building " the academy wi* opened on the ;th jj,
5-r779 and In 1789-1803,
he university of Ihe Mate
-i8oi)i in 1807-1810. John
juci/oweu v(7S?~i^'o';in lAio-iaij.John Andrews (1746-1813);
in i8i3>i8)S, Frederick Bcasley (1777-1S45]; in 1818-1833,
William Heilhcote De Lnnccy (1797-1865); in 1834-1813,
John Ludlow (1793-18:7); in 1854-1859. Henry VeLhake
(i79>-i866);ini86c>-i8«8, Daniel Raynes Goodwin (iSii-i8t)o);
in 1868-1880, Chailcs Janeway Slillf (1819-1S99); in iSSi-1894.
Waiiam Pepper (1S43-1898): in 1894-191°. Charlei Custis Har^
rison (b. 1844), and in 1911 sqq, Edgar Faht Smith (b, 185&).
SeeT. H.Monlfonwry.AHiitoryoflU* Vnatriilf if Pmuyltaiaa
frBM ill Faunialion Is A. a. IJ7D (Philadelphia. 1900); CmrBC B.
Wood. Early Wijtory of IJu I/urn—'- -' " -■ '- '-- ' -'
)0d. Early Wijtory of IJu Onmriily 0/ PtniiylnMia (ir
i.. |SJ6) ; J. B. McMailer. Tki Vniueriily 0/ PMajVpMTa
(7)i C- E. NitzKhe. Ofirial GnUt U Ae I'>.n«>,iy 0/
(jnl ed.
he. Ofri
r and E
rijumary 1751, the city having voted £ioa in the pi
A^ut fcv the CDDipletion of the building. On the i6lh 01
IiTlaibeT i7}i a charitable school "lor the instruction ol poor
CUdiea palii in Rttiint, Wiilint. and Arithmclkk " was
Voed in Ihe " New Building." The proprietaries, Thomai
MRicbardPenn. incoiporated "The Trusleesoflhc Academy
nd Charitable School in the Piwince ol Pennsylvania " in
UiJland in 1755 i™e<l « confirmatory charier, changing tbe ^,7^^ a"dopt^ ins'llJIid '"Th*e"li^nV"rcmiin
lainrale o«ne to " Tht Trustees of the College. Academy and °,„ptions the only coin issued inEnRland g.
Q«itable School," ftc. whereupon William SmitMm7;j8e3) ^ 'Sg^d florin V EdwaM Til. in ^. _, -
" "" " ' " reign of Edward I. that halfpence and fcirthings bri
lyXoniolihid..' 1906): >nJ Edward P. Cheyney, " Umvtr>riy'ol
Pcimiylvania," in voL i. id Unatriiliet aid litir Soni (Boston,
1901).
PEHHT (Mid. Eng. ftni or piay, from O. Eng. form penit,
earlier ttnnini and padinf, the word appears in Cer. Fjcnnii
and Do. ptnninf; it has been connected with Du. tent. Cer.
Pftni, and Eng. " pawn." the word meaning a little pledge
or token, or with Cer. Pfaant, a pan), an English coin, equal
in value to the one-iwclfih ol a shilling. It b one of the oldest
if English ciuns. superseding Ihe iceatta or sccal (sec
iJtnnsu.Ticsi and Butaln; Ang/o Saxm, { " Cmns "). It was
ntioduccd into England by Ofla. king of Merci;i, who took as a
model a coin first (truck by Pippin, father of Chaclcm.igne,
about 735, which was known in Europe as Horuj dfBjriiii. Olla's
penny was made ol ^iver and weiglied 11} grains, 340 pennies
wrighing one Saaon pound (or Tower pound, as it was aderwarda
called), hence the term pennyweight (dwt.).
r pound of 5760
the introiluciion
n he bec^
'53. became provost ol the colli
Hsfacd a complete and bbccal curr
^ Bishop Jamei Madison in 1777 w
•I Iht College of William and Maiy.
Ete gndoated. Under Smilh'i control the Lali
■ imporUDce at the expense of tbe English ■
IWijiiiii at FnaUin. Id 1761-1764 Dr Si
[756 Or
af tbe value of (wenly tUvo
uid Vitus of U>e (ilvcr pa
onwaidi, u inll be Mfn from
VilueindlvET
RcigQ.
Wtight.
SU^-',
Cniiu.
Ptnn/.
waiiaro I.. 1066 . . . .
"i
309
3™
T'iji'S : :
H"
378
»-73
He^V.ili»^'- ■
It
;s
•63
Mary Vn '■■'■!' J '■
I?
■3T
Ed«rd Vl.,"issi '. '.
■10
EliiabHh, i6ai ....
7l
■06
PENN YAN— PENRHYN, 2nd BARON
itruck. Tbc weight S«Ltiri»C.Aldridi,Hull»fjtf FafciCHBily. Jftw?»>BiHffc
dectmcd fram ijoo "»''■
ublei— FDnmOTU, in bauoy, ■ betb lanutly mndi Ued ia
medidne, the nunc beins a comption of tlia old bebaliM^
nnme " PulioU-royall/' FiJe^uav rtgiuau II £1 ■ mcnbcr
of the mint ffenus, and hai been knoim to bdtaniiti aiacc the
time of Liimaeui as MemtAa puUiiitm, It la a peromial bertl
with a ilcnder blanched item, aquaic In KCtioa, up tO'a foot
in length and rooting at the lower node*, miall oppoaitc aUUied
leddiih-puiple Qowen in the leal axU*, forming almoat globolu
wboils. It grows in damp gtavelly plica, afodtUy atti pooli,
on heithi and commons. It has > Mrong amell lomeirtiU tik*
that of Bpcaiminl, due to a volatile oD wUcb it reuliiy ofatanMd
by diitiUalion with wiler, and is iinown in pbarmagr at Oitw
pultpi. The specific name recalls Its lui^iouil pnpeitr ol
driving away Seas Iftdica). Like the other tninti it bM
canninative and itimulant pnpeitit*.
PEMOBSCOT, a tribe ol Moilh American Indians of Algooquiaa
Btock. Tbdr old range was the country around tlw livci
Penobscot in Maine. They aided with the French in Che cokmial
wars, but made a treaty oI peace with the Eoslith In 1749.
They fought against tlie Eogluli in ibe War of Independmcc,
and were nibsequestly settled on u iilaod in the Ptnohant
PEMOLOOT (Lat. petHO, punlahment), the modem namt
given to peiuiecUiry tdeoce, that conctrned with the pinirf
devised and adopted (or the lepreasIoD and pitvealiaa ol tAat,
(See Cuke; CihonOLOOi; Pumn; JmrEimx Onuoiu;
RzcniiviSK, &C.)
PEXKHTM, OBOBGE IHOITO OORDOX WVeUAm-
NAMT, ind BuoH (1836-1907), was the wn ol Caload Edward
GordoD Douglas (iSoo-iSSfi), brother of the igth earlof Mottoa,
who, through hii wife. Juliana, elder daughter and cebeir it
George Hay Dawklna-Pennant, of Fenrhyn Castle, Cunarvoi,
had large csutea in Wales and cUcwhere, and wii mated
Baron Fenrhyn In 1866. Dawltin* had Inherited tbe cMata*
from Richard Penryn, who was trealed Baron Peoryn fai 17CJ,
the title becoming eninct on his death In iSoi.
George Douglas-Pennant was conservative U.P. for Cai>
nirvonshire in iS66-iS6g and 1S74-1SS0, and iDCcecdcd Ui
lather in the title in 1&86, A keen iporUmao, a bmnukM
landlord, a kind and considerate employer. Lord Peni^m
came of a proud race, and was.himuU of an imperioui di^iodtka.
He came proDiiaentty befon the public in iSip; and lubacqotM
yon in connetiDii with the lamoui strike at hEiWdifadal»
quarries. During his Fathcr'i lifetime the management of tht
Penrhyn quarry had been left practically to an dcetlve [>a>
rnittee of the operatives, and it was on the verge of bauhnqktcj
when in iSS; he took matters in hand: he abolislked tbe caa>
mittee, and with the help of Mr E. A. Young, whom he bm^lt
hi from London as msnager, he so reorganised the Imfaan
that this slste-quarry yielded a profit of something like £ijo,aoa
Hie last coinage of silver pence for general drculstion was
in the reign of Charles II. (i6tir-i66r), since which time they
have only been cmned for issue ss royal alms on Haundy Thura-
days. Copper halfpence were hist issued in Charles II, '1 reign,'
but it was not until 1797, in the reign ol George 111., that copper
pence were struck. This copper penny weighed 1 as. avoir-
dupois. In the same year copper Cwopeoces were issued weighing
( to., but they were found too cumbenome and were discon-
tinued. In i860 bronze was substituted for the copper cnioige,
the alloy containing ii; parts ol copper, 4 ol tin, and 1 of line.
The wdght was also reduced, i lb ol bronxe being coined into
48 pennies, OS against 34 pennies into whidi i lb ol copper
PENH TAN, a village and the county-ieat of Yates county,
New York, U.S.A., situated N. of Keuka Lake, on the outlet
citending to Lake Seneca, about 170 m. W. ol Albany, and
■boat 9S m. E. byS. of Buffalo. Pop. (iqoj), 4504; (iQic)
4597. It is served by the New York Central & Hudson River
■nd the Northern Central railways and by electric railway to
Branchport, and hat steamboat mnnerions with Hammonds-
port at the head of Keuka Lake. The lake, one of the most
beautiful of the iMalled " finger lakes " ol central New York,
■bounds in lake and rambow trout, black bast, pickerel and
pike, and there are many summer cottages along its shorts. At
Keuka Park, on the west shore ol the lake, i* Keuka College
<iS9o), and at Egglesion'i Point is held a aummer "natural
■dence camp " lor boys. The village is the scat ol the Fenn
Yan Academy (1859). The lake lumishes water-power, and
■mong the manufactures are paper, lumber, carriage*, thoet,
&c Much ice it ihipped Irom the village. Fenn Yan it an
Important shipping point in the apple and grape-growing retpon
of central New York, and winemaking is an important industry.
The first fume dwelling at Penn Yan was built in 1799; the
village became the county-scat in 181], when Yatel county was
ciealed, snd wat bicorporated in 1833. Tbe fint settlers
were chiefly followers of Jemims Wilkinson (i7S3-iS"9). «
teliglout enthusiast, bom in Cumberland township. Providence
county. Khode Island, who asserted that she had received a
divine commission. She preached in Rhode Island, Connec-
ticut, Massachusetts and Pennsylvania. Obtaining a huge
tract (which was called Jerusalem in 17S4) in the present Yates
county, she founded in 1 7S8 the village of Hopeton on the outlet
of Keuka Lake shout a mile from Seneca Lake. Many followers
settled Ibeie, and the hersell hved tlicre after 179a. Some of
her followers lelt her beion iSoo, and then the community
gradually broke up. The name of the village ii said to have
been derived from the first ayUablea ol " Fenniylvania " and
" Yankee," as most'ol the early scttleis were Penntylvaniani
■nd New Englinders.
' The figure of Britannia finr appeared on this issue of copper
colnL The oritinil of BriUnni. 11 uid to have been Fran™
Stewart, afterwatdi duchen ot Hiehniond (fVpys. Dtaty. Feb. ij,
1667). It wu in Charles II, 't leisn, too. that the practice wii
ein^liihed of placing the eaveTeign t bust in a direction coniivy
The n.
.0 the taste of the trade unionist
ind in 1897, when the " new u
abour questions throughout Englai
omcnted. Lord Fenrhyn refused I
lE&cials. though he ^
leaders of the
™ggle
leiminalion was int^cible. He becante the objetk
est political hostility, and trade unionlnn excitaf
utmott, but vainly, to bring about •ome iam rf
Fenrhyn striken pennbolud
and collecting contributions to tbeit ftmJii
ir South Northamptonshire fitm) 1B95 to IfOa.
PENRITH^PENRYN
117
a municipality of Cumberland couiity, New South
Wales» Australia, on the Nepean River, 34 m. by rail W. by N.
of Sydney. Penrith and the adjoining township of St Mary's
■re diife^ remarkable for their connexion with the railway.
The iron tubular bridge which carries the line over the Nepean
Is the best of iu kind in the colony, while the viaduct over
Knapsadc Gulley is the most remarkable erection of its kind
in Australia. There are large engineering works and railway
itting shops at Penrith, which is also the junction for all the
western goods traffic The inhabitants of both towns are mainly
lailway emptoy^ Pbp. (1901), of Penrith 3539, of St Mary's
POBITH, a market town in the Penrith parliamentary
divisMm of Cumberland, En^and, in a valley near the river
Eamont, on the Cockermouth, Keswick & Penrith, London
ft North Western and North Eastern railways. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 9x82. It .contains some interesting brasses.
A 14th-century grammar school was refounded by Queen
Efisabeth; and there are two mansions dating from the same
feign, whidi have been converted into inns. Though there are
breweries, tanneries and saw-mills, the town depends mainly
on agriculture. There are qome ruins of a castle erected as a
pratection against the Scots. Near Penrith on the south, above
the precipitous bank of the Eamont, stands a small but beau-
tiful old castellated house, Yanwath Hall. To the north-east
of the town is Eden Ilall, rebuilt in 1824. Among many fine
pk>twig»^ it contains portraits by Hoppner, Knellcr, Lcly, Opie
sad Reynolds. The "Luck of Eden Hall," which has been
frifbratH in a ballad by the duke of Wharton, and in a second
baBsd written by Uhland, the German poet, and translated
by Longfellow, is an enamelled goblet, kept in a leathern case
dsting from the times of Henry IV. or Henry V. It was long
mpposed to be Venetian, but has been identified as of rare
Orintal worfcman^ip. The legend tells how a seneschal of
Edca Han one day came upon a company of fairies dancing at
Si Cathbert*s Well in the park. These flew away, leaving their
cup at the water's edge, and singing '* If that glass either break
«r fdl. Farewell to the luck of Eden Hall." Its true history
iumknown.
Penrith, otherwise Penreth, Perith, Perath, was founded by
Ike Cambro-Celts, but on a site farther north than the present
town. In 1223 Henry III. granted a yearly fair extending from
the eve of Whilsun to the Monday after Trinity and a weekly
oarfcet en Wednesday, but some time before 1787 the market
dqr was changed to Tuesday. The manor in 1242 was handed
over to the Scottish king who held it till 1295, when Edward I.
loed it. In 1397 Richard H. granted it to Ralph Neville,
list earl of We^morland; it then passed to Warwick the king-
■aker and on his death to the crown. In 1694 William IU.
muted the honour of Penrith to the earl of Portland, by whose
descendant it was sold in 1787 to the duke of Devonshire. A
oovt leet and view of frankpledge have been held here from
tine immeraoriaL In the x8th and early part of the 19th century
harith manufactured checks, linen cloth and ginghams, but
tke introduction of machinery put an end to this industiy, only
Ike staking of rag carpets surviving. Clock and watch-making
ttBS to have been an important trade here in the i8th century.
Tk town suffered much from the incursions of the Scots, and
Ka^, eari of Westmorland, who died 1426, built the castle,
kat a tower called the Bishop's Tower had been previously
meted on the same site. In 1 597-1 598 a terrible visitation of
|ih|Be attadied the town, in which, according to an old inscrip-
tios on the diorch, 2260 persons perished in Penrith, by which
poksps is meant the rural deanery. During the Civil War the
CHtle was dismantled by the Royalist commandant. In 1745
Nkc Charles Edward twice marehed through Penrith, and a
^nuah took place at Clifton. The church of St Andrew
b ef anknowB foundation, but the list of vicars is complete
1233.
(15S9-1593). Welsh Puritan, was bom in
1559; tradition points to Cefn Brith, a farm
as his birthplace. He matriculated at
Peterhouse, Cambridge, in December 1580, beiiig then almost
certainly a Roman Catholic; but soon became a convinced
Protestant, with strong Puritan leanings. Having graduated
B.A., he migrated to St Alban's Hall, Oxford, and proceeded
M.A. in July 1586. He did not seek episcopal ordination, but
was licensed as University Preacher. The tradition of his
preaching tours in Wales is slenderly supported; they could
only have been made during a few months of 1586 or the autumn
of 1587. At this time ignorance and immorality abounded in
Wales. In 1562 an act of parliament had made provision for
translating the Bible into Welsh, and the New Testament was
issued in 1567; but the nimiber printed would barely supply
a copy for each parish church. Indignant at this negligence,
Peniy published, early in 1587, The jEquity of an Humble
Supplication — in the behalf of the country of Wales, that some
order may be taken for the preaching of the Gospel among those
people. Archbishop Whitgift, angry at the implied rebuke, caused
him to be brought before the High Commission and imprisoned
for about a month. On his release Pcnry married a lady of
Northampton, which town was his home for some years. With
the assistance of Sir Richard Knightlcy and others, he set up
a printing press, which for nearly a year from Michaelmas 1588
was in active operation. It was successively located at East
Moulsey (Surrey), Fawsley (Northampton), Coventry and other
places in Warwickshire, and finally at Manchester, where it was
seized in August 1589. On it were printed Penry's Exhortation
to the govemours and people of Wales, and View of . . . suck
publike varUs and disorders as are in the service of God . . . in
Wales; as well as the celebrated Martin Marprelate tracts.
In January 1590 his house at Northampton was searched and his
papers seized, but he succeeded in escaping to Scotland. There
he published several tracts, as well as a translation of a learned
theological work known as Theses Genevenses. Returning
to England in September 1592, he joined the Separatist Church
in London, in which he declined to take office, though after the
arrest of the ministers, Francis Johnson and John Greenwood,
he seems to have been the regular preacher. He was arrested
m March 1593, and efforts were made to find some pretext for
a capital charge. Failing this a charge of sedition was based
on the rough draft of a petition to the queen that had been found
among his private papers; the language of which was indeed
harsh and offensive, but had been neither presented nor published.
He was convicted by the (^een's Bench on the 21st of May
1593, and hanged on the 29th at the unusual hour of 4 p.m.,
the signature of his old enemy Whitgift being the first of those
afl&xed to the warrant.
See the Lt/e, by John Waddington (1854).
PENRTN, a market town and port, and municipal and
contributary parliamentary borough of Cornwall, England,
2 m. N.W. of Falmouth, on a branch of the Great Western
railway. Pop. (1901), 3190. It lies at the head of the estuary
of the Penryn River, which opens from the main estuary of the
Fal at Falmouth. Granite, which is extensively quarried in
the neighbourhood, is dressed and polished at Penryn, and there
are also chemical and bone manure works, engineering, iron
and gunpowder works, timber-yards, brewing, tanning and
paper-maJdng. The harbour dries at low tide, but at high
tide has from 9 to 12} ft. of water. Area, 291 acres.
Penryn owed its development to the fostering care of the
bishops of Exeter within whose demesne lands it stood. These
lands appear in Domesday Book under the name of Trelivel.
In 1230 Bishop Briwere granted to his burgesses of Penryn
that they should hold their burgages freely at a yearly rent of
1 2d. by the acre for all service. Bishop Walter de
Stapeldon secured a market on Thursdays and a fair at the
Feast of St Thomas. The return to the bishop in 1307 was
£7, 13s. 2)d. from the borough and £26, 7s. sd. from the forum.
In 131 1 Bishop Stapeldon procured a three days' fair at the
Feast of St Vitalis. Philip and Mary gave the parliamentary
franchise to the burgesses in 1553. James I. granted and
renewed the charter of incorporation, providing a mayor, eleven
Ii8
PENSACOLA— PENSION
aldermen and twelve councillors, markets on Wednesdays and
Saturdays, and fairs on the ist of May, the 7th of July and the
aist of December. The charter having been surrendered,
James II. by a new charter inter alia confined the parliamentary
franchise to members of the corporation. This proviso however
was soon disregarded, the franchise being freely exercised by all
the inhabitants paying scot and lot. An attempt to deprive
the borough of its members, owing to corrupt practices, was
defeated by the House of Lords in 1827. The act of 183a
extended the franchise to Falmouth in spite of the rivalry
existing between the two boroughs, which one of the sitting
members asserted was so great that no Penryn man was ever
known to marry a Falmouth woman. In 1885 the united
borough was deprived of one of its members. The corporation
of Penryn was remodelled in 1835, the aldermen being reduced
to four. Its foreign trade, which dates from the 14th century,
is considerable. The extra-parochial collegiate church of
Glasney, founded by Bishop Bronescombe in 1265, had a revenue
at the time of its suppression under the act of 1 545 of £221, 18s. 4d.
See Victoria County History^ Cornwall', T. C. Peter, Clasney
Collegiate Church.
PENSACOLA, a dty, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Escambia county, Florida, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the
state, on Pensacola Bay, about 6 m. (11 m. by channel) N. of the
Gulf of Mexico. Pop. (1900) 17,747; (1910) 23,982. It ranks
second in size among the cities of Florida. The dty is served
by the Louisville & Nashville and the Pensacola, Alabama &
Tennessee railways, and by steamers to West Indian, European
and United States ports. The harBour* is the most important
deep-water harbour south of Hampton Roads. The narrow
entrance is easily navigable and is defended by Fort Pickens on
the west end of Santa Rosa Island, with a great sea-wall on the
Gulf side (completed in 1909), Fort McRee on a small peninsula
directly opposite, and Fort Barrancas on the mainland imme-
diately north-east of Fort McRee. On the mainland i m. east of
Fort Barrancas are a United States Naval Station, consisting of a
yard (84 acres enclosed) with shops, a steel floating dry dock and
marine barracks; and a reservation (1800 acres) on which are a
naval hospital, a naval magazine, two timber ponds, a national
cemetery, and the two villages of Warrington andWoolsey,
with a population of about 1500, mostly employes of the yard.
The city's principal public buildings are the state armoury,
the Federal building, and the city hall. The mean annual
temperature is about 72° F., and breezes from the Gulf temper
the heat. Pensacola is a shipping point for lumber, naval
stores, tobacco, phosphate rock, fish, cotton and cotton-seed
oil, meal and cake, and is one of the principal markets in the
United States for naval stores. In 1895 '^c foreign exports
were valued at $3,196,609, in 1897 at $8,436,679, and in 1909
at $30,971,670; the imports in 1909 were valued at $1,479,017.
The important factor in this vast devdopment has been the
Louisville & Nashville railway, which after 1895 built extensive
warehouses and docks at Pensacola. There are excellent coaling
docks — good coal is brought hither from Alabama — and a grain
elevator. Among the manufactures are sashes, doors and
blinds, whiting, fertilizers, rosin and turpentine, and drugs.
Pensacola Bay may have been visited by Ponce de Leon in
1 513 and by Panfilo de Narvaez in 1528. In 1540 Maldonado,
the commander of the fleet that brought De Soto to the Florida
coast, entered the harbour, which he named Puerta d'Auchusi,
and on his recommendation De Soto designated it as a basis
of supplies for his expedition into the interior. In 15 59 a perma-
nent settlement was attempted by Tristan de Luna, who renamed
the harbour Santa Maria, but two years later this settlement
was abandoned. In 1696 another settlement was made by
Don Andres d'ArrioIa, who built Fort San Carlos near the site
of the present Fort Barrancas, and seems to have named the
place Pensacola. In 17 19, Spain and France, being at war,
Pensacola was captured by Sieur de Bienville, the French
* In 1881 the United States government began to improve the
harbour by drcd^ng, and in June 1909 the depth of the channel,
for a minimum width of about 300 ft., was 30 ft. at mean low water.
governor of Louisiana. Later in the same year it was
sivdy re-taken by a Spanish force from Havana and rscaptared
by Bienville, who burned the town and destroyed the fort.
In 1723, three years after the dose of hostilities, Bieaville
rdinquished possession. The Spanish then transferred their
settlement to the west end of Santa Rosa Island, but after a
destructive hurricane in 1754 they returned to the mainland.
In 1763, when the Floridas were cnled to Great Britain, Pensa>
cola became the seat of administration for West Florida and
most of the Spanish inhabitants removed to Mexico and Cuba.
During the War of American Independence the town was a
place of refuge for many Loyalists from the northern colonies.
On the 9th of May 1781 it was captured by Don Bernardo de
Galvez, the Spanish governor at New Orleans. Most of tbr
English inhabitants left, but trade remained in the han<b of
English merchants. During the War of 181 2 the British made
Pensacola the centre of expeditions against the Americans, and
in 1814 a British fleet entered the harbour to take formal posses-
sion. In retaliation General Andrew Jackson attacked the town,
driving back the British. In 1818, on the ground that the
Spanish encouraged the Seminole Indians in their attadcs
upon the American settlements in the vicinity, Jackson again
captured Pensacola, and in 1821 Florida was finally transferred
to the United States. On the 12th of Januaiy 1861 the Navy
Yard was seized by order of the state government, but Fort
Pickens, defended first by an insignificant force under licut.
Adam J. Slemmer (1828-68) and afterwards by a lacger force
under Licut.-Colonel Harvey Brown (i 796-1874), remained
in the hands of the Union forces, and on the 8th of May i86a
the Confederates abandoned Pensacola. Pensacola was chartered
as a city in 1895.
PENSHUR^, a village in the south-western parliamentary
division of Kent, England, at the confluence of the Eden and
Medway,4)m.S.W.ofTonbridge. Pop. (1901), 1678. The village
is remarkable for some old houses, including a timbered house
of the 1 5th century, and for a noted factory of cricket implements.
The church, chiefly late Perpendicular, contains a large number
of monuments of the Sidney family and an efllgy of Sir Stephen
de Pcnchcster, Warden of the Cinque Ports in the time of
Edward I. Pcnshurst Place is celebrated as the honae of the
Sidney family. Anciently the residence of Sir Stephen de Pen-
chcstcr, Pcnshurst was granted to Henry VIII. 's chamberlain. Sir
William Sidney, whose grandson. Sir Philip Sidney, was bora
here in 1554. It passed to Sir PhiUp's younger brother Robert,
who in 1618 was created carl of Leicester. On the death
of the seventh earl in 1743 the estates devolved upon his niece
Elizabeth, whose only child married Sir Bysshe SheUey of Castle
Goring. Thdr son was created a baronet in 1818 as Sir John
Shelley-Sidney, and his son was created Baron de LTsIe and
Dudley in 1835. The mansion is quadrangular, and has a fine
court, chapel and hall (c. 1341) with open timber roof and a
minstrels' gallery. The various rooms contain an interesting
collection of portraits, armour and other family relics. The
praises of the park and the house have been sung in Sir Philip
Sidney's Arcaiia^ and by Ben Jonson, Edmund Waller and
Robert Southey.
PENSION (Lat. ^ensio, a payment, from pendertt to wn^
to pay), a regular or periodical payment made by |NrivBte
employers, corporations or governments, in consideration dtber
of past services or of the abolition of a post or office. Such
a pension takes effect on retirement or when the period of tenrioe
is over. The word is also used in the sense of the pajrmcBt
by members of a sodcty in respect of dues.
United Kingdom.
In the United Kingdom the majority of persons in the empkj
of the government are entitled to pensions on reaching a certain
age and after having served the state for a certain minimua
number of years. That such is the case, and moreover thai
it is usual to define such pensions as being given in considctatfee
of past services, has led to the putting forward very generaQf
the argument that pensions, whether given by a government or
PENSION 119
(■.■KintbeuIUKDfdfrtTTtdpay, uidihu f''*',*?*' A iwum it puNbhsd •imiully amuiniiif » eomplf.i
__ . _ i_tt «Uch any pewioBj muit thncforc be reimded ''*' " '*" vinout pinHo™. ,
5.™™««i.i-u,...i»M™.i»,«.,b,,i«j^™K^ ,^;'SSJdSrS7.ZS"S-£TSJTr%.S
fli the nlH of the puUHIB. Thu new u hudly CBmcl, lot Krvra lr«a the lime of Clurit. II. onwitdi. Such Staiiiat
iIk abject of atUcUng a peuIiHi 101 post iinot merely 10 rcwird wtn very Imjuemly attuhcd u "»lan«" 10 ptaeo >hk:li wen
«( the «nt>Iay« wilbout hardship 10 him ihoultl ige ot infirmily "„J .„nuit^ 'i^n cha^'cd al^'fht''hmd\riry'"n^<^'''^l'"tt^
Rulcr biiD leas cffidcnl- DiuatisFiction had been cxprcued uverriEn aad isere htld ta be binding on tlie wvem^n't iuccvmdti
Icom time to Ume by memben oi the Engliih tivil lenfice «ilh iTIu Ailiri* Com, itai ; 5IaJ. Tri^s, <iv. 3-^3). By 1 Anne
u,^«„ » ,m ™. ...... b^i, .t b., ■,™.. .., -iV"K.'^S,?Sir.S'.i' £ s.-K.ss
COBfiflcd only to mivivoti, «nd that no ulvantige accnied 10 M^reiin. Tliu ■« diifnM aSect the hcrediuty revenoM of
the repeoentativel o( thoM who died in letvice. Thii waiallered lrflind»iid Scoiland. and nuny prnoni were quanercd, ei they
by u act ol 1909. See Koyal Comniijiim eH Suft"""!^'" 1""! bun betorc the aci, on ihc frith and Scoiiiih revenuei »ho
iili.CmlSimB:«tfertfl«J£r«™«(i903)- For the general ^S^. ^l£!S1^^ ™ 13 rJJTli^T? h.rt".n'MA ™Snn S
■ a givo. by uTrtate to the aged poor «« Ou, AcL ^i„;'^'S4X'^«^^,''S!:l^'oi jt^lirSaH? wS!
— (xniiDn of £5000 1 year; the ducheii of Kendall and the counleiH
vice Ihe (rant of pendoni ol Dariinrion, raiitreMct of Ceorae I., had penjiont tl tlie united
ISU, iis9. IMJ and 1909. To Ccwjie []., had a pcniian ol ijum (Licby, HisUry aj Irdand in
'wiii ■ ™ii£«e'l^the dtil concnvable rono-^oiing Ihe ^mn'iA the Cro«i? [or'th«"iX
an oAke tpecially exempled from ci the lovereign. lot lermt of year^ Eor the liEe of the sranlee, and
eT~(ii'~i>i^t be itiauld dra* the emolunienti of hit Hultty ef Emrinfi. On (he acRiaioo of Ccone' Itl. and hit
nl* ; (4) thai be ihould have served lunender of the hereditaiy g
1 thai If under the axe of 60 yean lin, thii dvil litt became the
. _ . rmiiieiilly incapable. Irom infirmity paid. The tubtequent hinor>
rf body or niod, ol diaehai(inf hk oOicial duliet. or havr been that heading (Civil, L»I), but ii may I
. ._ — i!. -« .i„ pound ol hit inabHily to diachaiie three pennion llitt of England, Seollai
be cenilied to be perminenlly incapable. Irom infirmity paid. The lubtequent hinory of the cii
- ---* -• -•■-'■ — •— *■- official dul' ■■ — ' -"- •^— ■--- "-— - ■ ■— >. - '
1 ol hit iu
en OB ih
n calenlate*
i>ea,of h)i
thiK yeara) lor och complete year of lervice. u:
mm ol fony-eightieih*. Civil leiunu retiring
dnlio efficienlty. On relireiaen on IheK eandiiioni a Kilidaled in iBjo. and the eivil peniion ii« reduced to ijyc
temai ia qualified lor a penaion calcnbled at nne-e^tiRh ihe remainder of the peniiont being chaijed on the Conioiida
Chirlet Bradlau
.. _. , --,- _ tlw payment of perpetual pci ..,_..._
iD hnllh after lev than ten yeart' aeivice qualify lor the Houv of Commou inquired into ihe wbjnt {RrpsrI >/ Sriril
a quaiified for a penaion calculated at nne-enhtieth the r
■Oaty (or, in tnlain caiea, of hit average aalary for Fund.
yeara) lor arh complete year ol lervice. ubiecl to In 1BS7, Chitlet Bradlaugh, M.P.. prMcNed ftrongly afnint
ig the age ol uity^ve yean, tb
niDc supmnnuHiivn jict ol iQOf the penaion waa calculated al fuport coniaint a detailed litt ol all heredilarv ptniiont, paj-
)« il lervice. lubject to a mudmum ol foRy-ainielht. Thii ia ol the origin in each caic and the ground of the original pant;
■il Ibe rate hx ihotc who entered Ibc KTvic* pfevioui lo Ihe paaa- there arc alio thown the pentioni. Ac, ncdcemcd from lime >o
i« el Ihe act ISepieiabec 10, 1909) unleia they availed thenuelvct time, and ihe Icrmi upon which the rcdempliun tooli place. The
<< the ijiniiniriii in the act to uke advaniaie ol iu provitioni, nature ol acHne ol these pcntiont may be gathered from the (ollov-
•tich were more than a compenaation lor the loweTing ol the rale, ing eiampha: To the duke ol MarlWout^h and hit heirt in per-
Tkeact ^ve power to the treaaury 10 pant by way of additional petuity, £4000 per annum; this annuity waa redeemed in Augutt
lOo^are fo a <ivi] lervant who rrtired alter not lc« than two ]Afl4 for a turn of £i07.7Sri. by the crcarion of a ten ycart' annuity
;o hit Buperannuation, a lump turn eoual of £i>.7<)6. 17a. per annum. By an an of iSc6 an annuity of £5000
nual aalary and emolumem* multiplied pcrannumwuconfeircd on Lord Nelson and hiahcirfinperpeluity.
"■ a he haa lerved. to however, that In 1703 an annuity ol £tooo wat conferred on Lord Rodrwy and
and a half timet hit aalary. while if hitbeira. All Ihese pentian^ were for servicer rendered, and although
'' --->'-^ ian. there niuat ba jntiliable from tbai pwnt nf view, a preferable policy it purtued
r every completed in the xMh century, by parli^mcnl voting a lump sum, at in Ihe
attaining that tft. In the caie of caaet ol Lord Kiltbcner in 1901 (tjo,ooo) and Lord Cromer in 1907
.. . . before the pamng ol the act, and fjo/wo). Charles II. ftfanrcd the office of rceciver'general and
take advantate of Ihe act, thia additional allowance it incrca&cd by controller of the bcali of Ihe ccriirt ol king't bench and common
ihcact. Tbeact alto provided that where a civil vrvant died after the dultp for an annuity of £843. which in turn wai commuted in
wrving five yeart or upwanla. a gratuity equal to hit annual aalary tSBj for a mm ol £32,714, m, Bd. To Ihe tame duke wat given
■ad eoolunienlt might be granted 10 ha legal personal rcpre- the oflkr of Ihe pipe or rememlirancer ol firtl-fruila and tentht of
wuirvei. Where the civil wrvani atuini tbe age ol ti«y-tive the clergy. Thi> oFRce wat uU by the duke in 176$. and oflcr
(ktrratuiry B reduced by one-twentieth lor each conpicted year patting IhiouBh vaiioua handt waa purehaied by one R. Harrison
bmd ihat ace. On Ihe other hand, wheie the civil aervant in i'}^. fn i8]s on Ihe ton, of certain tcei the hoMer was com-
Wieiiied from tbe tervkc and all Ihe tuiit teoeived by him al peniated by a perpetual pension ol £6], 91. 8d. The duke of Crallon
b drath on aceouni of tdperannuation are leia than hit annual alto pot.wiv.'d an annuity of £6670 in retpecl d the commutaliim
■brjr hit reprevenialivea may receive the dilfeRnct aa a-gratuity. of (he duet of buik-rage and priiiage- To the duke ol S( Albant
lUition d office, provided Ihat luch compensation does not Branicd by the oneirml patent were: master of hawki. talaTv,
W«d on the ground r>( ill tieailh. Pcntiont are alto tomclimel rf hawlct, £600; provision ol pigenna. hcnt andolher menit,
vifieotaiion lor injury in certain catet, or to holders trf pro- office fees aod nlhcr dcductiant to £965,_ai whkh amount it stootf,
n ue eteceding that al which 1 . . . - .^. .
I of £875,010. £6jj.Mi. The duke of Hamilton, as herediury keeper ol the
nt ofpenaont palate. Holyrood House, reccivwl a perpetual pension ol £45, io».,
Iher services, and the descendant t ol the heritnble ukbcrol Scotland drew a salary
'!°War"bffiw! allDwinces^wl faymenu'thouhl no! in future be granted in per^
t- £4ia.lsS: pciuity, on Ihe ground Ihat wKh pants shoukl be limited to the
Royal frith person, actually tendering Ihe aervicct. and thai luch rewards
ice. £13,646. should be defrayed by the genemtion benefited; that oflicet wiih
il pewHU ol ailariea and wilhool duiiet. or wiih merely nominal duties, oughi
PENSION
' Ua peiiloiu al Clio an lonam
y bt held by vkx^ilBlnk ud mi
> Cor apuinii two of /KB ■ ynr
■eroaicniillincdiiooatar foe
. of IMO ■ rnr (or iBKnl sfficcn
' f HO ■ ytsr foe ootowU — d UniL-
icb Hrxpiul pnuiou nnfe ttom
Ennpktcd twtmy-two ynn' Krvir*
' from lod. ■ day to a madnnu of
r number of sood-conduct badtb,
iiKdal. poMciKd. Petty oAcbk
in the capacity of wpedor petty
lie capacily oT inferior petty oAccf
m 6d. ■ Aty to 3l ■ day. Pentiona
IraiAingi during thai
id lictilf nantn, beuinuniiu captnina
in (or u yciii in tbe Wen India
fate; ninjmn.afteT»jye»ta'eerviec.
age, {yao: lieutenanl-olnDcl*, after
cnant-colonel cavalry aad infuliy.
wiaecn aad army lervia carpi,
calond» cavalry and ialantxy. £4*&
a and army aervln coeiia. Gjo,
minaiid of a retioeatal dittnct or
laployed In any othci capacin lor
I to agei Brevn-CDlondi, (ritt iha
ofcncl. receive, cavalry oi iafaatry.
with a iralulty in Ui
inploynlpe
• witfijd. ,
total KivKX. and sitb Ibe letlnntaf
above daiie*, the raica of p^hvh
1^
6y~v
!S£
1
a d.
ad.
j
Fen well canpleie ytu in DE« of 9 1 y«n.
a!Z^iv.*I!^v.
Id. pa diem id gd. per dirm.
W.?Sdien.»5d.pe.di™.
PENSION isi
■diM cMiUined the niBiM of 4/1 wlilinn o( thu wir. the taX onk nrvlm
were wovided lor thae who lerved in tie Black Hawk wmr, Cmk
wst, CbetDkcc diiturtMiHH and Ilie ScninDlc war (iSji la 1S41).
DB the i;ih oC July 1891, fitly yon aim i)if period Finbtunf in
.1 ( m thoKwho had lenTd [or thirty dayi
:harjtd, and to their widows. In 190*
u tan Ji. |W diem,' provided thai he haa coraplelHl JJ ye«r»' 1M7, Chirty-nint yeara ailet the Giiadrkupe-Hildalgo treaty. The
fervicc ■■ aU. An addiliona] peniioa of 6d. per dien la awaided peiuloru were ^nnltd to thoae who were honouiably diicharied
fa»- -■■»■» >.^«A.>* — ;w*fc*.*«.*Kjw*Tanf nffir^rm jod [q ^ widowi, EoT Bervicc o( iiaty day*, if nxty-two yeari of
N.CXX'a and iDca dinfeled tbiouih military lervice are mnled age, or ditabled m dependent. Thii li» wu llbetaliied by the
aetaanwim pCBBOna:— acuof cbe Jih of January i^}> ijid of April 1900. 6th oC February
tbue who have leached the age ot •evenly yeari, and to (io lor
contained the namea of j^ja lurvivon and 6914 widowt on accounl
cl lervice in the Meaiun war. To give title to bD<"<lr bnd, Krvice
jrd Mairh 1*55; and if in the Mvy or regular army, mutt have
beea in aome war in which (he United Sut» waa engaged. Bounty
land warraDia are iaaucd lor lAo acrva, and over jajxiojaoo acm
have been granted under the different Bounty Land Acta.
For icTvicej rendered in the Civil War [lg6t-6j) in the army
. . . ,, ^ „ , . , ,- L, , provided two dlltinct eyttcma of penaioning — (1) the general lawa,
UniUd Statoi. ^" t™''?''""''^: "^M^ Ihi%call<S™/i?od™j,'^n2'p"
V »um JMKJ. f^ j^ amending acta, gianiing peuumt lor peimaoenl dlaal
In the onUnaiy lenie of the word, peoaicmi m the United regardlen of ibe tinie ani cunner of their 01
i» the penaiou nn^iw f ron
m mi the gencnl lav for dii
uiingulii »6 ton. per month. What iakBO-n at -- -, --
-- , , ■ , , . i . . . J . ... ~"^'"~ ibilitieaincurred ineervieeudinthecsuneofdutywiacoaHUuled
ItMuraol the national hudgel, thai It udesitiblelogive an in the act ot the utb of July 1861, aa wnendid by the act ot the
■const of the difierent daiaa ol illowancn which arcgiuted. jrd ol March iBi]. Under ita proviwu Ibe following ill ma of
Is iIk United SUIel allowuccs for Krvico in wan prior to tbe pcraoni are eniiiled to benefit, via. any oOccr ol Ibe army, navy
4th ol M»rch iMi tn called " old war " penuom, and may be "■' """"^ ""* or any enliMed man in the military or naval leevice
finded Into tlntt danei, vit.d) Invalid peniioM, baaed upon
■ouda 01 injoiki received, ot diicate contracted in the coune
rf dot;, (1) " MTvice " pcniion), and (3) land bountlei, both
lantcd tar tnwt iireqicctive of injuiit*.
nairMpnTinoBBkailehy Congreiafor pen^onawaa a Teaolution
Mdoa the *>^ ^ Aiiguil .1776, promMng Jnv^ penaioruiU)
ate dwhkd in (he War i^ [ndeixndence. at a rate equal lo half
g( ikriT miMtUy pa]> uofficen or toldiefi during hie or continuance
I ite diialiiiitr. thoae not lolally duabled to reizive an adequate
naUy pemion not to exceol ball o( their pay. Then lolhiwed
it»ioaAa»iilCod(te«ienUtii«theprDviiioni for invalid peniioni
■d to theariSova aid cbildren of thoae who died in tbe war or from
' d la the war. Tbe act a< the ]id o
[TthHC vduniecn woandad or olherwiie diaablai
Oair KU woe lobaeiiaently iiuied maliiog funber
■^gaoaaccauotodtrvicaiDtheMeiicuinr. Tbi
bgBiitn|*'aeTvic»" penahiaa ma not pu«d unti
Hn^ 1(1 C thitly-five ycara after tbe termuiation o
irtnnilim Ita bcncSciariea were requited 10 bi
jan lattf Cmiama became alarmed 1^ rcaaon of the '
rf daiBa fikd^twt Aooo), and ena^ed what waa 1 eifltera arul biodien under
*Ahna Act," nqyiring each applicant lor penile aioned jointly. In 190S tli
■arisKI ea tbe rJOm tolumiih a Khtdule of hia who tbe general law waa 141.044
wes^ ftmhhn and V-^^'T eacepceeL Many pcnmnera were dent telativea waa Bi.i6fi.
diudwteacnpoaiBiaedoIumuchaatlwwonfaof property. Tbe lo-cnlled Dependent
Hmmuii Kti wen. however, piiiiJ from time to timeliberalii- of Congrcu ap
te tte h« or deling more fenerouilr with the aatvivora of the 9tb May 1900. li ucjjeiiucul
tcmlviiaa. Service peiuioika were noc granted to wtdowa of the only ai regarda unditioiu u to
■tipa of tUa war until f Ajfi. and then only lor ■ period of five the uldicr or an honourable
Kaad OB cosdition that tbe iairrla(eaf the aoldler wu prior to diicharge. and : « or otbcTwiie.
■ ^ricc and that the aoldier'i aervice waa not leu than ilx not the reault i: in eilenl aa to
uha. la itsi; Kventy yean alter the cIok ot tbe war, the lini- render him una J latHiur. The
aoiiwd Bine and in loog twn peniiona ban) upon letvica in tbe Widowi Wame rritd the Kldier
Va id liApEBdence, The kit urvivnr waa Daniel F. Bakenun. or tailor prior r were without
Tke fine kv VBotinff leTvici penikmi on account ol the war of net inccmie not not recnamed.
111! waa ^mrait 1871, filty.|ia yeara after the close ol the war. Claims ol children under lixteen yean ol a^ were governed by tbe
Tlii act leniiml aillv tlayi Krvice. Widowa were not pennon- lame conditioni aa applied ID claim! of widowt, except that Ibeir
Mt anlw the marriage to the aoklier had taken place prior to the dependerve waa prejumed. and need not be ihoam by evidence.
tBty of paan of ijlh February tBij. On 9th March 1870. Ha minor child waa iniane. idiotic arolberwiiephyiically or ment-
<By-dm yiwa after the war. an act wai pawd reducing tbe ally helploa. the peniion continued during the hie ol Bid child
aaiidle pariad of aeivn to fourteen daya and lemovinc the or dui>i« thepetiod of diabiliiy. Furtheracu made more Ubml
Wliiiiiei M to dele of Batiiaga. In 1908 the pcuion lolla pnniwHia. _Tlial of the 6th of February 1907, glanced peniiBOI
122
PENSIONARY— PENTASTOMroA
to persons who had served ninety days or more in the mDttary or
naval service in the civil war, or sixty days in the Mexican war,
and were honourably discharged, no other conditions being attached.
The rate of pension was foutd at Ii2 per month when sixty*two
years of age, I15 per month when seventy years of age and I20
per month when seventy-five years of age. The act of April
1908, fixed the rate of pension for widows, minor children under the
age of sixteen and helpless minors on the roll or afterwards to be
placed on it at 1 12 ptr month, and granted pensions at the same
rate to the widows of persons who served ninety days or more
during the civil war, without re^rd to their pecuniary condition.
In IQ08 there were 140,600 invalids on the roll, and 4394 minor and
helpless children. In the same year under the act of 1907 there
were 338,341 dependants, while under the act of 1908, 188,445
widows were put on the roll. All women employed by competent
authority as nurses during the Civil War for six- months or more,
who are unable to earn a support, are granted a pension cf lia
per month by an act of tne 5th of August 189a. In 1908
the pension roUs contained the names of 31 10 pensioners under
this act.
There were on the roll in 1908 on account of the Spanish war,
11,786 invalids and 3722 dependants. The total amount paid in
pensions in 1908 on account of that war and the insurrection in
the Philippine Islands was 13,654,122. The grand total of pen-
sioners on the roll for all wars was, in IQ08. 951,687.
In addition to pensions, the United States government jjants
the following gratuities: First: If a soldier lost a limb m the
service, or as a result of hu service in line of duty, he u furnished
with an artificial limb free of cost every three years, or commuta-
tion therefor, and transportation to' and from a place where be
shall select the artificial limb. Second: An honourably discharged
soldier or sailor is given preference for apipointment to places of
trust and profit, and preference for retention in all civu service
positions. Third: There are ten National Soldiers' Homes situ-
ated at convenient and healthy points in different parts of the
country, where comfortable quarters, clothing, medical attendance,
library and amusements of difTcrent kinds are provided free of all
expense; government providing the soldiers free transportation to
the home, continuing^ payments of pension while they are members
of the home, and mcreasing the same as disabilities increase.
Fourth: There are thirty homes maintained by the different
states, which are similar m their purpose to the National Homes,
the sum oi I too per year being paid by the general government for
each inmate. Many of these state homes also provide for the wives
and children of the inmates, so that they need not be separated
while they are members of such home. ft/fA: Schools are estab-
lished by the different states for the maintenance and education
of soldiers' orphans until they attain the age of sixteen years.
From the close of the Civil War in 1865 to 1908, the government of
the United States paid to its pensioners for that war the sum of
I3,533>593i035- The payments on account of all wars for the
fiscal vear ended on the 30th of June 1908 were 8153.093,086.
Over 117,000.000 has been paid to surgeons for making medical
examinations of pensioners and applicants for pensions. The
total disbursement for pensions from 1790 to VjM amounted to
l3t75(,iQ8,8o9. No other nation or government in all time has
dealt so liberally with its defenders.
The money appropriated by Congress for the payment of penaons
is disbursed by eighteen pension agents established in different
parts of the country. Pensions are paid quarterly, and the agencies
are divided into three classes, one 01 which pays on the 4th of every
month.
PENSIONARY, a name given to the leading functionary and
legal adviser of the principal town corporations of Holland,
because they received a salary, or pension. At first this official
was known by the name of " clerk " or " advocate." The
office originated in Flanders. The earliest "pensionaries"
in Holland were those of Dort (1468) and of Haarlem (1478).
The pensionary conducted the legal business of the town, and
was the secretary of the town council and its representative
and spokesman at the meetings of the Provincial States. The post
of pensionary was permanent and his influence was great.
In the States of the province of Holland pensionary of the
order of nobles (Ridderschap) was the foremost official of that
assembly and he was named — until the death of Oldenbameveldt
in 1619 — the land's advocate, or more shortly, the advocate.
The importance of the advocate was much increased after the
outbreak of the revolt in 1572, and still more so during the long
period 1 586-1619 when John van Oldenbameveldt held the
office.. The advocate drew up and introduced all resolutions,
concluded debates and coimted the votes in the Provincial
Assembly. When it was not in session he was a permanent
member of the college of deputed councillors who carried on
the adiT'nistraiion. He was minister of justice and of finance.
All cortespondence passed througli his hands, and he «st the
head and the spokesman of the deputatton, who represented the
province in the States GeneraL The conduct of foreign aflain
in particular was entrusted almost entirely to him.
After the downfall of Oldenbameveldt the office of lands*-
advocate was abolished, and a new post, tenable for five ytu%
only, was erected in its place with the title of Raad-Pmsi^nariS;
or Pensionary of the Council, usually called by Enj^isb writes
Grand Pensionary. The first holder of this office was Anthoi^
Duyck. Jacob Cats and Adrian Pauw, in the days of the
stadtholders Frederick Henry and William of Orange II. had
to be content with lessened powers, but in the stadtholderkss
regime 1650-1672 the grand pensionary became even more
influential than Oldenbameveldt himself, since there was no
prince of Orange filling the offices of stadtholder, and of adim'ral
and captain-general of the Union. From 1653-167 a John de Witt,
re-elected twice, made the name of grand pensionary of Holland
for ever famous during the time of the wars with England.
The best known of his successors was Anthony Hdnsius, who
held the office from 1688 to his death in 1720. He was the
intimate friend of William III., and after the decease of the king
continued to carry out his policy dtiring the stadtholderless
period that followed. The office was abolished after the conquest
of Holland by the French in 1795.
See Robert Fruin, Geukiedenis der Staats-IustdlingeH iu Neder-
land. The Hague, 1901 ; G W. Vreede, InUidini tot tene Gesck. der
Nederlandsch* DipUmatic (Utrecht. 1858}. (G. E.)
PENTAMETER, the name given to the second and shorter
line of the classical elegaic verse. It is composed of five (vbrc)
feet or measures (/ulrpa), and is divided into two equal parts
of two and a half feet each: the second of these parts must be
dactylic, and the first may be either dactylic or qwndaic The
first part must never overlap into the second, but there must
be a brea]^ between them. Thus:
u V
■wu
-u w
■wu
In the best Latin poets, the first foot of each part of the penta>
meter is a dactyl. The pentameter scarcely exists except in
conjunction with the hexameter, to which it always succeeds
in elegaic verse. The invention of the rigidly dactylic form
was attributed by the Greeks to Archilochus. Schiller described
the sound and method of the elegaic couplet in two very skilful
verses, which have been copied in many languages:
Im Hexameter steigt des Springquells flOssige S&ule,
Im Pentameter drauf f&llt sie melodisch herab.
The pentameter was always considered to add a melancholy
air to verse, and it was especially beloved by the Greeks in those
recitations (^i^qiScircu) to the sound of the flute, which
formed the earliest melodic performances at Delphi snd dse*
where.
PBNTASTOMIDA, or Lxnguatulina, vermiform entoparasitic
animals, of which the exact zoological position is unknown,
although they are usually regarded as highly modified degenente
Arachnida of the order Acari.
The. body is sub-cylindrical or somewhat convex above, 6att«r
below, broad and ovsu in front and narrowed and elongate bflii«Mi,
Its interment is marked by a large number of transverse giuufwts
simulating the segmentation of Annelidsj and near the anterior
extremity close to the mouth are two pairs of recurved dtitinoos
hooks. The alimentary canal u a simple tube traversing the body
from end to end, the anus opening at the extremity of its narrowed
tail-like termination. The nervous system is represented by aa
oesophageal collar and a suboesophageal ganglion, whence paimd
nerves pass outwards to innervate the anterior extremity and
backwards towards its posterior end. No respiratory or drcuiatory
organs are known. The sexes are distinct out dissimilar is mm»
the female being usually much larger than the male. The senccithff
organs occupy a large part of the body cavity. In the lonaie thi
ovary is a large unpaired organ from the anterior end of wMdl
arise two ovioucts, and connected with the latter are a pidr dl
large so-called copulatory pouches, which perhaps act as reoepiacsil
seminis. These and the oviducts lie on the anterior half of tin
body; but the oviducts themselves soon unite to form a sisih
tube of great leng^th, which runs backwards to its iwilieHif
extremity, terminating in^the genital orifice dose (o the MSii
PENTATEUCH— PENTECOST
wnnry, tUt miSnt b litiiated tn the utrrinc 1
U luWind tl ......
haS al Ike body, u la> ^^dund'the DBUIh. Tiie cribs
iiCB ■ lai|e pnaeh lodcixc ^Jf" '>' "^Tf 'oxE peiB. whkn an
cnOed up vbea ant in lac Tbe two teatidei, wUch enend far
■ — '- ' — •'- paKtfior JMI1 ol tbe body, me long aad lubular.
ir T*^ deiBcnlia ■-'- -""^
fcutm. what bave'beni npuded oi remaaou oi Umbi nuy be
In lbs minuE Mage Pentailomida live in the leqiintor;
tcOB^sble Efe-hiXoiy of one spedes, LiKpalula laexwida,
haa been miked out in detail and presents a close analogy to
that of fooe CtModet. The adults live in the no« ol dots,
wboc tbcy have been known to lurvive over fifteen months.
Eadi fcsaak lays a vist number ol eggs, about joo.ooo being
the Klmaied amouDt. Thew ut opelled along witb mucus
by the oweziaf of ihe host. If they liU on pasture land or
toddo' of any kind and are eaten by a;iy herbivorous animal,
toA la a hare, rabbit, horse, sheep or oa, the active embryos
In the alimentary canal of (he new heat.
peritoneal cavities of dogs
PENTATEUCH, the n*
Origen corre^ionding
£ve-hfths of the Torah.
books of the Old Teslam
ben, Deuteronomy). T
Jews from their initia
Numbers, and Deuteron
In tbe pleunl ud
efoui
si etacB In tbe pleunl
rn-i.
pj
in Eus., H. B. vi
Logether with Joshua,
united in Greek MSS.
and Joshua together I
rly as in TertuDian and
the Jewish inm -wan mo (the
Law), and applied to the Erst five
uneni (Genesis, Eiodus, Leviticus, Num-
The aeveral books were named by the
tial words, though at least Leviticus,
onomy had also titles resembling thoae
Tn, o-njw nn (A/iiiw^eraiw/i, Oligen,
as), and irmima. The Pentateuch,
Judges aj'"
ently b<
le Ociati
used II
Heu
" harvest ieu
(e™
m the Penuteuch oi
articles on the several books,
li the Jews, [n its original mei
sisting of the first-frui
I the I
:h fairly
Hence
'respond with the dunt
it was the dosing feast of I
The agricultural chatai
Canaaniteotigin(seeHrB>iwR;uciOH). Itdoei
Tank equal b importance with Ihe other two agricultural festivals
ol prc-eiilian Israel, vii. the Uaffilk or least of unleavened
rakes (which marked the beginning of the corn-harvest), and
the A,\pk ("ingathering," titer called stucM. "booths")
which marked the ckoeof all the year's Ingathering ol vegetable
products. This is clear in the ideal scheme of E«kiel (alv. >i
seq.) in which accordingio the original ten, Pentecost is omitted
(see ComiU's revised text and his note od/fc.). It is a later hsnd
Lhal has inscribed a reference to the " feast ol weeks " which
islound inourMassorclicHebrewleit. Neverthcleis occasional
illusions to this feast, though secondary, are to be found la
Hebrew literature, «.f. Isa. Ix. 3 (i Heb.)and Ps. iv. 7 (SHeb.).
tn both Ihe early codes, vii. in Eiod. uiii. 16 [E] and in
Eiod. iiaiv )) (J, in which the bar^'cst festival is called " feast
>f weeks ") we have only a bare statement that the harvest
teslival look place aotoe weeks afler the opening spring festival
railed Va)iMl. It is in Deut. ivi. 9 <hat we find It eiplicltly
itated that ukh weeks ebpted between the beginning of the
ann-haivcst (" when Ibou puttest the sickle 10 the rotn ")
ind Ihe celebration of the harvest ieslival (^dilr). We alio
leri«s the autumnal festival of " Booths."
thefirX
But when we pass to the post-exilian legislation {Lev. uiii.
tepn
lo-ii; d. Num. uviii. 36 seq.) we enter upon a far more detailed
and spedfic series ol ritual instructions, (i) A special ceremonial
il described as taking pUce on " the morrow alter the Sabbath,"
harvest here take the form ol a sheaf which is waved by tbe
priest before Yihweh. <,) There is the olTcring of a male
lamb of the first year without blemish and also a meal offering
ol fine flour and oU miicd in defined proportions as weU as a
drink-oflcring of wine ol a certain measure. After this " morrow
alter the Sabbath " seven weeks are to be reckoned, and when
we reach the moKOW alter the seventh Sabbath fifty days have
been enumerated. Here we must bear in mind that Hebrew
numeration always includes the day which is the Icrminus a iptr
as wdl as that which is term, ad qtun. On ihb fiftieth day
two wave-loaves made from [he produce of the hclds occupied
,c
oush the
an only
young buUo^k a™ two rams m a buret ofl^^.* We°*h™
^1 ite vKcra ct tbe boat aiv devoured by ■
The wMt le^Je of L. latmtUa measures about 4 in. h
-- • • ■ ■ k ^ Q^i_ 7)^ (ijull j„d \„
1 la^uu confined mob:tively
peda of mammals. The adu! _. . ..
d in the paial iwges of iheep. goiu, and Whi
[Bering and the peact
offerings which were also presented." This elaborate ceremonial
connected with the wave-offeriiig (developed in the posl-eiile
period) look place on tbe morrow of the seventh Sabbath called
'On the critical quntlons involved in these ritual details ol
■" " ■ " t7-J0 d. Dtivef
in 5. B. O. f
124
PENTELICUS— PENZA
a " day of holy convocation " on which no servile work was to
be done. It was called a " fiftieth-day feast." Pentecost
or " Fiftieth " day is only a Greek equivsdent of the last name
{xGnJinxrHi) in the Apocrypha and New Testament. The orthodox
Later Jews reckoned the fifty days from the i6Lh of Nisan,
but on this there has been considerable controversy among
Jews themselves. The orthodox later Jews assumed that
the Sabbath in Lev. zxiii. ii, 15 is the 15th Nisan, or the
first day of the feast of Ma$^th. Hitzig maintained that in
the Hebrew calendar 14th and 21st Nisan were always Sabbaths,
and that ist Nisan was always a Sunday, which was the opening
day of the year. " The morrow after the Sabbath " means,
according to Hitzig, the day after the weekly Sabbath, viz.
2and Nisan. Knobel (Comment, on Lmikus) and Kurtz agree
with Hitzig's premises but differ from his identification of the
Sabbath. They identify it with the 14th Nisan. Accordingly
the " day after " falls on the isth. (See Purves's article, " Pente-
cost,"in Hastings's Diet, of Ike Bible, and also Ginsburg's article in
Kitto's Cyclopaedia). Like the other great feasts, it came to be
celebrated by fixed special sacrifices. The amount of these is
differently expressed in the earlier and later priestly law (Lev.
zxiii. 18 seq.-. Num. xxviii. 26 seq.); the discrepancy was met
by adding the two lists. The later Jews also extended the
one day of the feast to two. Further, in accordance with the
tendency to substitute historical for economic explanations
of the great feasts, Pentecost came to be regarded as the feast
commemorative of the Sinaitic legislation.
To the Christian Church Pentecost acquired a new significance
through the outpouring of the Spirit (Acts ii.). (See Whit-
sunday.)
It is not easy to find definite parallels to this festival in other
ancient religious cults. The Akitu festival to Marduk was a
spring festival at the beginning of the Babylonian year (Nisan).
It therefore comes near in time to the feast of unleavened cakes
rather than to the later harvest festival in the month Sivan
called " feast of weeks." Zimmem indeed connects the Akitu
festival with that of Purim on the xsth Adar (March); see
K.A.T.* p. 514 seq. Also the Roman Cerealia of April 12th-
xgth rather correspond to Maffdth than to S^iir. (O. C. W.)
PENTELICUS (Bp<Xi7<ra6t, or UatrtKucdy 6pos from the
dem' UwrHKn; mod. Mendcli), a mountain to the N.E. of the
Athenian plain, height 3640 ft. Its quarries of white marble
were not regularly worked until after the Persian wars; of this
material all the chief buildings of Athens were constructed, as
well as the sculpture wiih which they were ornamented. . The
ancient quarries are mostly on the south side of the mountain.
The best modem quarries are on the north side. The top
of Pentelicus commands a view over the plain of Marathon,
and from it the Athenian traitors gave the signal to the
Persians by a flashing shield on the day of the battle. There
was a statue of Athena on the mountain.
PENTHEUS, in Greek legend, successor of Cadmus as king
of Thebes. When Dionysus, with his band of frenzied women
(Maenads) arrived at Thebes (his native place and the first city
visited by him in Greece), Pentheus denied his divinity and
Violently opposed the introduction of his rites. His mother
Agive having joined the revellers on Mount Cithaeron, Pentheus
followed and climbed a lofty pine to watch the proceedings.
Being discovered he was torn to pieces by Agave and others,
who mistook him for some wild beast. His head was carried
back to Thebes in triumph by his mother. Labdacus and
Lycurgus, who offered a similar resistance, met with a like
fearful end. Some identify Pentheus with Dionysus himself
in his character as the god of the vine, torn to pieces by the
violence of winter. The fate of Pentheus was the subject of
lost tragedies by Thespis and Pacuvius.
See Euripides, Bauhae, pasnm; Ovid, Metam. Hi. 511 ; Theocritus
xxvi; Apollodorus iii. 5, 2; Nonnus, Dionysiaca, xliv-xlvi; oif
representations in art see 0. Jahn, Pentheus una die Mainaden (1841).
PENTHliVRE, COUNTS OF. In the nth and 12th centuries
the countship of Penthidvrein Brittany (dep. of Cdtea-du-Nord)
belonged to a branch of the sovereign house of Brittany. Heniy
d'Avaugour, heir of this d)masty, was dispossessed of the count-
ship in 1235 by the duke of Brittany, Pierre Mauclerc, who gave
it as dowry to his daughter, Yolande, on her marriage in 1238
to Hugh of Lusignan, count of La Marche. Duke John I.
of Brittany, Yolande's brother, seized the countship on her
death in 1272. In 1337 Joan of Brittany brought Penthiivre
to her husband, Charles de ChAtillon-BIois. In 1437 Nicole de
Blois, a descendant of this family, married Jean de Broaae, and
was deprived of Penthidvre by the duke of Brittany, FVands II.,
in Z465. The countship, ^hich was restored to Sebastian of
Luxemburg, heir of the Brosses through his mother, was erected
for him into a duchy in the peerage of France (ducki-pame)
in 1569, and was afterwards held by the duchess of Mercoenr,
dau^ter of the first duke of Penthi^vre, and then by her duugliter,
the duchess of Vend6me. The duchess of Venddme's grandson,
Louis Joseph, inherited Penthi^vre in 1669, but it was taken
from him by decree in 1687 and adjudged to Anne Marie de
Bourbon, princess of ContL In 1696 it was sold to the count
of Toulouse, whose son bore the title of duke of Penthiiviee
This title passed by inheritance to the house of Orieans.
PENTHOUSE, a sloping roof attached to a building either
to serve as a porch or a covering for an arcade, or, if suppovtcd
by walls, as a shed, a " lean-to." In the history of ucgecnf^
the word is particularly apph'ed to the fixed or movable oomtnio-
tions used to protect the besiegers when mining, working batter-
ing-rams, catapults, &c, and is thus used to translate Lat.
vinea and ^uteus, and also testudo, the shelter of locked shidds
of the Romans. The Mid. Eng. form of the word is penHt, an
adaptation of O. Fr. apentis, Med. Lat. appenditium or cppe*-
dictum, a small structure attached to, or dependent on, another
building, from appendere, to hang on to. The form "pent*
house " is due to a supposed connexion with " house " and Fk.
pente, sloping roof. "Die niore correct form ** pentice " is nov
frequently used.
PENTSTEMON, in botany, a genus of plants (nat. order
Scrophulariaccae), chiefly natives of North America, vith
showy open-tubular flowers. The pentstemon of the Hoite
has, however, sprung from P. Hartwegii and P. Cobata, and
possibly some others. The plants endure English wintcn
unharmed in favoured situations. They are freely muIt^pBed
by cuttings, selected from the young side shoots, {Wanted ea^F
in September, and kept in a dose cold frame till rooted. They
winter safely in cold frames, protected by mats or litter during
frost. They produce seed freely, new kinds being obt^oM
by that means. When special varieties are not required true
from cuttings, the simplest way to raise pentstemons is to warn
seed in heat (65^ F.) early in February, afterwards piicfcing
the seedlings out and hardening them off, so as to be Ttadj
for the open air by the end of May. Plants formerly known
under the name of Chelone (e.g. C. barbalOf C. eaiN^emilafi)
sre now classed with the pentstemons.
PENUMBRA (LaL paene, almost, umbra, a shadow), fai 8Stn>-
nomy, the partial shadow of a heavenly body as cast by Uie son.
It is defined by the region in which the light of the sun b paitiaDy
but not wholly cut off through the interception of a daikbodbr.
(See EcupSE.)
PENZA, a government of eastern Russia, bounded N. 1^ the
government of Nizhniy-Novgorod, E. by Simbirsk, and &
and W. by Saratov and Tambov; area 14,993 sq. m.; popt
(est. 1906) 1,699,000. The surface is undulating, with dc^
valleys and ravines, but does not exceed 900 ft. above lea-levcL
It is principally made up of Cretaceous sandstones, sandb, naili
and chalk, covered in the east by Eocene deposits. Chalk,
potter's clay, peat and iron are the chief mineral products b
the north. The soil is a black earth, more or less mixed wU
clay and sand; marshes occur in the Krasnoslobodsk districi;
and expanses of sand in the river valleys. There are ezttMivi
forests in the north, but the south exhibits the chaiactcririie
features of a steppeland. The government is drained by thi
Moksha, the Sura (both navigable), and the KJK^>er, Mri'tHl
to the Oka, Volga and Don systeftis. Timber is iknted
PENZA— PEONAGE
125
levcnl snttOer sticanM^ while the Moksha and Sura are important
BwaBS of conveyaoct. The climate is harsh, the average tern-
pcraiure aC the city of Penza being only 38*. The popula-
tkm consists priodpaily oC Russians, together with Mordvinians,
Ucsbciietyaks and Tatars. The Russians profess the Ortho-
dox Greek faith, and very many, espedaSly in the north, are
Raakolniks or Nonconformists. The chief occupation is agri-
culture. The principal crops are rye, oats, buckwheat, hemp,
potatoes and beetroot. Grain and 6our are con^derable
exports. The local authorities have established d6p6ts for the
sale of modem agricultural machinery. There are several
agricultural and horticultural schools, and two model dairy*
farma. Cattle breeding and especially horse-breeding are
comparatively flourishing. Market-gardening is successfully
carrkd on, and Improved varieties of fruit-trees have been
introduced through the imperial botanical garden at Penza
and a private school of gardening in the Gorodishche district.
Sheep-breeding is especially developed in Chembar and Insir.
The Mordvinians devote much attention to bee-keeping. The
forests (22 % of the total area) are a considerable source of wealth,
e^KciaUy in Krasnosloboddc and Gorodishche. The manufac-
tures are few. Distilleries come first, followed by beet sugar
and oil mills, with woollen cloth and paper milb, tanneries,
nap, glass, machinery and iron-works. Trade is limited to
Ike export of com, spirits, timber, hempseed-oil, tallow, hides,
honey, wax, woolloi doth, potash and cattle, the chief centres
(or trade being Penza, Nizhni-Lomov, Mokshany, Saransk and
The government is divided into ten districts, the chief towns
ofwkichare Penza,Gorodishche, Insar, Kerensk, Krasnoslobodsk,
Mbkihany, Narovchat, Nizhni-Lomov, Saransk and Chembar.
The present government of Penza was formerly inhabited by
Monlnnians, who had the Mescheryaks on the W. and the Bulgars
M the N. In the X3th century these populations fell under
tbe dooinioo of the Tatars, with whom they fought sgainst
MoKow. The Russians founded the town of Mokshany in
t53S> Penza was founded in the beginning of the 17th century,
tke permanent Russian settlement dating as far back as 1666.
la 1776 it was taken by the rebel Pugashev. The town was
«boit totally destroyed by conflagrations in 1836, 1839 and 1858.
fOnUL, a town of Rusua, capital of the government of the
ane name, 492 m. by rail S.E. from Moscow. It stands on a
phtean 567 ft. above the sea, at the confluence of the Penza with
tke navigable Sura. Pop. (1897), 61,851. The older parts of
tke town are constructed of wood, but the newer parts are well
bdt. The cathedral was erected in 1820-1821. Penza has
tahucal schools, public libraries, a museum of antiquities, and
I theatre whkh has played some part in the history of the
Koaian stage. The bulk of the inhabitants support themselves
bjr agriculture or fishing in the Sura. An imperial botanical
iuden is situated within two miles of the town. Apart from
paper-miUs and steam flour-mUls, the manufacturing establish-
■cnts are smalL There n a trade in com, oil, tallow, timber and
^>mts.and two fairs where cattle and horses are sold.
mZAMCBL a municipal borough, market town and seaport
is the St Ives parliamentary division of Cornwall, England, the
tmnaus of the Great Western railway, 325) m. W.S.W. of
Lssdoo. Pop. (1901), 13,136. It is findy situated on the
vcttere shore of Mount's Bay, opposite St Michael's Mount,
hdog the westernmost port in England. The site of the old
to«B slopes sharfdy upward from the harbour, to the west of
vUdb there extends an esplanade and modem residential
qiHiter; lor Penzance, with its mild climate, is in considerable
fmmr as a health resort. The town has no buildings of great
aaliqaity, but the public buildings (1867), in ItaUan style, are
huteme. By the market house is a statue of Sir Humphry
Oftvy, who was bora here in 1778. Among institutions there are
t ipedaOy fine public library, museums of geology and natural
hiiUiiy and antiquities, mining and science schoob, the West
Csmwall Infirmary and a meteorological station. The harbour,
nrlnicd within a breakwater, has an area of 24 acres, with 12 to
4 fc. depth of water, and floating and graving docks. There is a
large export trade in fish, including that of pilchards to Italy.
Other exports are tin and copper, granite, serpentine, vegetables
and china clay. Imports are principally coal, iron and timber.
Great quantities of early potatoes and vegetables, together with
flowers and fish, are sent to London and elsewhere. The
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
Area, 355 acres.
Nearly two miles bland to the north-west is Madron (an
urban dbtrict with a population of 3486). The church of St
Maddem b principally Perpendicular, with earlier portions and
a Norman front. Near the village a " wbhing well " of ancient
fame b seen, and close to it the ruins of a baptbtery of extreme
antiquity. Monoliths and cromlechs are not uncommon in the
neighbourhood. Three miles north-east b the urban dbtrict of
LuDGVAN (pop. 2274), and to the south b Paul (6332), which
includes the village of Newlyn {q.v.),
Penzance (Pensans) was not recognized as a port until the
days of the Tudors, but its importance as a fishing village dates
from the 14th century. In 1327 thirty burgesses in Penzance
and thirteen boats paying 13s. yearly are found among the pos-
sessions of the lords of Alverton, of which manor it formed a
portion of the demesne lands. The year 151 2 marks the begin-
ning of a new era. Until then St Michael's Mount had been
regarded as the port of Mounts Bay; but in that year Henry
VIII. granted the tenants of Penzance whatever profits might
accrue from the " ankerage, kylage and busselage " of ships
resorting thither, so long as they should repair and maintain
the quay and bulwarks for the safeguard of the ships and town.
Nevertheless thirty years later it b described by Leland as the
westernmost market town in Cornwall " with no socur for Botes
or shippes but a forsed Pere or Key." During the war with
Spain the town was devastated in 1595. The charter of incor-
poration granted in 16x4 states that by the invasion of the
Spaniards it had been treacherously spoiled and burnt but that
its strength, prosperity and usefulness for navigation, and the
acceptable and laudable services of the inhabitants in rebuilding
and fortifying it, and their enterprise in erecting a pier, have
moved the king to grant the petition for its incorporation. Thb
charter provides for a mayor, eight aldermen and twelve assbt-
antsto constitute the common council, the mayor to be chosen
by the council from tbe aldermen, the aldermen to be chosen from
the assbtants, and the assbtants from the most sufiident
and discreet of the inhabitants. It also ratified Henry's grant
of anchorage, keelage and busselage. In 1663 Penzance was
constituted a coinage town for tin. It has never enjoyed
independent parliamentary representation. In 1332 a market
on Wednesdays and a fair at the Feast of St Peter ad
Vincula were granted to Alice de Lisle and in 1405 thb market
was ratified and three additional fairs added, viz. at the feasts
of St Peter in Cathedra and the Conception and Nativity of the
Blessed Virgin; The charter of 1614 substituted markets on
Tuesdays and Thursdays for the Wednesday market and added
two fairs one at Corpus Chrbti and the other on the Thursday
before St Andrew. Of the fairs only Corpus Christ! remains;
markets are now held on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday.
Apart from fishing and shipping, Penzance has never been an
industrial centre.
PEONAGE (Span, pieon; M. Lat. pedo (pes), primarily a foot-
soldier, then a day-labourer), a system of agricultural servitude
common in Spanbh America, particularly in Mexico. In the
early days the Spanbh government, with the idea of protecting
the Indians, exempted them from compulsory military service,
the payment of tithes and other taxes, and regulated the system
of labour; but left them practically at the mercy of the Spanbh
govemors. The peons, as the Indian labourers were called,
were of two kinds: (i) the agricultural workman who was free
to contract himself, and (2) the criminal labourers who, often for
slight offences, or more usually for debt, were condemned to
practical slavery. Though legally peonage is abolished, the
unfortunate peon b often lured into debt by his employer and
then kept a slave, the law permitting hb forcible detention till he
has paid his debt to hb master.
126
PEOPLE— PEPE
PEOPLE, a collective term for persons in general, espedally
as forming the body of persons in a community or nation, the
" folk " (the O.E. and Teut. word, cf. Ger. Volk). The earlier
forms of the word were pepUi poeple^ puple, &c.; the present form
is found as early as the 15th century, but was not established till
the beginning of the i6th. Old French, from which it was
adapted, had many of these forms as well as the mod. Fr. peupU.
The Lat. poptdus is generally taken to be a reduplication from
the root pie, — fill, seen in ptenus, full; pMs, the commons;
Gr. wXfjfios, multitude.
I PEORIA, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Peoria
county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the north central part of the state, on
the lower end of Lake Peoria, an expansion of the Illinois river,
and about 150 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 56,100;
(19 10) 66,950. It is served by 13 railways, of which the most
important are the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago & Alton, the lUinois Central,
the Cleveland, Qndnnati, Chicago & St Louis, and the Chicago
& North- Western. The Illinois river is navigable to its mouth,
and at La Salle, above Peoria, connects with the lUinois &
Michigan Canal extending to Chicago. The river is spanned at
Peoria by two railway bridges and a wagon bridge. The
residential portion of the dty is situated on bluffs overlooking
Lake Peoria, and the business streets lie on the plain between
these elevations and the water front. The park system includes
more than 400 acres; Bradley Park (140 acres), the largest, was
given to the city by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley (1816-1908) and
was named in her honour. On a bluff north-east of the city is
Glen Oak Park (103 acres), modelled after Forest Park, St Lotiis,
Missouri; in the south-western part of the dty is Madison Park
(88 acres); and in the bwer part of the dty is South Park (10
acres). In the Court House Square there are two monuments in
honour of the Federal soldiers and sailors of Peoria county who
perished in the Civil War; in Springdale Cemetery there are two
similar memorials, one of which (a large granite boulder) is in
memory of the unknown dead; and in the same cemetery there
is a monument erected by the state (1906) to mark the grave of
Thomas Foid (d. 185 1), governor of Illinois in 1842-1846.
Among the principal public buildings and institutions are the
Peoria Public Library founded in 1855, the City Hall, the Court
House, the Federal building, St Mary's Cathedral, the Bradley
Polytechnic Institute (affiliated with the university of Chicago),
founded in 1896 by Mrs Lydia Moss Bradley, who gave it an
endowment of $2,000,000; Spalding Institute, founded through
the efforts of John L. Spalding (b. 1840), who was Bishop of the
Roman Catholic diocese of Peoria in 1877-1908; an Evangdical
Lutheran Orphans' Home (1902), an Industrial School for girls
(1892), Cottage Hospital (1876), St Frands Hospital. (1875), a
Florence Crittenton Home (1902), a Home for the Friendless
(1876), and a House of the Good Shepherd (1891), and the Guyer
Memorial (1889), St Joseph's (1892), and John C. Proctor homes
for the aged and infirm (1907). At Bartonville, a suburb, there
is a state hospital for the incurable insane.
In 1900 and in 1905 Peoria ranked second among the dties
of Illinois in the value of its manufactures. The invited capital
amounted in 1905 to $22,243,821, and the factory products were
valued at $60,920,411. The principal industry is the manufac-
ture of distilled liquors, which were valued in 1905 at $42,170,815.
Other important manufactures are agricultural implements
($2,309,962), slaughter-house and meat-packing products
($1,480,398). glucose, cooperage ($1,287,742), malt liquors
($887,570), foundry and machine-shop products, strawboard,
automobiles, brick and stone, and flour and grist mill products.
Peoria is also an important shipping point for grain and coal.
Peoria was named from one of the five tribes of the Illinois
Indians. In 1680 La Salle, the explorer, built Fort Cr^ecoeur,
on the lake shore bluffs, opposite the present dty; this fort,
however, was destroyed and deserted in the same year by La
Salle's followers after he had set out to return to Fort Frontenac.
There is evidence that a French mission was established on or
near the site of Peoria as early as 171 1; and certainly by 1725 a
settlement, known as Peoria, and composed of French and
" breed " traders, trappers and farmers, had been established
about i) m. above the foot of the lake, on its west shore. This
village was practically deserted during the later years (1781-
1783) of the War of Independence, and when its inhabitants
returned after the peace they settled in a village which had been
established about 1778, on the present site of Peoria, by Jean
Baptiste Maillet (d. 1801), and was at first called La Ville de
Maillet. It is probable that Jean Baptiste Point de Saible,
believed to have been a Santo Domingan negro, and jocularly
spoken of "as the first white settler in Chicago," lived in the
** old village " of Peoria as early as 1773 — or six years before be
settled on the present site of Chicago — and again about 1785.
In November 1812 about half of the town was burned by a
company of Illinois militia who had been sent thither to build a
fort, and whose captain asserted that his boats had been fired
upon at night by the villagers. In the following year a fort,
named Fort Clark in honour of George Rogers Clark, was erected
on the site of the old village; it was evacuated in 1818, and toon
afterwards was burned by the Indians. After the town was
burned there was no serious attempt to rebuild until 1819.
Peoria was incorporated as a town in 1835 and was chartered
as a dty in 1845. In 1900 North Peoria was annexed.
See David McCulIoch, Early Days of Peoria and Chicaio, an addiCM
read before the Chicaeo Historical bociety in 1904, and pubtbhed
by that sodetv, (n.d.), and "Old Peoria." by the nme author,
in publication Na 6 ol the Illinois State Historical Society rmts-
actums ^Springfield, III. 1901): also Historiad Emeydcpaeiia o§
Illinois (Chicago, 1900), ed. by Newton Bateman and Paul Settiy;
History of Peoria County,* lU. (Chkago, 1880); and C. BallattW.
History of Peoria (Peoria, 1870).
PEPE, GUGUELMO (1783-1855), Neapolitan general, was
bom at Squillace in Calabria. He entered the army at an earily
age, but in 1799 he took part in the republican movement at
Naples inspired by the French Revolution; he fought against
the Bourbon troops under Cardinal Ruffo, was captured and
exiled to France. He entered Napoleon's army and served with
distinction in several campaigns, induding those in the Nea-
politan kingdom, first under Joseph Bonaparte and later under
Jfoachim Murat. After commanding a Neapolitan brigade in the
Peninsular campaign, Pepe returned to Italy in 1813, with the
rank of general, to help to reorganize the Neapolitan amy.
When the news of the fall of Napoleon (1814) reached Ita^
Pepe and several other generals tried without success to force
Murat to grant a constitution as the only means of saving the
kingdom from foreign invasion and the return of the BourfaoM.
On Napoleon's escape from Elba (18 15) Murat, after some
hesitation, placed himself on the emperor's side and waged war
against the Austrians, with Pe|>e on his staff. After several
engagements the Neapolitans were forced to retire, and eventually
agreed to the treaty of Casalanza by which Murat was to abandoa
the kingdom; but the Neapolitan oflficers retained thrir rank
under Ferdinand IV. who now regained the throne of Naples.
While engaged in suppressing brigandage in the Capitanata,
Pe|>e organized the carbonari (q.v.) into a national militia, and
was preparing to use them for poUtical purposes. He had hoped
that the king would end by granting a constitution, but iriwa
that ho|>e failed he meditated seizing Ferdinand, the empciur
of Austria, and Mettemich, who were expected at Avellino, and
thus compelling them to liberate Italy (1819). The scheme brakt
down through an accident, but in the following year a militaiy
rising broke out, the mutineers cheering for the king and the
constitution. Pepe himself was sent against them, but wUe
he was hesitating as to what course he should follow Ferdioaid
promised a constitution (July 1820). A revolt in Sidly havim
been repressed, Pepe was appointed inspector-general of tk
army. In the meanwhile the king, who had no intcntioB d
respecting the constitution, went to Laibach to confer with tk
sovereigns of the holy alliance assembled there, leaving his W
as regent. He obtained the loan of an Austrian army wilk
which to restore absolute power, while the regent dallied wfth tk
Liberals. Pepe, who in parliament had declared in lavoor d
deposing the king, now took command of the army and nardM^
against the Austrians. He attacked them at Rieti (March I;
PEPERINO— PEPPER 127
itii), bu Ui nw ktki ««e Kpubed. Tbc vrajr ms ■nduilljr m-ronle 10 India. The dlKOVcry of the pustgc nnud [be
diib>aded,udP9eipntMvenl)«nloEnsluiil, FiUKxand Cape of Good Hope led (u^S) 101 uniidenbLe [lU in [he price,
other covMriei, pobCihiiic ■ Dumber of boolu and pampblett and aboul [he »amc tine ibe cvl[Lva[ioTi of [he p1a]i[ waa ex-
ef * political cbancler and kee^anf up bii coanulon wiih tbe tended lothewenernitlaadtoflhe Malay Archipelago. Pepper.
Caibooari. When in 1S4S RTOlutioo and war broke out aH however, remained a Dionopoly of (he pDnugucK crown aa lile
aver Ilalj, Pcpe MutDed to Naple*, where a conatilulion had al [he iSlh cen[ury. In Great Britain it wu formerly (aied
a^in bccfl pnicUmed. He wai (iven command (4 tbe Nea- verybeavi]r,theimpoalin i62jamoun[inglo si.,a[idatUteai
pnlitin arrtty which waa toco-opeTatewiih Piedmool agaiut the 1815ton.Od.Ib.
AvU^BB.butwbea be nacbcd Bologna t)Kkiii|,whobadalready Tbe larfot qutntide* ol pepper are produced in Penang. tbe
Tt-ir^ bii mind, tccallcd him und hia troopa. Fepe, after laland of RIodh, and Johore near Singapore— Pen ang aHording
fc— ftMtiTi£ between bii deaire to fifht for Italy, and hia oath [o on an average abou[ half of the ei^re crop. Sing^wie ii [be
Ibe bing. lOigDed hie comraiiiion in the Neapolitan Krvice and great emporiom for tbii ipice in tbe £ait, the targeit proportion
III— ill ill Til iiiil Iiiiiri III I lilii ] ill ill 1I r 'II |i' bciiig (hipped tbencc to Great Britain. The varieties of black
' Alter * good deal ol Bghling b Vcnclia, he joined Uanin in pepper me[ with In commerce are known a) Malabar, Aleppy
Veaicc and look command of the defending army. When tbe or TdUcbeny, Cochin, Peiung, Suigapore and Siaro.
cily waa farad by btinget to nirrendcr to tbe Auitiiana, Pepe and
Hania ven among (bOM excluded from tbe amneilyi be again
went Into cdlE and died in Turin in iBj j.
Tte Kary of npe't life down <o 1S46 i> laid In hli own lotereMlsc
If 11 (Lacano. I>47), ud hii Ntmlit if lit BtniU.,,al
'--■a im itn tmd ihi (London. iSii): for the later period ol
tbe (leml hiHoriee of the Riiar^nieiito^nd the bio-
3L H. of I- CaqM't Filer
no. and the t
* (Milan. iSSI
, uaialning f ragmenti of baialt and UneiloDe, with
1 cryalab of avgite, mica, magnetite, leudte, &c
Ihi (ypical pepciioo otcora ia the Alban HiUi, near Rone, and
■ai BKd by tbe ancienli, under tbe name of lajria albanui, a> a
bdding itoDe and for the baiina of fountains. Other tufla and
OBfloBientta la Auvergneanddaewbere are aho called peperino.
TW name origbialTy referred to (be dark raloured induaiou,
■Vitl** of pepper-conts. In En^ilh the word has aometines
bia written pcperinc.
RTPn. WILUAN (tSu-rSgl), American phyiidan,wai
hn in Fhilade^bis, on the list of August 1S43. He wu
iteaud at Ibe mivenity ol Pennsylvania, graduatiag bom
ikKadcakdcpartaieBt in iS6i and fiom tbe medical deparl-
■B( ia 1)64. In lUS be became lecturer on morbid anatomy
■ Ike ttne inatUntloo, and [n rS70 lecturer on cBakal medicine. ^^ aifmi.
Fna 1876 to ilSf be mi proleeMir o( clinical mcdiclDe, and bi ^ -^^ ^,h ,„j, (,^^, , „, ^. j_ longiiudind lection of
ilhiBcceeikdDrAlfredSlUKaspnifeHorottheoryaadpractin flower such eolaiicd; c. wxtwnoi fruit.
il >edicioe. He was elected provost of tbe unlvenity in "
« pimoii m inc um.Bw.y u> .™,, „ „,^ |„ p„n_ocy „ , ,^^ j^ it, fliyour to a volatile oil,
L iS«4. For ht> tervjcea ai medicil ol which it yiekli froin i-6 to >.>%. The <AI SEreet with oil oi
inhibition in iSj6hewasmadeknigh[ lurpenii i.. ..- ..•.- .. ...
„ ., ibe king of Sweden. He founded Ihe poi"'-
taOd^la Uidkat Tima, and was cdilor of that journal in ^^'^y
nnial Eibibillon in iS;6hewasmadeknigh[ lurpeniine in compmiioa a* well at in apedfic iraviiy and boiling
of bv the kin* of Sweden He founded the I™"'. '" polariwd light il deviatee the ray, In a column jo niid.
._? ^ ... , .. . . ,. lone, i.j' to V*" to the left. Peoner al» n
. Pepper aleo o>-..-.,- _ j,..,- ,.j —
. , , ,. - ., . .ii~ ~i-.i.i.j. — — " i-.^.ine. to the enent of 3 (0 8%, Thlt
il7S-il7>. He was known particularly for his contnbutionl tubauncc bae tbe un>e empiriaJ fonnula u nurphinc. Cn Ha NOh
■ [be Hibiect of the theory and practice of medidne, and tbe but diffen in conHltution and propertiee. It ii inioluble in water
Spum If VeJictue which be edited in i88s-iSM became one "I*," P"."' ". ■'T™' .'>' ^^^'- ''""'•" ^°?'"^' 'S" ^^-.i?
r~- •! — —-■ . ^ rewlvcd into pipenc acul, CHuO,, and pipeiidine. CiHnN. The
I* Ibe Bandard tertbooks in America. Among hu conlnbu- i.„„i,aiLqJir™loLrie»ykaloid. boilinaii io6'C.,h..nnodDur
lie« to tbe medical and sdeDtISc joumali of tbe day, were of pepper and amniDnia, and yieidi crysiUiuble lalti. A latty
"T(ephininginCenbialDi»ea»e"(i87i);"LocalTrealmen[in oil i> lound In Ihe pencarp ^ pepper, and the heme, yield on
Namary Cavities " (1874); " Catarrhal Irrigation " (.881); j?^',^ ™ *"hu'? ft ™v hi e^n Thm«n?L^^lT^
■Epilepay " (.883); «rf " Higer MedicJ EduaUon: tbe Tr« 5 ^w\?;SEr'ltX- th^SL^Tfyi*^^
buren of tbe Public and [be Prof ciaian. " He died on tbe i8[b aiC ^^
#Jily itpS at Pkasanton, California. In Ihe louth'Wett of India, where Ibe pepper-plint grows wild,
rvm. a name implied to seveial poageal iplcei known !' (■ louod in rich. moiM. leafy bU. in oarnw valleys piopagaiiog
__" .^_ ^T^jnif. 1 1 . . • 1.. .1 >t»e I by ninidng along the ground and nvmg oB moti mlo the
WecUvdy at Watk. white, long. ted. or cayenne. Ashanti, ^., ^ ^^ ^boJof euGviition adoptedliy Ihe naUves is 10
JoMica. and Dtelegueta pepper, but derived from at katltbiee tie up (he e^ of the vines 10 the neighbouring trees at distances
Dt natoral orders of plsnta. of ai leiH 6 ft., especially 10 those having a fanb ba
- ■ - ■ ■ ■ -■--- -■- " ■- •■- Sw to tlie K
a^k pttttr is tbe dried fndl of ^>er nitmm, a perennial ihatjhe™|n nay wflyattadi ihemd™. to J»™^-J^
j._i. _'^.;1.». r_j-_^^..- ,« ,K, f--_-„ -f 'Tv*u*..*.r.« mw,A underwood la then cleared away, leavinE wily sumoent trees to
-1 to Ihe loreali of TYnvancore and ,^ ,,„j^ ^^ ,j ,„ v^tiUit
enintroducedinto Java, Sumatra, vith a heap of lm>«s. and the sbooii a
■ " s, and the 1
provide ihade and permit free ventilatioiL The reots are m
Bneo, the Malay Penimola, Siam, the Philippines, and the kxaliiiet where the pepper does not grow wild, ground 0 selected
W«t Isdiea. Il dimbs OD tree-trunks by roots in the same way which ormili of free drainage, but wTijch is not too dry nor liable
- ivy. ^ from iUclltnUng habit i. k.own a. the ^per vine. T^^^^, ^ X^t^ tV^V^^^ '^' ^STn' iJ
It Booeo* tbe earbeatipices known to mankind, and for many February. Sonetlmei several cuttiogi. about 18 in. long, are
1^ formed a staple ankle of commerce between India and placed in a batlul ai
Eniie. Ttame baa been levied in pepper; one of Ibe article* «i"L'??^-!?-!!??l
rbnjary. Sonetiotei several cuttiogi. a
-■ in a batkel and burled at -^
ing plants are manured w
i_ ■ L_ ki.^.. .. ^^w4 «( .Cr »»».. «* D».». _*• the young plants are manured with a minure of leaves and cow.
h 408 by AUric u part ol Ihe ransom ol Rome wat ^ >;" ^ S^Krfl, ihe young plants require watering every othei
jaeaft olpdiper. lu eaorbitant pnce during the middle sgea day during the dry season for the BrM three year*. The plsnli
na II tt Uk iaduccmenta which led the Poitugueae to seek a bear in tha fouith or fifth year, and il niied fnnn cuttings an
ij8 PEPPER-CORN— peppermint
fniillur For tma y«n, if fmn vd far fnirtnn yian. The pep^ u ijO^ ind wu nporud fnnn Benin hy tkt TliiCinw !■
^ "^P™ "^ 'k™ ""I'il!*— "''' ^ ^*™^ 1,2?"".?' '*H: Inii.Kcordingto Qusiui, iu imporutioB m lotiddcB
IdopSi %.m th^ i?n7i™'ih. ^crf ™m*^«m^ by Iht king ol Portugd (or Itu it .bould deprttUu the niai
Bod encloKd by ■ mud mil, *nd bnnchn oi EnilJirna tn^ic* of tbe pepper fiam Indii. In tropual Africa it h enemiTdr
•n put into the (round in the niny kiikh and in Ihe cauns of > used u a csodiment, and it could eadljr ix ciilleHed ia torae
yor m capable o( lU [o Ibe Qm„,itiej " ' "
mtantime manga li mfened ai i"-"""^
fepptr a the
tret of llie MytUe family.
or"allS|acc,"a«itiiB«iairuepepper.
^pol tbe V -JST^ Udiv" fft«: known al» as " Guinea paint," " toSm d
l>«p«iS«^ G^'SS p««lbe" {«...) or "aUigator pepper." i.. be «d of ^««.
entirely buried, emp F new ifaoou JfeJ^ewfa, a plant of Ibc tf nget lamilr; the Kcds aie eiceadinfljr
ariK, three or lotii ie tree neat puncent. and nreUKd u aipicctluouclniil ceolnland QDithem
which (hey are plant ootverrand Africa.
Eruita the neat year. Twi crop* are collected every year, the -. - . . ■. . ^. i
principal one boat in December^nd January and the other in Fv Cnynni ptff. «e thai artKle.
July and Aupin. iTie latler yietdinj pepper of infeiior quality and PBPPBB-CORH. the fruit or Ktd of the pepper plant ; bOKC
'"■fe'or'thles'varietie. are met with In cultivation' that ideldine "»^°* ™'y *"»^ " inKgnificarl. Pttftr-cani ml h t
■ ■ bjid. l«.^brcoJy ovate leavefc fi« to •ev;n in number, ;^^''^^_™lj^7^^'"jj;, ^^JJi;;, °1 ^^11^ Jlf
PEPPEBMINT, an iiidigenoui perennial herb of the natunl
' Labiatii, and genui UnUa (see Kan), the qiedSc naow
d itilked. The flower-tMlai ate oppowte (he leaveii touuicy aiinowledgtd by the tenant. Building li
•uHttd and from 3 to 6 in. long; tht (ruiu are aenlle and BeJiy. qaeally reserve a pepper-corn as tent lot Ihe fint lew
A single Item will near from twenty (o thirty oJ theae apikea. The c^ Rvtfr
i'"^7.-
aod ultimalely tall off and an km. The ipikea are collected in being UeMila fiptrila, is dislinguisheil fr ,~^». „, ,_<
big. ot ^iket. and dried in the Rin. When dry the pepper ii „, by ;„ „,]iio] [^^ya and oblong-oblia* spike-like beads ol
5:'«i™t^«'^tTfl{,™r^nV4.Vm.^rM?lab:^'«h f^-^ Iti,metwi,h,«.r,.«.msandlnwetpUc..,fai
■ _. p (oihe hlieeoih or twentieth year, or about Mveral paclt of England and on the Eunpean continenl, and it
of (Sot^eo in iu beil condili
also extenilveiy cullivaled lot the lake of iU etaentlal oS la
™^ EngUnd,' in aevertl parti ol '' " "- — " '" ■*-
Wliilc pepptr di
These, alter colla
braised and wished in a basket with Ihe band until the stalks
and pulpy matter ait removed, alter which the teeda are dried.
It is, however, sometimes prepared from the dried black peppet
by removing the dark outer layer. It is lea pungetil (him the
black but possesses & finer ftavour. It is chieRy prepared at the
island of Biouw, but (he £riea[ come* from Tellicherry.
While pepper iflordi on an average not more than 1^9^ of
eaaeniial oU i but, according to Caieneuve. at much at 9 %of lupcrine,
and ofaih not more than 11%.
Long p€pptr it the frait-splkc of Fiptr ffjicinanm and P.
longiwi, gathered ihortly before it reaches maturity and dried.
The (oimer ia a native of the Indian Archipelago, and hu oblong-
ovate, acuminate leaves, which are pinnately veined. The latter
is indigenous in the holler provinces of India, Ceylon, Malacca
and the Malay Islands; it is distinguished Emm P. offiaaantM by
Long pepper
ceolury mcDtkin ia made ol long pepper, or mocrDpiper. In conjunc-
tion wi(h black and while pcpperv. The nice eonsiiu of a denie
apAe of minute baccale fruits dotely packed around the cenlral
aiit. Ih* ifidke bei« about ij In. long and (in. thick 1 a. met United Stale*. Yet it was only ncogniad a* > dittind qiedet
with in coflUMTce they have (he appearance of having been luned- i,,^ u -1.- ..,1. , . _ _i, f^. r 1— j'.».»...j :■ ;„ tt^tA—t.
In Benail the planar, cuhlvateff^ wicfcert, whicfi are planted "eta the .71bcm(ury, wbm DlEaltsdiKOiwrfilmltotJ^
about J t(. ipait on dry rich toU on high ground. An Engllih "ure and poinled 11 0«t to Ray, who published it ia tbe MtMd
•ere win yield about 3 msundt (So Ih) ihelim year, 13 the tecond, edilion of his Synofi'u ilirpium brilanmiamm (t6v6). Jit
and iB the third year : ^ter thii time the yield decreatct. and th« medicinal properties ol the plant were ipeedily RCognlaBd aad
«^g''aregcr2'"p«|,§«'^nj^^ H,,"^ ol'it.^f^^iT^™*™^'^ '" ""'"*'
down to (he ground. Long pepper eootaina piperine. reain and Two varieties are recognized by growers, tbe vhilA tad tkv
votadlf oil and yield<abou(S% clash. Pcnang and Sngapon aie black mint. Thefottnet hat purplish and the Ialletfr»M«a»»!
the pnncipal cenlres u> (be Ea« loe i(a tale. ,^, 1^,^^, „, „,q„ coarsely serrated In (he white. TT«t bhd
AsMaiai or Ifcif AJritaii ftpftr is the dried fruil of Piper is more generally cullivaled, probably because it ia loinid to
Cluii, a plant widely distributed in (ropicsl Africa, occurring yield more oil, but that of ibe while variety it coniklafd M
most abundantly in the counliy ol the Niim-niim. Il dilTen hive a more delicate odour, and obtains a higher prices "O*
from black pepper in being rather imaller, less wrinkled, and in white is tbe kind chieRy dried for herbalists. Tlie fiavoBiimia
being attenuated inio a s[alk, like cabcbs (the dried unripe fniilB to a slight extent even wiih particular plots of laod. bady ■
of P. CubAa). to which it beats oonsidcrable resemblance drained ground being known to give unbvounble mulii bolb j
eitemilly. The taste, however, is pungent, eiactly like that of a} 10 tbe quaniiiy and quality of the oil. Tlial ol tbe JapUMM ]
pepper, and Ihe Irait conliins piperine. It was imported Irom i x„r )t
tbe Graia Cout by the mettbanlt of Rouen and Dieppe as early Deeping in
PEPPERRELL
loaitiodUtenili^ljrfreiilllieEDgihh, uxib tbin >>» pbMnueopeiU nune— by cuvone. C«HiiO, (ouixl in canny
k™ bT^mUk weBl. which BTO. («^y .»,« „^„S!°JSS,r^ ricb"'^"l"^r',£'^^S' ^^.^t
lamttmMaomeolXhaebtiasEriittmauuJtrui, lekcud, md l& ground it well liilid S in lo in. d«p. The
ttecnipithciiiisttrvubkloincoItheKbciiig £r>{i»iici]iuiJnui, lelected, >ndl& inutd ia
■Hi ErttUUlB titradfBlia. Wben puie Ibc oil ii nculy colour- p^anti an prnpigv-' - •>-
is ud bu u icncable odour <md powcttul uonulic Uil«, ^^''''^L^ ^P;^ '^
(oOownl by ■ nwioii ot cold when ilr it dnwn into lhen»uth. pi^'i^i^io'^ ,1
It bu ■ ved&c gravity of 0-84 to oi)i, tad baUi at 36;° F. ihmw mi nuiDemi
Hiidum oil, when muuDsl by poEariud light in tt colunm 50 tlw crop Iub been r
iMn. lone, devuta fimn u-a' to loj" to the leti, the Ametion '^"'iij'V' "^ '»'
4-J-. When oQ of peppemiLiil ii cooled to 4* C. il umctimo SSCind^™!'
4<TKHts colouriea heaigonaL priimi of menthol, CitHigO, which liwet ihey ue Lia]
■oluble fn alcohol and ether, almost iniolubLe in water, and '
* ■ J'F. The ml coniilU chicSy oi menthol and a lerpme '," "" t'™"" ""c vm.^. lu"" in,""t. ,ii.;<iu--i™i.ii tua 01 ihtr
,tbe«. CJl* OU 0( peppermint 1. olten adultei. h^ ^^h^";^*^- t.'^p"l^ur[Ke"w^«^»'"d™°Sff
a thinl pan of rectified ipiril, which may be detected SSlea™ ite «e™^l™i Sit Tn "he. rirc" m.S™ f^
by the m .
Oil of mcmary and rcctifiedoUof tuipcnllTieaieaometiniesiued
■et tbc ume purpoM. If the oil roniiini turpentine it will
apLMk with iodine. If quite pure it dimlvei in iu own weight
of rectified ipiriti of wine. Pep-
peiminl oil ii largely distilled at . , - .„ ,
being HJit to Bombay, al» a ■ ■ ■ ~'^- "^
bourhood of Canton, a Umiia
anauii, var. tfabraia. Vtppa-
mint il chiefly cultivated in the
province of Kiang-ii; and accord-
ai 40 picut* al oil
are Kol annually
the coait. In Japan alio the luU hoiin.
I diuillation of oil of peppomint ,0 , hook on the r.l« hotlon which u weU utl^rt
form a coniidCTable induitty, the ratiaw on it, it [mi«d bodily by a wi'ndla- and the peppermint
< plant cultivated bang U. OFwam, carried away in the empty carti on their return journey to the ficlda,
var. pifrrasaia. The oil, under where it ii placed in heapa and allowed to rot, being Hibaeqiiently
the name of hakka la abun, la ""d "i'l".'!" ™!1"« VV*M in the autumn at above «ai^
^_^A t It. J rt_ L The UKiai yield of oil, il the aeaaon be warm and dry, it lald 10 be
Hpwled from Hiogo and Oi^, , „^ [„„ J j, „f rte fnah flowering herb, but. H ww'and unfavour-
but la md to be frequently adul- able, the _pr<iduct Uharely lialtihatquaniily. The yield of a charge
Fk. I.— Ifnib arwiuir, lerated. The mcniholl) obtained of thettill iienimaicdatfrom i Ih 1101.105 lb. The oil improve*
«r. pipniant. by auhjectin* the oil la a low '" nieUownett evea if kept a* long ■• ten or louneen vcart. The
T^ii^b^r ^ out and u leparaled. The two aiBiluJon; on the ntfier hand, if the herb be lift in the Mill from
*^ varietiea ol U. oncniu Just Saturday to Monday, the oil asumea a brownlim.
■Bed yield much nure menthol than U. fiptrila. It ia . In France peppemiinii.ediivatedoBdampriehpoui«l at Sent.
mi.ri.hu k/.__»f- <h.> <k. u .-__■. ™ .■ ;. m the department o( ibe Yonne. la Ormany it to giswn in the
MurtaWe, however, that the «. orwnni, var. jbwsim, .^ighbouSood of Leiprig, where the little town ofCMlSda prodgcM
Ftwingm Ceylon, hai not the flavour of peppermint but that annually at much at 40.000 cwt. of the herb. In the UaliedSuiea
Gnat Britain hal an odoui 10 diRerenl frotn peppermint that w« Michisan. the weHdittrictt of New York Bate, and OWo. The
e c-tefuUy removed from the field lest it should q»il r;^. '■^^'^'^'^.H " 3" * P" "^ '" Michigan the plant
. J ,i_ _ !.. ^1 ^hen the herb is distilled. ""
as a herb, also possesses PEPPESRSLI, SIR WILUAI (1606-1754). American soldier,
form in which menthol is was ham in Kittery, Maine, then a part oF Mastschusells. on
9 Epsom salts, with which the i;th of June i6g6. He studied tutveying and navigation.
and joined his father b his ship-building, fiihing and general
i widely uerd "*^ business, quickly becoming one ol the wenlihiett and
captain (171;), major, lieutenant-colond, and in 1716 colonel of
— — -. -w- - -.-,.7- ------ . . — mUitia. Peppetrell served in the Massachusetts general court
_i< fcBenUt. The oil faai the characlen , _ , ., j .. ,k. ■. 1 r... \ ,j
-^•^SSfliture.. li>kx>lanae«het>eaci ''"^V"''. ""^ ^ the govemoi a councJ ( 7»7->7Sg), of
mmg. ti ■> al» powiafully aatiiepiie. Tb "hich lor eighteen years he was president. Although not a
■ab it valuable in the leUef uf toouiache an [rained lawyer, he was chief justice of the court of common pleaa
^caiiQiia jviiieiinibe teeth. They aim cendc [„„, ,jjo until his death. In 1745 he was lommandet.in-chirf
E.^ £:;.'lm5E&."^"^re: ^ the N*. England force of about .«», which, with the assiu-
■SeZof dilinlaiik oil. is perhaps more mar unce of a Bnlish squadron under Commodore Peter Wairen.
say other eD, asd fieitly addi to iu power of rel besieged and raptured the French fortress of Louisburg. the
;. .._ _.T . ■^. ......... ... ., [arrijon luirendeting on the l6tb of June and Peppertell and
sn uD lor UK •Mi.c punnei a> oil n peppmniiii. It '^»"™ '"ting posaeMion On the following day. For bis lervicea
■ gibe vilw aedidDBlly, not mnulnini any appnulble'quantity Peppenetl, b November 1746, was created a baronet— the only
ifMalhnl fhiplarenfntiirhittilrrninlhr nfrtninriiftiiirrriiti; New Englaoda lo bonoured. He wa* active [n taiung troopa
I30
PEPPER TREE— PEPYS, SAMUEL
during the " French and Indian War," and received the rank oi
lieutenant-general in February 1 759. He died in Kittery, Maine,
on the 6tb of July in the same year.
See Usher Parsons. Lift of Sir WiUiam Pepperrdl, Bart. (Cam-
bridge. Mass., 1^55). based on the family papers.
PEPPER TREE, a tree which has no proper connexion with
the true pepper {Piper)^ and is really a member of the natural
order Anacardiaceae, being known botanically as Sckinus MoUe,
from the Peruvian name MuUi. It is a native of tropical South
America and is grown in the open air in the south of Europe. It
is a small tree with unequally pinnate leaves, the segments
linear, entire or finely saw-toothed, the terminal one longer than
the rest, and all filled with Volatile oil stored in large cells or
cysts, which are visible to the naked eye and appear like holes
when the leaf is held up to the light. When the leaves are thrown
upon the surface of water the resinous or oily fluid escapes with
such force as violently to agitate them. The flowers are small,
whitish, arranged in terminal dusters and polygamous or uni-
sexual, with five sepals, as many petals, ten stamens (as large as
the petals in the case of the male flower, very small in the female
flower, but in both fringing from a cushion-like disk surrounding
the base of the thr^-celled ovary). The style is simple or three-
deft, and the fruit a small, globose, pea-like drupe with a bony
kernel enclosing a single seed. The fleshy portion of the fruit
has a hot aromatic flavour from the abundance of the resin it
contains. The resin is used for medicinal purposes by the
Peruvians, and has similar properties to mastic. The Japan
pepper tree is Xantkoxylum piperitum the fruits of which have
also a hot taste. Along the Riviera the tree known as Melia
Azedarack, or the " Pride of India," is also incorrectly called the
pepper tree by visitors.
PEPSIN, an enzyme or ferment obtained by drying the mucous
lining of the fresh and healthy stomach of a pig, sheep or calf.
As used in medicine it consists of a light yellow-brown or white
powder or of pale yellow translucent grains or scales. It is only
slightly soluble in water and alcohoL Pepsin is used to help
gastric digestion in old people and in those in whom there is a
deficient secretion of the gastric juice. It is useful in chronic
catarrhal conditions of the stomach, the dyspepsia of alcoholism,
and in gastric ulcer and cancer of the stomach.
Pep«n digests the albumens but is useless in the digestion of
fats or carbohydrates. It may also be used to predtgest albumtnous
foods. The following is a method of peptonizing beef. Take | lb
of minced raw lean beef, ^ pint of water containing 0*2 % of
hydrochloric acid, place in a jar with 30 grs. of pepsin, set in a warm
elace at 110^ F. for 3 hours, stirring occauonaUy. Then quickly
oil it. It is usually unnecessary to strain it. as the meat is reduced
to a fine almost impalpable powder which is readily assimilated.
Many varieties of proprietary peptonizing tablets are on the market
and are convenient for the preparation of peptonized milk. The
following is a method of preparing it. Talce a clean glass quart
bottle, pour in a pint of perfectly fr^ cold milk, then add a teacup-
ful of cold water in which a peptonizing tablet has been dissolved.
Submerge the bottle in a can ol water at 100* F. for from 5 to 10
minutes, take out the bottle and place on ice to prevent the further
action of the pepsin. If no ice is convenient brin^ the milk to a
boil for the same purpose. If the action of the pepsin be continued
for a much longer period the milk becomes bitter to the taste from
the development of excess of peptones. Prcdigested foods should
not be used over a long period or the digestive functions of the
stomach may atrophy from disuse.
Pancreatic solution, derived from the pancreas of a pig digested
in alcohol, has the power of converting starch into sugar, and
albumen and fibrin into peptones^ It only acts in an alkaline
medium and at a temperature under 140* F. If used to peptonize
milk sodium bicarbonate should be added. Many commercbl
preparations are on the market. Trypsin, the prindpal ferment
of the pancreas, also changes proteids into peptones.
PEPUSCH, JOHN CHRISTOPHER (1667-1752), English
musician, of German parentage, was bom in Berlin. He began
his study of music at an early age, and about 1700 left Berlin
and went to England, where he had various engagements, and
where be went on with his researches into ancient music. He
composed a number of church services and instrumental pieces,
besides music for masques and plays, but he is best known in
connexion with the founding In 17 10 of the Academy of Ancient
Music. In 1713 he was made a Mus.D. of Oxford, and in 1746
F.R.S. In 1 718 he married Margarita de rfipine (d. 1746), who^
as the first Italian to sing in England, was described fai 169a in
the London CauUe simply as ** the Italian woman." Pepusdi
died in London on the aoth of July 1752. His Treaiiu m
Harmony (anonymous ist ed. 1730) is beUeved to have been an
embodiment of his rules drafted by bis pupil Viscotuit Paisley,
afterwards earl of Abercora.
PEPT8, SAMUEL (1633-1703), English diarist, was bom on
the 23rd of February 1633. The place of hb birth is not known.
The name was pronounced in the 17th century, and has always
been pronounced by the family, " Peeps." The family can be
traced in Cambridgeshire as far back as the rdgn of Edward I.
They rose by slow degrees from the class of small copybcrfdeis
and yeoman farmers to the position of gentry. In x 563 they had
a recogm'zed right to use a coat of arms. John Pepys, Samuers
father, was a younger son, who, h'ke other gentlemen in his
position in that age, went into trade. He was for a time estab-
lished as a tailor in London, but in x66i he inherited a small
estate at Brampton near Huntingdon, where he lived during the
last years of his life.
Samuel was fifth child and second son of a large family, all
of whom he survived. His first school was in Huntingdon, but
be was afterwards sent to St Paul's in London, where he retnained
till 1650. While at St Paul's he was an eye-witness of the execu-
tion of King Charles I. On the 21st of June in that year his
name was entered as a siaar on the books of Trinity Hall,
Cambridge, but it was transferred to Magdalene on the ist of
October. On the 5th of March he entered into residence, and
he remained there till 1654 or 1655. He obtained a Spendlufie
scholarship a month after entering, and one on Dr John Smith's
foundation on the 14th of October 1653. Nothing is known of
his university career except that on the 21st of October 1653 be
was publidy admonished with another tmdergraduate for having
been " .scandalously overserved with drink." At Cambridge be
wrote a romance. Love is a Cheats which he afterwards destroyed.
On the ist of December 1655 he was married at St Margaret's
church. Westminster, to EUxabeth, daughter of Alexander
Marchant, Sieur de St Michd, a French Huguenot exile from
Anjou who had married an English lady named KingsmiU.
Pepys had at this time no independent means, and probably
relied on his cousins, the Montagues, to provide for him. On the
26th of March 1658 he was cut for the stone, an event which
he always kept in memory by a solemn anniversary. In 1659
he went as secretary with his cousin, Edward Montagu, after-
wards earl of Sandwich, on a voyage to the Sound. On his
return he was engaged as a clerk under Mr (afterwards Sir)
Edward Downing, one of the four tellers of the exchequer. la
x66o he accompanied his cousin, who commanded the fleet which
brought King Charles II. back from exile. In that year, by the
interest of his cousin, he was named " clerk of the acts " in the
navy office, but was compelled to buy off a competitor, one
Barlow, by an annuity of £100.
Pepys was now fairly established in the official career which led
him to honour. On the ist of January 1660 he had begun his
second and hidden life as a diarist. It is in that capacity that
he is of such unique interest, fiut if his diary had never bees
written, or had been lost, he would still be a notable man, as an
able offidal, the author of valuable Memoirs of the Naty (1690),
an amateur musician and protector of musidans, a gentleman
who took an enlightened interest in sdence, and was elected
president of the Royal Sodety. To his contemporary diarist,
John Evdyn, he appeared as " a worthy, industrious and curioui
peiBOQ." It is true that Andrew Marvel accused him of having
accumulated a fortune of £40,000 by " illegal wages." But this
charge, made in a pamphlet called A List of Ike principd
Labourers in the great design of Popery and Arbitrary Pemtr,
was attributed to political animosity. To the world he appeared
as an honourable and religious man, and so he would seem to have
been to us if be had not recorded in his diary all those weaknessn
of character and sins of the flesh which other men are most
careful to conceal.
His place of cierk to the Navy Board was e<^uivalent 10 the
J
PEPYS, SAMUEL
131
poit of pennanent under secreUiy in modern times. It made
him chief of the secretariat and a member of the administrating
body of the navy. Though he was so ignorant of business that
he did not even luiow the multiplication table when he first took
office, be soon mastered the needful mechanical details by work-
ing euiy and late. He had other posts and honours, which
came to him either as consequential on his clerkship or because
he was a useful official. On the 23rd of July 1660 he was ap-
potnied one of the clerks of the privy seal, an office which returned
him £3 A day in fees. He was made a justice of the peace. In
166a he was appointed a younger brother of the Trinity House,
and was named a commissioner for managing the affairs of
Tangier, then occupied by an English garrison. In 1664 he
became a member of tlw corporation of the Royal Fishery, to
whicfa body he was named treasurer when another official had
brou^t the accounts into confusion. In that year he also
jcnoed the Royal Society. During the naval war with Holland
(1664-67) he proved himself an indefatigable worker. As sur-
vcycv of the victualling, the whole burden of a most important
department was thrown on him in addition to his regular duties.
He in fact organized the department. While the plague was
riging in London in 1666 he remained at his post when many of
l^s colteagues ran away, and he manfully avowed his readiness
to take the risk of disease, as others of the king's servants faced
the dangers of war. He had now gained t he full confidence of t he
lord high admiral, the duke of York, afterwards King James II.
Wlien, on the termination of the war, the navy office was violently
illicked in pariiament, he was entrusted with its defence. The
speech which he delivered at the bar of the House of Commons
OQ the 5th of March 1668 passed for a complete vindication. In
sober fact the charges of mismanagement were well founded, but
the fault was not in the officials of the navy office only, and Pepys,
who was master of the details, had no difficulty in throwing dust
in the eyes of tlw House of Commons, which was ignorant.
Nobody indeed was better acquainted with the defects of the
office, for in 1668 he drew up for the duke of York two papers of
ioqairy and rebuke, ** The Duke's Reflections on the severall
Mtmberi of the Navy Board's Duty " and " The Duke's answer
to their sev«aU excuses " (Harleian MS. 6003). In 1669 he
invdled abroad. His success in addressing parliament gave him
ihe ambition to become a member of the House of Commons.
He stood iof Aldborough, but the death of his wife, on the loth
of November 1669, prevented him from conducting his canvass
iapcfson, and he was not elected. In 1673 he was returned for
Ctttk Rising. The vaUdity of his electk>n was questioned by his
opponent, Mr Offley, and the committee of privilege decided
a|unst him, but the prorogation of the house prevented further
action. Tlie no-popery agitation was now growing in strength.
The duke of York was driven from office by the Test Act, and
Pepys was accused of " popsry," partly on the ground that he
*u said to keep a crucifix and altar in his house, partly because
he was accused of having converted his wife to Roman Catholi-
dsoL The crucifix story broke down on examination, but there
h some reason to believe that Mrs Pepys did become a Roman
Citbdic. Pepys was transferred by the king from the navy
<^ce to the secretaryship of the admiralty in 1673. In 1679 he
VIS member for Harwich, and in the height of the popish plot
Buaia he was accused, manifestly because he was a trusted
servant of the duke of York, of betraying naval secrets to the
Frroch, but the charges were finally dropped. Pepys was released
00 bafl on the 12th of February 1680. In that year he accom-
paaied the king to Newmarket, and took down the narrative of
his escape after the battle of Worcester. A proposal to make him
head of King's College, Cambridge, in 1681, came to nothing.
In 1682 hr accompam'ed the duke of York to Scotland, where the
eadeanly habits of the people caused him great offence. In
1M3-1684 he was engaged in arranging for the evacuation of
Tangier. He visited the place and kept a diary of his voyage.
la 1684 he was elected president of the Royal Society. On the
accession of King James II. in 1685 he retained his place as
secretary to the admiralty, to which he had been appointed by
pucnt when James resumed the lord high admiralship (June 10,
1684), and Pepys was in effect minister for the navy. The
revolution of 1688 ended his official career. He was dismissed
on the 9th of March 1689, and spent the rest of his life in retire-
ment, and, except for a brief imprisonment on the charge of
Jacobite intrigue in 1690, in peace. He died at his house in
Clapham on the 35th of May 1703. His last years were passed
in correspondence with his friends, who included Evelyn and
Dryden, or in arranging his valuable library. It was left on his
death to his nephew, John Jackson, son of his sister Pauline, and
in 1724, by the terms of his will, was transferred to Magdalene
College, Cambridge, where it is still preserved.
Such was the outward and visible life of Samuel Pepys, the
public servant whose diligence was rewarded by success. The
other Pepys, whom Sir Walter Scott called " that curious
fellow," was revealed in 1825, when his secret diary was partly
published. Hie first entry was made on the ist of January 1660,
the last on the 31st of May 1669, when the increasing weakness
of his eyes, which had given him trouble since 1664, compelled
him to cease writing in the conditions he imposed upon himself.
If there is in all the literature of the world a book which can be
called " um'que " with strict propriety it is this. Confessions,
diaries, journal^, autobiographies abound, but such a revelation
of a man's self has not yet been discovered. The diary is a thing
apart by virtue of three quah'ties which are rarely found in per-
fection when separate and nowhere else in combination. It was
secret; it was full; and it was honest. That Pepys meant it for
his own eye alone is clear. He wrote it in Shelton's system of
tachygraphy published in 1641, which he complicated by using
foreign languages or by varieties of his own invention whenever
he had to record the passages least fit to be seen by his servants
or by " all the world." Relying on his cypher he put down what-
ever he saw, heard, felt or imagined, every motion of his mind,
every action of his body. And he noted all this, not as he desired
it to appear to others, but as it was to his seeing. The result is
" a human document " of amazing vitality. The man who displays
himself to himself in the diary is often odious, greedy, cowardly,
casuistical, brutal. He tells how he kicked his cook, and blacked
his wife's eye, and was annoyed when others saw what he had
done. He notes how he compelled the wives of unfortunate
men who came to draw their husband's pay at the navy office to
prostitute themselves; how he took " compliments," that is to
say gifts, from all who had business to do with the navy office;
how he got tipsy and suffered from sick headache; how he
repented, made vows of sobriety, and found casuistical excuses
for breaking them. The style is as peculiar as the matter —
colloquial, garrulous, racy from simplicity of language, and full
of the unconscious humour which is never absent from a truthful
account of the workings of nature in the average sensual man.
His position enabled him to see much. His complete harmony
with the animalism and vulgarity of the Restoration makes him
a valuable witness for his time. To his credit must be put the
facts that he knew the animalism and vulgarity to be what they
were; that he had a real love of music and gave help to musicians,
Cesare Morelli for instance; that though he made money out of
his places he never allowed bad work to be done for the navy if
he could help it; that he was a hard worker; and that he had a
capacity for such acts of kindness and generosity as are com-
patible with a gross temperament and a pedestrian ambition.
The diary, written in a very small hand in six volumes, was
included among his books at Magdalene. On the publication of
Evelyn's diary in 1818. the then head of Magdalene, the Hon.
and Rev. George Neville, decided to publish Pcpys's. Part of the
MS. was deciphered by his cousin Lord Grenville. The library
contained both the short and the long-hand copies of Pepys's
account of King Charles's adventures, but its books were so lit lie
known by the curators that this key was overlooked. The MS.
was deciphered by John Smith, afterwards rector of Baldock
in Hertfordshire, between 1819 and 1822. The first and partial
edition, edited by Richard Neville Griffin, 3rd Lord Braybrooke,
appeared in 1825 in two volumes quarto (London). It attracted
great attention and was reviewed by Sir Walter Scott in the
Quarterly for January 1826. A second edition in two octavo
132
PEQUOT— PERCEVAL
volumes followed !n 1828 (London). A third and enlarged edition
in five volumes octavo appeared in 1848-1849, and a fourth in
four in 1854 (London) . In 1875-1879 Dr Minors Bright published
a still fuller ediUon in six volumes octavo (London). Many
portraits of Pepys are known to have been taken and several can
be traced. One was taken by SaviU (1661), another by John
Hales (1666), now in the National Portrait Gallery. A portrait
by Sir Peter Lely is in the Pepysian library, Magdalene College,
Cambridge. Three portraiu were taken by Sir Godfrey Kneller,
of which one belongs to the Royal Society, and another is in the
Hall of Magdalene. Pepys's only known publication in hb life
was the Memoirs of the Navy, but other writings have been
attributed to him.
Authorities.— The sUndard edition of Pe^s*s Diary b that
by H. B. Wheatley. in niae volumes octavo, with a supplementary
volume of Pepysiana (London, 1893-1890). See also wheatley s
S<uttuel Pepys, and Ike world he lited in (London, 1880); The Ltfe,
Journals and Correspondence of PePys, by J. Smith (London, 1841);
E. H. Moorhousc. Samuel Pepys, Administrator, Observer, Gossip
(1909) ; and P. Lubbock. Samud Pepys (1909). (D. H.)
PEQUOT, an Algonquian tribe of North-American Indians, a
branch of the Mohicans. They occupied the coast of Connecticut
from Niantic river to the Rhode Island boundary. Together
with their kinsmen, the Mohegans, they formed a powerful and
warlike people, bitterly hostile to the early settlers. In 1637 the
Pequots were surprised by the whites at their fort on the Mystic
river, and suffered so completely a defeat that the tribe was broken
up, and its remnants took refuge with neighbouring tribes. The
Pequot country passed under the control of the Mohegans. At
the height of their power the Pequots numbered, it is estimated,
some 3000.
PERCEPTION (from Lat. percipere, to perceive), in psychology,
the term specially applied to the mental process by which the
mind becomes conscious of an external object; it is the mental
completion of a sensation, which would otherwise have nothing
but a momentary existence coextensive with the duration of the
stimulus, and is intermediate between sensation and the " ideal
revival," which can reinstate a perceptual consciousness when
the object is no longer present. This narrow and precise usage
of the term " perception " is due to Thomas Reid, whose view has
been generally adopted in principle by modem psychologists.
On the other hand some psychologists decline to accept the view
that the three processes are delimited by sharp lines of cleavage.
It is held on the one hand that sensation is in fact impossible as a
purely subjective state without cognition; on the other that
sensation and perception differ only in degree, perception being
the more complex. The former view admits, which the latter
practically denies, the distinction in principle. Among those
who adopt the second view are E. B. Titchener and William
James. James {Principles of Psychology, ii. 76) compares
sensation and perception as " the barer and the richer conscious-
ness," and says that " beyond the first crude sensation all our
consciousness is a matter of suggestion, and the various sugges-
tions shade graduxdly into each other, being one and all products
of the same psychological machinery of associalion.'ii Similarly
Wundt and Titchener incline to obliterate the distinction between
perception and ideal revival. Prior to Reid, the word perception
had a long history in the wider sense of cognition in general.
Locke and Hume both use it in this sense, and regard thinking as
that special kind of perception which implies deliberate attention.
(See PsYCHOLOCV.)
PERCEVAL, or Percyvelle (Ger. Panival, Fr. Perlesvaus,
Welsh, Pcredur), the hero of a comparatively small, but highly
important, group of romances, forming part of the Arthurian
cycle. Originally, the story of Perceval was of the character of a
folk-tale, and that one of remarkable importance and worid-wide
difI\ision. He is represented as the son of a widow, " la dame
veuve," his father having been slain in tourney, battle or by
treachery, either immediately before, or shortly after his birth.
The mother, fearful lest her son should share his father's fate,
flies to the woods, either alone with one attendant, or with a small
body of faithful retainers, and there brings up her son in ignorance
of bis name, his parentage and all km'ghtly accomplishmenU.
The youth grows up strong, swift-footed and of grett penood
beauty, but, luiturally enough, of very limited inteUifnioe. TUl
last is one of the most characteristic traits of the Pieroeval stoiy,
connecting it alike with the Irish Lay of the Creal Foot, and the
Teutonic DkmmUng tales. He spendi his days chasiDg the
beasts of the forest, running them down by sheer ^wed, or kiUiof
them with darts (javelots) or bow and arrows, the on^ weapooi
he knows.
One day, however, he meets a party of kni^ts in armoiir; he
first adores the leader as God, and then takes them to be loaM
new and wondrous kind of animal, asking the most naive
questions as to their armour and equipment. Bring told that
they are knights he determines that he too will be one, and
returns to his mother announcing his intention of at once aetlbv
forth into the world to seek for knighthood. Dressed as a
peasant (or a fool), he departs (his mother, in some vefaioa%
dying of grief), and comes to the king's court. Of ooune in the
romance it is the court of Arthur; probably in the original tali
it was simply " the king." Here his uncouth bdiaviour and great
personal beauty attract general attention, and be is alike mocked
by Kay, and his future distinction mysteriously focetold. He
slays a foe of Arthur's, the Red Knight, who has insulted the
king, and challenged the knights of the court, wbo, for sooe
mysterious reason, are unable to respond to tbe '•^■H^tiy-
Dressing himself in the armour of the slain knight, which be has
great difficulty in handling and eventually puts on over Ui
peasant's garb, he sets out on a series of adventures which <UEcr
greatly in the various versions, but the outcome of whidi is that
he becomes a skilful and valiant knight and regains tbe herila|a
of his father.
This, the Perceval story proper, has been recognised hf
scholars as a variant of a widespread folk-tale theme, designated
by J. C. von Hahn as the Aryan Expulsion and Return formula,
which counts among its representatives such heroes as PerseOi
Cyrus, Romulus and Remus, Siegfried, and, as Alfred Nutt has
pointed out, Arthur himself. This particular variant appears to
be of British-Celtic origin, and the most faithful representative
of the original tale b now very generally held to be tbe En^ih
Syr Percy9dU of Calles, a poem preserved in tiie TlionitM
manuscript. Here the hero is nephew to Arthur on tiie niMber^
side, and his father, of the same name as himself, is a vaUaat
knight of the court. A noticeable feature of the stoiy is the
uncertainty as to the hero's parentage; the mother b ^ways t
lady of rank, a queen in her own right, or sbter of kings (as t
rule of the Grail kings) ; but the father's rank varies, be b never
a king, more often merely a valiant knight, and in no instance
cloes he appear to be of equal rank with hb wife. TUi
distinguishes the story from that of Lancelot, with which aom
modern scholars have been inclined to identify it; for Lancelot^
parentage b never in doubt, he isfisdu roi.
The connexion of the story with Arthur and hb court brou^
about a speedy and more important development, tbe pROtt
steps of which are not yet dear: Perceval became the hero of the
Grail quest, in this ousting Gawain, to whom the adventure
originally belonged, and the Perceval became merged in tbe Gra3
tradition. Of the Perceval-Grail romances the oldest from the
point of view of manuscript preservation b the PtrctMi or
Conte dd Graal of Chr6t ien de Troyes. Two manuscripts, indeed,
the British Museum and Mons texts, preserve a fragment rdating
the birth and infancy of the hero, which appears to repfeaeat
the source at the root alike of Chretien and of the German
Parzival, but it is only a fragment, and so far no more of tbe poem
has been discovered. Chretien left his poem unfinbhed, and «e
do not know how he intended to complete the adventures of Us
hero; but those writers who undertook the task, Wauchier da
Denain, Gerbert de Montreuil and Mancssier. carried it out with
such variety of detail, and such a bewildering indifference to
Chretien's version, that it seems practically certain that there
must have been, previous to Chretien's work, more than ooa
poem dealing with the same theme. The German poet, Wolfiaa
von Eschenbach, whose Parzival in parts closely agrees with tbe
Perceval and who was long held to be a mere translator of Chrflki^
PERCEVAL, S.— PERCH
dBBiwidclyl>lbeKttio(()CUiiUiy, Re 0m ui introduclioa, veamn 'a the poem <■( Widfnm von EtchcDbach, tbonch Uie
■ wUch the advcetiina of lite [alba, bcre ■ pnncc a[ Anjou, Gull, ol course, is repiocnied in ihe [onn ol the Chiistiia
tn nlBtcd, B cottdmoQ, in which (he Swu-Koi^t, Lohengnn, rcDc, dM u the jewel UJitmui ol Ihe PanivQl; but the psycho-
k BHdc Paoinl'i toa, he iqmsenli Ihe mlubituiLi of Ihe logical mdiDg oj Ibc hero'i chUaiilcTi the distinctive Dole of
Cnil CMtke ai Temidus (TsnpIaseDj ; ud makatbeCrulilieU vod Eschenbach's vennn, baa been idipled by Wagnei wilh
aitaac Finally, he repioacbei Chiftica wilh having lold the maivdloui skill, and his[rictunoC the buo'imeatal arid spiritual
Kory amiia, wboiaa KJoC, the PiDvcn$al, wbote venlbn WoUiam devdopncat. Irom atrene ^mplkily la the ■iidam botn a[
vaa loaning, had told II angbt from beginning to end. It is perfect charily, ii most MriluDg and impcenive.
cBlain that Geibcrt knew, and used, a Ptraval which, it not
Kint'a poem, mtot have be«B dotcly akin lo it, as he loo makes
the SwiA-Ruifht a dtKtndaot of ibe Crul hero. The probability
Kenii to be that the eariieit Perccvil-Gnil roraince «bj com-
poaed a£ Feccamp. and was coioddeot with the uan^ormaiion.
"aini-Sttng legend, of the on^nally
X Grail into a Christian reLic^ and
0£ teas at the root of ail subsequent
*, we have alia two prose Perceval romances.
IIk niatiTepavtJDii of which haa Dot yel been salisfactoriLy deter'
' Didot " (fKBB iu original poaaesBor-U . Finnin-Didot) , DOW in the
SUiiitUqae Nationak, Palis, the otber, and much superior leM,
k the Sibtiotco Eslense, Modena. In both cues the romaiKe
Uom the prow leodoinc of Bonoo'i Jurfli of Arimaliea
sad UoUh, and jncedci » Itirl Arlui, thus forming part of
aiuu^ihli qrde. The text shows a curious mingling of sources;
Ik nl pomitive. Perceval story, the EHftKca, is omitted; he PEBCEVUt IPUICEK (i;«»-i8ij), prime minister of Eog-
«Bn V in Us father's house and goes lo court at his wish, land from 1809 la iSii, second son of Jolin, ind earl of Egmont,
l^B. however, stoiia which certainly derive from an early nt bom in Audley Square, tondon, on the tsl of Novonbet
e introduced, and there are teferenca 1701. He was educated at Harrow and at Trinity CoU^e,
geof tbcprac Lanidtl and of CbrEtien's CUmbridge. andns called to Ihe bar at LinttJo's Ion- In ijS6.
pan. IDC nmancc la probably a somewhat late, and not A very able speech in connexion with a famous forgtty case
ny ikiUnI, rompilslioa. The other prose romance, Ihe having drawn allenlion to his lalenls. his success sru from that
■-■ ia decidadly superior in literary form, but here too lime rapid, he was soon regarded M Ihe leading counsel on the
— ■—" ' -" — ■ new elements. The Enjanai Midland dnMit, and in 1J06 became s K.C Entering p«rlia-
E parallels wilh the German meni for Norlhamplan In April ol that year, he diatingiiithed
e Denain and with Gerbert, while himself by his speeches in sui^iort of the adminif tntioa of Pitt.
"' '"""" It is not improbable in 1801, oo the formation of Ihe Addinglon administiMioo, b«
working over of the was appointed tolidlor-general, and in iSoi he became ttUoney-
I. and that in its later shape it was generaL An ardent appautnt of Catholic Emancipation, be
A (a totm, and did »l om Ume foroi, the Q^ section delivered in i8oj 1 speech on the subject which helped 10 ffve
* the cydle redaitioo of the Arthurian prose romance^ being the deathblow to the Grenville tdminiatralion, upon which be
Un^ed bmi thia postion by the Galahad QMt. It is a became chancellor of the exchequer under the duke of Portland,
odoH fact that the printed editions always give it in eonjunc- whom in 1809 he succeeded in the prendership. Nolwithstand-
tiea with tlna latter and that the two have also been preserved jog thi* he had the aaistance in the cxbinet of no statesman
kftthB in a Weish manuscript translation. We also possess of the fiiit rank, he succeeded in retaining office till be waa ahot
k oac of the spoiled ilsHnap a Welsh version of Ihe tale, by a man named Bellingham, a bankrupt with a grievance, who
/^nbr, UK ff Emx. This appears lo be » free rendering ol had vainly applied to him lor redress, in the lobby of Ibe House
tk idientuRS foosdln Cbr<tien combined with inddenl^ of Commonsontheiithof May iSii. BeUinghamwucertainly
*iwn fiom Weltb tradition. This was at one lime cLiimed u insane, but Ibe plea wna set aside and he was hangid. Perceval
tk original ioarcc el al the Perceval rom»nea, but this theory ^b) a vigorous debater, spedally exceUing in replies, in which
an« he maintained In face of the fact that the writer ^ves in his Iborough mastery of all the details of his subject gave him
■t ptace lAat is practically a lileisl Innslnlion of Chrftien's a great advantage. He married in i;aa and had six sons and
tat ia a pnssace which there is strong reason to believe was six daughters; one ol the latter married Spencer Horatio Walpole
tnvwd by CkfticD fcom an earlier poem. In order ol lime (d. iBa8), home secretary, and their son Sir Spencer Walpole,
Ae Pninf pnbably rank* latest In the series of Perccvid the well-known historian, published sn eictUent biography of
itaiiii 1 1. wUchrbowever, does not detract from iti inlereil a> Perceval in 1K74.
■ peaable rqRacatatlvt of genuine Welsh tndltloiu, unknown See alio P. Treberae. Sfnaf Pircaal {1909).
Mather mitcn. PSSEH (through Fr. Irom Lat. ftrca. Or. rfpoi; the lajt
Ike tbIdo and teterot of Ihe Perceval romances stand very word is coimected with n^oit, dark.cakiund, spotted), ■
Ifek set akoe (or their intrinsic merit, though that i> con- fresh-water fish {Pma fimiatiiis), generally distributed over
^, . . _ ... ^.^ Paaial, though not his best poem, Is a Europe, northern Asia and North America, and 10 well known
sn of his work, and von Eschenbach's PanivaS, as to have been selected for the type of an entire family of qjlny-
--^-- ^ ^_._-it in style, is by fsr the most humanly interest- rayed fishes, Ihe Perddae, which is represented in European
^ sod at the same time, moat deeply spirilual, of the GraQ fresfa-waten by several other fishes sudi ai the pope {Aarina
^~ ' >t sko for the interest of the subject matter. Tbe ctntna) and Ibe pike-perch (Ijidapfrca). It inhabitl rivets as
' ' -tale, the Grail problem well as lakes.- but thrives best in waters with 1 depth of Dot
dieval literature; the two less than 3 ft.; in large deep kkes it frequently descends to
. lique charm and interest, depths of so Fathoms and more. It occurs in Scandinavia as
T^ has been pncttcaUy proved by the extraordinary success far north ai Ibe 6glh parallel, but does not extend to TccLmd
I 4U has atloded Sicbaid Wagner's dramatic re-lclling of oranyof tbeislandsnorthof Europe, lati- "-- '- ~-
' tc I^ad in b FanffaL The Immediate x
e of thii an altitude of 4o» ft
'3+
TSe ihapc of Eti body Ii vcQ proponloncd,
Uonl occur, Kmc tpKuiKDS being ainguL&rly high-backed, odien
low u>d long-bodiHl, tomctinia luch vniutiou are lool, ind
Agutu and other natuialisli al one lime thought it possible la
distinguish two spedcs of the common peich of Europe, there
art not even auffident groundi, however, lor Kpanting ipeofi-
oUly the NDTth-AzDerican form, whkh in the majority of ichihyo-
lojjcal works is deacribed as Ptrca JtiHictiu The briUiai ' '
atiikiDg colours of the perch render it rasily rtcognieabii
at a dialasce. A rich greeiush-brown with goldeu teflectiooa
cavers Ilie back aud sides, which are ainainented with five
I laigi black spot occupies t
The Perch, FacafmalSa.
membrane between the bul iplnei ti the dorsal fin; and the
veclral, uui Ind lower pan of the caudal are bright ver-
milion. In the luge peaiy lalus of north Geimany a beautiful
variety is not unconinion, in which the golden tinge prevails,
as in a gold£sh.
The perch is strictly ramivoroua and tnotl voradous; it
wanders about in small shoals within a c«nain district, playing
Bad havoc among small fishes, and is therefore not to b« toler-
ated in waters where valuable fry Is cultivated. Perch of thm
poimds in weight are not infrequently caught in suitable local-
ities, one' of five would now be regarded as an extraordinarily
large ^>ecimen, although in older works we read of individuals
exceeding even that weighL
Perch are good, wholesome food, and highly esteemod in inland
countries where marine fish can be obtained only with difficulty-
Tbe nearly allied pike-perch is one of the best European food-
fishes. The perch ia exceedingly prolific; it bcgliis to spawiL-
nheB three years old, in April or in the first half of May, deposit-
ing the ova, which are united by a viscid matter in lengtbened or
net-ahaped hands, on water plants.
PBRCU (ihiDugh Fr. frrclu from Lat. prrlia, a pole or rod
usedformeasuTemenI),'absr or rod used for various purposd, as
which a bird may rest, or for a pole which joins the bock with
the fore part of a wagon or other four-wheeled vehicle. As a
term of linear measurement, " perch," also " rod " or " pole,"
*i6t ft., $\ yds.; of superficial arcB,^joi sq. yds.; ]6o perches
petth in length by i) ft. in breadth and i ft. in thickness.
PBRCHE, a region of northern France titending over the
departments of Ome, Eure, Eure-et-Loir and Siitht. Its
boundariH an Nonnandy on the N. and W.,.Ma;ne gn the S.W.,
VendAmois and DuiMs on the S., Beauce on the E. and Thime-
tal) on the N.E. The greater part of the district ia occupied
hy a semicircle of heights (from 650 to looofi. inhrlghi) stretch-
ing from Moulins-la-Marche on the north-west to Montmirail
on the south; within the basin formed thereby the shape of which
is dcEned by the Huisne, an affluent of the Sarthe, lie the chief
towns— MortagncNogent-le-Rotrou and BcUtme. Stock-raising
and dsiiy-farming are flourishing in the Ferche, which is famous
for the pnxiuclion of a breed of large and powerful horses.
Cider-apples and pears are gn>wn throughout the district. In
the middle ages the Perche constituted a countship of which
Cotbon, Mortagne and Kogent-lc-Rotrou were successively the
capitali. Under the ancin rlpmt it farmed, together with
Maine, a gprneratrntnl of which Mortagne was the-carHtat.
PBRCIVAU JAMES GATES (i7gj-iSj6), American poet,
philologist and geologist, was bom in Kensington parish, Berlin,
Conneqicul, on tbe ijth of Scptembs- 1795. He gnduated
PERCH— PERCY (FAMILY)
at Yale in iSi s, and in 1810 took the degice of U.D^ ■
practice in Berlin. He contributed vene to the 1
a semi-weekly paper, founded at New Havoi
In Ibis first appeared his best-known poem," ^^i«
which reflects hia chronic melancholy, due doubtlea to
it was begun in iSid and finished in iSso, after he ha
made two attempts on his own life. In iSsj Ferciv
an editor of the CewialKiil HtraU at New Haven, ai
at West Point, and an inspector of recruits at the Q
(Uass.) Navy Yxrd He prqiared (1816-igji) ai
edition of Malle-Brun'a Cengrapky {published t&n
iS];-iSi9 read the manuscnpls and prool-shcdt of
Dutwnary, giving special attention 10 scientific worda.
1840, with Professor Charles U Shepard (1804-1SM)
a geological survey of Connecticut, bil lUfwt (1S4:
great learning and much palicnt rtseatdi. In iSj4 1
state geologist of Wisconsin, and in 1855 published m
dI hit Xcparl. the second he had neariy completed al
□f hit death, on the imdolMay 1S56, at Haicl Grcd, 1
Srt bit Podtcal Works (1 vtAt., BoBon, iSw), withaU
ikctch by L. W. Fitch; and Juliu. H, Wonl, L./1 oad
Jamu auti Pircaat (BoBon, 1866).
PERCY (FauLv). This family, whose deeds are to |
in English history, mt founded by William de Perd
1006), a foUower of (he Conqueror, who bestowed
great fief in Yorkshire and LincoUuhiTC. The register •
Abbey, which he founded anew, and in later days th
were responsible for the fabulous origin and pedigi
family which ate still current. By Emma, daughter o
Port, a great Hampshire baron, William was father
ions, of whom Alan the eldest succeeded him. Hia
William was the last of the house in the direct line, an
tislcis and coheiresses, Maud countesi of Warwick,
childless, and Agnes. Agnes de Pcrci had married
styled " brolber of the queen " (U, Adtlia of Louva
wife of Henry I.), whose legitimacy has been quesli
from this marriage descended the second house of Per
name it assumed), till its own extinction in the ^la^
ceoturie* later [1670). By it was brought into the 1
great Fetworth estate in Sussex, which Josceline had
from hit slstei, who was holding Arundel and its fief.
Richard (c. ii;o-ti44) and Richard's nephew WiUiaa
ii4S) ""0 among the barons who rose in aims agai
but the btter made hit peace with Henry UL, am
lands restored to him. Richard de Percy was one of cl
five barons appointed to enforce the observance <
Carta.
Tbe next important member of the family it WUiam'!
Henry de Percy (i. 1171-1315), whom Edward I., after I
tian of John Baliot, appointed governor of Galloway,
was one of his most active agents in the subjugation o
till the success of Rabert Bruce drove him out oC '
Castle, and made him withdraw hito England. He was
by Edward U. with the barren title of earl of Carrick
to be forfeited by the Scottish hero; and (be tame king
him governor of (he cutlet o( Bamburgh and Sci
But in 1309 he himself made hit potilion strong in (b
England by purchasing landi from Anthony Bek,
Durham, among which was the honour of Alnwick, th(
Df the fan
. The 1
kshiie, and iheir conne
Northumberland dates from this acquisition. Hci
another Henry (c iisip-jjsi), took part in the leagi
Edward II.'s favourites (he Despensets, was in fa^
Edward UI., and obtained from Edward Baliol a
Scotland grants of Lochmaben, Aimandale and y.
which he surrendered to the English king for the <
constablcship of Jedburgh, or Jedworth, with the fore
worth and tome neighbouring towns. A few years late
recompense of the tinproBtaUe gift of Baliol, a gn
.marka a year wu mode to Urn out of the old cuttotni al
PERCY (HOTSPUR)
i
aad in 1346 be did splendid service to his sovereign by defeating
and takinc prisoner David II., king of Scotland, at the battle of
Neville's Cross.
To him succeeded another Henry Percy (1322-1368), a feudal
binm like his predecessors, who fought at Cr^ during his
father's lifetime and whose brother Thomas Percy (1333-1369)
was bisbap of Norwich from 1356-1369. The next head of the
Percys was Henry's son, another Henry, who was made carl
of Northumberland at the coronation of Richard II., and whose
yo^Dgtr brother Thomas (d. 1403) was created carl of Worcester
in 1397. The xst earl of Northumberland, father of the famous
Hot^nir, Sir Henry Percy iq.v.), was killed at Bramham Moor
ia 140S, while in arms against the king,, and his title and estates
were forfeited. But, by an act no less gracious than politic,
Henry V. restored them in 1414 to this earl's grandson, Henry
(i|94-z455)« ^ben a prisoner with the Scots, whose liberation
be had no cUflBcuIty in procuring from the duke of Albany during
tlw time of James I.'s captivity. From that day the loyalty
of the family to the house of Lancaster wa? steadfast and
udeviating. The 2iid earl died fighting for Henry VI. at
(ke fiist battle of St Albans in 1455; the 3rd, Henry (142 1-
1461), was slain on the bloody field of Towton; the 4lh,
Hen^ (1446-1489), was killed in quelling an insurrection in the
tine of Henry VU. So strong was the Lancastrian feeling of
the fomfly that even Sir Ralph Percy {xiyt-i^f^i), a brother
of the earl who fell at Towton, though he had actually submitted
once to Edward IV., turned again, and when he fell at Hedgley
Moor m Apal 1464 consoled himself with the thought that he
hid, as he phrased it, " saved the bird in his bosom."
No wonder, then, that in Edward IV.'s da>'s the title and
otates of the family were 'for a time taken away and given to
}ohn Neville Lord Montagu, brother of Warwick the king-maker,
kt the north of En^and was so accustomed to the rule of the
Pitrcys that in a few years Edward saw the necessity of restoring
them, and did so even at the cost of aUenating stiU further the
powerful family of the Nevilles, whawere then already on the
point of rebellion.
A crisb occurred in the fortunes of the famOy in the reign of
Bemy VIIL on ihe death of Henry, the 6th earl (c. 1502-
1SJ7), whose brothers Sir Thomas and Sir Ingelram Percy,
Bodi against his will, had taken part in the great insurrection
oDed the Pilgrimage of Grace. A thriftless man, of whom it is
lecQided that in. his youth he was smitten with the charms of
Aone Boleyn, but was forced to give her up and marry a woman
he did not love, he died chOdless, after selling many of the family
estates and granting the others to the king. The title was
forfeited on his death, and was granted by Edward VI. to tKe
ambitious John Dudley^ earl of Warwick, who was attainted
in the succeeding reign. It was restored in the days of Queen
Mary to Thomas Percy (1528-1372), a nephew of the 6th earl,
who, being a stanch Roman Catholic, was one of the three
carls who took the lead in the celebrated rising of 1572, and was
beheaded at York. His brother Henry (c. 1532-1585). ^ho
wccecded him, was no less unhappy. Involved in Throg-
BWfton's conspiracy, he was committed to the Tower of London,
aad was npposed to have shot himself in bed with a pistol
band beside him; but there were grave suspicions that it had
been discharged by another hand. His son, Henry (1567-1632),
the next eari, suffered like his two predecessors for his attachment
to the religion of his forefathers. The Crown lawyers sought
in vain to implicate him in the Gunpowder Plot, but he was
imprisoQed for fifteen years in the Tower and compelled to pay
t fine of £3o,ooa Algernon (1602-1668), the soir who next
wrceeded, was a parliamentary general in the Civil War. At
kq^th, in 1670, the male line of this illustrious family became
otinct, at least in the direct line, about five hundred years after
the marriage of Agnes de Perd with Josceline of Louvain.
The representation of the earlier Percys had passed away
through the daughters of Earl Thomas, beheaded m 1572, but
hit earidora of Northumberland (created anew for him m 1557)
had passed to his brother Henry, under a special remainder,
ttd appears to have become cxtina in 1670, though persistently
135
claimed by James Percy. " the trunk-maker. " The last eari's
daughter Elizabeth, a great heiress, was mother by Charies
Sesrmour, 6th duke of Somerset, of Algernon, 7th duke, who was
summoned (in error) as Lord Percy in 1722 and created earl of
Northumberland in 1749. On the duke's death in 1750 his
earldom of Northumberland passed under a special remainder,
with the main inheritance of the Percys, to Sir Hugh Smithson,
bart. (17 1 5-1 786), who had married his daughter and eventual
heiress in 1740, and was created duke of Northumberland and
Earl Percy m 1766. From this marriage descends, the present
ducal house, which bears the name of Percy m lieu of Smithson,
and owns vast estates in Northumberland.
Alnwick C^tle, their chief seat, where much state is still kept
up, has been described by Mr Clark as " probably the finest
extant example of a Norman castle of this type, having an open
keep and a complete enceinte." It had been hardly occupied
and in decay for some two centuries when the present family
succeeded to it, but was restored by them to its former ^lendour
between 1750 and 1786. " Princely Petworth," however, the
scat of the later Percys, with their ancient Sussex estates and
those in Yorkshire (Leconfield) and Cumberland (Cockermouth),
all passed away in 1750 with the earldom of Egremont and
barony of Cockermouth to Charles Wyndham, nephew of the
7th duke of Somerset, and these estates are now held by Lord
Leconfieldo The actual representation in blood of the later
Percys (i^. from 1572) passed in 1865, on the death of the
4th duke, to the dukes of Atholl, who in virtue of it are Lords
Percy, under the writ of 1722, the oldest of the family titles now
remaimng. The ancient London residence of the Percys,
Northumberlxuid House, Charing Cross, was rem3ve(| to make
way for Northumberland Avenue. Above it stood the Percy
crest, a (blue) lion with stiffly extended tail; but the famous badge-
of the house was the white crescent or half moon — " the Half-
Moone shining all soe faire *' of " the Northern Rising " ballad —
with a pair of manacles. Their coat of arms was a blue lion
rampart on a yellow ground — " Jaune o un bleu lyon rampart "
of the Carlaverock roll, stated, but wrongly, to have been
derived from the dukes of Louvain and Brabant. With it they
quartered the " Luces " coat of the Lucys of Cockermouth after
succeeding to their estates, whence the. lines in The Battle of
Otterhournex —
" The Lucetts and the Cr^ssaunts both.
The Skotts fought them agayne."
See E. B. De Fonblanque, Annals of the House of Percy (1887),
and G. Brenan, History of the House of Percy (edited by W. A.
Lindsay, 1902), both somewhat adulatory and needing critical
revision; Tate, History of Almnch (1866); Hartshome's paper on
the Percys and their Castles in the Newcastle volume of the ArckaeO'
logical InstUute (1852) , E. A. Freeman, " The Percy Castles " (1875)
in English Towns and Districts ^ G. T. Clark. Medieval Military
Architecture {1884) ; G. E.C(okayne), Complete Peerage ii8g$), vol. vi. ;
Bishop Percy, Northumberland Household Book. See also the
article Northumberland, Earls and Dukes of. (J. Ga.; J. H. R.)
PERCY. SIR HENRY, called Hotspur (1364-1403), eldest son
of Henry, xst earl of Northumberland, was born on the 20th
of March 1364. He saw active service when he was fourteen
at the siege of Berwick. Six years later he was associated with
his father in the wardenship of the eastern march of Scotland,
and Jiis zeal in border warfare won. the name of Hotspur for
him from his opponents. In 1386 he was sent to Calais, and
raided French territory, but was shortly afterwards recalled
to defend England against a naval, attack by France. In
popular story and ballad he is known as one of the heroes of
Ottcrbum or Chevy Chase, which is the subject of one of the
most stirring recitals of Froissart. In the summer of 1388 the
Scots invaded England by way of Carlisle, sending a small body
under the earls of- Douglas, Mar and Moray to invade Northum-
berland. The earl of Northumberland remained at Alnwick,
but sent his sons Sir Henry and Sir Ralph against the enemy
In hand-to-hand fighting before the walls of Newcastle, Douglas
IS said to have won Sir Henry's pennon, which he swore to fix
upon the walls of Dalkeith. The Scots then retreated to Otter-
burn, where Percy, who was bent on recovering his pennon,
attadced them on a fine August evening in 1388. Dou^as was
136
lUn in the bMtlt, though dm, u b tUted by WaUiaghua, by
Pocy's luuid; Hmiy Percy wu o^Kured by Sit Jgho UoDI-
gomiry, »nii hia broibei Rilph by Sir John MuweU. HiMfliut
wu reieued on the payment of t heavy ruuom, to which
RJcbaid II- contributed £3000, mul in the autumn hi> (am u
nrden of Carlisle and ihe Weil Uarch wai eneaded to five
yeaf^ In 1309 tOEetber with liis father 1» joined Henry of
liin—f" Heniy IV. gave the cbai^ of ttie Weit Uaich to
Nonhumbcrland, while Meniy Percy received the castka 'of
Bimburgh, Roxburgh and Berwick, and the wardcnihip of the
East Haich, with a salary of £joooin peace timeaod jii.oooin
war. During the fiiat year of Henry'a reign flotipui further
WBi appointed justiciar of ^Jortb Wales arid constable of the
castles of Chesler, Flint, CoDway, Denbigh and Camaivoa.
Henry also gave him (1 grant of the island of Anglesey, with the
cutle of Beaumaris. WDliain and Rtei ap Tudor captured
Conway Castle on the ist of AptQ 1401, and Percy in company
with the prince of Walei set out to recavu Ihs place, Percy
providing the funds. In May he reported to the king the
padhcation of Merioneth and Csmanon, and before the end
of (he month Clonway was luirendoed to bim. Meanwhile he
wrote demanding aneara of pay, irilh the threat of resignation
il the money woe not loilhcoming, but tlic king intimated
that the loss of Conway had bwodue lo.liI)ugIigeDCE,andonIy
■enl part of the money. He had the same difficulty in obtaining
money for his northern charge that he had experiencol in
Wales.' Anglesey was taken from him, and be wa* deprived of
Roxburgh Castle in favour of hii rival, tfie eari of Westmorland.
The Scots again invaded England in the autumn of 1402, fieadcd
by the earl of Douglaa and Murdoch Stewart, son of the duke
ct Albany. Northumberland and Hotspur barred their way at
MUlheld, near Woolcr, and the Scots were compelled to fi^t
at Humbledon, or Homildon Hill, on the 14th of September.
Tbe English archels were provid^ with a good target in the
manei of the Scottish q»nnen, and Hot^iur was restrained
from f barging by his ally, George Dunbar, earl of March. The
Scottish army was almost destroyed, while the Eo^ish loM Is
aaid to hove been five men. Disputes with the king aroieover
(he di^iDA^ of the Scottish prisoners. Percy insisting on his right
(0 bold Dougbs as his personal prisoner, and Le was summoned
10 court to eipliin. II is related that when he arrived Henry
■iked for Douglas, and Hotspur demanded in return that
his brother-in-law, Edmund Mortimer, should be allowed (o
ransom himsell from Owen Clendower, with whom he wss a
prisoner. High words followed, in the course of which Henry
called Percy a traitor, struck him on the face, and drew hil
twoid on him, Percy is said to have answered (his defiance
wilb the words, " Not here, but on the Geld." This was late
in 1401, and in 1403 Hotspur Issued a procUmation in Cbeshin
Matiag that Richard II. was alive, aod summoning the Inhabi-
tanu to his standard. He made common cauK with his prisoner
Douglas, and marched south to join force* with Clendowet,
who was now reconciled with MottioiH. He wa* reialorad
by hi) uncle Thomas, eail of WorcatD, wbo, although steward
(o the household of the prince of Walts, Jnned his [ainily in
rdxllion. The mythical Richard IL wu heard of no mote, and
Peicy made himself the chamjHon of (he youog oil of Maith.
When he arrived a( the Castle Foregate, Shrewsbury, early on
(he Jtst of July, and demanded provisions, he found tbe V
:e him. He retired in the direction at
Whitchurch, aiul awaited (he c ,
Shrewsbury. After a long parley, in which a (ruce of two days
was even said to have heea agreed on, (he Scottish eaH of
March, Eghting on the royaLlide, forced on the battle in (he
af(einoon, the royal right being commanded by the prince of
'Tbr diiBtiflfacIlDn of (he Percys seemi to have been chiefly
due to thF money queuion. Sir J. H. Itsmuy (LuuoUir end
-^^^ — I 1^^ -L- i.r — -L- J ^1,750. which n
w£ himKirt'ii
open nbrilico.
llti^^Uivrd
110 the leal relations betwm tbe Perryi
Ihi 6lh of July I40J Henry Pscy was ia
Worceattr,
d t*o day*
nu (eat by
leratloa itr
favourahfe
ibly greatly
pioval and
y after the
i riding off
through (he
Lbe 3rd thai
becoovin-
rtluge (J(i-
■acktoback
PERDICCAS— PfeRE DAVID'S DEER
beahb, fived until tht 30th of September 18x1. Both
buikd in the tnmsept which Percy added to Dromore
CathediaL
Dr Percy's fixst woric was a translation from a Portuguese
manascript of a Chinese story, published in 1761. Two years
kter he published Fiwe Pieces of Runic Poetry^ trandaUd from
the Idandic In 1763 he edited the earl of Surrey's poems with
an essay <»i early blank verse, translated the Song of Solomon,
and published a key to the New Testament. His Northern
AfOiqmties (1770) is a translation from the French of Paul Henri
Mallet. His reprint of The Household Book of the Earl ofNorthum-
heHamd in 15x2 \& of the greatest value for the illustrations of
domestic life in England at that i>eriod. But these works are
of little estimation when compared with the Rdiques of Ancient
Enf^iA Poetry (1765). This was based on an old manuscript
ooUectioo of poetry, rescued by Percy in Humphrey Pitt's house
at Shifnal, Shropshire, from Uie hands of the housemaid who
was about to light the fire with it. The manuscript was edited
in its complete fonn by J. W. Hales and F. J. Fumivall
ia 1867-1868.
See A. C C Gamaen. Ptrty: Prdate and Poet (1908). The
Rdiqaes has been edited by various hands, notably by H. B. Wheat*
ley (1876). The fourth edition was by Percy's nephew, Thomas
Percy (1768-1808}, himself a writer of verse.
PBHDICCAS, the name of three kings of Macedonia, who
reigned respectively c. 700 B.C., c. 454-413 B.C., and 364-359
BjC, axid <A one of Alexander the Great's generals, son of Orontes,
A dcacendar.t of the independent princes of the province of
Ocestis. The last named distinguished himself at the conquest
of T1id>es (335 BX.), and held an important command in the
Indian «^*«p»«'e"* of Alexander. In the settlement made after
Alexander's death (^^i) it was finally agreed that Philip Arrhi-
dacua, an insane son of the great Philip, and Roxana's unborn
chfld (If a son) shoukl be recognized as joint kings, Perdiccas
being af^xilnted, according to one account, guardian and regent,
according to another, chiliarch under Craterus. He soon showed
himsdf intolerant of any rivals, and acting in the name of the
two kings (for Roxana gave birth to a son, Alexander IV.)
loo^t to hold the empire together under his own hand. His
most loyal supporter was* Eumenes, governor of Cappadocia
and Pai^ilagonia. These provinces had not yet been conquered
by the Macedonians, and Antigonus (governor of Phrygia,
Lyda and Pamphylia) refused to undertake the task at the
command ci Perdiccas. Having been summoned to the royal
presence to stand his trial for disobedience, Antigonus fled to
Eorope and entered into alliance with Antipater, Craterus and
Ptolemy, the son of Lagus. Perdiccas, leaving the war in Asia
Minor to Etmienes, marched to attack Ptolemy in Egypt. He
reached Pdtisium, but failed to cross the Nile. A mutiny
brdke out amongst the troops, disheartened by failure and
cxa^wrated by hh severity, and Perdiccas was assassinated by
tome of his officers (321). (E. R. B.)
See MacEDcmiAif EMnas.
FEREDA* iOSk MARfA DB (x 833-1906), one of the most
distinguished of modem Spanish novelists, was bom at Polanco
near Santander on the 6th of February 1833. He was educated
at the Instituto C&ntabro of Santander, whence he went in
1852 to Madrid, where he studied with the vague purpose of
entering' the artillery corps. Abandoning this design after
three years' trial, he returned home and began his literary career
by contributing articles to a local journal, La Abtja montaHesa
ia 1858. He also wrote much in a weekly paper. El Tto Cayetdn,
and in 1864 he collected his powerful realistic sketches of local life
and manners under the title of Escenas montaHesas. Pereda
foo^t against the revolution of x868 in El Tio Cayetdn^ writing
the new^Mper almost single-handed. In 1871 he was elected as
the (}arlist dqmty for C^bufmiga. In this same year he pub-
fiibed a second series of Escenas numtafUsas under the title of
TipM y paiuges\ and in 1876 appeared Bocetos al temple,
three tales, in one of whidi the author describes his disenchanting
pofitkal experiences. The Tipos trashumantes belongs to the
year 1877, as does £f Busy sueUo, which was intended as a reply
137
to the thesis of Balzac's work, Les Petites mistres de lavie con-
jugate. More and more pessimistic as to the political future
of his country, Pereda took occasion in Don Consalo Gonsdiez
de la Consalera (1879) to ridicule the Revolution as he had seen
it at work, and to pour scorn upon the nouveaux riches wl^o
exploited Liberab'sm for their personal ends. Two novels by
his friend P^rez Gald6s, DoHa Perfecta and dorian drew from
Pereda a reply, De Tal polo tal astUla (1880), in which he endea*
vours to show that tolerance in religious matters is disastrous
alike to nations and to individuals. The Esbotos y rasguHos
( 1 881) is of lighter material, and is less attractive than El Saboe
de la Tierruca (1882), a striking piece of landscape which won
immediate appreciation. New ground was broken in Pedro
Sdncha (1883), where Pereda leaves his native province to
portray the disillusion of a sincere enthusiast who has plunged
into the political life of the capitaL Percda's masterpiece is
Solilexa (1884), a vigorous rendering of marine life by an artist
who perceives and admires. the daily heroisms of his fisher-folk.
It hsA often been alleged against the author that he confines
himself to provincial life, to lowly personages and to unrefined
subjects, and no doubt an anxiety to clear himself from this
absurd reproach led him to attempt a description of society at
the capitd in La Montdlvcs (1888), which is certainly the least
interesting of his performances. In La Puchera (1889) he
returned to the marine subjects which he knew and loved best.
Again, in Peiias arriba (1895), the love of country life is mani-
fested in the masterly contrast between the healthy, moral
labour of the fields and the corrupt, squalid life of cities.
Pereda's fame was now established; the statutes of the Spanish
Academy, which require members to reside at Madrid, were
suspended in his favour (1896). But his literary career was
over. The tragic death of his eldest son, the disastrous cam-
paign in Cuba and the Philippines, darkened his closing years,
and his health failed long before his death at Polanco on the
xst of March 1906.
Pereda belongs to the native realistic school of Spain, which,
founded by the unknown author of LazariUo de Tormes, was
continued by Meteo AlemAn, Cervantes, C^evedo, Castillo
Sol6rzano and many others. With the single exception of
Cervantes, however, the picaresque writers are almost entirely
wanting in the spirit of generous sympathy and tenderness
which constitutes a great part of Percda's charm. His realism
is purely Spanish, as remote from Zola's moroseness as from
the graceful sentimentality of Pierre LotL Few 19th-century
writers possessed the virile temperament of Pereda, and, with
the single exception of Tolstoy, none kept a moral end more
steadily in view. This didactic tendency imquestionably
injures his effects. Moreover, his grim satire occasionally
degenerates into somewhat truculent caricature, and the exces-
sive use of dialect and technical terms (which caused him to
supply Sotileza with a brief vocabulary) is a grave artistic
blemish. But he saw, knew, tinderstood character; he created
not only types, but living personages, such as Andres, Cleto
and Muergo in Sotileza, Pedro Juan and Pilara in La Puchera;
and he personified the tumult and calm of the sea with more
power than Victor Hugo displayed in Les Travailleurs dc la
mer. His descriptive powers were of the highest order, and
his style, pure of all affectations and embellishments, is of singular
force and suppleness. With all bis limitations, he was as
original a genius as Spain produced during the 19th century.
U. F-K.)
PfiRB DAVID'S DEER, the mi-lou of the Chinese, an aberrant
and strangely mule-like deer iqv.), the first evidence of whose
existence was made known in Europe by the Abb^ (then Pere)
David, who in 1865 obtained the skin of a specimen from the
herd kept at that time In the imperial park at Pekin. This
skin, with the skull and antlers, was sent to Paris, where it was
described in 1866 by Professor Milne-Edwards. In lacking a brow-
tine, and dividing in a regular fork -like manner some distance
above the burr, the Icrge and cylindrical antlers of this species
conform to the general structural t>'pe characteristic of the
American deer. The front prong of the main fork, however^
138
PEREGRINUS PROTEUS— PEREYASLAVI.
curves somewhat forward and again divides at least once; while
the bind prong is of great length undivided, and directed back-
wards in a manner found in no other deer« As regards general
form, the most distinctive feature is the great relative length
of the tail, which reaches the hocks, and is donkey-like rather
than deer-like in iorm. The head is long and narrow, with a
prominent ridge for the support of the antlers, moderate-sized
ears, and a narrow and pointed muzzle. A gland and tuft are
present on the skin of the outer side of the upper part of the
hind cannon-bone; but, unlike American deer, there is no gland
on the inner side of the hock. Another feature by which this
spedes differs from the American deer is the conformation of
the bones of the lower part of the fore-leg, which have the same
structure as in the red deer group. The coat is of moderate
length, but the hair on the neck and throat of the old sugs is
elongated to form a mane and fringe. Although new-bom
fawns are spotted, the adults are in the main uniformly coloured;
the general tint of the coat at all seasons being reddish tawny
with a more or less marked tendency to grey. It has been
noticed at Wobum Abbey that the antlers are shed and replaced
twice a year.
The true home of this deer has never been ascertained, and
probably never will be; all the few known specimens now living
being kept in confinement— the great majority in the duke of
Bedford's park at Wobum, Bedfordshire. (R. L.*)
PEREGRINUS PROTEUS (2nd cent. A.D.), Cynic philosopher,
of Parium in Mysia. At an early age he was suspected of
parricide, and was obliged to leave his native place. During
his wanderings he reached Palestine, where he ingratiated him-
self with the Christian community, and became its virtual head.
His fanatical zeal and craving for notoriety led to his imprison-
ment, but the govemor of Syria let him go free, to prevent his
posing as a martyr. He then returned to Parium to claim his
paternal inheritance, but finding that the circumstances of his
father's death were not yet forgotten, he publicly surrendered
all claims to the property in favour of the municipality. He
resumed his wandering life, at first assisted by the Christians,
but haying been dctcaed profaning ihe rites of the Church, he
was excommunicated. During a visit to Egypt he made the
acquaintance of the famous Cynic Agathobulus and jomed the
sect. Meeting «ith little encouragement, he made his way to
Rome, whence he was expelled for insulting the emperor Anto-
ninus Pius. Crossing to Greece, he finally took up his abode
at Athens. Here he devoted himself to the study and teaching
of philosophy, and obtained a considerable number of pupils,
amongst them Aulas Gellius, who speaks of him in very favour-
able terms. But , having given offence by his attacks on Herodes
Atticus and finding his popularity diminishing, he determined
to create a sensation. He announced his intention of immolating
himself on a funeral pyre at the celebration of the Olympian
games in 165, and actually carried it out. Ludan, who was
present, has given a full descrii^tion of the event.
C. M. Wicland's Cehetme GeschichU des Philosof>htn Pnegrinus
Proteus (Eng. trans., 1796) is an attempt to rehabilitate his char-
acter. Sec also Lucian, De morte Peregrint, Aulus GcUius xii. 11;
Ammianus MarccUinus xxix. . Philostratus, Vit. Soph. ii. i, 33:
J. Bernays. Lucian und die Kyniker (1875); E. ZcUcr. " Alexander
und Pcregrinus," in his Vortrage und Abhandlungen, iL (1877).
PEREIRE (Pereira], GIACOBBO RODRIGUEZ (1715-
1780), one of the inventors of deaf-mute language, a member
of a Spanish-Jewish family, was bom at Estremadura, Spain,
on the nth of April 17 15. At the age of eighteen he entered
a business at Bordeaux. Here he fell in love vfxih a young girl
who had been dumb from birth, and henceforth devoted himself
to discover a method of imparting speech to deaf-mutes. His
first subject was Aaron Baumann, a co-religionist, whom he
taught to enunciate the letters of the alphabet, and to articulate
certain ordinary phrases. He next devised a sign alphabet for
the use of one hand only, and in 1749 he brought his second
pupil before the Paris Academy of Sciences, the members of
which were astonished at the results he had accomplished.
In 1759 Pcreire was made a member of the Royal Society of
London. He died at Paris on the 15th of September 1780.
PEREKOP, a town of Russia, in the government of Taurida,
60 m. S.E. of Kherson, on the isthmus which connects the Criniea
with the Continent, and commanding the once defensive ditdi
and dike which cross from the Black Sea to the Sivash (putrid)
lagoon. Pop. about 5000. It was formerly an important
place, with a great transit trade in salt, obtained from salt
lakes in the immediate neighbourhood. Since the opening of
the railway route from Kharkov to Simferopol in the Crimea
Perekop has greatly declined. In anaent times the isthmus
was crossed (about i) m. south of the present town) by a ditch
which gave the name of Taphros to a Greek settlement. This
line of defence having fallen into decay, a fort was erected and a
new ditch and dike constructed in the 15th century by the
Tatar khan of the Crimea, Mengli Ghirai, and by his son and
successor Sahib Ghirai. The fort, known as Kapu or Or-Kapu,
became the nucleus of the town. In the middle ages Perekop
was known as Tuzla. In 1736 it was captured by the Russians
under Mtinnich, and again in 1738 under Lascy (Lacy), who
blew up the fort and destroyed a great part of the dike. In
1754 the fort was rebuilt by Krim Ghirei; but the Greek and
Armenian inhabitants of Perekd^ formoid a new settlement
at Armyanskiy Bazar (Armenian Market), 3 m. farther south.
Captured by the Russians in 177 1, the town passed into Russian
possession with the rest of the Crimea in 1783.
PEREMPTORY, an adjective adapted from the Roman law
term perempioHum edictum, peremptoria exception a decree or
plea which put an end to or quashed (Lat. perimere^ to destroy)
an action, hence decisive, final. A similar use is found in English
law in " perl^mptory challenge," a challenge to a jury allowed
to a prisoner without cause shown, or " peremptory mandamus/*
an absolute command. The natural repugnance to a final
order has given this word in its ordinary usage a sense of objec-
tionable and intolerant emphasis.
PEREYASLAVU a town of Russia, in the government of
Poltava, 26 m. S.E. of the city of Kiev, at the confluence of
the Trubezh and the Alta, which reach the Dnieper 5 m. lower
down at the town's port, the village of AndrushL Pop. 14,609.
Besides the town proper there are three considerable suburbs.
Though founded in 993 by Vladimir the Great of Moscow in
memory of his signal success over the Turkish Pechenegs*
Pereyaslavl has now few remains of antiquity. The town has
a trade in grain, salt, cattle and horses, and some manufactures
— tallow, wax, tobacco, candles and shoes.
From 1054 Pereyaslavl was the chief town of a lepaiate
principality. As a southern outpost it often figures in the nth,
1 2th and 13th centuries, and was plundered by the M<Higols
in 1239. In later times it was one of the centres of the Cossack
movement; and in 1628 the neighbourhood of the town was the
scene of the extermination of the Polish forces known as " Tara*s
Night." It was by the Treaty of Pereyaslavl that in 1654
the Cossack chieftain Bogdan Chmielnidd acknowledged the
supremacy of Tsar Alexis of Russia.
PEREYASLAVL (called Zalyeskiy, or " Beyond the Forest,"
to distinguish it from the older town in Poltava after v^iich
it was named), one of the oldest and most interesting dtles in
middle Russia, situated in the government of Vladimir, 45 m.
N.E. of Moscow on the road to Yaroslavl, and on both banks
of the Trubezh near its entrance into Lake Pleshch6evo. Fop.
8662. Pereyaslavl was formerly remarkable for the number
and importance of its ecclesiastical foundations. Among
those still standing are the X2th-century cathedral, with ancient
wall-piintings and the graves of Demetrius, son of Alexander
Nevsky, and other princes, and a church founded by Eudoxia
(Euphrosyne), wife of Demetrius Donskoi, in the dose of
the 14th century. It is by its extensive cotton manufactures
that Pereyaslavl is now best known. The fisheries in the
lake (20 m. sq. in extent and 175 ft. deep) have long been of
great value.
Founded in 1152 by Yuryi Dolgoruki, prince of Suxdalt
Pereyaslavl soon began to play a considerabfe part in the histoiy
of the country. From 1195 till 1302 it had princes of its own;
and the princes of Moscow, to whom it was at the latter date
PEREZ, A.— PEREZ GALD6S
t It t^Bit IiDm •ome tempomy
tmy) u pBrt of tHdi pilnizioDy i
tM 151D WH) iDtli cmturio. Like FlohcbJeva «a
al Pcler ilie Gnat'i £nt allanpu (1A91) it cmili
muz. AKTOnO (e. isto-i6ii)i lot uine yon Ch
—rnijiT of Philip n. of Spcin ind af temtdi [oc nuD
obitct of hs unrdenling hiKtiliiy. mi by binli u
nil reputed iatticr, Ganaln Peru, is ecdeiutic. hu
In Utuny u havinc bmi tecretuy both to Charla
Pbilip IL, And in UlenLure is author of 1 Spanish
^ihtadTaryiLaUhaiidtHiimcto.Aiitwtrp, 1556)
VatE, who wii legiliimicd by in imperii] dipiomi
RaUty the Km of Fhnip'i miniuer! Ruy Gomei de Si
of Eboli. to iihoin. on the completion of s liberal et
boBK tod ibnud, he appeal at leait to have owe
if ibe
K lucn
iappomi
..] the death of Ruy Cornea himxlf mlde mom
pcwnfition 10 be head of the "deqwcho uuivenal,"
bureau, from which Philip ittemplFd 10 govem by
aHTcsfioDdence the iSaiis of bii viti dominioni. ,
the king'] leoeUiis at tUi time, tbou^ in 1 lesi c
Telation, waJ a friend and contemporary of Perei, ni
de EicwBlo, who, however, allei the fall of Tunis lE
tail off to supersede Juan de Soto ai sccrttaiy and
Don John of Austria, thus leaving Pero without a ri'
time after Don John's appointment to the goveroor
Netherlands Perei accidentally became cognisant of
verdenlly ambitious " empress de Inglatena," in wh
to rescue Mary Quee^ of Scots, marry h«. and )0
il^f. ThisK
3E the faithful Kcretiry it
to Philqi, who cbaiacteritticaJly resolved to
r^ioving his brothei't aider ud abettor. With the
(oCDisance, umrdincly, Perei, after leveral u
ailempts to poison Etcovedo, succeeded in procurinj
■inalioa in a street ol Madrid on the jist of March i
immediate effect wax to laise Perei higher than ever u
GonfideDce and favour, but, wiiy though the secretary
he had not succeeded in obliterating all trace ol his
with the crime, and very soon a prosecutun was set
'' s of the murdered ee r« - -
impLc.
msidy be appears to ha
elist
■nedlo
those w
ho.wh
01 fabely, were
continually
uggesting that
Peiei
BotWesofhisc
of his
tlatioRS
wilhl
ol Eboli, for 00
mpasiing
ion of Don Jc
lary;be this a*
it may,
nPere
tame to be the
secret in
sougl:
Tk process, as
such ma
ftenha
vebeen
inSp
slow one, and it
was not
untQ
589 tb
tl Peres
alter
'ftBoa " of the kingdom be could
daim a pubUc tr
tnrl, and so bring into requisilio
n the documentar
be mossed of the king's complicii
^ in the deed. T
•A Philqi, who, aliiwugh he iosUt
tediproctssint
tribmial ol Aiagoo, ^wedily abin
doned it and cai
ta be aititked (rom another side
the charge of hi
v piefeited, arising out oi cerlai
reckless and ev.
ilui Mi ilsiy (
d by Roy Comei':
dt Mradoia. a. 1 reCuution nf the p.
Htibility of a lupp
btnn her u.d Pen^. Il i. con
rnded'by MiEU
*»fW bMWBCo iHT^nd Peiei wu
« aceounl. tor the pan p^ hy
Peiel in EiOTfed.
■ntin to cont
mou* exprenlaiis Perci had used in eonnedon with his troubles
civil prison in Sitagoua to [hat of the Inqui^iion iiised popular
tumults, which in the end led to Perec's escape across the
Pyrenees, but unfortunately also furnished Phikp ^viih a pretext
for sending an anny into Atagon and tuppretsing the ancient
" fuetos" altogeihet (ijfli). From the court of Catherine de
Bourbon, at Pau, where he was well received, Perei pa&sed to
thai of Heniy IV. of France, and both there and in England his
talents and diplomatic experience, as well as his well-grounded
enmity to FhiLp, secured him much popularity. While in
England he became the "intimate coacb-companion and bed-
companion " of Francis Bacon, and was also much in 1 he society
of the earl of Eitei. The peace ol Vefvins in 159S greatly
reduod hia apparent importance abroad, and Pores now tried
to obtain the pardon of Phibp III., thai he might return to his
e obscurity in Paris on the jtd ol Novcmbet
1611.
afUeit publica
1 (guano, dcdlci
1591, enriiled Ptdaui 4t kiMfiQ, and professedly pubiith^^ at
Leon. A Dutch iian^iion appeared in 1S94- and in t59^ he pub-
liihtd hi> Rilaiwiti. iiKludint the tItmviQl-UI kfilia ir ik conin,
drawn up in ijt», and many <a h» klleis. Much hi> been done,
by Mlgnet lAnaxio Prrrl il Ptilifipt II . iSjJijIh ed.. ■B;4} and
tw^Froude {''An Unwlvcd Hi«orical Riddle,- N<«ilnilh Cii^l..
«,i(f.
ri!/^"f.:'
dM^
rtRU. CALDdS, BEHIT0(rSj5- - ). *u born at Lai
Palmas, in the Canary Islands, on the lolh ol May 184s. In
iS6j be was sent to Madrid to study law, drifted into litctature.
and was speedily lecogniied at one of the most promising recniiu
on the Liberal side. Shortly after the Revolution ol 186S he
abandoned joumatism, and employed fiction as the vehicle for
propagating advanced opinions His first ttovet. La Finl-ma
dc ft, was printed in t8;i, and later in the 'same year vpci red
El A vdai. The reception given to ihoe eariy essays encouraged
the writer (o adopt novel-writing as a profession. He had al-
ready determined upon the scheme of hU Efiisdiai nmiomila,
■ series which might compare with the Comidit inmaint. Old
charters, old letters, old i»wspapers were collected by him with
them
aCeim
regards th
veliit wi
Js of his period.
thoroughly equipped ai _
Jaliar, the first volume of the Epiiodios nacioitaUs, apjwared
in 1879; the remaining books of this first leria are entitled
La CM lit Carla I V., Ei ig di mono y d i di mayo, Boilfn.
Napttitn m Ckamarlin. Zatansa, Ctrna, Cadit. Juan Uailm
tl Empainada and La Balalla dt Arpilts^ As the titles suffice
to show, the aulhoi's aim was to write the national epic ol the
tglh century in prose; and he so completely succeeded that,
long before the first series ended in 1881, he took rank among
Mfiniifci. beginning wiih Ei Equipaji itt rey Just and ending
was brought to a close in iSSj, and was. Uke its predecessor,
■ - ■ - iwledge, 0- ■■
; Epuad,
to a fourth series, ralung the I
forty. In fecundity and in the power of creating charaacrs,
Peru Galdfis vies with Baliac. Parallel with his immense
achievement in historical fiction, Pi'tei Galdds published
a collection ol rotnances dealing viith contemporary life,
its social problems and religious dilGcutlies. Of Ihcsc the
best known, and perhaps the best, are Dafia Pirfala {i&^t)■,
Osria USJ7); la Familia deirfi. Refh(iSjS). MarianiU (1878):
I'orlufoKI y Jacima (18S7); and An^ Guitra (1S91). Not
does this exhaust his prodigious activity. Besides adapting
several of his navels for stage purposes, he wrote origjnal dramas
such as La laca dt la tasa (1803). San QuiMtn (.8(14). HerfnJ
(1900) and MariiuMtt {1904)^ but bis difluse, exuberant gealut
fO
PERFUMERY
IS scarcely accommodated to the convention of theatrical
)rm. P6rez Gald6s became a member of the Spanish Academy,
nd was also elected to the Cortes; but it is solely as a ro-
oancer that his name is familiar wherever Spanish is spoken,
IS a national novelist of fertile talent, and a most happy
humorist who in his eccentrics and oddities is hardly inferior
to Dickens. (J. F-K.)
PERFUMERY (Lat. ^, through, and fumare, to smoke), the
preparation of perfumes, or substances which are pleasing to
the sense of smeU. Perfumes may be divided into two classes, the
first of which includes all primitive or simple odoriferous bodies
derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, as well as the
definite chemical compounds specially manufactured, while
the second comprises the various " bouquets " or " melanges "
made by blending two or more of the foregoing in varying
proportions — toilet powders, dentifrices, sachets, &c To the
former class belong (i) the animal products, ambergris, castor,
civet, musk; (2) the essential oils (also called attars), mostly
procured by the distillation of the stems, leaves, flowers and other
parts of plants; (3) the phihcomc butters or oils, which are
either sohd or liquid fats charged with odours by the processes
of inflowering or maceration, (4) the odoriferous gum-resins or
balsams which exude naturally or from wounds in the trunks of
various trees and shrubs, such as benzoin, opoponax, Peru, Tolu,
storax, myrrh; (5) the large number of synthetic perfumes
which simulate the odour of the natural scents. The second
dass contains the endless combination of tinctures sold under
fancy names which may or may not afford a clue to their compo-
sition, such as " com6die frangaise," '*eau de senteur," " eau de
Cologne," " lavendre ambr£e," " blumengeist." In general,
they are mixtures of a number of perfumes dissolved in alcohol.
Strictly speaking, most of the perfumes on the market belong to
the second class, since, in most cases, they are prepared by
blending various natural or artificial odorous principles.
.' Natural Perfumes. — ^The animal perfumes are extremely
limited in number. Ambergris (q.v.), one of the most important,
b secreted by the. ^>erm whale; musk (g.v.), the best known
■cent of this class, is secreted by the male musk-deer and other
animals — musk-ox, musk-rat, &c.; civet (q.v.) is a musky scent
named from the animal which secretes it ; and castor or castoreum
is a somewhat similar secretion of the beaver (q.v.). More
Important are the scents yielded by flowering plants. As a
general rule fragrant flowers flourish in hot climates, but the more
delicate perfumes are yielded by plants having a colder habitat;
it must be remembered, however, that some costly perfumes
are obtained from the plants of Ceylon, the East Indies, Mexico
mod Peru. In Europe, Grasse, Cannes and Nice are the centres
of the natural perfume industry. Cannes is famous for its rose,
acacia, jasmine and neroli oil; NImes for its thyme, rosemary
and lavender; and Nice for its violets. Citron and orange oil
come from Sicily; iris and bergamot from Italy; and roses are
extensively cultivated in Bulgaria, and in European Turkey.
England is unsurpassed for its lavender and peppermint, which
flourish at Mitcham and Hitchin.
[ The natural sources of the attars or essential oils are the
different parts of the plants which yield them — the wood (lign,
aloe, santal, cedar), the bark (cinnamon, cascarilla), the leaves
(patchouli, bay. thyme), the flowers (rose, lavender, orange-
jblossom), the fruit (nutmeg, dtron), or the seeds (caraway,
almond). Some plants yield more than one, such as lemon and
bergamot. They are mostly obtained by distilling that part
of the plant in which they are contained with water, or with high-
pressure or superheated steam; but some few, as those from the
rind of bergamot (from Citrus bergamia), lemon (dtron ^este,
from C. Lititonum)f lime (C. Limctta), by " expression." The
outer layer of the cortex is rasped off from the unripe fruits,
the raspings placed in a canvas bag, and squeezed in a screw
or hydraulic press. The attars so obtained are separated from
the admixed water by a tap-funnel, and are then filtered.
C^ain flowers, such as jasmine, tuberose, violet, cassia, either
4do not yield their attars by distillation at all, or do it so sparingly
ainoi to admit of its coUectioii for commcrrial purposes; and
sometimes the attar, as in the case of orange (nerolQ, hat an
odour quite different from that of the fresh faloMomt. In these
cases the odours are secured by the processes of inflowerim
(enfleurage) or by maceration. Both depend upon the remark-
able property which fats and oils possess of absorbing odours.
Enfleurage consists in laying the leaves or flowers on |dates
covered with a layer of fat. The flowers are renewed every
morning, and when the fat has sufikient odour it is tcr^)ed off,
mdted and strained. . Maceration consists in soaking the flowen
in heated fat; in due time they are strained off and replaced bf
fresh ones, as in the enfleurage process. The whole of the
necessary mdtings and heatings of the perfumed greases are
effected by means of water-baths, whereby the temperature
is kept from rising too high. For the maniJacture of perf umes
for the handkerchid the greases now known as pomades, butteit
or philocomes are treated with rectified q>irit of wine te* over^
proof, t.e. containing as much as 95% of absolute akohol bj
volume, which practically completely abstracts the odour.
The gum-resins and resins have been employed as perfumes
from the earliest times. The more important are inrrme,
frankincense and myrrh (q.v.). They are largely used in the
manufacture of perfumes, both for burning as pastilles, ribbon
of Bruges, incenses, &c., and in tinctures, to which they iaqnit
thdr characteristic odours, affording, at the same time, a oertaia
fixity to other perfumes of a more fleeting nature when mked
with them.
Synthetic Ferfuwtesi—Vnder this heading are included all
perfumes in which artificial substances are odorous ingredienta.
Although the earliest perfumes of this dass were introduced in
about the middle of the zgth century, the important industry
which now prevails is to be regarded as dating from the 'seventies
and 'eighties. Three main lines of development may be dis-
tinguished, (i) the chance discovery of sul»tances whicfa have
odours similar to natural perfumes; (3) the duddation of the
composition of the natural scents, and the chemical constitotioa
of their ingredients, followed by the synthetic preparatioa of
the substances so determined; and (3), which may be regarded
as connected with (2), the extraction and separation of the
essential oils yielded by less valuable plants, and their reblendiQC
to form marketable perfumes.
The first synthetic perfume was the " essence of Mirbane **
introduced by Collas in about 1850; this substance was th»
nitro-benzene discovered by E. Mitscherh'ch in 1834. Soon after-
wards many esters of the fatty adds simulating tlw odoon of
fruits were introduced; and in 1888 Baur discovered the " artK^
ficial musks," which are derivatives of r-trim'trobenicne. The
above are instances of the first line of progress. The second line
has for early examples the cases of artificial oil of wintergrecn.
which followed Cahour's discovery that the natural oil owed its
odour, in the main, to methyl salicylate, and of artificial oH of
bitter almonds which follo«>'ed the preparation of benzalddiyde
from benzal chloride in 1868. The synthesis of coumarin, the
odorous principle of hay and woodruff, by Sir W. H. Peridn in
1868; of vanillin, the odorous prindple of vanilla, by F. Tiemann
and W. Haarmann in 1875; and of ionone, alinost identical
with the natural irone, the odorous prindple of violets, by
Tiemann and P. Kriiger in 1898, are to be regarded as of the
highest, importance. Equally important are the immfiwe
strides made in the duddation of the constitution and syntheses
of the tcrpcnes (g.v.), a group of compounds which are eaccptkNi-
ally abundant as odorous prindples in the essential oils.
The present state of our knowledge does not permit a strict
corrdation of odour and chenucal constitution. One thewy
regards odour as due to '* osnoophores," or odour^producinf
groups, in much the same way as colour is associated with
chromophorcs. Such osmophorcs are hydroxyl (OH), aldehyde
(CHO), ketone (CO), ether (-O), nitrile (CN), nitro (NO*), »t;
we may also notice the isonitrile group ('NO) associated with a^
unpleasant odour, and the iso-thiocyanate group (-NCS) to
which the mustard oils owe their characteristic smeU. The same
group, however, is not invariably associated with the Sameodoar,
or even any odour at all, as, for instance, in such dos^y niftUd
PERFUMERY
■sJCL For
""-r'-. the lowR luly ildchydcs hive il, ,
tbfiiB villi ten ^jboa aloira (u]d alw c3oublc linJu^o, vhich
B iudf Bay aSect odour) iorai >oo» of tbe mott ddicilc ucnu,
vhik Ibe tiicbct mciabm ue odourlus. The ibKncc of odour
ID ilic lualier iMBibai nuy be pouibly uKcutedwiib iht to*
nblitily eihibited by oompoundi ol high moleculai weight.
CcrUin otinaf^iDrei hive pnctically equal effecU^ for eumple,*
baualdehyde* nltrobcueDe, bcmonjlrije, and phenyl aiobiiide
have practically idoitical odouiB^ and among the " artificial
mnk*," a nitiD pcnip may be npliced by Ihe amiznido group
kitboQt Lhc odour being modifieiL Ai a gmeral rule, homologues
have smilar odoun, but nuny uceplioni are known. For
^"-T'- Ibe methyl and ethyl etlieis ol ^-niphtbol have the
odoar ol naoli; on Ihe elhei band, of the eilen of anthranllic
add, tlie methyl bu Ibe odoui of orange Uouomi, the ethyl
ba a ili^ odnii, and the isobulyl ia odourloc The blmduc-
lioa (4 a methyl gnup into the bouene ring generally involvs
little or DO change in odour; but ■ben it (and mote eipedally
bi^KT alkjd ndkali) it introduced into tide cbaini the odour
cnlimy changed. For example, beniene and iu
. 1 have timilar odoun; phihalide is odourten. but the
iiopnipyl and buiyt phthilido. in which aubiiiiuiioii occun in
Ibe Bde chain, iniell of celery. Especially chaiactetiglic ve
Ibe derivWive* of phenylacetylene. Tlii hydrocarbon il
dktiDCtlj tmpleaiant; on the other hand^ paTa.ethyl and para-
■ctbyl pbeoyLaalylcTK imell of anise. While the triply.Uiiked
mboB lyttem ti genenlly aiiodated with strong and unpleaianl
odoon, the doubly linked syiteni gives pleasant ones. Thus (he
mpkaunt pbcnylacetylene, C^i'C^CH. ia contrasted with
Myrakoe, CJli'CH:CIU which occun in stoiu, and i^ienyl-
pmriolic aldehyde with dnnamic aldehyde, CtHi'CH;CH CHO,
daobk to a lin^ linkage may not dcMroy odour. Tbus
bydncJDaamic aldehyde, the rnluction product of dnnamic
aldehyde, BDeO* of jannine and lilac, and melilotin, which occun
n yelknr melilot {MdiiMua fffiiiiietii), has tbe ume odour
(woodnfi) IS its o^dation product coumarin. The orientilion
el the Bibalitneiit group* in Ibe beniene nucleus also iHecli
odour. In general, the meta compounds are odourlos, while
the snlB aul pan may have odour. Tbua ^metboiyaceto-
pbcBODc has a pleaiaot odour, the meta compound is odoutlca,
HaJDoacflophenane, v-aminobeDialdehyde, and «.mtrapheiiol
hne urang odoun. while the meta and paia bodies are odourlesa.
DI the three trlnjlrobenifiifa ooly the aynimetiical form giva
arigia to perfume*.
Tbe tmiaiitntiaa and even the solvent'hai conudetible
ifca en tbe odour of a substance. Manji at the artificial
priedple* — rsafllin. heliotnipine, ionone, - 4c. — have very
Uerat odoun in Mroog and in dilute solution ; phenyl acetic
Kill end ^Hi^lbylamiiie are odourless when solid, but have
diHpeeable odours when dissolved. Traces of impurities
cilia have the effect of making odourless or pleasant- smelling
okiBm (ubide, ud carbon disulphide pre^red [mm its
diveaEs are Quite intolerable, though when pure they are, at
ba, BM UBpieasant; artificial benialdehyde must be very care-
My purified before it can be used in the preparation of the more
Mate scents. In all case* tbe natural scents are complex
■iilDRS ot many ingredients, and a variation in the amount of
•tj one may completely alter the scent. Such miitures would
h diacnlL to Rpradnct econcmlcally; the perfumer is content
praduct baving practically an identical odour, with
" " " " ' which il It designed to
•nfeey etnM, predadnf emighiiai and htadichei. Isobulyl
•MHficcfaicrdan'lKetai^. (CH,)i-CHCH.CHrOC-CKi.
'■fs wtn ■ fhrtc •IcohoUc wJiilioa the artificial pear oili •
"■& edov k |i>Miiiid by iieuiyl-ii-butynte, CiHi-COaCiHu. .
PERGA— PERGAMUM
lUcliy
■Mthy
vs:
[>f pungrntv u Kcmrd by the ad
lietharpimdii torarrcupond with Kigh nolo aitif the }
-ill. ko. H-iiluitnlL-dtheidcabyclauirylMBiH.....
'f. dmlunE each to corrcvpand with a cenaln
mmricwiy
iury.
^
PEBGA (mod. i/«te«a), an ancin.
t cily of ramphylia.
titmted about S m. inland, at tht junct
(Sari Su) with Ihf CmUm. It wat a «r
itte of native influoitei
a> contiulcd with the Greek, nbich
were predominant in
Alialii, and U was a groat ual o( the
adcd tone and a purely
AnaloLian nature goddesi. There Pan
1 and Bamabu begu
DotFp one-half in each ckf. and extending above and below the
Ums. For rumple, liebte clef note E Uth •pace) cormpondi
with PorluKBl (imnte), note D (lut ipace below clel) with violet,
note F ^f^th ipacu above clef) with ambcriris. It i> readily noticed
in praelict that amberprii it much tharpcr in inKil {higEieF) than
violctt while Portugal it intennediate- lie anerted that properly
to coutitute a bouquet Che odoun to be lakcit ihould conopond
in the gamut like the notea of a muucal choni — one falie noie
among the odoun ai among the mutic dcitioying the lunnony.
Thiii on hb odoplionc, tanul, nnuiiam. acacia, oiaoge-flowiir,
camphor, cormponding with C (ban and lint bctow), C (ba» ,
and uace), E (treble lit Bnc). G (treble and line), C (titble Jrd
■pace), constitute the bouquet of chord C-
(Mrr Bnnilia of /■rr^Kmrry.— Aa a natural outcome cl the i
works. Par the jireparalioa of uaUd toapi two meihodi ate In tneu nni million m Asia Minor (acu li. ij). A niiKB
■ite; both .tart wiih a Ihiis cither of fine yellow Bap (which ow« Ircquenled route into Phtygia and the Matandet vaUey began it
bh^S'^bUe^'XSi^r^i^p'M wit'hlSJt'^^.i^ f"ea. ">d Aieiander made it the .....ing.point ol hi.SSLic
one pia:e» the Hip •• niellcil by nipctheated ttcam. and while of inner Ana Minor. Longthcmctiopohsof PamphyliaSerundi,
Kill hot and teini.Buid mixed by meant of a tlincr of wood with it wai aupeneded in Byianline limci by its pott, Allalia, which
iron cniM-bir, Kchnirally calkd a " crutch," with the attan and became a metropolis in 10S4. The eilensive ruina all lie in
r!X2u™'il^ml!uidi^"thn!L™whirh™lI?™Sv^ the plain loulh of the Acropolis. TTie walls are well preKrved,
by unscrewing the tie-nxb which hold then in poiitioni when l"" "f 1»" Roman or Byianline reconstruction. The line* d
nU thK miu ta cut into (labs and ban with ■ thin bia» wire, inlenecdng alreels can be easily maile out. and there are ruin
coUproccutheioa^iilintcutinlochipaorahavingt gf t^o selsof baths, two basilicas and a lonim. But the ra
F moHporated by pa»ing the icap between ^fiTrL^f""""" " " """ " "* "'"*' ' ' "
:ker than paper. The pcifumei ore Oien added, and alier ofMyraar
atanding for about twelve houraihc wiap m apinieni through the only to those olAspcndusand Side. Modem Murtanalia laige
from -wS il"Snereo%rrciIiti'n1^b^5i™c SThSIS SwS' *'"°«*' """^ ""''" ""^ dominion of Ihc Dere Bev» of the TeUc
Soap thus woiked contains k-ts than 10% of water; that pupated Osl" family.
by melting containt 10 and evi-n 30% The amount of perfume Sec C LancicoroniVi. VBh! it la Ptmpktlie nil la FiiUin
added liepcnls upon its njtun.-. and amounts usually to about vol. i. (1890)1 Sir W. M. Ramiay, Chu^ in lie fiomtm Empat
rorB'/l. The finest soaps are always manufactured by the cold (i«M). _ (D.G.R)
" Bent), a Ifihnicil
■adetTand tboroogiily nrarporated by pa»ing the soap between „ "j ^™.'1|^" n'j!J"he ,"^
It in varying proportions, and
--xidcbbmuihrnBle or French „ —
chjilc. The constiiucnt powden. after the addition of the perfume. PERQAMOM c
tirv;.'^i;l'',i;sffr.;ih;*^n:^.£Su&'t'!«i^^^^ nfTeu,h,a„i.,ad.,,ia^«>,
powdered viofcImoi(/m)(*KWirM).}mnthcodoiirof which the by Greek wntets, hut Plolem
powdi-r is named. It h cT* yellowiih lint, lofi and pleasant to name, which is related to the C
el powden " consist lituation on a lofly isolated hill in a broad fertile valley, lea
n of miitum of powdered
belief «
r> or Savour, auch ai <«loaiH>, led by Tclephus, ton of Ueraclea. _ Auge, mMl)cT_<f
PERGOLA— PERGOLESI, G. B.
Tdepbns, wis priestcs of Admit Aka at Tegem, and daughter
ol Akat; fledng from Tcgea, she became the wife of Teuthras,
the QMoymom klag oi Teuthrania, and her ion Telephus
mccccded him. Athena Fdiaa was the patron-goddess of
Peigamwin, and the legend combines the ethnological record of
the oonnezioD daimed between Arcadia and Pergamum with the
csual belief that the hero of the dty was son of its guardian
doty, or at least of her priestess. Nothing more Is recorded of
the dty till the time of Xenopbon, when it was a small fortified
town on the summit of the hiU; but it had been striking coins
since 430 B.C at latest. Its importance began under Lysimachus,
who deposited his treasures, 9000 talents, in this strong fortress
mder ibe charge of a eunuch, PhUetaerus of TitmL In 283 b.c.
PhileCacnis rebelled, Lysimachus died without being able to
put down the revolt, and Pexgamum became the capital of a
Uttle princ^MUty. Partly by clever diplomacy, partly through
the troubles caued by the Gaulish invasion and by the dissen-
ttons aooDf the rival kings, Philetaerus contrived to keep on
good terms with his neighbours on all sides (383-263 B.C.). His
aepbew Eumenes (363-341) succeeded him, increased his power,
ud evca defeated Antiochus IL of Syria in a pitched battle near
Sardis. His successor Attalus L (341-297) won a great battle
9«cr the Gauls* and assumed the title of king. The other
Omk kings who aimed at power b Asia Minor were his natural
enenues, ssd about 333 reduced Pergamenian power to a very
km d>b. Oa the other hand, the influenceof the Romans was
bf|hnring to make itself felt in the East. Attalus prudently
cpnaccted himsdf with them and shared in their contmuom,
nccos. Pergamum thus became the capital of a considerable
toiittvy and a centre of art and regal mag^cence. The wealth
d the state and the king*s desire to celebrate his victories by
BOBuments of art kd to the rise of the " Pexgamenian school "
b Kolpture. The qplendour of Pergamum was at its height
under Eumenes II. (197-1 59) He continued true to the Romans
during their wan with Antiochus and Perseus, and his kingdom
VRtd over the greater part of western Asia Minor, induding
^yui, Lydia, great part of Phrygia, Ionia and Caria. To
okbnte the great achievement of his reign, the defeat of the
bubirian Gauls, he built in the agora a vast altar to Zeus
Soler (see bebw). He left an infant son, Attalus (III.), and
a brother, Attalus IL (Philadelphus), who ruled 159-138, and
vas ncceeded by his nephew, Attalus m. (Philometor). The
btter died in 233. and bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans,
who erected part of it (exduding Great Phrygia, which they
pre to Mithndates of Pootus) into a province under the name
of Alia. Pergamum continued to rank for two centuries as the
opiul, and subsequently, with Ephesus and Smyrna, as one of
the three great dties of the province; and the devotion of its
fanner kings to the Roman cause was continued by its citizens,
vho erected (m the Acropolis a magnificent temple to Augustus.
It WIS the seat of a cotnentus^ induding the dties of the Calctis
valley and some of those in the northern part of the Hermtis
^nOey. Under the Roman Empire Pergamum was one of the
chief seats of the worship of Asdepius " the Saviour '*; invalids
came from distant parts of the country to ask advice from the
sod and his [mests. The temple and the curative establishment
cif the god were ntuated outside the dty. Pergamum was the
diief centre of the imperial cult under the early empire, and, in
W. 11 Ramsa3r's opinion, was for that reason referred to in
Kev. iL 13 as the place <^ ** Satan's throne." It was also an
cvty test of Christianity, and fne of the Seven Churches.
The place, re-fortified by the Byzantines, and still retaining its
■ame as Bergama, passed into Moslem hands early in the
Mth century. T1»e lower town was rebuilt, and in the 17th
asd i8th centuries became a chief seat of the great Dere Bey
(aBiljr of Kara Osman Oglu (see Manisa). which did not resign
^ to direct Ottoman control until about 1825. It is still an
^^■iiuttrative and commercial centre of importance, having
KBe 30,000 inhabitants.
£Kma<iMw.— Tbe site of the andent city has been the scene
^eOcnsive excavations promoted by the Berlin museum since
^ tad dinctcd first by K. Humann and A Conze. and
'43
afterwards by W. DOrpfdd. The fint impulse to them was given
in 1873 by the reception in Berlin of certain reliefs, extracted
by Humann from the walls of Bergama. These were recognized as
probably parU of the Great Altar of Zeus erected by Eumenes IL
in x8o B.C and decorated with a combat of gods and giants,
symbolic of the struggle between the Pergamene Greeks and the
Gaulish barbarians. Excavation at the south end of the Acro-
polis led to the discovery of the Altar itself and the rest of its
surviving reliefs, which, now restored and mounted in Berlin,
form one of the glories of that dty. In very high relief and
representing furious action, these sculptures are the finest which
survive from the Pergamene school, which replaced the repose
and breadth of earlier schools by excess of emphasis and detail.
The summit of the Acropolis is crowded with public buildings,
between the market place, which lies at the southern point, and
the Royal Gardens on the north. In the interval are the Zeus
altar; the great hexastyle Doric temple of Athena flanked by
the palace on the east, by the theatre and its long terrace on the
west, and by a library on the north ; and a large Corinthian temple
of Ttajan. The residential part of the Greek, and practicaJly
all the Roman dty lay below the Acropolis on ground now
mostly occupied by modem Bergama; but west of the river
Selinus, on rising grotmd facing the Acropolis, are to be seen
notable remains of a Roman theatre, an amphitheatre and a
drcus.
See, beside general authorities for Asia Minor, J. Dallaway,
CoHstOHtiHcpk, Ac. (1797}: W. M. Ramsay. LetUrs to the Seun
G. "Leroux, •''La I^'tendue basilique de Pergame 'Mn Bull. Con,
Hell, (1909). PP- 338 »qq. (D. G. H.)
PERGOLA (Lat. pcrgtdat a projecting roof, shed, from pergert,
to reach forward, project), a term adopted from the Italian
for an arbour of trellis-work over which are trained creeping
plants, vines, &c., and espedally for a trellis- work covering a
path, walk or balcony in a garden.
PERGOLESI (or Percolese), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1710
X736)> Italian musical composer, was bom at Jesi near Ancona
on the 3rd of January 1710, and after studying music under
local masten until he was sixteen was sent by a noble patron
to complete his education at Naples, where he became a pupfl
of Greco, Durante and Feo for composition and of Domenico de
Matteis for the violin. His earliest known composition was a
sacred drama. La Conversione di S. Cuglitlmo d'Aqvitania,
between the acts of which was given the comic intermezzo //
Maestro di musica. These works were performed in 1731,
probably by fellow pupils, at the monastery of St Agnello
Maggiore. Through the influence of the prince of Stigliano and
other patrons, induding the duke of Maddaloni, Pergolesi was
commissioned to write an opera for the court theatre, and in the
winter of 1731 successfully produced La Salltutia^ followed in
1732 by Ricimero, which was a failure. Both operas had comic
intermezzi, but in neither case were they successful. After this
disappointment he abandoned the theatre for a time and wrote
thirty sonatas for two violins and bass for the prince of Stigliano.
He was also invited to compose a mass on the occasion of the
earthquake of 1731, and a second mass, also for two choirs and
orchestra, is said to have been praised by Leo. In September
1732 he returned to the stage with a comic opera in Neapolitan
dialect, Lo Frati inammorato, which was well received; and in
'733 be produced a serious opera, // Prigionicr, lo which the
celebrated Serva padrona furnished the intermezzi. There
seems, however, no ground for sup{>osing that this work made
any noticeable difference to the composer's already established
reputation as a writer of comic opera. About this time ^1733-
1734) Pergolesi entered the service of the duke of Maddaloni, and
accompMinied him to Rome, where he conducted a mass for five
voices and orchestra in the church of St Lorenzo in Lucina
(May 1734)- There is no foundation for the statement that he
was appointed maestro di cappclla at the Holy House of Loreto;
he was, in fact, organist of the royal chapel at Naples in 1735.
The complete failure of LOlimpiadc at Rome in January 1735
PERGOLESI, M. A.— PERIANDER
144
it uid to have iNiolceii hit health, and detennined him to abandon
the theatre tot the Church; thLi statement is, however, incom-
patible with the fact that hit comic opera // Flaminio was
produced in Naplet in September of the tame year with un-
doubted tuccets. Hit ill health wat more probably due to hit
notoriout profligacy. In 1736 he was sent by the duke of
Maddaloni to the Capuchin monastery at Poatuoli, the air of
the place being considered benefidal to caset of consumption.
Here he is commonly supposed to have written the celebrated
Slabat Mater; PaisieUo, however, stated that this work was
written soon after he left the Conservatcrio del poteri di CesU
Cristo in X 7 29. We may at any rate safely attribute to this
period the Scherto fatto ai Cappuccini di Poauolif a musical jest
of a somewhat indecent nature. He died on the X7th of Much
X736, and was buried in the cathedral of PozzuolL
Fttgolesi's posthumous reputation has been exaggerated
beyond all reason. This was due partly to his eariy death, and
laxgdy to the success of La Sena padrona when performed by
the Bauffotu Italiens at Paris in 1752. Charming as this little
piece undoubtedly is, it is inferior both for music and for humour
to Peigolesi's three act comic operas in dialect, which are remem-
bered now only by the air " Ogni pena imi qnetata " from Lo
Prali inammoratc. As a composer of sacred music Pergdesi is
effective, but essentially commonplace and superficial, and the
frivolotis style of the Su^mU Mater was rightly censured by
PaisieUo and Padre Martini. His best quality is a certain senti-
mental charm, which is very conspicuous in the cantata VOrfeo
and in the genuinely beautiful ducts " Se cerca, se dice " and
"Ne' giomi tuoi felici" of the serious opera LOlimpiade',
the latter number was transferred unaltered from his early
sacred drama 5. CuglidmOt and we can thus see that his
natural talent underwent hardly any development during the
five years of his musical activity. On the whole, however,
Pergolesi is in no way superior to bis contemporaries of the same
Khool, and it is purely accidental that a later age should have
regarded him as its greatest representative.
Bibliography. — ^The most complete life of Pergolesi is that by
E. Faustini Fasini {GazuUa musicale di Milano, 31st of August
1890. &c., published by Ricordi in book form, 1900); G. Annibaldi's
7/ PergoUn tn Pozsuoti, vita intima (Jeu, 1890) gives some interest-
ing additional details derived from documents at Jesi, but is cast in
the form of a romantic novel. H. M. Schlettercr's lecture in the
Sawtmlung musikalischcr Vortrdge^ edited by Count P. von Waldcr^
see, b generally inaccurate and uncritical, out gives a good account
of later performances of Pergolesi's works in Italy and elsewhere.
Various portraits are reproduced in the Cazt. mus. di MUano for
the 14th of December 1890, and in Mtuica e tnusicislif December
1905. Complete lists of his compositions are given in Eitner's
QiuUen-Lexican and in Grove's Dictionary (new ed.). (E. J. D.)
PERGOLESI. MICHAEL ANGELO, an x8th-ccntury Italian
decorative artist, who worked chiefly in England. Biographical
details are almost entirely lacking, but like Cipriani he was
brought, or attracted, to England by Robert Adam after his
famous continental tour. He worked so extensively for the
Adams, and his designs are so closely typical of much upon which
their reputation rests, that it is impossible to doubt his influence
upon their style. His range, like theirs, was catholic. He
designed furniture, mantelpieces, ceilings, chandeliers, doors and
mural ornament with equal felicity, and as an artist in plaster
work in low relief he was unapproached in his day. He delighted
in urns and sphinxes and interlaced gryphons, in amorini with
bows and torches, in trophies of musical instruments and martial
weapons, and in flowering arabesques which were always graceful
if sometimes rather thin. The centre panels of his waJIs and
ceilings were often occupied by classical and pastoral subjects
painted by Cipriani, Angelica Kauffmann, Antonio Zucchi, her
husband, and sometimes by himself. These nymphs and
amorim*, with their disengaged and riant air and classic grace,
were not infrequently used as copies for painting upon that
satinwood furniture of the last quarter of the i8th century which
has never been surpassed for dainty elegance, and for the
popularity of which Pergolesi was in large measure responsible;
they were e\'en reproduced in marquetry. Some of this painted
woric was, apparently, executed by hit own hand; most of the
pieces attributed to him are lemarkaUe cmmpin «f iititffc
taste and technical skill. Iffis latia-wood Uble-lapi, cUa
cabineU and side-tables are the Utt word in a dainrinf wUcft
here and there perhaps it mere prettineM. Fessol
designed silver plate, and many of hit pattens an
instinctively attributed to the brothers Adam by the
and purchasers of modem reproductiont. Time h,
reason to believe that he aided the Adam finn in pos^f aidt
tcctural work. In later life Pergolesi appeuM, Bkc Aa|dta
Kauffmann, to have returned to Italy.
Our chief source of information upon his wocks it Ut ova prijt
cation. Designs for Various Ornaments on Seoeufy PbkM, a ana
of folio sheets, without text, published Ijetween 1777 aad llOL
PERI, JACOPO (xs6x-z6 ?), Italian mnical
wat born at Florence on the toth of Atiguit 1561, off a
family. After studying under Cristoforo Malvod off
he became maestro di cappella, first to Ferdinand, dab fli
Tuscany, and later to Cosmo IL He wat an inqwrtaat anlB
of the literary and artistic circle which frequented the boHfefll
Giovanni Bardi, conte de Vemio, where the revival off Gnfrj
tragedy with its appropriate musical declamation wai
subject of discussion. With this end in view the poet OUnii^
Rinucdni supplied a drama with the title of Dafmt I0
Peri composed music, and this first attempt at WBBL mm jfh \
formed privately in X597 in the Palazto Coni at Fin
work was so much admired that in x6oo PfaiuriiH and
were commissioned to produce an opera on tlie ^^'■'Ttwim ol
marriage of Henry IV. of France with Maria di' If edScL
work {L'Euridiee) attracted a great deal of attentioB, nd
type once publicly established, the musical drama wia ■!
the road to success by the efforts of other compoicn and
patronage of other courts. Peri himself seema never to hntl
followed up his success with other <^ras; he became Buau
di cappella to the duke of Ferrara in x6oz, but after the piibS»
tion of his Varie musiche a «mi, due e tre voci at Florace ii
1609, nothing more is known of him.
Peri's Dafne (which has entirely disappeared) and Emi^
(printed at Florence 1600; reprinted Venice z6o8 uid FloRKt
1863) are of the greatest importance not only at being tk
earliest attempts at opera, but as representing the new
and declamatory style which is the basis of modem
opposed to the contn^untal methods of Palestrina and Ml
contemporaries. Peri's work is of course primitive ia tk
extreme, but it is by no means without beauty, and
many scenes in Ewridice which show a considenble
power.
PERIANDER (Gr. ncpfaMSpos), the second tyruit off Oaririh
(625-585 B.C.). In contrast with his father Cyptdoi, the taads
of the dynasty, he is generally represented at a end dopotf *
at any rate as having used all possible devices for keqdBg U*
city in subjection. Among numerous anccdotet the foDoaiBl
is characteristic. Pcriandcr, on being consulted faj the lyitfi
Thrasybulus of Miletus as to the bat device for tBtbUia^
himself in power, by way of reply led the mestenfer thno^ *
cornfield, and as he walked struck off the tallest and batgloA
ears (a legend applied to Roman circumstances in Xivy L y^
It seems, however, that the prevalent Greek tradition imiiriiyl
him was derived from the \'ersions of the Corinthian aiiltociic7i
who had good reasons for giving a prejudiced acooont, Uid tk
conflicting charaacr of the various legends furtlwr diovi tkl
their historical value is slighL A careful sifting fA the avddiB
evidence would rather tend to represent Periander at a ndtf
of unusual probity and insight, and the exceptional financM uA
activity of his government is beyond dispute. Hat hone adnie'
istration was so successful that he was able to HiqiPMg irith
direct taxation. He fostered wealth by the steady cnGoanc^
ment of industry and by drastic legislation against idleness
luxury and vice; and the highest prosperity of the CorinlUtP
handicrafts may be assigned to the period of hb rule U^
CoRi!nii). At the same time he sought to check eauiti't*
accumulation of wealth in individual hands and restricted tM
influx of population into the town. Employment was feud
PERGAMUM
The North Wing, West and Soulh Sides. The South Wing, West and South Sides.
The Great Alur of Zeus, from the North-west, as set up in the Kaisct Fricdrich Museum, Berlin.
From photograplu by W. TitUDtbilcc. Berlin.
PliRGAMUM
North, South, East, and Wtst Sides of thu GrL-at AUur of Zeus.
Fron i>liolnsriniH liy W. Tilttnt
PERICLES 1+5
far tte pcDlnariU la Ibe CRCtloB <t tcmptc* ind of public mrlti. The twilnnini af hli ■■ccndincy ii nvkfd by ui unpnccdenttd
*^-~-*-~'~nlKiap|Kutua pUreBoflitenlnie, forU *uby ouiwatd tipiaiion of AthcDun power. In coDlinuince ol
D tbat tbc poet Ariaa cune to Corintb to ariuue Cinun'i policy, >so ihlps wen lent to luppoit Ibc Egypiiio
lit diibynmb. He dcvMed no Im itteniion lo (he lacmuc inaurgenti aggiptt Pcnia Usg),' while dctachratntt opcraled
oflldriBUikncoBnMne, wbkh In hiidcya plied buiily on bolb >Giin>t Cypnu ind Phoenicia. Ai ihe uoie lime Alhcm
. With (Mb end in view be eitabliihed embarked on levfrol wan in Crtcce Proper. An allidice with
'"UoDia In Macedonia, tl Anactorium tie Megaruuii, who H-cre being hard prtucd fay iheir ncighboun
a Gicece, and be i> laid lo have of Corintb. led to enmity with this latter power, and bclore long
_ll the Iithmus, In Crecte proper hi Epidiumt and Aegina were drawn Into the cLiugelc. On Ka
omquend Epidaiinu, and with Ihe help of his fleet ol liiremea the Atheniant. after two minor cnfpiKcmenu. gained i decisive
broiii^ the Impoituit tndlng antic of Corcyni under his vicioiy which eniblid them to blnckadc AcRina. On land
cooing «U> hii JnteicH ui the Olyminan festival is perhaps their general M)-raiiiJes beat oil Iwo Corinthian attatki on
altested hf a dedicatidn which may be ascribed lo him — the tfegaia, which had been further sceurcd by long walls draws
lamona ** tlMM ol CypaehM." Ha inillivated friendly relations between the capital and its port Nisaca, nearly a mile diilut.
with ibe lynnti ti Miletua and Uylilene, and maintained a In 457 ihc Athenians aitd their allies ventured to inlcrcept a
cnuKiian with ibe kings of Lydia, of Egypt and, possibly, of Spartan force which was ictutnlng home from central Greece.
Fbrysis. In spite of these varied achievements Fciiandcr At Tanagra in Boeotia a pitched battle was fought, lo which
never mtiidj cimciliated his auhjects, for he could not trust both reticles and Ihe partisan) of Ciiiion di!itinituished them-
hinidf wilhoDl ■ bodyguard. Moreover his family bfe, accord- selves. The Spartans were succcK^fu) i nt did not pursue ihdr
ing to all acxsuits, was unfortunate. His sons all died or advantage, and soon afterwards the ..Ibcnlans, seising their
wen ntranteil ftnm him, and the murder of his last remaining opportunity, sallied forth again, and. after a victory under
chiU L^iBiihraa, the governor of CoriTn, is said to have bnken Myionides at Ocnophyt a, obtained Ihesubmitsionof allBoeolia,
faiaipint aadhattCBedonhiillcath. save Thibes, and of Pbocis and Locris. In 455 Tolmidea
hrfaBda was Rckooed one of the seven sages of Greece, ravaged Laconia and secured Naupaciui on the Corinthian
■ndwaatbanpnted auihorofacoUeclionof maxims (Tnf^uu) gulf; in 454' Pcriclct himself defeated the Stcyonians, and made
insooavcnca. The Irtteis ascribed to bun by Diogems Lalfitius a descent upon Ocniadae at the mouth of the gull, and in 45J
. . . . - «j, qimfg^^ conducted a deruchy to the Thracian Chersonese. These yean
> «>-S3i V. u; Ariitotk, Piiititi, v. 6, 10-11: mark the lenith of Atlicnian grvulnesi. Yet the drain on Ihe
Micua u C MtUlir'. ftar, kUl. v"t. ii. IlJj countrv's slrcnRh was severe and when newt artived in jt.
NkoIaM DanaaciDui, iWd., ilL yti; D><«ens Lai^tiui, Di rilii ^,\i. V 1 ^ TT p .'■ " . , ,1 ™ -.l**
'•'awWh«»n.i.i.h.T- (M.O. B.C.) ''"' "" """'^ " *"' Egyptian armament, logclher wilh a
I (n^39 B.C.), Athenian statesman, waa bom "«f*e ""l- '"«' l**" dolto)™! by Ihe IVrsiaia, a reaction
thesonotXantbippusandAgaTisIe. Bis father* set m, and CImon. who was recalled on Pericles' motion (but 1C8
It part in Athenian politics, and in 479 held high Cm™). *»> empowered to make peace with Sparta on the basia
~ hilaled the remnants iHlic lUlui quo. Fora while the old anii-l'crsian poUty egain
lolhcr the niece o( found favour in Athens, and Cimon led a great esjiedition against
, ,„..^.,— , „ ._ „._,„ „.._ „ ^i tyrants of Sicyon CypniSibut on Cimon's death hoslihtics were suspended, and a
and Ibe famflv of the Akmaeonidae. His early training was '"''"K arrangement with Persia was brought about.' It waa
nmiitHl to the ablst and most advanced teachers of the day: P'o'>a'>!y in order to mark the definite conclusion of the Persian
mm l^unctol him ia music, Zeno the Eleaiic revealed lo ^^'" ""^ *' obtain recognition for Athens' work m punishing
a the powen ol dialectic; the philosopher Anaaagoras who '^' *'"•" '*"" Penclca now' proposed a pan-Hellenic congreM
■ • ■--- •-•—■-■-- Biti, Pericles, had great influence on »' Athens 10 consult about the tcUuilding of the ruined litnplea
only held responsible for that ""' ''" pohcing of the seas; but owing (0 the refusal of Sparta
1 he preserved in the AeprojectfcQthroudi.
I'cncles may now have hoped lo resume his aggressive poUqf
. ^t of Pericles falls in 46J. when he '" Greece Proper, but the events of the following years complelcfi-
icbaire of bribery, after (he lal I tr'i diiUlusioncd him. In 447 an Athenian army, which had marched
; but as the accusation could hardly have been '"'" Boeolia to cjucll an msuneclion. had to surrender in a body
, .■tiidea waa pcriiaps put forward only as a "' Coronea, and the price of their ransom was the evacuation
hy^BUB. IlDdnc pcomtDntcc has commonly been assigned to "' Boeolia. Upon news of this disaster Phocis, Locns and
Ufa in Iha attack upon the Areopagus in 461 or 4ei (see Euboea re\-ollcd, and the Megarians massacred their Athenian
AiiOTACOi, QbOb). The Ariiioteliaa Ci.«r(i(B/ioii ../ AOfni Barrison, while a Spartan army p..nMra(cd inio A(lica as far ai
.laws eeeuiasJvdy that Pericles was not the leader of this cam- ^™™' In this cnsis Penck-s induced the Spartan leaders (o
I>^ be It eiqiressly attributes the bulk of the reforms to "="«^'' «Pl»r™tly hy means of a bribe, and hastened (0 re-
Ephitbes (eh. »S), and mentions Ephialla and Archestralua conquer Euboea; but the other land possessions could not be
u the aoIlKn of the laws which the reactionaries of 404 wughl l«(«,-eted. and in a thirty years truce whith_ was arranged in
UrepeaKdL 31): moreover, it was Ephialtes,' nol Pericles, on W AtheiB defimtey .i^nounced her preilominance in Greece
•irai tba CDnserraUves took revenge as Ihe author of their Proper. Pendes foreign policy henceforward unilerweni it
Jkonfiture. To Zphialtes likewise we must ascribe Ihc P™l<™n<l change-lo consolidate the naval supremacy, or lo
niadatioa of the Spartan alliance and the new league with «»»"'! " '•>' » ««""»" advance, remained his only ambition.
Ann tod Tboaalr U6i). 'The chronoloEy of ihese years .U™-n 10449 i.b« ituiie cenjin.
Tj lZ_ -ii_ -._7T.. >).«. P„v;,i.™ r.n v.,. .1.. ,<._» ' Anabon>vcfip«lilionlorch«tjleaTb.«ili.in(«in« iiiobaUy
S* loof after, bDWEver, when Ephialta fcH by the dagger, ,[„ ^^g, „ (|,S^j«,r; there Is aiu ciidenci: ihji Aihi'ni inia-
nnda andoghtEdly aMnmed the leading position in tbe slate, fcrcd in a wv bctwcL-n ScUbob and SweHa la Sldly about lUs
'Hi BBC have been boni beforg 485-^484. in which yean his time.
■Wr va* amacixd. On ihr other hand, Plutarch dncribia him (The "peace of Callias" is perhaps a Action of the 4th cenlury
'* >■■ . ■ ., orators. All the earlier evidence E0« to ihuw Ihal only an infurnud
. 1 CKS Ms jmbably misled hlstonani undEr^Ialulini; waa arrived al, bucd oa Ibc di Jacu inability of
» at lbs time. Even the Caul. Al*. eiihcr power to cripple Ibe oiher Ck« Cnios).
n. ok nme pRm^Ilvea from the ' 44B wens the moiil likely dale, before 460 Pericles' biflumre
*« onieeture beard on Aria. I^J. Ii. 9 was as yel too small ; 4te-4SI were years of war. After 445 At htm
li»i Mi«r -EMXtv !■«<<»■ .•! nvX«. was hardly in a autition to siimmaii such a coniiRU. and xvuld
■M ■Hhing. Plutaieh. who ii clearly not have leal 10 cnvui'i aul of :o 10 northern and rrntral Greere.
Mb brilluiice, makes him suddenly bunt when she had luil IciM all her influence : nor i< it likely that the
^ hiahisi place for 40 years (i«. from building of the Vanhcnon (begun not later than 447) waa enteitd
ft) tatoolef i'erick*. on before ibc congmL la
14-6
PERICLES
While scouting the projects of the extreme Radicals for interfering
in distant countries, he occasionally made a display of Athens'
power abroad, as in his expedition to the Black Sea,* and
in the colonization of Thurii,' which marks the resumption of a
Western policy.
The peaceful development of Athenian power was interrupted
by the revolt of Samos in 440. Pericles himself led out a fleet
against the seccders and, after winning a first engagement,
unwisely divided his armament and allowed one squadron to be
routed. In a subsequent battle he retrieved this disaster, and
after a long blockade reduced the town itself. A demand for
help which the Samians sent to Sparta was rejected at the
instance of the Corinthians.
Turning to Pericles' policy towards the members of the
Delian League, we find that he frankly endeavoured to turn the
allies into subjects (see Delian League). A ^)ecial feature
of his rule was the sending out of numerous deruchies (9.9.),
which served the double purpose of securing strategic points
to Athens and converting the needy proletariate of the capital
into owners of real property. The land was acquired either by
confiscation from disaffected states or in exchange for a lowering
of tribute. The chief cleruchies of Pericles are: Thradan
Chersonese (453-452), Lemnos and Imbros, Andros, Naxos and
Eretria (before 447); 'Brea in Thrace (446); Oreus(445); Amisus
and Astacus in the Black Sea (after 440); Aegina (431)*
! In his home policy Pericles carried out more fuUy Ephialtes'
project of making the Athenian people truly self-governing.
His chief innovation was the introduction of payment from the
public treasury for state service. Chief of all, he provided a
remuneration of i to 2 obols a day for the jurymen, probably
in 451.* Similarly he created a"theoricon" fund which enabled
"poor dtizens to attend the dramatic representations of the
Dionysia. To him we may also attribute the 3 obols pay which
the soldiers received during the Peloponnesian War in addition
to the old-established provision-money. The archons and
members of the boul£, who certainly recdved remuneration in
411, and also some minor magistrates, were perhaps paid for
the first time by Pericles. In connexion with this system of
salaries should be mentioned a somewhat reactionary law
carried by Pericles in 451, by which an Athenian parentage
on both sides was made an express condition of retaining the
franchise and with it the right of sitting on paid juries. The
measure by which the archonship was opened to the third and
(practically) to the fourth class of dtizens (the Zeugitae and
Thctes) may also be due to Pericles; the date is now known to be
457 (Const. Ath. 26; and see Arcuon).
The last years of his life were troubled by a new period of
storm and stress which called for his highest powers of calculation
and self-control. A conflict between Corcyra and Corinth, the
second and third naval powers of Greece, led to the simultaneous
appearance in Athens of an embassy from either combatant
(433). Pericles had, as it seems, resumed of late a plan of
Western expansion by forming alliances with Rhegium and
Leontini, and the favourable position of Corcyra on the trade-
route to Sicily and Italy, as well as its powerful fleet, no doubt
helped to induce him to secure an alliance with that island,
and so to commit an unfriendly act towards a leading repre-
sentative of the Peloponnesian League. Pericles now seemed to
have made up his mind that war with Sparta, the head of that
^ The date can hardly be fixed ; probably it was after ^o.
* It has been doubted whether Pericles favoured this enterprise,
but among its chief promoters were two of his friends, Lampon
the soothsayer and Hippodamus the architect. The oligarch
Cratinus (in a frag, of the ^vy&bn) violently attacks the whole
project.
* These dates arc sug^tcd by the decrease of tribute which the
inscriptions prove for tnis year.
* Tnis is the date given bv the Const. Ath.t which also mentions
a iia^^t^M^ T&p iuarruA (Blass' restoration) in frag. c. 1 8.
The confused story of Philochorus and Plutarch, by^ which 4760
dtizens were disfranchised or even sold into slavery in 4^5, when
an Egyptian prince sent a largess of com, may refer to a subsequent
application of Pericles' law, though probably on a much milder
acsile than is here represented.
League, had become inevitable. In the foUowing qxing lit
fastened a quarrel upon Potidaea, a town in Chalddice, whidl«
was attached by ancient bonds to Corinth, and in the campaign
which followed Athenian and Corinthian troops came to Uowt.
A further casus heUi was provided by a decree forbidding the
importation of Megarian goods into the Athenian Empire,* pre-
sumably in order to punish Megara for her alliance with Corinth
(spring 432). The combined complaints of the injured partita
led Sparta to summon a Pdoponnesian congress which decided
on war against Athens, failing a concession to Megara and
Corinth (autumn 432). In this crisb Pericles persuaded the
wavering assembly that compromise was useless, because Sparta
was resolved to predpitate a war in any case. A further embassy
calling upon the Athenians to expd the accursed family of the
Alcmaeonidae, dearly aimed at Pericles himself as its chief
representative, was left unheeded, and eariy in 431 hostilities
began between Athens and Sparta and their respective allkt
(see Peloponnesian Was).
At the same time, Pericles was being sorely hampered by hb
adversaries at home. The orthodox Conservatives and some
democrats who were jealous of his influence, while afraid
to beard the great statesman himself, combined to assail hb
nearest friends. The sculptor Pheidias (^.p.) was prosecuted on
two vexatious charges (probably in 433), and bdore be could
disprove the second he died under arrest. Anaxagoraa was
threatened with a law against atheists, and fdt compeUed to
leave Athens. A scandalous charge against his mistress Abasia,
which he defeated by his personal intercession before the oourt»
was taken very much to heart by Perides. His position at
home scarcely improved during the war. His policy of aban-
doning the land defence was unpopular with the lutd-owning
section of the people, who from the walls of Athens could see
their own property destroyed by the invaden. At the end of
the first year of war (early in 430) Perides made a great appeal
to the pride of his countrymen in his well-known funeral speeda.
But in the ensuing summer, after a terrible outbreak of plague
had ravaged the crowded city, the people became thorou|^y
demoralized. Pericles led a large squadron to harry the coasts
of the Peloponnese, but met with little success. On his return
the Athenians sued for peace, though without success, and a
speech by Pericles had little effect on their spirits. Late in 430
they deposed him from his magistracy. In addition to tUft
they prosecuted him on a charge of embezzlement, and imposed
a fine of 50 talents. A revulsion of feeling soon led to his leiii-
statement, apparently with extraordinary powers. But the
plague, which had carried off two of his sons and a sister, had
left its mark also on Pericles himself. In the autumn of 429 he
died* and was buried near the Acadcmia, where Pausanias (150
A.D.) saw his tomb. A slightly idealized portrait of Perides
as strategus is preserved to us in the British Museum busi.
No. 549, which is a good copy of the well-known bronze originsl.
by Cr^ilas.
If we now endeavour to give a general estimate of PericW-
character and achievements, it will be well to consider the many
departments of his activity one by one. In his foreign policy
Pericles difl^ers from those statesmen of previous generatioas
who sought above all the welfare of Greece as a whcJe. His
standpoint was at all times purely Athenian. Nor did he com-,
bine great statesmanlike qualities with exceptional ability in tBa
field. We may clearly distinguish two periods In his adminis- ^
tration of foreign affairs. At first, joining to Cimon*s anil* j
Persian ambitions and Themistodes' schemes of Western eipaB*
sion a new policy of aggression on the mainland, he endeavoured
to push forward Athenian power in every direct ion^ and tpftfrf
himsdf alike in Greece Proper, in the Levant and in Sid^f.
After Cimon's death he renounced the war against Rersia, and
the collapse of 447-445 had the effect of completing his dianie
* The general impression in Greece was that this decree was dis
proximate cause of the war. The scurrilous motives whidi
phanes sug^^ts for this measure can be entirely disregarded.
* His dymg boast, that " no Athenian had put on OM
through his doing." perhaps refers to his forbearance towards
poUti^ rivals, whom he refused to ruin by protecuttoo.
«( BttitiMlf. Heuecfuinud be nprnscd ill prafecU of recUen
vtcrpne, and conGiKil himwlf to tie gndati eipansion ud
CMBoliilatioa of Uk empEre. It it Dot quite asy to see why he
ihawliiTil tha ncccBf uJ policy Id oniei to luilen on ft wu wilb
SpArta, tad sdtbcT the Coiryma allivicc nor the Meguion
deme leBiB ^indfiRi by tbe fuu u known to iu, Ihougb lom-
«eiuil motirea may have played a put which we cannot now
faace. In hii adt^tkui <j a pludy defensive policy at the
twy""*-! al Ibe Pd^DD«*laii War, be miKalculiled the tempci
of the Alheniaai, wboae monle would bave been better luslained
bgr a pcaUt iliow ol icliviiy. But in Che main hit pobcy in
4JI-41Q wai Mnuid, and Ibe disasien of the vu cannot fairly
be laid to hit charge. Tlie foundition of denicbict wu an
■dminhlc device, •rbicb In oiany wayi inticipited tbe colonial
■yitcm a( tbe Roman*.
In Ut attitude towardi the metnben of the Deliao League
fiericlei Hkewiie maintauitd a purely Athenian point of view.
But be could batdly be taid ictioualy (o have oppieued tbe
Hbjecl dtia. and tecbnically all the League tnoney was ipeot
SB Lcacue bmincM, for Athena, to whom tbe duel monumenti
b Atboa *cte leaied, wa> tbe patroti goddeu of the League.
Under Peridci Atbeu alio attained her greateit measure
td coBmeidal protpeiity, and tbe activity af her tnden ill
vicr tbr Levant, tbe Black Sea and the Wot, ii at retted not
only by Iitetai7 autboiity, but alio by DUQemus Artie coini,
policy hu been much debated lince ancient
enactmenu relate to the payment of dtiiem
TheH meaaun have been interpreted u an
It, then,
icmplatcd the good of hia fellow.counriymeD, and
re that be endeavoured to icali» that ideal Atheni
^dd Hiaqrdidei iketchei In the Funeral Speech — an Atheni
vbcn fiee and intelligent obedience ii rendered to an equitable
code of lawi, irtiere merit finda its way to tbe front, where
velopment in
actnedancawith tbiiachcme Ferideauugbt to educate tbe whole
cottsmnlty to pohtical wiidom by giving to all an active ihare
ta tbe tmRuaent, and to train their aeilhelic tastes by making
taibk tbe bctt drama and muilc. It waa most unfortunate
I Ibt PdopDnoeiiaD War ruined this great project by
ening tbe large luppUa of money wbich were essential
it, and canfronting tbe remodelled Athenian deniDcrecy,
ere it could di^ienie with bis tutebge, with i seriea of
taiicaie questions ^ foreign policy wbich, in view ol its in-
' — 't could hardly have been expected to grapple
FBldet abo IncurTed unpopularity bccauie of his ntioaalism
h idifiooi malten; yet Athens in bit time was becoming ripe
i> the new culture, and would have done better to receive it
len o( his dicle — Aiuiiagaras, Zeno, Protagoras and Melon
1 from tbe more inevonsibic sophists. The infuence of
a 00 Athenian thought, thongb denounced unsparingly
I bf ttoM critici, may indeed have been bcnefidni, inasmuch as
\ kloded towards the emandpalion of the Attic woman from the
:rict tutelage In which the was kept. As a patron of
-rides wat a still grealet force. Hii poUcy in epcauraging
I IkdriBU has already been mentioned: among his friends he
I Md count three of the greatest Greek writers— the poet
I ^koda and tbe historians Herodotus and Thucydidts.
^ s Ekewise is responsible for the epoch-making splendour
c art In liit time, for had he not so fully appreciated and
, - md flee scope to tbe genius of Pheidiai, Athens would
I •■■■r han witoeiaed tha raising of the Parthenon and other
I ftiil ttmctnrcs, and Attic ail could not have hoisted a
I 't^ of fiat-rate sculptors of whom Alcamenes, Agoracrilus
Ndhoains are only the chief names. (See also Gieee Abt.)
ttfltdck*' pcnooalcbancterittlci we hive • peculiuly lull
PERIGEE— PERIGUEUX 149
snoy and with his brother Scipion founded a bank in Paris, politique (1863), dealing with the interaction of political in-
tbe speculations of which he directed while Sdpion occupied stitutions and finance. He contested Grenoble unsuccessfully
bimsdf with its administration. He opposed the ruinous m 1863 against the imperial candidate, Casimir Royer; and
methods by which the due de Richelieu sought to raise the war failed again for Aube in 1869. In 1871 he was returned by thiee
indemnity demanded by the Allies, in a pamphlet Rifiexions departments to the National Assembly, and elected to sit for
tMf U projct d'emprunt (181 7), followed in the same year by Aube. He was minister of the interior for a few months in
Derniercs rifiexions . . in answer to an inspired article in the 1871-1872, and his retirement deprived Thiers of one of the
Moniieur. In the same year he entered the chamber of deputies strongest elements in his cabinet. He also joined the short-
for Paris, taking his seat in the Left Centre with the moderate lived ministry of May 1873. He consistently opposed all efforts
opposition, and making his first speech in defence of the freedom in the direction of a monarchical restoration, but on the definite
of the press. Re-dected for Paris in 182a and 1824, and in constitution of the republic became a life senator, declining
1827 for Paris and for Troyes, he elected to represent Troyes, MacMahon's invitation to form the first cabinet under the new
and sat for that constituency until his death. P6rier's violence constitution. He died in Paris on the 6th of June 1876.
in debate was not associated with any disloyalty to the monarchy. For the family in general see E. Choulet, La FamiUe Canrntr*
and he held resolutely aloof from the republican conspiracies Porter (Grenoble, 1894).
and intrigues which prepared the way for the revolution of PERIOBB (Gr. mpl, near, 79> the earth), in astronomy that
1830 Under the Martignac ministry there was some prospect point of the moon's orbit or of the sunis apparent orbit at
of a reconciliation with the court, and in January 1829 he was which the moon or sun i4>proach nearest to the earth. The
nominated a candidate for the presidency of the chamber; but sun's perigee and the earth's perihelion are so related that they
in August with the elevation to power of Polignac the truce differ x8o' in longitude, the fint being on the line from the earth
ceased, and on the 15th of March 1830 he was one of the toward the sun, and the second from the sun toward the earth.
321 deputies who repudiated the pretensions put forward by The longitude of the solar perigee is now toi', that of the earth's
ChaiiesX. Averse by instinct and by interest to popular revolu- perihelion 281".
tion be nevertheless sat on the provisory commission of five at PtelOORD, one of the old provinces of France, formed part
the h<ytd-de-ville during the days of July, but he refused to sign of the military government of Guienne and Gascony, and was
the declaration of Charles X.'s dethronement. P6rier reluctantly bounded on the N. by Angoumois, on the E. by Limousin and
recognized in the government of Louis Philippe the only altema- Quercy, on the S. by Agenais and Bazadais, and on the W.
tivetotbecontinuanceof the Revolution; but he was no favourite by Bordelais and Saintonge. It is now represented by the
with the new king, whom he scorned for his truckling to the mob. departments of Dordogne and part of Lot-et-Garonne. P6rigord
He became president of the chamber of dq}uties, and sat for was in two divisions: P^rigord blanc (cap. Pdrigueux) and
a few numths in the cabinet, though without a portfolio. On P6rigord noir (cap. Sarlat). In the time of Caesar it formed
the fan of the weak and discredited ministry of Laiffitte, Casimir the civitas Petrocariorum, with Vesiuina (P6rigueux) as its
P€ricr, wbo had drifted more and more to the Right, was capital. It became later part of Aquitania secunda and formed
summoned to power (March 13, 1831), and in the short space the pagtu petragaricus, afterwards the diocese of P6rigueux.
oC a year he restored dvic order in France and re-established Since the 8th century it had its own counts (see the Uistoire
her credit in Eurc^^e. Paris was in a constant state of disturb- ginialogique of P. Anselme, tome iii.), who were feudatories of
ance from March to September, and was only hdd in check by the dukes of Aquitaine and in the 13th century were the vassals
the premier's determination; the workmen's revolt at Lyons of the king of England. In the 15th century the county passed
was suppressed after hard fighting; and at Grenoble, in face of into the hands of the dukes of Orleans, and in the i6th came
the qoarrds between the military and the inhabitants, P^er to the family of d'Albret, becoming Crown land again on the
denned to make any concession to the townsfolk. The minister accession of Henry IV.
trfiaed to be dragged into armed intervenUon in favour of the Sce Dessalles. HisUrire in Ptrigori (x888), the Bulletin of the
revolutionary government of Warsaw, but his policy of peace SociMkistoriqueetarclUohncMdu PMgord (i67A.»eq.),rin9entairt
£d not ezdude energetic demonstrations in support of French sommaire dela" Collection de Pirigord " in the Biblioth^ue nationale
bttnests. He conMituted F^ce the protector of Belgium ^^'^^.'^^g^t'^^^'lt^^^
by the prompt expedition of the army of the north against the ^ J^ *«»"»» «« wuqjuw vio/j^.
Dutch in August 1831; French influence in Italy was asserted PBRIOUBUX, a town of south-western France, formerly
by the audacious occupation of Ancona (Feb. 23, 1832); and capital of the old province of P^rigord, now chid town of the
the refusal of compensation for injuries to French residcnU by department of Dordogne, 79 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux, on the
the Portuguesegovemment was followed by a naval dcmonstra- railway between that dty and Limoges. Pop. (1906), 28,199.
tioB at Lisbon. P6rier had undertaken the premiership with The town, situated on an eminence on the right bank of the
■My forebodings, and overwork and anxiety prepared the way Isle, is divided into three parts. On the slope of the hill is
fcr disease. In the spring of 1832 during the cholera outbreak the medieval town, bordered south-east by the river and on the
is Paris, he visited the hospitals in company with the duke of other three sides by esplanades and promenades; to the west
Orleans. He fell ill the next day of a violent fever, and died w the modem town, which stretches to the station; to the south
ax weeks later, on the x 6th of May 1832. of the modem town is the old Roman town or ciU^ now traversed
^ His p^*i»«ww«<f«e«wr* were edited by A. Ledeur (2 vols.. 1838); by the railway. _^ _ . . . . ,, , ,^ , . . ,,
C NioMilbud pabli»bed in 1804 the first part (Casimir-PMer, Three bndges connect P&igueux with the left bank of the
iipnti de fop^sition, 1817^1830) of a study of his life and policy; Isle, where stood Vesunna, the capital of the Petrocorii. Hardly
aad kis ministry is exhaustively treated by Thureau-Dangin m a trace of this old Gallic town remains, but not far off, on the
yRis.'uAxidn.{i^)<3ih3AHistoiredelam(marckUdejuiUeU Plateau de la Boissiire, the rampart of the old Roman camp
Ha dder son, Aucitste Victor Laitkent Casdcir P£rier can still be traced. On the right bank of the Isle, in the Roman
(181X-X876), the father of President Casimir-P£rier (see Casimir- dty, there have been discovered some baths of the ist or 2nd
Pfxm), entered the diplomatic service, being attached sue- century, supplied by an aqueduct four miles long, which spanned
eesBvdy to the London, Brussels and St Petersburg embassies, the Isle. A drcular building, called the " Tower of Vesunna,"
tad in 1843 became minister plenipotentiary at Hanover. 68 ft. in diameter and 89 ft. in hdght, stands at what was
Ib X846 he resigned from the service to enter the legislature formerly the centre of the dty, where all the chief streets met.
as deputy for the department of Sdne, a constituency which It is bdieved to have been originally the cella or main part of
he exchanged for Aube after the Revolution of 1848. On the a temple, probably dedicated to the tutdary deities of Vesunna.
CMablisbxnent of the Second Empire he retired temporarily Of the amphitheatre there still remain huge fragments of wall
from public life, and devoted himself to economic questions on and vaulting. The building had a diameter of 1312 ft., that
wUdi be pah&hcd a series of works, noUbly Lu Finances etla of the arena being 870 ft.; and, judging from iu construction.'
'50
PERIHELION— PERINO DEL VAGA
must be as old u the 3rd or even the and century. The counts
of P^rigueux used it for their chiteau, and lived in it from the
lath to the end of the 14th century. In 1644 it was given over
by the town to the Order of the Visitation, and the sisters took
from it the stones required for the construction of their nunnery.
The most remarkable, however, of the ruins of the cUi is the
Chftteau Barridre, an example of the fortified houses formerly
common there. Two of its towers date from the 3rd or 4th
century, and formed part of the fortified enceinte; the highest
tower is of the loth century; and the part now inhabited is
of the zzth or xath century, and was formerly used as a burial
chapel. The bulk of the ch&teau is of the zath, and jome of
the windows of the i6th century.
The chief medieval building in the ciU is the church of St
£tienne, once the cathedral. It dates from the zzth and lath
centuries, but suffered much injury at the hands of the Pro-
testants in the religftus wars when the tower and two of the
three cupolas were destroyed. The choir and its cupola were
skilfully restored in the zyth century. A fine carved wooden
reredos of the 17th century and a tomb of a bishop of the
tath century are to be seen in the interior. In the medieval
town, known as Le Puy-St-Front, the most remarkable building
is the cathedral of St Front, which, iill its restoration, or rather
rebuilding, in the latter half of the zpth century when the old
features were to a great extent lost, was of unique architectural
value. It bears a striking resemblance to the Byzantine
churches and to St Mark's at Venice, and according to one theory
was built from 984 to Z047, contemporaneously with the latter
(977-108$). It consists of five great cupolas, arranged in the
form of a Greek cross, and conspicuous from the outside. .The
arms of the cross are 69 ft. in width, and the whole is Z84 ft.
long. These cupolas, 89 ft. high from the keystone to the
ground, are supported on a vaulted roof with pointed arches
after the manner characteristic of Byzantine architecture.
The pointed arches imitated from it prepared the way for the
introduction of the Gothic style. Adjoining St Front on the
west are the remains of an old basilica of the 6th century, above
which rises the belfry, the only one in the Byzantine style now
extant. It dates from the zith century, and is composed of
two massive cubes, placed the one above the other in retreat,
with a drciilar coloimade surmounted by a dome. To the
south-west of St Front, the buildings of an old abbey (zzth to
z6th century) surround a cloister dating chiefly from the Z3th
century. Of the fortificatiozis of Puy St Front, the chief relic
Is the Tour Mataguerre (z4th century).
P6rigueux is seat of a bishop, prefect and court of assizes,
and has tribuzials of first instance and of commerce, a chamber
of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. Its
educational establishments include a \ycie for boys, trainixig
colleges for both sexes and a school of drawing. The trade of
the town is in pigs, truffles, flour, brandy, poiiltry and pics
known as pdUs de Ptrigord.
Vesunna was the capital of the Pctrocorii, allies of Vercinge-
torix when Caesar invaded Gaul. The country was afterwards
occupied by the Romans, who built a second dty of Vesuzma
on the right bank of the Isle opposite the site of the Gallic town.
The barbarian invasion brought this prosperity to a close. St
Front preached Christianity here in the 4th century and over
his tomb there was raised a monastery, which became the centre
of the new town called Le Puy St Front. The cUi was pillaged
by the Saracens about 73 z, and in 844 the Normans devastated
both quarters. The new town soon began to rival the old dty
in importance, and it was not until za40 that the attempts
of the counts of Ptrigord and the bishops to infringe on their
municip>al privileges brought about a treaty of union. During
the Hundred Years' War, P6rigueux was twice attacked by the
English, who took the cUi in Z356; and the whole town was
ceded to them by the Treaty of Britigny, but returned to the
French Crown in the reign of Charles V. The county passed
by marriage into the hands of Anthony of Bourbon, father
of Henry IV., and was converted by the latter into royal
domain. During the Huguenot wars Pirigueux was frequently
a stronghold of thft Calvinists, who in zs7S did great
destruction there, and it also suffered during the troubles of
the Fronde.
PERIHELION (Gr. ir^, near, i^Xtos, sun), in astronomy, the
point of nearest approach of a body to the sun. (See Osbit.)
PERIM, a British island in the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. at
the entrance to the Red Sea, and 96 m. W. by S.of Aden.
Perim is a m. from the Arabian shore, is about 3I m. long with
an average breadth of over a mile and covers some 7 sq. m.
There is a good harbour with easy entrance on the south side
with a depth of water from 2$ to 30 ft. It is largely used by
mercantile vessels as a coaling-station and for taking in stores,
induding fresh -water and ice. Perim, the Diodoros island of
the Periplus, was, in consequence of the French occupation
of Egypt, garrisoned from Z799 to z8oz by a British force. In
view of the construction of the Suez Canal and the increasing
importance of the Red Sea route to India the island was annexed
to Great Britain in Z857, fortified and placed under the
charge of the Aden residency. In z86z a lighthouse was built
at its eastern end. Submarine cables connect the islazid with
Aden, Egypt and Zanzibar. Population, induding a garrison
of 50 sepoys, about aoo.
PERINO DEL VAOA (Z500-Z547), a painter of the Roman
school, whose true name was Perino (or Piero) Buonaocossl
He was bom near Florence on the a8th of June zsoa His
father ruined himself by gambling, and became a soldier in the
invading army of Charles VIIL His mother dying when be
was but two months old, he was suckled by a she-goat; but
shortly afterwards he was taken up by his father's second wife.
Perino was first apprenticed to a druggist, but soon passed into
the hands of a mediocre painter, Andrea da Ceri, and, when
eleven years of age, of Slidolfo Ghirlandajo. Perino rapidly
surpassed his fellow-pupils, applying himself especially to the
study of Michelangelo's great cartoon. Another mediocre
painter, Vaga from Toscandla, undertook to settle the boy in
Rome, but first set him to work in Toscanella. Perizzo, when
he at last reached Rome, was utterly poor, and with zio clear
prospect beyond journey-work for trading decorators. He,
however, studied With great severity and spirit from Michelangelo
and the antique, and was eventually entrusted with some of
the subordinate work undertaken by Raphad in the Vatican.
He assisted Giovanni da Udine in the stucco and arabesque
decorations of the loggie of the Vatican, and executed some of
those small but finely composed scriptural subjects which go
by the name of " Raphad's Bible " — Raphad himself fuxnishizig
the designs. Perino's examples are: "Abraham about to
sacrifice Isaac," "Jacob wrestling with the Angel," " Joseph
and his Brethren," the " Hebrews crossing the Jordan," the
" Fall and Capture of Jericho," " Joshua commanding the Sua
to stand stUl," the " Birth of Christ," " His Baptism " and
the " Last Supper." Some of these are in bronze-tint, while
others are in full colour. He also painted, after R^>had's
drawings, the figures of the planets in the great haU of the
Appartamenti Borgia. Perino exhibited very uncomzzion faculty
in these works and was soon regarded as second ozily to Giuho
Romano among the great painter's assistants. To Raphad
hiznsdf he was always exceedingly respectful and attentive,
and the master loved him almost as a son. He executed maiqr
other works about Rome, always displayizig a certain mixture
of the Florentine with the Roman style.
After Raphad's death in zsao a troublous period ensued fot
Perino, with a plague which ravaged Rome in Z5a3, azid again
with the sack of that dty in z 5 37. Then he accepted an invito*
tion to Genoa, where he was employed in decorating the Dofli
l*alace, and rapidly founded a quasi-Roman school of art in ths
Ligurian dty. He ornamented the palace in a style simBir
to that of Giulio Romano in the Mantuan Palazzo del T^ and
frescoed historical and mythological subjects in the apart mcnU^
fanciful and graceful arabesque work, sculptural and arddtac*
tural details — in short, whatever came to hand. Among ths
principal works are: the " War between the Gods azid GiaMi^*
" Horatius Codes defending the Bridge," and the " Ftetitvdt
PERINTHUS— PERIODICALS
ct Ifotlnl Sonob." The mcu impoitaol voii of ill, llic
*> SbipwTmk «( Acntu," it no tenga oUiil. From Ccnoi
htiao lolce viBled Ku, uid begin lome pdntlng in tbc
cubedraL Flsilly be letuined to Rome, vbere Piul IlL
tUovcd bim *. regutu uluy till the painter'* deilb. He
irtonched msnjr ol tbe woik* of lUphul, and laboured fund
ta hs own accaunt, undcniking all aoni of jobt. imponaot
or trivial. Wocking for any pricE, he made large gaini, but (ell
into niechtnka] negligenn. Ferino was engaged in tbe general
dctontioDaf ibe Sala Reale, begun by Paul III., wben his healtb,
r conalant work and aa conitant iiregularitiea,
in the iglh of October 1547.
idAdnadel Smilo. Manv , ..
Uion tleiinie. Daniele RkdanlU. Cimlamo Sldolaiile da Ser-
■BBeta, LnaiD RDmaim and ManxUo VeanKJ (Maotovano) were
(oasc llU jxindpal IKSanu. (W. M. R.)
pnaiTBUS (Turk. EiU Eiifii, old Berulea), an asdent
torn ol Tbsce, an tbePiopoDtia, 11 m. W. nl Selynbila, ilrongly
iitnated on a iraall perunaula on the bay of that name- It ii
aid to have been a Samian colony, fi^unded about j^g b.c
Aaording to Tutia, iti original name wai Mygdonia; later
it mi oJled Ueradea (Heradea Tbradai, Heradea Peiinlbua).
to niibp n. of Macedon
riBIOD {Gr. r
nilaclf.
I going or
untion of time in whJcb a planet levotv
a aatfllite round ita primary, a definite 1
g interval of time marked by lome wped
ler, :t. in hiilory, literature, art, Ac; it
on of geologial time. Particular uic* of tl
arioua pbaia through whidi a disnae paaH
impleted mtcnce, and Ibe mark (.) uied
ee PnHCTUAHOH}.
a genual term for literary publicatioj
vh appear in numben or parti at regular [ntervali of lime-
1 nd^ wedily, monlbly^ or quarterly. Tht
icily
newipaper tbat
. Tbe prcacnt ar
'" (?.*.), but in the ruirower tense usually
■ ' ■ ■ ■ eipnsaioi '
ipapen it
pciodkal publkati
bdiig piimaiGy for the circulation of news
ued at longer intervals. In
as become so much of ibe
m can be called a periodical
. ,. -iefly deals with publications
ad -tT"*"* for the supply of miscellaneous reading. In
tk artide Soorma (f.v.) an account is separately given of
Veu-botAs, almanaci. directories snd otber annuals belong to
1 JBtioct type of publication, and are not referred to hen.
Tbr finr literary periodical in Engliifa was the iltrtwiiu Ubnriia,
. which dealt
but only ten
ilk ef Ltini
-Uved. 1
./.(*. Wo
mot (Dubl
The if lui
[ton 1™
1,1s vols. ;
oTSr^S
boil and Mae
hose polilial
■I Maeaulay.
Biaded lotan
G. Lockhan,
ith, Rowland
152
PERIODICALS
Sir lolui BuTO>, I. WnMA Cnkcr, law Kndi, A. W. Kingkkc, iwt of ihe litenwi
Lora SdirfNTy •»! W. E. GkdMoae.i The WtUmiiuUr BttUm men nurked rotu
maliily wiiii
tobefDUDd
•pcdaUy uU
iSSi. "li™ i> -
quancrty nvlewt worth mentioning an i
IMS), ediHd down to IBM by Jotiih
•upnoTled by the EKMenMni r- ■*-•■■-
Ctnilia* Jbxm^nxur (iSl'
Jj^^^'B '
title. OthR J
LUC tLotaie iUtitw (tB05- j
Conder (1789-1853) ind
BTiHik Knin (1811-IUJ: the
,..Io->M8)i tbe RtOttpeOif Roitw
iBsi-iBm), lotoldboalDi tbe Fmipi QuiuUrly
ing Tpbneuxnt c* tbe ace u
u put of the Trading public- TTie
td by Richard Strek id 1709, and nefci4»
The moDthl;
conducted W
the mgh cImi* literary [DonthJA,
Tbe w«k1y miem doling gmeralty with HlFTatuTT, ncwncc nnd
ut are tht LUinry Caaat (1617-lMj), liril rdil«l bjr Wlliam
•***•"■ BucliinBhani, but aunrmfuliy' Mtablirtrf by C. W.
Ditlv. and lani edited in latR-yeua by SonnaaMacColl (1811-1004).
Diid aftmraniV by Mr Vernqn Rfndall; and the AaJ^y (1669).
Amonc thoee which alfo Include poIiiicaT and aodal topic*, and an
waa not without beneAt
called Tin AOmitii Umxry. t Uh
Qairitl. bcini a penny wrrUy ibci
■upplement. In the lait jsn the pu
be continued " u nan u ever the g
Dtinton waaaaaoed by Richard Saull
Kbkw (1704-17131 dealt chiefly with |
iniroduction In It ol vhil Ita editor fiti
all dead at '
Dennu^Si
>k place In I JS&, when tbe latter wntt
(- that year» DoteTvina that tbe maganae
[wenlv imiuiiona ol it, which an eitkf
liiile i^ardcd. '"- -* --_■_- t..-.
'n and Germany,
' * '■ -- ' ■- > minrt ,„.„,, «,«,„«»4^ „
Lo have been the &«
or Tnukt'i UnmOD
satdcd. The plan waa 1
The bailemm:
I, David Keniy,
^appeaa-- '- -
■ The centenary of tbe Edfuiiirflt
anicle in October Ipoi, and that of
anicica April and July 1900. See alao
Uanirti kambrrl nfllu Ediitburili Jim
and T^ Kra EdMargi BtritwiTi i»
™(i89s). by W. A. Cofinger,
Lilnn SlKiitt (1879), vol.
PERIODICALS
■ TTll wu &UiI:ilU/ ifunti'i
U-mlUr wu miduclcd by Si
AlniDtlcr TiiaAi ; die latm il
i« vimtifie ankle* (nun the F
d( >hich date rnm ibe iBth ce
tfdc«t«tf (1766, Kith nhjcb ]« in
■fufeTOs ilahtiia Ifai^iiiu
I17MI. fiuajiAnit ifdHaiu 117931 uikx 190S tne ls«ii(«ifiu
Bnliiib ifuRanun). thcPlul&upkiBil Uaii^ne (i}sg), now kaown
•> Ibe IjnJm. ^iniurtk and Ihibim PkUoapkUiTuat'Kau.
^^ — ^'5"_!_';,L__p.''.J^^ c^irihli'tio
John WUbh (■■
)p the Lcmdon publidier. Colburn, and V coaUin A greal luais of valuable lactL lo that ge. ^
Cartyle'i and Thacknay'i piccei fint apparc the leparate indtu* to puticulu Kiia are nvea in H. B. WbeaileyV
(itjol. kme (amoui lor i» penniuUiiri and Wial ii an Indat (1B79). W. P. Cotinney'i Ri^iUr ^ Nalisial
pcnraita The Uilnpolilan IfntoBM wai BMiefnpliy (190J, 1 vola.}. and tbe lid iif Stoii jinmHt I'M
u f'tirr. and wai Em edited by Canipbell, Xr/frflK> Liiriry in tlw mding [mn of the Biitiih Miueiim (4t^ ed.
Il vibiBiDcnilv tame inio the bandi of Captain Marryatt. who
^) inchided relifiaui and ccrlewaitical inlonuitioa. From
iBtiad came Ihe Dntlin Vninrrnty UatoiM (1833}. Tbe nnilu
Mr. J .1. : i.,u ,. iiie (if„ o( i|„ ebeapcr
. . r— - ,-JJ-I»6l) at ■ ihilllBg. [t
|u Ridicsl in poliiica. and liad Roebuck aa one of Ita fminden.
e maaaxinca waa lialf a cpown: the fir
lit J SlMmrtk Uapmmt (lSjl-I«6l)
« Ridksl in_poliiD;a. and liad Roebuck aa one ol Ita fo
■fsln-i UtKdbny {iSjT-iKBl wa> acbuiyOy devoted to
Bffei liiaaiDiT and tnvcU. Several of Aiaiwonh'a m
Omiol by Cniikiliank. lint a>w the Uglit In Btn^
The
pipibr demand, a'l
Vifiaa. (i«ji-i6j.
lUBirtedje. The 6]
uvht lecuni] Ihc
illowBl'
me rollowBl by
Blhc/uiilyHB
□ London. A fur
ifflau'j Jnnial (la
Itja). cendiKtni b
e.died on Ihe aiat of tooberjgaa. without bi
PERIODICALS
IMtmti HiOar
SriU nun brief
Rttitv CtSit), bfDueZit
tin bdp (A at profcMO
try VTiOim Cobbcn. <
Tbt Knt itMnDM to cujr on u Aibrjcui mkir m* m
Ritert WaUi in ilii u PUUddpUi with tha quwtolr ill
PERIODICALS
156
PERIODICALS
•tuiKB. The Wm Imiiam QaarH^ su publuhedat Gbhj
ma, Briliili Giiiuu. [rem 1M5 to IHS. At Cenetowa w
•0 publiibed the *dl-liiKnni TimAri (|8S»'|B()8) iriuch c«iui»
unportAiit hiator
L 1B71, ud the ['Kifli Uaifmt
Sec F. CiukUI, SiNut»r*u -Too
ortt (l7ai-i;«7], hbr (uniliirly Imoini u tha /Hnuf /«
K, loiig tbc bcM-utlonned and bHt-writBn jouinal in Fnnct.
' ■ wt wu itt muunt appal (or the btenn'
h wat coatinijed in a morr popular atyK
I tl itz btanx-arb (ipA-ijjil by the abU
ithn CutlUwn [1 776-1 7; jj and ai Jnnal
Kci. (< da arti (1779-1781) by tlic ahbt
puUUtaed ia Englia^ The fim hsal psiodical waa lit /«n«l i* fioluli (1671) of Cimdt
Blandrau and Gabtid Guiret, and the fint devoted to naUdiK Ite
ly motea of ai
Cib^to.— Tbt Gnt IndUn pmodiol n> Ibe AaaAk Hit- pe™fi™l"di
tJlaay (Calcutta, 1781-1789), ptvbaUy cttiled by F. Gtadwin. fe*_™'"'
The &lnMiif«ttIyX»ul(rnapublBbcdia 1790. and tbeGi/- T'l >^^);f
CKilM VMliJjr Jtunal lioiD 1798 to liUi. Amonc other early !° " "*> y
» ViMliJy Jtunal Irom 1798 to Itil. Amonc •-
..wcutta nuadaet me the AaaHe MwHr (1813-1814). the
Oniirtiiit]! OtHnltl J/b(»m (i8)4-i8>7}, and the ^ytl SftrUnt
ITiwihm (iSjJ-iajSt. HiaainilaUmrTGbiMkvai publiibed
in iSjo-lSji, and the CUcaOa JShhik itul Ibe bkm [mpoctanl
■rial o( the Indlaa Eaapite, fint appeared in 1846 under tiie edUo^
"Jig,'- "■'*=-
lave place to the Bamiay QiiarAlyKititK'.
ifadnu,— Madn> Iwd a Jom-a rf ZiQ
tba Oritnlal Vofniai aaJ /•^jaa fTurtani (iSiol. The /■£■■
jfufifiHn' vaa ■taned at Bombay {11,1871 and^nltl coiilinuea. '
n '«M.^
Ckitca RctBiilery (1831-1851} «i
St* " Periodical Ulerature Id Id
. and il «■ left ID Denii
Uteraiy «rlo<fl
iide^noicoi
laototype of the luftorico-litaary periodica] may be dii
- '■'-' '- -"t* da prima it FEirpft (1704-1706). fi
dr Fmiw, and canied on under vario
Literary critidnn mat no more Free than political ^jcnv
.—The Bombay l^Kolm mt ataited In 1811 and laated
~ Bamttf QuaHiHy ifa«Au (1831-1853)
"iB«oi» Jtitiw. Imcd in i8j-
Jounioi rf ' ■ ■
. Indian Ob .-.
Bombay in 1871 — _.
.ipataiy maniiiiee t£e HWiutai Suleie (AUihabad),
the JVa^tni Mtw (CslnitU). Ibe /hAm JtsHV (Madni), Ibe
Uaim Baiat, a quarterly fiiM pubOihed in 1895. and the dlcxM
Umhtrtily UatuiiH (1B91), ai^ r~~<— «
&yl*fi.-ln Ceylon the f
— Rarted at Colombo in 1S31. the Cclnmbn MiarnBrnt in
~ ~ ImatitaUr at Kandy ii
(k contemporary manxinea the Tiofiasi A^nddSwriii waa alaned
In lB8i. the Ctylm littrart Klfaltr (lM6-i8o6), r'- '- -■-
UmuUy Uurtry Rtptlir and the&j<iM Mifinu/ JEin
luiu 1B4/ lu iSjg, andtlie
d al Carton by Motrieon.
In Dark Bt— (1871-1875).
We owe the literary jouraal to Fiance, wbeie k aoon attained
to a decree cl iDpoctaace uaapproached in mnf other country.
The Am idea may be liaced in l£e Bimam tadrait (1631-1641) of
TMophraile Reniudot, giving the " ' '-' '
MTzeray obtained a privil^ for a refulai
the parliament of Parii
ind it ini that country
al the ablest periodical
t rdugrea. Durinf that
rut Fiench and En^
he plan <i the Sb^Hh
•hich at ooce beone
urini Ibe three ynn of
Iten. Hemiawxeedol
I and Ledm:. Bayk-a
-ilorioui periodica], the
704) <i H. Banufe da
kJ-".^«!5^-
ifto™ "
™ol'lhe
rt^Q laut pma
., , .__ . ...a effect. The lint nun
ui ia HHflU appeared on ibe sth of Januan' 1
uaumed name of the neuc d'HMovvillt, The nuipeclui
promiicd toeiveanaccouncaf theehief boolia publiahed thiDughoui ^^^
nil de Saint-i^arinth^
e department nnder ite
fcwiifai (I71D;I7#4
do IDT northern EnniH
.England, llwaafolli •
(I7*6-I7S9)- Tie B
_- ealablJtKed by Tacqi
«bat the fiJUwUfw tn'Bi ,_
by the NaKtlU UUh>(%w (e™. ,_ ,.„. .,.,„.
li/fM niumnir da aaratri ia tmvtU (1718-17^) vai nnib-
raenuiy to Lccleir, and war lucceedcd trt the BihtitOttmi ia
icunas H ia bmiatrti (1754-1780). Neatly all o( the (aeenSw
■ere pTDduced either at Amsterdam or Rotterdam, and, ahbo^
out of place in a preciv gcogniphical arrangement, r^ly bdoic
to Fnniz by the doK tin of languan and of blosd.
libiarian of the Btili<li
1740, puUitbcd Kvcral
finlwark,&MlidiiiI>l
PERIODICALS
OiiHa>I,witbtbeIllleat TVluit5#T.~Z4<taDfUw<iB,Ac Tine
U tt mnkla* littfe-unk, anuin niK nhubk
■Bd piJiSdn loKpti Fitvfe (i;67-i8]9). know
•Wl Nuakan I., tu ban auk tbe ubjen fo
- " 1 (CMmfWf - — *
■ maif br Sdnto-Bom (CuwWi.
■TlH murkiMe mu (i«04-iS7]
rihmiil tWo^ tbt dofiiy ol M.
: ihe Bnt nuHibn tppemi in lUa, ludei tb* tilh c( ^<Ii ir
, MriMi (i^Kuimii. and. tilK In u ' '- '-
158 PERIODICALS
both KricHii rivati of ibc itnu Ja itux mnia; finni /nHui'w 1
■CEiimtaii™ (1B97): «"«« jffiMiiwiB (luoj): U Litn (iSBo), (.._ , .
dealing wilh biblMgraphy and lil^rary hitlDry, and £4 Kfnif iaiiiH AdUdg the COntributon U
(1911:), no longer puUiihcd: Iji Afk, montlilir. S«lund(irf aiid CelUriiH. A voiuim came out cocB year. >»k
ifaiihnufici.— /iiIiFiiifiliiiirr dd moUcKiiiliiiciii (if)94)i BnlUlix mpf^aocmu After editini about IbiRy voIuih Mcnckc died,
1 (IS96>; Acme tfc iNiilA'iiuligiici iMfioIci tuviBK the puUicaiion to bia nn, and the Atta remained io [be
maligna puici £l apfliiiii4'ca. qijuntjfy. pomMioB (4 the family down to 174S. when tbey eueoded to 117
mHaiMt (1M1I; Aanalcj dt ffuft dc vnlumn, which fond an eiliemcly valoable hiuory ol the Icaralnf
r (1 ^ Morniuif d( Uaritilli (iBgi]: La of the period. Aiekctinnol the disenaliou and aiticle* wu pub-
H: lUi-nt ii U-ilaloti^. lamatM^; La liihedat Vimicein 7 voh. 4ti> (17^0). The XW hob had imiuion.
: J«ir-uUd-kni/nr, moniMy. The ^mtriiri Jifbrn^m (i6M) cane out at Himbun in Utia
Ueupa ulanula, monlhlyi La Kan and French. The Nami Ullmrla ■wrii Bullliki M Siflnlrimu
Samt fUiMit ft de mUnc MHtiialt UBivn^Iln of Kiel, Kuituck and bwpat. Sunplnncntary to the
K.- £( J/JwUnf, mkly. pceeediBt waa the tIfM liUcrana drrmaiitu laOttla Sa^Hrri
iilmili7n-igai}: BiiUiaiilaiaciilt (im-iTug), which from 1707 vidcnnJ iu &>» of view to the whole
I BuUtltm ia Immaamijraitfiia (iSM)! nf Eunfie. At Lvipiig vai prulun'd the Tialickt lula rmdilem
BiMin Mit» (1901): UitCm^SiM- tlT"}. ■" cnxilenl pnioJiul, cdiinl by J. C. Rabener and C C.
03); Li UaSIrt ^JbnAifW (1W6]; Lt Jdcbcr.andcDniinuedCrani 174a to i7j8uZintrfiUii(f /faclncUn,
In rnuiituKt (191111 ; Acw «r lamtM It included jBRialti.
InAHtBfrKfmflllNIJiJIrvH The brillunt and cntcrpriiiaE Christian Thoniavui hnHighl out
eiapisrltn pipiilaint{\v)i periodically, in ilialofue Inrni, hit Uiiwlifitprailie (1688-1(90),
Raa its frumi (ISS?)! iunre UiMuFgw (1894); Jtnuc offifw. written by hinnelf in the vcmaculac. to defend hit novel theina
qtunrrly; Rccudr ftiMscu/'siicaiicddi JiWroliin. uainM the aLinned pedantry of Germany, and, tonlher with
Pkilosopky nnd Piytkolity. — Ram pUIouHiaiit (1S76). Stuhl, Duddcuiand oihen. Oiirruifinfjfn&rlaioJrnifiUiwtui
monlhlyi Axntlit ia xinat ptychinii (1891): L'ABult iiilt- ipHltnla (I7W>). wrillcn in Latin. W. E. Tenid abo pi^ikd
afkiiut (1890), critical and analytical review o( all philoeoplucal Utmttklit t/nfrrredanmi Ott^-ifoi). continued fnim 17O14 at
woria appcarinit durine the year; L'AniUt ^vcUd(hk (1II94); OirifiiK KUisOft. and Iiearini nrioui lubfccti in dialone fecm.
./(■nuf ii ptythitinU xitrmai tt HIMefir (iVH); OnlUlU it Alter the death of TcBiel the AiWiiiMct wu cwried on under diSer-
riiiililiil ]iiilna di Siycknlcpt (1903^! Sam St HyfaiHiimt 11 dt ent titlciby C Woltereck, J. G. Knuw and olhen; down to 1711.
Jb psytkoiopm pknteloriqMg (ttjdo); Ram it mtiapkytiqiu tt dt Ol much Eieater Impoftance than thne wai the UoiiatftcWr Xunf
wnw (>t9J): A>K 3( ^Uisw^tif (19CO); Kam it piyciiatrit (170O. nipported by J. C. EccardandLcibniu. Another perisdial
(|B»]. nn ThonUMUi'a pbn wai Nim Unumdiapit (17DI), edited by
^Inict mi Cliimiilri.^Bidlclim it) wirerii ^ytljms (iBMI; N. H. Gundling. The CiindfiaiKiu of the liller nnnn, pubMHA
L'Bdtiian cfnin'tw (1844); Lt Rudiim (19114); Ktint tltifmlt da 1 Laiin and puthr !■
ttirxa ptm d apptiquca (11190); Jtam pralitm it TiUdriii'' " ■.— ■— -*
finpJar mi FamOy gaiaa.—A Iratrrl It ma,it (1898!
ftmina (iwi<); It tail f»f (■9(>S): La Lttlurt moirnt (1901); L
Anw MiimaJaat (|89»1 Ln Liitum pear ton (■89«J: il'
fcilbar<IOIU)i £4 l'i(t(iireiiH(l9U]).
5cnw( (General).— £4 .VuIhk, weekly, JternF ]Ei(nli;!lw (1861), rthe name oC Mkm.
weekly; La Stitait /ranaiit, monlhly.— &iinn (Applied)-. £11 ly Elttujarit pnlM
iRnNnl Wmlr^i, wefldy; Kant MuaritUi, wrrify.—Stinut Jli-n'jl.ttBietaBtg
(ttMimt}:Ari>iimdttMnit,Ji-iinulirMKtiqiii(i»ll7i:VA<tmit Ine by Oir •airMutft
hWofrfiK (189s); Stent ill tliiBrti nafurrffs it FtntM <l8ai): tlril (171S), andtdu-
.. >_t__i. r. ■-■-aim, ((B«9):£«pB(i(iiaiiPl^ra(i(m (1*95). — already been made la
:io)«inl and SutiwicaDi Ainaltl ftmtmifat iTot)! Ih* Umatidm
■-'- in iMj); L'Amn^itciihAmt ■■•S'.'<!^
.,^ (189s); Rtew ill uiiBrii ntmriBa it rtrtU (iftii); alriM (171
tfnlralt it Moainw (18*9) ; Lt Patkallim pntifm (1)95). — already t
._ ,B_K,^,, <.-:-Wical andButiMical)jil»«*nfteiwinww« 1704); th
irmmmiiili in iSBj); L'Annh itciihAmt aliciencc
r lofii, da inr.-aU'nti; aattHU it f^t icy Halle..,
i9Di);trJiriiinr«ni(iii(iufiifr— intemalional In Germany. Other
..',,. ,1 — »!.. — 1_. J. r.x,. j~ I .1 ^»~.;~. Ilambv-
\itq6~itni; Biaiiii:! Ji l-Bffiii da inmiUnn^iaidltUK it tftn iiy Halle aiid Lcii
bi-monlhl'y ( 1899 iT'-''"'^' '' rowfUM'wK V TiJ!™ ™h^a of Dpinkia.''^a ■
(1891): L'OrirmI II Vahrini iu Boipitri (18II9); Firm p«liliqm tt ed [rom I7JI i
parlimtmlain (1S94]; Hrrne ialrntalKmal dr ia-u(seir. monthly. in I716. and Mi
BfOBIn— /.■,1/ni^i;c{lll9.1hfJfroiian(ijiif (IqolJif.timjftiriDn ei Mhen ■
(1904): £iiVKangnindiir(i89g); La-VitaUtmtlHltll^li; Bam at Kmlock. PruBia omihc foundalion of ill liieia., ,._.._.
dcrsJFDnnafi^iK (1888}. to G. P. Schutie and M. Ulicmhal, tbe lomer of whom betan wit
n iiiJ. The Fm
S. T. Ilocl
J, iMwn to ITM .Aoftrianwned 4htj BKrjti
traphiqnt irs print
I«9S-I9O0), inji^m
CMattt Pttuisn (ITu). conlinucd under diffcnnt tillei down u
17191 the latter hrlpcU uriih Ibc Edanitriv Pmam (1714), ud
wai Ibe Bale edhur of the Atit itnmUa (i730'i73i). foBtcruJa
and Sileiia aho had thdr aperial pciiailicalt ui Ihe Ent quails it
the l8lh century. Franennia connenced with Kma liuirtna,
and HcvBwilhthe JCirafi/iitarA-. hnhin 17a;. tn toulh (DemuB*
appeared Ihe WirOimhirfiiilii Krimuiaiint {it" — • -^- '-^
Miiu Mriii. fini putiUJicd Bt Munich in ^-"
HMrfeZrifBBsmwat founded hi IjyiiyS.
down to ITQOL Autrla owned Zhtj nrraievr
appeared the K^rUtmhtrrittlH K^nttHiiits (1718). and the Pif-
MiiuMrn.fiittputiliahnlM Munidi' " ~ '
nrlrhrtt* SarlutH Ulx), oiU [sBuiu aa the CHUaptcki (^Urii
CtEHAIIt AHO^eni, vKiA dunnit ll> hmg and inSuenlial ciner ha> beea
_ mnihiclnl by prnTeHin of ttut umvenity, and amoat Mbcn hy
The cnclLCtt trice of the literary joDmal !n Germany il Is be IlaHir, Ilr>-neand Eiehhom.
fotind in Ihe Fjlmliiki Uonalimlirnimtn (it6j) o( the peel tnltuenn^ by a chne itudy of Eneliih writeti, the two Swi^
J.Ajnn Rirt anil in the AriinUnnni rari'sn puiia-pliyiiia (1670- Bodmer ud Bn»tin|er, ettablidied Di« Buchtk in itatrr (mi),
1701) of the .Vjdemia naturae curiMirum U-UDi^ina-Can^iu. and hji paying man attention lo the matter of worhi nvicwed Ihaa
, _. _. Thriyiteniwa>atIackedbyGo(l>iched,who,educaiedin^?FiirS
11! mi-knmi P^Miltr, conceived the icVa of a ichaol, emd in the nppoiile dinclion. Tbe •trunk belweea
-a be devoted In the hiMDry ol modem bnnki and the Iwa lurtiei nve fre>h life to Ihe lilciature oithe cwuiy
-o MihiDe- While ncnfcxor of morah *l but Cemian crilinun of the hicher ion can ooty be-nid Rally D
diu»l ih. A^ „^li^.m ^.f. , view iH^in wilh Le«Jnc. The llnlin pubiiUier Niralai founded th
. the BSlinlnt ia ut,<nit% Whunirlt^lm. and alterwaidi handrd
, and dit mtmat Uenunr Ulnjtti [I7$^i76s), cam^aa by the b
PERIODICALS
foUMkai br Gcnddfl in iSu. ■ad knan tlat IB41 u Che
Imfitir JbMr*rHM rfcr dmlinkni wiJ auUnfudkni Xtlrrofw,
oiMtd to IWO. BuduKr founded the LiUrarutlu Ztiliti 11 Betlia
ta 1(14. ItvBtoHiciaued by Bnndadown to 1840. The polllial
mSSn tl lt4S Slid 1849 wn dor diaiUDiH 10 Ibe KUire of
Om Etcranr ud BuvUancout pcrSodialt. Gendorf' ■ RepefUrium,
tkiCAirU Aiarifrm of CMtingen ud of MoDJch.'Uut Ihe Hodil-
iB^Mkt 7a*TMcLr HIT the Ble Hcvivon. The .UffmniH
litmUeknplar Ulrralm (iSso), condiicled ■[ter 1B51 hr DroyKn,
N]cvcli ul btbcn. ooDiinurJ orjy down to 1854: tbe LurrorucJvj
CaMtUas (iSso) ii Kill nibluhnL The BlSltrjir (ilmrticb
Vmm**ilwMt ■firut oul cf ibe LiUnrucio IVDcintlaU [igig].
lemikd I9 KoBEbue; ilKr i86j it mu cditnl by R. Cotuclull
with ninMfV nHf ivct^K. Muiy of the Litenry jourrult did not
ifitdAiA to oecDpy thenudva with ihr fuhloiu, but the £ni
KnodaJ d Moytaait qxcuUy devoted to the suhiHt was the
MB' ('■sil' The fint la populariie ■cience vu Ailiir (iSji).
Tic fbmiBukr (iSu), * bi-nwntUy iniiaiiDC, wu eitiemely
maluL Tbi&« (iSMHollowHf man cIoKly the type of the
Eltfi^ nunliDe. About thii penod eroae ■ ffnmt number of
Uttiw irrHW for populu- remdiiw. known u " Sonnt>nbll((er."
If Md, the CB«-iute (lejS) *nd Z><i*<bi (1S&4) •" mrvivinl
ll tsBtn o( time m l»je ni
;riliiii("{iS9i), I«c »'l>t^^ (iS»)
nliled of Ihe kind, 500,000 being
l6o PERIODICALS
ol Firncli-nioldiig SmrjtierUDd, tlic BUHalUfiit MHlKHrlU <iSi6),
>hkh lijii alia had a icirnliHi: and m Uicnry Mriu The Jtnw
isiui liStH) wu produced u Nnichluj. ThMC Iwo have b«a
unalnnutnl and ■pnear Ju the BMuMau m^tirulll U
- " ■ - — .) only Luted
TM^pf tl p/uhla^r (1968-187:
Luted twelve ir
... ttlllK lulijcdi, wu continuRl u Rmt it IIMotit If ^ fkiieio-
ploM Ci8;a) at Ijjunnc. Among current leruJ* nay be mentioned
Arekau lU psyckaloiir de ta Suujrr9man4t 11901) tdited by F\ounn>y
ind GaparMc; Jatrrirmiiiinii ia akunstriiclim V»m'iMU-
KkrijUn (i«9J-iS9S); Uurriucliuntni m tinmn Sfnch- mi
LilrraluriiiiliicUr (i«oj}: Zwinitiaia: liiUtilMapn •" CisckUlilt
Amtelfftia, A monthly pifiodkal Imu^lii en
by GinD Capponi and Giampctra Vicukm
liM on acBunt of an cp>
Some fltjikinK pipcrt w?i
Nado hid in iSji il-Pntr-
■ ncTCcntofanti. and ralctn-
aaalita (iDsoJ, fonniEhtly
RaiM <iniUmpBaiua (1B5
ol the French Jbvue in i
being the uxcjal «^n q
JEoitffoa tttiimcKoU was J
which after eight yean U e:
tbe RanetHO, The Arc\i
" luUa Inedcnla." The
mirhne Manrredodi Ta
Some of the fullowing arc itiU puliliihKl;
(1M17); Axwaaiia.ii euilprtHaai (IHSj);
limbarde_ {1874); ArrHrii, mcAl (|S;I)
iiijiieiotvrovnnza; JVunu rnuU /lUmiafMTiw^ ((879^^ KoAVCna
); JiiTM iaftriKhimiifajiMa). In mon
ncreaKd. aiwiUai these devoted tn hiilon. iclence and univn-.^
inlertaldnga. Amon); repremiuiive lenali are the Collowinr—
Archaeoloiy: Uusra iiatiam di txliiUu Oasiiia {18B5) with atiai
ia [olio;^^i ib^nou (1901): Simn tUUtliia £ ankaletia
—— ' - Rome (1-— "■"- ■■— •"--— '-"■
•i (IBM)
It Rome (ilt9S). DiblHV>phy: JtiaiM Mit
uu—im • iBpi nn^nii (iB88).^blithcd monUily at Rome and
FVmaa, tbe eOcia) oiin s( Ubtaiian and anMviiti; Otnuk
PERIODICALS
niiiul Krul. n up a,
(hcRpewU r. Oihn
in chinctn : I mlbnkiB
ol dacumcnu 178,); £|
CMmt (1781; iaK): Bt
i/i Jai iKKiu mtiUai. The Sinniiti Rfuitn in London publiibed
Ociet dt tiBaKaUi n/nnibi (igii-i8)6) ind UiuiUmtt ti'iHw.
anKTiuu [1814-181%), uid u Piru UiKtUnit tuajHa hitkih
(i8i«), T1wCnii^aiviiflj(«)rIilnirH(lSi7-l8»)wuiruiv*nb
iraniiomwd jnio a daily ncwinpcTp SiibB^ucnlly tci ibe eitioc-
lion d( E/ Cenior (|81C>'[BI3> thcrr m« nothinff oTiny VkLue until
(iBu^s/fi) and as Ihc £wi\ta^ U^hS ^ii). Upon Ilw daik
e( Ferdinand VJI.piriodicah had a new opening; in I8]6 Ihtn Mn
tIpaHat (18)6-1857). noliccablr Toi ill biaeraphin and dncripliair
-IMO "« L
„ „_. datr tave bnn llw
XnilM li^iiid (lS6l-lS6t}. conduclnl by Sam do[ Ria:£s Anuria
■ ~ - • Kially ifcvol
by Ihe bnilhcn A^urrinol Jtcnsio di CsloliiAii, ']
Djmloni: Rrvillt it Etpata: Rtrilla untUmpmint
mtdriiu (1889). and Rcriaa irilica (iS»s). Curninl sp
dicali in: £niiW-ima, mim iuctntaila (i8Sa, Sin
iloitmnta <biilcnu ncubtlii Jtiu {it>M); £( iV«ini>
ilicTKORli Amild d< MiUiMiUuru pwsi y afliadai (1891): Jtniiis
^ iOUtfalia Calalam (Cilalunyi. Balcan. RokIA. Vakocii,
1901): La Halnralaa. (onniGhily: La Emrfia tl&lrica, lonnjghtly;
Axilla minira. vcckly; Rnriila it mtHctus, wnlily; BiNisfnjta
S™ E. Ha"rSctibi;ich, PtHMiim d€ ila^"t\^iy. Lapcyn,
CatalttB-UrtJa it Ui prnodiaa. mitlai. y ilmlracunui n Elptia
(1S81); OoTin le Ccntil. £ci Rnui lilUrmrii di J'£ipotiH fnd^lt
la frBniiit ■uifi< ifn XIX' siOdc {Parii, 1909).
Til Smaata Arpu (1733-1754) n( OW DaBn i» the liiit ewlri- idittd by Muiloiidii; and _ „ . .
un of Smtn 10 p™dital liimturc. The nnn «re the TO- Ihe -AifcXffrli. (iSji). After the return o! King Otlio in igj3 a
ipr^iidmiJrdM^rtirUx (1743) and the Ldrdn rWniitsf. The littrary review called "Ip-i »at {ommenccd. £* 5pfrIoleiif dt
rioiKtafaol wlueh the mow imponani wa> the JioMihi ittrcurixi three yean from iSjj. A mililary jogrnal wn publiihcd al Aiheni
rjj-i7*9!- '^"*'*'™' »"•' •""' tello*-«udenu founded about in 1855. and mo yeira later the irthaeolojical pcriodrcal eon-
baitry. wbich with thii end oiried on 1 penodieal enliitrd I1810-1873I. edhcd by RangSet ind PapjrriEopoulot, wu the
Mititim (1810-1S13I. to protBgate the opinioniotStliliitland Icidinj icriil. *(vii dealt with natural seicnce, the r*.™w"l with
vfUnc- tlie SwiwiS Liltralm-fiinint {iSii-itijI of Palmblad agriculture, and ■U^i^i'^ wlh iheolojy. 'Kffuir .wn*i4»"
i the Ftlyfrm (1810-1811) had the ume eCiecli. Among later li8ti) and *^ii,iiyn-ti alMrm at/mttt (1S63) appear innuallyi
iadicsh in may mnuioa StH^M (1831-1817)1 UltralurUadrl InJ'jUl-i (i8m) quinerly. _
I1S-1S40): Slallmmmar aik FailiaUaoitnXiim ti Cruieniiolpc. See A. R. Raniabf. Hill. lilUrairt it ta Cita meitnu (Puu,
■Dubly revrw gl Scindlniirlia hiiiDry; TStitrijl tir LiacraUr 1879); R.Ninlai,CucihiiAud<r>inifruetucbiiLil(rafi>r (1876).
Ho) 1 S^ik TUMitrip (1B31). WHltly. fonaikNi: ind the Xrni _
£iitfi8s»)o( Kramer, iwitUB in Fimr"- * ' ■■■■- Russia
m± now ippiar ire ibt faOawtna: ._. _.,... . ...
litrvl and CM Kt BOi. to csaWbli pcrMkal Ulemure in Russia in his Yijefjaratdmija,
ci3T3l»
ihc raOawtnf: Skill TUitriJI, Ntriiit The hiuorian Gerhard Fricdrich Mailer (
PERIOECI— PERIPATETICS
the Doriin inniisn they tbircd h tlw fnnditH of tk b-
vidcTB, but lliil thii wu iltcrvruds ukcn Emm ihem ami
Ibcy wen reduced lo ■ lubject condilioD and forced to paj
tribute. The term, bowever, cunc to denote not a nalioiulit^
but a political Malm, and tbough the main body ol the peiiotti
may have been Achaean in origin, yst tbey allerwaidi included
Arcadians on the northern frontier ol Laconla, Doriana, eafwdaHy
id Cylbeia and in Meoenla, and loniani in Cynuria. They
inbabiled > luge number ol telttements, varying in lize Irds
impoitint tonnl lilie Cythium to iniignilicant hamlet* (Iio.
cratei xii. I)o); tbe namel of Ihete, u f u u Ibey aie known,
have been coUecied by Clinton IFtili Mellcniii, ind ed, L 401 iqi).).
They posHued penonal Ireedon and same meaiuR of comiiiunat
ind^iendence, but w«c apparenily under the Imowdiate aupo-
viunn of Spartan hamwiti (govenwn) and (ubject to the
lenend control of the ephori, though IsDcnict it probafaly
uTHai uwHTiiss goinf loo [ir in uyEng (tli. iSi) ihit ihe ephon miclil put (a
B(^eiiuahiL>(heCWuMj^*ril»mlI>iMi>(iSir).quaiteriy Jmh without trial at many of the perioed ai they pleucd.
mO. JJublirt«dai Pr™biiiK, aiui ihe Uctyar llianm (17SS). 0^™ of itate, hut even from the auembly, that thry mt
The TWuMiiiiyBi i>ii/tlftn<»y (iei;-i«4i) and Ibc Fiiyelmiti absolutely lubject to Spartan orden, and thai, oiring to the
{l8]T-l«4J) deKivc mention. Uj Uatyar Uiiinim wat a tcicniLfk .bunce ol any legal right of marriage {hny<iida) the gulf hetweea
3iS'.S- rSi.'nl ti^Tn^^r^^^t S" S:i;il "" t-™ cla»erw..*imp..«ble^The; were al.o'^lig^i 10
K<Mytt>imUUi}6f.mn<iUaiyirNfemMnol. BeroiTthe nvolutun pay the royal tribute, perhaps a lenl for domain-lud which
of liyt Pi^aod had ihc Pamitink WarianuU ol I.«h Siyrnu. they oixupied, and to render military tervice. Thii laat burden
AmoBi other Poliih rrvicwi any be mcntJoned the DiianU LiUr- grew heavii^ aa lime went on; jooo Spaniatei and eooo periocc
tdn a Lemberg; the Bitlaula Ifarimuta (1B41I. monihlyj boplite* lOuuhl at ITalaM in «70 BC but the Iteady d«mM
PniSid fnwAHy (1W4). monthly. Rununi* commenced i.iih employmeol of the penoecL Pcrioeo might KTVe u petty
Ihe Unrasiiuit iiUrict fnfru Daaa (1H4;), coDUinLnj valuible officers or even rise 10 divisional commands, (•pedally in ibt
^'";?*i^iz.«i:t.4'>r«^-^' ^i^t:t.^\ ««'■,'»'; ""■::!i'' "«>' ™ "t ■". "^.^'-^'^ *«
Uurau (.868), monthly; "nd ft™..*, ro.ul iiimrf iUuMia ""P^ •' "« beginnmg ol tbe 4th century the penota wm,
HUcaJiuU. The bat literary review Servia has had was the 10 far ai we can judge, lairly contented, and only two of Ibcfa
H'l^. edited by Nonkovk. ciliet joined the inlurgenl hebll in 4B4B.C. (Thuc Lioi).
Jaoin now pMKBe. native perio<UcaU ct ^^^'P^P S'^' Thereasonoflhiiwulhat, though the land which they cultivited
Ttiuin cuHom.) ° ri?xJU (rrtl? Tc^^^T^i-Zaiiki (Kkm)' "" "")' "nptoduciive, yet the prohibition which ihut oat every
7»M*ii-Ziiulii (domnticcconomyi; r«ji.(ii»»-lojj*i(iihilo»ph¥); Spartiale from manuladure and commerce left ibe iodBKiy
Kniai-Zaiiki (Doliticnl economy^ Taijc Oiieraium). and tilde ol LacDnia entirely in the hands of tlw pciiotd.
Unlilie the Sparliaia ifaey mif^t, and did, poBoi gold and dver
and the iron and iied waiet [torn the minei on Ut Tafgtta^
Ibe ihoa and woollen tluSt of Amydae, and the import aad
eipon trade of Laconia and Mnsenia probably enaUed nai
al least of them to live Id an cue and comfort unkoown to tkdr
Spartan tordt.
See C. Crete, HuHri -4 Gmtr. pi. ii., ch. GiC a MODci.DnM
(Eng. tnnt.). bk. ui., ch. 11 A. H. ]. Crcenidgt. CMtt CtwiUltHntd
Uiiltry. p. 78 sqq, : C. Gilbert. Cieet ruirilnrirmnl i1«fi|iiiYiii (Eag.
irans.) p. 35 XK). : U- F. SchOmana, A<uit*ilia«ICmi* (Eng. ttanj
^»l sji). ! G. Bu«ll. Pit pittk. Sitao- uifd_KtttlllbtTl*witf, i «4;
Siathriilitn tm
- - -, -, -._ L-Hist. Kkw,
(1906), 101 iqq. (II.N.TJ
PBBIPATBTICS (rrom Gr. ntaaUtt, to walk about), the
name given In anliquily to the lollowen of AriMotle (f4.), dthiT
Irom hii habit ol walking up and down at be lectured to Ik
pupili, or from the rrpiraroi (covered walk] ol Ihc lyecBB.
Aiistoile'i immediale lucceaun.' Theophraalu uid ruihiiiiii
of Rhodes, were diligent acholan rather than origina] thinktfL
They made no innovalions upon the giain doctcinei of thifr
master, and theii indusliy it chiefly directed to (upplanaitinf
bit woilia in minor patliculati. Thus they ampUEed t^t
the Aristotelian logic by Ihe theory of the hypo- ykaaa.
Cai. afSciriiific Lit. Uyii-ivaAhS.H.ScaMa'tCal.etScitniife thetical and disjunctive lyllogism, and added to ihe Grit figmt
iF^'i'^VH"F.d''^'^^'Hli'^^"?i;J?,&^-BThi2Efr^Nf' "' •*" "'W»iad .yllogisn, the five moods out of wlich the
f^tlCt '^"^Zif^^Jir&''''k^:^'S''^r t\ ("""".fir;™ *" fr--"^ constructed, ^e impute to-a^
Inctuding all linguiige..lt J. D. Brown". ariiii(lali"'»/Cn""' natural science and the lyttemaluing of empirical deUiihwhith
Ptriodiait ttt/afi. (H. R. T.) dislinguishcd Aristotle from Plalo wai shared by Tbeophmta
' PBRIOBCI ineUiuiai, those who dwell around, in the neigh- (4.1.). The same turn lor detail it obocrvthle In tdi etln4
bourbood), In uident Laconia Ihe class inietmediale between where, (0 judge Irom Ihe Imperfect Evidence ol the CbwJn,
Ibe Spanan dtitens and Ihe terit or helois (f.t). Ephorui' be elaborated still larthet Arittotle'i porlniture of llw *nli«
lays (Sirabo viii. 364 »eq.) that they were Ihe original Achaean i see CeUiiit. ff«rt. All. xiii, s. for tbe (ton of te* ![\\iif
laliabittnti oi the countty, that for Ihe ant (cnetatloo after chose ThcopfeiaBtut at hit mi 1 iini»
^»l iqq.:CrBusolI.i)i(gn«t..Sluli-iiii4&l«eA<Tlili
Criitk. Gatkicku. L ui icq. (ind cd.}; V. Thunuer. LA
S'«k. SuuUalutllimtr (Mh ed.l. I lo; B. Nic«. Nathri
wiatnitluplkia CtBUuko/l n Cmiitin, FUL-Hitt
PERIPATUS
163
lad tfeir tdttlve vices. In his doctrine of virtue t&e dtstinctive
Fsqittetjc position regarding tlie importance of external goods
m defended by bim with emphasis against the assaults ol
the Siflics. He $fptu% to have laid even more stress on this
pDhl than Aristotle himself, being doubtless led to do so,
partly by the heat of controversy and partly by the importance
which leisure and freedom from harassing cares naturaDy
awomfd to a man of his studious temperament. The meta-
physical knplai of Theophrastus which have come down to
OB show that he was fuUy alive to the difficulties . that beset
asany of the Aristotelian definitions. But we are ignorant how
he proposed to meet his own criticisms; and they do not appear
to have suggested to him an actual departure from his master's
doctrine, mudi less any xadical transformation of it. In the
iSffimlties iriiich he raises we may perhaps detect a leaning
towards # naturalistic interpretation. The tendency of Eudcmus,
on the other hand, is more towards the theological
or Platonic side of Aristotle's philosophy. The
EmdemiaM Ethics (which, wjth the possible exception of
the three books common to this treatise and the Nicomackean
EtUa, there need be no hesitation in ascribing to Eudemus)
expressly identify Aristotle's ultimate ethical ideal of Ofupla
wfth the knowledge and contemplation of God. And this
supplies Eudemus with a standard for the determination of
the mean by reason, which Aristotle demanded, but himself
left vague. Whatever furthers us in our progress towards a
knowledge of God b good; every hindrance is evil ' The same
spirit may be traced in the author of the chapters whkh appear
as an appendix to book L of Aristotle's Metapkysifi. They
have been attributed to Pasides, the nephew of Eudemus.
For the rest, Eudemus shows even less philosophical indepen-
dence than Thet^hrastus. Among the Peripatetics of the first
gearration who had been personal disdples of Aristotle, the
other chief names are those of Aristoxenus (7.9.) of Tarentum
lad Dicaearchus (q.t.) of Messene. Aristoxenus, who had
ionneriy belonged to the Pythagorean school, maintained the
poateion, already combated by Plato in the Pkaedo^ that the
aod is to be regarded as nothing more than the harmony of the
body. Dicaearchus agreed with his friend in this naturalistic
lendering of the Aristotelian entelechy, and is recorded to have
U|aed formally against the immortality of the soul.
The naturalotic tendency of the school reached its full
eiprcasion in Strato of Lampsacus, the most independent, and
probably the ablest, of the earlier Peripatetics. His
system is based upon' the formal denial of a trans-
cendent deity. Gccro attributes to him the saying
tlttt he did not require the aid of the gods in the construction
«( tlK universe; in other words, he reduced the formation of
tbe world to the (^ration of natural forces. We have evidence
tbt he did not substitute an immanent world>soul for Aristotle's
ntra-mundane deity; he recognized nothing beyond natural
secesBty. He was at issue, however, with the atomistic
Biterialism of Democritus in regard to its twin assumptions of
ibiohite atoms and infinite q>ace. His own speculations led
^ rather to lay stress on the qualitative aspect of the world.
Tlie true explanation of things was to be found, according to
Sinto, in the forces which produced their attributes, and he
fcOowed Aristotle in deducing all phenomena from the funda-
Bcatal attributes or elements of heat and cold. His psycho-
iegical doctrine explained all the functions of the soul as modes
of motitm, and denied any separation of the reason from the
iaculttcs of sense-perception. He appealed in this connexion
to the statement of Aristotle that we are unable to think without
The successors of Strato in the headship of the Lyceum were
Lyco, Arbto of Ceos, Critolaus (7.9. ), Diodorus of Tyre, and
Ecynuieus, who brings the philosophic succession down to about
loo BjC . Other Peripatetics belonging to this period are Hiero-
qrmns of Rhodes, Prytanis and Phormio of Ephesus, the
ddinu senex who attempted to instruct Hannibal in the art
flf war {Gc.De enU. ii. 18). Sotion, Hermippus and Satyrus
iRBe lusUitii&s rather than jdiilosophers. Heradides Lcmbus,
Agatharchides and Antisthenes of llhodes are names to us and
nothing more. The fact is that, after Strato, the Peripatetic
school has.no thinker of any note for about aoo years.
Eariy in the ist century B.C. all the philosophic schoob began
to be invaded by a spirit of eclecticism. This was partly
due to the influence of the practical Roman qurit. This in-
fluence b illustrated by the proconsul Ludus Gellius Publicola
(about 70 B.C.), who proposed to the representatives of the schoob
in Athens that he should hdp them to settle thdr differences
(Cic De kg. x. ao). Thb atmosphere of indifference imper-
ceptibly influenced the attitude of the contending schoob to one
another, and we find various movements towards unity in the
views of Boethus the Stoic, Panaetius and Antiochus of Ascalon.
founder of the so-called " Fifth Academy.". Meanwhile the
Peripatetic school may be said to have taken a new departure
and a new lease of life. The impulse was due to Andronicus
ol Rhodes. Jib critical edition of Aristotle indicated to the
bter Peripatetics the direction in which they could
profitably work, and the school devoted itself hence-
forth almost exclusively to the writing of commentaries on
Aristotle, e.g. those of Boethus of Sidon, Aristo of Alexandria,
Staseas, Cratippus, and Nicolaus of Damascus. The most
interesting Peripatetic work of the period is the treatise De
mundo, which b a good example within the Peripatetic
school of the edectic tendency which was then in the air. The
admixture of Stoic dements b so great that some critics have
attributed the work to a Stoic author; but the writer's
Peripateticbm seems to be the more fundamental constituent
of his doctrine.
Our knowledge of the Peripatetic school during the first
two centuries of the Christian era b very fragmentary; but
those of its representatives of whom anything b known con-
fined themselves entirdy to commenting upon the different
treatises of Aristotle. Thus Alexander of Acgae, the teacher
of Nero, commented on the Caiegories and the De cado.
In the 3nd century Aspasius {q.v.) and Adrastus of Aphro-
disias wrote numerous commentaries. The latter also treated
of the order of the Aristotelian writings in a separate
work. Somewhat later, Hcrminus, Achaicus and Sosigenes
commented on the logical, treatises. Arislodes of Messene,
the teacher of Alexander of Aphrodbias, was the author of a
complete criticaL hbtory of Greek philosophy. This second
phase of the activity of the school closes with the comprehensive
labours of Alexander of Aphrodisias (Scholarch, c. aoo), the
exegete par excdlencey called sometime the second Aristotle.
Alexander's interpretation proceeds throughout upon the natur-
albtic lines which have already become familiar to .
us. Aristotle had maintained that the individual A^'!Lit.t^
alone is real, and had nevertheless asserted that the
universal b the proper object of knowledge. Alexander seeks
consistency by holding to the first position alone. The individual
b prior to the universal, he says, not only " for us," but also
in itself, and universals are abstractions which have merely a
subjective existence in the intelligence which abstracts them.
Even the deity must be brought under the conception of
individual substance. Such an interpretation enables us to
understand how it was possible, at a later date, for Arbtotle
to be regarded as the father of Nominalism. Form, Alexander
proceeds, is everywhere indivisible from matter. Hence the soUl
is inseparable from the body whose soul or form it is. Reason
or intellect b bound up with the other faculties. Alexander's
commentaries formed the foundation of the Arabian and
Scholastic study of Aristotle. Soon after Alexander's death,
the Peripatetic school was merged, Uke all 6thers, in Nco-
platonism (g.v.),
PERIPATUSt a genus of animals belonging to the air-breathing
division of the phylum Arthropoda. It differs, however, from
all other Arthropoda in such important respects that a special
dass, equivalent in rank to the old-cstablbhed Arthropod classes,
had been created for its sole occupancy. Thb class has been
named the Prototracheata or Onychophora (see Akthsopooa),
and may be most appropriatdy placed in the system in the
i64
M papillae. IfK mouth
Mfslw ■ violpWDII*. The
•apuclnBtTrBnel wiic, ud odwl uia ^i t^T
«tfiBaIly twet jtlirr n tin Htenw» Iboufh vboonAlilIyi incDoipini
ysiac wUd an iMuDy « ^Rnt «>«• ol devdopiBnt ■
•n boD mt (UBovit linM of llw yeu. In dom of Ihi Alric
■prirT. Iwwv, tbc cmbryoa of tbe HHn» ue ftlmoic of Ibe «»
afv and w bora At A deboiu fEUOfl, The youiw of P, <d|«ii
ifT tnm in April aod MiVr Tbey Are aJmoit cdourien at bir
CKctiCiiig t>w nniroiiAe. vhich Art gneji, and Ibdrtlevcth b 10
I) mm, A Uifc fcmaJe wiU produu thirty to fofty young in c
year TbiK pcnod of taUKion U thirteen -m """'"" '*"""■ "" "
a the pRCediu ytnr ue born.
'- -. — 'nte Alimentary caiuL (fiy, 6).
_--i- firhkh ia at in doirnl
PERIPATUS
The
aitha
165
til bdWT the young
The buccal cavity.
Tlie inoiia
.,nsi
oqaphasui with the icomacli The
•tomAch [ami by [ar Ibe lai^H
of the alimentAiy cipaL ll
dnated lori-wAllcd luW. and
l> of the ceUa ki the
ni) ia a thin ciuIa,
mtemai dicular asa
-.. - , - - , . -- CeU. rwmMini
Lioirw tlie tmcbcaL pita, wliich occur at intsvAU alone the
■ oC t&e tiacbeae: ;r.a, Tnchcal Migma; (r.f.TiachnJpit.
ol thii Aie foRoRi oC etsthdiai ccll^ bounded tomnla the lumen el
the cuticle coverine the AUrfAce of the body. Internally it fTtpiiidf
in the tnnvene plane, aod from the expanded ponion the tncbcal
tubcA ari>e in diverging bundlea. Ttie tracheae are minute tuba
FxhlbitiDga faint traqrver«e itnatioa which ii protiably the tndieatloa
of A ipinl fibre. They appear to branch, but only exceptlonaity.
The tracheal apertum are diSuied ovrr the Aurface of the body,
but Are etptciany developKl in certAin rer'"""
in All Arthropoda, the periviiceral cavitj
.-.. ._. sDtalni blood, and fonu pan of the va
•vnem. 1; iidivided l^iepta intoehAndm (Ig. ii,D). of
— , central chamber containiiut the £
ary cnnal and the donal chamber or pericardium. Nephrid
prwni in all the legi. la c" '' '"■ — ' " "^^ ^'^ •*"*
tellavuig paru nuy be rccogol
e the cental chamber cc
' ' ' aber or perlcan
1 of then (evce..
!d(Bg.9jai)ai
pcnins ol rephiij-
irfue of the leg! by *
± it B«ain Hibdivwd
I cloKly-packed nuclei
^^1 U) the tcrrnioAl
i66 FEU
^^ o< th« oUkt KphiMi* £7bul >?^ aulB cad »( 7m
vent ffvow kL tlie faue of the M(i. Hk Hiivwy sbadt An
modifiiid BtfbMU bI the •eament of Hk on! ^kchQk.
liw nttle leaentive oiuBt (fig^ 10) cobbm oE ■ pair of Ce
(to). ■ iwr eTiniiinl mSs M. vu* cMcmiia hJoTwKl k
loqr (luduhr UtHila (/). M the above paiu Ik ia tlw ai
Ficio.— MikGc
O-Cr EnUited cnir
F. ib7i7, IJtt puir o(
veOi)[sn«)(/>crifwliUHifnuu. Domlvii
%u, TertH. t, SnaLmt voicL
iduUr tj. Ncrve-OfM.
tJ, Vu dcTe
inrited ant In ?. nfntU, M
The elu^atiaa of the
Inint cfHl. where dw
f lent of the btutofiare
put of the bbitopDR ]
bUetopon ti irpiMnt
psn (lit. II. D). £lUi lUK the hidd eod of the body bieonei
curved veaRiUy Into a epinf (fig. ii. C). ud at cbc nne dioe
the anjendofei eppear u boltDV piticEMM of vhe bodv-well. a
meacUutk miike boiif pFoloiifed inlo <*ck of then. Tlie int
proloflnd- "nie nmaudtfr appear troa befoce Wk«H^ in itfular
onfcr, vix. jaw, on] paidQH^ ittt I-17. The full aumbei at *iiiiiln
and tfatir tpftt^tfta It nut, hovenr, onpleted imlil ■ later luie.
The Dervow lyMca b fmBed ai an Huiglw thiclniBi of eclodem
paffuif in front of the OKnith and behind the anua, and lyiivoa
each fide of cbv blaftoporv aloof the lines of the Hniira. The
pnnral pBTt of tliiB thkfcening, wliich iivea riie to the cnebnl
nnglii, benmei (ntled inwii8> oil eiiili aide (fia. II. F. !■(.).
Tbw piD are evmaalht cloeEd, and (ona the lullow Teunl
appcndagei of the HpiaphaiynHal tanalia of tbv adult (Gfc 7, fi.
The lipa an lonned aa foldi of tbe nde wall of Ibe body, cuendiiv
Erom the pneonl ldb« to juit behind the jaw (fia. 11. F, L}i
They endoK ibe jan (j), mouth (If), and Dpcniiwat Ibe sLvaiy
lUnda (oj), and » give rut (a the buccal cavity. The embryo hu
IikU, Ibe hind end bein( in
, .it of the
ic epiihdiuni of the latter ■tnic'
^-- There appear
rninl^anda.
^ to ihc Kphridia. (Mar S*l(*kk.)
Fig II.— A S.
» B. C, p
Seriei of Embryoi d P. copouii. The bind end of
^ <• -"^oennoat m the fipim, the primitive aavalc la thA
blutopoTC
cn'^itliu Ii found In AEtlca, in Amtnl-
uia, in 'South America and the Weal India, in New r^„„,,, „._ __, „•_, rf.-™r». K.v. ™1 *. A-
Bti^. and in the MJay PeninMO* ^d Sumatra.^ -n,. *■ ^> S^;^"' *"■ JSS^of^ ST *" *"
■pedei found m Ihcac votloua iKaliues are closely auniUi b. Older lutrula Raee. ventral E, vde view of laler emtejn.
in thdr anatomtcal chitacten. Ihe principal diflcrencea view. ibDwing elongated blaito- At, Antenna; i, donalcn-
relating lo tbe •tniMurt of the fcmalt generative organs ^Hl'T'^JI^ij'ZS^ wi,h F JS«?iJI;?;j'!!;f?]S!!S!L
andriheoumbcroltheleg^ They, however difler ia *=■ ''Sl^^ ^S^ "^"tSj^lS '^' "S^i^e l^:^^'?'^
Ibe moat ttiiking manner in the Knictuie ol the ovum aomiis. dumb-bell ihaped bias- C. .fl.Antenoaei tf.ecnind
and the early developnwnl. In all the AuUnlasian tojjore and prirailive •Ireak. gniove; j ' '- — •= — —
,j*d» the egg is large and heavily charged »ilh food- C "''J'.'J'i,)^^^^^ !^?SS'
ydk. and is surrounded by a tough membrane. In the S!.^?,."'i25"£°7..™Sr "'■"^
Cape ipeda the eggs are tmaller, tbough still t
lidcrabte >iu; the yoUc is much less developed, a:
egg membrane is Ibinner though dense. Is the New Britain blaitopore. The uniitn oT the (itit pair evenlually <bt^
species the egg is «iU smaller (•! mm.), and Uiete Is a a pouiioo emJrelyiu Irnit ol the blartopore^ {Fi||. 11. D|.
lil^.rophic^cle. In the neotropical species tbe egg is They form jhe^»jn,« of^he^praeord lo^ Th^iSll .-^
minute, and'ibnosl entirely devoid of yolk. The unsegmented ^he nlaiion. of tbe meBbtMiit: iomiiH are ■bovn in %. la,^
by™^iri^breadlhrthalof P"^r<^l^'l6mm.inlenglh: ard ^^T^m ^b^T^^the^^^ fij. Th. Uj
and that ol^. JrioifoAr«u -04 mm. in diameter. In corre- ^ ^^ described .honly a. (olio-. T They divSL lat^ R*
•po»dcnctwilhIbe»e differences in the ovum there are diflerencea „,;,_, venlnl pan which mendi into tbe append^e. ai<
Is the oaily development, though the later stages ut doscly a donal part (lig, 11, B). Each of Ihe veniial parta acq^B
nnrilir an opening to the encriar. ju« outside the nana an
plelely c
DT.p. iKu lApillae; #j,opes
Gj aide view of older embryo.
167
kD Ibc diwei of tbe ArUmpodi,
>R louDd noiilicre outiMc ihii group, jukI (siMilult ■ very
iraporUDl.vldiliODd RUOn for uniting i>Bi>iifu with it. Piri-
taJai, tlioD|h iBdubitably an Anhropod, dlBcn [n udi impot-
Unt mpecti from lU tile ok^tuibliihed Arlluopod diita,
Ihat a tpcdal cku, equivalfltl in nak to \ht otbrn, and called
PntolTaduala or Onychophora, hai had, ai wc have iccn, lo
be CRattd ft>T its Bote occupancy. Thii uuLikeutu to oUkt
Anhrcpoda it mainly due lo tbt Anzielidan affinitict vhich it
prcKnii, faut in pan to tbe procacc of itae following peculiar
fealura: (i) the number and dlSusion of tbe Incbeal apcnura;
(j) tbe leiiriciion of ihe jawi to a lingle pair; (3) the di»-
poiitiOD of Uie generative organa; (4) tbe leilure of ibe
*Ud; and (j) the liznplidty and linulaiity ol aQ tbe
MgDienU of Ibe body behind tbt head. Tbe Annelidan
affiniu'e* axe auperticially indicated in to marked a
manner by Ihe '>■]""■■" ol (lie cuticle, [he dermo-
muscular body-wall, Ibe hallow appcndagca, thai, ai
already itated, many of the earlier uologiUa who
tlamined Piripaitu placed it among the legmenled
womu; and Ibe dlicovery that there ii aome tolid
nurphological baiii lor tUi determination coniiiiuln
one of Ibe most interalisg point) o( the recent work
on tbe genua, llie Annelidan featutea are; (r) the
paired nephiidia In every segment of Ihe body bdiind
tbe £nt [wo (Saenger, Balfour); (1) [he prcKnce of
dlia in the generative [racu (GaSron). It li true
thai neither of IheK (eaturei it abululely diitincilvt
of [he Annelida, but when taken in conjunction wiih
tbe AnnclidaD diipoviioQ of tbe chief ayUemi of
otsuUt vii- tbe ccnLrai nervous lyitem, and (he naia
vaKular trunk or heart, Ibey may be coruidered u
SrvoF
"imrnTlS
it (be ibg-like appearand _
■Be ubKqocnUy obiiined from other parts of the
nim, and from South Africa and Ausinlia, and ue animu
•» vjiiooily aoipied by the loologisls ol (he day to the Anne-
idi ud Myiiapoda. Iti (rueplaa in tbe syiitm, u a primitive
Bohtr <A Ibe group Arlbroi»da, wu first established in 1B74
iy H. N. MoKley, who discovered (he iracheae. Piripalus
■ la Anhiopod, as shown by (1} the presence ot appendage)
■edified at jawi; (i) tbe pretence of paired lalcral oilia pc^
katiag Ihe wan of heart and pulling iu cavi[y in communication
lia tk pericardium; C]} (he pretence ol a vascular body cavity
ni jnicaidhiin (haenwcoelic body cavi(y); (4) absence of a
(tMcatl KctiOD c4 the cockHU. Finally, the tnchcae.
1, New Zealand, AuRraliaand Tai
NalaLand
rurdaiNew
renal arid reproductive orgaat.
■falHl was establiihed in rSie by L. CuQdilg,
■d toeciment ot i( from St Vinceol in Ihe
beinj no doubt deceived
'here. Tbe
It utually!
f diHeiTnce
i68 PERIPATUS
•nd feet niti two Drimuy ptpHlM on the uneriot ilile ami one 4tta ud fdi kf* ut betWMS tlia sd and 4thj>td>. The Aodaa
en [be poBcrior lidti auier )•« >lili em nioac tooth u the but •pecis tit P. iltnii CM.), P. hiltKiibMu (EbuvJ, P. ItnitUmi
lA Ibe aula tooth. Inner ^w with as latBvil bMveoi the bin (BoiivJ, P. nilciutf (SchiB.), P. umii (Cub.), P. u>KraiH<
looih ind Ibe Krieo ol uuU am; bn fully developed let g( ihe (BouvJ ud P. tobiiKf (Cub.). Of the muininc apccie*. which
mile viih enltiied ctunl gUuid opnins on > ttifc p>pQl> [Jued ue the miiority, inn be nentioncd P. (dwirjiii (Bluicb). P.
DO it* notnl nirfKel caul oiniiB ib«nt: the oephrtdiel open- Jamalaiuli (fit. taiOxk.), P. tmUadmil Gidtw.), P. Itrtmtiu
inn of (he 4ih end uh piln ol Ie|;i en placed in tbe pRuariul flten.). P. Im tkurml (Sd J.
Sinoui pad. Cealtil (^lenliw lubterminal. behUid the 1>K [air ffnr Ailoiii Arifalu.— With n to 14 pain of dav-bearinc
fjHr developed kn'; oviduct without ETcrpiaEula icminLB or legs, widi thnopiaouipadaoo thelep,aadDephiidialopeai^iol
lecepLacula ovonjo; the tcrniiiial unpaind portu>n of vat dclnrni Legi 4 and s ImnetiiDea of 6 aba] on me pnainial pad: feet widi
■hon. Ova of coQiidcnbIc vee, bvt with only a iniaU quaiiLiiy aoe priqury papiUa on the anterior, one on the poeterier eid^
of yolk. The vabrfm in the bIbim aie all seariy of the nme and one on the dml aide (nicdiaii or nibBudian] : ouur jaw with
ase. cKoil lot > naalh or two before birth, whea two broodi a mlnec tooib. Inner jaw without diwteoi*; cnind Kboda abani:
welMeveloped coxal anna (bient. Genilal apenini Hbtcnmiial
of thcae chancten : bchiod the bat pair aTlcsi; oviduct nith receptaculum ■cminia,
Colony and Naul), without nceptaculum ovoruai; anpaiied part el vai dderem my
*ma!l ncvptaculum tbon: acccreory glandi two, openini mcdianly and donaUy. Ova
KDvided with well- unall, •! sun. la dilnKta-, with liltlt yolli, and tbe cmbtyoa pro-
erinr, one poeteiinr vided with large Iraphie veudea (Willey). Enbryoa in the uterut
cnx fai the uei of of very diiFcimi *En. and probably born all Ibe year AHiud. One
at fouod In oihe
leg! In tbe niddk
rrgualif the body are provided with «ilarged cniral gbndi whicb
oprn on a brge pepilla. Male with four acceenry olaiid*, openini
on each Mt oTand behind ths genital aperture- P- tluihni, Bouvier,
(Equatorial Wc«ArriulGaboan]),ihowi>Dinei>HiUT>piaJ[atura;
■ben an 14 to IS pain of le«. tbe genital openini >• beiwan Ibe
pcDuliimlr lege, and Iboufh then an only three ijnnoua poda
the nei^iTidial opndngi of the 4Ih and 5th 1^ ace proumal to the
Srd pad, coul organ* an preatnt, and Ihr jnwi aie of ihe nco-
liDldul lypeMheovidunihave [RXpucula leininii. Tbe followint
South AIncan apeclei may be meniionid: P. apuaU (Cnibe),
with I J (iiitIv It) pain of claw-beinng leg*; P. Mfmin (Sedgw.) the row of amall teeth ; crural gland* prcami in the male only, in the
inlh 18 (raidy 19) pain; P. mon^iryi (Wood-M-J, with 10 to 34 two pain of legi preceding ihe generative Dpenlng; codial gland*
pkin. prctcnt. Genital D^Knlni between ibe penultimate leg*; oviduct
Amltalaiun Spala. — With 14, 15 or 16 painof claw-Exarlng wiih Fcceptaculaaemini*andovonjid! unpaired tttit of va*defccesa
ambutalo^lef*. with thrre ipinouapadaon thelrgi, and rtephridial ItHig; ruJc acccsaory gland* two, opening medianly between iba
opening 01 the 4Cb and 5ih leg* on ibe prrninial pad; feet with ooe leg* of ihe laai pair. Ova large, with much yollc and Ihick tnec^
— — :— .__:.._ — J dorsal p-J— *— —-:"-■ 1-— :--.
.35
)l the va* defcren* long
,._.„. . ^ „ ]pcn between tbe geniial
aperture and the anu*. near Ihe Lilicr, Qva larne and heavily
charged with yolk, and provided wi;h a atouliih thclt. The uteru*
-......»., ».... ,..„.^.~.' arid one donal prinary paj^Ua; _. ,_„
withoul diastema, outer with at without a minor looth. LaK Ice
of Ibe male with or wilboul a large white papilla on it* ventral
miS*gl^. — -,. .,.
wel|.dcvclopcd coxal gland* abaenl. Geniul openir
le^ of Ihe laat pair; oviduct* with rcceptarula le
nceolacula ovonim : tbe terminal portion ol thf
i7 the litter. °l?vS
SSd"rf"fit.m"w«t'AuMialii; Qui^njland;' New "Souih "Wain",
VicIDcia and >(ew Zeabod. The Auatnlasian aperies are in loine
16 pain, 'but the number mort'ofien found ii i5^_WheIher Ibe
be evidence that aome specie* an occasionally or normally ov^parout,
and in the supposed ovipartHU specie* the <mduct opens at the end
of a pafdb called Innn it* nppoacd (unction an ovipositor, but
the oviparity hat not yrt been certainly proved a* a normal occur-
noce. Amonff the aprcica described may be mentioned P. tnukprti
(Saenger), P. miipii (Dendy), P. arifatut (Dendy). P, titiiimiiai-
bum a>endy). P. itatai ialtntia4 (Hunoa). but it te by no means
certain thai tulun research will nuinlaln ibese. .Mi J. J. Fletcher,
indeed, is of opinion that the Auttnliao forma an aU variclic* of
one species. P, Itucharti.
SMtrop\ p*irii on Ibe legs.
tbe 3tA 5 papfijae on Ihe
genital op irrying the open-
Ints ol II I oreana present
on n»« I Illy divided into
two portH I.lhe pcnuliimale
■npdicd caledi accessory
onans of 1. Ova minute.
with little y diffennt sugca
of develop t always variable
In Ibe lam ain, but In some
•peeks 40 b1 *pecie* appear
to fall into two BTOupa: (1) Ihe lo-called Andsn ipecic*, via. ihose
which inhabit the high plaleau* or Padhc slope of (he Andei; in
these then an 4 (tometime* s) pedal panllse, and the nephridial
opening* of (be 4th and Slh 1^ an rm the (bini pad ; ai>d (3) the
f^rlbuon apeciea, via. tbe reiulning neotropical eprciea, In wlucb
there an 3 pwpiUae on the foot and tbe Dephiidial openliiiS* ol ibe
PEWPTERAL— PERISSODACTYCA
I^Q
numUkL (Gt. npl, noiM], and mttr, & iHng), In
ucWuctuR, the term ipplkd to > lemiilc w otber itiucturs
■ben the CTJnmni <■( ibe Irant panico ire retunwd aloiic lu
add M «inf» At the dotADce. of one or two hitcrcotumniAtiont
bomtlwvaUiof thcDuaorctUi. AlmoU lU the Ci«d( templa
nen periptenl, ohetber Doric, Ionic, ai Coiialhl^B (m
minniACrrU (i^ odd-toed), the nune propiMed h/
Sr R. Ord (or thit diviiian a[ ungulate mimnuli in which
tke toe comspoDdiris to the oiiddlc (third) digit oE the hiuntn
hud ud foot ii lymmetriciJ io iliell, aod \trga Oita Ihoie
IB ather nde (vbcn nich an prsenl). The Petiraodiclylm
bin been brigided with (he Aniodtctyli (q.t.) to form the
tjjial iioup e( (be uagulits, undrt (he name of Dipluthn,
((UbcbIiU Vera, »nd the te -..r-- -.l- 1 ,.,__j
typified by the tapin, aod the RUnocerotddea, whkh indndta
— TilamHbBiiida the dentil mty L
emirtiitd by the formula iHEI. 'I, M,. ml Then la uwilly
- ■ - - ■ - ■' - ■ and ta« p
pml loBi and (he
The pou-ileiuHd, onat-tyrnpeak and panoipit^
itLuU are larie, and thtfe laaa aliuhcoeid canaL .^
fuiKiional loH In Irmu and thiee behlsd: wMk the nlcaneuiD,
other three croupa, artLculatCB erith the fibulib
eated by thelamiliea AJonijafi'uai.d TiMm^
o tbele
>l the order Un(ulata
of ^ teeth, but (he fint pcrmolar, which a alwaya iniaLI, h
deeidiiDUft or even abHrt in the kiwer or in both jaw&
The Hcli
Fn. [. Banei of Right Foee-Foac of eiduuit Periiiadactyla,
t Tno (Ti^inu iaiiiMi).
B, Uuum UOinixttti laoumvu).
^ H« (£^a> uMlaJl-,
nolan usually re
ivided ii
, ihe (our folloB
e hish-crowncil. The n
irated by a
well ai in •
. drbll in higher
'timn tubercuur. Each
ic ridgea^ io (he earlier
but in the biglier typea
•* Egvidar and Ptlau^
X (he nwlara, and the
im the lecond. In Ibc
(IxS'J.aort.hind; jott. (SeeEouiDAa and IE»M^ ""
[n the Falialktrniu the plemolan may be | oi 1. and an
■eneially mdar-like, while the lint (xhen ptnenl) ii afwaya clnae
(0 (be lecond: all ihe cheek-teeth •bon-crowned and Ri6(id, iri(h
or witheut cement. Outer walli of upper chteli-teeth W-ihaped,
and (raniverse crest oblique. Orbit open behind; and ridg« of
lower cheek'teelh generally terminaling in amall loop*. Feet
* "*'?a^> Gr«p.— ln*tlw Tapiroidea' (he dentition may be diher
the lull 44. or lack the fim premolar in (he kiwer or in both |awa.
The inciwre are ehisel-ahaped; and funljke the early Hippadea)
ikiuluiiE
IWei DoiK^luiiibiir vertebrae never fewer (hap twenty- ',
tiB^ unally twenly-thlte in (he existing species. Nasal bonea c
Qpuded posteriorly. An alisphenoid canaL Femur with a
tbdlnchaater. The middle or third digit on both fore and hind
htt brger than any of the others, and lymmetiic^al in itself,
■it bee border of the lemiinal phalani being evenly rounded
te% i). Tliit may be the only functional toe, or.die second
•ad linnh may be subequaHy devebped on each tide. In
tk lapiii and many extinct foimi Ihe BfLh toe also Kmalni
TBinetrica! auxngenwnt of the remainder of the foot on each
^ol (he median Hoe of the third or middle digit. The atlragi-
ki ]bi a puDey-like luriace above for aiticulatioa into (he tibia,
h> id lower surface ii fUlteoed and uoiles to a much greater
vital with the luvicular than with the cuboid, which bone is of
eottiparalively leu importance than in the Artiodactyles. In
BKing form* Ibe calcaneum does not articulate with the
bolt end of the Bbula. The ttomacb is simple, the caecum
hijtudcapacious, thepUonladiflused.and the(etla inguinal.
■ originally limpler (ban the m
, third lobe ia. however, retained in
ie Upper Eocene it ttilf mc
PERISSODACTYLA
(^uDcnv Of both bem
■d iue the Miome, u
lobe o( Uw lu kiwcr
aulu-like upper pmsol
«ihl moUn all lonned i
rpremolir
■ SknUdi
Irom theJi
UiAii^uJar:
to the Maby count riet
partition to the luul
Kufically leparatH] ■.
!uly rcl*tcdi> the i
the Amerion HiUdul
fint premolar may be
conoquent Icnolheiunc
b bem maewut iowv
plete, and the upper i
HtJoUii, aln or MIddk
gioUr hai tliappcstmi,
becoM moljr-lTfc. Fj
three upper premolan
long-knAwn and typicfl
team i> eqxdally chin
that el (he Rhincoroti
Imyiukn end UtitmynMtn, the pn
nalong the tola] niuncer of teeth eicl
lo become laleral, (be eaainta are e
'Muadnn^lar. The upper mob
PERISTYLE— PERITONITIS
of Uw bowtb, of wouiub pentntinc Ike ■bdomni, of the peribn-
t»D of viicen, is [n ulcer df tlic fltomacb, uul of tbc uiLotinc
in typhoid (ever, of Ibe bunting of itaceMCt or tyttt into tbc
■bdomiul QLvity, ind «lto ol the eMauioiu of influuutoiy
■cticm from loine Uxlomiiu] or pelvic orfu, uicb u the appcndli^
the uterui, or bladder. At fint iocaJiied, it miy aJlenruda
become genenL The diuiget cflected in the periloneufn aie
limilu lo (bow umiettDne by other Kmut mernbriuiet when
[oflinied Thus, there ue coogslion; eiudiiioa ol lymph in
pntcT or leu ibundana. ii &at greyiih ud »fi, iheretflet
yelloVt becoming lough and ciiuing the foldi of the ibtestirie
to adhere logelher; eSusion ol fiuid, eilhei dear, lurhid, bbodjt
or purulent. The tough, pUutic lymph connecting adjacent
lolda of uilaline ii URietlmci drawn out like ipiui-glaai by the
movemenli ol.lhe. intsiins, [Drming bindi aid loop! through
or beneath which a piece of bowel may brcome fatally amued.
The symplowu of acute peritoniLis usually begin by a ahiverinf
fit or rigor, together with vomiting, and with pain in the
(bdooicn of a peculiarly tevtte and tickening chancier, accom-
panied with utreme tFndnnaa, as that pieuun, even ol the
bed^lothea, cauiea aggravation of luflcting. The patient liea
on the back with the kneea drawn upaoai to relax the abdominal
muaclcfl^ Ibe breatbing becomea rapid and ahallow, and la
psformed by movement! of the chest only, the abdominal
muida remaining quiocent — unlike what taket pUa in
healthy mpirit ion. The abdomen b«oma twollai by Batulent
diitenaion ol the intnlinca. which increun the diilma. TherB
ii usually conatipaiion. The ikin ii hot, although there may be
perspirttlon; the pulse la amall, bard and wiry; the urine ii
tciniy and high coloured, and ii puMd with pais. The lace ia
pinched and anxious. Thew aymptonu may put all in a dtjr
or two; if they do not the case is apltogoon toafaLalteitoina-
tion. In aucb event the abdomen becomes more distended;
hiccough, and the vomiting of brown or blood^otoured matter
occur; Ibe temperature l>U>, the face bccoma cold and dammy;
the pidsc Is elceedingly rapid and feeble, and death takes ptaca
ftom collapse, the mental faculties remaining dear til] the dose.
When tbc peritonitis is due to perforation — aa may happen in ibe
cue of gastric ulcer or of ulcers of typhoid fever, or in the giving
way of a loop of strangulated bowel— the above-mrntioned
symptoms and the fatal collapse may all take place in from
Iwdve to twenty-four bouTS. The puerperal form of this disease,
which comes on withui a day or two after childbirth, is often
rapidly fatal. The actual ciuw ol deilh i> the absorption of
the poisonous Infiammatoiy product* which htve been poured
out into the peritoneal cavity, as well aa of the toilc fluids which
have remained stagnant in the paralysed boweL
Perhaps Ihe commonest cause ol septic peritonitis is the
escape of micro-organisms (bacillus coll] from Ibe ulcented,
monifed or infiamed appendix (see ArrENmcms). A gcnen-
lloti or BO ago dealbs f roin this cause were generally placed tuider
the single heading of '* peritonilis," but at the present time the
primary disease is shown upon the certificate which loo often
runs thus: appendicitis five daya, acute peritonitis two days.
Clamk ptrilnilii may occur as a result ol the acute attack,
or u t tuberculous disease. In Ihe former cue. the gravest
qrmptoms having subsided, some abdominal pain continues,
and there is considerable swdling of the sbdomcn, corresponding
in the peritoneal cavity. This kind of peritonitis may also
develop slowly wiihoul there having been any preceding acute
ittadi. There is a gradual loss ol strength and flesh. The
disease is essentially s chronic one; it ia not usually fatal
Tubacnioia ftrilanilis occurs dihcr alone or in assodatlon
with tuberculous disease of a joint or of the tunga. The chief
symptoms are abdominal discomfort, or pain, and distension of
the bowela. The patient may auBer Irom either conalipatian or
diarrhoea, or each altematdy. Along wilb these local mani'
feslations there may eiisl the usual phenomena of lubenuloua
disease, viz. high fever, with nfnd enwdatlon and loss of
■trmgtfa. Bat some esses of lubercukns perilonitfs preanit
qm^Mam* iridcb tic not only obscure, but actually mislfadlii|.
PERIZONIUS— PERJURY
There miy b> na ■bdomiutl dbUn^OD, ud no piin or todet- pcnoD lora crime ponUubb villi detthcoMtitutod the oAeiC*
nos. The patieot DUiy lie quicLty in bed. Bit oa Ui back, of homicide nther than of pujuiy. In EnfUnd, peiiui;, u
with Ibe let> down ttnight, end he suy hive do mufced being ■ iin, wu arigintlly a nutter ol ecdetiutkil tetniimce.
elevation of tempentuR. llieie miy be no vomiting ind no At a Ilia period, wben it bid become ■ ctime, the Juriidktioo td
coniiipiiion or diurboei. In eome cimi, the neighbouring the tpiritul couiu becuie gndually conGoed to luch perjuiy u
coils ol intestine hiving been glued togelher, a collecUon of vu committed in ecdoiulicil pmceedingi, and did not extend
icroui fluid Ukei iti place in the midil of the mui, and, being to perjury otnunitled in l lemponl court. The only perjniy
nulled in fay the adbaioni, forms a rounded tumour, dull on irbich wai for a long tioie DOIiced at common law wu ibe perjurr
percussion, but not tender or painful. Such eases, espcdilly of jumrs. Atuial of juron (see Att*iijt, Wan or) »bo were
when occurring in women, arc apt to be mistakenfor cystic diieaae originally rather in the position of witnesaes than of judge* of
of the ovary. fact, incidentally si * ' " ' '* ' *
' ' 'ritamiiit, tbe tnC thing that Criminal jurisdictioj
inueUrtbut the diieaie ks not seems to have been ^^,
'^ fc ^^nJi'*'«'?i.'.'SIk '"''" ^* P""" supposed It
lutcrinDorent of Henry VII. (1487), Alter laelDoutioo at UK btar UkamMt
(tiu. In mnny by the Long Parliament in 1641 and tbe gradual diminalkn of
■floided by an the authority of the spiritual courts, perjury (whether in tbe
atimitant lui iirict sense ol the word Qtlhetakingofa false o«Ih in non-judicial
Ml? after nou proceedings] practically fell entirely within the jurisdictioo of
kpi^y fomenia^ the ordinuy crintinal tribunals. At common law only a false
' ' ■■" jury- But by H - - -
""'idT^thH P"^l'=''flK'i'"y''avebeeueiteni' '
•sfely
PERIZONIUS (or AciraiCTUs), theiuuneof J*ion
71s), Dutch classical scholar, who wi
gedam in Cniiuogea on the 36th of October I05r. ne w.
son of Anton Periionius (1616-167]), the author of a onci
known treatise, Dt ralione ilndii ItuhtKi. Having si
at the university of Utrecht, be was appointed In 16S1 to the The indictment must allege that the perjury wu irillui «Dd
chairof eloquence and history at Fnnekcr through the influence corrupt, and must set out the false statement or atalemenU
of J. G. Ciaevius and Nicolas Heinsius. In i6gs be was pro- on which perjury is assigned, subject to tbe proviiioni ol tht
moled to tbe corresponding cbair It Leiden, where he died on Prosecutions for Perjury Ac! 1749 (which also eppUes le nbet-
tbe eih of April 1715. The numerous works of Periionius nation of perjury). By Ibal act it is suffident 10 let out tbe
entitle him to a very high place among the schoUrt of his age. substance of the oRence, without setting forth the tnll, answer.
Special interestattacbestohiseditionoftheViiKnaofFrandsco Ice., or any part of the record and witboul setting forth tte
SanchciorSancliusof Salamanca (ist ed.,ijS7;ed. C. L. Bauer, commission or authority of tbe court before whom the perjury
i7gj-i3oi), one of the last developments of the study of Latin was committed. Tbe matter sworn to must be one of tact and
grammar in its pre-scientific stage, when tbe phenomena of notof mere belief or opinion. It is not homicide, as in Romia
language were still regarded as for the most part disconnected, law, to procure tbe death of another by false evidence, iHit the
conventional or fortuitous. Mention should also be made of Criminal Code, ss. iiS, 164, proposed to make such an olTeBce
his .f >iiiiudKrii«iu kularitai (1685). which may be said to a substantive crime ol greater gravity than ordinary perjury,
have laid tbe foundations of historical criticism, and of his and punishable by penal servitude for life. Ii is a rtile of evi-
marking the be^nniug of that new era of historical study with a single witness is insufficient to convict on a charge of perfniy.
which bis own name is so closely associated. There must be conobomtion of his evidence in some malerial
every hour or
penslties of perjury have been eitended to eitta-judidal malten
.rl^n,-!';
e.g. iahe dedaiations made tor the purpose ol piocuriog marriage
1 that can be
(The Marriage and Registration Act 1S56), and false affidavitl
*«p.. A bed-
under the Bills ol Sale Act 1S7S. False affirmation by a penes
' "(^^""
permitted by law to affirm Is perjury (Tbe Evidence Funhei
.nVoouaoEE
ora at Appm-
must prove the authority to administer tbe oath, the occaska
IiDfrgbhucf W«>ricn- particular. Perjury is a 1
A.'£l:kslein in irrh and Cruber'a .tJ/£e- iheright of directing the ptmeculion of any witri.
wiH EK,*to^Wlj. ,g jt„^ Ijijj he has been guilty of perjury (The Criminal Pre-
PSHJIJRT (ibrougb the Anglo-Fr. fajtrit, modem paiyurt, cedure Act 1B5O. The proviuons of the Vexatious Indictmcotl
Lat- ppjuritmt, a false oath, perjurart, to SHear falsely), an Act iSjge^end to perjury and lubomat ion of perjury. By that
asserlioit upon an oatb duly administered in 1 judicial pro- Act no indictment lor either of such offences can be pi^ernd
Feeding before a competent court of Ibe truth of some matter of unlns the prosecutor or accused Is bound by tecognisaiice, er
fact, material to the question depending in that proceeding, the accused is in custody, or tbe consent of 1 judge is oblaloal,
which assertion tbeassertor docs not believe to be true when he or (in the case of perjury) a prosecution is directed Bndef tkr
makes it, or on which he knows himscK 1
0 be Ignorant (Stephen.
act of 1851.
DittsI 0/ Iki Crimiiuil Law, art. 135).
In the early stages of
legi! history perjury seems 10 have be.
en regarded rather as a
jury which he acluaUy commits In consequence ol such procun-
sinlhan as a crime, and so subject only to
.supernatural penalties.
ment. If the perwa attempted to be suborned do not Uketli
The injury caused by a false oath was j
■0 much to society as to the Divine B<
oath was taken (see Oath). In Roman
.upposcd to be done not
■iSw,™™the™col
lion o( perjury are punishable at common law with fine lid
the empire, the perjurer fell simply un
der divine reprobation.
and was not dealt with as a criminal, ex
cBpl where he bad been
bribed to withhold true or give false evi<
fence, or where the oath
to be penal servitude for any term, or imprisonment with at
was by the genius of the emperor. In thi
without hard labour for a term not exceeding seven yean
*BS no doubt inflicted moie for the insult
lotheemperorlhanfor
the petjuiy. Fslse testimony leading
to tbe conviction ol a
rajary o .
tktar Home si Piriiamc
or bRw;li ol privikflv J
bbc oubs OM perjuiy,
hw. punitluble by fine >
behn my pcnon luthor
PERKIN— PERLEBERG
h« did in 1869, ibiu KcuHng
unEttcd betDiB > comin
f be dt«lt wiib u 1 o
U u by proKcuthiiL
n of Binhl Uld
RBltm. Sm VILUAM HEHRT (iSjB-tqo}), Engliih
(kBin.waibaniiiiLcKidoiion theiilhof ManhTSjg. From
Hoily ige he dctennined 10 adopt cheraiiicy u his piolcuicn,
ihloath hii faiher, ■bo wu « builder, would bive prefeircd
to to be >B trchiiKt. Aiiending the City of Londpn School
h ic devoitd ill hii ■pare lime 10 chemistry, and an leaving,
Bi>U.eotered the Royal College ol Chemisliy, then under the
Imim oi A. W. Holmann. in whine own research laboratory
kwu in the counc of a year or two piotnolcd to be aa assbtant.
l^cvAini hb eveoingi to private inv«iigatiDn» in a rough
'-' - - (y fitted up at his home, Prrkin was fired by tome lemarki
'IMma
o unden
uniuccesfut, hut the observations he
We ID the count of hit (iperiments induced bim, early in
d^ to try Ibe eflect of treating aniline sulphate with bichro-
■U( of potash. Tbe result was a precipilate, aniline black,
^■■hichheabuined the colouring matter subsequently known
BiBJIiBc Mix or mauve. He lost do time in bringing Ihit
■tiunct befoK Ibe managers of PuHat'i dye-worki, Perth,
ttd they tipressed a Favoiuable opinion of it, if only it should
Id prove loo eipensive in use. Thus encouraged, he took out
ifaloit Ebr bis pnxess, and leaving the College of Chemistry,
) boy o( eighteen, he proceeded, with the aid oE bis Either and
tk numilacture of the newly diicovend colouring matter, and
by Ibe nd of iSj7 (hi woAi "ere in opemlion. That date
aiy iherefore be reckoned as that of the loundalion of Ibe coal-
lir colour industry, which has since attained such imponant
dinnsHins^n Germany, however, rather (ban in En^ond,
tb country where ft oiigiiuted. Ferkin also had a large share
la itt iDlraduciioQ of anitdil aliurin (^.c), the red dye of the
asddec root. C. Gricbe and C. T. Liebetmann in 1S6S ptc-
puid ihai substance synthetically from anlhnicene, but thtir
lavcoa was not pncticabte on a large scale, and it wis left to
tn IB patent a mctbod that wai commercially valuable. This
lh« Cnenfotd Green worki ■
re for leveral years. About
be also carried out a seria of investigations into
Idudrcd substances, such as antbrapurpurin. About 1^74 be
ibindaned the manufacture oE coal-tar colours and devoted
dmsclE exclusively (a research in pure cbemiKiy, and among
he discoveries be made in (bis Geld was that of the rcactioD
known by his name, depending on the condensation of aldehydes
with fatty adds (see Cumuuc Aod). Later siill he engaged
'1 the study oE the relattDus between cbcmiial constitution and
Dtation of the plane of polariialion inamataetic Geld, and
nundaled ■ law expreiung the variation of lucb rotation
I bodies belonging to homologous series. For (bis work he
'ai la ■£&) awarded a Davy medal by the Royal Society,
rhich ten years previously had bestownl upon bim a Royal
nedal in recognition oE his investigations in tbe coal-tar colours.
The Chemical Society, of which he became secretary in 1S60
and president in iSSj, ptesenled him with its LongstiS medil
in iSSq, and in iSqo be recnved the Albert medaj of tbe Society
of Arts. In 1006 an international celebration of the fiftieth
and in tbe same year he was made a knight. He died near
Harrow on (be I41h of July njo?.
His eldest son, Wiuuu Heniy Pireih, who was bom at
Sudbury, near Harrow, on tbe ijlb of June i860, and was
educatnl at the City of London School, tbe Royal College of
Sdeoct, and the universities of Wurzburg and Munich, became
professor of chemistry at (be Heriot-Witt College, Edinburgh,
in 1S87, and professor of organic chcmislry at Owens College,
Manchester, in i8«i. His chief researches deal wi(h tbe poly-
methylene compounds, the alkaloids, in particular bydcailine
and berberine, and the campbors and teipcnes (g.i.). He
received the Davy medal from Ibe Royal Society in 1904.
fEBKIKS, CHARLSI CALLAHAN (iSij-i&M), American
artist and author, was bom in Boston and educated at Harvard,
subsequently studying art in Rome and Paris. Returning
to Boston, he helped to found the Museum of Fine Arts, o(
which he was honorary director, and for many years be played
a leading part in artistic circles as a cultured critic and writer.
His chief publications were Tuii:m Sculfiari (1U4) and /laJiM
Sadpiai (i868)-r-replaced in iMj by Tkt HiUvriad Haadlmit
ef Ilniian Snlplors—Arl in Ediuatiim (1870), and Siptidatt
UimumKHi w Italy (lESj).
PERKINS. JACOB (1766-1840), American bvector and
physicist, was born at Newburyport, Massachusetts, in T766,anit
was apprenticed to a goldsmith. He soon made himself knowit
by a variety of useful mechanical inventions, and io 1818 came
over to England with a plan lor engraving bank-nola on sicel,
which ultimately proved a signal success, and was carried out
by Perkins in partneiihip with the English engraver Heath,
whicb be proved the compreuibilily of water and measured
1816]. He retired in iSj4, and died in London on tbe jolh of
July 1840-
His second ion, Amgtek Maxch Perkins (i7oo?-iSSi), also
bom at Newburyporl, went to England in 1817, and was the
author of a system of warming buildings by means of high-
prcasurt steam. His grandson, Lorrus Pebkine (iSj4-i8gi),
most of whose life was spent in England ''' ''
PESLBBBRO.
of Brandenburg,
1 iSSo a yacht, I
» lb to tbe a
\alhraci
Stepeniti, 6 m. N.E, from Witlenberge
Dy mo cauway to INeuslrelili. Pop. (1005), 0502. It contains
a fine Gothic Evangelical church, a Roman Catholic church.
froo the isth century, and a Roland column. Its chief manu'
factures art nacblaery, soop, blacking and clogs.
See HSpTner, PrrlOiTia Siimilinmdi, Pirlibrrt an IJDO M
/700 (Pc.leberj, 1876).
PERLES— PERM
PKRLES. JOSEPH Ii8js-iSm). Jewiih nbbi. wu bom in
Hunguy ia iSj5. ind dinl iX Muiiidi Id iSo4- He wu one
of lit &nl nbbii tnincd it Ibe on type of leminuy (BioUu).
'tis
Nighu (Zv rMixiickcn Spiack-itad Safinkuiidt. 1S7]), and bi« 'l!ff^Li^
nolei OP rabbinic aniiquitin (Bolrjjf ur nhbinisckiu Sfnuli- Sir^S
und AlUrtiaahunii, iSij). Perlo' nwyi are rich in luggeslive- ^^' ^
He ilu wrolc id essay on Nuhnunide*, and % biognphy and andoicie
critical appredatioo ol Ruhbi (.86j). (I. A.) J!i.£SS
PERLTTE. or Puilstohe, a (lauy volcanic nek -hicb, *bco H^Tte
■Iraclt vilh a hammer, brcaka up into imall rounded ma^K* rliiic- At
thai oken have a peaily liulre. The reuon (ot this pHuliaiily idtticlA
RiMtly lake t, citculai couiu, and ollen occui in gioupi. one PERM, a govenunenl o[ east Ruuia, bounded S. by ibc
within another. The circular cracki bound the tittle Ipbeiei (ovemnienli ol Orenburj and Ufa, W. by Vyatka, N.W. by
into whicb the rock (alls when it is Uruck, and the concentric Volo^ and E. by Tobolsk (Siberia). IthasanaRXit i>B,i7j
fasuies are the cause oi the pe»rly lustre, by the reflection o[ jq, m. Though administratively ii betongs entirely to Ruiia la
li|hl [mm enclosed films of air. Longer straight cracks ran Europe, its eastern part (about ]T.o(b sq. m.) b atoated iB
preponderate. By decomposition the fissures oiay be occupied fiom nonh 10 south by the Ural MouoUins, jol0 4SDi.b •ridib,
by deposits of linwnitc, which make them more obvious, or by ihiclily clothed with [oresti, and deeply eicavaied by liven.
other secondary minerals. The glass ilsell often undergoes The highest summits do not rise above ]6oa O. in the nonbera
change along the cracks by becoming finely ciystilline or section of the range (the Vogulian UralJiin tbecentral potlioo,
devitrified, dull in appearance and slightly opaque io section, between ^9* and fio* 10' N., they once or twice eiceed sooo ft.
In polaiiied light the periitic gltss b usually quite Isotropic, (Deneihkin, J36oft.)ibu<thechaioioonslnksto«ard*ihciouth,
but sometime* the iniemal pan of some of the spheres has a where it barely attains an elevation ol 3000 It. Where the ttU
slight double refraction which is apparently due to strain. The Siberian road crosses it the highest point is 1400 ft.
glass found on the wttte-beaps ol fiais-tunuus b lotneUmes The government is very melldninetl by rivers belon^;^ to th«
very coarsely peililic. Pechon, Tohol (affluent of the CHi) and Kanu system*. The
Perljlic structure is not confined to glass, but may be seen Pechora ilsell rises in the northern comer ol the govemmeM, aod
also in that variety of opal which is called hyalite. This (orms its iribuliiy the Volosnitsa is separated by a distance ot Wm thaa
snail transparent rounded masses like drops dI gum, aiul in j m. from the navigable Vogulks. a tributary of the Kama, a
mJcroacopic section eihibiis concentric systems of cracks, circumstance of some commercial imponuice. The cbief riret
Hyalite, like periitic obudian, is amorphous or noiMrystalline. of Perm, is however, the Kama, whose navigable tributaries the
It b ei»y to imitate periitic strurtuie by taking a little Canada Chusovaya, Sylva and Kolva are important chanitels lot Iht
blbara and heating it on a slip of glass till most ot the volatile export of heavy iron goods to Russia. The govemnent is
oiaiten are driven out; then drop it in a basin of cold water dotledwiihsgRatnumbcrof likes of comparalivdy trifling rise. '
and typical periitic structure will be produced. The reason is their total area being 7^0 sq. in., and with nunhe*, which an
apparently the sudden conttaction when the mass ischillcd. eiienslve in ihe hilly ti ' ' ■ "
la the glaie on liles and china rounded or polygonal systems porphyries, seipentines i
stmclure but aie leu perfect aod regulu. Many rocks which olthe Urdcbsinitheit weslem slope is covered by a lumiriuip
are ciyplocrystalline or felsilk, and not glassy, have perfect ol Huronian crystalline alales, which disappear In the cue undo'
periitic structure, and it seems probable that these were originally the Post-Tertiary deposits of the Siberian lowlands, while oa the
vitreous obsidians or pilchstones and hive in process of time west nirmw strips of Silurian limestones, quartiila and aiau^
been changed to a finely crysiilline (tale by devitrification, ind scpirite island* ol Devonian deposits, appear on the surface.
Occasionally in olivine and quarti rounded cracks not unlike These in their lum are overlain with Carboniferous cUyt ul
periitic structure may be observed. sandstones, containing Coil Measures in severs] isolated bans.
Many periitic rocks contain well-developed cryslsls of quartz. The Permian deposits eilend as a refulsr strip, parallel to lbs
feldspar, augite or magnetite, &c., usually more or less corroded main ridge, over these last, and are covered witb Ibc uxlSiA
or rounded, and in the fine glassy base minute ciyilalliles ollen " variegated marls," which ate considered as Triissic, aod a|fctt
abound. Some ol the rocks have the resinous lustre and the only in the western comer ol Ihe territory,
high percentages of combined water which diilinfluisb the Perm Is the chief mining rep'on of Russia, owing to id WMhk
pilchstones; others are bright and froh obsidians, and neatly in iron, silver, platinum, copper, nickel, lead, chrosne vit,
all the older ciamplcs are dull, cryptocrystalline felutes. manganese and auriferous alluvial deposits. Many rare mrtib.
According Io their chemical compositions they range from very such as iridium, osmium, rhodium and niihenium. an fool
acid rfayolitet to trachyte* end andcsilcs, and the dark basaltic along with Ihe above, as also a great variety of predoo* tUfm,
glasses or tachylytes are sometimes highly periitic. It is prob- such as diamonds, sapphires. ja^Krs. tournialinea, bisyk,
able that most perlilei are ol intnisive origin, and the general phenaciles, chrysoberyls, emeralds, aquamarine*, tapaB%
^Bence ol stesm cavities In these rocks would support this amelhysls, jades, malachite. Salt-Spring* occur u the wot;
conclusion, but some periitic Hungarian rhyolites an believed and the mmeral walcn, though alill little known, an VORtf
to be lavas. ol mention. No less than 7a % of the total are* ii occupied wfek
Vtiv well known ™kso( this kind are found in Mrinen.Samiy, forest; but Ihe forests are distributed vi
at dife*._of. greeniiJi and brownish pitchwone. Other euin_pln „,., ^ ,1, ,_. :. ,v, ^„y, ™, .„,„
PERM— PERMEABILITY, MAGNETIC
hapRwatiamiitDnofSibniu>iiilRuidu^»dei,Kvn«I o( Ruuit (the t<bdic ot Caiuiulinc Forph/ni(«uliu) Ii not
a(>hKli b«v« Ibdi oorth-cuttRi or louth-watcni limiti within koown. In the gth ccniuiy, i( not uriier, the Nancmcn >era
NiihBiyTjfilili
JJI*
IZS
■cqu>inl«l with tbc country u Bjumelind, md Byuniine
■muliits kncii it u Pcrmia. Nestor docriba it u a tnrito
of the Perm oi Prrmluu, * Finnish people.
Tlie Ruuiuu penemted into Ihii region at an euly dttc. '
the iitii centuiy Novgorod Jnied - -■ - ' .. ^- ■
inhabitants, and undert
of Ibe
untiy.
Tlie cstimled populalion in ii)o6 irai 3^87,100, and (Onsist
(Uefly d1 Cnal Riosiani. baidei Baihlun (includl^ MetbchFr
Tikiaod Tcptyan), Fcrmyaki or Permiani, Tatan, Cheremiisa
SjnyiaiiB*, Votjraks and Voguh. Agiioiiiuie is the general occu
patioBi ryv, oats, barley aivl hnnp are raised in all parts, an<
*W».D([kt, buckwheat, potatoa and fiai in the south. Cattle
of the liih ci
•epantt territory o[ Novgorod. In mti the Novgorod cobnie*
erected a (ort to pnrtett the Russian seiilrts and tadeunro
against the Vogult, Oitiikl ud Saoioyedca. Tie mineral
wealth of the country atlruled the itlenlion oI the Moscow
princes, and in the end of the ijlh century Ivan HI. sent two
Gennans to seareh for ores; these they succeeded in finding south
of the upper Pechora. The Stroganovs in the i6th century
founded the first uli- and ironworks, built fortt, and colonised
the Ural region. The rapidly-growing trade with Siberia gave
the devtlt^ment of the country. This trade
lP.A.K.iJ.T.B..)
town of Russia, capital of the gDvertmicnt of the
stands on the left bank of the Kama, on the great
lag iteadily tbongh sJowly, The iroDworki employ neatly had iu o
■iafloohailill<ll,eoo being in the Imperial ironworlu], and their
Vntatc oatpul reaches an eslinaled value of £6,000,000 PBSM,
vsaaDy, The annual production of gold is valued at nearly tame nan
hiK smilliaa sterling, and of platinum at apptouizutely a quarter highway (ooioena, 1130 m, oy rauano nver rt.b. irom Aioscow.
itiBillkin. iheoulput of plaliniuo being equal lo gs% of the Pop. (iS;g), jjjp); (iSfl)), *SAas. During summer it has
•vU'i total output. Coal and coke 10 the tittot el joo,oao regular steam communication with Kaian. £0; m. distant, and
te jB/m ions, tail to 300,000 Ions, asbestos and other minerals it is connected by rail (jii m.) with Ekaterinburg on the east
irr sbo oblaJned. The first place among the manufacturing side of the Urals. The town is mostly built of wood, with
Bkairirt b taken by Bour.milis. The culling of precious stones broad strtels and wide squares, and has a somewhat poor aspect,
jitUHHirely carried on throughout the villages on the eastcm etpKiiUy when compared with Ekaterinburg. It is Ibe seal of a
*l>to(ibe Ural Mountains, the chief market for Ihea being at bishop ol the Orthodoi Greek Church, and has an ecclesiastical
atietiahurg. An active trade, greatly favoured by the easy seminary and a military school, besides several scientific
aaniinicalion of the chief centres of the mining industry with inililutions [the Ural society of natural sciences, archives
Ikaariet of Nithniy Novgorod on the one side and with the commillce, technical society), and a scientific inuKutn. Its
MIXHt of Siberian rivers on the other. Is carried on in metals i adult rie^ develop but slowly, the chief works being ship-building
•III Dttal wues, minerals, timber and wooden warn, tiUow, yards, tanneries, chemical works, sawmills, brickfields, copper
iliBi.uItle. fun, comand linseed. Large caravans descend the ' — '*""" _^^i-',.^^- ^--t_ j .._j,_ ,. -.. .. j
•liniUiiftbe Kama everyiprjng, and reach the fain ot Lalsfaev
lid Niikniy Novgorod, or descend the Volga to Samara and
Auikhaa; white Ekaterinburg Ii an Important centre for the
tndr with Siberia. The roars at libit, second in importance only
l«*it of Niihoiy Novgorod, and Ivanov (in the district of
SWrink) art centres for supplying Siberia with groceries and
cattle f<
r the mi
1. Thee
fgundHtS, m
ichinery wo
ks.so
ap and candle
factories
andrope-
works. Tbe
bu
war in the
mmtdlatc neigh bou
rhoodol
t site of Pel
rm was occupied, as
early as
S6S, by a
settlement
named Br
no, founded
by on
of the
this tetllem
lems to have
received
the nam
gf Perm in the 17th ce
tury.
Acopperwo
ks wai founded In
in n,3. and
n i;8i It received
officially the
name of Pe
became an a
both for the
country and
firt
e miring regi
PERMEABIUTT, MAQHEnC, the nlio
of the
magnetic
induction or
ua-deosity
many
medium 10 Ih
Inducing magnetic
force. In
he CCS,
units the
permeability !> regarde
pure numbe
and Iu value in
is taken ai
unit
ability of a metal
belonging to
agnel
nickel.
obalt and
some of th«
r alloys-is
ction of the magnetic
oice. and
also depends
upon the pr
vious
lyofihe
specimen.
Ai the fort
increases
rom (ero the petini
jbility
frill II ill centres are £kat«r)obui{, Irbit, Term, Kamyihlov,
SUrinik and Cheidyo.
Pun is more largely provided with educational Institutions
ttd primaxy schools than most of the governments of central
laiL Beside* the ecclesiastical seminary at Perm there it a
■iog *dwol at Ekaterinburg. The Peim lemiitQ or ptavincial
tiadllioiit of the most sclivt in Rugtii in promoting the spread
'ohciliaa and agricultural knowledge among the peasanta
The gDvenuDCni It Intersected by a railway from Perm east-
mdt aciBi* th« Urals, and thence southwards along their
BKem slope to Ekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk (main Siberian tpecinen nsea 10 a muununi, waicti may amount to several
fkBk Ene) and Tynaten ; also by a railway from Penn (0 Xotlas, thousands, and then gradually falls oH, tending to become unity
Ulhehead of the Northern Dnna. when the force It incrtated without limit. Evciy other sub-
BiOmy. — Remain) of palaeolithic man, evCT]nrhtre vtiy scarce stance has a constant permeability, which differs from unity only
k Rnaia, have not yet been discovered in the upper basins of the by a very small fraction ; if the tubiiance is paraintgnetic, its
tUB and Ob, with the eiception, perhaps, of a liagle human penneatnlity it a little greater than 1 ; if diamagnetlc. a little less.
Aal hmod in a caveni on the Chanva (btiin of Kama), together The conception of permeability (Lat. pa, through, and tuBirt. to
■UaAulled/rnui^cfMW. Neolithic remains are met' with In wander), is due to Faraday, who spoke of it as " conducting
*■■ qULDtitics on both Ural slopes. Still larger quantities power for magnetism " (Eiptrimenial Rfseardui, xxvi.), and the
tf^^menu belonging to an eariy Finnish, or rather Ugriin, term now In use was introduced by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin),
dtfiniioo tie found everywhere In the basin of the Rama, in 1A77, having been suggested by a hydroltinetic analogy
Sosibtiit tpaki at the lichntst of this country inhabited by (Ritrinl of Papvt im EUcimiialki and Uapittiim, mi., ilil.l.
4e Vr^^, *bo kept up a brisk traffic with the Creek colony It It generally of irapactince that the iron employed in the
<IOfe« near the mouth ot the Dnieper, and with the BoqMiuE construction ol electrical machinery should possess high
tv aay <rf tbr St* o< Atov and the Volga. The precise period permeability undei the magnetic force to which It i> 10 be
« aWd It* Ugilana left the district for Che southern aleppei luVjected. (See ELzmoiuGNiTisii and MACHmnt.)
176
PBHK1
pcTEneAbQity of a i
PERMEAMETER— PERMIAN
tpidly mcuuHng Ibo "^^
apic at ITDD o[ itKi witb niffident accuncy jj, ,
il puipoBO. Tlic nunc «i £nt applied vale of
by S. P. Tlioaiptaii to u kppantus dtviied by himieU in 18^, Pciuiih
vrhich indicate* the raechuucal force required to detach one end
ol the mnplc^ amnced ai the core ol a atrai^it dectromotacti
from an inn yoke td ifedit form; when this force b known, the
penneabiUty can be iMily okulaled. (See MackxtDh.)
PES>UX, In geology, tbe youniot and upponuMt •yitem of
(tiaU of the Palteatok leria, aituaied abovg the Caibonifeioiu
■nd belD« tbe Triu. Tlw Una " Fennlan " (doived ftnm t!ie
Ruslan province of Penn, where the rodu are extensively <
developed) wai introduced in 1S41 by Sir R. I. Murcbiun. In
England the scries of red sandstones, conglomeitto, breccias
and mails wUcb overlie the Coal Meuura Here ai one lime
grouped together in one great lonoation ai the " New Red
Sandstone," b contndislinction to the Old R«d Sandstone
below the Cuboniferous; Ibey were liktwise known a* Ibe
PtitUilicuria (from Gr.rouIXat.mattlHl) from Iheii mottled
or variegated colour. They are now divided into two lyitem*
or groups of formations; the lower portion belnfl induded in the
PalaeozcHC sdies under tbe name Penman, the upper portion
being relegaud to the Mmobhc tain and termed Trias. In
Germany the name i>KU was p[«po9til by J. Marcou for Ibe rocks 1
of thii age on account ol the twofold nature of the seHo in
Thuilngig, Siiony, ftc. The intimate itraiigiiphical telalion-
•faip that eiiils in many quarlen between the Permian rocks
and the f^rbcnifemus beds, and tbe practical difficulties in the ^
way of drawing a satisfsctory base-line te the ayflem, have' led
to the adopllon of the term fmwwarJoni/n-aiii in South '.
Africa, wuthern Asia, America, Australia and TlusKa, for sltaia ■
upon this horlioD; C W. von GUmbd used " Post-caibon " in ,
this sense. In a almOai manner Ptmuylniusk has been
Permian fossils Ui others bearing a Triauic fauna is apparent.
The Pemuin system in En^and conuts of thi
'mm the IhkkrKswi
the pUins o( tbe Tr
IS of Ucr
It devtlopr
ihakand limeuone. The aniaip1iou> |
chirl mcniter ol ihii group; the 1.n»
' Dokimite llHufl^MfMin. crvMall
(R<i»*mb).and hne powdery Miifo)
quart I- porphyjrtonrfonierali
&jnd»tonei aikd glomeralea
nonei (Otack and CMitidt- b
neiloiua ICoHl
The name RolWiVinaij 01
rocks below ihe cDOper-lKaririB I
^n k It evident (Kit ihe Prnnian schicler. aithouah » thm, bai been
imml on ihe two tidn of EnRland. rH-alongT>errod^ ii (onidini abunda
tt lide of the Pennii
I Gcrirvn Zechucin 1
FERMIAN 177
pooitfum and mifimlina lala, lodndiflE oniaJIiFp, UopriEp ttonn ind nurli with [ypHin; in Ten it Ei of intcmt to aolfl
vid polyhxliie, vhich ut cupjoilcd *t SuHliut and an tht onty [he cxcurrrncF of fopper-nainHl Itrata. Thoe upper " R«d Bedi '*
impffUot pDtuliuo depofliu known- pCTmiaa rocta of 1h? arc oflcn nol clearly dutiHEui^bicfiom tbeXriaL
KotUiKRidc tvpe in KalKrcd over a nde ina in Fnncx. Li/c ii/ Ur J'tmiaii ftrioS.— TIie ncoidi ol the ptinii ind ■nimih
■kmlbelonrlRttirFuiwIlycoiiroriiuiblcwilhlheCiialMcuum. ul lhi> iicriad t!t CDrnpinilivcly mrniin:. The planii iliow ih*t
!■ t)H uppFT beds occur the biiuminoiii or " Boghead " lUIt of B gradual change irom Ihc Carbonifenjin (ypct was in proems
Antun- In RiiHia itrau of thiB mge cover mn enormouii area, in Two Horal rcgiuni arc clearly indicared, a northern and a Huihern.
the L'lal Rgioo, la the jowraDenu of Penn. Kaun, Koslronu. In the lalter. ahich may be resankd ai conttrminotu with the
■ad la ArtDHiia. The KuaBia Ptnaiaa ifaowm do •harfi diviiion coniincnt of Condwlna. (Ik LcpiSodeadroni, Si(iltiriat. Calamiici.
Iiiu 1IVD taieti the two typei of depoiit tend to be more mimj &c., of the ObI Mcaurvt gave place (oadiitinct flora, oamed from
additioo tome de]x«J(a of the more c^o aeq. The the prevalence ti Clouopfmi, the CLoHopteriH (tongiK-rern) nctfi-
CP begiu vith the Animk bedit. tandy and maily or Trac« of thifl Boulhcm Jkm liave been found Jn northern Ru«ia.
k.»i. iw, <j«- »_«..:,.. — j.k .1,- ^,_i — :* /? -. — '- r.iii^t — .-_ i-__.'-*-_-, Sekaopirru, H'alcjha.
Aftk^^fiatints, St^a-
[y InlcreHine fomu are
r,. — — jurnumi otben havinE
rlude Fanitamm, CynnaAiu,
... . i^,^ Pitlyicmia,
nling fealuR IB cndual intro-
Manh. &c., indicate profoLind glnciaL condJLioni, which »me have
thought werr pmcnt alw in Brilain. Germany and clxwhcre
North America, where the Appalachian and Ouachita muunlaina
were in coone of cEevadon. and in Europe thii wot a [ime of rreal
volcanic activity. In the Saal rcKiun vulcanic rocke in the kiwer
Rothliegende have been peiieirati.-d (or 1100 ft. without reuhinc
the bottom, and elxwherc 10 cenlrat Europe srcat (heeti of con-
Icolponneom ouarcj porphyry. ETinite ponihyry. melanhyre and
porphyriicareahundant with their correiponilingiufrL Mdaphyrca
MiTtulIi appear in the Vatf. which iTihe ■ouih of Fiance are
enoroiou) mane! of metaphyie and quarti porphyrif. Basic lavu
nod tuffi — diabaK. picriie, olivine batah and aruetite tufla — were
erupted Iron many imall vents in Ayi^ire >rtd the Nith baiiri.
and bnftic lavai occur alio in Devonshire. Vidcamc roclo occur
178
PERNAMBUCO— PERNE
Rbpbrbncbs.— The literature dealing with the Permian and extension from Timbaiiba to Pilar (24 m.). All these lines
Permo-Carbpniferou. is vcnr extensive; M. B. geiniti. J. Marcpu. concentrate at the port of Recife. The capital of the state is
Sir R. I. Murchison. Sir A. C. Ramsay, H. Potonie, R. Zciller. „_., ^«^^„i., l»«™« «^««« r^».:«.!». •• P.«..n«w»..^
O. Feislmantcl. E. A. Newell. Arber. A. C. Seward. F. Bischoff. Sfc^'C commonly known among foreigners t$ Pernambuca.
C. Ochsensius, E. Mojsisovics. V. Amaliuky, F. Noctling, C. Diencr, There arc a number of large towns m the slate, but the censtis
A. Tachncryschcw. A. Karpinsky. VV. Waagen, H. F. and W. T. returns Include their populations in those of the municipios
Blanford. G. H. Girty and very many others have made important (communes) to which they belong. The most important are:
contributions to the subject. Numerous references wUl be found ««,--«»- /.• ^fl*\ T»«r« TarWim /^a «Aa\ Rr*:#^ A» lA^Arm Am.
in Sir A. Geikie. Texiboik of Cfology, 4th cd.. and in the annual Bczerros (17,484), Bom Jardim (40,160). Brejo da Madre de
Geological Literature of the Geological Society of London. Sec Dcus (13,655), a town of the higher a^r«te region, Cabo C13.337).
also an interesting summary by C. Schuchert, "The Rusman Caruarii (17,844), Escada (9331), Garanhuns (32,788, covering
Carboniferous and Permian compared with those of India and gjj^ ^^^ns and villages), Gloria dc Goyti (24,554), Goyaniui,
^^T^J^JZ^-J^i.^AtSS^'t^iSS:.'^-. Li™«i«> (".576), Olind. (8o8oMheddcolonWcviUl»d
Bd. II., F. Freeh and others (Stuttgart 1897-1902). H. Everding, episcopal sec, Rio Formosa (6080), TimbaQba (9514) and
** Zur Geologic derdeutschen Zechstcinsalzc. JCf/. geolog. Landesansl. Victoria (32,422).
(Berlin. 1907) gives a fuU account of the salt and poUssium-b^ring Pernambuco was first settled in 1526 by Christovio Jacques
beds. (J. A. H.) ^|j^ founded a settlement on the Rio Iguarassii that was after-
PERNAMBUCO* a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded N. wards abandoned. The first permanent settlement was made
by Cear& and Parahyba, E. by the Atlantic, S. by Alagdas and by Duarte Coclho Pcreiraat Olinda in 1530, and four years later
Bahia, and W. by Piauby. Area, 49.573 sq. m.; pop. (1900), he was granted a ca^/tonia of 50 leagues extending from the mouth
1,178,150. It comprises a comparatively narrow coastal zone, of the S&o Francisco northward to that of the IguarassO. Adjacent
a high inland plateau, and an intermediate zone formed by the to this grant on the north was the capUania of Itamaraci,
terraces and slopes between the two. Its surface is much broken granted to Pero Lopes de Souza, which covered the remainder
by the remains of the ancient plateau which has bean worn down of the present state. The capUania of Pernambuco was ably
by erosion, leaving escarpments and ranges of flat-topped governed and took an active part in the expulsion of the French
mountains, called chapadaSt capped in places by horizontal from the trading posts established along the coast northward to
layers of sandstone. Ranges of these chapadas form the Maranh&o, and in establishing Portuguese colonies in their
boundary lines with three states — the Serras dos IrmSos and places. In 1630 Pernambuco was occupied by the Dutch and
Vermelha with Piauhy, the Serra do Araripe with Ccari, and the continued under their nile until 1654. Although an active
Serra dos Cariris Velhos with Parahyba. The coastal zone is guerrilla warfare was waged against the Dutch during a large part
low, well-wooded and fertile. It has a hot, humid climate, of that period, they did much to promote the agricultural and
relieved to some extent by the south-east trade winds. This commercial interests of the colony, especially under the irise
region b locally known as the mattas (forests). The middle zone, administration of Maurice of Nassau. In 181 7 Pernambuco was
called the caatinga or agreste region, has a drier climate and the scene of a revolutionary outbreak, which resulted in the
lighter vegetation. The inland region, called the sert&o, is high, separation of the present states of Alagftas and Rio Grande do
stony, and dry, and frequently devastated by prolonged droughts Norte, Ccari and Parahyba having been detached in 1799.
(siuat). The climate is characterized by hot days and cool There'was another insurrection in 1822 when the Portuguese
nights, and is considered healthy, though the daily change tends captain-general, Luiz de Rego, and his garrison was expelled, and
to provoke bronchial, catarrhal and inflammatory diseases, in 1824 dissatisfaction with the arbitrary proceedings of Dom
There are two clearly defined seasons, a rainy season from March Pedro I. at Rio de Janeiro led to a separatist revolution for the
to June, and a dry season for the remaining months. The rivers formation of a new state, to be called the Fcdcrac&o do Equador.
of the state include a number of small plateau streams flowing There was another outbreak in 1831 and frequent disorders down
southward to the Sio Francisco River, and several brge streams to 1848, when they culminated in another unsuccessful revolutioB.
in the eastern part flowing eastward to the Atlantic. The former The population of the Pernambuco serldo has alwajrs been noted
are the Moxot6, Ema, PajchG, Terra Nova, Brigida, B6a Vbta for its turbulent, lawless character, due partly to distance tnm
and Pontal, and are dry channels the greater part of the year, the coast where the bulk of the population is concoitrated,
The largest of the coastal rivers are the Goyanna, which is formed partly to difficult means of communication, and partly to the
by the confluence of the Tracunhacm and Capibaribe-mirim, fact that this remote region has long been the refuge of crimiaili
and drains a rich agricultural region in the north-cast part of from the coast towns.
the state; the Capibaribe, which has its source in the Serra de PBRNAU (in Russ. Pemov and in Esthbnian Perualin), a
Jacarari and flows eastward to the Atlantic at Recife with a seaport and watering-place of western Russia, in the govenunent
course of nearly 300 m.; the Ipojuca, which rises in the Serra de of Livonia, 155 m. N. of Riga, on the left bank of the Pemau or
Aldeia Velhaand reaches the coast south of Recife; theSerinhacn Pernova, which about half a mile farther down entera the Bay
and the Una. A large tributary of the last — the Rio Jacuhipe, of Pemau, the northern arm of the Gulf of Riga. Pop., 12,8561
forms part of the boundary line with Alag6as. The harbour is usually free from ice from the end of April to tk
Pernambuco is chiefly agricultural, the lowlands being devoted middle of December,
to sugar and fruit, with coffee in some of the more elevated Founded on the right side of the river in 1255 by one of thi
localities, the agreste region to cotton, tobacco, Indian com, bishops of Oesel, Pernau soon became a flourishing place, h
beans and stock, and the scrtdo to grazing and in some localities the i6th century it was occupied in succession by the Sweda^
to cotton. Sugar, molasses, rum (aguardente or cacAa^a), the Poles and the Teutonic Knights. After 1599 the Pekl
tobacco and fruit are largely exported. Coco-nuts, cacao, transferred the town to the left side of the river; and In 1641
bananas, mangoes and other tropical fruits are produced in the Swedes, who had been in possession since 16x7, strengtheaed
profusion, but the production of foodstuffs (beans, Indian corn, it with regular fortifications. In 1710 it was taken by thi
mandioca, &c.) is not sufficient for local consumption. Manga- Russians, and the fortress is now demolished,
beira rubber is collected to a limited extent, and piassava fibre PERNE, ANDREW (c. 1519-1589), vice-chancellor of Cia*
is an article of export. Orchids are also collected for export in bridge University and dean of Ely, bora about 1591, was son of
the districts of Garanhuns and Timba(iba. Cotton-weaving and John Peme of East Bilney, Norfolk. He was educated at Si
cigar-making arc the principal manufacturing industries, after John's college, Cambridge, graduating B.A. in 1539, BJ}. it
the large en^enAo5 devoted to the manufacture of sugar and rum. 1547 and D.D. in 1553. He was elected fellow of Queens* ii
The railways of the state are the Recife and Sao Francisco (77 m.), 1540, and vice-president in 1551, and was five times viot*
Central de Pernambuco (132 m.) and Sulde Pernambuco (120 m.) chancellor; but he owes his notoriety to his remarkable veisatiltj,
— all government properties leased to the Great Westem of and, like the vicar of Bray, he was always faithful to the nstJeoil
Brazil Railway Co., Ltd., since 1901. Besides these there are the religion, whatever it might be. In April 1547 he advocate!
line from Recife to Limociro and Timbaiiba (iia m.), with an Catholic doctrines, but recanted two months later, and Hi
PERONNE— PERPENDICULAR PERIOD
179
PloCestant faith was strengthened during Edward VI. 's reign;
be was Mppoukied a royal chaplain and canon of Windsor. Soon
after Mary's accession, however, he perceived the error of his
ways and was made master of Peterhouse in 1554 and dean of
Ely in S557> He preached the sermon in 1556 when the bodies
of Buoer and Fagius were disinterred and burnt for heresy, and
also in 1560 when these proceedings were reversed and the dead
heretics were rehabilitated. In Elizabeth's reign he subscribed
the Thirty-nine Articles, denounced the pope and tried to
convert Abbot Feckenham to Protestantism; and in 1584
Whitgift in vain recommended him for a bishopric. He died
on the s6th of April 1589. He was selected as the type of
AtigJM-an prelate by the authors of the Martin Mar-prelate
tracts and other Puritans, who nicknamed him '* Old Andrew
TWncoat," " Andrew Ambo," " Old Father Palinode." Cam-
bridge wits, it was said, translated " pemo " by " I turn, I rat,
I change often "; and a coat that had often been turned was
said to have been " pemed." (A. F. P.)
PteOMNB, a town of northern France, capital ofanarron-
disBement of the dq>artment of Somme, on the right bank of
Hbft Somme at its confluence with the Cologne, 35 m. E. by N.
of Amiens by raO. Pop. (1906), 3698. The church of St Jean
(IS09-I525) was greatly damaged during the bombardment of
1S70-71, but has since been restored. The castle of Pironnc
itill retains four large conical-roofed towers dating from the
naddle ages, one of which is said to have been the prison of
Loab XL in 1468, when he was forced to agree to the " Treaty
of Pfronne." P^ronne has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first
iKtaace and a communal college. Its trade and industry are
of fittle importance.
The Prankish kings had a villa at P^ronne, which ClovisII.
fnFO to Erchinoaldus, mayor of the palace. The latter founded
a nmustery here, and raised in honour of St Fursy a collegiate
dwrch, which was a wealthy establishment until the Revolution;
it is the burial-place of Charles the Simple, who died of starvation
iiadangeon in P^nne, into which he had been thrown by the
oooBt of Vermandois (939). After the death of Philip of Alsace,
I'lfioiine, which he had inherited through his wife, escheated to
tk French Crown in the reign of Philip Augustus, from whom in
1109 it received a charter. By the treaty of Arras (1435) it
*» given to the Burgundians; bought back by Louis XI., it
puKd again into the hands of Charles the Bold in 1465. On
tie death of Charles, however, in 1477, Louis XL resumed
poaeaaon. In 1536 the emperor Charles V. besieged P^ronne,
Iw without success; in its defence a woman called Marie Four6
ptttly distinguished herself. A statue of her stands in the town;
a&d the anniversary of the raising of the siege is still celebrated
ttnaDy. It was the first town after Paris at which the League
^ proclaimed in 1577. P£ronnc's greatest misfortunes
tCQirred during the Franco-German War. It was invested on
Ik 27th of December 1870, and bombarded from the 38th to
tkegth of the following January, upon which date, on account of
tke sufferings of the dvil population, among whom small-poz
Isd broken out. it was compelled to capitulate.
nsOVSKITB, or Perotskite, a mineral consisting of calcium
titanate, CaTiO*. usually with a small proportion of the calcium
Kfbced by iron. The crystals found in schistose rocks have
tke form of cubes, which are sometimes modified on the edges
ad comers by numerous small planes; on the other hand, the
oyAak occurring as an accessory constituent of eruptive rocks
IK octahedral in form and microscopic in size. Although
fBometrically cubic, the crystals are always doubly refracting,
aad they sometimes show evidence of complex mimetic twinning;
their structure as shown in polarized light is very similar to
tkat of the mineral boracite, and they are therefore described as
(Kudo-cubk. There are distinct cleavages (nrallel to the faces
of the cube. The colour varies from pale yellow to blackish-
bmm and the lustre is adamantine to metallic; the crystals are
tnaipareot to opaque. The index of refraction is high, the
hndneM 5} and the specific gravity 4*0. The mineral was
<Ko»cted at Achmatovsk near Zlatoust in the Urals by G.
tarn in 1839, and named in honour of Count L.' A. Perovsky; I
at this locality large cubes occur with calcite and magnetite in
a chlorite-schist. Similar crystaU are also found in talc-schist
at Zermatt in Switzerland. The micioscopic octahedral
crystals arc characteristic of melilite basalt and nephelinc
bi^t; they have also been found in pcridotite' and serpen-
tine. (L. J. S.)
PEROWNE, JOHN JAMES STEWART (1823-1904), English
bishop, was bom, of Huguenot ancestry, at Burdwan, Bengal,
on the 13th of March 1823. He was educated at Norwich and
at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, bcoming a fellow in 1849.
After holding a chair in King's College, London, he was appointed
vice-principal at St David's College, Lampeter (1863-1873).
In 1868 he was Hulscan lecturer, taking as his subject Immor-
tality. He was elected canon of Llandaff in 1869, dean of Peter-
borough 1878, and in 1891 succeeded Henry Philpott as bishop
of Worcester. Pcrowne was a good Hebrew scholar of the old
type and sat on the Old Testament Revision Committee. He
is best remembered as the general editor of the Cambridgt
Bible far Schools and Colleges. His chief works were, a Com-
mentary on the Book of Psalms (2 vols., 1864-1868) and a life of
Bishop Thirlwall (1877-1878). He resigned his see in X90X, and
died on the 6th of November 1904.
PfiROZ (Peirozes, Priscus, fr. S3; Perous^ Procop. Pers. L 3
and Agath. iv. 27; the modern form of the name is Feroz, Firuz,
cf. FiauzABAo), Sassanid king of Persia, a.d. 457-484, son of
Yazdegcrd II. He rebelled against his brother Homizd III.,
and in 459 defeated and killed him with the help of the Ephtha-
lites, or White Huns, who had invaded Bactria. He also killed
most of his other relatives, and persecuted the Christians. But
he favoured the introduction of Ncstorianism, in opposition to
the orthodox creed of Byzantium. With the Romans he main-
tained peace, but he tried to keep down the Ephthalites, who
began to conquer eastern Iran. The Romans supported him
with subsidies; but all his wars were disastrous. Once he was
himself taken prisoner and had to give his son Kavadh as hostage
till after two years he was able to pay a heavy ransom. Then
he broke the treaty again and advanced with a large army.
But he lost his way in the eastern desert and perished with
his whole army (484). The Ephthalites invaded and plun-
dered Persia for two years, till at last a noble Persian from
the old family of Karen, Zarmihr (or Sokhra), restored some
degree of order. He raised Balash, a brother of PCrdz, to the
throne. (Ed. M.)
PERPENDICULAR PERIOD, the term given by Thomas
Rickman to the third period of Gothic architecture in England,
in consequence of the great predominance of perpendicular lines.
In the later examples of the Decorated period the omission of
the circles in the tracery had led to the employment of curves
of double curvature which developed into flamboyant tracery,
and the introduction of the perpendicular lines was a reaction
in the contrary direction. The mullions of the windows (which
are sometimes of immense size, so as to give greater space for
the stained glass) are carried up into the arch mould of the
windows, and the upper portion is subdivided by additional
mullions. The buttresses and wall surface are likewise divided
up into vertical panels. The doorways are frequently enclosed
within a square head over the arch moiildings, the spandrils
being fitted with quatrefoils or tracery. Inside the church the
triforium disappears, or its place is filled with panelling, and
greater importance is given to the clerestory windows which
constitute the finest features in the churches of this period. The
mouldings are flatter and less effective than those of the earlier
periods, and one of the chief characteristics is the introduction
of large elliptical hollows. The finest features of this p)eriod are
the magnificent timber roofs, such as those of Westminster Hall
(139s), Christ Church Hall, Oxford, and Crosby Hall.
The earliest examples of the Perpendicular period, dating
from 1360, are found at Gloucester, where the masons of the
cathedral would seem to have been far in advance of those in
other towns. Among other buildings of note are the choir and
tower of York Cathedral (1389-1407): the nave and western
transepu of Canterbury Cathedral (1378-14x1), and the tower
i8o
PERPENT— PERPETUAL MOTION
(towards the end of the isih century); New College, Oxford
(1380-1386); the Beauchamp Chapel, Warwick (1381-1391);
the nave and aisles of Winchester Cathedral (1399-1419); the
transept and tower of Merton College, Oxford (1424-1450);
Manchester Cathedral (1422); the central tower of Gloucester
Cathedral (1454-1457), and that of Magdalen College, Oxford
(1475-1480). To those examples should be added the towers
at Wrexham, Coventry, Evesham, and St Mary's at Taunton,
the first being of exceptional magnificence.
PERPENT, or Parpemt Stones, in architecture, bond or
" through stones," the 6tar6ra( of the Greeks and Romans, long
stones going right through walls, and tying them together from
face to face. The O. Fr. parpain, modem parpaing, from which
this word is derived, is obscure in origin. It may be from a
supposed Lat. perpago, perpaginis, formed like compago, a
joint, from the root of pangere, to fasten, and meaning " some-
thing fastened together," or from some popular corruption
of Lat. perpendkulum, plummet or plumb>line (pir or pendere^
to hang), referring to the smooth perpendicular faces of the
stone.
PERPETUAL MOTION, or Perpetuum Mobile, in its usual
significance, not simply a machine which will go on moving for
ever, but a machine which, once set in motion, will go on doing
useful work without drawing on any external source of energy, or a
machine which in every complete cycle of its operation will give
forth more energy than it has absorbed. Briefly, a perpetual
motion usually means a machine which will create energy.
The earlier seekers after the " pcrpctuum mobile " did not
always appreciate the exact nature of their quest; for we find
among their ideals a clock that would periodically rewind itself,
and thus go without human interference as long as its machinery
would last. The energy created by such a machine would
simply be the work done in overcoming the friction of its parts,
so that its projectors might be held merely to have been ignorant
of the laws of friction and of the dynamic theory of heat. Most
of the perpetual motionists, however, had more practical views,
and explicitly declared the object of their inventions to be the
doing of useful work, such as raising water, grinding com, and
so on. Like the exact quadrature of the circle, the transmuta-
tion of metals and other famous problems of antiquity, the
perpetual motion has now become a venerable paradox. Still,
like these others, it retains a great historical interest. Just as
some of the most interesting branches of modem pure mathe-
matics sprang from the problem of squaring the circle, as
the researches of the alchemists developed into the science of
modem chemistry, so, as the result of the vain search after the
perpetual motion, there grew up the greatest of all the general-
izations of physical sdence, the principle of the conservation of
energy.
There was a time when the problem of the perpetual motion
was one worthy of the attention of a philosopher. Before that
analysis of the action of ordinary machines which led to the laws
of dynamics, and the discussion of the dynamical interdependence
of natural phenomena which accompanied the establishment of
the dynamical theory of heat, there was nothing plainly unreason-
able in the idea that work might be done by the mere concatena-
tion of machinery. It had not then been proved that energy is
uncrcatable and indestructible in the ordinary course of nature;
even now that proof has only been given by induction from long
observation of facts. There was a time when wise men believed
that a spirit, whose maintenance would cost nothing, could by
magic art be summoned from the deep to do his master's work;
and it was just as reasonable to suppose that a structure of wood,
brass and iron could be found to work imdcr like conditions.
The disproof is in both cases alike. No such spirit has ever
existed, save in the imagination of his dcscriber, and no such
machine has ever been known to act, save in the fancy of its
inventor.
The principle of the conservation of energy, which in one
sense is simply denial of the possibility of a perpetual motion,
rests on facts drawn from every branch of physical sdence; and,
although its full establishment only dates from the middle of the
19th century, yet so numerous are the cases in which it has
tested, so various the deductions from it that have been i»oved
to accord with experience, that it is now regarded as one of the
best-established laws of nature. Consequently, on any one who
calls it in question is thrown the burden of proving his case. li
any machine were produced whose source of energy could not at
once be traced, a man of science (complete freedom of investi-
gation being supposed) would in the first place try to trace its
power to some hidden source of a kind already known; or in the
last resort he would seek for a source of energy of a new kind and
give it a new name. Any. assertion of creation of energy by
means of a mere machine would have to be authenticated in
many instances, and established by long investigation, before it
could be received in modem science. The case is precisely as
with the law of gravitation; if any apparent exception to this
were observed in the case of some heavenly body, astronomers,
instead of denying the law, would immediately seek to explain
the occurrence by a wider application of it, say by including in
their calculations the effect of some disturbing body hitherto
neglected. If a man likes to indulge the notion that, after all,
an exception to the law of the conservation of energy may be
found, and, provided he submits his idea to the test of experiment
at his own charges without annoying his neighbours, all that can
be said is that he is engaged in an unpromising enterprise. The
case is otherwise ^ith the projector who comes forward with
some machine which claims by the mere ingenuity of its contri-
vance to multiply the energy supplied to it from some of the
ordinary sources of nature and sets to work to pester scientific
men to examine his supposed discovery, or attempts therewith
to induce the credulous to waste their money. This b by fai
the largest class of perpetual-motion-mongers nowadays. The
interest of such cases is that attaching to the morbid anatomy
of the human mind. Perhaps the most striking feature about
them is the woful sameness of the symptoms of their madne&
As a body perpetual-motion seekers are ambitious, lovers of the
short path to wealth and fame, but wholly superficial. Thcii
inventions are very rarely characterized even by mechanical
ingenuity. Sometimes indeed the inventor has simply bewildered
himself by the complexity of his device; but in most cases the
machines of the per[>ctual motionist are of child-like simplicity,
remarkable only for the extraordinary assertions of the inventoi
concerning them. Wealth of ideas there is none; simply vmtt-
tions that such and such a machine solves the problem, aJtbou^
an identical contrivance has been shown to do no such thing ^
the brutal test of standing still in the hands of many previoM
inventors. Hosts of the seekers for the perpetual motion have
attacked their insoluble problem with less than a scboolbcqr^
share of the requisite knowledge; and their confidence as a rde
is in proportion to their ignorance. Very often they get do
further than a mere prospectus, on the strength of whi<£ they
claim some imaginary reward, or offer their precious discovciy
for sale; sometimes they get the length of a model which want!
only the last perfection (already in the inventor's brain) to
solve the great problem; sometimes fraud is made to supply the
motive power which their real or pretended efforts have failed ID
discover.
It was no doubt the barefaced fallacy of most of the plans for
per[>ctual motion that led the majority of scientific mea to
conclude at a very early date that the " peipetuum mobfle"
was an impossibility. We find the Paris Academy of Sciencei
refusing, as early as 1775, to receive schemes for the pefpctnd
motion, which they class with solutions of the duplicatioB of tht
cube, the trisection of an angle and the quadrature of the drdc
Stcvinus and Leibnitz seem to have regarded its impoeslbflity n
axiomatic; and Newton at the beginning of his Principia states
so far as ordinary mechanics are concerned, a priodple wbUk
virtually amounts to the same thing.
The famous proof of P. De la Hire simply refers to some «l
the more common gravitational perpetual motions. The txuA
is, as we have said already, that, if proof is to be given, 9t
considered necessary, it must proceed by inducUoo fnm al
physical phenomena.
PERPETUAL MOTION
It hhU Mive no utetui puipoa here to ^vc ui cihiutiiv
taUxul umuBI ' «l tbr vigmria ol minlund In punuit a[ thi
'pBpMuum mobilt." Tbe rculcc may rtla to Hcniy DinJu'
hfdiuHi KaAdf (i volt., iS6[ ind iS;o), bom which, [o
t^ ami. part, we select the foUowjog fictL
Bt br the man numerDin clui ol pttpouel motloiu b Iha
iWh wlu to uiUlK the aciion of gravity jpon ligii) Hiidi. W.
mrt not rrad ol anj' actiu] pnipout ol the kind, but the mot
(btinii thin^ toinmiioe in ihii way would be to procure Kiax
«fe: linnet oc other unpoiinB devicF bnoE added
Orflyneui (whov ntl ai
SMo-iju) iliD obtuDcd dii
i> lui wheel, lor be ippu
ihann Enin EIIu BcslerJ
and approved of by the landinve ot Hene-Cauel. in HJIOK laiik
ai WeiHcnHeIn it u uid u> have gone ior eiihl wcclu in a mini
roMB. The nu« renurluble thiog about Ihi> nuchiae i> that it
ol^^Oifyraeui-i^ -he^ undmaEn ai'iht*(^ti« ol IheuS^w"
"J tie leave* fall loretlier. The pfDcen n llicn repeared, ai
■•aminue uuiL all iV eneijy d the raJium hat been di«ipatc
Z~ )"!J^ ■" '«'»'«'y lo"I. for loooyean louat elapM Wc
(M Wf lh> nuJiun bai duappnued.— (Ed.)
i82 PERPETUITY— PERPIGNAN
that it thin dnw unto it on • ndintd piane * bullet r* rrI. hs, »1iicb othen hid fakfly Mtributd to csiAlUT tcHiiB jh
mrhich, mUI, u it (bziuIi ihc to thr loaduanF, may be cDnlrivcd idu bnUE iLu it vu In eff Kt si the diflciBU dowon c( lalt nd
10 Ull tliromh •omt Iid\>> in the plain and to lo i«iim unio (mh mi«.
thf plus vbmcF « Gnl it brpn to move, and being (here. One mliy i» »t a fan nilh Bcmoulli'i wopdgtui tt«*y| ■httha
Tlie' [act thai ■rreena do 'eiitt whereby electrical ard magnetic piltetn ol the ineienli. or the weighty lupemnKture buk oa B
oi ynli"hsow^W Sptnce (Srfe"^ that ™SJl'(ojil"'hUck PEHPETUITY (Lit. ftrfelMui, conlinuoiu), iht MUC of bsBg
•ubnaiKX »hich intercepted nuinrtic attnctian and repulHon, perpetualorcontinuinglbron inde&nilBliint;inl«thelyiin-np
K'h?.s^?sjiZi™J™g;s.";';i:x^iiuiu"^„:;: "*"=■'" '« «.i"ph"«i ("nod. !« th^-p-* »( pf««.ii-«
tiw [nud wai .pctdlly cipoKd, but it la wmihy of Rmarli that ^ "Wt'Cne abenation. As being opposed lo the ibKnM of
Sir David Brewater IhoMht the thinr worth nientIoiuB| in t lelwr the Hate and individual effort, Ihe ereslion of petpetuitia bM
totlitXiiiMfcnle(*iiiiiifiai«), wherein he«aie«"lhalM(Pl»v(air been roniidtrably curtailed, «nd Ihe tule imnit pcmetuitk* b
-l£y.h:.'ii;^J^vi''Sr'™h'i^^^^Sl'™;^; " "* »« Wmied Kingdom now torbidt the aMnf of u taatttrj
"TlTpSS.t''^,™™ w,rKl.7.? eCS,"' d™" fnl; of . i"'""' ""l™ ^"^ -ri'tln the period of aSy £») number rf
locomotive engine which wu to be v-orked by, ihe agency of per- eiisting liva and an additional peiiod of twenty-one jreui (with
nianenl magnett. He iorgeti Ihe delaili. but il wia not aa limpk a few months added, if neMsuiy, for Ihe period ol gcstaticn).
I 1 MlISSf'";rJ''^^Mnt'™.Mtwh™ '"'^ "'' 'PP'" '" <">P«"'o'« of Pa»od property (w
pO-J i'tSoioni."'^.lri"bJISw™d™ ACCDMUUTION) as well as of real property. There .w cettJn
W/ \, lower right quadrant! of Ihe aoft iron ajid to ciaiiuMe uses, »od alio in the ease of a perpeluily OMied
V \ ""^ ■■ 1. ""5^^il? * ^'ll'V'u ^y •" o' P"li»n»nt (e.(. Ihe eilata of Blenlieim, (etllol «
I O I I^dN 'and thMM^oTlw e^ t*"" 'I"'" °' Marlborough, and SWIhfieldsaye on tbe duka of
VJ." • ■■■ " ""' ""'■""■
t. Rep. 346). The general tendaig> cf
to favour tying up eilate* to
ai fonnetly approved.
, PERPIQKAX. a town of »mh-we>leni rnnce, cqiitil at tW
depailDient of PyrfnEes-Orientalei, on tbe right tank of tlie T(t,
' 1 m. from Ihe Mcdilenanean and43 m. S. by W. o( Naibucu
. Pop. (loaS), lown, j],6iji oomntunr, iSflgi. Tte
__. — .._ _, .t_ — r_ — .^^ 1^ ^^^ g^i^ J
[I it overiooted hgr ■
' riiadd endotlng a caslle (ijlh cenluiy) ol the kingi of Uajocc*.
' The chapel i> remarkable as being a miiture of ' ' ~
yi Bernoulli), Pointed and Mooiiih atylei. The lampiru )uITOusiltBg tM
ukeninany dladclatethewoikofLouisXI., CharlsV. andVauban. 1W
Iplurcs and caryatides still lo be leen on the gateway of tk»
*d wetc placed there by the duke of Alva. The "'TmtnT
01 M Jean wai begun in 1314 and Gulifaed in ijog. Tlie n^
I noteworthy feature in the buDding U an iauBeiue rendna iM
__ ... — ..,-- "'■i'* marble (early 17th cenluiy) by Banhotomew Sola sC
™tteMtaEF^S Batcelona.
taken ol such a fengih In the north of the town cosunaudlng tbe gateway «f Nbtir-
L:G-t-I-: let the lower Dame (uBi) there glands a nirioui machicolated ctiBB^ald
'■'vl'*i.'^i"°'''*^'k" known as the CasiillEi (14th and isih ceniutiea), no* lUed aai
"ng ihe Ue""liquS Pf™"- *"" buildings of the old unlvenity (iBih caitBy)
r (which may oIk be contain the libraiy and the museum, the latter pnwiBiug tie
now let the tube Ihui first photographic proofs eieculed by Daguene and a coDectia
_ J ._ .!._ L ( ^j Bculpturej and painting*. Siaiuea of Frantob Anfo, tb
aatronomer, and Hyadnlhe Rigoud, tbe painter, ctud Id lit
Ter^adi^^'ofco. ^_
. Thehigbs't^
It Peipignan. Trade it in wine, lion, woi^ e^
PERQUISITE— PERRON, P. C.
183
of Aiagon, who in 1349 founded a univenity at Perpignan.
Wbea Louis XL occupied RoussUlon as security for money
advanced by him to the king of Aragon, Perpignan resisted the
Ffttdi arms for a considerable time, and oiUy yielded through
ttzess of famine (March 15, 1475)' Roussillon was restored to
Anfon by Charles VIII. and Perpignan was again besieged in
iS4a under Francis I., but without success. Later on, however,
the inhabitants, angered by the tyranny and cruelty of the
Spanish governor, surrendered the town to Louis XIII. The
citadel held out until the glh of September 1642, and the place
bag ever since belonged to France, 16 which it was formally ceded
by the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659). In 1602 the bishopric of
line was transferred to Perpignan.
See P. Vibal, Perpignan depuis les origines jusqtC H nos jours
CFtoiMM).
FBEQUUITB (Lat. perquisUum, that which has been acquired
by careful search; perquircre, to search diligently), a term properly
i of the profits which accrue to the holder of an oflice over and
the regular emoluments; also, in law, the casual profits,
s accrue by heriots, fines, reliefs, &c., to a lord of a manor
the yearly revenue from the copyholds. The word is
generally of the casual profits allowed by custom to
or other employes from superfluous articles which the
employer has enj<^ed the use of or which are supposed not to be
PERRAULT, CHABLBS (1628-1703), French author, was
iMKn in Puis on the I2lh of January 1628. His father, Pierre
Pmraolt, was a barrister, all of whose four sons were men of some
distinction: Claude (1613-1688), the second, was by profession
a. physician^ but became the architect of the Louvre, and trans-
lated Vitruvius (1673). Charles was brought up at the College de
Beasvais, until he chose to quarrel with his masters, after which
be was allowed to follow his own bent in the way of study. He
Xotk Ids degree of licencii en droit at Orleans in 1651, and was
ahMst immediately called to the Paris bar, where, however, he
I»viiiTd tax a very short time. In 1654 his brother became
noeiver-graeral of Paris, and made Charles his clerk. After
aeirly ten years of this employment he was, in 1663, chosen by
Colbert as his secretary to assist and advise him in matters
RiatiDg to the arts and sciences, not forgetting literature. He
VMOootroDer-general of the department of public works, member
of the commisBion that afterwards developed into the Acadimie
io tMscriptiouSf and in 1671 he was admitted to the Acadimie
fm^/M€, Perrault justified his election in several ways. One
«tt the orderly arrangement of the business affairs of the
Academy, another was the suggestion of the custom of holding
pobfic siamas for the reception of candidates. Colbert's death in
^1 put an Old to Perrault 's oflidal career, and he then gave
UoHdf up to literature, beginning with Saint Paulin iviqiie de
ftkt nu une ipUre chritienne sur la ptiUencet et une ode aux
■»nwiu eomverttM. The famous dispute of the ancients and
nodens arose from a poem on the SUde de Louis le Grand ( 1 687) ,
Rad befcne the Academy by Perrault, on which Boileau com-
mented in .violent terms. Perrault had ideas and a will of his
own, and he published (4 vols., 1688-1696) his ParaiUledes
tHdem d des modemes. The contoovcrsy that followed in its
tnia raged hotly in France, passed thence to England, and in
the days of Antoine Houdarf de la Motte and F^nelon broke
«tt again in the country of its origin. As far as Perrault is
oacemed he was inferior to his adversaries in learning, but
deddedly superior to them in wit and politeness.
It is not known what drew Perrault to the composition of the
only works of his which are still read, but the taste for fairy
sories and Oriental tales at court is noticed by Mme de Sevign6
is 1676, and at the end of the 17th century gave rise to the fairy
itoacs of Mile L'H^tier de Villaudon, whose Bigarrures ingini-
eam ai^>eared in 1696, of Mme d'Aulnoy and others, while
Aataine Galland's translation of the Thousand-and-One Nights
bdoBgs to the early years of the x8th century. The first of
Fenaalt*s contes, Cris&idis, which is in verse, appeared in 1691,
and was reprUited with Peau d'dne and Les Soukaits ridicules^
d» ia vetse, in a Recueil de piices curieuses — published at the
Hague in 1694. But Perrault was no poet, and the merit of
these pieces is entirely obscured by that of the prose tales, La
Belle au bois dormant^ Petit chaperon rouge, La BarU bUue, Le
Chat botti, Les Fies, Cendriilon, Riquet d la houppe and Le Petit
poucet, which appeared in a volume with 1697 on the title-page,
and with the general title of Histoires ou amies du temps passt
avec dcs moralitis. The frontispiece contained a placard with
the inscription, Contes de ma mire Voie. In 1876 Paul Lacroiz
attributed the stories to the authorship of Perrault's son, P.
Darmancour, who signed the dedication, and was then, according
to Lacroix, nineteen years old. Andrew Lang has suggested
that the son was a child, not a young man of nineteen, that he
really wrote down the stories as he heard them, and that they
were then edited by his father. This supposition would explain
the mixture of nalvet6 and satire in the text. Perrault's other
works include his Mlmoires (in which iie was assisted by his
brother Claude), giving much valuable information on Colbert's
ministry; an Eniide Iraveslie written in collaboration with his
two brothers, and Les Hommes illustres qui ont paru en France
pendant ce siicie (2 vols., 1696-1700). He died on the i6th of
May 1703, in Paris. His son, Perrault d'Arma-Court, was the
author of a well-known book, Contes des fies, containing the
story of Cinderella, &:c.
Except the tales, Perrault's works have not recently been re*
E tinted. Of these there are many modem editioni, e.g. by Paul
acroix (1876), and by A. Lcfdbvrc (" Nouvelle collection Jannct,"
1875): also Penatdl's Popular Tales (Oxford, 1888), which contains
the French text edited by Andrew Lang, with an introduction,
and an examination of the sources of each story. See also
Hippolyte Rigault, Hist, de la querelle des anciens et des modemes
(1856).
FERRERS (or De Windsor), ALICE (d. r4oo), mistress of
the English king Edward III., belonged probably to the Hert-
fordshire family of Ferrers, although it is also stated that she
was of more humble birth. Before 1366 she had entered the
service of Edward's queen, Philippa, and she appears later as
the wife of Sir William de'Windsor, deputy of Ireland (d. 1384).
Her intimacy with the king began about 1366, and during the
next few years she received from him several grants of land
and gifts of jewels. Not content with the great influence which
she obtained over Edward, Alice interfered in the proceedings
of the courts of law to secure sentences in favour of her friends,
or of those who had purchased her favour; actions which induced
the parliament of 1376 to forbid all women from practising
in the law courts. Alice was banished, but John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster, allowed her to return to court after the death
of Eklward the Black Prince in June 1376, and the parliament
of 1377 reversed the sentence against her. Again attempting
to pervert the course of justice, she was tried by the peers and
banished after the death of Edward III. in June 1377; but this
sentence was annulled two years later, and Alice regained some
influence at court. Her time, however, was mainly spent io
lawsuits, one being with William of Wykcham, bishop of
Winchester, and another with her dead husband's nephew and
heir, John de Windsor.
PERRON. PIERRE CUILUER (1755-1834). French mUitary
adventurer in India, whose name was originally Pierre Cuillier,
was born in 1755 at Ch&teau du Loire in France, the son of a
cloth merchant. In 1780 he went out to India as a sailor on a
French frigate, deserted on the Malabar coast, and made his
way to upper India, where he enlisted in the rana of Gohad's
corps under a Scotsman named Sangster. In 1790 he took
service under De Boigne, and was appointed to the command
of his second brigade. In 1795 he assisted to win the battle
of Kardla against the nizam of Hyderabad, and on De Boigne's
retirement became commander-in-chief of Sindhia's army.
At the battle of Malpura (1800) he defeated the Rajput forces.
After the defeat of Ujjain (1801) he refused to send his troops
to the aid of Sindhia. His treachery on this occasion shook his
position, and on the outbreak of war between Sindhia and the
British in 1803 Perron was superseded and fled to the British
camp. In the battles of Delhi, Laswari and Assaye, Perron's
battalions were completely destroyed by Lord Lake and
184
PERRON— PERRY, M. C.
Sir Arthur Wellesley. He returned to France with » large
fortune, and died in 1834.
See H. Compton, European iiUiUxry Adventurers of Hindustan
(1892).
PERRON (a French word meaning properly a " large stone,"
Ital. petrone, from Lat. pelra, Fr. pierre, stone), in architecture,
a term applied to a raised platform reached by steps in front of
the entrance to a building. The grand flight of external steps
entering the mansions of the medieval nobility or high officials
was considered in itself a mark of jurisdiction, as it is said that
sentence was there pronounced against criminals, who were
afterwards executed at the foot of the steps — as at the Giant's
Stairs of the Doge's pabce at Venice.
PERRONS, GIOVANNI (1794-1876), Italian theologian, was
born at Chieri (Piedmont) in 1794. He studied theology at
Turin, and in his twenty-first year went to Rome, where he
joined the Society of Jesus. In 1816 he was sent as professor
of theology to Orvieto, and in 1823 was appointed to a similar
post in the Collegium Romanum. From Ferrara, where he was
rector of the Jesuit College after 1830, he returned to his teaching
work in Rome, being made head of his old college in 1850. He
took a leading part in the discussions which led up to the promul-
gation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (1854), and
in 1869 was prominent on the Ultramontane side in the Vatican
Council. His numerous dogmatic works are characteristic
of orthodox modern Roman theology. They include Praelec-
ticnes tkeologicae (9 vols., Rome, 1835 sqq.), Praelectumes
tkedogicae in compendium redactae (4 vols., Rome, 1845),
// Hermesianismo (Rome, 1838), // Protestantismo e la regda
difede (3 vols., 1853), De divinitate D. N. Jesu Ckrisli (3 vols.,
Turin, 1870). He died on the 26th of August 1876.
PERROT, SIR JOHN (c. 1527-1593), lord deputy of Ireland,
was the son of Mary Berkley, who afterwards married Thomas
Perrot, a Pembrokeshire gentleman. He was generally reputed
to be a son of Henry VIII., and was attached to the household
of William Paulct, ist marquess of Winchester. He was in this
way brought to the notice of Henry VIII., who died, however,
before fulfilling his promises of advancement, but Perrot was
knighted at the coronation of Edward VI. During Mary's
reign he suffered a short imprisonment on the charge of harbour-
ing his uncle, Robert Perrot, and other heretics. In spite of
his Protestantism he received the castle and lordship of Carew
in Pembrokeshire, and at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign
he was entrusted with the naval defence of South Wales. In
1570 Perrot reluctantly accepted the newly created post of lord
president of Munstcr. He landed at Waterford in February
of the next year, and energetically set about the reduction of
the province. In the course of two years he hunted down James
Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald, whose submission he received in 1572.
Perrot resented the reinstatement of Gerald Fitzgerald, isth
earl of Desmond, and after vainly seeking his own recall left
Ireland without leave in July 1573, and presenting himsel/ at
court was allowed to resign his office, in which he was succeeded
by Sir William Drury. He returned to his Welsh home, where
he was fully occupied with his duties as vice-admiral of the
Welsh seas and a member of the council of the marches. Al-
though in 1578 he was accused by the deputy-admiral, Richard
Vaughan, of tyranny, subversion of justice and of dealings with
the pirates, he evidently retained the royal confidence, for he was
made commissioner for piracy in Pembrokeshire in 1578, and in
the next year was put in command of a squadron charged to
intercept Spanish ships on the Irish coast.
The recall of Arthur Grey, Lord Grey dc Wilton, in 1582, left
vacant the office of lord deputy of Ireland, and Perrot was
appointed to it early in 1584. Sir John Norris became lord
president of Munstcr and Sir Richard Bingham went to Con-
naught. Perrot's chief instructions concerned the plantation
of Munstcr, where the confiscated estates, some 600,000 acres
In extent, of the earl of Desmond were to be given to English
landlords at a nominal rent, provided that they brought with
them English farmers and labourers. Before he had had time
to embark on thb enterprise he heard that the Highland clans
of Maclean and MacDonneU were raiding Ulster at the invitmlioB
of Sorley Boy MacDonneU, the Scoto-Irish constable of Dunluoe
Castle. He marched into Ulster, but Sorley Boy escaped him,
and crossed to Scotland, only to return later with reinforcements.
The lord deputy was roundly abused by Elizabeth for under-
taking "a rash, unadvised journey," but Sorley Boy was
reduced to submission in 15^. In 1585 Perrot succeeded In
completing the " composition of Connaught," a scheme for •
contract between Elizabeth and the landholders of the province
by which the queen shotdd receive a small quitrent. During
his career as lord deputy he bad estabU^ed peace, and had
deserved well of Elizabeth. But a rash and viola&t temper,
coupled with unsparing criticism, not to say abuse, of his
associates, had made him numerous enemies. A hastily am-
ceived plan for the conversion of the revenues of St Patii^'k
Cathedral, Dublin, to provide funds for the erection of two
colleges, led to a violent quarrel with Adam Loftus, archbiabop
of Armagh. Perrot had interfered in Bingham's government
of Connaught, and in May 1587 he actually struck Sir Nicholas
Bagenal, the knight marshal, in the council chamber. Elisabeth
decided to supersede him in January 1588, but it was only sa
months later that his successor, Sir William FitzwUliam, arrived
in Dublin. After his return to England his enemies continued
to work for his ruin, and a forged letter purporting to be from
him to Philip U. of Spain gave colour to an accusation of
treasonable correspondence with the queen's enemies, but when
he was tried before a special commission in 1592 the diaige of
high treason was chiefly based on his alleged contemptuoos
remarks about Elizabeth. He was found guilty, but died in the
Tower in September 1592. Elizabeth was said to have intended
his pardon.
A life of Sir John Perrot from a MS. dating from the end of
Elizabeth's reign was printed in 1728. Sir James Parrot (1571*
1637), writer and politician, was his iUegitimate son.
PERRY. MATTHEW CALBRAITH (1794-1858), AmericaB
naval officer, was born in South Kingston, Rhode Idand, on the
loth of April 1794. He became a midshipman in 1809, and
served successively in the schooner " Revenge " (then com-
manded by his brother, Oliver H. Peny)^ and the frigate
" President." In 1813 he became a lieutenant, and during the
War of 181 2 served in the frigate " United States " (which, wfam
abandoned by Perry, was blockaded in the harbour of New
London, Connecticut), the " President " and the " Chippewa."
Soon after the war Perry was assigned to the Brooklyn (Ne«
York) navy yard, where he served tiU 1819. He became •
commander in 1826, and during 1826-1830 was in the recruidng
service at Boston, where he took a leading part in orgaaisisg the
first naval apprentice system of the United States navy. "Bt was
promoted in 1837 to the rank of captain (then the highest actual
rank in*the United States navy), and in 1838-1840 commanded
the " Fulton II.," the first American steam war vessd. Bt abs
planned the " Missouri " and the " Mississippi," the fintstcsa
frigates of the United States navy, and was in commAnd of ths
Brooklyn navy yard from June 1841 until March 1843, when be
assumed conunand of a squadron sent to the African coast hf
the United States, under the Webster-Ashburton treaty, to aid
in suppressing the slave trade. This command of a squadroa
entitled him to the honorary rank of commodore. On the sjid
of October 1846, during the Mexican War, Perry, in conunand of
the steam vesseU " Vixen " and " McLane," and four scfaooaeis,
attacked and captured Frontera, at the mouth of the Tobasoo
river, then pushed on up the river and (on the 24th) captured
the town of Tobasco, thereby cutting off Mexico from YucataiL
He relieved Commodore David Conner at Vera Cruz on the snt
of March 1847, and after a two days' bombardment by a battoy
landed from the ships the city wall jras breached sufficiently
to admit the entrance of troops.
Commodore Perry's distinctive achievement, however, was
his negotiation in 1854 of the treaty between the United Stata
and Japan, which opened Japan to the influences of nuiun
civilization. Perry sailed from Norfolk, Virgin, on the a^ <f
November 185 2, in the "Mississippi." He readied
PERRY, O. H.— PERSEPOLIS
185
OB tiie 7th of April and on the 8th of July dropped anchor off
the city of Uraga, on the western shore of the Bay of Ycdo with
the ** Susquehanna," his flagship, the " Mississippi," and the
sloops-of-war " Saratoga " and '* Plymouth." On the 14th of
July, accompanied by his officers and escorted by a body of
armed marines and sailors (in all about 300 men), he went ashore
and presented to commissioners especially appointed by the
sbOgon to receive them. President Fillmore's letters to the em-
peror, and his own credentials. A few days later the American
fleet sailed for Hong-Kong with the understanding that Perry
would return in the following spring to receive the emperor's
reply. On the ixth of February, accordingly, he reappeared in
the Bay of Yedo with his fleet — this time composed of the
** Susquehanna," " Powhatan " and " Mississippi," and the
sailing vessels " Vandalia," " Lexington "and "Southampton,"
and despite the protests of the Japanese selected an anchorage
about z 2 m. farther up the bay, nearly opposite the present site
of Yokohama, and within about 10 m. of Yedo (Tdky6). Here,
on the 3 ist of March 1854, was concluded the first treaty (ratified
at Slmoda, on the 31st of February 1855, and proclaimed on the
22nd of June following) between the United States and Japan.
The more important articles of this treaty provided that the port
<^ Simoda, in the prindpality of Idzu, and the port of Hakodate,
in the principality of Matsmai, were constituted as ports for
the reception of American ships, where they could buy such
supplies as they needed; that Japanese vessels should assist
American vessels driven ashore on the coasts of Japan, and that
the CTCu-s of such vessels should be properly cared for at one of
the two treaty ports; that shipwrecked and other American
d:i2ens in Japan should be as free as in other countries, within
certain prescribed limits; that ships of the United States should
be permitted to trade at the two treaty ports under temporary
regulations prescribed by the Japanese, that American ships
should use only the ports named, except under stress of weather,
and that privileges granted to other nations thereafter must also
be extended to the United States. Commodore Perry died in
New York City on the 4th of March 1858.
A complete and readable account of this expedition, and its
Rsulcb, scientific as well as political, compiled from the journals
and reports of Commodore Perry and his otticcr^, was published by
the United States government under the title, Narraltve of the
ExpedUton of an American Squadron to the China Seas and Japan
I3 vob.. Washington. 1856). The first volume of this work, con-
taining Commodore Perry % narrative, was also published Bcparateiy
A brief biography of Perry is included m Charles Morris s Heroes
tftke Navy in America (f^iladclphia and London. 1907). See also
ViUJaro E. Grif&t's Afatihev Caibrailk Perry, a Typical Ameruan
JiiTsl Ojhcer (Boston. 1887).
PERRY, OUVER HAZARD (1785-1819), American naval
effirer. was bom at South Kingston, Rhode Island, on the
33^1 of August 1785. He entered the navy as midshipman
(1799) with his father, Christopher Raymond Perry (i 761-18 18),
a captain in the navy, and saw service against the Barbary
pirates. At the beginning of the War of 181 3 he was in
coDmaod of a flotilla at Newport, but was transferred (Feb.
1S13) to the Lakes. He served with Commodore Chauncey,
tod then was sent from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie, where he
took up the chief command at the end of March 1813. With
tlK help of a strong detachment of officers and men from the
Atlantic coast he equipped a squadron consisting of one brig.
su fine schooners and one sloop. Other vessels were laid down
>'• Prcsque Isle (now Erie), where he concentrated the Lake
^Aectinjuly. When Captain Perry appeared off Amhcrst-
^^ nhere Captain Robert Heriot Barclay (d. 1837), the
^tish commander, was lying with his squadron, he had a
^ marked superiority. Captain Barclay, after a hot en-
P^tment— the Battle of *Lake Eric — in which Captain Perry's
^phip the " Lawrence," a brig, was so severely shattered
^ be had to leave her, was completely defeated. Perry com-
■^*n<led the ** Java " in the Mediterranean expedition of 1815-
^^^, and he died at Port of Spain in Trinidad on the 23rd of
^■mt 1819, of yellow fever contracted on the coast of Brazil
,^0. H. Lyman. Commodore 0. H. Perry and tht War on the
^ (New York. 1905).
PERRY, a city and the county-seat of Noble county, Okla-
homa, U.S.A., 30 ro. N. by E. of Guthrie. Pop. (1900), 3351
(399 negroes); (19 10) 3133. Perry is served by the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa F£ railway and by the St Louis & San Francisco
system. It is the commercial centre of a large agricultural and
stock-raising region, which produces cotton and grain. Peny
was settled in 1889.
PERRY (from Fr. ^ri^ from poire, a pear), an alcoholic
beverage, obtained by the fermentation of the juice of peark
The manufacture is in all essentials identical with that of
Cider (q.v.).
PERRYVILLE, a town of Boyle county, Kentucky, U.S.A.,
about 10 m W. of Danville. Pop. (19x0), 407. Here on the
8th of October 1863 General Braxton Bragg, in command of the
Confederate army of the Mississippi of about 16,000 men, with
which he had invaded Kentucky, faced about in his slow retreat
across the state and gave battle to the Union army of the
Ohio of about 40,000 (of whom only about 23,000 were actually
engaged) commanded by Major-General Don Carlos Buell.
Bragg's order to attack was disregarded by Major-General
Leonidas Polk, who preferred adopting the ** defensive-offensive "
rather than engage all of Buell's force. Bragg himself came on
the field about 10 am. and repeated his orders for an attack, but
it was 3 p.m. before there was an actual engagement. Then
after much delay on Polk's part the Confederate army joined
battle with McCook's corps. The Confederate lines were broken
and driven back through Pcrryville, where caissons, ammunition
wagons and 140 officers and men were captured. Darkness had
now come on, and in the night Bragg withdrew. His losses
were reported as 510 killed, 3635 wounded and 351 missing.
The Union loss was 845 killed, 2851 wounded and 515 captured
or missing. The battle was drawn tactically, but strategically
it was a Union victory and it virtually closed Bragg's unsuc-
cessful Kentucky campaign, which is sometimes called the
Perryville campaign.
PERSEPOLIS, an ancient city of Persia, situated some 40 m.
N.E. of Shiraz, not far from where the small river Pulwar flows
into the Kur (Kyrus). The site is marked by a large terrace
with its cast side leaning on Kuhi Rahmct (" the Mount of
Grace "). The other three sides are formed by a retaining wall,
varying in height with the slope of the ground from 14 to 41 ft.;
on the west side a magnificent double stair, of very easy steps,
leads to the top. On this terrace are the ruins of a number of
colossal buildings, all constructed of dark -grey marble from the
adjacent mountain. The stones were laid without mortar, and
many of them are still in situ. Especially striking are the huge
pillars, of which a number still stand erect. Several of the
buildings were never finished. F. Stoize has shown that in
some cases even the mason's rubbish has not been removed.^
These ruins, for which the name Kizit minare or Chihil menare
(" the forty columns or minarets "), can be traced back to the
13th century, are now known as Takhti Jamshid (" the throne
of Jamshid "). That they represent the Persepolis captured
and partly destroyed by Alexander the Great has been beyond
dispute at least since the time of Pictro dclla Vallc.'
Behind Takhti Jamshid are three sepulchres hewn out of the
rock in the hillside, the facades, one of which is incomplete,
being richly ornamented with reliefs. About 8 m. N.N.E., on
the opposite side of the Pulwar, rises a perpendicular wall of
rock, in which four similar tombs are cut, at a considerable
height from the bottom of the valley. The modern Persians
call this place Nakshi Rustam (** the picture of Rustam ") from
the Sassanian reliefs beneath the opening, which they take to
be a representation of the mythical hero Rustam. That the
»Cf. T. Chardin, E. Kaempfer. C. Nirbuhr and W. Ouseley.
Niebuhr s drawings, though good. .ire. for the purposes of the archi-
tectural student, inferior to th«* great work of C. Texier, and still
more to that of E. t'landin and P Costc. Good sketches, chiefly
after Flandin, are given by C. Kossowicz, Inscriptiones palaeo-
perstcae (St Petersburg. 1872). In addition to these we have
the photographic pbtes in F. Stolze's Persepolis (2 vols.. Berlin,
1882}
*LcUera XV. (cd. Brighton. 1843), ii. 246 seq.
i86
PERSEPOLIS
occupants of these seven tombs were kings might be inferred from
the sculptures, and one of those at Nakshi Rustam is expressly
declared in its inscription to be the tomb of Darius Hystaspis,
concerning whom Ctesias relates that his grave was in the face of
a rock, and could only be reached by means of an apparatus
of ropes. Ctesias mentions further, with r^ard to a number of
Persians kings, either that their remains were brought *' to the
Persians," or that they died there.^ Now we know that Cyrus was
buried at Pasargadae {q.v.) and if there is any truth in the
statement that the body of Cambyses was brought home " to the
Persians " his burying-place must be sought somewhere beside
that of his father. In order to identify the graves of Persepolis we
must bear in mind that Ctesias assumes that it was the custom for
a king to prepare his own tomb during his lifetime. Hence the
kings buried at Nakshi Rustam are probably, besides Darius,
Xerxes I., Artaxerxes I. and Darius II. Xerxes II., who reigned
for a very short time, could scarcely have obtained so splendid
a monument, and still less could the iisurper Sogdianus (Secy-
dianus). The two completed graves behind Takhti Jamshid
would then belong to Artaxerxes II. and Artaxerxes III. The
unfinished one is perhaps that of Arses, who reigned at the
longest two years, or, if not his, then that of Darius III.
(Codomannus), who is one of those whose bodies arc said lo have
been brought " to the Persians "' (see AsanTEcruRE, fig. 12).
Another small group of ruins in the same style is found at the
village of H&jjiibfid, on the Pulwar, a good hour's walk above
Takhti Jamshid. These formed a single building, which was
still intact 900 years ago, and was used as the mosque of the
then existing city of Istakhr.
Since Cyrus was buried in Pasargadae, which moreover is
mentioned in Ctesias as his own city,' and since, to judge from
the inscriptions, the buildings of Persepolis commenced with
Darius I., it was probably under this king, with whom the sceptre
passed to a new branch of the royal house, that Persepolis
became the capital* (sec Persia: Ancient History ^V. a) of Persia
proper. As a residence, however, for the rulers of the empire,
a remote place in a difficult alpine region was far from con-
venient, and the real capitals were Susa, Babybn and Ecbatana.
This accounts for the fact that the Greeks were not acquainted
with the city until it was taken and plundered by Alexander
the Great. Ctesias must certainly have known of it, and it is
possible that he may have named it simply Illpaat, after the
people, as is undoubtedly done by certain writers of a somewhat
later date.* But whether the city really bore the name of the
people and the country is another question. And it is extremely
hazardous to assume, with Sir H. BLawlinson and J. Oppert, that
the words and PdrsS, " in this Persia," which occur in* an inscrip-
tion on the gateway built by Xerxes (D. 1. 14), signify " in this
city of PftrsA," and consequently prove that the name of the
city is identical with the name of the country. The form
Persepolis (with a play on iripais, destruction) appears first
in Clcitarchus, one of the earliest, but unfortunately one of the
most imaginative annalists of the exploits of Alexander.
It has been universally admitted that " the palaces " or "the
palace " (rd fituriKua) burned down by Alexander are those now in
ruins at Takhti Jamshid. From Stolze's investigations it appears
that at least one of these, the castle built by Xerxes, bears evident
traces of having been destroyed by fire. The locality described by
Diodorus after Cleitarchus corresponds in important particulars
with Takhti Jamshid, for example, in being supported by the
* This statement it not made in Cteuas (or rather in the extracts
of Photius) about Darius II., which b probably accidental; in the
case of Sogdianus, who as a usurper was not deemed worthy of
honourable burial, there u a good reason for the omission.
' Arrian, ilL 23, i.
'Cf. also in particular Plutarch, i4rtax. iii., where Pasargadae
b distinctly looked on as the sacred cradle of the dynasty.
* The stOTY of Aclian {H. A. u 59), who makes Cyrus build hb
royal palace m Persepolis, deserves no attention.
*So Arrian (ut. 18, i. 10). or rather his best authority, King
Ptolemv. So. aeain, the Babylonian Berossus, shortly after
Alexanaer. See Clemens Alex., Admon. ad gentes, c. 5, where, with
Gcorg Hoffmann (Pers. M&rtyrer, 137), col is to be inserted before
JUpvott, and thb to be understood as the name of the metropolis.
n>ountam on the east.* There b, however, one formidabk
difficulty. Diodorus says that the rock at the back of the palace
containing the royal sepulchres is. so steep that the bodies couU
be raised to their last resting-place only by mechanical appliances.
Thb b not true of the graves behind Takhti Jamshid, to which, as
F. Stolze expressly observes, one can easily ride up; on the other
hand, it b strictly true of the graves at Nakshi Rustam. Stobe
accordingly started the theory that the royal castle of Persqxtlb
stood dose by Nakshi Rustam, and has sunk in course of time
to shitless heaps of earth, under which the remains may be
concealed. The vast ruins, however, of Takhti Jamshid, and
the terrace constructed with so much labour, can hardly be
anything else thxun the ruins of palaces; as for temples, the Pte-
sians had no such thing, at lout in the time of Darius and
Xerxes. Moreover, Persian tradition at a very remote period
knew of only three architectural wonders in that region, whidi
it attributed to the fabulous queen Humii (Khumai) — the grave
of Cyrus at Murgab, the building at HajjObAd, and those 00
the great terrace.' It b safest therefore to identify these last
with the royal palaces destroyed by Alexander. Cleitarchus,
who can scarcely have visited the place himself, with hb usual
recklessness of statement, confounded the tombs behind tht
palaces with those of Nakshi Rustam; indeed he appears to
imagine that all the royal sepulchres were at the same place.
In 316 B.C. PerscpoUs was still the capital of P«sb as a
province of the great Macedonian Empire (see Diod. xix, ax aeq.,
46 ; probably after Hieronymus of Cardia, who was living about
316). The dty must have gradually dedined in the course ol
time; but the ruins of the Achaemenidae remained as a witncM
to its andent glory. It b probable that the prindpal town of the
country, or at least of the dbtrict, was always in thb nei|^bour«
hood. About A.D. 200 we find there the dty Istakhr (properiy
Stakhr) as the seat of the local governors. There the foundationt
of the second great Persian Empire were laid, and Istakhr
acquired i^pecial importance as the centre of priestly wisdom and
orthodoxy. The Sassanian kings have covered the face of the
rocks in thb neighbourhood, and in part even the Achaemeniaa
ruins, with their sculptures and inscriptions, and must themsdvci
have built largdy here, althou^ never on the same scale of
magnificence as their andent predecessors. The Romans knew
as little about Istakhr as the Greeks had done aUmt PersepoKi
— and thb in spite of the fact that for four hundred years tht
Sassanians maintained relations, friendly or hostile, with the
empire.
At the time of the Arabian conquest Istakhr o£Feredadespeimie
resbtance, but the dty was still a place of considerable impor-
tance in the ist century of Islam (see Caliphate), althou^ its
greatness was speedily eclipsed by the new metn^>oUs Shin&
In the loth century Istakhr had become an utterly tn«gttiiw^ii»
place, as may be seen from the descriptions of Istakhr, a native
(c. 950), and of Mukaddasi (c. 985). During the following oea>
turies Istakhr gradually declines, until, as a city, it ceased to
exbt. Thb fruitful region, however, was covered with viOafei
till the frightful devastations of the i8th century; and even now
it b, comparatively speaking, well cultivated. The "cutis
of Istakhr " played a con^icuous part several times duriog the
Mahommedan period as a stfrong fortress. It was the middlfr'
most and the highest of the three steep crags which rise from the
valley of the Kur, at some dbtance to the west or north-wot
of Nakshi Rustam. We learn from Oriental writers that one
of the Buyid (Buwaihid) sultans in the xoth century cf the
Flight constructed the great dstems, which may yet be tetn,
and have been visited, amongst others, by James Morier and
E. Flandin. W. Ousdey points out that tUs castle vts itil
used in the i6th century, at least as a state prison. Bat wbfOL
Pietro dcUa Valle was there in 1621 it was already in ruins.
'The name of this mountain too, fiaatKudik Bpoft^ b identical wtdl
Shakkuk, which is at least tolerably well established by W. Ooaeky
(ii. 417) as a synonym of Kuhi rahmet.
' See especially Hamxa Isp., 38;Tabari. t. 690. 8x6 (cf. T. NMels;
GesckickU der Perser . . . aus . . . Tabari, p. 8). The rdas at
Takhti Jamshid are alluded to as the work of Humli, in <
with an event which occurred shortly after a.d. aoow
PERSEUS— PERSIA 187
■ -■■..■-.■.■■■- .___..._ .'•Com. (■o«». B..iFm. Pioleoiy uid Tycho Bnhe Mlilogued J9 Mm, Hcvtliu. «6.
es::&"iZ-lsSi£r^-i^^sXtm\T^^ "■ --; Tr' "■-"'.f "^ ■•."■.'•^?"" " ?,"""
lad C CiBpia. Buunn di raniaiu fanltgiiiH.-r. liago). S« ■!» or Algol (fl.».), « J»™>ui vjjuhk ««r. « fmn ii unpje lUr,
Daudi; Patm: Ancinil BiMlnrj; vid CujrHAII. compoxtlof one41h migniude itu and two ol tlie lothniBgDi-
(Th. N,;A,H. S,) tudc;pi*frmuuiiiTFgijlAr vaiiibLe, with inngclD nugnitude
nanua, in Gre«k Iciend, wn o[ DaniC and Zcui. When of y4 to 4'i. JVna Pcriti ii a " new " lur diKoveicd in iSij
PtnHB wu (Town lo nunhood Poljdecta, king of Sedphui, utdsufaKqucollyrecogDiLcd on Huvird plilei by Mn Flemini
caa hia eye on Danal; and. In ordec to rid himttH ol the un, in 1&9S; another new sUi was diicoverfd by AodciKn on the
cndsl oi him a promiie that he would bring blm (he head 3iit of February igos, which, iflei increaiing in niignitude,
of tlic Gorgon McdusL The Gorgons dwelt with their aiaten gradually became fainter and ultimately disappeared. Then
iht Gncmc (the grey womeh) by the great ocean, far awty in is a nebula surrounding Non Pcrsti (igoi) which wai pboto-
tbe «iM. GuidRi by Hermes and Athena, Feneui came ID graphed at Vcrkes observalocy in September 1901 ; a pair of
tbc Cni«e. They were three bugs, with but one eye and one star dusters, appearing a> a bright patch in the Milky Way;
UoUi between than. Perseua >tole the eye and the tootb, and and the meteoric awaim named the Perteidi, which appear in
voold tat restore thera till Ihe Cratae bad guided him to the Augu$t and have their radiant in Perseus. (See Meteoi.)
Nymphi, (ram whom be received the wiBged undab, a wallet PEBSEUS OP HACBDOHU (b. c. in i.e.), the last king ot
VSna, resembling a gamekeepei'i bag) and tbe helmet of Macedonia, eldest too of Philip V. He had big brother
Hailem, which rendered him invisible. Thus equipped and armed DemeLiius killed, and thus cleared his way to the throne in 179,
by Hermes with a sharp sword like a sickle, be came upon the War broke out with Rome in i;r B.C. when P. Licinius Crauui
Gorgons as they slept, and cut oS Medusa's head, while nilb was sent to attack Hm Persevi defeated Cnssus at Callinicui
miud eye* be looked il her reflection which Athena showed In Thessaiy, but in 16S he was annibilaied at Pydna by L.
Un in Ihe mirrot of her thiebL Peneus put the Gorgon's head Aemilius Ptulus. He was ted in triumph through Rome, and
la his wallet and Oed, pursued by Meduu'l liltcri, (o Ethiopia, died in captivity st Alba Fucens. [See MACEDONta.)
wliere he delivered ami married Andromeda (;.i.). Wilb her lie PERSHOSS, a market town in the Evesham parliunenlaiy
leumed to Seriphus in lime lo rescue his mother and Dicly» division of Worceslenbire, Eoglnnd, ii] m.WJl.W.of London
fane Polydectel, whom he turned lo alone with all his court and ^ S.E. of Worcester by the Great Western railway. Pop.
by abowinf tliem the Gorgon's head. The island itself was <i90i). 3J48. The station is i\ m. from tbe town. Market
tamed to stone, and ihe very frogs ol Seripbus (so ran Ibe gardening and fruit-growing (especially plums) are carried on
pwverb) were dumb (Aelian. JVdI. ohiiii. iii. 37}. Peneus then and agricultural implements src manufactured. Tbe churches
gav^ Ihe head of Medusa to Athena, and, wilb tttsat and Andro- of the two parishea of Holy Crosi and St Andrew face one anotbet
meda, hastened lo Argos to see his grandfather, ActiiluB, once across a road. Holy Cnaa is a remnant ot a mitred abbey ol
more But before bis arrival Aciisius, fearing the oracle, had Benedictines, said 10 have been founded about 970 by King
>cd to Larisa in Thcssaly, Thither Peneus followed him, and Edgar, on Ihe site of a Mercian religious teltlement. There
U SBnc funeral games held in honour of the king of that country remain only Ihe fine Early English choir, with Decorated addi-
oawttlingly slew his grandfather by the throw ot a quoit, wblcb tiona. the Norman south transept and Ihe majestic Decorated
mmik him on the foot. Ashamed to return lo Argos, Perseus tower^whiletlight fragmenltolalv'ornuinnavearcscen.
pre Ms hiagdom to Mcgapenthcs (Acrisius's nephew), and PERSIA, a kingdom of western Asia, bounded on Ihe N. by
leceived from him Tliyns in eicbange. There he reigned and the Caspian Sea and tbe Russian Transcaucasian and Trans-
toaaded Midna and Mycenae, and became Ihe ancestor ot the Caspian Ictrilaries, on Ihe E. by Afghanistan and Baluchistan,
FeiHdes, anunpt whom were Eurysthetis and Kertdes. on the S. by the Arabian Sea and the Peisian Gull, and on Ibe
Tbe legend ol Peneus was localiied in various places. Italy W. by Turkish territory. Long before tbe Christian en the
dnned that the chest containing DanaE and Perseus drifted satrapies of Darius comprehended roughly an immense range
uhort on the Italian coast (Vir^ Aai vii. jji. 410). The of territory, from the Mediterranean to the Indus and from Ib^
Feman kines were said to have been descended from Perses a Caucasian chain and Jaiartes to the Persian Gulf and Arabian
«B of Peneus, and, according to Pausanias of Damascus,' he Oceai •■..-■■
tio^t the Fenians to worship fire, and founded Ihe Magiaa " "
priatbood. His cull was transferred to the kings ot Ponlna,
Ik oi coins ti Amisus he is represented with the features of
ICthndales Enpator. Like Andremeda, Hesione, (be daughter
fllLaomedon, king of Troy, was rescued by Heracles from a sea-
■Batter, and both stories have been interpreted of the sun
J^ayiDg tbe darknosr Andromeda and Hesione being tbe moon,
*l^ Ihe darkness is about lo devour. In one version of the
•aiyof Hesione, Heracles' is said lohave spent three days, like
Jmib, is the beUy ot tbe beait, and it is noteworthy that Ibe
<>ntt repretenlatioDS of Andromeda's monsler were the models
W leoah's fish in early Christian art. Its hones and Andro-
■ida'i chains were shown on a rock at Joppa. Perseus appears
<■ mba ot Pontus and Cappadoda, and of Tarsus in Cilida,
*^ be was said to have founded. The legend of St George
vviafloeoced by the traditions current reganiing Perseus in
Vb uul Asia Minor.
JSJ^ ^^ •" '*" UeduB, see F. H. Knatz. Qiumode Ptrui
Jj»" arfi^zi trad ft rsMairi InclateriM (1*93); alid. o
■It uiy, E. S. Hanland. Tin Letaid a/ J'criew (iB»4-iB9&).
I, in aatrorunny, a conalellallon ol the nortbe
!, called after tbe Greek legendary hero, it is mention
1* Uth centDty bj;.) and Aiatus (3rd century B.C.);
•Abbas a
BdNadirkeptup
rlessonthe
east, bu
Uiled to secure ihem on the west, and w
Te limited lo
Ihe north. Persia of lb
present day
is not on
"""emJuer"
I geographical definition
far from 11^
ire ot Sacred W
rlt and remote history.
but it Is not
lesseiicosive do
minion oi the Salawi kin
gs and Nadir
Shah. I
may be said, ho
uile ai much
d consolidated I
rrilory as at any period
tils political
ot which we cii
speak with authority.
Bimnd
riei.— The re^o
!00d starting
point to
the definition 0
the western and noil
era frontiers
ot Persis
A line JO m. In length from a po
on the r
ver Araa, in 39*
♦S* N. u.d W 40' E.
Mt Ara
at, in the south
westeriy direction, div
Persia f
om Russia. Sou
hwards from Mt Arat
1 Ihe Perso.
Turkish
ttonticc extends
about 700 m. lo the mouth of the
Shall d Arab in the Peruan Gulf in 30° N. an
48° W E.,
but is un
defined with the
boundary ot
Ihe little district of Kolur
as appointed
in i8«
or the seltlemen
ol the Perso-Turkish I
ronli^Tbe
labours
1 this commissio
n resulted in the Ener
.847, by
which both pow
n abandoned some lands and agreed
,..,,. .... .... iniuiuacrs met in tS4g, t8<o and r8si al Bagdad and Mubamrab
Sf^^^^dsff N^fna-tunS^i; """"' "^-^ Ii any result. In .85. I*rd Palmerston
proposedthat thegenerallineof fronticrshouldbetracedbylhe
agenti ol Turkey and Persia at CoastaotiBOple, assisted by the
fere-(.?c?5?MS..'
PERSIA [PHVSCAL FBATtntBS
depoaitni, Art trpovd to view^ Cdcw, trmnlLe uid crynDkt
kuk, however, are round in tbe Elbvn ind In biik oC iIk ccmnl
nnm; lod Hizular rocka form t lam part of the Zlfro*. Some
of time rocb uc probably ArcKcn.lHIt Hme appcu* to be BeU'
niarphaani Balimcntary dcpoiiu of later date. The oldeal bcda
in which EosHlt havr yet been found belong to tlie Upper Devordaa.
They uc well developed in the Elbim nnge, wbcR they attaia
a_ thiclineai at_Knne 9000 to IO,OOD f1., and iJkey have ben found
» I>voninn u uiceeeded hv n leTia of UlDt<
bdonft to
e probably of Penniaq
titonei and (halea >itt
the Quoteniaiy depoila. The moai proniinrnt member of the
aofei b a naMve liiiieatoDe coatainins HippurUa and be(nwiif
to Iba upne dlvUoa of [he ayatem. The Teniaiy deponU indnda
niminlalBc Umcatone <EacciKli a leria of hnntonn, ■nilaraai
ami Gonalomentea, with mariH Miocene foaaila: and red marii,
dayi and Hndttonea with rock-aatl and cypaum. beliend la bdoof
10 the Upper Miocene. In the Elbun there la a condiinhC
depoait 01 palBEonire tuff which appeart to be of OttBoceae ace.
The aummulitK limeatone taVca part in ibe loraiaBoa of llic
mountain liiainL The Miocene deixwn ^e^^lvlie at the loot
higher levdi. nioane depcnita cover a ooBiidcnible ai
the coaat. Both io the Elbun range and atai iIm Bi '
Ita bed near the town of Minab {rs m. from Iho man) ii newly
■ mile in width, and dunng ihe ninj the water coven the whole
bed, tendering it quite unlordable. During ordinary weather.
io March 1M4. the water Rowing piat the town was 100 yd*. In
width and 1 il. deep (Prccce, Fret. Snal Cmj. Sor., January iMj).
tnJ, bSn'g diw™l into canals &c. The creek, the Aumii of
Nearchua, ii navigabk nearly all through the year aa lar »
Shahbander, the uuiom-houae, about 7 m. inland, for veiaek ol
" The great de«ert region of Persia." writca Le Strange {Landt
at Iht EatUrn Cdipliau. 1905>. "Mrclchea right aero™ the high there are two placea of obaervation, Buihire and Jaaki at the im
plateau of IrAn gnng from tiorih-weflt to unth^aBt, it it a little in cxceai of that of inner Peraia. while at the accood it
*"""' and dividinB the Icrlife province* ol the land into two ti very much leu. The rainfall on the CaiiiuD watenhed gnady
groupie for the desert ■> conlinjoiji tram the Kuthem base of the eaceeda that of inner E'erua;at AsLarabad atid AahufwSa, ]« the
meaturct neatly Boo m. in length, but the breadth varies conuder- five times that of the adjoining dlslrkta aciVH the ridfo to the
aUy^ for in ihape thi> immense area of drou;(ht i> lonicwhal that iHilh. With the eiccption of the Cupian watenhed and that d
of an hour^lata itith > narmw neclt. meaiunng only lome too m. the Utrala baiin, the country hai probably in no part a rnrir
acroB. dividing Kcrmln from Sdiiaa. while both iwnh and aoulh mnlall exceeding 13 or 14 in., and throughout the gmter pmit <l
of lhi> the breadth opands and in placei teachei 10 over joo m. central and KiullH^tcm Pcnla the jTOtly rainfall pnibabfv daa
At (he prcaent day the deirrt. an a whole, ft known at the Lit or ddi exceed 6 in. The following mean valuta of Ibe laiidal at
E^aht'l-Lflt: the saUoe awamps and the dry tall area being more TeherAn have been derived from observationt taken by the writs
panicularly known ns the Da>bi.i-[<av1r. the term Katir being during 1893-190;^
A three-wire telcRia^h line on imn posta, completed tn March
1007, pa»c9 thiDURh ihii region, and 11 i> the unenviable lot of
Bome Englishmen slslisned at Bam and Nuareubad hpi tlibidh '^ >s
of medieval Arab Eeographcrs) on the conhnea of the dwrt regu. wmm
larly to Inspect and tot it. Of the northerly Great Ka«r br '"*
TIeiie thought thai it wat compiwd oi a complex of Isolated lalt
ewampa lepamted by sand^dunca, low ridges of Umettope aod
lypaum. perhaps also by volcanic rocks {Jairbuck It- t. grofflg.
KruitniniliiJl, Vienna, 1877). Dr Sven Hedin oplored the northrm iniis .^n
p.rtoftheCTeatDe;en;ni9(X.. . (A. H.-5.) '™' ■>
Quaternary deposits and bordered on the north, weat and aouth Good harveata depend on the rainfall from Octelier la it(A
Cr a raited rim compued of older locki. Thne older rockt also and on an amount of snow sufficient 10 cover the cnpa dufig
lorm the iiolaled rangea which rite through the Quaternary dcpoiiti [roita. During normal winten in Teherln and tumundigi «»
In northern Pei^ the rockt of the ektvaied rim are thrown into in the winter iS9«-iS99 it was only Jl in',, with only ■ iB.o(no*l
folda which form a curve round the louthem thore of the Ctsfnan. and in 1899-1900 the hirveslt were in conieqiiem eaceptioMlly
T, r ., „■ lion of a bad, and large quanlilin of wheat and fteur bad to be bRMfbl
he Hindu from the provinces and even frorn Russia at high frdibt^ cHUg
eastwarrl, folhnving th
even from Rutsia at hi^ frdibt^ cH
cr3n to tiie 100%. T^Rnt table OB^ n
io •oiith.east, pgrallrl to thow The prevailing winds throughoul Prrria and tbe_PHiiaa Grf
c aedimenlary atnla wtn the Black Sea
•eidom'thalVlie'Sd'oyiTallinirrocks; are thc'nonh-wW and •outh-east owing panly to the pedtiiia ^
.. — ..- raneanandofllMAiiliiuSea.udpf4r
nUlU AND nXHU]
PERSIA
in di4[D»-_ A dry f Fnqusitlv vben the UmpfntuiT in
191
It Buihlnh DM
Ilie PcnUa iidc ol the Sh*tt-il-/
□ (ktin I The [luni oI the Prrun ptiiaa
& VIS
Voy few linnmielnQil obtavtiioat have bci
■^ iIhh oi tbe Briliih rabteacy tl Bubiie ir
Ii4>wlh)[, uid have been Mukfly rt^itered la
^a inner Penta the air a eieeptieaeily dry
wcica paflthed mA nuy be eaipaecd in the open duiiiiK a sieal
ftrt of tbe year witheat beceimnff larniibcd. Along the ihom
•I ita Cuoiu. panicaluly in Gilan and MaiaadacaD. and ol the
tamu Golf (mm the oaulh U the Shall el Arab dfnm to Bander
Abtaa. the air duiinc a treat jiart of the year contaiu mnch
Kiinn— dry- and mt-bulb tbemuoeten at limei indicating the
*«e ItnuKratare — and at idehu there are heavy falls of di
t^a lofMaiaMlann the air antalm much nKuiure up
tomUK elevaliooi and a- ' — '
tfld» the Peniaa Coll
*^V > l» aola away fr
P IL aboK Ihc- n-lo
■ C«BDUr report (GiUn. 1897).
\Wam't jtimiUy UlUoralaiiiot Uat. (Dec. 1893).
^■lUiiijled by Mr R. C. Barker. C. I.E., dimtor ui the Indo-
"pan Td«traiA Departnicnt in FoM. ThoM (or Ilfatian
Elalayan fraup.*anied*t<
Includirs tbe oak-fnr^"
Z^ra. be found ii
wai the tract, it ai
fauna with a few
Lppcared to contain,
.J* fauna 10 belong t
a> Syria, but could Kittrly ipeak v
iilic foTml. The lillh and lutdiviii
M being taken by iDdiail
', though not equoJ to the pure Arabian, it a vrry aervicfr
hi. ancThaB alwayi a vtitx in the Indian market. Amonc
e wandcrina Tuikiih ttibo In Fan have tbe cmlil of
rcoodoeedi. TheTurkonu '
t tin and Ktennh. Iha
PERSIA
Nm ire tankncn «m esijiloyti] la Pinii. thi
d, tt Anion in Alia Minor. V«ii cultivated. N«riy nil the EuRjoiKn »
n aen liicely lubiut. Ibt at at Ibc Em plue. ranr onn. on turn be Kcn not only id i
ly tbe TufiB " Vin kediii," hu ■ cmun local rcpuutioa. the rich nnd wrll.iD-do bul ia nuny l
tb« wild nidnub tie ilie lion, tigvr. Iropird, lyiu. brown with only m hw sjuare ynid* at iiutAcx.
""* ■^(.i??M^"Sild'.^^'ild'Sr'A„^i!|: /■»? ■^""■'■•--iQ 1881 the pment «iin ntlmnud the popnb.
imf ri»«-. Th* tiler ii petuliai to the dupian pro- lion oj Persii at 7,653,600; 1,563,800 uilan, j,jgo,ooonii»l nnd
.. — _i_..:i.,i :. I — L,... 1. 1 i,9os,Soowindeiiiig("Bi!ViilkwuiigdetErde,"p.»B;£iic>.«ri(.
glh ed. p. e>S); nnd, nUowing for no iacrenie of tboul 1%
per nnniuo the populnlion for jgio mny be eitimnted it 10
millioni. No ililislia whnlevei being kept, nolhing preciw
rdiai la Blanford there ue about four hundred known il known of the movemcDt of the pq>uUlian. During tbe ninth
meciei of EinU iD Pcnia. The rane birdt have idmirable rccre- decnde of the 19th cenluiy mnny Peninn lubjecu etniinied,
Croel.Ji blntk partridge, "Junaj " (Fmnoifuuii nJran-., S(epli.); then » imiJl immigralioa hai let in nnd new viijagei hnve he«
red-trnnl pu1tfd|c. " kebk " {Caaahii dLtkar, Gny): land. founded. Feniani lay that the fcmalei nceed the mala by
l"""°lt* " "™*; "■> '0 ™% but wherever the present writer hu been able
^\^^[cJl '" "''*'" "^'""-nhy information be found the <«xia to be
■nS^(PB«a, 1«> tl™ ''/'■ Of the deathi in any pbce the only d»k
Iclru, L. nnd O. obtninnble it from tbe public body-waihers, bul many c«p«i
nuny kindt of px nie bniicd without the aid of the piMic body-wuhen; and the
' ■ "" ■■ " -~ _ . , .. of the plice not being accurately linown, the nuinbei
(Joiii);
i carp, " kDpur " (Cypnuw tnlkrui and C. »rfv)
\m" {Abnmiibramt); pike-perch. "niahiufsd"(Pfrci
fiTqucati «ily the Huthetn hall of the Caiman, n
Ibe ihiUow part o( the aa which eitendi imni lu>u unn^iiua. ,, . --- - ■ ,- ;- v —
AihwuGntDbierved near the mouth of tbe river Kutilhai been I'vingvenr poorly and often -— - ^. ..-- _
named Oupn X.mii'i. Fiih are saree In inner PirrtajBlmon »B«ted. berauM they can k11 the uiicta which llwy naoulactiin
trout indmud.lroiil are plentiful in lome of the mouniiin unarm. « value, whurh are more in pnponwn with tbe IncRucd pncs
Many undetgicnind aulTaR Icequcnlcd by earn and rojch. The " '°^- '9.''J" ? l»o<"w ™"'ug n Imoi, or ii nntiiif ■
•Uure baa alu been obwrved in umc unanu wWk flow into the J"'"',''' ™uld afford. to kc^ a fuuly: by 190(1, in knni, ht wml
Urmia lake, and in KunliHan. JS"^* "*"" ^ "^"^ "> '*»?■ l".' '»•"««. e-prcBcd in Heilini. wai
ftora— In the provintciof Cilan, Manndaran and Ailaiabad on ""="'?'■ ^d when™ the pncei of food have nien Bote thai bit
the Caifiin, tromlhi: .hore to an lUiiude of about 3000 fi. on the "6", M ™ild not affwdto keep a family. In many duUKU
nonhern^iopei of the peal mountain range which i^nitei thow "^ "!"■ 'he number of binh. i. tbeieloje reduced, w^ile at the
province. Crom the hiehland. of Pcr^, the flora ii aimibr lo thai "me lime tbpmonaU.y. 10 couequenx of bad and often mwAocu
Sf CriKbaiJi'. " mcditenaoean region." At hiehcr aliitudc many lood.iicomidmblymcreaied.
form, of a more northern flora appear. „Ai we apptoach inner The dtKiiplion of the Peniio character by C. J. W3U, in bb
IS^.tSlsr£i,SSi?i"„.SIS.S'i",KuiS '■».i«-i./».i;.""ia,.(.»ji, i...in..ni,,.„o.,^
The iieppe vegetation entendi in Ihc louth in tbe oolcr ranBO of T"* character ol Ibe Peman li thai of an eaty-ioini man with
the hiUi which •epiiaie inner Penla from the Itraan GuU and the ■ ,wuh 10 make thtngi pleaant generally, lie i> lio^iitalili.
Indbn Occin. Deiund Ihii outer ranjic nod along the thon: of obliging, and tpetially wed dutmcd 10 tbe (otcigner. MLi bm
the HI tbe Bora i> that of the "Sahara nr^ion," which eitendi viiiuea an many; he ii very Lnd and indulgent 10 bii childiin
cailwnrdi to Eind, >nd. a> a ion. hu jrtfua tor both parenii ii eicenive. devekiped
Generally speakini!. everywhere, excepting in the northem ■? a greater deem to hb father, in whoie pmince be wiD nidy
kiwlandi and in a lew favoured tpolt in Ihc hilly diurict^ the vcge- "L nud whom he 1* ui the habit of addmang and apeikint lA a
Ulion i> Kanly, In inner Persa the hilli and plaini aie bare of nuUer. The full itrcam o( bii bve and reverence it nterved fir
tm. and Hcppc anil duen orcdominaie. The d.iiv-Dilm ihMOei hii mother: he never leave! her to uaivc. and her wiihei are li«
well ai far north a. lo him. .The mnihec i< alwaya the mo« important member li the
of looo ft. and in tl household, and ilie erandniotbcr 11 treated with veneralion. Tbe
cellcnt fniit, e»i« ai pTMcncc of Ihc mother.in.law is coveted by Ihrir lon.-in-bw, wba
euliivaied at Rudba look on them u the Ruardiani of the virtue of ihiir wivei. Tie
ohvc-treei have licv-n paternal unck! ii a much nearer lie than with ui ; while mm lei*
particularly 10 when uiuiliy pnnided for for life, rcriiani are very kind to ihiv
inbl.ince. a good orjn nervapti; a maaler will often bo addreHed by hit lervaiil ai lol
thai hluTopi-an ordu Tbe lervanti eipect thai their manei will m-m ■Dsw
nnd Mnhtd. Ihc log *- ' ■"" '" ■- " - ■
wai inlrndmid at at i( » weilial^jir oU a^' 'nrr"'m^i^fAM, u
ated, Curtaiitt and I lervanti. are eniraHed with laif^e Hnu oi money, u
vegetabk'i a\sa are I conduct ol the most impinnnt aSain; and •rldom abw
the brood. Iirun. egg tniic The grtateit piinuhmeni 10 an iuitru«lwonhy davi
beetrn^i, black turnii give him his lilivTty and let him earn hit living. They vi
(My ilu not uke ItTnil ci^our and vahte: the ' Itabadil ' or Aby^^nian it the mott n
althnuth .ucceufuliy the Sabjli or Somali. r»-a m Mackptts it nnt in pricv; tbe
yet found favour, and bat<i. or i ual.Mack negro of the inlrrior. being al much Vm
cikry and othen. and uiu.dly only uvd jk a cook, lite pticei ol ihwi in \
the begiaiung of Nai we, a guod Hab,i9bi girl ut tnlru to fuunum £40, a gsgU E
, . „ it the Penian alw), _ -.
dpRU dcliy and indEfiniie day* o( trace. . . .
.. T*._ ■._. — _.__ !_| jj^j. tmons, washioe It
, . The Penian ilirayt nak._ _, _. ,
^r jei be u vBv neat in hit dnm, ind it panicular u ataae^ The " kiUh." or h«t, u gf cloth or iheeukiiL
u the >il of hit hsl ud ihc cut (4 hii cat. All Peruan an lond oi puHbcBrd. ■ The Eaihiou m hati ctaofr yeiily. The lifahu
d uimak. and do n« mat iheai badly when theii own pnpeny. menhint and ihe Aimenun at tinin wear the hat very tall. CTha
~ Cmdiy ii DM a Fetuao via; lonuR and puoiihineiita dI an min o( the Penian i> ceoenlly unall. and be ii very proud oi
■ntiwal aod painful nalun bcinf part of their judida] vyvUni. hia fine figure and broad ihoulden.)
Tkrvare novindietiwpuniihiDeiiti»HchuatalitaryGonfif«ideni, The hair u eeneralJy ihaved at the cniwn, or ihe entire bead a
1 ._.-...j_ *__ ._ — - — _ J ^ ^j_ Seldom, iodeed. ia ihavrd, a "liakul," or long thin lock, being umeilmea left, often
an inipriioned man ihan twelve mofUhe, the rule bong that 3 ft. long, from i
ic ii a nneral iail delivery at Ihe New Year. Sayal clemeocy prophet Mabame
■ccLueBtTy fahown, ofled, pshapa, with want of judgment." lower onjen ifenei
mrdied iblrt of coilon, aewnwith white ul
_-Deof tbe'Feniua may be' ibortly deacribed. and brought m two long locks turning backwards behind the ear,
ft hathta. The men iovariably wear an un- (ermed '^xulf "; the beaux and vouths ai« connanily twiiting
■ tB« »UUi OI fema. elabnalely embroiderrd about the neck, however, ia g^Hoe out of lashibn in Petiia. and the more dvilinl
ll bvfena in front by a flap, having two amall budooa or If noil at affect the cropped hair worn by Europeaua, and even have a lAninf
(he left ^hDuldcT. and (cldom comes below the hipa. It haa no in it. The chin ia never ihavrd, lave by '* beauty ncn.^' or
odbr, aihl the aleevei are loose. The lower orden often have it " Icuhanga,^' though oflen dipped, wtule the nwutloCM la UHially
SUtfe: but the tervaot and upper daaiea always prefer a white left long. At lorty a nun generally leia hi* beard ^TOW Ita fuQ
Silk ahina are now seldom Ken on men. Among the vciy length, and cherishes it mucll^ wit of a Persian's relieioua eurciiee
itticvus during the mourning month (" Muhatiam '0 the shirt u is the combina of his beard. Socks, knitted principally at Isfahan,
al limes dyed^lack. The '^lir.janiah." or trousers, are of cloth an worn: they arc only about I in, h>ng in the leg. The rich,
aiKHg the higlvT classes, particularly those of ihc miliury order, however, hear them longer. They are of white coitoo in summer
who aflect a garment of a tightness appnAching that worn by and coloured wonted in winter. Villagen only wear socks on state
Earopeana. Ttie snlinary " dr.jamafa " are of vhite. blue or red occasions. Shoes are of many patterns. The ■' urussi," or RuBiaa
mnoa, very looae. and are eiactly Kmilar to the pyjamaa wom shoe ii Ihe moat common; neit, Ihe " knish " or ilicper of varioiit
by Eimneana ia India. They ate held up by a thin cord of ted or kinds. The heel is [uldcd down and remains so. The priesti wear
pien liik at cotton mind the waist, and the lafuututg elaases. a peculiar heavy shoe, with an ivory or wooden lining nt the beet
*hen engaced in heavy or diiiy work, or when niaoiai, generaHy Crccn ihoet of thagreen are common at Isfahan. Blacking is »~-
^ biiE and free to the middle of Ihe thigh,' The anoliliide of and an then worn mix' '' ' -^
lbs turt of his aliire enables the Perdao to ait whbout discomfort often come up the lb
•shahedsicbairf arvonly uscdiiytbench.freator Europcaniied, baggy riding breeches, ..., — ,-
Onr the shin and " iir-iaiaah " csoie* the^' arkhalik," generallv ■ lurt of kill ia worn by couriers.
d quihed chidU <K print, a doaefy^ttinc gaiment, coilailen, with used, pve by the rich or Ibe Te
tkhi sleeves to the dbow, whence, to tCe wrist, an a number " ahab kulah." or nighi hat. a loo:
oTliiile metal buttons, faiteaei) in winter, but not ill Hirnmer, material, often i ' " ' ■ -'
Kuhnur or Kecmin shawl, sillc latia or velvet (gold embroidered, louih e( Penia , - — -.
WQclKTwiw), according to Ihe timecrf the year and the puraearH] soldiery, on or off duty, always carry one of lb
•OBtiiH of the inarer. This, tike the " arkhatik." ia open in Irani, arma, sometimB both. They hack but never I
kid ibovs (he shirt. It someiimcs has a small standing collar. On the mad the carrying of weapons is necessan
sad it doublc-brc^ued. It has a pockel-bole on either udc. giving The costume of tbe wooten has undergone «
T krpt. The length
liehly indecent and must be very uncomfortable.
I«ag duly as a chemise is called a "piinhan "; it is,
, - — , -— - — . ..,-_. orders, of while or blue calico, and comes Hnwn ti
bort. to the knee, while lops and sharpen wear middle of the thigh, leaving the leg nude. Among the
PriCHS, iDcrchants, villuon. especially about it is Inoueatly ol nlk. At Shiru it is often of line
shopkeepers, doctors anJ lawyen wear it very elaboraicly omomented whh black embnndery. With
n, shopkeepers, doctors and lawyen .. _., , , . — . ,
y to the hcela. Over the " kamaichin " is worn often of uuu, and much embroidered with sold threac
rcoat. This la, as a rule, cast oH in summer, save The head is usually covered with a " char-kadd," or
loose sleeve, with many plaits behind, "jika," a lewtlled fealh^'-l
1 is trimmed with gold lace, shawl or of the head, while Ihe fi
in by a brooch.
■lied (e
-oil collar arid lalse rnckcls. brought up in love-locks on cilher cheek. Beneath Ihe char-
hen; the long " jubba," or kadd " is uurally a small kcrchiel ol dark material, only the edge
aries), government employlSs of which IB viiibb. The ends of the "cbar.kadd" cover tlie
■ iL>. 4» pLiiiiuLCB, ,.1 « V, taiea, courtiers, physicians, shoulden, but the gauie "pinhan" k i^iuie transparent. A pro-
he "abba." or camel-hair cloak of the Arab, worn by fuuon of jewellery Is wom of Ihc most solid description, none hollow;
■d by travellen and the sick or aged; the " nimtan," or bees and bracelets arc much anected, and chains with scenl<a>kels
iVnpikin jacket, wilh short sleeves, used by shopkeepers attached, while tbe arms an covered with clanking glass bangles
om cloM of servants, groomi, Sc., in winter; the "ya- called "alangu," some twenty even of there being on one arm.
or ■ooUen Knnlish cloili, a kind of felt, having a shaggy Jewelled " baiubanls." containing lalismans, are often worn on Ihe
BDKnie ihiclcness, wom nenerally by shepherds, who use upper arm, while among Ihe lower orden and south IVnian or Arab
ICDit, led and bedding. There is also Ihe lelt coal of the women nose.rings aTcBotuncommon.andbanalesorankletsof beads.
■iii are loowt trotuen and also drawen worn under the • Green turbans are now lately seen; the colour is generally dork
194
PERSIA
(POLITICAL DIVISIOHS
The face on important occanont is uaually much painted, save
by young ladies in the heyday of beauty. THe colour is very freely
applied, the cheeks being as much raddled as a clown's, and the
neck smeared with white, while the eyeUshes are marked round
with " kuhl." This is supposed to be beneficial to the eyes, and
almost every woman uses it. The eyebrows are widened and
painted till they appear to meet, while sham moles or stars are
painted on the chin and cheek; even spangles are stuck at times on
the chin and forehead. Tattooing is common among the poor and
in villaees, and b seen among the upper classes. The hair, though
generally hidden by the " char-kaaa," b at times exposed and
Elaited mto innumerable little tails of great length, while a coc)uettish
ttle skull-cap of embroidery, or shawl, or coloured silk is worn.
False hair is common. The Persian ladies' hair is very luxuriant
and never cut ; it is nearly always dyed red with henna, or with
indigo to a blue-black tinge; it is naturally a glossy black. Fair
hair is not esteemed. Blue eyes are not uncommon, but brown
ones are the rule. A full-moon face is much admired, and a dark
complexion termed ** namak " (salt) is the highest native idea of
beauty. Most Persian women are small, with tiny feet and hands.
The figure is always lost after maternity, and no support of any
kind is worn.
A very short jacket, of gay colour, quite open in front, having
tight sleeves with many metal buttons, is usually worn in summer,
and a lined outer coat in cold weather. In winter a pair of very
short white cotton socks are used, and tiny slippers with a high
heel; in summer in the house ladies go often barefoot. The rest
of the costume is composed of the " tumbun " or " shalvar," short
skirts of gr^t width, held by a running strings— the outer one beins
usually of silk, velvet, or Kashmir shawl, often trimmed with gold
lace, or, among the poor, of loud-pattemed chintz or print. Beneath
are innumerable other garments of the same shape, varying in
texture from silk and satin to priht. The whole is very short,
among the women of fashion extending only to the thigh. In
winter an ovcr-mantlc like the " kuliiah, or coat of the man, with
short sleeves, lined and trimmed with furs, is worn. Leg-coverings
are now being introduced. In ancient days the Persian ladies
always wore them, as may be seen by the pictures in the South
Kensington Museum. Then the two embroidered legs, now so
fashionable as Persian embroideries (" naksh "), occupied a girl
from childhood to marriage in making; they are ail sewingin
elaborate patterns of great oeauty, worked on muslin in silk. The
outdoor costume of the Persian women is ouite another thing.
Enveloped in a huge blue sheet, with a yard of linen as a veil per-
forated for two inches square with minute^ holes, the feet thrust
into two huge bags of coloured stuff, a wife is perfectly unrecogniz-
able, even by her husband, when out of doors. The dress of all is
the same ; and, save in quality or costliness, the effect b similar.
As for the children, they are always when infants swaddled;
when they can walk they are dressed as little men and women,
and with the dress they generally ape the manners. It b a strange
custom with the Persian ladies to dress little girb as boys, and
little boys as girb, till they reach the age of seven or eight years;
this is often done for fun, or on account of some vow — oftener to
avert the evil eye.
Tavms. — ^The principal cities of Persia with their populations
as estimated in 1908 are: Teberftn (280,000); Tabriz (200,000);
Isfahan (100,000); Meshed (80,000); Kerm&n, Resht, Shiraz
(60,000); Barfunish, Kazvin, Yezd (50,000); Hamadan, Ker-
m&nsh&h (40,000); Kashan, Khoi, Urmia (35.000); Birjend,
Burujird, Bushire, Dizful, Kum, Senendij (Sinna), Zenjan
(25,000 to 30,000); Amol, Ardebil, Ardbtan, Astarabad,
Abekuh, Bam, Bander, Abbasi, Bander Lingah, Damghan,
Dilman, Istahbanat, Jahrum, Khunsar, Kumishah, Kuchan,
Marand, Maragha, Nishapur, Sari, Sabzcvar, Samnan, Shahrud,
Shushtcr (10,000 to 20,000).
Political and Administrative Divisions. — ^The empire of Persia,
ofiicially known as Mamalik i Makruseh i I rant " the protected
kingdoms of Persia," is divided into a number of provinces,
which, when large, and containing important sub-provinces
and dbtricts, are called mamlikal, " kingdom," when smaller,
vilayai and ayalai, and are ruled by govemois-general and
governors appointed by and directly responsible to the Crown.
These provinces are further divided into sub-provinces, vilayats,
dbtricts, sub-dbtricts and parishes, buluk, nahiyeh, mahal, and
towns, cities, parishes and villages, shdtr, kassabek, tnakallekt
dih, which are ruled by lieutenant-governors and other function-
aries appointed by and responsible to the governors. All
governors are called hakim^ or kukmran, but those of large
provinces generally have the title of vali, and sometimes Jirman-
firma. A governor of a small dbtrict is a tabit; a deputy-
governor b called naib el kukumek, or naib el ayalek; an adminis-
trative division b a kalamro, or kukumat, VnUl recently the
principal governorBhips were conferred upon the ihah^
brothers, uncles and other near relatives, but now nuny of thtm
are held by men who have little if any connexion with the loyal
family. Also, the governors are now, as a rtile, resident in tbeh
provinces instead of being absentees at the capital. Then ue
also some small dbtricts or dependencies generally bdd m fic^
tiayulf by princes or high functionaries who take the icvenua
in lieu of salaries, pensions, allowances, &c., and either thcB>
selves govern or appoint others to do so.
Every town has a mayor, or chief magbtrate, called AcfM^^
" lord of lords," kalantar, " the greater," and sometimes d!ar«fl«»
" overseer," or chief of police; every ward or parish, iwdAafcfc,
of a town and every village has a head-man called ked kkfda,
" house-lord." These officers are responsible to the govtmoK
for the collection of the taxes and the orderly state of their tawiA,
parishes and villages. In the important provinces and nb-
provinces the governors are assbted by a man of experience, to
whom the accounts and detaib of the government are entruMed.
Thb person, called rnsuir, or paiskkar, b often nominated by the
shah,^and his functions in the provindal^vemment are similar
to those of the grand vizir in the central government, and con
prise very extended adminbtrative powers, including at timci
the command of the military forces in hb province. Among tht
nomads a different system of titles prevaib, the chieb who ac
responsible for the taxes and the orderly conduct of thdr
tribes and clans being known as ilkkani^ ilbegi (both mranhf
" tribe-lord," but the latter being considered an inferior tidi
to the former), kkan, rais, amir^ miff skaikk^ luskmal, &c
The governors and chiefs, excepting those possessing
tary rights, are frequently changed; appointments are for
year only and are sometimes renewed, but it does not
occur that an official holds the same government for hmger thu
that period, while it happens rarely that a province is gomntd
by the same person for two or three years. Thb was not m
former^, when not infrequently an official, generally a BW
relation of the shah, held the same governorship for tnt, tm
or even more years. The governorship of the proriBce iff
Azerbaijan was an exception until the end of Z906, bcil|
always held by the Valiakd, *' heir apparent," or crown piiMlk
The political divbions of I^rsia, provinces, sub-pcoviina^ db>
tricts, oc., ruled by kakims number over 200 (cf . the statcnwit ii
N6ldcke's GesckickU des ArlackNr Pdpakdn, "after Alexaads^
death there were in Iran 240 kical governors "), but the adflriri^
trative divisions, kukumat, or kalamro, with governors apfM&Ml
by the Crown and responsible to it for the revenues, have tai
under fifty for sixty-five years or more. In 1840 there
»4-
16.
17.
18.
19.
30.
21.
22.
23
nine administrative divisions, in 1868 twenty-two, in 187s twfat^
nine, in 1884 nineteen, in 1890 forty-six, and in 1908 tuJllfii^
as follows: —
(fl) Provinces t—
1. Arabistan and Bakhtbri.
2. Astarabad and Curgan.
3. Azerbaijan
4. Pars.
5. Gcrrus.
6. Gilan and Talbh.
7. Hamadan.
8. Irak.Gulpaigan. Khunsar,
Kamereh, Keznz, Fera-
lean.
9. Isfahan.
10. Kashan.
11. Kazvin.
12. Kerm&n and Baluchbtan.
13. Kermftnsh&h.
(6) Dependencies; or Fiefs ^—
1. Asadabad. 6.
2. Demavend. 7.
3. Firuzkuh. 8.
4. Tosehekan. 9.
Kangavcr.
Kamseh.
Khar.
Khorasan.
Kum.
Kurdistan.
Lurbtan and BmjinL
Mazandaran.
Nehavend, Malayir I
Tusirkhan.
Savah.
Samnan and
24. Shahrud and
25. Teher&n.
26. Zerend and
Shahaevent.
Nataha.
TaUkan.
Tarom Ultft.
Kharakan.
5
Roads. — With the exception of five short roads, having
gate length of less than 900 m., all the roads of the cooatiy Mi
mere mule tracks, carriageable in the plains and during the M^
season, but totally unfit lor continuous wheeled traffic dariagV
seasons, and in the hilly districts often so difficult as to cause MHR
damage to goods and the animals carrying them. Tbcfe tltll,
few miles of roads in the immediate neighbourhood of Ti
leading from the city to royal palaces but not of any
ItD TELEGUPHSl PERSIA
L Tk An enptiou at- (t) Rt^t-Kuvlii-Tcbnln, lad Tibrii, tht •Brfca ii MCUy. 1
i) Inb-Tibrii, Bd m.; (3) Tchatn-Kuni-SiilBDiibHl, pan oOca. StuiKici u to tlie ni
) H^bnl-Kiiduii-Ailabad. iKa.:yitl wfaidi m oa ncw^uen^ Ac. ofncnd an kept I
niUxy ; Cj] Iilahu-Alivu, 180 o. The Snt dI tine lUj, irbea * Bwil-Miided djwaor
a m- The find Hction vu camenided in 1897-1899 limeB promliKl, havt btm oboiuKd.
■B onisiir. in vimiE a( m anummi which [he Pinian were coaveytd I J«a^]9 lelUim. »]
t nuled in 1891; and the iraiiid KctJiin wia ion- (ml 173.995 p*rcc»> UVUif ■ value c
I 1B78-1879 by the Penian ^vrmmenl at ft cntf of eaecedcd UK eapenditiut by £466. 5i
^URd and pailly ItEonnnicied by ttiE Ruinan CDinnny 1898-1899 waaieponid to have been {■
~ ■>^'- -snJDiu mete <ittciaJ]y opened ta (raflic in than Oitt. lot tke miniata- of poBa
by the public, and in the faUowina yar the post office waa wined t
depaitmoit WDiled by Belgian officialL Undv the c
d tn^ the 1875 and niughty printed in Penia. Sines then Ibete ban been
99- "n-e
id which i.7nj,onj h in inaiei u
ry nnotbo- 10% in [900. ]f all the trade between Ruiaiii London and Triiertn ■ometimet take a month. In the iaterier
in were (o poM over thi« niodt the toll) wouk] no doubt the maila aie conveyed on honeback, and* beirw packed la badly-
iTvidend on ihecapttaL but much of it goeaby way of the made etrft leather bafa, are frecmeiilly damaged chroufb cafele*
i™hed-i-Sjr route, which ii much ihofttr.—- ' ■■ "- ■■■ •■ — ■ ■^- '— " — = ' ' '-
1 mad. JuUa-Tabriz, 80 m.. waa coni .... ,„ « , ,
■n company in 1903. The thifd road. Tchertn-Kum- numeroua iiaiiea, many practically b
, Ite m.. alaoconiuttof tvatolloni: Ihebw. Tefaeitn' Aulbentic qiecimena of the early onea a .
., the other. Kum-SulUoabad, 68 m. The Brit teclion colleclota. (For information on the ponal lyittm el Ptni
■eraian rovemment in ISSj, at a COB o( G. Riedem, Aiu Ptrnm. Vienna, 1881; Fr. SdmeflCT. Oil
by the ImpefT^U Bank of Pcnia in ifloo ptriudie Post umd dk PoitwerOurukn wot PrriitK, Vienna. I893.J
1 .. , o, ,,,(^, f4j,ooo. -rtt Ttbfrafti.—Thc fin) line of telejiaphK^rom Tehettn to
i ibnuEh Penia fiDm Bafidad — then the moat eaateriy Tu
wai^s. a tefegraphic CDnvention waa concljded in the aamc year
- _ ...^ between the fintiih and Peraian ^vemmenla. aul a ono-win
HBa and EVrsia of December 1S8]. The l^rmian ircljon line on wtnden jHala fnun the Turkiih frontier. Dear Bagdad.
:hiB md was obtained in E897 by the BaThliari chieltand for a lecood wire, waa concluded, and [or Hme yean metaagea
fe^n Lynch, of Lcmdon. who advanced the nrcmary between Europe and India were tnnvnillrd either via Conitanti'
Company. TTie rood wai opened for traffic in the Teherln, Bjihire. An alternative line between Bagdad and India
tnoo. The revenue ia derived fnMnlollA levied on animala wai created by (he conatmction of a land line to Fao, at the bead
:red in 1907 aowunted to £3100. ot the Fenian Gulf, and the Layinf of a cable thence to Buihire.
8 m. c€ railway and 6f m- of Tlie aervice waa very inefiideni. and measagcA between England and
company- The mlway coniHta India took acvenl dayi and aonvtimea wccka to reach their dctti-
re much valued by Maoap
by a direet 1863 10 Julia 00 the Ruanan fronlicT. With [he objfrt ofeaublilh-
Belgian company- The mlway coniHti .. _._ .. . _. ..,_ _ _
■uge. IromTtlwrtD to Shah-abdul^AiiiB, nation. In 1B69 Mem Sioneru of Bcrli
\ linea which connect [be maJD obtaincdiE '' ' ' >. . -
the hQb KHitb-ean of ibe diy. Tdtgtaph
J S. and nina Lowatoft .
The learth iron poaca thrajgli Gcrmaoy and Riuoia. and in Pertia fi
. and of two Iniinch linea which connect [be main olnaiiicdiDtiiaycarbefotvandlateTdiBpoiedof tothelndo-Eitnwan
a vnele line of one-metre gauge, and runa Lowatoft to Emdeo {^4 knota) — conatructed
principal nieeu of TeherCn. The lestlh imn poata thtougb Germany and Riur- — ' ~
ne ii at m., that of the brancbea a). Tlv ~ . - -J- .■
10 TeherbL TMa boe waa opened on the 3IM of Januaiy 187a.
_.,.._ _._ The Britiih Kivemnieiil [ben banded the Bagdad-Telm*n tection.
Jie tramway Rarted in 1889- The capital now invetled which had becooie unneceaoary fcr International tbrodgh tnAc
Tprise. and laixdy tubsciibed for by ftussian capiialiiti. between Europe and India, over [o [be Peraian govemmeDt. and
< £}]o.ooo. Theit art also oidinaiy iham 10 the amount L:liaiiged ita Teberla-Buibire line Into one of two wirei on itoa
. — j^_- !^ ^^ company'* annual balaace-aheeti aa potla. In [873. accDrdlng to a conventioB aigned December 1872,
The general^ opinion u (hat if Russian capiiilini had i third vice waa added [o [be line.
I4cini'a Zd ftrtia
of the po». and completed in March 1907. tiie irction Kaihan-Iifahan ol
by him and the okl Tthti«n-Bujhite »u then taken up and Inlahan was
r hrghandari^itr^ry raleaand arilhoui any responsibility, conrtccted with the Central Persia line by a two-wire line from
shnvnt of a recular pcM was one of the remits of [he Ardistan. 71 m. aoulh-cast from Kashan. One of the three wirec
ed-din*s first vi.ii 10 Europe (1S73J. Two officials of between liiafiaa and Bushiie Has also taken up, and (heie are now
s villages where the European legations have their well aa (hat of the Indo-European Telegraph Canpany from Julfa
Jied^-^ Tehe^n.'"labriz and'jldS' |Ru»E^nian (k classed amD^g™e firmtalid most effcien" 111 [be world. The
id Reshr. Other lines, connecting all [be piiniripal Lrnlral line ia continued through Baludiislan ID Karachi, and from
[he capital, were opened ihorlty afterwards, and on the Pjshire meaaaget go by cable [laid in ES64) to Jask, nod thence
mber 1877 Persia joined the in1ema[ional postal union tithcr by cable Or by land (0 Karachi. Bombay, ftc The telegraphic
-wipapen. *e.. between Persia and any union country, again b^ renewed, and is in force until 1915; nnd the concessioru
rata were a little leas. There are now between Persia to the company were prolonged to the same year by the Rusaian
ind linea. witb [be accplion of Ihat between Teheitn Lo [he PB^a (Dveniment and worked t^ a Persian Kaifi the
196 PERSIA [UANUPACTVBES
Tebats-MolKd line (55s m.), bovmr. !• loolul itta by id )i«] 10 be diaeiL A third Bdaun coiDiiuy. SodM aaaayH
EkUiIi inpcincir and two EnilUh cLrIu 11 Mahed. iDd tinn pour b Cibncallaii du Men «i Pcne. wiib ■ lirxr ci|a»J, il»
ISSS tbc Indian gnvcrnnmi baa aliuwcd 1 Him not eicRding cane to PcnU. and befia mildDi beeuoM auor in tbc iriDUr id
lO.ood [upeea per annum ior iu maiaicnancEi and Ihe Moiled- 1S95. But. tike Ibe ni aad glax cooFaniei, It tound the oat H
ScMin line, saj m.. ii looked alier by twelve RuMiao inapetton the raw naleiiil aKTlhe ioddcntal eapeniea too fieat, and ceiied
(iboul £36,000) per annum and no ataliitia lie mibliihed. There ladoni near Tehcrln ajth in initial outlay, il u laid, ol aboHt
are In alTr]! itatLona. Btatiaticaoflheliafficoo the lodo-Europeao laofioo, but could not mcceaifully compere with Auftriaq ud
line are liven in the adminiiuatiaji nponi of the Indo-European Swediah nutchca and ceaacd opcrationi very aoDn. A Pbiibb
tciegraph department, puUiahed by Eovemmem. and Innn tbem Eentleman erected a CDttoa-ipiiuiing [actory at Teher^ in it^
the n^rain the following (able have Eeea obujncd :— with eapeniive machinery; it turned out (ome eaocllent yara bat
could not conpete ia price wiib imported yarna.
AtrvMunl Ptodwtt, — Wheat, barley and rice are etovd ia il
diKiKlh the two loraiet up to eoniideiaUe aliitudea iSeat It.}, tk
lait wheiever the viler «itiply u abundant, and in inner Feraa
Eeneialtii akiii| riveni aad all thiee Bie lariely eipoftcd. The
mat LDiportaat riee^aviac dialricta which produce men thaa
tbey requiie lar lacareDiiuinpIiiin and lupply otber diHrica. ur
eipott Ileal quantiliei. are Aauiabld, Mmndaian, Cihn, Vennu,
(near Teberin}. Leajia (near lilahan), and tome kcalltieiia Fan
and Aierbiijis. Peaa. beina. leniila, nsni, nuiie, millet, aie the
uniyenally cultivated, and eiponcd Irotn the Pcnun Gulf pam
lfi»K/irliir(i.Er N<nM^ ia h«a
Colonel Murdoch eh until retenUy?
lection puichaied I hinner and pom
Muieum. hu an i » aatunlin S. Gi
facture* cf the co he Caipian in 1771,
headi tji " porcelai rom the wild iripa
" (exlile fabrict," eniial diatEicti aid
" wood carvioa ai ind amnHn] bi^
" jewelry " and " raw coitaa, lahai
numbei aie not o -1907. Good hov
familiit to the oil da, one the miah
of ihe'^u^olucu! d^mtta. Urn*.
atvinB and inbyii 1y (mducnl i* II*
Und, and thai Ibe Kaahan, wUh Ik^
unrivalled. Of the above- mentioned aiticlee. carpets, >hawl>, Tutun ia cnldnad
wDolleo and cotton fabrio and silt Muffi are the more iminttani, the Turlciih fnatiBi
Carpets may be divided into three cateaoriei: (1) Kaltt with a pile. 4ht,inGiLu. Alaitf
and cut Uke pluih; (1) iilin, smooth: U) ngwii. felu. Only the ed to betwcea lp»
two hrst are eiponed. The Kali and Its smaller siies, called valued at blM
jCaluV* (in Europe, tuinl, in chiefly nude in Ferahan.Sultanabad were eiported. The cultivation' of poppy [or ooiun pialk
(link), Kbnraian, Kurdiilan. Kaiadagh, Ycid. KermJn.andaoione increased after 1»8a, and il *rat eslimaled in 1900 that thea^S
the nomad Iribci ri •authem Pinia. From (he imo hm-mcndoned produce of ofaum anxHinted (0 ovrr looo toni, ol which abpaC
yean. grTa( quanUtiei, valued in aomc yean at jCioojxn, 6nd (heir ajHum-imdudBB districts ate those of Sbiraa, lilaluB, Vol
of £yi,ooo per annum are eaponed from the Persian Gulf ports Of conumed in (be country is now probably the eamc, the qia*^ ^^
the second kind, rtlim (used in Europe [or curtains. hauBiuKi. and eaported is much less: ajg tons, valued at £2J7,5;ti ia I^M-IIBr.
I9("i;1907 wai close upon £900,000, Turkey (iking £6lJ,300, disease lo fjo.ooo, iii Itoo. The quantity ptoduceil has BHt "E
Eppt tiS.loa and India ij^oo. Shawls are manuljcluird iii million. Cocoons and raw silk valued at iJI6,t40 woe equalld
Turluy. Woollen fabrics are nunuEactuml in many districts, but linseed and olive are culEkvalcdTthc last only ia a ■naU diitda
arc not e«ported in any afcat quantity. Coarse cotton stufls, south of and near Resht. Very little oil is evported. The pobrii^
chiefly of the kind called Kfrbaz, used in their natural colour, or nol yet a staple article of food, tomatoea, celery, cauliAower. 111^
dyed blue with indJEO, are manulactured in all districts but not chokes and other vegetables are nnw much more growa tbaahsBell^ -_.
eaported ; cottons, called Kalamkar, which are made In Manchesler chiefly In consequence of the Ereat influi of EurosnaL lAa tfV
aild Uock-pnnled in colours at Isfahan and Kumishah, And their the principal conaumera.
way to foreign markcls. principally Russian. Of »lk fabrics Among the valuable vcgtuble pnducti (onaiiv aitkkl B -~.
mannlartured in Persia, principally in Khorasan. Kashao and »por( are varioui gums and dyes, (he miM iiBplinaa( MV
Yeid, about {100,000 worth per annum is ciportcd 10 Turkey, gum traaacimh. which oiudca from (he aatngalus tAiat ia d^
Rusua and India. In (be environs ol Kashan and in Fars. chielty hilly rcETon from Kurdis(an in (he north-west to Kmla la d^
at Mainland, much nne-waicr is made, and a considerable Quantity souih-cisl- Other gums are gum-ammoniac, asafetiJa. aalhiil^ .
lorridn caj^tal and condue(ed by forrigncts, but Ihfre are pi^oduced henna (LaiBitmui intrmit) prinripaDy gnval^t
indijo is grojiin neat Diaiul arid Shushler. The opect d djai ti
work wai tmn stopped for want of good coal. A , . , -- .-^ -- -. _-
a Persian lM]ugh( (he fac(ory and p1an( for £10.000. Horses, mules and donkeys, formerly uparrcii m gnat bih^^-^-
overin 1S91 lotheCompairnicittntralcpourl'fclaita are at present not very abundant, and their piicti ban* lii^Q
en Perse, which after bciaging out much addilii much since 1880. Some nomad tribes who owivd Ittar tfg^
IniS^i mother ^IgUn compiny. Sncieti in^yme des vcmries aa well as the dearncM ol fodder, is one of Ibe g!Ss^ the ihwM I B*;
nationalei de Penc. opened a glass factory in Teberin, but the cf tranipot, and Ireiehis have rixn on the most frcqacatcd m^^^
dilficulty of obtaining the taw material cheaply and in Urge quanti- from 3d. per ton^mile in iSSo (0 lod.. and even ltd., pa tai«0^
ties waa loo great to nuke it a paying concern, and Ibe lactoiy The prioes of staple inlda gl food lOsa ataadity Iran iMM
IV (ormt of Muuduu
boxwood hmw a1» ban
experiment there provin
wu°™!j^KS^. In Oa
oc vny rich cou leuni [a «
cv of the de«en, und upder oi
riie ricbes dcpwu of oickd, <
rich uphtlU'barlnf bdiw Mirtcbei
Cermbidilli dma id ibe PFniu.Cuir.
jmaKwi have decUrcd (hat borings
Shuthter, would give exceUent rrfultL
and Ibe toul ibwiKe of roadi. ■• well
ibltaptt of Ibe dUtricx. wuuLd sako
ncal of Ibe pece«ary _plant a moat
Qtidkate baa been bonng at levcfaj
emm of conmenc an Tabrli.
d Veid: the priodpal poni Baaiter
Muhamnh on (he Ferwn CuU. aod
IDiHa wen lamed ^I (lB9»-lB« for
thai v«.r Ibe Farm .yiteni wuaboUied
and Keimtntbth. toi. the
iei1ui)an aod i
i8s7. provided for ihe
It neveriSdeta a new Irea
riiith [npona would be
made with Cmt Britain i
^'.'fca
For the value of imponi ar
Ten.1,
1 i906-.9<
d by (be cunonii depanmc
accordinatcltbein
of pouaJ. BerUng
lot the ail yea
n>port>andexjF<
"*«lllKS^
Importa.
E.poni.
TolaL
1903-1904
■gig
1
g
g
lis
d eiporu dtirint Ihe year t906-t9O7 (t<
e diitribiited at foUawi (values in 1
>9i U.S. America , ,
which hivi been nude lo work minn
ess;
dal Depmiiiot rich oiei of copper, lead.
r Nithapuf ((or
■■ tSc Gesend rwiKhei, Sabiwarund Me«
"r;it;.?Ki;
I of Teberftn. and 11 Hiv and Abyck. norlb
AuRrIa .
AfihaolMi
' '^ N«£^laiid.'
198 PERSIA
out. ZiniOnr. Ac; arfuk Ibt HMltor *rili, aOcd Iwva^ iKpl tn dL
Artd m«iLy under ao Ion, vt employed ia Ike couting trade and of a ktan.
tbe purl'bftliena on the Arabiaa coait. It ia caUimted thai tbe
four pfiodiu] porta and the many imaUn'oiKafHMuhurrHindim.
Zaidin. Bander. Dibm, Rig, K^n. Tahcri, Kiahm, Honniu, &c)
poHCH at kaat loa baHaks ^nd leveral huoditd Auomftf , bauea a
Lrge number g( unall boaii. The foUowiM nguret from Ibe
thow the total thippiiu al Ibe lour principal E^ntaa Gulf portL
Bufthiic, Bander Liagali, Bander Abbuj and MuhaninUi dunnc
(CONSTlTUTtON AKDGOVBRMHEKt
*, fonxfly a taU pis*, ■»■ u laacbvy C«ia tA|
ajloK
•ifi
8jM94
The firitiih ihippinf amounled to B9'j% o[ the tola] thipiHng
at the four potu duiiog the yean 1904-140^. There wu no
German ihippinff in the gulf before 19^^, but in the ttnx year of
almoit aa lOLJcb at thai of aJl other nationi vitb tbe eaception of
The thippinf of 190^1907 va* diitributed among the four porta
Buihtie . . . 354,^8 tona. Bander Abbau . 14i,7*6 torn-
Bander Lin£ab I55J»J „ Muhamrah . . tb3.>43 .,
Bander Liix^h being the port vhere moit of the pearli obtained
on the Arabun coast of the Eolf are brouDht 10 and exported from,
All tlie ihtj^ng on the Caspian li under the Ruuian Baa^ and
no return! of the arrival) and departum of vcieeli at (be f^nian
pont were published befofe 1906. According (o the ataiiAici
of the cuttomt department the ihippinji of (he Pcruan pom
amounted in 1906-1907 to £50,717 tona. The ihipping at the
principdl Fltrian poru on the Caipiaa in the year 190&-T907 wu;
^ -i; EiuiU majin iom; Meibed i Sar 90..;
Man
-Nohabbaai-
9abba>I> - 7»
: »4i:
i&i:»ii - : 'K
"
IM'-
Man
'-M
w. coal, »c
an »ld by kharv.
00 Tabiii maa
trom 1 J9« to
379 iq. yds.
Conslb
tfrmoiHtCaw
mwiK.— Uplotheyiar
meal of Fenia vat an
prindpal
Bturo that of the Ottoman Empiie, wltb tbe wqi-
ilecn ^wTi
i'S;
iTh^"uBNi' '^ 'Tabrii. The
om for I250 per annum
flsi") ^"proportion of pur
■ubsequCEitly the proponion w
about ftifi 'n ™/»«14=n™
a fa' " in*!"" ?90* '^ "^
ia ^uluion worL r-it aa: —
Nickel Coin*.
Shahi - 1 pul . . O'lid.
Two ibahia - 4 pul . o^Sd.
nalilmU(7>
1, the value of the h
the variqus nickel and tUvcr
it the ]
of the ctHnmunily. Tlie powen of tlie Shah <Sh
'- king of kingi "] over his lubjecu and (beir prapeftr <nfl
abulule, but only in » fu ai they were not oppoied to tbe iW,
or " divine law," which coniisu of the doclrins of the Utbon-
medan religion, aa laid down in the Konn, the on] cwnmeBtaritt
and laying! of the Prophet, and the interpteUtiooi by Ui
■ucccsson and tbe high prietihood. In 1905, bowevtr, tba
peo[Je began to demand judicial teformt, and in 1906 died OM
lor npntenlalive inttiiutioni and a lonsiiiuiion. By a rcKTJpt
dated the jth oT August Muiafiai-ud-DIn Shab gave bis aMot
to tbe foTTnation of a national coundl (Uajlii i ilura i mSlii,
to be compoecd of tlie reptT«ent*tivet of tlte vaiiaua clMm
princes, dergy, DKinbeti of the Kajar family and tribe — cbMl
ud noble*, landowners, agricuiiuiists, merchants and Inda-
men. By an ordinance of the lotb ol Seplembet tha noafaltri
memben was £ied at ifii (terocTeherfn, loifotlbeptoriBCid
to he railed to loo if necessary, and elections were bdd worn
' " ' ib}ecU of <nt ka
r thabis fweighing about j
- This wa< owing to tbe de
: after. Electora mutt be
1 than IS yf^n of o^ an _
' possess land of at least 1000 tomans (£700) In vahie, '
\ and tradesmen muil have a hied and well-kaown [tan tl
I business or ifaop with an annual value of not leM tblB (kl
' avenge value* in the locaiiliea where they are — ■-HfrH
Soldiers and persona convicted of any criminal offence ut Mt
entitled to vote. The qualificalioni far raembetihip an tw»-
ledge of the PenianUoguage and ability to read and write it ad
good repute hi the constituency. No person can be flrrted ■!•
Is an alien, i* under the age of 30 yean or over the age of 70 yMI^
is in the enqiloy of the government, is ijk tbe activE wenta tf
i the army or navr, has been convicted of uy criadnil nltiUF. «
1 is a bankrupt.
On the vtb of October tbe national council, or a* mwy H^
' ben of it a* could be got Mgether, was welcomed by the Aik
and elected a preaidenl
tion and formal opening ol pltUainent. .
J the Treaty of Turkmancbai 1
. ISiaU Pafm, vol. Iiiil gij.]
wer should fly the military c
the cDundl o( the Russian i
iber 1S69, Ihcesublishment 1
REUGIOEQ
PERSIA
199
bgr M nimflar-iid>D&i Shah, Mahommed Ali Mina (Ui tnccessor)
■ad the grand vizir, on the 50th of December 1906, deals with
the rescript of the sth of August, states the powers and duties
of the national councQ and makes provision for the regulation
of its general procedure by the council itself. The members
have immunity from prosecution except with the knowledge of
the national coundL The publicity of their proceedings except
nader conditions accepted by the council is secured. Ministers,
or their delegates may appear and speak in the national council
and are responsible to that body, which also has special control
of fnancial affairs and internal administration. Its sanction
is required for all territorial changes, for the alienation of state
property, for the granting of concessions, for the contracting
of loans, for the construction of roads uid railways, for the
ratification of treaties, &c. There was to be a senate of 60
manbcrs of whom 30 were to be appointed to represent the shah
and 30 to be elected on behalf of the national ooundl, 15 of each
dasB being from Teher&n and 15 from the provinces (the senate,
however, was not immediately formed).
By a rescript dated February 2, 1907, Mahommed Ali Shah
ciimfiiiueJ the ordinance of the 30th of December, and on the
Sth of October 1907 he signed the final revised constitution, and
took the oath which it prescribes on the xath of November in
the presence of the national council.
In accordance with the constitution the shah must belong to
the SUah faith, and his successor must be his eldest son, or next
male in succession, whose mother was a Kajar princess. The
dab's dvil list amounts to 500,000 tomans (£100,000).
The executive government is carried on under a cabinet
rompoacd of seven or eight vizirs (ministers), of whom one,
bcsdcs bedding a portfolio, is vizir azam, prime minister. The
viBTB are the ministers of the interior, foreign afifairs, war,
finance, commerce, ^ucation, public works.
Uat3 1906 the shah was assisted in the task of s;ovemment by
tie jorfr atom (grand vizir), a number of vizirs, ministers or heads
of departments somewhat on European lines, and a " grand council
rf ttate.** composed of some ministers and other memt)ers nomin<
ated by the shah himself as occasion required. Many of the
" ousMAen " would have been considered in Europe merely as
dncfs of departments of a ministry, as, for instance, the mimster
br CiDWB DuildingB, that for Crown domains, the minister of cere-
■oaies, those for araenab. army accounts, &c. ; also an accumulation
of several oflBces without any connexion between their functions,
is the hands of a single person, was frequently a characteristic
depertore from the European model. Tne mmbters were not
RspoBs3)le to the Crown m a way that ministers of a European
fowemment are: they rarely tooa any initiative, and generally
Riened their affairs u> the grand vizir or to the shah (or final
There were twenty-seven vizirs (ministers), but only some of
AoB were oonsnlted on affairs of state. The departments that
Wd s vizir at their head were the following: court, ceremonies,
ifbh's secretarial department, interior, correspondence between
cam sad governors, revenue accounts and budget, finance, treasury,
Mtstandiof accounts,^ foreign affairs, war, army accounts, military
Mm, arsenals, justice,^ commerce, mines and industries, agn-
tthie and Crown domains, Crown building, public works, public
nwiBction, telegraphs, posts, mint^ religious endowments and
pnionsj customs, press. In addition to these twenty-seven
^n vuh portfc^ios, there were some titulary vizirs at court,
Be,Kair 1 Hutur i Humayun (minuter of the imperial presence),
roirisMJbbtu (extraordinary minister), &c., and a number in the
Pfvrisces assisting the governors in the same way as the erand
wit assists the shah. Most of these ministers were aboRshcd
""fcr the new constitution, and the heads of subsidiary depart-
■Wsare entitled mudir or rats, and are placed under the responsible
t. — About 9,000,000 of the population are Mahom-
of the Shiah faith, and 800,000 or 900,000, principally
^■di in north-western Persia, are said to belong to the other
PBt Inanch of Islam, the Sunni, which differs from the former
^Kisioas doctrine and historical belief, and is the state religion
if the INffkish Empire and other Mahommedan countries. Other
*libBs are represented in Persia by about 80.000 to 90,000
^ihlians (Armenians, Nestorians, Greek Orthodox and Roman
^wScs, Protestants), 36,000 Jews, and 9000 Zoroastrians.
Sodcty in Pcisia, being based almost exclusively on religious
■*f a much as it was in Biblical times among the Jews, with this
difference, however, that there exists no sacerdotal caste. In
Persia any person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting
its laws may act as a priest imuUak), and as soon as such a priest
becomes known for his just interpretation of the shar* and his
superior knowledge of the traditions and articles of faith, he
becomes a mujlahid, literally meaning " one who strives " (to
acquire knowledge), and is a chief priest. The muUaks are
referred to in questions concerning religious law, hold religious
assemblies, preach in mosques, teach in colleges, and are appointed
by the government as judges, head-preachers, &c. Thus the
dignitaries, whose character seems to us specially a religious one,
are in reality doctors, or expounders and interpreters of the law,
and officiating ministers charged with the ordinary accompUsh-
ment of certain ceremonies, which every other Mussulman,
" true believer," has an equal right to fulfil. Formerly there
were only four or five mujtahids in Persia, now there are many,
sometimes several in one city — ^Tehcrfin, for instance, has ten;
but there are only a few whose decisions are accepted as final
and without appeal. The highest authority of all is vested in
the mujtahid who resides at Kcrbela, or Ncjef, near Bagdad,
and is considered by many ShVites as the vicegerent of the
Prophet and representative of the imam. The shah and the
government have no voice whatever in the matter of appointing
muUahs or mujtahids, but frequently appoint sheikks-ul-islam
and cadis, and occasionally chief priests of mosques that receive
important subsidies out of government funds. The chief priest
of the principal mosque of a dty, the masjid i jami\ is called
imam juma\ and he, or a representative appointed by him, reads
the khutha, " Friday oration," and also preaches. The reader
of the khuiba is also called kkatib. The leader of the prayers
in a mosque is the pishnamax, and the crier to prayers is the
mu*azzin. Many priests are appointed guardians of shrines
and tombs of members of the Prophet's family (imams and
imamzadehs) and are responsible for the proper administration
of the property and funds with which the establishments are
endow^. The guardian of a shrine is called mutavali, or, if
the shrine is an important one with much property and many
attendants, mulavali-bashi, and is not necessarily an ecclesiastic,
for instance, the guardianship of the great shrine of Imam Reza
in Meshed is generally given to a high court functionary or
minister as a reward for long services to the state. In the
precincts of a great shrine a malefactor finds a safe refuge
from his pursuers and is lodged and fed, and from the security
of his retreat he can arrange the ransom which is to purchase
his immunity when he comes out.
Formerly all cases, dvil and criminal, were referred to the
clergy, and until the 17th century the clergy were subordinate to
a kind of chief pontiff, named sadr-us-sodur, who possessed a
very extended jurisdiction, nominated the judges, and managed
all the religious endowments of the mosques, colleges, shrines, &c.
Shah Safi (1629-1642), in order to diminish the influence of the
clergy, appointed two such pontiffs, one for the court and nobility
the other for the people. Nadir Shah (i 736-1 747) abolished
these offices altogether, and seized most of the endowments of the
ecclesiastical establishments in order to pay his troops, and, the
lands appropriated by him not having been restored, the clergy
have never regained the power they once possessed. Many
members of the clergy, particularly those of the higher ranks,
have very liberal ideas and are in favour of progress and reforms
so long as they are not against the shar\ or divine law; but,
unfortunately, they form the minority.
The Armenians of Persia, in so far as regards their ecclesiastical
state, are divided into the two dioceses of Azerbaijan and Isfahan,
and, since the late troubles in Turkey, which caused many to
take refuge in Persia, are said to number over 50,000. Alx)ut
three-fifths of this number belong to the diocese of Azerbaiian,
with a bishop at Tabriz, and reside in the cities of Tabriz, Knol,
Selmas, Urmia and Maragha, and in about thirty villages c ose
to the north-western frontier; the other two-fifths,^ under the
diocese of Isfahan, with a bishop in Julfa, reside In TchcrSn,
Hamadan, Julfa, Shiraz, Bushire, Resht, Enzcli and other towns,
and in some villages in the districts of Chahar Mahal, Feridan,
Barbarud, Kamarch, Kazaz, Kharakan, &c. Many Persian
Armenians are engaged in trade and commerce, and some of
zoo PERSIA (EDUCATIOK: ARMY
[heir nKidunts dhpSK of much capita), bat tbe bulk llvtoa Ibc the bediming o[ Nasra'd-Dia Shifa'i leign, a puUic Kbool «
•"m^iw/^^jl" Pe''^"l'lirinB a citla »d vilUsM cl« to <•>« U"" o' • F™':'' ly^ "" 0P«n«l in Tchtrln, piiuipallT
the Tuikiili (ronticr. numbered (bout ij/no to io.ood bul many ■"<'> l^' object of educating oSicea (or the umr, but alto oF
limliiihapi, nxcniLy iDlrodudng ■ knowledge of Watem icieace aiid language^
Lw[ f«'byTn'^'i- *'"'■ Military and dviliaii teailiera were obtained from Europe,
•aa prinlk "'^ ^t >'>'e granted a large lum ol money lot (he tupport ol
by Ruuiaiu, who rc' the aiablisbment. The tuition ia gniuitoiu, and the jnfBt
the RuMJan legation ue dolhed and partly (ed at govemmeBt eipenie. Some
and Mii™ (looHly y™" '"'" ■ limilar idiDol, hut on a much >nial1er Hale, waa
thouund, and hai^ Opened in Tabrii. Altera time the annual grant for the nippoit
itwi by membcn ot of tfaeK two schooli was reduced, and dunng the yean ifi^o-i^
rt unie oi;*aniiBM. amounted to only £sooo. The avenge number of pupili waa
d Si Vincent de Paul " e ot later, of ehanty about ijo, and until the beginning of 1899 thoe two ithooli
The Pnusaxis. Eunpeana and nativetjconvertcd Aimeniant ^": '^' <"^y MlaWishmcnti under the lupcrvision of the
miniilering u ibUdr qiirinudwdfare ace: {!) The board of foreign igg6 MuiaSar-ud-DIn Shah eipiesed > desire that aonelbiu
miuionKtftbePiEihvtetlaBChiirchiniheUnitedSlateiof Anitnca, _„„.i,„,|j h-j... 1-. r^,M:. :.,.■_..->: .„j ;„ ■>.. 1.11 iH
>hich haa ail MauShmeui in Persa: Uniiia Hnce 1813, TeherJu """ ahould be done for public inslruetioo. and in the foUowu^
•ince tin. TibtiM ma 1<73. Hamadan rince I«So. KabI tince /«' » number ol Persian notables formed a committee and
iw and KWviii lidcv 1903- Tb« otabliihrnnHa «t Tabrii and opened some schools in TeherAn and other places in the beginning
Uimia form the WeueniPnibMh>Jan.iha«i]fTcbei4n.HBinadan. of 1^. A year lalet tbe new schools, until then Drivateaut>>
ftah. and lUarin d» E..len,^Pcr«.Mi»on.. Tbe former m^^ lishmTnls, w^placed under the minii.er of publirinsl ruction.
()) x|„ ThenewschoolsatTeherSnhavcfrom 1000 to 1400 pupils.
iaryaociety,enaMuiic(iin«r«uiiiiiceiiie9. '- '-— • f— 1.__. _..i , .>,,.__, ^ .
re placed under the m
iriVtcl»ois,'l"l™fntliU'aiid ; diipeiiMrin.' "(irthe The new schoolsat Teherjn have from 1000 to 1400 pupils.
«arySociety,«tablUhcd in Persia luice 1869. Injune A German Khool with an annual nant of £1400(111111 Peniaan
Periia, Mnd a large jxrceotap ol ihc pupili ii compoirf of MuhuI
man.. The Alliance ImC-lile bu opened a Hrhool in Tcberfi
(]*TIk ifni
iTAierbSIja'
:.TF.i^';,
aO
The non-Muwulmi. ._., _
HrraxH ic ijiaran n kikpci. <nu Bi njnuiuin ■ .mm jciuKii "iiy.— Pcrsa hid no rcguliT army until 1807, when son
Isffhe'Brtish and^^in"^U^°S^7y'hl^bc^*™pmM^ rcgiinents of regular infantry (lortar) were embodied sad drilled
al [.rfahao since |8;9. by tbe first French military mission lo Persia under Gcnoil
^Theyrwiin^FcrM number about j«,ooo, and m lound in nearly Cardiinc. Since then seven other military missions (iiro Biitiik,
: ™.' 'ST'J^'i","'^ H"^ lynjiEotuei and two French, two AuslrijB, uid One Russian) hive come to PeiM
h™, 'ffa^''n.""*r ^^ ■ ' ■ " '1" «q"«t Of the Pirsian B»vcrm"ent. and many offico.
iSLrSV'E?He''?:^Si'.£"°ri'Sti!^i i^°^™""i^'p> lrr»rg'^ihrpe"T^ ^rw^adJl;
,«( ol ihcm emploVcd in agnculiural work and gardening. Their '^^9, "ben the second Austrian mission formed the " Auslriia
j_.i ._ i... . -i;it^K viio is appcMnied by the corps" of seven new battalions of 800 men each. These ne«
''" battalions were disbanded in tSSi. The Russian missies c(
uieo uui iince 1B71 wnen '^" *"* '*™ "" '''™' ""^"'S''jlp Sf"! '*" so-called " CoiBlt
irnedtoPemafrQmhiifinlioumeyioEun.pe brigade " which it formed has alwaj-s been commanded hj
.< .».,.■ lih^rally. In cities where many non- Russian officers. The brigade has a strength of about 1800 on
rial oflidal Is app<»n(cd to ptolect uid costs £jo,ooo per annum. The total annual eipendilut
" ■"* " ""■"' " '"•' for the army amounts 10 about a third of the total rtvenve) of
■Mmary schools., mottaft (where Persian and a .n'X^iV^'furc'J^ya^I^gVjiS^ !^n!^ut'*W^n'?!!lb.?y«
...u.v ... — .V, .JlKcient lor reading the Koran, and sometimes actually serving wilh the cotoun dooi nol eiuxrd 35,000:—
also a little arithmclic, are taught to boys between the ages ArtUlefy
of seven and twelve), are very numerous. These schools are \^^^
The payment for tuition varies from fourpencc or fivef
tenpcnce a month for each child. Colleges, madrasah ^wnerc . ■
young men ore instructed, fed, and frequently also lodged Total 9i.)M
gtatuilDusly). eiist in nearly every town. Most of Ihem are flavy.—THa Persian government posseswi nine ucuiaL
at I ached to mosques, and the teachers are memben of the clergy. One is the "Nasra 'd-DIn." an old yacht of about i» tow,
and receive filed salaries out of the college funds. The students presented In tbe 'seventies by tbe emperor of Kusaia, ud
ate instrucicd in Arabic and Persian Lterature, retiiSotp inlet- stationed at Enieli, the port of Rcshi. The others, all empkn"*
pretation ol the Koran, Mussulman bw, logic, rhetoric, philo- in the customs service in the Persian Gulf, are the foOoiiur
sophy and other subjccls necessary for admittance to the clergy. The " Persepolis," built 1884. 600 Ions, 450 h.p., with Ihite i{
(or doctors of law, tx., while rnodem sciences are neglected, cm. and one 8) cm. Krupp. The " Susa," Iniill tSt4i
Families who have means and do not desire their children to 36 tons, with one Krupp, An old Belgian yacht " SdB*"
become members of the clergy, employ private tutors, and purchased 1903 and renamed '^ Iifuzaflcn," with two Hotdtii
several have latterly obtained the services o( English and French guns. Five launches buill in the Royil Indian kfarine Deck^
professors lo educate iheit children, while others send their Bombay, in 1905, at a cost of 60,000 rupees each, of abort fc
boys to school in England, Fiance, Cemuoy and Russia. At tons.
JJliS
SnCE: FINANCE)
Fntitr^^By the ihHiy of ■ Miboninedan lUte then tbixild
■o other cinirtt of Jaiiin cuxst ihoH HUbtiihcd fur Ihe t-i-
uKntion of Ilio iWr*. Ihc ~ divine or writlEi tiw," but in
— - -^ — ' ''^ jiidiatuiv» vhich i* called 'mrf ukT
PERSIA
kind, and ih
Ulhe
ind by Ihc cb
of TiUcd. ~Thi liuh'i nt
L The official) ctiarjed
Krtini to tht jlar" an judm. ca
li, ta^t or taJi ol Ants and Turlu^
■pD4.<dia thtfuniLiinenia
callvd tlciU^I-filmiid
■ itofibeckqn'
cd utary, but
_ ,_ , .,.. _nd thr tW ol
: ohHitcu; dcd^oiu acmnlinfl to Ibc ikar' an eivcn
aji ni«niDcn of the clergy, ranoUiK lion igtiocant mnlUlu of
ie viltrii;c« and untona tolninKd wKUakidi of the ptal citiH-
Ihe panici to the niit an diauti^licd irilk Ibr judilinnil. they
y ap^Kol to a pnnc who atand* hiifher in public tuimalioa, or
! of the pjnirt nay induce a hiiiirr autliurily by brihcry In
Hb the judjment ol (he Bi«. Unlnnunawly. many ombIith
1 nilurlv iiuiivoiihy.' The Funniunt of the njirncntalim of
Y referred to the 'vt, which, hon'cvcr, abo ti'
H di*patea» tfaouid the piilieA dchre it-
In eriniiui C4W4 the ditpeMaiioD of iuiljce f* alwa
d. when the nffrnee n loioli, the whcdc pncedui*. i
d ibe punithnwot, a bnttinado, ia a matter ol aome ipi
KwlA aI {<in«i:<-tmn la ovmrjuvk by (he miniitLf ol COOl
Teherln the bnirrt rf iht
._— _ .Hjjv, " Kins of Mercfiam
a penoq called m^ik Qmia, and m
E57ffi
" Tribunal ol tbc Miniflry fnr Ft
reherln by an nllicial of ihe lorcip
iea by the karfiitzari, *'afenia,|' ol Ih^
of ihe lorei^ uihce, and in
■■ '■ -" Ihal dcjait-
rfTurkmMchai.'Siiich'T/^'luSi
M tk Imipi fubjcct). and that, once juiKdallv cmrioded, Buch
aatt ihiU not fi^c cauw to a leedfid inqiiiiy. II, however, dr-
Bntuvn iheuM be nl a nature to ceoiuR a Mcond ioquln-, U
Ad ut lake plice without pRvinui HCR giiven la (he oilidilFr.
* ih chance cf aHalm, or Ibe coniul, and ia Ihia ease the budnoa
nOiidybt proceeded with at Ihe lupreme ehanrrry of the ihah
* Tabna or Tehcrfln. BkewiK ia lite preacnce of a dneoinail of
OeiHioa. orol iheeomidale." (Artido vii.)
A Igni^ nhjm implicated in a crimiiul Emit capnot be puTrued
* Kfrneil in any way unlen than cidM full nooli ol hit having
uhn pan in the crime imnuied to him. and >h«itd he be duly
MMri d the crime, he u handed over to hia kiatiiia, whirh
■Wr i[nd< him back to hi« own country to undemo the punish-
>■ ia PefvU by fine^ impriMKimcnt, Ac. Ia dna mpin (he
fnen it [he foreign lepnacntitim in Prnia< now nuMberini
lei (Gteat Briiun, RuHia, France. Turkey. Auntria-Ilunwy.
wEUy, United StatB ol America., Italy. Betihnn and the
ttsv
^-
cruMy. .
y"tbe"ST™.«"ii™ci' the'fm
|>aw the reiuLirfon ol iu^dcc. A hcKinning vna made by order-
j^AtlnailaiSiin nl Ihe Cude NapolAin. the Indian hlahqmmcHnn
Pkud Ihe Code NapoUon ai toMfKA lor Alieria; but nothing
. BWKi.— The fiwii levenuca c( l^nia *.
*tEit lavtion (fle/raf) cnnipDwd ol tatca on lant
j»i Idnd of ineeuLiT revenue derived from pul
tmi.im.1
•kkndtaLwl
varie* nuih at-conlinc to I- - ..„ —
cueliMnfi avre farmed out, faul rincc tliHi they have Uvn oreai
on KiinipeaB primlplti, with Ihc hdp of IMuijn officiak
tmlies with Kii»u and Cirat Hiiiain. canHnileil in I'tn und
■einnivcly. the %'it duty Gaed by the TurknundLii ileal'
aboli>he<l, and an iiiuitabk urifl wa* MoUiJieJ. TK' (vi
Ivl^raphs mlnei. mint, fianli, banks li'Juiieit, lactuciA
"Theluui mcBBe'of S'vSaT'lnlo au'wllitta. am.iuntcd in
In w,7oa.ono kran, in ilUi4 to SiV<ai9.nH^ la iD-f • lu bo/o
and in 1907-19(1(1 lu about IM,nno.niin kraiu. Thl> wuukl v
' ' ic, but wheii we cunvfchr that ilic va
-— — --,- ..— Acariy H^flfL.anil hjklallen in cnnvr]
ol the oreat dcnnniilMi cf lilvcr to iinly 4I d., Ihc total n
really ihcnawd Imm fiiU'Vina in ib;^ b> £1^10.000 in
1i|u8. Our of thu artual total IC -
lolnot (1.6*
n Linda
, .„ . ^Mcaj irf £610,000 in I
19DR. While the prireihi kran>of sfiicilllurjl imiduce. and I
(he pmita ol the lamlowsm and the wuftu and iimliu ol an
and ImkHien, were lu Iw-ifM man.' than iluubte what
■lie in iHA Ibe nuliat, tbe bnckboDC ul the nnenur, haa b
increafied at ail, bcint jp/ooajaoa kiant (fi,niio.iioa) a|
ii,KiDjaaa krant llifmjioo) in IVA and shmrin,: a deoui
over J7% in Merlino: anory. A new asvumi-nt ol Ibe n
baiTd inKM the prCM-nt value of the |irndih<e of kind* and a
mJiiv fif BrtKinft and tradcmh-n, kis Ireiiuently beeii kpokr
LifM by a 4trupe minibter r>f itn- iotcriiir an
uncr. nuiiht ta1uv-e no didkully in laisini
rr level and (he total icvcnui.'. of the coi
^?.l:
n tbc y
ar'i"i'in»'ol"«
Ibe Impnial
'Hr
income, but nibirnumtly the nvt
ihe eipenditimr. and ouny paynier
Ina the treasury of il4 iv^erire and cnntTnrtine nuidi-
In May IM> the Persian eon-mmenl onhTudiil a
M Uank of IVr<b. e>talili>he<I liy Itrilhh royal cl
' fifiaiiMio at 6%. rriuyalik' in the emu
.„., need liy the cuttomt^ Fan aoJ Ibe Pc
Uulf V-Hti. The nvdutv nt tbi» loan amTil for tbe payme
an indenudiy to (he Inperlal Tohlrcn CUrPoraiion. which I
In 1890 ami had to craie ha operalian In January 1S»I.
January 1900 Ibc Ionian gaveminent. in onk-r to pay the ai
and itart aficAh with 11 dear babnrc4buet, ainlractcd a
ibnugh the Banque d» Mt> dr I^nc, a Kuubn inatt
connected with the RuMan Mate bank, and csijblithed In
Tl^ loan waa fur 32\ railliDn runibk-a (I2.4aD.niHi) al s^ inti
Kuaraalced by all tbe Fenun cuKomi nlh the cwTptiun ol
of Fan and the Peridaii Culf porta, and lepjy^bk- in Ihc c
of wrmy-Ave yean. In the cuolract. whuh wa* »igacd 1
rFterihure at tbe end ol Janwiry iw. the IVr4an ipivem
umlntonk to ndicm all 'Ut lumer nireitn nhtiiUii'iu (the
txhec foivten loan bi'i^ire the tcdnniid-*! ol Ibc new Iiun wi
the coflunl.ol Ihe Kuixlan bank. Jhe l.un w.is al M]. \c
8)% lit tbe nonnnal caniial, or {2^0.000. The bondi 1
Ihc full ipiuanUs nl tbe Ku»ian tovemnenl. The yearly c
IiiT iniereit and amDrtiiaikm, about £ia4.n». ii to be raid u
ball-yeaily inilalmtnti, and in the cvml of di'fuuh the Ri
bank wUl^ve the right to eaenJioeSrclive cnntn-l iif the cu
with a naiimura nunbcr of Iwcnty-five Euimwaa cuifd
When the aiuracl lor tbe new loan wai conki'l'"!. the Kab
ol the PcitlaB Rrnrernnenl for the balance of iti>- i»}i Inan U
b.U.oon), temporary loam (mm varivut Imii'li. aireara ol
amrnbnn; and otiicr ikbls. amDunrcil tu iiver f1,30a,«l
that not much maisiit wu teli. The sh.ihV vi>il to Kuropc !
unie year cost tbe exchequer aljoui f iBOjUm. In March 19c
Kursian bank a|:iecd (o grant a lunhiir tiian of 11) millSnn re
nn the umr cofldltiom aa thoce of Ihe lim knn, and the '
nnvnint wai paiil by the end of fh>> yiMr. but nnmh-'r visit <
i.1iah to Europe and mkkfl eapendiiuru at 1»me maile tbc po
wopa Iban hrfore. Afler Nnvcmlicr inoj the eipendilurc
mluccd. and tbc new cu>(onn taiUI whiili rjme inio force o
Uih of February I90ii increawil Ibe revenue by nearly ilt
'- — ' =" woa ifaniight (hji (he vinenditiire would no! e
. cm il Ibc ikib imdertiKik a lhir.1 <T>yage in R
lid in 190$). Ilacerrr, in November mciy, whe
-...■mbtyorcoinienitniunifedaliudgelanj made inq
the Boancial pualtiun. it was found thai Ibe eipenditu
Sfc^iT
PERSIA
India wl _.
is doigruled ArUat, (Zend, AiiynKa) — "the Und |
' ~ be Aiyuu " — the oiiginal ol the Htddle-Peniu ■/ u*
« wid the modtni Irani ■'le Cnek geo- *■*■*
J graphers Entoithenej und Strabo were in nroc when thef
. limited the name to the euiem diiliku oI Iran. Thai ||«
. , „ , .-. _..^ .je Bhah name of Innuuu is understDod xa coiuprebend all thae people
. u— .•»!».. .o BuDii Juliui de Rtulcr tof the formaiion of Atyin nilionality.
t Ullc of '"Die Imperial Bank at ^ma" the bank wai with the eponymom Iranian inhabitants, who
n rhr luiunin sf (he ame year, and incoiunled by royal only penelraied Ihilhet t. few cenluricj ant, the ?T*"**
capital ol one nullliw. and be(an iu buiines fi" Brahui, who ue probably connected with the Dnndiani
I §8^. In April iS^ il took over the Penian oi India. Id tbcm we may trace llie original popuUtioa li
. r- ,-1 n — 1, CorporaTion, Boon aflerwar^ thoe dialricta; and to the aamc original population may be
« iriTlt%'"o ran'iht Unli"i^ assigned the tribes here Milled in antiquity: Ibc PaiicasH asd
~ "^ ■ - . Gedcoui (Cadrosii), and the Myd {Herod. iiL gj, vii. 6i; lit
i Uaia of Dariui, the modem Uchan). to whom the naM
. " Aelhiopiani " it also occasionally applied (Herod. iiL Mi ^
X^ i^'it^ld-St^iTr^i^J^M^'o^l^i^'i^^X^ Anjriacae (Si™bo li. 508. su; Pliny, Nal. Hi,L vi. 48; Piobm
ij. Ihen bring wonh only fi or Im»— the oiiginil cajriial of one VI. 25; in Polyb. V. *«, fl, 'knt/tiiau), it. " N'on-Aiyin." 1*
million iierling wa. rediKKfio ;£650,ooo in Docenibct 1894. Ttie (hese the Tapuri, Amardi, Caspu, ami eipedally the Cadioq 01
^Ii^i'Ti.v^A^-E.'SI'^ ir.'Sl'rrfL.iZL"";^^!. ™' ™ Cei«-»i(u»ted in GhUin on Ihe Caspiau-pmbably bdoopd
"L^iL in vlJ^-iji^ "/ 2f ^SjZTrf Bnn'L^%!); Presumably .hey were alw related to the tribes of k,«^^il
Mr Joseph Ribino pointed oul the cieal ^Acultin which make the Caucasus. In the chains of Zigios we find. In Babykoiia
(be n^ disiribution of Eundt — that u, [he providing them when and Assyriaxt limes, no trace oE Iranians' hut [urtly ^— *^
ami where iMuiiied-a mailer o(impom;i»W in P™^ and give, peoplcs-tbe Gutaeana, Lnlubaeans, Sc— partly tiibet Iht
ihb fuel as Ifie reason why (be Impenal Bank ol Pcoia has local '^ ' _i . . 1 _ .. , .' . '"'"' " ™ ^
issues of nol«, payabk at ll» iaumg bianche. only, " for, in ■ "" =" ™«f "> "o '""»"' ethnological group, t.g. Ilm Omm^
country like Penia. wbi^re movemcnii of ipeeie are so cotllv. slow (Ke bclow), and in Elymais or Susiana Ihe
in c^ulalion was £195,000. StOib^baak hew'^sowio dciui" '»"' ^'>™' "* sufficienily proved by their close rtl
in Persia. the Indians, in conjunction with whom Ihey pre- a^^
In ]AS9 the shah also gianlnl a conceH^on to Jaques dc Poliakov vioiuly formed a ^ngle people, hearing the name «M4qH
Switl'of h°old">'1Sbl^" aKi^ni 'A"il^ni'^Ca.7o™ ™^n the ">« P«" •"PI* "''''*' """J" ™^ ^ "« Black Sea ml
ume yearand lUrled buslneHat Tehorinin ie90aslhc"Baiique the Caspian, through South Ruuii, to Turan (Tuiketta)
dn Vri^i de P^rse." AEier confining ill operalioni lor some yem and the Oius and JaxarTes. For here we continually ilismig
to ortiniry ^""1'™''^"*: "'l^' P™^'';^^ °''!'i"«l ^^ traces of Iranian nationality. The names and wonb rf Ikt
Idvan^w Ihe PcHinn J^"IIIi™:n.T«i^ il^rand in jin^ Scythian. (.Scdoi,-) in Sooth Ru»ia, which Hecodotns ha
■qooand March 1901 hnanccd Ihe loam of £1400.000 and £1.000,000 preserved, are for the most pan perfectly tianqiBient Iiiaiii
to Peiiia. li has brancho at Tabrii, Rciht. Mohcol and olher formalions, idenlilicd by Zeuas and ftlflllenhofli amang ths ■§
P"™: . . , - 1 1. t 1 • """y proper names In Hria-(Ajiio-) and <uia (-^urv-afM;
PeSl1^IuSS!J1.'i»™'liaXrbusi™»^i"va7i"'[fci^ Zend, ojM. The predatory tribes of Tuian (,.g. the Mb*
firms al Tsbrii, Tehetln, Isfahan, Shiiai and Buihire, tadh'iate gelae) seem to have belonged, to the same Mock. That
remitunces between Europe and Penla. tribes are dlalinguished by the Iranian peasants as Daha (Ge
Tl« chief business oi the M^Mffii(>(iapney^nBers.bank(o, Aiai), "enemies," "robbers"; by the Peruui *i Skk; ail
4c.) b to discount bilsat high rales, liardly ever ksa than u%, 1,,. ,1^ i~ 1,. ' n i;„,v;„
and remit money from place to place in tW. lot a commission '>y_"« Greeks generally as Scythian
amounling to from I to s, or even 6%on each tmnsaelion; and Fnm the tegKHl ol tl
in spile of ibe European lunks giving lower rates tA discount and trated into the cultivahl
nimitiing money at par. the majority ol the people and mercaniik miodovei
claisesiiill deal with the natives. For advances with ~-~< —■■■""' -
tnolhei moved westward to Zagns and the harden if d>
at kaw than ]i%considcrs that be gets money "for notbini;."
- ..lonlb. or mote than mo'/, per annum. The dale of this migration cannot yet be detcmuDed witt
/\ Persian who obtains an advance of, money certainly. We know only that the Aryans of India starff
\. H.-S.)
<njpied the Punjab in the Vedic era, c- 1600 a.c. f^
rl, about ibe same period a numt
.q ujmcs, undoubtedly Iranian, made their appei
lo Ihe Fall 1^ tic Sassanid Dyaasly. „„ jn Weslcm Aaia, (d. Edward Meyer, " Z
I. Tht /'ane.— "Persia," in the strict significance ol the Ulteslen Ceschichte dcr Iranier," in Zeiiukr^Jtr
word, denotes the country inhibilcd by the people designated SprvifBrickiine, 190;). In the cuneiloim lettets
as Persians, Ij;. the dislrirt known in antiquity as Peris Ig.e.), cl-Amaina in Egypt (1400 a.c), we find among tbt
the modem Pars. Custom, however, has extended the name to of Syria and Paldti
Ihe whole Iranian plaleau; and it is in this sense that the term aaidala, a name ter
FeniaJs here employed. ol Mitanni on the Euphrates are Artalama, Skatarm, irM-
II. Ancitra Eiknopopliy.—Ia Uiton'cal times we find Ihe itmsam, and Z)iu*riiMa— names loo nuneroui sad toe l"^"*^
major portion ol Iran occufHed by peoples ol Indo-European Iranian to allow oi the bypotheus of ctuncidence. Lata tflC
origin, terming themselves Aryans {Arya; Zend, Airya) and in the Assyrian inscriptions we occasionally meet with In^M
Uteii language Ai>iin — so in (be inictiptioas oi Dariui— the names home by North-Syrian princes — e,(. KoBdiqij nf
BETaKV'. ANCIEirn PERSIA
yip'T' (— HyitMirii). Tbcit nbiecM. oo tbc (
Ipiak >taolDlcl]r dilferaa tonfuet: ta ibt a
IW luvBCO «f tke Cntifnni, Mituu'
huA^-EviopcMR (Imuftn) hive ended ii
■ tlw jliHTJCM Jamai af Pkileliify, uv. p. i (qq.).
It Appcan, Thm, that toAudi the middle of the Aecond
■fllBiiuiua bdofe Chiist, Ilie Iraniuis nude a gnal forwud
Miiil I to the Wsl, ind that cerUin of Ihcii princcs~«t £nt,
pnhabljrlii ibe rAle of mcrutuiry leaden— [cached Maopoumk
and Syria and there founded piiadpiiitiei of their own, much ■« !
id the Gemui under the Roman Empire, the Normani, _,. ^ ^ _^__, ^
T^iAl, &C. With tbii ve may probably connect the weU-knovn chicAy inhabiiing the Doiii ot Mcrv, which hit pmervcd titdi name
bet Ihil il wu about thii very period (■ 700 n.c. ipproiimalely) IJ™!!. mcniinn. the diKrict of Mveu but, bke Itemdotui. oirif
that the hone n»d« iU app««nce in Babylonia. Egypt and ^^E ''^JbSt.lS^ ^^liJj^'S.*" e<hpog«ph«aUy .he, a<
Cneoe. wberefortenturiCTiubscquentlyiUuiewasconfintdlo *^,,, The Saganiiiiu (Pcim. Aup-rla); according to Herodo™
be
S:
^"S^^
'^^^
the iDountaiDoue diii
rin
in
.enty-lliree 01 irnicn are praerveQ eiiner ^^^ ^j,^ ^^^ ^^^ ^j^.^ „ -purti." »ho penetrated Ihilher in Ihr
i alnwl aU are unrautaliably Iranian; (i,h century after Chrifl. TbwEh found neither in (be imcriplians
HJih those preservtd by Esar-baddon ol Dariui nor in tlie Cmk auihon, the name Turin mun Dcver-
There. thdna be of crcat aniiquily: for not merely 1> il rcpcUirdly fsund
Te an Inniai nation, already occupying j_"^he A^M. ;;f^^;*^J^ ^•^^f^^^'^^^^^i^^
oj, even in the time of Khammurabi, ai lo the Egyp. dcchrv*. the Pmun Li«ilikc. Ilenm he dmcriSni ihem (1. iiO
« Ibe Xllth Dynasty. On the other hand, it bad ^^„^'^u^ant'°'^M^i io^^T^^ic H^w'iH'^
tBB lamiliar to the Aryani from time immemorial; indeed they m ^^^^Piokmy (vL 1. 6) qieaki of Siga^iiu in the Eaiteni
hnc alnys been peculiarly a people of ridcia. Thus it is Ztgnu in Miilii.
mite cnoceiYable that they brought it with them into Western U. We have already louchod on the nomadic peoplet (DaMa.
i-a: aod the quarter from -hich il c«ne i> diffidently indicated ?X'in1, L^^Ih.'si^i'KU T^ Wh^o^ ^TCi^
br the bet that the Babylonians write the word " horse " with Thai ih« w..re comciom al their A^an oriKin is pioved by the
airoupof aigna denoting asaof Oi^ East-" namcfl Ariantai and Ariipciihn borne by Sc^-ihian (Scolot) litnei
Of the Aasyiiao king*, Shalmamaer {Salmananar) n. ma (llcmd, iv. rt. »]). SijB Ihcy «T.-ie never counlcd a» a portion of
Ike bit (o take the £dd against the Medes in 8j6 b-C, and from {£",^^^"3^3,;^^?^. "S.^ '7=fa ri^Kl^f
(kit period onicarda they are Irequendy mentioned in the side Sf»do with ihi. name we find "Tflrln" and' •'Tu'nnian "i
jl^ytiaA f""'!* Sargon penetrated farthest, receiving in a dnignation applied both by the Liter K-niani and by mtxlern
IIS»*.thetiibuleoftiuttietomMedianlown-princes. Hegivea wriien to ihia rrBJon. The oiigin of the word is -■- -■--—-.
:£., J ti.^, ..,..._ i__,^ib iKn.* Af whirk ir^ T.rM^n,«i ^Eih^r pfrliapa from aA obioKte (nul name, it has no _..
a b alio (he case with the
(Awarhaddon) and elsewberc.
TIk ^edes, then, were an Ii
Il the «tfa century B.t:. their .,„ .„ _.„^„ ,„ ,,..,.„,. , „„.„ .,„ _,™.
llsEan highland. Da Ibe other band, among their ncighboun eommcmiiraled » faithful adherents of the prophcl < funa. 46, £1).
k Zagius and the nortli — corresponding to the Anariacae The dividing line between Iranian atid Indian is dravn t^
(Ifai^Aiyaiu) of the Greeks— Iranian names an at best isobttd the Hindu Kush and the Soliman mountains of (be Indui
I*—-—"— With other Iranian tribes the Assyrians never district. The valley of the Kabul (Ce^ieu) is already occupied
aaein contact: for the olIrcpFited assertion, that the Pajsua, by Indian tribes, especially the Candaiians; and the Satagydae
M Ttonuocnt in their annals, were the Peruana or the Farthians, (Feis. I'Aufagii) there leadcnt were piesumabty also of IndtaD
il quite untenable. The Pajsua of the Assyrians are located stock. The non-Ar^'an population of Iran itself has l>cen
I Mhof Lake Urmia, and can hardly Lave been Imnians. discussed above. Of its other neighbours, we must here mention
k Kene the less, the Assyrian statements with regard to the the Sacae, a warlike equestrian people in the mountains of the
Ifalci detnonstrate that the Iranians must have reached the pamir plateau and northward; who are probably of Kfongol
^ of Inn before qoo B.C. It is probable that at this period origin. Herodotus relates that the Pct^ans distinguished " all
Ike Persians also were domiciled in their later home, even (be Scythians" — i^. all the northern nomads — as Sacae; artd
• toTTFCt, the Iranian immigration must be assigned to the Babylonians employ tlic name Gimin (i.e. Cimmerians) In the
Ibz hilf of the Kcond pre-Christian millennium. same sense.
ne Aryans of Iran are divided into numerrais tribes; these. III. Cialialion aid RdigitH 1} lie Iraniani. — In the period
■pin, being subdivided into minor tribes and clans. Ilie when the ancestors of Indian and Iranian alike still formed
Mh prindpai, actording to the inscriptions of Darius a single nation— that of (he Aryans— they developed
** — which closely agree with Herodotus— are the a very marked ehoracier, which can still be distinctly y^^,
^"^^ following, several of them being also cnume[ale<l traced, not only in their language, but also in their
B Ht AkiU: — religion »nd in many vievrs common to bo(h peoples. A great
1. The Mede. (ifaAi) in the north-west («e J^dia) number of god^-Asura, Mithras, the Dragon-slayer Vereth-
li^ cn^nia*^":^ '£= 'ufurMl,'^ho"f; mTntS "^'^ ('*>? I""" =• 'Je Indians) the Watet-sfioo. Apam napat
^Sily In. Dariu. as inhabiiing a diiiriet iiTperri. (irt*. HI. 40). ('he hghtnmg), S:c.-^Iate from this eta. So, too, fiie-wonhip,
].Tk Hyieanians (VaridH in Daiiui. Zend VtMint) on the especially of the sacrificial flaiue; the preparation of the intoiicai-
<mm <ana of the Caipiw, m (he fertile diMrfct of Aiiarabid. jng jomj, which fills man with divine strength and uplifts him
^^TJe Patrhiui. (/-aJiyari; Per.. P«Aa«) in Khurasan («. ^^,^, ^^. ^^,^ !„,.„„,,;„„ ,„ ,- ^^ .houghw and good «-ork,,"
i The Aibns f'A«l«. Pm. Bommr), in the vidnity of (he imposed on the pious by Veda and Avesta alike: the UOicf in
ta Ariia (tfrrwud). which derived its name from them. This an unwavering order (rfa)- a law controlling gah and men and
^■1. idiith survive* in the modem Herat, has of course no dominating them all; yet wiih this, a belief in the power of
V^tDoa with that ol the Aryans. minit~il f.mniih.x f>*>t>rlrji^ rvrtnmirinnti nnH nrAVi>r« to ta'hriu-
ITie Drangians (Zaroati in Dariu., &«>pa« in Hctod. '"'^,.,^,yi^hTV^^^^^^^
t-jj. 117 vU. 67) .iiuaied iHiih of the Ariani in ihe nonh-weii Compulsion Bot merely demons (the evil spirits of deception—
^'^InanMnckiiielbyiheweflemaffluenuoiUkeHamun, drui) but even Ihe gods (ifdcw) must submit; and, lastly, the
aikS^^"*^ "^^ ?^^i?' " '4? """"^ "• '^ H'^."'^"'' at once the repositories of all sacral traditions and the mediators
■in tnbotariei, round Kandahar. They trr mentioned m the 7 ,, . ' _ _ v — v ._J I t-i.. . ;.:...
h><( Duiui. alB by the Creeki after Aleiander. In Henjdotn ill all itllettourse bM ween eitlh and heaven, me transition.
Mtlia il lahm I9 Ibe Pactyau, wboac name survives (0 the moreover. lo settled hfe and agriculture belongs to the Aryan
204
PERSIA
[HISTORY: ANCIENT
period; and to it may be traced the peculiar sancitity of the
cow in India and Persia. For the cow is the animal which
voluntarily yields nourishment to man and aids him in his
daily labours, and on it depends the industry of the peasant
as contrasted with the wild desert brigand to whom the cow is
tmknown.
Very numerous are the legends common to both nations.
These, in part, are rooted in the primeval Indo-European days,
though their ultimate form dates only from the Aryan epoch.
Foremost among them is the myth relating the battle of a sun-
god (Ind. Triia, generally replaced by Indra, Iran. Thraetona)
against a fearful serpent (Ind. Ahi, Iran. Azhi; known moreover
as Vrtra): also, the legend of Yama, the first man, son of Vivas-
vant, who, after a long and blessed life in the happy years of the
beginning, was seized by death and now rules in the kingdom
of the departed. Then come a host of other tales of old-world
heroes; as the " Glorious One " (Ind. Sushrava^ Pcrs. Ilusrava,
Chosrau or Chosroes), or the Son who goes on a journey to seek
his father, and, unknown, meets his end at his hands.
These legends have lived and flourished in Iran at every period
of its history; and neither the religion of Zoroaster, nor yet Islam,
has availed to suppress them. Zoroastrianism — at
Sagtu' ^^^^ *^ ^^^' ^°"° ""* which it became the dominant
creed of the Iranians — legitimized not only the old
gods, but the old heroes also; and transformed them into pious
helpers and servants of Ahuramazda; while the creator of the
great national epic of Persia, Firdousi (a.d. 935-1020), displayed
astonishing skill in combining the ancient tradition with Islam.
Through his poem, this tradition is perfectly familiar to every
Persian at the present day; and the primitive features of tales,
whose origin must be dated 4000 years ago, are still preserved
with fidelity. This tenacity of the Saga stands in the sharpest
contrast with the fact that the historical memory of the Persian
is extremely defective. Even the glories of the Achaemenid
Empire faded rapidly, and all but completely, from recollection;
so also the conquest o| Alexander, and the Hellenistic and
Parthian eras. In Firdousi, the legendary princes are followed,
almost without a break, by Ardashir, the founder of the Sassanid
dynasty: the intervening episode of Darius and Alexander
is not drawn from native tradition, but borrowed from Greek
literature (the Alexander-romance of the Pseudo-Callisthenes)
in precisely the same way as among the nations, of the Christian
East in the middle ages.'
Needless to say, however, this long period saw the Saga much
recast and expanded. Many new characters — Siyawush, Rus-
tam, &c. — have swelled the original list: among them is King
Gushtosp (Vishtaspa), the patron of Zoroaster, who was known
from the poems of the prophet and is placed at the close of the
legendary age. The old gods and mythical figures reappear
as heroes and kings, and their battles are fought no longer in
heaven but upon earth, where they are localized for the most
part in the east of Iran. In other words, the war of the gods
has degenerated to the war between Iranian civilization and
the Turanians. Only the evil serpent Azhi Dahaka (Azhdahak)
is domiciled by the Avesla in Babylon (Bdwrt) and depicted
on the model of Babylonian gods and demons: he is a king in
human form with a serpent growing from either shoulder and
feeding on the brains of men. In these traits are engrained
the general conditions of history and culture, under which the
Iranians lived: on the one hand, the contrast between Iranian
and Turanian; on the other, the dominating pK)sition of Babylon,
which influenced most strongly the civilization and religion of
Iran. It is idle, however, to read definite hbtorical events into
such trails, or to attempt, with some scholars, to convert them
into history itself. We cannot deduce from them a conquest of
Iran from Habylon: for the Babylonians never set foot in Iran,
and even the Assyrians merely conquered the western portion
of Media. Nor yet can we make the favourite assumption of
a great empire in Bactria. On the contrary, it is historically
' The fundamental work on the history of. the Iranian Saga is
Noldcke., Das iranische NationaUpos iog6 (reprinted from the
Crundriss der iran. Phihlogie, ii.).
evident that before the Achaemenids there were in Bactria
only small local principalities of which Visbtaspa*s was one:
and it is possible that the primeval empire of the Saga is only a
reflection of the Achaemenid and Sassanid empires of reality,
whose existence legend dates back to the beginning of the world,
simply because legend is pervaded by the assumption that the
conditions obtaining in the present are the natural condition%
and, as such, valid for all time.
Closely connected as are the Mythology and Reli^on of
Indian and Iranian, no less dearly marked is the fundamental
difference of intellectual and moral standpoint,
which has led the two nations into opposite paths
of history and culture. The tendency to religious
thought and to a speculative philosophy, compre-
hending the world as a whole, is shared by both and
is doubtless an inheritance from the Aryan period. But witli
the Indians this speculation leads to the complete abditioD of
all barriers between God and man, to a mystic pantheism, and to
absorption in the universal Ego, in contrast with which the wodd
becomes an unsubstantial phantasm and sinks into nothingnesL
For the Iranian, on the contrary, practical b'fe, the real world,
and with them the moral commandment, fill the foreground.
The new gods created by Iran are ethical powers; those of Indit,
abstractions of worship (brahman) or of philosophy {aiman).
These fundamental features of Iranian sentiment encounter
us not only in the doctrine of 2^roaster and the confessions of
Darius, but also in that magnificent product of the Persa of
Islam — the Sufi mysticism. This is pantheistic, like the Brahmu
philosophy. But the pantheism of the Persian is always positive^
— afllirming the world and life, taking joy in them, and seekiqf
its ideal in union with a creative god: the pantheism of the
Indian is negative — denying world and life, and descrying ill
ideal in the cessation of existence.
This contrast in intellectual and religious life must haie
developed very early. Probably, in the remote past violeit
religious disputes and feuds broke out: for otherwise it is almoit
inexplicable that the old Indo-European word, which in Indiii
also, denotes the gods — deva — should be applied by the Iraniaai
to the malignant demons or devils (daeoa; mod. dh); wUe
they denote the gods by the name bhaga. Conversdy thi
Asuras, whose name in Iran is the title of the supreme fotf
(ahura^ aura), have in India degenerated to evil ^irits. It il
of great importance that among the Slavonic peoples the ssM
word bogu distinguishes the deity; since this [mints to andeit
cultural influences on which we have yet no more precise infonaa*
tion. Otherwise, the name is only found among the Phiygisai^
who, according to Hesychius, called the Heaven-god (Zcni)
Bagaeus; there, however, it may have been borrowed from iht
Persians. We possess no other evidence for these events; iht
only document we possess for the history of Iranian religioB it
the sacred writing, containing the doctrines of the prophet who
gave that religion a new form. This is the Avcsia, the Bible of
the modem Parsee, which comprises the revelation of ZorosstCL
As to the home and time of Zoroaster, the Parsee traditioft
yields us no sort of information which could possibly be of Ut*
torical service. Its content^ even if they go back ^^.^^
to lost parts of the Avcsta, are merely a lat^ patch-
work, based on the legendary tradition and devoid of histttiol
foundation. The attempts of West {Pahlavi Texts Trondddt
vol. V.) to turn to historical account the statements of tht
Bundahish and other Parsee books, which date Zoroaster tt
2 58 years before Alexander, are, in the present writer's o|»nki%
a complete failure. Jackson {Zoroaster, the Propktf of ArnieM
Iran, 1901) sides with West. The Greek theory, whid id*"
gates Zoroaster to the mists of antiquity, or even to the pcriM
of the fabulous Ninus and Semiramis, is equally valadat
Even the statement that he came from the north-west of Sledh
(the later Atropatene), and his mother from Rai (RhafMOh
eastern Media, must be considered as problematic in the 1
Our only trustworthy information is to be gleaned fran Us*
testimony and from the history of his religion. And hete Vt
may take it as certain that the scene of his activity wis hid h-
HBTORY: ANCIEMTJ PERSIA 2O5
Ikm o( Inn, in Bictria and ill ndghbouring tigiont. The TTiepcnwriof «vi| areinillpoiol. IhsoppiHiteofilie food;illh»^
, ,. . , „__-,C_ !^( V-, ^ I i^^ ,v demoiu are ideniiul wiih thp uld sodt of Ihfl papcilor faith — the
CH>rnu« (or the wh.^t poaUon of hu a™l Among .he d.v« (divJ-wWh MafltaobBintbJoanK AtariTabovidiKiumli
IdkniiU irbam he gained was numbered, as ilieady menlioned, wbence A>LWiimasia lUrmuid).
itaaiiiu. one Ftyana and his household. The wesl ot lian From ihii ii will be nunileM thai the figure* of Zonutet'*
• Kircely ever legaidal in Ibe ^tijJa, «hUe the dislridts and ™Ki™ "e putly abn-Klion.; the concRtc godj of vulgar bclW
^ J iK. ...TTr- n(i™ B.m-t TV.- Inn.,,-. n- «,.n c. tcing >« awfc. AH lhi« who Jo i»t btlong lo ifat dev ft (dnij).
?.^ 1^„' ^ ^ S^- ■ J language, even, a ^i^^, t„ mopOKd as inferior «fvant. 5 MuiamatdarchW
BiknU)' di!I«*nl from Ihe Persian; end the fire-pncsU «re amongthemb«nglheSuB-g«dliilh«.(MMlTII»A»);ilie[oddeM
WEykd Magians as in Persia — Ihe word indeed dovfi occurs of »^aiion and fertility, npeciill)- of the Oxut-Hrcam, Hirdiils
a Ihe Amla, cicepi in » single Ute pasaage— but athianx, Atimuia (^iiailji); and Ihe Dngon-klaver rcMlmrkiw (Gr.
■,^ with d,e ^U„, o( IndU (x(.pa^«, " f,re.^.d.e^." t^^X^Z '.^LgS.'? t t. "SSpi^".'li^Tv?n,i^ '^t^.
mSuaboiv. 7Jj)- Thus il cannot be douhied thai the king survived: and the popularliy of Mithras is«-inced bj- the nuioerou.
Vjiluupa, who received Zoroaster's doctrine and protected Aryan proper namci thence (krivcd (Miihnidatei, Ac). The
kin. mult have nJed in eiSlcm Iran: though strangely enough educated comraunily who had cmbrand the pwe doctrine in its
loial thither (from Rhagne?), is of course always 10 be ton- the official religion of the Peraai
3 II. Kvn: £lithra and Anafiif^
the olficial reunion of the Persian kings. But they aj
a leading part in the propaganda of the Pcruan culls
i/toAx and iMs theory has been used to eiplain the phr
e AvsUi. On
er-tongue: the latter vher«erecicd:and, to Ihe prophet aid, the Fi
'.L . .V .- ".'l",''.! L-. .'1 ^^^.-.XX. .1. '^.^^"1":. Oi'y oni element in the old Aryan holict was nrtser^id by Zoro-
_._ that the Gathas. of his own compositan, are wnLti^n m ,„„ („ j,,, ;,, „,^aH.y: (hat of Firc-Ihe pan^n manifcsution of
(Merent dialect from the rest of the AMSIa. On this Ahuramiida and the powers of Good. —
BnuiKn. by the fact that dead bad« ire not eoibalmcd and —-inadequalG thulgh the terra In reality is, as a dcKiiption oTiti
iha iatnred. as was usual, for instance, in Persia, but cast ciscniials.
cm [« the docs and birds (cf. Herod. L 140). a prMtin, as is . Mid.-ay in rtu opposition of the powcnot Good and Evil, man
■do lie Sassanids, and followed to the present day by the and combating the lie. And this is fulfilled when he obeys the com-
■ooity of Earth, which must'not be fluted by a coipse; but '■■jMs,^ ^j"^™ ^■j'[;,|.^,ij*'iJJ^'„"a''j^Jj'jJ^^,|S'"'' <J^^
TDi-nomadii tribes who leave the dead 10 lie on the 5°AhuS^'ida— fire foremast' bu["alu «<nh anrf Mi™a™'
. ^_..i. ,^^, ^^j custom was above all, when hepnctlKS the Good and True in tbouEht. word
mwi, uiuuseu unuiiK lui; Liii><.-> ui i^u»i;iii Iran. and work. And as his deeds arc, u shall be his laic andhis future
TV next due towards determining the pcHod o[ Zot^aster J^J^J '^^J^o^"':S\^^^tCt<^S^h\!!!'iothtv^iM!i
k, thai Darius I. and all his successors, as proved by their ^ Ahuramaida or prvdplatc him to the Hell of Ahrlman. Obvi-
nzi word of Zocoastrianism; which consequently must dircct'n™alrEsp0B»bilily»Iihcindividua1inan,ihai.likcMahomn
y have been accepted in the west ollran. Thai Cylu. among the Arabs, Zoroa«ei and lu.du*iple. gained iheit .dbcrc-ot.
- ow.^ alleEianc. to the creed cannot be doubted by an "f^'^.'-^^^JlJ^'SSIS- .b™ important point, an,
apiejudiced mind, although m the dearth of contemporary especially to be einphasind : for on them depend in pMufiar chaiac-
■c know from Gi
lidrly diBused
_ . _ ., . . espedally toheeiT,, -^ „ —
. we possess no proof at first hand. The Assyrian terikiicsandhisloncalilEiufKancc;^
demonstrate, however, that Zoroaster's teaching ^l. The aburaelions lAkh it preaches
Bi .fcminant in Media two centuries before Cyrus. For in te"doKw bSI^riif? 1 «J
tkliii ol hicdian princes. 10 which we have already referred, enjoin on lum a positive line 1 the
ntn bearinc the name of Maidaka — evidently allci the god world. And this world be is n ind
Kudiu Xow this name was the invention ot Zoroaster himself; the Buddhiw. but to work iii i .the
|M be w_ho names himself after M«da thereby mal«. eon- "','-5^''-^%^" .*h^/, S i'^
'wan of failb in the religion of Zoroaster whose foUowcts. Ki[^„lld by the E^rsian ai even
« we liDow, termed themselves Mazdayasna, " worshippers of prescribed by his rcliElon. To 1 mid
Huda." with servants of Ahuramaida is
. U«. if the doctrine of Zoroaster predominated in Media ^,^ J^HS^STora ISe^aild view. i. reganis ai the nitXi
" ;n B.C., obviously his appearance in the r6le of piophel d;,pa;i,ioo of things. ConicqDcnily. il .is at once a product of.
■fcly he placed as far back IS 1000 B.C. " ^ ^^^''J^w'ng " zSM'iwr'''!s directed to each individual
-_.,.., , , , . , and requires of him that he shall chooie his position with
Tie nOaioo which Zoroaster preached was the creation of a 10 the fundamental problems of life and religion. Thus.
■^ lUR. who. hann; pondered lone and deeply the problems Ihoueh It atoic from national news, in its essence il is not
UniiiBice and. the wvxld, propound«l the solution he .found a. a,„ oie Israelite need), but Individualistic,
i &nm irvilMion. Naturally he starts Irom the old views, and ^ univcnaL From the first, il aims at propa-
J^Bl to them, for many of hi. tenets and ideas; but out of namyoflheeoavcrtisamMlerof indifference.
te.Bsleoal he buiWs amiform eysiem. which bear, throushout onvcrtcd the TunnianFryana with hiskindrcd
fcnpm; tl his own iniellect. In this world, two groups of same tendc-Bcvlo pKHelyase alien pcoplessuf
5™ confront each other in ■ tniceku war, the powers ol Good, Zomnstrianism, in fact, is the first creed 10
i.^,-?J"?""'^™°P'''.*'^Jj»'^''*t"A''-^''l'P°r-'"°' : to l«y flalni to univenaUty of acceptance.
Eiicf Duknes. I>eslrucl»n, Death and Deceit. In Ihe van r „tu^l ihal itsadhereni.sholiW be won, first
J.thi bm Hands the HcJy Spirit (ipenln iTO«yBl or .the Gnai , ^hMy. amone ihe eountrjmen o( Ih* prophet, and its funHer
Jidus" Maslao. His helpers and vassoli are the ■« pon-er. ol „,rcis,in ^i^a ova all Ihe Iranian ttSies iiave il a national
Sl?^'- £^ ,::::::^h "^snftViii^r KSSdnm'n^ie ;™ s^ 'so';h^"^srt4".i:..U"of parius- BSi^un in«rip.inn
^ftri,arta, " lawfulness 1. of the fcxccllenl Kingdom {tksKathra . — ^ _ .. .— ; , . r— = —.• , ,l.
*Jt), of Holy Character (ifnuo trmaili). ol Health (fci.rMMJ), 'p.'sc ideas. are sironaly .ew'sed in a mImuc agaiii.r the
■Trf leuDor^lily (e»««la)). These are comprised under the Christian, eonlained in an ^ciat edict of the ■pcrrfan creed 10 the
^fUriik of "undying holy one. "{a"i«tn.ff.r(a.eBiioif««J)! Armenian, by Mihr Narseh. the vi.ier of Yardeeerd II. (.bout
riakMOf Hbordinate angeU (joste) are ranked with Ihem. A.r. 4S0). preserved by the Armenian historian. Elishe.
2o6
PERSIA
(HISTORY: ANaEMT
temw Ahuraimazda "the god of the Aryans." Thus the creed
became a powerful factor in the development of an united Iranian
oattonauty
That a religion, which lays its chief stress upon moral precepts,
may readily develop into casuistry and external formalism, with an
infinity of minute prescriptions, injunctions on purity and the Ulce, is
well known. In the Avesta all these recur ad nauseam, so much so
that the primitive spirit of the religion is stifled beneath them,
as the doctrine of the ancient prophets was stifled in Judaum and
the Talmud. The Sassanid Empire, indeed, is completely dominated
by this formalism and ritualism ; but the earlier testimony of Darius
in his inscriptions and the statements in Herodotus enable us still
to recognize the original healthy life of a religion capable of awaken-
ing the enthusiastic devotion ot the inner man. Its formal character
naturally germinated in the priesthood (Herod, i. 140; cf. Strabo
XV. 733, &c.). The priests diligently praaise all the precepts of
their ntual — e.g. the extermination of noxious animals, and the
exposure of corpses to the dogs and birds^ that earth may not be
polluted by their presence. They have advice for every contingency
m life, and can say with precision when a man has been defiled, and
how he may be cleansed again; they possess an endless stock of
formulae for prayer, and of sentences which serve for protection
against evil spirits and may be turned to purposes of magic
How the doctrine overspread the whole of Iran, we do not know.
In the West, among the Modes and^ Pereians, the guardianship
Tbm ^"^ ministry of 2^roastrianism is vested in an exclusive
Mmmtmmm pricsthood — the Magians. Whence this name — unknown
^^""^ as already mentioned, to the Avesla — took its rise, we
have no knowledge. Hurodotus (i. loi) includes the Magians in
his list of Median tribes; and it is probable that they and their
teaching reached the Persians from Media. At all events, they
play here not merely the rOle of the ** Fire-kindlers " {fithraoan)
in the Avesta, but are become an hereditary sacerdotal caste, acting
an important part in the state — advisers and spiritual guides to
the king, and so forth. With them the ritualism and magical
character, above mentioned, arc fully developed. In the narrations
of Herodotus, they interpret dreams and predict the future; and in
Greece, from the time 01 Herodotus and Sophocles {Oed. Tyr. 387)
onward, the word Magian connotes a magician-priest.
See further, Zoroaster alid works there quoted.
IV. Beginnings of History. — A connected chain of historical
evidence begins with the time when under Shalmaneser (Sal-
Atsytima manassar II.), the Assyrians in 836 B.C. began for
Coaqu9Bt the first time to penetrate farther into the moun-
9t Media* ^^ins of the cast; and there, in addition to several
non-Iranian peoples, subdued a few Median tribes. These
wars were continued under successive kings, till the Assyrian
power in these regions attained its zenith under Sargon
iq.v.), who (715 B.C.) led into exile the Median chief Dayuku
(see Deioces), a vassal of the Minni (Mannaeons), with all
his family, and subjected the princes of Media as far as the
mountain of Bikni (Elburz) and the border of the great desert.
At that time twenty-eight Median "town-lords" paid tribute
to Nineveh; two years later, (713 B.C.) no fewer than forty-six.
Sargon's successors, down to Assur-bani-pal (668-626 B.C.),
maintained and even augmented their suzerainty over Media,
in spite of repeated attempts to throw c£f the yoke in conjunc-
tion with the Mannaeans, the Saparda, the Cimmerians — who
had penetrated into the Armenian mountains — and others.
Not till the last years of Assur-bani-pal, on which the extant
Assyrian annals are silent, can an independent Median Empire
have arisen.
As to the history of this empire, we have an ancient account
in Herodotus, which, with a large admixture cf the legendary,
7^ still contains numerous historical elements, and a
MtdUtt completely fandful account from Ctesias, preserved
Bmpin, in Diodorus (ii. 32 sqq.) and much used by bter
writers. In the latter Nineveh is destroyed by the Mede Arbaces
and the Babylonian Bclesys about 880 B.C., a period when the
Assyrians were just beginning to lay the foundations of their
power. Arbaces is then followed by a long list of Median kings,
all of them fabulous. On the other hand, according to Herodotus
the Medes revolt from Assyria about 710 B.C., that is to say,
at the exact time when they were subdued by Sargon. Deioces
founds the monarchy; his son Phraortes begins the work of
conquest; and his son Cyaxares is first overwhelmed by the
Scythians, then captures Nineveh, and raises Media to a great
power. A little supplementary information may be gleaned
from the inscriptions of King Nabonidus of Babylon (555-539)
and from a few allusions in the Old Testament. Of the Mediitt
Empire itself we do not possess a single monument. ConseqocDt^
its history still lies in complete obscurity (cf. Moma; Dhocb;
Phraortes; Cyaxares).
The beginnings of the Median monarchy can scarcely go laithcr
back than 640 B.C. To all appearance, the inwrrection ■p**^
Assyria must have proceeded from the desert tribe ol ths
Manda, mentioned by Sargon: for Nabonidus invariably de-
scribes the Median kings as " kings of the Manda." Acconli^
to the account of Herodotus, the dynasty was derived fran
Deioces, the captive of Sargon, whose descendants may havi
found refuge in the desert. The first historical king woidd
seem to have been Phraortes, who probably succeeded \m
subduing the small local princes of Media and in lenderiif
himself independent of Assyria. Further devdopment wai
arrested by the Scythian invasion described by HenxiotHL
We know from Zcphaniah and Jeremiah that these northoB
barbarians, in 626 B.C., overran and harried Syria and PalestiM
(cf. Cyaxares; Jews). With these inroads of the CimmeriaM
and Scythians (see Scythia), we must doubtless connect ihi
great ethnographical revolution in the north of anterior Aiii;
the Indo-European Armenians {Haik), displacing the old Alan-
dians {Urartu, Ararat), in the country which has since bom
their name; and the entry of the Cappadodans — first mentiood
in the Persian period — ^into the east of Asia Minor. The Scyttoil
invasion evidently contributed largely to the enfeeblement flf
the Assyrian Empire: for in the same year the Chaldaean Nali^
polassar founded the New-Babylonian empire; and in 606 ■£
Cyaxares captured and destroyed Nineveh and the oCkff
Assyrian cities. Syria and the south he abandoned to Nate*
polassar and his son Nebuchadreixar; while, on the other hu/^
Assyria proper, east of the Tigris, the north of Mes<^taail
with the town of Harran ijCarrhae) and the mountains of AraMiil
were annexed by the Medes. Cappadoda also fell beta!
Cyaxares; in a war with the Lydian Empire the decisive bttdi
was broken off by the celebrated eclipse of the sun on the 18A
of May 585 B.C., foretold by Thales (Herod, i. 74). After tUii
peace was arranged by Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon and $f»
nesis of Cilicia, recognizing the Halys as the borderline. To At
east, the Median Empire extended far over Iran, even At
Persians ow^ning its sway. Ecbatana {q.v.) became the capita
Of the states which arose out of the shattered Assyrian EiqiR
(Media, Babylon, Egypt, Cilicia and Lydia), Media was by te
the strongest. In Babylon the kings feared, and the edei
Jews hoped, an attack from the Medes (cf. Isa. xiiL, xiv., xiL|
Jer. 1., li.); and Nebuchadrezzar sought by every
great fortifications, canals and so forth — to secure his
against the menace from the north. He succeeded in ■"Ttffff'fh"
ing the status quo practically unimpaired, additional seoBkj
being found in intermarriage between the two dynasties. Ll
1
state of equilibrium the great powers of Anterior Arfi H
\
1
thU
remained during the first half of the 6th century.
V. The Persian Empire oj the Achaemenids. — ^The
however, was disturbed in 553 B.C., when the Persian Cjnt^
king of Anshan in Elam {Susiana), revolted against
his suzerain Astyages, the son of Cyaxares, and
three years later defeated him at Pasargadae (f.t.).'
Shortly afterwards Astyages was taken prisoner,
Ecbatana reduced, and the Median Empire replaced by thi
Persian. The Persian tribes were welded by Cyrus into a
nation, and now became the foremost people in the woild (1
Persis and Cyrus). At first Nabonidus of Babylon
the fall of the Medes with delight and utilized the oppor
by occupying Harran (Carrhae). But before long be
the danger threatened from that quarter. Cjrrus and Hi
Persians paid little heed to the treaties which the Median UBf \
had concluded with the other powers; and the result wasn =^
great coalition against him, embracing Nabonidus of Dab|lMi - j
Amasis of £g>i>t, Croesus of Lydia, and the Spartans, lAMi
highly efficient army seemed to the Oriental states of great mhlk
In the spring of 546 B.C., Croesus opened the attadu C$Mt>
> See further, Babylonia and Assyria: $ v.
mwv: ANciENTi PERSIA 207
■I UmkU npoD Mm, bral bim 11 Ptoia in Cippukxii snd whole dviliicd vorld. For Ihc provincs renuining utuubducd
■nd biin 10 Lydia. A Mcond vicioiy fi^owid on ihe on Ibe emcme froniiera to the west, the north and the ea^I ue
■b of the Paclotii); by the lutumool 546 Sardii bidilnady in their view sinwit negligible quantities. And far »mavid
b Bid Ibe PenUa pova advanced >t a bound to the Medi- ai ibe Peniani are from diuvowing Iheii proud senie of naiion-
OBOB. In tbe (oone of Ilie oeit few yean the ChfIc ality (" a Fenian, the un of 1 Penian, an Aryan of Aryan
■■al towiii were reduced, u aba the Cariuu and Lyciam. node " aayi Daijui of bioueU in Ibe inicription on his tomb) —
it tiaf at Cilida (Syemusii) voliulaiily acknowledged Ibe yet equally vivid ii Ibe feeling thai they rule the whole dvLliud
tahn nuEniiily. In ug Nabanidiu wu defeated and Baby- world, that their task is to teducc it lo unity, and that by Ibe
■ •ccnpied. wbiie, wilb the Chaldean Empire, Syria and Pales- will of Ahurunazda they are pledged lo govern it aright.
■ iliD becwne Persian (lee Jews). The east of Iim wis This is most clearly teen in the treatment of the subject
■tfao' sibdoed, and, after Cyrus met hii end (533 B.C.) in a races. In contrast wilb the Auyrians and the Romans the
capiott the eastern Nomads (Oabae, Mauagetae), Iu> »n Persians invariably conducted Ihcir wan with great . .. .
'labjta contfoered Egypt (jis B.C.). Cypius and the Creek humanity. The vanquished kings were honourably r(',\!l„
ki& on the cout of Asia Minor alio lubnulted, Samoi being dealt with, the enemy's towns were spared, eicept
ihi by Darius. On the other hand, an eipeditionby Cam- when grave offences and iiuutreclions, as at Miletus and
JO against the Ethiopian kingdom of Napata and Meroe Athens, rendered punisbmi^nt imperative; and their inhabitants
mtta grief in Nubia. The Dsuipalion of Smerdis (511-511 were treated with mildnesi. Like Cyrus, all his lucceuort
xj and his death at the hands ol Darius was the signal lor welcomed members of tbe conquered nationalities to their
I I insurrections in Babylon, Susana, Ptrsis, Media, service, employed them as sdministralois or generals and made
aaa and many o[ the Eastern provinces. But, within them grants of land: and this not only in the case of Medes,
n ion (511-519), they were all cnished by Daiiiu and his but also of Armenians, Lydians, Jews and Greeks. The whole
' population of the empire was alike bound to military service.
Tk eaMS al this astonlihlog niccess. which, in the brief .pace Th« subject-contingents stood side by side wilb Ihi
fsB^k miermtion, raucd a previously obKure and secluded Persian troops; and the ganisons^in Egypt, fc- '~'
"— ^ Kdl^'ST^£^™J^^'lSr"'u°a,v^XS' ""Am^tbesubJKt't^M'the'McdH'^rti^ily stood
*r. Tie chief wapon of lie Penran.. ai of aU Iran ' ' '^ ■' • "•"- ■- >•- '-"-v..;-". -I- >.._ :.
accorfiii^y "hTki'ii' himiri' hliids 'm'ii'bl''jiln^iii'i dlatfly after the Persians. They were the predecessors of the
-_,., ,. — ■ iheraini (ifariij). In addition Persians in Ibe empire and the more dviJiicd p«^le. Their
.nd never allowed him to conte to and the ground wis prepared tor that amalgamation ol the
try kneeled to sboiH. the cavalry Iranians into a single, umform nation, which under the Sassanids
.tly perfected— at least for west of Iran.
Tbe lion's share, indeed, falb to the dominant race itself.
The inhabitants of Persis propei— from which the eastern tribes
of Carmanians, Utians, &c., were eidudcd and
formed into a sejiarale satrapy — pay no taxes, rut^mu.
Instead, they bring the best ol their possessions
(*./. a particularly fine fruit) as a gift to Iheir king
on festival days; peasants meeting him on his eicursions
do the same (Ptut. Arlai. 4. 5; Dinon af. Aehan. aar.
Aill.lii; XcB.CjT.viii, s, Ji. 7. 1). In recompense for this,
he distributes on his return rich presents lo every Peisian
man and woman— the women of Pasargadae, who are memben
of Cyrus's tribe, each recdving a piece of gold (Nic. Dam, fr.
66. PluL Aln. 60). In relation to his Persians, he ii always the
people's king. At his accession he is consecrated in the temjde
ol a warrior-goddess {Anailis P) at Pasargadae, and partakes
ol the simple meal of the old peasant days — a mcs.tof figs, tere-
binths and sour milk (Plut. Arias, j]. The I'elsians swear
atlegiaDCe to him and pray to Ahummazda for his life and the
wiry. doniKilnl in a licalihy dimaie and habiiuaicd 10 ah every attack, and lo judge and govern them as did bis falhen
-**— . '^'■J,_^;^^^^P';^^^n'J'^;|^P™7«l belotthim{Herod.i.i3i;Xen.Cyr.«viiLs.»S.J7). Forhdperl
- - he has at his side Ibe " law.bearera " (Jo(oJoro Dan. iii. J, and iq
Babyl. documenlt; cf. Herod, iii. 31, v. 15, vii. 1941 Esther
i. 13, &c.). These — the Persian judges— are nominated by the
king for life, and generally bequeath their office 10 ihdr sons.
The royal decision is based on consultation with the great ones
uns of the imperial organtQtion must of his people; and such is the case with his officials and governors
> Cyrus himself. Darius followed in his steps everywhere (cf. the Book of Ezra).
mpleied the vast stniclure. His tMe, indeed, Every Persian able to bear arms is bound to serve the king
, peculiarly that of supplementing and perfecting -the great landowners on borseback, the commonally on fool.
fork of his great predecessor. The organisalkm The noble and wdl.to-do, who need not till their fields in person,
1 planned throughout on broad, free lines; there are pledged 10 appear at court as frequently as possible. Their
■ Wking mean ajid timorous in jL The great god Ahuramaida, children are brought up in company with the princes "at the
W king and people alike acknowledge, has given them domi- gates of the king," inslruclcd in the handling of arms, in riding
la "over this earth afar, over many peoples and longuca;" and hunting, and introduced to the service of the sute and tbe
ji Ike caoaciooaDesi is strong in them that they aie masters knowledge o! the law, as well as tbe commandments of reUtfon.
(OBwDrld. Thus Iheir soveidgn styles himself " the king ol Then such as prove their worth are called t( " ' "
i'K
aOO PERSIA miSIORY: ANaEHT
The highnt rank wi>h«ld by thcdoccaduilsaf the lii gteal At the bead of the couil ind the imperial *dmiiu«n(kia
[amilia, whoH heads itood by Diriui U the billing o[ the tiandi the coniniandant of the body-Kuvd — the ten tboiuud
Magian. The Greeks class tbem and the king together, under " Iniriionals," olien depicted in the Kulptum ol — --(,|
the name of " the seven Persians." These enjoyed the right of Pfnepolis with Lancel surmounled by (oldcn appln. m^ii^
entering the presence unannounced, and possessed princely This grandee, vhom the Greeks termed " Cbiliaicli/' tMut^
estates in the provinces. Busidcs these, however, numbers of corresponds to the modi^m ^nsier. In addition to hlin, ic
other Persians were despatched to the provinces, settled there, find seven counriUon (Eaa vii. 14; c(. Esther i. i*). Aiwnt
and endowed with lands. There ciisted, in fact, under the the other officiili, the " Eye of the King " i* [tiqaenll;
Achaemenids a strong cutoniiing nuwement, diffused through mentioned. To him wu entrusted the (onttol of the whdc
the whole empire; traces, of this poUcy occur more especially in empire and the wperintetidence of all oOidali.
Aimeikia, Cappadocia and Lycia, but afso in the rest of Asia xhc orders of the court were isued in a very lim^ focm << ik
Minor, and not rarely in Syria and Egypt. These colonists cuDciform sciipt, probably invenitd by the Medei, Tliii umuiiid 1
(ormed the mieleus of the provincial military levy, and were a 36 signs, almoa all ol which denote sinBle sound*, in
,..„ .1 .,™„» ,. ,1, p„ta a,™^. Tb., ~.pj^, .^,";a 'EBEi •^SSi "S.5a" ffsSi.
moreover, the Persian councd, and vice-regal household ol the per^n text. In En'pt
Satraps, eiactly as the Fersiani of the hotDC-country composed In the inscriptions oTihe
that of the king. '""'"'HllJ^'h.'' *'*j"
Though the world-empite of Persia was thus deeply impressed KI'{„^Smo oil Hone o
by a national chimctcr, cste was nevertheless cierciscd that i„ DahylDii a copy of the "
the general duties and interests ol the subject races should a blocli of doleiiie {Well 1
receive due tonsidcrali™. We find their repioeotatives, po* admlnUnaiivi; jiurpoi -'I
side by aide with the Persians, occupying every sen of position
in the regal and vicc-tegal courts. They take their part in the [^n ,),e wni»n 'pCDpici"
Is of the satrapa. precisely as they do in military service ■. ^ . ,
(cl. tne evidence of Eita); and they, too, ate rewarded by "■ J*.',^^ '"■ 'S:,*- '?'
bounties and estates. To wield a peaceful authority over all p^^^ ianB^i^''^Ji'lJ
the subjects ol the empire, to renard merit, and to punish ^bkk later M» the k>-o
transgression — such b the highest task of king and officials. mode of iiTiiing wjt obvioi
On his native soil Cyrus built himsdf a town, with a palace 'ia^e Dariiiji 1.; and ■oroa
and a tomb, in the district of Pasargadae (now the ruins of fll^^jluIi^V Aiu^^
Murghab). This Darius replaced hy a new capital, oeElccied guise (wCuKHFoaii iiracMmoss, ALrM*■«t^
^^f|„,„ deeper in the centre of the country, which bore the Side W nde with the Peniin. the Aramaic which hul le^ ta
name " Persian " {Purio), the Perscpolis {f.e.) of widely diffused as the speech of commerce, enjoyed current i
the later Creeks. But the district ol Perrfs was too remote to "" ''"^rili^ ^^. ^J^^f rt^ii^'^;?""' **""
L- .1.. .j_;.: .„ _[ . .-»ij^™„!>. TU. n,...,..! au dtwta, «iiactineiit>_»nd reconls dwignrt tor
worid-empire. The natural fundshed with an oiftcial Aiamoi ,,.
centre lay. rather, in the ancient fertile tract on the lower Tigris ' ms in this tongue, dating from the Perm
and Euphrates. The actual capital of the empire was therefore liscovetcd in EKypi (d. Sayce and Cowley,
Lsa, wnere uarius i. anu Anaicncs 11. erecicu ineir magmn- o^r,-^ . ,,,^ii« 1^, Tn A^™X ir.Jri~ri iS^
nt palaces. The winter months the kings chiefly spent in w^ehWrom A^ in.l^ 1!™W> mSSS!) S
ibylon: the hot summer, in the cooler situation ol Ecbalana, Ecyni was employed in ' '
TV _. J .*- i..-,^ ^1 — _ ._ »». n.-.-j __...!. ,, ticllenic provindes of 1
Oista « DeKhaDK Baffithi ii
Lcnberger, Syllop 3
minted bf ^
leols riw
«3S
IB and Xerxes built a residence on Alt Elvend, south
ol the city. From a pataceol Artaicrtes 11. in Ecbatana '
ol Mr Lindo Myers and published by Evclts in the Zeilsitr. /. rha"ihe~K'(iia"n.*had'arri'dy 'tx^
Assyr. V.) have been preserved. To Penis and Persepolis the and imponani pouiion of Greek civiUaation.'
kings paid only occasional visits especially at that coronations. Dotius I. di-dded the Pcrvan Empire into twenty g
Within the empire, the two great civUized stales incoiporatcd yj^ci, satrapies, with a " guardian of the couiury " (t
byCyruaandCambyse»,B»bylonandEgypt,occupiedaposilion paum; see Sjtkap) at the head ol each. A list is 1
iuin.h.1. •^ ""'' °'™- *'■" *■'■ *'''"" "^ Nabonidus, Cyius preserved in Herodotus (iii. 89 sqq.) ; but the boim- ?* ■ a
™" „ proclaimed himseU " King of Babel ■; and the same dj^cs y.™: frequently changed. Each satrapy was " "
title was bom by Cambyscs, Smerdis and Darius, again subdivided into several minor govcinorships. Tbe«B«~!
So,inEgj'pt,Cambyse3adopledintullthetiilcso|thePharaohs. jj the head of the whole administration of his piovinci. b^
with the object of maintainmg the fiction that the old state still [he security of roads and property and superintends ibearii^^
conUnued. Darius went still farther. He encouraged the dinate districts. The heads of the great military centra rf ll»3
efforts of the Eg>-plian pnesthood in every way, budl temples, empire and the commandants of the royal lotttcsses arc oUriM
and enacted new laws in continuance ol the old order. In his jurisdiction: yet the satiapsareenUtled toa body of tiwpa
Babylon his procedure was presumably similar, though here of their own, a privilege which they used to the fall, 1 i|ii ili%"'
we possess no local evidence. But he lived to see that his pdicy in later periods. Tlie satrap is held in his position as a wb^^
had missed its goal. In 486 D-c. Egjpl revolted and was only hy the tonlrolling machinery of the empire, cspedany the " Bftij
reduced by Xcrics in 484. It was this, probably, that induced of the King "; by the council of Persians in his pminaidb^
him in 4S4 to renounce his title of "king ol Babel," and to ,^ . j,,i„, „, ,.„ i,_j,„ t™.™;™-.^ - ■ -'
■mple the golden statue of Bel-Marduk (Mero- For t^e pS,5ii^,^t?, Ed^?J E^.frUl:^
-n Kg>Til the Persian kings still retained the style menti in Annie have lieen found at Elephanti
oasis ol cl-Xharga, no more temples mere erected (see Egypt: „ „e„ H-h, „ niany pa™«-. in jSna and Neheniahl 1 li' ' '*f
HMm)- Sachan m Abkiiidliintin drr trtl. Aluitmk, 1907.
Ti ANCIENTI PERSIA 309
- ti bcnDd lo debftte iD nutten of iraportuu; utd by
■: iriiilB ID the huidi of the meuengen (Fen. irrirtat
■^-^4 fiabyloiuu word: kc AKCdkUA) the goronuncDt
■ tirnvd " iwiflcT tbu thr crvic " along tbc grat
V^nys, wbieb are all providnl wiih ntuUi postal
[cf. tbt docriiMiDD of Ibe route Iiom Sua to Sanlii in
.S>)-
1 tbe (atnplcs ibe (ubject nca uid conunuoilia
» tolerably iiutepeDdcDt positioD; for inatance, tbe
Jewa» aDdcr tbor elders and prtcfts, who were even
. abk to coavue a popular aucmbly in Jerusalem
(cL Ibe Bodu of Ein and Nehenuab). Obviouily
y enioyed, as ■ rule, tbe privOege of deciding la*-suiu
bouelves; tbeir genenl litiution being simiUr to Ibal
luiKiall oalionililie) under Ilie Otlonuns, or lo that of
Has ia Ibe Ruuian Empire at tbe prr«at day. Tbe
td dctpoliun waa msAifat, not » much in that the
I bit o&ciAb coaustently interfered in individual cases,
they did » on isolated and arbitruTy occasions, and
pt aside the privileges of tbe lubjcct, vho was impotent
m rot, tbe subject population (alts bto * number of
(■oips. In the desert (as among tbe Arabian and
1 Domads), in vild and MqUBlered mDunlains (u In
B Dorlh Media, and Myva, Piiidia, Paphlagonia and
. In Asia Minoi], and also [n many Iranian tribes, the
J (onslitution, wilb Ibe chieFtain as its bead, was left
WD boder the inipeiial suzerainty. Tbe great tnajoiity
vibied provinces irere subdivided into local adoiinislra-
ricls governed by officials of the lung and his talrapi.
be Ciecks named )0r^. " peoplM," Within these,
bcfc micbt lie Urge toiro settlements vhose internal
CTC oobtrolled by the elders or the o£dals of the Com-
al, foe instance, Babylon, Jerusalem, the Egyptian
'aivoa, Sardis and others. On tbe same fooling were
iiual principaLlies. iriib tbeir great templo-property^
lyce in Syria, the two Comanas in Cappadoda, and so
Bsides these, boirever, vast districts were Bilher con-
ato royal domains (rapi5<WH) with great parks and
(muida under royal supervision, or du bestowed by
. so Pcniaia or doerving meinben of tbe lubjecl-races ,gg oynatts.
ne(»£lot»")a» their personal property. Many of these The erlent of tbe Persian Empire was. In tuentlab, defiaed
loraied repectible prindpaUlies: e.g. those of tbe by ibe great conquests of Cyiua and Cambjsei. Ddliui wa*
f OtSDO in Cappadocia, of Hydaines in Armenia, „ mon b axvpiulodor than Augustus. Rather, .
UD* in Phrygii, Demaratus in Teutbtania, Themis- ^ task he set himself was U> found oS the empire Jt*'"'
UagtKsia and Lampsacus. Tbey were aloolute private ,nd secure Its borders; and (or this purpose in Asia ^^"
', handed down from father lo son tor centuries, and jjinor and Armenia he subdued tbe mountain.tribe* and
leflecisac period not laiely became independent iiing- ^vanced the Irontier at fat as tbe Caucasus; Coltbis alone
These potentates were stjded by tbe Greeks iarimu remaining an independent kingdom under the imperial
««■ sUKralnty. So, too, be annexed tbe Indus valley and the
aat daB, quite distinct from all these organualions, auKlrroua bm-country of Kafirislan and Casbrair (Kdnta or
med by tbe dly*lale« («i)au) with an independent KiirraniJi, Herod, iii. gj, vii. 67, ««; Steph. Byt), as wdl aa
conslitulion— wbelher a monarchy (as in Phoenicia), the Dardae In Dardislan on the Indus (Ctcsias, Ind. fr. Ij.
anarislotracyfas inLydal.orarcpublic wilbcouncil jo^ tc.). From Ibis point he directed several fampajgnt
and pc^Bilar assembly (as in tbe Greek towns), ^nst tbe Amyiwan Sacae, on tbe Pamir PUteau uiA
aitial point was that they enjoyed a sepirate bgaliied northwards, whom be enumemlea in bis list of subject races,
LiioD (autonomy). This was only to be seen in Ibe „d whose mounted archers formed a main division of the
western provinces of the empire among the Phoem- jrmies despatched against the Greeks. It was obviously u
leeks and Lydans, whose cities were essentially distinct uiempt to take the nomads of tbe Turanian steppe in tbe
»eof tbe east; which, indeed, lo Greek eyo, were only rear and to reduce them to qHiescence, which led to his
iSate* {nu^oriitn). It is tEadily Intelligible that unforiunaie eipeditlon against tbe Scythians of tbe RuMtan
■acter should have proved practically incomprehensible ,teppa {c. 511 n.t;.; cf. D«unE).
>enlua, with whom they came into perpetual colliaon. side by side, however, with these wus, we an nti, even In
io^,asarule,tocopewith thedJfBcullyby Innsfemng (he scanty tradition at our di^wsal, » cooristenl eflort lo forlhet
emmeot to individual persons who enjoyed their confi- ^j.^ grnx civilizing mission imposed on the empire. In the
Ibe " tyrants " of the Cleek towns. Mirdoniua, alone, district of Herat, Darius eslahliahai a great water-basin, designed
■ soppiesaion of the Ionic revolt— which had originaled i^ f.cilitatr tbe cultivation of tbe steppe (Herod, iii. 117) He
ae very tyrants— made an attempt to govern ibem by h^j ,he rourse of tbe Indus explored by the Caiian captain
stance of tbc democracy (491 b.c). Scylu Iq.t.) oF Catyanda, who then navigated tbe Indian Ocean
" I (Herod, iv. +4) and wrote an account of bis voyage
ce of the world la evident
2 1 o PERSIA tHisroRYi akcient
ta hii foundation of Kveni luibouA^ dcacribed by Nevcbui,
«D the Pcniui oust But this dcugD ii still more patent io
his completioQ of ■ great cual, already bcguD hy Kecho, from
the Nile lo Suei, sloog uhlcli Kveral monumeiiti of Darius have
bicD preserved. Thuiii wu possible^ UHyi tbitvnaaot of an
hieroglyphic intcripiion there diicovered, " (oi ibips id tail
direct from Ihe Nile to Pcnii, over Saba." In the time of Hecd-
dolus the cuial was in constant use (iL ijS, iv. jg): afterwards,
wbca £gypt regained her independence, it decay«f, till restored
by the second Ptolemy. Even the circumnavigation of Africa vas
attempted under Xerxes (HertxL iv. 4j].
It has already been menljoncd, that. Id his eflorti to condUate
the Egyptians, Darius pbccd hil chief nliance on the pricM-
bood: and the same tendency rum throughout the imperial ™Jd™^ -..,,. n . > ,, . .
!■_ ..>™- J ,t- ^^ .-.~j »«. TV,.- j"*™^.- I. - ....■(.....« Th' poMticM 01 the Pe«ian niDnarchy mi a wor1d.emnR ■
pohcy toward the conquered races. Thus Cyrus hmself gave .hi^de'ri^ii.alLy en,ph.«ied lo the buiLdinpoT Dariu.and R™
the euledjewi in Bibylon permission to return and rebuild Jeru- in Pcii^ii and Sub. The pecultoriy national buia, ^^
salem. Darius allowed the restoration of the Temple; and Hill mogniiable in Cynu't architecture ai Faiugadae.
Artaienes I., by the protection accorded loEini and Nehemiah, rcceda into intimiBonce. The royal edifice* and KulpCuro.are
. . ' .' . '.- . . ,,«-:li. /-„ I--,-. ■■ .., „„^ I dependent, mainly, on Babylonian model*, but, at the »an»e tup*-
poHible {see Jews. » ibkw). „^^„ am in ttim the inrfucnce of Greece. Egypt and AsUMinc
h a later copy IS pnaervid in an thr ia« in the rocli.<rpulchi-- •" ■"- ■ - - — "--
inscnpiion iscenuoYcj, uariuiioniniaodiCadiUu, the gov ■ ■- -■- -'-'-'-
of • domain (TcviJoaoi) id Magnsii on the Macandr
observe scrupulously Ihe privileges ol ihe Apallo^anctuary.
With all the Greek oradcs— even those in the n- -'-
the Per«ari3 were on the best of terms. And s
Ihe eslabllshmcnt o! a Persian dominion, »e Sod them all
. _.^ _l the Perun Eopbe, ■■
i. Rawlinion. HiilcTy of Hcmislni, ii. 555 iqq.: Fin E/uUn Urn-
■liii ou •^**^'' SeeaboMiTHBAs. "^
irLedin ad, 3. Hislory if Ikt Athacmritiaii Emfirc—Tbc Uslory of ite
irj^°nVinIhee..™nie ""■ Persian Empire was often .-ritleD by the Greeta Hie nx
compriition of relirioni that of Iran played a most ancient worii preserved is tliat of Heradolus (i.ii.), who supplia
in. The Persao kings— none more so than Darius, rich and valuable nulerials for the period ending in 47g \jC
(ioui conviclioni are enihrined in hii inicriptiont— These malerials are drawn partly from sound tradition, pul||r
*.i'SiS;S'.!!SpSSt,"US'™,rt.'™ i"...«i-a.i..-i.*™m.b. «»»... of_ib._. •
I^^npnipaEandistn aroscctpccially in Armenia and CappadociJ. army and their equipment. They also contain much tbU fl
when; the religion took deep root amonf the people, but also in admittedly fabulous: (or instance, the stories of Cyrus tai One-
wliMSJ'^idS" In'j5«SS^^^i;"'"i^^^:^"dH >">,!*"= "■"]"=' ol Babylon, ic Forty yeui later {c. mo ic), .
?« entel^hriirt. af^i^a" ^ i^Jf 1u' .^bTtord no the physidan Clesias of Cnidus. who for .7 yean(*.4-J9S"J
diilicully in reccaoiSng them as Hibordinate poweri— helpc™ remained hi the service of Ihe Great King, composed a gnt
rovcred flQQoV in which IheindiirerimMBodli^^ rnoiiua anu nuniciDus iiagmcnis. i.iQiai iff.w.j poBOia a
i^yuHutl-^.c. i^c rclijtion of Ahuiamaida personilicd than Uerodolus; and, where he deals with matten Ihal CUM
^S^lScurrthe god, ol Lliation (.lp«ially of Baby- S^^!SVdV''.;S'^"^ H^^i "TS tZ
Ion), with tbeir host of temples im«c. and f«3^l^ ewreiKd a "P""/ t^? tiadilioo bad degenerated since Herodotus; and tal
eoncspomUni influence on the DiSSrr-counUy. Moreover, the his BarTaliona lan only be utdued in isoUlcd cases, and IW
nnadulteiated doctrine of Zoroaster could no more become a per- with the greatest caution. Ol mare value was Ihe great «<tk ■(
mancnt popular relimon than can Chrisiianiiy. For the mas™ DInon of Colophon (i. 340), which we know from DBinen*
Wty"^ nJ^loS^diX'™ SSd"^ n^;^:o''™m: ""l--" "^™»; "" o- ^' ""= "vel may be placed a in.
Klvo and their lot. Thus the olcf figure, of the Aryan lolk-rellEion statements fnim Heraclids of Cynie, which afford spcdOr
return to the forenound, there to be anulgamated with the B^iby. important evidence on Pet^an institutions. To tboe :
Ionian divinilkt The — '■'----• : j -™_. (,J .k. n..,. ."i ... ., ^ , ... . —
' — ArdntKra Armktii
(Tbncydid^
HBTORY: ANCIENT]
PERSIA
211
of ihtm fonrces lee sq>aiBte articles on Hekodotus, ftc; Ezra;
andNKBDOAB.
or oiodcra accounto see enedally Th. SOMdu.Amfsdtte ntr
fvnatktm Cexkickte (1887). The works of Marquait, UnUr-
tmekmmim mr Cexkkhu wm Eran (a pta.. 1896-1905). abound in
(hriflc theorie* aad must be used with caution. On the duooology,
cL E^iaid Meyer, ForxJutntim mmt alien Ceukkku, IL
Tlie eztemal histoiy of the empire is treated under the
individaal kings (see also history sections of
articles Gxeece; Egytt; &c.). The order is as
follows: —
Ctkus (558-528); conquered the Medes in 550; king of Babybn
fron 538.
Cambysss (53^-521).
SifBftDIS ($21).
Dabii» 1. (521-485).
XcaxKs 1. U8S-46O.
AaTAXERXES 1. (465-A25).
pCsaxBS II. and Secydianus or Sogdianus, 425-414.)
Dauus II. Nothus (424-404).
AaTAXBaxEs II. (404-359)-
AaTAZBftXBS III. Ochus (359-338).
(338-336).
Dauus fll. (336-33o)>
Tlie chronolosy is exactly verified by the Ptolcm^c canon, by
oas Babylonian and a few Egyptian documents, and by the
of the Greeks. The present article gives only a brief
of the main events in the history of the empire.
Thoo^, unlike Cyrus and Cambyses, Darius made no new
dpeditions of conquest, yet a great empire, which is not bounded
Hv wmm by another equally great, but touches on many small
tribes and independent communities, is inevitably
driven to expansion. We have already seen that the
sttcmpt of Darius to control the predatory nomads in the north
M to his expedition against the Scythians; this, again, led to
tke iDOorporation of Thrace and Macedonia, whose king Perdiccas
'■Amittcxi. And since a great portion of the Mediterranean
coast^iiie belonged to the empire, further complications resulted
SBtomaticaDy. In contrast with the Greeks Carthage took the
put of Persia. Darius, indeed, numbers the city — under the
isme of Karka — among his dominions: as also the Maxyans
OUdya) on the Syrtcs (Andreas, Verkandl. d. xiii. oriental.
Cmptues, Hamburg, 1902, p. 97). But, above all, the Greek
dties with their endless feuds and violent internal factions, were
facosant in their appeals for intervention. Nevertheless,
Duios left European Greece to itself, till the support accorded
to the Ionian and Carian insurgents by Athens and Eretria
(499 BX.) made war inevitable. But not only the expeditions
tf Mardonius (492) and Datis (490), but even the carefully
piqared campaign of Xerxes, in conjunction with Carthage,
conpletely failed (480-479). On the fields of Marathon and
Fbtaea, the Persian archers succumbed to the Greek phalanx
tf hoplites; but the actual decision was effected by Themistocles,
viohad meanwhile created the Athenian fleet which at Salamis
fwvcd its superiority over the Perso-Phoenidan armada, and
Ab precluded beforehand the success of the land-forces.
The wreck of Xerxes' expedition is the turning-point in the
Ifatory of the Persian Empire. The superiority of the Greeks
«« ID pronounced that the Persians never found courage to
Kpot their attack. On the contrary, in 466 B.C. their army
nd ieet were again defeated by Cimon on the Eurymedon, the
Mqsd being that the Greek provinces on the Asiatic coast, with
4 the Thradan possessions, were lost. In itself, indec<l, this
Wi was of no great significance to such a vast empire; and the
HUmpls of Athens to annex Cyprus and conquer the Nile
fiBqr, in alliance with the revolted Egyptians, ended in failure.
itkns, in fact, had not suffident strength to undertake a serious
kmkn of the empire or an extensive scheme of conquest.
Ivstrugg^ with the other Hellenic states constrained her, by
^ peace of Callias (448), definitdy to renounce the Persian
^ to abandon Cyprus and Egypt to the king; and to content
nlf with his promise — not that he would surrender the littoral
MBS, bat that he would abstain from an armed attack upon
koL The really decisive point was, rather, that the disasters
H Sslaais aad Flataca definitdy shattered the offensive power
of the empire; that the centre of gravity in the world's history
had shifted from Susa and Babylon to the Aegean Sea; and
that the Persians were conscious that in spite of all their courage
they were henceforward in the presence of an enemy, superior
in arms as well as in intellect, whom they could not hope to
subdue by their own strength.
Thus the great empire was reduced to immobility and stagna-
tion— a process which was assisted by thedeteriorating influences
of dvilization and world-dominion upon the character iatgrmal
of the ruling race. True, the Persians continued suuoftbt
to produce brave and honourable men. But the Bmpin,
influences of the harem, the eunuchs, and similar ***«*»«fc
court officials, made appalling progress, and men of energy began
to find the temptations of power stronger than their patriotism
and devotion to the king. Thus the satraps aspired to inde>
pendence, not merely owing to unjust treatment, but also to
avarice or favourable conditions. As early as 465 B.C., Xerxes
was assassinated by his powerful vizier (chiliarch) Artabanus,
who attempted to seize the reins of empire in fact, if not in name.
A similar instance may be found in Bagoas (9.9.), after the
murder of Artaxerxes IIL (338 B.C.). To these factors must
be added the degeneration of the royal line — a degeneration
inevitable in Oriental states. Kings like Xerxes and more
especially Artaxerxes I. and Artaxerxes II., so far from being
gloomy despots, were good-natured potentates, but weak,
capridous and readily accessible to personal influences. The
only really brutal tyrants were Darius II. , who was completdy
dominated by his bloodthirsty wife Parysatis, and Artaxerxes
III. who, though he shed rivers of blood and all but exterminated
his whole family, was successful in once more uniting the empire,
which under the feeble sway of his father had been threatened
with dissolution.
The upshot of these conditions was, that the empire never
again undertook an important enterprise, but neglected more
and more its great civilizing mission. In considering, however,
the subsequent disorders and wars, it must be borne in mind
that they affected only individual portions of the empire, and
only on isolated occasions involved more extensive areas in
long and serious strife. To most of the provinces the Achae-
menid dominion was synonymous with two centuries of peace
and order. Naturally, however, the wild tribes of the mountains
and deserts, who could be curbed only by strict imperial control,
asserted their independence and harassed the neighbouring
provinces. Among these tribes were the Carduchians in Zagros,
the Cossacans and Uxians in the interior of Elam, the Cadusians
and other non-Ar>'an tribes in northern Media, the Pisidians,
Isaurians and Lycaonians in the Taurus, and the Mysians in
Olympus. All efforts to restore order in these districts were
fruitless; and when the kings removed their court to Ecbatana,.
they were actually obliged to purchase a free passage from the
mountain tribes (Strabo xi. 524; Arrian iii. 17, i). The
kings {e.g. Artaxerxes II.) repeatedly took the field in great force
against the Cadusians, but unsuccessfully. When, in 400 B.C.,
Xcnophon marched with the mercenaries of C3rrus from the
Tigris to the Black Sea, the authority of the king was non-
existent north of Armem'a, and the tribes of the Pontic moun-
tains, with the Greek cities on the coast, were completely inde-
pendent. In Paphlagonia, the native dynasts founded a power-
ful though short-lived kingdom, and the chieftains of the
Bithynians were absolutely their own masters. The frontier
provinces of India were also lost. Egypt, which had already
revolted under Libyan princes in the years 486-484, and again
with Athenian help in 460-454, finally asserted its independence
in 404. Henceforward the native dynasties repelled every
attack, till they succumbed once more before Artaxerxes III.
and Mentor of Rhodes.
In the other dvilized countries, indeed, the old passion for
freedom had been completely obliterated; and after the days
of Darius I. — apart from the Greek, Lydan and Phoenician
towns — not a single people in all these provinces dreamed of
shaking off the foreign dominion. All the more dearly, then,
was the inner weakness of the cmpiiie revealed by the rev<flts
212
PERSIA
IHISTORY: ANCIEKT
of the satraps. These were facilitated by the custom — quite
contrary to the original imperial organization — which entrusted
the pro* indal military commands to the satraps, who began
to receive great masses of Greek mercenaries into their service.
Under Artaxerxes I. and Darius II., these insurrections were
still rare. But when the revolt of the younger Cyrus against
his brother (401 B.C.) had demonstrated the surprising ease and
rapidity with which a courageous army could penetrate into
the heart of the empire^when the whole force of that empire
had proved powerless, not only to prevent some 12,000 Greek
troops, completely surroimded, cut off from their communica-
tions, and deprived through treachery of their leaders, from
escaping to the coast, but even to make a serious attack on
them-^-then, indeed, the imperial impotence became manifest.
After that, revolts of the satraps in Asia Minor and Syria were
of everyday occurrence, and the task of suppressing them was
complicated by the foreign wars which the empire had to sustain
against Greece and Egypt.
At this very period, however, the foreign policy dT the empire
gained a brilliant success. The collapse of the Athenian power
LmitrWan ^^^^^ Syracuse (413 B.C.) induced Darius II. to
witbtk^ order his satraps Tissaphemes and Phamabazus,
orve&s. in Asia Minor, to collect the tribute overdue from
pfsctof the Greek cities. In alliance with Sparta (see
AatMkUMs. Peloponnesian War), Persia intervened in the
conflict against Athens, and it was Persian gold that made it
possible for Lysandcr to complete her overthrow (404 B.C.).
True, war with Sparta followed immediately, over the division
of the spoils, and the campaigns of the Spartan generals in Asia
Minor (399-395) were all the more dangerous as they gave
occasion to numerous rebellions. But Persia joined the Greek
league against Sparta, and in 394 Phamabazus and Conon
annihilated the Lacedaemonian fleet at Cnidus. Thus the
Spartan power of offence was crippled; and the upshot of the
long-protracted war was that Sparta ruefully returned to the
Persian alliance, and by the Peace of Antalddas (q.v.), concluded
with the king in 387 B.C., not only renounced all d^ms to the
Asiatic possessions, but officially proclaimed the Persian
suzerainty over Greece. Ninety years after Salamis and
Plataea, the goal for which Xerxes had striven was actually
attained, and the king's will was law in Greece. In the following
decades, no Hellenic state ventured to violate the king's peace,
and all the feuds that followed centred round the efforts of the
combatants — ^Sparta, Thebes, Athens and Argos — to draw the
royal powers to their side (see Greece: Ancient History).
But, for these successes, the empire had to thank the internecine
strife of its Greek opponents, rather than its own strength. Its
feebleness, when thrown on its own resources, is evident from
the fact that, during the next years, it failed both to reconquer
Egypt and to suppress completely King Evagoras of Sakunis
in Cyprus. The satrap revolts, moreover, assumed more and
more formidable proportions, and the Greek states began once
more to tamper with them. Thus the reign of Artaxerxes II.
ended, in 359 B.C., with a complete dissolution of the imperial
authority in the west. His successor, Artaxerxes Ochus,
succeeded yet again in restoring the empire in its full extent.
In 355 B.C., he spoke the fatal word, which, a second — or rather
a third — time, demolished the essentially unsound power of
Athens. In 343 he reduced Egypt, and his generak Mentor
and Memnon, with his vizier Bagoas (^.v.), crushed once and for
all the resistance in Asia Minor. At his death in 338, immedi-
ately before the final catastrophe, the empire to all appearances
was more powerful and more firmly established than it had been
since the days of Xerxes.
These successes, however, were won only by means of Greek
armies and Greek generals. And simultaneously the Greek
PtwsnBM civilization — diffused by mercenaries, traders, artists,
o/Orveik prostitutes and slaves, — advanced in ever greater
MbrAcaw force. In Asia Minor and Phoenicia we can clearly
trace the progress of Hellenism (9.P.), especially by the coinage.
The stamp is cut by Greek hands and the Greek tongue pre-
dominates more and more in the inscription. We can see that
the victory of Greek civilization had long been prepared on
every side. But the vital point is that the absolute superiority
of the Hellene was recognized as incontestable on both hands.
The Persian sought to protect himself against danger, by employ-
ing Greeks in the national service and turning Gredc policy to
the interests of the empire. In the Greek worid itsdf the d»-
grace that a people, called to universal dominion and capable
of wielding it, should be dependent on the mandate oi an tm*
potent Asiatic monarchy, was keenly felt by all who were not
yet absorbed in the rivalry of city with dty. The qx>kesnuui
of this national sentiment was Isocrates; but numerous other
writers gave expression to it, notably, the historian Callistbenes
of Olynthus. Union between Greeks, volimtary or oompulsoiy,
and an offensive war against Persia, was the programme thtj
propounded.
Nor was the time for its fulfilment far distant. Thrnew power
which now rose to the first rank, created by Philip of Macedon,
had no engrained tendency inimical to the Persian
Empire. Its immediate programme was rather
Macedonian expansion, at the expense of Thrace
and Illyria, and the subjection of the Balkan Peninsula. But,
in its efforts to extend its power over the Greek states, it was
bound to make use of the tendendes which aimed at the unifio^
tion of Greece for the struggle against Persia: and this idol
demand it dared not reject.
Thus the conflict became inevitable. In 340, Artaxerxes IIL
and his satraps supported the Greek towns in Thrace — Perinthai
and Byzantium — against Macedonian aggression; in 33S he
conduded an alliance with Demosthenes. When Philip, after
the victory of Chaeronca, had founded the league of Corinth
(337) embracing the whole of Greece, he accepted the
programme, and in 336 despatched his army to Asia Miaoi;
That he never entertained the thought of conquering the
Persian Empire is certain. Presumably, his ambitions '
have been satisfied with the liberation of the Greek dtiet, aa^
perhaps, the subjection of Asia Minor as far as the TwaoL
With this his dominion would have attained much the
compass as later imdcr Lysimachus; farther than thb lla
boldest hopes of Isocrates never Went.
But Philip's assassination in 336 fundamentally altered tfcl
situation. In the person of his son, the throne was oc
by a soldier and statesman of genius, saturated with
culture and Greek thought, and intolerant of every goal but lit
highest. To conquer the whole world for Hellenic dvifiatiBi
by the aid of Macedonian spears, and to reduce the whok cuA
to unity, was the task that this heir of Herades and AdAi
saw before him. This idea of universal conquest was with Ub
a conception much stronger devdoped than that which hil
inspired the Achaemenid rulers, and he ratered on the pn^
with full consdousness in the stfictest sense of the i^iraae. li
fact, if we are to understand Alexander aright, it is fatal to foqpl
that he was overtaken by death, not at the end of his career, bil .
at the beginning, at the age of thirty-three.
VI. The Macedonian Dominion. — How Alexander
Persia, and how he framed his world-empire,* cannot be
here. The essential fact, however, b that after the
victory of Gaugamela (Oct. i, 331 B.C.) and, still ^^
more completely, after the assassination of Darius-
avenged according to the Persian laws, on the
Alexander regarded himself as the legitimate head <^ the
Empire, and therdore adopted the dress and ceremoi^ oC 1
Persian kings.
With the capture of the capitals, the Persian war wm M i
end, and the atonement for the expedition of Xerxes
plcte — a truth symbolically expressed in the burning of the]
at Persepolis. Now began the worid-conquest. For an 1
empire, however, the forces of Macedonia and
insufiicicnt; the monarch of a world-empire could not be 1
by the limitations imposed on the tribal king of Martidffa <
general of a league of Hellenic republics. He nust staid)
*Sce Alexander thb Great; Macedonian
i ISM (for later results).
BBIORY: ANCIENT]
PERSIA
213
an autocrat, above them and above the law, realizing the
tlMoretkal doctrines of Plato and Aristotle, as the true king,
wbais a god among men, bound no more than Zeus by a law,
becaoae '* himself he is the, law." Thus the divine kingship of
Akzander derives indirect line, not from the Oriental polities —
whkl^ (Egypt apart) know nothing of royal apotheosis — but
from these Hellenic theories of the state. Henceforward it
becomes the form of every absolute monarchy in a civilized land,
being formally mitigated only in Christian states by the assump-
tion that the king is not God, but king ** by the grace of God."
The expedition of 332 B.C. to the shrine of Ammon was a pre-
liminary to this procedure, which, in 324, was sealed by his
official elevation to divine rank in all the republics of Greece.
To this corresponds the fact that, instead of acting on the
doctrines of Aristotle and Callisthcnes, and treating the
Macedonians and Greeks as masters, the Asiatics as servants,
Alexander had impartial recourse to the powers of all his subjects
and strove to amalgamate them. In the Persians particularly
he sought a second pillar for his world-empire. Therefore, as
eariy as 330 B.C., he drafted 30,000 young Persians, educated
them in Greek customs, and trained them to war on the Mace-
donian model. The Indian campaign showed that his Mace>
dcmian troops were in fact inadequate to the conquest of the
world, and in the summer of 326 they compelled him to turn
badi from the banks of the Hyphasis. On his return to Persia,
be consammated at Susa (Feb. 324 B.C.) the union of Persian
and Macedoniam by the great marriage-feast, at which all his
superior officers, with some 10,000 more Macedonians, were
wedded to Persian wives. The Macedonian veterans were then
disbanded, and the Persians taken into his army. Simultane-
ooily, at the Olympian festival of 324, the command was issued
to aU the cities of Greece to recognize him as god and to receive
the exiles home.* In 323 B.C. the preparations for the circum-
navigation and subjection of Arabia were complete: the next
enterprise being the conquest of the West, and the battle for
Ri^Wiir culture against Carthage and the Italian tribes. At
that point Alexander died in Babylon on the X3th of June
333 B.C
Alexander left no heir. Consequently, his death not only
ended the scheme of universal conquest, but led to an immediate
1^ Macedonian reaction. The army, which was con-
ta^gtamB sidered as the representative of the people, took
^^ .. over the government under the direction of its
^"^"^^ generals. The Persian wives were practically all
dixaaded and the Persian satraps removed — at least from all
important provinces. But the attempt to maintain the empire
in its unity proved impracticable; and almost immediately
there began the embittered war, waged for several decades by
the generals (diadochi), for the inheritance of the great king.*
U was soon ob^us that the eastern rulers, at all events, could
^ dispense with the native element. Peucestas, the governor
o( Persis. there played the r61e of Alexander and won the Persians
coinpletety to his side; for which he wa&dismissed by Antigonus
>»3iS (Diod. xix. 48). A similar position was attained by
Sdencus — the only one of the diadochi, who had not divorced
liis Posian wife, Apama — in Babylonia, which he governed
fna 319 to 316 and regained in the autumn of 312. While
Aatifonus, who, since 315, had striven to win the kingdom of
Akaoder for himself — was detained by the war with his rivals
b the west, Seleucus, with Babylon as his headquarters, con-
fined the whole of Iran as far as the Indus. In northern
Media alone, which lay outside the main scene of operations
lad had only been partially subject to the later Achaemenids,
tie Persian satrap Atropates, appointed by Alexander, main-
iiiDcd his independence and bequeathed his province to his
■DDNwrs. His name is borne by north Media to the present
^f— Atropatene, modem Azerbaijan or Adherbeijan (see
Mnu). So, too, in Armemia the Persian dynasty of the
'Tbe'cfiacuaioii of these events by Honirth " The Deification
tf Akxaoder the Great/' in the En^ Historical Review, ii.
(itt?)* is qnite nosatijfactory.
«S«P
PiouDUSs; SBuroao Dtmastt.'
Hydamids held its ground; and to these must be added, m the
east of Asia Minor, the kingdoms of Pontus and Cappadocia,
founded c. 301, by the Persians Mithradatcs I. and Anarathesl.
These states were fragments of the Achaemenid Empire, which
had safely transferred themselves to the Hellenistic state-system.
The annexation of Iran by Seleucus Nicator led to a war for
the countries on the Indian frontier, his opponent bemg Sandra-
cottus or Chandragupta Maurya (9.V.), the founder Tihwiiif
of the great Indian Empire of Maurya (Palimbothra). Nkator, mad
The result was that Seleucus abandoned to the '♦^''•c*"'*
Indian king, not merely the Indian provinces, but even the
frontier districts west of the Indus (Strabo xv. 689-724),
receiving as compensation 500 elephants, with other presents
(Appian, Syr. 55; Justin xv. 4; Plut. Alex. 62, Athen. i. 18 D.).
His next expedition was to the west to assist Lysimachus,
Ptolemy and Cassander in the overthrow of Antigonus.
The battle of Ipsus, in 301, gave him Syria and the east of
Asia Minor; and from then he resided at the Syrian town of
Antiochia on the Orontes. Shortly afterwards he handed over
the provinces east of the Euphrates to his son Antiochus, who,
in the following years, till 282, exercised in the East a very
energetic and beneficial activity, which continued the work of
his father and gave the new empire and the Oriental Hellenistic
civilization their form. In order to protect his conquests
Alexander had founded several cities in Bactria, Sogdiana and
India, in which he settled his veterans. On his death, these
revolted and endeavoured to return to Greece, but were attacked
and cut to pieces by Pithon (Diod. xviii. 7). Of ontk
the other Greek towns in Asia scarcely any were Towaabi
founded by Alexander himself, though the plan *■*
adopted by his successors of securing their dominions by building
Greek cities may perhaps be due to him (cf. Polyb. x. 27).
Most of these new cities were based on older settlements; but
the essential point is, that they were peopled by Greek and
Macedonian colonists, and enjoyed civic independence with
laws, officials, councils and assemblies of their own, in other
words, an autonomous communal constitution, under the
suzerainty of the empire. A portion, moreover, of the surround-
ing land was assigned to them. Thus a great number of the
country districts — the Wmi above mentioned — were transformed
into municipal corporations, and thereby withdrawn from the
immediate government of the king and his officials (satraps
or stralegt), though still subject to their control, except in the
cases where they received unconditional freedom and so ranked
as " confederates." The native population of these villages
and rural districts, at first, had no civic rights, but were governed
by the foreign settlers. Soon, however, the two elements began
to coalesce, in the Sclcucid Empire, the process seems generally
to have been both rapid and complete. Thus the cities becamb
the main factors in the diffusion of Hcllcnismi the Greek language
and the Greek civilization over all Asia as far as the Indus.
At the same time they were the centres of commerce and
industrial life: and this, in conjunction with the royal favour,
and the privileges accorded them, continually drew new settlers
(especially Jews), and many of them developed into great and
flourishing towns (see further under Hellenism).
Shortly after his conquest of Babylonia, Seleucus had founded
a new capital, Selcucia (q.v.), on the Tigris: his intention being
at once to displace the ancient Babylon from its former central
position, and to replace it by a Greek city. This was followed
by a series of other foundations in Mesopotamia, Babylonia and
Susiana (Elam). " Media," sa}^ Polybius (x. 27), " was en-
circled by a sequence of Greek towns, designed as a barrier
against the barbarians." Among those mentioned are: Rhagae
(Rai), which Seleucus metamorphosed into a Hellenic city,
Europus, Laodicea, Apamca and Heraclea (Strabo xi. 525;
Plin. vi. 43: cf. Media). To these must be added Achaea in
Parthia, and, farther to the east, Alexandria Arion in Aria
the modem Herat: also Antiochia Margiana (Strabo xi. 514, 516
Plin. 46, 93), now Merv, and many others. Further, Alexandria
in Aradrosia, near Kandahar, and the towns founded by
Alexander on the Hindu-Kush and in Sogdiana.
214
PERSIA
(HISTX)RY: ANCIEirr
Thus an active Hellenic life soon arose in the East; and Greek
settlers must have come in numbers and founded new cities,
which afterwards formed the basis of the Graeco-Bactrian
kingdom. Antiochus's general Demodamas crossed the Jaxartes
and set up an altar to the Didymaean Apollo (Plln. vi. 49).
Another general, Patrocles, took up the investigation of the
Caspian, already begun by Alexander. In contrast with the
better knowledge of an older period, he came to the conclusion
that the Caspian was connected with the ocean, and that it was
possible to reach India on ship-board by that route (Strabo
ii. 74, xi. 518; Plin. vi. 38). A project of Seleucus to connect
the Caspian with the Sea of Azov by means of a canal is men-
tioned by Pliny (vi. 31). To Patrocles is due the information
that an active commerce in Indian wares was carried on with
the shores of the Black Sea, via the Caspian (Strabo xL 509).
While Hellenism was thus gaining a firm footing in all the
East, the native population remained absolutely passive. Apart
Tht Pmfan ^^^ ^^^ '^^c mountain tribes, no national resis-
ReH^om tance was dreamed of for centuries. The Iranians
aadtr quietly accepted the foreign yoke, and the higher
OntkRuh, classes adopted the external forms of the alien
civilization (cf. the dedication of a Bactrian, Hyspasines,* son
of Mithroaxes, in the inventory of the temple of ApoUo in
Delos, Dittenbergcr, Sylloge, 588, 1. 109) even though they were
unable to renounce their innate characteristics. EratosUienes,
for instance, speaks (ap. Strabo i. 66) in high terms of the
Iranians (Ariant), ranking them (as well as the Indians, Romans
and Carthaginians) on a level with the Greeks, as regards their
capacity for adopting city civilization. The later Parsee
tradition contends that Alexander burned the sacred books
of Zoroaster, the AvesUif and that only a few fragments were
saved and afterwards reconstructed by the Arsacids and
Sassanids. This is absolutely unhistoricaL The Persian
religion was never attacked by the Macedonians and Greeks.
Under their dominion, on the contrary, it expanded with great
vigour, not only in the west (Armenia, north Syria and Asia
Minor, where it was the official religion of the kings of Pontus
and Cappadocia)^ but also in the east, in the countries of the
Indian frontier. That the popular gods — Mithras, Anaitis, &c. —
had come to the forefront has already been mentioned. This
propagandism, however, was void of all national character,
and ran on precisely the same lines as the propagandism of
the Syrian, Jewish and Egyptian cults. Only in Persia itself,
so far as we can judge from a few scanty traces, the national
character of the religion seems to have survived among the
people side by side with the memory of their old imperial
position.
In 382 B.C. Seleucus took the field against Lysimachus, and
annexed his dominions in Asia Minor and Thrace. In 281 he
. . was assassinated in crossing to Europe, and his son
Kiagdom* Antiochus I. was left supreme over the whole empire.
In Bactrim From that time onward the Seleucid Empire was
•ad never at rest. Its gigantic extent, from the Aegean
^■'**'*' to the Indus, everywhere offered points of attack
to the enemy. The Lagidae, especially, with their much more
compact and effective empire, employed every means to weaken
their Asiatic rivals; and auxiliaries were found in the minor
states on the frontier — Atropatene, Armenia, Cappadocia, Pontus
and Bithynia, the Galatians, Pergamum, Rhodes and other
Greek states. Moreover, the promotion of Greek civilization
and city life had created numerous local centres, with separate
interests and centrifugal tendencies, struggling to attain com-
plete independence, and perpetually forcing new concessions
from the empire. Thus the Seleucid kings,.courageous as many
of them were, were always battling for existence (see Seleucid
Dynasty).
These disturbances severely affected the borders of Iran.
While the Seleucid Empire, under Antiochus II. Theos (264-247),
was being harried by Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, and the king's
attention was wholly engag^ in the defence of the western
provinces, the Greeks revolted in Bactria, under their governor
Diodotus iq.v.). Obviously, it was principally the need of
protection against the nomadic tribes which led to the foondai-
tion of an independent kingdom; and Diodotus soon attained
considerable power over the provinces north of the Hindu-Kuih.
In other provinces, too, insurrection broke out (Strabo zL 57St
Justin xli. 4); and Arsaces, a chief of the Pami or Apanii — aa
Iranian noniad tribe (therefore often called Dahan Scythians),
inhabiting the steppe east of the Caspian — made himself master
of the district of Parthia (,g.v.) in 248 B.C. He and his brother
Tiridates (q.v.) were the founders of the P^hian kingdom, wludi,
however, was confined within very modest Umits during the
foUowing decades. Seleucus II. Callinicus (247-326) successfoBy
encountered Arsaces (or Tiridates), and even expelled him
(c. 238); but new risings recalled Seleucus to Syria, auid Amcet
was enabled to return to Parthia.
Greater success attended Antiochus lU., the Great (32^-I87).
At the banning of his reign (220) he subdued, with the bdp
of his minister Hermias, an insurrectbn of the
satrap Molon of Media, who had assumed the royal A,
title and was supported by his brother Alexander,
satrap of Persis (Polyb. v. 40 sqq.). He further aeixed the
opportunity of extorting an advantageous peace from King
Artabazanes of Atropatene, who had considerably extended hit
power (Polyb. v. 55). After waging an unsuccessful war with
Ptolemy IV. for Uie conquest of Coele-Syria, but supprcsauig
the revolt of Adiaeus in Asia Minor, and recovering the former
provmces of the empire in that quarter, Antiochus led a great
expedition into the East, designing to restore the inqwrial
authority in its full extent. He first removed (211) the AmMaiaa
king Xerxes by treachery (Polyb. viii. 8$; John of Antlod^
A* 53)> and appointed two governors, Artiudas and Zuiadci^
in his place (Strabo xi. 531). During the next year be rediicsd
the affairs of Media to order (Polyb. x. 27); he thai oondncted
a successful campaign against Arsaces of Parthia (sop), and
against Euthydemus (9.V.) of Bactria (208-206), who had over-
thrown the dynasty of Diodotus (Polyb. x. 28 sqq., 4S uqf^^
xi. 34; Justin xli. 5). In spite of his successes it mndtidfid
peace with both kingdoms, rightly considering tliat it voold
be impossible to retain these remote frontier provinces pet*
manently. He next renewed his old friendship ^th the lai^aa
king Sophagasenus (Subhagasena), and received from him t|»
elephants (206 B.C.). Through Arachosia and Drangiane, in tht
vaUey of the Etymander (Helnumd), he marched to Carmada
and Persis (Polyb. xi. 34). Both here and in Babylonia ht
re-established the imperial authority, and in 205 undertook a
voyage from the moijth of the Tigris, throu|^ the Arabiaa fdl
to the flourishing mercantile town of Gerrha in Arabia (pMT
Bahrein) (Polyb. xiii. 9).
Shortly afterwards, however, his successful ramp^Sg^^ tfi*— 1
Ptolemy V. Epiphanes led to a war with Rome in iriiicii te
power of the Seleucid Empire was shattered (190 B.C.),
Asia Minor lost, and the king compelled to pay a
heavy contribution to Rome for a long term of years.
In order to raise money he plundered a wealthy tenqde ef Bdii
Elam, but was killed by the inhabitants, 187 B.C. (Diod. scvS. |b
xxix. 15; Strabo xvi. 744; Justin zxxiL 2; S. Jerome (Hiero^f*
mus) on Dan. xi. 19; Euseb. Ckrori. L 253). T^e oo!
this enfeeblement of the empire was that the govonorsof
asserted their independence. Artaxias founded the
of Great Armenia; Zariadris, that of S(^hene on the
and the sources of the Tigris (Strabo xi. 531). In other
also, rebellions occurred; and in the east, Euthydania aad 1^
successors (Demetrius, Eucratldas, &c) began the conqawt if
the Indus region and the Iranian borderland (Arachosa, AdiX
(See Bactsu; EtriHYDEinis; Eucsatidas; DmRUMl
Menander.)
But the energetic Seleuctds fought de^>erately acrimft Arft
fate. Antiochus IV. Epiphanes (176-163) restored once monlll-
Extern dominion, defeated Artaxias of Armenia (AppiM* ^.
45, Diod. xxxi. 17a; S. Jerome on Dan. xi. 40), rcstoitd
towns in Babylonia and subdued the Elymaeans. His a
however, to plunder the sanctuary of Anaitis failed (Pol3rU vHk
XI ; cf. Maccab. L 6, ii. x, ly, App. Syr. 66).
HBItMnr: ANCIENT]
PERSIA
215
still subject to him. fiat after his death at Tabae
ia Penis (163 b.c; cf. Polyb. zzzi. xz; Maccab. i. 6, il. 9; Jos.
AmL Jmd. aL 9, i),the Romans took aidvantage of the dynastic
brails to destroy the Seleudd Empire. They reduced its army
mad fleet, and favoured every rebellion: among others, that of
the Je«&. In spite of all, Demetrius I. Soter (161-1 50) succeeded
in suppressing (159) a revolt of Timarchus of Miletus, governor
of Babykm, who had occupied Media, assumed the title of
" great king," and had be;n recognized by the Romans (Appian,
Syr. 45-47; Ttogtts, Prol. 34; Diod. zxzL 27 A: cf. the coins of
Umardius).*
Vn. The PartkiaM Em^e of the Arsacids. — Meanwhile, in
the east, the Arsacids had begun their expansion. Phraates I.
{c. 175-170) subdued the. Mardians in Elburz. His brother
Mitlnadates L (c. 270-138) had to sustain a difficult war with
Eucratides of Bactria, but eventually succeeded in wresting
from him a few districts on the Turanian frontier
i' Mm§ Indeed, he penetrated as far as, and farther than, the
Indus (Diod. zxxiiL 18; Ores. v. 4, x6). In the west
he conquered Media, and thence subdued Babylonia. He further
ndiaced the Elymaeans, sacked their temple in the mountains,
and enured the Greek city of Seleucia on the Hedyphon (Strabo
xvL 744; Jostin zli. 6). The Seleudds, meanwhile, were harassed
by aggravated disorders and insurrections. Nevertheless, in
140, Demetrius IL Nicator took the field in order to save the
cast, bat was defeated and captured. Shortly afterwards
Mjlfinri^to* I. died. His son Phraates H. (c. 138-127) was
attacked in 130 by Antiochus VII. Sidctcs, the brother of
Demetriuft IL, on which the Parthian king released the latter
Aatjodnis prosed successfully on, and once more recovered
Babylonia, but in 129 was defeated in Media and fell in a
desperate struggle. With this battle the Selcucid dominion over
the coantries east of the Euphrates was definitely lost. The
BabyloDian towns, especially Seleucia {q.v.)^ were handed over
\j Phraates to his favourite, the Hyrcam'an Himerus, who
pwmhfd them severely for their resistance.
Daring these wars great changes had taken place in eastern
baa. In 159 Mongolian tribes, whom the Chinese call Yue-chi
m^g^ and the Greeks Scythians, forced their way into
MtaAaatf Sogdiana, and, in 139, conquered Bactria (Strabo
^Sm^ jri. 571; Justin xlii. i; Trog. Prcl. 41; see Bactria).
■■*■' From Bactria they tried to advance farther into
baa and India. Entering Into an alliance with Antiochus
vn., they assailed the Parthian Empire. Phraates II.
■arched to encounter him, but was himself defeated and
daia, and his country ravaged far and .wide. His successor
Artabanos L (c. 127-124), the uncle of Phraates, also fell
h tattle against the Tochariaas, the principal Scythian
tAe (Justin xliL x, 2; Jos. Ant. Jr. 66); but his son Mith-
adatcs IL, sumamed " The Great" {c. 124-88), defeated the
ScTthiaas and restored for a while the power of the Arsacids
Be aho defeated Artavasdes, the king of Great Armenia; his
MS T^ianes, a hostage in the hands of the Parthians, was only
wWiiied by the cession of 70 valleys (Strabo xi. 532) When
^lancs attempted to seize Cappadocia, and the Roman praetor
M^ooidias Sulla advanced against him, Mithradates in 92 b.c
ttidaded the first treaty between Parthia and Rome (Plut
Uts, v.; liv. epU, 70). The dynastic troubles of the Seleucids
h Sgrria gave him an opportunity for successful intervention
(foib Atd. Jui. jdiL 13, 4; 14, 3). Shortly afterwards he died,
^ with hb death, the Arsadd power collapsed for the second
t^ The possession of the western provinces and the dominant
Mioa in western Asia passed to the Armenian Tigranes (^.r ),
4o wrested from the Parthians Mesopotamia and the suzerainty
tf Atnpatene, Gordyene, Adiabene, Osroene. Simultaneously
^pB a new and severe conflict with the Scythians. Parthian
^iia, probably dating from this period (Wroth, Caial. of the
ttm if Parthia^ 1903, p. zzz. and p. 40), mention victorious
<M|iaSgDB of Parthian kings and a conquest of the provinces of
hk, Maigiane and (?) Traziane (cf. Strabo xL 505). But how
.' For the whole of this period see further Akticonub; Amtigchus
WV.iSativoD Dtmasty; Hbllbnism.
•»
confused the situation was is shown by the fact that in 76 B.C.
the octogenarian king Sanatruces was seated on the Parthian
throne by the Scythian tribe of the Sacaraucians (cf. Strabo zi.
511; Trog. Prol. 42). The names of his predecessors are not
known to us. Obviously this period was marked by continual
dynastic feuds (cf. Trog. Prol. 42: " ut varia complurium regum
in Parthia successione imperium accepit Orodes qui Crassum
delevit" ). Not till Sanatruces' successor Phraates III. (70-57)
do we find the kingdom again in a settled state.
A fact of decisive significance was that the Romans now began
to advance against Tigranes. In vain Mithradates of Pontus
and Tigranes turned to the Parthian king, the latter ctoflktt
even proffering restitution of the conquered frontier wM <*•
provinces. Phraates, though rightly distrusting *•■«««•
Rome, nevertheless concluded a treaty with Luculius (69 B.C.)
and with Pompey, and even supported the latter in bis campaign
against Tigranes in 66. But ajfter the victory it was manifest
that the Roman general did not consider himself bound by
the Parthian treaty When Tigranes had submitted, Pompey
received him into favour and extended the Roman supremacy
over the vassal states of Ciordyenc and Osroene; though he had
allured the Parthian king with the prospect of the recovery of his
old possessions as far as the Euphrates. Phraates complained,
and simultaneously attacked Tigranes, now a Roman vassal
(64 B.C.) But when Pompey refused reparation Phraates recog-
nized that he was too weak to begin the struggle with Rome,
and contented himself with forming an alliance with Tigranes,
in hopes that the future would bring an opportunity for his
revenge (Dio Cass, xxxvi. 3, 5; xxxvii. 5 sqq.; Plut. Luc. 30;
Pomp 33, 38, cf. Sallust's letter of Mithradates to Arsaccs).
Although Phraates III. had not succeeded in regaining the full
power of his predecessors, he felt justified in again assuming the
title " king of kings" — ^which Pompey declined to acknowledge—
and even in proclaiming himself as " god " (Phlcgon, Jr. 1 2 ap.
Phot. cod. 97; and on part of his coins), but in 57 B.C. the " god
was assassinated by his sons Orodes and Mithradates.
The Parthian Empire, as founded by the conquests of Mithra-
dates I. and restored, once by Mithradates II. and again by
Phraates III., was, to all exterior appearance, a con-
tinuation of the Achaemenid' dominion. Thus the
Arsacids now began to assume the old title " king of
kings " (the shahanshah of modem Persia), though previously their
coins, as a rule, had borne only the legend ** great king." The
official version, preserved by Arrian in his Parthica {ap. Phot.
cod. 58: see Parthia), derives the line of these chieftains of the
Pamian nomads from Artaxerxcs U. In reality, however, the
Parthian Empire was totally different from its predecessor, both
externally and internally. It was anything rather than a world-
empire. The countries west of the Euphrates never owned its
dominion, and even of Iran itself not one half was subject to the
Arsacids. There were indeed vassal states on every hand, but
the actual possessions of the kings — the provinces governed by
their satraps — consisted of a rather narrow strip of land.stretch-
mg from the Euphrates and north Babylonia through southern
Media and Parthia as far as Arachosia (north-west Afghanistan),
and following the course of the great trade-route which from time
immemorial had carried the traffic between the west of Asia and
India. We still possess a, description of this route by Isidore
of Charax, probably dating from the Augustan period (in C.
MUller, Ceographi gracci minorcSy vol. i.), in which is contained
a list of the 18 imperial provinces, known also to Pliny (vi. 112,
cf 41). Isidore, indeed, enumerates nineteen; but, of these,
Sacastenc formed no part of the Parthian Empire, as has been
shov^'n by von Gutschmid.
The lou'cr pro\'inccs {i.e. the districts west of Parthia) are:
(i) Mesopotamia, with northern Babylonia, from the Euphrates bridge
at Zeugma to Selvucia on the Tigris; (2) Apolloniatis, the pf^yiQCf^
plain east of the Tigris, with Artcmita. (3) Chalonitis,
the hill-country of Zacros; (4) Western Media, (5) Cambadene, with
Bagistana (Behistun)— the mountainous portions of Media, (6)
Upper Media, with Ecbatana; (7) Rhagianc or Eastern Media.
Tncn with the Caspian Gates — the pass between Elburz and the
central desert, through which lay the route from west Iran *^
cast Iran — the upper provinces begin; (8) Choarene and (9
OvyaaXvA-
Kclitji (u) fi
-^ib^oiiily Dfi
dncribed by I
(86^ K-C.} al
« Pompcy. ho
during the nat
they ofdilated
conidouily or
thai HcUenHin
thrid A Eiratrr
(Uaertbii. M.
>Sr Silnt-l
i:rsTORY: AN-aEwn PERSIA
CRiie * fieil and unEted rioniinioD, such *> ciixed under Ihc cxpctuI InMiioiimn wtie bnTcmd
AchuDcnidt and wu ifterwitdi restored by the SiBanids. 'J*'-' cuimjo wilh id Onk iauriMi
Tm. Li« is the cl«r»t .ymplom ol th. i>m« .«kD«> o( ^dS,.i.r,^ jJ^nHi '^f.
euniBrW their empire and of the smill power wielded by Ihe khcre RUled. Miihndatet I. even I
itoMrtMu "king ol kinga." In conlraM alike wild ili predc' SelcucidiinLulMiium m-weity.Arac-, ,
=-<*-■ CHSor. and illaucceMon. Ihe Amcid do-nini^ «-■> »•"?« ,<^'! E^PJ'' "**"'* . The hnrKT th._J
pocdiarty . eh.™ formation. ....e^hich bad o>n;e tato i^"ti,'\tite.U''i:iK?:Sl^i'!yt:':S^*; eonoo.,-;
tiiiience Uuough toniuioiu eitcmil ciicunutancci, and had ihc liile ol PUHrlln, "the pniectnr id lleHeiuHn." wUch «•
DO &rm roiudaiion wiihin itself, or any iolriniic raimn 4'lUt. retained by atmoH ill hi> lucceuon. Tken (oHour th! Hnumca
-n. ■ f ^j f- j-« . 1- J -i. J . '. Epip/utia "the leiTaled sod. Dicatui "the lut." EMtrteta
*?■" J'5!?"".-'' J™' *''r"' '"'*■ tW'nbutcd lo lU "the beoerielor-'aU of (bemewentLilIy Creek In their ie(err«e,
u«ir ■nKlioi™ii(l'arlhia) pnihi;hordmo(eiviliHi!un,iiiidtheiit. myal rcw.lmce should be fiiu-d Ibeie. But u n one venliin-d to
(rjdjia% aTine«d furAcr diHncil as the political siiuaiioii or ihe transfer the nval hauHliuUl and the amy, vlth its hotdes of »iM
mkm rf u. njniihbHin albjwed. C^vquenily, ibev noinadi horwmen, to lie Gn-ek town of Selewij. and thus diiaetaiiiH: ii.
•en Ihe main p4br ol ihc emj-re, and iiom thnnweic obvioiBly „™merec. the Arsicids k( up Ihtir al.-k in the cnat vilLiK>' o(
^i*^™ «'^L?X™'"L.''-' I J!"'-i''V*; '?'■'" -""' ■"" °l Ctpiipboii, on the k-fl bank of the Tieri., oppnile lo S<.'k'uei.,
Kri^wtocompo«dil»m.»talt™nLil kdihcarniie^goyefned .hich actordinBhr retained U« Cfeo (lellenk: coHitHtiun (see
UK pnmnca and made and unmade ih* kin^i {Striho n. ji^j ClEslPllON andT4LEta*). So. alio, Oivdm t. innke Eood Creek,
JiHin mi, »: Ihe lo«m« lermng Ih™ mT."". h""nien imlCmk tracrtio wcreilajodalhlseaiifl (Pint. Oaii. M).
Sunms held ihc nnviL-EC ol Kiting the dbidcm OB Ibe head 01 Ihe the lii^inning ol a revtion i^nst llrllHiiiin— bm . ^nti-ni. >
M militan oTMiiiratioii, all the moiecfleclive lieraujeildcnendi-donlbcimneliis SStT
■«"-..The"«V*°!'.h«; of einru.n.lanee. work™ with aU Ke p«w of a natural SSSi-
loo.* 1 he esHnlial point b Ihal the Ea-I b twoplelely
divomd Irsm Ihc Mcdllefnnejn and Ihc llelh-nic wotld, that it
ran derive no frcshpoucn Iron that quancf,andlhat,«uni: '-
the influeocf of the Oriental ekmienta nust ateadily incm
niit irn ine nosiiic arm meinotiatj that Ihe Parthian EnpiR ha* kit. Fron irin lo
i^idly idoirn^ and r the porlniti Etow poorer aiHl inon neiMtypcd, ami Ibt Aicri|
Illy Pfactiied lor I
" ' ~ " -^ eandrrivenafn!shDouenfnMiihataiiancf.andlhat.ean^^,».„„,
ihe^ bnke u|h as ii icemed. procta ran be most elcarly IRired on Ibe ealna-^lnM Ihe sale
in has k-lt. From fdni lo reign
•tenotypcd, ami ibt fiicriniiant
ivioge tkat the ennivcr himvU
iiw^orinianiiy lonoiuiiiriri „„^ negleeted, (ill it bcmnn obvioge that the enniv
™ *™™"*™ 'p' "" ""T no lonp.T undcrsUnd Citek but copied michanicalh
ptaussbkciboKofhrnopolamii . . ,. ,. before Ell eyes. Mis the ease with Ihseontemporaiy In*. _,
nn powerlcM n wan -V. as the ntomun ^ Ihe atmo^ce n^nace, nnd also ia Mesene. Indeed. afUr Votncaen I. <si-77).
itliKd tbew bowiu The ^aniry, in ontraal wiih lu earhcr ,[„ Aramak: script is oceaskmally emplciyed. The poUlical oj.noy.
1 luin imder the Peiaiani, was wWly nculecied. On the other ,!„ „ ,!„ western emure*, the Srienclds Erst, Ihrn Ihe Romans.
Ui»d, e«ry nunule put into the field as many mounicd wam«. prcclpiialed Ibis devehipment. Naturally enooeh Ibe Creek cities
aipoBible. chicilyicrv.nii and bHichlilarts, who like the Jnni.- tehSd a liberator in every army Ihat inarched Irom the West,
sine, and MamcinloM, weie Inined eulusively (or war Thus and wrre ^-cr irady to cast h> tbrir bt wiih •uch-adtsnss.tkia
«. . , .._u.»i. k-i A ,1 , ..... „biequent pnnlly was not lacking. The forthiai
The«e lendencies talvn together explain Ihe radical v
-' •'" ■^rthkin Empire. Il was easy enough to colk^ct a Birat
I achieve a great victory i it was alnolulily impowiUe lo
irmvloKriher for any lonjvr period, <a to cimduci a reoular
. . . -.-— , — »— Thc_ l^uihians praved Incapable of creaElng a wm.
. ij - J^ ''*°'' P"*™o" Sasunlds aller Ihcm gave lo their empire. The kings Il^mich-ea
nrsaeldi are •IranEen to any ile™ »rn; toys In the hanib of the magnalrs and Ihe araiv who. lenici-
lo the Achuncnids and Suunidi). ously as they clung to the anointed dyiuoiy ol the Artacids. were
i gods and Ihe leadiiw tenets of u„c,|y indilfcrenl lo the pmon of the individual Anacul. Ei-eiy
Mjlan, and even obey tlTe command moment ihcy were ready to oi-erthrow the ri'lining monanh and
^dgs^and fajl. ^^^'^i^^JJj lo leal.anotW on hi. throne. The kings, loTlhSr part, .03111
»smh?t«JdeThe'™Ka of the rDbilily?lhere?a secolld coukS JE^^^m 'nnj"lK'i™t of ™mm S the'S ow"« n'j? 'SZuilll
■ "Mitiam and wise men "(SIrtbaiL sis). , ^ .,„ . arv enmw wen; Ihui of evcnilay occum™c in the royal hoiue-
— .. -•■- uadiiion. J ihe ArhaenjenidEmnre. hold; and Imptenlly il wm merely a mailer of chance whether
_.Jc fangofkmpi' and dcnveiheir tbelalheranticiiHlcdlhc»n,orlheson thclalher. The condiliona
[I Fnnher. the royal apotheosis ip,eommon „„ the ume aa obtained >ub>e<]ucnily under the Mahommedan
^mog under Ihe Sassaniik It iHoliably not so Cahphite (i.e.) and the emiiire oi the Ollomani. The inlemat
. nb<4 Creek ongin as a devrfopmeni o( Iranian views. For at history of the Parihiao dominion is an unbroken sequence of civfl
' *^^ ''.'he gTBit god Ahuiamazda Ilieie stands a host ol sub- war and dynastic strife.
H eradual Iran ianiiat ion of Ihe Panhian Empire - ■I'"— -'-— ^^ i s u e
ke bcl thai Ihe subsequenl Ir" ' -"--' — "
, .. ■ isci laai ine suDsequent iranuB iraaiiuRi, ana riroousi _. ..,. , ,-j„, ... ,,„ ,, , ,. t. -l- r
■ paitMlai. appl^ ihibame o( Ihe "Fanhbo" nagnatn These tondiliODi elucidate Ihc lad that the Parthian Empire,
I (n£inis1 ID the glorious heroes of the legendary epoeh. Con- though founded on anncialion and peipelually menaced by
•qirsUy, alv. Ihe bnpiage and wfiiing of the Panhian jienod. hostile ornu in bolh Ihe ICast and ihe West, yet j ~,Mfc.
''^lKh™''^TT^S<'M^^d^TSS[fh^Ar^£. ''=™ ^^ * """^ """""^ 'f'" "« ''»>"' "' '"■°"*'
i«ID1br<e'OriFnlalrl^lsmii.IbcaddedlhaIo(HcllenHm, MithtadalM II. It was bound 10 protect itacH i"^
t AiDinani w«U-cu1iur which had peneiiated Into Paithia igBinst Scythian aeKression in the East and '^'^
.^_^ and Media. It wu IndbpenaUe 10 every itaie which Roman aggrestion in Ihc West. To maintain, or regain, the
S^ 1S^"'J^^^MT, ^SjS'.'Sh TS^*™T^^'.K .u«ralnlyovetMoopotamiaandthevaHal.taie.of thairegicn.
a^^_. mierlv secluded as Persb and Alrofnrene; and the ^ _.^ ^^ _ s,,^.^-,!— -..j a,»«.7.. ...... ;,. -..k,- ;»».»,;..
~^ Arueids entertained Ihe kss thought o( oppo*ilkm a, "» 3™ owe Atropatcne and Armenia, «as 111 most imperative
■W wm destitute of an indepeDdcnl natiunal liatis. All Ihelr task. Ycl II always remained on Ihe defensive and even »0 waa
2l8
PERSIA
[HISTORY: ANCIENT
lacking in energy. Whenever it made an effort to enforce its
claims, it retreated so soon as it was confronted by a resolute
foe.
Thus the wars between Parthia and Rome proceeded, not
from the Parthians— deeply injured though they were by the
Wan wHb encroachments of Pompey — but from Rotne herself.
CnsMoa aad Rome had been obliged, reluctantly enough, to enter
^''•■** upon the inheritance of Alexander the Great; and,
since the time of Pompey, had definitely subjected to her
dominion the Hellenistic countries as far as the Euphrates.
Thus the task now faced (hem of annexing the remainder of the
Macedonian Empire, the whole East from the Euphrates to the
Indus, and of thereby saving Greek civilization (d. Plut. Comp.
NU. et Crass. 4). The aristocratic republic quailed before such
an enterprise, though Lucullus, at the height of his successes,
entertained the thought (Plut. Luc. 30). But the ambitious men,
whose goal was to erect their own sovereignty on the ruins of the
republic, took up the project. With this objective M. Licinius
Crassus, the triumvir, in 54 B.&, took the aggressive against
Parthia, the occasion being favourable owing to the dynastic
troubles between Orodcs I., the son of Phraates III., and his
brother Mithradates III. Crassus fell on the field of Carrhaf
(June 9, 53 B.C.). With thb Mesopotamia was regained by the
Parthians, and King Artavasdes of Armenia now entered their
alliance. But, apart from the ravaging of Syria (51 B.C.) by
Pacorus the son of Orodcs, the threatened attack on the Roman
Empire was carried into effect neither then nor during the dvil
wars of Caesar and Pompey. At the time of his assassination
Caesar was intent on resuming the expedition of Crassus. The
Parthians formed a league with Brutus and Cassius, as previously
with Pompey, but gave them no support, . until in 40 B.C. a
Parthian army, led by Pacorus and the republican general
Labienus, harried Syria and Asia Minor. But it was easily
repulsed by Ventidius Bassus, the lieutenant of Mark Antony.
Pacorus himself fell on the 9th of June 38 B.C. at Gindarus in
northern Syria. Antony then attacked the Parthians in 36 B.C.,
and penetrated through Armenia into Atropatene, but was
defeated by Phraates IV. — who in 37 B.C. had murdered his
father Orodes I. — and compelled to retreat with heavy losses.
The continuation of the war was frustrated by the conflict
with Octavian. Armenia alone was again subdued in 34 B.C.
by Antony, who treacherously captured and executed King
Artavasdes.
Roman opinion universally expected that Augustus would
take up the work of his predecessors, annihilate the Parthian
p^n^ M dominion, and subdue the East as far as the
jii^^ Indians, Scythians and Seres (cf. Horace and the other
Augustan poet$). But Augustus disappointed these
expectations. His whole policy and the needs of the newly
organized Roman Empire demanded peace. His efforts were
devoted to reaching a modus tivcndi^ by which the authority
of Rome and her most vital claims might be peacefully vindicated.
This the weakness of Parthia enabled him to effect without
much difficulty. His endeavours were seconded by the revolt
of Tiridates II., before whom Phraates IV. was compelled to
flee (32 B.C.), till restored by the Scythians. Augustus lent no
support to Tiridates in his second march on Ctesiphon (26 B.C.),
but Phraates was all the more inclined on that account to
stand on good terms with him. Consequently in 20 B.C., he
restored the standards captured in the victories over Crassus
and Antony, and recognized the Roman suzerainty over Osroene
and Armenia. In return, the Parthian dominion in Babylonia
and the other vassal states was left undisputed.
Thus it was due not to the successes and strength of the Par-
thians but entirely to the prindples of Roman policy as defined by
Augustus that their empire appears as a second great independent
power, side by side with Rome. The precedence of the Caesars,
indeed, was always admitted by the Arsadds; and Phraates IV.
soon entered into a state of dependency on Rome by sending
(9 B.C.) four of his sons as hostages to Augustus — a convenient
method of obviating the danger threatened in their person,
without the necessity of killing them. In 4 B.C., however.
Phraates was assassinated by his favourite wife Muaa and her
son Phraates V. In the subsequent broils a Parthian faction
obtained the release of one of the princes interned in Rome
as Vonones I. (aj>. 8). He failed, however, to maintain his
position for long. He was a stranger to the Parthian custoaa,
and the feeling of shame at dependency on the foreigner was
too strong. So the rival faction brought out another Arsadd,
resident among the Scythian nomads, Artabanus IL, iriio
easily expelled Vonones — only to create a host of fmrmirs bj
his brutal cruelty, and to call forth fresh disorders.
Similar proceedings were frequently repeated in the period
following. In the intervals the Parthians made several atteoqits
to reassert their dominion over Armenia and there
install an Arsacid prince; but on each occasion SSsS^mmA
they retreated without giving battle so soon as the
Romans prepared for war. Only the dynasty of Atropetcne
was finally deposed and the country placed under an Arsadd
ruler. Actual war with Rome broke out imder Vcdogacses L
(5i~77)i ^bo made his brother Tiridates king of Armenis.
After protracted hostilities, in which the Roman army was
commanded by Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a peace was condnded
in AJ>. 63, confirming the Roman suzerainty over Armenia but
recognizing Tiridates as king (see Corbulo). Tiridates hinsdf
visited Rome and was there invested with the diadem by
Nero (aj>. 66). After that Armenia continued under the nde
of an Arsadd dynasty.
These successes of Vologaeses were counteihalanced by
serious losses in the East. He was hampned in an energelk
campaign against Rome by attacks of the Dahae and SaicMi
Hyrcania, also, revolted and asserted its independence under
a separate line of kings. A little later, the Alans, a great Iranin
tribe in the south of Russia — the ancestors of the present-day
Ossets— broke for the first time through the Caucasian paae^
and ravaged Media and Armenia — an incursion whidi they ofta
repeated in the following centuries.
On the other side, the reign of Vologaeses L b dmncterimd
by a great advance in the Oriental reaction against "^'Tfr't^
Tlie line of Arsadds which came to the throne in the petaoo of
Artabanus II. (aj>. xo) stands in o^pta. opposition to the old
kings with their leanings to Rome and, at least external, tnfs
of Hellenism. The new r6gime obviously laid much more stioi
on the Oriental character of their state, though PhilostiatMii
in his life of Apollonius of Tyana(who visit^l the Parthian cooitX
states that Vardanes I. (a.d. 40-45), the rival king to the bntri
Gotarzcs (aj>. 40-51), wfis a cultivated man {VU. i4>. L as, slii
31 sqq.); and Vologaeses I. is distinguished by the
relations which subsisted all his life between himadf and
brothers Pacorus and Tiridates, the kings of Media and ,
But the coins of Vobgaescs I. are quite barbarous, and for thi
first time on some of them appear the initials of the namt ef
the king in Aramaic letters by the side of the Gre^
The Hellenism of Sdeuda was now attacked with
mination. For seven years (aj>. 37-43) the dty
itself in open rebellion (Tac. Ann. xL 8 seq.), till
surrendered to Vardanes, who in consequence enlarged <
which was afterwards fortified by Pacorus (1
V. Ammian. 33, 6, 23). In the nd^bourhood of the same toM
Vologaeses I. founded a dty Vologesocerta (Bahuhkcrt), li
which he attempted to transplant the populaticm to
(PUn. vi. 122: d. Th. N5ldeke in Zeitsckr. d. deuisck
CeseUschafi, xxviii., xoo). Another of his fonndatSooi vH
Vologesias (the Arabian UUaisk), situated near BSra ea Ai
Euphrates, south of Babylon, which did appredahle
the commerce of Sdeucia and is often mentioned hi
tions as the destination of the Palmyrene caravans.
After Vologaeses I. follows a period of great disluibsacii
The literary tradition, indeed, deserts us almost entir^Ti M
the coins and isolated literary rderences prove that dm&ig At
years a.d. 77 to 147, two kings, and sometimes three or mM
were often reigning concurrently (Vobgaeses 11. 77-79^ Ml
111-147; Pacorus 78-c. 105; Osroes 106-129; Mithradrttl 1*
129-147: also Artabanus III. 8o-8x; Mithradates IV. aadl^
at hat 11
(ajdu TS-tos:
HBTORY: ANCfSNTI
PERSIA
219
SOB Sanatniices II. 115; and Parthamispatei 116-1x7). Ob-
vfaa^ the empire am never have been at peace during these
ycazs» a fact which materially assisted the aggressive campaigns
off Trajan (XX3-X17). Trajan resuscitated the
fmat old project of Crassus and Caesar, by which the
empire of Alexander as far as India was to be won
for Western civilisation. In pursuance of this plan
he reduced Armenia, Mesopotamia and Fabylonia to the posi-
tkn of imperial provinces. On his death, however, Hadrian
hnmrdiatdy reverted to the Augustan policy and restored the
coaqoests. Simultaneously there arose in the East the powerful
Indo^Scythian empire of the Kushana, which doubtless limited
ttin further the Parthian possessions iv eastern Iran.
An era of quiet seems to have returned with Vologaeses III.
(x47-i9x)y and we hear no more of rival kings. With the Roman
Ei^Mxe a profound peace had reigned since Hadrian (117),
vfaicfa was first disturbed by the attack of Marcus Aureh'us and
Aeiiaa Venis in x63. This war, which broke out on the question
of Annenia and Osroene, proved of decisive significance for the
fntnie development of the East, for, in its course, Seleuda was
destioyed by the Romans under Avidius Cassius (164). The
down£dI of the great Greek dty sealed the fate of Hellenism
B the countries east of the Euphrates. Henceforward Greek
coltore practically vanishes and gives place to Aramaic; it is
^gnificant that in future the kings of Mesene stamped their
coinagie with Aramaic legends. This Aramaic victory was
powexfoHy aided by the ever-increasing progress of Christianity,
vUch soon created, as is well known, an Aramaic literature
^^ of which the language was the dialect of Edessa, a city
' in which the last king of Osroene, Abgar IX. (179-
1x4). had been converted to the faith. After that Greek
cakuxe axid Greek literature were only accessible to the Orientals
b aa Araxxuic dress. Vologaeses III. is probably also the
Ung Valgasb, who, according to a native tradition, preserved
fa the Dmkartf began a collection of the sacred writings of
Zonoster — the origin of the Avesta which has come down to us.
This would show how the national Iranian element in the
fluthian Empire was continually gathering strength.
The Roman war was closed in 165 by a peace which ceded
Htth-wcst Mesc^potamia to Rome. Similar conflicts took place
fa X9S'303 between Vologaeses IV. (iqx-soq) and Septimius
Semus, and again in 2x6-2x7 between Ajtabanus IV. (209-226)
tad Caracalla. They failed, however, to affect materially the
position of the two empires.
Vm. Tke SassamaH £m^e.— That the Arsadd Empire
drndd have endured some 350 years after its foundation by
^yg^gl^j^ Mithradates I. and Phraates II., was a result, not
of internal strength, but of chance working in its
atecnal devdopment. It might equally well have so existed
far centuries more. But under Artabanus IV. the catastrophe
ame. In his days there arose in Persis — precisely as Cyrus
fad arisen under Astyages the Mede — a great personality.
iMasUr (Artaxerzes) I., son of Papak (Babek), the descendant
4 Saiftn, was the sovereign of one of the small states into which
hak had gradually faJlen. His father Papak had taken
loamion of the district of Istakhr, which had replaced the old
koepolis, long a noass of ruins. Thence Ardashir I., who
*VMd from i^ut aj>. 2x2, subdued the neighbouring poten-
iMa— diqwsing of his own brothers among the rest. This
iRNxeding qtuckly led to war with his suzerain Artabanus IV.
Tk conflict was protracted through several years, and the
I^rtUans wi^e worsted in three battles. The last of these
^bOKd the fall of Artabanus (aj>. 226), though a Parthian
^t Artavasdes— perhaps a son of Artabanus IV. — who is
^ fawwn to us from his own coins, appears to have retained
* portion of the empire for some time longer. The members
<f tfa Atsadd line who fell into the hands of the victor were put
fa death; a number of the princes found refuge in Annenia,
■fare the Arsadd dynasty maintained itsdf till a.d. 429.
Ifaimainder of the vassal states — Carmania, Susiana, Mesene
■•HB ended by Ardashir; and the autonomous desert fortress
if Bitift in Mesopotamia was destroyed by his son Shapur
(Sapor) I., according to the Persian and Arabian traditions,
which, in this point, are deserving of credence. The victorious
Ardashir then took possession of the palace of Ctcsiphon and
assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians" (/SaffiXeds
PatriXhuw 'A/xaH>).
The new empire founded by Ardashir I. — the Sassanian,
or Neo-Persian Empire — is essentially different from that of
his Arsadd predecessors. It is, rather, a continua- SMmmmmi^
tion of the Achaemenid traditions which were still WanwMM
alive on their native soiL Consequently the national '^"'^
impetus^-already dearly revealed in the title of the new
sovereign — again becomes strikingly manifest. The Sassanian
Empire, in fact, is once more a national Persian or Iranian
Empire. The religious dement is, of course, inseparable
from the national, and Ardashir, like all the dynasts of Persis,
was an ardent devotee of the Zoroastrian doctrine, and closely
connected with the priesthood. In his royal style he assumed
the designation "Mazdayasnian" (Maff^dovar), and the fire-
cult was everywhere vigorously disseminated. Simultaneously
the old claims to world dominion made their reappearance.
After the defeat of Artabanus, Ardashir, as heir of the Achae-
menids, formulated his pretensions to the dominion of western
Asia (Dio. Cass. 80, 3; Hcrodian vi. 2, 4; Zonar. xii. 15; similarly
under Shapur IL: Ammian. Marc. xviL 5, 5). He attacked
Armenia, though without permanent success (cf. von Gutschmid
in Zeitsckr. d, d. morgerU. Gts. xzxi. 47, on the fabulous Armenian
account of these wars), and despatched his armies against
Roman Mesopotamia. They strayed as far as Syria and
Cappadocia. The inner decay of the Roman Empire, and the
widespread tendency of its troops to mutiny and usurpation,
favoured his enterprise. Nevertheless, the armies of Alexandtf
Sevcrus, supported by the king of Armenia, succeeded in repelling
the Persians, though the Romans sustained severe losses (23X-
233). Towards the end of his reign Ardashir resumed the attack;
while his son Shapur L (241-273) reduced Nisibis and Carrhae
and penetrated into Syria, but was defeated by sbMa»L
Gordian III. at Resaena (243). Soon afterwards,
however, the Roman Empire seemed to collapse utterly. The
Goths defeated Decius (251) and harried the Balkan Peninsula
and Asia Minor, while insurrections broke out everywhere and
the legions created one Caesar after the other. Then Shapur
resumed the war, subdued Armenia and plundered Antioch.
The emperor Valerian, who marched to encounter him, was
overthrown at Edessa and taken prisoner (260). The Persian
armies advanced into Cappadocia; but here BaJlista or Balista
(d. c. 264) beat them back, and Odcnathus (Odainath), prince of
Palmyra (9.0.), rose in their rear, defeated Shapur, captured
his harem, and twice forced his way to Ctesiphon (263-265).
Shapur was in no position to repair the defeat, or even to hold
Armenia; so that the Sa^uinid power failed to pass the bounds
of the Arsadd Empire. Nevertheless Shapur I., in contrast
to his father, assumed the title " King of the kings of the Iranians
and non-Iranians" {fiaaCKitbi fiaaCSkuv 'Xpiavtav Kal 'Apopiavutv;
skah an shah Iran we Aniran)^ thus emphasizing his claim to
world dominion. His successors retained the designation,
little as it corresponded to the facts, for the single non-Iranian
land governed by the Sassanids was, as under the Parthians,
the district of the Tigris and Euphrates as far as the Mesopo-
tamian desert^ western and northern Mesopotamia remained
Roman.
The Sassanid ruler is the representative of th^ *' Kingly Majesty,"
derived from Ormuzd, which appears in the Avfsta as the angel
Kavaem Hvareno, " the royal ^fory," and, according to ^ .
Icffcnd, once beamed in the Iranian kings, unattainab^ to ^2?*^
allbut those of royal blood. A picture, which frequently ^^'
recurs in the rock-reliefs of Araashir I. and Shapur U, represents
the king and the god Ormuzd both on horseback, the latter in the
act of handine to his companion the ring of sovereignty. Thus it
b explicable tnat all the Sassanids, as many of the Arsacidi before
them, include the desigtiation of " eod " in their formal style.
From thb developed (as already under the Arsacids) that strict
principle of legitimacy which is still vigorous in Firdousi. It
applies, however, to the whole royal house, nrccisely as in the
Ottoman Empire of to-day. The person of tne individual ruler
IHlSTORVi ANCIEMT
id oi cfch being m UarAam (" bouniiv^f-hml,'^
lord oJ the nuTchea"). Hihc wen «eiud onipdHd m fou,
mat diithctJL With eich oi theve local potentita the hinc could
deal vith «i aant cooiidentian u be pkaecd. alinyi pcflvidrd
that be had (he power or undentosd the an o( makliit himKtf
feared. Bui to break IhrouEb the lyttefa a replace it by Mxotha
wa> iflipoHiblb In fact be wat compelled to nocpnl with vrvmr
caulioo wlieiievei be wiibed lo devate a fs
origin to aa office whkb cuitoa
it u alt tbc obore worthy d recocoitba tli
'wie Perpan leUEion, aa we ban eeen, nnad man and Bdn
widely after the Achaemeniap period- In the IndoScyrhiaB
Empire the Peniap godi were icaloutly wonhipped^ id Armcaia lie
old lutional relioion waa almost entirely bamihed tiy the Peraaa
ruli. (Gelier, "Zur armen. Cfitterlebn," Jn_S<r. d. ftOt. Gak.
^""^ formed the ba«» of the army, posacased adequate
""^ iirrnaih: and though the Scythian noniads from the
fit. orlhc Romans from the writ, misht accaiionally penetrate drep
But the power of the neo-Penian Empire wu not treat enough
by a [at Rronger national tctUng Ihnn ihai.oflhe Panhiana. it
led by thrir 'icrrilorioi lords; and. although tl '
manently logciher. For, on the — "■ — '
Sthe most rtticd personal inter
ich the king could lalitfy: on _ _
owing to the natural character and or^nitalion of hie dominiofu.
maintain and pay a large army for any length of time. Thue the
great host* soon melictl away, and a war. bcvun auccfufully.
ended inglorioudy, and often dlsatlrouily. Under uch circum-
naneea an elaboiaM tactical organiiatxHi employing diilcrent
■pccki ol ariM, or the eiecution tJ a comprehensive [fin of can-
Valerian— fiut immediately afterwards niccesscs. luch as ,.
K'ned against Shapur I. (who was certainly an able fenenil] by weiT diligently ol__.
Ilisla and Odenaihua of Palmyra, or the later victories of Cami, earth with comes,
being oa an cquauty >hiih the Romans. That Babylonia perma- preserved h" """ — '""
■ith natioi
K^lng or
wnily 1
in provinn^ was due merely \p the worshippcn victory t
:d the nohlical situation of the Roman the SasanJda, ai also
geographical conditions and to the political situation of the Roman the SasianJda,
Empire, Dot to tbc strength of the Peruans. backasa war-|
royal house — were still ivgarded ai the foremost, precisely u Orniunl and Ahrima
-^ under the Acharmcnids. and from these were mnwn infinite time (Zcrvan),
VZ the generals, crown oIKcials and goveraon (cf. _Ptoco|>, under the Sl«anid>
'"''"^ Pet,, i. fi, 13 sqn.). In the last of these positions w( of Zervanites" was
frequently find princes of the blood, who thca bear the ro^'al title ritual and the doctri
(shah). Someoi these house^'whose origin the legends denve from and there waa evolvec
KingGushtasp((.€.Vlsbta.pa),lheprolectorof Zoroaster (Marquan, deaKnr with all thingi
Zrilitkr. d. t. nsnwii'. Ca- xlix- DJJ sqq.), already existed under and the eipiation loi
the Arsacids, c.f. tbe Suren (Siirenaa, tiie tupn. p. 79S) and ICaTTn monotony vividly no
(Carenn. Tac. Ann- aiu 13 sqq.). who had obviifusly embived tli~ ""
cause of the victorious dynasty at the " ' ^' ~ ---*
laintdlhtirpovtion. The name Pahlava:
the Parthian magnates, passed over into the new empire. Below
lliese there was an inferior nobility, the iiilians C village-lords "] —
and the " kniehts" [on.'or); who, as among the Panhians. tmA ' It may
Uk &cld in heavy scalc-arraouc. To an even greater nteot than the Mithrai
HISTORY: ANCIENT]
o( iW bnihcn. a nuvnnn
tan« III. hid ainadr bq
DTihodoi doclrion tad tc
pnsribcd. Thi»aroKthc
Xbcrtv ill. Ihe Hcml book o
dc^cBcraiing into almirdit;
cjiKcniih culu and [i
man to the land and a dc
' duty q( the brUcxTr it
thciicraic Intlion, i:
lE^ [ur Dnifonnity of cmd, Aid.iihir wubcd to ntiniulih Uu The mclal'oork, aiptlt and fabrici o[ Ihii piijud eniotcd ' I>>B)>
bnlr &H. in Ibc Ercntcitin o( thr onpin ud (hcPirlhian vaiul npulMioni Ihey were widely diuHbulcd and even inBixwcd
itdlcctuil lir« and literature of Ihe Saiunid era Ihe
:tcrutic it the com^lett disapfKnnnce of llrllcni>Ri and
., — , — .,, — , , . — .„_ — lanEiUEC. Arcbsnir 1. and bhapur L *till ,^
isn — even IhoH: of (be Iranian Eodii vhidi were here coaiidered appended Greek tranilationi to loine ol tbvir Imciin- ^"■w*'
ji&n.— and tuned the diruief inia fire-allan (Ceticr. Bir. tioDii but lU ol later date are drawn up in Pahlavi *lone. The
EJhj. Gti. p- T55» >''9S)^ Shapur 1.^ who np^ara to fanve had a coins invariably iKur a I'lihUvi lcflrnd''-on tbr ubveric the kinE'i
ndcT ouiloDk, added to the religioui vritingi a collectioo of head with hi* name nod iitlc» on the reveiHe* a fire-altar {aenerdliy
cdiiftc irealifn on medicine, attronomy, mathematics, pbil^ «itb the ascriptioa "£reof Anhuhir, Shapur. ^.," ^j. the fire ol
■Vjw, &i., partly tmrn Indian and Cretk logreej. the to^al Mln^. »nd the r ' -•-- -' ' — ' -"-
iG>out devclopmeni was oiost (iranffly influenced by the abbreviated. Tbo re '
.,.-,- , — ,...._... . __ ...__, ..rmiffly mfluenced by the abbreviated. Tbo real mn— — _— ,— _
Im Ilul. meanwhile, a powerful oppcinrnt of Zoroastiianism had theAraniaeaiD(Syrians),whowcncanncctnl with the West by
_j.._ _ -.i __ _._,.., pmpjnndian and an Chri«ianity, and la Ihrir tianibtiani dilliucd Creek, liicn
. More especially ihroiigh the Orient. But Ihi-n alio dcvriopnl
The fundamental work on Sjuanian hiuor^
fcMi» jg ,1^ countciet of Ibe Ticrit and Euphiate*, now alto- llhlavi lilenim, not Umlled to lell^uui ubiccli. but coniainini
^^- tether Aramaic. Chiiuianity had everyvhcrs pined a worki ia Mfri liUrfi, puderaiiatkMa of the old Iranian latas and
fan footioc.* But its niusiaaary enterprise Hlctched over the whole native tndHlMi^ t.i. the HirvlviBf labuIoBi hl>tary of AidaKhir 1..
el Inn. and *v«i farther. The liaie was come when, in the western ethical tiki. Ac., with tiuuluiasof [iirel« Etrmture.Minripallv
and tulem worlds alike, the religious quniion was lor laiie masse* Indiaa,— eae lulance bekif the cdebnted book of talc* Kalilali
<i pHsle the most imponant qucuioa in lite, and the tUHusion and DimHtk (see SVKljlc LlIEKAIfkB). datin* from Cbotrocs t.,
e( their own creed and the suppreiaion ol all olheu the highe*t in whore reign chesi also was Introduced from India.
•ad ka&nt ot Uikt. The nun who thinks thus knows no com. Authoiities.— Bide tnr lidc with the icmunti ol Roman and
pnuje. and so Zon^tlriaaiun and Chnttianitv confronted each Creek author* kiandt the indigenou* tradition which, e?.pccially
otW a* mortal enemies. Still the old idea thai every reliftion for the Eater year* of the empire, is fcnerally trtistwonhy. ft
rmrainwl a rw^rt\nt, nf ihe t'Ulh, and that It was po^ble to borrow goes baeb to a laljve work. Ibe Kkudat Kama {" book ol lords ").
id anulgamate it with another, had not yvt eompikd uader Chturoc* t. and eontinuFd to.Vaidtnrd HI. It*
Maniihacism (j.B.) is 30 attempt to weUithe bined with nunurou* Aiatuan mdiiiiin.: ilin in ihi. noMlril
the Gospel and the doctrine of Zoroaster . -. . .
liyG" UuHiaana
uiwi' "
__, , ,„. _ JoFai ... .
ma iscUned to him, till in a great disputalion the Msiians on the chconokigy ancTarEaniialiiin ot the empire). On thi> u
(Ucd the predominance. None the kn Mani louod means bawd N'AIdekc'a Xi/ialuiur^I. CclCit. (itIB;; canluinin|a hiilory
iV beir to the throne. Hormiid t. (rrigned t7>'I7J). was quiring nrnlion are:X'. ^wluiion. Tin Snnlli Crtat Orialal
Imnably diwosed to him; but Shapur'* yuunnr son. Biihram I. MHiirat(IB76).aiH]F.JuUi'i>telehlBlheCtaiidrln J<r Oaajiitn
tir)-i7fr|. yidded to sacerdotal pressure, and Mini was cnxuted. J't^nJafJi. vol. iL Ciqo>|). Farihetni«iipkyandnu«enHi*delailsaf
met th» Manichacisni wa* peraecutcd and extiipated Inilran. admbiilratiiMi: 1. Marqiurt,"EnBihahr'' (ilH.rf.xMMu.Co, rf.
Yn h niintained itself not merely in the west, where its head Wiiunuh., 1901). For the miaiiBiBlaiiin the woiId al A. D.
niU at Babylon—Propagating thence Car into the Roman Mordlmana are of prime Importance, especially Ui artlein in the
raTw but also in the cast, in Khoraian and beyond the Zcilaki. d. d. marttnt. Oa. (1879). sudil. 1 1 1 iqq. and ujtiv.
nab of Ihe Sassaiuan dominion. Thert the seat of its pen- i iqq. (18H0). where the inscription* of the bKKvidual kings aia
d ns at ^markand: thence It penetrated into Ceatnl Asia, alio eaumeraled. Also Ni^eks, ibid. Iiii. 147 ein- (1^). Far
>k«, bailed in the desert said* irtileh entoab the citin ol facsimilnofcinnstheinncipal woiltiiI.de Banhaknnacl, CMbrltsa
■am Turkeotas, aunemui fiaiiiem* of the works of Mani dc ■mnuici isiioirMr) find ed.. St Pctrnibunt, iStS). For the
•■I Us disciple*, in the Persian 1an«ii« (Pahlavi) and Svriaa inscriptions: Edward Thoma*. " Early Sassaalan Inicriplians."
Bin. sad iaaaEau Iranian dialect, uUed Soediaa. whkh wa* Jsara. R. .1. 5ix. vol. ii. (iflAHli West. -^Pahlavi Literature^' in the
M by the Mankhaeins of Central Ahi. have been diieaveicd CrmJriit d. iniii. FkUiil. vol. li. For the menumenta: IHandia and
pCUODtr. ■■ Handicbriltennjle in EilnngcUnchrift aui Tuifan. Cnite, VoyoB en i*crK (1851): Slolie, fmt/Wlir (thSl); Fr. Sairt.
■ CUa«iK:b-TurkesIan."in^»k.it.kFl.^h>if., 1901); among them Iran. Ftlirdtrfi a. d. Z. itr AchicmrniiUii tind SaiaaOn (1908).
?ss™.^"r^''::.^."ii"t'br''^^<^"it^^^;'r i° '""='«» t^''^ ""= r^^^^"^" '^' ^"^'^ '^'
Bifalti&ed^^lh'^tbe Zerv^o ot Zarathu>Ici.m, the devil with iekc, Toiari p aU).
MW™. The lurther relipou, development ol the 5a»anid ^^}'ui-S?-^-
^ will be touched ut». later. US^^^'l'V'.M.
'Fgr the pTDpagaiion aadMitory of the Christian* in the Sassanid Yaidcgerd I.. 399-470.
•mkt. d. Ijbourt, Lt Cliriiliaiiiimt dam frmfirr pnu mi la Bahtam V., Gor. 4»>-4jS.
JMUic larsaniid^ (1904): Hamack, DU Miaiim md Amhrtiliuiii Yaidegerd II., 43»-457.'
■■ CbidnClassi n dra irilni ifrri Jatlrkuiiiirltn, 1. Aufl. (1906), Hormud III.. 497-499.
■a 11. p. Ill leg. : Cbahot. Symadict* erinlalf (i 901) (a colleclion of Peroi. 4j;-484.
WKUof the Nourian synods bekl under thcruWatiheSBsiaalds). Balash, 484-4W.
222
PERSIA
(HISTX)RY: ANCIENT
remained as of old, the defence and, when possible, the expansion
of the eastern and western frontiers. In the first two centuries
muarr ^^ ^^^ Sassanid Empire we hear practically nothing
otun of its relations with the East. Only occasional
Sa»*MatMa notices show that the inroads of the Oriental nomads
^"^''*' had not ceased, and that the extent of the empire
had by no means exceeded the bounds of the Parthian dominion
— Sacastene (Seistan) and western Afghanistan. Far to the east,
on both sides of the Indus, the Kushana Empire was still in exis-
tence, though it was already hastening to decay, and about
A.D. 320 was displaced from its position in India by the Gupta
dynasty. In the west the old conflict for Osroene and northern
Mesopotamia (now Roman provinces), with the fortresses of
Edessa, Carrhae and Nisibis, still smouldered. Armenia the
Sassanids were all the more eager to regain, since there the
Arsacid dynasty still survived and turned for protection to
Rome, with whom, in consequence, new wars perpetually broke
out. In the reign of Bahram II. (276-293), the emperor Cams,
burning to avenge the disaster of Valerian, penetrated into
Mesopotamia without meeting opposition, and reduced Coche
(near Seleucia) and Ctesiphon; but his sudden death, in
December of 283, precluded further success, and the Roman army
returned home. Bahram, however, was unable to effect any-
thing, as his brother Hormizd was in arms, supported by the
Sacac and other tribes. (Mamertin, Panegyr. Maximin. 7. 10;
CetuM. Maximin. 5, 17.) He chose, consequently, to buy
peace with Diocletian by means of presents. Some years later
his uncle and successor, Narses, after subduing his rival Bahram
III., occupied Armenia and defeated the emperor Galerius
at Callinicum (296). But in the following year he sustained a
severe reverse in Armenia, in which he lost his war-chest and
harem. He then concluded a peace, by the terms of which
Armenia remained under Roman suzerainty, and the steppes
of northern Mesopotamia, with Singara and the hill-country
on the left bank of the Tigris as far as Gordycne, were ceded
to the victor (Ammian. Marc. xxv. 7, 9; Pctr. Patr. fr. 13, 14;
Rufus brev. as)- In return Narses regained his household.
This peace, ratified in 297 and completely expelling the Sassanids
from the disputed districts, lasted for forty years.
For the rest, practically nothing is known of the history
of the first six successors of Shapur I. After the death of
Hormizd II. (302-310), the son of Narses, the magnates
imprisoned or put to death his adult sons, one of whom,
Hormisdas, later escaped to the Romans, who used him as a
pretender in their wars. Shapur II., a posthumous child of the
late king, was then raised to the throne, a proof that the great
magnates held the sovereignty in their own hands and attempted
to order matters at their own pleasure. Shapur, however,
when he came to manhood proved himself an independent and
energetic ruler.
Meanwhile the Roman Empire had become Christian, the
sequel of which was that the Syro-Christian population of
giuip^fr, Mesopotamia and Babylonia — even more than the
pitntcHOoa Hellenic cities in former times—gravitated to the
ottba west and looked to Rome for deliverance from the
CMBttMaa, infidel yoke. On similar grounds Christianity, as
opposed to the Mazdaism enforced officially by the Sassanids,
became predominant in Armenia. Between these two great
creeds the old Armenian religion was unable to hold its own;
as early as a.d. 294 King Tiridates was converted by Gregory
the Illuminator and adopted the Christian faith. For this very
reason the Sassanid Empire waathe more constrained to champion
Zoroastrianism. It was under Shapur II. that the compilation
of the Avesta was completed and the state orthodoxy perfected
by the chief tnobcd, Aturpad. AU heresy was proscribed by the
(Bahram VI., Cobin, Bistam 590-
596.)
Kavadh II., Sherof, 628.
Ardashir III., 62S-630.
(Shahrbaraz, 630.)
(Boran and others. 630-633.)
Yazdegerd HI., 633-051.
are leparate articles.
Kavadh I., 488-531.
(Djamasp. ^96-498).
Chosrocs (Khosrau) I., AnushiT'
van, 531-579-
Hormizd IV., 579-590.
Choaroes II., Parves, 590-628.
On most of these kings there
state, defection from the true faith pronounced a capital crime,
and the persecution of the heterodox — particularly the Chris-
tians— began (cf. Sachall, " Die rechtlichen Verhlltnisse der
Christen in Sassanidenreich," in MiUtilungcn dcs Seminan
fUr orienUUische Sprachen jUr Berlin, Bd. X., Abl. 2, 1007).
Thus the duel between the two great empires now becomes
simultaneously a duel between the two religions.
In such a position of affairs a fresh war with Rome was inevit-
able.^ It was begun by Shapur in a.d. 337, the year that saw
the death of Constantine the Great. The conflict centred round
the Mesopotamian fortresses; Shapur thrice besieged Nisibis
without success, but reduced several others, as Amida
(359) and Singara (360), and transplanted great masses of
inhabitants into Susiana. The emperor Constantius conducted
the war feebly and was consistently beaten in the field. But,
in spite of all, Shapur found it impossible to penetcate deeper
into the Roman territory. He was hampered by the attadt
of nomadic tribes in the east, among whom the Chionites now
begin to be mentioned. Year after year he took the field against
them (353-358), till finally he compelled them to support him
with auxiliaries (Ammian. Mate 14, 3; 16, 9; 17, 5; 18, 4, 6).
With, this war is evidently connected the foundation of tlie
great town New-Shapur (Nishapur) in Khorasan.
By the resolution of Julian (363) to begin an energetic attadk
on the Persian Empire, the conflict, after the lapse of a quarter
of a century, assumed a new phase. Julian pressed forward
to Ctesiphon but succumbed to a wound; and his successor Jovian
soon found himself in such straits, that he could only extricate
himself and his army by a disgraceful peace at the dose of 36>
which ceded the possessions on the Tigris and the great fortrem
of Nisibis, and pledged Rome to abandon Armenia and bs
Arsacid prot£g6, Arsaces III., to the Persian.
Shapur endeavoured to occupy Armenia and introduce the
Zoroastrian orthodoxy. He captured Arsaces III. by iTtadnaj
and compelled him to commit suicide; but the Armenisa
magnates proved refractory, placed Arsaces' son Pap on thi
throne, and found secret support among the Romans. Thii
all but led to a new war; but in 374 Valens sacrificed Pap sad
had him killed in Tarsus. The subsequent invasions of the
Goths, in battle with whom Valens fell at Adrianople (375)1
definitely precluded Roman intervention; and the end of the
Armenian troubles was that (c. 390) Bahram IV. and llieodaiiBi
the Great concluded a treaty which abandoned the extroat
west of Armenia to the Romans and confirmed the remainder k
the Persian possession. Thus peace and friendship ooaU A
last exist with Rome; and in 408 Yazdegerd I. contracted sa
alliance with Theodosius II. In Armenia the Persians
immediately removed the last kings of the house of
Arsaces (430), and thenceforward the main portion
of the country remained a Persian province under the oootnl
of a marzban, though the Armenian nobles still made repeated
attempts at insurrection. The introduction of ZoroastriaaiaB
was abandoned; Christianity was already far too deeply rooted.
But the sequel to the Roman sacrifice of Armenian interests wai
that the Armenian Christians now seceded from the ortbodoiy
of Rome and Constantinople, and organized themsdves inte
an independent national church. This church was due, bcfoit
all, to the efforts of the Catholicos Sahak (390-439), whose
colleague Mcsrob, by his translation of the BiUe, laid the
foundations of an Armenian literature (see Armenian ChubciO*
In the interior of the Sassanian Empire the old trouUes bnki
out anew on the death of Shapur 11. (379). At first the migmUS
raised his aged brother Ardashir II. to the throne, then is 3^
deposed him and enthroned Shapur's son as
Shapur III. In 388, however, he was assassinated,
as was also his brother, Bahram IV., in 399. But the
son of the latter, Yazdegerd I. (399-420), was an energetie sal
intelligent sovereign, who hdd the magnates within bomidi
and severely chastised their attempts at encroachment Bl
even sought to emancipate himself from the Magian Choidh ^
* For the succeeding events see also under RmcE: Aneitai Bbkifi i
and articles on the Roman emperors and Persian Idofk ' ':
I
I
BBTORY: ANCIENT)
PERSIA
223
pat IB end to the persecutions, and allowed the Penian Christians
an individual organization. In the Persian tradition he is
oooflequeoUy known at " the sinner." In the end he was
probably assassinated. So great was the bitterness against
hnn that the magnates would admit none of his sons to the
throne. One of them, however, Bahram V., found an auxiliary in
the Arab chief Mondhir, who had founded a principality in Hira,
west of the lower Euphrates; and, as he pledged him-
self to govern otherwise thaji his father, he received
general recognition. This pledge he redeemed, and
Ik is, in consequence, the darling of Persian tradition, which
bestows- on him the title of Cor (" the wild ass ")• and is eloquent
OB his adventures in the chase and in love. This reversal of
policy kd to a Christian persecution and a new war with Rome.
Bahram, however, was worsted; and in the peace of 422 Persia
agreed to allow the Christians free exercise of their religion in
the empire, while the same privilege was accorded to Zoroastrian-
ism by Rome. Under his son, Yazdegerd II. (438-457), who once
Boce revived the persecutions of the Christians and the Jews,
a diovt conflict with Rome again ensued (441): while at the same
time war prevailed in the east against the remnants of the
Koshan Empire and the tribe of Kidarites, also named Huns.
Here a new foe soon arose in the shape of the Ephthalites
{JBcUab^t also known as the " White Huns," a barbaric tribe
which shortly after a.d. 450 raided Bactria and ter-
minated the Kushana dominion (Procop. Pers. i. 3).
These Ephthalite attacks harassed and weakened
the Sassanids, exactly as the Tocharians had harassed and
weakened the Arsacids after Phraates II. Peroz (457-484) fell
in battle against them; his treasures and family were captured
and the country devastated far and near. His brother Balash
14^-488), being unable to repel them, was deposed and blinded,
and the crown was bestowed on Kavadh I. (488-531), the son
«f Perez. As the external and internal distress still continued
Ve was dethroned and imprisoned, but took refuge among the
£pfathalites and was restored in 499 by their assistance — like
^gff^M SO many Arsacids by the arms of the Dahac and
Sacae. To these struggles obviously must be
■Ui3>Bted mainly the fact that in the whole of this period no
Soou war broke out. But, at the same time, the religious
^had lost in intensity, since, among the Persian Christians,
tk Nestorian doctrine was now dominant. Peroz had already
Cnoored the di£[usion of Nestorianism, and in 483 it was ofTtcially
idopted by a synod, after which it remained the Christian
Cknrch of the Persian Empire, its head being the patriarch of
Sdencia—Ctesiphon.
Ka>-adh proved himself a vigorous ruler. On his return
k restored order in the interior. In 502 he attacked the
Romans and captured and destroyed Araida (mod.
Diarbekr), but was compelled to ratify a peace
owing to an inroad of the Huns. Toward the close
of te reign (527) he resumed the war, defeating Belisarius at
^''^oicum (531), with the zealous support of the wild Arab
Uondhir II. of Hira. On his death his son Chosroes I. concluded
I peace with Justinian (532), pledging the Romans to an annual
Bdtady for the maintenance of the Caucasus fortresses. In
b ixnie policy Kavadh is reminiscent of Yazdcgerd I. *Likc
knbe had little inclination to the orthodox church, and favoured
Mudak, the founder of a commimistic sect which had made
kadway among the people and might be used as a weapon
Kmi the nobles, of whom Mazdak demanded that they should
ctt down their luxury and distribute their superfluous wealth.
AaotlMr feature of his programme was the commimity of wives.
Tk crown-prince, Chosroes, was, on the other hand, wholly
■tbodox; and, towards the close of his father's reign, in con-
^BMion with the chief Magian, he carried through a sacrifice
flf tlie Mazdakites, who were butchered in a great massacre
($»8). Chosroes I. (531-579)1* sumamed .\nushirvan (" the
blessed "), then restored the orthodox doctrine in
full, publishing his decision in a religious edict.
At the sa^e time he produced the official exposition
^the Austa^ui exegetical translation in the popular tongue
(Pahbvi), and declared its contents binding. Defection from
Zoroastrianism was punished with death, and therefore also
the proselytizing of the Christians, though the Syrian martyr-
ologies prove that the kings frequently ignored these proceedings
so long as it was at all possible to do so.
Chosroes I. was one of the most illustrious sovereigns of the
Sassanian Empire. From him dates a new and equitable adjust*
ment of the imperial taxation^ which was later adopted by the
Arabs. His reputation as an enlightened ruler stood so high
that when Justinian, in 529, closed the school of Athens, the
last Neoplatonists bent their steps to him in hopes of finding in
him the true philosopher-king. Their disillusionment, indeed,
was speedy and complete, and their gratitude was great, when,
by the conditions of the armistice of 549, he allowed their return.
From 540 onward he conducted a great war against Justinian
(527-565), which, though interrupted by several armistices,
lasted till the fifty years' peace of 562. The net result, indeed,
was merely to restore the status quo; but during the campaign
Chosroes sacked Antioch and transplanted the population to
a new quarter of Ctesiphon (540). He also extended his power
to the Black Sea and the Caucasus; on the other hand, a siege of
Edessa failed (544). A second war broke out in 577, chiefly
on the question of Armenia and the Caucasus territory. In
this Chosroes ravaged Cappadocia in 575; but the campaign in
Mesopotamia was unsuccessfid. In the interval between these
two struggles (570) he despatched assistance to the Arabs of
Yemen, who had been assailed and subdued by the Abyssinian
Christians; after which period Yemen remained nominally under
Persian suzerainty till its fate was sealed by the conquests of
Mahomet and Isbm.
Meanwhile, about a.d. 560, a new nation had sprung up in
the East, the Turks. Chosroes concluded an alliance with
them against the Ephthalites and so conquered
Bactria south of the Oxus, with its capital Balkh. pUSja^^t
Thus this province, which, since the insurrection tb*Turka,
of Diodotus in 250 B.C., had undergone entirely SmtsMatd
different vicissitudes from the rest of Iran, was SJJJJ^*'*'
once more united to an Iranian Empire, and the
Sassanid dominions, for the first time, parsed the frontiers of
the Arsacids. This, however, was the limit of their expansion.
Neither the territories north of the Oxus, nor eastern Afghanistan
and the Indus provinces, were ever subject to them. That the
alliance with the Turks should soon change to hostility and
mutual attack was inevitable from the nature of the case; in the
second Roman war the Turkish Khan was leagued with Rome.
Chosroes bequeathed this war to his son Hormizd IV. (579r
590), who, in spite of repeated negotiations, failed to re-establish
peace. Hormizd had not the ability to retain the authority
of his father, and he further afTrontcd the Magian priesthood
by declining to proceed against the Christians and by requiring
that, in his empire, both religions should dwell together in
peace. Eventually he succumbed to a conspiracy of his
magnates, at whose head stood the general Bahram Cobin,
who had defeated the Turks, but afterwards was beaten
by the Romans. Hormizd's son, Chosroes II., was set
up against his father and forced to acquiesce in his execu-
tion. But immediately new risings broke out, in which
Bahram Cobin — though not of the royal line — attempted to
secure the crown, while simultaneously a Prince q^^^^^jj
Bistam entered the lists. Chosroes fled to the
Romans and the emperor Maurice undertook his restoration at
thd head of a great army. The people flocked to his standard;
Bahram Cobin was routed (591) and fled to the Turks, who slew
him, and Chosroei once more ascended the throne of Ctesiphon;
Bistam held out in Media till 596. Maurice made no attempt
to turn the opportunity to Roman advantage, and in the peace
then concluded he even abandoned Nisibis to the Persians.
Chosroes II. (590-628) is distinguished by the surname of
Parva (" the conqueror "), though, in point of fact, he was
immeasurably inferior to a powerful sovereign like his grand-
father, or even to a competent general. He lived, however, to
witness unparalleled vidssitudes of fortune. The assassination
224 PERSIA ITRANSmON PERIOD
of Maurice in 6oi Impened liJin to a war of revenge against _The moM important irorkt on the monuments are: FUndfai cc
Rome in ihejourse of which hi» armi«-in 608 and again, in ^^:^T!ie^p^£e%'^:'!SS.)^ti^\^:^^^
61 s and 626— penetrated as far as Chalccdon opposite Constanti- ,882) ; Sarre, Iraniscke FelsrHiefs (1908).
nople, ravaged Syria, reduced Antioch (61 x), Damascus (013), For worlu on the external historv of Perua tee thoae quoted
and Jerusalem (614), and carried off the holy cross to Ctesiphon; w«»der articles on PerHan longs; abo Roicb; Gubce; Ecrrr:
in 619 Egypt was occupied. Meanwhile, the Roman Empire S^"^** *^ C"^ *••)
was at the lowest ebb. The great emperor Heradius, who
assumed the crown in 610, took years to create the nucleus B.—TransitumPaicd: from the Fall of the' SassamidDymasiy
of a new military power. This done, however, he took the field ^ lAe Death of Timur {140$),
in 633, and repaid the Persians with interest. Their armies
were everywhere defeated. In 624 he penetrated into Atropa- With the final defeat of the Sassanida under Yazdegerd IIL
tene (Azerbaijan), and there destroyed the great fire-temple; *t ll»« battles of Kadisiya (Kadessia) (637) and Nehavend (641)
in 627 he advanced into the Tigris provinces. Chosroes at- Pc™» ceased to exist as a single poUtical unit. The
tempted no resistance, but ficd from his residence at Dastagerd country passed under a succession of aUen rulers
to Ctesiphon. These proceedings, in conjunction with tlie avarice ^^o cared nothing for its ancient insUtutions or
and licence of the king, led to revolution. Chosroes was deposed «ts reUgion. For about 150 years it was governed, first from
and slain by his son Kavadh U. (628); but the parricide died Medina and afterwards from Bagdad, by officers of the Maboo-
in a few months and absolute chaos resulted. A whole list of medau caliphs whose principal aim it was to destroy the old
kings and pretenders— among them the General Shahrbaraa nationality by the supprwsion of iU reUgion. The sacccM
and Boran, a daughter of Chosroes— followed rapidly on one of lh»* po^'cy was, however, only apparent, especially in Iran.
another, till finally the magnates united and, in 632, elevated the inhabitants of which adopted Islam only in the most super-
a child to the throne, Yardegcrd III., grandson of Chosroes. In ficial manner, and it was from Persia that the blow fell which
the interval-prcsumably during the reign of Queen Boran— destroyed the Omayyad caliphate and set up the Abbasids is
peace was concluded with Hcraclius, the old frontier being »ts place (see Caupmate). Even before this event adventuren
apparently restored. The cross had already been given back and dissatisfied Moslem officers had utilized the alombering
to t he emperor. hostility of the Persian peoples to aid them in attacks oa
Thus the hundred years' struggle between Rome and Persia, the caliphs {e.g. Ziyad, son of Abu Sofian. in the leifn of
which had begun in 527 with the attack of the first Kavadh Moawiya I.), and the policy of eastern expansion brought tht
__ ^ . on Justinian, had run its fruitless course, utterly Arab armies perpetually into the Persian provinces.
^m^ enfeebling both empires and consuming their powers. In the reign of Mennan I. the Persians (who were moitlj
So it was that room was given to a new enemy who Shi'ites) under a Moslem officer named Mokhtar (Mukhtar),
now arose between cither state and cither religion— the Arabs whom they regarded as their mahdi, vainly attempted to aaieit
and Islam. In the same year that saw the coronation their independence in Kufa, but were soon defeated. TKi
of Yazdegerd IIL— the beginning of 633— the first Arab "sing was followed by many more (see Caliphate: | B) in
squadrons made their entry into Persian territory. After which the caliphs were generally successful, and AbdahnaSk
several encounters there ensued (637) the battle of Kadisiya (d. 70s) considerably strengthened the Moslem power by iuti-
(Qadisiya, Cadesia), fought on one of the Euphrates canals, luting a thorough system of Moslem coins and enforcing AiaWc
where the fate of the Sassanian Empire was decided. A little as the official language throughout the empire. In the succeed-
previously, in the August of 636, Syria had fallen in a battle »ng reign Persia was further subdued by the great cODqueror
on the Yarmuk (Hieromax), and in 639 the Arabs penetrated Qoteiba (Qotaiba) b. Moslim, the Arabic governor of Khoiasu.
into Egypt. The field of Kadisiya laid Ctesiphon, with all its Omar II., however, extended to non-Arabic Moslems Immudiy
treasures, at the mercy of the victor. The king fled to Media, from all taxes except the zakat (poor-rate), with the result tbata
where his generals attempted to organize the resistance; but large number of Persians, who still smarted under their dddt
thebattleof Nehavend(?64i)decidedmattersthere. Yazdegerd under Mokhtar, embraced Islam and drifted into the townslo
sought refuge in one province after the other, till, at last, in form a nucleus of sedition under the Shi'ite preachers, Intk
651, he was assassinated in Merv (see Cauphate: 5 A, 5 1). reign of Yazid II. (720-724) serious risings took place in Khoit-
Thus ended the empire of the Sassanids, no less precipitately san, and in spite of the wise admmistratjon of his snccesNT
and ingloriously than that of the Achaemenids. By 650 the Hisham (d. 743) » the disorder contmued to spread, fanned by tfct
Arabs had occupied every province to Balkh and the Oxus. Abbasids and the Shiitc preachers. Ultimately in the reign «
Only in the secluded districts of northern Media (Tabaristan), Merwanll.the non-Arabic Moslems found a leader in AbuMod^
the " generals " of the house of Karen (Spahpat, Ispehbed) a maula (client) of Persian ongin and a henchman of IbcahiB
maintained themselves for a century as vassals of the caliphs— b. Mahommcd b. Ali, the Shi'ite imam, who raised a great wij,
exactly as Atropates and his dynasty had done before them. drove the caliph's general Nasr b. Sayyar into headlong fl«Kf
The fall of the empire scaled the fate of its religion. The and finally expelled Mcrwan. Thus the Abbasids becam
Moslems officially tolerated the Zoroastrian creed, though occa- masters of Persia and also of the Arab Empire. They had gained
sional persecutions were not lacking. But little by little it vanished their success largely by the aid of the Persians, who b^
from Iran, with the exception of a few remnants (chiefly in the thenceforward to recover their lost sense of nationaUty;acawW|
oasis of Yezd), the faithful finding a refuge in India at Bombay, to the Spanish author Ibn Hazm the Abbasids were a Pnau
These Parsces have preserved but a small part of the sacred dynasty which destroyed the old tribal system of the AiaM
writings; but to-day they still number their years by the era and ruled despotically as Chosroes had done. At the um
which begins on the 16th of June a.d. 632, with the accession of time the Khorasanians had fought for the old Alid family, ■<
Yazdegerd III., the last king of their faith and the last lawful for the Abbasids, and with the murder of Abu Moslim discontc^
sovereign of Iran, on whom rested the god-given Royal Glory of again began to grow among the Shi'ites {q.v.). In the ic^.«
Ormuzd. liarun al-Rashid disturbances broke out in Khorasan vnci
Authorities. — Besides the works on special periods quoted above, were temporarily appeased by a visit from Hanin hinidL
the following Kcneral work* should be consulted : SpicRcI, Eraniscke Immediately afterwards Rafi' b. Laith, grandson of theOntyyil
Allertumskunde (3 voK, »?,76 mQ:); W. Gcigcr and Lrnst Kuhn, , yr^^^ ^ g revolted in Samarkand, and Hanmfli
Crundrtss der tramschen Philoiogie lurausn., vol. 11. (Literature, f. . ,. • 1. i* j . i^ /o \ n » &_:_ .^
History and Civilization, 1896 »qq.) ; G. Rawlin.son. The Five Great his way to attack him died at Tus (800). Harun s sons Anm •«
Monarchies, The Sixth Monarchy, The Seventh Monarchy. Further Mamun quarrelled over the succession; -Amin became CUp^
the mutually Mipnlemcntarv- work of Th. NoUlcke, Aufxatze zur but Mamun by the aid of Tahir b. Hosain Dhu l-YaaiBlii
persiichen Geichickte (1KH7 M«les Pcrsuins and Sf»«nuK), and (.. ^^ ^.j^j^ ^^.^ j ,,j j,^„d5 ..j ^^^ ^^y^ sUGceedrf ii
A. V. Gutschmid, Gtuhichte Irons von Alexander d. Or. bts turn \ . , , . . , . *,-,,. ,..' . 1 /« » :..^ Am
Untergang der Arsaciden (1888). A valuable work of reference is deposing and killing him. Tahir ultimately (820) receivrfW
F. JustI, IrantKhes Namenbuch (1895). governorship of Khorasan. where he succeeded in — •-»J-m"
1>AHSmOT4 PERtOD) FEf
■ rnctkally indcpnidBit Malm dynuiy (the Tihirida)' which
nkd unlil oboul ijs is noraiiul obedience to Bifdid. From
tij to about S98 X liniilu drnuty, the Dulifids'or Dolilidi
B^ned luiniully u govimcm under ihe ciliphi lill Xhty were
put tfevn by MoUdid. In the reign ol the caliph Matuim «
tchoas revolt od PECsian Mudakite leniHei <lhe Khomml)
in alliaoce wilh Byuntium wu with diflicully luppiened, u
•bo > riuDC a( Tibuistin under an hciiMlitary chief Muiyai
wba wB ittredy luppotled by (he Tuil^ish metctniries (rj.,
Afihio) whom the citiph had invilnl Lo hii court. To inolhn
Tuifc. ItaUi, the caliph Walhi
u of thii home rule.! in Diilam and GUin. TTirough-
om IhB period the caliphate was falling compJtlcly under the
power of the Tuikiih oTiccn. Mohtadi, the fourteenth Abbaiid
calipli, endcavovrtil vainly to replace them by Pcniam (the
Abu]. His mcccBor Motamid was attacked by the SaSarid
Yakub who however was compelled to flee (ki Cjiuphate: { C,
I ij). Yakub'i brother Amr (reigned 87»-9oo) rtcrived t he vacant
pwikmt bat was taken prisoner by Iima'il b. Ahmad, (be
^— "'■< and the SallBrid) were henceforward a merely nomi-
^^^^ ul dynaity tinder the Samajiidi (90o-i3jg). The
Suunidi (4.(.) wen the fint really important non-
Anbie pBun dynaily since the fall of Yanlegerd 111, They
hid may orer most of renia and TranKiiana, and under
Otfe nile icbolanhip and the arti llouiished eiceedingly in
^U at SBmetoiu civil wan. Uliinutely they fell before the
Gkunerid dynuly of Sabuktagin.
laibc teiga of Motadid (Cauphate: f C, f ifi) who, as we have
na. pat down the Dolafldi, and alto checked the Sajidi of
Aartoiiui in their designs on Syria and Egypt, the Khariji
Ti by 11;
aid of the Hamda:
•UbHl, who were to become an important .
I*HIueiilly the caliphate, which had temporarily recovered
FBI lamiliei of Persia once again asserted themselves. In
fcnign of Qahir (d. 9n), a new dynasty arose in Persia, that
^^ al the Buyids (Buwayhids). This family was
dtKEoded from one Abu Shaja Buya, who claimed
■tit o[ the old Sassanian house and had become a chieftain
h Dailam. He had successively fought for the Samanids
at the Ziyaiids.' a dynssly of Jorjan, and his 100 Imai
■Hub (ed-dowleh, oriiioally Aba '1 Basan Ali) received froj
Hudawij of the latter house the governorship of Karaj; hi
nmd ton Soko addaula (Abu Ali Uasan) subsequently he1>
la tod Isfahan, whDe the third, Moiu addaula (Abu '1 Ijosai
Uud) secured Kermln, Ahvaz and even Bagdad.
Tie reign of the caliph Motiaqi (CALUwiTE: [ C, (jr) was
foisl of peipeiual strife between the Dailamilea, the Turks
sid the Hamifaoid Kasir addaula of Mosul. In the neit reign
IUei adiUula took Bagdad (94j] and was rccogoiied by
Oifh Mouakfi as sultan* and amir al-Oman. It was at
that the three brothers took Ibelillnlmad.RuknfRokn],
and Moiu addaula. The aulbority of the family was absolute,
though they paid outward respect lo the caliphs. Moiia addaula
repelled an attack of the Hamdanids of Mosul. The Buyldt,
especially Adod addaula (Aiud-ed-Doi\teh, and similar
is), ruled Bagdad wisely and improved the city by great
lie works such as the great dike, still knoim as the Bend
r on the Kur (Cyrus) near Pirsepolis. Their sway eilended
from Ihe Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea (C*n?iuiE; i C, ( 24).
itely, however, the Buyid dynasty grew weaker under
the quarrels of its members and fell an easy prey 10 the Chai-
nevids. In the meantime (5199) the Samanidi fell before the
Ilek-Khans of Turkestan, to the great advantage of the Chaincvid
F Kurdiilaa (<. 959-10151 and ihe Kakwayhkls c^^Kun^Man
looT-ioji), ■» Siuckvis, ifanixf ^thleiH, i. itj iqq. (U4deB.
The centre of force in Pcrsan politics now change* from west
3 east. Kilherto the ultimate power, at teasl nominally, had
»ided in Ihe caliphate at Bagdad, and all the dynasties which
ave been noticed derived their auiboiity formally from that
jurce. With the rite of the Chazncvids and lal'toila.*."*.
(he Seljuki, the Abbasid caliphate ceased to count
independent power. As we have seen, Ihe Ghamcvld
i in a brief space dcslro>'cd most of the native dynasties
of Persia. The fint ol the house was Alptagin, a Turkish sLive
if IheSamanid Mansur I., who. having quarrelled with his master,
look refuge in Afghanistan and founded a scmi-indcpendcn .
luthoiity. After hb death (hrce unimportant govcmon of
his house held iway. but in 977 (he power fell to another (ormet
ilave. Sabuktagin, who was recognized by (he Samanid (>uh II.
Hit son and successor Mahmud (f .c.) was attacked by a brother.
Isms 'if, and retired from Khorasan (of which he had been
lEOvemor). The Sunanids then fell under the power ol the
Tatar Ilkhana, but Mahtnud returned, Iriumphed over both
Ihe Samam'ds and the Tatars, and assumed the independent
title of sultan with authority over Khorasan, Transoxiana and
parts of north-west India. Mahmud was a great conqueror,
and wherever he went he replaced the eiisiing religion bv
Mabommedanism. He is described as (he patron (if 1
Firdoui
s that
d produced
ic Skahiama (Book of the Kings).
I a nominal rule till I1S7, but in 1131 they lost atl their
a-Indian territories lo the Choritls, !ind during the last
ly-five yean reigned in diminished splendour ai Ijhorc.
n before this time, however, the supremacy which they
■yed under Mahmud in Persia Eiod fallen into the hands of
Seljuks who, in the rngn of Mas'ud I., son ^.^.j^
Mabmud, conquered Khorasan. In 1037 Seljuk
ices were recognized in ftf erv and Kishaput, and in the ensuing
ilccn years the Seljuks conquered Balkh, Jorjan, Tabarislan,
varism. Hamadan, Rai, Isfahan, arxl An^dly Bagdad (1055).
The Abbasid caliphs, who still enjoyed a precarious and shadowy
authority al (he pleasure of Turkish viziers, gladly surrendered
themselves to the protection of the Mahommedan Seljuks, who
paid (hem all outward respccL
Thus for (he first time since the Arab conquest of (he Sassanian
realm Persia was ruled by a single authority, which citendcd
its conquests westward into Aua Minor, where it checked Ihe
rulers of Byzantium, and eastward lo India and Central Asia.
The history of this period is treated at length in the aiiicla
CaiiPHaiE: f C, H 16 sqq.; and Seljuks. A bare outline
only is required here.
The drat three Seljuk rulers were Toghrul Beg. Alp Ardan
and Malik Shah. On the death of the last the empire wai
distracted by civil wai between his sons Bariiiyaroq. Mahommed
and Sinjar, with the result tha[, although the Seljuks of the
direct line maintained nominal supremacy (ill the death of
Sinjar (t 1 S7), other branches of (he family established (hemselvn
In varioui parU'of the emiure— Syria, Rum (Asia Minor),
226 PERSIA fTRANSmON PERIOD
Renn&ii, and Irak with Kurdistan. Sinjar himself lost all his Empire stretching from the Caspian to the Ydlow Sea iras
dominions except Khorasan in wars with the Karakiiai. The divided up among his sons. Persia itself fell partly in the
sultans of Kerm&n were rarely independent in the full sense, domain of Jagatai and partly in that of the Golden Hocdei
but they enjoyed comparative peace and prosperity till the The actual governor of Persia was Tului or Tulc, whose soo
death of Toghrul Shah (1170), after which their power fell Hulagu or Hulaku is the first who can be ri^tly regarded as
before the Ghuaz tribes; KermSn was finally captured in 1195 the sovereign of Persia. His accession occurred in 1256, and
by the Khwarizm shahs. Meanwhile an independent dynasty henceforward Persia becomes after 600 years of spasmodic
was formed about 1 136 in Azerbaijan by the governors (atab^s) government a national unit. Hulagu at once proceeded to
appointed by the Seljuks; this dynasty was overthrown by the destroy a number of nascent dynasties which endeavoured to
Khwarizm shahs in 1225. Similar dynasties existed in Laristan establish themselves on the ruins of the Khwarizm Empire;
and Pars. about 1255 he destroyed the dynasty of the Assassins* by the
The empire of the Seljuks was essentially military. Their capture of their stronghold of Alamut (Eagle's Nest), and finafly
authority over their own officers was so precarious that they in 1258 captured Bagdad. The thirty-eighth and last Abbasid
preferred to entrust the command to Turkish slaves. These caliph, Mostasim, was brutally murdered, and thus the Mahon-
officers, however, were far from loyal to their lords. In every mcdan caliphate ceased to exist even as an emasculated pontifi>
part of the empire they gradually superseded the Seljuk princes, cate. The Persian Empire under Hulagu and his descendanti
and the minor dynasties above mentioned all owed their existence extended from the dominions of Jagatai on the north to tint
to the ambition -pi the Turkish regents or atabegs. The last of the Egyptian djmasts on the south, and from the Byzantine
important dynasty in Persia prior to the Mongol invasion was Empire on the west to the confines of China. Its rulers paid a
that of the Salgharids in Pars, founded by the descendants of nominal homage to the Khakhan (Great Khan) in China,
a Turkish general Salaghar, who had formerly been a Turkoman and officially recognized this dependence in their title of IlUuB^
l^er and ultimately became chamberlain to Toghn(l Beg. i.e. provincial or dependent khan. From 1258 to 1335 tke
The first ruler was Sonkor b. Modud, who made himself inde- Ilkhans were not seriously challenged. Hulagu fixed his cqxtal
pendent in Ears in 1148. The fourth, Sa*d, became tributary at Maragha(Meragha)inAzerbaijan,whereheerectedanobsena•
to the Khwarizm shahs in 1195, and the fifth acknowledged tory for Nasir ud-din Tusi, who at his request pr^Mued the
allegiance to the Mongol Ogotal and received the title Kutbegh astronomical tables known as the Zidj-i-Ilkkani. He died ia
Khan. His successors were vassals of the Mongols, and the last, 1265 and was succeeded by his son Abagha or Abaka, «te
the Princess *Abish (d. 1287), was the wife of Hulagu 's son married the daughter of Michael Palaeologus, the Byzantiat
Mangu Tiraur. ruler. Abagha was a peaceful ruler and endeavoured by irise
Before passing on to the Mongol conquerors of Persia it is administration to give order and prosperity to a country ton
necessary briefly to notice the shahs of Khwarizm, who have asunder by a long period of intestine war and the Moofol
KkwMrtMm ^r^uc'^^ly ^^^^ mentioned as overthrowing the' minor invasion. He succeeded in repelling two attacks by ocbcr
* dynasties which arose with the decay of the Mongolian princes of the house of Jenghiz Khan; otherrae
Seljuks. These rulers were descended from Anushtajin, a his reign was uneventful. His brother Nikudar (originsllf
Turkish slave of Ghazni, who became cupbearer to the Seljuk Nicolas) Ahmad Khan succeeded him in 1281. This prince ns
Malik Shah, and afterwards governor of Khwarizm (Khiva) converted to Islam, an event of great moment both to tit
in 1077. In 1 138 the third of tlie line, Atsiz, revolted but was internal peace and to the external relations of Penia. ffil
defeated and expelled by Sinjar. Shortly afterwards he returned, persecution of the Christians led them into alliance with tit
firmly established his power, and extended the Khwarizm Mongols, who detested Islam; the combined forces were tot
Empire as far as Jand on the Sihim. The brief reigns of Il-Arslan strong for Nikudar, who was murdered in 1284. The ezteaal
and Sultan Shah Mahmud were succeeded by that of Tukush results were of more importance. The Ilkhans, who had failed
(11 72-1 199) and Ala ed-din Mahomroed* (i 199-1220). The in their attempt to wrest Syria from the Mameluke rufefkcf
former of these subdued Khorasan, Rai and Isfahan, while the Egypt, had subsequently endeavoured to effect their object bf
latter brought practically all Persia under his sway, conquered inducing the European Powers to make a new crusade. Tit
Bokhara, Samarkand and Otrar, capital of the Karakitai, and conversion of Nikudar put an end to this policy and Egypt nt
had even made himself master of Ghazni when his career was for some time free from Persian attack (see Egypt: HisUry),
stopped by the hordes of the Mongol Jenghiz Khan. In 1231 The Mongol leaders put on the throne a sonof Aba^ui,byi
the last of his house, Jelal ud-din (Jalaluddin) Mangbarti, or Arghun. His reign was troubled. His first minister
Mango-berti, was banished, and thus the empire of the Khwarizm ud-din was suspected of having poisoned Abagha, and
shahs, which for a brief period had included practically all the put to death. His successor, the amir Bogha, conspired
lands conquered by the Seljuks, passed away. Arghun and was executed. Under the third minister (1289^
Thus from the fall of the Samanids to the invasion of the Mongols 1 291), a Jewish doctor named Sa*d addaula (ed-Dowleh), refigMM
five or at most six important dynasties held sway over Persia, troubles arose owing to his persecution of the Mahommedatf
white some forty smalf dynasties enjoyed a mej^urc of jowl j j^- favouring the Christians. The financial administiatill
autonomy. Durmg the whole of this pcnod the Abbasid caliphs *","! . '' *«»"«""» «."«; -s,i».«n«ua. *i*»i uu^u^uu •i- ri-iT--
had been nominally rciKning throughout the Mahommcdan world ol Sa d was prudent and successful, if somewhat severe, and tit 1
with their capital at Bagdad. But with hardly any exceptions revenue benefited considerably under his care. But be ooB- «
thcv had been the merwt puppets, now in the hands of Turkish milted the tactical error of appointing a disproportkHBtt
as we have seen, the Samanids, the Buyids. the Ghaznevids, the n^ae many enemies among the Mongol nobles, who had MJ
Seljuks, the Salgharids and the Khwarizm shahs. We now come assassinated in 1291 when Arghun was lying fatally iH It ■
to a new period in Persian history, when the numerous petty possiblcthat it was Sa*d's diplomacy which led PbpeNidiohs IV*
dynastiw which succeeded the Seljuks were all swallowed up in ^^ ^^^ ^ ^lission to Arghun with a view to a new amit>
tfie groat Mongol invasion. u « 1 u The reign of Arghun w^ also disturbed by a rebellioii d •
In the later years of the 12th century the MongoU b^n grandson of Hulagu, Baidu Khan. Arghun died toon ifitf
their westward march and, after the conquest of the ancient ^^e murder of Sa'd, and was succeeded by his brother KafldM
Monoi*. J^ngdo"; of the Kajakitai, reached the borders of ^^ Gaykhatu, who was taken prisoner by Baidu Khan ol
the territory of the Khwarizm shahs, which was at ^^ (, ) B^.^^,, „j ^^ ^^ ^y^^^ in the tame jf*
once overwhelmed. Jenghiz Khan died in 1 272, and the Mongol ^y Arghun's son Ghazan Mahmud, whose reign (ngS-tV^
Mt was this prince who dcstro>'cd the Ghorid dynasty, which was a period of prosperity in war an
, . . . . , . . ^ , -.'«,.. period of prosperity in war and administratioo.
claimed descent from the legendary Persian monarch Zohak.
Except for a brief period of submission to the Ghaznevids (1009- 'The dynasty of the Assasuns or Isma'ilites was foiuidrf*
1099) they ruled at Ghor until 1215, when they were conquered 1090 and extended its rule over much of western Persia and Sf*
after a fierce struggle. (for the rulers see Stockvis, op. cU. t. 131, and artide ' ^
mu of pest (UUtr- He oUbGditil ■ pormuieDt ilil {^■■Vunji. <>1i(> >>«l BBibluhtd ■ dynuty In waun) Pmia ifUf
I with lenl, fiimiriil uul miliUry »Hiin, put od ■ fiic '"'*-i.'"'i'i' "?°t5' '" '}'"• , . ,, ,
a, uid pcifeclcd the mDuntcd pottil temct. Chuai Mouitir, or MunSii, who hrld e poit u (Dvcmar under the
103 to I>ccembci 1104 been ruled by • Mongol uiuipt ^'U' '? '^'J' be"™ gnvtmoc in Kin undtr Abu Ea'id, in Ktr-
Li^d „.. bdj dS.«^ r„ . I,; .™™ I. ,„ s; Si 'iiiii.'S^,'sfl"U's;' ■ —
I, hn Iroops imc defeated at Merj il-SaXu, ud Mongg dcpnwd >i>d bUndtdTand thoutb nMoml
' >l^
Jbr-to-iCir. " HbuI
I Syiu vere definitely abandoned. . . .
iVited that the titular Abbi^d cilipha (wbo retained
D^tj title in Cain) under Mameluke proFection) (hould . *■« j-i..«i-jui. .■jT—muimui uieii immo *
laatiled at Bagdad, but tfaii propoiat «u Dot earned inli 10 ihe Cibbct "), dareodanu o( Abd al-Ruzak.
dhd. Chazan b biltorirxlly important, however, mainly i
At iOL Mopgol ruler itha definitely adopted lilam with
iDIt Dusiber ot bii tubj«tt. He died in 1304, liaditionall
il u(ei at Ibe Syrian fiuco, and wu tucceeded by hii biothc
U^iila COeljeitu). The chief evenu of hii reign were a lucceu S- The Jubaniuu huTHine noi ,,
Unt Maiut Tatar invaden and the iubililulion of the ne< {"'h'. iS.'^ "*" dethroned by the KipchiVi
ritj o( Stdtania as capital for Tabrir, which had been Chaur "" "
in about IJJT, enjoved Knoe mruuie of Independenca
irlve niEen lill fney alu were deiln>ved by Timur ((, !(&>).
e Benl Kan (o. KiTt), wbo had lovemed in KhoraHnfi™
jcnKhii Khan.
kiiqnuten. Lljaiiu wai a Shi'ite and even stamped hi! The auihority of Tlmui, which, ai we have leen, was dominint
oiia with the namca of the twelve ShI'ile imans. He diet thiDughouI Periia from at least as early as 1395 till hia' death
k i]i6, and wai uiciceded by Abu Sa'id.his son. The prince >n 1405. *" "Cvcl unchallenged. He paued from one victory
nk whom n definite peace wu made with Malik il-Nuir 10 anolher, but the conquered dlitricu were never reiUy icllled
At Hamelukc ruler ol Egypt, had great trouble with powetfu under his idminisUation, Fresh riiiogi of the defeated
nin and generab which be accentuated by tiia paaion foi dynasties followed each new enterprise, and he had also to deal
llflid-KhaluD. wife of Ibc amii Uosain and daughter of Ihi with the Mongol hordn whose territory marched with northern
aa Chopan. This lady he eventuiUy married, with the rtiull Persia. Hia dcacendanls were for a brief period the overlord*
■tatOiiipaiiheadedarevalloihijtribe.lhcSeldui. Abu Sa'id ol Persia, but after Shah Rukh (reigned 1409-1U6) and Ala
&d g( fever in ijjj, and with him the fint Mongol or Ilkhai addaula (1447]. Ihe ao-cal!ed Tlmuiid dynuty ceased to have
dlBiiy of Petiia practically tune to an end. The real powei "ny authority over Persia. There were Timurid govemoia
IB fivided between Chupan and IJouin the Jelair (or Jaliir). of Fan under Shah Rukh, Pit Mshommcd(i4as-i409).Iskcndar
nlhe Ukhanian, and their sons, known respectively as thi (i409-i4i4>. Ibrahim (1415-1434) and Abdallah (1434); in
Unit Batan (^aaan Kuchnk) and the gnat IJasin (IJasan olhec pans of Persia many of the Timurid (amily held govemo>
■nngl. Two puppet kinga, Arpa Khan, a descendant ol Jhips of greater or less impotllnct.
BiV> brother Arikbuhga, and Mum Khan, 1 descendant ol Authoiiiibs.— The works relillnj lo Persia will be found under
tub, nominally reigned for a few months each. Then Hasan articles on the ma indyjiaiIieilC*LirM*iH; SBlJUKsi MoKcolsl.and
Udnk Kt up one Sati-beg, Abu Sa'id'i daughler, and wife !?= "■"' 'fit" U"nohii Khan; M*iiiitrD or Gkaiki: TiHUa).
■ ■ ■ ' Chupan, Arfa Khan and one Suleiman, the last Uoi^Hr^ '" """ "" " ' "'"" "*
kagMupaucctBivflyUaiKiinmed.Tugha-TimurandJahan- (ill7^i
fW. A ^itb mnentity, Nuthirwan, *ai a Chupaai
it IJ44, aftei which line Qaaan Buiucg definitely installed
kndf at the fint fchu of the JeUirid « Ukha,
innieiiii Dtnailia (London. ISwl; Siockvi^ Unml J-*ij-
vol. 1. (Leiden, isee): Sir H. flowonh, HiiUry 1/ Or Itnuit
C-Froi.
helically Irom the rdgn of Abo Sa'id Persia was divided md about to invade China. D«ides eiercis
Wiriyemiiiordyiu>lie»,(i)theJelairids,(i)theMotaSarids. aver Tranaouana and those vast regions mc
^ (]) the Sarbadarldi (Serbedarians). (4) the Beni less absorbed in Asiatic Russiaof the lothcei
kmi^, Kurt, and (s) tbe Jubaniani, all of wbich ultimately inclusive of the Caucasus, Astrakhan and .
bU before the irmies of Tlmur. lower Volga, and overrunning Mesc^tamii, Syria, ""'"'*■
LUk Jelairid rulers were IJaua Bnzurj (1136, nrictly 1314- **'* "'"Ot, Afghanistan and India, he had a 1 Ihia time left
jaC, Oinii (1156-1374). Bouin (i)74-i]«j)T Sultan Ahmad !"• mdehble mark upon the thief cities and provinces of
l*-Hio).ShahWaIad (T410-1411). Their cipital was Bagdad, Persia. Khorasan and Maaandamn had submitted lo him
W tlie MoaiilFarid. ol Shim and the BUck Sheep Turkomios '"'■ Isfahan was seized in 1387. From Isfahan he passed on
(KnKnyiinb) of Armenia, with Ihe laiier of whom he ultimately n Shitai, and thence returned in triumph to his own capital
■tmd into allianre Oo hit death Azerbaijan and Irak [ell Co )f Samarkand. Five years later he subdued Maiandaran, and
£ ?wlS',r"in^^,;f'K,'^'.'^„ 1, "i^ .hS'r.'h'? ?• """"' ^ ™ 'B"'" »' Sliirai, baving eScctcd the subjugation
I tewToiSp^i'f^taiSJ'olcoIS^ei nn^^^^^^ >f Lurislan and olher provinces in the , veal. It may be said
*e pnTT of the vanoui Persian dynailie. collapsed. By 1393 he -bal 'rom nonh 10 soulh, or from Astarabad lo Hormui, the
Wmnuttcd nofthem Persia and Armenia, Bagdad. Nlewpo- "holccountry had been brought within hia dominion.
"•1. Karbekr and Van. and Ahmad Red to ErvDl. where he was The third son of Timur, Miran Shah, had ruled over part ol
bet's lltelimc; but he was said lo be insane,
lis incapacity for government had caused the loss <rf Bagdad
Hit aside by Timur in favour of V\i Mahommcd, the son of »
leceasedson, hut KhalilShah.asonof the discarded prince, won
he day. His waste of time and Itcasutc upon a fascinating
nistrcss named Shadu 't-Mulk, Ihe " delight of the kingdom,"
oon brought about his deposition, and in 140S he gave way to
ihah Rukh, who, with the eiccplion of Miran Shah, was the
inly surviving ton of Timur. In fact tbe uncle and nephew
hanged places— llie one quitting bis goveimncnt of Khorasan
228
PERSIA
tl4Q5^i?3l&
to take possession of the Central-Asum throne, the other con-
senting to become governor of the vacated Persian province
and abandon the cares of the empire at Samarkand. In 1409
Khalil Shah died; and the story goes that Shadu 1-Mulk stabbed
herself and was buried with her royal lover at Rai, one of the
towns which his grandfather had partly destroyed.
Shah Rukh, the fourth son of Timur, reigned for thirty-eight
years, and appears to have been a brave, generous, and enlight-
ened monarch. He removed his capital from Samarkand to
Herat, of which place he rebuilt the dtadel, restoring and im-
proving the town. Merv also profited from his attention to its
material interests. Sir John Malcolm speaks of the splendour
of his court and of his encouragement of science and learning.
He sent an embassy to China; and an English version of the
travels to India of one of his emissaries, Abd ur-Razzak, is to
be found in R. H. Major's India in the Fijteenth Century (London,
Hakluyt Society, 1857). As regards his Persian possessions,
he had some trouble in the north-west, where the Turkomans of
Asia Minor, known as the Kara Kuyun,' or " Black Sheep," led
by Kara Yusuf' and his sons Iskandar and Jahan Shah, had
advanced upon Tabriz, the capital of Azerbaijan. On the death
of the Shah Rukh in 1446 he was succeeded by his son Ulugh
Bey, whose scientific tastes are demonstrateid in the astro-
nomical tables bearing his name, quoted by European writers
when determining the latitude of places in Persia. He was,
moreover, himself a poet and patron of literature, and built
a college as well as an observatory at Samarkand. There is
no evidence to show that he did much to consolidate his grand-
father's conquests south of the Caspian. Ulugh Bey was put
to death by his son Abd ul-Latif, who, six months later, was
slain by his own soldiers. Babar — not the illustrious founder
of the Mughal dynasty in India, but an elder member of the
same house — next obtained possession of the sovereign power,
and established himself in the government of Khorasan and the
neighbouring countries. He died after a short rule, from
habitual intemperance. After him Abu Sa'id, grandson of
Miran Shah, and once governor of Pars, became a candidate for
empire, and allied himself with the Uzbeg Tatars, seized Bokhara,
entered Khorasan, and waged war u[)on the Turkoman tribe
aforesaid, which, since the invasion of Azerbaijan, had, imder
Jahan Shah, overrun Irak, Ears and Kcrm&n, and pillaged
Herat. But he was eventually taken prisoner by Uzun ^asan,
and killed in 1468.
It is difficult to assign dates to a few events recorded in Peruan
history for the eighteen years following the death of Abd ul-
Latif; and, were it not for chance European missions, the
same difficulty would be felt in dealing with the period after the
death of Abu Sa'id up to the accession of Isroa'il Sufi in 1499.
Sultan Ahmad, eldest son of Abu Sa'id, reigned in Bokhara;
his brother, Omar Sheikh, in Ferghana; but the son of the
btter, the great Babar, was driven by the Uzbegs to Kabul
and India. More to the purpose is it that Sultan I^osain Mirza,
great-grandson of Omar Sheikh, son of Timur, reigned
Mina. ^^ Herat from 14S7 to 1506. He was a patron of
learned men, among others of the historians Mirk-
hond and Khwadamtr, and the poets Jami and Hatifi. But
at no time could his control have extended over central and
western Persia. The nearest approach to a sovereignty in those
parts on the death of Abu Sa'id is that of Uzun ^asan, the
leader of the Ak fcuyun, or " White Sheep " Turkomans, and
conqueror of the *' Black Sheep," whose chief, Jahan Shah, he
defeated and slew. Between the two tribes there had long been
Viua HMsaa ^ ^^^^y ^^"*^* ^^^^ ^^^ composed of settlers in Asia
'Minor, the " Black Sheep " having consolidated
their power at Van, the " White " at Diarbekr.
Sir John Malcolm states that at the death of .\bu Sa'id,
Sultan ^osain Mirza " made himself master of the empire,"
* They were commonly called Kara Kuyun-lu and the " White
Sheep •• Turkomans Ak Kuyun-lu. the affix " lu " Mgnifying
possession, i.e. possession of a standard bearing the image of a
black or whito sheep.
* According: to Erskinc, this chief killed Miran Shah, whose
dwelling-place was Tabriz.
and, a little later, that " Usun Qasan, after he had made !
master of Persia, turned his arms in the directioa of Tnrkey ";
but the reader is left to infer for himself what the real ** cmpiie "
of ^osain Mirza, and what the limit of the " Persia " of Unm
^asan. The second could not well be included in the first,
because the Turkomans were in possession of the greater put
of the Persian plateau, while the " sultan " was in Herat, U>
which- Khorasan belong. It may be assumed that an empire
like that acquired by Timur could not long be -maiw»«;iM^ \jiy
his descendants in its integrity.
The Turkish adjective taun, 05J3^ " long," aj^Iiedto 9*sui,
the Turkoman monarch of Persia (called also by the Arabs
Qasanu 't-Tawil), is precisely the qualifying Persian word Jlp
used in the compound designation of Artaxerxes Longimamts;
and Malcolm quotes the statement of a Venetian envoy in
evidence that Uzun ^asan was "a tall thin man, of a very open
and engaging countenance." This reference, and a further
notice in Markham's history, supply the clue to a store of
valuable information made available by the publications of the
Hakluyt Society. The narratives of Calerino Zeno, Baibaxo
and Contarini, envoys from Venice to the court of Uzun Qasan,
are in this re^xxit especially interesting. Zeno was sent in
147 1 to incite this warlike ruler against the Ottoman sultan,
and succeeded in his mission. That the result was disastrous
to the shah is not surprising, but the war seems to hold a
comparatively unimportant place in the annals of Turkey.
Uzun Qasan had married Despina (Gr. Akaroan), dao^itcr
of the emperor of Trebizond, Calo Johannes of the bouse ^ the
Comneni; and 2^no's wife was niece to this Christian priDCCSS.
The relationship naturally strengthened the envoy's position
at the court, and he was permitted to visit the queen in the name
of the republic which he represented. Barbara and Contarini
met at Isfahan in 1474, and there paid their respects to the
shah together. Kum and Tauris or Tabriz (then the capitsl)
were also visited by the Italian envoys following in the rayil
suite; and the incidental notice of these cities, added to Con-
tarini's formal statement that " the extensive country of Usn^
cassan [sic] is bounded by the Ottoman Empire and by Can-
mania," and that Siras (Shiraz) is comprehended in it, piofCi
that at least Azerbaijan, Irak, and the main part of theprovinoes
to the south, inclusive of Ears, were within the donaiakm tl
the reigning monarch.
There is good reason to suppose that Jahan Shah, the Bhci
Sheep Turkoman, before his defeat by Uzun Qasan, had set 19
the standard of royalty; and Zeno, at the outset of his tiavd^
calls him " kmg of Persia "* in 1450. Chardin alludes to Ima
in the same sense; but ^jbisan the Long is a far more ptaaaaat
figure, and has hardly received justice at the hands of the
hbtorian. Indeed, his identity seems to have been lost is (he
various modes of spelling his name adopted by the older
chroniclers, who call him indiscriminately * Alymbdus, Aiea-
beius, Asembec, Assimbeo, or Ussan Cassano. He is stid te
have earned the character of a wise and valiant monarch, to bait
reigned eleven years, to have lived to the age of seventy, udt
on his death in 1477 or (according to Krusinski and Zeno) I47^
to have been succeeded on the throne of Persia by his son Ys'qik
This prince, who had slain an elder brother, died by potes
(1485), after a reign of seven years. The dose was oScnd I*
him by his wife, who had been unfaithful to him and soei^ tt
set her paramour on his throne.
Writers differ as to the succession to Ya*qub. Zeno'saoaoirt
is that a son named Allamur (called also, Alamut, AhaM
El- wand and Alwung Bey) was the next king, who. j^g^^
besides Persia, possessed Diarbekr and part of
greater Armenia near the Euphrates. On the other hiii
Krusinski states that, Ya'qub dying childless, his idsd<*
Julavcr, one of the grandees of the kingdom, seised the thni^
and held possession of it for three years. Baisingar, it b ^M
succeeded him in 1488 and reigned till 1490, when a young aob^
man named Rustan (Rustam?) obtained the sovercigB poetf
and exercised it for seven years. This account isoonfinDctflf
* See also Ramusio's preface. « Knolles. Puvchas. Zcaa
M0S-I736J
PERSIA
229
AaciolcUo, a travdler who followed his countrymen Barbaro
and Contarini to Persia; and from the two authorities combined
nay be gathered the further narration of the murder of Rustam
aad usurpation of the throne by a certain Ahmad, whose death,
uodrr torture, six months afterwards, made way for Alamut,
tb« young son of Qasan. These discrepancies can be reconciled
on reference to yet another record bound up with the narratives
of the four Italians aforesaid, and of much the same period. In
the Tfads of a MtrckatU in Persia the story of Ya*qub's death
is supplemented by the statement that " the great lords, hearing
of their king's decease, had quarrcb among themselves, so that
for five or six years all Persia was in a state of dvil war, first
one and then another of the nobles becoming sultans. At last
a youth named Alamut, aged fourteen years, was raised to the
throne, which he held till the succession of Sheikh Isma'ii." Who
this yt>ung man was is not specified; but other writers call
Alamut and his brother Murad the sons of Ya*qub, as though
the rdationship were unquestionable.
Now little is known, save incidentally, of Julaver or Rustam;
but Baisingar is the name of a nephew of Omar Sheikh, king
of Ferg^iana and contemporary of Uzun Qosan. There was
BO doubt much anarchy and confusion in the interval between the
death of Ya'qub and the restoration, for two years, of the
dynasty of the White Sheep. But the tender age of Alamut
would, even in civilized countries, have necessitated a regency;
aad it may be assumed that he was the next legitimate and
more genenJly recognized sovereign. Markham, in designating
this prince the last of his house, states that he was dethroned
by the renowned founder of the Safawi dynasty. This event
beings us to one of the most interesting periods of Persian history,
any account of which must be defective without a prefatory
ikcteh of Isma'U Sufi.
r*r Suji or Safawid (JSaJam) Dynasty (/^pp-z/jtf).— Sheikh
Saiftt'd-Din Izhak' — ^lineally descended from Musa, the seventh
imam — was a resident at Ardcbil (-Ardabil) south-
;,west of the Caspian, some time during the 14th
centxiry. It b said that his reputation for sanctity,
ittncted the attention of Timur, who sought him out in his
ibode, and was so charmed by the visit that he released, at the
boiy man's request, a number of captives of Turkish origin, or
Geofpans, taken in the wars with Bayezid. The act ensured to
tile SbeM the constant devotion and gratitude of these men —
I feeling which was loyally maintained by their descendants
far the members of his family in successive generations.
Hb son Sadru'd-Din and grandson Kwaja *AU (who visited
Ifeca and died at Jerusalem) retained the high reputation of
t^ pious i^edecessor. Junaid, a grandson of the last, married
* Hter of Uzun Qasan, and by her had a son named Sheikh
Haidar, who married his cousin Martha, daughter
of Uzun Qasan and Queen Dcspina. Three sons
were the issue of this marriage, Siiltan *Ali, Ibrahim
IGna, and the youngest, Isma'ii, the date of whose birth is
Ptt down as X480 for reasons which will appear hereafter.
So great was the influence of Sheikh Haidar, and so earnestly
lU he carry out the principles of conduct which had character-
iid lus family for five generations, that his name has become,
tt it were, inseparable from the dynasty of his son Israa*'l; and
|ke term " Haidari " (leonine) is applied by many persons to
iodicste generally the Safawids of Persb. The outcome of his
todung was a division of Mahommedanism vitally momentous
to the world of Islam. The Persian mind was peculiarly adapted
toiccdve the form of religion prepared for it by the philosophers
<f Ardd)iL The doctrines presented were dreamy and mystic;
dMy rejected the infallibility of human wisdom, and threw
■Bpidon on the order and arrangement of human orthodoxy.
That was free scope given for the indulgence of that political
faapnation which revels in revolution and chafes at prescriptive
wage. As Makolm remarks, " the very essence of Sufi-ism
fcpoetiy."
* Aceotdiiif to Langtta. the annotator of Chardin, his real designa-
ti« vaa Abu 1-Fath Izhak. the Sheikh Saif u '1-Ha
haurBh
-Hakk wu *d-Dtn or
Pnoutoi truth aad rdigMm."
Those authorities who maintain that Ya*qub Shah left no
son to succeed him consider valid the claim to the vacant throne
of Sheikh Haidar Sufi. Purchas says that Ya'qub himself,
*' jealous of the multitude of Aidar's disciples and the greatness
of his fame, caused him tc be secretly murthercd "; but Krusinski
attributes the act to Rustam a few years later. Zcno, the anony-
mous merchant and AngiolcUo aflfirm that the devotee was
defeated and killed in battle — the first making his conqueror
to be Alamut* the second a general of Alamut's, and the third
an officer sent, by Rustam named Sulcinum Bey. Malcolm,
following the Zubdatu U-tawarikky relates that Sheikh Haidar
was vanqubhed and slain by the governor of Shirvan. The
subsequent statement that his son, Sultan *Ali, was seized, in
company with two younger brothers, by Ya'qub, " one of the
descendants of their grandfather Uzun l^^asan, who, jealous of
the numerous disciples that resorted to Ardebil, confined them
to the hill fort of Istakhr in Pars," seems to indicate a second
interpretation of the passage just extracted from Purchas,
and that there is confusion of Arsons and incident somewhere.
One of the sons here alluded to was Isma'ii, whom Malcolm
makes to have been only seven years of age when he fled to
Gilan in 1492. Zcno states that he was then thirteen, which is
much more probable,' and the several data available for reference
arc in favour of this supposition.
The life of the young Sufi from this period to his assumption
of royalty in 1499 was full of stirring adventure; and his career
as Isma'ii I. was a brilliant one. According to
Zeno, who seems to have carefully recorded the
events of the time, he left his temporary home on an island of
Lake Van before he was eighteen, and, passing into Karabakh,'
between the Aras and Kur, turned in a south-easterly direction
into Gilan. Here he was enabled, through the assistance of a
friend of his father, to raise a small force with which to take
possession of Baku on the Caspian, and thence to nuirch upon
Shemakha in Shirvan, a town abandoned to him without a
struggle. Hearing, however, that Alamut was advancing to
meet him, he was compelled to seek new levies from among the
Jengian Christians and others. At the head of 16,000 men, he
thoroughly routed his opponents, and, having cleared the way
before him, marched straight upon Tabriz, which at once sur-
rendered. He was soon after proclaimed shah of Persia (1499),
under the designation which marked the family school of
thought.
Alamut had taken refuge at Diarbekr; but his brother Murad,
at the head of an army strengthened by Turkish auxiliaries,
was still in the field with the object of contesting the paternal
crown. Isma'ii lost no time in moving against him, and won
a new victory on the plains of Tabriz. Murad fled with a small
remnant of his soldiers to Diarbekr, the rallying-praint of the
White Sheep Turkomans. 2U:no states that in the following
year Isma'ii entered upon a new campaign in Kurdistan and
Asia Minor, but that he returned to Tabriz without accomplishing
his object, having been harassed by the tactics of Ala ud-Daula,
a beylcrbey, or governor in Armenia and parts of Syria. Another
writer says that he marched against IVIurad Khan in Irak-i-
Ajami and Shiraz. This last account is extremely probable,
and would show that the young Turkoman had wished to make
one grand effort to save Isfahan and Shiraz (with Kazvin and
the neighbouring country), these being, after the capital Tabriz,
the most important cities of Uztm Hasan's Persia. His men,
however, apparently dismayed at the growing prestige of the
enemy, did not support him, and he was defeated and probably
slain. There is similar evidence of the death of Alamut, who,
it is alleged, was treacherously handed over to be killed by the
shah's own hands.
Isma'ii returned again to Tabriz (1501) "and caused great
rejoicings to be made on accoimt of his victory." In 1503
he had added to his conquests Bagdad, Mosul and Jezira on
the Tigris. The next year he was called to the province of
*So thinks the editor and annotator of the Italian Travels in
Persia, Charles Grey.
I * Possibly Kara-dagh, as being the more direct road.
230 PERSIA Htm*
Cilu la chaitbc > relnctory niter. Raving anompliihnl his ScUni iciddRcd at Tibiii no men Ihin eC^t day*. Lmytaf
eml, he caitu back to hii capital and remained tbcn in iconlributianit ihUdtyelalirRenutnbaof iuikllkd aitbui
fampimive quifit til] 1S07.' Malcalm'i dales ue frhom be unt off to Conatantiaopk^ he marched ihcnce towanb
that Bagdad waa lubducd in that particular yeai, ind newly invade Pcnia in the ipring, but lb
but the Facts remain. All writeTi seem to agree that in ijoA 3I hia 1ro<^ rendered necessary bis speedy return to TuHt^.
Ibc king's aitcntion was dnwu to an invasion oi Khonsan by Kis expedition, il not very glorious, baid not been unpi ' '*
Shaibani, 01 Shahi Beg, the UEbeg, a desnodant ol Jenghii and 3I visible fruits. Besides bumbling (he power ol tn
the iBOM loimidable opponent of Bihar, [rom nboni he had, enemy, he had conquered and annei
•even yean before, wrested the riiy of Samarkand, and whom piovinces o[ Diarbekr and Kurditiui.'
he had driven from Turkestan to KabuJ. Since these eapbits From 1^14 to ijJ4, although the hostiie feeliitg bet^eea
Kundus. and Kbviriam (Khaream), and. al the time referred to| wirfarf. Sclim's attention vaa diverted [ram Penia to Egypt;
had left Samarkand intent upon mischief south and west of the lsma*il took advantage of the aultan's death in i5ro toovernn
Oius, had passed the Murghab, and had reached Sankhs (Scr- and subdue unfoKunale Ceor^, as Jaban Shah of the " Blail
nkhs). tsma'ii encamped on this occasion al Isfahan, and there Sheep" had done before him; but Suleiman, who ncceakd
concentrated the bulk ol his army— strengthening his nonhem Selim. was loo strong to nlmit of Rlaliatoty invasion bdaf
(and probably north-eastern) fruntierwlih luge bodies of cavalry, carried out with impunilyat the cost of Turkey.
but maintaining an attitude of dmple vatchfuhiesa. In ijio, la 1514 Isnu'il died* at Ardehn when on 1 pilgrimage tothi
when Sbaibatu had [nvided Khoruin the aecond time,and had tomb of his father. " The Persiaiu dveD with rapture on lai
ravaged the Persian province of Kermln, Shah Isma'il asked character," writea Sir John Malcolm, for ihey deem
tor redress. reFemng to the land encroached on as '^ber^Ftary "; him "not only the founder of a great dynasty, but 5J"VL|L
■nd Shaihani replied that he did not understand 00 wbat was the person to whom that faith in which they gloiy
founded the claim " to inherit." Eventually the Peniin troops owes its establishment u a niiional religioti." And be qootii
were put tn movement, and the Uzbegs, having been divided a note handed down by Purchat from a (ontempomry Eiiropai
bla small detachmenU scattered over the country, fell back traveller whicb reporuof him thus: " Hissubjecu deemed bins
and retreated to Heral. Their leader repaired to Mcrv, but saint, andmadeuseofhisnameintheirprayers. Manydisdalpcd
'it quickly followed him and enticed him out to battle 10 wear armour when they fought under Isma'il; and so enthiH
-' iiibani was defeated and ded, but Mastic were his soldiers in Ihelr new faith that they used to halt
nd put to the iwoid, together with their breasts to tbeir enemies and court death, eidaimlgg
paniont. ' Shlahl Sbiahl ' to rasA tbeboly cituefor which they loo^i."
It In Isma'il') reign is hia war with SbahTahmasp.itbeeldestof the four sonsof Isma'il, uctecdid
LI ongm may be traced id the Ottoman to the throne oa the death ol his father.' The piini^Ml occnr-
emperar's hatred and persecution ol all lieretical rences in his rtign, placed as nearly as poaaihle in ^^
_^ Mcolems in hia dominions, and the shah's anger at chronological order, were a renewal of war wilb j^^^
the fanaticism which had urged him to the slaughter the Uabe^ who had again invaded Khonsan, and
of 40,000 Turks suspected to have Ihrawn oS the ottbodoi the overthrow of their army (1517); the recovery of Bagdad
Sunnite doctrines. The sultan's army advanced Into Aier- from a Kunlish usurper (isiS); the settlement ol an latmal
baijan and western Pcnia through Tokal and Eningan. lama'il feud between Kiiil-bash tribes (Shamlu and Tukulu), cantendfal
had at this time the greater number of his lohliera enploycd for the custody of Ibe royal person, by the slaughter of the mat
In hia newly-conquered province of Ehoiasan and was driven unruly of the disputants (iS'9): the rescue of Khonmi fnai
to raise new levies in Kurdistan to obtain a sufficient force to fresh irruption, sJid of Herat from a beaiegiBg arm; of tJabep
resist the invasion. It is asserted by some that his frontier then (ijjolia new invasion of the Ottomans, from wlilch Pbhs wm
extended westward to Sivas, a city situated in a brge high plain saved rather by the severity of her climate than by the pnTCSi
watered by the Kial Irmak, and that hence to Khoi, 90 m. west of her warriors Cijaj); the wresting of Bagdad fnan Penia ^
of Tabriz, he followed the approved and oflcn successful tactics the sultan Suleiman (1^4); the king's youngest brother's reiieffiM
of ravaging and «'™liii8, soas to deprive his advancing , „ _^ ^^_^j ,j,., ^.^ ^^^^ p_^ ^^ ^^^^ .^^ ^^
enemy ol supphes. There b good evidence to show that the rdaiiona with one o( the Hates of wenem Eurme. In ijio tiri
Turkish janiiaarics were within an an of open revolt, and that 1514 Alphonio d'Albuquertjue. the fDvemor of PortDfueac \aStt
bul lor eitraordinaiy firmness in dealing with them they would lent e.ivoy,tDl«iia'il, leekiiinanallaDce, In IJIj.afteroccu^
have abandoned their leader in his inlended manh upon Tabrii. Monnui._he dapaiched a 'h'rt emto«^^undH^FoT*o Gmn *
town of Aieihaijan,
Lemoa. His object was to utilize the ShiHt
battle (1514) wasfought between the im rival monarehs, ending Egypt an
TTiere are' stirring accounts rf thai action and of the gallant "'."^^i^ uy, ijjj, KmuMki ijis;,:
le ddest ol the Peisiaiis and Ihe triumphant entry of Selim East. See, for further deuils and autboritis. K. G. Jayw. Vaia
into tbeIr capital. * " "" ' ""
deeds performed by Selim and Isma'd, both penonaliy engaged deiih at Cairo ui August ISJ4. KtuI
In it, as well as by their generals.* Others maintain that Isma'il five yean of age.
was not present at all." It is tolerably certain that the Turki J|™;«'°''"3 '^'•- ^''° " Shiarthemes," A> an in^n <<"■
won the day by better organixation mperiority of numben ''^.JSS ■'™y''Ee'™"iollU."™i."e^plai5il in CbMtfa^
and more especially the use of arullcry. On the side of tta „« to nieaa " le> hSpjuua i Tauiis: c'est-t-ifire Hv li rmfH
Per^ans the force consisted of LtLle more than cavalry. p™/«ii™ i4 vara." Chardin's ■" — "- "'- ■" —
t AngiolcTlo.
' Knolles, Malepira, Creaw, Harkhara, »c. . ^ ^ , .. , qu'on voit id." In other words, the Grit syllable "ach" [AafKl
Tau^lTal^Fin Jld^li>'^bfe^™»''^^!liwililw "'il™ .r***!?*^ '"m"" «™'»™ acceptance lor -fagdV
panie de ce ntol esc mbonnawiable, et ]a
Persan ugniiianl profuiioB a pu dooner
qu'oD voit id." In other words, the first
:aok Tauris from Ismail, but al lb noitt of Ui ap^aicit'
* „ with preeipltaliar " ""- ■— ■" ■ ■■■ - "■
'& ^"^^ "v{etoa1.":bul"ueoo"wasna.ur.ny
~^'"Jf ?^° ff^ the -hole difficulty U ho«v.r, to be is
the whole difficulty U honver, to be iouml In the Tune^nM
- - ouaced by Tnrka it'- ' — "
ieeiifoughtaiidlhevictorygaiaedwbentheshahwi.hiinMlfabmit more vulnrly ata Hum and even to a French cw.«i^
^ei Markham quotes a loumal which thus recordi his loHs o homiul, RicniMy a Hcli-houK. This wptd ,s undoubtedly «
..... _...,_ - -iB ,1m ih, brave Shah, wilb a blow of hii .t tsbnund throughout iwnhem Pmja.
_ ... • lec ' The other bmthcn .-ne llkhai. Bahtara and S»«Mfcm
•n^TsQ
PERSIA
23>
ad the actual Ktzme of Herat, necessitating the recovery of
Attdty and a march to Kandahar (1536 ); the temporary loss
tCIandahar in the fdkming year (1537), when the governor
ceded it to Prince Kamran, son of Babar; the hospiuble reception
Hooided to the Indian- emperor Humajmn (1543); the rebellion
«i the shah's brother next in age, Ilichas, who, by his alliance
lilh the sultan, brought on a war with Turkey (1548);* and
isiDy a fresh expedition to Georgia, followed by a revengeful
iecBision which resulted in the enforced bondage of thousands
«C the inhabitants (1552).
Bayead, a son of the Turkish emperor, rebelled, and his
iisqr was beaten in 1559 by the imperial troops at Konia
in Asia Minor. He fled to Persia and took refuge
with Shah Jahmasp, who pledged himself to give
him a pennanent asylum. Suleiman's demand,
heiever, for extradition or execution was too peremptory for
Rfunl, and the prince was delivered up to the messengers sent
to take him. Whatever Uie motive, the act itself was highly
inndated by Suleiman, and became the means of cementing a
BRently concluded peace between the two monarchs. Perhaps
the domestic afBiction of the emperor and the anarchy which
is ha later years had spread in his dominions had, however,
■ore to do with the maintenance of tranquillity than any mere
pewmal fcding. At this time not only was there religious
hoatidsm at work to stir up the mutual hatred ever existing
hetween Sunni and Shi*ah, but the intrigue of European courts
VIS probably directed towards the maintenance of an hostility
vhidi deterred the sultan from aggressive operations north and
vat of Constantinople. " Tis only the Persian stands between
■ and rain " is the reported saying of Busbecq, ambassador
tf Snldiaan's court on the part of Ferdinand of Austria; " the
TtA wouki fain be up<m us, but he keeps him back."
Ib 1561 Anthony Jenkinson arrived in Persia with a letter
fion Queen Elizabeth to the shah. He was to treat with his
Bajoty of " Trafique and G>mmerce for our English Mar-
dttts,"' but his reception was not encouraging, and led to
•0 Rsok of importance.
lUuu^ died in 1576, after a reign of about fifty-two
yeui He must have been some sixty-six years of age, having
come to the throne at fourteen. Writers describe
' him as a robust man, of middle stature, wide-lipped,
and of tawny complexion. He was not wanting
h nldiedy qualities; but his virtues were rather negative than
decided. The deceased shah had a numerous progeny, and on
hit death his fifth son, Haidar Mirza. proclaimed himself king,
npported in his pretensions by the Kizil-bash tribe of Ustujulu.
Another tribe, the Afshar, insisted on the succession of the
txiith son, Isma*il. Had it not been that there were two
'^iHtidatffl in the field, the contention would have resembled
that which arose shortly after Ja^i^i^'s accession. Finally
hma'il, profiting from his brother's weak character and the
JHiigDcs set on foot against him, obtained his object, and was
hm^t from a prison to receive the crown.
The reign o( Isma'il H. lasted less than two years. He was
fentd dead in the house of a confectioner in Kazvin, having
left the world either drunk, drugged or poisoned.
No steps were taken to verify the circumstances, for
the event itself was a cause of general relief and joy. He was
iTpfdfd by hb eldest brother, Mahommed Mirza, otherwise
called Mahommed Khudabanda, whose claim to
sovereignty had been originally put aside on the
ground of physical infirmity. He had the good
to trust his state affairs almost wholly to an able
■imster; but he was cowardly enough to deUver up that
■iaister into the hands of his enemies. His kingdom was
dktiacted by intestine divisions and rebeUion, and the foe
* Creasy ays that " SuKman led his armies against the Persians
h Kveraf campaigns (1533. 1S34. 1535> 1548* I553> I554)> during
vhidi the Tmiu <»ten suffered acverely through the difficult nature
d the coontrics traveraed. as well as through the bravery and
•oivky of the enemy." AU the years given were in the reign of
Tybnttpl.
nMas.
appeared also from without. On the east his youngest son
*Abbas, held possession of Khorasan; on the west the sultan's
troops again entered Azerbaijan and took Tabriz. His
eldest son, Hamza Mirza, upheld his fortunes to the utmost
of his power, reduced the rebel chieftains, and forced the Tu^
to nujie peace and retire; but he was stabbed to death by
an assassin. On the news of his death reaching Khorasan*
Murshid Kuli Khan, leader of the Ustujulu Kizil-bash, who had
made good in fight his claims to the guardianship of *Abbas,
at once conducted the young prince from that province to
Kazvin, and occupied the royal dty. The object was evident,
and in accordance with the p(^ular feeling. 'Abbas, who had
been proclaimed king by the nobles at Nishapur some two or
three years before this occurrence, may be said to have now
undertaken in earnest the cares of sovereignty. His ill-starred
father, at no time more than a nominal ruler, was at Shiraz,
apparently deserted by soldiers and people. Malcolm infers
that he died a natural death, but when* or where is not stated.
Shah *Abbas the Great commenced his long and glorious
reign (1586) by retracing his steps towards Khorasan, which
had been reinvaded by the Uzbegs almost imme- .^^^^.^^
diately after his departure thence with the Kizil-bash u^^t
chief. They had besieged and taken Herat, killed the
governor, plundered the town, and hud waste the surroundmg
country. *Abbas advanced to Meshed, but owing to internal
troubles he was compelled to return to Kazvin without going
farther east. In his absence *Abd-ul-Munim Khan, the Uzbeg
commander, attacked the sacred dty, obtained possession of it
while the shah lay helplessly ill at Teherftn, and allowed his savage
soldiers full licence to kill and plunder. The whole kingdom
was perplexed, and *Abbas had much work to restore confidence
and tranquillity. But drcumstances rendered impossible his
immediate renewal of the Khorasan warfare. He was summoned
to Shiraz to put down rebeUion in Fars; and before he could
drive out the Uzbegs, he had to secure himself against Turkish
inroads threatening from the west. He had been engaged in a
war with Murad III. in Georgia. Peace was conduded between
the two sovereigns in 1590; but the terms were unfavourable
to Persia, who lost thereby Tabriz and one or more of the Caspian
ports. A stipulation was induded in the treaty to the effect
that Persians were not to curse any longer the first three caliphs,
— a sort of privilege previously enjoyed by Shi*ites as part and
parcel of their religious faith.
In X597 * Abbas renewed operations against the Uzbegs, and
succeeded in recovering from them Herat and Khorasan. East*
ward he extended his dominions to Balkh, and in the south his
generals made the conquest of Bahrain (Bahrein), on the Arabian
side of the Persian Gulf, and the territory and islands of the
Persian seaboard, inclusive of the mountainous province of
Lar. He strengthened his position in Khorasan by planting
colonics of Kurdish horsemen on the frontier, or along what is
called the " atak " or skirt of the Turkoman mountains north of
Persia. In 1601 the war with the Ottoman Empire, which had
been partially renewed prior to the death of Sultan Murad in
iS95p with little success on the Turkish side, was now entered
upon by *Abbas with more vigour. Taking advantage of the
weakness of his ancient enemy in the days of the poor volup-
tuary Mahommed III., he began rapidly to recover the provinces
which Persia had lost in preceding reigns, and continued to
reap his advantages in succeeding campaigns under Ahmed I.,
until under Othman II. a peace was signed restoring to Persia
the boundaries which she had obtained under the first Isma'il.
On the other side Kandahar, which f ahmasp's h'cutenant had
yielded to the Great Mogul, was recovered from that potentate
in 1609.
At the age of seventy, after a reign of forty-two years, 'Abbas
died at his favourite palace of Farahabad, on the coast of
Mazandaran, on the night of the 27th of January 162S. Perhaps
the most distinguished of all Persian kings, his fame was not
merely local but world-wide. At his court were ambassadors
from England, Russia, Spain, Portugal, Holland and India.
* Krusinsld says in 1585.
232
PERSIA
Il40Shi7l6
To his Christian subjects he wis a kind and tolerant ruler.
The establishment of internal tranquillity, the expulsion of
interlopers and marauders like Turks and Uzbegs, the intro-
duction of salutary laws and the promotion of public works ot
utility — these alone would render remarkable his two-score
years of enlightened government. With a fine face, " of which
the most remarkable featiires were a high nose and a keen and
piercing eye/'* he is said to have been below the middle height,
robust, active, a sportsman, and capable of much endurance.
It is, however, to be regretted that this monarch's memory is
tarnished by more than one dark deed. Hie murder of his
eldest son, §ufi Mirza, and the cruel treatment of the two
younger brothers, were stains which could not be obliterated by
an after-repentance. All that can be now said or done in the
matter is to repeat the testimony of historians that his grief for
the loss of Sufi Mirza was profound, and that, on his death-
bed, he nominated that prince's son Qiis own grandson) his
successor.
Sam Mirza was seventeen years of age when the nobles, in
fulfilment of the charge committed to them, proclaimed him
StatW'r^ ^^^ under the title of Shah Sufi. He reigned
^^ fourteen years, and his reign was a succession of
barbarities, which can only be attributed to an evil disposition
acted upon by an education void of all civilizing influences. When
left to his own devices he became a drunkard and a murderer,
and is accused of the death of his mother, sister and favourite,
queen. Among many other sufferers Imam Kuli Khan, con-
queror of Lar and Hormuz, the son of one of *Abbas's most
famous generals, founder of a college at Shiraz, and otherwise
a public benefactor, fell a victim to his savage cruelty. During
his reign the Uzbegs were driven back from Khorasan, and a
rebellion was suppressed in Gilan ; but Kandahar was again
handed over to the Moguls of Delhi, and Bagdad retaken from
Per^a by Sultan Murad — both serious national losses. Taver-
nier, without charging the shah with injustice to Christians,
mentions the circumstance that " the first and only European
ever pubh'dy executed in Persia was in his reign." He was
a watchmaker named Rodolph Stadler, who had slain a Persian
on suspicion of intrigue with his wife. Offered his life if he
became a Moslem, he resolutely declined the proposal, and was
decapitated. His tomb is to be recognized at Isfahan by the
words " Cy git Rodolphe " on a long wide slab. Shah §ufi died
(1641) at Kashan and was buried at Kum.
His son, *Abbas II., succeeded him. Beyond regaining
Kandahar,~an jopcration which he is said to have directed in
*AhbaalL P*""****^ when barely sixteen, there is not much to
mark his life to the outer world. As to foreign
relations, he received embassies from Europe and a deputation
from the French East India Company; he sought to conciliate
the Uzbegs by treating their refugee chiefs with unusual honour
and sumptuous hospitality; he kept on good terms with Turkey;
he forgave the hostility of a Georgian prince when brought to
him a captive; and he was tolerant to all religions — always
regarding Christians with especial favour. But he was a drunk-
ard and a debauchee, and chroniclers are divided in opinion
as to whether he died from the effects of drink or licentious
living. That he changed the system of blinding his relatives
from passing a hot metal over the open eye to an extraction
of the whole pupil is indicative of gross brutality. *Abbas II
died (1668) at the age of thirty-eight, after a reign of twenty
seven years, and was buried at Kum in the same mosque as his
father.
'Abbas was succeeded by his son. Shah $ufi II., crowned fr
second time under the name of Shah Suleiman. Though weak,
Saklmma, ^'^soh'te and cruel, Suleiman is not without his
panegyrists. Chardin, whose testimony is all the
more valuable from the fact that he w^s contemporary with
him, relates many stories characteristic of his temper and habits
He kept up a court at Isfahan which surprised and delighted
his foreign visitors, among whom were ambassadors from
European states; and one learned writer, Kaempfer, credits
> Maksim.
him with wisdom and good policy. During his reign Khorasan
was invaded by the ever-encroaching Uzbegis, the Kipdiak
Tatars plimderKi the shores of the Caspian, and the island of
Kishm was taken by the Dutch; but the kingdom suffeied
otherwise tio material loss. He died in 1694, in the focty-nhith
year of his age and twenty-sixth of his reign.
About a year before his death, he is described by Sanson,* a
missionary from the French king Louis XIV., as tall, strong and
acrive, " a fine prince — a little too effeminate for a moaarcfa,**
with " a Roman nose very well proportioned to other parts,"
very large blue eyes, and " a midling mouth, a beard painted
black, shav'd round, and well tum'd, even to his ean." The
same writer greatly praises him for his kindness to Christxaa
missionaries.
Krusinski's memoir is full of particulars regarding Shah
Qosain, the successor of Suleiman. He had an elder and a
younger brother, sons of the same mother, but the
eldest had been put to death by his father's Mders,
and the youngest secreted by maternal precaution lest a similar
fate should overtake him. There was, however, a second
candidate for power in the person of a half-brother, 'AbbaSw
The latter prince was the worthier of the throne^ but the other
better suited the policy of the eunuchs and those noblemen iriio
had the right of election. Indeed Suleiman himself is reported
to have told the grandees around him, in his last days, that
" if they were for a martial king that would always keep his
foot in the stirrup they ought to choose Mirza *Abbas, but that
if they wished for a peaceable reign and a pacific king they
ought to fix their eyes upon Hosain." But he himsdf tnadeno
definite choice.
Hosain was selected, as might have been anticipated. On
his accession (1694) he displayed his attachment to reUgSous
observances by prohibiting the use of wine — causing aO vine-
vessels to be brought out of the royal cellars and destroyed, and
forbidding the Armenians to sell any more of their stock in
Isfahan. The shah's grandmother, by feigning herself sid^ and
dependent upon wine only for cure, obtained reversal of the
edict. For the following account of Shah Qosain and Us
successors to the accession of Nadir Shah, Sir ClemcBti
Markham's account has been mainly utilized.
The new king soon fell under the influence of mullahs, and wasted
80 far to foreet his own origin as to persecute the Sufis. Thoo^
good-hearted he was weak and licentious; and once out of tac
hands of the fanatical party he became ensnared by women and
entanelcd in harem intngues. For twenty years a profouod peace
prevailed throughout the empire, but it was the precunor of a
terrible storm destined to destroy the Safawid dynasty and scatter
calamity broadcast over Persia. In the mountainous districts of
Kandahar and Kabul the hardy tribes of Af^^hans had for tjcaliines
led a wild and almost indeixndent life. They were divided iaSS
two great branches — the Ghilzais of Ghazni and Kabul and dK
Saduzais of Kandahar and Herat. In 1702 a newly-appoiated
governor, one Shah Nawaz, called Gurii Khan from havmg been
wall " or ruler of Georgia, arrix'cd at Kandahar with a toKrallf
large force. He was a clever and energetic man, and had been
instructed to take severe measures with the Afghans, some of whoM
were sus|>ccted of intriguing to restore the city to tlw Delhi cnpcror.
At this time Kandahar had been for sixty years uninterruptecByia
the shah's possession. The governor appears to have givea fnat
offence by the harshness of his proceedings, and a Gnilaai dmf
named Mir Wa'iz, who had complained of his tyranny, was seat a
prisoner to Isfahan. This person had much ability and no littla
cunning. He was permitted to ^o on a pilgrimage to Mecca, aatf
on his return in i7o8 he so gamed upon the confidence of ifee
Persian court that tie was allowed to go back to his countxy. At
Kandahar he planned a conspiracy against the govemmeat, dew
Gurji Khan and hb retinue, seized the city, defeated two INniaa
armies sent against him, and died a natural death in I7I5> ^
brother, Mir Abdallah, succeeded him in the government of ^
Afghans; but after a few months, Mahmud, a son of Mir Wa*i|«a%flT
young man, murdered his uncle and assumed the title of a sovereip
prince.
In the meanwhile the Saduzai tribe revolted at Herat, and dedwj
itself independent in 1717: the Kurds overran the country n^m
Hamadan; the Uzbegs desolated Khorasan ; and the Arabs oTMiaal
seized the island of Bahrein and threatened Bander Abbasi. 'All
surrounded by dangers on all sides the wretched shah was bevfldoti
lie made one vain attempt to regain his possessions in the ""
* PrtstiU State oj Persia (London, 1695)-
j
Gill bn the PattnfDW Sect irlilch bad pranuRl to tn»piirt hii tht fugitive iluh ni jelttd by t
mgoi to Bahrda waa deCeatal by tbe iaam of MiHcat and [omd murdered Falh 'Ali. and, havliM «
-—••-'"— IhccomiMndofllw ' '■
ived tidioci oi tliii alanncd, and kd ai
.odaiiin
It to Gca. the comound of the royal an
Iba coqrt 'cf Irfahan had no aooner ncdved tidiogi of tliii alanocd, and kd anAiEban — -, ,-._ ,
^atttt tkaa Hahnud, with a lai^ anny ol Afiluzu, invaded be wna defeated by Nadir at ^mghan. and fornd
^^^ tlK city al Irfahaa. The ihah offend him a
■oaey tD mum Id Kandahar, but Ibe AfEhao anavered by advanc-
iat la ■ phcz called Gulnabad, trithin 9 m. of tlH capital. The
aui-ipir— I Pnian army, haidly tallectcd, adnocad to attack <
the lebda. lu ceatn na kd by SbeiUi 'AU Khan, covend by
ti>edy-(aur fidd'iaecea. Tie mli at Anbia connnanded the ^
Mt. aod die ^nudu' d-daulah. or prime minister, the left nni. aacra by diigmiinc hencif at a ilave and perfomiini ihe nuii
nt whiJe fcrcc amouDted 1050,000 men, while the Alshana could degrading offioet, now came fonh aod threw henelf into hia amu.
r, who bnd u
sss^'*
h 1733 the richly dmaed hoala of I^nia He followed them up. ar^ ■£&!□ utterly routed them in January
le band of Afghans, who were ecofched and 1730, Aihmf tried to etcape to Kandahar aTmon alone, but waa
1 — I L.. >.. J i»,i..„fc. -^ui — ^ \h\n, by the geniuacf
D the tcrribk Afghan
ered by a caity of Baluch robben; and thiia, by the eeniuacf
r, hlf native land waa deli ' ' •■■ '■"- "-■—
invadcn.
The ambition of Nadir, however, waa far imter than hli loyalty.
On pretext o[ ivapadty, he dethroned Tahmaap 11. in (7ja, and
lent hirn a jeiaoner into Khoraaan, wIkic he na -^-^
Ihnme. a little child, with the title of 'Abbai HI., while he con-
tented himadf with the ofike of Rfent. Poor liltk 'Abbaa died at
a very convenient time, in the year 17^, and Nadir then threw t>ff
the maik. He waa proclaimed ahah of Penia by a vaat aaaemhlaje
on the plain of Mofiban.
By the fall of the Safawid dycaity Pet^ loat her nee of
national monoidu, conaidcred not t>aJy in reapect of origia and
birthplace hut In aacDcc and In qiirit. Isna'il, Tafamaap and
'Abbaa, vhalevec their faulu and taiUofi, wen Peiaian and
w^^hialrfihJ^ peculiar to Petsiana. Regarded Ul a aober Englidi spirit, the
^ , al [Blace, he via mluted' reign of the great 'Abbaa I» rendered tnylhica] by crime. But
(n ol Pecila bf the UBfommate Qoaain. WbenTafamaap, Mmetbing liberal Id the philosophy of their progcniton threv
^facitiveprinee,neaved tidinp of the abdication of hiaiathcT, ^ atlracliveneat over [he earlier Safawid kinn which waa
"fJSsSSiSf'JSS.SrS.^^^.ii^ "■•« ","«s -If -;,; ■>" ■'"7 ,."■'■« ' •'£; "5
tkt^hn^ The Turk* aeiied on Tidih Tabriaaal Hamadan, centunesafterShahlunad'aacceaion to the thiane.the Safawid
•tt hitr the Gnat, whoac aid had bea aoutht by the frieadleia race of kingi waa effete; and it became oeceaaary to make room
M—^ Sued oot a Beet on the Caiiaan." The Ru^Juia occupied for a more vigonnu if not a more laiting rule. Nadir ■»« the
aarm. and the provuice of Olan anulh-weB of the Caapian/ and ,,_,.__._ t™ ih. ■
Nw»idealn5Uy withTahmamll. UJuly I7a». by wMchhe '"?*/?"'",,"
wnd to drive the Aribani out of Person CDDdhion that Darband ■ robber chief ;
(EMicndl, Baku. Gilui. Maaadann and AManbad wen ceded othen who have £ . .
» knaa in pei^uiiy. The« were all the richeM and moR mclodnmatic interfst.
lfcSa?^1S,SS? toTT^i'S^ uoofthe orindcal Peialan ^ ""P attnched 10 Rnirinski'. volume flloUrale. the eitent
-'^ - a banquet ^ ni^ucred Ihcm. TV^premt their of Peisianterriloryin 1728, or one year before Aahraf waafinally
^ ..^ i^ ... ■„.,-«- ,k«. — > -II ^..^^,^A ..1^ Ti.^. .i-fQited by Nadir, and some eight yeaia prior to
e dale on which Nadir was himself proclaimed king, fjj^
thowa, during the reign of the Safawida, Tiflia,
-S^A^ "JIT^^' "iS'^l'SeTiiS SSri*S;m Erivu,, Kb™ u>d Bagdad to have b™ within the limit, of
<i u be murdered, cammencuig the niiHacre with hii own hand. PenIa on the west, and in like manner Balkb and Kandahar
"cemiHlHoaaio waa himaaf wounded in emleavouringvaiidy to have been Included within the eastern border. There ii,
lam^Sl^™ only fiveyanof a^ AL^ ™la ol^e to^^„_ ^ ^^„_ „ , r^^l ^f the Af„h«i inttuMon and
« wl t^'bve periahed. At leiipb the Inhuman miKrean; "« impolency of the later Safawid kings, a long broad itrip of
■Umd dieil. at the early age of twency-aeven. on the iind ol country to Ihe wett, including Tsbrii and Hamadan, marked
tai 1;jj. Whh Korccly any neck, he had round ahouldcrs, a "conqueslaof theTurki,"andlhewholewc5lihoreof theCaspIan
iS^I^SJS^.toJ^i^ ' ^^"^ "luintins eyea, which ,^^ AstrJtan to Maamdaian marked " conquests of the cm
U^?^l^ uKcteited by hia fint coualn, Aahraf, the ion of of Muscovy ";Maknin, written Mecran,isdetignaled" a warlike
Kk'Abdallah. He wu a brave but cruel Afghan. He irave the independent nation." If further allowance be nude for the
WimMUihahahandaDnieaUDwanee.andBtiove.bya^apolicy, diitrictheldby the Afghan invadera as part of thcirown country,
fc Hddana. But the fonnnate lUriiTahmaip II. waa now be- reduced, and what a work Nadir had before him to restore the
jfviai to riie. and the daya ol Afghan uiur[BtiDii were numbered, kingdom lo Its former pnpoitioris.
EWhBdeDa«:tcdaamallarmyinMaaantlaraA,andvaaiupportedby But the fonncr tinpoTtions bad been partly
Ink 'All khan, the powerful diief ol the Kaj" "■">- '- ■"' ■ ■ ■
' Vt haie an aeoiunt of the Afghan bmadon and lack of lifahan Afghanistan and the Otti
* triiieK Father KruJuU. ...-■-_-—_. . _ . . .
*° 'T'^ would doubtless have been in some respects ei
of this Indefatigable general, had not
'T'ahmasp H. been led into a premature treaty with the Turlu.
»o.aIii«laneBbaaytotheRuisiana,aeeklni Nadir's anger and indignation '
Maiaiiin the AMiana. In May lyiiaflocilladescendedtU Volga proceeding; indeed, he had made it the osttn
■MwiudLd by Tair Peter and on the 19th of July the Runan ^ih's deposition. He had addressed letlen 10 all Ihe mililiry
fccfajwaiwlDwitheCaapiaa. Gilan waa occapkd bySooo men chitf, of the country, caUing upon them for luppon; he had sent
■■"Ceneral Matuifakin. . - '\- »'-_,-..... ..«., ,1.
•Ihe Ru^ian. remuned hi GHan UBtn 17J4. when they -en »? eniray to C™unl.nopIe insisting upon th
tion of thfi Peiaian provinces BtHl in his possession
234
PERSIA
(1736-104
Nadfa
Georgia and part of Azerbaijan— and he had threatened Bagdad
with assault. As regent, he had failed twice in taking the dty
of the caliphs, but on the second occasion he had defeated and
killed its gallant defender, Topal*Othman,and he had succeeded
in regaining Tiflis, Kars and Erivan.^
Russia and Turkey, naturally hostile to one another, had
taken occasion of the weakness of Persia to forget their mutual
quarrels and unite to plunder the tottering kingdom of the
Safawid kings. A partition treaty had been signed between
these two powers in 1723, by which the czar was to take Astara-
bad, Maaandaran, Gilan, part of Shirvan and Daghistan, while
the acquisitions of the Porte were to be traced out by aJine drawn
from the junction of the Aras and Kur riven, and passing along
by Ardebil, Tabriz and Hamadan, and thence to Kermflnshfth.
Tahmasp was to retain the rest of his paternal kingdom on con-
dition of his recognizing the treaty. The ingenious diplomacy
of Russia in this transaction was manifested in the fact that she
had already acquired the greater part of the territory allotted
to her, while Turkey had to obtain her share by further con-
quest. But the combination to despoil a feeble neighbour was
outwitted by the energy of a military commander of a remark-
able type.
D. — From the Accasion of Nadk Shah, in jyj6, to 1884.
Nadir, it has been said, was proclaimed shah in the plains
of Moghan in 1736. Mirza Mahdi relates how this event was
brought about by hb address to the assembled
^ nobles and officers on the morning of the '* Nau-ruz,"
'or Persian New- Year's Day, the response to that
appeal being the offer of the crown, lie conditions were that
the crown should be hereditary in his family, that the claim of
the Safawids was to be held for ever extinct, and that measures
should be taken to bring the Shi'ites to accept uniformity of
worship with the Sunnites. The mulla bashi (or high priest)
objecting to the last, Nadir ordered him to be strangled, a com-
mand which was carried out on the spot. On the day following,
the agreement having been ratified between sovereign and people,
he was proclaimed emperor of Persia. At Kazvin the ceremony
of inauguration took place. The edict expressing the royal
will on the religious question is dated in June, but the date of
coronation is uncertain. From Kazvin Nadir moved to Isfahan,
where he organized an expedition against Kandahar, then in
the possession of a brother of Mahmud, the conqueror of Shah
Qosain. But before setting out for Afghanistan he took
measures to secure the internal quiet of Persia, attacking and
seizing in his stronghold the chief of the marauding Bakhtiaris,
whom he put to death, retaining many of hb men for service
as soldiers. With an army of 80,000 men he marched through
Khorasan and Seislan to Kandahar, which city he blockaded
ineffectually for a year; but it finally capitulated on the loss of
the citadel. Balkh fell to Ri^ Kuli, the king's son, who,
moreover, crossed the Oxus and defeated the Uzbcgs in battle.
Besides tracing out the lines of Nadirabad, a town since merged
in modem Kandahar, Nadir had taken advantage of the time
available and of opportunities presented to enlist a large number
of men from the Abdali and Ghilzai tribes. It is said that as
many as 16,000 were at his disposaL His rejection of the
Shi'ite tenets as a state religion seems to have propitiated the
Sunnitc Afghans.
Nadir had sent an ambassador into Hindustan requesting
the Mog\il emperor to order the surrender of certain unruly
. ^ Afghans who had taken refuge within Indian terri-
fg^fff. tory, but no satisfactory reply was given, and
obstacles were thrown in the way of the return of the
embassy. The Persian monarch, not sorry perhaps to find a
plausible pretext for encroachment in a quarter so full of promise
to booty-seeking soldiers, pursued some of the fugitives through
Ghazni to Kabul, which city was then under the immediate
control of Na^r Khan, governor of eastern Afghanistan, for
Mahommcd Shah of Delhi. This functionary, alarmed at the
near approach of the Persians, fled to Peshawar. Kabul had
* Malcolm.
long been considered not only an integral part but also one of
the main gates of the Indian Empire; notwithstanding a stout
resistance on the part of its commandant. Shir or Shirzah Khan,
the place was stormed and carried (1738) by Nadir, who moved
on eastward. Mirza Mahdi relates that from the Kabul plain
he addressed a new remonstrance to the Delhi court, but that
his envoy was arrested and killed, and his escort compdled to
return by the governor of Jalalabad. The same authority
notes the occupation of the latter place by Persian troops and
the march thither from Gandamak. It was probably throng^
the Khaibar (Khyber) Pass that he passed mto the Peshawar
pkdn, for it was there that he first defeated the Imperial forces.
The invasion of India had now fairly commenced, and its
successful progress and consummation were mere questicm
of time, llie prestige of this Eastern Napoleon was immense.
It had not only reached but had been very keenly fdt at DelU
before the conquering army had arrived. There was no actusl
religious war; all sectarian distinction had been disavowed; the
contest was between vigorous Mahommedans and effete Mahom-
medans. Nadir's Way had been prepared by drcumstancciy
and as he progressed from day to day his army increased.
There must have been larger accessions by voluntary recruits
than losses by. death or desertion. The victory on the plain of
Kamal, whether accomplished by sheer fighting or the intervd^
tion of treachery, was the natural outcome of the previooi
situation, and the submission of the emperor fdlowed as a
matter of course.
Delhi must have experienced a sense of relief at the departors
of its conqueror, whose residence there had been rendered
painfully memorable by carnage and riot. The marriage of
his son to the granddaughter of Aurangzeb and the formal
restoration of the crown to the dethroned emperor were doubt-
less politic, but the descendant of Babar could not easily forget
how humiliating a chapter in history would remain to be written
against him. The return march of Nadir to Persia is nol
recorded with precision. On the 5th of May 1739 be left the
gardens of Shalamar, and proceeded by way oi Lahore and
Peshawar through the passes to Kabul. Thence be seems 10
have returned to Kandahar, and in May 1740— -just one yev
after his departure from Delhi — ^he was in Herat displaying the
imperial throne and other costly trophies to the gaze of the
admiring inhabitants. Sind was certainly included in the
cession to him by Mahommed Shah of " all the territories
westward of the river Attok, " but only that portion of h,
such as Thattah (TatU), situated on the right bank of the
Indus.
From Herat he moved upon Balkh and Bokhara, and received
the submission of Abu'1-Faiz Khan, the Uzbeg ruler, whom he
restored to his throne on condition that the Oxus
should be the acknowledged boundary between the
two empires. The khan of Khwarizm, who had made
repeated depredations in Persian territory, was taken prisoner
and executed. Nadir then visited the strong fortress of Kdal,
to which he was greatly attached as the scene of his boyiih
exploits, and Meshed, which he constituted the capital of Us
empire. He had extended his boundary on the east to the
Indus, and to the Oxus on the north.
On the south he was restricted by the Arabian Ocean aid
Persian Gidf; but the west remained open to his further
progress. He had in the first place to revenge the,
death of his brother Ibrahim Khan, slain by the
Lesghians; and a campaign against the Turks might
follow in due course. Tht first movement was nmniiffiirf'*^
and indirectly attended with disastrous consequences. Katfil^
when hastening to the support of some Afghan levies who vtit
doing good service, was fired at and wounded by a stray assailaBlt
suspecting his son, Ri^ Kuli, of complicity, he commanded tbt
unfortunate prince to be seized and deprived of sight. Froei
that time the heroism of the monarch appeared to die out. Be
became morose, tyrannical and suspicious. An easy nctoy
over the Turks gave him but little additional ^ory; and ke
readily concluded a peace with the sultan which bronght iNit
PERSIA 335
L, brought ^>out the dath of
IT Diutxkr by Nui Ulkb Mbtt, the yoaag Yuiuf 'All ud lie Kcond impiuonment of Slub Rukfa, Tbcte
(DBiB WHO BUI muricd > piiaam of Ddbi, left tnUteti much evenu Bere followed by ■ quURl termiiiilini in ibe wpteiucy
Ik ame u befon. of the Aisb. At this juncture Alfiiud Shib Abdili ruppeued
He lut jaa oi Nmdii'i life mre full of Intcnul traable. in Peniin Eboraun from HeiiI; he ituckcd and took po««*-
Oi Ihe put <f the •OTodgB', nurden ud encntion]; on that lion a[ Meihed, ilew Mir 'Alim, ud, pledging the local chiefi
d bit nbjecti, tevok and con^dnKy. Such ■ itate of thinp to nipport the blinded prince in nUining the kingdom of hi*
Ol^ not Ittt, >Dd CCftaln proacribed penoni plotted the gnndlalher, returned to Afghaniitan. But thenceforward thli
dotractioo of tbe bilf-denentcd tyrant- He waa dea|ialched onfortunAte young man was a mere ahadow of royalty, and
bjSatall Bey, capuia ofhtafnaidi (1747)- He waa aome aiily hia purely local power and preatige had no further inSuence
jtvs of age, and bad reigiMd eleven yevi. About the time of whatever on Feraia as a country.
wBSjag out on bia Indian expedition he waa deacribed aa a most Tlie land wax partitioned among aerenl diitingulshed penont,
OBK^ mail, Dpwanla td 6 iL, tall, well-piopoitlooed, of robuit who had of old been biding thdr opportunitiea, or wen bocn of
■ab and conctilDtiani inclined to be iat, but prevented by the the octuion, Foirmost among tbeM waa Mahom-
Ufse he nndeiwenl; with fine, larxe bUick eye> and eyebrowi; med Hiiu Khun, beicdiury chief of Ihoae Kajan SuSki
d vnftUnc compleiioD, made mote tnanjy by the InHuence of who were cMabfiihed in the Bouth-eaat comer of
naaul volber; ■ loud, itmic voice; ■ modersle wioe-diinker; the Catpiia. Hi) falber, Fith 'Ali Khan, after ihetlering Shah
imd of ample lUet, uch at ^Itat ud plain diihca, but often Tahniaip IL at hia borne In Astarabad, and long acting aa
■t^Ktfal of mealt altogether, and tatUfied, if occaaioa required, one a£ hia mow loyal aupporten, bad been put lo death by
^ pudied pcaa and mter, alwayi to be ptDcured.' Nadir, who had appointed a luccessor to hii chiefdom from the
Duing the le^ of Nadir an attempt waa made to eatabliah " Yukari " or " upper " Kajan, inaiead of from bii own, the
I BiitBh ratfnan trade with PemtL Ibe oamea ol Jonaa " Aahagha," or " bwer."' Mahommed, with his brother, had
Bony and John Ellon WBC honourably CDonccted with this fled to the Turkomans, by whose aid he had attempied the
mkrtiking; and Ibe fanner baa left moat valuable recardi ol recovery of Astarabad, but had not aucceeded in regaining a
it lime and coijntry. permanent footing there until Nadir had been removed. On the
turn Saiir SiaJi U Uie Kajar Dyniuly. — After the deatb ol murder of the tyrant he had raised tbeslandird of independence,
KidB Shah something like anarchy prevailed for Ihlrteen yean auccetafully resisted Abmad Shah and his Afghans, who souglil
. , . . in the greater part of Pcisia aa it existed under lo check lus progress In the interests of Shah Rukh, and evcu-
?Ziy Shah 'Abbas. No sooner had the aime become lually brought under bis own sway the valuable provincea of
known than At^mad Khan, chief of the Abdali Gilan, Maundaran and Astarabad* — quite a liille kingdom In
Ulhaa, look poMciaion of. Kandahar and a certain amount itself. In the Urge important province of Aierbaijan, Aiad
4f tTcamrE. By the action of Al^nad AbdatI, Afghanistan was Khan, one of Nadir's generals, had enablisbed a separate
tf ace k«t to the Perdan crowa, for this leader was strong government; and 'All Uardan, brother of the Bakhtiari chief,
BBi^ to fdusd an independent kingdom. The chief of the took fortfble possession of Isfahan, empowering Shah Rukh'a
BiUthik, Raahid, alio with treasure. Bed to the mounUlni, governor, Abul-Falh Khan, to act [or the new master instead
■d tbc conspinton invited 'Ali, a nephew of the deceased of the old.
I — srch, la ascend the vacant throne. The Bakhtiari encour- Had 'Ali Mardan declared himself an Independent raler he
Vd Ut bialher, *Alf Mardan, to compete for the tuccesuon would have been by far the most important of the three pereona
<tlli£r. The prince was welcouied t^ his subjects; he told named. But such usurpation at tha old Safawid capital wouM
Utaihstthemunlerof hisunde wasdue tohisowninstigation, have been too flagrant an act for generaf assent; so be put
ad, ia order to coocOiate them, remitted the revenues of the forward Isma'il, a nephew of Shah^usain, as the representative
tBtot year and all cxtnordinaiy taxes for the two years of aovcrelgnty, and himself as one of his two ministert—the
Ubrin^ other being Kaiim Khan, a chief of the Zend Kurda. Shah
Tiliag the titll ot 'Adil Shah, 01 Ibe "just" king, he Isma'il, it need acarcely be said, poBscssed no real authority;
nmiiii I his reign by putting to death the two princes Rila but the minislen were strong men In their way, and the Zend
Idaid Nasr Ullah, as well as all relative* whom he conaidered eapedalty had many high and excellent qualities. After a lime
b ue^ieliion, with the eiceptian ol Shah Rukh, ion of Ri» 'AJi Mardan was assassinated, and Karim Khan became the
Iili, rtom he spared in ose a lineal descendant of Nadir aole living power at Islahan. The story of Ibe period is thui told
AciU U any lina be requited. But he had not removed all by R. G. Walson:—
iaprms membcn of the royal house, nor had he gauged the " The three rivals. Kartm. Aiad and Muhammad Haian. pro-
'mps el the times or people. 'Adil Shah was soon dethroned cceded to mile, by meam of the »Drd. the queRion aa id wfdch
It ji mm brother, Ibrahim, and be in bis turn was defeated t^ them wm to be the Ble noner of Pink. A thiee- g,,^^,^
kylbe adherents of Shah Rukh, who made their ieadet king. "he M?!Sau^u ™^ li^rflt'^ li^'Hlrfli be "** "~
Tto ymmg prince had a better and more legilimale title ,,„ (j^^ conqueror. Karim, when he had airanEcd ""'^
lau tlat of the grandson of Nadir, for he was also grandson, matlen at Ispahan, marched 10 the fxmlen of MarandaTld,
fci„j.on the mother'* side, of the Safawid Shah Husain. where the governor of that province wasreidy to ni«t him
■^Amiable, generous and h-beral-muided, and ol pre- if^„Vi^'\^^'^^"uJS'^'Si£C^^fh. (S^TTte
pnaning eaterSar, he proved to be a popular prince. But (uj ,„' ^^^ ;„ order to encounter Azad. That leader had in-
■ m aeilber of an age nor character lo rule over a people led wled CiUn. but, on the newi naching hun of the victory which
y, tiriiulent and disa&ccled chieb, ever divided by the con- the governor of Manndactn had gainrd. he iboiieht it jrudent
fe» n«««. nl n™™J .mhition .q.-id M.hommfd. Hn ;" 'attcc_ta, step, to Su^lujiyeh. Kanni reunited his thaltered
amlatlon. Sa'id Mahommed, ion (or^'^-rehrin'andriitred to'Yipiian to prei^
Dand, a chief mullah at Meshed, whoae mother was canifuign. Wheii he again took tfifield it wa> mCio'tmet
ed danghlet of Sidelinan, declared himself king, and hlmielf once more with the Kajar chid, but lo put down the f
Shah Rukh. Yuiuf 'All, the general tenaions of A»d. The wary Afghan, howevw. shut himicll uf
BMundmg the no«l tmopa, defeated and slew Sulei , — iurvon _
Hfcod Ui master on the throne, reserving lo himself the {^Snd 'ibe mji>~'o("ihe"'iown. '[Carii
Mectonhip or regency. A new combination of chiefs, of
*U Jfafir the Kurd ami Uir 'Alim the Arabian are the ■ Thcie were thire branchei o( the Kajar tribe, if. tl
Tungkut and Jalaiyar. The lafl, according to Wittoi
'Oeay aaya the war bnlie out in 1743. but was cennlnated sellltd in Iran and Turan, and leein at GrN to have g
■ iTit by a treaty vluch made Ihtle clianre in the cU arrange- name to all the tribe.
^iadiadBMuiadlV. 'Watson. Maldim nyi that Cilan was under one c
>Fn*B-a HiMmy i/ NMr Sink (1741]. chiefs, Hkiaiyat Khan.
23*1
Iribeunen together »nd compe
priionei by Nadir and bubaniuily mutilated by 'Adil Shal^ I
had aflerwaidi found meant to irjoio bit pcai>le, but bl
aumndcicd hinuell to Ktiim Kban when hit lather *nu kSk
In bailie. On Uie olbcr hand, Sadik, btother to ZaU, iibo h
won comidciablfl and doerved repute by the capture of Ba*
[torn the Ttukiih tovcnioi, abandoned his hold of the cotH)ueti
town on healing of the dcilb of Kirim, and appeared with t
■nay befon Shiiu. To provide igiinit the intended aoii
of the fini, Zaki detached hit nephew, 'Ali Mund, at tin bi
of hit bett troopa to proceed with all tpeed to the norths and, i
to the flecond, the leiiure of tuch familiei of Sadik'a foUowB
ai were tlien within the walls of the town, and otlier viola
measures, ilruck such dismay into the heaitt of the beiie|ii
soldiers that they di^xrsed and abandoned their leader U h
fate. From Kcnnln, however, where he found an luxluni, tfc
latter addressed an urgent appeal for assistance to 'Ali MmV
This chief, encamped at Tcher&n when the commiuucatip
reached him, submitted the matter to his men, who deddc
against Zaki, but put forward thdr own captain aa the ol
matlec tliey would acknowledge. 'Ali Murad, leaving tlie pa
luit of Aga Uahcnuned, thai returned to IsfabaD, where he ■■
received with satisfaction, on the declaration that hk H
'S^'"'' h° '"'ti^ "'■'•" "" " ""■'•" " "^ 1*"*"1 inheritance the ddeat ao><
lei la the coumiy Kuim Khan, whom Zaki had set aside in favour of a yOBl^
It^ahin, where he brother. The sequel is full of dramatic interest. Zaki, cmagt
' ^ " '*^- at his nephew'a desertion, marched out of Shiraa lowut
Isfahan. On his way lie came to the town of YeadiUiast, wta
ua ■■»» >nuiii«umn, ''= "ieBianded a «um of money from the inhabitants, daid
openio idn. he found it as pan of secreted leveiue; tbe demand was reIusiid,Bi
— 1 ijj. J .|gi,,^„ of ^ hemd men were thtown down the piecqiice boial
lit window; a " aaiyid," or holy nun, was tfie [len victim, u
wXSief rf™ Sto^Kb ^ '^' ""1 cUughter were to be ff veil over to the toldirry, whi
' his cause, and who bad a a tuddenly-formcd conspiracy took eSect, aod Zaki'* own I
which be now pot him to waa taken in retribution ioc hit guilt (1779).
ul nlniided Ibe an of tbe°^Mlieadiag Into Maaan'— -'
impte of the meet deteradned
t: 1. — ij leeomiised *"■
vbo had desci
It whole of Per^, c
in niled with the
i[~' KhiirtOn. He made'Shlrti tbe teat of '
id by means of hi* brothers put
ks made to aubven hi* autbont^. |
'inMtriai
intelligence of these events reuhed Eennln, Sid
1 haatened to Shiraz, proclaimed himself king ia jiM
bu '1-Fat|^ Khan, whom he declared incompe-^^^
to rugn, and put out the eyes of tlie young
"t'.i." ::;;".. jt- t^^ - — j "-u jL"" .( t'liuji. He despatched his son Ji'a£r to astiune ^ gDnn
of the iieal Zend chief wMjun and imld, and he u on the ^^^ ^^ Istshan and watch the movements of 'AH San
which hi wai placed, one of the moR raultlcn chaiacten to be met who appears to have been then absent from that dty, and 1
with in I>ciMn hiitoiy." gave a younger son, 'Ali Naki,commandof anarmy in tbeBdi
Katim Khan died at biscafdtal in 1770 in the twentieth year T^ campaign ended in the capture of Shiraa and fTriHT^
of his reign, and, it is said, in the eightieth of his age. He built of tovereignty by 'Ali Murad, who caused Sldik Khan ta I
the great baaaar of Shirax, had a tomb constructed over the put to death.
rtmiini of Hs£i, and repaired the " turbat " at the grave of From this period up to (he accesaioD of Aga Mahomraed Eka
Sa'di, out^de the walls. He encouraged commetce and agricut- the tuinmatiicd hiitoiy of Maikham will supply tbe prindpi
ture, gave much attention to the sboits of the Fenian Gulf, facts required.
and carefully studied the welfare of the Aimeniaa community .ai; Murad reigned over Pen™ uniH 1781, awl carried cm
■ettkd in his dominions. In hii lime the British tactoiy was luccmfu] war wirh Aga Mabammcd in Maandaraa, rVftarfa
removed from Bander Abbasi to Buthlre. him in leverml engigemenift, and occupying Teheran and SarL If
On Karim's death a new period of anarchy supervened. His ^IflS^^''", "K '™ !'^'i°!?V^'*^..il.''';
brother, Zaki, a cruel «.d,.Sdic.ive chief who. when governor JEr^ii.^l™"^„'^.K; ±n^S^ ''
e, named Hajji Ibiahun. This '
,, had revolted against Karim, assumed magiitrate, na
"" "■ ... aaency of corunrato... —
tRe throne. Hajji Ibrahim
*" the
■ govemmen
t. At the same time he ptodsi'med
Abu -l-Fath Khan, secont
brother Mah<
immed 'Ali,
jdnt-successon to the tfaione. The
seiiute of the
citadel at E
ihirai by the adherents of the former,
3R inBuential of the Zends, may have
induced him t
o'^'^t Th™
measuie a> one of prudent condliation.
But the garri
»n held out
, and, to avoid a piottacted siege, he
.0 Iteacheiy.
The suspicious nobles were solemnly
ust themselt
res to bis keeping, under promise of
forgiveness.
They believed his ptolesiions, tendered their
uelly butchered. Zaki did ool long
enjoy the fru
its ol his perfidious dealing- The death of Karim
Khan had ra:
(led two fon
Aga htahoi
Timed, «™ 0
of Aalatabad,
, a prisoner .
^Si" ,__
kiiu. He hod hastened 10 Shins on bearing ol hia ITl
father'a death and received a warm wekxime Imin the ^^
inhabitaBts. HaiH IbralUm bcame his ehiet advinr, and a m
mioiMec iras found foe him In Mina Uoiain ShiruL At (htM
of his accetslnn Lulf 'All Khan was only In hia iwentjetfcjat
diflering widely' in clianctcr, "br wai a wonhy ■ mir of Ml
Khan, the gieal founder of the Zend dyaaaly. LutfASKhalW
not been many months on tbe ihnne when An MakoaMidl*
vanced to attack him. and invetted the city ofSliitaa, batlcBOM
Kon afterwards to Tthertn, which he had made >ha opinl ■■■
dominion*. The young king then enjoyed a *hon peried <^f»
«H»4I
PERSIA
237
ttwink. ia 1790, he collected hit forces and marched against
IkKajan. in the direction ol Isfahan. But Haiji Ibrahim had
hoi intriguing against his sovereign, to whose family he owed
evjthinf, not only with his officers and soldiera but also with
ilfi llahommed. the chief of the Kajars, and arch-enemy of the
Ink. Lutf *Ali Khan was suddenly deserted by the whcAe of his
mof, except seventy faithful foUowers; and when he retreated to
SUni he found the gates closed a^inst him bv Hajji Ibrahim,
ite held the city for the Kajar chief Thence falline back upon
Bwhire, be found that the sheikh of that town had also betraved
Vb> Surrounded by treason on evciy side, he boldly attacked
aid RNited the chief di Bushire and blockaded Shiru. His un-
asqaerable valour ^ined him many followers, and he defeated an
amy sent against him by the Kajars in 1792.
A|a Mahommed then advanced in person against his rival.
He encamped with an army of 50.000 men on the pum of Mardasht,
KvShiraa. Lutf *AU Khan, in the dead of night, suddenly attacked
the camp of his enemy with only a few hundred followers. The
Kajara were completely routed and thrown into confusion; but
Ap Mahommed, with extraordinary presence of mind, remained
is Ids tent, and at the first appearance of dawn his " muezzin."
«r poblic crier, was ordered to call the faithful to morning prayer
» ansL Astonished at this, the few Zend cavaliers, thmkmg
tint the whdy army of Kajars had returned, fled withprcdpitation
kvring the field in possession of Aga Mahommed. The successful
Kiar then entered Shiraz,and promoted the traitor Hajii Ibrahim
to be his vizier. Lutf *Ali Khan took refuge with the nospitable
^tf of Tabbss in the heart of Khorasan, where he succeeded in
oOectiiig a few f<dlowers: but advancing into Fars, he was again
dctated, and forced (o take refuge at Kandahar.
Is 1704, however, the undaunted prince once more crossed the
'~^~a frontier, determined to make a last effort, and either regain
his throne or die in the attem|>t. He occupied the
dtv of Kermln, then a flourishing commercul town,
hau-way between the Persian Gulf and the province
of Khansan. >^ Mahommed besieged it with a large army
■ i79Si and, after a stout resistance, the gates were opened
ttniigi treaciiery For three hours the gallant young warrior
kSKkt ia the streets with determined valour, but in vain. When
he aw that all hope was ^ne he, with only three folbwers, toueht
kb xmy through the Kajar host and escaoed to Bam-Narmasnir,
tk nnst eastern dbtrict of the province 01 Kerm2n on the borders
tf Seistan.
Forioas at the escape of his rival, the savage conqueror ordered
t feaenl massacre; ao,ooo women and children were sold into
ditcry, and 70,000 eyes of the inhabitants of Kermftn were brought
toAp Mahommed on a platter.
Utf 'Ali Khan took refuge in the town of Bam : but the governor
of Naranahir, anxious to propitiate the conqueror, basely surrounded
'^ ss be was mounting his faithful horse Kuran to seek a more
~ aqrlum. The young prince fousht bravely; but, being
My smnnded and overpowered by numBers, he was secured anJ
■St to the camp of the Kaiau* chief. The spot where he was seized
at Baa, when mounting his horse, was marked by a pyramid,
hnad, by order o( his revengeful enemy, of the skulls of tne most
hidtfal 01 his adherents. The most hideous indignities and atrocities
*ae committed upon hu person by the cruel Kajar, and finally
k «as sent to Tcaierin and murdered, when only in his twenty-
nth year. Every member of bis family and every friend was
wkred to be massacred by Aga Mahommed; and the successful
■iKRant thus founded the dynasty of the Kajars at the price of
iBtbe best and noblest bkiod of Iran,
The Zend b said to be a branch of the Lak tribe, dating from
tk time of the Kaianian kings, and claims to have been charged
villi the care of the Zend-Avesta by Zoroaster himself.* The
tRe attached to Markham.'s chapter on the dynasty contains
tbe Dames of ei^t members of the family only, t>. four brothers,
tttof whom had a son, grandson and great-grandson, and one
t KRL Four of the eight were murdered, one was blinded,
•Bd <ae cmclly mutilated. In one case a brother murdered a
bother, in another an uncle blinded his nephew.
I K^er Dynasty. — Aga Mahommed was undoubtedly one of
' tte most miel and vindictive de^Mts that ever disgraced a
tkrooe. But be was not without care for the honour of his
capire in the eyes of Europe and the outer world, and his early
cuccr in Mazandaran gave him a deeply-rooted mistnist of
Knna, with the officers of which power he was in constant
cnCact. The following story, told by Forster,* and varied by
• htcr writer, b characteristic. A party of Russians having
•bCained permission to build a " coimting-house " at Ashraf,
' Marfcham. Morier sajrs of Karim Khan's family, " it was a
hv branch of an obscure tribe in Kurdistan."
* J0mrm*yfrom Bengal to Engfand (1798), iL aoi ; see also Markham,
in the bay of that name, erected instead a fort with eighteen
guns. Aga Mahommed, learning the particulars, visited the
spot, expressed great pleasure at the work done,
invited the officers to dine with him, imprisoned ^ .
them, and only spared their lives when they had
removed the whole of the cannon and razed the fort to the
ground. This occurrence must have taken place about 1782
Forster was travelling homeward by the southern shores of
the Caspian in January 1784, and from him we gather many
interesting details of the locality and period He calls Aga
Mahommed chief of Mazandaran, as also of Astarabad and
" some districts situate in Khurasan," and describes his tribe
the Kajar, to be, like the Indian Rajput, usually devoted to the
profession of arms. Whatever hold his father may have had
on Gilan, it is certain that this province was not then in the
son's possession, for his brother, Ji'afir Kuli, governor of Balfrush
(Balfroosh), had made a recent incursion into it and driven
Hidaiyat Khan, its ruler, from Resht to Enzeli, and Aga Mahom-
med was himself meditating another attack on the same quarter.
The latter's palace was at Sari, then a small and partly fortified
town, thickly inhabited, and with a plentifully-supplied market.
As " the most powerful chief in Persia " since the death of
Karim Khan, the Russians were seeking to put their yoke upon
him.
As Aga Mahommcd's power increased, his dislike and jealousy
of the Muscovite assumed a more practical shape. His victory
over Lutf 'Ali was immediately followed by an camfMiga
expedition into Georgia. After the death of Nadir ax't't
the wali of that country had looked around him Ono's*
for the safest means of shaking off the yoke of Persia; and
in course of time an opportunity had offered of a promising
kind. In 1783, when the strength of the Persian monarchy was
concentrated upon Isfahan and Shiraz, the Georgian tsar
Heraclius entered into an agreement with the empress Cathcrin^
by which all connexion with the shah was disavowed,
and a quasi-vassalage to Russia substituted — the said empire
extending her aegis of protection over her new ally. Aga'
Mahommed now demanded that Heraclius should return
to his position of tributary and vassal to Persia, and, as his
demand was rejected, prepared for war. Dividing an army of
60,000 men into threecorps, he sent one of these into Daghestan,
another was to attack Erivan, and with the third he himself
laid siege to Shusha in the province of Karabakh. The stubborn
resistance offered at the last-named place caused him to leave
there a small investing force only, and to move on with the
remainder of his soldiers to join the corps d'armie at Erivan.
Here, again, the difficulties presented caused him to repeat the
same process and to effect a junction with his first corps at
Ganja, the modem Elisavetpol. At this place he encountered
the Georgian army imder Heraclius, defeated it, and marched
upon Tiflis, which he pillaged, massacring and enslaving ' the
inhabitants. Then he returned triumphant to Tehcrin, where
(or at Ardebil on the way) he was publicly crowned shah of
Persia. Erivan surrendered, but Shusha continued to hold
out. These proceedings caused Russia to enter the field.
Derbent was taken possession of by Imhov, Baku and Shumakhy
were occupied and Gilan was threatened. The death of the
empress, however, caused the issue of an order to retire, and
Derbent and Baku remained the only trophies of the campaign;
In the meantime Aga Mahommed's attention had been called
away to the east. Khorasan pould hardly be called an integral
part of the shah's kingdom so long as it was under operatloas
even the nominal rule of the blind grandson of la
Nadir. But the eastern division of the province ^""Ma"*
and its outlying parts were actually in the hands of
the Afghans, and Meshed was not Persian in 1796 in the sense
that Delhi was British at the outbreak of the Indian Mutiny.
Shah Rukh held his position, such as it was, rather under Abmad
* Lady Sheil says (1849) ; " I saw a few of these unhappy captives
who all had to embrace Mahommcdanism, and many of whom
had risen to the highest stations, just as the Circassian slaves in
Constantinople."
238
PERSIA
— Ihus open]]' pledging hinucU
Sbah aocJ hb lucauon in Afgbuuatan Ihia under tny atfter
■ovcrngn power. Aga Mihouimed delcrmined to restore th«
whole pravJDce to Penis, and, afin ■ brief leiidence In Teherln
on bit reiura from ihe Geoigiin eipediiion, he »et out lot
Ueibed. It Ei important to note that on the occasion of b!i
of the founder of the Eilan
to support Ibe Shi'ile fiilh.
But Ibece had been continual disaalisTacllan In (he ci|Ht*l
of Kboiaun, and coniianl EnrMdj upon i< (roin without, which
the royal puppet was unabte to prevent. His popularity was
real, but never seemed to have effect outside the United aphere
of personal aympatfay and regard. Owing to the frequent
revolutions tn the holy dty the genenll of Timur Sbah, king ol
Ihe Afghana, had made three eipeditiona on Sbah Rukh'i behalf.
Mrabed had been taliea and [tiakei aj though he were not >
rciident in it, much less its dtjiat king. Moreover, his two wna
Nadir Miiza and Wali Ni'amat had long been fighting, and the
lotmer wai in 1796 the actual ruler of the place Three years
before Timui had died, and his third son, Zaman Shah, by ihe
btrigues of an inSuential sirdar, Paiyanda Khan, and been
prodalmed his successor at Kabul.
Aga Mabommed's entry into Meshed was effected without a
struggle on the part of those in posoesalon. The fCajar sbah
wallied on foot to the lomb of Imam Riia, before which he knelt
and kisaed the ground in token of devotion, and was recognized
as a Shi'ite of Shi'ius. Shah Rukh subniuively followed ui his
train. Then began the last act of the local tragedy. The
I king's grad
:ofce
al )cwcb and In
depoTlitlon and death (of the injuii
en toute to Maiandtran), must be classed among the darkest
records of Oriental history.
From hieshed Aga Mahommed sent an envoy to Zaman Shih,
asliing for the cession of Balkh, snd eiplaining his invasion of
Ehoiasan; but Ihe Afghan monarch was too pcrpleled with the
troubles in his own country and hii own insecuie position to
do mare than send an unmeaning reply. It is not shown what
was the understood boundary between the two countriei at
this particular period; but Watson stales thai on the shah's
depsTturc he had received the submission of the whole of
Khonsln, and left in Meshed a ganison of 11,000 men.
Aga Mahommed bad now fairly established his capital at
Teherln. On his return thither in September 17^ he dismissed
in Ihe follow
"* wrested from
I ipddg. The I
:mbly
. Hew;
le of this, and cc
L Mahommed had made up his mind that he should b
ided by hi> nephew Path 'All Shah, son ol hit lull bnitb
n KuU Kfian, governor of Pats. There waa ^^
t interval of mnfusion alter the murder. The 5^
OS of the sovereign were uposcd (0 insult, the
was disturbed, the recently captured fort on Ibe left bad
Aras was abandoned, but the wisdom and nsolutitf
minister. Hajji Ibrahim, and of Miria Mahonmed Khn
secured order and acceptance of Ihe duly appointid
The Gisl, proclaiming hb own aDcgiance, put tdmielf al
rad of * large body of troops and marchol towards Ih
L The second closed the gates of Tehertn to aD coaMa
^ath'AliShabcamehimselffromSbirai. Thougji instadl)
imcd on arrival, the new monarch warnot crowned vatl
)iing ol the following year [I7»8),
! so-called rebellions which followed were many, but BM
I magnitude. Such as belong la hxal history arc thm
mber, i.e. that of Sadik Khan Sbakaki. the
d whose possession of the crown ^wcls enabled
after Ihe dcleit of his army at Kaivin, to nam
!nonal ufety and obtain a government; of Hoaain Kil
, Ibe shah's brother, which was compiomiscd ' by thi
t's intervention; and of Mabomned, son of Zaki Kb*
led Into Turkic territory. Later, Sadik Khan, havni
incurred the royal diipleajurc, wai seiaed, confined aai
.essly bricked up in his dungeon 10 die of atarvatioo.
itber adversary presented himself in the penoo tA HaSi
. son of Shah Rukh. who. when Aga Mahommed appcanri
I Heshed, had taken refuge with the Afghans. Path'AI
a warn him ol Ihe consequences, but without the deiird
Finally, be advanced into Kfionaan with an aiag
appears to have met with i» oppositios aave at NithiFa
uibei, both of which places were taken, and when U retched
:d, Nadir Mirza tendered his submission, which wfl
Ibem as far south as the Talysh, Aga Mahommed had no<
arrived at the close of his career. He was enabled, with som
difficulty, to gel his troops across the river, and lake posscssio
ot Sbusha. which had given them so much Irouble a year c
twabdore. There, In camp, he was murdered (179)) by hi
Wilhwi
er the kingdom generally for
about ihree year
nly.
111 treatment he had eiperie
ccd in boyhood
of'AdilSbah,aodtheopprob
ousnameof'eu
h he was taunted by his eoemii
■s.nodoublcontn
. His.
:Df 1u
lUted
of hyperbole ai
ID commccce and consideration for bis soldiers, Ihe reluctance
with which he assumed the crown almost at the dose of hil
reign— all these would have been praiseworthy in another man;
bul on hil death the memory of his atrocious tyranny alone
■urvived. Those who have seen bis portrait once will rtcogoiie
PERSIA 239
«. ntdr ■ (utitr Mttnpt an Qbn ujnmd pom held by die lovrnKir^nenl o( Ibt Caucuiu va>
TTlunicd lo Baku, when Zmannv the sbitinatr link Conna of Shuilia. Bui beloce loni all wu
the Fnuan gmFrnor. Sotimhat HIliQ changn]. K(aii» Unt ■ RuiHIl [on of KMH «» men
. . irpentLi^ ol hu RiuKpliiliiin, wu roimnirMnl at Tifln, Mahonmed Mina, khi of the crown
dtwwan] to dtlivrr up the MuKovite ounwn at (hai pLace, but prince, ulvancrd to meet then on the banha of the Zesun. He
hti4afia werr befra^vd. aod he and hia niativca put to death, waa defeated: and bla (atbcr waa nKited ntorv leriouftiv (t^U at
owl pnve of Perua, aEler a dcmoiHIfalkm in Shirvan. murHd look place in hia aoa'a camp, not conducive to aucceuful operaliaiu,
laTibnx. He had praciically made no pngreaa; yet Ruiaia. in and new pnpoaala of peace were made. But Ruuia demanded
■cmiaf pmeiHiin ol Derbenl. Baku, SUrvao, ShcU. Gania. the Erivaa and NakhicbevaD aa well ai Ihe cou <A the war; and la
IS probably indebted to gold aa wrIL aa to 1SJ7 the ampaion waa reopened. Briefly, alter
the BHK time Penla would not liiten to and Immi, not only Erivan waa taken from Penia vui lauru .
made 10 htf by the aovemor^enerai 1^10 and finally, througb the inlerveniLDn of Sir John Macdonald.
Enillih envoy, a new treaty wu> concluded at Turkmaiuhai, la
immenced wilb Engbnd and Btilith Indb. down the boundary between Ruiiia and Peru. Among the I
le [overnDT of Bombay with a letter to the thib, snd the khanalei cd Erivan and Nakhichevan, the inability to have
^ waa followed ahortly by an EnclUh envoy from the anarmedvetielintbeCaapian.and the payment of a war indemnity
ivemi>r.KCii>:raI. Captain MahSm of the Madraa of bdh ^.o«),ooo.
o ulh about the AlEhani
Ca. The
of the Pinun well-t
° IndiT'lrom'F'lh -/^SkSx" TQ™im
ired aa the borer of credentiala from
— . — -., ..... ..» ».»_». ..» miftrusted ai... — ..^ ... .
ne five wan afterwardt Jaubcrt, alter detention and in
lib a duly aecreditcd ^rnian a
»iih tb. fret ■
ct Bill drill the local army wa. lent (mm France
Id IMi. Hem anw the countec-miaiion of Sir Harford Jonea
hni the Britiih governmcni. which, on airival at Bombay in
npj tftit, found that ii had been anticipated by a prcvioutly
M aii_ioo from the (overnor-(eneral of India, under Malcolm
l|^, then holdinf the rank of briitadier-Aeneral.
nt hane miHion. howet-er. pmceedcd lo Buahin. and Malci^m'l
ilicipiiilin Febniarv iSw. A lew daya before Ida entry General
Gsdue bad been diimincd, aa the peace of HlHt debarred
Fnice fnm aiding the ahah asainBt Ruala. Sir Harford candudcd
abqty with Peraia the month after hlaarrlmlat the capital ; but
tte pfemnent of India were not content la leave matten in hia
bu: aotwiihUandinE the anomaly of a double mJHion. Makolm
abJB lAio aeam despatched aa tlhcir own particular fnvm He
baikinthhimCaptainiLindayandChriitietoaiMtthemiiani troopa 10 diiperie.
a ilic Tu. and preKnled the ahah with iCHiie icrviceable 6eld- In the north the pTO«re» of 'Abbaa Mirta wafl atoppod at Bayacid
TBq;buf there waalittlcoccaalonfortbeeaeiciieolhildiplDmatic by a like deadly viaitatiDn; and a auepenaion of bomilitiea wai
■UtflBve in his non^lBdal iotercoune with the people, and here arrredupDn for the winter Kann. At tbeeapirJlion of four montha
knqiiod himslf of it to the great advantage of hitntelf and hit the liidar of Erivan took poueuion of a Turkish military atation
ouAy.' He *aa welcomed by the ahah in camp at Ujani. and an the ictad to Etzcrum. and the cnnvn prince nurchcd upon that
ta lidia. The next year &r Harford Jonca waa relieved aa envoy him ia said to have numbered some 53.0D0; but victory waa
V Sir Coie Oueley. on the side of iheic opponents. Whether the result was oWing tO
Mranvhile IvHtiUtiea had been rcaumed with Rusua, nnd in the defection of 15.000 Kurds or not the evidence adduced is in-
di2tbc British envo>' used hia good offices for the restoration of gulRrieni to decide. In the English records of the period it b stated
» .'^^diftruhv. in July of this year . f^viiiinE frvm this vietoty. *Abbaa Mina repeated an offer of
^^ bnacen Engljnd and Russia. peace before nude without avail to the pasha of Encniini and, in
bbnolunberpan in Rutso-Penian militi limits of the dominions of the shah, his [ather. But more troubles
Mnind with the Persian anny lo the tions lor a year and a half. At l^gth, in July tiix, the Treaty of
•m*a the lom wm tuinised by an atl Enexum dosed the war bctsrccn Turkey and Per^ It provided
f*ai<iil Chrislie fell bravely fighting at as eiioninE taieo from Fenian ttaveftcn or pUgrinu. disiesnect
ui4iiy lavcd two of his nine guns; but nei 10 the ladies of the royal hanm and other ladies of rank proceeding
..._ ,__ ..._ J! . [o Mecca or Karlula (Kerbeta). in - ■ - ■ " ' - . --
an end tot . of his kingdom. Faifa
Bta^tiiirai ■hB.'UoiSh 2iiK"
Idmille^the'd
n; and the hereditary chicfiof Shirv
" governor of Kerman. told Cole
Ma~Mlicolin'i jiruTn^^^r. There u
'HakiJ... Cdl.:K' Myrt nr.lu am* 1i* <n;
. J — a."— (riJffniP* 0»d rmif, „— . -.
ftp^} Nadif Miraaa cauae waa ever icriousty eapouacd by the Afghaii%
s of Afghanistan giew
ryaEL''— tr^raAaadroWrf! ... "''''
2^0
IKK thsl Falh 'All Sliah'i claim to Mr
Perun crowji, w^t aclivtly rruitnl.
Khonsui. oC which M«lh^ wu the u[
and in iIk auiumn oi iSio the •li»'i
ttmblnl > lame 'orcr lo hrin^ ir
refractory -'---'-
re (he fii
R1 dT hii kinHdom. Ycid And Kennai
tuck: Khoraun wuafiennrdieniercf
ad [rom Teherln. Tlie upeilitian, k<
".me hardfilhtiK —^ ■■ '— -
by 5in»
life; leveral lorti and pbtxi ver aptURd» among Iben
and Secralihi; and il may be concluded Ihlt the ot^ctl
plated wen? moR or lew attained^ Aa EciEliib omccr,
what wu calleil the "
. Thui far ai rcganli YcbI. Koman
u othenix with Hen
in d llniur Shah, r
I ifoo.lo lSl6. Sina
Mahmud 5k
Khan Bank
IHHKHion of
the Penian !■
InlgJi-o"*
hold ol Hen
Sir Gore Ouwicy Tclurni-<d to Enttlarui in IKI4. in which yrar
railing proof oi his ability and deep b^owLed^ ol Penian charaner
—nciotialed on the pin of Great Briiain the Treaty of Tehcrtn.
vaked invaiion, while Prnia wa> to attack the Afghani ihould
ihev invade India. Captain Wlllock Bucneded Moner at chargA
d'affaim in iSlS. and unce chat period Great Briiain has alwayi
turn rcprewnleirat Ihe Penian court. It wai in Fath 'Ali Shahn
leilin thai Henry Manyn wai in Pcr<U. and completed hit able
tranilation ol the NewTcMament Into the UnKuage ol thai connlcy.
Liulc more teonaiu to be here narrated of the daya of Fath 'Ali
Shah, Amonf the remarkable occurrences may be noted the murder
at TehHln in ifliS ol M. Gtebavailov. the Ruitian envoy, whcne
■nlcrlerenn! of the mulbi and pcnplc. To repair Ihe evil con-
lequcnm of thi« act a concilialory emtKUMF. consiatli^ of a young
.*.*.. — ■___ — 1 — jp jj. I, ofi^cprt ol the Mate, waa
nd Ihal with England ilackenrd
Faih-Ali Shah bad a numctDui family. AKreeabty to Ihe Peraian
custom, aberted by hii prefleccvon, of nominating the hcir^pparenl
from the tom of Ihe Kvercian wilhouG mtrietion to Knioniy. he
had raised over the cUe^, Mahommed 'All, in favour of a junior,
old king bad proclaimed .M^Uiomrpcd Miru.^iheionof 'Abbas, ant
-.- ,. Why a
orii^nally lelcrled. to the prejudice of his
tntly stated by dilfcrent writcn. Thetnierc
"h'oiii'med'shah »" ""
.roni.inl»j4^^ H
iblicly nolifini for loinc mor
mpelitors. and there were two on thit
. Eivernor of Tchertn. who actually a»
le Hasan -All Miria. G«-emor of Shlrai.
by the Rcillsh envoy. Sir John Campbell,
ne, a1 the head of a eonnderat '" ' — " ""
ajpn^bly
ible fane. unpUcd with arti
d Mahommed Shal
9»li!
di-ipoul in Fata. Sir Henry Linduy Beihu
place near Kumithahi on Ihe mad bet wee
having been aucces^fuii the English comma
kllcr town, where Ihe two rebel princes were
Forwanled under eacon toTeheiin. they wei
for the pon. The king's choice, however, lA on Majji Mim
AEhau, a native of Envaiii who in former yeara, m tutor to the
sons of 'Abbai Mirs. had gained a certain lepalaliod for levnipf
and a smattertr^ of the occult acieiicce. but wha* qiulifkatioH
for ■taicsmaoship were craftioesa and suspician. Ai mij^ haw
been amicinated. the haiji fell into the hands of Ru^a, repir *
le WEE of Herat. There was no doulbt .
tcrl lor both propoiali. The chiefs, ^
onry ubmi«w>_by 'Abbas Mtea. had ^
■Jfc"'
Baraknu chiefi of l<andahar.
Ltlon. Such counler^npeaak aa Edw
I politely put asde. aad
'^idunTiinTM
^^ot until Scplembcr in the following year did the Penian h^
withdraw Emm before the walls of the ciiy; and thes the bo*-
mem only lank place on the action nl the British govern- ^— ^
mem. M'Neill, who had joined the Penian camp on i^^
Ihe 6ih of April, left it again on (he 7>l< of June. He "*
had done all m his power lo effect a reasonab^ agreement betHH
the contending parties; but both in this respect and in (he laBtiaa
a commercial treaty idlh England. Ihen under aegoiialisii, la
eflarts had been met with evauon and latent hosiilicy. T>>
Russian envoy, who had appeared among the lent* of ihe beisM
army almrMt RimulTaoeouiJy with his English colleague, ao sMSB
rouiid hiimelf alone in hisdiploinacy than ne resumed his aggnivt
Biuuels, and little more than ■ fortiright had elapsed since iTNd^
departure when a vigorous aasaoh. planned, it is aassud, It
Slmonlch himself, vat made upon Herat. The Penian attaiM
« ftv» r»i... .<«..; of whirh they wmikl in all likelihood ban baa
:he Afghans been aided by Eldied Poniogn.i
who wiih Ihe science of an onillcry <&■>
ind determination which inevitably intaaaa
..ill the ganiion was diihcartenedibnOiia
irai on (he nth of Aucint to threaten Ihe dak ■!■
ition put a stop to f urlher action. Colanrl Sudibn^
r any but Driiith mediaion to decide the ptaAg
y™n|f Enslisliman.
his iJberdfnaier^Sii
■n^-ail PERSIA 241
Ot 9ih «( SeptHnber MihoDintd Shah bad " nmntd b'n bone " The quMn-mMlm, *> pterideiU of ihc cniacil, ahmtd much
ud Eonc Inm bdon the wall* (4 the bdcaEucnd city. judgnwnt and capacuy in nMirilialint idvnw panic*. But the
Tbc liege of Herat, wkich lailcd (01 ratfy len mantlm vu the fix » Kven mcdii which paanl bdwccn the dmili s( the one kifie
n^t ewnt ia the man pf Mahommed Shah. The Briliih eipedition and the coivnaiion oC the gthei proved a dlAiiilfpd inlervali and f idl
h wppoft ol Shah Shuj.l. which may be ailed iu naio^ chqk- o( niiriiq incidenl. The old auniiict. HaJii hliita Aghaii. ihiit
TIk Teinaindee «C the Unc'i irnta wai surlied by new dilKruiliei nfuic in the lanciuary o( Shah ■Abdul-'Adn ncai Tehctln. On
■Tth the Briti^ govemaient; the tehellioa of Aga Khan B4ahlaii the other hand Mina A|[a Khan, a Danisaa ol theaufu 'dnlBiila.
T>irhey:tbebiniihnien(iiliheaa[u'd.<laula,HKTnural Khncaiaa, banithnl, na welrained tnck to'lhe capital. At liafahan, Shinu
UViwed by the inniTTedion and defial ol hit no: and the iht of and Kermsa leriois lioti took place, whidi were vilh difficulty
Bituun (g-eO. The firit of Iheie only calti for any detailed account. funprcHcd- While revolution mvailed in the city, robbery waa
In the demands g[ the British GowrBiMnt wai Included the rile inibepmvinceafyeidiuni] (mm Kaivin theaMioCAliMirta
cea auch at Farab and Sabicwar. ivhich had otherwiieQlled the"^nu'a-Hiltui,"iheprinre'eaveraDrofTeherin.
during the war from the A^hani. a* «elt who diipuied the mrceuHm of Hahommed Siiah, came foRh to
. i„ .L. ..:.i B — I .. .1 ; 1 — .J,, ,i,j rrown with Ui couiin. the heir-appanmt. The kB-
led incident inon came to an inidoriDUa icrminalioo for lla hero.
a more acrioufc revolt was In [ua fan
atikfactory reply I
on% ordered the aoth of OcEoLcT 1S48. tlie >vuiit ahah entend his capital and waa
.- ., ,- — _,, PjunJadfH rcuU crowned at midniibt kinc of Perua.
retimd to Eraenim «Hlh the members oThei mlwon. The chief events in the looirelen of Natni 'd-DIn, fall under
chareca were made against McNeill, and a iMirrcctlon in Kboraun, (i) the Jiburrcclion
; to England to luppoTt them. An endeavour d] of the amini 'n-Diaam.and (4) Ibc war with
e ^tbh government on bclulf of Penaa. The
, , ,-J to obtain an interview with the minister of foreisn
iliifs in Londcm, who. injuly 1834, supplied him with n italemcnt,
fidkr than befoR, of all Engliah demands upon hii country. Con-
sdwafate delay emued, but ihe outcome of the whole p4iicecdiugt
(Dtmcted. Inthe meantimeihe islandot Khaisk hadbRnuhn
On the nth of Oetober 1A41 a new miiwn arrtvcd at TcherAn
InM l-nndmi. uwfR John [afterwanii Sir iohnl M'Neill. Ed renew
immediate iriults. Khamk was evacuated by the alw. Tlte valar
Mlsh-le"
ur yiiAPcuin^ ui Count Simonich the bold Insurgent, and nentiations were openc
hnat. Amonl the papers ii a ver] of the town au citadel, Tieachery may have hod lo
HiKbvtelaClMlIt PoeeodiBoTioi result, for when (he thah'a tnio|ia enlciedlhc holy ci
the lound " Rustic He aild his bnnner weie scizea ana put 10 ucam, 1 ne in
*■""'""' ■ ■ " ,,-...- ......... ._,._^ Eattem story,'*
K^^af and would " not have w Tbc conqunor of Meshed, Muiad Mini, be
ka ihoK of commerce, and in no 1 Ihe prince-govi^noT of tUmmsan.
jlaa Khan's lebellion waa fosleied In thcanideonDABliaii.lhcfacIsailoIhclilcaf the All, Mlrta
d Titrwf portioo of the foitc sent 1 AH Mahommed of Shiiua. and the piosi™ of the Ujbii'I movement,
ha to u local authorities of Kent are separately mticed. The Uab himidf was cjiccuied b^^_^
tmmry. He aflcrwanla resided em in iSvi, bul only after serious trouble o^'cr the new '^'"^'
lib mainlainjnr among natives ami :iis foUowcrs ttept up the revolutionary
- The quarnl with Turkey was lenemllv about Imntier lelations. Lbc shah vji attacked, whik: riding in
IvBtBsDy the matter was referred loan Ansla-RusBiancomnii^D. four Bal^ one of whom Rred a pi^ol
diteh Iiilnnel VVllliams (aiterwardi Sir Fenwkk William» of Kara) The man wt killed, aiid two others
Bigudyomijilicatedthedispuie.but.afiera Gist burttotindigna' a con'ipiracy waa then diicoveied in
tin aid calf (or vengeance, an eaprcsiioii of the legret ol tbc were im|ilicaied; and ten of the coo-
Onamau government waa accepted as a sufficient apology for the 1 — some under cruel lonure.
Tk id^lBon of the aiafu ■d.dauL, malcmal unck; of the ihah. >l .iiFriniFii at the vtlf-mxlc' man of
SB pualAed by OLile. whik: his son, after fiiving trouble to his
(VVBonis, and once gaining a victory over them, took shelter with
Bri^ ckMiftg the leign of Mahommed Shah note should be taken i^ru 'o-uia, on nis accciaion.
d t prohibition to iimxni African sla^'es into IVnia, and a com- his primc-ndnister. The chuSce was an
■nnl treaty with England — rorordcd by Watson aa ^Tatifyuu; nl. naEd-working, and liberal aecurding
Echnraients of the pcnod by British Oiulomatists, The French 10 his tights; and the scrviccg of a loyal and capable adviser were
■iaaaii in which occur Ihe names of MM. de Lavalctie and de sceuird lor the new t^ime. Unfanunatcty. he did not boait Iho
la the autumn o( 1848 the shah waa aelied with Ihe malady, stirngthenol tlie hamls of those eiicmlct vhom an honcn nuniner
V EtHnUution of maladies, which caused his death. Gout and must ever mine aniuEHl hlcn In a corrupt Ork'nlal state. For a
id. It ia said,^ mined his coniiitutian, and he died at tiine the shah clfHCd his eyes to the accustElons aEHi insinuationi
Shlmranon the 4th of Sepicmbcr, He was buried at againsE him; but at last be felt under Ihe evil influerKcofdeHgninff
? shJc of bis grandfather. Path 'All, and other kim:i cEedit l«amc the chargea on wldch he lost his ofBn and his fife-
in person he it defcribcd ai ibon and fat, tnlh an He was civdilcd with an Imenlion to grasp In his own bands the
; and agtwaWe counicnanm," royal nowcTj his intlucnct over the array was cited as a cause c*
rasion C4 bis father's death, Nagra 'd-Din Mina, who dancer; and 00 the night of Ihe iilb of November tSjl he was
ickiimcd irali "ahd, or hrirappininE, some yctES before, Kimmoncd to the palace and Informed that he waa no loneer premier,
as atncnt at Tabriz, the heudquaiters of his provin:e 01 Miraa Aea Khan. Ihe ^ liimathi *d.dauljh," was named losucccvl
nrbaijan. Colonel Fananl. then charg* daHaiEea on him. aniThad been actoidingly Bd^ell to the dignity of " sodr'aiim."
mrt of the Biilish eovemment, in the absence of At Ihe bostlki (action pnsicd the nccmily of the ei.miniitti'a
-"' ''>-'■ -■■- had tuceecded Sir John M'Neill, had. nmovat fmn the cai^tal; be VM offered the choice of the eovem,
deccaae and consequent trouble, sent meni of Fan. lafahan nr Kum, He declined aU ; bul, thiough
1 instantly to TehcrRn. The BnEish theniediatioaofCelandSheil.hewasaftawaidsofi^rtdandaceepEed
himself wHh Prince Dolgoruki. the Kashan. Forty dayi after his 'lepartuie an onkr lor his riecutioa
■cure the young prince's accemon, wm ii>ned. b« he anticipated his fate by eommliiini suiciile.
When EnebAd was enBapil in the Cnmtan War of i«M-SS bet
B^ia^iu I
la antldpation of the't{iah|:
1 himself with Prince Dolgnruki. the Kasha
m Englaui
e will a
n bdd r»d.
24.2 PERSIA !>»(-»•■
Turk wuilincM a ^mlEr enemy 10 t»> neighbour the, Shl'llc tlKin in confcRna: Mai the uUuwiir hid » cmne maiblt but to
^^ K> la^™ Kciion rf^ri Krriiulv WM ol iL Gil^n. RIunT i^lh [E^ lo TeJ^.'tbne'to di^w uTikcauE^T^
?*!_. S.ii«^r John M'Ncill'. .mvil in Tihorto m 1S41, wwdoiK (M Ihc luth o( Auiuu ISJJ. The ontcndiH n
^ iDcmally lo npair ihe breach wiih Mahommed Shah, appralnl to the Bniiih iccimcy of tuie for foreign Slur
Iberehnd been little diAeiiiaces.denuiid> and e](planalKint,n]uIthcie provided by previoui undunundmE; but Ilie dixiiioa held 1
Kmptonii hid culminaied in iSj^ Ihe ycac of Ihe peace with wid wu eventually accepod on bolB ddn.
nua. Ai to Af^haniilaii, the vliiei Vac Mahommed had in Nasni 'd-Din Shah, unlike hit prcdnrwon. vivitd Banxt—
1S41, iriiea the Bniiib Iroopi wen; peddling In the pann. at in 1B71 and in 1)179. Oa Ihe Km occaunn only he eatrndRniii
Hhnsiie in the midit of dangeri. cauicd Kamnn to be Hillanitcd gourney to Eniland, and «i then niicndcd by hii " udr ■uim.''
iriian. Since thai event he had hinseH reigned •uurme in or prime miniitcr. Miro lluiain Khan, an (file and cnliihieml
ind,dyiogini«si.wa»ucc«!dcdbyhiiiunSa'idMalianiau:d. adnier, anda Grand Croat of the Star ol IndLi. ilii hco^ viiii
lief Hjon entered upon a terici o< intriGUca fn the Penian wat to Runia. Germany. France and Auitria, but he did doc cma
a. and. aiDooe other acit olTen>Jve to Cmit Britain, tulTcrcd iheCliannrL tr, T G.- v\
ibai Kuli. who had, under guiteotrriendiJiip. betrayed Ihc '
t the lalar at Mcthed, to occupy the citvkrof Host, and E.— />criu/roKi i33^ lo igoi.
^yi^iTi^^m rf°llSn' '" '^S '*" ''"'' *""' """'"' '•"= ■''" "' ' rtfrian unl
•etsian ipjvcSSKnt, ai weli it "»''"'' '" "** I"'"™' Gull, lo cnniitt ol iiro or Are* MeuMn
ember iHss Mahommcd Vmuf manned by Anbi and commanded byEngliih nival _ - . -
« Sa-id Hahommed to death officcls; but the idea was discount enanccd by the i/il
ot'Zr^°EZE''Dn Khl^ BrilishBO'-ctnincnt, lowhomit wai known that the nnk.
and Dost Mahommed of Kabul p™iNt really concealed ag^rcsiive 'designs upon *"
Sume relatiuna of the deceased tlie independence of the Islands and pearl fisheria of Bah-
and the vhahliMening 10 their rein (Cunon, Pnila, ii. JW). Fifteen or siiteen yon bter
not ol Meihed to march across n .„ repeatedly pointed out to the aulhoritiei that the revtnun
™ ilm ™liV ail on t™ i« '™" '*'* ™»'™" o* "« i^™w Cull irauld be much iintmied
a was declared.' 11 conuol were tietciicd at all the pons, pariicubrly the unall
1 issue by pcociamation of the ones where smuegling was bdng carried on on a lar^e scale,
fSl™!^ "tl^'ttom" «m' ""'' " '*** "" ^"^ decided upon the acquisition ol lour at
•nltn notihed the formation crf'a"scimd dTvi^n*°u'^ ^^ slcamcts, one lo be purchased yearly, and inatiucttd Ihe
' arrived Jate *AIJ KuTi Khan, Mukhber ad-daulah, minister of telegraphi,
ccunied. 10 obtain designs and cilimatn from Drilish and GermaD finiis.
.. _. _ ..__ _...___._ Alter The tender o[ a weU-known German firm »t Brnnerhaven wit
^t'THthuSb^^ ^cSl'orth.^To tS^ra'^tTSe ""''.'y "^f "■■ '"^ "" "' "■= "inister's „■» then reridin, i.
openitiHU at Muhanrah and Ihc Kanin River decided the om- Berlin made Ihe necessary conlracis lor Ihe first iteanet. Sir
laign in favoiu of Enulaod. On the Jth of April, at Muhamiah. Ronald Thomson, the British rcpicsei
Sir James Outram received the news that the timiy of peace had .■ ik. came lim
h Icb^)^
le shah tc
conducud the negntiitious. The siipuLl*»n. Regarding Ileal were i? ™"'."' '^""'!''! »"' t^™" «■«' and "UBCcling >t nh
much as beloni but then inn to beapiJogies ^de m the nusiiun TchcrOn by a carn3£csble road, a smalt nver steamer for cn-
for past insolence and ivdencu. and the ilavi; trade waa la be tup- trolling the shipping on Ihc Kaiun was ordered as well, and ttc
P-e-ed in the Penian Gull. Wiih the erajnioa of a small force construction of the road was decided upon. Two sleamei*, tta
retained at Budure under General John Jacob lot the three monlhs .,<;„„ m ,„j ,1,. ■■ i>._.,..,ii, •• „„,- ■ ■ - -
aBignedioreaecutionollhepiifiea'tioniandgiviivellecttoorrtain ,, ™ , ^ / Pcrsepolis. .ere com,
.. St of £31,000, and despatched with German oOicen aal
. . , _.. . ..Tally needed, crew to the I'cralan GuU. When Ihe sieanwrt were ready ta
c of the Mutiny. do the woilc Ihcy hadbecn inlendcd for, ibe farmer, or fatnMi^
!ta"d'lhi^'l"i!SS«'"^Mla^d^l'h I^S'S's blwhS in "' "" '^"" '^"»">"» ^wd difDcultiei and objceted to pay tk
Teheran, by Colonel Patrick Stcvan and Capiaio cost of maintaining the " Persepolis "; Ih
SSTiilr'""' ™ ii* .•",t'?^' eonclud^ fly Edward Eajtwiek, bis hcmjiury [ighu of the shipping monopoly on lb
^ bte,;'z;'i^ ™.'Si£i.:'r«d!3rnf a'i^^ii^T^ "j "« '^^^ f" **]-ti^' f'^r" ^^t^, ^^
signed by the British envoy Chailet AKtoa and Ihe 1-i.Tiian lonign not ""^"d- _ The Pcrsepolis temained idle at
ii the Malinn coast by able, and on the other between Binhii
d Bagdad via Teheiji " . . ..
indKiiachi mh,
Lgcable road tr
lhrou|hAsiaticTiiriwyc3UicdaHibiequcnich.ingeafdim:[ion; Frequent 1
le Black whei
ISj. at Ihe lime ol the ''^Rinideh laUmT
advandnK towards AfGhanisui aid Sr
sea. wia contiiucico. anu nas wumui wen iince 1S72. in coniuoction I'ctcr Lunaden was on the AlEhan f nniiier ; and Sir KonaMTtaMa
with the Persian land telegraph system aod the BushirC'Karachi concluded an asreement with Ihe I\:r^n Eoveranent for the b
Lne. to be kept in working order by an English inspector. Ihc loAa
The Seistan mission, under Major-Gcneral (afterwards Sir Fred- government paying a there not eueeding li
eric) CoUsmid, left England in Augun 1S70, and mcbcd Teberin of Ihe cost ol maintenance, and an English 1
on the 3rd of October. Tbence it pioceedeil to Ihfahan. from which at Meibed. Shortly afterwards Sir Konal
city it moved to Baluchislan, instnd of seeking its original destina' (he died on the l5tbof Novcmlcr iBSS). am
tion. Difficulties had arisen bmh in arranjcing the preliminaries Arthur) Nicfriton was app^nled charge d
to arbiiraiion and owing to Ihe disordered slate of Afghanltlan. and latter's teaun! of oQicc an agrccmrnl was
it waf therelore deemed advisable ID commence i^vralionB by l^:Esian and British govcrnmenta regardini
aetiling a froniier dispute between Persia and the Kabt lUte. tetllenient at task, and the telegraph conve
Union unately. the obstructions thrown In the way ol tliis settle- rebtive to tctegraiAic commumcaiion beti
menl by the Persian commlt^iHier, Ihe untoward appearance al through Pcnia. in farce uniil the isl of January ibgj, oeie pr
Bampuc of an uncipedcd boily ol Kabtis, and Ihe absence of hnigcd until Ihe 31R ol Januaiy 1905 by two coniTmioot mm
definite instructions marred the luliUmcnt of the programme the jrd ol July 1887. Since then these conventiooa ban laa
skelrhed out 1 but a line ol boundary wit propovl, which was prohmgeit to iqis.
afterwards accepted by Ibe litigantt. In the fplht»ne jrar the Ayub Khan, ton olSUr -AK (ShcnAli) ol AfghanlM^whaW
^one^fuiSeiwirwheie It remain^'^ m^'lhan'K^'^^cs: Teherln under'aa agKtlmenl. eonclutled' on tlK*l*nh al Afri iHi
prnHculIng ill inquirin, until joined by another mitiion from between Grvat Rciiain and Persia, with > pention ol fluiu uu aa^
India, un%r Major-C.eneral (afterwards Sr Richard), Polloch. (mm the British goiemmeni escaped on the Itth of Ai^nUl^
It ibt hid Wl bcT molbcr'i
«ite of the Kurd. Il Uu
t iboh lent a willing
t grcally pi
._ _.j hunfmiu Ft ... ...
311 ailKTmudi (May A, iftMl iHucd a pnclanutiDii ffvqrinf
fRcdaa dI life and pniperty lo all hli Hbicctt, and (Oct. 30)
^^k..— 1 fkd V>niH AtM^ «^ f— ■— -: — ■ — ' — ^- —
<ki±unl ihc KUUB I
ppoipu^ Aniii4*'5ultaii,
>aiid Viwr (Sadr -aiin].
lay Iq Peniar a snail line
Shah-abduI-Ailm. vai 0
laihcBuiE yar UuKi}
o( s( milei lioia TehHin .. ,
tbr auKiim of a Belgian otmpany- A few monthi later (Jan, lo,
1U9) Banm juliui de Rcurei— in coniitlenliun al gi-Ang up Oie
na e( Irw, copper, tad. mcicury. coal, pctn
bgni. and aabiMai in Prraa. Ru»a now iiuii
... — J ^ miBUwiding mdvanuje; and Prii
ioialer. obtained in Fcbniiry 1889 a t
;el^r
ttSr^e
a lor a period of five ytan. The Finian State Bank
. -■ ltd by Britith royal liaTier, dated the and of Scptoir
■Mg. and itarted budrnw in Persa (Oct. ijUi the " Impei^l &
d Fcnia." Tlw railway afrrement with Ruuia waa changnl
Hgrnaber 1890 inlo one interdicting all railwayi whauoevei
la April 1B89 the ihab Kt out upon his ih
--""it fo Ibc priDcipal "" "^" """' " "
11 Efiiland. wbcrc
_ — , . -— , ^, . jmnanicd by Sir Henry
DnuniDond WolR, be returned to liii capital (Oct. to}.
^^ Kr Heory returned to Pen£a soon afterwards and in
^T^ March of the FoUowing year the Per^n government
gianed another imponant conceuion. that of a tobacco
—Of Jy. to Britid o|»tal>it>. In the autumn bad health obliged
OfBiiiUhiniiiiun'mlniwIVrsa. It watduring hiiHajrinEngland
daya without hii grand vmtu who wat
... .i._ ij^om^ fg i^j advico and
of kKleriet in Pcnii to a
mnecidoa 10 a BrltiJi
.^., -urdt the thah v ihAiH*
ilia of iSii I
Ha the Aah, fori. ,. ..
■sniat fur the ddth of hii brolhl .
rtfni lufaiect. Tbe biler cedcdthe
Wthc lobveo monopoly waa taken up H
Urpdruion flSqi). The corporation I
Wmd by the cle^ and alter a aerioua*
m llie>erti>n gSCemment withdrew tl
■"" 'n i»,jnnnilyol £500,000 (April s,
Pecria contracted the 6% k, .
Bankof Penia, which wa. i,;.;T y'fl' J
of the RuBian s% loan of*., fe ^ 3
W. 1&1-I69; and Dr Feuvricr, rnn'i imi i la uur dt F<tH
Mh^ cL v.. the latter aicribing the failure of the tobacco nv
, It Nnel^h^TiS9 Makolm Khan, tfiam-uI-Mulk, w
JKahraan repnwnlative to the court of Great Billai
— aamnl Per
fc Iiaperial Bar
fOtloberil
CSC
■ appointed in hia alead. arriving in London
In 1890 the Kheme of a cnnia^Lle road
=-- .«i»i>u Ki ttiiJit was taken up again; the Imperial Dank of
nrm attained a roiKenion, and worit of construction was begun
■■og rights of the Imperial Bank of Persia were ceded to the
TnrhiA subject, refused tc
b 10 Saujbulagh. "Hie Turkish gu
Vtm eoiBi*™iloBS were immincn'
>*«■ tbe girl tod Ibc British agent
ipolnled minister to EVnia
autumn of Ital. In the
cholera. InTehcflaand
I caws exceeded aS/no. or
I the epidemic appeared
i^x Peraia ceded to Rusaia
ally imponanl district of
s stones. shouUJ bekmf lo
ad the preferential nght
ind any of tbe other anti-
migbt wish to diipoac of.
gypt. sras apixdnlod chief
: Siiia in December.
' - lainaledwl*'
n-abdul-Adia. Five
ntik'ih (lunar)
for duly cef- '
cikh'i emis&aiv and had
hliii!l''[fcia Vas hal^^
rrivcd oa tbe Bth of
nii'XwKt
s when the pcoiple rcijuircd
Bllhough the iiansport of
been Btriclly prohibited.
'as ch»^nd^!BW»ding''li
jght it at high rates, tCus
•rithdrawal ol the exes
™inri''«.^.'rld'.h^
It. The wdl-i'ntentioncd
\ Ihe desired Tesull. (or by
244
PERSIA
[t9U-i90»
In the autumn of 1896 the grand vixicr (Amin-es-SuItan) en-
countered much hostility from some members of the shah's
Jita&tefiaf otou'^EC ^^^ various hieh personages. Amin-ad-
r%«!!«I, daulah was appointed chief administFator (vizier) of
£ggZlimag Azerbaijan ana sent to Tabriz. Shortly afterwards
* the grand vizier found it imposuble to cany on his
work, resigned, and retired to Kum (Nov. 24). and the shah formed
a cabinet composed for the greater part of the leading members
of the opposition to the grand vizier. After three months of the
new r^me affairs of state fell into arrears, and the most important
department, that of the interior^ was completely disor^nized.
The ^lah accordingly recalled Amm-ad-daulan from Tabruc (Feb.
1897), and appointed him minister president (rals-i-vuzara) and
minister of the interior. In June Amin-ad-daulah was made
prime minister (vizir *azim) and pven more extended powers,
and in Aueust raised to the disunity of erand vizier (sadr *azim).
Nasni '1-Mulk was appointed minister of finance (Feb. 1898), and
made an attempt to introduce a simple system of accounts, establish
a budget, reorganize the revenue dfcpartment, made a new assess-
ment of the land-tax, &c. ; but resistance on the part of the officials
rendered it abortive.
In the latter part of 1897 ^- Graves, the inspector of the EncHbh
telegraph line from Jask eastwards, was brutally murdered by
Baluchis, and the agents of the Pcrsbn government sent to seize
the murderers were resisted by the tribes. A considerable district
breaking out into opcn revolt, troops under the command of the
governor-general of Kcrm^n were despatched into Baluchistan. The
Sirt of Fannoch was taken in March 1898, and order was restored,
ne of the murderers was hanged at Jask (May 31).
Various attempts to obtain a foreign loan had been made during
the previous year, but with the sole result of discrediting the
Persian government in Europe. In the beginning of
'•**J'*2!!tfft-.'®9® *^*^ shah's medical advisers strongly recommended
•J*'*^^™*a cure of mineral waters in Germany or France, and
J^^^T"*^ as his dcpartua' from Persia without paying the arrears
f^ff to the army and to thousands of functbnaries, or
^^^ providing a sufficient sum for carrying on the govern-
ment during his absence, would have creatod grave discontent,
serious negotiations for a loan were entered upon. It was estimated
that £1,000,000 would be required to pay all debts, including the
balance of the 1892 loan, and leave a surplus sufficient for carr>'ing
on the government until the shah's return. London capitalists
offered to float a loan for £1,250,000 at 5% and on the guarantee
of the customs of Fars and the Persian Gulf ports, and to give
£1,025.000, or 82% to the Persian government. They stipulated
for a Kind of control over the custom-houses by placing their own
agents as cashiers in them. This stipulation was acrcco to in prin-
ciple by the grand vizier, Amin ad-daulah, who in March, in order
to meet some pressing demands on the treasury borrowed £50,000
on the customs receipts of KermanshSh and Bushire, and agreed
to the lenders, the Imperial Bank of Persia's agents, being placed
as cashiers in the custom-houses of both cities. ^ He encountered,
however, much opposition from the other ministers. Further
ncgotbtions ensued, and the shah's visit to Europe was abandoned.
The assistance of the British government not being forthcoming,
the grand vizier's position becimc more and more difficult, and
on the 5th of June he had to resign. Muhsin Khan,^ Mushir-ad-
daulah, minister for foreign affairs,^ then became president of the
cabinet, and continued the negotiations, but could not bring hem
to a successful issue. Moreover, the Persian government, finding
that the previous estimate of the money require<l for paying its
debts was about jSO% below the mark, now asked for double the
amount offered by the London capitalists, without, however,
proportionately increasing the guarantee. This disorganized all
previous arrangements, and the negotiations for a London loan came
to an end for a time at the end of July, leaving in the minds of the
Persians tlw unfortunate impression that the British government
had done nothing to aid them.
On the 9th of July the former grand vizier, Amin-cs-Sultan, was
recalled from Kum, where he had resided since November 1896.
arrived at Tehcr2n three days later, and was reinstatc<l as grand
vizier on the loth of August. His immense popubrity, his friendly
relations with the clergy, and some temporary advances from the
banks, tided over diincultics for some time. The reform of
the customs department was now (Scpt.^ 1898) taken up seriously,
ami the three BclK>an custom-house otlicials who had been engaged
by Amin-ad-daulah in the l)eginning of the year were instructed
to collect information and devise a scheme for the reorganization
of the department and the abolition of the farm system. In March
1899 the custom-houses of the provinces of Azerbaijan and Kermiln-
sh^h were ^iven over to the Belgians. The results of this step
were so satisfactory that government was induced to abolish the
farm system and set up the new r^ime in the other provinces in
March 1900, and a number of other Belgian custom-houses officials
were engaged.
In September, when renewed negotiations for a loan from London
were not appearing to progress favourably, and the long-thought-
of visit to Europe was considered to be al)solutely necessary in
the following year, the shah issued a firman authorizing the Russian
Banque dcs PrGts de Perse to float a loan. Shortly after this it was
said that the London capitalists were willing to lend £1^50^000
without insisting upon the objectionable control clause; but the
proposal came too late, and on the 30th of January ^__ .
1000, the Russian government had permitted the issue 1^^*11
of a loan for 22 1 million roubles (12400.000) at 5%, iShT
guaranteed by all the customs receipts of Persia, ex-
cepting those for Fars and the Persian Gulf ports. Only in the
event of any default of paying instalments and interests was the
bank to be given control of the custom-houses. Persia received
85 % of the nominal capital, and the Russian govemmeot guar-
anteed the bondholders. Money was immediately remitted to
Tehcr2n, and nearly all the arrears were paid, while the talance
of the 1892 London 6% loan was paid on by direct remittance
to London.
Sir Mortimer Durand left Teherftn in the eariv spring, and pro*
ceeded to Europe on leave. On the 12th of April the sluh, aocom*
pankxl by the grand vizier and a numerous suite,
started on his voyage to Europe. The affairs of State SImk'a
during his absence were entrusted to a council of visits to
ministers, under the presidency of his second son, Omro^
Malik Mansur Mirza, Shua-es-Sultaneh, who had made '"'!> MB^
a long stay on the Continent the year before.
Afte^va residence of a month at Contrexeville, the shah proceeded
(July 14) to St Petersburg, and thence to Paris Quly 29), intending
to go to London on the 8th of August. But on account of the
mourning in which several courts were thrown through the death
of the king of Italy (July 29) and the duke of Saxc-Coburg-Gotha
(July 30), the visits to England, Germany and Italy were abandoned.
On the 2nd of August an anarchist made an attempt upon the shah's
life in Paris.
F. — Russo- British Rivalry {igoz-tgofi and the Pernam
Revolution (igod-jgog).
In 1902 Muzaffar-ud-Dln Shah revisited the principal European
capitals, and was received by King Edward VII. at Portsmouth
in August. A mission headed by Viscount Downe was aftef-
wards despatched to Persia, to invest the shah with the order of
the Garter, a ceremony which took place in Teher&n on the and
of February 1903. A week later, a new commerdal treaty wu
concluded between Great Britain and Persia, which instituted
various reforms in the customs service, secured to both countries
the " most-favourcd-nation " treatment, and substituted H>edfic
import and export duties for the charge of 5% od •oform
provided for in the treaty of 1857. These provisions to some
extent counterbalanced the losses inflicted on British trade by
the Russo-Pcrsian commercial treaty signed in 1902, which bad
seriously damaged the Indian tea trade, and had led to a rapid
extension of Russian influence. Between 1899 and 1905 the
Russian Bank had lent Persia £4iOOO|OOOi of which ftdly haU
was paid to the shah for his personal requirements. Rostiaa
concessionnaircs were given the right to buUd roads from Tabrii
to TcherSn (1902) and from Tabriz to Kazvin (1903); and the
Russian Bank opened new branches in . Seistan — an ctimpfc
followed in 1903 by the Bank of Persia. It was, however, ia
the Persian Gulf that the rivalry between Great Britain and
Russia threatened to become dangerous. Great Britain had
almost a monopoly of maritime commerce in the Gulf, and wu
alone responsible for buoying, lighting and policing its waten
Tl>e British claim to political supremacy in this region had thai
a solid economic basis; it had been emphasized by the BritiA
action at Kuwct (g.v.) in 1899, and by the declaration madeii
the House of Lords by Lord Lansdowne, ok secretary of stitt
for foreign affairs, to the effect that Great Britain would naA
by all means in its power the attempt of any other nation !•
establish itself in force on the shores of the Gulf. On the ittk
of November 1903, Lord Curzon, the viceroy of India, saBed
from Karachi for the Persian Gulf. His ship, the " Haidioie,"
was escorted by four cruisers, and the voyage was regarded isi
political demonstration, to be interpreted in connezitn vilk
Lord Lansdowne's declaration. At Bushire, on the ist d
December, the Persian governor of Fars, Ala ad-daula, (M-
mitted a breach of diplomatic etiquette which induced Itfd
Curzon to sail away without bnding. This incident wu cob-
sidered by some British observers to have been brou^t abMl
by Russian intrigue, and the fact that Ala ad-daula was do*
missed in 1904, after the Japanese had achieved sereial iaftiil 3
successes in the Russo-Japanese war, was held to confim tlh J
opinion. But Russian financial and commercial influence ii
•9V-I909I
PERSIA
245
Poaia continued to increase; in December 1904 a special mission
■ader Miria Rixa Khan was recpved in audience by the tsar;
and in May 1905 Muzaflar-od-Dln Shah liimself left Persia to
irisit the courts of Vienna and St Petersburg.
The SeistoH Mission of igo2-tgos. — A dispute as to the frontier
between Afghanistan and Scistan arose in 1902. The boundary
fMtmiti^ by the Seistan mission of 1870-1872, and known as
the ^ Goldsmid line," was drawn along the course of the river
Hdmund. Between 1872 and xgoa the Helmund took a more
vestedy direction; no boundary marks had been erected, and a
vide strip of territory remained in dispute. The Persians claimed
that the boundary was the old bed of the river, the Afghans that
it was the new bed; and in accordance with the treaty of 1857
both parties asked the British government to arbitrate. In
JiQuary 1903, Colonel Arthur Henry MacMahon, who had
previously delimited the frontier between Afghanistan and
British India, was despatched from Quctta. The Persian
ofidals were at first hostile, but their opposition, which was
utiibnted to Russian influence at Tehcrftn, was eventually
overcome, and Colonel MacMahon (who was knighted in 1906)
ddvered his final award, sustaining the Persian contention, in
Fdmiary 1905.
BntiA Commercial Missions. — Owing to the success of the
Madean mission, which visited and reported upon the markets
and trade-routes of north-western Persia in 1903, under the
(Election of the Board of Trade, a similar mission was sent to
Katheni Per»a in 1904, under the auspices of the Upper India
Clamber of Commerce, the Bengal Chamber and the Indian Tea
Cess Company. The report of this mission (by Glcadowe-
Nevcomen) was published in 1906. After showing that dvilized
fovenunent was practically non-existent in the regions visited,
it saggested as the chief remedy the conclusion of a Russo-
Britiih convention, and the division of Persia into " spheres of
inlhKBce."
buso-Britisk Convention of tgoj. — ^The political situation
ocated by the Russo-Japanese War and by an internal crisis
ia Fersia itself rendered possible such an agreement between the
two rival powers, and a Russo-British convention was signed
OQ the 31st of August 1907. Its chief provisions, in regard to
I^ntt, are as follows: (i) north of a line drawn from Kasr-i-
Ui, Isfahan, Yesd and Kakh to the junction of the Russian,
Beniui and Afghan frontiers Great Britain undertook to seek
n political or commercial concession, and to refrain from
oppOHog the acquisition of any such concession by Russia or
KnisQ subjects; (2) Russia gave to Great Britain a like under-
tikiBg in respect of the territory .south of a line extending from
tk Afghan frontier to Gazik, Birjend, KermSn and Bander
^^fn^'t (3) the territory between the lines above-mentioned
*u to be rq^arded as a neutral zone in which either country
■iljkt obtain concessions; (4) all existing concessions in any
put of Persia were to be respited; (5) should Persia fail to meet
its Bahilitics in rcq>ect of loans contracted, before the signature
<f the convention, with the Persian Banque d'Escompte and de
Ms, or with the Imperial Bank of Persia, Great Britain and
Kosia reserved the right to assume control over the Persian
Kvtnues payable within their respective spheres of influence.
With this convention was published a letter from the British
■Kittary of state for foreign affairs (Sir E. Grey), stating (i)
tkat the Persian Gulf lay outside the scope of the convention,
(3) that Russia admitted the spedal interests of Great Britain
is the («ulf , and (3) that these interests were to be maintained
hf Great Britain as before.
Tht Persian Constitution, — ^The misgovemment and disorder
*Uch were revealed to Europe by the Gleadowe-Newcomen
Kport, and by such spondic outbreaks as the massacre of the
Bibb in Yesd (1903), had caused widespread discontent in
haa. In 1905, partly owing to the example shown by the
ftvohtiooary parties in Russia, this discontent took the form of
adoaand for representative institutions. On the 5th of August
1906, Ifttzaffar-ud-Din Shah issued a rescript in which he under-
tak to form a national council (Majlis) representing the whole
P«ple (yee above, CMwfi/iffim). The Ma^ was duly elected,
and was opened by the shah in person on the 7th of October
1906. In January 1907 the shah died, and was succeeded by
his eldest son, Mahommed *Ali Mirza, who on the nth of
February published a message to his people, pledging himself
to adhere to the new constitution.
The Revolution. — On the 12th of November the shah visited
the Majlis, and repeated his pledge, but during December a
riot in TeherSn developed into a political crisis, in which the
shah's troops were employed against the civil poptdation. The
Majlis issued a nianifesto to the powers, declaring that the shah
intended to overthrow the constitution, and demanding inter-
vention. The Russian and British ministers in Teherftn urged
Mahonuned *Ali to maintain the constitution, and he sent a
message to the Majlis, promising compliance with its demands
and agreeing to place the whole army under the control of the
ministry of war. These concessions aUayed the prevailing
unrest for a time, but the Royalist and Nationalist parties
continued secretly to intrigue against one another, and in
February 1908, while the shah was driving in Tehcr&n, two
bombs were exploded under his motor-car. Two persons were
killed, but the shah was unhurt, and the Majlis formally con-
gratulated him on his escape. A prolonged ministerial crisis,
in April and May, was attributed by the Nationalists- to the
influence of reactionary courtiers, and by the Royalists to the
influence of the Anjumons, or political clubs, which were alleged
to control the Nationalist majority in the Majlis. Early in
June the Majlis urged the shah to dismiss the courtiers under
suspicion. Mahommed *Ali consented, but withdrew from
Teherin; and on his departure the royal bodyguard of so-called
" Cossacks " — Persian soldiers officered by Russians in the
shah's service — at once come into conflict with the Nation-
alists. The house of parliament was bombarded, and when the
Majlis appointed commissioners to discuss terms, the shah
issued a manifesto dissolving the Majlis, and entrusted the
restoration of order in Teherin to military administrators. He
also proposed to substitute for the elected Majlis a council of
forty members, nominated by himself; but under pressure from
Great Britain and Russia he promised to abandon this scheme
and to order another general election. Meanwhile, civil war
had broken out in the provinces; Kurdish raiders had sacked
many villages near Tabriz; Persian brigands hod attacked the
Russian frontier-guards on the borders of Transcaucasia, and
the indemnity demanded by the tsar's government was not paid
until several Persian villages had been burned by Russian
troops. This incident, combined with the employment of the
so-called Cossacks, evoked a protest from the Nationalists, who
asserted that Russia was aiding the Royalists; the accusation
was true only in so far as it referred to the conduct of certain
Russian officials who acted without the consent of the Russian
government. Early in 1909, indeed, a Russian force of 2600
men was sent to watch events near Tabriz, and if necessary to
intervene in favour of the Nationalists who held the town, and
had for some months been besieged by the shah's troops. The
presence of the Russians ultimately induced the Royalists to
abandon the siege. In January of the same year the revolution
spread to Isfahan, where the Bakhtiari chiefs made common
cause with the Nationalists, deposed the Royalist governor and
marched on the capital. In May and June the shah issued
proclamations declaring his fidelity to the constitution, and
promising an amnesty to all political oflendcrs; but he was
powerless to stay the advance of the combined Bakhtiari and
Nationalist troops, who entered Tcher&n on the 13th of July.
After severe street fighting the Cossacks deserted to the rebels,
and the shah took refuge in the Russian legation (July 15).
This was interpreted as an act of abdication; on the same
day the national council m^, and chose Mahommed * All's son.
Sultan Ahmad Mirza, aged thirteen, as his successor. Asad
ul-Mulk, head of the Kajar tribe, was appointed regent. On the
9th of September 1909, the ex-shah departed for his place of
exile in the Crimea, escorted by Russian Cossacks and Indian
sowars. On the 15th of November a newly elected Majlis was
formally opened by the shah.
PERSIA a^ANGUACB AND UTEKATUXE
iT KntlMan. Paia 4. TbednrclopsiRit olioft libitinu—
jj (London, 1907). OiW criBtK.1 pubhraiuM. o{ hta- ,f„ Pmum conEiinTne Ihe olcfe« docDmcnU a( ibc ^Lzio. rf
^.toBBiur Kcponi. Iina at large a« tbt WiadanJ(M»H(3iput togohtr, neoatypaiai*
Unguaoe and LniKAnmE "^ ■=l°'l' ''"^' "*."^S"'.??5"'*J! nwdiml thy mJ
,, . , , „ . , , _ . taitnrd quoiaiiofn m Pahlavl booki. Thac muiu, bsvcHi,
I. Paiuin (/rsiun) lonfiupi.— Undcc the name of Persian .uftce lo pi-e a comjjete ini^^hi inM Ihe itnieture •/ the lining
included the whole of (hat great family of luiguagaocciqiying Not only amonittl Iranian Linages, but anuQEii**!! LbeUnnaiii
Geld neatly toincidfnt with Ihe modem Iran, of which true "j 'l"* Indo- European group. Zend takei one a< the vht GiflM
•rrian is >imDlv the wejlem diviBon It is therefore common '' '" ™P""»"i=? "i' ™ eoinparalive phUolo^it. In ifE k
imply thi
mitf. The originiil iii many points! it js'ipfrna- only in rr
native name ol the nee which spoke these tongues was Aryan, literature, end becsine it hu not been nude the labjcct o(
King Daiiui is called on an inscription " > Per^n. ton of a ?'''^"i^'15?i,';S^rf ^aS^ ^Hi,?^^^,!.
Persian, an Aiyan of Aryan iiict "; «id the foUowere of the 2^^^^^iS)^T^kT^i ^^
ftO'" nicc;«n<i tne loiiowere oi tne h„u is not the il^*Sf r'abSric^nihor or o( iny ai*".i,ft"l
Iheirciihcslrccoidsncvergivethemselves cmhiatn eoUetiiom produced auiing a lone period. Tte »i
y other title but AiryabO jfon^AirtA, that is to say, ** Aryan wtiich became ^Tinrrt through Anquetil Dupcn
tea." The province of (he Iranian language is bounded on [• "'r™=]?^; ."!'.'?'_'' ^."{'^S'..''}°.?f^-
the north and norlh-iast by the g^, ,^, onpoaite viiw, that not a (inile wonl in the boot a
._ .k .1. — I h., .1.. tiadicd claim to the euihorship of Z ' '- —
telif^ion. has lorg been abandoned
Ural.altiic or fur
language o( India.
The Iranian hinguijes form one of the great branches of the
Indo-European item, flnt ncognizFd as such by Sir William
Jones and Fiiedrich Schlegel. The Indo-European
yJfr^_^or Indo-Germanic languages are divided by Brug-
DUinn into (i) Aiyan, with sub-branches (a) Indian,
(1) Iranian; (1) Armenian: h) deck; (4) Albanian; (;) Italic;
(6) Celtic; (7) Germanic, with inb-branchei (a) Gothic, <.b)
Scandinavian, (c) West Gcnnanic; and <B) Balto-Slavonlc.
(Sec iNDO-EuROFEtN.) The Aryao family (called by Pfofessof
Sieven the " Asiatic base-language ") is subdivided into (1)
Iranian (Eianian, or Erano-Aiyan) languages, (1) Pisacha, 01
non-Sanskri(ic Indo-Aiyan languages, (3) Indo-Aiyan, or San*
kritic Indo-Aiyan languages (for the last two see iNDO-AaVAii] .
Iranian b&ng also grouped into Persum and non.Penian.
inguiih Ihem especially from Sanskrit, arc a> U
anEuages, wnic
inal> into the HiirantV
" SamM.
■Ii>dhu (Indui)
hindu hindu
=,&'
haurva harvva
hama hama
henli hanliv
hend.
. Change oli^ «wi
nala^fale.(*.d*, H(.
-X, «. 41 into th
Zmd. ad Pnsian.
Urm pBHam.
bhUmi (earth)
bdmi bumi
bum
dhita IPtU)
did
ghaima (heat)
^. /, f Wore a CO.
iBooant an changed into
the spCir. U
StmM.
Zni. OUPrrtim.
NimPrr,itn.
palhama (firs!)
b^tu fuuight)
fratema (ratama
tndum (Parai
khratu ....
khlrad.
ZtDd; and [he'vocabuUry than imponant diSemKca. Ill pK-
dominance ol the long vowels is a marked chaiactennib fc
conilant appmr^nce ot a lanjc final vok^ maEnatinc Va (■
preferracT Lor a hnal ihorl in the lata apccch.
'The Amila Is divided Into three p ,.,
appendix. \^spand. a colleetion of prayen and fonDS
■crvin; (1) Vendidsd, contahiing dinctioni for puriA
the penal code of the ancient Pen&na: (j) Khotdah-Av<
Small Avcsia, containing the Yaiht, tbe ca
meat put mythological, with ihoncr pra:
UNCUACE AND UTERATURE] PERSIA 247
Stmihil. CtlM. laltrZrmi. Anst thrn nude npM undo, cnccHlly wicc the Vti*i bavt
■Uu (dot) aibl uwi opened lo ui a knowlcdtC '* <hc Mat Stndcrit,
iU ImriO liU Uu. 1. 0U /'iriuii.—'niii » (he language d( the (iKKnt Fmiani
Tbc ehvot evidence of the OEtienie an of the kotuUe of the properlr iocallnl,* in lU probability tlie niDlhcr-toneiw of Middle
lllllllil hi llrilfinf rrirmhIiniT Ift Ihr nl-lril ^imlrril Thrlminnrr Penian ol ihr Pablavi leiu, and at Ni]w PtiiLin. fte n>[ri^.
of 4c Vedac pqeou. The gAlhi lanflUR Imuch more Ihan (he linow Old Pcnian fnnn the rock-inicriptiona ol the
httr ZcnJ) and ihe laaguage of the CnEuluve a clue raeniblanrc, Acbaenn^iiiani. now fully deciphered. Man of ihtm. and ibcie
nr^1^i"g XhAt of any Iwa Rocnank lailsua|tC4; Ibey mm lurdly (he iDngnt. date from the (ime of DariuA. but wt hav« qxci-
VHV tun two dialecEi of one toriRUC. Whole Mropbn of (h« mem aa lare a« Ajtaxenea Oehua. In the btett inKriptioni the
glthAa ran be turned in(0 RDod old Sinikril by the appUcatJon of language ia already much decraded; but on the *h.a)t i( la almut
._ _ ... ;»acrutiMyll. it would be id Zcod-
parigacUJ pvdha uttATiahaB(ah " Ahurfl mazdilo yO inilzn bUmlm adif yO aon avnanem adKt y6
U laiuna tadhraiyjci namail maihimadHtyaihliiiinadUinaahyiliCyaiUrayatvaliQiBklubaeiem
U vO vaiDT maoaiBA aOnriayL" ' akcrenaot dyOm pouniniin Iduha^tem- '
Til. lantuage ol the mher patu of the ^«te i. more modem, . T^ '*™vL,T*'"; '7 ""i-.^"^" 'Ii^tIL^HIS" ""f. '
la DBt^^one date, u that ' '-" ■■ -■■■-' ■•—•-' 2™'': "= "ck™ twenty-lour letters in all. Tbc short vo«la
e Uii"(hc"ui
248 PERSIA [UU4CUAGE AMD LnBtATUItB
mclre and rhyme; otbcn motiin u lutlm of Ibe Snt PsAs
poem t, ccruin Abulhafi of Scchd, DEir Samartuid. In pobit
"■- ftniin; cMcept Engluli. no lodi of lut, then l> DO doubt that dttlUaSuuniaiinikntoUcinl
^™**' hu B few inaciiiini, but tliii t> the litouy qurit of thdr utlon (ice PiuaAvQ. Pahkvl booki,
•ubik developmnn of tte .ynUi. 1*; "t™ however, [»11 ouUEdc ol thepraent wbiect.iriifch to the Utcralun
Uuntun ud V«b eurcEied aa poveifu] t AtaUg muds and pbrsscfl in ihe gth uid 10th ccntuiiei of our
n._.-._ [. . _ .1 . . . thai il ™u ■ tn^ and which ia all oKnlial respects hii remained the Bme
J"^™!" for the lut ihojiaand yean. Hie deaih of BlrOii al-Raihld in
■aucah (day)
! from Senitic adndJiluR. eoald not Idue b
rature and ■F^^b eurcued ao povemil
indtbe admin
eI?fSn. Bul,'««iS3™t,'T?ew "^SIThaTreliSIS a "« beginning of the jlh cenluiy, whkb marb the o
lage of leauiiM Innian itoclc. ment of the decline ol the olipliate, wai at the aame time the
Arncmi the channs of the lound •yum in New Penlan, u it acting-point of movementi for nationai independence tad a
SifSfcld™ ™n^n1i'^cl2ESlIf''thrSBMjlT*'r'iJiM """""l Ulerature in the Inmian dominion, and the commoo
«. J, », 1. Thm we have - ■ p. . cradle of tte two wa> in the province of Khociiln, between tha
' OU Pinian a Zni. JUUat. Sta tanam. Om and Ihe Jaxaitca, In Merv, a Khorlainian town, a ctrtaiB
malirfca (death) nurk mair 'Abbli coiapoaed in 8og kd. (igj KX }, according to the oUea
Thnttaona FiftOn FtiUIln biographical writer of Penia, Mahonuned 'Aufl, the p, ^ ,
Ip (water) bi Kb Bnt real poem hi modem Peraian. in honour ij Ihe m%u\a
J™ ™d Abbliid prince MamOn. Hlrtte al-RaihU'» ion. who fWata.
,j jj. had himself a itrorg predilection tor Pifaia, hia ^''■
A wtIc. of coaioMnta often diBppear in the qmuli thu.- mother's native raunuy, and waa, moreover, (borougUy imbued
OU Pirtian >^ Znd. foIUaat Hrw Ptitiam. with the frecthmking ipint of bii age. Soon after tbia, m 8»
kaufa ImDunlain) kof kSh (loj A.H,), f^ir, who aided MamOn to wreit the ci]i[diaIeftDm
gaihu (plue). Z. iliu gill gUi hit brother AnOn, nicceedcd in establishing the first acmi-
^''h''v^ / 1*"""^ L ' nt\»\r h!^ h independent Pcrsisn dynasty in Khorlsln, which WIS Overthrown
dadtmi (1 give) .... riihsm. The developtncnt of Persian poetry under Iheae first nathe
Old d and itt frequently become y— dynasties was stow. Arabic kogusge and literature bad gained
OU Paiian or Ztni. AiUol. Stw Ptriian, '<"> ^"x a tooting to be aupplanted at once by a Dew litoary
madho (wine)' mai idiom atiU in its Intaocyj nevetlbeleta the tew poet* who aroie
haodhS (conKiounen) bOd bfii under the fUiiridi and ^Slridi show already Ihe germs of the
pUhi (fwt) .... p«i characteristic tendency of aU later Persian literatim, wbkh
. "™»(*ben) .... kai. aims at amalgaraaling the enforced spirit of Iilamism with Ibei
Old y often appesrus^Zend yflim (gtui), New Peniso jim; own Aryan feelings, and reconciUng the strict deism of tte
JS^'i/Si^S'u^JtrS.'i^fii.^ilu "0™";;,^:'^"; Mahommedsn religipn with their inborn loftier „d more or ta.
ire freguently imened or preBirt. t^. New Pcruan nlilddii or panlbeislic ideas; and we can eaidy trace m the few fragmenlary
iilOAu (id Band), root iWI; birSiLir (brother). Zend and Pahlavl verses of men like Ijansali, Uaklm FhUi and AbQ Sallk tbae
AiDongtt modcmlangusaesanddialecTiothcrtbanPerHan which ,11 vf_T,_,.,__j-_ _,i;.™- .k- f...*..* aI «>.. —.ij. - ^
._^ muK be »li ^gned to Ihe Iranian (amilj. may be j" M'd'O'n'nedan nat.ons-tbe torma ol the pi|U> iMr.
*•*" nieniioncd:— ('he encomiastic, de^ac or aatirical poem), the ""J*
'"*****■ I. JCurJiili, a langiuge nearly alua to New Prrnan, iMasal or ode (a lovc-ditty, wine-song or religious hymn), the
with which it has imponaal char?cteii>tici in common. It ia rubA'l or quatrain (our t^igram, lor which the Pcnims invoMed
.""^'st '5l "SmtM '™rd''»S4 ?brSlhrt^N«'pSiii° iSwa" * "" """ ■" '^'''1'™ '<> ""« Miopted from the AnbsJ.liid
Kurd, dim (I Bivt}-New Persian diloiw ; Kuid. ifl (white) - New Ihe Mottnoirl or double-rhymed poem (the legitimate form lor
Peruan Hpii- epic and didactic poetry). The first who wrote such a mathnawf
I. »«;»■*, the laoguage of DaluchiHan, alto very clo«lv akin was AbO ShukQr of Balkh, the oldest literary tipmentativerf
SeoW.SSrk,S"chrnSdfnro«"p;^"jS^V'^^ thelhirddynastyofKhorl^u.theS^id.,-hoh«ib.=..l|te
-Zend )lK/iM;Bal«hiii(.(rfiine)-Zend *a/o. New Penlan fc)/; m the course of lime to dethrone the ^afflnds, and to aeeute the
Bduchlufl(Kvcn)-NewPcniinWl. government of Persia, nominally still under the auprcmacy o(
3. OiKlic. true Iranian, in ipiic of iu resemblance In sound 10 (be caliphs hi Bagdad, but in tact with full sovereignty. The
"l.*CT;''0e« accurate., Af^haa,, which ha. cenalnly been "'■■*^,'i"f ''^ "' "^ '"^'' ^''" '""" "« "T*" "^
Intrcasingly influenced by the idghbmiriug Indian bogn^ge. In *'■»' "- {9'3-94': 301-331 A.H,), who, more than any ol hn
infleiion. tyntai and vocabulary, liut is itill at bottom a pure prcdccFSSOra. patronized arts and sciences in bii dunfauui.
'"^'-.^.■^ J j_ ■ ■ J -, 1 c VI Mahomoied FarjUsdl (or FatSlSwl); AbQ l-'Abhl* rf*"
The posiiion of Armtnian remains doubtluL Some icholan i d l l. . . :. _ i _ . j_ _ .TI -
stiiibote it 10 the Iranian fsmily; others prefer 10 rerard it as a °' "OKMra, a writer 01 very tenaer verses; Aon -
vparatc and indepemjcnl, member ol the Indo-European group. '1-MulsfIar Na^ ol NbhapOr; AbO 'Abdallib Mahomud d
only adopted from the Peraan.' (K. G.) Maniwl of BokhStS, full of original thoughts '^d'qmnJ
II. Uedern Fatian librnlurc.— Persian historians are greatly subtleties; Khusrawini, from whom even FirdousI condacadEl
■t variance about ihe origin ol (heir national poetry. Most of to bomnr quotations; AbQ l-Hasan Shahld of Balkh, the Im
them go back to the jth Christian century and ascribe to one who made a dlwSn or alphabetical collection of hts lyiio; ill
of the Saausian kings, Bahrtm V. (410-439), the invention ol ROdagt (or RQdakl], the first classic genius of Peru, who b*-
' Grammars of New Persian by M Lum«den (Calcolla iBio) P'"sed upon every lorm ol lyric and didactic poetry its pec*
A. B, aiadrfu> {Paris, iSjii'new ed'., ISB3). D. Foiba'(i869); stampandindividual character (see RODacl). HtsgiKifDllrf
I. A. Valfen (GicMcn. 1B70). A. Wahrmund fGieiKii, iS;^, C. csptivalmg style was imitated by Ijakim Khahbai of Kkh*^
Salemann and V. Zhukoveki (Leipiig, 1889); I. T. Plaits agTcatbiher,poet and quack; Aba Sbu'aibStlih of Hott,^
SLnr^Jj?' JiLa'^ W JSSLJu "iSvr ^'^ """"' '" "' '*'' » 'P'"'"* ^^ ""« " '""'™' "^ " youi^Chr^STSitai
* t^?Hli.X™n: In KuhSziS"^": 5,6. R"".«" "' «<"■"'"■ AbO'l-Falh of Bust, who was .ho . M<
'Cf. P. de Laaardc. Armnadu Siulitn (^tiitgen, ■«;;): Arabicpoet; the amb Aba 1-)Jasan AU Alagltchl, who fanM
K. HQbichinaDB. Armmuelu Smiim (Leipiig, iBai). the pen 11 ikilluUy as Ihe sword; 'Umtn of Merv. > tmm
LaNCVACB AND LITERATURE)
PERSIA
249
tstrooomer, and Kisi'I, a native of the same town, a ouui of
stem and ascetic manners, wlu> sang in mdodious rhjrthm the
piaise of *A1I and the twelve imftms. AH these poets flourished
voder the patronage of the Sftmlnid princes, wlu> also fostered
the growing desire of their nation for historical and antiquarian
rcseuches, fw exegetical and medical studies. Man^ I., the
grsndaoa of RlldagTs patn»r ordered (963; 352 a.il) his vizier
Bal*aml to translate the famous universal history of T&l>Ai^f
(838-923 AJ>.) from Arabic into Persian; and this
Ta*rikk4-Tabari^^ihie oldest prose work in modern
Fersiaii* is not merely remarkable from a phi]ok>gical point of
view, it is also the classic model of an easy and simple style
(French trans, by L. Dubeuz and H. Zotenberg, 1867-1874).
The same prince emido3red the most learned among the ulemi
of Transonana tot a translation of fabarl's second great
vork, the Tafsir, or commentary on the Koran, and accepted
tl>e dedication of the first Persian book on medicine, a pharma-
copoeia by the physician AbQ Manqflr Muwafiaq b. *AlI of
Herit (edited by Seligmann, Vienna, 1859), which forms a kind
of connecting link between Greek and Indian medicine. It was
loon after further devebped by the great Avicenna (d. 1037;
428 A.H.), himself a Pnsian by birth and author of pretty wine-
tangs, moral ma rims, psychological tracts, and a manual
d philost^hic science, the DOmskndtiia-i-Ald'i, in his native
tongue.
A still greater impulse was g^ven,both to the patriotic feelings
isd the national poetry of the Persians, by ManfOr's son and suc-
cosor. Prince NOh !!•» who ascended the throne in 976 (365
AA.). Full of enthusiasm for the ^orious past of the old
loaisn kingdom, he diarged his court poet Da^ll^ (Daqiqi),
i^,,y who openly professed in his ghazals the Zoroastrian
^^ aeed, to turn the KhodaHnOma, or " Book of Kings,"
hto Peisian verse. Shortly after commencing this work DaVlU
vu murdered in the prime of life; his death was soon followed
by the fall of the Stminid dynasty itself. But DaVH^'s great
tttoprise was not abandcmed; a stronger hand, a hij^r genius,
was to continue and to complete it, and this genius was found
Hg^- in iFirdousI (940-1020; 328-411 A.H.), with whom we
enter the golden age of the national epopee in Persia
(rc FatDOtJSt). In ion, after thirty-five years of unremitting
hboar, he accomplished his gigantic task, and wrote the last dis-
tidtt of the immortal Skakndma, that " glorious monument of
Ettten genius and learning," as Sir W. Jones calls it, " which, if
c*a it should be generally understood in its original language,
*illooatest the merit of invention with Homer itself." The Shdh-
'-*-T>M it'"''-', from the very moment of its appearance,
2^41^ ezercbed such an irresistible fascination upon all
'^^ minds that there was soon a keen competition
iMng the younger poets as to who should produce the
AM awcessful imitation of that daaaic model; and this competi-
iioo has gone on under different forms throu^.all the following
<B>tnries, even to the most recent times. First of all, the old
Popilar traditions, so far as they had not yet been ohausted
hf FndooSI, were radsacked for new epic themes, and a regular
Q'tie of nsfionsl epopets gathered roimd the Book of Kings,
dnwn almost exclusively firmn the archives of the princes of
Scjitfin, the faaaly of Firdousf s greatest hero, Rustam. The
^ aad most ambitious of these competitors seems to have
bea Asadl's own son, *AII b. A^mad al-AsadI, the author of
tbe oldest Persian glossary, who completed in 1066 (458 A.H.),
b vpmuds of 9000 distid^ the Garshdspndma, or marvellous
Kory of the wariike feats ^nd love adventures of Garshilsp,
ooe of Rnstam's ancestors. The heroic deeds of Rustam's
psndfather were cdebrated In the Sdmndmat which almost
«)Bals the Sh/timdma in length; those of Rustam's two sons, in
(be JdiA^^lniAma and the Far&munndma', those of his daughter,
la anuuon, in the Brunhild style of the German Nibclunge, in
Ae BMk Gmkdspnitna; those of his grandson in the BarsHndma;
Ibose of his great-grandson in the ShakriyOmdma (ascribed
to Ifokhtirl and dedicated to Mas'Od Shih, who is probably
Uotkal with Mas*Od b. Ibrihim, Sultan MabmOd's great-
1099-IZZ4; 492-508 A.B.); and the wonderiul exploits
of a son of Isfandiyir. anotho^ hero of the Skdhndma, in the
Bahmannama,
When these old Iranian sources were almost exhausted, the
difficulty was met in various ingenious ways. Where some
slight historical records of the heroic age were still obtainable
poetical imagination seized upon them at once; where no tradi-
tions at all were forthcoming fiction pure and simple asserted its
right; and thus the national epopee gave way to the epic story,
and — substituting prose for verse — to the novel and the fairy
tale. Models of the former class are the various Iskandaritamas,
or " Books of Alexander the Great," the oldest and most original
of which is that of NiiAmI of Ganja, the modem Elizavetpol
(completed about 1202; 599 A.H.); the latter begins with the
Kildb-iSamak 'lydr, a novel in three volumes (about X189;
585 A.H.), and reaches its climax in the BAstAn-i-Kkaydl^
or " Garden of Imagination," a prose romance of fifteen
large volumes, by Mahommed Tal^I Khayil, written between
1742 and 1756 (1155 and 1169 A^.)* Some writers, both
in prose and verse, turned from the exhausted fields of the
national glory of Persia, and chose their subjects from the
chivalrous times of their own Bedouin conquerors, or even
from the Jewish legends of the Koran. Of this description are
the Anbiydndma, or hbtory of the pre-Mahommedan prophets,
by QasanI Shabistarl *Ay&nI (before the 8th century of the
Hegira); Ibn ^us&m's Kkdwarndma (1427; 830 a.h.), of the
deeds of *A1I; Badhil's ^amla-i-^a^darlf which was completed
by Najaf (1723; 1135 A.H.), or the life of Mahommed and the
first four caliphs; K&iim's Fara^Hdma-i-Fdfimaf the book of
joy of Ffttima, Mahomet's daughter (1737; 11 50 am.) — all four
in the epic metre of the Skdkndma; and the prose stories of ^dtim
Td% the famous model of liberality and generosity in pre-
Isbmilic times; of Amir Jfamtah, the uncle of Mahomet; and of
the A£u*jizdt-i-Misawl, or the miraculous deeds of Moses, by
Mu'In-almiskln (died about 1501; 907 A.B.).
Qmie a different turn was taken by the ambition of another
class of imitators of FirdousI, especially during the last four
centuries of the Hegira, who tried to create a new
heroic epopee by cdcbrating in rhjrthm and rhyme
stirring events of recent date. The gigantic figure of TbnQr
in^ircd Hitifl (d. 1521; 927 A.H.) with his Tlmltntdma; the
stormy epoch of the first ^afawid rulers, who succeeded at last
in reuniting for some time the various provinces of the old
Persian realm into one great monarchy, furnished ]^AsimI (died
after 1560; 967 a.h.)^ with the materials of his Shdknd$mi, a
poetical history of Shfth Isma'Il and Sh&h Jahmisp. Another
Skdkndma, celebrating Shfth *Abbls the Great, was written by
Kam&U of Sabzevftr; and even the cruelties of Nadir Sh&h were
duly chronicled in a pompous epic style in 'Ishratl's Skdkndma-i-
Nddirl (1749; 1162 A.H.). But all these poems are surpassed
in length by the 33,000 distichs of the Skdkinskdhndma by the
poet-laureate of Fatb *AlI Sh&h of Persia (i 797-1834), and the
40,000 distichs of the Ceorgendma, a poetical history of India
from its discovery by the Portuguese to the conquest of Poona
by the English in 181 7. In India this kind of epic versifica-
tion has flourished since the beginning of IIumAyOn's reign
(i 530-1 556) ;e.f. the tafamdma-i'Skdhjahdnl by I^udsl (d. 1646;
1056 A.H.); the Skdkinskdkndma by T^ib Kallm (d. 1651;
X061 A.H.)t another panegyrist of Sh&h Jah&n; Atoshl's *AdU'
ndma, in honour of Sh&h Mahommed 'Adil of Blj&pdr, who
ascended the throne in 1629 (1039 a.h.) or 1627; the TawdrVtk-
i'^ull Sutbskdk, a metrical history of the l^u\b sh&hs of
Golconda; and numy more, down to the Fatlfndma-i-Tipil
Sulfdn by Ghul&m ^asan (1784; 1198 a.h.).
But the national epopee was not the only bequest the great
FirdousI left to his nation. This rich genius gave also the first
impulse to romantic, didactic and mystic poetry, and even his
own age produced powerful co-operators in these three most
conspicuous departments of Persian literature. «^^__^
Romantic fiction, which achieved its highest triumph pietioa.
in Ni^ml of Ganja's (1141-1203; 535-599 a.h.)
brilliant pictures of the struggles and passions in the human heart
> After 1572 (979 A.H.) according to H. E. in Crundriss, iL 237.
2SO
PERSIA
(LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
(see NiZAMi), sent forth its first tender shoots in the numerous
love stories of the Skdhndma, the most fascinating of which b that
of Z&l and Rddabeh, and developed almost into full bloom in
Firdousl's second great mathnawl YAsuf u Zallkhd, which the
aged poet wrote after his flight from Ghazni, and dedicated to the
reigning caliph of Bagdad, al Qadir billah. It represents the
oldest poetical treatment of the Biblical story of Joseph, which
has proved so attractive to the epic poets of Persia, among others
to 'Am*ak of Bokhftrft (d. 1 149), who was the first after FirdousI to
write a YOsufu Zalikhd to J&ml (d. 1492); MaujI l^sim KhSm,
HumlyOn's amir (d. 1571), N&lim of Herat (d. 1670),
and Shaukat, the governor of ShlrSz under Path 'All Sh&h.
Perhaps prior in date to Firdousl's YUsuf was his patron 'Unsurl's
romance, WimH u Adhrd, a popular Iranian legend of great
antiquity, which had been first written in verse under the T^hirid
dynasty. This favourite story was treated again by Fasihl
Jurjftnl (5th century of the Hegira), and by many modem poets —
as DamM, who died under the ^afswl sh&h Mahommed (1577-
X586; 985-994 KM.), Niml, the historiographer of the 2^nd
dynasty, and Qosain of Shirflz under Fat^ 'AH Shah, the last
two flourishing towards the beginning of the present century.
Another love story of similar antiquity formed the basis of
Fakr-uddin As'ad Jorj&nl's Wis u Rdmln, which was composed
in I^ah&n about 1048 (440 a.h.) — a poem remarkable not only
for its high artbtic value but also for its resemblance to Gottfried
von Strassburg's Tristan und Isolt.
The last-named Persian poet was apparently one of the earliest
eulogists of the SeljQl^, and it was under thb Turkbh dynasty
BaeomlMttM ihat lyrical romanticism rose to the highest pitch.
««' What FirdousI and the court-poets of Sultan Mabmdd
*■****•• had commenced, what AbQ *1-Faraj RQnl of Lahore
and Mas'ad b. Sa'd b. Salmiln (under Sultan Ibr&him, 1059-
1099) had successfully continued, reached its perfection in the
famous group of panegyrists who gathered in the first half of the
6th century of the Hegira round the throne of Sultan Sinjar,
and partly also round that of hb great antagonbt, Atsiz, sh&h of
Khwirizm. This group included Adib §abir, who was drowned
by order of the prince in the Oxus about 1 145 (540 a.h.)i and hb
pupil Jauharl, the goldsmith of Bokh&ril; Amir Mu'izzI, the king
of poets at Sinjar's court, killed by a stray arrow in 1 147 (542 a.h.),
Rashid Watwat (the Swallow) who died in 11 8a (578 a.h.),
and left, besides hb l^^das, a valuable treatise on poetry
(Hadd'i^-essi^) and a metrical translation of the sentences of
*A1I, *Abd-alwasi' Jaball, who sang at first, like his contem-
porary Hasan Ghaznawl (d. X169; 565 a.h.), the praise of the
Ghaznevid shah Bahram, but afterwards bestowed his eulogies
upon Sinjar, the conqueror of Ghazni; and Aubad-uddin Anwarl,
the most celebrated Ipi^Ida-writer of the whole Persian literature.
Anwail (died between 1189 and 1191; 585 and 587 a.h.), who
in eariy life had pursued scientific studies in the madrasa of TO^.
and who ranked among the foremost astronomers of hb time,
owes hb renown as much to the inexhaustible store of poetical
similes and epitheta ornantia which he showered upon Sinjar
and other royal and princely personages, as to hb cutting sar-
casms, which he was careful to direct, not against individuab,
but against whole classes of society and the cruel wrong worked
by an inexorable fate-rthus disregarding the example of
FirdousI, whose attack upon Sultan MahmQd for having cheated
him out of the reward for hb epopee b the oldest and most
finished specimen of personal satire. This legitimate branch of
high art, however, soon degenerated either into the lower forms
of parody and travesty — for which, for instance, a whole
group of Transoxanian writers, SQzanI of Samarl^nd (d. X174;
569 a.h.) and hb contemporaries. Aba 'AH ShatranjI of the same
town, Lami' of Bokhara, and others gained a certain Uterary
reputation — or into mere comic pieces and jocular poems like
the " Pleasantries " (Hazliyydt) and the humorous stories of the
" M0U.S0 and Cat " and the " Stone-cutter " (Sangtarask) by
*Ubaid ZakanI (d. 1370; 772 a.h.). Anwarl's greatest rival
was KhakanI (d. 1199; 595 a.h), the son of a carpenter in
Shirvan, and panegyrist of the shahs of Shlrvan, usually called
the Pindar of the East. To European taste only the shorter
epigrams and the double-rhymed poem TuiSdluTirS^ain, in
which KhaVanI describes hb journey to Mecca and back, give
full satisfaction. Among his numerous contemporaries^ and
followers may be noticed Mujir-uddin Baila^^Anl (d. 1198;
594 A.H.); Zahir FaryabI (d. 1202; 598 a^.) and Athir
Akhslkati (d. 1211; 608 A.H.)— all three panegyrists of the
atabcgs of Azerbaijan, and especially of Sultan l^izil Aidan—
Kamal-uddin I$fahanl, tortured to death by the Moguls in 1237
(635 A.H.), who sang, like hb father Jamal-uddln, the prabe ol
the governors of Isfahan, and gained the epithet of the '^ creator
of fine thoughts " (KhallaV-ulma'anI); and Saif-uddin IsCanng^
(d. 1267, 666 A.H.), a favourite of the shahs of Khwarizm.
Fruitful as the 6th and 7th centuries of the Hegira were in
panegyrics, they attained an equally high standard in didactic
and mystic poetry The origin of both can again mimik Mtf
be traced to FirdousI and hb time. In the ethical ^jtyatte
reflections, wise maxims and moijJ exhortations^*^*
scattered throughout the Skdhndma the didactic dement h
plainly vbible, and equally plain in it are the tnces of that
mystical tendency which was soon to pervade almost all the
literary productions of Persian genius. But the most chafacter*
btic passage of the epopee b the mysterious disai^>eacailoe of
Shah Kaikhosrau, who suddenly, when at the height of earthfy
fame and splendour, renounces the world in utter disgust, and,
carried away by his fervent longing for an abode of everiastiog
tranquillity, vanishes for ever from the midst of hb companions.
The first Persian who employed poetry excluaivdy lor the
illustration of §aflc doctrines was firdousl's con-,
temporary, the renowned sheikh Abfl Said b. AbQ'
1-Khair of Mahna in Khorasan (968^x049; 357-440 ajl), the
founder of that specific form of the ruba'I which n^ves the
concise expression to religious and philosophic
— a form which was further developed by the great free-
thinker 'Omar b. KHAvyAii (9.V.), and Afdal-uddin
(d. 1307; 707 A.H.). The year of AbQ Sa'Id's death b
likely that of the first great didactic mathnawl, the
a'lndma, or "Book of Enlightenment," by NA^u KnosiAir
(f.v.), a poem full of sound moral and eUxical maxims wHk
slightly mystical tendencies. About twenty-five years later the
first theoretical handbook of §Qftsm in Persian was composed bf
'AH b. 'Uthman al-JullabI al-HujwIil in thtKaskf-^wuig§^9t,
" Revelation of Hidden Things," which treaU of the vaiioM
schoobof §Qfb, their teachings and observances. Agreatasiiit
of the same period. Sheikh ^Abdallah An^arf of Heiftt (loofr-
1089; 396-481 A.H.), assbted in q>reading the pantheistic
ment by hb Mufidjdt or " Invocations to God," by sevcnl
tracts, and by an important collection of biographies of 1
§(Lfb, based on an older Arabic compilation, and serving in Itt
turn as groundwork for Jaml's excellent Nafa^dt-almns (tuM|ifctri
in 1478; 883 A.H.). He thus paved the way for the publicatin
of one of the earliest textbooks of the whole sect, the ^sAM"
ulMikat, or " Garden of Truth " (X130; 525 ajl), by Qakli
Sana*! of Ghazni, to whom all the later §Qfic poets refer as their
unrivalled master in spiritual knowledge. As the most OBCHi*
prombing §Qfb appear the greatest panthebtic writer of all SfH^
Jclal ud-din ROml (1207-1273; 604-672 A.H.; see ROmI), ssl
his scarcely less renowned predecessor Faifd ud-dIn 'Attsr,«te
was slain by the Mogub at the age of 114 luxiar yean in iub
(627 A.H.). Thb prolific writer, having performed the pilgPB*
age to Mecca, devoted himself to a stem ascetic life, and to At
composition of ^Oflc works, partly in prose, as in hb vihaUi
" Biography of Eminent Mystic Divines," but mostly in thefcni
of mathnawb (upwards of twenty in number), among which tit
Pandndma, or " Book of Counseb," and the JTenfa ifrir, «
the "Speeches of Birds," occupy the first raxdc In thektM^
an allegorical poem, interspersed with moral talcs and piBH
contemplations, the final absorption of the §QfI in the dshy il
most ingeniously illustrated.
In strong contrast to these advanced $Qfls stan^^thegmtol
moral teacher of Persia, Sheikh Sa'dl of Shiraa (died aboH in
lunar years old in X292; 691 a.h.; see Sa*dI), wbfom
best known works are the BAsldn^ or " Fruit-gaideB,'
'A
PERSIA
251
tfte CmUslam, or " Roie-garden." However, both have found
ooiD|MiBtively few imiutiooi — the former in the DastHmAma^
^^^ or " Book fA Exemplars,'* of Nizftrl of Kohistln
(d. S320; 720 A.H.), in the Dak Bdb, or
" Ten Letters," <d KAUbl (d. 1434; 838 ajl), and in the
Cabir, or ''Rose-bower," of Hairatl (murdered 1554;
961 A*B.); the latter in Mu*ln-uddln JuwainTs Nigaristdn^ or
" PSctore^pneiy " (1335; 735 aji.) and Jftml's Bakdristdn, or
" Spnng-garden " (1487; 893 A.H.); whereas an innumerable
kat of purely $QfIc compositions fdlowed in the wake of
SsbATs» 'Attar's and Jelil ud-din Ruml's mathnawb. It will
suffice to name a few of the most conspicuous. The
Lama'dt, or " Sparks," of 'IriUJ (d. between 1287 and
1309; 686 and 709 aji.), the Zdd-idmusafirin, or
"Store of the Wayfarers," by HusainI (d. 1318; 718 a.h.), the
Crfffcns i IMs, or " Rose-bed of Mystery," bv Ma^mOd Shabis-
tiil (d. .1310; 720 AJI.), the Jdnhi-Jam, or * Cup of Jamshid,"
bjr An^adl (d. 1338; 738 A.H.), the AnU-ul ^Arifint or "friend
cf the Mystics," by l^Istm (QK8im)-i-Anw&r (d. 1434; 837 A.H.),
sad othen; 'Amir's Mikr u Musktari, or " Sun and Jupiter "
(1176; 778 AJL), *Arifrs GiU u Ckaugdn, or "The Ball and the
Btt " (1438; 84a ajl), ffusH u Dil, or " Beauty and Heart,"
by Fattihl of NbhlpQrCd. 1448; 852 a.h.), Sham* u Parwdna, or
"Ike Candle and the Moth," by Ahll of Shirftz (1489; 894 A.H.),
Stt • Ctd4, or " King and Dervish," by HiUQ (put to death
1S3>» 939 ajl), Bahl-ud-din *AmiII*s (d. 162 1; 1030 a.h.)
jr«s«H«l*<, or "Bread and Sweets," 5Air » 5Aaibir, or " Milk
■d Sufsr," and manv more.
Duiiac an these periods of literary activity, lyric poetry, pure
vd sinqile, had l^ no means been neglected; almost all the
renowned poets ance the time of RfkdagI had sung in
idless strains the pleasures of love and wine, the
of nature, and the almighty power of the Creator; but
kiaskft to the incomparable genius of 9&fii (d. 1389; 791 a.h.;
isQltel) to give to the world the most perfect models of lyric
k; and tbt lines he had laid down were more or less
strictly foUowed by all the ghazal-writers of the 9th
and xoth centuries of the Hegira— by SalmAn of S&wa
(d. about 1377; 779 A.H.), who excelled besides in
Mt sad mathnawf; Kamil Khujandl (d. 1400; 803 a.h.),
Mil friend, and prot^ of Sultan ^osain (1374-1383 a.d.);
Mihnin I Shbln Maghribl (d. at Tabriz in 1406; 809 a.h.), an
kliBste friend of Kamil; Nfmat-ulUh Wall (d. 1431 ; 834 a.b.),
tke fonder <rf a special religious order; ]^ilsim-i-Anwftr (see
above); Amir Shihl (d.-X4S3; 857 A.H.), of the princely family
dtke Sarbadirs of Sabsewftr; BannAl (d. 1512; 918 a.h.),
«bo sbo wrote a romantic poem, Bakrdm u BikriiM; B&bft
Fighial of SIdriU (d. 1519; 925 A.H.), usually called the " Little
Bm"; Nargisi (d. 1531; 938 A.H.); LisAnI (d. 1534; 941 a.h.),
«bo himsdf was imitated by Damlrl of I^ah&n, Mubtasham
KidI snd Wa^^ BAfikI (all three died in the last decade of the
Mkccntmy of the Hegira); Ahll of Shirftz (d. 1535; 942 a.h.),
Whor of the SX^-i^Baldl, or "Lawful Witchcraft," which, like
Iftafs (d. X434; 838 A.H.) Majma'-ulbaffrain, of the " Con-
iMBce of the Two Seas," can be read in two difTerent metres;
Xial (d. 16x0; xor9 aji.), who wrote the charming romance of
iBiada princess who burned herself in Akbar*s reign with her
ifcrniHj husband on the funeral pile, called SUz u Gitdds, or
"Bsn^ and Mdting," &c. Among the immediate predeces-
amof Qifii in the 8th century of the Hegira, in which also Ibn
Yaafa, the great Vit'*-writer,* flourished, the highest fame was
•Biedby the two poets of Ddhi, Amir Qasan and Amir Khosrau.
The ktur, who died in 1325 (725 a.h.), two years before his
Uead Quaa, occupies the foremost place among all the Persian
poets cC India by the richness of his imagination, his graphic
^ik, and the historical interest attached to his writings. Five
ttOBiTe dlwins testify to his versatility in all branches of lyric
pottiy, and nine large mathnawb to his mastership in the epic
Ik. Four of the latter are poetical accounts of the reigns of
'A Ht^ or mu|Fat^*a it a poem containing moral reflections, and
mn from the kasida and piazal ouly by the abaence of a roatia'
VUdal
the emperors of Delhi, *AUl-uddIn Khiljl (1296-1316), his pre-
decessor Feroz Shih and his successor l^utb-uddln Mubftrek
Shah— the Miftdk-ulfutAk, or " Key of Victories," the Kirdit-
ussa*daiHf or " The Conjunction of the Two Lucky Planets,"
the Nuk Si^ihf, or " Nine Spheres," and the love-story of
Khidrkkdm u DuwolrdM. His other five mathnawb formed the
first attempt ever made to imitate Nifftmi's famous Kkawuakf
or five romantic epq)ces, and this attempt turned out so well that
henceforth almost all epic poets wrote quintuples of a similar
description. Khwftja Kirmftnl (d. 1352; 753 a.h.) was the next
aspirant to Niilml's fame, with five mathnawb, among which
Humdi u HumdyHn is the most pq;>ular, but he had to yield the
palm to 'Abd-urra^mftn Jftml (1414-1492; 817-898 km.), the
last classic poet of Persia, in whose geniua were j^
summed up all the best qualities of his great prede- iH^rwut.
cesaors. Many poets followed in Jftml's footsteps,
first of all his nephew Hfttifl (see above), and either wrote whde
khaitasahs or imitated at least one or other of Niiflml's epopees;
thus we have a Laild u MajnUn, for instance, by MaktabI (1490),
HiUUl (see above), and RQb-ulamIn (d. 1637). But their
efforts could not stop the growing corruption of taste, and it was
only at the coiirt of the Mogul emperors, partictilariy of the
great Akbar (i 556-1605), who revived Sultan Ma^mfkd's " round
table," that Persian literature still enjoyed some kind of " Indian
summer" in poets like Ghazftll of Mashhad or Meshed
(d. 1572); 'Urfl of ShIrSz (d. 1591), who wrote spirited V&9ldu,
and, like bis contemporaries WabshI and Kautharl, a mathnawl,
Farkdd u Shirin; and Fai^I (d. 1595), the author of the romantic
poem, Not u Daman, who aUo imparted new life into the rubft'L
In Persia proper only ZuliU, whose clever ronumce of " Sultan
MabmOd and his favourite Ayftz " (1592) is widely read in the
East, ^'ib (d. 1677), who is commonly called the creator of a
new style in lyric poetry, and, among the most modem, Hfttif
of I^fahftn, the singer of sweet and tasteful odes (died about
1785), deserve a passing notice.
But we cannot conclude our brief survey of the national
literature of Persia without calling attention to the rise of the
drama, which has only sprung up in the beginning of f^Qg^^^
the nineteenth century. Like the Greek drama and
the mysteries of the European middle ages, it is the offspring of a
purely religious ceremony, which for centuries has been performed
annually during the first ten days of the month Muharram — the
recital of mournful lamentations in memory of the tragic fate
of the house of the calipb 'AH, the hero of the ShI'itic Persians.
Most of these pas^on-plays deal with the slaughter of *AlI's son
^osain and his family in the battle of Kerbclft. But lately this
narrow range of dramatic subjects has been considerably widened.
Biblical stories and even Christian legends have been brought
upon the Persian stage; and there is a fair prospect of a further
development of this most interesting and important movement.
(See further Drailx: Persian.)
In the various departments of general Persian literature not
touched upon in the foregoing pages the same wonderful activity
has prevailed as in the realm of poetry and fiction, „j^. . .
since the first books on history and medicine appeared wttM.
under the SftmAnids (see above). The most important
section is that of historical works, which, although deficient in
sound criticism and often spoiled by a highly artificial style,
supply us with most valuable materials for our own research.
Quite unique in this respect are the numerous histories of India,
from the first invasion of Sultan Mabmdd of Ghazni to the English
conquest, and even to the first decades of the present century,
most of which have Deen described and partly translated in the
eight volumes of Sir H. M. Elliot's History of India (1867-1878).
Persian writers have given us, besides, an immense variety of
universal histories of the world, with many curious and note-
worthy data (see, among others, MIrkhond's and Khwftndamlr's
works under MIskhond); histories of Mahomet and the first
caliphs, partly translated from Arabic originals, which have been
lost; detailed accounts of all the Persian dynasties, from the
Ghaznevids to the still reigning Kajars, of Jenghiz Khftn and
the Moguls (in Juwaini's and Wall's elaborate Ta'rikks), and
253
PERSIGNY— PERSIS
of TTmOr and b!* luccaaora (■<« an itccouat ol iIk Zafarnima school it Siumiir ia iSa6, bcansliig nurfckt Ja htb u tte
undcc PetUdeuCiou); biUorieaoFKcuuidcrecdi.cipccully 4tli Huiun two yon lila. Ttm^ui Ukm by bh it^niatt.
[he funous ZJobiillii, or " School ol Muuien " (tnniUted by bi luppoiUtit ihe nvolulioii ol iSjo WM R(*iilcd u inaub-
Shca ud Troyer, Forii i&tj) ; ud RUny local chronidc* of Inn ordinatkHi, uid next yen Fiilin wu djimhifil from tbe u
■Dd TOrin. N«l in Inipotunce to history rank geography, He became a joumaliit, ai ' ' "„'
cosznoETapby. and (laveU (for isatance, the NtaAat-nitidib, by aaiHiming the title ol comte do Pcnigny, aaid t
(JuodaUab Muatauti, who died in 1349, aod the traiulatioiu of in bii laahy. He planned the atten^itoo Stnabnrg In 1836
lMaUiil'iandKazvInI'aArabicworks),andlhe varioug ladJiHrai andlbatoo Boolognein 1840. At Boiilo(iie he waa amaled and
or biogiaphiei of $0111 and poets, with sdeclioos in proe and condemned to twenty yean' iinprlMMimeal in > foRioa, dmrlly
verse.tiom the oldest ot'Aufl (about 1110) 10 the latt and largest alterwaidi commuted Into raild dMeAtini at Vcn>flle% whsv
of alL, the Uakhan-tUtkati^ib^ or "Treaaurt of Marvellous he wrote a booh to prove that the Pyramida were baflt to peerent
Mitlcit" (completed 1803}, which contains biographies and tbe Nile iiom silling up. This waa pubUsbed in 1841 ondei thft
Bpecimena of more than jooo poela. We paB over tbe well- title, De la Dalinaiiim it de VntaiU firtmmaiU iu Tjni— Mil
slocked lections of philosophy, elhica and poUtica, of theology. At the levoluiion of 1S4S he wai aiiatcd by the pmrWeuI
[aw and ^aOsm, of malhematfca and astronomy, o[ medicine government, andon his icleue took a pmnlDcnt pan inaeciuiD(
(the oldest thesaurus of which is the " Treasure of Ihe shU o[ the election of Louis Napoleon to the prealdenty. With Mofny
Khwlrissm," ii]o),of Arabic, Peruan and Turkish grammar and and the maraiial Saint Amaud he plotted the rettontiOD oCtl^
leiicogiIphy,andan1y cast apartinggtanceat the richcoltection empire, and waa a devoted servant of MapoleoD IIL Ht
of old Indian folk-lore and fables preserved in Ibe Persian version succeeded Uomy aa minister of tbf interior in January 1S5L
^^^ of KalUah m DimmJi (see ROnicI), of tbe SiitJiOd- and later in the year became smator. He icc^pDcd -ofice ta
^^^^ nima, the TiJIiuIiiu, or "Tala of a Parrol," and 1S54, being appointed neit year to tbe LondoD embailT^wUdi
others, and at the transbtion* of standard works heoccupied witbathoK iiitetva](iBsg~ii59)untS iB6a,«b<aha
of Sanskrit literature, the cpopeca of the Rdmdyana and resumed the portfolio of the i ' ' -> - -■ , . .
PBRSlamr. JSAH OILBBRT victor FIALIH.Ducde (iSoa-
ILoire) on the nth of January 180B, Ihe son of a receiver
of lues. He was educated at Limoget, and entered the cavalry
arid whose presence in the coundl <
memorandum which tell Into the empre«'» I
In vain 10 see Napoleon before be started lo take ovb- the
command in 1S70, and the breach wai furthei widened whia
master and servant were [n exile, Penigny retunied to Fran
in 1S71, and died at Nice on the nth of January 1871.
See Ufmoira in dmc it Firsify fad ed., iBoSV edital br H.
de Laire d'Espagry, his lormer secretary ; an eulcnuic life, £« iW
^Pirniiy (lUsJ. by DelarDa;aiulEiiiileOUivki'Bj!B*wt»M
(189s, &.).
PSRIIXMOH, the name given Jo tbe ftuiti ij I
0 the order
:,andhas
. In the I
iofLiB
naceae, ii usually from jo to
e leaves, and unisetual Sowbs on mrK
A arranged in pairs; tbe fcniak Bswtn
of stamens, and a smootb o*aiy with
right cells — tbe ovaiy is mrnKNOitcdby
base. Tbe frvit-Mit k
one ovule inea
lour ityla, wl
veryshort, bearing a lubglobose fn
diameter, of an oruge-ycllow coloi
gent pulp. It is surrounded al the base by tbe peraital aJyv
lobes, which increase in size as the fruit ripens. Tbe ■MihifCIV'
renders tbe fruit somewhal unpalatable, but alter h ha tH
subjected to tbe action of frost, or haa baome partially kHi'
or " blettcd " like a medlar, its flavour is improved. ThcM
b eaten in great quantities in the southern stale* of Anifa
and is also fermented wiib bops, corn-meal or wbeM-bna faU
a sort of beer or made bio brandy. The wood k beavy, iHt
and very close-giained and used in turnery. Hie tree iiiaT
common In Ihe South Atlantic and Gulf statea, and atlahsb
largest size in the basin ol the Mississip^ It was fan^ »
England before itv) and is cultivated, but tardy if en i^m
itsfmil. It is easily raised from seed and can alaobef nfi
from ilolons, which are often produced in gnat quiltj.
The Chinese snd Japanese cultivate another ^idu, ll*
Diospyros Kaki. of which there eiiu numerous iU-definediMJelte
The fruits arc larger than those of the Amerion kind, miiUi
in shape, but have similar prcfierties. Aa islria|(Bt Hi
known as tUlm, rich in tannin, is eapresscd Iron the pM
[ruii and used in various industries. Hie tree it hantr h ^
south ol England and in the Channel Islands.
PERSIS (mod. Fan, «.>.), the ■oulh-wcttem part et ta
(Pera .,
Plrsa [Fan
in the i
nts, tbe It
ounced by tbe 1<
PERSIS
253
fa Creek and in the modern European Ungnagea. The natural
features of Persia are described very exaaly by Nearchus, the
admiral of Alexander the Great (preserved by Arrian Indu.
40 and Strabo xv. 727). The country is divided into three
parts, of very different character and climate: the coast is sandy
and very h^, without much vegetation except date palms, it
has no good harbours, and the climate is very unwholesome;
the population b scanty. About 50 m. from the coast rise the
Aains of the mountains, through which some steep passes lead
mto the interior valleys (called xocXi) Utpoist Strabo ;cv.
799), which lie about 5000 ft. above the sea. Here the climate ,
is tciiq>erate, the country watered by many rivers and lakes,
the soil fertile, the vegetation rich, the cattle numerous. These
regions, which were thickly populated, form the real Persis of
hbtmy. '*This land Persia," sajrs Darius, in an inscription
at Persepolis, " which Ahuramazda has given to me, which is
beautiful and rich in horses and men, according to the will of
Ahuramazda and myself it trembles before no enemy." The
thizd part is the north, which belongs to the central plateau, sliU
much hi^er, and therefore rough and very cold in the winter.
Towards the north-west it borders on the Median district of
Paractaccne (about Isfahan); towards the north and north-east
it soon passes into the great desert, of which only the oasis
of Yezd ilsatickai in Ptolem. vi 4, 3) is inhabitable. In the
cast, Persis proper is separated by a desert (Laristan) from
the fertile province of Carmania (Kerman), a mountainous
region inhabited by a Persian tribe. To Carmania belonged
iho the coast, with the islands and harbours of Hormuz and
Bander AbbasL In the west Persis borders on the mountains
snd plains of Elam or Susiana. For the ancient topography
d. Tomaschdc, " Beitrttge zur historischen Topographic vpn
Pecnen," in SUamgsber. der Wiener AkademUt pkil. CI. cii.
••• «
CTUL CXXl.
The Persians are not mentioned in history before the time of
Cyms; the attempt to identify them with the Parsua, a district
m the Zagros chains south of Lake Urmia, often mentioned by
the Assyrians, b not tenable. The Parsua are perhaps the non-
Arian tribe lUpmoL in northern Media, Strabo xi. 508. Herodotus
L 13$, gives a list of Persian tribes: the Pasargadae (at Murghab),
Maz^>hii, Ma^ii, Panthialaei (in western Carmania), Dcrusiaei.
(icrnanii (i^. the Carmanians) are husbandmen, the Dahae
(u: the ** enemies," a general name of the rapacious nomads,
vcd also for the Turanian tribes), Mardi, Dropid, Sagartii
(called by Darius Asagarta, in the central desert; d. Herod,
vn. 8s) are nomads. The kings of the Pasargadae, from the
dao of the Achaemenidae, had become kings of the Elamitic
<iirtxict Anshan (probably in 596, cf. Cysus). When, in 553,
Cyras, king of Anshan, rebelled against Astyages, the Maraphians
and ICaspians joined with the Pasargadae; after his victory over
Aityiges all the Persian tribes acknowledged him, and he took
tltt title of " kin^ of Persia." But from then only the inhabitants
of Petsis proper were considered as the rulers of the empire,
and remained therefore in the organization of Darius free from
tucs (Herod. iiL 97). But Carmania, with the Sagartians, the
Vtxun (called by Darius Yautiya), and other tribes, formed a
tftnpy and paid tribute (Herod, iii. 93); the later authors
tkrdbre always distinguished between Carmania and Persia.
iwaa of other Persian tribes, partly of very doubtful authority,
ve given by Strabo xv. 727,* and Ptolem. vi. 4 and 8.
Ihe Persians of Cyrus (see Pebsu: Ancient History) were
a v^roos race of husbandmen, living in a healthy climate,
acciBtonied to hardship, brave and upright; many stories in
Herodotus (espedally ix. 122) point the contrast between their
tUBfk life and the dfeminate nations of the civilized coimtrics
of Asia. They were firmly attached to the pure creed of
Zoroaster (cf. Herod, i. 131 sqq. and the inscriptions of Darius).
When E^us had killed the usurper Smerdis and gained the
crown, a new usurper, Vahyazdlta, who likewise pretended to
*To the Pateisluioreis belongs the lance-bearer of Darius,
"Gobr^ (Gaobaruva) the Pitisnuvari," mentioned in his tomb-
iacriptioo; they occur also in an inscription of Esarhaddon as
fttodi-ara, eartwards of Media, in Choarene at the Caspian gates;
the Kyru are the Kuixb.
be Smerdis, the son of Cyrus, rose in Yautiya, but was defeated
m two battles by Darius's generals and put to death (Behistun
inscription). Cyrus had built his capital with his palace and tomb,
in Pasargadae iq.v.). Darius founded a new city about 30 m.
farther south on the left bank of the Pulwar, near its confluence
with the Kur, with a large terrace, on which his magnificent
palace and that of his son Xerxes were built. As Pasargadae was
named after the tribe in whose district it lay, so the new capital
is by the Persians and Greeks simply called " the Persians ";
bter authors call it Pcrsepolis (q.v.), " the Persian dty."
Another Persian palace ky in Taoko, near the coast (Strabo
XV. 728; Arrian Ind. 39; Dionys. Perieg. 1069); Gabae, which
Strabo mentions besides, is Isfahan in Paraetacene and belonged
already to Media.
Both in Persepolis and Pasargadae large masses of gold and
silver from the tribute of the subject nations were treasured,
as in Susa and Ecbatana. But Persis lies too far off from the
centre of the Asiatic world to be the seat of government. Like
Arabia and similar countries, it could exercise a great momentary
influence in history and produce a sudden change throughout
the world; but afterwards it would sink into local insignificance.
So the Persian kings fixed their residence at Susa, which is always
considered as the capital of the empire (therefore Aeschylus
wrongly considers it as a Persian town and places the tomb of
Darius here). After the reign of Xerxes, Persis and Persepolis
became utterly neglected, in spite of occasional visits, and even
the palaces of Persepolis remained in part unfinished. But the
national feeling of the Persians remained strong. When Alexander
had won the victory of Arbela, and occupied Babylon and Susa,
he met (in the spring of 330) with strong resistance in Persia,
where the satrap Ariobarzancs tried to stop his progress at the
*' Persian gates," the pass leading up to Persepolis. Here
he set fire to the cedar roof of the palace of Xerxes as a symbol
that the Greek war of revenge against the Persians had come
to an end. Our best information tells us that he soon had the
fire extinguished (Plut. Alex. 38); the story of Thais is a pure
fiction, and we may well believe that he repented the damage
he had done (Arrian vi. 30, i).
Alexander had planned to amalgamate the former rulers
of the world with his Macedonians; but his death was followed
by a Macedonian reaction. Peucestas, the new satrap of
Persis, followed the example of Alexander, and thus gained a
strong hold on his subjects (Diod. xix. 48); nor did Selcucus, to
whom the dominion of the east ultimately passed (from 311
onwards), disdain the aid of the Persians; he is the only one
among the Diadocbi who retained his Persian wife, Apame,
daughter of Spitamenes. At the same time Scleucus and his
son Antiochus I. Soter tried to introduce Hellenism into Persis.
Of Greek towns which they founded here we know Alexandria
in Camumia (Plin. vi. Z07; Ptol. vi. 8, 14: Ammian. Marc. 23,
6, 49), Laodicea in the east of Persis (Plin. 6, Z15), Stasis, " a
Persian town on a great rock, which Antiochus, the son of
Seleucus, possessed " (Stcph. Byz. s.v.), Antiochia in Persis,
founded apparently by Seleucus I. and peopled by Antiochus I.
with immigrants called together from all Greece, as we learn
from a psephisma passed by " boulS and demos " of this town
in 206 in honour of Magnesia on the Maeandcr (Kern, Inschriften
ton Magnesia am Maeander, No. 6isDittcnberger, Orienlis gr.
inscr. 233, where they are mentioned together with a great
many Sdeudd towns in Susiana and Babylonia, and compare
Kern, No. i8»Dittenberger, No. 231). An insurrection of the
Persians against Sdeucus (U.) is mentioned in two stratagems
of Polyaenus (vii. 39. 40). When in 221 Molon, the satrap of
Media, rebelled against Antiochus III., his brother Alexander,
satrap of Persis, joined him, but they were defeated and killed
by the king. Persis remained a part of the Selcucid empire
down to Antiochus IV. Epiphancs, who at the end of his reign
restored once more the authority of the empire in Babylonia,
Susiana and Persis; perhaps a battle, in which the satrap
Numenius of Mcscne (southern Babylonia) defeated the Persians
on the shore of Carmania on sea and land (Plin. vi. 152), belongs
to this time. But after the death of Antiochus IV. (164) the
25+ fllKSlUS
Sekucid Empire bcf^n lo diswive. White Ibc central pro- vocition. and he Kt to inik upon i book of uUro. I
vinccs, Mcdii and nonhcrn Bibylonia, wcic conquered by mole Kldon uid dovly, ■ premiture dcalh (iiilM Om
the Panbiini, Mcicne, Elvnuu md Penis made ihcnudve* pievtDied the completion of hn tuk. He li dacril:
independent, pcucued of i. gentle diipoiitiOD. gitliifa nodal)' nod pi
Penis never became a part of the empin of the Anaclds, beauty, and living a life of exemplary devotion to*ai
although her kinjji recognized their Buprcmacy when they were molhcr Fulvia Siicnna, bia aiaLcr and his aunt. To bk t
ilrong (Slrabo iv. iiS. 7j6]. Flom Ihc pcriplut of the Ery- and aistcr he left a considerable fortune. Con
thiaean Sea jj-]7 we Icsm th;ii their authority titcnded over alt hia wotk eicepi the book d[ utirei in wbicta ne naae (oa*
Ihc shores ol Curmania and Ihc opposite coasts of Aiibia, A slight altetalions and then hjuided it over to Baisua for cdilia|.
Fenian kmg, Aiiaicr««, who was murdered by his brother It proved an immediate success.
Cosithros at Ihc age of oj ycar», is mentioned in a fragment "ne kIkJu !uM a lew details-™ jrtial aulhoeky ^^
on Ibeir coins, the oldest of which are imiUtionl of Seleucid d,»^c™l in places i> pnl^bly iniwwnnby. Tlie MSS.Hr it
coins, and wen perhaps struck by local dynasts under Ihelt cimc from the commenlary ol Valerius Probus, » doubl a kaiaed
supremacy; moU of the otben show the klng'a head wiih the ediiioa of Ih™ii. like ihoMi o( Viijil and Hmcc by this iame famous
Fenian tiara, and on the reverse a firMliar with the adonng „S*hl"Xh ltl^^!^c<iflic^^r h X'SE^heBSrfvT^
king before it, a standard (perhaps the famous banner of the j„ -„^ itiicmeni as lo thcdeath ol Pcniu.-i laihei TbcdcclamuH
amitfa Kavi, which became the standard of Iran under the of a luuru in hii pnxarr tSal. j. 4 snq ) itnpliet a more naiun
Sasaanidt), and occasionally Ihc figure of Ahuraraaida; they age than thai of lii in ihe perlormer. But pairr mighi here neu
were ,6m e.p!.in«i by A. D Mord>mann ''^ /-^•"•M" bi^'^/S^rl^y^be '^S'.S^ ;:^^c;:;, '^"J.-'h,.'"-..^ 'i^
ffnsiiMalil, ui,. IV. and vii.; cl. CrMndnii drr utinurkcn Pkita. ^„ („i ^^^^ ih, i,;, j,,^ ,!,„ salircs ap™ » ck»ely does M
ii, 4S6 leq. The legcndl are in Aramaic characlen and Ptrsian of course prove the authenticity ol the former. One of ihe naJBS
(Pahtavi) language; among them occur Artaicracs, Darius (from of harmonv is. however, too xiblle for us 10 believi ihit a lenB
a dynast of Ihis name the town Darabiird, "town of Darius." evolved ii firm JlwwojlBofPcrBus. It reou.m lodnrf a iha^tild
in eastern Pc.>i.seems to derive its name). Nat«., Tirida.cs. [T^lllS^'a "fiSk^h^y^i^Jh^h^l^niS «'r,■^^"
Manocihr and olhers^ the name Vahubun leenu 10 be identical ia spicil, from rhe domestic heanh and hii women-folk. Aod el
with Obonos, mentioned by I'olyacnua vii. 40, who pul down CMrselhitisBiMMioiiilylhe picture drawn by ihtSalirti. Soniict
■eitlen (lirouoii) In Penis.
he dm
principal dynasty i) by Tabari calkd Bliiangi. The coins none of Juvenals undue ures. on UMVoury detail or Hocaee'i
wh™"tbe M hisiori^3 mythical iradiiiliM and Ihe Zoroas! ^™T„ rid^uir^hSh"' Jf ™r™oV'SeiJ flflLlir^
trian religion were supreme. There can be no doubl that at ihb theculiuied by PhilLiiinea.
time Ihe true form ol Zoioastrianism and the sacred wriilrgs Thechief interest of Persios's work liesinitsrelation loRomii
were preserved only tn Fersu, whereas e^-erywhere else (m „,irc, i„ it, imerprciaiioa of Roman Stoicism, and in its nie«(
Parthia, in Ihe Indo-Scyihian kmgdoms of the east and m the ,h, Ro^m tongue. The inautnce of Horace on Peniui OM,
great propagandist movement m Armenia, Syria and Asia |„ ,pj,, j,( q^ ^^^„ of the Life, hardly have been loa tlwa
Minor, where ll developed inio Miibraism) it degenerated and ^^^^ ^ Lucilius. Nol only characlen. a* noied ibavt, bm
was miied wUb other cults and ideal. So the revival of ^^„^^ phrases, thoughts and siluations come direct Inu Utt.
ZoroaslTianlsm came from Peltis. When Ardashir I. attempted ^be resemblance only emphasizes the difference between Ik
to reslotc Ihe old empire ol Cyrto and Danus, and in iii ab. mricaturisl of Stoicism and its preacher. Peniiii stiika Ite
rose agamsl Ihe Parlhian king, Artabanus, his aim was relisious highest note thai Roman satire reached; in eamestiiaa a^
aswellaspolllical. The new Sassanid Empire which he founded „o^ purpose rising far superior to the political raneoor «
Enforced the restored religion of Zoroaster (Zarathusira) on the ^^ natured peniflage of his predecesson and the rhetork^
whole of Iran. indignation of Juvenal, he seems a forerunner of Ihe gnat
TIk new capital of Penis was btakhr on Ihe Pulwar about chrislian Apologists. From him we learn a lesson Seneca nent
9 m. above Fenepolis, now Hajjiabld, where even the pre- (^^i,,^ i,ow thai wonderful philosophy could woifc on Bia*
decessora ol Ardashir I. are said to have resided. It was a great [j,,, „j[i pit^rvjd (he depth and purily of Ibe old Ri^
city under the Saasanida. ol which some ruins are eilanl. But pajflo,. when Ihe liYc speaks of Seneca's tia'
it shared the fate of its predecessor; when ihe empire was founded attracting Persius. it presumably rcf en to Seneca the 1
the Sassanids could no longer remain m Pcrau but transferred ^^^ ^ [^o piraUti pujagcs in the works of the H.„ ... ™,
their headquarters 10 Clesiphon. (Ed, M.) £[„„ ,^ |„rj| ^j^n „, „p[anaiion by asiuming ibe ae d
PERSIUS, in full AtiLua Peisius FiaCcDS («,d, n-ti). ^ „„„«„ source. With Seneca Persius censures Ibe siyll
Roman poet and satirist. According to Ihe ti/e contained in ol Ihe day, and imitates it. Indeed in some of its worn laiEBrt
Ibe MSS.. Persius was a native of Volatcrrae. of good stock on „„i„ing of expression, ewess of detail, eiaggention. he ombi*
both parents' side. When six yean old he lost his father, and gcneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book at ut
his alep-f alhcr died in a lew ycara. At the age of twelve Persius ^^^^ hundred lines so difficult to rejid and is lo no way due »
came to Rome, where he was Uught by Remmius Palacmon and gj^j, ^cpih of thought, compares veiy iU wiih the leiw ttar
the rhetor Vcrginius Flavus. Four yean later began a close „^ of ,(,e EpiiUlae mania. A curious conirasi 10 ihk M-
intimacy with the Stoic i:omutus. In this phnosophet'i pupil ^^^^ j, pr„cni«i by his [re* use of " popular " woida. Ai<(
Lucan, Persius found a generous admirer of all he wrote. Still pia,o^ „ ^f Peraius we hear Ihat be emulated Sopbm; 0*
in eariy youth he became the friend of the lync poet Caesius gmhority is a late one (Lydua, Dt vat. 1. 41), but m cai H
Bassus,.whilK wilbThrasea Paetua (whose wife Atria was a le^^t recognize ui Ihetcenethatopena So(. 3. kinship with»*
telative) he had a close friendship of ten years duration and noik as Theocritus ' ' ' ' ..... ....
shared some travels. Seneca he met later, and was not aliracied
by his genius. In his boyhood Pcnius wrote a trawdy dealing ,
with ah episode of Roman history, and a woik, the title of which j
is rendered uncertain by corruption in out MSS.
generally accepted reading makes Ihe subject that <
boyhood. The perusal of Lucilius revealed to Pi
PERSON— PERSONALITY 355
philosophy »nd il» in common tptech to Ihe Uenlliy or in*.
viHiulLly whicb mokn m being (penon) what hi
him oB [DC lU lUt he is not. The teem " penon," wnicti U
tetbuicaily used not only in philosophy but ilso in Uw, ii applied
in theology (Ci. iplmiKf] to Itie three hyposlua ol the
TiinUy, It wai daS introduced by Tertullian, irho implicil
by it aiinglcindividiiaJiiheFuhcT, theSonud theHotyChoM
were thcec pcrioruu ibough it one and the ume lubMaoce
(■■iU) iKiilsMur). The miuie of thli unity in differena
cicrdied the mindi of the uily Chiistiia Iheologiant, and wa*
the tubJKt of many councils ind officijj pionoiineemerti, u
ing M emphais wi» laid on the unity or on tie •epaiateni
thepenoni. There was pcrptluil ichiini bet ween the llBilari»n»
and Triniuciuu (sec lor ciample Sabeiuds). The natunJ
vi, 37 (where criticinn ^^ue of the word *' person " is undoubtedly individuslity;
onten). The parallels hence those who iound a dilHcuIiy in the philosophic conrr
J -_ .... !_ ^ jj^ ihree-ui-oni! naturally tended to lay eraphaiis 01
ob: jahi.
Imal. Oifonl. ..
mf-.CaiBattondil. cil.] and Hem
k, IB Hajlha. La Mttrajaai iOMS
MS): KHid. Fltla AUi'm di la i..
ClrDMn (Leipiil. 1B9;); Sainubui)
"-* Lifi and Pnr~—-- -'
S'
w). ABMatnt*y 'J Pi
to ^w»fl/ obedience t
0 the a priori moral U«.
SliQ mote
importa
ni problemj are connected with
the
psychological 1
significai
rigin
olthe.
Muciousness o( the self? The consd
nlity of
'X
but one's own J
individu
ilily consists partly in being aware ot that
individuality;
cannot use the word "I" unless 1
conscious ollh
of his " seU," and yet there is involv.
din
hing more than this consciousness.
what docs the
■ unity .
of the" seU" consist prior to its L
«inf
r«ogni»d in.
sness; how does the consciousness a
rise?
The answer to
this pr<
be Iound— in
the su
bject-object relation, in the distin.
between the .
:itemal
world and the subjective pRxesss ol
knowing and
willing
which that relation involves. 1
will
something, an
d aJlciwuds perceive a corresponding ch
ange
within the uni
ly ol n
,y eitemal world. Hence, we may
sup-
nUOI, OVVtHCn AOADTST the. This eipression Is
ni b Eo^ish law to cJusify crimes involving some lonn o[
»»»ll or penonal violence or physical injury, i.e. oHences
•bning the life, liberty or safely ol an individual: but it is
■ktotendcd te certain oSences against morality which cannot
■Kfaially be described as assaults. The bulk of the oScnces
tadmificd, so faf as their dcfinilion or punishment depends
V* natute law, an included in the OScnces Against the
ItaoB Att iKi (J4 S »s VicL c. 100), and in Ihe Criminal The"ar
lu AiKsdmeiii Acu of iSSo and 18S5, and the Prevcnij
(MtytoCUIdnnAct 1904. Titcclassification in these sti
ii DM jeientific: i-f. bigamy is within the let of i36i (i. SJ). 1
ni aruia ofieues involving assault, i.t- robbery, an to be g
tmi a other statutes. The puticukt offences dealt with 1
tf tk acts above named are discussed under their appropriate pose, arises the consciousness of a permanent sel
Bk^ 14. abortion, assault, bigamy, hotnicidc. rape, &c. In Jt should be observed that sdl-consciousncsi vi
Ik tidw] penal code most of the ofiences above rdcitfd to 10 the inlelleclual development, and the term '
Under the head "oBences against the human body" (ch. js usually connected only with the scH^consci.
ni.). In his Dital e{ Uie Criminai Lav Sir James Stephen advanced type, not, for eiample, with that of an
■dadesaioitof these offences under the title "oHences against among human bcinp thete b considerable dJI
l«Iin»D, the conjugal and parental rights, and the reputation niosl elementary form ol human sell^nnseiousni
If iodividaals," a classiSeation also to be found in the English theself not only ihcsoul but alsothe body, w
U code of iSSe and adopted in the Queensland code of iSqn. self-consciou
fa Mrking oat this clisification oOences not involving assault objective wo
Bv "''jiTH to another and perhaps more appropriate title, distinction 01 tnc pure ana me empiiicai ego, idc laiier ^ me
'itiBfti sgaioit morality." Me known ") being an object of thought to the former (" the
nmUITV (from Lai. ttrana, ociginally an actor's I Imowing").
Mdt, from fasmert^ to sound ihiough), a tens applied in From the use ol the term " person " as distinguishing the
'b CiM» tama in Gell, SiO. AH. v. 7, i. Soce. however, Laltiniiclits €lymdti[iKlui WdrUrbnik (1906}, tuggnts ■ derivaiion
th Abtdt 10 npbin ftrOiu from ftniiart (Skeat iuEgeHs from Greek fW a lono. In Ronan law ptrsna wa> mt who
■■kfy InaTi^^ the Cresli Hiuivaleain. WalK in had civil righu. For Ihe.ecdewflKal ;*mom «(taj««, an Paasoti.
256 PERSONAL PROPERTY— PERSONATION
tflf Itom the not-self iciaa the phiue " perviiul equalion " judgmeDl ud intaucy), i» by ihe kct of the fHitr (u In wit,
toe IboM peculiar characleiislid ot idiosyncnsiei which have contract and will).
to be taken into account in alimaling the vtlue of an individual There are several cue) in which, by tiaiute or otbawiv^
Judgment or ohiervalioii. Thia phtue, which i) coamonly properly i> taken out of the dau of real or penacal to which
ued in any oonneiion, was fini applied to Ihe erron detected it leemt imtunlly to belong By the openiioa ol the equitabk
in the aitronomical observation! ol a CreenRicb observer named dDciiine of convenion money directed to be emf^yid in the
Kinnebrook in ijgi. The rccogniied (act that Ihe |>eaier or purchase a( land, or land directed to be turned iato money, b
leai inaccuracy ii habitual to individual observers has been in general regarded ai that ipede* of property into which it ■
invesLigatcd, e-g^ by Bcssd {Abhandlnngtn, iii. joo) and by directed to be converted. An eaample of pr^Kity prima facit
Wundt (Phtsiel. PiyiMal.), and machines have been devised real which is treated ai personal is an ealate ^ur iulr« tit, wbid^
which Slake allowance for the eiror caused by the penanil since 14 Geo. II. c », a. 9, 174D71741 (now replaixd by the
equation (sec MiotOHEiER}. WiHs Act iSj;, s. 6) is diitribuiablc as perunal property in the
For Ihe piychofeviial probfem, He PsvCHOLOCV, For ilie absence of » ^wcial occupant. Eiampln of property prima ficie
piiiblena Mnnrcted wiih >ub«iiiKiDu> action. &c, tee Sudliuihal personal which is treated ai real are fiitures, faeiiiooms, such
SKLF:Ta*NCE; HynioTiui; TaLarA-cuv. as deeds and family portraits, and shares in some of the oUa
PERSONAL KtOPEmr, one branch of the main division companies, as the Kew River Company, which are real euale
of the English law o( property, the other being " real property." ^y statute. In ordinaiy cases shares in companie* an fa-
The division of property inio real and penonal ccprcscnis in "nal property, tinkas the ibarebiddera have individually son
a great mcnsuie the division into immavablc and movable iniercsi in the land as land.
Incidentally tecogniud in Roman law and generally adopted ~ ihU at Scots law to a fnat eaot
since. "Things personal," according to Blackalone, "are ctwHial o( English law. Tbe niia
goods, money, and aU other movables which may attend the '"L'ST^ ■" ^"''''^"JSi
owners person wherever he Uiinks proper to go " (Cmm. ii. 16). \ SZ W SKS^ dSSfioSSl
This idcntlBcalion of things penonal with movables, (hough ulty to En^and. Al cauaoBlaw
logical in theory, docs not, as will be seen, perfectly eipress ..-j— ..- ^ .- ..
the English law, owing to Ihe somewhat anomalous position
of chaltcls real. In Engbnd real property b supposed to be
auperior in dignity to personal propJrly, which wu originally ol
Utile importjncc from a legal point of view. Thb view b the
result of feudal ideas, and had no place in the Roman system, in
which immovables and nwvables were dealt srith as far as pos-
sible in Ihe same manner, and descended according to the same
rules. The main differences belwcen teal and persoi '
which still eiist in England are Ihese. (1] In real pn
can be nothing mote than limited ownership; there can Be no
estate properly so called in personal property, and it may be held
In complete ownership. TTiere is nothing corresponding to an
(Stale- till in personal properly; words which in real property
would create an esialc-iail will give an absol
hose ol real' pr^perty,""£idi W other sum liichiir ha> a iciMiih
. (,) Personal property is ^J^^^~pSe\y'leJL"r '
al property, such as rent ' — ■ — --' — ' -■-
th ol Ihe owner iotcsiati
ins. U) Real property
ed by deed; pereonal i
- -anlfer. (s) Conti . . . .. -- ,_
igby the Slaiutu of Frauds, 10 pmperty by staiutc. Theaniinmcmof cliaKiinaeiionia|«n«
^ar. ii. c 3, a. 4; contracts reulg lo^ersonal p^perly n^d ^"^"^- "^ ^ i" "■« «="• "^'^ <» «■"■"' 0^
only be in v,iiiine when it is eiptessly so provided by ilaiute, PBRSOHATION, tn EngEiih taw, a form of fraud 1 iiiJliil
as, (or instance, in the cases (ailing under s. 17 of the Statute o[ in a false rcpresenlaiion by one person (by words « coDdat)
Frauds. (6) A will of bndi need not be proved, bul a Kill o[ that be is another person living m dead. It b not an duct
personally or ol personal and teal properly together must be by the common law unless the repr«»enlalion is made on od
proved in order lo give a title to those claiming under il. (7) under circumstances .constiiuting ibe o((ence of perjoij, *
Devises of real estate (all as a rule within the Mortmain Acli unless Ihe representation il not made on oath is mide o^K
(lee CuAUTV and Chautiis; Coiporation) ; bequesis o( circumstances amounting to a common law cheat. Peo«ai»"
personal properly, other than chattels real, ate not within has been made an offence by statute in Ihe loUowing oib: (■)
the act. (8) Mortgages o( teal property need not generally be where It ajnounls 10 n fabe pretence by words or coodaci, ai
registered; mortgages of personal property for the most part is done with intent to defraud, and property is by soch Ida
retiuire rcgislralion under the Bilk of Sale Acts (see Pleoce, pretence obtained, 54 & ij Vict. e. 96 b. M-ga (see fu«
md Bill or Sale). Pretences); (1) in the case of false and deceitful petKaatia
Personal estate b divided hi English law into cliallds rial and o( any person or of the heir, executor, adminisiralot, wife, iridw,
duMi pcrsoHol; the latter arc again divided into c*oki in ncH of kin or relative of any person with intent tniMbila4
/eiioifnnandtioifiiji uriiiBi (see Chattel; Cuose). to obtain any bnd, estate, chattel, money, valuable s«nrity«
Intereai in personal property may be either absol uic or qualified, property (37 ksi Vict. c. j6s. i); (j) in Ihe case of pannatiB
The bttcr case is illustrated by animab /not naiuiiii, in which o(voiaaleleclions<see Corrupt PaAcnccs),
properly b only coeiiensive wilh detention. Personal property The fiisl of these offences is a misdemeanour only; the Mail
may be acqutri^ by occupancy (including Ihe airniiD. f Dmnrulio, is a felony punishable by penal servitude (or lile. The MOii
and fm/uiis o( Roman law), by invention, as patent and copy- offence was created in 1874 in consequence of the TVUmH
light, or by transfer, either by the act of the law (as in bsrikiuptcy, case, in which under the Uwas ii then stood it bad btra hOM^
personally. Ali(c-i
teresi may.
eiccpi in articles
jHse ifu H
, enually w
within the ndc agiinsi pcTKlu
not subject 10 various incidents
dower or escheat.
(3) On the
real properly dcsce
ds to Ihe he
according to the Sta
uteof Distn
general lide must be
Iransicntd
not need so solemn
a mode ol 1
lo real property mu.
t be in writu
B the cliimuit tor pniniy. IMda the i
Boulioii oi uilan, loldiEn. peicuDiicn ■
Ik pDblic fundi or iluns in joiat-iIacL compuiics,
SOS wha falKjy tcknowlcd^ Ln the name of another
«, d«ds o[ imlramenli, before ■ iomt oi peiWD
to lake the acknowledgment.
!nVB (Lat. fertfiare, to see Ihrou^) , in mathematics
ven to ibe art of icprrscnting solid objecti by a plane
lich aReits ttie eye u docs the object itself. In the
PERSPECTIVE
wblch a pmptnin
a plane,
■ill be the projetlion of ill
nplete nprtsmtitioo by a iingle ptojecti
e only when llirrc is but one point to b
. Tkij it Ibe COM by pmjetting ftom one plane lo
t it in also Ike cue ii we project (he tiiiile purU of
imlme; for every ray of light meeting the eye Hani
oiot in mhich the ray, ii we follow iu coune fnm Lhe
li. meeli for the first time any abject Thus, if ve
a a £xrd centre the tiiibU part of objects lo a plane
rfaci, then the outlines of the projeclion would give '
mpression to the eye as the oulllnei of the Ih'
xwided thai one eye only be used and that thi
eof projectioB. If at Ibe ume time the ligbt enu
K different pi^ts in ibe picture could be road
ime kind — that is^ of the same colour and inlensily
same kind ol polaiiialion — is that coming from Ibe
imselves, then the projection would give sensibly
mpression as the (Ejects themselves. The art of
his result conslitutes a chief part of the technique of
who includes the i\iles which guide him under the
the outlines, the latter to lhe colouring and Ibe
of the colours in order lo give the appearance of
Bere we deal only with the former, which i> in fact a
geometry consisting in the applications of the rules
problem Ii the fcJIowing: ntrt it ptnt a fiivt in
'am ol a pktmre, and a povtj dj centre of pnjKlian; it is
Tvjea IkeJIfeJ'on iMe pe-ml la Ike plane.
ai bat txen »laied aboiji proieciion [g,B-) in general it
ate thai (he projection of a point ii a p«nl, thai of a
Further, the projeclian of a point at infinily in a line i
I a finiie point. Hence parallel line* are prajecled into ^
ct the pant at infinity [d pne^ol the parallel lines; that
■■ done the ground plan
pulled forward lil], tiy.
Une MN ukei the placi
^ into (he grounfT pill
ini/'^l!l^;Tut1Son th
to the poiol S. when
'//
A
anMint p^nlt in c line.
faraOd lines wfu? are
pirollel It Ik piclnre_ plane
paiallfl Una in tkeir Imc
«« points <'. it. ihtst being
^i°.;",^^rt'Sn^r
plane. , Tki P"i'"^ '} o
*f
?
'-¥
/
258 PERSPECTIVE
for Che coniiniciisn vill not be )1tn«d if the rmund F^ane be If the •hidow of ■ ween CDDiC, hu to be loinid «■ ^ tta
Rplactd by any other honianlal plane. Wc can in Ihi now fiiii ihiHlow D' of D which [alli on ibe Aoiir: tben OiD* ■ ibe ilmhn
Uj pirifttim of nttf ftinl u isss tu » kumt Ikt Joal ef Oit ptr- o( DiD and rfC ia the thadow on ibe Bair of the line DC Tk
ftndunlar dmmn jrani il u Uu pirlun Maiu. MoJ u. ■/ n iiM Id diadov ol DiD, however, it Inleiapled by (be wall at L. Hen
liaatim an Ikt ptcluri (Imit. lad iU iiildiKt Mint If. For Ihii then ihe wall ukei up the ahadow. wbkh niiM eiuiid (a O- u tk*
_.. .. » ..ten convenient <o draw ia (light outline
>f a paint A. Then the nsntA Uei vertioJIy above Ai becai
«(««/ liwi attar in at trrtprtlat oi — ■-— ' '- — "''
heo the line.VA, niu the fir ' '
[£n^ 1
nithinc poant <A ita raya. nb
plane; bvt we have to dMi^
id the picture plane, ud ash
: ill plan la coiutnicted
■ advantage. The aenpectivi of ■
nomontal plane Irom the picture (o (he line at bilinity OKupia
in (he picture (he tpice between (he line when (he plane cuta Ihe
picture and the horiion, and (hi> ipace ii (he greKcr (he [arlhit the
pbne is from the eye. that it. the Either its (nee on the* pteture
plane lict Irom the horiion. The hocicontal plane tbiough (he eve
la projected into 4 line^ ihc horizon \ hence no conKnictHui can be
perrormed In il. Tbe ground ptane oA the other band it (be lowett
horinHital plane uied. Ilence it offcn moit ipacG lor conttructiom.
which coniequently wni allow of greater accuracy.
(he''baK''liM,'lbe Hne OV. and^lhe peewndic^r'ciz'ai »Jf oi
OD.ardinatet. If we then know the CD4rdinate> x, y, i meaRumI in
the« diiectlont, we ntalie OQ-i, aet off on QV a iTuUnce QA luch
that itt real length QK-y. make QAi-a, and we find A as befoi
Thit pnceit might be limplilicd by leiling ell to begin with iloi
OQ and OZ acal^ in thrir true dimenwina and aloiK OV a tea
obtained by projeeilng (he icale ' -'*^' '* - -* ' ""
I 6. The melhoda explained
n, however, it will be tiva
i any curve is in general a curve. The projec-
conic, or in HjiKi^ cases a line. The persprC'
column AH. We d
the abadow of E. Si
, ETCH' wUI be (I
scale the shadow of the co
the outlines; FB, tb
^. iniie shadow Bhj
ra the we use the veniol
;einii with (he surface, am
ihing by the line EL. TK
er of I ». II the^ctuK
modified. The gen
, ''■
. ^_.... The theory of their
We have given, say. a hgure and a pc
join (he point L to any point of whici
and produce Ihii line (ill it cu(i the
falls. These conitmctlon muu in n
In plan and elevation, and (hen (be (
found in perspective. The cocistnieti
•re take as the source of ligh( a finite pi
cfiiitinil"^" TTili wi™cut the
(he feet Ai. Ci of the pemndicubTi i
(hj floor, or the plana of these points
cult AC, will be the shadow ofC on
on opposite sides of
ihrou^ the ey*;i
plan^^'ny t!
PERSPIRATION—PERTH
259
n ocbcr Sum they wOl be ellipaet with the centre
tib csrlinder be developed into a plane, then these
dnofed into carves o( nnes. nuallel lines are
d by curves of nnes which have two points in
e is no difficulty in maldng all the constructions on
I the drawing board and uien transferring them to
ty of instruments have been proposed to facilitate
vtnga. If the problem is to maloe a drawing from
uaera obscura or, better, Wollaston's camera lucida
iMier instruments are made for the construction of
wings. It will often happen that the vanishing
irecBon which would be very useful in the construe-
great distance off the paper, and various methcxis
osed of drawinff lines through such a point. For
Stanley's Descriptive Treatise on Mathematical
(O. H.)
iOH (Lat. per, through, and spirare^ to breathe),
of sweat from the sweat-glands of the skin.
«r colourless neutral or slightly alk.iline fluid
of solids. Under pathological conditions, sugar
- substances are found. The secretion of sweat
loing on, the activity of the sweat-glands being
•d the central nervous system. The only func-
is the regulation of the heat discharge from
I chief morbid conditions of the sweat-glands are
ing (Hypendrosis) and foetid sweating {Bromi-
dve sweating is a symptom observed in various
IS tuberculosis and rheumatic fever, but it may
1 such conditions, and either be general, affecting
, or confined to a part, such as the axillae, head,
as in some rare instances, the one half of the body,
liration may often be prevented by the cold bath,
such as iron, quinine, strychnia, &c. Locally,
ingent lotions of vinegar or a weak solution of
)e of service. Foetid sweating most frequently
t, specially in those who have much fatigue,
ly due to rapid decomposition in the perspiration
rated the stockings; these should be frequently
e feet washed several times a day, dried carefully,
h some antiseptic powder,
r Pastab) SINGH, Sir, maharaja of Idar
itive Indian soldier and statesman, belonging to
puts of the Jodba class, was bom in 1844, being
Lraja Takht Singh, ruler of Marwar (or Jodhpur).
pun in 1879 he was chief minister of Jodhpur.
ig year he accompanied the British mission to
id on his return he carried out many judicious
ninistered Jodhpur with remarkable success. He
1 to take part in the celebration of the 1887
^n Victoria's reign. He served on the staffs of
khart and General Ellcs in the Tirah and Momand
1897-98, was slightly wounded, was mentioned
and promoted to the rank of full colonel. He
Ation of being one of the keenest sportsmen
riders that even Rajputana has produced.
edded to send a force from India to China in
the foreign embassies besieged in Peking, Sir
. once offered the services of the Jodhpur Lancers,
xompanied them. His father rendered good
BriUsh government in the Mutiny, and Pcrtab
herisbed the memory of the protection given to
! East India Company in 181 8. His services to
ndia were universally recognized. From Queen
eived the honour of knighthood and the Bath
f India; from Ring Edward VII. the distinction
mp ": and the university of Cambridge gave
of LL.D. From his own state of Jodhpur he
tie of Maharaja-Dhiraj. In 190Z he succeeded
of the state of Idar.
KLS AND DUKES OF. The Scottish title of
ms bestowed upon James, 4th Lord Drummond
>5. His ancestor Sir John Drummond (d. 1519)
d Lord Drummond in 1488. The ist earl's great-
, 4th call and zst duke of Perth (1648-17x6),
was a son of James, the 3Td etrl (e, 1615-1675). When John
Maitland, duke of Lauderdale, was virtually the dictator of
Scotland, Perth was among his opponents, and after Lauderdale's
retirement in 1680 he was one of the committee of seven which
managed Scottish affairs. He was made justice-general and extra-
ordinary lord of sessioh in 1682,. and was lord chancellor of
Scotland from 1684 to 1688. As a convert to Roman Catholi:
cism after the death of Charies II., he stood high in the favour of
James II. Perth, who is credited with the introduction of the
thumbscrew, was very unpq;>ular with the Scottish people, and dur-
ing the Revolution of 1688 he was imprisoned at Stirling. Released
from captivity in 1693 he joined James II. at St Germains, and
was made duke of Perth, a titular dignity only after the exiled
king's death in 1701. His son James (c. 1675-1720) was with
James II. in Ireland, and led the cavalry at the battle of Sheriff-
muir. He was attainted in 171 5, but claimed the dukedom of
Perth after his father's death. His son James (1713-1746),
regarded by friends and dependants as the 3rd duke of Perth,
fought for the Young Pretender at Prestonpans and CuUoden.
His brother and heir, John, the 4th duke (c. 17x6-1747),
also joined Charles Edward, and fought at Falkirk and Culloden.
The titular dukedom became extinct when the sixth holder,
Edward, another son of the xst duke, died in 1.760.
The earldom was then claimed by Edward's cousin, James
Lundin (1707-x 78x), a grandson of the xst titular duke of Melfort,
who was a brother of the ist duke of Perth and took the name
of Drummond. His son James (i 744-1800) secured the Drum-
mond estates in 1783, and was created a Britisli peer as Lord
Perth and Baron Drummond in X797. On his death without
sons in July 1800 his barony became extinct, but the claim to
the earldom of Perth was inherited by his kinsman, the 4th
titular duke of Melfort, and his descendants (see below). The
Drummond estates, however, passed to the baron's daughter
Clementina (d. 1865), afterwards the wife of Peter Robert,
2oth Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and thence to her descendant
the earl of Ancaster.
The ist duke's brother, John (c. 1650-1715), earl of Melfort,
rose to favour under Charles II. about the same time as his
brother; like him, too, he became a Roman Catholic in x686.
In 1684 he was made secretary of state for Scotland; in x686 he
was created earl of Melfort by James II., and during his reign
he took a leading part in Scottish affairs. After the Revolution
of 1688 his great influence with James II. and with Mary of
Modena drew upon him the hatred both of the French and of
the Irish. He was with James II. at St Germains, but lost
his former ascendancy, and died in Paris on the 25th of January
1 71 5. In 1694 he was made duke of Melfort, and all his titles
were held under the singular condition that they should descend
to the children of his second wife, Euphemia (d. 1743), daughter
of Sir Thomas Wallace, in preference to his children by his first
wife, Sophia Lundin, who were Protestants. In x 701 Melfort
was recognized as a French peer, the due de Melfort, by
Louis XIV. In 1695 he had been attainted, but his titles were
claimed by John (x 68 2-1754), his eldest son by his second wife,
who shared in the rising of 1715. In 1800 John's grandson,
James Louis, 4th titular duke of Melfort, claimed the earldom of
Perth: This claim was imsuccessful, but in 1853 George
(i 807-1902), nominally 6th duke of Melfort, obtained a reversal
of the various attainders, and his own recognition as earl of
Perth and Melfort. The succeeding earl was his kinsman,
William Huntly Drummond, Viscount Stratballan (1871- ).
See Sir R. Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland; and Histories of Nobis
British Families^ vol. ii., edited by rl. Drummond (1846).
PERTH, the capital of Western Australia, situated on the
Swan River, x 2 m. by rail from the sea at Fremantle, and about
1700 m. W.N.W. of Melbourne. It b the seat of both Anglican
and Roman CathoUc bishops, and has two cathedrals. The
fashionable street is St George's Terrace; in it are situated the
public library, the government boys' school, the stock exchange,
the town-hall, the government offices and the parliament build-
ings. Between it and the broad reach of the river known as
Perth Water lie the governor's residence and domain. The
26o
PERTH
town-hall, built entirely by convict labour, stands on an emi-
nence in the very heart-of the city; opposite to it are the govern-
ment offices, housed in a four-storey^ structure iiv the style of
the French Renaissance. The mint, opened in 1899, is a massive
freestone building. There are a public library, built as a
memorial of Queen Victoria's Jubilee in 1887, a Scots college,
two good theatres, a mechanics' institute, a museum, and a
fine Wesleyan church-house, known as Queen's HaU. The
Perth Park, containing about 1200 acres, is connected by tram
with the dty, and in it is a well-equipped observatory. There
are several smaller parks and squares in the city, while the
esplanade gardens are a feature of the place, being thrown out
like a pier into Perth Water. There is a good cricket ground,
and three race-Courses are in easy reach. South Perth, on the
other side of the river, is connected by bridges and steam ferry;
and adjoining the city on the north-west are the suburban
municipalities of Leederville and Subiaco. Outlying suburbs
are Bebnont, Victoria Park, Burswood, Claremont, Cottesloe,
Peppermint Grove and Bayswater. The dty is lighted by
dectridty, and has a good service of dectric trams. Perth
has an agreeable climate, the mean temperature is 64*9*^ F.,
and the average rainfall 33 in. Perth was foimded in 1829,
received its mu&idpal charter in 1856, and was created a dty
in 1880. Between 1891 and 1901 the growth of the city was
remarkedly rapid; in 1891 the population was only 8447, but
in 1901 it had grown to 27,471 in the dty proper, and to 36,199
including the suburbs.
PERTH, a dty, and royal, mtmidpal and police burgh, and
county town of Perthshire, Scotland, 32 m. N. by W. of Edin-
burgh direct, and 47} m. by the North British railway, via the
Forth Bridge and Kinross Junction. Pop. (1901), 33,566.
It is situated on the right bank of the Tay, between the meadows
of the North Inch (98 acres) and those of the South Inch (72
acres), both laid out as public parks. The river is crossed by
St John's Bridge of m'ne arches, completed in 1772 from the
designs of John Smeaton and widened a century later; by Victoria
Bridge, a modern structure connecting South Street with Dundee
Road; and farther south (at the end of Tay Street) by a footway
alongside of the viaduct belonging to the Caledonian railway.
Of earlier bridges one, which crossed Ut High Street, was swept
away by the flood of 1621, and another, constructed by General
Wade in 1723-1733, was apparently the predecessor of Smcaton's
bridge. On the left bank of the river lie the suburb of Bridgend
and KinnouU Hill (729 ft.). To the south are the wood-clad
heights of MoncricfTe Hill (725 ft.), Magdalenes Hill (596 ft.),
Kirkton Hill (540 ft.) and Craigie Wood (407) ft. In the river
are Friarton or MoncriefTe Island and the Stanners.
Notwithstanding the importance of Perth in former times,
almost the sole relic of the past is the church of St John the
Baptist, a large Decorated cruciform building surmounted by a
massive square central tower 155 ft. high. The original edifice
is believed to have been erected in the time of Columba, but the
transept and nave of the existing structure date from the early
part of the 13th century, the choir from the xsth. The church
was restored in 1891, and is now divided into the Elast, Middle
and West churches. The silver-gilt communion cup used in the
Middle Church is said to have been presented by Queen Mary. In
May 155Q John Knox preached in St John's his famous sermon
in denunciation of idolatry. The Dominican or Blackfriars'
monastery, founded by Alexander U. in 1231, occupied a ^te
near the west end of St John's Bridge; in what is now King
Street stood the Carthusian monastery, founded by James I.
in 1425; the Franciscan or Greyfriars' monastery, founded in
1460 by Laurance, first Lord Oliphant, stood on the present
Greyfriars' cemetery; the Carmelite or Whitcfriars' monastery,
founded in 1260, stood west of the town. The tombstone of
James I. and his queen, who were buried in the Charterhouse,
was afterwards removed to St John's East Church. During the
period between the beginning of the 12th century and the
assassination of James I. in 1437, many of the Scottish parlia-
ments were held in Perth. The building in which they met
Stood off High Street and was only dcared away in 1818, its
sitebdng occupied by the Freemtsons' HaD. T
Gowrie's palace, built in 1520, stood in spadoos gr
the river and was removed in* 1805 to provide rm
county buildings. The castle of Perth stood on the no
Street, not far from St John's. It was probably I
860 and demolished about 1400. The ^>ey or Spy
most important fortress on the dty wall, guarded the
dose to the river, but it was taken down early in the 19
The market cross, erected in High Street in X669
the older cross which Cromwell destroyed, was i
X 765 as an obstruction. The huge fortress, 466 ft. sqi
Cromwell erected in 165 x on the South Indi, dose t
and the Greyfriars' burying-ground, was dem<^slic
The house of Catherine Glover, the " Fair Maid of I
stands in Curfew Row. James VI.'s Hospital, found
occupies the site of the Carthu^an monastery, t
structure having been pulled down by Cromwell's 01
pensioners now live out and the hospital has been
into artisans' dwellings. Among modem public bv
prindpal are St Ninian's Episcopal Cathedral, in
Middle Pointed style, an important example (comp
of the work of William Butterfield (X8X4-1900); thi
buildings (1881); the dty-hall; the Marshall Mec
(1823), housing the pubUc library and the muse
Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society; the Pcrthal
history museum; the Sandeman public Iflirary (1898),
a bequest of Professor Sandeman of Owens College, 1
The general prison for Scotland, south of the Soutl
originally erected in x8i 2 as a d£p6t for French prison
remodelled as a convict prison in X840 and afterwan!
North-west of the dty are the military barracks bu
1794. Besides the regular dementary schoob the
Perth Academy (1807) with which was subsequently an
the Burgh Grammar School, an institution suppos
from the X2th century; Sharp's institute (i860); tb
free school, an industrial school for girls, aiid tl
industrial school. The charitable institutions co
royal infirmar>', in the Italian style, considerabi
since its foundation in 1836; the Murray royal luiu
in Bridgend; the Hillside House in KlimouU and tb
hospital
From the south the dty b entered by the No
railway and the Caledonian railway (which also
to St Fillans, east to Dundee and north-west to
and from the north by the Highland railway,
systems utilizing a general station in the sou
the town. During the season there is communit
Dundee and other river ports by steamer. The
of the stream is considerably obstructed by sand
vessels of 200 tons can unload at the quays, whid
town and Friarton harbours, lie below the South
greatest tidal rise is 13 ft. The chief imports are Bm
coal, salt and manure; and the exports, manufacti
grain, potatoes and slates. Perth has long been fax
dyeing and bleaching, the bleach-fields being most
outside of the city, in convenient proximity to th
Almond. The other leading industries include m
of gauge-glasses, ink, muslins, India shawls, jute goo(
and winceys, floorcloth, and boots and shoes. Thi
foundries, breweries, distilleries, rope and sail wo
building yards, steam joinery works, and brick and
The salmon fisheries of the Tay yield a substanti
Perth is under the jurisdiction of a town councfl, '
provost and bailies, and returns one member to parh
History. — During the time that it was occupi
Romans, a period estimated at 320 years, the dt}
Victoria; but shortly after their withdrawal it set
borne the Celtic appellation of Aber-tha (" at the m
Tay "). The transition to the latinized torm Berth
to Perth (the Gaelic name being Peart) appears ol
the conversion of the original Pictish inhabitant
dedication of the first diurch to St John the Baptii
PERTH AMBOY— PERTHES, J. G, J.
261
m designated St Jolinstoun, and it continued to be known
iwlifferently by this name auid that of Perth down to the 17th
CBtwy. Roman remains have often been found in excavations
tuned out within the existing boimdarics, which suggests
Uttt the Roman settlement was at least twenty feet below the
piesent surface. The obscurity of the early annals of the
tflvn is explained by the circumstance that Edward I. caused
tk records to be removed. Perth is stated to have been a
bnigh in 1x06 and was made a royal burgh by William the Lion
k Ilia During the Scottish wars of the Independence its
foiUfications were strengthened by Edward I. (1298). Robert
Brace several times ineffectually attempted to seize it, but in
ijix he succeeded in scaL'ng the walls during a m'ght attack.
11u was the fourth and most brilliant of the seven sieges which
the dty has sustained. Taken by Edward III. in 1335, it was
noptored in 1339. In 1396 the combat between the Qan
Oattan and the Oan Quhcle, described in Scott's Fair Maid
ifFcrtk^ took place on the North Inch in presence of Robert III.
ud his queen, Annabella Drummond. The Blackfriars' monas-
toy was the scene of the murder of James I. by Walter, carl
flf AthoUy in 1437. In consequence Perth lost its status as
opctsl, in which it had succeeded to Scone, and the Parliament
Courts were transferred to Edinburgh in 1482. Gowiie Palace
VIS the scene of the mysterious " Cowrie " conspiracy against
James VL in x6oo. The town was taken by Montrose in
1644, by Cromwell in X651, and was occupied by Viscount
Baodee in 1689. In X715 the Old Pretender was proclaimed
king at the Mercat Cross (Sept. x6), and the chevalier
hiiudf appeared in the dty in the following January, only
to leave it prec4>itately on the approach of the earl of Argyll.
Prince Charles Edward spent a few days in Perth from the
3rI of September X745. In both rebellions the magistrates
took, the side of the Crown and were supported by the
tswBifoIk generally, the Jacobites drawing their strength mainly
from the «nmty noblemen and gentry with their retainers.
Smce then the dty has devoted itself to the pursuits of
bade and commerce. Perth was vi^tcd by plague in 15x2,
X58S-X587, x6o8 and X645; by cholera in 1832; and the
floods of X2IO, 1621, 1740, X773 and 1814 were exceptionally
Kvere.
AcTBOaiTiBS. — Maidment, The Chronicle of Perth from 1210 to
g668 (1S31): Penney, Traditions of Perth (1836); Lawson, The Book
if Pertk (1847): Peacock, Perth, iis Annals and Archives (1849);
Samuel Cowen, The Ancient Capital of Scotland (1904).
AMBOY, a dty and port of entry of Middlesex county,
Kew Jersey, U.S.A., at the mouth of the Raritan river, on
Saritan Bay and Staten Island Sound, about 15 m. S. by W.
of Newark. Pop. (19x0 census) 32,i2x. It is served by
the Penn^h'ania, Lehigh Valley, Central of New Jersey and
Sutcn Island Rapid Transit railways, and by boats to New
Yoik City. It is coimected by a railway bridge (C.R.R.
of N.J.) ud by a foot and wagon bridge with South Amboy,
OD the south shore of the Raritan. Perth Amboy has a good
harbour, shipyards and dry-docks. In the dty still stands
Fruklin Palace (erected in 1764-X774), the home of William
Fnaklin (1729-X8X3), a natural son of Benjamin Franklin and
the last royal governor of New Jersey. In the vicinity is the
Bartow House, in which William Dunlap (1766-X839), the art
historian, made his first drawings. Other buildings of historic
interest are the Parker Castle {c. X729), a centre of Loyalist
iaflneace at the time of the War of Independence, and the
Keany Cottage, the home of '* Madam Scribblerus," a half-
Mter oC Captain James Lawrence. The dty has various manu-
futnres, the factory produa in X905 being valued at $34,800,402.
Clay is obtained in the vicinity, and large shipments of coal are
■ade. Perth Amboy was founded in X6S3. It was at first
cdled Amboy after the original Indian name; in X684 the
proprietors named it Perth in honour of James, earl of Perth
(1648-X7X6), one of their number, and a few years later the two
Barnes were combined. From 1686 xmtil the end of the pro-
prietary govenmient in X702 Perth Amboy was the capital of
tk province of East Jersey, and during the period of royal
govenunent the general assembly and supreme court of New
Jersey met alternately here and at Burlington. Perth Amboy
was incorporated as a dty in 17 18, and received a new charter
in 1784, and another in 1844, the last being revised* in X870.
The township of Perth Amboy was incorporated in 1693 and
in X844 was induded in the city.
PERTHES, FRIEDRICH CHRISTOPH (i 772-1843), German
publisher, nephew of Johan Georg Perthes (^.r.), was bom at
Rudolstadt on the 21st of April 1772. At the age of fifteen
he became an apprentice in the service of Adam Fricdrich
Bdhme, a bookseller in Leipzig, with whom he remained for
about six years. In Hamburg, where he settled in 1793 as an
assistant to the bookseller B. G. Hoffmann, he started in 1796
a bookselling business of his own, and in 1798 he entered into
partnership with his brother-in-law, Johann Hcinrich Besser
(1775-1826). By his marriage in 1797 with a daughter of the
poet, Matthias Claudius, he was brought into intimate relation
with a group of Protestant writers, who exercised a powerful
influence on the growth of his religious opinions. This, however,
did not prevent him from being on friendly terms with a number
of eminent Roman Catholic authors. Perthes was an ardent
patriot; and during the period of Napoleon's supremacy he
distinguished himself by his steady resistance to French preten-
sions. His zeal for the national cause led him, in x8io-x8ix, to
issue Daa dtulsche Museum, to which many of the foremost
publidsts in Germany contributed. For some time the French
made it impossible for him to live in Hamburg; and when, in x 8 14,
he returned to that city he found that his buaness had greatly
diminished. In 182X, his wife having died, he left Hamburg,
transferring his business there to his partner, and went to Gotha,
where he estabb'shed what ultimately became one of the first
publishing houses in Germany. It was owing to his initiation
that the Bdrsenverein der deutschen BuchhUndler (Union of Ger-
man Booksellers) in Leipzig was founded in 1825. When the
foundation-stone of the fine building of the Union was laid in
1834, Perthes was made an honorary freeman of the dty of
Leipzig, and in X840 the university of Kiel conferred upon him
the degree of doctor of philosophy. Perthes died at Gotha on
the i8th of May X843. His Life was written by his son, Klemens
Theodor Perthes (1809-1867), professor of law in the university
of Bonn, and author of Das deuische Slaatsleben vor der
Revolution (Hamburg and Gotha, X845), and Das Herhergswesen
der Handwerksgesellen (Gotha, 1856, and again 1883), whose
son Hermann Friedrich Perthes (1840-1883) was the founder
of the Frideridanum at Davos Plata. The publishing business
at Gotha was carried on by Perthcs's younger son, Andreas,
(1813-1890) and his grandson, Emil (184X- ), until 1889,
when it was handed over to a company.
See also O. Adler, Friedrich and Kardine Perthes (Leipzig, 1900).
PERTHES, JOHAN GEORG JUSTUS (1749-X816), German
publisher, was bom at Rudolstadt on the nth of September
1749. In X785 he founded at Gotha the business which bears
his name (Justus Perthes). In this.he was joined in 1814 by
his son Wilhclm (i 793-1853), who had been in the establishment
of Justus' nephew, Friedrich Chiistoph Perthes, at Hamburg.
On the death of Justus at Gotha on the 2nd of May 1816, Wilhelm
took entire control of the firm. He laid the foundation of the
geographical branch of the business, for which it is chiefly
famous, by publishing the Hand-atlas (1817-1823) of Adolf Stieler
(1775-X836). Wilhelm Perthes engaged the collaboration of
the most eminent German geographers of the time, induding
Heinrich Berghaus, Christian Gottlieb Rcichard (i 758-1837),
who was associated with Stieler in the compilation of the atlas,
Karl Spruner (1803-1892) and Emil von Sydow (1812-1873).
The business passed to his son Bernard Wilhelm Perthes (1821-
1S57), who was associated with August Petermann (under whose
direction the well-known periodical Petcrmanns Miltcilungtn
was. founded) and Bruno Hassenstein (1839-1902); and subse-
quently to his son Bernard (1857- ). In 1863 the firm first
issued the Almanach de Gotha, a statistical, historical and
genealogical annual (in French) of the various countries of the
262 PERTHSHIRE
worid; ud In 1866 the dibonte GapaHittku Jahtuck wu •>"<• ud ii wd « capiiiDc the luiimh «l Bm Vorikk. A
produced under the editerahip ol Enut Behm (1810-1884), on <"' wiitty o( kUu fgna tbe bulk oT tbe Kria; but miriH
«h«e datl, it w» cootinued under th.1 .rf PKrfe.S>t Bem^ SdGfc;''-iX JS-'^^^^ -^^^-"^ ??5^?*J:^-lEAte
FEHTH3BIKB, u Inlaod cannty of'Scotknd, bounded N.
.,, ^ ~~- maa \fKa lui, uw uov ue lillliwiiuil 11 Ml lllll l»miB*IH»i IMfi
V/^Soa. vlij^ ,„ thenuelva tnvtmd by lits bsMllic dUn. Tk OU
B^THSBIKB, u Inland cannty of Scotland, bounded N. Kod SoBdMone oiauu in (he lower panlu dmUt o'
le shires at lavenKM and Aberdeen; E. by Forfauhin; '^'" ■««'™"'^ "i"*™ ""T". •™o««' 1^ '"
S.E. by ^e Firtb 01 T.y and .be "-^-'-t /He ^ Kinro™! SS^IJ-S. SloTSa ^ iS^ ^^^ ^u. .„ .n..
S.bylheihire.of aadunBnnanandSuriing;S.W.hythecouii. rtruem,, white becvoai the Odiil. uhI Ibr Hiffabnd b
lies of Stirling and Dumbarton; W. by Argyl'-'-' ■■ " '" ■■-- — ' '-'-'-' = '-— ■ -'^- '-'- ^" "-
Invemes>-»hire, It il (he lourtb lajgcit a. ,j „ .^u.™-.., - . . - - . -
having an area of i,S9S>774 acres, or J493-4 »q- m., induding the "l^rf ™'',i
island of Mugdram in tbe Firth of Tiy. By tar the greater ' ''"'"""' ""^ ""
part of the county i» mountainous. Including the hiUi on the
confine* of Inverseu-sfaire and Argyllshire, there are at leait ults bin betmo tbe Bridp
fifty mountaioj eieeeding jooo (I. in height. Of ihoe Ihe owal ■ '™*ii^S-""J^
familiar are Ben Lawen (39S4 ft.) near Loch T»y, Ben More !^w .CfSHir tE
(3^3) east of Crianlarich, Ben Lui (J70S) on the Aigyllshlre 'ai epodi an abouhBt a*<
border, Sthleballion (3547) south of Loch Kancach, Ben Vannocb naiaa io tbe Highkal gltM,
(],=j) »=t of Uch Lyon and Ben Chonaie (3<u«) n|»r the bead « ^32^ fiW.'wE
of Glea Almond. Of tbe immense number of hilU of lesiei iSt Modn sfitanb n^^
altitude there may be mentioned four that have been populaiiied [ HJahlaiid i^taeMiHOi
bylheZoifyD/tblfitc— Ben Ledi (187s) and Ham Var 1117$) n'l ni iiiiliitj ilfilliilil
near Callaodu, and Ben Venue (1393) arid Ben A'an (1750), ^~ Igj; "wJaffc
guardiani of the Tiosjacha. The Ochils divide Perthshire T^ i?ir!ltra iSSSSiai
from Ihe ibira of Cbckmannan. Kinross and Fife. The chief jcb aSmni the aoSShafS
stream ia tbe Tay, which rises on the Argyllshire frontier and an oRn Oe rfleef lOapa
discharges into the North Sea off Buddon Ness, after a course of ainora tBntorv la ntiinfk
117 m., being thus the loogat river in Scotland. It) head-*Bte» ?S.c'£^Bd 11?^ [M
are the FiUan and Dochart, and among iu lOuenti are, on Ihe winu, u^ autumn are th^ ninisl MiodL Jhi .— p-Sj
right, the Bran, Almond and Earn and, on tfie left, the Lyon, is nnurkably constant everyrbere, avnwnng 47* F. for ^ yiar,
Tummel, rising in ArgyUsbire and re«i™g the Garry on its January bring the coldeB month {j6-j* P.) and luty the hattM
left, and Isk. 'me £m fiow. out of Lod> Earn «rf enter, <»L^';,,;^lJ' ^J^" J'X.'SSrK^S-'kw ^u'iZtJl
the Firth of Tay 6) m. below Perth. The Forth, the prindpal J,^";^*^' ^dit ^ P™—
natural boundary of the shire on the south, properly belongs pasturage- Tbe arable
10 Stirlingshire, in wUch it rises, but its leading left-hand affluents ea« and KHith-esn, the
are Perthshire rivets, namely, the Telth, the Goodie, issuing ^j^ Sm^ in'tiieC™
from the lake of Mentcith, and the Allan, rising in the Ochils Jovk r^ich of Slratheai
near SheriBmuir. All the lakes are narrow , scarcely one ben heavy cane land is
eiceeding a mile in width. Loch Ericht, belonging partly to be ihnnHighly worked, li
Inverness-shire, is 14) m. long. Loch Tay (ut m. long), "''."'- ., J°?.''^Sr°
Stunted about the centre, is the largest lake in the county, ^a^^y fi„rf^ap|
In the south are the series of lakes which tbe Lady ef Ik Lain in exceia o( yao and 1
has rendered famous — Loch Vcnnachar (i| m. long), Lodi each, chieBy in tbe Hig
Achr»y(ilm.long),LochKatrine(Bbout8m.long);tothewe»t •"j".^*- "grain,.
of Aberfoyle b Lodi Atd (3 m. long) and to the east Lake Men- ^"S^ iToiSri^l
lellh (1) m. long). Nearly all the glen) pouesl stiikiDg natural ihe bocnraiied, chiefly
features, among tbem, from south to north, being Glen* Artney. purpoan. Aliboiuh dai
Almond, Dodiart, Ogle, Lochay, Lyon, Gatty, Shee, Bniar and f I""*" number of cow ___
m; .111. ,b. T,»^, Hiijik, bS„ J.J u., ^ sriirsj!; si<^jrs-KSL-t;Ass
the loveUtst puses in the Highlands. The low-lying country ,„ y^Hihue. Bill carries ibe heavkit flocks In Scottand. HiA
is represented mainly by Stiathraote, Strath Gattney, Strath- faced u the principal breed inthe Gnniiiant. but then Is ah*a
allan, noted for its annual ■' gathering " or games, Strathe mt.— ,
Strath Bran, Strath Tay sod Strath Fillan, but more particularly ™J^ '^a^' TtS Slldl up to^ie
by the fertile alluvial bdta of the Carse of Cowrie, on the Smttiih
northern shore of the Firth of Tay, and the Carte ' '■"""'""
The Moot of lUnnoch on tbe bordera of Argyllshire is a tienie
bouldet-sttewn waste, and Flanden Mass, to the toulb-east
of Lake Mentcith, is a vast boggy tract, which is, however, being ji^l
gradually reclaimed and brought under cultivation. any ,. —
Ccpfciy.— Tbe Highland ponion of this county is buHt op of a manuractuiea. The deer loremt eaceediac louno i
great series of •chiui and memmoTTihoKd locki Erouped a. '^ Dal- are fcequented by red deer and toe deer, ud on
^dian" or-Eastem ichiitiL The ™eral dimnion ^ the strike moor, and in Ihe woods are found grouse,
o( these roclc. is W.S.W.-E.N.E. They an cut oB from the Old capercailne, woodcoct ptannigin and hat«.
RedSandsl<,ne,whicboccu^e.m»tolthen™iindero(lhecoanCy, !S«f«W«.-The. shim 1. famous for Ha, dy^ng ud U^^
bv the areat (suit which traverses the countv lomFwhai 10 the works, which are sitnaied in Fcclb and Its vnmty: but. apnl taa
M o^rfoylJ a.!:] CriS ™t ?; ^"di^S^T^h ;^ theJr there are Baa «.d jute mUls « R-™y."i "?- J:**
ean of CricH tbe boundary between these two formations li an Sranley, DeanBon and CrK«: wo"'i— • 1-— •■^-••^—-—•m
unconfonnabte one. la the nelghboutbood of the fault Hne tbe woven at P>;nblaDe, Al)th,_BUi
Highland schists are less laetamorphosed ''
Doithi about Conric and Callandniney coni
—■ "~ ' withndlolatlancbeflaandl
gestive of tlie rocks of Arenig age in south Scotland. At Aberfoyl
Comrie and Dunkeld roofina ilatts are worked a" ' - '- - '-
stones occur In Glen Till. Pitlochry. Callander, B
Rannoch and other places. A gncty sc^^* "*»
Sd if thTCuTne lb" w^'it^nbiinr Alyth, felairp-rie, Coip.rJl«^ tMMm.
J than they are Urth^ arder and Crieff : tanning U racrieJ 00 at BlaeKnirCwiarAipM
MlBofshal«,BreywackH and CrieB: there ara breweries and dut. leoea at v«fc» fbat,
J black shaks that are BUI- as at Aucblcraider and I.™irrait; gramle. freMooe. BMM
Scotland. At Aberfoyli, and riale are quarried at difietent notres; and tbo* aia aw^
PERTINAX— PERTZ . 263
vta Park. At CiM JBBCtion it ««l> sff ■ bnacb to 5th ud 6th ccnlurici. On the btirnini ol FonevioC by llw
^.. ._... . i.-.^-..^,.-, v_^ Tk. .. , ,i„gti,„ntuiy,ll««aito(Piclishgovonffla.l«.
n the litter half ol tbe 9th ccDIury Dunlitld
Mnulpine hid bnnighl lome of the lelict
k Ksrdi Britiih nilnv racta Pslk from Havcaiw in Kliuw- of Cdumbi from Ions — beome the acene o( mooutic tctivily,
4ta,,dLrfybmkinFa«liirt:piftorihelmoch(rom Buchh;vR ,he ^bot nicceeding to the position of the «bbot of lon», gnd
tSuTw^a wpplenieDi tbe nil In tbE louiia icaion Mainen Danei penodically hsmed the land, but A cnuhing defeat at
^m Uich Tay and Loch Kaliiiic, and tbnc i> ■ Ktvice on Ihc Luncaity in 0i put an end to Iheii injoidi In this quaner.
bcmn Pnth and Dnndee, In ,054 Maibelh wai defeated at Duminane by Siwgrd, e»rl
hfulafus anJ Ailmuiiitraluii.--ln 1891 the population of ^'o^hlunbcrland, who hu) invaded Scotkcd in the interest
nODtedlD iii,iSsuid in ii)di 10 i2j,iS3,or4opcnon3to Ihe of hu kinsman, Duncnn'i los, who, on the death o( the usuiper
4 ■. Tbe imte of iocrcue vas the smaUcst of any Scottish ihice yean later, ascended the throne ai Ualcolm III., called
only for the decade. In 1901 there ntre ;S persons speaking Canmore. With Malcolm's accession tbe Celtic rule ol the
Gidc only and 11,446 Gaelic and English. The chief towns monarchy ol Scone came to an end. Neveitbelets, the Scottish
B PWh (popL 31,873), CrieH (jioS), Bliiigowrie (iijB), iovereigns(eiceplinfJamaII.,JamesIU. and Mary) eoBlinued
MiluK ()Si6}, Auchterardn (1176), Coupar-Angus (9064), 10 be crowned at Scone, which also retained the position of
liWty (»i9l- Among lesser centres may be mentioned Aber- capital until the beginning ol the lath century, when it w«
*''l<iSo<),« favourite resort on the Tay, well known for the JbpUced by Perth. From the time ol Alemndet 1. (d. 11J4).
U o( UODO*, meniiowd in Robert Bums's wng " The Birks tberelore, the history of the shire is merged in that of the county
ifAbcrfcidy"; Abemethy (613), the seat ol an early bishopric, [own, with Ihe eiception o( such isolated incidents aa the remoiil
Maebc one of the three ancient round lowers in Scotland] of tbe Coronatkin Sione irom Scone to Westminster in 1196,
lljrtk (i(6s); Callaiider (i4sS)l Comrie (1118), a holiday resort the defeat of Robert Bruce at Methven in 1306, the battle of
■ tkt Eani; Tltlochry (1J41); and Stanley (tajj), on the Tay. Dupplin in 133), tbe victory ol Dundee at Killiecraokie in i6Sij
B dd the county wa* divided into hereditary jurisdictions, and the indecisive conicst at ShcriSmuir in ijij. Among
lU «<n abolidied in 1748, and in i;qs the county was archaeological remain) may be mentioned the hill-lort on
MdedintodisUicUforadininislralivepurposeSiasysiemwhich Dunsinanc; the thip-hirrow ol the vikings at Rattray, weem*
(tUBcd Dntn iSSq. wben county uul district councils were (areanh-bouses)ii]tbeparisheaof Moniie, Alyth and Bcndocby;
—"'-'—' Tbe aberifldom i> divided into an eastern and tbe witch-stone near Caimbeddie, one ol the numerous qnu
lOtaB diitiict, the seat of the one being Perth and the other where Macbeth is alleged to have met tbe witches, but probably
halhne. For partiamentaiy purposes the county is also a sepulchinl memorial of some forgotten bnllle; standing stones
tnhi inlo ma eutem and 1 western division, and Ihe city of near Rttochry, and ux extraordinary assemblage of sculptured
iMh ntBB ■ member. The shite is under school-board stones at Meigle.
SSf*?.^- '^„'" ."^'^,"'^ " ^'^^ ""^ BinLtooa^eHT.-Rohert™!. C«bW« d. AO^i^ (Edinhu>gh.
Ut, wd Trinity College m Clen Almond is a well-known igso);!". R. Drummond, PtrlkiiwtiriBjMMPayi [London. 1879);
HficicboclOD the En^ish model ManhiU. Hiilaric Satu oj Pirlkikirt iPenh. iBao); Beveridge',
ffi«tol.-ii «3 Agrkola eiplored the lands beyond the Forth P<rt*i*i«-w.-/'wl* (i yoU,. London, 1 Ms) ; R. B CunninBh^me.
«*;rSrion«^^^^ra,cdtotheGra^^,del«itins ^S'nr.^J^I.'rSrg'JlC^^) ' '"^"^ '
fcCsfcdaniaiis under GalgaciiB with great slaughter. The site '""""J '■"'™" t^-^^B. ">W^
if Ikii battle is conjectured by William Forbes Skene to have PBHTIHAX, PUBLIU8 HBLVIVS U.o. 116-11:3), ^Moaa
Inn KIT Uakleonr. south of Blairgowrie, but other wciten emperor.thesonolacharcaal-burner.wubocnatAlbaPompeiab
bfecdsied it to Dalginiou, near Comrie; to Ardoch (where Ligucia. From being a teacher of grammar he rose through many
ttcTC are the most perfect remains ol I Roman encampment in important oHices, both civil and military, to the consulate, whicb
AtBiili^Islei)jaiulevcaasfar north OS Raedykes, near Stone- he held twice. Chosen, at an advanced age and against hi*
k*ti in EiocaidiDeshire. The Romans did not pursue their will, on the ist of January 103, to succeed Commodus,he»u
iktsy, an! the Picti were left undisturbed for a considerable himself assassinated in a mutiny of tbe soldiers, on the lUh oi
tnJDd. At this time, according lo IHolcmy, the territory now Sf^fch 193.
b>wn as Perthshire was occupied by three tribes— the Dam. PBRTZ, OEORO HEDIRICH (1705-1S76), German historiaD,
Mi, the Venicone* and the Vacomogi. The Dimnonii held was bam at Hanover on the i8lh of March i;g;. From 1813
Kotaitb, Stratbeamand Folhril (the western part ol modern to 1S18 he studied at GGltingcn. chicdy under A, H. L. Heecen.
We and Kinross), with Alanna (Allan), just above Stirling, His graduatmn thesb, published in iSio, on the history ol the
lUui (Ardoch) »od Victoria (believed by some authorities Merovingian majors ol the paLice, alliacted the attention ol
* he Locbore in Fifeshire, and by others 10 be Perth city), as Baron Slcin, by whom he was engaged in iSio to edit the Carol-
*« dnef towns. The Venicones Inhabited north-wcslcm File ingim chroniclers for the newly-lounded Historical Society ol
Md the sdjoining tiaci ol Perthshire, with Ocrea (probably Germany. In search of materials lor this purpose, Perti made
IbetBeUiy) aa their duel town and a station at Ardtirgie. The a prolonged tour through Germany and Italy, and on his return
Tacrnci dwelt in tbe Highland region, with stations at Inch- in 1S13 he received at the instance of Stein the principal charge
'■ titkil (a pouDSula in the Tay above Kinclaven) and Banatia ol the publication ol Uoimmalta termaniai khltrica, tciu
' thdunly 00 the Almond). The growing lawlessness of the ol ill the more important historical writers on German aHaira
' Mitkem PicU and their frequent raids in the more settled down to Ihe year 1500, as well as of laws, imperial and regal
; nwiy In tbe south at last compelled the attention ol the archives, and other valuable documents, such ns letters, falling
1 ^OK Severus. He arrived in Britain in loS, but though he within this period. Pcrtz made frequent journeys of ciplora-
* ' urong army to the shores ol the Moray Firth, he was lion lo the leading libraries and public record offices olEurope,
eflecluatly lo subdue the tribesmen. The road ho publishing notes on the results ol his explorations in the ..Irfttg.
ctedr=n Irom Stirling to Ardoch (where there are noUble drr Cctdhch. J. italtcke GachuklsksMl (1834-18;]). In 1S23
1) and Ihcnce by Sirageath, near Mulhill, where it hehadbecn niadeEecrctatyof thearchives. and in i8j7poncipal
' north-westwards to Dalginross and Bucbanly, and keeper ol the royal library at Hanover; from 1831 to 1837 he
wards to Perth and so lo the Gramrrians. When the edited the HaiiKctcrisfhc Zcilaai, and more than once sal as a
Ikau finally withdrew Irom Britain, the ricts established rcpresenUtlvc in the Hanoverian second chamber. In 1S41
■* cqilal first at Abemethy and then at Fortevlot. Abcr- he was called as chici librarian 10 Bcriin, where he shortly
"^ - ! outre of the Celtic church alter the converKon alterwardi was made ■ privy councillor and a member of the
by Miniao, Palbdiu* and other mii^aaaries in Ihe Academy of Sciences. He rcugned all hii appointments in
264
1874, ■!») on tbc 7th o( October lt^6 disd M i
LtteDcliDg the ill tings of die histnicAl commiidaiL
Tlw Mffnamnua began to airpear in ]S36^ ftod ftC tbe date of
hia i»KnatioD 14 voJumH lolio {Scrifit/a, Ltga. DiUamaia)
bod appuml. TtiM sink [or tbe Enl tinx oiide pcmblc Ihc
fldftmce 9t Ihv niodcfn Khool of identi&c butoriuu of mttliml
the patJiiatioa of ■ idectkHi o( Kniat b octavs rami. Ibe
atber nteiaiy liboun may be mentioned u editioo rjl tbe (Sum-
mit Wain of Leibniti, and a life of Stein [U« ii MiniiUrt
FnilUmttm SUim {6 voli.. iS49-l8s])!alao, in an (bridged fmn,
Aiu Sleiiu LiitH (1 vdU., lAJb).
while alimatcd at 439,000 to 480,000 «q. n., tbe Gotlw a
being i,i3),ixn*q. kilometen, or43g^i4K|. m.
With tbe eiceplian of puts of tbe Ecuadot, Bnii
Iranlien, all the boundary Use) huve been diiputeti
te aibitca.tioo — iboM with ColoDibia and Ecoado
of Spain, and that wltb Bolivia to the preiident •
on which a dedtioti waa rendered on the (iih t
Then have been raitundentuidiiigi with Ecoad
lo lome imaH areas in the Chira valley, but it iiu<
Ibat the line it fiied between Santa Roaa (}° 11' &
of Guayaquil, and the Chinchipe river, a tribu
Ibe Ciui
that Ecuadorian ]
tbc Chinchipe to t
and the Peruvian
a line following
head-wateri of the
Japuri, which
northern bounduji
BracUan Ironlier.
a large part oi
.t tht
1 witb
upon, the questk
lidered by two E
r pf medii
i determined 1
definitely settled.
the »utce of tb
eastward to tbe
lit. b' si' is'
ball the distance
mouth of the Mu
mouth of the Ma
the Spanish and
America, aicordin
visions of tbc li
PERU (apparently from Bim, » inull river on the west cout
Ildcfonsoof 1777. This line has been twice modifi
of Colombia, where Pizatro landed), a republic of the Pacific
between Bolivia and Bratil, but without the cor
coast of South America, eilending in a general N.N.W.-S.S.E.
which claimed all the tctiiioty eastward to the Ma
direction from lal. 3" ai' S. lo about 18° S., with a sea<aast of
the above-mentioned Une and the Beni-Ma^di r
of demarcation following the Pablo-bamba, a si
in dispute. Its area in i»a5, indudiirg Tacna and Atici, and
of the Madidi, lo il! source, and thence in a sttaig
village of Conima. on Lake Titicaca. Tbe disput
officially estimated at 1,751,411 iq. kilometers, or fi76,fi]8 sq. m.-.
relates to the territory acquired by that republic
eiclusive of lbe*e territoriei, the area of Pern b variouily
in iS67andi903,uid was 10 be settled, according to
I KO*, br <Iinct DCCMiMloD S poolble, oc, fiDiDS thii, mrly dcMnqvl Ar«|uipi
TTw dtoiion ol the praidcnl of Argtnlina of ^i^"f^*!!!il'i^^i
■ 265
ol May 1S77 oaiiy M ihc
h of July igod, in rcgKd 10 the reinainder of Ihii almaive "Tteddmi'bB^lwiit^l^wlley. vaiy in extent, Ihe tineu
^ puU. The line wloiiled lUns Irom Lake Sucba the '^l'^' {mcnlly nK lr«n the ■>, above which i> tbc Ullns or
«« ol * «niU rive irf IhM name Bowing into the noilh of ^'^^'^i^^^''^"^it'''TM'^!b^ S'Z<S^li
jb "ntkaci. aoaa the ConUUen by Ihe Pilomuii to the h...i, tni In many pUca tlwe ue larje nccumiilitiani ordrifiini
F_i .. liva, foUowt that ItTttm 10 Ihe mouth ol the L«ni», lei-und. ThetanifuiLiaUy (wmtitDlaieil hillocl»,iallKl UKAmiPi,
s to Ihe uunx of the He«lh rive, which formi the of a half:a»on A.^, hivii^ ihdr eonvrx^iWr.^tomrii ■j|^'^
■nfrion includes the valleys of tbe Morropc,
lyeqiie, the SaAa, the Jequetcpeqiie, the
nd Chao. With the inicrveninff dnertt
All ihtK vJley.,,e«eplli1ofi
t are full. When the nven aie NepeAa, Cauiu, Huarmry. Fnrtalcia. Paiivilci
> ttnr lawnt, tbe {unu piEviila on the coiit. The clinuic The river Sanu, which risei in Ihe lalie o[ CunoccKhi, 19.90; II.
rf vniooft paru of Ihe oHjtt however, ia modified by local above Ihe sei, and hu a IrnEth of lAo m-, i* renui]uble< lor irs
TW WcateTTi Conlillen, ovtrhanpng Ihv Peruvian roait. eonlains trough known u the " Callcion de HuayUii, lOO m- in leneth.
ibai Ubc of volcanic oiountajiB, owl of then inaclivc, but ibeir Ir then hnahl through In a deep eorge. and rvachofl Ihe Bca aller
■Okiaakea, eapeciafly in the louEEiem Rction of the eoaal. Strve valley. The Sanla and NepefLa vallcya arc Bcparatnl by a deiert
ler pan. The rio« terri'ble waa ihat of 1746, which a railway. The N^pcila. Caima. Huirmey. Fonaleia and Sup*
Zailao, on Ihe iScb of Ociober, and iheie were noihochi rivin liie on ihe ilope ol an outor lange called the Cotdillere Necra.
■ w Iwenty-fouT houn. The town waa overwhelmed and are conaequently diy during Ihe RTeai part of the year. Wells
c wIMi me So ft.; and the ihocka continued until are dug in iheir bHTi, and Ihe lenillty of l^ valieyn i< thut main-
'tiwatir. On ibe ijth of Auguit i86j an eanhquahe [ained. The Parivilca [of Banuca) river and ibe Huaun break
265 PERU
ConlilEcra. uid have ■ peminul Aupply of mln-. Then mi* 9 it at diuinct CTtffn, TbeK thne duin UT B
lugua of deRTt tctwctn the Ntpena and Cuma, \6 bnwteii Ibt Mirilimc Cardilicfa, the Cenml Corditlen ai
Cavna and Huarmcy, and IB between Ibc Uuarrriey and Foruleiar Soldan and other Pervviui gevgranhen give t
The laiter deien. mucli el which it too* und, ii calieil the />aiwKi par nalitna. \o ihc Extern Conlillera.
d^ IfaU CanUiii, from the number oT eibiuKed IDimalt which Jie The Maritime Coidilbn of Peru hu noconn
there. Between Ibr Sunt and Pativika a the dncrt called the nngn of Chile, but ii a coniinuatioD o< the t
Ptmft M lltdit Uta£. (4) Tbe nem coaH^iHtiDii titendi for ol Chile, which under vaiiout local nimn form
ovtt joo n., fnn Ctunciy 10 Naiea. and includn Ihe riveta a( o( Ihc coaKal deien bell fnin Aucama no
Chancay or Lacha, o( Canbayllo, Riaiae, Lurin, Mab. CaAete, It tonuini a regular chain of volcanic pcalu o'
Chincha. Piico or QiuiichanEa, lea ai>d Rio Grande. Hen the ngion ol Taiapic
maritime range appnncbet the ocean, leaving a Barrower (trip of Lirima (ig.iafi fi.
can. but Ibc lemle vatleyi are ckiacr and more numeroui. Tlioee liluia ovcrhiniini
of Canbayllo and Rimac an connect Tocon (19.74 iTi.V
of Caltao extendi over a vaal eipar Iheit ii a group 01
Ihe Andea. with the while towerm ol and Huaynapulina
Lurin and Mab^an inialler^leyK ihe l«h of Febn
K fenile plain of ChiiK
•pringiolYun. \
a lii.sao It, sbovi
-,-,, -■ The Hiiandoy ^al
flow, FKpvdally those vi Majra and Locumba. ajc fanwua lot their of Ihe pealu in Ul
olive During the rainy 1
. lane
. ._. _. __ .J and Ihe m
ist of Peru hai few prolccted anchoragem, and Ihe beadlancta Bui aa the day advance* th*
-'---'- "" ■" — Andee the line of perp
ra Nevada, abovr the Callejon de
. .. „ . , auaed by the in
chain 'doea not loch Ihe inow-lire. il
out I de Afuera brrak Ihniugh It Iron louticeB in the inowy chajn h^^ « p^av
1} i IF dewrt of volume Iroa the melled amwa. At the fioiRt wbin the niir
iech era iilandi Santa bnaln Ihiough the Coidillcia Ncsca thai nnB hiaii* «
irel 4SiinJo>i. HibKle, whDcthe Marilirae CordiUeiaaxitiaueiaiane dais »•■<
rhe pDuI».now beyond the frontier of Ecuador.
irac oundcd by The Central Cordillera it Ihe true water-pacdag <i the ayiOM.
nan iin ISO ft- No river, eicept the MaraBon. biaka tbrougli ileilbertathoMiKr
iboi in B 57' S, wFit, while marr than twenty CDiit >tieai]u liie on iia dnjis aad
.a 1 Tciiiuga il force their way thmugh the maritiioe chain. The Cealnl ConlilfB
r Id, f Covca. In cotuiit* nuinly 0^ crynallioe and volcanic mckt. on each aide rf
I* i' 40'. and the Ihiee high nclia of Fenol in 0° 8' 30' S, Farther which are uucdul in emt part Junuoic, auau Ihtowa up alaM
ouIhthere:iIhcen>upafHleI)>ndroclucalkdHuaura.iall*17'S,, vslifally. In 14' jo^S. Ihe central chain it cannnted rA d>
he chief of which are El Petado, Tambillo. Cbiquitana, Bravo. Eanem Aadea by life tnnivecie mountain-bnc of V-OaAiti, ttt
Juitacalionn and Matorque. Tbe Hormicni are in 1 1 * 4' S, and peali of ihal name beinc 17.AJI ft. above the u. The nnl iohai
I'jS'.and the PetcadoTHin ii'47'S. Tbc iiland of San LoimiD, bann of Lake Tilicaca i> ihui formed. Tbe cenml diui caniMN
' ' ~ ' ' 10 run parallel with thelkfarillme Cofdillera until, al Crtd Rw^
another Irantvertc knol eoonccta It wilh the Andet In lo* 31/ S. kt.
Il then continuet northward, tepanting the baiint di thtMaralu
and Kuallaga; and at the nonhein frontkroT Fern it ia at leagA
bfofcen through by the Marallon Bowing eaatwartL
The Eailrcn Andet it a magnificent tinge in the loatberB pan <f
^ni, of Silurian fomuiion. with takoee and day ilatc^ aaay
Kifti vciai and eiuptioni of granitic rochi. Mr Forixi aaya AM
peakiol lllimpu (11,709 ft.) and Ulioiani laifii^ fc) ia BeSvk
are bilurian and foaiilileroui to Ihcdr aununitt. The eaaccn naff
ut through by lix riven la Peru, namdy, the Maradoo ud Ha^
c. Vikamayu and n
„,„ tie UQ; —
h l^ru hat a high plateau 1
Ihe^lait five beii^ tribulano <^ the UayalL Tbe iu« A di
The « ,
ighly aurifcrout, and tbe thkkneia of tbe atnu la not kaa
o.omft. It ii nowhere diituiticd_lq> volcanie ecupdoaa, eani
267
h 36 m. tiK^imaVyttalmtlfai ft ntten ■ msnataiBiu niiKl it sch hour
ijjji (t. »bovc tht in. tu Bisnhy ol the nigSt. A partridge otlsl jwin rnqutr- -■-- '
Fma uat lake Ibv river Xaun dowm loullimnlB ihnHigh cUrk-Eieen vingi ihading into violet, callrd tfeujhiia. two Idndt
^^''na valley for iy> m. belon enleru^ the foraU. Lake oI ital, > Uile guJI (L^raf jcmMlu) Frfquentintf (he a1;n» laket [a
■ee Bolivia), la the fourtb of nioit lOUlbeiil leEliDn. it flockj, IbminMOCi caUcd pontaaiu, duclu aiuTiram-bnu. Many
»KeB Pern uid BcJivia. It receiva a number at ihun i>retly lillle Enchea By about the nuizc-IWIdi and Iniit-aTdcru,
ib^uia fran tke noM ihuttiflf in the upper end of tbe valley; and a little gieenparueel ia iiiet*nlhajhichajia,ODQ ll-aSvvc tbc
dc UijcM Ii Ibe RuBB. lonsed by the two nreimt o( Pucan and
Aaaiinni, both aniiw f mm tbe knot of '
Th. «i— Ow», -lu. i-T I : :- 1 -1.- ■
whid baa ha anuu in Lake Suchea, fall
_ deep ■offeti bifher up a aiib-tropicalp tlien a trmper-
*"** . «ca» ueB ■ Helvetic Aonu In aKcnding frticn the
!T**** caaac-nlleya there d fim an arid range, where the
'^■■^ fieat^bmicbed cacti mr tbMn«lv» up amonE
tbe raeb. Faithcr inland, when the raini an; mote pIcniiruH
■■ ■ ■ plant.
waien o( the Huallaga yield vcn' litlie ol Ihc febrifuge alkaloid-
alkaloid cUcacioui a> a lebrilugc' though inferior 10 quiaine, \^th
the ciiichona ueei grow many kindi of mrlailnmitcmt, especially
In Ok warm vallcya then airliige plantalilin. of coca lEryOm-
tnthli'
(Oni/u lubrrtual, ullaca (vi
ieM«(BBe*iirijfn.iafi;, with a piMIy yellow flower, car the
tW Vatina aamimilii. with brauiiful red and orann flowen, rock],
mnl Beeiea of 5n«iD. cakealariaa. the Silrinui mttlt, with ita ch an
tnnfiil uuKba and bunchn ol nd bcrrin. and » hiaher elevationi nurine
tW Itmtrat UfuMi aiMmi^ila}. the HWd {SamluaMt ftnaitnai, Dunliy
Ibe ^t»mr iBwUtiia inaaa). and the PUyUfia ncemm. The
SmOtia, locally called iifwi tihrHri. Souiuhea at a height of Lima
liAB fL RHind tbe ihoiea of Lake Titieaca. The noat luuiienwitT c lulTi
rrprctfittcd Eamily b the Compojiuu, tbe gimiaea being next In nim- On>ya
ha. Tbe tanpnate vallrya of the dern yield fniiti o( nany ol the
Knit, Tboae mdicenotis to the covnliy are the delicioin (kirl- nay be
- " L (he faay, a apeciet of /np>, the it part
III of the pssuon-Aower. YiDeyardt inlaina
he watmrr nvineii the aub-tropical Kludca
I CTDpt ol maiie; wheat and barley It ia
loditboghufiDniToootoijjMaft. id are
moptdi-m ^iHM). In the Wliett --• --■
sUi of a coane craa (Slips yclm),
Tbladaandihefihn^p bmivseon the
in aba two kinds of thnibby plant!,
uDi" and another, catkd tola,
liaiuedforfuel.
belong to (he [Wuvian Andea an
■L I ilSsi): A. Ralmondi. El Drpartammla it Ancachi-y
f miiirniki (Uma, 1S7]): G. Sutnmann. " Uebn Tilhon
in den ptnianiKhan iCiden." Nrun Jahrb. (iMi), vol. iL
), Pb. 6-S; K. Cethardt, " Dritrag ear Kcnntniu dcr
rk^ when driven by hunBcr. wander
rbird ii the condor, and there ii
with a black and white wing ,,|,. ,j^iu, ■■* .^y, "» «w.,™^„ ,^.-— » _^- --^.......-
InOM in their head-dim, called the Kieidi.'fofmatJonmVenaueUandPcni, Una JaMrt.,Hril.'E^
!(*!■ a brown ef«Wedcieeper which (i89;).pp.6s-117, Pln.»:J-G"yl>™*'- '%Tr"*">'?r^"S™
•■ a little birdVthe die oi a Marbng, d« nSrd&hen Pau und ihn MolluikenTauu," Krnci Jahri., BeiL-
Uack, and white brcaal, which the Bd. XII. (.899). PP^ ei"-*** Pl^ "J-™.
268
louiid. In the Cardiller* NmiU (Ik Mnonie nda wUch (ana dtbou^ muy mntiDne on (be pli
ccDUa ippor 10 hivE IHU ia Ihc Siem N«vi3i. »l»l«p "hich bad begun to red U
of the Airicin ilive traffic At t
Piit*Iatim,—Tbt Gnt Inutwortfay tDUtneniioo o[ (be people with cruelty. Tbe tcindali tbat r
ol Peru «u made [d iigj, whea Uirn veie £17,700 Indiuii, uul severe restrictioiu, and their ei
141, iij mestiuB (Isdiu and nbite ioter-miiture), ij6jii a nutter of volunlu^ contract, un
Spaniard], 40,^37 aegm llaves tad 41,404 mulatloea. making a Ilil dealing and good treatment II
toul of 1,070,077, eiduttve ol the wiJd Indians of tbe mailaHa. are alw Milled in the cout citie*.
Vicero/ Toledo'! enuinitatioaol the Indian! in 1575 gave them aba been opened with Japan, and J
Ktotalol 8,000,000, the greater part ol whom bad been lacrificed been wlded to the population. Tl
by Spaniib cruelty- Others bad withdrawn into the mountains ia (o be leen in the mulattoca, qu
«nd forest!, and in the native village! under Spani!h adminialn- inhabit the «am coast cities. Ot
lion the bitlh rate had dropped to a small part of what it had Ihesanto (the African-Indian cios!
been bccauae the great bulk of the male population bad been varioui croues, and an eittcmely c
segregated in the miDes and on (he ealales of the conquerors, various ciosscs, for which the Spi
Thii tell! a !tory of depopulation under Spanish rule, to which appellations. The fotrign populati^
the abandoned terrans [andttai) on the mountain sides, ooce Lima and Callao. though mining uu:
bighly cultivated, bear testimony. Several diveise totals have smalt contingents 10 olhet placet,
been published as tbe result of the ccnsui taken in 1876, which Miumj™.— Univerriiie. and aUej)
i. oid.„a i.p.rf«, 0.. «ta» pu» », wji ., ;s„tfflr.;;ss:si£s
J,66*,8Si, comprismg about ij-8% whites, S7-6/. Indians, Imu.1 activity. SomeLbini was doae
tifVi, negroes, 1-9% Aiiatics, chiefly Chinese, and 148% ibelndian" iiobi]itv,"icboDtshelngcr
miaed races. In 1906 eilinutes were mode under official "■'■vei^iyt' San Man™ at Uma » t
nuspiccs (see A. Carbnd. P«- « .906 Uma, .907), which I'J'SjitrS^tiS'SSbgJriiff
gave the population as 3,547,819, including Tacna (Sooo). It .1 Unu. lu pcenit name, honnr
eiccaive, 'There is no considerable immigra(ion. tolkgeof San {.arto.wM rounded in 1;
t^^^"^^^ °and't™eir m.^t^« ^"d s°fb"m^ilu™'^; fouilS^-.n ij^a.™ U? ^\\^^\
dominant race is of Spaniah origin, to a considerable extent relifious^cholasticcharaclerof tha'**
niiied with Indian blood. The Indian! aie in great part "ufiMviiion sf [be Church. Indtc
descendants ol the various tribes orgonized under the rule of
ic of the Spanish conquest. There are (wo December ic
■upcrvHion ot (be Church. Indepen
larger mcasuie ol intellectual and ei
-LuKs. A* organised
il types— the coast tribes occupying tlie fertile and is under iTie control ol the iiaiioi
iT valleys, who are employed on the plantations, in domestic schools are divided into two g^desi
:k-breede[« and packets, atil! comparatively numeroua. t
Inaddil
!ion(0(hescare
the tribes o
fwildlndi
ans<
ifthemsxloAa
region.
ts. who wer
ider
Inca rule and
are s(iu
Their nu
r is eitimated
divided into 111 Iri
be!,'
and differing
widely'
in habits, cuj
material
lition. Some
live in
settled commu
initics and
roughly .
;ulll'
/ate the soU.
Others
1 fishermen
adic in habit.
Olhecsj
ireinlracLablef
Brest iribes.
having no
rela
lions with the
whites.
r upland Ii
ndians, Ih
and Elrongesi type, bcL
ong largely
to the Qui
ichU!
I and Ayriari
families, (he former inhabiting tbe
.ard of Cuzo,
and (he
btter occupy! n
ig the lllic
ica basin
and
the ucnas of
Bolivia. These Indians are generally described as Ckoles,
tribes of (he easlcm forests arc called Ckunckes, barbani, or
simply Indian!. The CMa) may be roughly estimated at about
Praclically all the industries and occupations of this cilcnsive
. The nesUzos are ol iniicd Spaiibh and Indian blood. There
are two general clasics— the loililbi! or those of the coast, and
the itrraKot or those of the KCiraa. The nciliidi of the coast
are usually traders, artisans, overseers, pet(y officers and clerks,
and small politicians. In (be terras they have the same general
occupalions. but there are no social bars to their advancement,
and they become lawyers, phy^cians. priests, merchants. oOicial]
■nd cafdtalisls. The African and A«aiic cIcmciHs furnish only
about 2% each of the popubtion. Tbe Africans were introduced
■s slaves soon after the conquest, because the coast Indians were
physically Incapable of performing the work required ol tfaera
on the sugar cslale!. All the heavy bbouc in (be coast provinces
wai performed by thera down 10 1855, when African slavery was
abolished. They have since preferred to live in Ibe towiu, the
ive of Hui
under
Dr Juuieu
.and
Unan.
le. bbm a<
Aric
1 in 1755, wrc
clinial
ea( Uma
and'
Mcici;
rcali(d''"a
SKi.^
volum
nany valuable!
botany, mining, r
crceandnati.
SeT^T
s
'u'etirte
•iS'i
.0 1798. I
n t794. a nautical
kFmu
PERU 269
btof Ptonnu authon In viecnfil liiiift occupie* ■ Imn thjptgr am^Fd b^ J. J. v«n Tvhudi, on (he inliqiiitiH oT rem {AMit»r-
ik life of Si Tonbio' by Monulvo; and Ibc bibliiJKiiphLcal ifuibi Brmoniii. Vkniu. 1841; Lli«. tun*.. New York. IHU) bM
Bn el ihe E^mivun L«n PiiKki an uill inviliuble in ^piniili b«n IoIIovrI by Mhvi invi-VHtiion into xhr l^ngugc, UtintunN
-*— - Tbe moit pnlilic lUlbnr of mlonul liisn vam Dr lYiIra cuuomi and rcliiiun d[ Ihc Incat. 1'hc bcM knu»n ul thnc uc
. * BjrniKVa. wkD wmc mm llun liMy vjrki, iiKludinc Iih« Scbaitiin Bacmnra, Ibc natuullH and aoluiuary. lott
,-tmtMiilcd Lima Junius. K-mandiri N<xbl. and liavino IMchtia ZrgJm ul Cum. -ho
nwcrnnliical liboun of CnHnc B>en> aitd UMnw vm publiihi'd innblaiiunt d the Inca dijnuol UUiinla t. and Lwnardo
, . nlinucd at Lima by Admiral Dull fcjluaidii CanaKO, who ViUar, at Cum.
iHidH annval fuidci al Pnu liDm 1K16. tint ihc muMcnbeni Aounc l>ctuviaii nalnialiUi hikx the adnnl of the irpublie.
r«uv>]n gmrapEcr it Ur Don Maiijiu Kclipc f.ii SnUin IIIMl- Ihe naM dlKiiiKUidwd have been Mariano tdiuido RiHni, the
itH), >huw Ctupcfij M Phu appcaml in iMi. Hit will moR (wlfciu, nriiuMkisiMtiul jiirfuKuliHiu.andblifni'iidaiidcalk'aeuE
^aaiH'KBi)c.w Diutanaratfi't'atctmlaiiilmMftriilMirt). Nkolu de Pienili, authoiii of Jfmsnil it cirmiai HtUani/ii.
■ ipiHtnrran a man mmjilctr icale. In iSUfappcand bi*nnl The Lima Ceofiaphkral Sockly (fiHiwIi'd io iNM) i>|ierhBpi ihc bi'U
iduiFiir thr /(iilsruifillVraindr^du'alf, andouMhcnhavi; and aul acllvc KirntiJW uf]l«HHtiun in tbe iqmbKc. lIiH^Ial
ma hHn published. Hia Italoria 4e ta iHtrw^ 4ti Pu^a I» Ibe woric coven utioaat Eixviayhiul cudunitwn and atiidy, uvhje-
hinan vcriian o( that diumtDui war. The rarikr biMory uf okiw, auliMin awl cliraatuliwr, and iti iiiMciirly balledu contain
fn U> bKD trrittcu in thno vulumn by Kdaaian LoienlG (d. iainlualile inlonnlion. The meimv ncvivea a (uvvnuBenl ubudy.
ift|): Mariano Rivero bat ditCBHVd iti aniiqititii-ai and Madut4 aad itt fooma in the naiional lilitazy in Lima arc Ibe principal
IiBin bat edited hi volunn ol mcmoirt ■tittrn by Spanjili cmlw of tcicntiAe tludy in IVn. It had aa ■riii'c ownhmhip u(
liiBni. But ihe mou nluaUe and important hiMurical o-nrk by 161 in 1906. bcilibi 17a hiinsary and ciareiUiniUiig nmibm.
icatfa Femvian iaGcBcral Menrilburu'i (Ibos-iMj) Dinwnru Tbe hiitoricsil InMlIiilr ol I'm, aTc at Lima, it chiiKd bf ihe
a^nnitopefia iH ftm. a monument of pilieni and nnicirn- govennicnt. Irum tililehit ivcrima IKanl tuhrtdy, ailh ihawark
ivn ita^rch. combined with critical ditctninient o( a hiiih onlcr, ol coUtcting. preniiinR and pubMnnii riiainnaH-i ivIaiiBi to IHn-u-
bUnrrwi hiMorical ■tiKknti, [>» JoifTardjIa Pola, Ibeauthur vian hittory, aadof pm^^iII«ubiwltular■hM1Awilalandhi•■e^ic
«» ecdenuiieal hiilory (4 PenivL-in Aimertn, ami Don l^niiiiue character. In nuiuum. khicb » ol lirvni fanrnnal •■Hlarlhitic
rgm Stldinunds. tbe hi>Iorian of ibe Jcuiilt in Pvrg, have rival value and includna coHvciunof pollraitii rf tbe I'oiivian vicrruya
anil. Aaioof {ood local annatiilinuyBennilioDcd Juan UlEciiu and preiidcntt, i> io Ihi upper toot* ol tbr Eapgrilioa Talai^e.
MJivii. sko hai tniiun a hidory <■[ Arcqaina, and Fio Bcnicno Another lulxidlird niHlunal weiriy it ibr nhnmiD, >bicb wai
!<■. Ihe auihor of Ihe Aiaali ^ Ctaa. founikd in 1I77 bm Ihe " Uiciary club," and rcurnulxd io 1IUI7
The leading Peruvian authun on ronttilutianal and hgal lahitclii under its prHcal title, lit purpcm: it 10 Im^ur Icamioi and liiiniiy
n Dr Ja>£ ^nilrievan. *ha baa puliliihcd vohiniH oa civil aiul effort, and It it a papular and nnnoinent fca»R b) the intellectual
riBdufliwiLuiaFclipeVilt<raB(i«' - . . .....
Lima), auihor cri a ittorhoncn
]iiDi Cakknn (once pru^dcnl el Peru), author of n dirrionary ol pmfeniea the ajioMulic Ro
^liaakciilaiian.intwovalumctlDrFiaBdKaXavierUariBiccui, It, and dos not permit ih
■c e(ibetuhcna( rnvvion iodcpendence; owl Dr FunciKO de a renidn di'aree ul tulrcani
WiVi(il(l79>-ia7S).a(ataraniliulninanuwellaiaulho(,*bBte theevanceliul chun-heaart PniHIIcd 10 ettaMi'Ji mivJoni in Ihe
■It, DQ^aia di iai Hkenwi, it a noble and enOEhtcncd itaicnicnl country. Inii not alwani aiithoul hovile drmunHrationi fnim Ibe
I the caie lor civif govnunenta acaiotc the pretntiioa) ol Ihe Catholic nricitboad. Then are Aneticaa rharrhea in Lima and
■at el Kooe. Manuel A. FiKalci. ao able uatiHieiin and the CHtco.bckmginKlatbediaccieallbeBUKipallhu-l'alkLindlilandii
Idee ol the £iiadiifica di lins, haa aba writlen a manual of but Iheir nCtenec >• illecal and it ignoeed alhcr tbaa permitted.
■ikmHtary practice. Prihapithe noit important voikon Veni In In cnktiutieat orunuatinn tVru iadiiided into alau dloRwi:
Imodera liaei ii that of Ibc lulian lavanl Anloaio Rainwndi Lima, which it aa arcbLiiboprir, Aieiiulpa, Funs, Cum. Ayacacho.
lli}-i>ao}. who ipent Ihc Eiealer part ol hit lile in huiI)hic the lluanuco. Huanu. TrU)illa and Lbarhapayai. Theie dioceic* are
ggifiapliy and natural leiource* ol Ihe country. Only lour tubdividi'd into fiij curacict, pnidded avB by «mi. or cunlc-
lAin had been puMiihed al Ihe lime ol bit dmh, bvl te Ml a vkan. tach diorrie hat ita arniaary lor the eriucallan of Ihe prieU-
am of npen and nunuxripit which Ibe tovrmaicBt bat put in hood, thai of Ari'quipa bcinir dininiuidied foe hi Influence In churrh
ki hindi ol the GeecratUdcal Society of Lima fur publication, affain. Arequipa, Mko Conklu and Chnqidtaca, It ■ atroaEhold
fc peat wiirk ii tntilled £1 Prru; alutni miMirahtiai, Ac. of cbricallini and carrcitct a dcciiive hdlueixe In polllin at weQ ai
^Tuvian Uteiaiun: unce Ihe indcpvndunce hai and in
:. ;. .1. ii_ -I J ^„_ TT„ an, „,.
wviclary mllue
..._ >.ii in Ihc walln el poelry and rununce. The st nameroot. daling bailctathc llilhand I7ih centuriea. but their
tajraquU author. Olmedo. who wnite Ihe famout ode on the viclorv ■ ""■- '" -■- ■ ■ -■
d Jimn. and Ihe Umeniaat Felipe Pardo and " ' ' ■
lie miMBa veil known wheievrr inc Spani^ bn
Mb died between iSIJo and 1B70. Theconediis
nogiai el Lima todcly. eniilled Um Potto a itauaritfl and La m uh couuiry.
!SSiJror;S:d'^u5"?ho^."3;.l'i!i'uS;j|'fe'^ '■■'-. ">" "-«" divWo™. Chincllay..uj-« .» .he north o,
amtdiciioBandnchiaiaeinaiiun.aiitS'feotaiCurTanchoforbit Antt-niyu to the easl, Colla-suyu to Ifae wulh and Cu
dOKuand a volume ol pocmi entitled firfui. Adullu Garcia for a to Ihe wol, the whole empire being called Tlahuaniin-i
huilul tonnei Io Bolivar, whKh wit pub1i;hc4at Havre in 1870, ihe lour Boi'cniincnts. Each was ruled by a viceroi
■ kt one %'olufneol poem*, and ClementeAllhani for hit Hodur- _t„„ „„ ,k. " i„„„-7t_™~ ^„™ •■ . m, - i*
My and «ylc, Pedio Paa SAbn wa. a daxical tchofiTwho "L""" "" '™. tuaranca^comayoci. or olTicen ru[>
pridicd lSf« v[Junu»of poemi. ^Carloi Ai^^iMo.SaLvrrry it thouiindi, and inTciior omrcn, m n.'sulaf order, ovei
Midud Ihrtc vulunu« of poemi. Cacloi AiwiMo SaLvrrry it thouunds, and inTeiuir ofllccri, in regular older, over joo, 100,
■•« » one of Pcni't ben lyrical noett^ and Lull Benjamin so and 10 men. All diioidcrs and irreutilarilies were checked
woi (or hu in noveb, yWu and EJfoi^s. Trinidad Fivnandn by (he periodical viuu ol the /Hfuyiifarj or inspccloH. The
fcJn^^T^rfX ESJr'wnThi nTri^r^r^m S°ih"e" SP""*" ""'""?' dn"">>'ed Ihb complicalcd .ysicm. In 156?
V&ia drama. OUanlay. ]oi£ Antonio LavaHc and Narciwi '™ »n-cmor. Lope Garcia lie CatlfO. dividi^d i'cru into Mfrf(i-
fcwtui are chiefly kaovn 11 novcliui. In hit youth Rinrdo nimfei under olTiccn named <orrrpdori, of whom there were
nlia publidied three booluaf pnemi, enililed ilraiawai. Vcrki y ij each in direct communEcatEonwiih the Eovemnienl at Unu
£S?Ui^tw"-"iIi!^V4wti^f'l^i'i^ Jt^'^"."?^!! '^^ '""P"'"' "Iminitlraiive reform *a» made in .784. when
Z^mo wm pubBdied. Al the ouihrak o( the war with Chile P"V ™ <lividcdinlo 7 i-ilt^/ucio,. each under an olDcct called
)>«> vice-director of the national library at Lima, which <ni an infrndrnK. Thcic tsfrndcHrui included alMUt 6 ol Ibe old
•Hualy plljcH by Ihe Chilian Imtt. After the evacuation ol cBmgimitiaoi, which were calU.-d (ur/irfoj. under ofTicera nomed
■SS to£i^7he^^.itol^r^ mH^i^Si!!^^ mMrffjfldoi. Thu. Ihc numL>.r of oliicen reporting direct to
fcwMaciion before hi!*ath ol re-openinj Ihe library, which h.«l IJma wa» reduced from 77 Io 7. a grcH improvemcni. The
ning Ihe library, which kwl """' "" ■"""■"■ ■'""' 77 'w 7." K'"i iiupiovcmcni. ira
re-Foucthg of the number republic adopted Ihe lame ayticni. c.iUing the iH/cnfciiriiM
' ' " irfoj province*, under
pailmenli, 9 liltoraJ
It 1 pTDVincct. The
ri-^ i^:-- -, - i. V- i-;; . . , "-■-- - - "-"' ""' N""'"* province*, ui.-..
tJ;?? ,f.""'''"rL'",^i'!''"' "'cjJ""^,'! ■"" '«"*'"'*■''■ a sub-prcIcct. I'eni is dii-ided into iS depailmenis, 9 lilloral
. -J^ f;r.°'.i-A"i.H:?'"^. 'r,"-,"'?!'.:. ^'^'"'''^'^''P St Callao. Thi. i» eiduiii-e ol Tacna .
iCih <t Angus. c,-ipiiili sad ettimaled papulaiioni of i«o6, arc aa lollow: tl
PERU
milalta ind later on to Ccm de Paioi [looil, |1
of size ADd jinporEancc, Th? so-cillnl coast towns arc com montx
at lome distance from the seashore^ and thdr shipping ports are
little mon than a straggling coUcclion of wreiched habitations
in the vicinily ol the landing-stage and iU offices and ware-
houses. Callao (t].v) is a nolcnoithy eiception, and Paita
and Pisco are somctliing more than (he avettge coast village.
Near Lima, on the south, (here are three bathing resorts,
Chonillos, Minfloics and Buranco, ohich have handsome
lesidences and targe popubllons in the bathing season. North
add locality but baving a fine beach, a healthy climate and a
: is level enough. High-i^tchcd led tiled rooli take the
if the flal rooCl of the coast. The upper storey often
, leaving wide corridors under the ovcrhan^ng eaves,
the "plazaa" there are frequently covered arcades.
llLon to the capitals of the departments, Tarma (about
md Xauia,or Jauja (about jooo), are important townl
elopment of some of the
character oT '
Commnnialicns. — The prohlcra of easy and cheap transponatbn
belwHS the caul aod the interior has Wn a vital one for iVru.
for upon il depends I' ...
rkheM pan* of the rei
^ihe^i oX «^r<
■uluTn'tkniend'i.'^iirin^cc^iiIal tSaa and down uTt^^lddk
nwuriim n-mis the detcrl and over [be muth nuunuln traili.
■uctlon In Peru began In 1848 with a shod Nne Fn
Callao ID Lima, but Ibe building of railway lines acrsn the deaert
to the inland towns of the fertile river valleys and the Andean
foot.hilti did nolbccin until cwenly yean later. These roads aridcd
nuchloIhepnidiielivercKMircesof the country, but their eicteniion
tntion (186S-1S7]} of Preudenl ]att Batuthe conHrucIion of
__ ___, , ™wa"l"?un™ B^tl";
plans eovered ijfii m. of state railways and 749 m- of private
lines, the estimated cost to be about JjT.joo.ooo— a sum far beyond
' ' e npublic. The Iwo liansandean lines were
_....... ■_ , ^...— ,0 Q„^ iM^fi,
ion of liMi ft-.
e* the Western C^iniuia* at
PERU
>, HiiKbo, CcTTo-Aiul, Timba di
._« « »»« ...»^.^^ bu been gnAliy unpTDwl
vorb bc(ua under the adminiitntioii o( Preiideiil
L Add QuAbote have cood lutiml lurbowi, but the
e nwat put, are open n»dit<«lB w unebeltcRd bay*.
■^ppiDg port for Boliviu export! Knt over tbenilmy
TneR «rtiv 12 foreiga fteansbip line* tnduif at
Ea in [90A, WMW of them makinE regular tripa up and
aot at InquHiI Lotervali and canyinE miKb of lit
k. Fonign wGng nbdi nnce ift66 haw not been
eofage in tnil traffic, but pcrmUHDn u ^pvm to iteani-
fiatvm and under nriun cowJitionL The irnporti
ii.trjXlo Ida (10 Kin -
Mfej— the lormer iliowi
A pTDdkKlli *w>l
Eli
S?Thc L_,
itaifl, Chile luiking mcarA and the United Stales
Ahhouch her mining indunrio have been the longeit
MH bxm, .the pnncipn] •04ira of Vrtu't weallE U
aAd the peculiar
cuTlivatcd in nu
inlhme
tnlth
Town thit tbe output ia not
loian, but for thii purpoie
HMit It the nountaui pack-
lua Ii an iodigEHwa plant,
ore: ila giain ii an important
sea are grown evoywhere in
ily CRKs that ran be railed
rma MfaafJuM Wilutimi),
d niii^uKii in Braiil. u alio
manufacture ol tianh.
ma, and cattle have been
SSdS "STaL^. "jUSSI
Cues. Tbe developncni
ic area of catEk-breeding
S" or dncendanti of I^
c 14th century eflona have
.c.Cbanc
adily inciTasng. At the outbreak of the
aa arwuE So,ooo torn; in 190^ the productLini
Next in iimnclance ia cotlon, which it grO'
■It o( the iVuvian roan, but ehrclly in Ihr
la, Lima and lea. Four kindt bit producp
vhkh i« generally culliVJled along th
odned. It i» the Maple looJcwrywht
: ia targely mcd in rne manufsciure c
E popular among the lower cLauea. Tol
t amaU. Another mtttiaftawnA^KX h cd
ipmeni i> pTCvcnled by difficult tianipo
the Chanchamayo valley. Cacao it an
Lt. The Chotot ai
^dk-avn
>nsidcTably quantity
. .._ 9 mott fiucceulully
n of jooo to 6000 It. Fruilt in great
, , rheiT in Peru, but beyond local matliet
>mmcrcial production b limiled to grapes and
n; produied in many of the irriaaterf valleys of
Chiicha. Lunahuana, Ita. Vitor, Majei, Andaray,
T produced.
U timet and
(Arrquipa) and Momiegua.
ily a tmall part n expoitcd. Were
Bts, quinua (CktlUptiium gir.iiH),
I fiim^ Are, bi
At die aperi^ f*!^ wl^E
iecietal i> found in Bolivia,
[ thE Peruvian laaelvt. The
ei of the hiwiandt, which
^laraHoiv whik the cautko
lOBJtkan
SrtiSly
ollecting
r Pctuviin bark,
.Iued.at^t406in
ba. a kind of mahogany,
mazon valley of Brazil
tiideni Ramon Caililta,
«'■;
272 PEI
commcTcb] auct oF \ht npublic. The Large nvcnuM drrivnL from
thete lourCM uadoiibudly became a txiae o[ wcaknev and
ddnonliialiaii uul evciiiiully re«i1lnl in binkniplcy Hiid (he Int
of TarapacL The depmiti hive been panially exKniHted by the
large shipineBli or over a ha&E-ccnlury, but the export in 1905 was
73J<9 tnxB, valued al £185,719.
' MiHtnt' — Miniiv waa the chief induitiy of Pern under Spanish
rule. The Incatnbea were an aEricukuraf and paitoial people, bul ..
the abuodam cl gold and filvcr in Ihctr posMsiun at the time of Cajamurca, Itu
the conqucBl ifaDH* that niniog muil have rccdved cnnsidemblc leu. ATeqyipa,
atlenticn. They uied theac precioui metals in iletonilioni and at higli, bleak teg
ornament), bul ainiuninly attached no great value to Ihcm. The known and inc
ufleofbrvrueaiioinDin tut they mint have worked, perhaptfUFier'
ficially, lone of tbe grvl tvtppa dcpnita. Imcicdiatdy lotlowini
the Spanibh invawn the Aiuwan icgion wat thoroughly eipkired.
and with the aainlancs of Indian ilavea thouiandi of aitia wen
opened, many of then faUutta, eame of them becoming faaioui.
cokmlHi againu ^nish inlc. owing to the uaiMIled •tale of the
country, and thit decline contiRiKtTln lanM mcaiure to the end
of the century. The mining laws of the colonial r^nic and
poUtieil diioroef twetbcr raised a barrier 10 the employment of
the large amount oTcapStnl needed, while the frequent Dtitbreaka
of it* iqterfercrve Mth lalnur and the free aic of porta and rnada.
The Peruvian* were impoverished, and under nuch condirions
foreign ca[»ul could not be icniTed. In 1B76 new mining law* m [^^^ an
wen enacted which gave better tilica la nlning pmpertin and buli'd, ite chief
better recubtiont for their nperallon. but the autbnak of tbe war ailver. Iron o
with Chile at the cod of the decade and the luccceding yean uf and «»« othe
duorganiiallon and pattlsiR Mrifc defeated their piicpoK. Anulhcr through lack 1
pew mlninB Cfdc wai adopted in igui.amlthli.withanimproveiiKnt dcwrt region, o
PractiuUy the whole Andean region of Peru i> mineral-bearing^ Pisco on the c
a region 1.100 m. long by aoo to 3™ m. wide. Within thehe limiia iitacet in tbe I
are to be found moftt 01 the mineral* knoa-n — gold, eilver. quick- have been foun
silver, copper, lead, rmc. iron, manganese, woUram, bismuth, been developed
salt, sulphur, bntai, ntnio'and' {clrolcum. Cold is found iii Lake Tiiicaca 1
kdet and allivlal deponl: the farmer on the Pacilic slope at Silpo, of tbe Piura wi
Otutco, Hiiaylaa, Yun^y, Ocroi, Chorrillos, CaAew. lea, Na«a. been eSabliihe
Andaray aad Arequqia, and on the table-lands and Amaion ilopo nilwayi-
at Palai, Huim>ra7aiuqiuMmbo. lluanravdiea, Cuko, Cota- The number,
bambaa. Aynures. PaucBrtambo, Santo Domingo and Sandia: iijja, arcordi
the latter wholly ea the Amaion sk^, la the couatiy about the viles. or £3. p<
Pongo de Manseriche and at Chuqulbamba. both on the upper ownership of tl
Marajloo. in the districts of Pnlai. Hulnuco, Aymaien and Anta- (alioul 1 acres)
hamba (Apurimac). Paucattambo and QuinHOuchl (Cuicd). and mctrei [about
Sandia atid Caiabaya (Puno). The laM turn »™ ™J" ''"B°'^Ji!j "^^ labourers t
the ercater part of their ttorfi. Tbe alluvUI deposits arc found both and an general
in the beds of the small flnam* and In the soil of >he <iniiL1 nliln nr lKi>.^i.»i
Einhis. The Aponima deposit. inthedisUi
own. Lon« ditchi's wilt st ' -'
ived slulcn for w
mglicrn used by the fr
I ibc lieds of the nrea
stone-paved
aba construct stone b.ire acinu ibc liedi „ ,
rinin and hold the deposited grains of (old. Modern methods of crude peirulcun
of I'oloi elsewhen antiquated methoda only an cmnluyid. The dlfhcully and r
uinier valley of the MaraHon has iindevehipcd gnld-beanog_ lodes. ■- ■™- '
in ferrufiinaut quarti. The pmditction In 1906 wa* valued at
nanylliiusly prwluctive. Ihe Cerr« dc liaeco dr
lAO/aojioo lielween irlu and ISSi). anil is Mill prnductivc, the Calalina facluri
output foe 19K. bii™ valued at &;i.9S^ The imnrlpil siUtr- foe tbe army,
pcixlucing diucicts, ibc greater part on the hijui tabli~lindt and an cniion lacti
slopes of the Andes, an those of Salpo. Hualgayoc. Huan, the wine indusi
Huiillanca, Huajiu, Huaru. Rceiuy. CaiMambo, Vaull. Cerro numilaciunof
del^iMD.Morocochi.lluar'ichiil.IluaneavcGcn.QuenUsa.Castra- and l.ima. Th
vlrreyna. Lucanas, Lamm, Cdylkinia ami Pnm, but there are Lima, and the 1
humhcdii of others outwk ihelr limits. Silsor h geneially found cigarette factor
as red oii'k-t (Ineally calkM nuirlrv], wlphldit and argentiferous and Traidki.
galena. Modem machineiy n little used and many mines are preparen filve
iirartH-ally uncorial4c fur want d( pumps, in th- virlnltv of some among the Ind:
of the depovl* of argrniififuus gjhinn an large r«d bcK bul Coarser straw I
timber PI scarre on the lalilc-Lindt. Thv dtiul dung of the llama baskets, &c
liooiiia) is generally uwd ai fuel, at in iiir.<iiunish limi'S fm rcaslini: Cmrmmtnl -
ire.. ,11. afc a .tiict of iirasa rallek fruL (.Sli#« ■««■), and a .^Z^^Zl^,
dngular wmdy fungus caUeil yorrta UurrHs unfMlifmil, f-«in.l J?" » '™ COJ
|inwingoBtheinck.>alfh-vatkiDiiiiccrd!ngi],nnifl. Tbcmrtbods Soul h America
rurmerly emphnTil In Rducing nies wnr Kiiviatnn and amalsa- Iruistation and
mailnn wiih niiirksilver. Iiui mislu-ni methials are cradiuillv romini i rnnxurTiii
mu.inr. Oii(ck.il%-er it found at Huawai-elUa, Cbi.nia (Anr.iihs), ,' ™' " •"'
__., ;_ -L_**., - .1 ...... T-L_ _!^- cl- I k..._ I.— s.ifcin],irds are
PERU
273
lights in the choice of their representAtives, but the
of the nmsMS, their apathy, poverty and dependence
the great land proprietors and industrial corporations
pncticaUy defeat these fundamental constitutional provisions.
CHiKDship is accorded to aU Peruvians over the age of 21 and
to aU married men under that age, and the right of suffrage
to aU dtiiens who can read and write, or possess real estate
m workshops, or pay taxes. In all cases the ezerdse of
riitsrnfhip is regulated by law.
The government is divided into three independent branches,
kpiiative, executive and judicial, of which through force of
drcnntftanoes the executive luis become the dominating power.
Tbe executive branch consists of a president and two vice-
pitadents elected for terms of four years, a cabinet of six
■tnisters of state af^inted by the president, and various
■bordinate officials who are under the direct orders of .the
pBBBdent. The president is chosen by a direct popular election
ttd cannot be re-elected to succeed himself. He must be not
ks than 35 years of age, a Peruvian by birth, in the enjoyment
of aO his civil rights, and domiciled in the republic ten years
pnceding the ekctbn. The immediate supervision and despatch
of public administrative affairs is in the hands of the cabinet
■inisters — interior, foreign affairs, war and marine, finance and
CBomierce, justice and public instruction, and public works and
pBwnotion {fonunto). The execution of the laws in the dcpart-
■eats and provinces, as well as the maintenance of public
•idcr, is entrusted to prefects and sub-prefects, who are appoin-
tees of the president. A vacancy in the office of president is
fiOed by one of the two vice-pre»dents elected at the same
tine and under the same conditions. Inability of the first
noe-piesident to assume the office opens the way for the
■oond vice-president, who becomes acting president until a
wcccMOt is chosen. The vice-presidents cannot be candidates
for the presidency during their occupancy of the supreme
cacutive office, nor can the ministers of state, nor the general-
h-dbkl of the army, while in the exercise of their official duties.
The kpslative power is exercised by a national Congress —
■■■te and chamber of deputies — meeting annually on the
Ah of July in ordinary session for a period of 90 days. Sena-
tors and deputies are inviolable in the exercise of their duties,
nd cannot be arrested or imprisoned during a session of Congress,
*"**"**»"g the month preceding and following the session, except
Is fci^QMU ddklo. Members of Congress are forbidden to
accqtt any employment or benefit from the executive. Senators
nd deputies are elected by direct vote — the former by depart-
■otts, and the latter in proportion to the population. With
both aie dected an equal number of substitutes, who assume
•fice in case of vacancy.
Departments with eight and more provinces are entitled to four
■Mtofs, those of four to seven provuiccs three senators, those of
t«o to three provinces two senators, and those of one province
sat tenator. The deputies are chosen to represent 15,000 to 30,000
■ipiibtMMi each, but every province roust have at least one
«paty. Both Knatora and deputies are elected for terms of
■s years, and both must be native-bom Peruvian citizens in the full
■ipwncnt of their' dvil rights. A senator must be 35 years of age,
sad have a yearly income of $1000. The age limit of a deputy is
jeaiB, and his income must be not less than $500. In both
^mUss the exercise of some scientific profession is accepted
1i In of the pecuniary income. No member of the executive
*^ ' of the government (president, cabinet minister, prefect,
, Ject, or governor) can be ekxted to either chamber, nor can
' jadge or *' meal " of the supreme court, nor any member of the
Jniastical hierarchy from hb diocese, province or parish, nor any
JiiK or ** fiscal " of superior and first-instance courts from their
'Uosl districts, nor any military officer from the district where he
Iridi a auUtary appointment at the time of election. No country
hnRmded with more and better safeguards against electoral and
maal abuses than is Peru, and >-et lew countries suffered more
hsB political disorder during the 19th century. The president has
I «cio power, but has the right to return a law to Congress with
«ts within a period of ten days. Should the act be again
without amendments it beomies law; if, however, the
amendments are accepted the act must go over to the
n. Congress may also sit as a court of impeachment —
hearing and deciding the case, and the chamber acting
tor. The president, ministers of state and judges of the
: court may be brought before this court.
«5
JusHct. — ^The judiciary is composed of a supreme court, superior
courts and courts of first instance, and justices of the peace. The
suiHeme court is established at the national capital and consbts
of II judges and a "fiscals" or prosecutors. The judges are
selected by Congress from lists of nominees submitted by the exe-
cutive. The judges of the superior courts are chosen by the presi-
dent from the list of nominees submitted by the supreme court.
Questions of jurisdiction between the superior and supreme courts,
as well as questions of like character between the supreme
court and the executive, are decided by the senate sitting as a
court. Tlie courts of first instance are established in the capitals
of provinces and their judges are chosen by the superior courts of
the districts in which they are located. The indefiendcnce of the
Peruvian courts has not been scrupulously maintained, and there
has been much criticism of their character and decisions.
The national executive appoints and removes the prefects of
the deportments and the sub-ptefocts of the provinces, and the
prefects appoint the gqbiemadores of the districts. The police
officiab throughout the refMiblic are also appointees of the presi-
dent and are under his orders.
ilrmy. — ^After the Chilean War the disorders fomented by the
rival military officers led to a desire to place the administration
of public affairs under civilian control. This led to a material
reduction in the army, which, as reor^nizcd, consists of 4000
officers and men, divided into seven battahons of infantry of 300 men
each, seven squadrons of cavalry of 12^ men each, and one regiment
of mountain artillery of mo men, with six batteries of mountain guns.
The reorganization of the army was carried out by 10 officers and
4 non-coms, of the French army, known as the French military
mission, who are also charged with the direction of the military
school at Chofrillos and all branches of military instruction. There
are a military high school, preparatory school, and " school of
application " in connexion with the training of young officers for
the army. The h(»ul of the mission is chief of staff. Formerly the
Indians were forcibly pressed into the service and the whites filled
the positions of ofncers, in great part untrained. Now military
service is oblif(atory for all Peruvians between the ages of 19 and
50, who are divided into four classes, first and second reserves (19
to 30, and 30 to 35 years), supernumeraries (those who have
purchased exemption from service in the regular army), and the
national guard (35 to 50 years). The regular force is maintained
by annual drawings from the lists of young men 19 years of age
in the first reserves, who are required to serve four years. The
direction of military affairs is entrusted to a general staff, which
was reorganized in 1904 On the lines adopted by the great
military powers of Europe. The republic b divided into four
military districts with headquarters at Piura, Lima, Arequipa and
Iquitos, and these into eleven circumscriptions. The mounted
police force of the republic b also organized on a military basis.
iVopy. — The Peruvian navy was practically annihilated in the
war with Chile, and the poverty of the country (trevented for many
years the adoption of any measure for its rcbuildiM. In 1908 it
consisted of only five vessels. The naval school at Callao b under
the direction of an officer of the French navy. In addition to the
foref|[oing the go\'emroent has a few small river boats on the Marafion
and Its tributaries, which are commanded by naval officers and used
to maintain the authority of the republic and carry on geographical
and hydrographical work.
Finance. — The financial record of Peru, notwithstanding her
enormous natural resources, has been one of disaster and discredit.
Internal strife at first prevented the development of her resources,
and then when the export of guano and nitrates supplied her treasury
with an abundance of funds the money was squandered on extrava-
f^ant enterprises and in corrupt practices. This was followed by the
OSS of these resources, bankruptc)r, and eventually the surrenoer of
her principal assets to her foreign creditors. The government
then had to readjust expenditures to largely diminished resources;
but the obligation has been met intelligcntljr and coura^^cously,
and since 1895 there has been an improvement in the financial state
of the country. The public revenues arc derived from customs,
taxes, various inland and consumption taxes, state monopolies,
the government wharves, posts ana telegraphs, &c. The customs
taxes include import and export duties, surcharges, harbour dues,
warehouse charges, &c. ; the inland taxes comprise consumption taxes
on alcohol, tobacco, sugar and matches, stamps and stamped paper,
capital and mining properties, licences, transfers of property, &c.;
and the state monopolies cover opium and salt. In 1905 a loan
of l&oo/xjo was floated in Germany for additions to the navy. The
growth of receipts and expenditures is shown in the following table: —
1904.
1906.
1908.
Revenue
Expenditure
f 1. 990,568
Zi. 884.949
£2.527.766
^2. 1 78.252
£2.997433
£3.043.032
The revenues of 1896 were only £1,128,714.
The foreign debt began with a small loan of £1,200.000 in London
in 1822, and another of £1,500.000 in 1825 of which only £716,^16
was placed. At the end of the war, these loans, and sums owing
to Cnile and Colombia, raised the foreign debt to £4,000,000. In
la
274. PERU
1830 the debt and accumulated Interest owing in London amounted in the north of Peru, and at Cuzco, OUantay-tambo and Huifiaqafe
to i^.3«o.767. in addition to which there wa» a home <««bt of between Huaraz and Tiahuanaco. These works appear to have
t7f»83t397 dollars. In 1848 the two London loans and accumulated . __^_i u .^-x 1 ^ • -.i. -r 'VLmI^ a
intenit Were covcitxi bvY new loan of £3.736^00. and the home been erected by powerful sovereigns with unhmUed coininand
debt was partially liquidated, the sale of guano giving the treasury of labour, possibly with the object of giving empiojmKnt to
ample resources. Lavish expenditure followed and the government subjugated people, while feeding the vanity or pleasing the taste
was soon anticipating its revenues by obtaining ad^ncw from <,f jh^ conqueror. Of their origin nothing is historicaUy known.
guano consignees, usually on unfavourable terms, and then floating , . _^k.ku k^u..„... ti..» fkr^^*iU».T»f ^t tUm. r«m^^ «.ii«.
loans. The?e was another conversion loan in 1862 in the sum of '^ » probable, however, that the settlement of the Cuico valley
£5.500,000 and in 1864 still another loan of thb character was issued, and distnct by the Incas or "people of the sun took place
nominally for £10.000,000, of which £7,000.000 only wer^ issued, some 300 years before Pizarro famded in Peru. The conquering
Then foOowed the ambitious schemes of President Balta, which ^ribe or tribes had made their way to the surra from the plains,
With the loans of 1870 and 1872 raised the toul foreign debt to ,^. f„.,„j »k*™-*i„— - „•«, i.n^ .>.«it.»wi /•«,« .tf.^k IZUZ
£49.000.000, on which the annual interest charge Was about and found themselves a new land didtered from attack amidst
/2,5oo.ooo, a sum wholly beyond the resources of the treasury, the lofty mountains that hem m the valley of Cuxco and the
In 1876 interest payments on account of this debt were suspended vast lake basin of Titicaca, situated za,ooo fL above the sea
and in 18^-1882 the war with Chile deprived Peru of her principal levcL The first historical recoids show us these people already
fn^^feStol^e^rd?^^^^ {K,.sessed of a considerable dvilixaUon^ and speaking two alBed
£54,000,000, and in the following year a contract was signed with languages, Aymara and Quichua. The expansion of the Ina
Ute'nuSL'.The ^^oiSiS." ifthi 'iS.^Tnin/'gli^^.fc'S^-u vjctori« of IW»cutic Inc. who Uved. bout . cenlun;
up to 3.000.000 tons, and thirty-three annual subsidies of £80.000 Huayna Capac, the Great Inca, whose death took place m 1526,
each, in consideration of the cancellation of the debt. Some modi- the year before Pizarro first appeared on the coast. His coih
fications were later made in the contract, owing to the govcmmcot's solidated empire extended from the river Ancasouyu north of
failure to meet the annualsubsidics and the corporations faUure q^ j^ j j^j , . ^ ^ ^ q^ .j^ j^ ^
to extend the railways agreed upon. This contract relieved Peru ^***^^ "* '•"'^ ****=' «*a.uiw m ms auuuj w x^iuk. ahv ai«uh hw
of its crushing burden of foreign indebtedness, and turned an an elaborate system of sUtc-worship, with a ntual. and fie-
apparently heavy loss to the bondholders into a possible profit. In qucntly recurring festivals. History and tradition were p»
wio the fordm debt stood at (3,140.000. compokd of (I) Peniyian served by the bards, and dramas were enacted before the
Corporation £>,i6o,opo: (2) w^-es anddoclcs, £80,000; (3) loan govercign and his court. Roads with post-houses at intervab
of 1905. £5<».«»: (4) loan of 1906. £400,000. awvciwsu ouu no wuii. xw*us wiiu |MJ3k-uvu9^ «i. '<»"*•"
Currency.— The «ngle gold standard has been in force in Peru ^cre made over the wildest mountam-ranges and the bleakest
since 1897 and 1898. silver and copper being used for subsidiary deserts for hundreds of miles. A well-considered system of
coinage. The moneury unit is the Peruvian pound (libra) which is land-tenure and of colonization provided for the wanU of lO
uniform in weight and fineness with the British pound sterling, classes of the people. The administraUve details of flovcmncDt
Half and fifth pounds are also coined. The silver coinage consists """^"^ ^/ "'«; f^'K** *«*; ««**i"i»«.t«wT«; u^««u9 «» 7^*7 "/J-
of the sol (100 cents), half sol (50 cents), and pieces of 20 (peseta), were mmutely and carefully organized, and accurate atatisua
10 and 5 cents; and the copper coinage of i and 2 cents. The were kept by means of the " quipus " or system of knots. Hi
single standard has worked well, and h^^ contributed much toward edifices displayed marvellous building skill, and their 'WOfkBia-
the recovery of Peruvian rommcrce and finance.. The change from ^j - unsurpassed. The world has nothing to show, in the inr
the double standard was effected without any noticeable disturbance , *^. •"«"»K««i.<^. « w^w4u« u.^ iivkii<ji|( »# »«/«,■» **^^
in commercial affairs, but this was in part due to the pa-caution of of stone-cutting and fitting, to equal the skiU and accmacy
making the British pound sterling legal tender in the republic and displayed in the Inca structures of Cuzco. As workers in netab
establishing the legaLequivalcnt between gold and silver at 10 soles and as potters they displayed infinite variety of design, whik M
to the pound. The coinage in 1906-1907 was about £150.000
monetary history of Peru had been unfortunate. The first national Helps, who give ample references to original authorities; it «fl
cwnagc was begun in 1822. and the dcdmal system was adopted in j^ sufficient here to enumerate the dates of the
1863. Although the double standard was in force, gold was ... , r\_ ^r. .l « «« l ^ -v
practically demonetized by the monetary reform of 1872 because of leading events. On the xoth of March 1526 the
the failure to fix a legal ratio between the two metals. Experience contract for the conquest of Peru was signed by
with paper currency has been even more disastrous. During the Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagroand Hernando delAJM^
administration (1872-1876) of President Pardo the government Caspar dc Espinosa supplying the funds. In 1527 Fining
borrowed heavily from the banks to avoid the susixjnsion of work on . • ,. r_riuju-i:. uj.u L - ■> -
the railways and port improvements. These banks enjoyed the after enduring fearful hardships, first reached the coast of ftW
privilege of issuing currency notes to the amount of three times the at Tumbcz. In the following year he went to Spain, and m
cash in hand without regard to their commercial liabilities. A brge the 26th of July 1529 the capitulation with the Crown for tkc
increase in imports, caused by fictitious prosperity and inability conquest of Peru was executed. Pizarro sailed from San iMOt
to obtain drafts against guano shipments, led to the exportation of •.l l- u .v • 1 _
coin to meet commercial obligations, and this soon reduced the ^*" '"1***^°!"^.'^ in January ij
[530, and landed at Tumba ii
1531. The civil war between I;
unal)!e to repay its loans from the banks compelled the latter to
currency circulation to a paper basis. The government being iS3i- The civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa, the UBi
" ' ' ' of Huayna Capac, had been fought out in the meanwhile, nd
8usF)end the conversion of their notes, which began to depreciate jhe victorious Alahualpa was at Cajamarca on'his way fna
in value. In 1875 the banks were grantc<I a moratonum, to enable Ci-^^ ,^ r-..^^^ n« ♦!,- •-•k «f -Nr»»A.«K^ ,...- vc^JL .fah
them to obtain coin, but without rwult. The gu\-crnmcnt in 1877 Q"»^ ^^ '-"*«>• ^^ V- ^"^ November 1532 Pjano ■»
contracted a new loan with the banks and assumed responsibility Ws little army, made his way to Cajanuirca, where he
for their outstanding emissions, which arc s.iid to have aggregated a friendly welcome from the Inca, whom he treachcroiH^y '
almut 100,000,000 w/«, and were worth barely 10% of their nominal and made prisoner. He had with him only i8i men. b
value. At last their depreciation reached a point where their r„u„,,«, ,\.,, u:. ^ii-««.« ai.««»»x •**;»^ ..:»il
acceptance was generally refused and silver was importe«l for com- February 1533 his coUcaguc Almagro arnved with
mercial needs, when the government suspended their k^al tender ments. The murder of the Inca Atahtialpa was pexpcCnM
quality and allowed them to disaf^iK^r. on the 29th of August 1533, and on the X5th of NoVKote
Wctghts and Measur's.-^Thc Irench metric s>si cm isthcofficial i^i^arro entered Cuzco. He allowed the netful heirto tkl
standard of weights and measures and IS in usctn the custom-houses „^^:^ xf»„.^ ♦v.^ i-^.:—*-. „«« ^t u...!».. r*..... •« La
of the republic 5nd in foreign trade, but the old units are still com- cmP»re, Manco, the IcgiUmate son of Huayna CkpM, t0_»
monly used among the people. These arc the ounce, 1'104 02. solemnly crowned on the 24th of March 1534. AlmaglO ttM
avoiidupois; the libra, 1014 Ih avoirdupois; the quintal, 101-44 lb undertook an expedition to Chile, and Hzarro founded the cif
avoirdupois; the flrrofta. 2536 lb avoirdupois; ditto of wine, of Lima on the i8th of January 1535. In the following 9«r thi
6-70 imperial gallon*;: the gallon, -74 of an imi>enal gallon; the t„^,, ««^« « k,-,«. .»t...«»* t« -J~»i ♦!,• :.».^..^ ■ ■ ^
vara, -927 y^rd ; and the squire vara, -859 square yard. (A. J. L.) J"^ "^J^^^ a brave attempt to expel the invaders, ud dMJT
besieged the Spaniards in Cuzco dunng February and Hncii
7/»5/ory.— Cyclopean ruins of vast wlificcs, apparently never But Almagro, returning from Chile, raised the siege on the iMk
completed, exist at Tiahuanaco near the southern shore of Lake of April 1537. Immediately afterwards a dispute arose hclVMft
Titicaca.. Remains of a similar character are found at Huaraz the brothers, Francisco, Juan and Gonzalo Pizaxro and
PERU
275
s to the limits of tbdr respective jurisdictions. An interview
look place at Mala, on the sea-coast, on the xjlh of November
IS37, vhkh led to no result, and Almagro was finally defeated
a the battle of Las Salinas near Cuzco on the 36th of April 1 538.
Hii execution followed. His adherents recognized his young
hU-cute son, a gallant and noble youth generally known as
Almagro the Lad, as his successor. Bitteriy discontented, they
tmpired at Lima and assassinated Francisco Pizarro on the
36th off June 1541. Meanwhile Vaca de Castro had been sent
<Mt as governor of Peru by Charles V., and on hearing of the
Border of Pizarro he assumed the government of the country.
Oa the i6th of September 1543 he defeated the army of Almagro
the Lad in the battle of Chupas near Guamanga, and the' boy
ns beheaded at Cuzco.
Gurles V. enacted the code known as the " New Laws " in
1543. '* Encomiendas," or grants of estates on which the
Qfg^gfg^ inhabitants were bound to pay tribute and give
personal service to the grantee, were to pass to the
Cnwn on the death of the actual holder; a fixed sum was
to be assessed as tribute; and forced personal service was
farbidden. Blasco Nuf&ez de VeU was sent out, as first viceroy
of Peru, to enforce the " New Laws." Their promulgation
iroased a storm among the conquerors. Gonzalo Pizarro rose
ia rebeDion, and entered Lima on the 38th of October 1544.
Ike viceroy fled to Quito, but was followed, defeated and killed
at the battk of Aikaquito on the i8th of January 1546. The
" New Laws " were weakly revoked, and Pedro de la Gasca, as
fnt president of the Audiencia (court of justice) of Peru, was
teat oat to restore order. He arrived in 1547, and on the 8th
of April 1S48 he routed the followers of Gonzalo Pizarro on the
plain fd Sfn^**"^™«" near Cuzco. Gonzalo was executed
oa the fidd. La Gasca made a redistribution of " encomiendas "
to the loyal omquerors. which caused great discontent, and left
ftn before hb scheme was made pubUc in January 1550. On
the 33rd of September 1551 Don Antonio de Mendoza arrived as
■OMid viceroy, but he died at Lima in the following July. The
oooBtiy was then ruled by the judges of the Audiencia, and a
fonwbble insurrection broke out, headed by Francisco Hernan-
dez Giion, with the object of maintaining the right of the
ooaqnerors to exact forced service from the Indians. In May
I5S4 Giron defeated the army of the judges at Chuquinga, but
he vas hopelessly routed at Pucara on the nth of October
I5S4> captured,, and on the 7th of December executed at Lima.
Dm Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, marquis of Cafiete, entered
lioa ts third viceroy of Peru on the 6th of July 1555, and ruled
«kh an inm hand for six years. All the leaders in former
^orbances were sent to Spain. Corregidors, or governors
tf^itricts, were ordered to try summarily and execute every
tarbolent person within their jurisdictions. All unemployed
ptaoos were sent on distant expeditions, and moderate " en-
ODoieodes " were granted to a few deserving officers. At the
■Be time the viceroy wisely came to an agreement with Sayri
T^ac, the son and successor of the Inca Manco, and granted
hai a pension. He took great care to supply the natives with
Irietts of good conduct, and promoted measures for the estab-
bment of schoob and the foundation of towns in the different
fMrisccs. The cultivation of wheat, vines and olives, and
Nsipfati domestic animab were introduced. The next viceroy
Hi the Conde de Nieva (1561-1564). Hb successor, the
featkte Lope Garda de Castro, who only had the title of
pvoBor, ruled from 1564 to 1569. From this time there was
tnooeoBOn of viceroys imtil 1824. The viceroys were chief
■HEbtrstes, but in le^ matters they had to consult the Audi-
of judges, in finance the Tribunal de Cuentas, in other
ci administration the Juntas de Gobiemo and de
Dob Frandsco de Toledo, the second son of the count of
entered Lima as viceroy on the 36th of November 1569.
Fearing that the little court of the Inca Tupac Amaru
MBno-(wbo had succeeded hb brother Sayri Tupac) might
become a focus of rebellion, he seized the young
■c, and unjustly beheaded the last of the Incas in the square
of Cuzco in the year i57r. After a minute personal inspection
of every province in Peru, he, with the experienced aid of the
learned Polo de Ondegardo and the judge of Matienza, estab-
Ibhed the system under which the native population of Peru
was ruled for the two succeeding centuries. Hb Libra de
Tasos fixed the tribute to be paid by the Indians, exempting
all men under eighteen and over fifty. He found it necessary,
in order to secure efficient government, to revert in some measure
to the system of the Incas. The people were to be directly
governed by their native chiefs, whose duty was to collect the
tribute and exercise magbterbl functions. The chiefs or
" curacos " had subordinate native officiab under them called
" pichca-pachacas " over 500 men, and "pachacas" over
100 men. The office of curaca or cadque was made hereditary,
and its possessor enjoyed several privileges. Many curacas
were descended from the imperial family of the Incas, or from
great nobles of the Incarial court. In addition to the tribute,
which was in accordance with native usage, there was the
" mita," or forced labour in mines, farms and manufactories.
Toledo enacted that one-seventh of the male population of a.
village should be subject to conscription for this service, but
they were to be paid, and were not to be taken beyond a specified
dbtance from their homes.
The Spanish kings and viceroys desired to protect the people
from tyranny, but they were unable to prevent the rapacity
and lawlessness of distant officials and the country
was depopulated by the illegal methods of enfordng ntyaMy.
the mita. Toledo was succeeded In 1581 by Don
Martin Henriquez, who died at Lima two years afterwards.
The Spanbh colonies suffered from the strict system of monopoly
and protection, which was only slightly relaxed by the later
Bourbon kings, and from the arbitrary proceedings of the
Inquisition. Between 1581 and 1776 as many as fifty-nine
heretics were burned at Lima, and there were twenty-nine
" autos "; but the Inqubition affected Europeans rather than
natives, for the Indians, as catechumens, were exempted from
its terrors. The curacas sorrowfully watched the gradual extinc-
tion of their people by the operation of the mita, protesting from
time to time against the exactions and cruelty of the Spaniards.
At length a descendant of the Incas, who assumed the name of
Tupac Amaru, rose in rebellion in 1780. The insurrection lasted
until July 1783, and cruel executions followed its suppression.
Thb was the last effort of the Indians to throw off the Spanish
yoke and the rising was by no means general. The army which
overthrew Tupac Amaru consbted chiefly of loyal Indians, and
the rebellion was purely anti-Sponbh, and had no support from
the Spanish population. The movement for independence,
which slowly gained force during the opening decade of the 19th
century, did not actually become serious until the conquest of
Spain by the French in 1 807-1 808. The Creoles (Criallos) or
American-born Spaniards had for long been aggrieved at being
shut out from all important official positions, and at the restric-
tions placed upon their trade, but the bulk of the Creole popula-
tion was not disloyal.
Peru was the centre of Spanbh power, and the viceroy had
his military strength concentrated at Lima. Consequently the
insurrections in the more distant provinces, such as
Chile and Buenos Aires, were the first to declare «,^,«|,
themselves independent, in 1816 and 181 7. But
the destruction of the viceroy's power was essential to their
continued independent existence. The conquest of the Peruvian
coast must always depend on the command of the sea. A fleet
of armed ships was fitted out at Valparaiso in Chile, under the
command of Lord Cochrane (afterwards earl of Dundonald) and
officered by Englishmen. It convoyed an army of Argentine
troops, with some Chileans, under the command of the Argentine
general, San Martin, which landed on the coast of Peru in
September 1820. San Martin was enthusiastically received,
and the independence of Peru was proclaimed at Lima after
the viceroy had withdrawn Quly 28, 1821). On the 30th of
September 1823 San Martin resigned the protectorate, with
which he had been invested, and on the same day the first
276
PERU
congress of Peru became the soverelgii power of the state.
After a short period of government by a committee of three,
the congress elected Don Jos6 de la Riva Aguero to be first
president of Peru on the aSth of February 1823. He displayed
great energy in facing the difficulties of a turbulent situation,
but was unsuccessful. The aid of the Colombians under Simon
Bolivar was sought, and Aguero was deposed.
Bolivar arrived at Lima on the 1st of September 1823, and
began to organize an army to attack the Spanish viceroy in
the interior. On the 6th of August 1824 the cavalry action of
Junin was fought with the Spai^ forces under the command
of a French adventurer, General Canterac, near the shores of
the lake of Chinchay-cocha. It was won by a gallant charge
of the Peruvians under Captain Suarez at the critical moment.
Soon afterwards Bolivar left the army to proceed to the coast,
and the final battle of Ayacucho (Dec 9, 1824) was fought by
his second in command. General Sucre. The viceroy and all
his officers were taken prisoners, and the Spanish power in Peru
came to an end.
General Bolivar ruled Peru with dictatorial powers for more
than a year, and though there were cabals against him there can
be little doubt of hjs popularity. He was summoned back to
Colombia when he had been absent for five years and, in spite
of protests left the country on the 3rd of September 1826,
followed by all the Colombian troops in March 1827.
General Jos6 de I^mar, who commanded the Peruvians at
Ayacucho, was elected president of Peru on the 24th of August
^^ 1827, but was deposed, after waging a brief but
PtnldeatM, disastrous war with Colombia' on the 7th of June
1829. General Agustin Gamarra, who had been
in the Spanish service, and was chief of the staff in the patriot
army at Ayacucho, was elected third president on the 3xst of
August 1829.
For fifteen years, from 1829 to 1844, Peru was painfuUy
feeling her way to a right use of independence. The officers
who fought at Ayacucho, and to whom the country felt natural
gratitude, were all-powerful, and they had not learned to settle
political differences in any other way than by the sword. Three
men, during that period of probation, won a prominent place
in their country's history. Generals Agustin Gamarra, Felipe
Santiago Salavcrry, and Andres Santa Cruz. Gamarra, bom
at Cuzco in 1785, never accommodated himself to constitutional
usages; but he attached to himself many loyal and devoted
friends, and, with all hb faults he loved his country and sought
its welfare according to his lights. Salavcrry was a very different
character. Bom at Lima in 1806, of pure Basque descent, he
joined the patriot army before he was fifteen and displayed
his audacious valour in many a hard-fought battle. Feeling
strongly the necessity that Pem had for repose, and the guilt
of civil dissension, he wrote patriotic poems which became very
popular. Yet he too seized the supreme power, and perished
by an iniquitous sentence on the i8th of February 1836.^
Andres Santa Cruz was an Indian statesman. His mother was a
lady of high rank, of the family of the Incas, and he was very
proud of his descent. Unsuccessful as a general in the field, he
nevertheless possessed remarkable administrative ability and for
nearly three years (i 836-1839) realized his lifelong dream of a
Peru-Bolivian confederation.* But the strong-handed inter-
vention of Chile on the ground of assistance rendered to rebels,
but really through jealousy of the confederation, ended in the
defeat and overthrow of Santa Cruz, and the separation of
Bolivia from Peru. But Peruvian history b not confined to
the hostilities of these military mlcrs. Three constitutions
were framed — ^in 1828, 1833 and 1839. Lawyers and orators
are never wanting in Spanish-American states, and revolution
succeeded revolution in one continuouis stmggle for the spoils
^ The romance of his life has been admirably written by Manuel
Bilbao (ist cd., Lima, 1853; 2nd ed., Buenos Aires, 1867).
* The succession of presidents and supreme chiefs of Peru from
1829 to 1844 was as follows: 1 829-1 833, Agustin Gamarra;
1834-1835, Luis Jos6 Orbcgoso; 1 835-1 836, Felipe Santiago Sab-
verry; 1836-1839, Andres Sanu Cruz; 1839-1841. Agustin Gamarra;
S841-1844, Manuel Menendez.
of office. An exception must be made of the administratioii
of General Ramon Castilla, who restored peace to Peru, and
showed himself to be an honest and very capable nder. He
was elected constitutional president on the 20th of April 1845.
Ten years of peace and increasing prosperity followed. In
1849 the regular payment of the interest of the puUic debt
was commenced, steam conununication was established aloof
the Pacific coast, and a railroad was made from Lima to CaUao.
After a regular term of office of six years of peace and monl
and mateirial progress Castilla resigned, and General Josi
Echenique was elected presidenL But the proceedings <d
Echenique's government in connexion with the consolidation
of .the internal debt were disai^roved by the nation, and, after
hostilities which lasted for six months, Castilla returned to power
in Jxmuary 1855. From December 1856 to March 1858 he had
to contend with and subdue a local insurrection beaded by
General Agostino Vivanco, but, with these two exceptions,
there was peace in Pem from 1844 to 1879, a period oi thirty-five
years. Castilla retired at the end of his term of office in 1862,
and died in 1868. On the 2nd of August 1868 Colond Juan
Balta was elected president. With the vast sum raised from
guano and nitrate deposits President Balta commenced the
execution of public works, principally railroads on a gigantic
scale. Hb period of office was signalized by the opening of an
internatioiud exhibition at Lima. He was succeeded (Aug.
2, 1872) by Don Manuel Fardo (d. 1878), an honest and
enlightened statesman, who did all in hb power to retrieve the
country from the financial difficulty into which it had
brought by the reckless policy of his predecessor, but the
ditions were not capable of solution. He regulated the Chinese
immigration to the coast-valleys, which from x86o to 1873 bad
amounted to 58,606. He promoted education, and encouiafed
literature. On the 2nd of August 1876 General Mariano-Ignado
Prado was elected. (C R. M.; X.)
On the 5th of April 1879 the republic of Chile declared wir
upon Pem, the alleged pretext being that Pem had lAade aa
offensive treaty, directed against Chile, with Bolivia,
a country with which Chile had a dbpute; but the<
publication of the text of thb treaty made known ^
the fact that it was strictly defensive and contained no fmtL
cause of war. The tme object of Chile was the conqiuest ef
the rich Pemvian province of Tarapaci, the ^)|»optiatin
of its valuable guano and nitrate depo»ts, and the qwKirii
of the rest of the Pemvian coast. The military events o£ tit
war, calamitous for Pem, are dealt with in the article
Peritvian Wak. Suffice it here to note that, after the
defeat of the Pemvian forces at Arica (June 7, 1880)
Nicolas de Pierola assumed dictatorial powers, with
Andres C&ccres as commander-in-chief, but the detots it
Chorrillos (Jan. 13, x88i) and Miraflores (Jan. 15) pioni
the Chilean superiority, and put Lima at their mcrqr
desultory fighting was maintained by the remnants
Pemvian army in the interior, under direction of
C&ccres. An attempt was made to constitute a
with Sefior Caldcron as president of the repuUic uid
C&ceres as first vice-president. The negotiations beti
nomiiud administration and the Chilean authorities for a 1
of peace proved f utUe, the ChUean occupation of lima aad te
Pemvian seaboard continuing unintermptedly until x88i). !■•
that year Admiral Lynch, who had replaced General
in command of the Chilean forces after the taking of lima, 1
an expedition against the Pemvians under Gen
and defeated the latter in the month of August. The
authorities now began preparations for the evacuatioii cf
and to enable this measure to be effected a Pemvian \
tion was organized with the support of the Chileans.
Iglcsias was nominated to the office of president of the :
and in October 1883 a treaty of peace, known as the liuly*
Ancon, between Pem and Chile was signed. The QuhttK
of occupation was withdrawn from Lima on the aaad of OcSrf
1883, but a strong force was maintained at CboizilloaHlIf
1884, when the terms of the treaty were finally approvedL <
of di
tm
PERU
277
principal conditions imposed by Chile were the absolute cession
by Peru of the province of Tarapac&, and the occupation for a
period of ten yean of the territories of Tacna and Arica, the
ovncrship oi these districts to be decided by a popular vote of
the inhabitants of Tacna and Arica at the expiration of the
period named. A further condition was enacted that an
indemnity of 10,000,000 soks was to be paid by the country
finally remaining in possession — a sum equal to about £1,000,000
to-day. The Peruvians in the interior refused to recognize
President Iglesias, and at once began active operations to over-
throw his authority on the final departure of the Chilean troops.
Aflaixs continued in this unsettled state until the middle of 1885,
Ciceres meanwhile steadily gaining many adherents to his side
of the quaireL In the latter part of 1885 President Iglcsias
abdicated.
Under the guidance of General C&ceres a juitta was then
farmed to carry on the government until an election for the
pre»dency should be held and the senate and cham-
ber of deputies constituted. In the foIioA^-ing year
(1886) Getieral C&ceres was elected president of the
republic for the usual term of four years. The task assumed
by the new president was no unecurc. The country had been
thrown into absolute confusion from a political and administra-
tive point of view, but gradually order was restored, and peaceful
conditions were reconstituted throughout the republic. The
foor years of office for which General Ciceres was elected passed
in oneventful fashion, and in 1890 Sefior Morales Bermudez
was nominated to the presidency, with Sefior Solar and Seftor
BorgoAo as first and second vice-presidents. Matters continued
without alteration from the normal course until 1894, and in
that year Bermudez died suddenly a few months before the
expiration of the period for which he had been chosen as presi-
dciit. General Ciceres secured the nomination of the vice-
pcesdent Borgofio as chief of the executive for the unexpired
portion of the term of the late president Bermudez. This
Ktioa was unconstitutional, and was bitterly resented by the
nce-president Solar, who by right should have succeeded to the
office. Armed resistance to the authority of Borgofto was
iamiediatdy organized in the south of Peru, the movement being
sqiported by Seftores Nicolas de Pierola, Biliinghurst, Durand
and a number of influential Peruvians. In the month of August
1894 General Ciceres was again elected to fill the office of presi-
dent, but the revolutionary movement rapidly gained ground.
President Ciceres adopted energetic measures to suppress the
ootbxtak: his efforts, however, proved unavailing, the close of
1894 finds the country districts in the power of the rebels and the
iBtbority of the legal government confined to Lima and other
dtks held by strong garrisons. Early in March 1895 the insur-
pats encamped near the outskirts of Lima, and on the 17th,
iSth and X9th of March severe fighting took place, ending in
the defeat of the troops under General Ciceres. A suspension
«f hostilities was then brought about by the efforts of H.B.M.
coBsuL The loss on both sides to the struggle during these two
itji was 2S00 killed and wounded. President Ciceres, finding
In cause was lost, left the country, a provisional government
■ndcr Sefior Candamo assuming the direction of public affairs.
Od the 8th of September 1895 Scftor Pierola was declared
praidait of the republic for the following four years. The
H^. Peruvians were now heartily tired of revolutionary
'immwL disturbances, and an insurrectionary outbreak in
the district of Iquitos met with small sympathy,
nd VIS qxedily crushed. In 1896 a reform of the electoral
h« was sanctioned. By the provisions of this act an electoral
OBmiittee was constituted, composed of nine members, two of
dtte nominated by the senate, two by the chamber of deputies,
hv by the supreme court, and one by the president with the
asient <rf his ministers. To this committee was entrusted the
Hik o( the examination of all election returns, and of the pro-
dutttkm of the names of successful candidates for seats in
^—mu. Another reform brought about by Pierola was a
■NMne introduced and sanctioned in 1897 for a modification
i the nartiage laws. Under the new act marriages of non-
RomuBm
Catholics solemnized by diplomatic or consular officers or by
ministers of dissenting churches, if properly registered, are
valid, and those solemnized before the passing of this act were
to be valid if registered before the end of 1899. Revolutionary
troubles again disturbed the country in 1899, when the presi-
dency of SeOoT Pierola was drawing to a close. In consequence
of dissensions amongst the members of the election committee
constituted by the act of 1896, the president ordered the suppres-
sion of this body. A group of malcontents under the leadership
of one Durand, a man who had been prominent in the revolution
against General Ciceres in 1894-95, conspired against the
authorities and raised several armed bands, known locally as
monianeras. Some skirmishes ocoured between these insur-
gents and the government troops, the latter generally obtaining
the advantage in these encounters.
In September 1899 President Pierola vacated the presidency
in favour of Sefior Romafla, who had been elected to the ofiice
as a popular condidate and without the exercise
of any undue official influence. President Romafia
was educated at Stonyhurst in England, and was a
civil engineer by profession. The principal political problem
before the government of Peru was the ownership of the terri-
tories of Tacna and Arica. The period of ten years originally
agreed upon for the Chilean occupation of these provinces
expired in 1894. At that date the peace of Peru was so seriously
disturbed by internal troubles that the government was quite
unable to take active steps to bring about any solution of the
matter. After 1894 negotiations between the two governments
were attempted from time to time, but without any satisfactory
results. The question hinged to a great extent on the qualifica-
tion necessary for the inhabitants to vote, in the event of a
plebiscite being called to decide whether Chilean ownership
was to be finally established or the provinces were to revert to
Peruvian sovereignty. Peru proposed that only Peruvian
residents should be entitled to taJce part in a popular vote;
Chile rejected this proposition, on the ground that all residents in
the territories in question should have a voice in the final decision.
The agreement between Chile and Bolivia, by which the disputed
provinces were to be handed over to the latter country if Chilean
possession was recognized, was also a stumbling-block, a strong
feeling existed among Peruvians against this proceeding. It
was not so much the value of Tacna and Arica that put diffi-
culties in the way of a settlement as the fact that the national
pride of the Peruvians ill brooked the idea of permanently losing
all claim to this section of country. The money, about £1 ,000,000,
could probably have been obtained to indemnify Chile if occasion
for it arose.
The question of the delimitation of the frontier between Peru
and the neighbouring republics of Ecuador, Colombia, and
Brazil also cropped up at intervals. A treaty was signed with
Brazil 1876, by which certain physical features were accepted
by both countries as the basis for the boundary. In the case
of Ecuador and Colombia a dispute arose in 1894 concerning
the ownership of large tracts of uninhabited country in the
vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon and its tributaries.
An agreement was proposed between Peru and Ecuador in
connexion with the limits of the respective republics, but diffi-
culties were created to prevent this proposal from becoming
an accomplbhed fact by the pretensions put forward by Colom-
bia. The latter state claimed sovereignty over the Napo and
Marafion rivers on the grounds of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
exercised over this section of territory during the period of
Spanish domim'on, the government of Colombia asserting
that these ecclesiastical rights to which Colombia became
entitled after her separation from the Spanish crown carried
also the right of absolute ownership. In a treaty signed by
the three interested states in 1895 a compromise was effected
by which Colombia withdrew a part of the claim advanced,
and it was agreed that any further difTcrcnccs arising out of this
frontier question should be submitted to the arbitration of the
Spanish crown. The later development of the boundary ques-
tion is dealt with at the outset of this article.
278 PERU— PERUGIA
Srftot Manuct CindiRiD luccecdcd ScAor Soman* 1) preiident In igoj Ibe value of Ibe tacUry pradncti «u lt,}0J,4ij
in i«o3. In the FoUowinE ycst he ditd, ind on the 34th of (17-3% more thin in 1900). Petnleura b fonod fa -lb*
Seplcmber 1 904 ScAoi JEHJ Parda wu instiLLed in the proiden- vicinity. Peru wu Kltled in
It LiiJia'and an atltmpt was made to asuuinale Praidmt PERUOU (anc. Ptriuia). ■ i .
Pardo. but they were, however, suppmsed without a kHoui Italy, the cipiial of the province of Perugia (which fc
CDlire cemparliwunlt at Umbria) litulted 1444 It. abon lea-
leveL. Fop. {i90(), ".i'l (town); 6s,S'j {commune). The
tono ii finely lituated upon a group of hilU neaiiy tooo ft.
above the valley of the Tiber. Jti ouiline ii very ineguUr; fna
the centre of the town, at the junction of several ridgr«t ptrtl
being divided from one another by deep vaUeya. Ths it Uk
eitent enclo^ by the medieval nails; within Ihcm are consdet-
able remains of the lofty terrace mill of the Eutruacan period.
The so-called Arco di Augusto ii a town gale wilb > Decorated
supertiructure, perhaps of the Eirutcan period, bearing the
inscription AhjhUs Ptntsia; above Ibis again is • RenaiBincc
loggia. The juperalruclure ot a similar gale [Porta Mania),
which was removed in 1 540 to make way for the dlidd, butll
depicted in a fresco by Benedetto Bontigli (between 1461 and
14;;), wa> ce-erccled in the lubslruction walls ol ibc citadel
Itself. It bears the inscription Cofvnu Vibia Amiiala Pmiit,
y> that the town must have become a colony Id the reign of tk
emperor C. Vibius Trebonianus Callus (a.n. 151-151). ■!» w«
a native of it. Four other gates of the Etruscan period can «]
be traced (F. Noack in Rtmuchi UilleUmtcn, iSoj, 166 tqq).
In Ihe garden of the church of S. Elisabeth was found in iSrf
s 6iie mosaic in black on a white ground tepresenllng Orphensa
Ihe midst of the beans {Nelitir irtii «<»>', '876, 181; 187T jotl-
The citadel was creeled by Pope Paul III. in I J40~iS46, alia
Ihe plans of Anionio da Sangallo Ihe younger, ud demoiilhd
in 1S60 (see Bacile di Casliglione in L'ArU, looj, J4j). TH
Piaua del Duomo is at the north of the Corw. On one silt
stands the cathedral of San Loienio, a Gothic structure g( ik
i4lhard ijih centuries, in Ihe plan of a Lalin cross, with uft
and aisles of equal height ; on the other Ihe Palazio del Uunidna.
preKnting two fine Gothic fafadet, of the I4lh century (ibi
the building was not completed till 1443). w' ■' '
the Pcrugian grillin and the Guelph lion above
by Arnolfo di Cambio, and adorned wi
'^^^'f^i'*iy??";JT"^^'^iF^',^^'£'^^'-:^*- by Niccolo and Giovanni Pisano. Tl
WH="M.°I^cfe'^.d«l-VT,rpi!i^lp^^^ buri^.pl=ceolU.banIV.andMartinlV.--the™nainsofl«>
DipCiciuilc Reparti ol Great Britain and the United Siatei; Hand- Cent III. were removed toRomeui iSqi and placedin tbebada
book of Peru and Bullet im of ihe Bumu of American Republics; of S. CiovanniinLatcrano— and the Virgin's wedding -riii(:»d
andtKedepanmenialpublicationsofthePcruvianGovemment. „ ,hc northeast corner is a citting staiue of Pope JolivtllL
PERU, a tity of La Salle county, Illinois. U.S.A., In Ihe by Vincenio Danti, creeled in i;;; by the penile of Ttn^
narth.cenlral pari of the state, on the N. bank ot the Illinois in gratitude for Ihe restoration of their dvic privUcfcx Ol
River.about loo m. S.VV. of Chicago and i m. W. of La ihedecoralionof IhcSaladelCaDibio,oroldeicliange,Pei4H
Salle.alerTninusofthelUinois&MicbigaD Canal. Pop.(iQoo), put Forth the full force of his genius. Most ol l)u moAlt
6g6j (1095 foreign-born); (1910). 1984. It i» served by Ihe paintings have since 1863 been collected is the Pintntto
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy and tile Chicago, Rock Island & Vannucci, established in the Palauo del Munidpio; beddti 1
Pacific railways. The cily is built on Ihe [ace and top of a considerable number of pieces by Perugino, then arc i|ii 1 [inM
■etic) of river bluffs. It i> the seat ot St fiede College (Raman of Niccolo Alunno, Bonhgli, Finturicchio, Ac A veiy iMoA-
Catholic. opened in 1S91), conducted by Benedictine fathera. ing and important exhibition of Umbiian art was bdd hot ii
Ins Urge public park there isa btonie monument in memory of 1907. The piclum, the needlework with some ^tlendid pioM
the soldiers of Peru who died in Ibc Civil War. There are of embtoideiy from S. Francesco at Aisisi, the veauaali d
eiiensive coal-mines in the vicinity; and the dty include! Pope Benedict XI.. and the majolica of Peru^ nA DbM^
various manufacturca. Peru was first aeitled about 1B17, waa a village 10 m. south, were espedally noteworthy (tee 0- CmI,
incorporated in 184s, and re-incorporated in 1S90. L'Arlt umbra atta Msiiro di Penitia, Bergamo, 190B). Ik
PERU.a cily and the county.<cat of Miami counly, Indiana, illuminated MSS. of the communal library, the calhcdnl irf
U.S.A.. about 75 m. N. of Indianapolis, on the Wabith Kiver. ihc church of S.I^elFo,[rom the 7th century onvaid^ wotll*
Pop. (1910 U.S. census), to,9io, Peru is served by the Chicago eihibited.
Cincinnati & Louisville, (be Lake Erie & Western and the The formation of the I^nacoleca Vannucd hu InpAtd Ot
Wabash railways (each of which maintain! shops here), and by iiiliii 1 if d il In 1 liui in iiihii 1 ii 1 1 iiitiin iiiiiliiiiiillM
electric lines to I^d;a^apoli^ Warsaw and other cities. The Sin Domenico, a Gothic edifice originally designed by riiin^
dly has a Carnegie library, a railway Young Men's Christian Pisano but rebuilt in 1614, contains Ihe nwoumcM «f tw
Association, and a hospital for the employes ol the Wabash Benedict XI. (attributed, but probably wrongly, (0 Ckm^
railroad. There laa cily park on the river, and 9 m. east of the Pisano by Vasari), and in ill east froni a Golhk wiDdnr alb
cily b Boyd park, an amusement resort. Peru is an important stained glass by Fra Banolommeo of Peruiii (t44i>. *•
grain and produce market, and hu varioua Bianutatlute* Pieiro de' Castinenu (ouliide the Port* Ramiiu] ii a liA* .
PERUGINO
279
vich nave and aislct, • founded in the beginning of the xith
ccatory by San Pietro Vincioll on the site of a building of the
<kh caAury, and remarkable for its conspicuous spire, its ancient
granite and marble columns, its walnut stall-work of 1535 by
Stefano de* Zambelli da Bergamo, and its numerous pictures (by
Fenigino, &c.)* The oratory of S. Bernardino has an early
Renaissance polychrome facade, richly sculptured, of 1457-1461,
by A|p)8tino d'Antonio di Ducdo of Florence. S. Scvcro con-
tains Raphael's first independent fresco (1505), much damaged
by lestMation. The circular church of S. Angclo, with sixteen
mtiqiie columns in the interior, probably dates from the middle
of the 6ih century. The university dates from 1307, and has
faculties of law, science and medicine; it had 318 students in
1902-1903. It contains an important museum of Etruscan and
Roman antiquities. Three miles to the S.S.E. the Etruscan
Mcropolis of the ancient city was discovered in 1870. The
large tomb <rf the Volumnl (3rd century b. c.) hewn in the rock,
vitb its carved cinerary urns, is interesting.
The ancient Peruaia first appears in history as one of the
twehre confederate cities of Etruria. It is first mentioned in
the account of the war of 310 or 309 B.C. between the Etruscans
and the Romans. It took, however, an important part in the
i^)dlioa of 295, and was reduced, with Vulsinii and Arrctium,
to sedi for peace in the following year. In 316 and 305 it
asiited Rome in the Hannibalic war, but afterwards it is not
nentioned until 41-40 B.C., when L. Anton ius took refuge there,
aad vas reduced by Octavian after a long siege. A number of
kad ballets used by slingers have been found in and around the
dty {Corpus inscr. lot. xi. 1312). The city was burnt, we
ait tdd, with the exception of the temples of Vulcan and Juno
"-the massive Etruscan terrace-walls, naturally, can hardly
have safiered at all — ^and the town, with the territory for a mile
RMmd, was allowed to be occupied by whoever chose. It must
have bea rebuilt almost at once, for several bases exist, inscribed
A»puh sacrium) Penisia restituia; but, as we have seen, it
(fid not become a colony until a.d. 351-353. It is hardly men-
tkned except by the geographers until the middle of the 6th
centmy, when it was captured by Totila after a long siege. In
the Lombard period it is spoken of as one of the principal cities
of Toida. In the 9th century, with the consent of Charles the
Gnat and Louis the Pious, it passed under the popes; but
for many centuries the city continued to maintain an indepen-
dent Ufe, warring a^inst many of the neighbouring lands
and cities — Foligno, Assisi, Spoleto, Montcpulciano, &c. It
ivmained true for the most part to the Guelphs. On various
oocaaons the popes found asylum within its walls, and it was
the meeting-place of the conclaves which elected Honorius II.
(itu), Honorius IV. (1385), Cdestine V. (1294), and Clement V.
(ijos). But Perugia had no mind simply to subserve the papal
interests. At the time of Rienzi's unfortunate enterprise it
ton ten ambassadors to pay him honour; and, when papal
kgatei sought to coerce it by foreign soldiers, or to exact con-
tfibattoas,-they met with vigorous resistance. In the 15th
ontuy power was at last concentrated in the Baglioni family,
^, though they had no legal position, defied all other authority.
Gian Paolo Baglioni was lured to Rome in 1530 and beheaded
WUo X.; and in 1534 Rodolfo, who had slain a papal legate,
*ai< defeated by Pier Luigi Famese, and the city, captured
nd plundered by his soldiery, was deprived of its privileges.
The dtadel was begun six years later " ad coercendom Perusi-
Mnn audaciam." In 1797 Perugia was occupied by the
'nKh; in 1832, 1838 and 1854 it was visited by earthquakes;
h May 1849 it was seized by the Austrians; and, after a futile
^Mnection in 1859, it was finally united, along with the rest of
thdiria, to Piedmont, in x86a
jSee G. Conestabite. / Monumenti di Perutia etrusca e romana
Vtnmi, 1855): M. ^roonds and L. Duff Gordon, Perugia (" Mcdi-
gd Towns Series"}. (1898); R. A. Gallenga Stuart. Perugia
wpno. 190s; W. Heyivood. HisL of Perugia (1910). (T. As.)
KlUOlllO, PIETRO (X44fr-i524), whose correct family
*Mtt was VANifUca, Italian painter, was bom in 1446 at Citti
Ml Pievc in Umbria, and .belongs to the Umbrian school of
painting. The name of Pcrugino came to him from Perugia,
the chief city of the neighbourhood. Pietro was one of several
children bom to Cristoforo Vannucci, a member of a respectable
family settled at Citti della Pieve. Though respectable, they
seem to have been poor, or else, for some reason or other, to
have left Pietro uncared for at the opening of his career. Before
he had completed his ninth year the boy was articled to a master,
a painter at Perugia. Wjio this may have been is very uncertain ;
the painter is spoken of as wholly mediocre, but sympathetic
for the great things in his art. Benedetto Bonfigli is generally
surmised; if he is rejected as being above mediocrity, either
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo or Niccold da Foligno may possibly have
been the man. Pietro painted a little at Arezxo; thence he went
to the headquarters of art, Florence, and frequented the famous
Brancacci Chapel in the church of the Carmine. It appears
to hi sufficiently established that he studied in the atelier of
Andrea del Verrocchio, where Leonardo de Vinci was also a
pupil. He may have learned perspective, in which he par-
ticularly excelled for that period of art, from Piero de' Fron-
ceschi. The date of this first Florentine sojoum is by no means
settled; some authorities incline to make it as early as 147a
while others, with perhaps better reason, postpone it till 1479.
Pietro at this time was extremely poor; he had no bed, but
slept on a chest for many months, and, bent upon making his
way, resolutely denied himself every creature comfort.
Gradually Perugino rose into notice, and became famous not
only throughout Italy but even beyond. He was one of the
earliest Italian painters to practise oil-painting, in which he
evinced a depth and smoothness of tint, which elicited much
remark; and in perspective he applied the novel mle of two
centres of vision. Some of his early works were extensive
frescoes for the Ingesati fathers in their convent, which was
destroyed not many years afterwards in the course of the siege
of Florence; he produced for them also many cartoons, which
they executed with brilliant effect in stained glass. Though
greedy for gain, his integrity was proof against tetnptation;
and an amusing anecdote has survived of how the prior of the
Ingesati doled out to him the costly colour of ultramarine, and
how Pcrugino, constantly washing his brushes, obtained a
surreptitious hoard of the pigment, which he finally restored
to the prior to shame his stingy suspiciousness. A good speci-
men of his early style in tempera is the circular picture in the
Louvre of the " Virgin and Child enthroned between Saints."
Perugino returned from Florence to Perugia, and thence,
towards 1483, he went to Rome. The painting of that part of
the Sixtine Chapel which is now immortalized by Michelangelo's
'• Last Judgment " was assigned to him by the pope; he covered
it with frescoes of the "Assumption," the " Nativity," and " Moses
in the Bulrushes." These works were ruthlessly destroyed to
make a space for his successor's more colossal genius, but other
works by Pemgino still remain in the Sixtine Chapel; " Moses
and Zipporah " (often attributed to Signorclli), the " Baptism
of Christ," and " Christ giving the Keys to Peter." Pinturicchio
accompanied the greater Umbrian to Rome, and was made his
partner, receiving a third of the profits; he may probably have
done some of the Zipporah subject.
Pietro, now aged forty, must have left Rome after the comple-
tion of the Sixtine paintings in i486, and in the autumn of that
year he was in Florence. Here he figures by no means advan-
tageously in a criminal court. In July 1487 he and another
Perugian painter named Aulista di Angclo were convicted, on
their own confession, of having in December waylaid with staves
some one (the name does not appear) in thcstrcet ncarS. Pieiro
Maggiore. Perugino limited himself, in intention, to assault
and battery, but Aulista had made up his mind for murder.
The minor and more illustrious culprit was fined ten gold ilorips,
and the major one exiled for life.
Between i486 and 1499 Perugino resided chiefly in Florence,
making one journey to Rome and several to Perugia. He was in
many other parts of Italy from time to time. He had a regular
shop in Floren(%, received a great number of commissions,
and continued developing his practice as an oil-painter, bis
le u thai ol Clic Vu Eydu. One ol bi
ra, the''- ■■ ■ ■ - ■ - ■■
li GaUtn .
_j. Fromabout ueShcbccaiiieinctciiiuiglylHcnaftciinon
[requenlly repeating hb groups fnm picture to picture, i
leavuig iQuch □[ bii hork to journeymen. In 1499 the gild
the cambio (money-chtngeis 01 banl^eis) dF Perugia uked I
(0 undertake the decotation of their sudltnce-haJI, and
accepted the invitation. Thij titcnsive schome o( work, wh
may have been Gnithed within the year 1500, comprised
painting of the vault with the seven planets and Ihc signi
the lodiac (Ferugino doing the designs and his pupils m
probably IbeiJecutive work) andlher«pr«eni»tionon ihe»,
of two sacred subjects— the " Nativity "and " Trinsfiguratlo
—the Eternal Father, the (our virtues of Jujiice. Prudcr
Temperance and Fortitude, Caio as the emblem of wisdi
and (in life >i«) numerous figtires ol classic worthies, praph
and sibyls. On the oiid-pilasler of tbe hall Pcrugino placed
own portrait in bust-torni. It is probable thai Raphael, v
in boyhood, towards I4«A, had been placed by his uncles un
the tuition of Pcrugino, bore a hand in the work of the viuiti
II may have been about this lime (though some accounts d
the event a few years later) that VannuccI married a young 1
beautiful wife, the objetl of his fond affection; he loved to
her handsomely dressed, a '
ands. He Hi
e Pcrugino, though by no means st
rsof Fen
Ling conlentedty upon
wave of new art flooded f1
oren
e with its rush and Italy n
its ru
Mur. Michelangelo
ty-five yeare of age in is
follow
ng after and distanc
ng Leonardo da Vinci, was open
men's
posi
iscd. Vannucd in
Feru
gia heard Buonarroti brui
■broad
and was impatient
Uir was all about. In i
M h
allowed his apprenticea 1
nis to disperse, and
ned to Florence. Though
detracting, he vicwe
1 jealousy and some grudg
the ad
vances made by Mi
helii
gelo; and Michelangelo on
.lied, with the intoieranci
which pertains to superior
to the
diip
ruse of his senior and iunio]
the ar
. On one occaaion
hisfac
that he was" a bu
glet
m»rt"((<if»Ma'or((). V
nucci brought, with equal
ction and ill success, an act
for del
malion of character.
Pu
on his mettle by this mortify
mined to show
It he could d
produced Ihc duj-d'wan of the " Madon
the Certosa of Pavia. The constituent pans of this nc
work have now been lunderedJ Tbe only portion which remi
in the Certosa is a figure of Cod the Father with cherub
An " Annunciation " hai disappeared from cognisance; ll
compartments— the Virgin adoring the infant Christ, St Mich
and St Raphael with Tobias— arc among the choicer Ireasi
ol the National Gallery, London. The current story t
Raphael bore a hand in the work is not likely to be true. 1
was succeeded in 1505 by an " Assumption," in the Cappdia
Rabatla, in the church of the Servi in Florence. The paint
may have been eieeuted diiclly by a pupil, and was at any 1
a failure- it was much decried; Fcrugiro lost his scholarsi i
towards 1506 he oncd more and finally abandoned Florei
going 10 Perugia, and thenee in a year or two to Rome.
Pope Julius II. bad summoned Pcrugino to paint the Sta
in the Valicin, now called that of the Incendio del Borgo;
be soon prelerrcd a younger competitor, thai very Riphael (
had been trained by the aged master ol Perugia; and Vannu
alter painting the ceiling with figures of God the Father
different glories, in five mcdaUion-subiecLs, found his occupal
iaii
; he retired (roi
: of the bi
Penigino's last frescoes were painted for the monastery of
S. Agnese in Perugia, and In is>3 for ihe church of CaMcUo di
Foriignano hard by. Both series have disappeared (ram iheir
places, the second being now in Ihe Victoria and Albert Museum.
He was still at Foatignano In 1514 when the plague broke out,
and he died. He was buried in unconsecrnted ground in a field,
unwonted a mode of burial has been discussed, and religious
scepticism on the painter'a own part has been aHigncd as the
cause; the (act, however, appears to be that, on the Sudani
and widespread outbreak of the plague, tbe panic^truii kKii
kuthorilies ordained that all victiras of the disorder should
he at once interred without any waiting for religious rite*. Thk
leads us to speak of Perugino's opinions on religion. Vastri k
our chief, but not our sole, authority (or saying that VsnniKd
had very Utile religion, and was an open and obdurate disbdievtl
In the immortality of the soul. For a reader of the present diy
it is easier than it was for Vasarl to suppose thai Peruana may
have been a materialist, and yet just as good and laudable s
man as his orthodoi Catholic neighbours or bmiber-artlstt;
still there is a stroog discrepancy between the quality of his art,
in which all is throughout Christian, Catholic, dcvotknal, and
even pictistic, and the character of an anti-Chrisliaii cok
lemner of the doctrine ol immortality. It is difficult lorccandl
this discrepancy, and certainly not a little dilEcult also to nippoc
that Vasari was totally mistaken b his assertion ; he was bm
twenty yean before Perugino's death, and must have talked wili
scorn of people to whom tbe Umbrian painter had been kI
known. We have to remat): that Pcrugino in 1494 painiBl
his own portrait, now in the UBiii Gallery o( Florence, and isle
this he introduced a scroll lettered " Timete Deum." Thilsi
open disbeliever should Inscribe himself with " Timete Peun '
The portrait In question shows a plump (ace, with
II dark ej
a short
the ncck.is thick, the hair bushy and frieilcd, and the gennl
air imposing. The later portrait in the Cambio of Pei^
shows the same face with traces of added years. Pcrueo'' ^
possessed of considerable property, leaving three loni.
. In S. Onolri.
«l frei ' ■ ■
ol FlotciKC is
it has''E«n'ai
Raphael; I
but not insj^ied voilr;
some diffoient pufril of tbe viaui
AuTiiOKiiies. — In addition 1
PUUo Pmiita t ieili Ktlari
Patrt VtHnMii (iB»: MariotI
CUude Phillips (in Tkt PttlfelM
(1900 and 190J).
PERDKB, *n aniGcial hea>
from Fr- prrni^iu, an adapta'
This ia usually taken, to be :
much lauded ami mm^
relul and bUmllT cma
icd to PenifiHi by M^
Ci^^and Cmlasde, mt U
.804); Meazanotu.. Vila, aitj*
Lrllrrc Biimriikl Ptrmp" (>TW!
~rcnch word took, such as ftrnak or fcrsv, «Hi..j
to fiirvrykt, and [hence into pcrmyi, fitaiit, Hi <
PERUZZI— PESCADORES
281
cnn for all types of trtifidal heads of hair. Periwig
DCS amiined to the heavy full-bottomed wigs worn
rdgn of Charles II. to the introduction of the li^t,
of the 18th century.
m BALDA8SARB (1481-1536), Italian architect
cr of the Roman school, was bom at Ancajano, in
e of Volterra, and passed his early, life at Siena, where
resided. While quite young Peruzzi went to Rome,
studied architecture and painting; in the latter he
rst a follower of Perugino. The choir frescoes in
0610 on the Janiculan Hill, usually 'attributed to
lio, are by his hand. One of the first works which
sMwn to the young architect was the villa on the banks
ber in Rome now known as the Famesina, originally
Jie Sienese Agostino Chigi, a wealthy banker. This
an Peruzzi's works, is remarkable for its graceful
1 tht delicacy of its detail. It is best known for the
ainted there by Raphael and his pupils to illustrate
I of I^yche and Galatea. One of the loggic has frescoes
i^ own hand — the story of Medusa. On account of
i Peruzzi was appointed by Leo X. in 1520 architect
ff's at a salary of 250 scudi; his design for its comple>
lot, however, carried out. During the sack of Rome
eruzzi barely escaped with his life, on condition of his
:he portrait of Constable de Bourbon, who had been
ing the siege (see Vasari). From Rome he escaped to
ere he was made dty architect, and designed fortifica-
its defence, a great part of which still exist. Soon
i he returned to Rome, where he made designs for a
the Orsini famOy, and built the palaces Massimi and
I well as others in the south of Italy. He died in
was buried by the side of Raphael in the Pantheon.
was an eager student of mathematics and was also
islcal scholar. Like many of the great artists of his
ras remarkable for the varied extent of his knowledge
A most able architect, a fair painter, and a scientific
he also practised minor arts, such as stucco-work in
affito, and the decorative painted arabesques which
oce of Raphael did so much to bring into use. His
ng works in fresco are in the Castel di Bclcaro and the
Fontcgiusta in Siena. For Siena Cathedral he also
1 magniocent wooden organ-case, painted and gilt,
carved arabesques in friezes and pilasters; he also
Jie high altar and the Cappclla del Battista.
ef pupil was the architect Serlio, who, in his work on
re, gratefully acknowledges the great debt he owed to
instruction. The English National Gallery possesses
ting drawing by his hand. The subject is the " Adora-
e Magi," and it is of ^>edal value, because the heads
ee kings are portraits of Michelangelo, Raphael, and
nbe Uffizi and the library at Siena contain a number
fs designs and drawings, many of which are now of
value, as they show andent buildings which have
royed since the i6th century.
jnzs. — Vasari, Vita di Baldassare Peruzzi (Milanesi's cd..
489: Miliria, iiemorie degfi architeUi (1781, i. 210-215);
le, LtUere senesi (I782>i786); Gayc, CarUggio inedito
1839-1840}; Lanzi, SUxria pittorica (1804); and Platncr,
ng der Siadt Rom (i 830-1842).
3IUUM1 VENERIS, the Vigil of Venus, a short
in. The author, date, and place of composition are
The poem probably bdongs to the 2nd or 3rd
JX An artide signed L. Raqueitius in the C/aj5/ca/
fay 190s) assigns it to Sidonius Apollinaris (5th cent.)
rrittoi professedly In early spring on the eve of a
its* festival of Venus (probably April 1-3). It
In poetical language the annual awakening of the
and animal world through the goddess. It consists
•three verses in trochaic septenarii, and is divided
•bcs of unequal length by the refrain:
anaet qui nunquam amavit; quiquc amavit eras amet."
Jittm was the term for a nocturnal festival in honour of
lity, e^wdally Bona Dea.
Editto prinoeps (i$77): modem editions by F. BOchder (1859),
A. Rieae, m Anikologia toHna (1869), E. Bahrena in UnedierU latetn'
iscke CedickU (1877}; S. G. Owen (with Catullus. 1893). There are
translations into English verse by Thomas Stanley (16x1) and
Thomas Pamcll, author of The Hermit', on the text see J. W. Macloll
in Journal ef FkiMoa (1888}, voL xvu.
PESARO (anc. Pisaurum, q.v.), a dty and seaport of the
Marches, Italy, the capital of the province of Pesaro and Urbino,
situated on the coast of the Adriatic 37 m. N.W. of Ancona by
rail, on the right bank of the Foglia, the andent Pisaurus. The
ground on which it is buOt is oiUy from 10 to 40 ft. above the
sea, but it is surrounded by hills — on the E. by Monte Ardizio,
on the W. by Monte Acdo or San Bartolo, which derives one
of its names from the tradition that the Roman dramatist
L. Attius was bom and buried on the spot. Upon this hill stands
the Villa Imperiale, the foundation stone of which was laid by
the emperor Frederick III., buOt by the Sforza, and decorated
with fine stucco ceilings and wall paintings and pavements
of majolica plaques. A new palace was begun in 1530 by the
Genga for Eleonora Gonzaga, but never finished. The dty walls
were in 1830 transformed into a public promenade. Besides
the andent cathedral of the Annundation (restored since i860)
with a X2th-€entury mosaic pavement, there are a number of
smaller churches, several with Gothic portals. One of these,
the church of San Francesco, now used as a cathedral, contains
the " Coronation of the Virgin " by Giovanni Bellini, the largest
and most important of his works outside Venice. The most
conspicuous buildings are the prefecture (a palace originally
erected in 1455-1465 by the Dalmatian architect Ludano da
Laurana for the Sforza, and restored by Francesco Maria della
Rovcre in the i6th century, the Rossini theatre (opened in 1818),
the fortress of Rocca Costanzia (built by Costanzo Sforza in
1474, Laurana being the architect), and the large lunatic asylum.
The composer Gioacchino Rossini, who was a native of Pesaro,
left all his fortune to foimd a musical lyceum in the city, and his
statue by Marochetti (1864) stands near the railway station.
The Olivieri library (established by the antiquary of that name,
author of Marmara pisaurensiOt &c.) contains about 14,000
volumes, MSS. of Tasso, &c, inscriptions and various antiquities,
and a very fine collection of majolica (one of the best in Italy)
from the old Urbino and other manufactories. The Museo
Mosca, left by its owner to the town, contains important collec-
tions of faience, furniture, &c. Among the industries of Pesaro
are the growing, spinning and weaving of silk, tanning, iron-
founding, and the manufacture of glass and pottery. It is also
the centre of a rich agricultural district. The harbour is of no
great importance, but there is a small export trade in wine,
olives, sUk and glass. Pop. (1901), 14,768 (town); 24,823
(commune).
Destroyed by Vitiges the Goth, the town was restored and
strengthened by Belisarius, and afterwards along with Ancona,
Fano, Scnigallia, and Rimini formed the Pcntapolis Maritima.
In the course of the 13th century Pasaro was sometimes under
the government of the'popes, sometimes under that of the
emperors; but the Malatesta family, which first took root in the
city about 1285, gradually became tiie real masters of the place.
In 1445 they sold their rights to Francesco Sforza; and in 151 2,
through the influence of Julius II., the Sforza were supplanted
by his nephew Francesco Maria, diike of Urbino. Leo X. took
the dty away from Francesco and gave it to Lorenzo de' Medici;
but on Lorenzo's death Francesco was restored and Pesaro
became the ordinary residence of the dukes of Urbino till the
death of Francesco Maria II. in 163 1, when it reverted to the
States of the Church. It has formed part of the present kingdom
of Italy since x86o. Terenzio Mamiani della Rovere, poet and
statesman, was bom at Pesaro in 1800.
PESCADORES (i.e. fishers,) a group of islands (called
by the Japanese IldkS td or Hdko Cuntd) lying 30 m. west
of Formosa, from which they are separated by the Pescadores
Channel, about the tropic of Cancer. The islands number 48
(21 inhabited), have a coast-line of 98 67 miles, a total area of
85'50sq. m., and a population of about 55,000, principally Chinese.
Flat and with tmproductive soil, they are swept during one
282
PESCARA— PESHAWAR
h&lf of the year by violent N.E. winds, and also lie full in the
path of the numerous typhoons that rush up the Strait of
Formosa. Meteorological observations taken by the Japanese
during a period of three years show that the annual average
number of stormy days is 237. The anchorage is at Mako
(MakyCL or Makun) on the principal island of Penghu. The
chief industry is fishing (whence the old Spanish name which
has come into general use) and dried fish arc exported.
PESCARA. FERNANDO FRANCESCO DAVALOS, Marquis
OF (1489-1525), Italian condotlitret was bom at Naples, his
family being of Spanish origin. Rodrigo (Ruy) Lopez Davalos,
his great-grandfather, a noble of Toledo, who had taken an
active part in the civil wars of Castile in the reign of John II.
(1407-1454), had been driven into exile, and died at Valencia.
Iftigo (Ignatius), his son, entered the service of Alphonso of
Aragon and Naples, followed his master to Italy, and there,
making an advantageous marriage with a lady of the family
of Aquino, was created marqub of Pescara. His son Alphonso,
who succeeded him in the marquisate, married a lady of the
Sicilian branch of the Spanish family of Cardona, and when
he was treacherously killed, during a French invasion of Naples,
his only son Fernando, or Ferrante, was a child in arms. At
thf age of six the boy was betrothed to Vittoria Colonna (q.v.),
daughter of the general Fabrizio Colonna, and the marriage was
celebrated in 1509. His position as a noble of the Aragonese
party in Naples made it incumbent on him to support Ferdinand
the Catholic in his Italian wars. In 151a he commanded a body
of light cavalry at the battle of Ravenna, where he was wounded
and taken prisoner by the French. Thanks to the intervention
of one of the foremost of the French generals, the Italian
J. J. Trivulzio, who was his connexion by marriage, he was
allowed to ransom himself for 6000 ducats. He commanded
the Spanish infantry at the battle of La Morta, or Viccnza,
on the 7th of October 1513. It was on this occasion that he
called his men before the charge to take care to step on him
before the enemy did if he fell. From the battle of Vicenza
in 1 513, down to the battle of La Bicocca on the 29th of April
1522, he continued to serve in command of the Spaniards and
as the colleague rather than the subordinate of Prosper Colonna.
It was only by the accident of his birth at Naples that Pescara
was an Italian. He considered himself a Spaniard, spoke
Spanish at all times, even to his wife, and was always surrounded
by Spanish soldiers and officers. His opinion of the Italians as
fighting men was unfavourable and was openly expressed. After
the battle of La Bicocca Charles V. appointed Prosper Colonna
commander-in-chief. Pescara, who considered himself aggrieved,
made a journey to Valladolid in Spain, where the emperor then
was, to state his own claims. Charles V., with whom he had
long and confidential interviews, persuaded him to submit for
the time to the superiority of Colonna. But in these meetings
he gained the confidence of Charles V. His Spanish descent
and sympathies marked him out as a safer commander of the
imperial troops in Italy than an Italian could have been. When
Francis I. invaded Italy in 1524 Pescara was appointed as lieu-
tenant of the emperor to repel the invasion. The difficulties
of his position were very great, for there was much discontent
in the army, which was very ill paid. The tenacity, patience
and tact of Pescara triumphed over all obstacles. Ills influence
over the veteran Spanish troops and the German mercenaries
kept them loyal during the long siege of Pavia. On the 24th of
February 1525 he defeated and took prisoner Francis I. by a
brilliant attack. Pescara's plan was remarkable for its
audacity and for the skill he showed in destroying the superior
French heavy cavalry by assaiUng them in flank with a mixed
force of harqucbusicrs and light horse. It was believed that
he was dissatisfied with the treatment he had received from the
emperor; and Girolamo Morone, secretary to the duke of Milan,
approached him with a scheme for expelling French, Spaniards
and Germans alike from Italy, and for gaining a throne for
himself. Pescara may have listened to the tempter, but in
act he was loyal. He reported the offer to Charles V. and put
Morone into prison. His health however had begun to give
way under the stndn of wounds and ctposure; and he died at
Milan on the 4th of November 1525. Pescara had no childra;
his title descended to his cousin the marquis dd Vasto, abo a
distinguished imperial generaL
AuTUOUTiBS.— The life of Pescara was written in Latin by Pado
Giovio, and is included in the Vitae iUnstrium vtroriMi, printed at
Basel 1578. Giovio's Latin Lift was translated by L. uomeDicki,
the translator of hu other works, and published at Florence, ISSI-
The Spanish HiUoria ddJortUsimo y pndenHsnmo capUoM Dm
Hernando dt Avalos^ by £1 Maestro P. ValUs (Antwerp, issgX
is also a translation of Giovio. See alao Mignet, Rualiti dt FnmgSu
J" et de Charles Quint (Paris, 1875), which gives refetenoes to al
authorities. (D. R)
PESCARA, a liver of Italy, formed by the confluence of the
Gizio and Atemo, and flowing into the Adriatic at the small towB
of Pescara. This town occupies the site of the andent AlcnmB,
the terminus of the Via Claudia Valeria, and up to 1867 a fortroi
of some importance. The railvray from Sulmona follows the
Pescara valley and joins the coast line to Brindisi si FeKeia.
In this valley, 22 m. from the sea, was the site of the anckaC
Interpromium, a town belonging probably to the Padigni; and
not far of! is the very fine Cistercian abbey church of S. Clfinfrtt
di Casauria, founded by the emperor Louis IL in 871. TW
present building belongs to the 12th century. The sculptaia
of the portals, the pulpit, the Paschal candelabrum, ftc^ aad
the bronze doors of this period are important. The duonidi
of the abbey, of the end of the 1 2th century, is in the BibUoth^qni
nationale at Paris.
See V. Bindi, Monumenii degli A hna» (Naples, 1889), pp. 405 tqf^l
P. L. Calorc in Archivio storico deW arte (Rome, 1891), iv. 9 sqq.
PESCHIERA SUL GARDA. a fortress of Venetia, Italy, ii
the province of Verona, on an island in the Mlndo at its ostht
from the lake of Garda, 77 m. by rail E. of Milan. It was ow
of the famous fortresses of the (Quadrilateral, the diief buhnA
of the Austrian rule in Italy until 1866 (Mantua, Legnago asd
Verona being the other three) and has played a prominent ptit
in all the campaigns conducted in north Italy, move especi^f
during the Napoleonic wars. It was taken by the Piedmoolai
from the Austrians, after a gallant defence by General Raft
lasting six weeks, on the 30th of May 1848, and since that date
has been in Italian hands.
PESCIA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the i»ovince of Loocii
from which it is 15 m. E.N.E. by rail, 203 ft. above sea4evd.
Pop. (1901), 12,400 (town); 18,000 (commune). The cathedial^
restored in 1693, contains the fine chapel of the Turini fanl^»
built for Baldassare Turini (d. 1540) by Giuliano di Baccioaf
Florence, with his tomb by Raflaello da Montdiqio. The
town also has some buildings by Lazzaro Buggiano, the popfl
and adoptive son of BninelleschL It has silk and paper naaa*
factures.
PESETA, a silver coin and unit of value, the SpaiUsh equivakat
of the French, Belgian and Swiss franCf the Italian lira and the
Greek drachma in the Latin monetary union. The peso (Let
pcnsum, weight), of which peseta is a diminutive, was a Spaairil
coin of gold, peso de oro, or silver, peso de ptata^ once cnncst ii
Spain and her colonies, and now the name of a silver ooiB of
many South American states. The peso is also the naaK of
the Mexican dollar.
PESHAWAR, a city of British India, the capital of He
North-West Frontier Province, giving its name to a dirtrict
The city is situated near the left bank of the river Bara, 11 b. &OBI
Jamrud at the entrance of the Khyber Pass, the railway statiot
being 1588 m. north-west of Calcutta; pop. (1901), 95,147. T«o
miles west of the native city are the cantonments, formiBf the
principal military station of the North-West Frontier Proriaot
Peshawar lies within a horseshoe ring of hills on the edfe of
the mountain barrier which separates India from AfghinitfT'S
and through it have passed nearly all the invaders from theafllAu
The native quarter is a huddle of flat-roofed houses within whU
walls, crowded along narrow, crooked alleys; there b but eoe Cb^
wide street of shops. Here for many centuries the
or Afghan travelling merchants, have brou^t their
from Kabul, Bokhara and Samarkand eveiy *iit\iH« Ikf
PESHIN— PESSIMISM
283
briog hantB, nool, woollen - stuffs, ''silks, dyesT feold-threid,
triut*, pncious stones, oupels and poshtins (sheepskin clothing),
|g>Hing and buying their way to the British border- where,
Ittving their arms, they are free to wander at will to Delhi,
Apn and CakuU^ The chief speciality of Peshawar conaisu
•f bright-ODloured scarves called lungis; waz-doth and oma-
■cnUl nccdle-woik axe also local products, as wdl as knives
nd small aims.
The district of Peshawar has an area of a6ii sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 788,707, showing an increase of 10-8% in the
(iecade. Except on the south-east, where the Indus flows,
it is CDdfded by mountains which are inhabited by the
Mnhmtnd, Utman Khd and Afridi tribes. The plain consists
c( afinvial deposits of silt and gravel. The district is naturally
itrtile and wcO watered, and is irrigated by the Swat River
CuaL Tbe princ^tal crops are wheat, barley, maize, millets
ad oil-seeds, with a little cotton and sugar-cane. Peshawar
' d» produces a fine variety of rice, known as " Bara rice,"
after the river which irrigates it. The North-Westera railway
erases the district from Attock, and has been extended
bom Peshawar dty to Jamrud for military purposes. The
datritt is chiefly inhabited by Pathans; there are some Hindus
CBgigBd in trade as bankers, merchants and shop-keepers.
la early times the district of Pteshawar seems to have had an
aseatiafly Indian population, for it was not till the x 5th century
tbat fts present Pathan inhabitants occupied jL Under tlie
Buse of Gandhara it was a centre of Buddhism, and especially
Gfacoo-Boddhism. Rock-edicts of Asoka still exist at two places;
sad a Uupa excavated in 1909 was found to contain an inscription
cf Kanidika, as well as relics bdieved to be those of Buddha
UflHclf. Tbe last of the Indian Buddhist kings was conquered
by Mahmod of Ghazni in 1009. The Mogul emperors adways
food difficulty in maintaining their authority over the Afghan
border tribes, who finally established their independence during
the rdgn of Aurangzeb. Peshawar was a favourite residence
of tbe Affj^lian dynasty founded by Ahmed Shah Durrani, and
bcre Mountstuart Elphinstone came as ambassador to Shah
Shnjah in 1809. A few jrears later Ranjit Singh crossed the
Indus, and after much hard fighting Sikh authority was firmly
otatriisbed under General AvitabUe in 1831. In 1848 the whole
of the Punjab passed to the British. During the Mutiny,
after the sepoy re^ments had been disaimed, Peshawar was a
Bwce of strength rather than of danger, though Sir John
Lawrence did at one time contemplate the necessity of surrender-
ing it to the Afghans, in order to preserve the rest of Northern
India.
PBHUi* or PXSHIN, a district of Baluchistan. Area 3717
sq.m. Pop. (1901), 5o,aoa It consists of a large plain surrounded
00 three sides bo^ hills, which formerly belonged to Afghan-
ittan bet was ceded to the British by the treaty of Gandamak
in 1879. This plain is of considerable strategic importance, as
it forms the focxts of a great number of routes leading from
Sud and the Punjab frontier districts to Kandahar, and is
intersected by the Sind-Peshin railway. The agricultural
wealth of Peshin, and consequently its revenues, have increased
greatly under British adminbtration.
FOHinO, or PEsmro (t^. " simple "), the standard version
of the Bible in the Syriac language. It was long supposed to
be the original Ssrriac version, but is now generally recognized
as representing a revision made by Rabbula, bishop of Edcssa,
cariy in the 5th century, an attempt at standardizing the Syriac
text such as Jerome had made for the Latin in his Vulgate. (See
Bible.)
PBHWA (Persian for ** leader,'' "guide"), the title of the
head of the Mahratta confederacy in India. Originally the
pcsliwm was only prime minister, but afterwards he supplanted
feis master and became chief of the state, founding an hereditary
dysHty, with tbe capital at Poona. The last pesbwa, Baji
Bao, came into collision with the Britidi, and was dethroned
fe 1818. His adopted son, Nana Sahib, took a leading part in
the Mutiny of 1857, in revenge for being deprived of what he
lights.
PESSimSH (from Lat. pesamus, worst), a word of modem
coinage,* denoting an attitude of hopelessness towards life, a
vague general opinion that pain and evil predominate in human
affairs. It is the antithesis of " optimism," which denotes the
view that on the whole there is a balance of good and pleasure,
or at least that in the k>ng run good will triumph. Between
optimism and pessimism is the theory of " meliorism," according
to which the world on the whole makes progress in goodness.
The average man is pessimist or optimist not on theoretical
grounds, but owing to the circumstances of his life, his material
prosperity, his bodily health, his general temperament. Perhaps
the most characteristic example of unsystematic pessimism
is the language of Ecdesiastes, who concludes that "all is
vanity."
Pessimism and optimism have, however, been etpressed in
systematic philosophical forms, a brief summary only of which
need here be given. Such systems have been elaborated chiefly
by modem thinkers, but the germs of the ideas are found widely
spread in the older Oriental philosophies and in pre-Christian
European thought. Generally speaking, pessimism may be
found in all panthdstic and materialistic systems. It is im-
portant, however, to point out an essential distinction. The
thinker who sees man confronted by the infinite non-moral
forces presumed by natural pantheism inevitably predominating
over the finite powers of men may appear to the modem Christian
theologian or to the evolutionist as a hopeless pessimist, and yet
may himself have concluded that, though the future holds out
no proiq)ect save that of annihilation, man may yet by pmdence
and care enjoy a conuderable measure of happiness. Pessimism,
therefore, depends upon the individual point of view, and the
term is frequently used merely in a condemnatory sense by Hdstile
critics. The attitude of a man who denies the doctrine of
immortality and rejoices in the denial is not strictly pesumistic
A Christian again may be pessimistic about the present; he
must logically be optimistic about the future — a teleological
view of the universe implies optimism on the whole; the agnostic
may be indifferent to, or. pessimistic, regarding the future, while
exceedingly satisfied with life as he finds it.
This complex view of life is exemplified by Plato, whose general
theory of idcxilism is entirely optimistic. In analysing the world
of phenomena he necessarily takes a pessimistic view because
phenomena are merely imitations more or less removed from
reality, i.e. from the good. Yet the idealistic postulate of a
summum bonunt is in result optimistic, and this view predomin-
ated among the Stoics and the Ncoplatonists. Thf Epicureans,
on the other hand, were empirical pessimists. Man is able
to derive a measure of enjoyment from life in spite of the non-
existence of the orthodox gods; yet this enjoyment is on the
whole negative, the avoidance of pain. A sin^ilar view is tbat
of the andent sceptics.
Oriental pessimism, at least as understood by Europeans,
is best exemplified in Buddhism, which finds in human life
sorrow and pain. But all pain and sorrow are incidental to
the human being in his individual capacity. He who will cast
aside the " Bonds," the " Intoxications," the " Hindrances,"
and tread the Noble Eightfold Path (see BuDomsM) which leads
to Nirvana, will attain the ideal, the "Fruit of Arahatship,"
which is described in terms of glowing praise in the Pali hynms.
This, the original doctrine of the Buddha, though not adopted
in the full sense by all his followers, is in fact at least as optimistic
as any optimism of the West. To call it " pessimism " is merely
to apply to it a characteristically Wcstem principle according
to which happiness is impossible without personality. The
true Buddhist on the contrary looks forward with enthusiasm
to this absorption into eternal bliss.
In Europe on the whole the so-CaAed pessimistic attitude
was commoner in the Teutonic north than in the Mediterranean
basin. But even here tbe hopefulness as regards a future life,
in which the inequalities of the present would be rectified, com-
pensated for the gloomy fatalism with which the present was
* The earliest example given in the Ktw English Dictionary is
in S. T. Coleridge's UtUrs (1794).
'»*
PESSINUS— PESTALOZZI
h iu oitesiHicil
Rgirdcd. Tbe advent c[ Oiiuliuii
iwcnioii of fulurc bappincu ioc the gtxxl, la » Uige utent
did away with pcuimiim In tbe true huc. In Lcibniu we
tbe pcilal work of a God who [rom all pouibilitia icleclcd the
b«*t- Kant, though pnumiatic aa regards the actuoJ man, a
aptjmjatk regarding hia moral capacity. To Hegel umibuly
the woild, though evil al any moment, piogtoses byconSici
and niSering towardi the good.
Pasi'ng over the Iiaiian Lecqunli we may notice two lead-
ing nmicrn pnsimbti, Schopenhauer and von Haitmann.
Schopenhauf c emphasiio ibe p«9simblic sides! Hegel's [bought.
The universe is merely blind Will, not Ihoughti this Will ii
being a picture ol the Will ii [heietorc simitariy unhappy.
nlhcrefoR merely L he nnwvalof pain. Von Hart man n's doctrine
doctrine of the Will. The Unconsciout which combines Will
and Rcawn is, however, pcimarily Will. Tbe workings of ihii
more ntlouiliicd nnd understands the whole meaning of the
Wellschraen, it ullinuLcly readies the point at which Ihe desire
from that of Schopenhauer in being collective and ool individual.
The pessimism of Schopenhauer and HaitmaDa docs not,
however, exclude ■ certain uliimaie myitidsm, obich beaia
■ome analogy lo that of Buddhism.
Pes^Riism is naturally connecied with matcrLilist. optimism
with idealist, views of life. The theories of the tnodeinevoluiion-
ist school, however, have iniroduccd into materialistic iheoiy
a new optimistic noie in doclrinis such as that of ihe survival
of Ihe finest. Such doctrines regard Ihe progress ol humanity
(S DO Ihe whole tending lo the greater perfection, and arc
decay. Similarly the cynical contempt which Nielacbe shows
lot morality and the conventional virtues is counterbalanced
by the iheory of the Obamt»Kh, the highest type ol manhood
which by struggle bas escaped fnim the onlmaiy WEakoesses
(n Asia Minor, situated on the lowcsl southern slope ol Ml
Dindymus, on the left bank of the river Sangarius, not fat from
Its source. The ruins, discovered by IVsiicr, He round the village
ol Bala-Hissar, 8 or 9 m. S.E. of SvriHissar. They include
■ theatre in partial preservation, but they have been mosily
carried ofi to Slvri-IIissar, which is brgely buill oul ol them.
Ori^nally a Phrygian city, probably on Ihe Persian " Royal
Road," it became the capital of Ihe Callie tribe Tolistobogli
and Ihe chief commercial city of Ihe district. It contained the
most famous sanctuary of the molhcr oi the gods (Cybclc), who
here went by Ihc name of Agdistis, and was associated with
Ihe god Atiis, as elsewhere with Sabarius, &c. Her priests
r(QM<
foe couM be driven from Italy it the U
were bnught from Peiainus to B
Ihe town, who obtained the sacred stone which vu tbe nabi
of the goddess and brought it to Rome, iriiere tbe woeuip <
Cybele was eilablished. But tbe goddess continued (« t
worshipped in her old home; her priests, the Galli, went QUI t
mlcomc Manlius on his march in iflg i.e., which shows tbat tl)
town was not yet in Ihe hands of the TolistobociL Sana afu
Ibis a splendid new temple of Ihe goddoa wu built by ll
FcTgamenian kings. Some time before 1&4 ^.c Ptsiaus fa
into the power ol the Cauls, and the membenhip of tbe pttotl
college was then equally divided between tbe Canb ud tl
old priestly families, l4ke Ancyra and Tavium, Fcaaiiiui «i
Romaniicd first and Ilelleniied afterwards. Only about A. 1
i6j did Hellenic ways and modes o( tbou^t beshi to 1
assumed; bclotethat wc find a deep substratum of Cdlicfedii
without filtering through a Hellenic medium. Chriiliiuiity «i
introduced bie; it cannot be traced beloie tbe 4tb ccnlnr
When Galalia was divided into Iwo promnca (ko. jM-m:
Pessinus was made the capita] of Galalia Secnnd* or Slhtail
and it became a metropolitan bishopric After tbe ilStb cntui
it disappeara from history, being supplanted, from tbe bc^
ning of Ihe period of Saracen invasion, by ifae inpccpttb
fortress Juslinianopolis (Sivri-Hissat), which became tbc(>|ri1
and the residence ol the bishop, thenceforward called "uc
bishop of Pnsinus or of Justinianopolis." (J. C C A.)
PESTALOZZI. JOHAim HBIllKtCH (1746-1B17), Sai
educational reformer, was bom al Zurich on ibc iithsf jasBsg
1 746. His lather died when he was young, and be wu hmigll
up by his molhcr. At the univcr^ly of ZDricbbevaiaBodilid
with Lavater and Ihe party of reform. His esdiot yiui m
spent in schemes for improving Ihe csndilioo of die pcaflt
The death ol his friend Bluntschli turned him bowewg bm
politics, and induced him to devote himself to educuioa. Hi
mariicd al twenty-three and bought a piece of wuu lud N
Ncuhof in Aargau, where he allempted Ihe cultivation of biMk
Pestaluul knew nothing of business, and tbe pUo faOed. Wm
this he hid opened his farm-bouse as * scbool; b« k
17S0 he had to give this up also. His Gist book pubUddM
Ibis lime was TIk Evniint Hoari s/ s Haiiul {1780), * saJB
of aphorisms and tcflcctlons. Ibis was followed by hit bhUt
piece, Lttnard aiul Ccrlrnit (17S1), an account of tbe gndv
reformalion. firjl of a household, and then of a iriiole vtUagCi li
the efforts of a good and devoted womaiL It was read vii
avidity in Germany, and Ihe name of Pcslakwid was rescued In
obscurity. The French invasion of SwiUeilaod in ijgt bna(
into relief his truly bennc character. A number of chOd
were left in Canton Unierwalden on the shores of the Lak
Lucerne, without parents, home, food or sheller. Fatal
collected a number of ihem into a deserted convent, and >
ins them. During the winter he peoo
Iheic
e country re
re ruler
:y (Ihc CO
at long issued by them)
ended ll
best tl
:dbylh
K m
It Napoleoi
oia gave an
lie book Hum Coltudt In
10 speech. Then come mt
s, and so reckoning. In 179
school al Burgdorf , where be r
'cnl as deputy to Pari*, at
in the lime of Straba <A.t>. ig-io) their
pnvitcgcs were much oimlniihed. The high-priest always bore
tbe god's nanus Allis. In Ibc crisis of the second Punic War
(105 B.C.), when the Ramans lost faitb In the eTicacy of their
own religion 10 save the aute, the Senate. In compliance with
•<■ onck In Uw Sibylline book* u> Ibc tOta thai the foreign
about the alphabel. In iSoj he removed lo Yvefd
Lake of Neuchliel, and for twenty yeara worked
his ta^. He was visited by all who took inlcrcst in <
Talleyrand, Capo distria, and Mme de Sua. He
by Wilhelm von Humboldl and by Fichte.
included Ramsauer, Dctbrtick, Blochmann, Cart B
.-in'I Ztller. About 1815 dissensions btc4e out
leachcrs oi the Khoot, and Peslaloui'i last ta
PETALITE— PETER, ST 285
In 1815 hn retired to before (he itory of the miukm af the ■poatles: il u iSio found in
, 3fl of hit ]routh; ud After writing the ulveDlurcs ipccchs ; Mitthcv once, UarkoDccandLuke twice. (A) " Simoa
■(bklifcitlidhribiMwoA.the^iDaH'iJgfif. hedicdmtBiuggoD who ii oUed Peter " ii found In Matthew twice Uld Acta foui
Ac ijth id Ftbnui; 1817. Ai be uid hinudf, (be letl work tima. (c) " Simon Peter " is found in Ustthew once, Luke
ri hk lif e iM not lie in Buijdoif or in YveiduiL It lay in the once, John Hventeen Umei (and pcrhtpt alu in 3 Pelec i. t.
Driodiiles of education which be practiud, the devdopment of where the text varies between Simon and SymeOD- (^ *' Peter"
atido, the training of (he whole man, the lympalbelic Is found in Uallbew nineteen times, Mark eighteen limes,
.n of Ihe teacher to the Caught, of which be Icit an Luke uxteen times. AtU Elty-one times, John fifteen lima,
oimpK in bia ill month*' laboun at Siani. He had the deepest Calatians twice, i Peter once, (e) " Cephas " li found in John
dKI cu aD bnncbei of eduaUkm, and hit induence it far from once, Ctlitiana four times. 1 Corinthians lo\a times. (J) Syraeoa
hinCobauMed. (Zu^uJii) is found in Acts once. It appean Ihat (lie apotUe
PBalDBTa oonplece worki wn pubTuhed at Stuttgart in 1S19- had (wo namea, each ciisting ul a double Form— Greek and
1116, and aa editioa by SeySaRh appeaiBl at Balin in iMt. Hebrew, Symcon {[¥7*1 which was Graeciied according
VoEvnet VI hu life and I^icluDir have b«Ti wrillen by De Guimpa x. jl. u„,nH irtn flimnn and rrnbu twBli whirh wai
OKI. B«-«l ITO. KM l,.,s>„J Pbl«b. u^,). oJ^^^J^ioTZXimZ KU' Ij^
PKT&Ll^^ a mmoaJ qiecia consisting of lithium alumlmum ^tnd Simon are both well-known names [n Aramaic and Greek
~ ■ e, LiAI(a/)i}|. lie monodinic ciystals approach ipodu- tetpectivdy, but Cephas and Pelei ate previoialy unknown.
,__.!_ 1 _i.!_i. i_ _i i-.i, 1. !-i -p, ailicHie Symeon was no doubt his original Aramaic name, and Ihe
ge parallel eailist gospel, Mark, which has some claim specially to
in pUly reproduce Fclrine tradition, it uiteful to employ Simon until
mCr.i*T(Ao» after the name Peter bad been »vcn, and not then (o use it
<a leaf] The hardness is 6) and the specific gravity 1-4 (that again. The Gospels agree in regarding Cephai or Peter as an
of q)oduiDCDcbQng3'i6). The mineral it colourlesa or occasion- addittonaJ name, which was given by Christ, But they differ o
aly iflddiib, varica from ttansparcnl to translucent, and haa to the occauon. According to Mark iii. tj tqq. it was given m
a Titieoiu histn. It ««s discovered in iSoo as cleavage muses the occasion ol (he mission of Ihe Twdve. According (o
fa an iron mine DD the islatid ol UlS in Ihe Stockholm jghn L 41 it was given at his Bral calL According (o
aniipelagD, where it ii assoditcd with lepldolite, tourmaline Matt. ivi. ij iqq. it was given after the recognition of Jesus as
frnbdlite and indicoiiie] and tpodumene. A variety known u Messiah at Cacsarea PhilippL This last account is (he only
* OKor " it found as transparent glasiy cryslals associated with one which describes any dreumttances {for a further discussion
DcDm (f.*.) in cavitia in ihe granite ol Elba. (L.J.S.) tee ( j (1) below).
RTAJLD (Fr. fiiiardt ptitr, to make a slight eimiosion), a . ,. ia in. .1 1 ^ 1. nt t
dnice fonaerly uied by military engineers Cor blowing in
^ta gt otber bairier. II ' ' '
feq.) or Jonas (l^ni, 1
^^naDy of t<ig^.)^ shape' on^JUiig a S^ rf powd^ Accordm^ 'to Mark L j, he wa, a fitl«nn.n of 0^«mau<r
^T^J^^^' .^^*^ '^' ^ * '^ hiir Inbn \. AA HMfnhm him and his bralher Andrew as n
bul John L 44 describes bim a
nun. DEvn (i
,.. ,,.. i_..:, „i._i.. uji_ 1 Bethjaida. From Mark L 30 he la teen to have been m
poasibic) (ba( his wife 1
Vntt ISS3. Educated at Paris Ui
boice oC Iiaac Scaliger, who directed his aiieaiian iowanu ;, . . ■ „ ,„,..„.„, j „,
, .J;™, i«b.^ o, o,,cb™b. I. ,.., b. .„ .p„j.,.d ;^.; -ti^i^^tJu
a lectureship at the umveraity ol Bourgcs, but rc^gncd
d W^ta ffcrri It AcMOUi, and A
pha two years hiter, In order to enter tbe Sociely ol Jesus. '^}^^]" PetroniUs, but there it no ra™ .«. mmaing uai
FoTmany years ho was profesior of divmily at Ihe Collige de H'laishistor.caL
□stDODI, the chief Jesuit establishment in Pari); there he died The Gospel oarratives sn unanimous In describing Peter at
SB the I till of December 1651. He was one ol the meat brilliant one of the first disdples ol Christ, and Irom the (imeol his call
■dicJan in a learned age. Carrying on and improving tbe he seems to have been present at most ol the chief jfjg/^^fg
daaodkltkti labours of Scaliger, be published in 161; an Opus Incidents ia the nuralive. He formed together a, oavA
i€ iscUina tflwfmn, which has been ollen reprinted. Ar with the sons of Zebcdee to tome extent an inner y »» »*'
abridgment of this work, Ralimariam Itrnfumm, was translated dtcle wilhin the Twelve, and this tavoured group Jj^'*'
into Flench and English, and has been brought down In a modem is spcdilly mentioned as present on three occasioiis
RIKint to tbe year 1849. Bul Pelau's eminence chiefly tests -^Ihe raising ol the daughter ol Jairas (Mark v. ii-sj;
«B hit vast, bul unfinished, Di Uicaliitkit dutmalibui, the Matt. ii. iS-jA; Luke viii. 41-56)1 the transfiguration (Mark
int lyitematic attempt ever made to treat the devdopmeoi Ii. 1 sqq.; Matt. xvii. i tqq.i Luke Ii. iS sqq.) and the scene
(rf Christian doctrine from tbe historical point of view. in tbe Garden at Ctthsemane (Mark liv. ]i sqq.; Malt. oyi.
PITGHEKEGI, ot Pathnhs, a barbarous people, piobaWy 36 sqq.). He la also specially mentioned in connexioa with
of Ttirktth race, who at the end of the gib century were driven his call (Mark L 16-10; Matt. Iv. iS sqq.; Luke v. 1 sqq.;
Bto Europe fiinn the lower Utal, and lot about 300 yens John !. 40 sqq); the healing of his wile's moihcr (Mark i. 11
wandered about tbe northern fnuitlec of tbe East Roman sqq.; MatL viiL 14 sqq.; Luke Iv. jS sqq-); the mission ol
Em^are. (See TciKs). the Twelve Apostles (Mark iiL i] sqq.; Malt. x. 1 tqq,; Luke vl.
ram {La(. PtIrMt from Gr. Th-pot, a rock, ItaL Pirm, 11 sqq.); ihe storm on the Lake ol Galilee (Mark vi. 4S sqq.;
Pirn, Fir, Fr. Piori, Span. Peira, Ger. PiUr, Ruts. Pclr), Mall. xiv. la sqq.; John vi. 16 sqq); Ihe Messianic remgnilion
■ maicnllne name, derived Irom Ihe famous lumame bellowed by at Cacsarea PbilippI (Mark vil, 1; sqq.; Matt. ivi. 16 tqq.;
Ornt iqion hit apoetle Simon (" Thou art Peter and upon Ihis Luke ii. 18 sqq.); the incident o( Ihe payment ol tribute by
nxk will I build my church." Malt. xiv. t j-ig). Ihe name baa the ctnn found in tbe fish caught by Peter (Matt. xvii. ij tqq.)
iinitlllilliillj been very popular tn Christian countries. It Is and with various questions leading to parables or their eipla-
HiUwmlby, however, that, out of deference to tbe "prince of naiions (Mark lilL 36 sqq,; Luke alL 4r; Malt. ivilL 11 sqq.;
Ihe apostles " and firil bishop ol Rome, the name has never been Mark i. iS; Malt. lii. 37; Luke iviii. 18). In the week ol
f 1 by a pope. The biographies which loUow are arranged the Passion be appears in conneiion with the incident ol Ihe
B ibe ordered) the apoitIe;(i)kingi; (3] other eminent men, withered Eg-tne (Mark li. 11; Malt, TiLia);aa lalrodudng
PRZR. ST, the chiel ol the Twelve Apottlet. He is known tbe escbstological discourse (Hark dil. 3 tqq.); and at promi-
^> 1^ other Dunei : (d) " Simon " (£i(ic0} In Mark lour limes nent during ibe Last Supper (Luke nil. 8 sqq.; John
nd Lake kvcp times. This UM ia only lound in namtive xliL 4 •qq.; Hark liv, 17 tqq,; Mall. iivi. ji aqq.}. H*
286
PETER, ST
was present in Gethsemane, and tried to offer some resistance to
the arrest of Jesus (Mark ziv. 47; Matt. zxvi. 51; Luke xxiL 50;
John xviii. 10). After the arrest he followed the Lord to the
scene of the trial, but denied him and fled. The message of the
young man at the tomb (Mark zvi. 4) was especially addressed
to Peter and it is dear that the genuine conclusion of Mark must
have contained an account of an appearance of the risen Lord
to him.
Out of this mass of incidents the following are central and call
for closer critical consideration.
1. The Call of St Peter.— {Mtak i. 16-30; Matt. iv. 18-33;
Luke V. i-ii; John L 40-42). The account in Matthew is
practically identical with that in Mark and is no doubt taken
from the Marcan source, but Luke and John have different
traditions. The main points are as follows: according to Mark,
at the beginning of the Galilean ministry Jesus saw Peter and
Andrew fishing. He called them, and they joined him. After
this he went with them to Capernaum, preached in the syna-
gogue, and healed Peter's wife's mother. Luke, who certainly
used Mark, has partly rearranged this narrative and partly
rejected it in favour of a different version. According to him the
visit to Capernaum and the healing of the wife's mother preceded
the call of Peter, and this was associated with a tradition of
a miraoilous draught of fishes. The advantage of the Lucan
reconstruction, so far as the first part is concerned, is that it
supplies a reason for Peter's ready obedience, which is somewhat
difficult to understand if he had never seen Jesus before. But it
seems probable that this is the motive which led to the redac-
torial change in Luke, and that the Marcan account, which is
traditionally connected with Peter, ought to be followed. With
regard to the narrative of the miraculous draught of fishes, the
matter is more complicated. Luke obviously preferred this
narrative to the Marcan accoimt, but the fact that the same
story comes in John xxi. suggests that there was an early
tradition of some such incident of which the actual occasion
and circumstances were undetermined. Luke preferred to
connect it with the call of Peter, the writer of John xxi. with his
restitution: probably both are of the nature of redactorial
guesses, and the Marcan account must be regarded as preferable
to either. The Johannine accoimt of the call of Peter is quite
different. According to this it took place immediately after
the baptism of Jesus, in Judaea not in Galilee. It is connected
with the giving of the name Peter, which in Mark was not given
until much later.
2. The Confession of Peter at Caesarea PhUippi. — (Mark
viii. 27-33; Miatt. xvi. 13-23; Luke ix. 18-22). According to
Mark, Peter, in answer to the question of Jesus, recognized that
He was the Messiah, but protested against the prophecy of
suffering which Jesus then added. This narrative is followed,
with the exception of the last part, by Luke, who as usual is
inclined to omit anything which could be regarded as derogatory
to the Apostles. Matthew also uses the Marcan narrative, but
adds to it a new section from some other source which suggests
that the name of Peter was conferred on this occasion — not, as
Mark says, at the first mission of the Twelve — and confers on
him the keys of the kingdom of heaven and the right of binding
and loosing. This must be probably * interpreted as a reference
to the prophecy concerning Eliakim in Isa. xxii. 22, and to
technical use of the words " binding " and " loosing " by the
scribes in authoritative decisions as to the obligations of the law.
It thus confers on Peter a position of quite imique authority.
It must, however, be noted that the power of binding and loosing
is given in Matt, xviii. x8 to the whole body of disciples. This
seems lo be an alternative version, also found only in Matthew.
The question of the historical character of the Matthaean
addition to the Marcan narrative is exceedingly difficult; but it
> See, however. A. Sulzbach's article in the Zeitschr. f. N.T. Wiss.
(i903)> P> 190. He thinks there is an allusion to a room m the Temple
where tne great key was kept; this room was called Kephas, because
the key was placed in a recess closed by a stone. Tnere is also a
valuable article by W. Kdhler in the Arckki fUr Religionsvfiss.
treatins the question of the keys from the point of view of coropara*
tiverelypoa.
is hard to think that if it were really authentic it would havi
been omitted from all the other gospels, and it perhaps bdoagi
to the b'ttle group of passages in Matthew which seem to icpttujrt
early efforts towards church legislation, rather than a strict^
historical narrative. Besides it is noticeable that in one cHha
point Matthew has sli^^tly remodelled the Marcan narrative.
According to the latter Jesus asked, " Whom say men th&t I
am?" and Peter replied " the Messiah," without qualification.
But in Matthew the question is changed into " Whom say mca
that the Son of Man is?" and, whatever may be the origmal
meaning of the phrase " the son of man " it cannot be do«^bted
that in the gospels it means Messiah. Thus the simple answet
of Peter in Mark would be meaningless, and it is retraced bf
" The Messiah, the son of the living God," which b no longei
a recognition of the Messiahship of Jesus (this is treated in
Matthew as an already recognized fact, cf. x. 23, xii. 40, ftc),
but is a definition and an exaltation of the nature of the Messiah.
3. The Cottdua of Peter after the Betrayal.— The oonsidenaioii
of this point brings one into touch with the two rival traditioiii
as to the conduct of the disdples after the betrayal and crua*
fixion of the Lord — the Galilean and the Jerusalem narratives.
There is one incident which must in any case be acc^ted as il
is found in both narratives. This is the denial of Peter. It
appears that Peter did not stay with the disdples and neitha
returned home immediately to Galilee (according to the Galikaa
tradition) nor sought hiding in Jerusalem (according to the
Jerusalem tradition), but foUowed the Lord at a distance and
was a witness of at least part of the trial before the Sanhedrim.
He was detected and accused of bdng a disdple, which he dented,
and so fulfilled the prophecy of Jesus that he would deny Ko
before the cock crowed.
But putting this inddent aside, the Galilean and Jemsalea
traditions do not admit of recondliation with one another. The
former is represented by Mark. According to it the d'iKipift
all fled after the betrayal (though Peter waited untfl after the
denial), and afterwards saw the risen Lord in Galilee. The
details of this narrative are unfortunately lost, as the genoine
condusion of Mark is not extant. But Mark ziv. 28 and
xvi. 7 clearly imply a narrative which described how the disc^)lei
returned to Galilee, there saw the risen Lord, and perhaps evca
how they then returned to Jeriisalem in the strength of their
newly recovered faith, and so brought into existence the chordi
of Jerusalem as we find it in the Acts. It is also dear from Mark
xvi. 7 that Peter was in some special way connected with this
appearance of the. risen Lord, and this tradition is confirmed by
I Cor. XV. 5, and perhaps by Luke xxiv. 34.
The Jerusalem narrative is represented especially by Luke
and John (exduding John xxi. as an appendix). According ts
this the disciples, though they fled at the betrayal, did not
return to their homes, but remained in Jerusalem, saw the rises
Lord in that city, and stayed there until after the day of Pent^
cost. Attempts to reconcile these two narratives seem to be
found in Matthew and in John xxi.
Obviously the choice which has to be made between these
traditions cannot be adequately discussed here: it mtnt sufBoe
to say that intrinsic and traditional probability seem to favocff
the Galilean narrative. If so, one must say that after the denial
Peter returned to Galilee — probably to resume his trade ol
fishing — and he there saw the risen Lord. This appearance il
referred to in i Cor. xv. 5, and was certainly described in the lort
condusion of Mark. An account of it is preserved in John xxi.,
but it is here connected — probably wron^y — with a miraculoa
draught of fishes, just as Uie account of his call is in Luke.
Immediately after the resurrection there b a missing liid^
in the history of Peter. We know that he saw the risen Laid,
and, according to the most probable view, that this
was in Galilee; but the drcumstances arc unknown,
and we have no ^uxount of his return to Jerusalem,
as at the beginning of the Acts the disciples are aU
in Jerusalem, and the writer, in contradiction to the
Marcan or Galilean narrative, assumes that they had
never left it. The first part of the Acts is largdy oonoefBed iHII
PETER, ST
287
te ipoik of Peter. He appean as the recognixed leader of the
AiRKtks in their dwice of a new member of the Twelve to take
Ibt place of Judas Iscariot (Acts L 15 sqq.); on the day of
Ptatecost he seems to have played a prominent part in explaining
the mwining of the scene to the people (Acts iL 14 sqq.) ; and soon
afterwards was arrested by the Jews on the charge of being a ring-
leader in the diaorderi caused by the healing of the lame man at
the " Beautiful " gate of the temple, but was released. After
Hui he appears as the leader of the apostles in the story of
Aauuas and Sapjdiira, who perished at his rebuke for their
dopfidty (Acts v. i-ii). The last episode of this period is
another arrest by the priests, which ended in his being scourged
utd released (Acts v. 17 sqq.).
After this Peter's attention was directed to the growth of
Chriuianity in Samaria, and he and John made a journey of
taqxaioo thxou^ that district, laying hands on those who had
bea baptized in order that they might receive the Holy Spirit.
Hm Simon Magus iq.v.) was encountered. He was a magidan
vbo had been converted by Philip and baptized; he desired to
obtam the power of conferring the Spirit, and offered Peter
nmey for this purpose, but was indignantly repulsed. After
this Peter and John returned to Jerusalem.
During the following stay in Jerusalem, the duration of which
ii not defined, Peter was visited by Paul (Acts iz. 26-29;
GaL L 18), and a comparison of the chronological date afforded
h]r Gal. L and ii. points to a year not earlier than 33 (Hamack)
ff later than 38 (C. H. Turner) for this meeting. According to
Galatiaia, Paul saw none of the apostles on this occasion except
Fto and James: it is therefore probable that none of the others
*ae then in Jerusalem.
After this Peter made another journey, visiting especially
Lydda, Joppa and Caesarea. His stay at Lydda was marked
1)7 the healing of Aeneas (Acts ix. 32-4) and at Joppa by the
VBosdtation of Tabitha or Dorcas. While at Joppa he stayed
vith Smoa the tanner, and thence was summoned to Caesarea
to (^tmehus the centurion. He hesitated whether to go, but
VIS posuaded by a vision and the injunction to call nothing
Bodean which God had cleansed. Cornelius was accordingly
bqttized. This is an important incident, as being the first ad-
Binm of a Gentile into the church: but he was already " God-
fanog," ^o^b^ia>of rdy $€br (Acts x. z), which probably
denotes some sort of coimexion with the Jewish synagogue,
though it is difficult to say exactly what it was. After this inci-
dent Peter returned to Jerusalem. The members of the Church
wereiomewhat shocked at the reception of a Gentile: their view
4>parently was that the only road to Christianity was through
Jndaisffl. They were, however, persuaded by Peter's speech
(Actszi. 4-17); but it is imcertain bow far their concession went,
ud m the light of subsequent events it is probable that they still
Rprded circumcision as a necessary rite for all Christians.
After the return of Peter to Jerusalem the most important
events were the famine at Jerusalem, and the persecution of the
Church by Herod. During the latter Peter was put in prison
(Acts zii. 3 sqq.), but was released by an angel; he first went to
the house of Mary, the mother of John Mark, and afterwards
*cnt to " another place." This expression has been interpreted
to Dean another town, and even to be an implied reference to
I^ODe. Tliis last suggestion, improbable though it be, is his-
torically important. The persecution of Herod seems to have
^ m his last year, which was probably a.d. 43-44. There was
* marked tendency to make the duration of Peter's episcopate
*t Rome twenty-five years: and a combination of this tendency
*ith the explanation that the htpos r&rot was Rome probably is
the or^n of the traditional dating of the martyrdom of Peter
in A J). 67-68. There is, however, no justification for this view,
^ (ripoi rbms need not mean more than another house in
jsttsalem.
The famine referred to in Acts xi. 27 sqq. probably began
kdore the death of Herod, but it continued after his death, and
tk rdief sent by the church at Antioch to Jerusalem through
fW and Bfmabas probably arrived about the year 45. It is
M stated in the Acts that Peter was present, and it is therefore
usually assumed that he was absent, but Sir W. M. Ramsay has
argued in his 5< Patd Ike TravelUr that the visit of Paul to
Jerusalem with the famine relief is the meeting between Paul
and Peter referred to in Gal. ii. as the occasion of an agreement
between them as to the preaching of the gospel to Jews and
Gentiles. This view is not generally accepted, but it has the
great advantage of avoiding the difficulty that otherwise Paul
in GaL ii. i sqq. must describe as his second visit to Jerusalem
what was really his third. According to Ramsay, then, Peter
was present during the famine, and made a private agreement
with Paul that the latter should preach to the Gentiles, and so
far Gentile Christianity was recognized, but the conditions of
the intercourse between Gentile and Jewish Christians were not
defined, and the question of drcumdsion was perhaps not finally
settled. According to the more popular view the description in
Gal. ii. applies to Acts xv. the so-called council of Jerusalem.
This council met after the first missionary journey (c. a.d. 49)
of Paul to discuss the question of the Gentiles. Peter, who was
present, adopted the view that Gentile Christians were free frOm
the obligation of the law, and this view was put into the form of
the so-called Apostolic decrees by James (Acts xv. 23 sqq.).
The next information which we have about Peter is given' in
Gal. ii. II sqq. According to this he went to Antioch and at
first a(9cepted the Gentile Christians, but afterwards drew back,
and was rebuked by Paul. On the ordinary interpretation this
must have taken place after the council, and it is exceedingly
difficult to reconcile it with the attitude of Peter described in
Acts XV., so that Mr C. H. Turner thinks that in this respect the
account in Gal. ii. is not chronological, and places the visit of
Peter to Antioch before the council. If) however, we take the
theory of Sir W. M. Ramsay the matter is simpler. We thus
get the compact between Paul and Peter during the famine,
then a visit of Peter to Antioch, during which Peter first adopted
and afterwards>drew back from the position which he had agreed
to privately.
This vacillation may then have been one of the causes which
led up to the council, which may have been held before, not, as is
usually thought, after the sending of the Epistle inwo*r
to the Galatians. For this we have no knowledge mfttrth0
of details for which the same certainty can be claimed. £"2bi
There are, however, various traditions of importance.
The following points are noteworthy, i Cor. i. 12 suggests the
possibility that Peter went to Corinth, as there was a party
there which used his name. It is, however, possible that this
party had merely adopted the principles which, as they had been
told, perhaps falsely, were supported by the leader of the
Twelve. Dionysius of Corinth (c. 170) states that Peter was in
Corinth. This may represent local tradition or may be an
inference from z Cor. 1. 1 2. i Peter suggests a ministry in the
provinces of Asia Minor. There is, of course, nothing improb-
able in this, and even if i Peter be not authentic, it is early
evidence for such a tradition, but it is also possible that Peter
wrote to converts whom he had not personally made. This
tradition is found in Origen (Bus. H.E. iii. i), Epiphanius
{Haer. xxvii., vi.), Jerome {De Vir. ill. i) and other later writers;
but it is possible that it is merely an inference from the epistle.
Early tradition connects Peter with Antioch, of which he is said
to have been the first bishop. The first writer to mention it is
Origen (Ham. vi. in Lucatn), but it is also found in the Clementine
Homilies and Recognitions {Horn. 20, 23; Recog. 10, 68) and
probably goes back to the lists of bishops which were drawn .up
in the 2nd century. Other important references to this tradition
are found in Eus. H.E. iii. 26, 2; Apost. Const, vii. 46; Jerome,
De Vir. ill. i; Chronicon paschale; and Liber pontificalis. The
tradition of work in Antioch may well be historical. Otherwise
it is a rather wild elaboration of Gal. ii. z i. The most important
and widespread tradition is that Peter came to Rome; and
though this tradition has often been bitterly attacked, it seems
to be probable that it is at least in outline quite historical. The
evidence for it is earlier and better than that for any other
tradition, though it is not quite convincing.
The earliest witness to a residence of Peter in Rome is probably
288
PETER I.
I Peter, for (see PeteI^, Erstles op) it is probable that the
reference to Babylon ought to be interpreted as meaning Rome.
If so, and if the epistle be genuine, this is conclusive evidence
that Peter was in Rome. Even if the epistle be not genuine
it is evidence of the same tradition. Nor is corroboration lacking :
Clement (c. a.d. 97) refers to Peter and Paul as martyrs (i Clem.
5-6) and says that " To these men . . . there was gathered a
great company of the elect who . . . became an example to us."
This points in two ways to a martyrdom of Peter in Rome, (i)
because Peter and Paid are co-ordinated, and it is generally
admitted that the latter suffered in Rome, (3) because they seem
to be joined to the great company of martyrs who are to be an
example to the Church in Rome. Similarly Ignatius (c. a.d. 115)
says to the Romans (Rom. iv.), " I do not command you as Peter
and Paul." The suggestion obviously b that the Romans had
been instructed by these Apostles. By the end of the and
century the tradition is generally known: Irenacus (3, x, i),
Clement of Alexandria (commenL on x Peter), Origen (Horn. vi.
in Lucam)f Tertullian {Scorp. X5, and several passages) are
explicit on the point, and from this time onwards the tradition
is met with everywhere. There is also a tradition, found in
Irenaeus (3, x, i) and in many later writers, and supported by
X Pet. V. 13, and by the statements of Papias (Eus. H.E, 3, 39,
15) that Mark acted as Peter's assistant in Rome and tliat his
gospel is based on recollections of Peter's teaching.
This evidence is probably sufficient to establish the fact that
Peter, like Paul, had a wide missionary career ending in a violent
death at Rome, though the details are not recoverable. The
chronological question is more difficult both as regards the
beginning and the end of this period of activity.
The Acts, in describing the visits of Peter to Samaria, Joppa,
Lydda and Cacsarca, justify the view that his missionary activity
began quite early. GaL ii. 11 and i Cor. ix. 5 show
Chnaotogy^^^^ Acts minimizes rather than exaggerates this
otPtut'B activity; the Antiochian tradition probably repre-
**''*•' scnts a period of missionary activity with a centre
^Jjj^"*'''at Antioch; similariy the tradition of work in Asia
is possibly correct as almost certainly is that of the
visit to Rome. But we have absolutely no evidence justif>'ing
a chronological arrangement of these periods. Even the silence
of Paul in the epistles of the captivity proves nothing except
that Peter was not then present; the same is true of a Tim.
even if its authenticity be undoubted.
The evidence as to the date of his death is a little fuller, but
not quite satisfactory. The earliest direct witness is TcrtuUian,
who definitely states that Peter suffered under Nero by cruci-
fixion. Origen also relates the latter detail and adds that at
hb own request Peter was crucified head downwards. Probably
John xxi. 18 scq. is a still earlier reference to his crucifixion.
Fuller evidence is not found until Euscbius, who dates the arrival
of Peter at Rome in 43 and his martyrdom twenty-five years
later. But the whole question of the Euscbian chronology
is very confused and difficult, and the text of the Chronicon is
not certain. The main objection to this date is based partly
on general probability, partly on the language of Clement of
Rome. It is more probable on general grounds that the martyr-
dom of Peter took place during the persecution of Christians in
64, and it is urged that Clement's language refers to this period.
It is quite possible that an error of a few years has crept into the
Eusebian chroncdogy, which is probably largely based on early
episcopal lists, and therefore many scholars arc inclined to think
that 64 is a more probable date than 67. As a rule the dis-
cussion has mainly been between these two dates, but Sir W. M.
Ramsay, in his Chunk in the Roman Empire^ has adopted a
different line of argument. He thinks that i Peter was written
e. A.D. 80, but that it may nevertheless be Petrine; therefore he
lays stress on the fact that whereas the tradition that Peter was
in Rome is early and probably correct, the tradition that he was
martyred under Nero is not found until much later. Thus he
thinks it possible that Peter survived until c, 80, and was
martyred under the Flavian emperors. The weak point of
this theory is that Clement and Ignatius bring Peter and Paul
together in a way which seems to suggest that they perished,
if not together, at least at about the same u'me. If this view
be rejected and it is necessary to fall back on the choice between
64 and 67, the problem is perh^)s insoIubU:, but 64 has somewhat
more intrinsic probability, and 67 can be explained as due to
an artificial system of chronology which postulated for Peter an
episcopate of Rome of twenty-five years — a number which comes
so often in the early episcopal lists that it seems to mean little
more than " a long time," just as " forty years " does in the Old
Testament. On the whole 64 is the most probable date, but it
is very far from certain: the evidence is insufficient to justify
any assurance.
For further information and discussion tee especially Harnack's
Chronologie, and Bishop Chase's article in Hastings's Dictionary af
the Bible. The latter a in many ways the most complete statement
of the facts at present published.
Ouus, who lived in the beginning of the 3rd century (see Eus.
H. E. 2, 25), stated that the rp^eua {i.e. probably the burial
place, not that of execution) of Peter and Paul were
on the Vatican. This is also found in the Acta Pdri, ^
84 (in the Lib. Pont.^ ed. Duchesne, p. 53 seq., xx8
sqq.)> From this place it appears that the relics (whether
genuine or not) were moved to the catacombs in aj>. 258
(cf. the DeposUis martyrum, and see Lightfoot's Clement, L 249);
hence arose the tradition of an original burial in the cataci»nbs,
found in the Hieronymian Martyrology.
For further information and inx'cstielMions see Duchesne, Liber
pontificalis; Lipsius, Die Apokr. Apostelgesch.; and Erbes " Die
Todestage dor Apostel Paulus u. Petrus," in Teste und UnltT'
suchungent N.F., iv. x. (K. L.)
PETER I., called " the Great " (1672-X725), emperor of Russia,
son of the tsar Alexius Mikhailovich and Natalia Naruishkina,
was bom at Moscow on the 30th of May 1672. His earliest
teacher (omitting the legendary Scotchman Menzies) was the
dyak, or clerk of the council, Nikita Zotov, subsequently the
court fool, who taught his pupil to spell out the h'turgjcal and
devotional books on which the children of the tsar were generally
brou^t up. After 2U>tov's departure on a diplomatic m^Mnw
in 1680, the lad had no regular tutor. From his third to his
tenth year Peter shared the miseries and perils of his family. His
very election (1682) was the signal for a rebellion. He saw one
of his uncles dragged from the palace and butchered by a savafc
mob. He saw his mother's beloved mentor, and his own best
friend, Artamon Matvyeev, torn, bruised and bleeding, from
his retaining grasp and hacked to pieces. The haunting
memories of these horrors played havoc with the nerves of a
supersensitive child. The convulsions from whicn he suffered
so much in later years must be partly attributed to this violent
shock. During the regency of his half-sister Sophia (X682-X689)
he occupied the subordinate position of junior tsar, and after
the revolution of 1689 Peter was still left pretty much to himsdf.
So long as he could indulge freely in his favourite pastimes— ship-
building, shii>-sailing, drilling and sham fights — he was quite
content that others should rule in his name. He now fovmd a
new friend in the Swiss adventurer, Francois Lefort, a duewd
and jovial rascal, who not only initiated him into aU the
mysteries of profligacy (at the large house buOt at Peter's
expense in the German settlement), but taught him hb true
business as a ruler. His mother's attempt to wean her prodigsi
son from hb dangerous and mostly disreputable pastimes, by
forcing him to marry the beautiful but stupid Eudoxia Lopn-
khina (Jan. 27, X689), was a disastrous failure. The yooag
couple were totally imsuited to each other. Peter practicsOy
deserted his unfortunate consort a little more than a year after
their union.
The death of his mother (Jan. 25, 1694) left the young
tsar absolutely free to follow his natural inclinations. Tiring
of the great lake at Percyaslavl, he had already seen the sea
for the first time at Archangel in July 1683, and on the ist of
May i6q4 returned tliithcr to launch a ship built by himsdf the
year before. Shortly afterwards he neariy perished doiiiif a
I tlorm in an adventurous voyage to the Solovetsky Islands is
PETER I.
289
the White Sea. His natunl bent w»s now patent. From the
fint the lad bad taken an extraordinary interest in the technical
and merhanical arts, and their application to military and naval
science. He was taught the use of the astrolabe (which Prince
Yakov Dolgoniki, with intent to please, had brought him from
Paris) by a Dutchman, Franz Timmcrman, who also instructed
him in the rudiments of geometry and fortifications. He had
begun to build his own boats at a very early age, and the ultimate
result of these pastimes was the creation of the Russian navy.
He had already surrounded himself with that characteristically
Petrine Institution " the jolly company," or " the company,"
as it was generally called, consisting of all his numerous personal
friends and casual acquaintances. " The company " was
graduated into a sort of mock hierarchy, political and ecclesi-
astkal. and shared not only the orgies but also the labours of the
tsar Merit was the sole qualification for promotion, and Peter
himsdf set the example to the other learners by gradually
rising from the ranks. In 169s he had only advanced to the
post of ** skipper " in his own navy and of " bombardier " in
bis own army. It was, however, the disreputable Lefort who,
for the sake of his own interests, diverted the young tsar from
mere pleasure to serious enterprises, by persuading him first
to undertake the Azov expedition, and then to go abroad to
complete his education.
By this time the White Sea had become too narrow for Peter,
acd he was looking about him for more hospitable waters. The
Baltic was a closed door to Muscovy, and the key to it was held
by Sweden. The Caspian remained; and it had for long been
a comroon saying with foreign merchants that the best way
of tapping the riches of the Orient was to secure possession
of tha vast inland lake. But so long as the Turks and Tatars
made the surrounding steppes uninhabitable the Caspian was
a possession of but doubtful value. The first step making for
security was to build a fleet strong enough to provide against
the anarchical condition of those parts; but this implied a direct
attadi not only upon the Crimean khan, who was mainly
responsible for the conduct of the Volgan hordes, but upon the
khan's suzerain, the Turkish sultan. Nevertheless Peter did
not hesitate. War against Turkey was resolved upon, and
Azov, the chief Turkish fortress in those regions, which could
be approached by water from Moscow, became the Russian
objective. From the 8th of July to the 22nd of September
i6g$ the Muscovites attempted in vain to capture Azov. On
the a 2nd of November Peter re-entered Moscow. His first
miUtary expedition had ended in unmitigated disaster, yet
InuD this disaster is to be dated the reign of Peter the Great.
Immediately after his return he sent to Austria and Prussia
ior as nuny sappers, miners, engineers and carpenters as money
nold procure. He meant to build a fleet strong enough to
prevent the Turkbh fleet from relieving Azov. The guards
•ad all the workmen procurable were driven, forthwith, in
huKb, to all the places among the forests of the Don to fell
timber and work day and night, turning out scores of vessels of
>0 kinds. Peter himself lived among his workmen, himself
^ nxist strenuous of them all, in a small two-roomed wooden
fcnl at Voronezh. By the middle of April two warships, twenty-
^^ne nalieys, four fireships and numerous smaller craft were
nfdy launched. On the 3rd of May " the sea caravan " sailed
inm Voronezh, " Captain Peter Aleksyeevich " commanding
tbe galley- flotilla from the galley '* Principium," built by his
o*n hand. The new Russian fleet did all that was required
<rf it by preventing the Turks from relieving Azov by water,
*ikJ on the i8th of July the fortress surrendered Peter now
Mt able to advance along the path of progress with a quicker
>nd a firmer step. It was resolved to consolidate the victory by
establishing a new naval station at the head of the Sea of Azov,
to «hkh the name of Taganrog was given. But it was necessary
(0 gnarantce the future as well as provide for the present
Tndcey was too formidable to be fought single-handed, and it
*>s therefore determined to send a grand embassy to the
Pnndpal western powers to solicit their co-operation against
tke Pbrte. On the loth of March 1697 this embassy, under the
leadership of Lefort, set out on its travels. Peter attached
himself to it as a volunteer sailorman, "Peter Mikhailov,"
so as to have greater fadUty for learning ship-building and other
technical sciences. As a political mission it failed utterly, the
great powers being at that period far more interested in western
than in eastern aflairs. But personally Peter learnt nearly
all that he wanted to know — gunnery at Kdnigsberg, ship-
building at Saardam and Deptford, anatomy at Leiden, engrav-
ing at Amsterdam — and was proceeding to Venice to complete
his knowledge of navigation when the revolt of the strytUsy,
or musketeers (June 1698), recalled him to Moscow. This
revolt has been greatly exaggerated. It was suppressed in an
hour's time by the tsar's troops, of whom only one man was
mortally wounded, and the horrible vengeance (September-
October 1698) which Peter on his return to Russia wreaked upon
the captive musketeers was due not to any actual fear of these
antiquated warriors, but to his consciousness that behind them
stood the reactionary majority of the nation who secretly
sympathized with, though they durst not assist, the rebels.
Peter's foreign tour had more than ever convinced him of
the inherent superiority of the foreigner. Imitation had
necessarily to begin with externals, and Peter at once fell foul
of the long beards and Oriental costumes which symbolized
the arch-conservatism of old Russia. On the 26th of April 1698
the chief men of the tsardom were assembled round his wooden
hut at Preobrazhenskoye, and Peter with his own hand deliber-
ately clipped off the beards and moustaches of his chief boyars.
The ukaz of the ist of September 1698 allowed as a compromise
that beards should be worn, but a graduated tax was imposed
upon their wearers. The wearing of the ancient costumes was
forbidden by the ukas of the 4th of January 1 700; thenceforth
Saxon or Magyar jackets and French or German hose were
prescribed. That the people themselves did not regard the
reform as a trifle is plain from the numerous rebellions against
it By the ukaz of the 20th of December 1699 it was next
commanded that henceforth the new year should not be
reckoned, as heretofore, from the ist of September, supposed
to be the date of the creation, but from the first day of January,
anno domini.
The year 1700 is memorable in Russian history as the starting-
point of Peter's long and desperate struggle for the hegemony of
the north. He had concluded peace with the Porte (June 13,
1700) on very advantageous terms, in order to devote himself
wholly to a war with Sweden to the end that Russia might gain
her proper place on the Baltic. The possession of an ice-free
seaboard was essential to her natural development; the creation
of a fleet would follow inevitably upon the acquisition of such a
seaboard; and she could not hope to obtain her due share of the
trade and commerce of the world till she possessed both. All the
conjunctures seemed favourable to Peter. The Swedish govern-
ment was in the hands of an untried lad' of sixteen, and the
fine fleets of Denmark, and the veteran soldiers of Saxony, were
on the same side as the myriads* of Muscovy. It seemed an
easy task for such a coalition to wrest the coveted spoil from
the young Charles XH.; yet Peter was the only one of the three
conspirators who survived the Twenty-one Years' War in which
they so confidently embarked during the summer of 1701 He
was also the only one of them who got anything by it. Charles's
'* immersion in the Polish bog " (1702-1707). as Peter phrased
it, enabled the tsar, not without considerable expense and trouble,
to conquer Ingria and lay the foundations of St Petersburg.
In these early days Peter would very willingly have made peace
with his formidable rival if he had been allowed to retain these
comparatively modest conquests. From 1707 to 1709 the war
on his part was purely defensive; Charles would not hear of
peace till full restitution had been made and a war indemnity
paid, while Peter was fully resolved to perish rather than sur-
render his " paradise," Petersburg. After Pultava (June 26,
1709), Peter, hitherto commendably cautious even to cowardice,
but now puffed up with pride, rashly plunged into as foolhardy
an enterprise as ever his rival engaged in. The campaign of
the Pruth (March to July 1711) must have been fatal to the
290
PETER I.
tsar but for the incalculable behaviour of the omnipotent grand
vizier, who let the Russian army go at the very instant when it
lay helpless in the hollow of his hand. Even so, Peter, by the
peace of the Pruth, had to sacrifice all that he had gained by
the Azov expedition fifteen years previously. On receiving
the tidings of the conclusion of the peace of Nystad (August
30, 1 7 21), Peter decbred, with perfect justice, that it was
the most profitable peace Russia had ever concluded. The
gain to Russia was, mdeed, much more than territorial. In
surrendering the pick of her Baltic provinces, Sweden had
surrendered along with them the hegemony of the north, and
all her pretensions to be considered a great power.
The Great Northern War was primarily a training school for a
backward young nation, and in the second place a means of
multiplying the material resources of a nation as poor as she
was backward. During the whole course of it the process of
internal domestic reformation had been slowly but unceasingly
proceeding. Brand-new institutions on Western models were
gradually growing up among the cumbrous, antiquated, worn-
out machinery of old Muscovy; and new men, like Menshikov,
Goloykin, Apraksin, Ostcrman, Kurakin, Tolstoy, Shafirov,
Prokopovich, Yaguszhinsky, Yavorsky, all capable, audacious,
and brimful of new ideas, were being trained under the eye of
the great regenerator to help him to carry on his herculean
task. At first the external form of the administration remained
much the same as before. The old dignities disappeared of
their own accord with the deaths of their holders, for the new
men, those nearest to Peter, did not require them. " The
Administrative Senate " was not introduced till 171 1, and only
then because the interminable war, which required Peter's
prolonged absence from Russia, made it impossible for him to
attend to the details of the domestic administration Still
later came the " Spiritual Department," or " Holy Synod "
(January 1721), which superseded the ancient patriarchate. It
was established, we are told, " because simple folks cannot
distinguish the spiritual power from the sovereign power, and
suppose that a supreme spiritual pastor is a second sovereign,
the spiritual authority being regarded as higher and better than
the temporal." From the first the regenerator in his ukaus
was careful to make everything quite plain. He was always
explaining why he did this or that, why the new was belter
than the old, and so on; and we must recollect that these were
the first lessons of the kind the nation had ever received The
whole system of Peter was deliberately directed against the chief
evils from which old Muscovy had always suffered, such as
dissipation of energy, dislike of co-operation, absence of responsi-
bility, lack of initiative, the tyranny of the family, the insignifi-
cance of the individual. The low social morality of all classes,
even when morality was present at all, necessitated the regenera-
tion of the nation against its will, and the process could therefore
only be a violent one. Yet the most enlightened of Peter's
contemporaries approved of and applauded his violence, some
of them firmly believed that his most energetic measures were
not violent enough. Thus Ivan Poroshkov, Peter's contempor-
ary, the father of Russian political economy, writes as follows.
*' If any land be over-much encumbered with weeds, corn cannot
be sown thereon unless the weeds first be burned with fire.
In the same way, our ancient inveterate evils should also be
burnt with fire." Peter himself carried this principle to its
ultimate limits in dealing with his unfortunate son the Tsarevich
Alexius (qv.). From an ethical and religious point of view
the deliberate removal of Alexius was an abominable, an
inhuman crime: Peter justified it as necessary for the welfare
of the new Russia which he had called into existence.
The official birthday of the Russian empire was the 23nd
of October 17 21, when, after a solemn thanksgiving service
in the Troitsa Cathedral for the peace of Nystad, the tsar pro-
ceeded to the senate and was there acclaimed: ** Father of the
Fatherland, Peter the Great, and Emperor of All Russia."
Some Russians would have preferred to proclaim Peter as
emperor of the East; but Peter himself adopted the more
patriotic title.
Towards the end of the reign the question of the
to the throne caused the emperor some anxiety. The n^lful
heir,' in the natural order of primogeniture, was the little grand
duke Peter, son of the Tsarevich Alexius, a child of six; but
Peter decided to pass him over in favour of his own bdoved
consort Catherine. The uslaVf or ordinance of 1723, heralded
this unheard-of innovation. Time-honoured custoni had
hitherto reckoned primogeniture in the male line as the bett
title to the Russian crown; in the usUn of 1722 Peter denounced
primogeniture in general as a stupid, dangerous, and even
unscriptural practice of dubious origin. The ustaw was bat
a preliminary step to a still more sensational novelty. Peter
had resolved to crown his consort empress, and on the 15th
of November 1723 he issued a second manifesto explaining at
some length why he was taking such an unusual step. That
he should have considered any explanation necessary demon-
strates that he felt himself to be treading on dangerous ground.
The whole nation listened aghast to the manifesto. The corona<>
tion of a woman was in the eyes of the Russian pe<^>le a
scandalous innovation in any case, and the proposed coronation
was doubly scandalous in view of the base and disreputable
origin of Catherine herself (see Catherine I.). But Peter had
his way, and the ceremony took place at Ibloscow with
extraordinary pomp and splendour on the 7tb of May 1724.
During the last four years of his reign Peter's pc^icy was
predominantly Oriental. He had got all he wanted in Europe,
but the anarchical state of Persia at the beginning of 1721
opened up fresh vistas of conquest. The war which lasted
from May 1722 to September 1723 was altogether successful,
resulting in the acquisition of the towns of Baku and Derbent
and the Caspian provinces of Gilan, Mazandaran and Astanhad.
The Persian campaigns wore out the feeble health of Peter,
who had been ailing for some time. A long and fatiguing
tour of inspection over the latest of his great public woriu.
the Ladoga Canal, during the autumn of 1724, brou^t bsck
another attack of his paroxysms, and he reached Petov
burg too ill to rally again, though he showed himadf »
public as late as the i6lh of January 1725. He expired ia
the arms of his consort, after terrible suffering, on the 28lh
of January 1735.
Peter's claim to greatness rests mainly on the fact that fraa
first to last he clearly recognized the requirements of the Ra-
sian nation and his own obligations as its ruler. It wouU
have materially lightened his task had he pbced intdligent
foreigners at the head of every department of state, allowing thea
gradually to train up a native bureaucracy. But for the sake d
the independence of the Russian nation he resisted the temptatioB
of taking this inviting but perilous short-cut to greatness. He
was determined that, at whatever cost, hardship and inocxh
venience, Russia should be ruled by Russians, not by foreignefs;
and before his death he had the satisfaction of seeing eveiy
important place in his empire in the hands of capable natives
of his own training. But even in his most sweeping reform
he never lost sight of the idiosyncrasies of the people. He
never destroyed anything which he was not able to replace by
something better. He possessed, too, something of the heroic
nature of the old Russian bogaiuirs, or demigods, as we see tbca
in the skazki and the huUinui. His expansive nature hncd
width and space. No doubt this last of the bogaiuirs posscaed
the violent passions as well as the wide views of his prototypes
All his qualities, indeed, were on a colossal scale. His rage mi
cyclonic: his hatred rarely stopped short of exterminatiiMt
His banquets were orgies, his pastimes convuluons. He Gved
and he loved like one of the giants of old. There are deedl
of his which make humanity shudder, and no man equd|f
great has ever descended to such depths of cruelty and treadKiy*
Yet it may generally be allowed that a strain of nobility, d
which we occasionally catch illuminating glimpses, cxioitl
from time to time an all-forgiving admiration. Strange, tfl^
as it may sound, Peter the Great was at heart prafbondlr
religious. Few men have ever had a more intimate pemaaM
that they were but instruments for good in the hands of CkNL
PETER II.— PETER (KINGS OF SPAIN)
291
BiBUOCKArHY.— I.«ffrrf mtd Papers «/ Pcfer the Creai (Riu.)
(Si Pietcrsbuq;, 1887, Ac ). S M. Solovev, History of Russia (Rus.),
vob. nv.-xviii. (Sc Pcterd>urg* t^S* ^c.); A. Brueclcner, Die
Evpaisurmng Russiamds (Gotha. 1888): R. Nubct Bain, The Pupils
of Peter Ike Great, chs. L-iv. (London. 1897)1 and The First Romanovs,
tbm. viL-xiv. (London. 1905) , E. Schuyler, Life of Peter the Great
CLoadon. 1884): K. Waliszewski. Pierre le Grand (Paris, 1897);
V. N Alrksandrenko. J^iujtaii Diplomatic AgeiUs xn London in the
fftfc Century (Rus.) (Warsaw. 1897- 1898: German ed., Gubcn, 1898);
S. A. Chistyakov, History of Peter the Great (Rus.) (St PetersburK,
■903); S. M. Sok»vev, Public Readings on Peter the Great (Rusj
(Sk iVtenbiuiS, 1903); Documents rdating to the Great Northern War
(Rin.) (St Petersburg, 1892, &c). (R. N. B.)
II. (i7is~i73o), emperor of Russia, only son of the
Tsarevkh Alexius, was bom on the iSth of October 1715.
From his chHdbood the orphan grand duke was kept in the
strictest seclu»(»L His grandfather, Peter the Great, systemati*
GtOy ignored him. His earliest governesses were the wives
of a taik>r and a vintner from the Dutch settlement; a sailor
cslkd Norman taught him the rudiments of navigation; and,
when he grew older, he was placed under the care of a Hungarian
refugee, Janos Zeikin, who seems to have been a conscientious
tcadbcr. During the reign of Catherine I. Peter was quite
igimcd; but just before her death it became clear to those
in power that the grandson of Peter the Great could not be kept
out of his inheritance much k>nger The majority of the nation
ud tkree^uarters of the nobility were on his side, while his
ancle, the emperor Charies VI., through the imperial ambassador
■t St Petersburg, Rabutin, persistently urged his claims The
natter was arranged between Menshikov, Osterman and Rabu-
tin; sad <m the 18th of May 1727 Peter II., according to the
tcru of the supposed last will of Catherine I., was proclaimed
wmdgn autocrat. The senate, the privy council and the
luids look the oath of allegiance forthwith. The education
of tlie young prince was wisely entrusted to the; vice-chancellor
Qitcnttn. Menshikov, who took possession of Peter II. and
Mffd him in his own palace on the Vasily island, had intended
to Bury Peter to his daughter Maria; the scheme was frus-
tated by his fall (Sept. 21, 1727); but Peter only fell into the
badi of the equally unscrupulous Dolgoruki, who carried
kin away from Petersburg to Moscow. Peter's coronation
*tt celebrated at that city on the 35th of February 1728.
Re was betrothed to Catherine, second daughter of Alexis
Do^Dfuki, and the wedding was actually fixed for the 30th
of Jaauary 1730; but on that very day the emperor died of
FITBR III. (1728-1762), emperor of Russia, only son of
CIttries Frederick, duke of Hobtein-Gottorp, and of Anne, eldest
nnririag daughter of Peter the Great, was bom at Kiel on the
>ntof February 1728. In December 1741 he was adopted by
b aont, Elizabeth Petrovna, as soon as she was safely estab-
Sdkd (» the Russian throne, and on the i8th of November
1742 was received into the Orthodox Church, exchanging his
ttigiul name of Karl Peter Ulrich for that of Peter Fcdorovlch.
(^the 2ist of August 1745, by the command of his aunt, he
■uried the princess Sophia Augusta Frederica of Anhalt-
Ztrfiit, who exchanged her nam<; for that of Catherine Aleksye-
evna. The union between a prince who physically was some-
(^ less than a man and mentally little more than a child,
»d a princess of prodigious intellect and an insatiable love
^cnjo3rment, was bound to end in a catastrophe. But there
■ 00 foundation for the stories of Peter's neglect and brutality.
It look ihe spouses five years to discover that their tastes were
divei|ent and their tempers incompatible. Even when Peter III.
ttoeeded bis aunt on the 5th of January 1762, he paid off all
(kdrixs that Catherine had contracted without inquiring what
1^ were for. On her birthday, in April, he made her a present
tf domains worth £xo,ooo per annum, though he had already
mdJDsted her establishment on a truly imperial scale. A great
^ has been made of Peter's infidelity towards his consort;
ktt the only one who really suffered from his liaison with the
^ht stupid and vixenish countess Elizabeth Vorontsdva was
^ lafortunate emperor. So far from being scandalized by
Ik juxuposition of *'Das Frftulein" in the Winter Palace.
Catherine accepted it as a matter of course, provided that her
own relations with the handsome young guardsman, Gregory
Oriov, were undisturbed. Nor was Peter's behaviour to his
consort in public of the outrageous character we have been
led to suppose. Peter, in fact, was too good-natured and incon-
sequent to pursue, or even premeditate, any deliberate course
of ill treatment. No personal wrongs, but the deliberate deter-
mination of a strong-minded, capable woman to snatch the reins
of government from the hands of a semi-imbecile, was the cause
of Peter's overthrow, and his stupendous blunders supplied
Catherine with her opportunity. Peter's foreign policy was
the absolute reversal of the policy of his predecessor He had
not been on the throne for two months when he made pacific
overtures to the wellnigh vanquished king of Prussia, whom he
habitually alluded to as " the king my master." Peter's
enthusiastic worship of Frederick resulted in a peace (May 5)
and then (June 19) in an offensive and defensive alliance
between Russia and Prussia, whereby Peter restored to Prussia
all the territory won from her by Russia during the last five
years at such an enormous expense of men and money, and
engaged to defend Frederick against all his enemies. This was
followed up by a whole series of menacing rescripts addressed
by Peter to the court of Vienna, in which war was threatened unless
Austria instantly complied with all the demands of the king
of Prussia. Finally he picked a quarrel with Denmark for not
accepting as an ultimatum the terms to be submitted by Russia
to a peace conference to meet at Berlin for the purpose of
adjusting the differences between the two powers. Qn the 6th
of July the Russian army received orders to invade Denmark
by way of Mecklenburg. This advance was only arrested,
when the opposing forces were almost within touch of each
other, by the tidings that a revolution had taken place .at St
Petersburg, and that Peter III. was already a prisoner in the
hands of his consort. The coup d'ilal of the 9th of July 1762
properly belongs to the history of (Catherine II. (g.v.). Here
only a few words must be said as to the mysterious death of
Peter at the castle of Ropsha, to which he was removed imme-
diately after his surrender. Here he remained from the evening
of the gth to the afternoon of the i8th of July. At first Catherine
and her counsellors could not make up their minds what to do
with " the former emperor." Imprisonment in Schliissclburg
for life, or repatriation to Holstein, were proposed only to be
rejected as dangerous. The Orlovs had even stronger motives
than Catherine for suppressing the ex-emperor, for Gregory
Orlov aspired to win the hand as well as the heart of his imperial
mbtress, and so long as Catherine's lawful husband lived, even
in a prison, such a union would be impossible. The available
evidence points to the irresistible conclusion that on the aflcr>
noon of the iSth of July 1762, Peter III., with his consort's con-
nivance, was brutally murdered at Ropsha by Alexius Orlov,
Theodore Baryatinski, and several other persons still unknown.
See R. N. Bain, Peter TIL, Emperor of Russia (London. 1902):
V A. Bilbasov, History of Catherine II. (Rus.), vol. i. (Berlin,
1900). (R. N. B.)
PETER (Pedro), the name of several Spanish kings.
Peter I., king of Aragon (d. 1 104), son of Sancho Ramirez,
the third in order of the historic kings of Aragon, belonged to
times anterior to the authentic written history of his kingdom;
and little is known of him save that he recovered Hucsca from
the Mahommcdans in 1096.
Peter II., king of Aragon (1174-1213), son of Alphonso II.
and his wife Sancia, daughter of Alphonso VIII. of Castile,
was bom in 11 74. He had a very marked and curious personal
character. As sovereign of lands on both sides of the Pyrenees,
he was affected by very different influences. In his character
of Spanish prince he was a crusader, and he took a distinguished
part in the great victory over the Almohadcs at the Navas dc
Tolosa in 121 2. But his lands to the north of the Pyrenees
brought him into close relations with the Albigenses. He was
a favourer of the troubadours, and in his ways of life he indulged
in the laxity of Provencal morals to the fullest extent. We
are told in the ciironiclc written by Dcsdot soon after his time
292
PETER DES ROCHES
that Peter was only trapped into cohabiting with his wife by
the device which is familiar to readers of Measure for Metuure.
In the year after the battle of the Navas de Tolosa he took up
arms against the crusaders of Simon of Montfort, moved not
by sympathy with the Albigenses, but by the natural political
hostility of the southern princes to the conquering intervention
of the north under pretence of religious zeal. His son records
the way in which he spent the night before the battle of Murct
with a crudity of language which defies translation, and tells us
that his father was too exhausted in the morning to stand at
Mass, and had to be lifted into the saddle by his squires. Peter
none the less showed the greatest personal valour, and his body,
recognizable by his lofty stature and personal beauty, was
found on the field after the rout (Sept. 12, 1213).
See Chronicle of James I. of Aragon^ translated bv J Forster
(London, 1883) ; and Life and Times oj James the First the Conqueror ,
by F. Darwin Swift (Oxford, 1894).
Peter III., king of Aragon (i 236-1 286), son of James the
Conqueror, and his wife Yolande, daughter of Andrew II. of
Hungary, was bom in 1236. Having married Constance,
daughter of Manfred of Bencventum, he came forward as the
representative of the claims of the Hohenstaufen in Naples
and Sicily against Charles, duke of Anjou. Peter began the
long strife of the Angcvine and Aragonese parties in southern
Italy. His success in conquering Sicily earned him the surname
of " the Great " He repelled an invasion of Catalonia under-
taken by the king of France in support of Charles of Anjou, and
died on the 8lh of November 1286.
For the personal character of Peter III., the best witness is the
Chronicle of Ramondc Muntanez — reprinted in the original Catalan
by R. Lanz. Ltlrrartscher Verein tn Stuttgart, vol vii. (1844), and in
French by Buchon, Coll des chroniques naiionales (Pans, 1824-
1828). Sec also O. CartcUicri, Peter von Aragon und die StzUtan'
ische Vesper (Heidelberg, 1904).
Peter IV., king of Aragon (d. 1387), son of Alphonso IV.
and his wife Teresa d'Enle^a, is known as " The Ceremonious "
and also as ** he of the dagger." He acquired the first title
by the rigid etiquette he enforced, as one means of checking
the excessive freedom of his nobles. The second name was
given him because he wounded himself with his dagger in the
act of cutting to pieces the so-called " charter of the Union,"
which authorised the rebellions of his nobles, and which he
forced them to give up, after he had routed thdm at the battle
of Epila in 1348. Of no man of the 14th century can it be more
truly said that his life was a warfare on earth. He had first
to subdue his nobles, and to reannex the Balearic Islands to the
crown of Aragon. When he had made himself master at home,
he had to carry on a long and fierce contest with his namesake
Peter the Cruel of Castile, which only terminated when Henry
of Trastamara succeeded, largely with Aragonese help, in making
himself king of Castile in 1369. Peter succeeded in making
himself master of Sicily in 1377, but ceded the actual possession
of the island to his son Martin. He was three times married
to Mary, daughter of Philip of Evreux, king of Navarre, to
Eleanor, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal, and to Eleanor,
daughter of Peter II of Sicily, his cousin. The marriage of his
daughter by his third marriage, Eleanor, with John I. of Castile,
carried the crown of Aragon to the Castilian line when his male
representatives became extinct on the death of his son Martin
in 1 4 10.
Sec Zurita, Analcs de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610).
Peter, " the Cruel," king of Castile (1333-1369), son of
Alphonso XI. and Maria, daughter of Alphonso IV. of Portugal,
was born in 1333 He earned for himself the reputation of
monstrous cruelty which is indicatd by the accepted title. In
later ages, when the royal authority was thoroughly established,
there was a reaction in Peter's favour, and an alternative name
was found for him. It became a fashion to speak of him as
EI Jusliciero, the executor of justice Apologists were found to
say that he had only killed men who themselves would not
submit to the law or respect the rights of others. There is
this amount of foundation for the plea, that the chronicler
Lopez de Ayala, who fought against him, has confessed that the
king's fall was regretted by the merchants and tradeis, wbo
enjoyed security under his rule. Peter began to reign at the
age of sixteen, and found himself subjected to the controi of
his mother and her favourites. He was immoral, and unfaithful
to his wife, as his father had been. But Alphonso XI. did not
imprison his wife, or cause her to be murdered. Peter certainly
did thcfirst,'and there can be little doubt that he did the second.
He had not even the excuse that he was passionately in love with
his mistress, Maria de Padilla; for, at a time when he asserted
that he was married to her, and when he was undoubtedly
married to Blanche of Bourbon, he went through the form
of marriage with a lady of the family of Castro, who bore him
a son, and then deserted her. Maria de Padilla was only the
one lady of his harem of whom he never became quite tired.
At first he was controlled by his mother, but emancipated
himself with the encouragement <A the minister Albuquerque
and became attached to Maria de Padilla. Maria turned him
against Albuquerque. In 1354 the king was practically coerced
by his mother and the nobles into marrying Blanche of Botirbon,
but deserted her at once. A period of turmoil followed in whidi
the king was for a time overpowered and in effect imprisoned.
The dissensions of the parly which was striving to coerce him
enabled him to escape from Toro, where he was under observation,
to Segovia. From 1356 to 1366 he was master, and was engac^d
in continual wars with Aragon, in which he showed neither
ability nor daring. It was during this period that he perpetrated
the senes of murders which made him odious. He confided in
nobody save the Jews, who were his tax-gatherers, or the
Mahommedan guard he had about him. The profound hatred
of the Christians for the Jews and Mudejares, or Mahommedans
settled among them, dates from the years in which they were
the agents of his unbridled tyranny. In 1366 he was assailed by
his bastard brother Henry of Trastamara at the head of a host
of soldiers of fortune, and fled the kingdom without daring to
give battle. Almost his last act in Spain was to murder Sucra^
the archbishop of Santiago, and the dean, Peralvarci. Peter
now took refuge with the Black Prince, by whom he was restored
in the following year. But he disgusted his ally by his faithless-
ness and ferocity. The health of the Black Prince broke dovB^
and he left Spain. When thrown on his own resources, Felcr
was soon overthrown by his brother Henry, with the aid of
Bcrtrand du Guesclin and a body of French free compuiom,
He was murdered by Henry in du Guesclin's tent on the tjnl
of March 1369. His daughters by Maria de Padilla, Conrtincf
and Isabella, were respectively married to John of Gaunt, aid
Edmund, duke of York, sons of Edward III., king of ^"j^"^
The great original but hostile authority for the life of Peter tke
Cruel is the Chronicle of the Chancellor Pcro Lopez de Ayala (Madrid
1779-1780). A brilliantly written Life is that by Prosper MMrn^
Hist, de Don Pldre /., roi de CastiUe (Paris, 1848}. (D. H.)
PETER DES ROCHES (d. 1238), bUhop of Winchester
John and Henry III., and conspicuous among the forogn favov-
ites to whom these sovereigns owed much of their unpopularity,
was a Poitevin by extraction. He received the oflice of dbuAa-
lain towards the dose of Richard's reign, and under Richanh
successor became an influential counsellor. In 1205, doubtka
through John's influence, he was elected to the see of WindieiUr.
His election was disputed but, on appeal, confirmed by Pope
Innocent III., who honoured Peter by consecrating hin ii
person. None the less, the new bishop stood by his royal pttfoi
during the whole period of the interdict. In 1213 he was nade
justiciar in succession to Geoffrey Fitz Peter. Thb prOBOliBi
was justified by the fidelity with which Peter supported the
king through the barons' war. At the battle of Lincoln (lai;)
Peter led a division of the royal army and ^med some dirtiitf'
tion by his valour; but he played a secondary part in tk
government so long as William Marshal held the icfBKy*
After Marshal's death (1219) Peter led the baronial oppodtin
to Hubert de Burgh, with varying success. At first the jtutiMf
was successful. In 1221 Peter meditated going on cnaidii
1223- 1 224 saw his party broken up by Hubert*! encqflit
measures; in 1227 was himself dismissed from his ofice aid
PETER LOMBARD— PETER OF COURTENAY 293
luiwd hii back on Eafbnd Lo join the cnuadc of the enpcror ^' Parii agmd in iht rcjKtioa of liiicen propcwttoni taken Irom *
diploluliil. Aller Ibi fall of Dc Bucgh he kcpl in ibc back- (r.f. on ihc Pulmi. Caa'iick-% Jub. Ihe Cmfxl (laimony. and the
piiuDd. but offices and honoun wen hvaped on his dcpcndinu, riuHne Lpiuk-i). Krmontiixl iMIcn. ohich nilleiiu in MS. The
cstKtiillyonbiiiwphew.PrieidaRicvauLi.andoLhctl'Uitcvim. CC'™ «» "whmwuiiu ■■ faium Panilu. were 6« publiibed
P^J?^ '^r'' "'"'^P''"' *'"'''"= ""^' "*'•''' ™ ''"'1^ "L^ki!^'.*™H«,«l «.rf» lL.« been publiO«l in J. P, Miene'.
by Rjchard Manhal in iijj. But the pnnulc, Edmund PMniof/laiine.Tamc 191 ini 191. Siir !il» DcniBc and Chaielain.
Rich, 1-oiccd the general feeling when he denounced l\-tcr OgrIii/u>i>i>iiiii[nr]ita(ii^rii^iii,T<imFi. (Parii. iMq); Pnitaih
u ■ mucbiel maker, and demanded (hat he should be >"■"« t"i"W.i»« *J*W. ««*. "-i ft'rJi. ion iri«Mji« (Pari..
dj™^ ,™, „.„. ,1.. u., „.p,kd „d .i,«,™u zii.Wi,sS"?.™.sf-as.t'i«"fi
the buhop with charges oi malvcnalion. Pelcr m bow- ii;.(i»ijo; KnE-ir^n'. i»>4-i89^); andthca^kkinHenoc-llaurk's
tvei pcrioittcd 10 leave the country with a pardan(i>js)- Jiea/twyiUs/niitic, Bd. li. (Leipiig. 1901).
be cDotiliaicJ CrcBory IX. by rendering efficient aid in peteK OF AIGIIEBUNCKB (d. Ii68>. bishop of Hereford,
a m with the ciiiicns of Rome (uis); and in Ihe neil year belOTiged 10 a noble family of Savoy and came 10 England in
returned wiihout molestaiion to his (M. He wij invited to go ,336 ^ih his mailer. Willhm of Savoy. Wshop of Valence, being
as Ibc kUg's envoy 10 the court of Frederick II., but relusnl in atlcndancc on Eleanor of IVovcncf, Ihe bride of Henry 111.
■pparenlly on the tcore of Ul heallb. Ilis public reconciliation a ycj, or mt blcr he is found residing permanently in England
with D* Burgh (1.-^6), eOecled through the mediation ol the a» a member of the king's court ; before 1 130 he was archtleacon
papa] legale. pro\-ided a dramatic close 10 their long rivalry, of Sal.ip, nnd in 1140 he was chosen lusbop ol Hereford. In
bui had no political s-gm6cance, since bolh Here bow living in ,,jj Peier acted as Henry's principal agent in the matter
_,: . B„,„..i:~.: s .r.A ^.. k..^^ „ nwhwce^ of accepting Ihe kingdom of SicUy from Pope Alexander tV.
a good lor ],a un Edmund, and his rapacious and dbhonest mclbodi
ty was of raising nwney for this foolish enicrprise added not a little
' of the iQ ihe unpopularity which surrountled the king and his foreign
Englishmen, against whom he tnatched himself. But his nurnc favounles. When civil war broke out between Henry and his
is associated with a wonhlea clique of (avoariles. and wilb barons Ihe Ksbop H'maincd loyal lo his nusler, and whilst
the first steps which were taken by Henry III. 10 osiablisb a n.'siding. almost lor the first time, at Hereford he was taken
Lmii
See C. Petit Dutaiu;.. Vfc rf rJ|[« <!t ti«ih VIII. (Pariv 1804): kinc and his c
,.._r...~.„ P.-.vi(«Koti«(Pui.ier..U16Bli Slahh»-K™- h„ * ,i,.,j ,.
t/anJ, i-oL ii. J II. W, C. Uivi.. E^tl^ad ■n.frr "": «"™ "
4«™ii(i903)! T,F.Toutin.hei*o(iri£d(//rj(«/ "»■ _ ..
ii-tl90S). «LW.C.D.) p^J-."""
si;r^?t,.;;^;E;z™:;i57^L:;; asl-tst'cs's^?tslHl!ri::
af £i^a4, vol. ii
nl !>«» about the berinninu of the nth cenlutv at Novara f™"''' ""iter, the ton of noble Breton parcnis. was born a(
(then reckoned as l^lTnging to Lombardy). AftU receiving "1°?- He«"d«d jurisprudence at Bologna and ib«Jogy i.
hit education al Bolosna, he removed 10 France, bearing a ""*■ """ ,'° "S.V^ "'JV j'^i*'' "'"" [' acams tutor c
recommendation 10 DeT^rf of Clairvau.. who first ^aced him he young king WiUiatn !!.. and keeper of the royal seal ..,J.
uSTf-^Jf W Rdm,, and afterwards sint him lo Paris with '"''"''■ ^-l he made many ««mies and soon asked pemussior
letter, to Cildoin, the abbot of St Victor. He soon kame ^,1^'^'^^'^^;^' ^("it^"™!?;'!"^!^ "tl^"lUl° 'r
known as a teacher, and obtained a theological chair i ' " '"" n . n™ «■ n—n ,r,a mm* ,»».
caihedial school. Hii famous leiibooli, Ihe Scairniint
written between iijj and 11 JO. On Ihe i^lh of June 11
c bisbop of Palis. The account) of his bishopric
taiDiactory. There is a charge that he was guiliy of simony, ^.„ ,..,„. .„j ,„ bi„i„„,i. .„',■„, u,m.:,-„ !_;„■ '
having reii^rf bis office through the favour of Philip, brother f*"'"*'"^"^ ° I^a v^ nl^X;,u« oTTw ^.ln,«
ol I^ V11-. his fonner pupil. The date of ha death is e^'^'.S!'^" aVc^ L rt"'^»' H'"^' - -^
Bncettaii.. According to one account he died on the lolb of before the pope. After the death of Henry II. in iig,. he was
July,.«o.andasMauri„deSoHyt«^mehi.ho_jMha^^^^^^ iLV^-'tl^^^tlVdeSL' r«™We^hr;;on\^^™^^^
., ■ ' jny of London, but he apiKan 10 have been very discontented in hn
irimi Ubri oHotiar later years. He died some lime aftcc Mitch 1104.
of opinions ol the Peter's wrilings fall Into four claues. letters, trealiies, sermons
iired. profi-ucdiy on snd poems. His Efinciv. which were collnled at the request of
ffnorum " inia [our th«Y areailrlrrwd 10 Ik-nry 11. and to various Helatcsandscbclars,
Hid of the en'ituiT including Ttionus BhIeci and John of Saliibuiy. His treatises
dvinptiDn artd Ibc include De Irroin-'ymilara ptrtmnaiiene carttianda, an eithortalion
ti aiu) eschatoloEy- to lake nan in the third cruise, and Diaicint inttr tttriv lltmruum
J£'^^Z^^ " 'fawgrf'j^P^g'ghe
""^ ra£''iParisri667)"ndj"T
t. Tome IV. 1 \V. Stubhs.
nee ol Much olSiVictor is also marked. The lela-
tence< " of a Candulnh of Doli»nl (illll unpublished)
ibliihed. The most important tiling in '
iiseryitalliialionof thcdoctrincconceininglhuaciamenulsyslem, !f°J"V!'.' 'E'"'"<
by Ihe definite aneition of Ihe doctrine of the seven saclamcnit. y.h,*"''"' '"
and tbe aaepuiKe of a definiiion of saciamenl. not nwiely as "a ("4°l-
PETBR OP CODRTEHAT (d. lilt}), emperor ol
.1.1; h_v..in. ,\. .... t..,L ;. .i„.M ^vn, --onslanlinople). was I son of Peter of Counenay
1^^^x:^^'^i,':J^:!t^Z . pandson of .he French king, Louis VI. Hav
lien of ■ Bcred Ihing.butas Itself capable of conveying
el which it it the sign." The sentences soon attained
!HnBAK'loendle*comraenuri™ovrr 180 • g"i™on 01 inc
ingland. In 1300 the Iheokigical prolcuoti mamage, obtained
29+
PETER OF DUISBURG— PETER THE HERMIT
for his second wife, Yolande (d. 1219), a sister of Baldwin and
Henry of Flanders, who were afterwards the first and second
emperors of the Latin Empire of Constantinople. Peter accom-
panied his cousin, King Philip Augustus, on the crusade of 1 190,
fought against the Albigenses, and was present at the battle
of Bouvines in 12 14. When his brother-in-law. the emperor
Henry, died without sons in 1216, Peter was chosen as his
successor, and with a small army set out from France to take
possession of his throne. Consecrated emperor at Rome, in a
church outside the walls, by Pope Honorius III. on the 9th of
April X217, he borrowed some ships from the Venetians, prom-
ising in return to conquer Durazzo for them; but he failed in
this enterprise, and sought to make his way to Constantinople
by land. On the journey he was seized by the despot of Epirus,
Theodore Angelus, and, after an imprisonment of two years,
died, probably by foul means. Peter thus never governed his
empire, which, however, was ruled for a time by his wife,
Yolande, who had succeeded in reaching Constantinople. Two
of his sons, Robert and Baldwin, became in turn emperors of
Constantinople.
PETER OF DUISBURG (d. c. 1326), German chronicler, was
bom at Duisburg, and became a priest-brother of the Teutonic
Order. He wrote the Chronicon tcrrae Prussiae, dedicated to
the grand-master, Werner of Orseki, which is one of the chief
authorities for the history of the order in Prussia. There is a
rhyming translation in German by Nicholas of Jeroschin, which,
together with the original, is published in Bd. I. of the
Scriptores rerum prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861).
Sec M. T6ppcn. CeschichU dcr treussiuhen Historiographie (Berlin,
1853): and \v. Fuchs. Peter von Duisburg und das C^onicon oljvense
(KOnigsbcrg. 1884).
PETER OF MARICOURT (13th century), a French savant, to
whom his disciple, Roger Bacon, pays the highest tribute in his
opus tcrlium and other works. According to Bacon he was a
recluse who devoted himself to the study of nature, was able to
work metals, invented armour and assisted St Louis in one of
his expeditions more than his whole army. According to fimile
Charles (Roger Bacon sa tM, ses ouvragefj ses doctrines, x86i),
Peter of Maricourt is the Pierre P6r6grin (or Pterin) de Maricourt
(Mdharicourt in Picardy), known also as Petrus Pcregrinus of
Picardy, one of whose letters, De magnete, is partly reproduced
in Libri's Hist, dcs sciences malhimaiiques en Italic (1838), iL
70-71, 487-505.
PETER OF SAVOY (c. 1203-1268), earl of Richmond, younger
son of Thomas L (Tommaso), count of Savoy, was bom at Susa.
After spending some years as an ecclesiastic he resigned his
preferments, and in 1234 married his cousin Agnes, daughter
and heiress of Aymon II., lord of Faucigny. Accepting an
invitation from the English king, Henry III., who had married
his niece, Eleanor of Provence, Peter came to England in 1240*
and was created earl of Richmond, receiving also large estates
and being appointed to several important offices. During
several visits to the continent of Europe Peter had largely
increased his possessions in Vaud and the neighbourhood, and
retuming to England in 1252 he became associated with Simon
de Montfort, retaining at the same time the king's friendship.
Having been employed by Henry to negotiate with the pope
and with Louis IX. of France, he supported Earl Smion in his
efforts to impose restrictions upon the royal power; but, more
moderate than many members of the baronial party, went over
to Henry's side in 1260, and was consequently removed from the
council. In 1263 he left England, and when his nephew,
Boniface, count of Savoy, died in the same year he assumed the
title of count of Savoy. This was also claimed by another
nephew, Thomas; but Peter compelled the inhabitants of Turin
to submit to him and secured possession of the county. He died
on the i6th or 17th of May 1268, leaving an only child, Beatrice
(d. 1310). Peter gave to the castle of Chillon its present form,
and his name to the Savoy palace in London. He has been
called le petit Charlemagne, and was greatly praised for his valour
and his wisdom.
See L- Wurstcmberger. Peter der Zvoeite, Crajvon Satoyen (ZOrich,
1858); F. Mugnicr, Les Savoyards en Anglderre (Chaoabdiy, 1890);
and C. B6mont, Simon de Montfort (Paris, 1884).
PETER THE HERMIT, a priest of Amiens, who may, as Anna
Comnena says, have attempted to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem
before 1096, and have been prevented by the Turks from reaching
his destination. It is uncertain whether he was present at Urban*s
great sermon at Clermont in 1095; but it is certain that be was one
of the preachers of the crusade in France after that seraxm, and
his own experience may have helped to give fire to his doqucnce.
He soon leapt into fame as an emotional revivalist |»eacli«r: his
very ass became an object of popular adoration; and thousandt
of peasants eagerly took the cross at his bidding. The crusade
of the pauperes, which forms the first act in the first crusade, was
his work; and he himself led one of the five sections of the
paupcres to Constantinople, starting from Cologne in April,
and arriving at Constantinople at the end of July 1096. Here
he joined the only other section which had succeeded in reaching
Constantinople — that of Walter the Penniless; and with the
joint forces, which had made themselves a nuisance by pilfering,
he crossed to the Asiatic shore in the beginning of August, hi
spite of his warnings, the paupcres began hostilities against the
Turks; and Peter retumed to Constantinople, either in de^air
at their recklessness, or in the hope of procuring supplies. In
his absence the army was cut to pieces by the Turks; and he was
left in Constantinople without any followers, during the winter
of 1096-1097, to wait for the coming of the princes. He joined
himself to their ranks in May 1097, with a little following whidi
he seems to have collected, and marched with them tbrou^
Asia Minor to Jcnisalem. But he played a very subordinate
part in the history of the first crusade. He appears, in tlie
beginning of 1098, as attempting to escape from the privatiofis
of the siege of Antioch — showing himself, as Guibert of Nogent
says, a " fallen star." In the middle of the year he was sent by
the princes to invite Kerbogha to settle all differences by a dud;
and in 1099 he appears as treasurer of the alms at the siege of
Area (March), and as leader of the supplicatory processions in
Jerusalem which preceded the battle of Ascalon (August).
At the end of the year he went to Laodicea, and safled thence
for the West From this time he disappears; but Albert of Aiz
records that he died in 11 51, as prior of a church of the Ho^jr
Sepulchre which he had founded in France.
Legend has made Peter the Hermit the author and ori^nator
of the first crusade. It has told how, in an early vmi to Jem-
salem, before 1096, Christ appeared to him in the Church df the
Sepulchre, and bade him preach the crusade. The legend is
without any basis in fact, though it appears in the pages of
William of Tyre. Its origin is, however, a matter of soBse
interest. Von Sybcl, in his Gesckichte da ersien Kreuamits,
suggests that in the camp of the paupcres (which existed side bf*
side with that of the knights, and grew increasingly large as the
cnisade told more and more heavily in its progress on the pones
of the crusaders) some idolization of Pc:cr the Hermit had
already begun, during the first crusade, paralld to the similar
glorification of Godfrey by the Lorrainers. In this iddixatioii
Peter naturally became the instigator of the crusade, just »i
Godfrey became the founder of the kingdom of Jerusalem and the
legislator of the assizes. This version of Peter's career seems »s
old as the Chanson dcs chilifs, a poem which Raymond of Antiodi
caused to be composed in honour of the Hermit and his foUowcis,
soon after 1130. It also appears in the pages of Albert of Aix,
who wrote somewhere about X130; and from Albert it was
borrowed by William of Tyre. The whole legend of Peter is
an excellent instance of the legendary amplification of the first
crusade — an amplification which, beginm'ng during tbecfinsde
itself, m the " idolizations " of the different camps i^ela cat-
trorum, if one may pervert Bacon), soon developed into a rtgakx
saga. This saga found its most piquant beginning in the
Hermit's vision at Jerusalem, and there it accordingly bcgan^
alike in Albert, followed by William of Tyre and in- the Cktnsm
des chilijs, followed by the later Chanson d'Antiocke.
The original authorities for the story of Peter the Hermit am
for the authentic Peter, Anna Comnena and the Ceua Fr
i
PETER THE WILD BOY— PETER, EPISTLES OF
Icnilydl
UHcd by H. tlagi
n*TS,^c<(r^iffTMiur(Lnpnc, [879).
FITKB THB WILD MT (Jf. 1715-1785). « Hinovniii
imbecile o{ unkoowa p»renug(, who, hiving bteo found living
wild in tlie woodi Dear Hioover in 1715, wubroughl ia Engbnd
by Older ol Gttsge I., show intcmt bad been irouied in the
unfsitiuute jrouib. Ad enraordinuy amounl of curioiiiy and
IpcaUtion cooceming Fttet wu ftdled in London, and the
cruc wat the nibjecl oi a biting ulire by Swift, and ol another
eatiikd Tin Itail Wmiirfiii Wendo Ikai atr upptand lo Uu
WBmitr tf lltt Brilitk Nalim, which hu been atlribuled 10 Swift
■ltd Arbutbnot; Defoe aUo wrote on the [ubj«t, tnd Lord
MoDbodda la hii Oriim and Propen cj Lonimait proctita Iht
idiot Pettr ai an illustniion of his theory of the evolution of
ibe hDoun ipedn. He lived to an advanced age, was iteo by
Lord Uonboildo in 17S1, and died in 17SJ.
Sr Henv Wilion, Tin Bstt a} Wnitrltl CMaratltTi (London.
1W9).
TUl epistle it addmscd to " the elect who are uioui
tt the Diipetsioa [Diupon] in Pontiu, Galatia. Cappadi
An and Bilhynia." The " Diitpora " wii the name gtnci
even 10 the Jewi who were " scattered abroad." This lugj
■bat ihe letter was intended loc Jewish Christians in the provi
mentioned. But i. T4, 18', ii. q, eo; iv. j point rather to Ge:
*T*"*r**"*. and it is better to taitc this view, and interpret
"Dia^Kira "metaphonc^yasieferringtolheisoiatedposilii
ChfistiuB u»n£ the heathen. The general impression mad
ihe cpiiile b that the central idea wai to strengthen the cou
of the ledpients, who were liliely to undergo per-
seculkm, aad to enjoin an them conduct which
would nmave all reatonable eicuse lor thinking
that Chrislianity ought to be regarded ai a crime.
Ch. L }-i3 is an inlioduction oF praiK to God that
he had puied ibe ncipieon o( the epinte to be
nitiide Rome, and 1 Peter
I of Am Minor. TheiclDn
, arid asking for ai
procedure 10, be lollowcd in trials oCChriKian
a wuion. and Ihenfofe Kol(iakann!'wctaicker'**nd 01
tail as fixina the date of the epiule in Ihe beginning
century, and euluding the Pnnne aulhonhip. ^init this view
it may be argued that the cpiBle dexribei the begnining of per.
Rcuiion. The writer tlill hope* thai Chriuiani wilfnot be obliged
ID uRer " lor Ibe name " aad it clearly awan o( labe actuuiioni
ol cnme. On Ihe olher hand Pliny'm letter inipUcs Ltimc when
Oiriflianilv was in itielt ■ erine and warn mognind asfiKh. Tliui
it is urged, probatily eorreclly. that the epiitle belongs to the
beginning of a period of which Pliny'i letter marks a later dcvelnp'
ment.and wc can only uy tlut<. flliithe fcnutiiiua^ewM. The
nrniKw a (w is note dieTioiK 10 find. We do not know with cer-
tainty when Christianity became t lecocpued ofleftce. and icbDlars
have lupponed vaiiou* hypothetea. T. Momnien. Hardy and
Sanday lUnk that even imdei Nero it was criminal to be a Chi»iian :
Neumann thinks that this was first Ihe case under Donilian; Sir
W. M. Rannay believes that this attitude was one of the i«iili> of
ihejcwith War of w.andascribeslt to Vespasian. If thervm.iii.nir
dote Im adopted the Petrinc authorship is alnuHt ear
ii dithcult to reconcik the traditional date ol St Pfier
(0) The rdationi of t Peter to other books io ea
holy''livci
Dale mi Auikm
toimctttd that the;
fdrndeSlnlo"!
h Ihl
<n with Chrisl;
'ds the Gentiles and
fecial reference to the leb
husbands to each other, a^ _ .
rsl of these a passage is appended
< U^B^euu^ST^M-ISl.^aix-'
iringi of CTiTiit and the ble^ns
This.
is that
11 (iv.
. i)ai
■nby
Clement of Aleiandtia (SlrnM. iu. it, no), and it is Ihought by
Buny im'teis that I Peter iii. 1, even il it be not itself Pctrine,
ii tood evidr-ce that Ihe writer regarded 1 Peiet as apostolic.
Evidence for its use, without mention of its name, may be found
ii fo>ya.tp. but |mJ>ably not lit Ihe oihcr apostolic lathpra
lt(. Tkt f/.-T. in Ikt Apmrelie FalMcri, Oiford. 1905. p, ijj). It
a, bowever. possible that Papias made use ol it. It b doubtful
•btlher Justin Mailyr used il. but probable that it was known
lo Tbeophili .....
if MuratorL Thus
:, though imanimoul In
fivogr of the Petiine autboTshl. ,
quntioQ. The internal evidence com
« the date io conneiion with the penecution of C
V) evidence esuiblishiog Ihe [elation of the epistle
From Ihisubteil Is sufficiently plain that i Peter is eloicly connected
with Romans. Epheiians, James and Polyearp. The majocity of
though in the former case the general opinion favours the dcpendeore
of I Peter, in Ihe latter case itc prioritv. In England, however, the
Iiriority of James hat been supjnned by Mayor and Hort. In the
if ht of Ihe established use of Romans it is poiuble that 1 Peter also
uied other PauKne epistles and tome scholan have seen special
traces of the influence of I Cor. and CaL (lor a lisl of Ihcsc of.
Hollimann. Einlattrnf in du N.T.. 3. p. 314). Ii has been argued
ihat the use of Ihe Pauline epistlet is improbable lor Peter, but
this is a su^eciiv* argvmcnl which is not decisive.
(r) According to tradition Peter was manyrcd In Rome, and it
!> ptobabk thai Ihii was in the Nenrine pcrxculion, II this be so.
ihe year 64 is the ttrmniia ^imem of ihc Idler, il it be auihcntic.
tion and suffered al the be^nning of the peneeulions wMch, he
thinki.wereini<iatcdbylheFlaviaDenipetors(9cePaTiB, Sr: (j.
The whole tjueslion of authorship and date is thus a complei
ol smaller problem], many ol which do not seem to admit ol
any definite answer. II Si Paul's epistle to the Ephesians be
genuine, and il were really known to the wriieiof i Peter, and if
Peter were martyred in 6*, the theory ol Pctrine authonhip
the Petrine hypothesis this is the most probable view. The
the province! of Asia Minor outside the activity of Paul, and Ihat
the official persecution ol Christians as tuch began tbtoughout
the Roman Empire under Nero, for neither of which It then
296
PETER, EPISTLES OF
corroborative evidence. On the non-Petrine hypothesis a date
is demanded some lime before the letter of Pliny; this suits the
internal evidence better than any possible on the Petrine
hypothesis, but it fails to explain the really considerable and
early evidence for the Petrine authorship, and necessitates
some purely hypothetical suggestion, such as Harnack's view
that the epistle was originally anonymous, and that the opening
and closing sentences (i. i sqq., v. 12 sqq.) were added between
A.D. 150 and 175, perhaps by the writer of 2 Peter.
The Provenance of the Epistie. — This is defined in 1 Peter v. 13
as Babylon. It has sometimes been argued that this is Babylon
in Mesopotamia, in which there were, until the time of the em-
peror Caius, nuny Jews; but no good tradition connects St Peter
with the evangelization of Mesopotamia, and this district
would have had little in common with the Graeco-Roman world
of Asia Minor. Another suggestion is that the Egyptian Babylon
i> meant (Old Cairo); but in the ist century this was probably
merely a fortress. Thus there is an overwhelming weight of
opinion in favour of the view that Rome, the Babylon of
ApKxralyptic literature, is intended. This also agrees with the
tradition in 2 Tim. iv. 11, which (cf. x Pet. v. 13) suggests that
St Mark was in Rome.
Reception in the Canon. — x Peter seems to have been the
earliest of the Catholic epistles to obtain recognition. By the
year 200 it was accepted everywhere except in two places — the
church of Edessa, which did not receive the Catholic epistles
until the 5th century, and, if the canon of Muratori is to be
trusted, the church of Rome. It should, however, be noted that
Zahn emends the text of the Muratorianum (rather violently)
80 as to include the epistle (see also Bible: New Testament
Canon.)
The Theology of i Peter. — ^Thc simplicity of the theology is marked,
and affords an argument for an early date. Jcsius is the Messiah
of whom the prophets had spoken, and the Spirit of Christ " is
identified with the spirit which was in them. IHis suffering for sin
had rescued the elect, and was also an example for Christians to
follow. After his death he preached to the " spirits in prison."
The source of Christian life is on the one hand l)elicf in God who
raised the Messiah from the dead, and on the other hand baptism
which ** saves . . . through the resurrection of Jesus Christ." The
members of the community are " a royal priesthood, a holy nation "
— i.e. inherit the promises made to the Jews, but this inheritance
is bound up with tne strongly cschatological doctrine that Christians
are strangers in the world, the end of which is at hand.
The Church Organisation oj i Peter. — This also is very simple and
primitive, and closely l>ascd on the Jewish model. The leaders are
called presbyters or ciders, and their dutv is to act as shepherds to
the flock. Beyond this there is no sign 01 a developed organization :
each is to act in accordance with the gift (x^purpa) which he has
received. There is no trace of a specially set apart ministry either
for the service of the community or for teaching, as to which the only
limitation given is " If any man speak let him speak as the oracles
of God," i.e. probably, in accordance with the Old Testament.
2 Peter
This epistle may be divided into five parts, (i) The writer
who describes himself as " Simon (var. Icct. Symcon) Peter,
a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ," exhorts his readers to
become perfect in knowledge and virtue, so as to enter the
kingdom of Christ (i. 3-11). (2) He then explains his desire
once more to testify to the power of Jesus, and bases his testimony
partly on his own experience in the Holy Mount (apparently
a reference to the Transfiguration), and partly on the "A^ord
of prophecy" (i. 12-21). (3) The mention of prophecy leads
him to deal with the question of false prophets, who are accused
of false doctrine and immoral practices. In this section is
incorporated almost the whole of the epistle of Jude (ii. 1-22).
(4) lie then discusses a special feature of the false teaching,
viz. doubts thrown on the Parousia, the certainty of which
for the future he defends (iii. 1-13). Finally he warns his
hearers that they must be found spotless at the Parousia,
and emphasizes the agreement of his teaching with St Paul's
(iii. 14-18).
The main object of the epistle is to be seen in the attack
made on the false teachers, and in the defence of the certainty
of the Parousia of the Lord.
Authorship. — The traditional view is that it was written by
St Peter from Rome after i Peter. This view is however
untenable for the following reasons, (i) The epistle is not
quoted by any writer of the 2nd century, and Origen, who is
the first to mention it as Petrine, admits that its authorship was
disputed. (2) The style and langiuge differ greatly from that
of I Peter: this argument may however fairly be met by the
suggestion that it is improbable that he wrote Greek witb ease,
and that he may have used a variety of amanuenses. (3) The
growth of immorality and false teaching to which it witnesKS
seems irreconcilable with a very primitive period of church life.
(4) It has incorporated the greater part of Jude in a wbole-
salc manner difficult to reconcile with apostolical authorship.
(5) It seems to attribute a position of scriptural authority to
the Pauline epistles, and this is improbable either in the moutb
of Peter, or during the ist century.
Any one of these arguments would be weighty by itsdf; in
combination they form an irresistible cumulative argument
against the Petrine authorship of 2 Peter.
Date. — If the Petrine authorship be abandoned, the terminus
ad quern of the epistle is its use by Origen (or, just possibly, by
Clement of Alexandria), and the terminus a quo is fixed by the
following considerations: (i) the activity of an immoral
Gnosticism; (2) the attainment by the Pauline epistles of great
authority, and their perversion by heretics; (3) the use made
of the epistle of Jude.
It is difficult to define the exact dateto'wluch these indicatioBS
point, but there is a general agreement that it must be sought
in the 2nd century, and perhaps the decades immediately before
and after the year a.d. 150 are the most probable.
Place of Origin. — ^There is hardly any evidence on tbis point:
but the most probable place seems to be Egypt, as the letter bas
points of connexion with Philo, Clement of Alexandria and the
Apocalypse of Peter, and seems first to have been used in the
church of Alexandria. It should however be noted that Dctss-
mann argues on lexical groimds in favoiur of Asia l^linor {Bibd
Stud. pp. 277-284).
Relation to other Early Christian Documents. — The documents
with which 2 Peter has the greatest affinities are the e|Hstle
of Jude, and the Apocalyi>se of Peter, of which a fragment was
found in Akhmim in 1892 by M Bouriant. In eacb case the
affinity is very close, and is capable of more than one explanation.
Roughly speaking 2 Peter il. reproduces Jude: it b possible
therefore either that Jude is an epitome of 3 Peter or that the
writer of 2 Peter used Jude. The former hypothesis has a few
supporters, notably T. Zahn and Spitta, but most writers are
emphatic in thinking that 2 Peter has incorporated Jude, and
this view is almost certainly correct (see Jude, Epistle or).
The connexion with the Apocalypse of Peter is more compUcated:
the evidence of a com|>arison between the two documents (whi^
is made in full in F. H. Chase's article in Hastin^*s Dictumary
of the Bible) is to show that either one document is dependent
on the other, or both were written by the same person, or both
come from the same circle. Of these theories there is least to
be said for the dependence of the Apocalypse on 2 Peter, and
perhaps most for the dependence of 2 Peter on the Apocalypse.
Reception in the Canon, — 2 Peter was the last of the CatboKc
epistles to be accepted as canonical. It was first regarded is
such in Alexandria, perhaps originally in connexion with the
Apocal>'pse of Peter rather than with i Peter. Thence it paned
into the canon used by the church of Constantinople, in the 4th
century made its way into the Roman canon, and in the 6th ins
accepted last of all by the Syria church (sec also BiBLE: Ni»
Testament Canon).
The Theolof:y of 2 Peter.— The theology of the epistle is speciily
marked by two cfiaracteristics — Us high Christology and its eachatiih
logical character. Christ is referred to as " our God and Savioiv.'*
and the fatherhood of God is apparently only regarded as refcmsc
to the Divine Son. The work of Christ was the rcdemptioa a
the elect, and this redemption awaits its consummation in the
Parousia. This is the central point of the teaching of the cpiitir
and is obviously directed against that of the false prophets. The
writer looks forward to the destruction of the present world by ii^
PETERBOROUGH 297
firei uhI una ct the wac front b 156 (t. In 1643 Ike buSUlDC
of Cnunwfllt *1n dotroyed nnrLy all
burnt the ABdnl ncordii kwUcd the
wiodowL and denoliiliad the doiften^
lin the Udy cliapd wu takeD dowD.
9th ceuury the church wu repaved.
K VHt front and other pani wat befun
are. Diirinc the carryinR out of thia
I Saioi chunh. eBcloKd within I crypt
Queen of ScMMnisB;, hut the hody of
(K. I-) ovcd (o Wcnminncr Abbey in iii>.
unrxuviKi. a lOwn and port ol entry of Ontario, itended by Robert Scarlett Iheieaon,
Linatu. »4d apiul o( Peterboiough county, aitualed 70 m. ™« " nS'Sf^TiJL'.ftK Sl-'j
N.E. of Toronto, on the Otonabee rivet and the Grand TrunL gsThm are iSe inlSStingre mlin"
tod Canadian PadGc nilwayi. Pop. (i<)i>i), ii,ijq. The llie cathedral iiapprouhtd by a Nonnlneateny. above which
five falls of the Otonabee at Ihii point wilfa a total detcent i> the chapel of St Sichalu, biull by Abbot ScnetUct, and now uicd
m 50 ft., fumiri. power for a 1.^ and inc,e^ng_ number of r^v^:tkr^r^,i.^ ^^^'^'^^tTJ^ot " it «X'
manufactunn* eJUbbjhminU, whilst its canalualion « part tu, orfgiuHy Norman. The_gale»ay to (he bl.hop'i palace, for-
of the Tnnl ouul givei connniuuciiion nilb Lake Ontano and nerly the abbot'a houK. waa built by Abbot Godfrey de Ctoyland
Gco(siu< B»y- PetetJjomugh baa an electric railway, and con- 1! "S'B. »^,^he^'»fyi»^_^y A'*?!'''?'!!'*^'".'.??^--?^"'
taioa important manufactories of electrical machinery ai
nipfiLiea, iron and iteel bridgei, agricultural unplementa ai
CDidage, law, flour and woollen miilL Jonn tne tJaptist. Dut tor ecdesiaalical puipoaes it is oiviaed into
Rn^BOROOOHi a dty and municipal and parliamentary four, the additional pariibei being St Mary's Boongale (1S5;),
baCDOtli of NonhampUDlhire, EngUnd, )6 m. N. from London St Mark's (1858) and St Piul'i (1869]. lie old parish churdl
by the Great Northern railway; served also by tbe London & of St John originally stood to the east of the cathedral, but waa
Nntb Westers, Gresl Eastern and Midland railway!. Pop. rebuilt on its present site in the centre of the city (1401-1407)
(1(91). is,i;i; (1901), 30.8;]. It it built chiefly along the in Perpendicular style. The educational egtablishincnti include
riw Nene, on the north ^de, and on the westers border oI the the flenry VIII. grinimat ot chapter school, nhicb used the
Fen CDuntly. chapel ot St Thomas 1 B«kel until 1885: the St Piter's training
The cathedral of St Peter it the third chutrh that has occupied college for ichoolnuutera for the dioceses of Peterborough, Ely
the lite; the Gru, fauoded under Penda, king of the Mercians, and Linmla. erected from designs of Sir Gilbert Scott (1S64];
about fij6, was entirely destroyed by the Danes in &70, and tbe and Deacon's and Ireland's charity school, established in 1711
second, founded in King Edgar^s reign, was acddentally burnt for the clothing and educating of twenty poor boyi. Ti^t
a 1116. The present building, founded in tbe foUowiog year, principal public building is the market house (1671), used as 1
was, inclusive of the weM front. i» years in building, being town-hall. The modern ptoipeiity and rapid growtfa of the
miilecnttd <«> the 41b of October 1137. It embraces in all, town are diicfiy due to the trade caused by the junction of so
hovevd, ei^t periodB of construction, and in no other building miny raQway lines. Adjoining the town are extensive works
>n be better studied through tbe various grades and sheds connected with the Great Northern and Midland
lailwayi. The principal manufacture is that of agriculture
implements. Tbe parliamentary borough returns one member
(since 188s). The municipal borough, inootporated in i8j4,
a under a mayor, 6 aldermen and iS coundllon. Area, 1S78
acres. The soke or liberty ol I^terborough, with a population
of 41, 111, constitutes a separate admioittraUve county (iSSS).
The diocese of Peterborough includes the whole of Rutland,
nearly all Leicestershire and Nonhamptonahire, and small
portions of Derbyshire and Huntingdonshire.
Peterborough KBureh. Barcm saiKli Pilri) is proved by its
original name Medehamstede to have been a Saxon village
bclore 6sj when Ssiulf, a monk, founded the monastery on
land granted to him for that purpose by Penda, king of Mcrcia.
Its name was altered to Burgh between 991 and loo; alter
Abbot Kenulf had made a wall round the minister, but the town
does not appear to have t>een a borough until the iitb century.
Tbe burgesses received their first charier from " Abbot Robert,"
probably Robert of Sutton (1161-1173). Until the 19th century
the dean and chapter, who succeeded the abbot as lords ol the
manor, appointed a liigh bailiff, and the constables and other
borough officers were elected at their court Icel, but the borough
was incorporated in 1874 under the government of a mayor,
6 aldermen and iS councillors. Among the privileges claimed
a prison for felons taken in the soke and borough. In IS76
Bishop Scamble sold the lordship ot the hundred of Nassaburgh,
which it coextensive with the soke, to Queen Eliiabetb, wbo
298
PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, EARL OF
gave it to Lord Burghley, and from that time until the 19th
century he and his descendants, marquesses of Exeter, had a
separate gaol in Peterborough for prisoners arrested in the soke.
The trades of weaving and woolcombing were carried on in
Peterborough in the X4th century. The abbot formerly held
four fairs, of which two, one called St Peter's fair, granted in
XI 89 and now held on the second Tuesday and Wednesday in
July, and the other called the Bridge fair, granted in 1439 ^^^
held on the first Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday in October,
still survive and were purchased by the corporation from the
ecclesiastical commissioners in 1876. Peterborough sent two
members to parliament for the first time in 1547.
PETERBOROUGH AND MONMOUTH, CHARLES MOR-
DAUNT, Easl of {c. 1658-1735), English soldier and statesman,
was bom about 1658. His father, John Mordaunt, was created
Viscount Mordaunt of Avalon and Baron Mordaunt of Reigate,
Surrey, in 1659;^ his mother was Elizabeth, the daughter and sole
heiress of Thomas Carey, the second son of Robert Carey, xst
earl of Monmouth.* He matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford,
on the ixth of April X674. When about sixteen years of age
he joined Sir John Narborough's fleet in the Mediterranean, and
won his first distinction in arms in the destruction of the dey's
fleet under the very guns of Tripoli His father died on the 5th
of June 1675, and Charles Mordaunt succeeded to the peerage
as Viscount Mordaunt. On his rdtum from the second expedi-
tion to Tangier he plunged into active political life as a zealous
Whig and an tmswerving opponent of the duke of York. But
his continued hostility to James II. forced him to repair to
Holland in 1686, when he proposed to William of Orange to
invade England. The disF>osition of the cold and cautious
William had little in common with the fierce and turbulent
Mordaunt. His plan was rejected, though the prudent prince
of Orange deemed it judicious to retain his services. When
William sailed to Torbay his friend accompanied him, and when
the Dutch prince was safely established on (he throne of England
honours without stint were showered upon Lord Mordaunt.
He was sworn of the privy council on the X4th of February
1689, on the 8th df April of the same year appointed first lord
of the treasury, and a day later advanced in the peerage by
creation as earl of Monmouth.
In less than a year he was out of the treasury, but he still
remained by the person of his monarch and was with him in
his dangerous passage to Holland in Janiiary X691. He was
one of the eighteen peers who signed the protest against the
rejection, on the 7th of December 1692, of the motion for the
appointment of a committee to inquire into the conduct of the
war, and although William had refused his consent to a bill for
triennial parliaments in the previous session, Lord Monmouth
did not shrink from reintroducing it in December 1693. This
kSl to a disagreement with the court, though the final breach
did not take place until January X697, when Monmouth was
accused of complicity in Sir John Fenwick's conspiracy and
of the use of " undutiful words " towards the king. He was
committed to the Tower, staying in confinement until the 30th
of March 1697, and deprived of his employments. Some
consolation for these troubles came to him on the 19th of June
of the same year, when he succeeded to the earldom of Peter-
borough, by the death of his imcle Henry Mordaunt, ind earl.
The four years after his release from the Tower were mainly
passed in retirement, but on the accession of Anne he plunged
into political life again with avidity. His first act was to draw
down on himself in February 1702 the censure of the House of
Commons for the part which he took in the attempt to secure
the return of his nominee for the borough of Malmesbury.
Through the fear of the ministry that his restless spirit would
drive him into opposition to its measures if he stayed at home,
jhe was appointed early in 1705 to command an expedition of
* A barony of Mordaunt by writ had existed in the family since
1529, and the viscount was the second son of the fifth of these
barons, who in 1628 was created earl of Peterborough, the elder son
Henry being second earl.
>Cr. 1626. This peerage became extinct in 1661 on the death
of the 2nd carl.
English and Dutch troops in Spain. He was created the aolt
commander of the land forces in April 1705 and joint-commander
with Sir Cloudesley Shovel of the fleet on the xst of May, after
he had been reinstated a member of the privy council on the
29th of March. He arrived at Lisbon on the 3olh of June 1705,
sailed for Barcelona (Aug. 1705) on an expedition for the
conquest of Catalonia, and began to besiege that town. For
some weeks the operations were not prosecuted with vigour
and Peterborough urged that the fleet should transport the
troops to Italy, but the energetic counsels of the Archduke
Charles at last prevailed and by the 14th of October the city
fell into his hands. On the 34th of January X706 he entered
Valencia in triumph, but these movements had weakened the
garrison at Barcelona, which was now besieged by a superior
French force under Tessf. The garrison, commanded by the
archduke, defended their positions with great bravery, but
would have been obliged to surrender had not the fleet of Sir
John Leake, answering the appeals of Charles but contrary to
the original orders of Peterborough, come to their assistance
on the 8th of May, whereupon the French Raised the siege on
the nth of May. It is difficult to understand the action of
Peterborough during this campaign, unless on the suppositioa
that he was out of sympathy with the movement for pladng as
Austrian prince on the throne oi Spain. When Chailes deter-
mined upon uniting with Lord Galway's troops and marching
to Madrid, the advice of Peterborough again hindered his progress.
At first he urged an advance by Valencia as supplies had there
been collected, then he withdrew this statement; afterwards
he delayed for some weeks to join Galway, who was in need ci
succour, but ultimately reached the camp on the 6th of AugosL
The leaders of the army differed in their views, and Lord
Peterborough was recalled to England to explain his conduct
(March X707).
On his return to England in August he allied himself with ths
Tories, and received his reward in being contrasted, mudi to
his advantage, with the Whig victor of Blenheim and MalfJaquet
The differences between the three peers, Peterborough, Gahray
and Tyrawlcy, who had served in Spain, formed the subject
of angry debates in the Lords, when the majority declared for
Peterborough; after some fiery speeches the resolution that hs
had performed many great and eminent services was canied,
and votes of thanks were passed to him without any divisiaa
(January and February X708). His new friends were not
desirous of detaining him long on English soil, and they
sent him on a missidh to Vienna, where he characteristically
engaged the ministry in pledges of which they disaf^pcoved.
His resentment at this disagreement was softened by the com-
mand of a cavalry regiment, and by his appointment as a Knight
of the Garter (Aug. 3 and 4, X713). With the accetrina
of George I. Lord Peterborough's influence was gone. Won
out with sxiffering, he died at Lbbon on the 25th of October
1735. His remains were brought to En^nd, and buried at
Turvey in Bedfordshire on the 21st of November.
Lord Peterborough was short in stature and qpare in habit of
body. His activity kiiew no bounds. He was said to have seca
more kings and postilions than any man in Eurc^, and the
whole point of Swift's lines on " Mordanto " consisted hi A
description of the speed with which he hastened from capital
to capital. He was eloquent in debate and intrepid in war, bat
his influence in the senate was ruined through his inconsistcBcy,
and his vigour in the field was wasted through his want of unioft
with his colleagues. His first wife, Carey, dau^ter ol Sir
Alexander Fraser of Dores, Kincardineshire, died on the ijtk
of May X709, and was buried at Turvey. Some years liter
(1722) he secretly married Anastasia Robinson (c. X69S-X755),*
famous dramatic singer (from 17x4) of great beauty aad sweet"
ness of disposition, daughter of Thomas Robinson (d. X7tt)»
a portrait painter; but she was at first unrecognised as Us wtte.
and lived apart from him (regarded merely as his mfistroi)
with her two sisters at Parson's Green. She
on the operatic stage, till 1724. It was only a few
before his death that (after a second marriage oereBMaQr)
i
PETERHEAD— PETERS, H.
299
«M introduced Co tociety as the countess of Peterborough.
Be had a mm John (1681-1710) who predeceased him, and was
therefore succeeded in the title by his grandson Charles (17x0-
1779)1 whose son Charles Henry (1758-18x4), 5th earl, died
■nmarnrd, the honours becoming extinct, except for the
buooy of Mordaunt which passed to a collateral branch and
feO into abeyance in 1836.
BnuocRAPHT. — ^The best aocoants of the career of Peterfoorough
are in the life by WiUiam Scebbing (1890). and the War of Uu
Smcussion tn Spain^ by Colood the Hoa. Arthur Pamell (1905).
Tbe earlier lives are founded on the memoir of Captain Ceor;^
Carletoa (1738), which was analysed by Colonel Pamell, and dis-
fluaed as a fictitious nanative inspired oy Swift, in the Eng. Hut.
Reg. (1891). vt 97-151). (W. P. C.)
PSISRHEAD, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport of
Aberdeenshire, the most easterly town in Scotland. Pop.
(xgox), 11,794. It b situated about 33 m. by road E.N.E. of
Aberdeen and 44} m. by rail, via Maud Jtmction, on the Great
North of Scotland railway, from which there is a branch line.
The town is built of the i^ granite for which it is famous, and
tbe quarrying of which for home and foreign use constitutes
an important industry. Among the principal buildings are the
town-house (1788), with a spire 125 ft. high, and the Arbuthnot
nnseum and art gallery. In front of the town-hall is a statue to
Tield Marshal Keith (bom at Inverugie Castle, a m. north-west,
kk 1696), which was presented to the burgh in 1868 by William I.
«f Prussia, afterwaids German emperor. Peterhead is one
«f the Elgin district group of parliamentary burghs, with Banff,
CoOen, Elgin, Inverurie and Kintore. It formerly had an
cttcnsive trade with the ports of the Baltic, the Levant and
Anoica, and was once a sub-port to Aberdeen, but was made
isdependent in 1832. It was also for a long period the chief
teat of the Greenland trade, but the Arctic seal and whale
fabety b now extinct. The north and south harbours lie
between the town and Keith Inch— a suburb at the extremity
«( the peninsuU on part of which the town is built — and the
iAhmos dividing them is pierced by a canal crossed by an iron
i*iDg4>ri(lge. In the north harbour are two graving docks. A
thiid harbour has been built, the area of the three basins
SBoanting to 21 acres. In addition to the granite quarrying
ad polishing, the leading industries are ship- and boat-building,
>triailtural implement works and woollen manufactures. The
boring fleet possesses more than 600 boats and the annual
otdi averages nearly £200,000. About a mile to the south
■ the ooDvict prison for Scotland. Since x886 the prisoners
bave been employed upon the construction of a vast harbour
of rtfnge, for which the breakwater extends from Boddam
^'oiot northwards across the bay. This great undertaking
Onteaded to be completed in 192 x) was designed by Sir John
9">de (d. 1892). Peterhead is the terminus of a cable to
^w*ay. About 6 m. south of Peterhead are the famous
Bidkn, or Roarers, of Buchan, an enormous rocky cauldron
iitto li^ the waves pour through a natural arch of granite,
vtib incredible violence, in a storm.
^^ town and lands belonged of old to the Abbey of Deer,
"'"'li io tbe 13th century by William Com3m, earl of Buchan;
^ «ben the abbey was erected into a temporal lordship in the
^*^ of Keith the superiority of the town passed to the earl
"■nscbal, with whom it continued till the forfeiture of the
^lUoQ in 1716. The town and lands were purchased in 1720
V a fidbuig company in England and, on their failure, by the
"C^daat Maidens' Hospital of Edinburgh for £3000, who are
j^ the overlords. Peterhead, made a burgh of barony in 1593
V (icoTfe Keith, fifth earl marischal, was the scene of the
"^jng^ the Pretender on Christmas Day 171 5.
'KIBtHOF, a town of Russia, in the government of St
J'^cndMirg, 18 m. W. of the capital, on the south coast of the
^ of Fmland. It was founded in 1711 and has grown up
Ji*ad the palace built by Peter the Great in 1720; pop., xx,3oo.
'^'(riiof is almost exclusively a residential town, but gem-cutting
ltd tbe manufacture of agricultural implements are carried on.
2« ptlace has undergone alterations and additions, e.g. by
Cttbarioe II., but retains a distinct Petrine stamp. It is built
on a height soft, above the sea, and contains portraits of
the Russian imperial family and other pictures. A statue of
Peter the Great was set up near the palace in 1883, and one of
Francis I. of France in 1896, a gift from the town of Havre to
Nicholas II. Peteriiof is connected with Oranienbaum on the
west and with Strydiui on the east by series of gardens and
villas.
PBrERMAMN, AUGUST HBIlfRICH (X822-X878), (jerman
cartographer, was bom at Bleicherode, near Nordhausen, on
the x8th of April 1822. At the age of seventeen he entered the
Geographical School of Art in Potsdam, and in 1845 proceeded
to Edinburgh to assist Dr Keith Johnston in the production
of an English edition of the Physical Atlas of Berghaus. In
1847 he came to London, and published among other works,
an account of Barth's expedition to Central Africa (1855).
In 1854 he became director of the geographical institute of
Justus Perthes in Gotha, and editor of the well-known Petermanns
Mitteilungtn. His woric did much towards elucidating the
geography of the interior of Africa and of the North Polar
regions. Queen Victoria, at the suggestion of Bunsen, q>pointcd
him physical geographer-royal. Petermann died by his own
hand at Gotha on the 2Sth of September 1878.
PBTERS (or Petes), HUGH (1598-1660), English Independent
divine, son of Thomas Dyckwoode, alias Peters, descended from
a family which had quitted the Netherlands to escape religious
persecution, and of Martha, daughter of John Treffry of Treffry
in Cornwall, was baptized on the 29th of June 1598, and was
educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. Having experienced
conversion, he preached in Essex; returning to London he took
Anglican orders and was appointed lecturer at St Sepulchre's.
He entertained, however, unorthodox opinions, and eventually
left England for Holland. He visited Gustavur Adolphus in
Germany about 1632, and afterwards became the minister of
the English church at Rotterdam. Here his unorthodox
leanings again attracted attention, and Peters made a further
move to New England. He was connected with John Winthrop
through his wife, and had already formed several friendships
with the American colonists. He arrived at Boston in October
1635 and was given charge of the church at Salem. He took a
leading part in the affairs of the colony, and interested himself
in the founding of the new colony in Connecticut. In X64X he
returned to England as agent of the colony, but soon became
involved in the political troubles which now began. He became
chaplain to the forces of the adventurers in Ireland, and served in
1642 in Lord Forbes's expedition, of which he wrote an account.
On his return he took a violent part in the campaign against
Laud, and defended the doctrines of the Independents in a
preface to a tract by Richard Mather entitled " Church Govern-
ment and Church Covenant discussed . . ." (1643). He gained
great reputation as a preacher by his discourses and exhorta-
tions at public executions, and as army chaplain. In the latter
capacity he accompanied Lord Warwick's naval expedition to
Lyme in 1644 and Fairfax's campaigns of 1645 ^nd 1646, when
his eloquence is said to have had a marvellous effect in inspiring
the soldiers and winning over the people. At the conclusion
of the war, Peters, though greatly disliked by the Presbyterians
and the Sicots, had attained great influence as leader of the
Independents. In his pamphlet " Last Report of the English
Wars " (1646) he urged reUgious toleration, an alliance with
foreign Protestants, and an active propagation of the gospel.
In the dispute between the army and the parliament he naturally
took the side of the former, and after the seizure of the king by
the army in June 1647 had interviews with Charles at Newmarket
and Windsor, in which he favourably impressed the latter, and
gave advice upon the best course to pursue. He performed
useful services in the second Civil War, procured guns for the
besiegers at Pembroke, raised troops in the midlands, and
arranged the surrender of the duke of Hamilton at Uttoxctcr.
Though at the Restoration he denied any complicity in the
king's death, it is certain that in his sermons he justified and
supported the trial and sentence. In August he accompanied
Cromwell to Ireland, and was present at the fall of Wexford,
300
PETERS, K.— PETERSBURG
while later he assisted the campaign by supcrihtending from
England the despatch to Cromwell of supplies and reinforce-
ments, and was himself destined by Cromwell for a regiment
of foot. In 1650 he was in South Wales, endeavouring to bring
over the people to the cause, and subsequently was present at
the battle of Worcester. At the conclusion of the war Peters
was appointed one of the preachers at Whitehall and became a
person of influence. Parliament had already voted him an
annuity of £200, and Laud's library or a portion of it had been
handed over to him in 1644. He was one of the committee of
twenty-one appointed to suggest legal reforms, and he published
his ideas on this subject, which included a register of wills and
land titles and the destruction afterwards of the ancient records,
in his tract, " Good Work for a Good Magistrate " (in 165 1),
answered by R. Vaughan and Prynne. He strongly disiapproved
of the war with Holland, and his interference brought upon
him some sharp reprimands. In July 1658 he was sent to
Dunkirk to provide apparently for the spiritual wants of the
garrison. He preached the funeral sermon on Cromwell, and
after the latter's death took little part in political events,
though strongly disapproving of the removal of Richard. He
met Monck at St Albans on the hitter's march to London, but
met with no favour from the new powers, being expelled from
his lodgings at Whitehall in January x66o. On the xith of
May his arrest was ordered. On the x8th of June he was ex-
cepted from the Act of Indemnity and apprehended on the 2nd
of September at Southwark. He sent in a defence of himself
to the Lords, denying any share in the king's death. He was,
however, tried on the 13th of October and found guilty of high
treason. His execution took place at Charing Cross on the i6th
of October, when he behaved with great fortitude, and was
undismayed by the mangling of the body of John Cook, his
fellow su£Ferer, upon which he was forced to look. Before his
death he wrote " A Dying Father's Last Legacy " to his only
child, Elizabeth, in which he gave a narrative of his career.
His death was viewed with greater rejoicings than perhaps
attended that of any of the regicides, which is the more sur-
prising as Peters possessed many amiable qualities, and several
acts of kindness performed by him on behalf of individual
Royalbts are recorded. But he had incurred great unpopularity
by his unrestrained speech and extreme activity in the cause.
He was a man, however, of a rough, coarse naturcf without
tact or refinement, of strong animal spirits, undeterred by
difTicolties which beset men of higher mental capacity, whose
energies often outran his discretion, intent upon the realities
of Fife and the practical side of religion. His conception of
religious controversy, 'that all differences could be avoided if
ministers could only pray together and live together, is highly
characteristic, and shows the largeness of his personal sym-
pathies and at the same time the limits of his intellectual
imagination. Peters married (x) Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas
Cooke of Pebmarsh in Essex and widow of Edmund Read,
and (2) Deliverance ShcfiHeld, by whom he had one daughter,
Elizabeth.
PETERS, KARL (x8s6- ), German traveller in Africa,
one of the founders of German East Africa, was bom at Neuhaus
on the Elbe on the 27th of September X856, the son of a Lutheran
clergyman. He studied at GOttingen, Tubingen and Berlin,
and in X879 was awarded a gold medal by the Berlin University
for his Frieden zu Venedig. After visiting London to study
English principles of colonization, he returned to Berlin and
promoted the German Colonization Society {Deutsche Kolonial-
verein). In the autumn of 1884 he proceeded with two com-
panions to East Africa, and concluded in the name of his society
treaties with the chiefs of Useguha, Nguru, Usagara and Ukami.
Returning to Europe early in 1885, he formed the German £last
Africa Company, which speedily obtained an imperial charter.
The story of this enterprise, the first step in the formation of a
German colony in East Africa, is told under Africa, $ 5. In
1888 Peters undertook an expedition from the east coast of
Africa, avowedly for the relief of Emin Pasha. This expedition
was not sanctioned by the German government and was regarded
by the British authorities as t filibustering exploit. One of its
objects was to extend the sphere of German influence, and, reach-
ing Uganda early in 1890, Peters concluded a treaty with the king
of that country in favour of Germany. He left Uganda, hastily
on the approach of a representative of the British East Africa
Company, and on reaching Zanzibar learned that his treaty was
useless, as an agreement had been come to between Gcnnaaj
and Great Britain whereby Uganda was left in the British q>here.
On his return to Germany Peters was received with great bonoun,
and in X89X published an account of his expeditbn entitled
Die deutsche Emin Pasha ExpedUiottf which was traxulatcd
into English. In xSqx he went out again to East Africa as
imperial high commissioner for the Kilimanjaro district, and
in X892 was one of the commissioners for delimiting the An^o-
German boundary in that region. In June 1892 accusations
were brought against him of excesses in his treatment of the
natives, and after three investigations had been hdd he was,
in X897, deprived of his commission for " misuse of ofl&cial
power." (He was regranted his title of imperial commissioDcr
in 1906.) During X893-X895 Peters was employed in thecolonisl
office at Berlin. In X896 he removed to London, where he
occupied himself in schemes for exploiting parts off Rhodesia
and Portuguese East Africa. In the interests of a company he
formed, Peters explored the Fura district and Macombe's
country on the Zambezi, where in 1899 he discovered ruins of
ancient cities and deserted gold mines. He returned in 1901
and gave an account of his explorations in The Eldorado of Iht
Ancients (1902). In 1905 he again visited the region betwcca
the Zambezi and Sabi rivers.
Besides the books already mentioned and some smaller treati
Peters published a philosophic work entitled WtUenswelt mU Wdt'
wiUe (1883). and a disquisition on early gold production entitled
Das goldene Ophir Salomos (1895), tcansiated into EngUih in 18^
PETERSBURG, a dty and port of entry of Virginia, VSA^
on the Appomattox river, at the head of navigation, about
1 1 m. from its mouth, and 22 m. S. of Richmond. Pop. (1890),
22,680; (1900), 21,810, (10,751 negroes); (1910), 24,137. It fa
served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the
Norfolk & Western railways. The river, which is here qtanned
by two steel bridges and one frame bridge, is navigable to thfa
point for vessels of 8 ft. draught at mean high water, and has bees
greatly improved by the ("ederal government, which in 1909
was engaged in deepening the whole channel to 12 ft. at ncaa
high water and in excavating at Petersburg a new channd into
which to deflect the river. In and about the city there b nvck
of historic and scenic interest. At Blandford, a suburfasa
hamlet, is the picturesque old Blandford church, erected abovL
1734. Petersburg has two public parks, and among its instito-^
tions are a home for the sick (x886), an orphanage for gills <
another for negroes, the state central hospital for the
(negroes), the southern female college (non-sectarian, i86t3>v
the university school for boys, the Bishop Payne divinilsr
school (Protestant Episcopal) for negroes, and the Vii|iBLa>
normal and industrial institute (opened in 1883), abo
negroes. There are two national cemeteries near PeterriHDf-
Poplar Grove (about 4 m. south), containing about 6200 gm
and City Point (about 9 m. east), containing about sioogitves*
and in Blandford cemetery there are about 30,000 giavci ^
Confederate dead. In this cemetery General William PhSl^a i*
buried, and there is a monument to Captain McRae, commimicr
of the " Petersburg V^olunteers," whose bravery in i8i»-i8lj
prompted President Madison to call Petersburg the ** Cocfcadt
City." The falls above the city furnish abundant watcr-powA
and the city has various manufactures. The factory ptodBC'
was valued at $5,890,574 in 1905, xi-3% more than in 19^^
in both 1900 and 1905 Petersburg ranked fourth amoBf tit
cities of the state in the value of factory products. Fpib
Petersburg are shipped quantities of trunks and bags, |xsa^
tobacco and cotton. In 1909 the foreign trade, wholly u"Pf^
was valued at $360,774. The city was formerly in ChesteiicH
Dinwiddle and Prince George counties, but is now indcpcidcrt
of county government.
PETERSBURG
301
An Indian TiDace formerly stood on or near the site of the
pRKnt dty, and Fort Henry was built here by the whites in
1(45. Petcnboii was founded in 1733 by Colonel William
Byid (1674-X744) and Peter Jones, and was named (first Peter's
Ptaint, and then Petersburg) in honour of the latter; in 1748 it
was incoiporated as a town. On the 25th of April 1781 a
iUnmsh was fbugjht in front of Petersburg between a British
fMce<tf about 5000 under General William PhiUips(i73i?-i78i)
and abofat <me-thlrd of that number of American militia under
Baion Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben; the Americans were
4fyf^t*d, and the Brit^ occupied the town. In the following
month the British again entered Petersburg (General Phillips
dying here on the X3th), but they were soon dislodged by
I^fayette who riidled the town. General Winfield Scott was
bnn near Petersburg, and practised law here for two years
before he entered the army. Petersburg was chartered as a city
inVSso.
Petebsbubg Campaign (1864HS5). The name of Peters-
bug is aasodatcifi with operations in the American Civil War,
whkh formed the sequd of the Wilderness Campaign iq.v.)
and the last act in the struggle between the armies of Grant
and Lee for supremacy. Petersburg (see above) and Richmond,
Vupma, connected by rail and covered north, east and south by
loity miles of entrenchments, formed the salients of a vast
kitreaB, into which reinforcements and supplies could be poured
faomthe rear by means of the James Canal, the Virginia Central,
the Lynchburg, the Danville and the Weldon nulroads— the
htler Mnging up to Petersburg from Wilmington (225 m.
distant) the caigocs of blockade runners. Petersburg became
t ttntqpic point as soon as Grant determined to carry the army
of the Potomac— defeated at Cold Harbor on the Chicka-
humny (tee Wilderness Campaign) — south of Richmond,
and, bdog joined by Butler's Army of the James (momentarily
(kded in the Bermuda Hundred Peninsula by a small army
uler Beauregard), to operate from the east, depending on
tbeJanMS river, as his line of supply, while the policy of the
Codedoate president was to employ Robert E. Lee's army to
pMect his capital. Petersburg was nearer than Richmond
to the navigable part of the James River — City Point is only
10 B. distant — and the capture of Petersburg would involve
the hfl (rf Richmond and the capitulation or flight of Lee's
•niy.
Ai cazly as the 9th of June 1864, while the main armies were
itiD north of the James and Petersburg was garrisoned by a
Mpde onder Genoral Wise, a Federal expedition from the Army
*f the James approached the city. General Gillmore on the
Gty Point road discovered strong earthworks, and General
Kakx attacking on the Jerusalem Plank road experienced a
i^uhe: the total force of the Federals was 4500, and Wise's
liritide (2400) had been quickly reinforced from Beauregard's
<BMnl position at Bermuda Hundred. A week later a more
loioaMfCempt was made to break through the defences, while
Gcaer&I Lee's main army was detained north of Richmond.
Goat detached the II. and XVIU. corps under Generals Snuth
tad Hancock, who were to unite and operate along the City Point
^fSintd and capture the outer line of works about 2 m. from
^odMirg while a demonstration was made along the Norfolk
nibotd t^ cavalry under Kautz. On the 15th of June Smith
stacked ud captured five redans before Hancock came up, and
*^ next day Bumside's corps (IX.) arrived and General
Ifnde assumed control of the three corps, he attacked again at
tpjD. Ob the 27th of June Warren's (V.) corps arrived, and
Meade made a third assault with two corps (V., IX.). On the
Ah of Jane the attack was renewed with three corps (II., V.,
U.) late In the afternoon, and the results of the four days'
Wog were so far satisfactory that ground was won which
<*dd be entrenched and held against any sortie of the
'^Unbnrg garrison. Probably on the x8th of Jime the town of
I^ttenburg might have been captured by Meade, for at this crisis
^BKral I^ was in temporary eclipse. For four days Lee had
*^Kd to credit any report to the effect that Grant was crossing
^ James: his cavalnr could not ascertain that the enemy in his
front at Malvern Hill (VI. corps and Wilson's cavalry division),
despite its menacing attitude towards Richmond, was only a
flank guard for a movement to the south.
It was late on the X7th of June when General Beauregard, who
had for three days valiantly held his main lines south of Richmond
with some I4i000 infantry against three Federal corps, succeeded
in convincing General Lee that the main army was again (as
in 1862 on the Chickahominy) in the wrong place at the wrong
time. But when at last the Confederate leader was aroused
to a sense of his danger he soon filled every road with divisions
marching to save Petersburg: they marched all night; they slept
in the trenches on arrival, and on the iQth of June these rein-
forcements con vincedGeneral Meade that his main attack between
the Appomattox river and the Jerusalem Plank road was
delivered a day too late. At a cost of 10,000 casualties Meade
had gained half a mile of ground, but the Confederates in falling
back had concentrated, and now that the new plan of operations
was exposed and the main bodies were again face to face the'
power of defensive tactics reasserted itself.
Yet June was not to close without adding some 8000 men to'
the Federal casualties, for in addition to daily losses by sharp-|
shooting along the front, over 5000 men fell or were captured inj
operations directed against the southern railroads. Grant had
resolved to deprive his enemy of these lines of supply: his plan
was to prolong his line of investment westward and construct
redoubts (such as Fort Davis, Fort Sleadman and Fort Sedgwick)
as a continual menace to the Confederate garrison and a defence
against sorties, while his cavalry and portions of five corps
(II., v., VI., IX. and XVIII.) engaged in enterprises which it
was hoped would tempt General Lee to fight outside his works.
A decisive victory in the field, a successful assault on the defences
between Richmond and Petersburg, or the complete destruction
of the railroads, would precipitate disaster to the South, and of
these three methods the last would bo the surest in its effects.
But such a method was necessarily slow. General Wilson's
cavalry (5500) destroyed 30 m. of the Lynchburg or South Side
railroad, and 30 m. of the Danville railroad, together with
Burkcs^dlle Junction and Ream's Station on the Weldon rail-
road; but Wilson was caught by the Confederate cavalry
100 m. from Petersburg and escaped only by destroying his
wagons and limbers and abandoning twelve guns. Even the
Virginia Central railroad could not be held by the Federals
after Sheridan with the main body of the cavalry had been
called back to White House on the Pamunkey to escort a great
convoy.
By the end of June the whole of the rival forces were concen-
trated about the Richmond-Petersburg defences, and General
A. P. Hill had already sallied out on the 21 si of June to drive the
II. corps from the Weldon railroad. Federal policy and Federal
strategy, surmounting the crisis of Cold Harbor, were, however,
at last in unison. Grant had a free hand in respect both of his
dispositions and his resources in men and money, and had resolved
to tise unsparingly the resources placed at his disposal. Early
in July Grant, however, found himself compelled to detach a
corps (VI.) to strengthen the garrison at Washington, for General
Early had frustrated Hunter's attempt against Lynchburg (see
SuENANDOAH Valley), driving Hunter into West Virginia, and
then, pushing down the Shenandoah and across the Potomac,
had arrived within a day's march of the Federal capital. This
operation checked Grant's enterprises about Petersburg and
restricted the Federal front to the groimd east of the Weldon
railroad.
On the 25th of July Grant resolved to weaken the enemy on
his front by a demonstration north of the James, and accordingly
moved a corps (II.) and two cavalry divisions across the river
to Malvern Hill under cover of Foster's corps (X.). But Lee
possessed the inner line, and the Federal detachment found two
cavalry divisions in its front, and the Richmond defences had
been strengthened by three divisions of infantry. The expedi-
tion then returned to take part in a fresh enterprise, which
ended disastrously to the Federals. A Confederate redan faced
Bumside's IX. corps 100 yds. distant, and this strong work was
PETERSBURG
p(oduad ■ ciatB i yt iL loni
which the Fedenls pound (■<
But the Iroopi cculd be got
■■ Auguu Sberidu mi di
Euh in the Shenimkah ViHe-
foRirii Eirly analberdemonKn
But Lee uain ttntiEthened hit
Henmclt'i IL earpt And Grq
piMenkiQ of Uk n '
o Petfirtburg. Durini
with huvy lOH. The FciIeiiIi
attempt to take Ron Gilmer,
on the ConMerair left under <
General Lf« wu appnvd of an
counler-allack which cauied W
men. of wbofn nearly three fourt!
tiona puibed their cntrenchir
fedente right. A minor confi
of October tictwcen the Contedi
General Grant resolvtd to mab
Side taiiroad within hit Linea anc
KhoI Hippl^. I>.rke (IX-i. Wa
cavalry (300D) were attached ft
Meade accompaoled tbe troop*,
alid'hrnintri'^ toXK tm.
Hinracli m.) with hi> main
Run on tbe 17<h of October.
General Lee meanwhile had
"■JlL"
ii* for tla avrutu of utnlerr ■» «uau, tad it m
_ . m that ka bbw nMond upon ■ bold fiflciuivc urofce-
■ ■&■ Uluk npoa ■ •OagK pgint la the Fcdnl rifht caUcd Fa
sJiSn ihB nesM oi^Xkh uUit cuw Gnn is all id i)
tacbntni (M Iw Wt wd B fidHuw the noinad iiiovciiie
4 ih CoBMcfMtl tnwttda Duvilk. Ccnoal Gofdon wu Khcli
todHdnct the flfHntiaa and hkccfptwitscrDnETyrdnfonvl fort}
vOBeo. TSeofvoinaliiwaeaat of ^(piburv wTrronty ijoydi
lal iIk icnuia of cacli aida JO yda. apul. Cordan'i mm duhi
PETERSBURG
d icaolve.
aitppwt SheridaD li
icaolvcd ta allmpl. GraM n
„ jbne had grdercd Warren
altack on tSck«t al daybreak. Sheridan
-_- of April and at 1 fLoi. iiaued hit order* Tor
attack, nplaiDlM verbally a (fiaann be bad prepared for the irv
of diyiwmal comnuBdeti. nckett hcM a front oT i m. with
L, «f^h R^ln " .n. 'h. .^r. IMon PidMl wu''l^
lenri Id •uppon Plckeit
> riiht wai £(ended by WTh. F. Lee
er't cavalry diviijon. The p«II|oa waa
■red a bartv*^
I the South Si
routed biindei
porated wiih Ce.
bad km White Oak
amgoroin counlertlroke on hit eitieme rieht it
altoloae the South Side railroad. Grant, teaiiag audi an enterpiiw.
at once reinforced Sheridan and ordered Hi
the ConledcralCk
General Lee waa apable of
mai the alen: A. P. HiO enended hti rifht, and
anbT m brouf ht to Sutherland Station. Shetid
■OMimd the cavalry divinons of W. H. F. L« in
Wb ^ cJ Stony Creek. Wamn'i corpa. i
^ibr md. DM a torre under R. H. Andenoi
bd u iu nab on While Oak nad. Sherid
eitwaitf, but Lee ip
xrsle farther in (he
oni tovarda LynchhuiB.
ippTTAchii^ Sbendan a mccea at Five Forka
^iver a aeneral asauli on the ind oF April. The
Coolcderale linea were bombarded all ni(ht. and on Ibe and of April
ilh Wright'a corpa (VL). Grant allacked the wealccu part of
■#'« lirv 4nd broke through, loting lloo men in Aflecn rninulea.
raa killed and hit corpa broke
A. F. HiU
pa (IX.),
a C^^ederaM di'vi_
lo the South Side raihvad, wbrre al SuiL.
attack ditperaed it. WriRhl, lupportrd by O
Ing the army of the James), af tcrwanli won ihr
Fon Whitwonh and Fort Gregg, and ihui in
right had been destroyed fiom Five Forks i<
X Ibec
, and, if Grar
l.y'T^^h
ended. But Grant wa> r
Meanwhile Lee perceived (hat the hour had come at last when
of the icnaiiia of hia army to LynchbuTv via Amdia Court-Houte,
a march which widcntly mint partake C4 the characrer of a [orlom
ihortcr route and leiiiag tlM South Side railrnd, oi
TZX
30+ PETERSFIELD— PETER'S PENCE
wen to be (unnrdHl iian Lyuhburi to nut Ibe relmtiis tnt-y u 10 ■.n. two corpt of infantrr (V., XXIV.
It AppHnaitai Slaiion. Pjm^Lo'i Suiioii or Fimvilli SUtJon. who hul iqarchrd --■ - - - - - '
llie AppoDiallox Rivtr muat & crQiMd two or three tunem tt iti and wben at the hdc Doment Loncitreet w**
^xnliod* from tike 29tb (JMkrcb u th
tKUto cove coumn. unnEHUiE com > ^^^^^^ j,^|^|f;P'_ .^
woe *n iatai
aum their k , , __,
cncpt and cavalry whidi conMiluled Gocnl Gni
Ob the 9th o( Aiiril, mt the ^ipoiuitot Cnut-
of Febiuuy u the umy of Northern Viiiiiiii.
PBTSBSnELD, * mukel lo
mcQUty division ol Hiunpihiie, Enclud, J5 m. S.W. 1
LoDdoD by the LondoD & Souib Waleni nilwaj'. FOf
utbu district [1901), 316J. The ehurdi of St Peter n)
ume onuic Nonnu worlc The pictuiaquc m>Ael-|
conUins in equotriin Itstue of.Williun UI.
Ecde^uticaUy ■ ch^iclry of Buriton, Fetodeld (PtUxb
owes its>angiii u a borough to tbe cbulec gnnted by wai
ufI oI GloucesIH, in the leigo gf Henry II' mil confiimcd
by bil widow, Hawise. Pelersfield is not Ineolioned in Donw
but U wu probably then included in the matwr of Mapltdni)
It wai a mesne borough possessing by its first cfaaito
liberties and custotnl of WincbesUr togelbei with a mere
^Id. Hiese gtanu nete csnfimied by John in 119! u
141S HeniyV. in addition freed [he hurjissei from ill I
No charter of incorporation has been found. Gt»di
privileges and rights other tlian those of a mesne bv
were usurped by the mayor and burgesses, but were icon
. . »■ "' i^i ■ ■ ' ,rf by a Buil brought sgiinst them by Thomas Hanbuiy, ow»
Ir/ Hm Loneittiet wailed all day for Anden^n Eweiriiiid ***S- fel*[s£«l<l "" represented in patliAment in ijoj,
reluin was then made until iS5»-iiS3, from which d«u
reduced to one, and in iii$ the lepresenution va* inef|i
that of the county. Three-day fairs at the feasts of SI I
and St Andrew wen gnnted in 1155. In iSgi the sin
[lir then held on tbe lOth o( July was kboUsbcd. Tbi aut
fair now held on Ihe fith of October is for both busioea
pleasure. The maitel, which date* from before ij7i. ioa
held on Saturday, is n^ held on alternate Wediw*da3F^
the I6th century PeteriAcId had important clatb ud la
« nlqre in ecllp«. The Federal cavalry hoided the coiunln. PETER'S PKHCB, RoME SCOI, ot ROM-FEOH, > tax of ■ p
e infantry allact^ il; and Ewcll became (he vklim of tactical on every hearth, formeily paid inoutUy to tbe popo;
ivelopment after Anderson had been defeated and Gordon had represented by a voluntary contribution made by tbe 6t
iled to Bve the tralM of the army. Surrender or masiKte bong in Roman CalhoUc churches. Its dale of origin fi doiil)
e altematlvet, E«1l suirendcred. and beiv in fact tbe career — u c_ -.. . . _,,-_,. . . ill. " j *•-
Ihe army of Northern Virginia ended, as CiMt plainLy asw, for J^' S* *""™ evidence of it is contamed in a letter of Ca
J.io p.m. he addreiKd > demand to Lee for hii tapitutation. ('03') «ot from Rorct to the English deigy. At this t&
jt tee dung to hisdiminished forces for aDiither«Sboiiii. Long- appears lo have been levied on all families possessed <d
reel in crowng al Farmville had burnt the bndiea and thui worth thirty pence yearly rental, out of which Ibey fM
penny. Matthew Paris says the tai was instituted by I
king of Mercia (7S7-7»6) for the upkeep of the En^ish K
and hostel al Rome. Layamon, however, declares that
king of Wessei (&SS-715), was tbe originator of the ide*.
the Norman Conquest it appears to have fallen into aman
a time, far Willinm the Conqueror pnimiaed tbe pope ia 1
that it ihouM be regularly paid. By a bull of Pope Adiiu
the tax was extended lo Ireland. In tji3_ Innocent in. c
plained that the bishops kept 1000 marks of it, only fbrwan
300 10 Rome. In 1306 Clement V. eiacted a penny from 1
household instead ot tbe lioi, qs. at which the tai a|)pe>i
have been then fiied. The threat of withholding FM
pence proved more than once a useful we^wn against red
Irani popes in the bands of English king*. Thus in lift
for some years after it wis lefuied on the ground o< Ihe pa
«■. fadng (an and covering the road on which Goiripn'. c«» obstinacy in withholding his consent lo tbe sl.lute ol ptaemt
?rdm?o'^7.i;^I^Trbe°^A^'r^^d'^"S?av5^ During the .olh century Ihe custom of Peters pence wasii
nod an attack, driving ihe FedeiaU back until he cncounteiEd nntury Gregory VII. attempted to exact it frsa Ftutt 1
PETERWARDEIN— PETIS DE LA CROIX
305
Sjpib. The Ux was fairiy regularly paid by the English until
iS34,when it was abolished by Henry VIII.
VBIBRWARDEOI (Hung. POervarad, Serv. Peirowradin)^
t injral free town and fortress of Hungary in the county of
Sfiaia, Croatia-Slavonia; situated on a promontory formed
bf a loop of the Danube, 6a m. N.W. of Belgrade by rail. Pop.
(1900), 50x9. It is connected with Neusatz on the opposite
huk by t bridge of boats, a railway bridge and a steam feny.
Uttfaitifications consist of the upper fortress, on a lofty serpen-
tine rxk rising abruptly from the plain on three sides, and of
tbe lower fortress at the northern base of the rock. The two
ioKtieacs can accommodate a garrison of xo,ooo men. In the
lover fortress is the town, with a military hospital, and an
inenil containing trophies captured from the Turks. Peter-
vardeui, the " Gibraltar of Hungary," is believed to represent
tk Roman Acumincum, and received its present name from
FKer the Hermit, who here in 1096 marshalled the levies of the
int cnisade. It was captured by the Turks ini 526 and retained
hf them for 160 years. In 17x6 it witnessed a signal defeat
iaffictcd on the Turks by Prince Eugene. During the revolu-
tkmary struggles of X84S-49 the fortress was held by the
iswigents for a short time.
FDHBRICK. JOHN (X8X3-1882), Welsh traveUer in East
Cestnl Ahka, was bom in Glamorganshire, and adopted the
pntesskm of mining engineer. In 1845 he entered the service
ef Sfdwmet Ali, and was employed in examining Upper Egypt,
Nabia, the Red Sea coast and Kordofan in an unsuccessful
itucfa for coaL In 1848 Pethcrick left the Egyptian service
nd established himself at £1 Obeid, the capital of Kordofan,
II a trader, dealing largely in gum arabic. He was at the same
time made British consular agent for the Sudan. In 1853 he
lenoved to Khartum and became an ivory trader. He travelled
ctteasivdy in the Bahr-d-Ghazal region, then almost unknown,
ciploriog the Jur, Yalo and other affluents of the Ghazal. In
1S5S be penetrated to the Niam-Niam country. His additions
to the knowledge of natural history were considerable, among
In (fiKovcries being the Cobus maria (Mrs Gray's waterbuck)
ud the Balaeniceps rex (white-headed stork). Pctherick
Rtuned to &igland in 1859 where he made the acquaintance
of J. H. Speke, then arranging for his expedition to discover
tbeiottrce of the Nile. While in England Pethcrick married, and
poblislied an account of his travels. He returned to the Sudan
IB 1861, aca>mpanicd by his wife and with the rank of consul.
He vas entrusted with a mission by the Royal Geographical
Society to convey to Cjondokoro relief stores for Captains Speke
Qd Grant. Peitherick got boats to Gondokoro in 1862, but
Speke and Grant had not arrived. Having arranged for a
B>tive force to proceed south to get in touch with the absentees,
*Usk successfully accomplished, Mr and Mrs Pethcrick imder-
tnk another journey in the Bahr-cl-Ghazal, making important
coOKtioos of plants and fishes. They regained Gondokoro
(*^ (me of their boats with stores was already stationed)
ia February 1863, four days after the arrival of Speke and Grant,
^Iv had meantime accepted the hospitality of Mr (afterwards
Sr) Samuel Baker. The charge that Pethcrick failed to meet
^ engagement to those travellers is unsubstantiated. A
Mier charge that Pethcrick had countenanced and even taken
Pvtio the slave trade was subsequently shown to have no foun-
^l>tioQ (Pethcrick in fact had endeavoured to stop the traffic), but
■tied Earl Russell, then secretary for foreign affairs, to abolish
tlieBritish consulate at Khartum (1864). In 1865 the Pcthcricks
^ctvocd to England, and in 1869 published Travels in Central
Office and Explorations of the Western Nile Tributaries, in
*iiicb book are set out the details of the Speke controversy,
^berick died in London, on the i sth of July 1882.
ftnOM DB VILLENEUVE, JEROMB (i7S6-i794)> French
*ider and politician, was the son of a procureur at Chartres.
Be became an avocat in 1778, and at once began to try to make
ittffle in literature. His first printed work was an essay, Sur
^noyens de privenir I'infanticide, which failed to gain the
Me for which it was composed, but pleased Brissot so much
^ he printed it in voL viL of his BtbHothique pkilosophique
U16
des legislateurs. Potion's next works, Les Lois civiles, and
Essat sur le mariage, in which he advocated the marriage of
priests, confirmed his position as a bold reformer, and when
the elections to the States-General took place in 1789 he was
elected a deputy to the Tiers £tat for Chartres. Both in the
assembly of the Tiers £tat and in the Constituent Assembly
P£lion showed himself a radical leader. He supported Mirabeau
on the 23rd of June, attacked the queen on the 5th of October,
and was elected president on the 4th of December 1790. On
the X5th of June 1791 he was elected president of the criminal
tribunal of Paris. On the 2xst of June 179X he was chosen one
of three commissioners appointed to bring back the king from
Varennes, and he has left a fatuous account of the journey. After
the last meeting of the assembly on the 30th of September 179X
Robespierre and Pftion were made the popular heroes and were
crowned by the populace with civic crowns. Potion received
a still further proof of the affection of the Parisians for himself
on the x6th of November X79X, when he was elected second
mayor of Paris in succession to Bailly. In his mayoralty he
exhibited clearly his republican tendency and his hatred of the
old monarchy, especially on the 20th of June X792, when he
allowed the mob to overrun the Tuilcries and insult the royal
family. For neglecting to protect the Tuilcries he was suspended
from his functions by the Directory of the department of the
Seine, but the leaders of the J/Cgislative Assembly felt that
P6tion's cause was theirs, and rescinded the suspension on the
13th of July. On the 3rd of August, at the head of the munici-
pality of Paris, P£tion demanded the dethronement of the king.
He was elected to the Convention for Eure-et-Loir and became
its first president. L. P. Manuel had the folly to propose that
the president of the Assembly should have the same authority
as the president of the United States; his proposition was at
once rejected, but Potion got the nickname of " Roi Potion,"
which contributed to his fall. His jealousy of Robespierre
allied him to the Girondin party, with which he voted for the
king's death and for the appeal to the people. He was elected
in March X793 to the first Committee of Public Safety; and he
attacked Robespierre, who had accused him of having known
and having kept secret Dumouriez's project of treason. His
popularity however had waned, and his name was among those
of the twenty-two Girondin deputies proscribed on the 2nd of
June. P6tion was one of those who escaped to Caen and raised
the standard of provincial insurrection against the Convention;
and, when the Norman rising failed, he fled with M. E. Guadct,
F. A. Buzot, C. J. M. Barbaroux, J. B. Salle and Louvet de
Couvrai to the Gironde, where they were sheltered by a wig-
maker of Saint £miL'on. At last, a month before Robespierre's
fall in June 1794, the escaped deputies felt themselves no longer
safe, and deserted their asylum; Louvet found his way to Paris,
Salle and Guadet to Bordeaux, where they were soon taken;
Barbaroux committed suicide; and the bodies of Petion and
Buzot, who also killed themselves, were found in a field, half-
eaten by wolves.
See Mimoires in^ils de P6lion et mimoires de Buzot el de Bar-
baroux, accompat^nis de notes inedites de Buzot et de nombreux docu-
ments inidils sur Barbaroux, Buzot, Brissot, &c., pricedes d'une
introduction par C. A. Dauban (Paris, i8()6) ; (Euvres de Pttion
(3 vols., 1792); F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Constituante (Paris.
1882).
PtoS DE LA CROIX, FRANCOIS (1653-1713), French
Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1653. He was son of the
Arabic interpreter of the French court, and inherited this office
at his father's death in 1695, afterwards transmitting it to his
own son, Alexandre Louis Marie, who also distinguished himself
in Oriental studies. At an early age he was sent by Colbert to
the East; during the ten years he spent in S>Tia, Persia and
Turkey he mastered Arabic, Persian and Turkish, and also
collected rich materials for future writings. He served a short
time as secretary to the French ambassador in Morocco, and
accompanied as interpreter the French forces sent against
Algiers, contributing to the satisfactory settlement of the treaty
of peace, which was drawn up by himself in Turkish and ratified
in X684. He conducted the negotiations with Tunis and Tripoli
la
3o6 PETIT— PETITION
[n i6S;, uid tbow witli Uonxxa in iSSr; aad ibc ted, Ucl CttutUulun, jid. cd., vol. L p, 141)- In the WBC >dci <k
tnd linguiitic knowledge he nunlfeited in Ihesc uid olbei words " by authorily (rf puLUmeat " were added to the worAii
' ' " 1 Here U tut nwuded in ensctmenl, uid fiDm ihc time of Heniy VIL puUk biJiliijii
'olUge bu been by bill ud nat by pttitwn. A Rlk of the old ten <
iiatuie founded upon petition Uill mniiin bowevcr ia tl
■ Jgori preamble of Appropriation Acta aod otbti watuu* cnatia|
'™ii ''"?W "P"" ■'" P"l^ revenue. It ium Ibm: " Wt, yn
tiifi^jHf majcaty'i most dutiful and loyal lubjecta, the ConuDoos ti U
± waf United IQogdom . . . tlo most humbly beseech your majcfl
k 17^'! that it mty be enacted; and belt enact«]/' &c., fntm this poo
^^ following the enacting words common to all itatuteL 11
„™ Gran may refer petitions presented lo it to be adjudkaled^
I error by a delegaied auiborily. Thia coune is punued in the mC'
nnila- claims 10 pnraget and ofiLca of booour, which an refdted Mtl
*l<'" House ol Lords, and by thai bouse to in commillec for pch
re usually releircd to the judicial committee. The Crown bi
FBIR, «B DIHSHAW ■ANECfUr. BUT. (1813-11
~ ' in lie joib of Jun
broker ,0 Europ^n fir™ be una«d\ large fonune during •^''lTJ^T71rt^"'t^^,^ ^l^TL
the period of speculation in Bombay at the time of the ■ riiiiumi « ranuimni. iciiiions u eitnei u
Civil War. In 1886 he bwame a member ol the
general's legislative council. He devoted his wealth
Ihropic objects, among the pubLc and private chaii
he endowed being the Towers ol Silence and fire tern
Panees, a hospital for animals, 1 cpllige for womei
Petit hospital. He was knighted in 1887, created
PSm DE JOLLBVILLB. LOniS {t84I-.90o), French ^"'r,X'^,-,rr^ZA^^tt
kni., ... h„™ i„ Pari, on the .glh of lulv .rTT Educated "f"' °'. ^' R™ ™ "' P*''"?n.ng^had pt™(eded_
Tclilii
legislature seem to have been later in origin than petil
lo the Crown. They are not referred to in (be Bill ol Ki(hl«
the right olpeliiion is aconventiooot the coulilutkn. Fetil
to the Lords or the whole parliameal can be tnced back to B
Richard U.; but from the lime of Henry IV. peliliant ts
Commons have been freely made. The political importan
'igtlalcsfromabout thereignof Charlt * "^ '
acholar, was bom in Paris on the iSth of July 1841. toucaiea . , f..-. „ ,
js peats as a teacher he became pn
re and of the history of the '.
shall be ptnented to the king oj
Kijoi lilt dSS]); La DmUii a la maiai n Frana an MUX" of the grand jury. And in iSiI (s; Ceo. III. c 19, 1. JJ
ic (ieS6)i W«ni«« di. (**!('< r«iijK« Fro«t o. -103" .dn meetings within a mile from Westminster Hall for the pumoK'
i?S^ir'i?«Sf7,L^'r«rj™;f ('^^'1^'fr5/Tul£.^: consld^ng . petition to both bo™ or either bouse ^1^
™ i» llTw" ril^ior" ',Znu^,i: te Lr« rfll ta ment while either house is silling wete declared 10 be uBkw«
\llinilun franta't (< voli., 1^96-1900), Co which he himiell coo- assemblio. Up to lOSS petitions to either house usually da
libuied •ome valuable chapien. Only ,^th some specific grievance. From that tinte data tl
[Lat. for " Becking " or " praying ^^, a term present practice of petitioning with regard to geoenl dkhmi
tional aspect an application for redress by a person must be framed in the form prescribed by the sundlng otte
d to an authoKtv capable of relieving him. It may be must be Drooerly sitpetKribcd, and must conclude wilfa a pca;i
iV., iilbed., S14, 5'sl- TheymaybestBl(«b
ben of either bouse if they fulfil ctrlaia coodiliia
juslice. as 10 weight, 4c., (!«. li
Pttilitia le ISt C/mm.—Tkc tight of pelilioning the Ciowr
was recogniied indirectly as early as Magna Carta in the famou-
claute, NuUi veitdemus. mfZ/i negabirnui out difftrcmm, raium _ _
Ijuililam (js Edw. I. c. Jfl), and directly at various periods They nui« be prnentcd
.„..!- .>,. .rticlei of the Commons assented to by HenT^' " "■ "°^* Loinmc
o the Com.,, ... ., — ; ~
"o^ upon "y tribunal orSin™i^Mt^
later, i.f. in the atticlei 01 tne iJommons assentea to t>y nenty ^j be pre^ntcd '
IV., by which the king was to assign two days in Ihe week for lion of Dulplin. wt _ _
petitions (fo(. Pari. 8 Hen. IV., p. 58s). The case of the seven n no mean* ol tompelUng a member lo prevnl a peutige. tk
bishops in 1685 confirmed the right, and finally the Bill of Rights ^^ ^,n"MiiioB''is SSTl^rid ?i' w""iSW^i2
« tight ol t.
is Ktlor preientalioDi In the Uicdi ^«ivB
le king, and an commitments and prosecutions for such petition- uien of pelitioas from Great Briuinand InlandandlnndrnV
ig are illegal." Petitions to the Crown appear 10 have been at and the lands and counlrie* bevond llie lea wen appdMed iM
^ iSM, though Ihcir functions had long been obKilete. ApaloM
for leave to bring before either bouse bills for pcivite or HoJ M*
See ClilTord. HuIDry^T^r^o'i BiO ItriilaliMm (■(■;): HVi
Fu'i. ft,, (tubed.), c.ixv.
Pflilimi U Courli 0/ /ulice.— Strictly ipeaking, that »•
indirect mode of petitioning Ihe Crown, for la ihc thMr'
English law Ihe Crown is the fountain of justice. Butilii**
convenient 10 treat them separately, as they novfonnaprtM
the practice of Ihe courts. Appeals to the Houe ol LoiikM
the privy council are prosecuted by petitioa of ippaL II*
first for
the redress of nrivj
,te and locals
which the courts of law coi,
lid not grant (May, Pari. Pr., i lib ed.,
S")- '
fKliiions of this kind not
seeking
legislative remedies tended lo b
in Chan
■n originally
drawn up by the judges
at Ihe close of tbe sesiioo .
3| parliament
from Ihe petitions ol the
Commi
ins and the iMwers of the Cron
m. Under this system of
drattin.
i it was found thai
\ the petition and answer
It always staled coi
■recUy. Toe
demanc
is for legislation c
ame in the r
eign of Henry VL to be
ft&cpi
PETITTO
a dul mih petitiDD
PRINCIPII
the «i« Or Hough, Aim
b^xnd Sdmb Acts, the Public Schooli AcU, the [Jniveniiif
Wl ud tbc Pilcou AcIL In most csks the pclilions u
irioRdlo IIk judjdsl csmmitln of the caundl. Felilioni du;
be bUJIsaed to tbe lord cbsnceUor in * lew instances, t.g, to
Ihc lanavi] ot conmen or county court judges. Tlw Houw □
Lordi Kt one time claimed otipiul jurisdictiou in dvil sni
□iinial mslten. Ai (o dvil nutten the ckiin is abandoned
am b) the Commons on the trial lot treason ot fdony o
davit 'itiouVJ t^
inder itlSdl
made that the lacli t
(Bouvier. Ltm Diil.}.
BriHsk fojKjjwiii.— There it a ri|h
juaire in the Chaonel lilandi or lileot Man. and in all oIlKt parli
ol the emixte ouiude ihc Biiiuh i^sdt and of BritiUi couni in
Joratn couolriei. Thii right ii cut down by imperial ot colofiial
lefiiUiion ID the caK of Canada and Auilralka, ace Tanina. Ltm
SilaUnt U CcloHill (itd ed.. 1906) c. v.
The lenn PMint 0/ RitU, in EngUih law, it uied <■> '— < <"»
[.) It denotes the itatutc of 161S Ij Cat. '
dKlatation ot Ibe Ubeitiei o[ the peopli. ._,
usually ii employed to describe a mode o( pnnetuiing 1
a subject agiinsl the Cronn, taid 10 owe ils origin 10 I
Felilion of right in this lenic lies (aj to obliin icsUlulJ
ot penonal property of tbe subject which has foucd in
partiamentary
e; (« to
acb of a contticl i
LCh ii due to the acl
Whete the Cn>i
^Mbai— In ScMland petition! in tbe Court of Snoon an eilhei
*i>>i] dr in a jHidinc action, Orinnal prtitknia are prevenln]
Mmmeationed is M ft 11 Vicl.c. si. a. 4.'wlKn they are brought
■^ the junior Iqrd ordinary, or unlvH. by iwcial ttaiutory pro
**«. Ibey may be brought Imore any lord ordinary, m in the care
■ prtiliou under ihc "Conjugal Rfghii (Scoiland) Amrndnienl
to iKi." « ibe Trutu (Scotland) Acl l«67. A frlilin gad
'^ftatia it a procfM oi a qiiaBi-cr^minal ruiurr by which certain
^jTrt of Mimffury and exEraordinary junHjicllon arc tHvught
■d d&wm <J ()v law for breach of duty again^ paniei guilty
dmumplof court. Ac. The concunenn of the lordadvaaile
■ wmiry lo a petiiion and (omptainl (iM MacLiy, Cmrl ej
'■<lui.—-nt b> of Inland u 10 pelilioni la in HibiUnce the
I'oM SlaUi.— i n'X uiliied Sutea b^on the Cinl^War queniom
*t* u ID the right of petitioning Congresa. partieuIarZy with refers
*»* to pEiLiiaiu lor the reitricttoq of alavrry which at that tir-ie
^Codcy. CmiHluliBtal Limilalumi. «ih cd.. i«oa. 416), The
^ ol petiTioning Ihc United Stales eovcmmcnl » now lecvTed
nibiirR jmendnicnt In (he United Slain conitilution (ratified ~ — 1
'''!^''' '''^'* P™"'**** l'>^l " Congrru ihall nuke no law lehali of the Crown. «
"i*™* 1^ the right of the people to aurmble (or lawful purpoac«
"d mncu it againtt encioachmem by Congreu. The nahi was
M Taud W^lhe ammdmeni; neither wat iM continuance
P^^ctno in its vnjojmwnt. therefore, the people muM look id Ihe
■^ TTie pow^ (or that (mr(W4e waa originally placed Ihere.
*■■ an never been sirrrndered. The righr of the people peaceably
•aanntilc for ibe purpoK of peiilioniDg Congreia (or a redieu
JlnrvaBCD, «■ for anythini elic connrcied with the powen or
■nna thenatHHulaovemment ii an attribute of national cilinn-
■^ aad ai Hidi under Ihe prairction of and guaranleed by the
«« Siatee. Tbc very idea of a government Rpublicaa in form
T^ ' ri^ OB the pan of iu citiient 10 meet pracmbly for
■^■taiian m icuct to public aSairt and to petition for a irdreH
■F*natea"(I/!!K*. CrwUrteat. 187s; 91 iTs. ui, ju).
t Bil of R«hls ia incorpoiated in the conuii^ona of many
appeanl
ly record, u by inquest ol ol
9^ce, the remedy it somewhat
dilferent
and is called mmilraHi dr ,
iri^. Petition of tight does
not Ue it
I respect of engaiemenls in
the naval, military or civQ
letvic* of the Crown, which are as ■
I general rule made " during
pleasure.
" not for breach of public .
duty, e.g. failure to perform
or negUgcnte or other torts
byCto-i
1 servants. Where such act
t are wrongful the rrmedy is
by actio,
1 against the oBidal as at
1 individual and not [n hU
official capacity (RgI«iI, v. Coiciei.,
1*98, L,R. 1 ch. 7j).
The on
xcdure on a peiiiioD al right it either at common law or
lion weni throuEh It. earliest
nd the riSwn endorses upon Ibe petition Sal
'"p&Z".
ub^eel and ■.bject. If Ibe
r^Z^zr
1. judgment oT a»>ta) HHiiiu
tbTPeiitiDn of Right Act
CM. extended
10 Ireland in iSjj. 36*37
tolhe^Bjp^inlh
»«;-„sss',:'s.i3
Sx^sii^'
.d alu by nile. made under
The pejiiioriileli with ihe
>( hit nujeKy, who if he,ihiiiki fit jianii hit jtal that right be done.
The fiat n lealed in Ihe home ollice and iuued to the supitUant
Hho filet it in the central office of the High Court of juiiice. and
I tesled copy it lerved upon the loliciior to Ihe treaiuiy. with a
lemand for a plea or aniwer on behalf of the Crown. The ubK-
iclion. A jiidgmeni i
o andby the Crown.
:hsncery or, king's bet
■hali of lhe°Crow^ar_ wouidbe ^1
theadmi
'avour of Ibe tuf^liant is equivalent to
peiliion of right it UHially triedin the
of ihr nrrriv of belligcrvnt right! on
ions of right under Ihe act oT i860 evei
in that
■livi««of^^
BliiBled(J7«»»Vict,_c
■ >S. t. Hi-
11 coklniM who«%w i°
n S riihl applie. tp.Itel
. ^"-oll"the*c^m^ 1
land but not 10
^w^^Engl^
ipaHHl
01 BeIMINC TBI
: (JtTHl
TOM {Cr. ri Ir
mpXaudlr(u,Tdi{dj>xf(aJrrTi«a<), 1
in logic
. tbe [ounh of
irisioile's fnUacies t(w
rv ^£«« or (ifrj diili
«™. Strictly
hi! fallacy belong! lo
the language of
tion. when the
:uestioner seels (priil)
lo gel his adver
larylo
admit the very
3o8
PETITOT— PETO
admission of a principle which will confute the particular pro-
position— a perfectly legitimate form of refutation-— but in luring
the adversary into confessing the contradictoiy. In the ordinary
use, however, *' begging the question " consists in assuming in
the premises the conclusion which it is desired to prove.
PETITOT, JEAN (X60S-1691), French-Swiss enamel painter.
was bom at Geneva, a member of a Burgxmdian family which haa
fled from France on accoimt of religious diffioilties. His father,
Faulle, was a wood carver; his mother's name was £tienette
Royaume. Jean was the fourth son, and was apprenticed to a
jeweller goldsmith named Pierre Bordier, with whom he struck
up a ck»e friendship. The two friends, dissatisfied with the
progress they made in Geneva, went into France, and after
working for a while with Toutin came to En^and with letters
of introduction to Turquet de Mayem, physician to Charles I.,
who presented them to the king, for whom they made a St
George for the badge of the order and carried out many com-
missions for portraits; amongst others preparing two large ones
representing Rachel de Ruvigny, countess of Southampton, now
at Chatsworth, and Mary ViUiers, duchess of Richmond and
Lennox, dated 1643, ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ i° the possession of the Crown
and now in the Picrpont Morgan colicclion. On the execution of
the king, Petitot left England for Paris with the royal household,
Bordier remaining in England and carrying out certain important
commissions for Cromwell and the parliament. On reaching
Paris, Petitot entered into partnership with a goldsmith, Jacques
Bordier, a cousin of Pierre, and it seems probable from recent
research in contemporary documents that the enamel portraits
attributed to Petitot were really the work of the two partners
collaborating, the actual drawing being the work of Petitot,
while for the enamel process Bordier was mainly responsible,
"^e two painters were given apartments in the Louvre, received
numerous commissions from Louu XIV., and painted portraits
of almost every person of importance in his brilliant cqurt. The
friendship between the two lasted for thirty-five years, and was
only put an end to by Bordier's death. The enamellcrs rendered
special political services in France for the repubb'c of Geneva,
and were practically regarded as the official representatives of
the republic, receiving warm thanks from the Syndics for their
diplomatic work. On the revocation of the Edict of Nantes,
x6i85, pressure was brought to bear upon Petitot that he should
change his religion. The king protected him as long as possible,
and when he was arrested, with his niece, Anne Bordier, sent
Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, to convince the old man of the error of
his ways. Eventually, in poor health and great despair, Petitot
placed his signature to an act of abjuration, and Louis XIV.,
imwilling to acknowledge the true reason for the imprison-
ment of Petitot and for his liberation, informed one of his sons,
who came to thank him for the pardon given to his father, that
he was willing to fall in for once with " the whim of an old man
who desired to be buried with his ancestors." In 1687 therefore
Petitot left Paris to return to Geneva, and, after a long and tedious
inquiry, was absolved by the consistory of the church of Geneva
from the crime of which they considered he had been guilty,
and received back to the Huguenot communion in the church of
St Gervais. In Geneva he received a very important com-
mission from John Sobieski, king of Poland, who required
portraits of himself and his queen. This was followed by number-
less other commissions which the painter carried out. He died
of paralysis on the 3rd of April 1691, while in the very act of
painting on the enamel a portrait of hb faithful wife.
Petitot married in 1651 Marguerite Cuper, and Jacques
Bordier married in the same year her younger sister Anne
Madeleine. He had seventeen children, and for their benefit
wrote out a Uttle octavo volume containing some genealogical
information, two delightful portraits, one of himself and one of
his wife, and many pages occupied with prayers, meditations
and religious advice. He also prep>ared a second manuscript
volume of prayers and meditations for the use of his family, and
from these two books and the records of the Huguenot societies
of France and England information has been obtained respecting
the painter and his family.
Of the works of Petitot the most important collectiai
Jones Bequest at the Victoria and Albert Museum. '
many in the Louvre, sixteen at Chantilly. aeventeea at
and others in the coUectifMis of Earl Bcaudiamp, the did
land, the duke of Richmond, the carl of Daitrey, Mr
Rothschild and the late Baroness Buidett-OMittSb
Lord Dartrcv's examples are portraiu of Petitot and o
and two of the wife 01 Jean Petitot the younger. Aaeooa
of the artist bclonp to the queen of Holland, and anoche
collection of the late Mr Stroehlin of Geneva. In Blx
Morgan's collection there are many exceedingly fine
but especially three drawings on paper, the only thi
appear to have survived. aM the large signed nuniats
duchess of Richmond already mentionra, tM largest wo
ever executed save the one at Chatsworth.
See Petitotet Bordier^ by Ernest Stroehlin (Geneva, 1909
New Information respecting Jean Petitot," by G. C. Vk
Nineteenth Century and After (January 1908), pp. 9^
privately printed Catalogue of the CoUecHon of Mr J.
Marfan, vol. iii.; The History of Portrait Miniatmres,
Wilhamson, voL iL (London, 1904). (G.
PETITOT, JEAN LOUIS (x652-«. 1730), French
painter, was the eldest son of Jean Petitot (f.f.),
instructed in enamelling by his father. Some of his
closely resemble those of the elder Petitot that it is d
distinguish between them, and he was really the onl
rival his father ever had. He settled for a while in
where he remained till i68a, and painted many cnamd p<
Charles IL In 1682 he removed to Paris, but in 1695
again in London, where he remained until the time of 1
His portrait by Mienard is in the museum at Oneva, an
in enamel by himself in the collection of the earl of Dar
also owns two of his wife, Madeleine Bordier. whom b
in 1683. Another portrait believed to represent him is t
lection of Mr Picrpont Morgan. (G.
PETITS-CHEVAUX (Fr. for " h'tUe horses" ), a gambl
played with a mechanical device consisting of a board p
with a number of concentric circular sUts, in which revc
independently on its own axis, figures of jockeys on h
distinguished by numbers or colours. The bystandei
staked their money according to their choice on a boar
in divisions for this purpose, the horses are started
rapidly together by means of mechanism attached to t!
and the horse which stops nearest a marked goal wi
player who has staked on that horse receiving so many
stake. Figures of railway trains and other objects si
take the place of horses. In recent years there has be
dcncy to supplant the petits chcvaux at French resorts by
or ball game, on the same principle of gambling; in tJ
is rolled on a basin-shaped table so that it may eventui
in one of a number of shallow cups, each marked with
PETO, SIR SAMUEL MORTON, Bart. (1809-1S89;,
contractor, was bom at Woking, Surrey, on the 4th 0
1^09, and was at an early age apprenticed to his uncle, i
builder, who on his death in 1830 bequeathed the bu
Peto and another nephew, Thomas GrisselL The pa
between Peto and Grisscll lasted till 1846, amongst t
London buildings erected by the firm being the Reform 1
Lyceum and St James's theatres, and the Nelson colun
afterwards entered into partnership with Edward La
(1815-1872), and between 1846 and 1872 Messrs Peto
carried out many large railway contracts at home an<!
notably the more important portions of the South-Eaa
of the London Chatham & Dover lines, and, in coi
with Thomas Brasscy, the Grand Trunk railway of Can
the London Tilbury & Southend railway. In li
Peto and Brasscy constructed a railway in the Crimea
Balaclava and the British entrenchments before Set
charging the British government only the actual out-<
expenses, and for his services in this matter Peto was in li
a baronet. Peto entered parliament as a Liberal in li
with a few years' interval, continued there till 1868, 1
firm having been compelled to suspend payment in the
crisis of 1866, he was forced to resign his seat, though
Disraeli and Mr Gladstone publicly eulogized his
character. He died on the 13th of November 1889.
PETOFI— PETRA
309
VnfiFIt AUiTAHDHR (182^-1849), Hungarian lyric poet,
US born at Kis-KArSsO, Pest county, on New Year's Day, 1823.
He tamfly received its diploma of nobility from the emperor
Leopold in x688, but the ultra-patriotic Alexander early changed
tbe old family name, Petrovics, which pointed to a Croatian
odpo, into the purely Magyar form of Petdfi. The lad's early
days vere q>ent at F€legyhiz and Szabads/AllAs, the most
Hnnguian parts of Hungary, where he got most of his early
cdaation, including a good grounding in Latin. German he
leant sabaequently at Pesth, and French he taught himself.
He b^an writing verses in his twelfth year, while a student at the
Asa6d gymnasium, where he also dispbycd a strong predilection
for the stage, to the disgust of his rigorous father, who formally
iSsovned his son, early in 1839, for some trifling peccadillo, and
irfaoae tyrannical temper became downright furious when a
series of misfortunes ruined him utterly in 1840. For the next
three years Petdfi led the wretched life of a strolling player,
except for a brief interval when, to escape starvation, he enlisted
as a common soldier in an infantry regiment. During the greater
part of 1842 we find him a student at the Calvinist College at
Pipi, where be made the acquaintance of young J6kai, and wrote
the poem " Boroz6,'* which, the great critic Bajza at once inserted
in the leading literary review, the Athenaeum (May 22, 1842). In
November of the same year the restless poet quitted P&p& to
join another travelling troupe, playing on one occasion the Fool
'^KiuiLev, and after wandering all over Hungary and suffering
tDcredible hardships; finally settled down at Pesth (1844), where
for a time he supported himself by all sorts of literary hack-work.
Nevertheless, in the midst of his worst privations he had read
vootdoasly, and was at this time profoundly influenced by the
<foaunant Romanticism of the day; while, through Tieck, he
leant to know and value the works of Shakespeare. His first
^ntmt (4 original poems was published in 1844 by the Society
Neoieti K5r, through the influence of the poet VdrOsmarty,
iHben every publisher had refused his MS., and the seventy-five
fains which he got for it had become a matter of life or death to
luBL He now became a r^ular contributor to the leading papers
of Pesth, and was reconciled to his parents, whom he practically
npported for the rest of their lives out of his literary earnings.
His position, if not exactly brilliant, was now at least secure.
The little volume published by the Nemzeti K&r was followed by
the parody, A Hdysig Kalapdcsa (1844); the romantic epic
Jbm YiUt (1844); Ciprishmbok Etdki Slrjdrdt, a collection of
PiSBooate elqpes over his bst bve, £telk6 Csap6 (1845); ^'*
J^fielekf an imitation of Heine's ReisebUder (1845); SsereUm
Gyhfyti (1845); Pdkdk (1846); Sterdme is hduusdga (1846),
*Bd many other volumes. The first edition of his collected
poons ^)peared in 1847. Petdfi was not yet twenty-five, and,
^)ite the protests ol the classicists, who regarded him with
QU dislike, the best heads in Hungary, poets like Vbrdsmarty
**! critics like Szemere, already paid him the homage due
fo the prince of Magyar lyrical poets. The great public was
cathosiastic on the same side, and posterity, too, has placed him
*BM>( the immcvtals. Petdfi is as simple and genuine a poet of
f>tnt u Wordsworth or Christian Winther, and his erotics,
B^nred thnraghout by a noble idealism, have all Byron's force
**! fervour, thou|^ it is perhaps in his martial songs that
'^tSfi's essentiaUy passionate and defiant geruus asserts itself
■ott ttittmphantly. On the 8th of September 1847 Petdfi married
Jnfia Szendrey, who bore him a son. When the revolutionary
*vbnrice out, he eqx>used the tenets of the extreme democratic
^^l^ioa with a heat and recklessness which estranged many of his
^^taix He took an active part in the Transylvanian campaigns
of the heroic Bern; rose by sheer valour to the rank of major; was
^ at the battle of S^esv&r (July 31, 1849), and his body,
*^ was Mver recovered, is suppoMd to have been buried in
tk oommoa grave of the faUen honveds in the churchyard of
^(h^reg^i&z. The first complete edition of Petdfi's poems
■PPeaied in 1874. The best critical edition is that of Haras,
^ There are numerous indifferent German translations.
Jce Perencsi. PeOfi Sktrttna; Fischer, Pddfi's Leben und
•irk CR.N. B.)
PETOSKBT, a city and the county-seat of Emmet county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on Little Traverse Bay, an arm of Lake
Michigan, at the mouth of Bear Creek, in the north-west part of
the lower peninsula. Pop. (1890), 2S72; (1900), 5285, of whom
856 were foreign-bom; (1904), 5x86; (i9io),4778. It is served
by the Pdre Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana rail-
ways and by steamboat lines to Chicago,. Detroit, Buffalo and
other lake ports. Bear Creek furnishes considerable water-power,
and among the manufactures are lumber, paper, leather and
foundry and machine-shop products. Petoskey was settled
about 1874, was incorporated as a village in 1879, was chartered
as a dty in 1895, and in 1902 replaced Harbor Springn
as county-seat. It was named after an Ojibwa Indian chief.
PETRA (4 n^rpao the rock), a ruined site, 30" 19' N. and 35*
31' £., lying in a basin among the moimtoins which form the
eastern flank of Wadi el-'Araba, the great valley nmning from
the Dead Sea to the Gulf of 'A^ba. The descriptions of Slrabo
(xvi. p. 779), Pliny (N.H. vi. 32) and other writers leave no
doubt as to the identity of this site with the famous capital of the
Nabataeans (q.v.) and the centre of their caravan trade. Walled
in by towering rocks and watered by a pereimial stream, Petra
not only possessed the advantages of a fortress but controlled
the main commercial routes which passed through it to Gaza in
the west, to Bostra and Damascus in the north, to Elath and
Leuc^ Comd on the Red Sea, and across the desert to the Persian
Gulf.
From the *Arftba travellers approach by a track which leads
round Jcbcl HArOn (Mt Hor) and enters the plain of Petra from
the south; it is just possible to find a way in from the high pbteau
on the north; but the most impressive entrance is from the east,
down a dark and narrow gorge, in places only 10 or 12 ft. wide,
called the Sl|^, s'.c. the shaft, a split in the huge sandstone rocks
which serves as the waterway of the Wadi MCLsft. Near the end
of the defile stands the most elaborate of the ruins, el-^azne or
" the Treasury of Pharaoh," not built but hewn out of the cliff;
a little farther on, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr,
comes the theatre, so placed as to bring the greatest number of
tombs within view; and at the point where the valley opens out
into the plain the site of the city is revealed with striking effect.
Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-coloured mountain
walls, divided into groups by deep fissures, and lined with rock-
cut tombs in the form of towers. Tlie stream of Wadi MQsS crosses
the plain and disappears among the mountains opposite; on
either bank, where the ground is fairly level, the city was built,
covering k space of about i^ sq. m. Among the ruins on the
south bank stand the fragments of a temple called ^a$r Fir'aun
of late Roman date; just beyond this rises a rocky height which
is usually regarded as the acropolis.
A position of such natural strength must have been occupied
early, but we have no rneans of telling exactly when the history
of Petra began; the evidence seems to show that the dty was of
relativdy late foundation, though a sanctuary (see bdow) may
have existed there from very andent times. This part of the
country was assigned by tradition to the Horites, i.e. probably
" cave-dwellers," the predecessors of the Edomitcs (Gen. xiv. 6,
zxxvL 20-30; Deut. ii. 12); the habits of the original natives may
have influenced the Nabataean custom of burying the dead and
offering worship in half -excavated caves.* But that Petra itself
is mentioned in the Old Testament cannot be affirmed with
certainty; for though Petra is usually identified with Sela' ' which
also means " a rock," the reference in Judges i. 36; Isa. xvi. i,
xlii. 1 1 ; Chad. 3, is far from clear. 2 Kings xiv. 7 seems to be more
explidt; in the paralld passage, however, Sela' is understood
to mean simply " the rock" (2 Chr. xxv. 12, see LXX). Hence
many authorities doubt whether any town named Sela' b men-
tioned in the Old Testament.' What, then, did the Semitic
* Buhl, Cesck. der Edomiter (1893). p. 52.
*E.K' by Driver, Deut. p. 38; N61deke. Etuy. Bibl. col. 11 85;
Ed. Meyer, Die Isradiien u. ihre Nackbarstdmme, p. 357.
' Buhl, p. 35 sqq., G. F. Moore, Judges, p. 55 seq., Oxford Hebr,
Lex. J. V. }h^\ T. K. Chcync, Ency. oiU. s.v. Sela; A. Jeremiaaw
Das A . T. im Lickte d. alien Orients, p. 457.
3IO PETRARCH
(ubibiluiU aD theit dlyJ Enubiiu uicl JeroDU (0»k. lacr. Severus l^3>. 1»->J5), wbcs ilie dty «M at tW
iM, ;i. I45>9; liS, JJ. iS;, (m), *PP>[cndy on the auIhoHly of ipleiidauc, the Iisue o[ coinigc conicitoui cad,!!
Joxphti* l^ni, iv. 7, i; 4, ;}, utert lh*t Rekem mi the nilive more building of lumptuoui tomU, otrinf ajipm
nuoe. But In the Aiuniic veniont Reliem ii the nime el luddcn cUastrophe, %ucb u 10 invuioa by tb)
KLdflfa; Jnephui miy have confufied the two plara. Some- power under the Sauuud dynuty. Ueuwluk
lima the Aranuic venlons give the form Rekcm-Geya. which (fi^ A-D. 130-270) grew in unportance uxt I
nulls the nunc of the village El-ji, loulh-east of Fein; the Aisbian trade away from Petra, the latter dedin
capita], however, would hardly be defined by the name of a however, to have lingered on aa a rdigitms cestn
neighbouring village. The Semitic natpe o( the dly, if it wu not told by Epiphan' ' ' '
Sela', must remain unknown.' Tbe paauge in Diodonis Siculu) held there on U
(ail. 94-B7) which describes the eapeditioni which Aoiigonua Chaabou and'hei . _
lent agaiiut the Ntbaliean* in 311 B.C. ii generally understood The chief god of Fetra was Dha^thati (Aowi^
to Ibrow some light upon the history of Petra, though it must be or awnerof 5AdM;* he was worshipped under the £d
admitted that the ^efra referred 10 as a natural fortress and place reclangular stone, a sort of Fetraeaa Ka'aba (So
of refuge cannot he a proper name, and the description at any 6e^ 'A^, and cf. Epiphan. above). Associated wi
rale impUs that the town was not yet in existence. BrUnnow waa AllAl, the chief goddess of the andent Anbi
tblnlta that '' the rock " in question waa the sacred mountain chambers may be seen at various points in the the
en-Neji (above); but Buhl suggests a coaiplcuoui height about many places of sacrifice open to tbckky an metwi
i£ m. north of Fetra, Shobak, the Uml-royal of ifae Cnuidfrs.' tombs, inaikcd by remains of altars. But most e
More satisfactory evidence of the dale at which the earliest was the great Higfa.place which hat recently been 1
Nabataean settlement began is la be oblaincd from ail eiami- en-Nejr (or Zibb 'atOf). It consists of a rock-h
nation of the tombs. Two types may be distinguished broadly, bumt^flering with a place for killing the victima
the Nabataean and the Cra«D-Romin. The Nabalaean type a shallow court, perhaps intended to hold water,
=ugb various tlagcs, the
teriatics which are partly
either idols of DhQ-sbar* and AlUt, or more p
designed to mark the limits o( the iaram of U
West of the obelisks ate three other places of saa
type there eiist close
the rocks below worshipped have carved Ibcii
«) supply a date for the
ii. 390-404). En-Nejr, with the theatre at its foo
been the sacred mountain, the original unctua
r arch, a feature derived
perhaps " the very high mountain of Arabia c
rate fafades, from which
after the god Dusates " referred to by Stepb
copied from the front of
le stages in this develop-
Egyptian and partly Greek
parallels in the lomb-to»en
bear long Nabataean inscrip
corresponding monuments at Fetra. Then<
frorn north Syria, and &ial]y the elaboral
a Roman temple. The eiact
any length have been found at Petra,* perbspi became they have the tombs (the "tomb with the urn") was laed
perished with the stucco or cement which wu used upon many of an inscription in red paint cccoidsits cansecraiion
the buildings. We have, then, as e«dence for the earliesl period, of the most holy bishop Jison" (a.d. 447). The C
the simple pylon-tombs, which belong to the pre-Hcllenic age; Pelra, as of north Arabia, was swept away by the 1
how far back in this stage the Nabataean settlement goes we conquest in A.D. 619-632. Under the Latin kingdt
do not know, but not farther than the 6th century B.C. A occupied by Baldwin I. and formed the second fief
penod foUows in which the dominant civiliution combines Greek, of Krak with tbe title ChSleau de la Valie de Mo)
EgyptianandSyriinelemenls, dearly pointing to the age of the remained in the hands of the Franks till ii&g;lrt
Ptolemies. Towards the close of the ind century B.C., when the Crusaders' citadel are sliU standing near [be b
Ptolemaic and Seleucid kingdoms were equally depressed, the en-Nejr.
Nabalaean kingdom came to the front; under Aretas III.
Philhellene. (. 85-60 B.C., the royal coins begin; at this lime
probably ihe theatre was eicavated, and Fetra must have
assumed the aspect of a Hellenistic dty. In the long and pros.
nerouB reini of Aretas IV. Phdopatris, 9 B.C.-AJ). 40. Ihe fine
d-Qejr type may be dated, peibsps aUo Ihe great
_ nor of Syria!
'Arabia belongbig to Pelra,'" was abutbed into the Roman
ontiniidtoflourBh. It was visited in *J). yt by Hadrian, and pCTHAHCH (i]04-i]74). Francesco Pelmo
tamped Adruini Pelra on its coins in grauiude for the empetot 5 ^^^^^ j ^nd 6rst true reviver of learning in med
wnelBCtions;lhesupeibBaaie.probablyalemirfcfortbeworsbip ^u bora at Arcuo on the 20th of July no*
■f Isis, and Ihe D*r. which resembles the Uaine ui design, belong pj,racco held a post of nolaiy in the FlorentineF
0 this period. A century later, in the time of Aleiander the Riformagioni; but, having espoused the same a
■ Yakut givFi the name SaC to 1 fortrea In Wadi MOsli, Nsldeke, during the quarrels of the Blacks and Whites, .
lOWC, i.v.2Mi«,.(igjO , cipeUed Irom Florence by that decree of the 271
■ as. ii. 197-1=6; Cooke, NorA&^UU /;.£r.>£«7^7M'. Sc. U"' "Inch condemned Danle 10 lifelong eiile. Wi
'Four imporunl Nabat. inicrr. have been found, of which 'The whole ransc in which Petra liei it called Jet
hree are daied. vii, USI. p. sso. n-CIS. ii. 345. i6ih year of bui ii is doubilul whtiher ibe name of the eod wii
kreus1ll..i.<. B.C. 70. u also CIS. ii. 442; NSl.giinam-CIS. ihai of ihe mouniabi, ice Ed. Meyer, J«. ri(. p. it
i. 3J0 and J54. the lalter dated Ihe jgih year of Aitiii IV., i.e. NSI.p.11%.
i.D. 20, The other Nabat. iaKn. are mntiv (raffili, icratchcd ' Firsi mentioned by E. L. Wilion (iS^O. ■«
« the roclu by viiitorsor wortbippcrt at Ihe holy place); CIS. G. L. Roblnun (1900), deiiribed by S. I. Cunls. P
PETRARCH
itt
tool icfage in tbe GhlbelUne township ol Arezzo; and it was
bere, oo the very ni^t when his father, in company with other
wobeis of the White party, made an unsuccessful attempt to
later Florence by force, the Francesco first saw the light. He
tt not remain long in his birthplace. His mother, having
•buined pennisston to return from banishment, settled at
Ibqb, a little village on the Amo above Florence, in February
ijos. Hoe Petrarch spent seven years of boyhood, acquiring
^ pore Tuscan idiom which afterwards he used with such
coanmmate mastery in ode and sonnet. Here too, in 1307, his
bnther Gherardo was bom. In 13x3 Petracco set up a house
far la family at Pisa; but soon afterwards, finding no scope there
far the exercise of his profession as jurist, he removed them all in
13x3 to Avignon. This was a stq;> of no small importance for
tbe future poet-scholar. Avignon at that period still belonged
tt» Piorenoe, and owned King Robert of Naples as sovereign.
Bat the popes had made it their residence after the insults offered
to Booi&oe VIII. at Anagni in 1303. Avignon was therefore
^ centre of that varied sodety which the hi^ pontiffs of
QniitoDdom have ever gathered round them. Nowhere else
codd the youth of genius who was destined to impress a cosmo-
poGtan stamp on medieval culture and to begin the modem era
btvc grown up under conditions more favourable to his task.
At India and at Pisa he had learned his mother-tongue. At Car-
pentas, under the direction of Convennole of Prato, he studied
tbe humanities between the years 1315 and 1319. Avignon,
It a diitanoe from the party strife and somewhat parochial
psfitia of the Italian commonwealths, impressed his mind
vith u ideal of dvility raised far above provincial prejudices.
Petnrcfa's real name according to Tuscan usage was Francesco
£ Pttnco). But he altered this patronymic, for the sake of
cqAooy, to Petrarca, proving by this slight change his emand-
pMioQ from usages which, had he dwdt at Florence, would most
pnbahly have been imposed on him. Petracco, who was very
auioas that his eldest son should become an eminent jurist,
acBt him at the age of fifteen to study law at Montpellier. Like
Ovid ud many other poets, Petrarch felt no indination for his
father's pn^cssion. His intellect, indeed, was not incapable
sf understanding and admiring the majestic edifice of Roman
hv; but he shrank with disgust from the illiberal technicalities
«f pnctice. There is an authentic story of Petracco's flinging
the young student's books of poetry and rhetoric upon the fire,
bat saving Virgil and Cicero half-bumed from the flames at his
mi's passionate entreaties. Notwithstanding Petrarch's firm
detcn&ination to make himself a scholar and a man of letters
Bther than a lawyer, he so far submitted to his father's wishes
IS to remove about the year 1323 to Bologna, which was then the
beadquarters of juristic learning. There he stayed with his
brother Gherardo until 1326, when his father died, and he
Rtvned to Avignon. Banishment and change of place had
ibiady diminished Petracco's fortune, which was never large;
ud a fraudulent administration of his estate after his death left
tbe two heirs in almost complete destitution. The most predous
vaaaai of Petrarch's inheritance was a MS. of Cicero. There
i^Bttned no course open for him but to take orders. This he
did at once on his arrival in Provence; and we have good reason
to bdeve that he advanced in due time to the rank of priest.
A great Roman noble and ecdesiaslic, Giacomo Colonna, after-
*>nis bishop of Lombez, now befriended him, and Petrarch' lived
"cnne years in partial dependence on this patron.
^ the 6th of April 1327 happened the most famous event of
''^nrch's history. He saw Laura for the first time in the church
1^ Qara at Avignon. Who Laura was remains uncertain still.
Hiat she was the daughter of Audibert de Noves and the wife of
™^ de Sade rests partly on tradition and partly on documents
^ibidi the ahb€ de Sade professed to have copied from originals
■tbe 18th century. Nothing is now extant to prove that, if
tjj kdy really existed, she was the Laura of the Canxonitre,
*«1e there are reasons for suspecting that the abb^ was dther
tbrlabricator of a romance flattering to his own family, or the
■9* of some previous impostor. We may, however, reject the
■oeptical hypothesis that Laura was a mere figment of Petrarch's
fancy; and, if we accept her personal reality, the poems of her
lover demonstrate that she was a married woman with whom he
enjoyed a re^>ectful and not very intimate friendship.
Petrarch's inner life after this date is mainly occupied with
the passion which he cdebrated in his Itah'an poems, and with
the friendships which his Latin epistles dimly reveal to us.
Besides the bishc^ of Lombez he was now on terms of intimacy
with another member of the great Coloima family, the cardinal
GiovaimL A German, Ludwig, whom he called Socrates, and a
Roman, Lello, who recdved from him the daraic luune of Laellius,
were among his best-loved associates. Avignon was the chief
seat of his residence up to the year of r333, when he became
restless and undertook his first long joumey. On this occasion
he visited Paris, Ghent, Li6ge, Cologne, making the acquaintance
of leamed men and copying the manuscripts of classical authors.
On his return to Avignon he engaged in public affairs, pleaded
the cause of the Scaligers in thdr lawsuit with the Rossi for the
lordship of Parma, and addressed two poetical epistles to Pope
Benedict XII. upon the restoration of the papal see to Rome.
His eloquence on behalf of the tyrants of Verona was successfuL
It won him the friendship of their ambassador, Azzo di Correggio
— a fact which subsequently influenced his life in no small
measure. Not very long after these events Petrarch made his
first joumey to Rome, a joumey memorable from the account
which he has left us of the impression he received from its ruins.
It was some time in the year 1337 that he established himself
at Vauduse and began that life of solitary study, heightened by
communion with nature in her loneliest and wildest moods, which
distinguished him in so remarkable a degree from the common
herd of medieval scholars. Here he spent his time partly among
books, meditating on Roman history, and preparing himsdf for
the Latin epic of Africa. In his hours of recreation he dimbed
the hills or traced the Sorgues from its fountain under those tall
limestone cliffs, while odes and sonnets to Madonna Laura were
committed from his memory to paper. We may also refer many
of his most important treatises in prose, as well as a large portion
of his Latin correspondence, to the leisure he enjoyed in this
retreat. Some woman, unknown to us by name, made him the
father of a son, Giovanni, in the year 1337; and she was probably
the same who brought him a daughter, Francesca, in 1343-
Both children were afterwards legitimized by papal bulls.
Meanwhile his fame as a poet in the Latin and the vulgar tongues
steadily increased, imtil, when the first draughts of the AJrka
began to circulate about the year 1339, it became manifest that
no one had a better right to the laurel crown than Petrarch. A
desire for glory was one of the most deeply-rooted passions of his
nature, and one of the points in which he most strikingly antid-
pated the humanistic scholars who succeeded him. It is not,
therefore, surprising to find that he exerted his influence in several
quarters with the view to obtaining the honours of a public
coronation. The result of his intrigues was that on a single day
in 1340, the ist of September, he recdved two invitations, from
the university of Paris and from King Robert of Naples rcspec-
tivdy. He chose to accept the latter, journeyed in February
1341 to Naples, was honourably entertained by the king, and,
after some formal disputations on matters touching the poet's
art, was sent with magnificent credentials to Rome. There, in
the month of AprU, Petrarch assumed the poet's crown upon the
Capitol from the hand of the Roman senator amid the plaudits of
the people and the patricians. The oration which he delivered
on this occasion was composed upon these words of Virgil: —
** Sed me Pamassi descrta per ardua dulcb
Raptat amor."
The andent and the modem eras met together on the Capitol
at Petrarch's coronation, and a new stadium for the human spirit,
that which we arc wont to style Renaissance, was opened.
With the coronation in Rome a fresh chapter in the biography
of Petrarch may be said to have begun. Henceforth he ranked
as a rhetorician and a poet of European celebrity, the guest of
princes, and the ambassador to royal courts. During the spring
months of 1341 his friend Azzo di Correggio had succeeded in
freeing Parma from subjugation to the Scaligers, and was laying
312
PETRARCH
the foundations of his own tyranny in that dty. He invited
Petrarch to attend him when he made his triumphal entry at the
end ol May; and from this time forward for a considerable
period Parma and Vaucluse were the two headquarters of the
poet. The one he called his Transalpine, the other his Cisalpine
Parnassus. The events of the next six years of his life, from May
X341 to May 1347, may be briefly recapitulated. He lost his old
friend the bishop of Lombez by death and his brother Gherardo
by the entrance of the latter into a Carthusian monastery.
Various small benefices were conferred upon him; and repeated
offers of a papal secrctarjrship, which would have raised him
to the highest dignities, were made and rejected. Petrarch
remained true to the instinct of his own vocation, and had no
intention of sacrificing his studies and his glory to ecclesiastical
ambition. In January 1343 his old friend and patron Robert,
king of Naples, died, and Petrarch was sent on an embassy from
the papal court to his successor Joan. The notices which he has
left us of Neapolitan society at this epoch are interesting, and, it
was now, perhaps, that he met Boccaccio for the first time. The
beginning of the year 1345 was marked by an event more
interesting in the scholar's eyes than any change in dynasties.
This was no less than a discovery at Verona of Cicero's Familiar
Letters. It is much to be regretted that Petrarch found the
precious MS. so late in life, when the style of his own epbtles had
been already modelled upon that of Seneca and St Augustine.
In the month of May 1347 Cola di Ricnzi accomplished that
extraordinary revolution which for a short space revived the
republic in Rome, and raised this enthusiast to titular equality
with kings. Petrarch, who in politics was no less visionary than
Rienzi, hailed the advent of a founder and deliverer in the
self-styled tribune. Without considering the impossibility of
restoring the majesty of ancient Rome, or the absurdity of
dignifying the medieval Roman rabble by the name of Populus
Romanus, he threw himself with passion into the republican
movement, and sacrificed his old friends of the Colonna family
to what he judged a patriotic duty.
Petrarch built himself a house at Parma in the autumn of 1347.
Here he hoped to pursue the tranquil avocations of a poet
honoured by men of the world and men of letters throughout
Europe, and of an idealistic politician, whose effusions on the
questions of the day were read with pleasure for their style.
But in the course of the next two years this agreeable prospect
was overclouded by a series of calamities. Laura died of the
plague on the 6th of April 1348. Francesco degli Albizzi,
Mainardo Accursio, Roberto de' Bardi, Sennuccio del Bene,
Luchino Visconti, the cardinal Giovanni Colonna and several
other friends followed to the grave in rapid succession. All of
these had been intimate acquaintances and correspondents of
the poet. Friendship with him was a passion; or, what is more
true perhaps, be needed friends for the maintenance of his
intellectual activity at the highest point of its effectiveness.
Therefore he fell the loss of these men acutely. We may say with
certainty that Laura's death, accompanied by that of so many
distinguished associates, was the turning-point in Petrarch's
inner life. He began to think of quitting the world, and pondered
a plan for establishing a kind of humanistic convent, where he
might dedicate himself, in the company of kindred spirits, to still
severer studies and a closer communion with God. Though
nothing came of this scheme, a marked change was henceforth
perceptible in Petrarch's literary compositions. The poems
written In Morte di Madonna Laura are graver and of more
religious tone. The prose works touch on retrospective topics or
deal with subjects of deep meditation. At the same time his
renown, continually spreading, opened to him ever fresh relations
with Italian despots. The noble houses of Gonzaga at Mantua,
at Carrara at Padua, of Este at Ferrara, of Malatesta at Rimini,
of Visconti at Milan, vied with A220 di Correggio in entertaining
the illustrious man of letters. It was in vain that his correspon-
dents pointed out the discrepancy between his professed zeal for
Italian liberties, his recent enthusiasm for the Roman republic,
and this alliance with tyrants who were destroying the freedom
of the Lombard cities. Petrarch remained an incurable rhetori-
dan ; and, while he stigmatized the despots in his ode to Italy nid
in his epistles to the emperor he accepted their hospitality.
They, on their part, seem to have understood bis teinDerament»
and to have agreed to recognize his political theories as of no
practical importance. The tendency to honour men ci let ten
and to patronize the arts which distinguished Italian princes
throughout the Renaissance period first manifested itself in the
attitude assumed by Visconti and Carrarcsi to Petrarch.
When the jubilee of 1350 was proclaimed, Petrarch made a
pilgrimage to Rome, passing and returning through Fk>reore,
where he established a firm friendship with Boccacdo. It has
been well remarked that, while all his other friendships are
shadowy and dim, this one alone stands out with deamess. Eadi
of the two friends had a distinguished personality. Each played
a foremost part in the revival of learning. Boccacdo carried hit
admiration for Petrarch to the point of worship. Petrarch repaid
him with sympathy, counsel in literary studies, and moral supfwit
which helped to elevate and purify the younger poet's over-
sensuous nature. It was Boccacdo who in the spring of 1351
brought to Petrarch, then resident with the Carrara family at
Padua, an invitation from the seigm'ory of Florence to accept
the rectorship of their recently founded university. This was
accompkanied by a diploma of restoration to his rights as dti»B
and restitution of his patrimony. But, flattering as was the
offer, Petrarch declined it. He preferred his literary leisure at
Vaucluse, at Parma, in the courts of princes, to a post which
would have brought him into contact with jealous priors and
have reduced him to the position of the servant of a common-
wealth. Accordingly, we find him journeying again in 1351 to
Vaucluse, again refusing the office of papal secretary, again plan-
ning visionary reforms for the Roman people, and b^inning that
curious fragment of an autobiography which is known as the EpisAt
to Posterity. Early in 1353 he left Avignon for the last time, and
entered Lombardy by the pass of Mont Gen^vre, making his way
immediately to Milan. The archbishop Giovanni Visconti was
at this period virtually despot of Milan. He induced Petrarch,
who had long been a friend of the Visconti family, to estaUiih
himself at his court, where he found emfrfojrment for him as
ambassador and orator. The most memorable of bis diplomatic
missions was to Venice in the autumn of 13 S3- Towards the
close of the long struggle between Genoa and the republic of Si
Mark the Genoese entreated Giovanni Visconti to mediate on
their behalf with the Venetians. Petrarch was entrusted with
the office; and on the 8th of November he delivered a studied
oration before the doge Andrea Dandolo and the great cooncH.
His eloquence had no effect ; but the orator entered into relatioa»
with the Venetian aristocracy which were afterwards eztendoS
and confirmed. Meanwhile, Milan continued to be his place off
residence. After Giovanni's death he remained in the court off
Bernabd and Galeazzo Visconti, dosing his eyes to their cniehi
and exactions, serving them as a diplomatist, making
for them on ceremonial occasions, and partaking of the
hospitality they offered to emperors and princes. It was ia
capacity of an independent man of letters, highly placed
favoured at one of the most wealthy courts of Europe, that be
addressed epistles to the emperor Charies IV. upon the distracted
state of Italy, and entreated him to resume the old Ghibdiiac
policy of Imperial interference. Charles IV. passed throng
Mantua in the autumn of 1354. There Petrarch made Ui
acquaintance, and, finding him a man unfit for any noble catcf-
prise, declined attending him to Rome. When Charles retnne'
to Germany, after assuming the crowns in Rome and Mte
Petrarch addressed a letter of vehement invective and repcwdl
to the emperor who was so negligent of the duties unposedca
him by his high office. This did not prevent the Visconti sndMf
him on an embassy to Charles in 1356. Petrardi found kii
at Prague, and, after pleading the cause eA his masteis, ml
despatched with honour and the diploma of cotmt palatiac: Hi
student's life at Milan was again interrupted in 1360 by a imaiai
on which Galeazzo Visconti sent him to King John of FkaKa
The tyrants of Milan were aspiring to royal aUiaaccs; GiM
Galeazzo Visconti had been married to Isabella of
PETRARCH
313
V
i
^Kohnte Vnoonti, a few years later, ^as wedded to the English
Me oi Qarence. Petrarch was now commissioned to congratu-
lite King John upon his liberation from captivity to England.
Tbis duty performed, he returned to Milan, where in 1361 he
lecmed news of the deaths of his son Giovanni and his old friend
Socntes. Both had been carried off by plague.
The remaining years of Petrarch's life, important as they were
for the furtherance of humanistic studies, may be briefly con-
deued. On the nth of May 1362 he settled at Padua, from the
ooghbourbood of which he never moved again to any great
disuooe. The same year saw him at Venice, making a donation
of his Kbrary to the republic of St Mark. Here his friend
Boccaodo introduced to him the Greek teacher Leontius Pilalus.
Fetnidi, who possessed a MS. of Homer and a portion of Plato,
nerer acquired the Greek language, although he attempted to
gain some Uttle knowledge of it in his later years. Homer, he
aid, was dumb to him, while he was deaf to Homer; and he could
only approach the Iliad in Boccaccio's rude Latin version. About
this period he saw his daughter Francesca happily married, and
undertook the education of a young scholar from Ravenna,
whose sadden disappearance from his household caused him the
deqxst grief. This youth has been identified, but on insufBdcnt
gnoods, with that Giovanni Malpaghini of Ravenna who was
destined to form a most important link between Petrarch and
the humanists of the next age of culture. Gradually hi^ oldest
Crienbdropped off. Azzo di Corrcggio died in 1362, and Laclius,
Sfltooides, Barbato, in the following year. His own death was
leported in 1365; but he survived another decade. Much of this
last stage of his life was occupied at Padua in a controversy with
the Averroists, whom he regarded as dangerous 'antagonists both
to sooad religion and to sound culture. A curious treatise, which
gitv io port out of this dispute and out of a previous duel
vith idiysidans, was the book Upon kis own Ignorance and that of
mayoOers. At last, in 1369, tired with the bustle of a town so
hv tt Padua, he retired to Arqui, a village in Euganean hills,
where he continued his usual train of literary occupations,
cmpfaqring several secretaries, and studying unremittfngly. All
throng these declining years his friendship with Boccaccio was
oaintaiDed and strengthened. It rested on a solid basis of
Dutual affection and of common studies, the different tcmpcra-
BKnts of the two scholars securing them against the disagree-
neots of rivalry or jealousy. One of Petrarch's last compositions
«tt a Latin version of Boccaccio's story of Grisclda. On the 1 8th
^ J*dy 1374 his people found the old poet and scholar dead
UBoog his books in the library of that little house which looks
across the hills and lowlands towards the Adriatic.
When we attempt to estimate Petrarch's position in the
liistory of modem culture, the first thing which strikes us is that
Ik vas even less eminent as an Italian poet than as the founder
o{ Homanism, the inaugurator of the Renaissance in Italy.
^^ he achieved for the modern world was not merely to
^ueath to his Italian imitators masterpieces of lyrical art
■BmvaQed for perfection of workmanship, but also, and far more,
I* open out for Europe a new sphere of mental activity. Stand-
^ within the threshold .of the middle ages, he surveyed the
^inplon of the modem spirit, and, by his own inexhaustible
' ndgstry in the field of scholarship and study, he determined
*W we call the revival of learning. By bringing the men of his
^ generation into sympathetic contact with antiquity, he gave
* <iedsive impulse to that European movement which restored
^cedom, self-consciousness, and the faculty of progress to the
1^10110 intellect. He was the first man to collect libraries, to
accuauUte coins, to advocate the preservation of MSS. For
^ the authors of the Greek and Latin world were living men —
^^ real, in fact, than those with whom he corresponded; and
^ rhetorical epistles he addressed to Cicero, Seneca and Varro
Piove that he dwelt with them on terms of sympathetic intimacy.
^ ^r-reaching were the interests controlled by him in this
^"ftdty of humanist that his achievement as an Italian lyrist
''BBS by comparison in^gnificant.
l^etrarch's ideal of humanism was essentially a noble one.
Be regarded the orator and the poet as teachers, boimd.to
complete themselves by education, and to exhibit to the world an
image of perfected personality in prose and verse of studied
beauty. Self -culture and self-effectuation seemed to him the
highest aims of man. Everything which contributed to the
formation of a free, impassioned, liberal individuality he regarded
as praiseworthy. Everything which retarded the attainment of
that end was contemptible in his eyes. The authors of antiquity,
the Holy Scriptures and the fathers of the Church were valued
by him as one common source of intellectual enlightenment.
Eminently religious, and orthodox in his convictions, he did not
seek to substitute a pagan for the Christian ideal. This was left
for the scholars of the 15th and i6th centuries in Italy. At the
same time, the Latin orators, historians and poets were venerated
by him as depositories of a tradition only second in importance
to revelation. For him there was no schism between Rome and
Galilee, between classical gem'us and sacred inspiration. Though
the latter took the first rank in relation to man's eternal welfare,
the former was necessary for the perfection of his intellect and
the civilization of his manners. With this double ideal in view,
Petrarch poured scorn upon the French physicians and the Italian
Avtjrroists for their illiberal philistinism, no less than for their
materiah'stic impiety. True to his conception of independent
intellectual activity, he abstained from a legal career, refused
important ecclesiastical office, and contented himself with i>altry
benefices which implied no spiritual or administrative duties,
because he was resolved to follow the one purpose of his life —
self-culture. Whatever in literature revealed the hearts of men
was infinitely precious to him; and for this reason he professed
almost a cult for St Augustine. It was to Augustine, as to a
friend or a confessor, that he poured forth the secrets of his own
soul in the book De cotUemptu mundi.
In this effort to realize his truest self Petrarch was eminently
successful. Much as he effected by restoring to the world a sound
conception of learning, and by rousing that genuine love and
curiosity which led to the revival, he did even more by im-
pressing on the age his own full-formed and striking personality.
In all things he was original. Whether we regard him as a
priest who published poem after poem in praise of an adored
mistress, as a plebeian man of letters who conversed on equal
terms with kings and princes, as a solitary dedicated to the love
of nature, as an amateur diplomatist treating affairs of stale with
pompous eloquence in missives sent to popes and emperors, of
again as a traveller eager for change of scene, ready to dirob
mountains for the enjoyment of broad prospects over spreading
champaigns; in all these divers manifestations of his peculiar
genius we trace some contrast with the manners of the 14th
century, some emphatic anticipation of the i6th. The defects
of Petrarch's character were no less striking than its qualities,
and were indeed their complement and counterpart. That
vivid conception of intellectual and moral self-culture which
determined his ideal took the form in actual life of all-absorbing
egotism. He was not content with knowing himself to be
the leader of the age. He claimed autocracy, suffered
no rival near his throne, brooked no contradiction, demanded
unconditional submission to his will and judgment. Petrarch
was made up of contradictions. Praising solitude, playing the
hermit at Vaucluse, he only loved seclusion as a contrast to the
society of courts. While he penned dissertations on the futility of
fame and the burden of celebrity he was trimming his sails to
catch the breeze of popular applause. No one professed a more
austere morality, and few medieval writers indulged in cruder
satire on the female sex; yet he passed some years in the society
of a concubine, and his living masterpiece of art is the apotheosis
of chivalrous passion for a woman. These discords of an un-
decided nature displayed themselves in his political theories and
in his philosophy of conduct. In one mood he was fain to ape
the antique patriot; in another he affected the monastic saint.
He was clamorous for the freedom of the Roman people; yet at
one time he called upon the popes to re-establish themselves in
the Eternal City; at another he besought the emperor to make it
his headquarters; at a third he hailed in Rienzi the founder of
a new republic. He did not perceive that all these plans were
>nipi(ible. His reluioni 10 Ibe Lombard Doblei
variance with hii ptolcsud piliioliuo; and, i
Kinatc of ViKODtE aad Correggi, he kept od iuuii
bill Ihc tyranu who divided Italy. It would no
nulLipIy ijicse anIiihcKI in the diaisclet and Ihi
. linguiu man. But it i> more la the purpoie to
1 were faarmonized in a personality of potent a
PETRARCH
nplH
□nality is that
is pbiloupher, poH-
lician, historian, esaayial) onilor, he aimed at lucid and hanno-
nious ejtpression^nol) lodEVd, neglecting the importance of l]w
material be undeiloak to treat, but approaching his task b the
spiril of an artist rather than a thinker or a man ol action. TU*
accouoti for his bewildering versatility, and (or hii appuenl
waot of giaap on conditions of fact. Viewed in Uui light
Petrarch anticipated tbc Italian Renaisunce in iu weiliness—
that philosophical superficiality, that tendency to ornate
rhetoric, that preoccupation with stylistic trides, that want of
llteiary products with the note of mediocrity. Had Pelnich
been possessed with a passion lot some commanding principle in
politics, motalily or science, instead o[ with the thint for letf-
cli^I which is the pkf «|
1 Ibo peculiar poaitioa hefc
I lyrius of Tiucany and ifci
generalloDt. True in ihi
smkig age, he was the £rs
im allegory and Diytlidsiia
t analysis of anotioa will
W. Though we believe h
ar conception eitbei of to
The methoil of his an isK
iturai, that every man cai
)as Diistren shadoved forti
t be paned od Pelnich'l
le beauties of nature keenl]
.hem with obvioiU appiea
where IhRC are woods anc
ne long mclodioua moood)
perpetual object of deliglU'
re already poten'
. Hed
added that his own ideal wni higher and severer tbaa that ol the
illustrious humanists mho followed him,
Aa an author Petrarch must be coitudered from two points of
view — £nt as a writer of Latin vene and prose, secondly as an
Italian lyrist. In the foimer capacity be was speedily out-
stripped by more fortunate scholars. Hb eclogues and epistles
and the epic of Afraa, on which be set such store, exhibit >
comparatively limited command of Latin metre. His treatises,
oralioos, and familiar letters, though rcmaikable for a prose style
ently characteristic of the man, are not distinguished
by purity of
. Much as
mired Ci
Eval Latiniiy. Seneca
and Augustine had been too much used by him as models of
possessed ^ copious vocabulary, a £ne ear for cadence, and the
faculty ol eapressing every shade of ihoughi ot feeling. What he
lacked was that insight into the best classical nuslcipieces, that
successive generations of xholarship. To attain to this,
Giovanni da Ravenna, Collucdo Sslutato, Pogglo and Filello
had to labour, before a Poliziano and a Bembo finally prepared
of the t;th instead of at the opening of the 14th century there is
no doubt that his Latiniiy would have been as pure, as versatile,
and as poioled as that of the willy stylist ol Rotterdam.
With regard to his Italian poetry Petrarch occupies a very
dlRerent position. TheXinetx Viloi UorUii Uadama Laura
rricd to language of the choicest and the puo»t. It b true
t even in the Cdut^xicrc, as Italians prefer to caU that coUec-
1 ol lyrics, Petrarch is not devoid of faults belonging 10 his age.
and
eRe
ct through his authority upon the literature of Europe. He
appealed in hii odes and sonnets to a restricted audience already
edu
catad by the chivalrous love-poetry of Provence and by
lian imiutions of that style. He was not careful to exclude
the
ceils. There is therefore a cetlain element ol artificiality in
his
treatment; and this, since il is easier (0 copy defects than
by
due
: allowance for peculiaiitics, the abuse ot which hai bmu^t
il by love-poeliy thne ii
iplay him in another Itgbl
le pleader's eloqucDCe in ill
ossosed in no less nxuiin
tcatute has nothing mUb,
Jamalory style than tim
nt Italy had scarcely b^u
nd Lombards, Guelfs avj
arcely conceived of tlalj
high conception of ItaBii
llual onity which underb)
ich attained partly throoft
local, paitisaoship, partly
PETRE, SIR E.— PETREL
(ivouijng ber Diuriige wit^ Philip II. of Spiin. He migned
hii iMWuyihip in i5iT, but took »me pan is public busincu
under Eliubeth iidiU hii ilolh U. hit RtidcDce, IcEUetlOH,
Euu, on the ijth of Juiuuy 1571,
Hii »n John Petre I1H9-1613) wu aattd Bsron PMie ol
Writtle in 1603. The ind biron wu his son VViUiam (157J-
1037), wheat giudioD wu WiUiim, the 4lh baron (c 1616-
16S4). Denounced by Titui Oitea u t, papiit, the Uul named
wu UTBted wilb olber Roman Calbolic noblemen in 1^78 and
renuined Hiiboul trial In Ihe Towci of London unU'l hit dcaib.
His brolher John (t6i(ri6B4) was the jth lord, and the laltrr't
nephew, Robert (1689-1713), wu the 7th locd. It wuRoben'i
action in cutting a lock of hair from a lady's head which led Pope
IoiiTiIebiipocni"TbeRapcoIlheLock." ThePctreshavebecn
contitttntly alticfaed to Ibe Roman Catholic faith, William
Joseph, the 131b baron (iS47-iS93),bcingaprint of the Roman
church, and the birony is Hill (igii) in eijstence. One of Ibe
1st baion'sgrand»nawasWUIiamPetre(i6oi-i677), who (tans-
laledlheFftuioHcnrHxiaf PedmdcRibadeneinuZiMig/lilt
SainU (St Omer, i6<»; London, 1730).
See Cmiatatioil ColUclioni tlluilratimt At RislurJ nf Bmnn
Callulit Familia ^ En^nd, vol. i., editeil by J. J. Howiid and
PETHBk the general name of a group of birds (of which more
some of them poueu of ipplrenlty walking on Ibe surface of the
wmu of Isrning." MeziiiT'i Pcirarnu. (iSMl is * monograph ol "'" " "le apostle St Pcier (o( whose name the word is a
■n EMiifa nadns may be relnml id a liiile book on Pclrarch dimmutive form) is recorded (Matt. liv. 19) to have done. The
W ,n™T Rtt«. and to »ola. ii. and iv. of ^mond's Btnaiitamci petrels, all of which are placed in the [amily PrKdlatiidat, were
LSSir^f" Maud F. Jen^,.f™.»« PU,or^ ,«i.^ ^,„„|^ ,^j„^ ^.Hhe Larid^ (see Goll), but th^y are
^^ ''»°»'- ^- '^ *■' now placed as the sole members of the suborder Tabinara (the
RtS^ IIR EDWARD (ifi3i-i«g4), Jesuit confessor of King name denoting the tharacleriilie tubular slructure of their
Ji™E.oiEngland,wubominParis. He wu the son of Sir nostrils) and of the order P™ei/oni/orm« (see Bian). Theyare
>'iuisP«re,BaTt.,of Cranham,heado(aJua[orbcancbof the subdivided into four gtoupi or subfamilies: [>) Pciuanmdina-
Wjof the Barons Petre, and his wi' — ■ ■ " ' '
'uiittr at Sir John Cage, both strong Ri
Omr, ud he entered the order under the
I'll, bni did not receive the full orders ti
•hkbIb] his elder brother in the title and
UiKctsiian of James II. in 16S5 he was ch
'^ tint, irlio looked upon him u " a resol
ow." During the whole of the king's reij
•° uhiseis wbo did the most to encourag
^^^ Ended by producing the revolution
'"'ttmpliied making him archbishop of York, as the oee was some species apparently never resort to land eicept for the pur-
*o»ifanl, but the pope. Innocent XI., who was not friendly to pose of nidificalion, though nearly all are liable »l times to be
« order, would not grant a dispensation to hold it, and even driven ashore, and often very fir inland, by gales of wind.' It
wttd Petre's superiors to rebuke him for his eicessive am- would also seem that during the breeding-season many of (hem
•""•■ In r6B7 he was made privy councillor. When the ire wholly nocturnal in their habits, passing the day in holes of
'"°hiion broke out Petre was compelled lo flee disguised u a Ihe ground, or in clefts of the rocks, in which they generally
*WiL After his flighl he bad no further relations with nestle, the hen of each pair laying a ^nglc while egg, sparsely
Jiooll. After a visit lo Rome, he became head of Ibe Jesuit ipeckled in ■ few species with fine reddish dots. Of those
Ewic at St Otner in 1603, from whence he wu transferred 10 spedes that frequent the North Atlantic, the rommoo Storm-
"•Itoi in Fluiden in 1697. He died on the ijth of May Petrel, ProctOaria pttapca, a little bird which has to the
'^ A younger brothu Cliarles (1644-1713] wu also a ordinary eye rather the look of a Swift or Snallow, la the
*^ ol t be order. " Mother Carey's chicken " of sailors, and is widely believed to be
'RIB, SIB WILUAM (e. i5o5-rS7i}. English politician, Ihe harbinger of bad weather; but seamen hardly discriminate
*»>unof John Petre, a Devon man, and wu educated at IwtwBen this and others nearly resembling it in appearance, such
y»t, Coliege, Oxford, afterwards becoming a fellow of All la Leach's or Ibe Fork-tailed Petrel, Cymtcliorta liucorrhca, a
wli'Coliege. He entered the public service in early life, owing rather larger but less common bird, and Wilson's 'Pelrcl, Otcaa-
Minimduction therein doubtless 10 the fact that at Oifotd Ua ettaouas. the type of the Family Oaaniliiue mentioned
J^ofl been tutor to Anne Boleyn's brother, George Boleyn, >bove, which is more common on the American side. But it is in
■aaiiiBt Rocbford, and began bis olTicial career by serving the be Southern Ocean that Petrels mosi abound, both as species
^ttili govenunent abroad. In 1536 be was made deputy, or ind u individuals. The Cape- Pigeon or Pintado Petrel. Dd^ioii
^Wor, fortbe vicar-general. Thomu CromWEll, and u such he apaiiii. a one that has long been well known to mariners and
■■Billed over Ibe convocation which met in June of this year, >ther wayfarers on the great waters, while those who voyage to
"'St] Petre wu km'ghled and was appointed a secnlary of ir from Australia, whatever be the route they take, are
(UsV"a "l^po^e marhe^ta'in^ ht °[Sn niSltoS^C^ ^t^wLS^««"ci .he'£?ihbo^^^
«toEdward VI. and also under Mary, fonaking Ibe protector Aral-Indian Island., ha. occurred >^ the Sute of New Vork. neJ
■*«nil at iIk li^l moncnl uid winning Mary's goodwill by Joulogne. in Norfolk, and in Hungary {Ibis, tBSi. p. loi).
dfe Elizabeth Gage,
toman Catholics. In
as diving-pclrels, with habits very different from oLhera of the
Jesuit College at St
family, and almost peculiar to high southern latitudes from Cape
e name of Spencer in
Horn to New Zealand; (i) ProallariiHae, or petrels proper (and
ill 1671. In ie7e be
d family estates. On
and (4) OcrcTiilinae, containing small sooly-black birds of the
hosenajconfesKirfay
the distinctive nature of which »u first recognized by Couei
in .864.
.ge him in the policy
Petreb are archaic oceanic forms, with great powers of flight.
of 16S8. The king
dispersed throughout all the teas and oceans of the world, and
3i6
hlick, grey ol
" blue ■■), «id
iL-pot "
.t the I
PETRIE, G.— PETROLEUM
wciM, »me, u Ouifrata Amar^t (itofii KetlM (189*); Woj.^ (iM; Sh
1 KvmJ 01 tncm caliM oy ,, „^,j. ^j^„ /. (^ ,. ^j^^ „ j fifa.™
ch tk Ijgoj]: AlkrMi ll90»); UtmfliiitaiQm^hv>9).
d[ SIOU (also called Cbuhant-mii), ■ lovn ud pan «l
thE divisicia of Tichlni, about 45 m. E. oI Bufkok.
trnln ot that part of KuihFia Sim *bicb b nteml
ang Pakong River. If ii built on lonr-lyiDg, (
11 oppml
Nan
ig— sooly-
lunoiu linti lone 01 waia.n orten called
ihite being Ibe only bues tbe plumage ubibili.
in of the Kvcral apecie^ at Pctreti in the Southern
tmlcd by A. MiTnc-Edwardi in the An--^ -I"
for 18S3 (61h taia Zedopt, voL iriiL ai
utheion
in Dublin
cooudcnble leputaibn oa n painter of Irish landscape, he
devoted much lime lo the illusiiatioo of the antiquitia of Ibe
(ountiy. In iSiS be hu appoiclcd to conduct the anliquuito
•nd hisloricll MCtion of Ibe ordnance survey of Ireland. In
1831 be becstne editor of the DuUin Pamy Journa!, a periodical
be conlrib
ulcd nun
lerous articles on tbe history ot
Ibe fine arts
in Ireland
.. Pelrie
may be regarded ai Ihe fint 1
KJentific in-
vesligator
of Irish.
archaeology, his conlributioni t
0 which *»i
also in th.
cnwlvo .
q1 much impanance. His £111
Tiraers, U
.r which
in i8jo be received the priie
of the Irish
Academy.
l« us a s<>nd.nl work. Amoi
contributi.
>h archiMiiogy are his JCiray <«
tkc MUitary
A'ckUcttn
riaflrdf,
,^ and his Hiilory cJ AMiq..
i.i« ./ Tor,
Bia. He
le 1 7th ol January 1S66.
'■•iL^h
tihouri in Art aid Ardmdfty <^ Off Pint.
PETIUB, WILUAH HATTHBW FLIHOERS (1853- ),
Engliih egyptologiil, was bora at Charlton on the 3rd of June
i»Sj, being the un of Wllliim Pelrie, CE. His mother was the
daughter of Captain Matthew Flinder), the Austnlian explorer.
He too It an early interest in archaeolo^cal research, and between
1S7S and iSSo was buiily engaged in studying ancient British
remains at SlonehCDge and elsewhere; in iSSo he published bis
boolc OD Slonrhenge, with an account of his theories on this
subject. He was also much interested in ancient weights and
measures, and in 1S7S published a work an l,<dwAm Mrlrelecy.
tions in Egypt, beginning with the pyramids at Ciia, and follow,
ing up his work there by eicavalions at the great temple at Tanis
(1884), and discovering and eiploring the long-lost Creek chy of
Naucralisin the Rclta (iSS;), and the towns of Am and Dsphnae
(1886), where he found important remains of the lime when they
were inhabited by the Phaiaohi. Between 1SS8 and 189a he
Lachishiandin 1891 he discovered the ancient temple at Medum,
Much of this work was done in conneiion with the Palestine
Eiploralion Fund. By tbi) time his reputation was estab-
lished. He published in 1S9] his Ten ymri' Diip't' >" E[yfl,
was given the bononry degree of D.C.L. by 0(ford, and was
appointed Edwards Professor of Egyptology at University
ColJcge, London. In 1S94 he founded the Egyptian Research
Account, which in 1905 was rcconslituted as the British School
of Archaeology in Egypt (not to be confused with the Egypt
work which the School has accomplished has been the investi-
gation of the site of Memphis (f.i.)
cT of Professor P«ne's
nolonral ordc
'JOJ): EpKian fala (ligsU firfinol I'd CmiilKt in AinvU
Btjpl (iSoll): Syria and Eat* (1898); Royal Tamil of llu Firll
Dynauy <i«oo); Rayal Tambs a] Ihi Earliest Dynailiti (1901);
Hytiaiani Israeliu Cilui [1906): Sriizvii aj AnrirnI EtypI (1906):
Pirimtf Rtiirian ■• Eiypi <i9oHl. On mnicular tiin. Pyramiii
end Ttmtlti oj Ciuk nm): fanii f. (iSo-. Nankmit I. (i8S«li
tfnont (1889): KahuH (1890}^ IlUum (1891); Jfafan (i89)Ji
1. fror
h ol the above
. Tht
It theinh^i-
dightly predominating. Rice-mtlla give e
} number of indentured Chinese coolie*, b
re chiefly engaged in agriculture. A rail»
angkok was opened in Ibe spring of 1908.
tOLEA, a town and pott of entry in- LambtOD Monty,
), Canada, situated 41 m. W. of London on Beat Cteil.
iient of Sydenham River, and on the Grand Trunk ai
an Cenlrnl railways. Pop. (1901). 41JS. It is in tbi
3f the oil region of Canada, and numcroua wells in ibf
r have an aggregate output of about 30,000,000 gaUmi)
e oil per aiuium, much of wliich is refined in tbe town.
lOLEUM (Lat. ptiro, rock, and elnm, oil), ■ term wbkb,
widest sense, embraces the whole of the hydrocarbons
-e (sn -
appUeatlon i
E b-quid wbict
tide ol 0
ommerce, though ,
tef eiencpi wit
ions of Ihe K
ucal gas
-lid form.
whi
1 be found in 1
"e an"les «
\, eUlcriie, gilxinii
e, halcfaetlH.
:erite. Parti
culars of
the
shales which
yield <h1 a
.ve distillalioi
:n>n
. the article on
1 collected for 11
.ges of whicl
1 we hav
ly retords. Herodotus de
hif oil plU nea
^"
.e«- Babylon),
».dlhe|«lcl
f Zacynthui (Zuite).
whi
lit Strabo, Di
:ntion the u»
e of the .
gilc
in Sicily, fo
ion, and PluUtch Rf<
a (Kerkuk).
Thtanci
lent
records ol Chi
n. and Jap.
to contain many allu
siODS to tbe use (
If nalunl (a
ing and heoli
ing. Pet
role.
m (" burning
waur'l«
1 Japan in \i
,e%th ce,
y, whilst in E
uropelbega
f Ihe north of Italy lo
the adoption i
ini»6byUi
ots
lurroundedhr
15'S Oil "
i«6; 11
•it of Feet
leof- S
). The earlier mention of AmeticsD pelroleum otcn
Waller Raleigh's account of the Trinidad pilch-like ii
■bilst Ihirly-sevcn years later, the account of t vi)ii 0
ciscin, Joseph de la Roche d'Allion, lo Ihe oil springi g
'ork was published In Sagard's Hiitoire du Canada, I.
:h century, Thomas Shirley brought the natsnl pi 0
. in Shropshire, to tbe notice of the Royal Society. Ii
crmannBoernaaverefeiTed to Ihe oleum tenae ot BmmJ
Barbados lar" was then well known as a medicinal agent
led in 1 748, showed on a map the oil springs of PlnmyF
and about tbe same time Raicevich nfeircd lo Ik
1 bitumen " of Rumania.
tm Dtrdipnunl and Indmtriai Prggreii.— Tbe Enl
lion ol Ihe oil at Alfreton in Derbyshire by James Yomf,
itenled bis process for Ibe manufacture ol paraSa ia
In 185] »nd 1854 patents for the preparation Bt iHt
ice from petroleum were obtained by Warren de la Sv,
c process w^ applied to Ihe " Rangoon oil " brought U
Siilain from Yenangyaung in Upper Burma. The (din
■ ■ United SI
larly p
lotlli
n embracatioo u
Ihechcniioln
rent viriei
liei,»n(!th,
at
supplemtnledbylhoMO
t. later di
ile,»howll
d.Iso(.boulS4%byi»cJ
ighlofoil
bonwithiJ
'%
at bydiStfo, ind vwyin* proporlions <
)i sulphur,
nitrageni
nd
aiyg«n. The]
jtiDcipil dcinentl ice foi
ious csmbii
lion., the hydi
rocarboni of the Ptnniyl
v(uil> oik being miinly
pariffins (j..,)
, while thoM of Ciucatii
,m l«long
Icwilklhe
oIe£iia(;.|
>.).
PETROLEUM 317
UK of "SenecA oil," ind the "American btfedicinal Oil" Even prior la the dl&eovery of petroleum in commerdal
of Koitucky wu lately sold after its diicovery in ]SJ9. The cjuanlilia. a number of chemisti had made determinations of
ftsniyhnnia Rocli Oil Company irai lormed ic 1S54, but its
bm louiided the Seneci CHI Company, under ahoK direction
E. L. Drake (Ulted > well on Od Creek, PennlylvlniL After
dnltinf bid beea canied to a depth of 6q [eel, oh the iSth of
Safoa 1850, the tools suddenly dropped into t. crevice, sod on
IbeliflowinB day the well was found lo have "struck oil."
Tliinll yielded i; barrels a day for some time, but at the end
<i (bt year the output was at the rate of 15 baircls. The pro- . ParaSins are found in all cnide oils, :
dntion of crude petroleum in the United Stales was officially proportions in the majority, while acetylene has been loun'd in
ia iH^ iq,gi4.i46 barrels in iSt), 35,163,513 barrels in iKg, notably benzeoe and toluene, occur in all petroleums. Naph-
SIiOEijiS barrels in 1S09. and 116403,036 barrels in 1906. thenesareLhechiercainponcnI>olsonicoils,asalrcadyindicatFd,
tlsilp] Slates and then became general, subsequently embracing oils have also been found to contain camphenei, naphthalene
CauiU(i>6]1,recentlydiKovercd fields being those of Illinois, and other aromatic hydrocarbons. It is found that transparent
Albsti and California (44,8^4, T37 barrels in 1908). nils under the influence of light abwrb oiygen, becoming deeper
For about 10 yean Peansylvania was the one great oQ pro- in colour and opalescent, while strong aridity and a penetrating
direr of the world, but since 1^70 the industry tus spread alt odour are developed, these changes being due to the fonnatioa
em Ibe globe. From the time of the completion on the Baku of various acid and phenylaled compounds, which are also
teU of the first flowing well (which was urunanageable and occasionally found in fresh oils. The residues from petroleum
icuIirI in the loss of the greater part of the oil), Russia has diilillalion have been shown to contain vci> dense solids snd
luied second in the list of producing countries, whilst Galicia litjuids of high specific gravity, having a large proportion of
ud Romania became prominent in 187S and lESo respectively, carbon and possessed of remarkable fluorescent properties.
Sumln, Java and Borneo, where active development began Natural gas is found to consist mainly of (he lower paraffin*,
bi III], 1886 and r3q6, bid fair to rank before long among the with varying quanlities of carbon dioiide, carbon moooiide,
civf sourrri of the cni supplies of the world. Similarly, Burma, hydrogen, nitrogen and nxygen, in some cases also sulphuretted
wlittr the Burmah Oil Company have, since 1A90, rapidly hydrogen and possibly ammonia. This mixture dissolves in
nEc[]ded their operations, is rising to a position of importance, petroleum, escaping when the oil is stored, and cnnversely 11
Oil bcLdi are being continually opened up in other parti of the invaiiably carries a certain amount of water and nil, which is
ixK ud whilst America ilill maintains her position as the deposited on cooptession.
l^lQt petroleum producer, the world's supplies are now being Ocenrrtna- Bitumeo is, in [Is varioui forma, one of the moiC
^vtdirom asleadilyincreasingnumber of centres. widelv-diatributed of lubatancea, occurring in strata of every
Wfiiiof and Oirmiad /■ro^wlki.— Although our information geological age, from the lowen Aichean rock. 10 Dhw r»w in
otirely gained sinci ., .„
" ' empirical knowledge of the substance pctroieum is. L<
g:^..'''U'^rtTp^n"jn%^^ SSn fedzST'EiS!''^ '^^ '^
ituca Bacon states that the ongmal concretion of bitumen The main requisites lor a productive oil or gas Geld are a ponnis
" t nriilure of a fiery and watery substance," and observes reservoir aod an impervious cover. Thus, while tKc mireral may
"SI tiDie " attracts " the naphtha of Babylon " afar ofl." be formed in a itralum other than that io which It Is found, though
(i4":sTth™*'^'';^S'"i:,'':^th'"^rd"Vo^he !SSS?slS"™'^'!s^I^il^S'"^^
lonj by him classified and defined. Jacob Joseph Winlerl, ^nJ^SJ^nw'dS!i^(e'ind tli" tS^'"'^r'r^^^ rca^ll^
11b*'^''V" h" """Se^" "" ^' ■*" '"""'"' P""''^" duelo ihrakage-a change occlml!rou'y''iu'''hepul^°li'u«.on...
Imtd out by Professor B. Silliman, Jun., in 1855, who then water and mineral mli. and the volatile character of the latiet.
tpotied upon the results which he had obtained with the Jj"' 'bo poroui .Imtum should be proieded from njjier and air
^M report has become a classic m the bteralureof petroleum, places the oil as the latter is withdiawn.
Ihe physical properties of petroleum vary greatly. The In addition to these two necessary factors, HtmctuTal conditions
«*TO ranges from pale yellow throurii red and brown to black P'*)' »" imponanl pan in determining the accufnubtioa of ml
cr^ish, while by reflected light it is. in the majority of cases. liXk atS' ^^^^^^ utjStu'S5, °te'fbe''^roS
« 1 green hue. The specific gravity of crude petroleum appears ^ anticlinal or terrace stnictitre, however slightly marked or limited
lonnge from -771 lo 106, and the Sash point from below a° in extent, eicrts a poweriul induence on the creation of leservoim
wlKr hand, vanes inversely with the density, but beats no in the aggregation of the pU. 0«ing 10 diffcrvnce of density the
^ri}' ??^'*' ^wer"S BJ.u'5!l^ppc^r,^o^ M^^^^ S "ttfeL'^iErn ^t^iiur^rtEe" l^u'ls'^Sln"
•bile Ibis oil IS poorest in solid hydrocarbons, of which the panied by a gradual local descent, a modified or " arr«l«I "
Upper Burma oils the largest amount. The boiling piint, being having action at that pan beioa sufficient only (0 arret! tlic descent
baennined by the character of the constituents of the oil, *''fli,";;S' "^i33'?fS!i™'"TbJJ=S^L',''U^o^
KCKsaiily varies greatly in different oils, as do the amoimts of ^„^ sometimes have a dip o[ a few feet per mile, as in the case o!
fKUlateobtainedfromthcmaispedficdtcmpetalures. the Ohio aod Indiana oil fields, where the amount varies from
3j8 petroleum
Jt it evident thit »camu knowipdce at the dhkiacttf And
■tractm td tbe nck-lotanifoot ia pelndifatni («friIo(is b at
the KJBtefL ifflportADce in enaWina Ibe npm ui rIki (avmnUe
lilei for driUing opcrunfu: brace on weU-cooductnl wtrDimm-
o( Ibe iinu petforued by tbe drill. ■> ilui a eompku tcaiaa
may be prepared Irmi the lemrded d^a. [d lafiie eaiB ibc drptbs
tbe wrfaoe. ihin oeally ladGlaiiiia tbe UDDfaiioad ibr nmdi.
<KI and ta are diefl met wiib in drilled aeOi under rnnt prawre.
wUcb i> biiheM a> a rule in ihc dttpiil ■eUa. The Axd pmnire
in tbe TienLon bmesone in CHUD and lodiuu a iboul JOD-jmlb.
per iq, ul. allboucb a much hiflwT newjre haa ben reitflem]
la muiy mill. The gai welli ol PeDuvlvania indicate about
doubie the preHure ol Iboae diilicd in the Tmlon bmestone.
Chcretrocn itontei lhe"«igfira" oi Lbecocintry A Uoioui fountain
in the Croinri oil 6eld In the Dorrbmi Caucuui. whidi b^gu lo
flow Lo Au^A IftqJ. was e«iniated to have Thrown up duruw Ibe
firM three day> i.n»,ooD poodi (ow 4.5cw,aoa pUoiu, or about
iB.Joo loiu) of.n) (day It OowrI n>ntinnautly, though in
occasional ouibunt at oil and pL
Thm tbeoriee luvc been propounded to acanat lor thi>
3. That it it caused by the compnmd condition bI tbe gndually
■d appean to be the moat widely applicable-
1 the [act that the principal oil ftrldiol the worid
ilatioo ol petrolean
nd vcRrtablc marine organj«n» may be menliDned
ported by
a liquid lit
iulider^bkhX"
\KAt!^^1.^
PETROLEUM 319
PETROLEUM
ii«. The drill u thui illoned to full tmAy. ot thmt in the Uiuud Sato, the diWurtwl c*
10300 tl. lo tioo li.
■ -—-•— -liE follow.
L.. 61 in. and J in., the Icngthi o[ tube l^tnrtlT of th(
ernd. u they hei
bul^^Mt ol adeep mU ma/ "niou"" i" ." ""^J* *70po. ^
nttd itiaed . ,
,j. . — , — -^ *— r '-' the The eyiten iduaDy
s o( Ihe oil-producing countik* ol emilitiidy dtKribtd
.„ , ., .. in genenl uie in the oil-
field* of the coaftal pkinof Tckatiaamodifi^ticHiDf that invented he me d heavy tooli
. cAvntially in the uk of rotating hi
to which It attached the d[ilUng-bit
out nream of water^ under a prcsHjn
^cld of petroleum wclla varies willun vwy
1 ckndy, .1
of the different producing diAridi im aim i oil-fiddi,
unging. I. C. While, lUleEealoKiB of excluuin^ ado
of oil. He aasumcs that in what ii conudered a pod praducing ling of the aSS'
difttrict the amount of petroleum which lan be obraincd from a illtf oof be
cubic foot of rock would not be more than a gallon, and that the accomplished with an onjinary tat introduced through the cutig.
average ihickneM of ihe oil-bearing rock would not ciceed J ft. Of late yean the under-reainer hu been largely upeneded by tba
Tailing Iheie figure! u a baiii, the total yield of oil from an acre ttcenttic bit.
of petroliferoui lenitory would be a little over sooa-burelg ol The Davia calyx drill hai alio been employed for petwleuii
4] U.S. gallon!. drilling. Thii appatitui nuy be dcKiibrd aaa ttcel-pciued coce-
A flow of oil may often be induced in a well which would otherwiK drill. The bit or cutter cotiuit* of a cylindrical Tteo^
with the ^1, and cauiing its preuure to niK the a1. The device proceuof guUednB. into a acrict of sharp teeth, which are
enipli^ed for thi« purpose a known as the water-packer, and tet in and out alternately. The outward set of teeth drill Ihe hele
conuslt in iu Bmplest form of an uidia-rubber riflE. which is applied lai^ enough to pcimiithe drilling apparatus 10 deaxod fnelv, aid
between the tubing and ihc well-casing, to that upoa comprebion the leeth set inwardly pate down the core to such a diaineta as will
it inak» a light joini. The ^as Ihtu confiited in the <ul-chamber admit ol the body of the cutter passing over it without inai^
For pumping a well a vaived working-barrel with valved sucker above the core barrel, to which it is equal in diameter,
is attached to the lower end ol the tubing, a perforated ^'anchor" lat the two ayatema of diwini
being placed below. The sucker carries a seTies of thiTe or four ■ '-— • -* •- •■-
is connected 1^ a atring of sucker-rods with the wolldng-
beam. There is usually foM above Ihe sucker a short iron valve
rod, with a device known aa a rivet-catcher to prevent damage
to the pump by the dropping of rivets from the pump^rods.
On the completion of drilling, or when the production ia found
10 decieaic, it ii usual to torpedo the well to inctaue the flow.
-.-■..-,— The enploMve employed is generally nilroilycirin.
. H^^ and the amount uKd has been increased from Ihe
on^naato ouanslo ^^, .^looa even »o nuana.
thcr. Thr- ■■-'■■ '"■-• — ■■■
glycerin, and are lowered to ,..- _..— . —
■ ■ ' ■ of Ihe highest canister
of a circular plate of
"sl'e'hil"Jnui1lerthL''nt
explode the charge
; about a quart ol miro- petroleum
0 thai already described, from 40 lo
[ ii dispensed wiih» and to Oil Cieeii and I
ipati of a laden meijjhi boati. these bang .
1 after the loipedo, and, was present — a method leading
;ht, Arcs the charge. It grounding. Bulk bari;es were sooi
such caics. though from barrels on freight cars, but later in unk-can. These ai
without the use of (he listed of an ordina^ truck on which were placed two wn^
tub-like lankii each holding about 20DO gallons; they wtn ir^iMd
y concentrated in 1871 by Ihe modem type of tank-car, constructed with a fc«i-
It of Ihe small lontal cylindrical lank o( bailer plate
tine petroleum in bulk commooly astral
The petroleum industry in Canada ij mainly concentrated in 1871 by Ih
1 Ihc district ol Pclrolea. Onurio. On account of Ihe small lontal cylindi
_j»_to depth of Ihe wells, and the tenacious nature of the The means _. , „ , ,
van?. pnncipil sirau bored Ihroueh, the Canadian method the present day is ihe pipe-Vine lystrn, the history of whkh d»
of driUing differs from the Pennsylvanian or American from lB6a. In Ihai year S. D. Kams suegened layii« a *^
yjtem in the lollowing panicula^s^— plpclrom BumingSprinKsloParltcrsburt. Wes< Virgina,adtoo
I. The use of slender wooden boring-rods inilead of a able. of j* m,; but his propovil was never carried into tUta. Tw
1, The employment of a simple auger in->tead of a spudding-bil- years hiicr, however, L, Hutchinson of New York, laid a itoi if
y The adoption of a diflertnl arrangement for tmnsmilting from the Tarr Farm wells 10 the refinery, which pa^i^ oteriA
lotion. the oil being mnved on the syphon principle, and * rtar laxr*^
Although ptiroleum wellt in Rusua have not the depth ol many were, however, unsuccctslul, on account of tha oceaavi kifeV
PETROLEUM
M 4c jniiB al the pipo- With the idoption of tarefiiUy Ettcd Crude pHmlHun wu i
■mr-ioiiiu lit lUS IBB (ipt! line (ndually oiw imofeiKnliue, In iBu ^ PiuC- SilLinu
Hlil la iSfl Ibe bsB oviied by the v»riou> tr" ---■- -' - --'
inlry nuy be aid la date {niin about ibc
lucl M. Kier filled up k imlll leincwi with .
-^ r r-,- K iracnimlt* Ihe oil ob * ■ ' " '
—We-iyliBdn or " donliey Jliype, but thae were wella. Al Ihit period the •up))))' ol
the [KUDpa emfiloyed u force Ihe «L thini^ the pipa were itlll, (or the Iralnicnl of the oi
fine of tbc UBtkrcyUaia or " donkey " lype, but theie were wella. Al thiH period the supply ^- --- - .
defect reioedied by tbe lue of ficient to idmii ol any unporuiu development in the ioduicry
■"■--' ' ■"-'—- --'—----•■■■- ^ .rSjn well, (c^^^ ■-■
lit WoftUprtoa pqmp DOW geoenlly adoaud. The '
gt Ihe iBUB 6-u. liiiea ue <I Soo lo 800 h.p.. while
T*ak« of varioo* hres ue emnloyecf in iloring the oil, thoee
Ac wellt ban^ dmiki and muAily nude of wood, with a conte
" '°'*,.^-„
Dialte the "' ctol-oil " or ihalc-oil iiidiut
nplayed. in conjuoclisn
kith day-bdcd fcservacL account, il ia taU, of the much sreuEei quantity of diuolved Eu
Nannl fu ia largely lued In the Uj^led Sute% and For *ome contained in the American oil, tbe lurKer proportion of kemenc
ise. awiac ra defectiva nethoda of itorage, deliveiy and con- which luch oil yiddi, and the lot fluid character of the roidue.
■■ustiaa. cnat mato occumd, Tin improvementa introduced In the United State* a horiEontal cylindiicnl nill i* uaually
iia ilgo aod 1(91. wbenby ihia atate of aRain waa put an end to, employed in Ihe distilbtion of the iplrit and kcroKne. but whnt
nnidMul in tbi intradaOMn of the principle ol 'upoly by neter, ii known ai the " ch«L--bai " uill hu alia been largely uiol.
'—* ■'-adoption of a csoipnbenaveiyMeni of redinng the iidtial American uilliollhe former type ate conMruded ol wri — '-■ ' —
! of tka laa, aa aa to diminudk loca by leakage. For the or ateei, aiul are about 30 ft. in length by la It- 6 in- in
I^Minghaaac ni-refiilatota an employed, the with a dome about 3I1. in diameter, lumiahcd with a
. .«_ — i-i:: .1 .. , 1;_ .u. ts in. in diameter. The charge for luch a Mill it about w
Ilia ttillt were formerly tsmpletety bricked in, to thai th
ibould be kepc fully beaied until ihcy ctcapcd to the c
In, Riveted WTOught'iron pipn 3 ft- in but lince the intnxluclian of the "cracking pnKcu," 1
The initial pteaauit b KHnetimtt aa hioh part haa uiually been left eapoied 10 the air- The chcev
, but uiually langb From aoo to 300 n>- hat a h'nical cylindrical body, which may be ai much ai
7^ Bote cDomon method ^ diati^tiDn ia diiet and townt ia diameter and 9 ft- la depth, connected by
pipea with a vapoiir-cheat furniihcd with a large
Il it intermediate between kenaene and lubricating
ted into hyrlroearbont of lower tpccific gravity and
tuitabic For illuminating purpotct, it one of grut
Ecchnical interest. It it generally nndr^r^tood that the
ictional diuillatirm, even in the laboralDry, are not
the bydrocarlxjot present in the crude oil. but are
:xd by the action of heal upon Ihqm, Thii wai
iy ProteasoT Silliman in the earlicit tTaget of develop-
Ltnerican petroleum industry. An importaatpdper
; tubject wa» published in 1871. by T. E. Thorpe
under pmaure on wlid poraRin. ^cy lound that
as ihui convened, with the evolution of bul little
cm on 3500 gmmfl of paraffin producAl from thale
poinlt4'S''C-)ihFy<ibiainednearly4Btn!iof liquid hydro-
which incy tubicctcd to fractional diitillation, aruj on
" •■■- '-'■■— diniiling below loo' C, they ftiund it 10
Wi^wIkc ibr product la abuBdaat, the crurie oil It fractionally The cracking procett practically coiuiiti in distilling Ihe 0
^nOed. » a* to ifparat* it into petiokun iprit of vaiiout grades, at a temprratuie higher than the normal b»lintt point of the co
miagDat, psoOi, lubricatin|t oilt. and (if the crude oiryi^ itituRn* whKb 11 u desired 10 decompose. This mav be brous
tMHic loda, followed by wathing imh water. retull of thia treatment it that the comparatively heavy oilt
322
noderfa rlMafiriitinn ■■ khom by
Ydubi, into (pKiAc^sr ■^tcr kydi
ftod IK yidd of hciocDr (rwn onjimuy crudr pctro
be tialiy incRixd. A bije nuinbcr of uniwnnE
out the cncUnf pnieeM luve been pnpofed ado _pati
the earliest diRctly beving on the tubiecc being
Youiif. wbo in ISU patenled Ine " Iminvemei
hydrocubon oU." In tbh potent, the duilLlatioQ
beiof amducted in ■ vesd having ■ leaded valve
cloKd itofKock, Ihroufti which the coafimtl vapoui
PETROLEUM
» of dfaf to
ID of the Tmrrrnnr new ■■
Lting-poinO. and tf ^ ~ '
low, Lftitlnwm).
■trurnent cmpkyed lor thi* punee
«( New VocViaU en^SrSr.
rbuhbaledtrysi^ttunii. Tk
leMtd, ■ thennaoietei plKed in I
ret bemr noted at whicb. tm pa—^
Ite Hrface of the-oil, a flaiA oc
n known aa the Aaih-pDini, the aeoHid ae the '
an apparalm. In which Ibe oil-cup ia tincpvgrei
o)ien-ieK insuunent. la Saybuli'i Elcctrle Tex
HcSccted by a ipaHi from an induetioa-oiil puwif hum
pUlinum point* placed at a find diitanoe above the oil-
Befoie long, bowever, il wu found that the opefrcup tttb
(thgugh they >ie employed in the United Statea and elaewheee ■
Ihe preienl time) «ne often very unliHtwotthy. Aceonfinfh
Keatea prcAoied the lubttitulioo of a doKd cup m tAyi, bat ia
tunc9T>oni were not adopted. In 1B7S Sir Fredenck Abel. ■
ed uTiace at Ibe atill b^cf thui bath, the'tcmpenluie of tbe
late iaID vaiioiu fractiooh nod to TeilinGisb^i
e free from condensed iteam.itia the tXiAe open .
t appliance* of ApecUL form with ftwipff of a pendiilum auppUed
Tbermometcn are placed in bMh a£lHeiip aad wWer
being niaed to ijo* at lb
oil b pat jn at abeot M* F
1B II. the apeed beiag nculaud by tb
jfied with tne initrument. It haa bcB
barometric pfeaaure affect the bih-f^
H have to be nude in obtainlna ilnctl
The Ab3-IWi;
Tlie products obtained by iIm distiliation of petroieuni ate not
ID a nurhelable condition, but require chetnical trotnicnt to remove
acid and other bodice which impart a darfc colour ai well ai an
unpleaiant odour to the liquid, and in the eaie of lamp-oila, reduce
the power of lisng b the wick by capillary attraction.
At Ihe inceptSon of ibe ioduatry keroacne came into the marlcet
ai a darliyetlowar reddifh<olour«] liquid, and in the6nt initance,
the lemo^ of colour wai attempted by tnalment with loda lye
and lime aolutlon. It waa, however, found that after Ihe <h1 u
purified had been burned in a lamp, for a ibon time. Ihe wick became
encruMed. and Ihe oil failed to rise P%«ty. Ejchjer. of Baku,
tulpfauric arl^, followed by that of »da lye, and hi* procen ia In
ii not fully undcrttood, but Ihe action appeaia to connil in Ibe
aeparalionor dccomposiiion of the aromatic hydraarfjoni. latty Uja.-Petroleui
and other acidi, phenols, tany Ijodiea, Ac, which lower tlie quality i!_l, ^..j ■.«> ...k
of the oil, the lurphuric acid removing tone, while tbe cauttic Hxla "P" "" "?"• ""
tain out Ihe leuiaindet, and neulnluea the acid which haa been woiudl and CUUn
eSected by agitation with compinaed air. CKll which contain cnmmercr at a <Lil
■u1phur<ompojnda are tubjccleo lo a apecial proceu of refining
in which cupiic oiidc or lithaige ii employed aa a dcsulphuriiing
i, aoine of which an in ■■
applied 60th to crudi
therefrom. The iadi
both tcfii
T of phvucal and che
leumand 10 Ihe product
the United Statea and
It il ttill ciMomary to oclermine tne ,
tained, a madHication'of Ibe Abet or Abel-Penidiy appantua^kmwi
aa the Peniky-Matleng. having been deviaed for tbe purpoae. Thi
iutrument it so cooKructed that the higher tenpRnturv necda
can be readily applied, and It ia fitted with a atifrer pt eqiiia
For ihe teatii^ of the vifconty of lubricaltng oila tfaa DwertBI
Redwood etandaldiced viicometer ia genetaUy employed ia Gflfl
of a mcuurvd quantity of the oil thfDugh a email ori^ at a piti
tempcratute ii mcaMired-
Usa. — Petroleum haa very long been known u a lovKetf
light aod heat, while tbe use of crude oQ for tbe ticMiMal c(
wouadi and cucancouj aSMtiani, and a> a lubricant, waa m
10 tbe raw maieiial being an aitkk d
lier date. For phaimaftolicai paipan
is no Ipnger generally used by tivilind ttax
'1 largely employed in thi> *Vi
ii( watutory and municipal regulationi. is kerosene, but both Ihe more and the leai voUlile ponaM^
_.— !__.! . — -le jetioleum Jl ia quslmnarij peltolcum are employed in luitable lanipfc Petroleum JnodW
so brgely uliliacd in gaa manufacture for, (i) the prodaOlM
ir-eas," (i) the manufacture ol ml-jai, and Cj) theiei*
■here' baa been any addition of distilled pioductt or residue, ment of cosl-goi. For henling putposea, tbe atovna cBplori'
Petroleum ipirit la teated for •pccific ^vitjr, lanoe of boUing- ut practically kerosene lamp) ol juitable cDnatiuctiai, tk<*
In tbe teaiiog of ninenl lubricating oila tbe nictnly, Buh-pi^l. the einploymi
ptoducta in nutorai vUdi hu g^^
idlnuulnhty, Aeaptai
*itlia» :he idoptioa o
KuKkm tbc liiBil hii, fo
^bthlatun u 73' F., b;
Miht l^iud KJDidoin h,
k bu tlin)i bcm powb]
lafa^oat, when (udi 1
Buufd, m «SdiIkia Co w
OHnicird bmp iBcd «
Sa Sir Bmnon Rcdwc
^ 1 district. Some vj
■Ufriib IS und, gravd
^^ H bang mineral rr
Mr be knon in only o
tall SmtMoM , llgnile b«
■ lit ideiKX of petrolDKr
Mkidi o( camiution'
PETROLOGY
323
icrtKni ue unriee wlilch dl«t mit snd modify
Ibeoi,
re RCOfniied: tbe iinenui. aedinieii-
3J-
rbd^r
Orphic. Tltp
Dcciir H baO^iUM. baima. UualiM,
tiid Kl
u. indude the unt 1:
Lu« pafiu. lyniu, dunle. tatbra
*"li^
fc^StSSiSS;;
mS^a
isS'.«a«.-r's-i:
M^
..KrS'SisdvS
B
dude rt^vjilc end ctiid^ ™ith
id iaiiu,tauU (with tli« nlited
0™ with (te..««.ibi
±!t?iS^SS
l^ulfl.
i^niMlctmiU
w.-«
cnlio
™£tJ"fi;
die*
ssr!;»:
ica-uMi^ : ptber typn ire cm^ibo-
5/™i
uS .be JuM" ™i» - -
C«>.^«//Ma.-0n1y the co
mrnopew minerals »re of Smpoc
iMicet
rockfo
rmns. Their
number i> imill, noi cictedmg i
in all,
tbui Ibis if wc do not reckon the
iubdiv
lions in
0 which the
»mmoner ipccies ue broken up.
Thev!
which w
St of quATts, fdspor, mica, chlorite, kaolin, caicite, epi-
aoie. Olivine, nu^Ie, bomblcnde, magnetlle, haematite, limonlte
and a few other minerals. Each o( thue hu > lecogniied
position in the economy of nature. A main determining factor
is the chemical compoution of the moss, for a certain mineral
can be formed only when the necessary elements are present
in the rock. Colcile is commonest in hmesloncs, as these conust
essentially of calbonale ol lime; quirti in sandstones and in
certain igneous rockt which contain a high percentage of silica.
Other factors are of equal importance In determining the natural
aisociatbn or paragencus of rack-malting minerals, principally
the mode of origin of the rock and the sTogcs through which it
nay ha..
. The tendency is
(he
ondilions under which the rock rails 0
ruinated
am
i by the consc
dition
if a molten t
; Gr.«iTM«, f
im^i
Forr
-es. Exposed
re, carbon
rdinary
of 1
e earth's surfi
of these original mine
I and white :
icaan
uniflecti
01 hi
andartrcpla
lion
The felspar
lanybUckmi
i(bioli
^) has been pr.
enl it yields chbri
thcr su
alances. Thcs
now repbced by a
ptofoundly altered;
not be very diffcreni
ne; the rninerological cy
recrystalliu-'d or, if subjected to
in mincialogical c
SInclwe.—Tht i
[f penetrated by igncoi
32+
PETROLOGY
RoekM.
importance than their stxiictuie, or the relations ol the parts
of which they consist to one another. Regarded from this
standpoint rocks may be divided into the crystalline and the
fragmental. Inorganic matter, if free to take that physical
state in which it is most stable, always tends to
crystallize. Crystalline rock masses have con-
solidated from solution or from fusion. The vast
majority of igneous rocks belong to this group and the degree
of perfection in which they have attained the crystalline state
depends primarily on the conditions under which they solidified.
Such rocks as granite, which have cooled very slowly and under
great pressures, have completely crystallized, but many lavas
were poured out at the surface and cooled very rapidly; in this
latter group a small amount of non-crystalline or glassy matter
is frequent. Other crystalline rocks such as rock-salt, gypsum
and uihydrite have been deposited from solution in water,
mostly owing to evaporation on exposure to the air. Still
another group, which includes the marbles, mica-schists and
quartzites, are recrystallized, that is to say, they were at first
fragmental rocks, like limestone, clay and sandstone and have
never been in a molten <x>ndition nor entirely in solution. Certain
agencies however, acting on them, have effaced their primitive
structures, and induced crystallization* This is a kind of
mctamorphism.
The fragmental structure needs little explanation; wherever,
rocks disintegrate fragments are produced which are suitable
for the formation of new rocks of this group. The
original materials may be organic (shells, corals,
plants) or vitreous (volcanic glasses) or crystalline
(granite, marble, &c.) ; the pulverizing agent may be frost, rain,
nmning water, or the steam explosions which shatter the lava
within a volcanic crater and produce the fragmental rocks
known as volcanic ash, tuffs and agglomerates. The materials
may be loose and incoherent (sand, clay, gravel) or compacted
by pressure and the deposit of cementing substances by percolat-
ing water (sandstone, shale, conglomerate). The grains of
which fragmental rocks are composed may be coarse or fine,
fresh or decayed, uniform, or diverse in their composition; the
one feature which gives unity to the class is the fact that they
are all derived from pre>«xisting rocks or organisms. Because
they are made up of broken pieces these rocks are often said to
be"clasUc."
Origin of Rocks. — ^The study of the structure of rocks evidently
leads us to another method of regarding them, which is more
fundamental than those enumerated above, as the structure
depends on the mode of origin. Rocks are divided into three
great classes, the Igneous, the Sedimentary and the Metamorphic.
The igneous (Lat. ignis, fire) rocks have all consoli-
dated from a state of fusion. Some of them are
crystalline or " massive "; others are fragmental.
The massive igneous rocks include a few which arc nearly <x>m-
pletcly vitreous, and still more which contain a small amoimt
of amorphous matter, but the majority are completely crystal-
lized. Among the bc^t known examples are ol^dian, pumice,
basalt, trachyte, granite, diorite. The fragmental igneous
rocks consist of volcam'c ashes more or less fbrmly compacted.
The sedimentary rocks form a second group; they
^^Omatmy ^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ down as deposits on the earth's
surface subject to the conditions of temperature,
moisture and pressure which obtain there. They include
fragmental and crystalline varieties. The former consist of
the debris of pre-existing rocks, accumulated in seas, lakes or
<lry land and more or less indurated by pressure and cementing
substances. Gravel, sand and clay, conglomerate, sandstone,
shale are well-known examples. Many of them are fossiliferous
as they, contain fragments of organisms. Some are very largely
made up of remains of animals or plants, more or less altered by
mineralization. These are sometimes placed into a special
group as rocks of organic origin; limestone, peat and coal are
typical of this class. The crystalline sediments are such as
rock-salt and gypsum, deposits of saline lakes or isolated
portions of the sea. They were formed imder conditions
IgatooM
KoekM,
unfavourable to life and hence laxdy oonUin foaiili. Tli
metamorpkic rocks are known to be almost entir^ altcnt
igneous or sedimentary mswes, Metamorphism ^^
consists in the destruction of the original structures ^JJ^
and the development of new minerals. The chemical
composition of the rocks however suffers little diaofe. ' Hi
rock becomes as a rule more crystalline; but aJl stages in thi
process may be found and in a metamorphosed sediment, «.f . i
sandstone, remains of the original sand grains and prinai]
fragmental structure may be observed, althoogli eztensw
recrystallization has taken place. The agencies which piodaa
metamorphism are high temperatures, pressure, intentitia
moisture and in many cases movement. The effects of h||^
temperatures are seen best in the rocks surrounding great oat
crops of intrusive granite, for they have been baked and crystal
lizcd by the heat of the igneous rock (thermo*metamorpUsn)
In folded mountain chains where the strata have been great|)
compressed and their particles have been forced to move ovd
one another a different type of metamorphism prevails (regiooai
or dynamic metamorphism).
Methods of Investigation.'-The macroscojnc (Gr. isaxfik, laig^
characters of rocks, those visible in hand-specimens vithoiri
the aid of the microscope, are very varied and
difficult to describe accurately and fully. The
geologist in the field depends principally on them
and on a few rough chemical and physical tests; and to thi
practical engineer, architect and quarry-master they are aB
important. Although frequently insufficient in themselves U
determine the true nature of a rock, they usually serve for i
preliminary classification and often give all the infonnatioi
which is really needed. With a small bottle of add to test fa
tarbonate of lime, a knife to ascertain the hardness of lodfa
and minerals, and a pocket lens to magnify their structure, thi
field geologist is rarely at a loss to what group a rod; bdoiv
The fine grained spedes are often indeterminable in this way
and the minute mineral components of all rocks can usuaQy h
ascertained only by microscopic examination. But it is esq
to see that a sandstone or grit consists of more or less rounded
waterwom sand-grains and if it contains duU, weathem
partides of felspar, shining scales of mica or small crystab c
caldte these also rardy escape observation. Shales -and dsi;
rocks generally are soft, fine grained, often Umtn^tf^ ^kI bb
infrequently contain minute organisms or fragments of plaata
Limestones are easily marked with a knife-Uade, tttunac
readily with weak cold add and often contain entire or brakci
shells or other fossils. The crystalline nature of a granite o
basalt is obvious at a glance, and while the former mnfiw*^ ^^ju
or pink felspar, dear vitreous quartz and glancing flakes of wka,
the other will show yellow-green olivine, bladL augite and gi9
striated plagioclase.
But when dealing with unfamiliar types or with rocks io fiw
grained that their component minerals cannot be
with the aid of a lens, the geologist is obliged to have
recourse to more delicate and searching methods of
investigation. With the aid of the blowpipe (to
test the fusibility of detached crystals), the goniometer, tki
magnet, the magnifying glass and the specific gravity bshso^
the earb'er travellers attained surprisingly accurate roHfei
Examples of these may be found in the works of von Bad^
Scrope, Darwin and many others. About the aid of the iftk
century, Dolomicu examined cryshed rock powders under tk
microscope and Cordier in 1815 crushed, levigated andii
gated the finer ground-mass of igneous rocks. His
are models of scrupulous accuracy, and he was able to
that they consisted essentially of such minerals as tilV^
augite, iron ores and volcanic g^ass, and did not differ in mtflt
from the coarser grained rocks. Nicol, whose name is aivditi'
with the discovery of the Nicol's prism, seems to have bees Iks
first to prepare thin slices of mineral sulMtances, and hb miAf^
were applied by Witham (1831) to the study <^ plant f^
factions. This method, of such far-reaching importsace il
petrology, was not at once nuide use of for the
i
PETROLOGY 325
h«i*U|Uioo ol racks, Msd it wb not tiU i8s8 ili»l Swby tmm vith tkiK oC diScn
pgiBled out ll* nine. Meanwhile the «ptie»l Jludy of uclioiu inien[n» the ooliriiw i
d ojiuli bid been admiced by Sic David Bnwiui ind other m^ o^y ^^ ot|^ ^^^ ,.
Ofid pmKrra m> mide ud the nuziei of Ziikd, AUport.
■■ ' _. " ■ iler, RMenbuKh, Benrand. Fouqii* «nd I>vy
ig tboK of Ibe most active pioneen in the new field oI
ntuch. To such importince have RiiciDKopicat inelhods
ki^T dewted to t. dewfiption of the ippesnnces presenlfd ^hjrh H.mjuiicl ininuK enclowret ol othw
lylbe mifienli of rocks u uudled in trsnspirenl rnicrD-wcrions. andepidotc: thnCBn known m '^ pleochr '
A goad roch-wctjon ahoukl tie about oDC-ihouiaiuiih of iii inch If the analyicr be now inerted b wch j
It it often efpecially in
pnitiop (bat it iacn
|.(h untm- o,
4Ullv one wUch it provided vi
H< i> a psiariier,. whUe abovi
are k> mincralB. or when the lij^I ptMutm Ihi
pic lubilaiicn pucb as glawa, [iquidfl and cu ^ „_^_^_
All oiher cr>ilalliae bodin, boing doubly nlniriing,
will appear bright in lome poailion aa the aiage it mLaled, The
only exceprian to thia rule it provided b_y tecliont wbtdi are
perpendicuLir lo the optic ovct ol birefrtnECiit ciyttaltj thete
remain dark or nearly dark during a H-hoie nitalian, and at will
appmr black in cenoin potiliont at the ttagc it nirhiii^
the angle brlwren Ihcm and any clcavago. facet ck other
itruetuRi a( the cryital by meant d the rotating ttage. Thnc
anotet are cturacterulLC o{ the tyiHni id which the mlnn^ belonvt
ana otten ol (be mineral ipedei ittcU (tee CiTiTALLOcurHvl.
eycpflecea have been devitrd. tome having a ttauroacopic calclie
plate, otben with two or four platn of c|uartE ccmenltd together;
IVOb«rvi|Wr«»»lwihi*lVi*llinilirt l«kii-li l1i*mi<iH>l >*riinn H nwur
completely <li
made ilidet, the minerak with ttrongeit double refractkin yieU
the hifheir polariialion eoloun. The onier in which the colourt
are arranged it thai known u Newlon't vale, the kiwett being
I dark grey, ihen grey, white, yellow, oranee, red, purple, blue and
toon. The diiFerencc between Che refractive indeieaartheardinir)'
and the ettraordLnaTy ray in quart* ia -ooo, and in a rock-ieclion
about r4f of an Jncb Ihlck tbii mineral givet grey and while
polariiation tinti^ nepbelioe wjlh weaker double rdraclion givct
darV grevT aurite on the other band will give red and blue, while
(alcitc with ttiH ttconcer double cdraclion will appr— - nlnbl^ ^
fittriih while. All lectiont ol the tame mineral, hoi
luvelbeiaii ...
double c
- ■ tame mineral. hD<. -
pcrpeodieula
beoetrty bit
chet Ihii di
Ftnl ny ihr oulUne. if
I^Uidn. If ibe mlMral h
*3 be radicated by tytlcmt _. ^^, , - ,. - --
■n iadei it alto clearly thown by the appearance of Ihe tcciioni. » placed that
•W an rough, with well-Uelired border- ■' ■■— ■- - ■■ -" '- " '" "- "■
EE2E™ ,.. ,-. „,™,„ I..™,
I(lbeilide*belhk:klhecalaiinwiltbeonlfaew
thin ilidet.
It 11 often important to Snd out whether of 111
I ticity (or vibration Iraect) in the leciion it thai i
(or letaer refractive index). The quarta wedg
er lefranion than the medium in whkii Ihey are mounted. a?n»t il to thil Ihe long iili ol Ihe we^ a paiaPetto t
./. quartll. other* yield character!
Hthey (i
paralleliif they sink Ihe axiiofgrcalcrclaillcily in ihe one it parallel
.-,. ..-...- . . , tothat of letter elaiticity in the other. In theuitercnteby puahine
^rni;one mineral may encLcte anoiher, or rnay con- the wEdge tufhciendy tar complete darknctt or compentation will
■pied by tlati. by fluidt orby gaaet. remll. Seleniic tretlget, lelenite plalet, mica wedgai and mica
Jb^ be fragmeolal or maBive; ihe pretence of glaiiy
*-,!, ^ in conHadiMincIion to a eomplelely c^frtalli
"lUic frarmentt; Mnding.
omptete extinction in any doubly refraetiuE mineral leaion. we
aacertain what it Ihe ttienKih of the double refraction of ihe
, ._ ,..,.. „ _ . , ^,^ — - — -ion bccauteit iiobvjDutlye<iualandoppoiite to that erf a known
lavat; thete and many oi her characlen. pan ot (bequarta wedge.
■ ■ ' -'--•- ■■ — ' A further refirwment of microaconic methods coruittt of Ihe ute
of tirongty conver^nt polarind light (Vonotcopic methridi)- Thit
H obtained bj; a wide angled achromatic condenser above the polar-
iier, and a biph power micrompic objective. Tliote tectiong are
they ifauw ■ dark Croat or convergent lighl between cnmed nkoLa.
* lire of the eleiDentt of the rork by ihe help of mi
rdatrve pntporriont by meant of a glav plate mk
let: Ihe anglet between dnvages or facet teen in
3s6 PETROLOGY
■he Una! which irulyHd tnd ihiu At dicinkd tompodlkm of the mtmi]
anSti Ow'Sme'' '" *^ "^ (klermined qiuliUtinly or quutlUIivdy. Tfc
bnomn curved u chemiia] [cuing of mkraKoplc wctioni aiid minule a,^k,
lar ID ■ " biwctri] gnms by tbe bcJp of the mJcmcope U « very |,^^
which on roUtion cleginl and valiubLc means of diKriraauling between
which are ^"^^ ^^ mineral componenli of fine-gruned rocki. Hna Kb
riiii[i''™ugh ow prexnte of apatite in nick-Httioni i> aubliahed by mviria
ihcK are only k a ban rock-sccLion with »]uIion of unmonium molybdati
■Imng. The ditt a Lurbid yellow precipitate lomu overihe cryilali o[ tbc mincn
micmmpe depcn ,, -jj^ob- Vve [rili.niea.ured '" 1™'»" lin<l'calin« the preience ol phoaphit*.! M—
^"™« o(.Sn'Si>M miSnmnej. tbi"ptic' axial angle ol the ^"Ifi^.'^ 'j^'l!^!!,!." It'^.TJ* ?""?'.'"_ '^ '.'
n be found by a kimple calcuL
preciKly vmilai
>1hen are panly dis»1ved, leaving ■ ttia o[ feUtinM
which can be stained with colouring maiieti ivch u (h
;."^rl^ inT '"^ ">» '"P""""' -"l^"' «°""*' *^-'-
ne employed b Complete chemical analyKi of rocla ire i1» widely made oK <
nicroicape in ii devription. Rork analyui hai of Lile ynrm (Itigely under tk
variety of aoxHoiy appaiatui hu been for pnctini puitnsei a Inawlc^ of the rcUlive pcaponiaaa ■
""^ lepanlion of the ingredients of a crashed rock powder ^i!X^!J^Sf^',l;^"'^^^'"l[^£^^^^S^ff^
from one to another in ordet lo obtain pure "pPj" suitable t?o;!i.'°A"diBni.cal''aM!j™ is InluSf uuallyufficient u indioi
ulCumfo be (fleeted by tneana of a pou'erfut electro-magnet with coniidenbieaccumcy to what wbdivhiofi of these claaiei
""^ [be strength of which tan be regulated as desired. J^J'^J ihe"o«iriiu^ilM ««ViB3™nl™S nboK ""•**
A weak magnetic field will attract magnetite, then him"!" * The spcci6e gravity? re*ki' b deirnilBed in tbe"ui^r^y h
and other ores of iron. Silicates containing iron will follow means oTthe balance and the pycnomeler. Ii is emteU in Aa
in definite order and biotite, enstaiite, augite, hornblende, rocia which contain not! ^maznetia, iron artd heavy ^hm
?!„i„ .k.. .^. .. i.-.^Si.. .1.. ~!i....i _1. .;, It dimiolthea with weiiherint. and genenlly iIhk roclca ••^
sively abstracted, at last only the colourless, nonmagnetic „h-:h are highly erysiallineliSrt higheruieiSfic giaviiii. than Aoi
compounds, such as muscovite, calcile, quatti and felspar, will which are wholly or panly viireous when boih have ihe bb
remain. Chemical methods also are uselul. A weak acid *ill chemical compoiilion. The tpeciftc gravity of the connuaaer rati
diraolve ealeitt from » eimhcd limestone, leaving only dolomite, ™"I" 'nm "»>" "S w 31-
silicalcs or quarti. Hydrofluoric acid will attack felspar before The above methods of Invest igs lion, naked eye, phyiici
tjuarti, and if employed with great caution will dissolve these microjcopieal. ehcmicol. may be grouped together as aaalytia
and any glassy material in 1 rock powder before dissolving in cent ridiiiinct Ion 10 the lynthetic Invwligation
Bugite or hypenthene. Methods of leparatian by sptcilic of rocks, which proceeds by upetimcntal work to ^*- .
gravity have * tiill wider application. The simpleil of these reproduce different rock types and in thia way to
ii levigation (Lit. laitart, to make imoolh, Irvii) or Irealmenl elucidate theit origin and eiplain their structures. In man
byacunentofwaler,itiseitensivelyemployed in the mechanical ta«i no enperimcnl it necfunry. Every stage in the origia 1
analyus of soils and in the treatment of ores, but is not » tliys. sands and gravels can be teen in procea around HI, bi
diServciy greatly in specific gravity. stone* and conglomerates, and still more where tbey hav
bS™lf.;;^ute7.rge" j^r-JJeihlJ^Je^iS; K.Jr'^ijf.'bZ; I" "^'^^"<^° Up't/lhe'Tr^n"^?™* t'he^fl^IlX^
form lip. IT jM}. or aceiylene bromide (ep gr. j-oo) ane the pria. have been almost entirely confined to the atlempl 10 lepndtct
cipal media employed They may be diluted (with water, bcniene. igneous rocks by fusion of miitures of crashed minerab olf
Ac 1 to any <ie.ired«tenlaiid.agaiii«)ficentrated by evaporation chemiealsinspecbtlyconlrived furnaces. The earliest re»eanto
Ir ihcrock be a gnnite consHing of biotite 49p.gr, i-l). mutcovite .., ,l„ ,^_, '^r X^^ ^t r*..-*. c. r .j .-j c j c „
(.p gr. 2 8s). qi«n. (h> gt. i.ejl, oligodai VV ' *J> "^ orihi.Kirt«teot<ho>eolF»UjasSlFond«nd of de S.u«m
orthd^Uv (w. V 'sSi lEe cnXd minenli TilT all ttoU in but Sit James Hall really laid the foundationt of this hcud
methylene kidide! on indual dilution with benieiie Ih^ will be of pelrokigy. He showed (i79«) thai the whintlonei (diabuol
fhSi*'™' tod? m Sd™ 'itr"*^' *'"'Sf''u"iI''f.'«'iIlS5[ "' Edinburgh were fusible and if rapidly cooled yiridrd bhit
handling ol fre«h anduiiable rocks yieMs ciccllcnt reiuU> and much obsidians; II coaled mote slowly Ihcy coniolidated tt cryiliB"
Although rocks are now studied principally in microscopic olivine, augiie and felspar (the essential minerals ol these i«M
sections the bivestignlion of fine crashed rocic powders, which Many years later Daubr^. Delesse and others carried on lial'
EiiiMh- ■" 'b' fi"' branch of microscopic petrology 10 eupcrimenii, but (he first notable advance was madt in tW
UHcritatareceive attention, is by no means discontinued, when Fouquf and livy began their nwaKhei.
'"•"'*™- The modem optical methods are perfectly applicable _.„ __ ..._.. . . . . ■ ■■-
,. ._ , _. i"^ , ,. _, ■" . . / \;. I. They tueeeeded in producing such rocks a> poiphynte. Iiw*'
lo transparent mineral fragments of any kind. Minerals „phriu., bawili and dScriie, Ifnd obi.ined alio va™. bi«i«^
an almost as easily detFtmined in powder aa in MCUon, but modificaiiDM well known in itneoui rocks, i.i. the potphyriiiciH
it is otherwise with rocks, at the siruclDre or rebuion of the the ophiiic (Cr. Wn. lerpcm). Incidentally ihry JiuinJJ*
mponenls to one ano r, w it it an eenwnt great im- t),, lahotjtory. the acid rocks could not. and ad^nced ibeenM-
pot ance in the itudy of the hiitory and tbtsificalion of rocks, ,i^ ,h„ |„ ^he ortallialion of the latter the cases ■«?&
Is almost completely destroyed by grinding them 10 powder. <n natural rock magmas were indispensable miaeraliiiv W*
In addition to naked^ye and microscopic investigations It hai >ub>equei<ily been proved thai steam, o( such vablli^
chemical methods ol research are of the greatest practical ?"n™ " cenain borarn. n»lybdatM, cbhiiides, fluerii^JJJ
utility 10 the petrogtapher. The crushed and separated ITran;?.. Sir jLn'Hariw'XTIli Br5 ™trib»!S^
powdeis, obtamed by the procmes described above, mav be experimental study of metaourphk: ncka by Mwniag ctf
PETROLOGY 327
In ■utile by heaiinf It la ■ eloird lun-tarRl, vhirh pnnTninl the the pmHiiT of adjarmt nyiult. TVy mm » have Emm npidly,
eapc ef the cartxmic uid at hi^Ti lemprntuie*. Adam* And u 1 hey are often hlled ttilh rncloium of Elusy or finely crytlalline
tlieho4iDa hive dmed thu ■ ttAne farther by lubjerting marble nalerul like iKat of the [rnund-DUH {FT IL hf. II. Microocapic
IB ireu jnwure in hydmilic; pmses and luve Bjiown how the ^AiioukMi at the phcnociyKi ofieo rcveali thai they have had ■
hfiued (CnKIiim. Inqucni In naturoJ nuiblo. may be pnnJucnl comptei hiatcfy. Vcty Irtqueatlythey iho> •u«ei>i>e byrn
cl dOli . . .
i» Claiii/caliim.— Tilt [hrte great cImms of rocki above tjKi«l proimiietuhufaiiBitt may be mm at th
«.«l-ho ig™™., the «dii«en,.,y .nd the «,e,xa»rphi= ^ l™:?,^':^^'^".^^ llS^-
In the Kbpan (ht centre u u*
punding face*, and 1
...mnml.ir ''•t'f o( bfown oulwk thiti OT may be pale green eenlnlly and
irllr . darker incn with Hreni plnchreiun (aefkineT at the periphery.
icbpan th* centre u UHially Don Daaic and richer In lime
:xA aiLu B^KLia luiutL wnn.n uic jiaiuiduH iiun inc suniHinding facca,and HKcetflvcioBea may often benoted.
iben of the animal kingdom. Tbere are, each kj. taiic ilun theje which lie wbhin it. Phemcryu* of quarti
.^......». -.» ...«B.._ lonfue-tike fivoJKtiant ol the malrix into the
■insib they pua by Every gndiLion into otie another; the uibBaim of the eiyila]. It !• clear that after the miiwnl had
faiiKlive Mnicluret alia (^ one kind of rock may often be cryilallind it n> partly anin diiaolved or corToded at aonie period
ll£aUKiiiI adopted in etablishing nKk DomencLlure merely ^ black rimi of maioeiile mixed with pale (lepn aii(iie. The
SRapoDd to lelected poinu (more or IcB arbitniy) in a con- horahlende or biotite ubManct hat proved otmible al a certain
tkiBialy iraduated letici. Thii is (tequcnlly uijcd ai ■ ""(c o( cooiolidilion and hat been replaced by a pitamotph of
n«a lor reducing rock claisification to iu um[dal potable ^S"'^'f„'^'^l;iJ'^'^^l^ ^^%" ""^JlZt
i™.««lu«ngoSy. few generalized todcdeaignaliona. But ^[jj)^ '"'»« "S™! cryMalW atOI reuin. it. ctaractcnM.
' ir that many apparently trivial diSerencn tend regularly Let
UIWW
andhavtarealilgnificaj
re, and K> long as any
ajibe
ihown to be of thi> natu
re it dc«;rv» recognil
TV iptou rat*I (crynnHine anr
(ragmentallforniawe
henu' ThecVy«allineo>
^^^^"■"■h
wodiflcRntwayiilhela
nknu
hw.
o^iof thcworidfthebi
^"■un^m in 1
m im cocMthefl^htiiealh i!ui>
niriikh conceal Ihemf
?^
baeqocnl period. The
tiiBi
(in groupi differ in nun
y respect! from one ao
iS.nStffi.-ft
J^h»o>»j^^«hw
!IId''r.BidlT la natact with Ihe
■r^'arTmo-X"!?^
5r
that pan of the viw«.
Kfni.CTyiu]liiie lava
n. «ill liquid at the
moment of eruplie
tiine they were eipofed
Hand other ga«,.hkh
uTi^
S-^lUHSX^f^u
n'l ^^"^'nZen:
eemidn' Ibe cbuVFlenBiM at a typical dcep-valed
lite or diotiie (R. II. ifo. ^ 5. a). That th«e are
tnvd by the maaner in whieli Ihey have 1. . .
„.h the iiiperiMiinibenl •inia. illing ih- '■■'■"■•'
ciackt wiih nnifylng vein; that they were al a vei
hif h temperature u nualEy clear from the chanm whit
they have induced in the roeka in contact with tnem.
.. < f M DuiM thrtniflh the iiiperfncuini
■tl^lefined ,„[„ wiih nmifyiiwviliit! Ih
..._ ._ feat before ciyauHiiinl
--^- uinuined gaiea have not been able tc
Inn view o( itrala beneath which Ihey were ii
ipale only very alowly^ becaure of the maaaei which
ihey have had time
I covered them, complcie ciyatalliiatiDn h» uken plan and
' viinmui lapidly chilled matter ia ._..._..._._■_■.■
kd each haa had
■D^KUlel winding hn« lojlowing the dircctu
Ka Of fluidal Hruct lire) (we n. I, fi^ > and 9
^ b^ early mineral* whirh had previoualy rryi
jre) often dnwB «jt to clongiledahape. (iatj,,). The former are iaid to be idiomorphicd
iih mineiala by inGlttallpn <an.ygdal»dat ,?, ^,Y„ are anidiomotphic fallotriomomhic
adon waajoinf on whPe the ma« wai There ere alw many other characlctiH ic. whieli icr ,
w the Hcbce of the earth, Ihe lycat ,h, mcmbera of there two groiipi, Onhocbx. foe oanptr. i^
ppundHBaii) are commonly arranged m ,ypi„| M.par of gniniie, while iu modikalkm lanidioe oceu
- following the direction . o_f_ movement lava, of HmilareomixiBiion. The aame distinction hoMi bet.
'■■ ll^fi|^- ^'. J™! elaeolite and nephehne. Leiieilei_._ ..., _
illjied may ahow n|u,o„ic locka. Muacovlte ia confined 10 ihe intrvMvej. Theie
"™"°'* i™- diBeience. diow Ihe Influence of the ph)iical conditiont under
,, .--.--r r , .- , --.- i": In ihnr which conwUdalion utea place.
JtaiBor they prweni a cloK analajy to hoi iplutionB of aalla xi„„ j, , „„jj„ fi„ ^ inltUHve roeka which haw Hwn
■ iMk. wh«h. when Ihey appmach the ■ upwardi towaidt Ihe auifare. but have tailed 10 reach it, and have
2*5™!.* "°P " '"V,- weH-fomHtl cry; aolidified in fiwim a> dikem and inlcuaive ailli at no .^
•*miKiilty preeintale ekiudi e^nmUer I g„,, ,|^|,, to thia type the name iWruni (or Hj*-!?"?""
iwrft, (meUatable «a|c). Inlgneouinc otyHofJ la often (ivea In diuinction 10 the /Jutoair (E^ *»"'""
JjrpubgeDeral^ forma before the la vahaa o»y«aO which formed at ireater depths Am miulit '*'"
^_'i?ff'J"""«'*.''il^"'™ ""i.:!? beci™ctol, they abuw Mi^um inlirnicdiaie bet.^ thoR of
Mnifihe volcaiA It haifreqacntly been ,h, ^jtuiive and ihe plutonic rocka. They are very commonly por-
tofcnhly Bnnted l"™ """"^jK °] phyritic, not rarely viireoui and .imelime. even -idrular. fniact
■jra. lajuid m». TTie laige, welWorm ^^^ gf ,|^„ g„ indiitinguiihabte pcttokeically liom bvai of
WtobepofphyriiK(R,lll.fig».I.J.3)jlhe wmifar composition. 1^ wj ,
gmud™ malm or giound-nui. Wong 10 jhc allcmpi to form a ipociil group of hyoabj-aiil (inini.i%-c and
Jm ubHv lava, are completely fu«^ at It dil„, „^ C. met with much criiiciam a^ ^position. Such a
P" Bint mKatkic tmn ■ centre (PI. I. Agi laa of Ihe aame comnoaition ai Ihne
n<''<n crntah el lettpar, mhcd wiifaqaar -.v. ,k», ranulidiie wiih HiHrrrm
Wa are often produced artificiany hi glavt liflemii nn^iumT ■""'«"'
™<«a!y. Rarely theie •phenitilea an he . ,[,. hinoinniul nnH ihe i-Ti
^^^-!l^.^ta™^OilWhme.:^Gr«J«^«™i ied of ^^J^ 'thore'L!!;
^wcJiot (lee Paaimi). hTiK^l^ri
IV fiieiiDeiyata IGr. «idw, to ihow : wOrraMxir. eiyatall or por- -—^ inicmcpenopi
farmic minoala Mn not only lanier than those of the Knund- ' Idinmorphic. having it« own characi'
^« At the matrix wat ttill IiouhI when Ihey formed they weie bcluncing to one'a aelf. itbrii ). ^ep*4 (lorn'
^ouke pcrfea cryatalhoe ehapct, not bciog laletfend with by Gr.4AMr^i0i.bek>pgingtoanotlier(UJvfJ,a]
328
PETROLOGY
hloxhin
link moR
The dlLca lunctioiu prindpilTy u an acidTTonniPE hIiuih, and aL
ihe CDnmoncu miimala en iincoui rockt arc of tnit nature. Fron
a tompuulio
arrived at tt
SiOi-S9'71. AUOi-ls-il. FoOt-t'fiJ, FtO-l'M. KliO-vi^
CaO-4-90. NaA'-3■55.KlO-J•8t^HiO-I-SJ,^A-o■&^F*.-
oduce felipBn. In lome case* tKuy may take
t [ound ai fdifKir. Tbe phoaphoric acM wiin
-roiia okida give* rin to Unvniiv- Part of the
i« lormi Uric fclipii'. Mi(n«U and irciD eiidn
Lically all nxkm amuia U^an ac Ma
acid locki ibe codiiboii Idaian are crtto
«ka labradorLle. anwrhiic and bytovniEi
■e and poor In lilkai pota^ and aada.
Inio-niaEBe^ii of the tame ncki, bin
■ on Ibe whole nKe Inqucnt ia ike acid
in Lrvdte or pecdieibie, either eartly 01
nnDi includnlia thiaubk. Tlicy an
or of blue chjrarteT. We mi^ Itt eon
am; ejiccu c^ alumina crvBtal'
Tbnc muK be rrgarikd on!; aa
, vrbich arc [Dodiflcd by phy«ol
nanm-r not ai yet undcntood-
iUcikIc, Hornblende,
Cabbro.
Dolnile.
Kocn't^^.
Peridoiite
I, Hich a> aupile, hornblende^ eaitaiite a
ban niivinc Uaku potaib la high and aj
lite will not be firuicnt, for Inicite doca ni
t, b uaiuUly foui
amparatlvrly little liUca. Wiife high alkalii
enci and anphiboka nay be pmeoi. The
[e of ailica and the alkalia the anatec ii the
prevalence of lime lelipar aa coptracCcd with aoda or potash
lefapar. Clarke haa cakulaied the rcblive abundance of Ihc
principal roGk-fominn mincrala with ibc fallowituE rcaulci: Arvitii*
■ D-Ai titaiuum nrincrali^ !■% quarts — ij-o, felapan 1
TW^ b
SKeF^
■^
jctical^ ef>iiiiiKd tc
.» .... r-.....^..., ........... .0 rkepaeattd intnldvu rocka. e.c,
■oKrocline, muicovitv, ttialki^ Leucite u wr^ rare In phiionie
nuHcai many mincrali ha^'o apcdal pccuiiaritica in micruaeopU:
character accotdinfi to whether tlicy ciyatalliacd in depth or near
the surface, t^- bypersthene, onhocLue. quarta. Tliere are some
eurious Enstancea of rocks having the same chemical compoaitiun
but ninsisllng of entirely iliUcnait mincisls, et, Ibe homblcndite of
Cran. in Norway, containing only homUcnJe. haa Ibc Kime com-
pouiionassoincof the camptonitva of the same locality which con-
tain fvisfur and homUepde of 4 diflcient variety. In this connexion
_■... 1... I ;j -I — , about the enrroiion of
iird by thi^ BcncTjl ii1«ni
An impinjnt »iibdivi-ion
gF of alkdliv, f?ipcci.illy soda. :
on crystaliiiing yield
lenignaicd the acij "
' ba^ic " group. The
h quani and oUvine.
crtnlaiiH a very hii:h
in other mckt, it i>
NepheUne ur Leu >uau.Aiiiitc
d(e.Aii(iie,Hum HomMeSc,
blende (Olivine). Otivinc.
proiHnHL
hat specks do m ttatn) or
fall whbinany of tRe loain ant
t quesiiaa may be aaked— Whem it ■ nek
nl ai lielDnEina lo a dlaiinct sprdca or vai
ime for iuStt^ It must, fint of all. be p
if localities or Id have been pToducnl (romdurerei
than one period of Ihc eanb'i hiiioiy. In cxhei
minrnt WMIiiD^^diRcringl^ other°nekn
tividuji in the rhacaner. of Its mtDenlt « of lu 1
f d suxpriiing bov peculiar type* of nek. bdiev
■an
PETROLOGY
'Binded Obudiin, kiighii. Fig. j.— Fluidat Rhyolile, Fig. j.— Obudian, Mciico.
[ consistt or ihcm^lc b^iidi Hungary . Thl, ,ai;l hu > daniuceiKd piltcm
Mlcolourleiiglasswliichhave In (he cenire art ciysuli of telm«r. owing (o the irrmilar minglintt ol
gnl in slripn by the flution ralhcr turbid through weathering. The ilreams o( bramn and ol coiouiLeu glau,
al the vistous ma« hcfurc malrii a partly glauy. partly (rbilic, 11 i> neatly quite fr« ftan minute
ID. The glau is rendered andshows thecffcctsolilreiniingnwve- ccystali,
, very minute (rystals. mems with eddiet behind the telspat
-Perlitic Obsidian, Tokai, Fig. s.— Perlilic Pitehitone, Fig. 6.— Obsidian, Iceland.
Hungary. Mei^n. Germany. jn [i„ j,„r ^^^^ („„ ll«^ a
r glaHy rock is traversed by a The pei^Itic. rounded cracks ire very rounded yelbiir apoti (^pbenititf
ry limo- CDrroded crystal of Felspar, showing
r.— Spherulitic Rhyolile,
Klinik. Hungary.
■ulilic Feliile Atran
Fig. 0. -Foiphyrilicandnuldal
cotland.
KhyuUle, Hungary.
The ground mass is partiv glas
partly ft^lsilic. and shows OuiUiban
■ is obvious. ThU is ■
fn^. The large quarti is a double he«
.lone, no h>nger glassy
nine, and at tie centres
onil pyramid, but its edges and cotni
ate rounded by corrosion and lai
ites there are spaces
inegulaf areas of glass penelme to
secoBdaty deposit ol
PETROLOGY
ig. I— Porphyiitic pitchstone. Fig. >.— Tnchyt^ OroUva, TeiM-
Scuii o[ Eigg, Sntlind. liSe.
There are larRprroTphyrilicfrlspan of
the Gni EtnentioD and >ra>Jlci onn oi
Fig. (.— Hornblende-Ctanite,
D^tKBitie, Scottud.
_... .iJckr'Amm^'iwiomi^'nenls'th'e The ditfc ct^ilal with Bne parallel
ctjnull of dark mica are cooipicugm. lino "f deavsRe ia biolil*; the olhen,
.haped Krain of sp
7.-Luiul1iin
Corawa
e, Luiuiyan.
Scotland
rc'^^ded"iii
urmaliDCyanlte
"irltaW ° tu«™
jtnalriiinrdear
ria^ard nicoli to show
tlmclure a[ the Rnund-n
that of Fig- 6, but OB atn
PETROLOGY
Fit z- — LeucitophvR» Rleden,
Eifiel, Geimany.
A porphyrilic clear crystal of feucit
^bkck
Tilt rounded cenlraltiyjlal iil.
mariLnf cncl^: below itliT dark-
lom of the field. There are nun
Fw. ,. -Olivine.
biialt, Cr
lig-
Fig. 6.-Ophilic Olivine-Dolerite,
Dun Fion. Arran. Scotland.
Lockhui. Ediabi
irgh, Scotl
and.
Two large crystals i
elaw. and ol olivine
>fatiKitesl
fright and
left) lie
The --hiie mineral ia plagiocl.»e (ri-
spir, which penelnlea a large dark
. a ctyiulline «roui
Qd-mMa o;
IpUKio-
crystal ol auKile in ophilic mannn. At
. and mj
ignelite.
he glivine 'h«"been
altered t<
< fibrous
I he pMud<
Mrongly marked eracka.
ibbro, \olpcrs-
Fig. ■> —Serpentine.
lesia.
*d.' ""dSft^ o!
SnS^S
ndary magnetite).
The rounded crvsUli are olivine.
wealbennK as usual lo magnetite and
serpentine nlonn its cracks and borders.
The ibrk inlcKtltial substance is en-
stalilewealberedtoblMite.
Ayrshire. Sc>
In this rock the pr.
tini^lion. seeoinlhepi
complete. No olivine
position ot the cracks
crystals. The clouds
PETROLOGY
Fig. ».— Vdnwic Tuff, Arthur's SmI. Fig. j.— Crinoidsl Lime
Edmburgh. BonifeiousJ, Clidon, a
K frumcntsL volcanic rock with small England,
lilli ot bisalt: these arc vniculat end The ootilic grains are n
cquque miiture ol clay uid small contain Uuir felspar crystah
sand-grains- felsHrs abo lie scattered through t]
Fig. J.— Oolitic Chert (Cambrian),
e Ihe preceding oi
. The cleai spoil a
ir-Atholl, Fig. g.— Chiistolile-?
SIciddan:. Cumberh
B ta oB^iK (KB V ■>■>> idaMial huwa in aridriy Kxtmrd
■titH, aMik te i' oceun ia Nomy, Sankod, Monm'jl.
Bniib CohiBbii, New York ud Bimiil. iiinaiu in Smlind.
Nemr, BniiL Hsocih, Punii^ Ac. Tlui indicain thai
mMyitg tB the twiUBOi in miiwnlocBa]. itnictuiil and
"mile reUtiooibi
PETROLOGY
Accordinff ta modcn
poulblf. Some gcul
. t different jume
K be uplitld.
- -< • — |ican pelrajBaphon brought ft
m c^enial u*lyu. Tli^ ihowed how vague tnd alien
-^—^'- midi s( IhEBuitin^ linniiHliKy and argued id
. ibDuld be _el
•■ntlHriy in ,„_
«b. Chicago, loco), and there
VtM Suum ii aitL ever di)|><ace the older dauilScaiioni.
inad ud a narined 'alru'n^iin laturn*i>hich*(l%t4Bith
enbtageL Such groupi
' EKelJcQi eumi^ of
^ At Dena£> kniDiii ncla al ■outheni Nanoay u dacribed by
Mrv, the Tcniary rocki U ihe Hebridri (Hirkvr), the Italian
^•ucBtd by K. i Waihinpon. On a bixi-r icalc the volcanoei
•W |Mk the Pacific (Andn. Cordillera, /apan. Ac), ind thaw
yth ociar on ihr volcuuc itlandi of (he AllanliCt show the Ame
h of ihex group* hat b<
& the odKT hud, each al the Eieat siitn of eruptive rocki
*t«l CDOititute Hich a petrok«ial province embracn ■ great
^■^tanffe of type*. Prolonged erupTJOni have in a lew
JrcdDniunce of one kind of roch' Thqi iheljvu of
^'jUtluo and the Deccan. all of orhich loim gcolccical maun
' "^fc cmp^ve eampln. TTJe praccs
ass
ot h has been offered.
'ic firu type
■Edrbu^
Lgc, wcic DrU bauIlK,
nilty rhyolilic. ami Ihh
mnd linie. Yet Ibey all miut hare
IT at any late from a giou|> of foci
ne ■Bother. Occavonally it a found
So( petrogiaphicii lypn
own by {rent pluianit
[ once been vut eubtemnedr
HI liquid magma. CooUni
may be luppOHd to have been diuolved;
known to njve gone on the productt are
uracter and easily diitinguiahablc from Ihe
lly (uppoted Ihal differentiation ii to be
iCalLiiation. According to phyiiRhcheniJnl iawt the
ubKancea will tend to dinuic Eowanit Ihe nnliiw
vir-Soma's principle). Thii ii in accordance with
f (be obiervfd lactt and is probably a *rnt caujd of
Iheminenli wbrYVryiulliie fullow one another in
■ well-defined order, the matt basic (according *^
iwj bein^ fint to aeparal ' " ■^■■--'
way the peripheral portioni of a Lcec
early baiu: mineral! iiq;^»t( that Ih)
help* Eai^y in <tetermimng_lhi
may pbyipan.for kit proved
iV-I"."-
» of cryilaliiuiion
id COBiraueBlly Ihe
jleaj- Gravity al»
however, beof secondary importance aa in laccolilaliie top ponioai
often cunMt of more baeic and heavier varietiei of rock than the
ccnirr*. ft hat alto been niivcd that ibe earlictt mineiali being
hsivint and in in* a* dnucr than the fuicd maima around
thevd, will ttihl lo Bnk by their own weight and to be congregated
near the bottom of Ihe nuu. Electric currenti. aiagnetie illaclian
and convection cunenn have aho been called in to account for ibe
phenomena obierved- MajEmaa have alw been compared to liquidt
which, when Ibcy rsol. ipGt up into portiana no knger completely
tolublc in one another (liqualiod hypothnia). Each of ibeic partial
majtmai may ditaolve a poftionof tneolheraandatlheleniperaiure
falu and the conditions change a range of liquids differing in
composition may be iuppo — ' ' '"
achJ. suli^iiTttinr hydips
"^uSi" ISrl^^acS
re of the plutc
below, but It now (enctally admilled Ic
magma. Many peculiarities of the ttrti
the operation of these gaset. wfaKh were unable to empe at i
dcep-iulid ma»et slowly coaled, whihr ihey weic pnunpllr gii
up by the tunci£cijl elluiiani. The acid plulonic or Inlmiivc loi
have never been reproduced by laboratory ckperhnenls, and 1
only iuccettful attempts (o obtain their minerals anilicially hi
Thne guci often 30 not enter into
ins minerals, fur mou of these
Ac. Hence as ctyttaUlEition
iUet or tealul lubeiemployRl.
is Ihe bsl mineral to form in a granite.
ioT ennmle, ._ _
mueh oi the stamp of the tiuarta which we know has been depouted
Irani aqueous solution in veins, fte- It is at '' ■■ - -■
Infus^ of all the common mini ' '
hof neki., lis
mnining Ihe seauence tncryv
ificalion is nearly comptetc t
It bears
jepouted
lerals of the
ration are f>
I aurilerout .,
dis w^ *ih
^na. nnaliie veins, and the group of changes
itiiuiion.i The«-'pncumatolyIic"^(Cr. n.»^
importance in Ihe gencsit of many ore depotitt. They
part of the history of Ihe magma itself and canslzlule tb
PETROLOGY
— „- ,-,- — _. -_„---, r-,- ". —-' wilhoul fSo^ibt ■ *Try dote Arulofiy la
_,„,„ lich in Ibiie ud ending with ihoae which ?onum phyriu which nuy Ic ccditidcTcd m bdng CHmliAlly niviufn e4
■ud«),ciRbaclw,mk»Kl>HudqiurIl(wilhnii«apcginiitiIc). qiuiu ■nd it^ur, ■ crrtAin aniHiDI of qiHIU hu cryulliKd wl
y oajnuH to thb nik are liBoni the umc minFral may u in HuJy period in ihc Ions <£ wcO-diaped porphyriiic oyiuli.
cryuaUiic at two diffcRM pcriodii taoor nun mincniU nuy and thcnadcr the remainder of the nek hu i^iial u a my
cryKallist lidaiiltuinMd]; or tbc itags ia which Ihcy fonn nuy fine-^innl. i:r>'jiiocTy>iaJtijw or umctim mkncnpliv tnHirv^
overlap. Bui Ibe nHxcwon abon own b<AJi in the vut majoriiy nun which conuus ol nuarta asd MqU' ip ntiinatc bwnriiiuie.
oT caan. EaprcHH in thii way: tha more basic mincniU pRCede The bUcr cIdkIv membln a eutedic, and chemical audin han
thckBbaiic;it ia JcDOWD laRoRnbuich'ataw. prowd that wiihio uiDcwbat iiafTDW bniU tbo comnkitioa erf
7>B«E/5lniaaR.— Iniomiinickalliereacemtlobelilllelnidciacy lhe« Idiilic ground-miiKi it conatant.
for the minerab to envdop one gowthcr. Thii 1> true tt many But the compiiriuii must not be puAcd too Car. u thrre air
■abbroi. ipGlu and gnaitea (PL III. fig. 7). The paini then lie alwaya other eompanenli than quaiti and fehmc (apalile, limn.
aide by wle. with the faces of (he btter moulded 00 « adapted la biotile and iron oxidH beiiw the meat esmmonj, a»l in loikt ti
the ntorc perfect ctyitalllne outlines o( the earlier. More commonly llut type the gaici diHolvaTia the maina play • very impauni
aome closer lelatianihip nisu between them. When the uiiller part. As cfystiUiBIion goe> on, these laie* are set In* and ihn'r
idlonioTphic cryilaU oI the firtt-fonned are acattcred irrccularly pressure Blunt increaie 10 BOme extent. Motnnm-, the fd^ur ■>
thrCHiKh the lar^ and le« peifcct cryaala of later origin, the not one mineral but lwr> or perliapa three, there being always lodj
**■***" colaLircd, mmiled). A variety of thJt, known aa ophiiic (clspar in rhcse portiiiyries.
(PL Ilf. Eg. 6). isvcrycharaclcriilicaf manydolcrheaaiiddiabam. In a typical basic rock the candiiions are evm man: complei-
Id which lar^ plaiei of auciiv cnekne many small laths of pbfiio- A dolrriie, for eumpie. usually cDniaini» as its Ian pmducTt of
claie felspar. Biotite and hornblende frequently cncloae felspar cryiu^lizaiion. pyroxene and felspar. 01 these the latter conaiti
ophiiidlly; Icia CDdimonly Iron oxides and spheoe do so. In peri- of three distinct spcciH, the f oimcr c/ an unknown number; and ia
fkititefl the " luBtre.mottud " structure atiies from nyruxene or each caie they an lorm mixed crystals, to a Brraler or less eaiFai
hombleiide envetoplag oUvlne ia.the tame manner (PI. Ill, tig. S). with one anoiher. From thevconHdciationi it n^ll be clear thai the
e cases no crystaQoaraphic relation cxiBts between the two properties of nluiion« of two or three independeni t
s (enclosing and endosedj. not ncc^parily explain (he process of ctyitalliialian
uuh often the surrounding mincnil*lias been bid down on the rock.
p„,g^ (aces or axes parallcf to one anoiher. This ii known il prcsenl in large ■cirTormcd early crysuls. Similarly in bastU,
frum anorthite to oligoclaie. (he more acid Liters bcina dcpoutcd suggeated that supctsaluraiwn has taken place. We may ■ipfx^
nrXulsrTy on the surfaces of the more baxic. Diolite and muKoviIe. that the augitc which was in oceu ol the preportion necesBry to
h^nblcndc and augite, enstatile and diallage, epidotc and oithile, form the fctapar^u^ite. cuteclic mixtuie, Arst separated out, Wbea
When two minerals crvnalllxe simultaneouily they, may be did not at once start ciystallidng, perhaps because nuclei aie
intcfgrown in '^graphic" fashion. The best example Is quart! necessary to initiate erystal.gn)wth and these were not at hand;
- ,- and onhodaae occurring together as mkropcgmallle augite went on erystalUxing while felsfmr lagged behind. Then
jZZ!^ (PI. II, figs. 6 and 8). The quani forms aniglar felspar began and as Ibe nixluic waa now supenuluraicd with thit
Zfl!^. patches in the felspar, wluch though separated have is lapidly thrown out el the
jnirm. ^^^ ^^^ oyxtalUne orientation and one potiiion o< hi be a tendency for pan nl
extinction, while the felspar on Its part behaves in the same way. • tCssolved and its cr>siaU
Two porous crystals thus Interpenetrate but the icadcred parts of ind perfect edgca, asiscftni
each mineral maintaia their connejdon with the athen. There q the neeeaaTv adiunirDeiKi
may be also a deAniu relation between the crystalline nin of the would be established isd
two ciyalali. though this is not known in nil cases. Aueite sIh isolidate sinultancously (er
occurs in graphie intergrowth srilh homhiende. olivine and^felipar: ete.
and homblcnde, cordicriiet ej^dote and Oolite in graphic inter- 1 shoil' that au[ietsalur3tkw
growth m-ilh quarts. The frequency with whick
Phynzal Chmistry ef Ipmm Jtocii.— The giral advances that main conditiona the awllra
chemistry have very important bearings on petroloeical investigo. which a mineral sulwam
tioos. Especially in the study of the genesis of ijtneDUS rocks we leiala differ in their intdacv
anticipate that tv this menns much Ught will be thmwn on prcil>kms ly while others are slow and
of the eonditioni which affect cryRalliialiDn may yet be the con- many factors, and there an remarkable differences in ihura|iict
sequence. Already many importaot rnults have been gleaned, between minerals.
As yet little work of an exact and quantitative nature has been On the other hand, then is plenty of eiidcnre to ihiiw tiat
doneonaclaalrockioron mixtures naemliling them in compoflilon, supctsaturation, thcugh probably one of the causes, is aa thepris-
bui at the Camef^ Institulion in Wathineton. an eUboraie series cipal cause of the amxarance of more than one minnal id tvo
of experiments In the synlhests of mineralt and the properties of generations of crystals. In some of the quarte-porphvrie^ Fic
miiturea of these is being carried on, with all the leSncmenls examrie, there arc phcnociysts not only of quarts andfelKor bat
which modem science an sufgest. The work of Dodtec and of also ol mlcropegmatilc. These pnm that quanx and fclifsr sue
Vngt may also be meulianed in tids connexion. A) the same lime not ciyitallinng successively or allcmalely bui simultaneouily.
the nialhenutical theory of the physical processes involved has The great majority of the minerals found in igneous rocks an M
received muchattenlion, and serves both toditectand toetucidatc of simple composilinn, but i
A fused mixture of two minerals may be regarded as a aolulion cates the theoretkal ptoblcnuofcD
ol one on the other, tf such a aolulion be cooled down, ciysUlliia- for example, that In th- ' •
„ tion will generally set In and if the two camrxnients be independent, white the ... .
T^Tf* " independent (or do not form mixed crystah) one of is a brp number of ponble sequences: and. what is very nnpixiBi.
""""'■ them may be expected to start crystaniring. On tutlbcr one mincial may sepante out entirely at an early stage, « a
cooling, mor* of Ihb mineral will sepaisle out till at last a residue crystalliiatiofl may be interrupted and ocC conlintnos. its
it Ml which cenlaiRS the two components in definile proponions, lemaryeuttctic, which is pradocedbyamixluiFoflhreeindcpesdia
This mixture, which is known aa the eutccllc mixtuie, has the Invest minerals, may not in such a case be the list subaonee to ci]itaffiB.
— I.! !_. .. _.i.^.i. — 1.. I 1 I .1 minerals, and may not be prescnl at alL This Is wry much in atns*iB
s a whole; with the observed facts of petnloev: for usually in a rodlWith
nisly. At nne mineial which indubitably was the last nt onto Aiuibcr^
ire in Buch filing and ctml^ned no appreciabte imanlity of the olheri.
Aa yet we know little about auch important qneitioM as ite
Similarly, if tlicre he three indepcnd*
one will brgin to crysulliic : then a
r heat of fusion, ^iicIKe heats, n. .
; liirrs. Ac. Tntil «T are; in powession of a latge body of ac
PETROLOGY
. ^ _ _. looiiii or liicr Wahavf ihii» ihr«~irti; il Hdiii
HOC i^ ibc mafia inKoui rocla at iny ate oill be coniplcldy may be named [be clutx: (or Iragmc
a^ioble oa pfcyjco-cfieinkal principki, nraanic.
Wk mm I of icneoui oriiiii have no •ooner coniiilidaud than The daitk maleiiab may aaumutate in idi, and Ilin diScr
Ik^ bcfin to cbapK Tlie g^uca wiili which tbe magna la charted chiefly !a Iheir divnieiraltd anl wrathned lUle fn>in (he parrqt
1^ ate ilciwlv ditapited, lava-Ham oflcs remaia hot and nKb maias on ohkh Ihey ml. The beK cumple ol a^^
'■ ' •' ' ' -■ ■• ' ■- ■ '-'— rock often coven large areia. More usually they ate trauported
wom and weathcml; Lt includs acma. ^velt, coarw iand*» Ac.,
OKyrm and other and donaalidaln ■■ CDnRlocQenEn, bir^^aa and pebbly grita. The
Ijlt tlw whole nam bedding of IheK ncka H nidimenluy and Impnfect, and ai each
have been jnolved bed ja Inctd along iti Dulcnp it lirquently crunc" iti character
ck> Ihne accondary with Ibe Ucata on nhich il rtna. The man Knely divided Kdinieni
tocka are clauihed travda fartheM. and ii laid down in Ihin uniFonn iheeta of vMe
kleall>' fieih. though Ihii ii nrtly extent. It ia luuwn aa mud antf clay; around the ifaom d our
ucuKibuaiujc. eontInentB.atdiitarKef of a hundred nljcaand more fmn land, gRat
Ewenilic change (vcondaiy procHan) may be arranged under ahceta of idud an Bpread owr the ocean floon. Thia mud containa
xauabaot headinn, each of which is typical ol a Rroup of rocki minute partlclea of quarta and of Ecbpar, but Goniiila eaflcnlially
^^^^ or rock-fofminfl minerali. though uHjally more than of findy divided acaly mliKTala, whidv by their amall ali« and Sat
?^^ one <4 theic alteraiioni will be found in pcogmi in the ahape tend to remain lunended In water for a very long time,
^^^ Bmcnck. Silicilicition, Ihereplacenwnt of ihemineials Chkiriie, whin micu and kaolin arelhe beat oamplea of thia claa
b) aynalliK or ci^rptiKtyualline tilica. ii moM commoB in acid of aubitancei. Wind action i> even more effective than water in
iDcb^ Hirh aa rhycjjte^ but la alB found JD acipeBtinc, Ac. Kaolini- leparating and trmovrng Iheae fine partictea. They to a very brge
Biiu ii the decompofitiad of the fdnara, which are the commoneat eatent ewape mechanical attrition, became they are trapqnrted in
^];il ii bat tbown bv gnnitn and ayenhea. Serpent inixation h4; hence they are moit^ arwular. Fragmenta of intermediate
■ il* ahtiaikn g( olivine to acipentine (with magnetite): it ia nUBniludei (from [Kof an inch to | of an inch) are clased as
■nval ef peridotiKa, but eccuia in most of the basic ncln. [n aanda. They contiit laigily otqujttt. becauie it does not weather
wilitiqtion atoindary hornblende rrplacea augitei thia occura into acaly mincialj like fclipoT, and having but a poor cleavage
vtfy paerally in diabaaea: ehlotitizaiion ia the alteiatian of augite don not tplii up into flakes like mica or chlorile. These quarta
mile « haraMeadc) to chlorite, and is aeen in many diabases, graini have been tolled along and are unully lounded and worn
vna and greenstonea. Epidotiration occurs also in tocks of (1*1. IV.. hg. 1). Mote or Ich of garnet felspar, tourmaline, aircon,
^|niap.ajidcaiiuats in the devclopmcnl ol cpidolF from biotjte, rvtile. Ac., are miud with the quarti, becauie tbcac are hard
Mpfcaoe. augite or plagaclaae felspar. mineral* not readily decomposed.
Tbt H^tKiiiliiry r«r*i, which constiiule the aecond great pmip, BimeihTrincStS^lew. an'd mised ty'^'^alJIEnt^t'^l" "xhu
Hit bany points Id common that dlltingullh them from Ibc gravels containing sand, or clayi willi coarser arcnaceoua particles.
ipna and the metaraorphic They hive all originated on Moreover, aucmiivi layers of dcpoiil may no; alwaya be enturly
Utioilice of the earth, aod at the period of Iheir formation "" * *""*"-"• "" •"""■' "■•""-'•"." — ("H™ "~
i ihiic. Organic matter is frequently mingled wi
'hcse three types have been named the paephilic (or pebbly;
ff#4t, pebble): piammilic for sandy. Gr. iifiiMit, aarulj, and
ndlakei). Thdcn
cainie wucn upoKH 10 , ,. - . pemic iormuooy:»jr. tsi«, muoj.
ml)Tlraled{chlonle, micaa, Sie.), or oudued (iron ores), or jwo gioupj of claitic sediments deierve ipecial treatment
miui aibonic acid (calcite, dolomite). The citenl, however. The pyiocbulc (Cr. •Hf. fn. and •kurh, broken) rocks of volcani,.
» ihich thii ii the caic dependi [atgely on Ihe rapidity wilh onein. conjijt mostly of bioken ulecca of lava (bombs, ash. 4cJ
^ Ibey have accumulated; coar- rocka quickly piled up V^ L'r,4Jl.',^^°;i'4rt:"±e^?K^ar.;-uaVr;i;
«fl« lonial of maletab only partly weathered. When i^'pcriecily wrtcd out, a,?cordiog to thdr JSneneaMhan Jdinary
QTtUlLAe, the sedimenLary rocks are usually soluble at low aqueous or acolian deooaits. The glacial clays (boulder clays).
"ffier beds are always of later fotmallon than those which mcntt.'^In ihein"strali6iation"ij'eiiMpli«ial a'nd f™ls"sre veSr
■Mttue Ibem, eacept (aa may happen when great disturbance rare.
hi liktn place) the whole serin is inverted or overluined. The cryjtallioe aedinienury rocki have been dcpoailed from aolu-
Hay of the atiatified rocks have been formed by the agency of ^'^hydritVacnaJme areknoTii M'^.c"an«n'b^''t'hi'' *'''™'^
Bwiog water (riven, currents, tic.) and are grouped logclhct evaporation ol encliusJ wllne Uke» npowl to a dt^ **""■"
'* rocks; others have been deposited by the wind atmosphere. They occur usually in bedi with layers of led clay and
„ : and percolating WBlet. Laslly, we find cipi,a,rd {Kniers. Si™W«na, »cj. Heated waters on cooTing
d by (he dcKccation of saline waters! other ceous .inter, are produced around geyser, and hot spring, in many
,.d rocks, such as dolomite and many bedded F?« -^ "« ™^: . ^t^^t^^^l^ ^^-^ T,^'d^y:LZ
a sandy beaches, &c. (these a
, Pti
A of ciystallinc
us partially or wholly.
a In hlvii
liaauie. AnolbO' Bubdhriaian of thia claas of ^._.
Via the rocka eaposed at the eanh's surface give way before liaation or crystalline replacement ol pre-existing sediments. Thus
aie laolved into two parts. One of these conusts of wlid material cherts, by pcrmtaling waters which remove the lime salts and
fsml. day and angubr dAbris) inviluble in caitnnaled waters; substitute for them compoundsof iron, magnesia, ailicon, and soon.
(he fKher part is dissolved and nsshed away. The urdiuojved This may be conaadeied a kind of mctamorphiim; tt is generally
tarkt (sandstone, congkuneraie, shale, Ac). The dissolved por- The roclu of organic ongin may be due to animals or plants.
tini are partly translerred (a the lea. where (hey help to increJ4 They are ol great importance, aa limestone, and coals bebog to
wdimenlary rocks: but they are alio made u« of by planta and rocfcj; but clastic sediments are often rich in fc«ls '**••*'
hy animals to fona Iheir skeletal and viul (iuues. From (his though crystalline sediments rardy are. They may be sub-
Mier ponioa the mk* oi trfif arigin are built up. These divided, according to thdr dominant componenta, into cakaitsus,
332
DTianic KKki nuy comiM principilly of fan
coaU, bnchiopoda* mDllina, potycoa, ic. t '
conUiii a Biuture d ofnounu. By a
matjc dungs they often %dk tinator^nic _. ^
at any land hai Ibe onv cflect. The cartxw*
CHCdiaUy ptnnt deponlt; they induilc pent, li
The kiliceoui onuiic radu include ndtuluun an
in the elder faraulUHU they occur ■■ ndiobriaj
nodulet owe Ibeir tilicn to diieemiuled tomlt of il
luve been diHolved and redepoiiled by concn
SooK Idndi of tilktoui liDter nuy be prodixtd b
babitiog hot eilicated waten. Caknnoui ooUlei 1
nuy have arucn through the uency of minjtc p]
cm alio may be of organic ratlur than of merely
The phoai^ulic rocki to eicteniively loiiBht aficr at
PETROLOGY
corniJe. uid 1,
of them no longn ihow d
cllya and graveb. bcdi o
the oMer they an the nan likely it ii that
the firm coruiatency Kenenlly Implied in the tem
one. l^Dre efficiency is Rnerully aicribed io
pcrcolatins water, which lake* us> ctnain kolubb
redcpoaits them in j>orc» arid cavilic^- Thii opcrui
accelerated by the increavd prcuure produced by
UdanurrpkU fiocil.— The M
third great EUbdivision, are eve
and the-HdimeuIaiy. They ir
all kindi of the other two clan
Early nndenlood; It it evitknl that p
poHibly auiited by riie of temperature. la Ihclmal or awlact
alteration Ihc rocks are baked, indunled, and often ia Jar^
meaiuie recryilallliid. In regional metamotphiam reayilal-
liialion alio goei on, but the Enal product! are uiuaily -rfc-ti
and goeusea. It ia as a rule not difficult to diitinguiih tlv
two daasei of metamorphic tucka at a ^aocCi and tl^ mn
convenienlly be considered scpatatety.
When a rock u contact alrered by an ieneaua intruiiOB it «a*
(ruiuently becomn hinler, man crytulUne and s
Totber miBni^
liue or amtiAi
• with a IvM
lartial recfyical-
howcver, disappear, alien campleiely. if the thcmul alieixtion it ten
profDurtd ; thus snuH grains of quaru in a ihale mxk k^ v M— J
with tbc surTounding particles of clay, aiid the fine grouDd-oaaad
Dy recryiulluailoa in this manner pacutiar rocks of very iSitiBCI
types are often nroducai. Thus shales may psa ' -' " -
rocks, or may show large crysuls of andiluiiie i
PI. IV..fig,9),itauralileinTnFt,kyaniteandsnKman
■hir amount of mica (boHi muacovile and bin'^*-^ >-
■ed.andthe - "^ ...
^ .These m
high tempcraluK
loHiDiy oecaute '^
re fuud and in the dark g]
take place on a large scale.
The other type of mctamorphisa
the rock more c^italline
ely vitrified. Similar ilissji
riung of coal searos or e« by
fuiion of the Igncow with tk.
obKKb frumenis of ibale er
!ni»d. SodXtinKs an iatsdiig
s around. Citing their 'fim
[hreads of quana wid i^K-
' alien sakl to be RfioMl,'
tmavbei
I and at [I
,— ithdrkuigestaaesairaiwedaiild
: anothn. For that reuon many df these ncka ipSt ndA
m one direction (schistf). The minerals aba teid to ■gi—y*
in bands: thus then are scams of quani and of mica in a mSiIcK
very ihin. but coniUting essentially of one mineraL The* mm
are called folia (IsBcit), and though nevn vny pure tx <irn aam
lent they give the rock a streaked or banded character ^!e*te
are seen eiTgeinsc (PI. IV. figs. 6, t. •). Along the folia caapgMid
the soft or finile nincnis the rocks will teyer moB rsdilv.W^
. . .&^
re folia of pauki qos^
freshly snlii i
PETRONEI^-PETRONIUS
fl Iht mcUDiarphum u pro«re»v«, ind
■ nc mHK aucncL Dtxvptol by tbnc Rjcia be ■CBrchrd Xfacta of
hfd^, ct cUnk vtmriurr, uncanformkbitity or other evidence
iBT be obtunrd showing ilur WE ar« dealing wflh a noupoC aLlcred
UHtL In Mher cam imniHve }unctioiu, chilled edge*. «in>
Od ahrratirm or porphyriiic iiructiire nuy prove Ihat in iti original
CBdiia ■ meuiBOTpbic ineiH wu an igocoiu rock. The lul
iWial kofun » the chemiH. (or there an certau rock typo which
«itf«tyaap!d]niedtai irldle othen are found only amonff igncovia
■MM>i»Jt however advanced the mctamorphiini nuy be. it rarely
Kdiin the chemical conpontion of Ihe nus wry jtrcaUy- Such
ud tluBdnom ihalea havv very drAiutc cbendcal cluracleri wbi^
iKii|iihti IbeiB even when compleicly itcryiialliied.
TW KhiRi asd fnriHH are clanilicd according to the ninerali
IkcT omift at. and thu dewndi principally on their cbei
We have, for
i,K
, ^ ^ and [cUpar. TTiey art derived Irom
ta of difietent degrrM of pnnty. Anolhcr poup
i> ixh in aiiana {quartnlea, qunrta ichiiitiand quanzoftc gnnHcflj.
•^ nriTble amSuBU ol white and black mid. lamct, Iclipar,
rn^ The fraphilic icfaiili may leadily be believed to repreient
VE die r*"^'*** iroiBtoov (Iueniatite4chlata), but metamorAUc
Mcf BhorfypagmaieaCEediiHly incoiamaa. Aaung Kliliti
• '« the slky cak4cURa. the [Dilated
vh in fJS«tw^\ ■Ml *hM whir*
her closely. There aie other gaciHO, wSich
e'aic nndatooea. grill, arkoies and aedi-
moelly conUin bioiitc and muicDvite.
1 pyroxerir snetian are uHially igneoui rocka
to llK honiblende-graniiea and quarti^diaritea.
>rma oE dolcrite, baialt and the ba^ igneous
niM generally have a distinctive [aoeaai their pycoune and olivine
n iniiad by dark green hornblende, with often enidole. garnet
aw) bnile. "nicie roclu have a well developed (oTation, aa the
prieutK hornblendes lie side by nde in parallel amogcment. The
■Bioriiy of amphibolitea, hornblende^Bchlsts. foliated epldiorites
and gneo Khists beloni (o this group. Where they arc least
altcied they paH through chloriiie achlata into thearcd dlabaic4i
bser gabbmt and other rocki in whieb remains of the ori^nal
(Btoui mineralB and (inictuTea oceut in greater or tcu profunon.
BnLicKaAFHT.— Most ten-bDoka of geotogy treat of nclrohigy in
■an or leia detail (see Geolocv; f iOUetrsplni. Elementarv
hscJu en petrology include F.H. Hatch, l>«riIe(>(SIhRl '
im): 1- V " — ""'- — * ■•-■' -■ — '- '"— "'
'. Plnasn, Xwti «>4 Xaft-DHiHrali
•!ff
;:u-;aa
J. D. Dana. Ilanilbaiit of Uinenleiy a«f Pilntrapky (iilh ed.,
New York, iQMJh A. Harker. Fiholea l« Slwhui [^h ed.,
Cambridu, i9oS)^ G. A. j. Cole. Xui U PniiiiaS Cttltty
(6th ed', London, ir--* *" '- — '- -'" ' " tjj.-__.
Rack Ui-woli (Ne- .^,.. ... ,
cf RKt-formmi Uiinoli (Ne> York,
e. G. Smith, iiUtmin ■ -' - •-■-
New York. iBfj); N. [
(New York. 19C9I. C ._ ,.- _
■ee A. Harker. NalHnil Hillary t} Inioia Sccki (Uindan. i«n):
J. P. Iddlnts. Itvota Roiii. INew^ork. 1909); Ctosa, Iddings,
Wiihinnon aiul Pirssor '■■-^- -•
RiKks (Chicago. 1901)1 <
■■S,
iifitali^n of Jntoui
'fkhm (\^^hinrDn,
dad 5oL/r (London,
«6); J. H. L. ■■
lichcl, Uvy. Synlkiit in >
ckj are J. Ri
British pctrogmpliy is the <nbjret ot a spraal work by J. ]. H.
Teall (Londnn. itSSS). Much inibrnotion about rocki is conuincd
if Ou CwJ. Soc. d/ LmJun, ilinrraic^ 'ilatazinr, Gialatiad
talOMine. T<chermak'9 JfiHrabfiiite WilttrJaaini (Vienna),
Niua JahrbuLk Jir IfmrrufofU (Slultiait , Jnornai of GaioFJ
(Chicago), &<. a!s.F.r
PETRONEL, a ifilh or 17th ccnluiy £rc-ann, defined by
R. Barret (rArori'it Bud BrvMke 0/ iitiietn H'drrci. 1398) a>
a "taorKoinn's pcccf." It was Ihe fjic.nim which developed
The name (Fr. ptltiiul toe foiUiniU) was given to the weapon
IfalHiu, Lat. ^«lu) ot beausell was cairiedaluog from a belt
PETROHIDS (G. (?)' Pelronigs Arbiter), Roman writer of
the Ncroniao age. Hit own work, the Sali/at, iclb ui nothing
directly ol his fortunes, position, or even century. Some iina
of Sidomus Apollinaris refer to him and arc often taken to imply
that he lived and wrote at MancUlca. If, however, we accept
the identiUcation of Ibis author with the Pelnmius of Tacitus,
Neto's courtier, w« must lopposc either that Marseilles wti liis
birthplace ot, as b more likely, that Sidonius rcfca to the novel
itself and that its scene was partly laid at Marseilles, The chief
peisonogcs of the story are evidently strangers In the (owni
of southern Italy where we find them. Their Gteek«iunding
nuics (Eucolfrius, Ascyltos, Giton, lie.) and lileraiy training
accord with the characteristics of the old Creek cirfony inthetsL
eontuT)' A.D. The high position among Latin writera ascribed
by Sidonins to Petronius, and the mention of hira beside
MenandetbyUactobius.whcnconipnrcd with the absolute silence
of Quintilian, Juvenal aod Martial, seem adverse to the opinion
that the Sariroc was a work of the age uf Nero, But Quintiban
was concerned with writera who cnuld be turned to use in the
Taeitiu'i
. The
334 PETRONIUS
education of an orator. The silence of Juvenal and Martial other era than that in which Nero's TrMca and Liictn't Flara
may be accidental or it is possible that a work so abnormal in were fashionable poems. The reciting poet indeed is a feat
form and substance was more highly prized by later generations of a later age also, as we learn from Martial and JuvenaL But
than by the author's contemporaries. know from Tacitus that the luxury of the table, so con^HCUon
A comparison of the impression the oook gives us of the Trimalchio's Banquet, fell out of fashion after Nero(vlini.3.;
character and genius of its author with the elaborate picture Of the work itself there have been preserved 141 sections <
of the courtier in Tacitus certainly suggests the identity of the narrative, in the main consecutive, although interrupted
two. Tacitus, it is true, mentions no important work as the frequent gaps. The name Salirae, given in the best Mi
composition of his C. Petronius; such a work as the Salirae he implies that it belongs to the type to which Varro, imitat
may have regarded as beneath that dignity of history which he the Greek Menippus, had given the character of a medley
so proudly realized. The care he gives to Petronius's portrait prose and verse composition. But the string of fictitious nai
perhaps shows that the man enjoyed greater notoriety than was live by which the medley is held together is something qi
due merely to the part he played in history. " He spent his new in Roman literature. This careless prodigal was so hapf
days in sleep, his nights in attending to his official duties or in inspired in his devices for amusing himself as to introduce
amusement, by his dissolute life he had become as famous as Rome and thereby transmit to modem times the novel ba
other men by a life of energy, and he was regarded as no ordinary on the ordinary experience of contemporary life* — the f
profligate, but as an accomplished voluptuary. His reckless cursor of such novels as CU Bias and Roderick Random. Th
freedom of speech, being regarded as frankness, procured him is no evidence of the existence of a regular plot in the fragmei
popularity. Yet during his provincial governorship, and later but we find one central figure, Encolpius, who professes to narr
when he held the office of consul, he had shown vigour and his adventures and describe all that he saw and heard, wli
capacity for affairs. Afterwards returning to his life of vicious allowing various other personages to exhibit their peculiarii
indulgence, he became one of thechosencirdeofNero'sintimates, and express their opinions dramatically,
and was looked upon as an absolute authority on questions of 71,^ fragment opens with the appearance of the hero, Encolpi
taste {arbiter elegantiae) in connexion with the science of luxurious who seems to be an Itinerant lecturer travelling with a compan
living."* Tacitus goes on to say that this excited the jealousy named Asc;rltos and a boy Giton, in a portico of a Greek Xv
of TigeUinus, an accusation foUowed, and Petronius committed »" Campania. An admirable lecture on the false taste »n tUerati
. .T . ' .T . 1 . •.!- L' i-f J u ^ resultingfrom the prevailmg system of education, IS replied to b
suicide m a way that was m keeping with his Ufe and f haracter. ^^^1 declaimer, Aeamemno, who shifts the bUnxj from the teact
He selected the slow process of opening veins and having them to the parents. The central persona^ of the story next go thiw
bound up again, whilst he conversed on light and trifling topics a scries of questionable adventures, in the course of which they
with his friends. He then dined luxuriously, slept for some i7,°*TSlL"/«-!S™X°l'fiS5^
. t t t J .• ^1. La* t a tt, -:-.. at a dinner Riven Dy a ireedman of enormous wealth, Tnnulcl
tune, and, so far from adopting the common practice of flattering ^^o entertained with ostentatious and grotesque extravaga
Nero or TigeUinus in his will, wrote and sent under seal to Nero a number of men of his own rank but less f>rospefx>us. We listei
a document which professed to give, with the names of his the ordinary talk of the guests. about their nctjKhbours, about
partners, a detailed account of the abominaUons which that weather.about the hard times, about the public games, about
p»»iiiti», • uvMM *,»« education of their children. We recognue in an extravagant fa
emperor had practised. ,.,,.. , . the same kind of vulgarity and pretension which the aatinst of
A fact confirmatory of the general truth of this graphic times delights to expose in the illiterate and ostentatious miUioaai
t#icv<:iii. .ta i>u4WB *"'^" "•* .t«|^..« «—«^. ^« v«- "~.w ^. poet, who, alter talking 8ensir>iy on the decay of an and the inleri
this picture agree with that impression of himself which the ity of the painters of the age to the old masters, proceeds to illostr.
author of the Satirae has left upon his work ? That we possess a picture of the capture ofTroy by some verses 00 that theme. T
therein part of the document sent to Nero is an impossible «nds in those who are walking in the adjoining colonnade dfhr
^, Vr\ c « -.f^- *^ w- ^.».^^*. r../%pn «kA him out with stones. The scene is next on board ship, vh
theory. Our fragments profess to be extracts from the Encolpius finds he has fallen into the hands of some oM^ieai
fifteenth and sixteenth books of the Sattrae: Petronius could jhey are shipwrecked, and Encolpius. Giton and the old poet i
not have composed one-tenth even of what we have in the time to shore in the neighbourhood of Crotona, where, as the inhafaata
in which he is said to have composed his memorial to Nero. »« notorious fortune-hunters, the adventurers set up as nni
iif u 4 ^.L.* «i.^ I. «*>..!... ..i..^,r.».»ir .*« :te Un<*.i«<*« fortune. The fragment ends with a new set of questionable advi
We may be sure too that the latter was very frank m its language turcs, in which prominent parts are played by a bJautifulenchaatr
and treated Nero with far greater severity than the Banquet named Circe, a priestess of Priapus. and a ceruin matron wholes
treats Trimalchio. On the other hand, it is clear that the creator them her heirs, but attaches a condition to the inheritance wfai
of Trimalchio, Encolpius and Giton had the experience, the even Encolpius might have shrunk from fulfilling.* If we caa si
Inclination, and the literary gift, which ^would enable hin. to SSfi^^«,^"n\t'dli;i'?o7;'ui\^^lfTt"n5|JXfh.VofS^
describe with forcible mockery the debaucheries of Nero. And j^g himself that the world in general was as bad as he was hinsi
the impression of his personality does in another respect corre- Juvenal and Swift are justly regarded as among the very grsatt
spond closely with the Petronius of the Annais— in the union of satirists, and their estimate of human nature is perlups ncai
-sf :».-.«..«i ..»...«i:ei«, ofitk 9 rirK w«.;n rtf rvniral hiimniir and *• Unfavourable as that of Petromus; but their attitude tosrti
Of immoral sensualism with a nch vem of cynical humour and j^^^^^ degradation is not one of complacent amusement: tb
admirable taste. realismistnerealismofdisgust, not, like that of Petronius, a reab
The style of the work, where it does not purposely reproduce of sympathy. Martial does not gloat over the vices of which
the solecisms and colloquialisms of the vulgar rich, is of the writes with cynical frankness. He is perfectly aware that they i
pu,«t Latin of the Silver age.' Nor would there be any point l^'^'j^^^^', ru?Slj!'i5Vn'Sf: 'li^::{Z '^t^ll^'i
m the verses on the capture of Troy and the Civil War at any affections, his tastes, his reUtions to othera, essentially hnnH
1 Ann. xvi. 18. . j l friendly, ^nerous, true. There b perhaps not a nngle sentet
* The false taste in literature and expression fostered by the in Petronius which implies any knowledge of or sympathy wi
dedamationes is condemned by both Persius and Petronius on the the existence of affection, conscience or honour, or even the sm
same grounds. Cf. too Pers. i. 121 , hoc ego apertum, hoc ridere meum, elementary goodness of heart.
tarn ntl, nulla tibi uendo lliade with Sat. 52, meum inlellegere nulla -— — ; -— ; — -— ^
petunia uendo; Pers. ii. 9, 0 si ebuUiat patruus, praedarum funus, et » For the whole question of possible predecessors and Petionw
o si sub rastro crepel argenti mihi seria with Sat. 88, Alius donum relation to the extant Greek romances see W. Schmid, " Der gr
promittit, si propinquum diviUm extulerit, alius si thesaurum effoderit chische Roman " in JahrbiUher fUr das Uass. AlUrtum, 4c. (too
and 42, homo animam ebuUiit; Pers. iv. 26, arat . . . quantum non One would certainly have expected the realistic tendency wfc
milvus oberrat with Sat. $7,fundos habet qua milvi volant. Both use appears in the New Comcdv, the Characters of Tbeophrastns s
the rare word baro. Animam ebullire occurs in Seneca's Apocolo- the Mimes, to have borne this fruit before the first ceatofy ci <
cyntosis, and the verbal resemblances illustrate perhaps rather the era.— (W. C. Su.)
common use by both writers of the vulgar style. Cf. for resemblances * Omnes qui in testamento meo legata habent praeter mcr
to the style of the younger Seneca and the date of the work in general, meos. hac conditione percipient quae dedi, si corpus mevm ia par
Studer, Rh. Mu$. (1843). conciderint et astante populo coraederint (141).
PETROPAVLOVSK— PETRUCCI 335
k..<b«iiwcDdcdbyiu^h«.<>be>»M^»dMln.wriu«iin '^■>"- * '^J' P™?'^ *"?< '™" ™d^nu, u Ihe
■ •liiolnErvKliiidpDwiTfulininy, altlMtyiKraliialiiiatir teiuui WM taken Ult m December: dsoj, muiucip>l t«iuu»),
moimJnimihim Wild at Barry L^*Jb», Otliavut we nun adniit iS.jTj- Pdiopolu it ucved by the Pnncipe do Gila Pari
Ou.iiiibeeiiiiRdiviicccolinuUecliialKHRranduuifhtlnniiaiiy niliriy, no« a pan ol the Let™ldju >y>lem which coniicctl
£Sfia'B™u«'°F«'Sl?;Jlk XririM"^!^!^ *'"' ^ •^' J*"™" "'1 Nicthcroy on the coait. and ..ith Ihe
inanaiiiM.olli'MniylnnntiDiiaBdan.thcfnEaienldnnvn »l»lioii of Enlte Riot on the Ccnlml ol Bruil raUway. lu
■If iht idBintioa which it hu iceeived. Ws recogniie the ar&ifir altitude gives the diy t, coal invigDrating dioiale, mailing it
(IriMiiu in the idultableKTHe oT the nmarki KMIFred [hreugh , Uvourite lummer leaideoce loi Ihe well-Io-da claua of Sio
Sp^. '^ . '0 Much) whea the humidity a enireme. Vegetation ii luiu-
" Hai inter ludebit aqi^ emntibui arnnii riant and compriia a grFat variety of trDpical and lub-lropial
SpuiBciu « quenilo viiatot rore lapilloi." tpcdo. The dty ii built in a l»rge, inigularly ahapcd buin
JUd BM of the ,iboitcT piecei aniicijate t he immm and [onoed by itreanu which mnwerge lo form the Piabanha river,
terriH into rivalry with the poem of Lucsn. in the engram building) are the old unpenal ptUa, > modem lummei reu-
i— ' ■■-- "-'—>-■■-- 1 :- -■■- 1- -- denci of the wninaal eaeculive and ■ municipal hall. Although
Petropolij i* Dol a Fomacrcial centre, its water-power and cool
clusate are making it an important manufacturing town.
Among the product! are cotton {abrio and gannenti, beer,
and Camembeti and Btlc cheeses.
Petropolii was founded in 184$ by Julius Frederick KOler
under the auspices of the empemr t^ Brazil, Dom Pedro IL,
on lands purchasfd by his father, Dnm Pedro I., in iSji- The
place was previously known as Corrego Secco, which Dr George
Gardner described in 1637 as "a Rtnall, miserable village^"
The first emperor planned to establish there a German colony,
but the plan was not realized until ift45, when about 2700
colonists from Germany w«e located there. Its growth was
■low, but Ihe choice of the place by the emperor as a summer
residence drew tblthci many of the wealthy residents of the
cajHlaL The Mauli railway was opened to the foot ol Ihe irrra
(fUii da Sem) in i3S4, and the mscad^imiicd road up Ihe
lara to the lOHn in 1816. The mounliin section of the railway,
on the Riggenbach syitem, was conipleitti in iMj. Petropolii
has since become the summer residence of Ihe diplomatic
corps and of the higher ofGcisls of the Federal government, and
was the capitalof (he slulcol Rio dc Janeiro from iSoj lo ijoj.
PETHOVSK, a teapoit of Ruuia in Tranicaucaaia, on the
Casl»ao Sea, in the province of Dighcstan, iBo m. by rail
E, of Vladikivkai, and ijs m- NW. from Baku. Pop. 9806.
The town has become the port of embarcation for Krasnovodsk^
the Transcaspian territory, and the Cimrnl Asian khanates.
There arc naphtha wells; and the hoi idpbur baths at Ak.gol
PETROVIK. a town ol eastern Russia, in the gdvemnient
of Saratov, on (be Medvycdilsa, a tribulary of the Don, 60 m.
N.W. of the town of Saratov. Pop. (t864), io,t28; (1897),
13,113. It was founded by Filer the Great in 1698 as >
defence against the Kuban Tatars. Its industrial estlblishmenll
include distilleries, tanneries, tallow and brickworks.
PCTROZffVODIK, a town and episcopal see of Russia,
capital of the government of Oloncls, on the west shore of Lake
(W.K
ol Ahmohnsl, on the r«ht bank of the Irfujn nver, and ,g,^ „„j„J^ , „i„i ^^^i „ ^i„i„,ical .._
M the great Siberian highway, 1 70 m. by raJ W. o^ Omsk. The , government cannon-foundry are the chief public buildings
population. 7SS0 in i86s. "«* "^96 m ><)oo, of whom one-third ,^ in„itmLon,. Peter the Great founded ironwork, here in
•at Hahommedan Kirghu. The town carries on an active ^^^^^ ,^j j^j, continued In operation only twcnty.four years.
imie m attle, furs, tea, wool, sl.ns, cottons, woollen slulls, j^ cannon-foundry was inslitulcd in 1774. Petroiavodd.
™.. metals melalhc wares and !p.n". T^ srnall fort of b^„„h,„pi,al ^f ,he governmenl ol Olonet, in .goa.
Fnropavlovjl. ns founded in 1752, and was the mihlary centre pETBUCCI. PANDOLFO (d, isiO. lyrant of Siena, spent the
«lhe Ishim line of lortiBcations. grciler part of his youth inciilc, on account of the civil strife by
3^'l™]Sr£*""**''T^hIbSi^DnllIe*p"ilk:''S5?tl1?u^ a^"d "" P^fy of the AToKK*! (those who supported the Council of
£e lo»n ninaiRa'iMTSyol a few hills mth (Omc 400 inhabilanl'-. Nine) in 14S7 he was able 10 return home. On Ihe death ol his
Its laval inalilutions were mniferrrd to NIkoIayevsk after the brother Ciacopo, one of the most powerful men in the city,
attack nt the An^ French Beet in 1B54. Pandolfo succeeded 10 all the latler's offices and emoluments
PSTROPOLU, a dty of the state of Rio de Janeiro, Biaiil. (t4(17)- thus becoming in fact if not in name masterof Siena. By
b la elevated valley of Ihe Serra de Eslralla, 1634 ft. above his marriage with Aurelia, daughter of Nicola Borghese, another
Kthvel and 17 m. N. of the city of Rio de Janeiro, wilh which very innuential cilisen, he still further strengthened his authority.
k > toaatcxei by a comUaed railway ind steam^p line, and But he soon began to abuse his power by leUing public offices to
336
PETRUS AUREOLUS— PETTY
the highest bidders, or conferring them on his followers. A plot ^. Pettenkofer gave vifforout tspnmum to his views on hmm ud
»«• " J^ t^ w»ii«./i«i. him hilt k« Aimrrxv^rtiA th« ron«nir»/>v in dwcasc lo numerou* Dookt ftfld papcfs; be was ao editor of the
was made to murdo: him, but he discovcredthe conspiracy m zeUsckrift fir Biclogie from 1865 to%8te, and of the Artkm fit,
time, and his own father-m-law, who had been leader of the Hygiene irom 1883 to 1894.
movement, was put to death. In 1498 he Prevented the out- pBTTICOAT, an underskirt, as part of a woman's dress. TTie
^^^ **!? TxJl^ ^"^"^ ''''^y ^r P^^^**" of Montepidciano, uj^oat, ,.,. « petty<oat " or si^ coat, was originally a short
which had be«i a bone of contention between the t^ aties for ^^ ^^^ the upper part of the body worn i^dTin oatcr
over a hundred years. His atutude to^ C«are Borpa was ^^ j^ ^^^ Promp^lUm panulanm the Latin equivalent is
exceedingly astute; at first he assisted hun, and obUmed from ^^^^^ j^ ^^ ^^ ^ manTand a woman's garm^t, and wis
him i>nth the favour of the French king the cession of Piom^^^^^ in the first case worn as a smaU coat unda the doublet,
but having subsequently aroused the suspiaons of Borgia the ^„j ^ ^^^ apparenUy as a kind of chemise. It was^
Utter attempted to suppr^Pctruca by mvitmg him to the fataJ however, early appUed to the skirt worn by women banging
meeting of SemgaUia^ IJc Sienese tyrant, however^ did not j^^„ ^^ waist, whether as the principal lower garmentoru
faU mto the trap, and although Borgui m 1502 obliged hira to ^ underskirt. In the middle of the 17th cen^ the wide
qmt Slew, he returned two months htcr, more i^werful than y^^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ ^, embroidered ends ween by men
before. Petiiica supported Pisa in the ^r against Florence, but ^^^ ^^^ ^ « j.^^ breeches," a term abq applied to the
evcntuaUy, through the mteryention of the pope and of the king ,^,^ ^^^^ ^^ ^jy^ overalls worn by fishermen/
of Spain, he made peace with the litter aty^to which he i^ve ^^Tm. JOHN (1839-1893), Scottish painter, was bom in
back Montepulciano m 15". As a reward for this action Edinburgh on the 17th of March 1839. the son d Aleiander
Pope Juhus n. created his nephew cardina. During his last ^^^ ^^^^ p^^^.^ ^ ,8 ^y^ ^^^ xta^avtA to East
days Petruca abdicated his authority m javour of his son Lbton, Haddingtonshire, and a portrait by the lad of the
Borghese. He died at San Quinco di Osenna on the aist of ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ overcame his father's objectkos
May 15x2. * •» ^ ^** a*^ ** * career for his son. When sixteen he entered the
M^^rt^'T'ir-^/l^ri^iJ^^tfi S'SIf^^ .'S?^* *'^'^' Trustees* Academy in Edinburgh, working under Robert Scoct
MondoUo. P. Petrucct stgnore dt Stcna (S cna, 1899). j^^^^ ^^^ ^ ^ OrchardsonTj. MacWWrter, W. MTafisrt,
PETRUS AUREOLUS (Owol) scholastic phJosopher and p^^^^ ^^^^^ ^om Graham uid G. P. Chalmers. Hbfim
monk of the Franciscan order, hvcd m the latter half of the X3th ^j^jts ^t the Royal Scottish Academy were " A Scene fnm
century, and died in Pans m 1321 just after his appomtmcnt as ^^^ Fortunes of Nigel -"-one of the many subjecU for which
archbishop of Auc. He was one of the first to attack the j^^ ^^^^ inspiration in the novels of Sir Walter Scott-and
reahst doctrines of Duns ScotUs. and is mtcrestin^ mainly as the ^^^ portraiU in 1858, foUowed in 1859 by " The Prison Ptt."
precursorof Wilham of Occam m his revival of Nommalism. His ^o the Royal Academy in i860 he sent "The Armouren";
ability earned for him the Utlcs of Doctor Facundus and Doctor ^„j ^^ ^^^^^ ^j ^i^ ^^ ^^ ^, « y^f^^ ^^ L^
ilfcttmiajM. .„«„«« „^„ / « «« * . . Madam?" in the following year, encouraged him to settle in
PETTENKOPEM, AUGUOT VOH (1821-1889), Austrian painter, ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ere he joined Orchardson. In 1866 he wifc
bom in Vienna, was brought up on his father s estate in Galicia. ^,^j^ ^„ Associate of the Royal Academy, and in 1874 recehwl
Having decided to give up the military career on which he had f^y academical honours in succession to Sir Edwin Landxer.
started, he devoted himself to pamtmg, takmg for his subjects ^is diploma picture was " Jacobites, 174$." Pettie was a haiA
the simple scenes of the hfc on the dreary Puszta. Hisp^tinp ^^ ^pj^ mnV^x, and, in his best days, a colourist of a high
are treasured for their fine qualities of colour and for the ^^^^ ^^ ^ briUiant executant. In his eariy days he produced
sincerity with which the artist sets before us the uneventful ^ ^.^j^ain amount of book iUustration. His connexion ♦itb
melancholy life of Hungarian peasants and gipsicsr-without any q^^ j^^^^ |,^„ j^ ,8^,^ ^^1 ^^ continued tiU 1864. With"
theatrical pathos or forced humour. He was the mventor of the j MacWhirter he illustrated The Postman's Bat (Strahm,
Pettenkofen box, an appliance for dissolving and redistnbutmg ^g^,)^ ^^j Wordsworth's Poetry for the Young (Strahan. i86j).
cracked or discoloured varnish without fnction or the dangerous ^^ principal paintings, in addition to those already mentioned,
use of chemicals. He died m Vienna 1111889. are " Cromwell's SainU " (i86a); "The Trio." (1863); "Gear
PETTENKOFER. MAX JOSEPH VON (1818-1901), Bavanan fox refusing to Uke the Oath " (1864); " A Drumhead Omit.
chenflst and hygicnist, was bom on the 3rd of Dcccmbcri8i8 ^j^^j^ "(1865); "The Arrest for Witchcraft "(i866);"Tkca«M'
at Lichtenhcim, near Neuburg. He was a nephew of Franz (1867, now in the Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield); "Tusskwilkt
Xaver Pettenkofer (1783-1850), who from 1823 was surgeon and Highland Smuggler " (1868); " The Sally " (1870); '^ 'RrBBls
apothecary to the Bavarian court and was the author of some ^^^ Besieged " (1872); " The Fkg of Truce " (1873); " Ho! Bol
chemical investigations on the vegetable alkaloids. He studied qj^ j^^ij.. ^^^ u^ gj^^^ Secret" (1874); "A Sw<ird and Diflff
pharmacy and medicine at Munich, where he graduated M.D. in pight" (1877); " The Death Warrant "(1879); " MonmovlhaBd
1943, and after working under Liebig at Giessen was appointed j^^^^^ II."(i882); " The VigU " (1884. in the Chantrey Col«-
chemist to the Munich mint m 1845. Two years later he was j.^„ National GaUcry of British Art); " ChaOenged " (1885);
chosen extraordinary professor of chemistry in the medical " The Chieftain's Candlesticks " (1886); "Two Strings to Her
faculty, in 1853 he received the ordinary professorship, and m jj^^ m (igg^). ** The Traitor " and " Sir Charles Wyndhaatt
1865 he became also professor of hygiene. In 1894 he retired p^^jj Qarrick " (1888); and " The Ultimatum " and " Boaaie
from active work, and on the loth of February 1901 he shot him- ^^-^^^^ Charlie " (1892). Pettie died at Hastings on the lut
self in a fit of depression at his home on the Starnbergcr Sec, near ^j February 1893. In 1894 a selection of his work was inchMkd
Munich. In his earher years he devoted himself to chemistry, j^ jj^^ yyjj^jg^ Exhibition of the Royal Academy. Hii poitnil
both theoretical and apphed, pubbshing papers on the prepara- j,y himself is in the Tate Gallery.
tion of gold and platinum numerical relations between the atomic j^f,„ p^,ii^^ j^^ (London, 1908). by his nephew Martin Harffc
weights of analogous elements, the formation of aventunnc gives the story of his life, a cauloguc of hu pictures, and Ucf
glass, the manufacture of illuminating gas from wood, the prescr- reproductions in colours.
vation of oil-paintings, &c. The reaction known by his name for PETTY, SIR WILUAM (1623-1687), English statiitidai ad
the detection of bile acids was published in 1844. In his widely political economist, bom on the 26th of May 1623, was the M
used method for the quantitative determination of carbonic acid of a clothier at Romsey in Hampshire, and received Ui cifif
the gaseous mixture is shaken up with baryta or lime water of education at the grammar school there. About the age d
known strength and the change in alkalinity ascertained by means fifteen he went to Caen (Normandy), taking with him a ftdt
of oxalic acid. But his name is most familiar in connexion with stock of merchandise, on which he traded, and to iiishitliwi
his work in practical hygiene, as an apostle of good water, fresh himself whilst learning French, improving himsdf in Latin uA
air and proper sewage disposal. Hb attention was drawn to this Greek, and studying mathematics and other sciences. On Ik
subject about 1850 by the unhealthy condition of Munich. return to England he seems to have had for a ahoit time a pin
h Ik rojrd Bivy. KcikdI abnud again in |6«3, and nmaiiKd
kr tbitt ytm in Frmnce and the Netherlands, punuLng hia
•hIu. In Paris be read Vcsaliui with Hobbes, who was then
PT"""!! hia TrattatHS efluui, and it is uid that Petty drew
Ue divuu for him. In 1647 Peity obtiined a patent for the
he f^KHsed the aide nf the parliament, Hia first publication
n a letter tn Samuel HartLb in i&iS, entitled Adsia Jar Ike
AbaumaU tj lemt Parliaior Paits e{ Ltant\n%. the object
«f vhkh via to recommend such a chanp in education aa would
|in it a more pnctical chaiutet. In the sime yeu he look
■p ha readence at Oirord, where he wu made deputy piafasnr
d anttomy, and where he gave instruction in that science and
iatbcinistiy. In 1649 he obtained the degree ol doctor o[ physic,
e College. -
PETTY-OFFICER— PETWORTH
noriety in
iO by re:
hid bea hanged Cot infanlic:
d laataay at Oilord, and sbo became piolesHt of music
CnriiBai College. In 1651 he *rnt to Inland, having bi
ippwUed physician to the army in that country. In j6
gtaSTigg that ibc admeaiuremenl and division ol the lai
hifeiud in 1641 and gnnled to the soldiers had been "m
ixttcitnily and abaucdly managed," be entered into a contr
to (semte a fresh survey, which he completed in thirti
■Qctlii.1 By this be gained iqooo, and part of the money
■ntol profitably in the purchase o[ soldiers' debentures,
bny thai, according la John Aubrey, he could behold Ir
who
.rvpyed, he held that of tr
lolhe
cM of the counciL In January i6^i be was elected to Richard
CUDnS's parliament as member for West Looe in Cc
Aha (he Restoration be relumed to England and was lavi
>nn«d and knighted by Charles II., who was " much pleased
■ilk Ui iii(enio«i diKourses," and who, it is uid, intended to
nue Urn earl of Kilmore. He obtained from the king a new
-""■■ ■ ■ a surveyor-gc ■ '■ ■
lebylh
unotat
kniancd ship, whicb twice made the passage between Dublii
Bd Holyhead, but was alterwardalox in a violent ctorm. H
•u one a( the first members ol the Royal Society, and sat 01
iaconncn. He died in London on the i6lh ol December 1637
nd was buried in the cburcb of bis native place. His will, .
OBmis and chataclerislic document, is printed in Chalmers'
Ktfftfkiat DUliainry,
ffit widow, Elizabeth (d. ijo8), daughter of Sir Hirdrcss
TiDr (1604-1^6), the Irish Cromwcllian soldier and regicide,
n created Baroness Shelbume by James II. in i63S; and hei
Ihiir death without issue the Petty csuin passed to theii
vter, Anne, and after her marriage 10 the ist earl of Kerry thr
Shdhoae title was revived in her son's favour (see undei
LuawwHi, isl Maiqimss).
Felly'a Irish survey was based on a coUeclion of social data
which cstitlea him to be considered a real pioneer in the scienc<
<f comparative stalistics. He was also one of the first in when
we find a teiutency to a view of industrial phenomena which wa<
eihibiU a statesmanlike sen
Ortaglh of a nation really
having, along with Locke and
Khoei to tbe highest pcnnt it
fBled ibe " Dvwn Survey," b
^HH; il it called by that narr
iS^ccomt °( lh.'pn>ceedin,
<Aed by Sir Thoniai A. L
Saeiety in iSji. Tbe man, ■
h ITrl. are piacrved ia the P
IE o( Ihe elements in which the
:onsists. Roscher name^ him
Dudley North, raised the Engli
ittained before the time of Huir
Petty was, <mnewhat whinuicall
f in Petiy'swill. He left in MS.
production. Petty b niKh concerned to discover a Gicil
[ of value, and he think* he has Eound it in the necessary
.cnance of a man for a day. He understands the cheapening
itutaland (rue " tent ai the remainder of the produce of land
r payment ol the cost ol production; but he seems to have no
i ol Ibe "law of diminishing returns." He haa much that
ust on the subject of money* he sees that there may be an
3S of it aa well aa a deficiency, and regartls the prohibition
IS eipotlalion as contrary to Bound policy. But he em in
ibuting the fall of the tale of interest which takes place in tbe
gress of industry to the increase in thequantilyof money.
He protested against the fetters imposed on the trade of Ireland,
and advocated a union ol that country inlh Great Britain.
Whilst the general tendency in hia day waa Lo represent England
I in a stale of progressive decline — an opinion put forward
jtticularly in the tract entitled B'iiannia /onjueiu— Felly
cclared her resources and proipects to be not infeiioi lo those
he mail important are: the TrtUiu of Tarn tad CmuninlHiu
(iMl. 16&7 and l68j): PolMial Arilluiiaic. prewnled in MS to
Chirlii 11., but. becauH il eontained oiatter likely Id be offensive
to France. Iiepi unpublished till 1691. when il wai edited by Peily'*
■on Charles: Qntniulitmmgiif. era Tnul itKmiiiti Jtfsney (i6ti);
Okumalumi tfrn Ikt Dfiliii Bills sj UotOlily in iMr on/fte SuU
of Ikal C<lj (tbij): Eiiaj amctrnint tin UiJlifliaain of Uatad
(lblS6): Pallidal AniUtmr ol InlnKl (it^l). Several papers appeared
In the FI,iloiopl.i,<U r.o->u£(u™. See Eicucmic WiuiMgi of Sir
Willuim Pair. cd. C. H. Hull (1 voli., 1S99J.
FEITT-OFFICEfl, the title in the navy ol a large number ol
minor (Fr. pflUr small) officeta. ol less than comaiissioned or
armourer, cook, &c They were oiiginally named, and removable,
by the captain.
PETQHIA, in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the
natural order Solanaceae and containing about 16 species, chiefly
South American (southern Braail and Argentina). The garden
forms are derived Irom the whilc-fiowcred P. nyclagiHifiara and
the violel- ot purple-floweted F. riofocrs. The varietiei of
petunia, espectaUy the double farms, make admirable specimens
on a dry warm
"uS.'and.'i^eS
They are then
established are
Iced out or potted off a> soon as
IS ol leedi Hippiv plants suitable
e propagated, like tl
"velS.^hrpIanlfJie^ "be"
•orli nirticutitly required mut
one., from cultmgs.
PETWORTH. a market town
orialiol
rkel town in the Horshajn patliamentuy
ngland. j; m. S.S.W, Croo) London by
n & South Coast railway. Pop. (iQot),
iglh century, and contains 1 magnificent coUeciion ol pictures.
At Bignorin the neighbourhood are remains of an impotlaot and
splendidly adorned Roman villa.
The first mention of Pelworth ( Peart ingawyrth, Feteorde,
Puetewird, Pedewurde, Pulteworth, Fylteworlh, Pettewonh)
occurs in a grant by Eardwulf, king of Norlhumbrin. to St Peter's
Church, about 79T. InlbeiimeofEdwardihe Canfessor Pet worth
was an allodial manor held by his queen Edith, and in 1086 Robert
Fiti-TelbaW held il of Roger Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury.
It then included a church and a mill, and was rated al nine hides.
Through Queen Addisa, Petworth came finl into the hands of
338 PEUTINGER— PEWTER
her stnritd, Rtgiiuld dc Wyndm, ind hu dflcrwirdi given of Whitby.ln Yi)rkihire,i>perbipt[lMbc
lo her bnlhcr Jaiccline, who held it of ihr honour at Amndct. an uullcrcd inleriot.
Jmccline marrinl Agna de Percy and usiimed Ihe lunumc of "^^ '->i>'> "ord l^mm ku panicuUrl
Percy. The honour and manor of Felwonh foUowtd the desceni
D[ this family iinlil 170S. In ij,7 Henty Percy *«i crated earl
of Northumberland. The only daughter ol the lisl earl married
Charlei, duke ol Somerset, in i6S>. and FelKorlh dBceoded
through thdt daughter Catherine to the earli of Eiremonl, The
adopted Km oi the third eatl wu created Baron Leconfield in
Maiimilhui- He •!» ooe al the fini to pubiitb Roman iiucrip-
tiou, and hii name rtRuini aiuciatcd wiih Ihe [amous Tttula
Jeii(iii((rHiiw (see M*p), a map of the military roadi of the
western Roman Empire, which was discovered by Konrad Celles,
who handed it over to Feiainger Eor publication. Peutinger also
edited the Hiiloria Collamm of Jordanei, and the HUkiria
fcruia LanfubardcruM ol Paidui Diaconut. which lo pray."
•"■- TaS^ foiinKruiu Hu iirsi publiJied as a whole by At commonlawiUieauinipaiishchufrhaiifbril
.oral ..id''c!' Milli^JisM)"'™'!'!^" pL\t. l!X?i;*rfi'^ ™ "' "^^ "" P="^''«°"'. "'' ""y PartsWooer ha.1
a^ T^d (1967): aod Te^Hel-Schwabe, Hill, i^ Soman Uic,aturc «»' without paying tor it. The dispoutioo of the lea
(Eng. iniur. 190OJ. diKielion of the churchwardens acting Eor the orrlinr
PBVBKSEV, a village ui Ihe Eastboutne parliamenlary purpose of orderly arrangemenl (u to the eierdie 1
division of Sussex, England, 65 m. S.S.E. from Loodon by the crelion see RiyimUi v. Minuklm, ia4i, i M. & R. 384
London, Brighton & South Coast railway. Pop. (iQoi), can be exercised in cases where all Ihe leau arc free
468. Thevmigeiiamemberof the Cinque PorU, but the sea Cufrri/I, 18S7, iS Q.B.D. 607). The right lo « tea
hu teeeded ■ mile from it in historic limes. The outer wall, belong to a non -parishioner. Aa against the aiiift
with solid towers, ol the celebrated castle, is of Roman cooslruc- diiposition of seals by llie oidinaiy, acting Ihrougli t
lion, and originally enclosed a complete oval; it is generally wardens, two kinds of appropiiitioa on be let up
considered lohave enclosed the strong town oMnJeriis. Within grant ol a [acuity by the ordinary, and (i) by pretcripi
rise the fine ruins, piindpally ol the ijth century, bul in part on Ilie presumplion of a lost faculty. Such iacuUie*
Norman, of the culle proper, with a keep and four massive granted now; they were formerly common; the gns'
■hows beautiful Early En^sh work. It has been supposed that certain house in the parish "; the word) "of a certain t
Pevensey was the scene oi the landing of Caesar in S5 B.C., bul the now usually omitted. The claim 10 ■ pew by pre*cii|
question is disputed. be in respect of a house in the parish; the ri|^i ii nb
The name of Pevensey (Paevenisel, Fevensel, Pevenca. Pemsey) burden ol repauing the pew; it is not an easemenl, ni
fini occurs in a grant of land there by the KUIh Saion Duke Prescriplion Act i8ji apply to it (see for the whole n
Benhualdl01heabbeyo[StDeaiiin7gs. !□ lalei Saion limes, claim by pmcHption PkdJi>i v. HoUirfiy, iS4i,A.C.
al least by ihe reign of Edward the Confessor, il was a royal letting ol pews in parish churches became common ii
borough and had a harbour and a market. Its early importance century, bul there are Mne earlier instancei of th
was due to its lendble port. It wai Ihe landing plate of William eumple at St Eweni, Bristol, in 14;; {Ckiudnaiinf
tbc Norman on hit way to conquer, and was Ihe cn^ ol the rape Sir J. Maclean, Tram. Briiltl aiiJ Oaucalir ArcJtaoL ,
of Pevensey. which wasgranled by William to theeail of Mortain iv., igQo-iSqi}. The taking ol pew rents in parish (
and subsequently became Ihe Honour of the Eagle. Some time illegal (Lord Slowell, hi Waltf v. C*inier, 1798, 3 Hi
before the rdgn ol Edward I. Ihe town of Pevtntey wu made Si7);but under Ihe various Church Building Antics
' bared Ihe libeniea ol the Cinque lelandrentscharged topay the salary ol Ihe minister,
it posaessea no charter, ft was See A. Htaia, Hislary atii Laa cj Churik Saati tad Pi
rive jurats, elected annually, until FbiiUmon, EaJa. lam (1S96). iL 1434 an).
to eiist as a borough. lis seal PEWTER, 1 general name used to denote a nnmbe
Bgn ol Henry IIL The gradual of various metals in drveiV! ptoponions, the sole comn
nplete in the ijlh century and of which lies in the fact Ihat tin is always the chief o
was caused by the recession of the sea and consequent loss of the The etymology of the word ia doubtful, but it is pt
harbour. English modification of ipdtrr, which was atfoplcd vrii
PBW (Uid. Eng. fnv, through 0. Fr. ^yo, pui. mod. fvy, less local alteration by the continental European ui
m the sense ol hill, d. K^fH/er, to lean against; Irom Lai. paditm, at an early period were eager purchasers ol the ware,
a high place, balcony; Ci. >Uuw, pedestal, toCi, foot), a term, ptaidcr in Dutch, pciUre, pta*lri or ^ylre in Erencl
En its most usual meaning, lor a hied seat in a chuicb, usually Italian and ptllre in Spanish. Roman pewter, the old
enclosed, slightly raised Irom the floors, and composed ol wood which has been disinterred at various t^cca in En
framing, mostly with ornamented ends. Some bench ends are elsewhere, waa composed of tin and lead alone, for tbc
certainly of Decorated character, and some have been considered traces ol iron are believed to be accidental, in pioporti
ID be of the Early English period. They are sometimei of plain though varying considerably, group themselves a
oak board, 3^ to 3 in. thick, chamfered, and with a necking definite formulae, one containing 71*5 parts of tin
and finial generally called a ptfpy kcai; athen are plainly lead, the other ;g-] of tin to 11-7 of lead, or one Ifhi
panelled with bold cappings; iu others the panels are omamented 4) and ] unciae of lead respectively. On the Eurc^eai
running foliage). The large pewa with high enclosures, curtains, date of the Raman pewter found in Britain, when 1
parish churches during the iSlh and early pan of the igth the chief, il not the only secondary ingredient, li
centuiio. h^ve nearly all been cleared away. The pitiifa cbuich ptwieieri ol Mootpelier added t parta of lead to
a mi
■tabtc ol Hastings
Port
gove
med by a baiUB an
bye
Ji act ol iSS] it c
date
. apparently from
dedi
ne ol Pevensey w!
PEZENAS— PFAFF
o puu of lad to go ol
aa cwBi; tmc ol Limoga lucd 4 pans of
It NuRmbcTK in 1S7A it mm onUiocd thai
M Dcn tku I ib of laid ibould b« miud irilh every id th
(( tk; b Fnm duriii( the iSih ceoiury > limii of ti% of
k>d m bnpoMd. wbac U the proenl lime 16-5'^ with ■ mmrgin
rf I-] (v tnon i> n^uded u ule lor the itonge of vine mod
Inwn up ia ij<S ind n
pcniDa oT 16 lb to och huDdredwdtht, tboush Ihi) qiunlity
won M hm been found eicasive, ainn in 1351 ■ pewterei
ta pmiihed beauw hii iJIoy fontuoed n»re than 16 Ib
to IIk bundredini^t. udEsi thii be a clerical error [n the
QBl^ionry recoTds of the Pewtcren' Compiny, Anicla
mil sf IhH Ruterul were to be known u " vciseli ol tyn for
(■dnlB, uucen, plalten, chirf
tkr aaie square." luch u crvc
niit other to the rough maze Ih
to the iharpncB of their nn
Ik BiUiiaL Tht redpe toi
<n B modi bt«« to the tin " as it wot r
hM tbe lack of precision [n Ihia perlup*
Mnpuh Kcidental variations from d
1. called fc
ndered it difficult
[berate i
. 16 tb of
tin. Tbei
m > que a tncm aiieraiioni ana impnvcinen
llKtbcf aadperbapi Iheearlisl at these wu the I
■■taia fnponion of bismuth, of M i1 was then
imr When (fate was Gni u>cd i> not rea>rded, I
i m accepted a> ■ mailrr of course; in i6]0 a r
flull for not sufficiently tempering
,6s, il
mint be miied w
. of li
by is6,
Mbsequeiitly introduced — though tb
■hie at in tin and temper (16 to tjo pails) and iriSe (1; pant
It ■] id tin), sometimes wiib other metals ai in bald metal
(gt parts of tin, S ot anlimony and i of coppci), • miiture
tny dosdy resembling that still used under (he name of " Brit-
4of copper and 40! bismuth). The wares wereoriginally fasb-
naedin two ways, b^'hammerinf or by casting, and the workers
li fadi were strictly diSerentiated. the former, who wofkcd in
iar pewter, being Lnown as Sadware men. the latter who used
'ltT"aaHolk>w-waremen. A third class, known as Tri Ren.
hva the alloy they were limited to, probably at first only manu-
m definitely fall undereilherof tb
Itii, H B clear that Ihe barric
wafe men had been largely bn
working pewter which 9
lit froi
een introduced laler. and
I spinning, by which the
by Ihemerepressuieof a
allowing ol its flowing
IS employed for boiling the
Edward 1. in ii;t. though we gather [bat (be trade waa even
then doutishing in Palis and Bruges, whence during the following
century it eitended to Augsburg, Nuremberg, Poilien, Uonsand
other continental ceoUe*. Coined at first to the more wealthy
datiei, we can trace as Cime goes on its eilension lower and
lower in the sodal scale, until )I the end of the i;th century iu
use was almost universal Hienceforwnnl its vogue steadily
deduied. The growing cheapness of glass and chinawarc and the
invention of more showy metals brought upon it by degrees the
fata] stigma of vulgarity, until with very few eiceptiona it*
Aitistioilly, pewtEr waa at its best when it* makeri were least
conscious of the ait revealed in it, thinking more of (be dunbDity
and appropiialencK to purpose of their waiea (ban of Ibeir
decorative qualities. Though inlentkmally ornamental veatell
ihay be found earlier, it was not until the iStb century that
(he pewtcrers set themselves to slavishly copying the designs
and methods of the silversmiths, whether auilable to their
material or not, and thereby undoubtedly haalened their own
downfall.
Of recent yean pewter has taken its place among Ihe atliclcs
sought after by collectors, and its ccot has so materinlly and
rapidly incifssed that the manufacture of vessels, guaranteed
of course genuinely antique, bids fair to become once more
a paying industry. UnlortLnitdy the various enactments
compelling each maker to stamp hia ware with a definite touch'
mark seem at all times to have been very generally evaded or
ignored, and eipenence alone is therefore the only safe guide
PfZEHAS, 1 (own ot southern Prance, in the deputmnit of
Hf rsult 33 m. W.S.W. of Montpellier on the southern railway.
Pop. (1506), 643J. The commerce in cognac, spirits and wine«
I> BO important (hat the prices current for these at the weekly
tila are registered throughout tbc wine marts of France and
Europe. There it a handsome tnonument to Molifre, who lived
at Pfienasseveralyearaand produced hit firat plays there in 16;;
and i6j6. A gateway (15th century) and old mansion ol the
Ffieoa
founded by the Caub. In the
i;»tal of a counlship subsequently
ncluding those of Montmorency,
held by importai
Cond<ind Conli. In tne i7tn century tne town was on sever
occasions Ihe meeting place oi the estates of Languedoc.
PFAFF. JOHAHH PRIEDSICH (1765-1315), German milh
maticim. was bom on the jind of December 1765 a( Siutlgai
He received his early educillon at the CatlsKhule, where he m
F. Schiller, bis lifelong friend. His mathematical capacity w,
early noiiced; he pursued his studies at C«ilingen under Abnha
Gotthcll Klitner {i7r»-iSoo), and in 1787 he went to Berlin ai
■■ ■ " ■ ■ r J. E. Bode. In 1788 Pfj
becam
irolesi
ofm.
. labidishedioiSio. From that time till
death on the list of April 1815 he held the chair of maihe-
ict at Halle. Pfaff's researches bore chiefly on the theory of
Bs. to which he applied the method* of the so^alledcombina-
il school of German mathematicians, and on the solution of
gcnerah'i, aiquationa
PFALZBURG— PFORTA
ntved by the qaeen. But ihe nawUtlnfty
of ■ ccrtiin diScKDtial equation which gcoenUy bean h
name, faut wbich had originally been Irealed in a leu coinplele aiiovea neracu lo oe mvoivea ta m pux lo avauirow ldc fDveni<
manner by L. Eulec (lee Dcfiibehiui-Equations), The laltei ment, and ns eipelled Ifae cauntly. She died at Vimna na
miTli ointains an important addition to the theoiy o[ partial the i7lh ol October iSjS.
diSeimtial equatignt aa it had been left by J. L. La^ange. The XnH tuck IfaJanuiar ma iHixd in iKl (Vkuia], niik t
Hii brother, Johahn Wilhelu Andreas Piuw (1771-1835), biography by berio
Doniil, NuKmb<ig, WUraburg and Erfangen. Another hrolher
Chiutuh TlEIHiJCH FruT (i;7j-iBsi], ipadualedin niedicini
at Stuttgart in 1793, and (mm iSoi till bii death wai pnfisHi:
of medicine, phyiict and chemiitry al the univenity of KieL
PFiUZBUKQ, a town of Germany, in Ibe imperial province 0
AlMCe-Lorraine, liea bigh on Ihe (lelt alopcl of the Voaget, ij di
N.W. o! Slrauburg by rait. Pop. (1905], jjifi. It conlaint at
EvangeUcal and a Roman Catholic church, a lynagogue i
w bats an
luln
; Lquei
The principality o( Pfalibuig
capital, oiiginilly a part of Luii
turn to Ihe bishop of Mete, th<
duke of Lorraine, and pased ir
1661. The town was '*
of the Vosgea, and «
.e the I
id also quarrying.
(i8j9-ipoS]. German Pmcttant tbeo-
logian, wai bom at Stellen near CanniLadt in WflrtteDbet)
on Ibe 111 of Scplembci 1839. From 1SJ7 10 1B61 be itidied at
Tubingen under F. C. Baur; and afterwacda in En^and ant
ScoiUod. He then entered the miniiuy, became npdtia al
Tubingen, and for a abort time held a paitorate ftt Hedlbnna
f[S68]. In 1870 he became chief paitor and auperfntotdcal al
Jena and aoon allcrwarda pntfeaaor ordinariul of ihsdofy, bM
in 1S7J be nai called to the chair of tyttemalic tbeolofy at
ongly fortified
I 16S0.
December of thai year. They have ilnce been rued.
PFBIFFER, FRANZ (1815-1868), German uholar, was bora al
Belllach near Soleure on (he 37th of February iSij. After
iludying at the university of Munich he went lo Stullgarl,
where in 1846 he became librarian 10 the royal library. In
1856 PfeiSer founded Ibe dmunu, a quarterly periodical
devoted lo German antiquarian nsearch. In 1857. having
e of Ihe fo ' ' '
mufadure of Berlin, havingmadchiinamebyaMrietofanidetODNevTcata-
ment criiicivn snd Johannine and Pauline Ibeolocy, vhidi
appeared in Adolf Hilgenfeld'i Zetlujbn/f fSr BumuciloWiBlf
Ticulogii, and by hi) Dtr Paulinitmui. published in 1874 (and
ed., 1890; Eng. Irani., Pauiinism: a CntrOatian U lit Hitmjif
Primilm Ckrislian Thslciy, 1 vols,, 1S7J, kc.). Dai Urcliu-
IfUtm, leine SikrifUn laid Likrtn. in ftalniklliclitm Zuaaa-
mtnlant batkri^ttn wa> published in 1S7S and CDoiidaab^
enlarged for a lecond editiaa in 1901 tEng- irau., i^aS). la
iggo appeared Tin Dnetopmail of Tkalaty liiut KtU, ami ia
Propai in GfiBt Brilai* liHa iSif, which ma written far
pubhcation in England. A more eUbotale work wcs hs
JWi(igwMilMg^*ie ii>/fuc*ibllfi<ln &in>Aait <iS7S; lod cd,
enlarged, 1883-1884: Eng, trans., from ind Cennui cd, Tk
Phiioftky ef Rdipim m llu Baiii of ill SiHtry. « voll^ itM-
1888). " The Influence of the Apoitle Paul on the Devtlapncw
of Chrisiianity " was the title of a coune of Hibbot LeclBm
~ London in 188J. In 1894 be ddivcml the QSoid
it of Ihear
I!ride f^
il hteralure and philology, be was appointed Lectures al Edinburgh, Ihe lubject being " Tbe PhilaiBiAy aid
at Ibe univenity of Vienna; and in Development of Religion." Hit lalet publkatiais indDded:
>f the Imperial Academy of Sdenco. The Early Clrislian Cinuiptie* ej Ciaiil (igoj), Dit ffiJilifcm.
d«CAruic>ifiimi(i9oj: Eng. trans., 1906), AMftmaWJUifiMMa
(I90«: Eng, trans., 1907), and Dit £>i(iHcU»g itt Ckriikmian
(1907). He died on the i8lh of July 1908, at GroM Lkblerfeiite,
near Berlin. In New Testament oilidsm Pfleiderei bellied
to tbe critical school which grew out of the impuhe gina by
F. C. Baur. But. lilie other modem German ■«— t-^-— tt
showed a greata (Uspotiiion to compnHBJK. AU hk wnik iliM
a Judicial tone of mind, and is remaikibk for the chaiB of la
Pfladerer'a younger brother Edkund (i&ii-igot) ib
linguished himself both in phQcoophy and tbcolofy. He Hi
entered the ministry (1U4) and during tbe Francs^SsBB
. War served as army chaplain, an eapeticnce ileniibed k Ul
Erlelmillt Cl'nei Fddiriillilkni (1S90). He was aftOWB*
' ' " Hus of phihisophy al Kid ItiiA
PFEIFFEK. IDA LAURA (1707-1858), Austrian tiavell
daughter of a merchant turned Reyer. was bom al Vienna
the i4ih of October 179:. In 'Bm she married Dr Pfciflet,
. !">tly in
tion and was reduced 10 poverty. In
Palestine and Egypt, and published an acco
Riisi li^er Wienoin in dai Hiilifi ioni ( Vi
she set out to Scandinavia and Iceland, d
two volume*. Sclie luik dim liaadiaarisi
Ificllilaiul {Pta. 1846). In i846ihestaned on a journey round
Ihe world, visiting Braail, Chile and other countries d! South
America. Tahiti, China, India. Persia. Asia Minor and Greece,
and reaching home in 1848. The lesuhs were published in
Eixc FraunfaM urn Jit Well (Vienna, 1850). In i8ji she went
to England and thence to South Africa, intending (0 penetrate
into Ihe Interior; this proved impracticable, but she proceeded
10 the Malay Archipelago, spending eightcer '-
1 1878 h
Mad
a Island'
New Granada, t
fcifler proceeded to Califon
Alter a
to eiplote Madagascar, when
Tubingen , . .
sccplicism in Hume's philosophy, modem pesaimiHB, KaMit
criticism, English philosophy, Heraclitus of Ephesu* ud bmI
PFORTiC or ScnuLPFOBia, formerly a CIsienian dmbMbt
dating from 1)40. and now a celcbnied German public icM,
It is in Ihe Prussian province of Suony, on tbe Sule, > K
S.W. of Nsumburg. The remains of the monaitety indndttk
Ulh century Gothic church, recently restored, tbe Biiimiqc
cbapel (iitb century) and other buildings now wed itdni-
toriei, lecture rooms, &c. There is also the FUreleiib«>,liAk
1573, Schulpforta was one of the three FdrHnucMnlBaM
in i;43by Maurice duhe, and later elector, of SuooF.thaiwi
Ihe others being al Crimma and at Meisien. The pnpcRT <^ '^
dt to Australia, dissolved monastery provided a good revenue for the Bcv diM-
, Peru, Ecuador, tional foundation .which now amounts to about £ii,eoB a >tB.
rlh agaui to the Free education is provided for 14a boya, Ihe total wnhi d
arralive. Urine pupilsbeing 185. After bcingin theposicision of Saiaav.FlKli
passed (o Prussia in i8ij. and since thiidaUthri
entirely rcorganiied.
PFORZHEIM— PHAEDRU5 341
■ lawn of Germuy, in the gnnd duchy of cbuiotcn anil fivouritc of C^lut. The toutlh book ii dedicucd
Biom, u ine anflucKc of the Nifiild umI the Eni. on the 10 Poniculo, vbo i«m> 10 have dibbkd in lilcnlurt. The data
■ontm miriin of the Bluk Foral, iQin. S.E.o[ Kulmheby id Uieit pubUcalion ue unlcnmti, but SroMi, vriting betwua
nil. ud U Uk junction ol Una to Wildbid uhI EUIingcn. A.D.41 and 43 ICmaal. ad Palyt. 1;), koowt nothing ol Phardnu,
hp.(il95)>3Ji545>C'905), 5gjg5,moitof wboin ArcProtdtviU, and it is probable that he had published nolhjng then. Hiawork
111 mnt iDtereidni building are the old palicc of Ihc matgnvet ihowi little or no originality, he limply venificd in iimbk
U tiita, and the Schloiikirehei the Utter an edifice of the trimelcn the fables current in hiadayundetthenameof'Anop,"
ink-ijlh ccnluries, conlaioing the tomb* and monuments of blenpening tbem irilh anecdotes dnini [loni daily liTe, hialoiy
at Bsijiaves. Pfonbeim ij the chief centre in Gcnnany loi aod mythology. He tells his fable and diawi the moial with
the Duaufactun of (old and silver ornaments and jewelry, an buainesoliLv dLrrclnesa and aimplidty; his langiu^ ls (erse and
iidiDliT i^ticfa give* employment to about 11,000 haad% clear, but thoroughly prosaic, though it occasionally atlains a
heidrs ivfiich then are iron and copper *orka, and manu- dignity bordering on eloquence. His l^tin is cortect, and,
boons ti chemicals, paper. Leather, machinery, &c A brisk except for an eicesHve and peculiar use of abstract words,
lode is maintained in timber, calile and agricullunl produce, ihon hardly anything that inight not have been written io the
Fhnlieun [FoiIa Hetcyniie) is of Roman origin. From about Augustan age. Fiom a lileiaiy point of view Phacdnia is
i)ooloi56jit was the laX of the margraveaof Baden. It wu inferior to Babrius, and to his own imiiaior. La Fontaine; be
ukoi by the troop* of the Catholic League in 1A14, and wu lacks the quiet pictuiesqueness and palhca of the foimet, and
Wnrid by the French in 16S9. The story of the 400 dliicna the exuberant vivacity and humour of the latter. Though he
<f floRheim who sacrificed Iheznselvta for their prince after frequently lefen to the envy and detraction which pursued him.
Ik battle of Wimpfcfl in May 1611 has been relegated by Phaednis seem* to have altractrd Utile iltenlloa in antiquity.
■odcTD htstorical research to tlie domain of Legend. He la mentioned by Martial (iiL lo. j), who imitated fame of hi
SaCoa " _..__.. .... _.. ....
e>fl« ,--
PBiBN). GreA philosopher, tOBOdet of the Elian school, wu The fini edilioB of the five books of Phaedra, ni publidKd
iiHiKofnis,botninthela»tye»r«olthesthcenluryB.C In ImiiK ™t\?tMionff.'Til»'i8iE°Mir!i!!
Ih n of 401-400 between Sparta and Elis he was taken d „ p.^^ , MS. oFperotti li«o-i4«o), aitS-
ka DMoricty. He became a pupil of Socrates, who conceived lew- Thoe new tables were Brtt publiibed at
sons aStction for him. It appear, thai he was intimate with j" '"^^ ^J^tl^TZi^l'^^^J^Sl.i'lt^l
«»urfPUto,andhegavehisnametooneolPIUo'.di.logue,. UTjnSS^h^^S^ .ft C^
tlbseus rdates. bowevFi, that he resolutely dechned responal- iMaiiniSji. FocKHne dmelbeauIkenUdiyot
lirr br any of the views with which Plato credits hira, and that • disputed, but Ibey are now teneraUy aceiHed.
tknhlkDa between him and Flalo were the reverse of friendly ^^ with justice. aageDuine fables of Pbaedms. They do not tana
tad». ato -rc« a dialogue ralM PWo Shortly after EJ^^^bllT iri.''iS^^rS^'^!^^
fcJathirfSi>cralesPhaedoretumedtoElu.wbeTehiidiiaples pimce. in il« five books. They tre UKalTy printed as sn appmdui
kdpkd Aiwhipylus, Mt4Chua and Fldstanus. who succeeded In the middle axes Phaedrus exercised a conudenble influefKe
W SahseqaenUy Menedemus and AsdepUdes transferred throuih the pn« yerrioa. of his fables which »ere currem^though
ikKhoDl to Erelria, where it was known as the Eretrian school '^^ mIik ^A^i^
■ad it fRqnenlly identified (e.(. by Cicero) with the Meguiani. ^ by Nilant at Leiden
Ac deoriaa of Phaedo an not known, noi is it ponible to t amroacbes the ten of
Ma tlKB from the PUtooic dialogue. His wiilinga, none of <»« ^'™l!X ffS^j^
rtdisiepeeserved,wereinthefotmofdiJogue*. As to their it IS ^IS^ilaStSiS
••tkttlfcity DoUiing is known, in spite of an attempt at selection rtiich bears the nme of
br Fioscliul (Diog. Lairt. ii. 64), who maintains that the , is as old as the loth
i^^w and the" Jistm are genuine. Seneca has ptaerved one ^,!!IS'.??^"TS^
i*li««eU<E#«(.94.4i), »««ly that ooemeihodof acquiring ^SSd or e^ «riS"
[ ntac is to frHiueat Ibe society of good men. lie cDllcciian al fables
Sir ftTiboirwita. Btrma, liv. 189 acq. S. ii based on the one
PHUrai, In GteA legend, daughter erf Minos and Pa^haC veniani conciin in all
ITithhsBSteiAriadnesbewaicuned off by Theseus to Athens, *" ^ 'IT"'™! ''°Vi^
sad became his wife. On the way to Eleusis she met Hippolytus. dISIt «" UM*"-
■aef Tlfleus by a foima wife (Hippolyte. queen of the Ama-
■ons, or her sitfet Antiope), and fell in love with him. Finding
hir KWances rejected, she hanged herself, leaving behind a
btla in wluch she amiy^ Hippolytua of having made dia-
kmnble proposals. The lame itory, in the main, is told of
Bdlenf^na and Anteia. It lonned the subject of tngedie* by
Sophocka, Entipides (twti, one of which ii extant}, Seneca aul
PHAEDROI, Roman fabulist, was by birth a Macedonian and
ired in Ibe mgn] of Augustus, Tiberius, Gaius and Claudius, giacs was made bv Alex-
Aondina to hi* own slatemenl Iprologue to book iii,), not AmongR Che colhctioas
lM(y, for he mention* ihat he read a verse of Enniua IS a boy at monk Odo of Sheningloo i they hive a Uronj iw
■ ' ' " -- 'a the heading <rf the chief MS. be waa a tinge. InjjToGoaxdof MindenwroteapoctKal
ilj^i
ficn^sids archbi^op of
a freed by Auguslu*. He incurred the wrath of
t^nm, the powerful minister oS Tiberius, by some su^naed
;?K.
~" " " ■ ' 59G Phaedma has been often'
tne powcnui muu^wEuj aiucuub, uy puiijc M^inrjm^^A traiulited ' amooff the edition* tlisv be
dannain his fable*, and waa brought to trial and punished, (,,,g„d'i»7;,B«itky fi7ifi). Srhn'b^'TTSofiT.'lkrgerde
We tarn this from the prologue to the third book, which is (isio), OrtHi (iSjj), e™ ' ' ■'""-- •■'-
4fii~.-< to Eotycbns, who ha* been identified with the famoua (iS«5), and ■)- " -^-
342
medieval versions of Phacdnis and their derivatives see L. Roth, in
Pkilologus, L 523 seq. : E. Grosae, in Jakrb. J. class. Pktlol., cv.
(1872) ; and especially the learned work o( Hervieux, Les Fatmlutes
latins de^u te sihcU d'Auguste jusqu'i la fin du moyen dge (Paris,
1884), wno gives the Latin texts of all the medieval imitators (direct
and indirect) of Phacdnis, some of them being published for the
first time. (J- P- P-)
PHAER (or Phayes), THOMAS {isio?-is6o), English trans-
lator of Virgil, was educated at Oxford and at Lincoln's Inn. He
published in 1535 Natura brerium^ and in 1543 Newt Boke of
Prcsidentes. He says on the title-page of his version of the
Aeneid that he was " solicitor to the king and queen's majesties,
attending their honourable council in the mazches of Wales."
He settled at Rilgarran in Pembrokeshire, and combined the
study of medicine with his legal practice. He wrote several
medical works, and was admitted M.D. of Oxford in 1559. He
contributed to Sackville's Mirrour for Magistrates^ "Howe
Owen Glendowcr, being seduced by false prophecies, toke upon
him to be Prince of Wales." In 1558 appeared The Seven First
Bookes of the Eneidos of Virgil converted into English Meter, He
had completed two more books in April 1560 and had begun the
tenth, but he died in the autumn of that year, leaving his task
incomplete. The translation was finished by Thomas Twyne in
1584. Phaer's translation, which was in rhjrmed fourteen-
syllabled lines, was greatly admired by his contemporaries, and
he deserves credit as the first to attempt a complete version,
the earlier renderings of Surrey and Gawain Douglas being
fragmentary although of greater poetic value.
PHAfiTHON (Gr. 0a^wv, shining, radiant), in Greek mytho-
logy, the son of Helios the sim-god, and the njrmph Clymene.
He persuaded his father to let him drive the chariot of the sun
across the sky, but he lost control of the horses, and driving too
near the earth scorched it. To save the world from utter
destruction Zeus killed PhaSthon with a thunderbolt. He fell
to earth at the mouth of the Eridanus, a river of northern Europe
(identified in later times with the Po), on the banks of which his
weeping sister^, the Heliades, were transformed into poplars
and their tears into amber. This part of the legend points
to the mouth of the Oder or Vistula, where amber abounds.
Pha£thon was the subject of a drama of the same name by
Euripides, of which some fragments remain, and of a lost tragedy
of Aeschylus (Heliades); the story b most fully told in the
Metamorphoses of Ovid (i. 7So-ii. 366 and Nonnus, Dionysiaca,
xxxviii)^ PhaSthon has been identified with the sun himself
and with the morning star (Phosphorus). In the former
case the legend is supposed to represent the sim sinking
in the west in a blaze of light. His identification with the
rooming star is supported by Hyginus (Astron. iL 43), where it
is stated that the morning (and evening) star was the son of
Cephalus and Eos (the father and mother of PhaSthon according
to Hesiod, Tkeog. 984-986). The fall of PhaSthon is a favourite
subject, especially on sarcophagus reliefs, as indicating the
transitoriness of human life.
See G. Knaack, " Quaestiones Phaethonteae,** in Philologische
Untersnckungen (1885): F. Wieseler. Pkaetkon (1857); Wilamowitz-
Mdllendorff and C. Robert in Hermes, xviii. (1883); Fraxer's
PausawiaSt iL 59: S. Reinach, Revue de Pkist, desreligions, IviiL (1908).
PHAGOCTTOSIS (Gr. ^yup, to eat, devour, and idrros,
cell). Many cells of the body possess the property of engulfing
particles, a character to be associated with their power of
performing amoeboid movement. This property is termed
phagocytosis. Primarily this phagocytic power was simply the
means by which the cell took within its cell body food particles
which were ultimately digested and assimilated. In the higher
organisms, however, this property has been developed for different
purposes, and in patholc^ at the present day a meaning wider
than that above given is often included in the term. The
particle having been taken into the cell, one of three things may
happen, (i) The particle may consist of digestible material, in
which case the cell secretes a digestive fluid, a food vacuole is
formed, the particle is gradually dissolved by the secretion and
the products absorbed into the cell substance. (2) The particle
may be indigestible, in which case it is retained within the cell
PHAER— PHAGOCYTOSIS
body for a time and ultimately dischatged. The partkfe
englobed may comprise ahnost any material, but if it is to serve
as a food it must be of anmuJ or vegetable origin. At the time
of ingestion it may be dead or living. In the case in which it is
living the organism is first killed and then digested, or (3) the
organism may prove resistant, in which case it may muhqity
and finally destroy tlie cell, when a number of organisms are set
free. Thisisoneof the means by which, in the hl^ierorganisim,
a local infection may become distributed through the ofganisiB.
The digestion effected within a cell is fermentative in character.
Thus a proteol3rtic ferment has been prepared from the bodies ol
amoebae — the ferment possessing fairiy active properties both
in add, neutral or alkaline media, but tsptdaUy in the latter.
In studjring the process of phagocytosis generally much inform
mation may be gained as to its general chaiacters by the study of
the processes of intracellular digestion in the simpler Inverte-
brates, a study largely extended by Metchnikoff and his 00-
workeis in the elaboration of Metchnikoff's view of the oatoie of
immunity. Thus, to take an instance from the tpoagtB. Food
substances, in the form of minute organisms, which have
penetrated the pores of the qwnge are seised by the dliated or
amoeboid cdls lining those spaces, and are then killed and
digested. In this case also the process of digestion is proved
to be fermentative. It is readily understandaUe that we sbould
find such cdls on the external surface of an organism or on the
surface lining the alimentary tract, particularly in tlie latter
position. But in addition there are many cells within the body
in which phagocytic power is retained and markedly developed.
Such cells may be fixed or wandering cells. They are empl^rtd
for removing foreign material or debris which may occur within
a tissue. For instance, as the result of an injury, inflammatoiy
process, &c, cells and other structures of a tissue may be
destroyed. One of the processes of repair consists in the reoMfil
of the resulting debris, which is effected by i^iagDcytes. A
similar process is seen with red blood oorpusdes which may hue
escaped into a tissue through rupture of f pillTjft, Focdip
particles accidentally gaining admission to a tissue are in msay
cases removed in a similar manner, e.g. soot particles which have
passed through the respiratory surface are then largdy nmavtd.
by phagocytes and carried to the bronchial lymphatic gfaadk
Very commonly living organisms effect an entrance thromjh
wound surfaces, the alimentary surface, &c., and one of the
processes employed for their destructicm and removal is that of
phagocytosis.
As an illustration of the removal of foreign red blood <
we may take the experiments of Metchnikoff in which a
drop of defibrinated blood of the goose was injected
the skin of a snail. The corpuscles quickly spread thiomk
the haemolymph of the snail, which by itself, howevtr,
effects no change in them. At the end of several hours tsnat
nation shows that the leucocytes of the snail have englobed s
large number of the red corpuscles. The following day intsct
corpuscles can still be found in the haemolymph, but thesnjtf
number have already been devoured by the leucocytes. Wha
taken up by a phagocyte the red corpuscle becomes roand sai
its wall permeable. A vacuole is formed around the carpuKh^
in which dissolved haemoglobin can be seen; a part of lUi
haemoglobin also passes into the nucleus of the red cocpoidt^
proving that it too has been profoundly altered. Many of the
nuclei are discharged. After some time the only parts of the
corpuscle remaining are pieces of the nucleus and the i^ct^ihfnl
layer of the corpuscle. Frequently the phagocytes, after hsviic
devoured one or several red corpuscles, themselves become a puf
to their feUows. Analogous changes are observed in the tisHl
of a mammal when blood which has been extravasated a bcini
removed, e.g. after a bruise. The first ^ect of the haeuwmhm
is an exudative inflammation, during which leucocytes aixiie ii
large niimbers and engulf the corpindes. In the pcooes il
digestion which follows the haemoglobin is altered and MV
pigments formed from it. In mammals this |Hgmcnt is dufc nd
or brownish, in the pigeon it is green. Fina^ the
are completely digested. Analogous phenomena may 1
PHALANGER
343
hcnBBfPon with tlie removal of cell debris resulting from any
bjarjr. Numben of j^bagocytes may be found at work in this
<fiicctba, for instance in the pus formed within an aseptic
kbiom. Hence we may r^ard the phagocsrtes as acting as the
KtvcBgen of the tissues.
In the instancfs we have been dealing with the phagoc3rtes
are duefly of the class of wandering cells and are brought to the
seat of their activity by the blood, fn rramining any tissue
vbm the process is going on it is seen that the phagocytes have
McoffluUted there in large numbers. They have been attracted
to the damaged area. The mechanism which effects thii attrac-
tkn h a diemical one — chemiotaxts. At the seat of the change
dooical substances are produced which act upon the phagocytes,
causng them to migrate towards the source — positive chemio-
tasi Apparently the material dissolving from cell d6bris can
act in thb manner. Tlius if a capillary tube filled with a tissue
otnct be inserted under the skin of an animal, within a short
tune it frill be found to be surrounded with numbers of leuco-
cytes, whidi may also have encroached into the tube itself.
Ai in other instances of cfaemiotazis the same chemical stimulus
in a hi^iier ooncmtration may repel the cells — negative chemio-
taoi Instanffit of this are especially frequent in relation to
■icRHJcganisms and phagocytes, to which we may now turn.
That phagocytes can paralyse, kill and digest many micro-
(xiantsms b the main fact in Metchnikoff*s theory of the nature
cf inummity. The reaction may be readily studied by injecting
a wall quantity of a fluid culture of some mildly pathogenic
o(|aaim into the peritoneal cavity of an animal, and in the course
of an hour or so examining a smear from the surface of the
onentnin, when an abundance of phagocytes enclosing the organ-
ic in different stages of digestion will be found. Or we may
Adopt Leishman's method, in which a few drops of human blood
nt dihted with saline solution and centrifuged. The layer of
1^ corpuscles is pipetted off, suspended in serum, and a
Biante drop of a suspension of a pathogenic organism is added.
Ike preparation is then incubated at 37** C. for a quarter of an
^. Upon exanu'ning a drop of this mixture a number of
Itttena are found within the phagocytes. Thus this attack and
<^atniction of bacteria by phagocytes may take place within the
indy or by cells remoi^ from the body. Whether or no a
pbifDCTte can engulf bacteria is dependent upon a number of
^ctor»--partly specific properties of the phagocyte, partly
bcu»s varying with the constitution of the body serum. Thus
Wriffat and Douglas, employing Leishman's method, have proved
fW leucocytes do not take up bacteria freely unless the serum
fia which they are suspended contain opsonins. They found, for
oanpfe, that leucocytes taken from a patient suffering from a
Pfococd infection if suspended in norioal human serum take
vp the oocd abundantly, whereas if the same leucocytes are
KHpeaded under similar conditions in the patient's own serum
the reaction may be almost absent. Further, leucoc3rtes taken
fnm a normal individual and suspended in the patient's serum
are practically inactive, while the same phago<ytes in normal
rerom are very active. Exactly how the substance in the serum
acts is undedded, but it has been proved that there are in serum
abrtances which become fixed to bacteria and which render them
to tzskr prey to the phagocytes. This specific opsonin is used up
vim the bacteria are added to the serum, so that if the bacteria
are rabsequently removed the serum is no longer active. There
ii evidence too that there is a multiplicity of opsonins. As to the
oripn of the opsonins we have no certain evidence. It is sug-
gested that thejr are a secretion from the leucocytes themselves
and that it is an evidence of another and preliminary mode of
attack possessed by the leucocyte, viz. the discharge of a secre-
tion from the cell which is to damage or paralyse the bacterium
aad thus enable the phagocyte to engulf it.
The mechanism of destruction of a bacterium once it has been
tsken up by a phagocyte is probably, just as in the instance of
dead odiular materia], one of intracellular digestion. The
iMterium before bdng engulfed is probably inert in most
iiilincri, thou|^ it may yet prove too strong for the phagocyte.
Ibe Dcxt stife we can trace is the formation of a vacuole around
the organism, or, if the latter be large, around a part of the
organism, and the part thus surrounded quickly shows signs of
destruction. For instance, its staining reactions become weaker.
When a part only of the organism is surrounded by a vacuole
the part thus surrounded soon ceases to stain, while the remain-
ing part stains normally, and we thus have a marked contrast
evidencing the two stagies.
In the next place we must ask which are the cells possessing
phagocytic powers ? Leaving apart the cells lining the alimentary
tract (because we know practically nothing of their power in this
respect) a number of free cdls possess amoeboid properties as
weU as also a number of fixed cells. These latter are attached to
certain spots of a tissue, but are capable of throwing out processes
which can seize upon particles of foreign nuUter or even upon
certain elements of the same organism. Of this category
Metchnikoff distinguishes the nerve cells, the large cells of the
spleen pulp and of lymph i^ds, certain endothelial cells, the
neuroglia cells, and perhaps certain cells of connective tissues.
All these elements can under certain conditions act as phago-
cytes, and with the exception of the nerve cells all are of meso-
blastic origin. Those of greater importance on accoimt of their
greater activity in this respect are the large splenic and lymph
ceUs, the neuroglia cells and certain endothch'al cells. With
regard to the wandering cells Metchnikoff considera that some are
certainly non-phagocytic, for instance the lymphocytes. Accord-
ing to Metchnikoff it is only when these cells become older and
have developed a nucleus rich in chromatin and an abundant cell
body that these cells develop phagocytic properties. This is
the large hyaline leucocyte, llie polymorphonuclear and the
eosinophil leucocyte are both phagocytes. Metchnikoff there-
fore divides the phagocytes into two classes — the microphages,
compriung the polymorphonuclear and the eosinophil cell, and
the macrophages, containing the large hyaline cell, the ceU of the
splenic pulp, the endothelial cell and the neuroglia celL From
further observation of these cells he concludes that the micro-
phages are chiefly concerned in opposing the micro-organisms of
acute infections, whereas the macrophages are chiefly concerned
in combating chronic infections. It is the macrophage also
which is concerned in removing cell debris, e.g. red corpuscles
from a haemorrhage or the red corpuscles of another animal which
may have been introduced experimentally.
Metchnikoff and his co-workers have shown that the two
principal groups of leucocytes are generally spread throughout
the vertebrates. Thus instances of each kind are foimd even in
the lamprey, though here their staining properties are feebler;
also cells which show but small differences from the analogous
cells of mammals are found in the alligator. (T. G. Bk.)
PHALANOER, a book-name applied to the more typical
representatives of the group of diprotodont marsupial mammals,
including the cuscuses of tne Moluccas and Celebes, and the so-
called opossums of Australia, and thus collectively the whole
family Phalangeridae. (See Marsupialia.)
Phalangers generally are small or medium-sized woolly-
coated marsupialsj with long, powerful, and often prehensile
tails, large claws, and opposable nailless first hind toes. They
seem in the day to be dull and sleepy, but are alert at night.
They live mostly upon fruits, leaves and blossoms, although a few
feed habitually upon insects, and all relish, in confinement, an
occasional bird or other smaU animal. Several possess flying-
membranes stretched between their fore and hind limbs, by the
help of which they can make long and sustained leaps through
the air, like flying-squirrels; but the possession of these flying-
membranes does not seem to be any indication of special affinity,
the characters of the skull and teeth sharply dividing the flying
forms and uniting them with other species of the non-flying
groups. The skull (see fig. i) is, as a nde, broad and flattened,
with the posterior part swollen out laterally owing to the
numerous air-cells situated in the substance of the squamosal
bones. The dental formula is very variable, especially as regards
the premolars, of which some at least in each genus are reduced
to fVinctionless rudiments, and may even vary in number on the
two sides of the jaw of the same individual. The indaors are
PHALANGER
ahn>i f, tbt kiKT ow mn Iusb and Indined fomnlt, ud V™* '*"^ J'^ *" ^ P**" '^ *'*^
Iba culoa KnmJly J, of wbkh thi Inferior ii ilnyi minuw. Jj^ m'*S^'!i5''tfto;SS,^'.''i;?*%Tl?
ud in ona gmiD BOienlly ataoit. The mokn number dller pbiUogtr iSdtoa hooey ' ' ^^
cfrtUd
ud of isiKdvonui lyge. Th
, .T f. AU tbe'ipecici here ducuacd ire ioduded id Ibo ""fa'BguTeacn liuaiBcdiMc In nranun benccn Aait^
■ub-fudilr FhiibuigaiBie, of *hkb the ditiinctive fslurd, u ud i'dunu, iltlKMiEh wiiboui i eoncfasK, an tin bcutIM Hole
appru- ta bF ■ ^imliBcd type, whkfa hu died oat whcec they hew
ip eppear to be come into camiiMitiaD with the msie iiiad^iKd foraie. AlAoafb
e rtttdacUrmt, uoaUe to fly (bey ue cHrndingly eetivt) add take Inoa Ivipa fma
" ' aad *•-- II*- --'-]'- - "i 1 J I I iliiiii iiiliiiHiji ilnTi ilmiiiaM
MAiximitU.
Fic 1.— Skull ol Cny Cuaciu {Ftalami
Inehidee at leet half a ecorr rd nvcH.
ta!.'t/' '■ ^be'^rkrS.^'iV^.Siri
a. — Squlrrd FI^^Dg-Phtlancer (Fttanna ta
South Wilea. panieulariy thoio
n Port Philip to Moreton Bau,
upon vhWh it reed>; the ftooen of the varioi
01 hhich are (d great nafifiilude, are the prir
and in tbe ipoul* of the larjer brancha du
pUying the Erulcit aciivity at niEht while i
leuy branchM, ErpquniiLy eveo to their very »
: . 1 .L- L^_, *f ,i^ (leiirty opened bl
stiial liabiii. ii K
PhiUpjt
■upply of the
appnuiinale ila of caii» and raiwe fmtri the ^■^'*"* b
tkmufh New Guinea aid the MoJiiciae to Celcbea, biji« ta
en pain, o( wUch the laM loaoBf
eittmally. About i^ ndatai
- '""Ij^ <d ' '
[e and white. wUle at Icailiaat
, ,._, re ileepy aiumal^ laeifiif ■■i^f
ly feather- cm Jeivea but alio devourini blrdt and mall — "ttIt
.aodthe Neatly ailicdtotlieeiBcuan ate the tygaJAaat" ■' "
, Ai. by the thick ,
being covered with boihy hah' up id tte extiVBa dm alUE
Ed. a> b a aarni* lioe along the ahldle ol the - 1 il ■ AM
PHALANX— PHALTAN
345
(or ladKr more) of the lower surface, by the oreaeoce of a gland
OB the dot, and by the aoles of the hind feet being hairy. In the
ioM the upper canine is separated from the outennost incisor,
ismd of close to it as in the cuscuses (fig. i). The best-known
ndsB » the brush-tailed phalanger, or bnish-tailed opossum
(i. mtptcala), of Austnlta, an animal of the siae of a small fox,
RMseoted in Tasmania by the brown phalanger (r. ndptcula
fmpmnu). The short-eared phalanger (r. camina) represents the
DOBp ia Southern Queensland and New South Wales. The dental
Jamii^ in both b t. f . r. i, ^. |, m. |. These animals are wholly
■Hmed and mainly nocturnal in their halMts; and it b these which
foim the chief game in " opossum-shooting " among the gum-trees
bynoooli^t.
Titt long-snouted phalanger b referred to under Marsupialia.
(R. L.*)
raALAMX (Gr. ^Ukrf^t ci unknown origin), the name, in
(aetk history of the arrangement of heavy-armed infantry in a
tm^ doK mass of qicannen (see Army: History). In anatomy,
tke Latin pluzal pkalangu b the term ^pUed to the bones of
the fiiifer and toe, aud in botany to a group of united
stamen duttfiB. The term "phalanx" was adopted by
F. C U. Fourier (f a) as the name of the sodaUstic community
liviBg ma" phalanstery."
PHAURIl, tyxant of Acragas (Agrigentum) in Sicily, e, 570-
SS4 Bx: He was entrusted with the building of the temple
o( Zeos Atabyrius In the citadel, and took advantage of his
poation to inake himself despot (Aristotle, PoUiics^ v. 10).
Under hb nde Agrifentnm seems to have attained considerable
pnqierity. He supplied the dty with water, adorned it with
fine buildings, and strengthened it with walls. On the northern
out of the iilaiid the people of Himcra elected him general
irith absolute power, in wpMt of the warnings of the poet
StcachorBS (Arbtotle, JUutoriet ii. 30). According to Suldas he
ncoeeded in makhig himself master of the whole of the island.
He VIS St last overthrown in a general rising headed by
Tdanadnts, the ancestor of Theion (tyrant c. 488-472), and
burned in hb brazen bulL
After ases have held up Phalarb to infamy for hb excessive
cradty. In hb braaen bull, invented, it b said, by Perillus of
AtJieos, the tyrant's victims were shut up and, a fire being kindled
RKath, were roosted alive, while thcu* shrieks represented the
Ddoviittof the bull. Perillus himself b said to have been the first
victinL There b hardly room to doubt that we have here a tradition
jf himaa sacrifice in connexion with the worship of the Phoenicun
Bill (Zeus Atabyrius) such as prevailed at Rhodes; when misfortune
thtstened Rhodes the brazen bulls in hb temple bellowed. The
Rbodiaas brought thb worship to Gcla, which they founded con-
joady with the Cretans, and from Gela it passed to Agrigentum.
HoBaB sacrifices to Baal were common, ana, though in Phoenicia
proper there b no proof that the victims were burned alive, the
Ufthariobns had a braxen image of Baal, from whose down-
tVDedhancb the children slid into a pit of fire; and the story that
Mtoos had a brasen man who pressed people to his glowinR breast
ponts to similar rites in Crete, where the cnild-devourin|( Minotaur
■est certainly be connected with Baal and the favourite sacrifice
Id him of chilaren.
Hie story of the bull cannot be dbmissed as pure invention.
Pbdar (Pjikia^ i. 185)^ who lived less than a century afterwards,
eqwessly assocbtes this instrument of torture with the name of
tbe tyrant. There was certainly a brazen bull at Agrigentum,
vhicfa was carried off by the Carthaginians to Carthage, whence
k was again taken by Scipio and restored to Agrigentum. In
hter times the tradition prevailed that Phalaris was a naturally
homane man and a patron of philosophy and literature. He is
so described in the oeclamations ascribed to Lucian, and in the
letten wluch bear his own name. Plutarch, too, though he takes
the unfavourable view, mentions that the Sicilbns gave to the
anerity of PhaUris the name of justice and a hatred of crime.
PhaUans may thus have been one ot those men who combine justice
aad even humanity with religious fanaticbm (Suidas, s.v. ; Diod. Sic.
he so, ^ xiii. 90, xxxiL 35; Polybius vii. 7, xii, 25; Cuxro, De
CUkiis, iL 7, ill. 6).
The letters bearing the jiame of Phalaris (148 in number) are
■ov chiefly remembered for the crushing exposure they received at
the hands of Richard Bentley in his controversy with the Hon.
Chailes Boyle, who had published an edition of them in 1695. The
fim edition of Bentley's DisscrUUion on Phalaris appeared in 1697,
aad the second edition, replyingto the answer which Boyle published
b 1698. came out in 1690. From the mention in tne letters of
iBvaa (Phintia, Alaesa and Tauromcnium) which did not exist in
the time of Phalaris, from the imitations of authors (Herodotus,
DMMcritus. Euripides, Callimachus) who wrote long after he was
dead, from the reference to tragedies, thoueh traeedy was not yet
bweoted in the lifetime of Phalarb, from the dblect, which b not
Dorian but Attic, nay. New or Late Attk:, as well as from absurdities
in the matter, and the entire absence of any reference to them by
any writer before Stobaeus (e. A.D. 500), Bentky sufficiently proved
that the letten were written by a sophist or rhetoridan (possibly
Adrianus of Tyre, died c. a.d. iq3) hundreds of years after the death
of Phabris; suidas admired the letters, whk:h he thought genuine,
and in modem times, before their exposure by Bentley, they were
thouj^ht highly of by some (e.g. Sir William Temple in hb Essay on
Ancient and Modem Learning), though others, as PoUtianus and
Erasmus, perceived that they were not by Phalaris. The latest
edition of the Epistles b by R. Herchcr, m EpisUdo^apki graeci
(1873), and of Bentley's Dissertatbn by W.Wagner (with introduction
and notes, 1883) ; see especially R. C. Jebb, Lije of Bentley (1882).
PHALUCISM, or Pballxsm (from Gr. ^cl^^6s), an anthropo-
logical term applied to that form of nature wonhip in which
adoration b paid to the generative function symbolized by the
phallus, the male organ. It b common among primitive
peoples, especially in the East, and had been prominent also
among more advanced peoples, e.g. the Phoenicians and the
Creeks. In its most elementary form it is associated with
frankly orgiastic rites, llib aspect remains in more advanced
forms, but gradually it tends to give place to the joyous recog-
nition of the principle of natural reproduction. In Greece for
example, where phallidsm was the essence of the Dionysiac
worship and a phallic revel was the origin of comedy (see also
Hermes), the purdy material and the symbolical aspects no
doubt exbted side by side; the Orphic mysteries bad to the
intellectual Greeks a significance wholly different from that which
they bad to the common people. Phallic worship is specially
interesting as a form of sympathetic magic: observing the
fertilizing effect of sun and rain, the savage sought to promote
the growth of vegetation in the spring by means of symbolic
sexual indulgence. Such were the rites which shocked Jewbh
writers in connexion with the worship of Baal and Ast&rOlh
(sec Baal, and cf. Atarcahs, Ishtak). The same principle b
at the root of the widespread nature worship of Asia Minor, whose
chief deity, the Great ^lother of the Gods (^.v.), is the personifi-
cation of the earth's fertility: similarly in India worship b paid
to divine mothers. Generally it should be observed that phallic
worship b not specially or perhaps primarily paid to male deities,
though commonly the more importxint deity is accompanied by
a companion of tbe other sex, or b itself androgynous, the two
symbols being found together.
In the Dionysiac rites the emblem was carried at the head of
the processions and was immediately followed by a body of men
dressed as women (the ithy phalli). In Rome the phallus was
the most common amulet worn by children to avert the evil
eye: the Latin word was fascinum (cf. Pliny, Nat. Hist. xix. 50,
satyrica signa; Varro, Ling. Lot. vii. 97, ed. MUller). Pollux
says that such emblems were placed by smiths before their
forges. Before the temple of Aphrodite at Hierapolb (q.v.)
were two huge phalli (180 ft. high), and other similar objects
existed in all parts of the ancient world both in statuary and in
painting. Among the Hindus (see Hinduism) the phallus is
called linga or lingam, with the female counterpart CiUlcd yoni;
the linga symbolizes the generative power of Siva, and b a charm
against sterility. The rites classed together as Sakti puja
represent the adoration of the female principle. In Mexico,
Central America, Peru and other parts of America phallic
emblems are found. The tendency, however, to identify all
obclisk-likc stones and tree-trunks, together with rites like
circumcbion, as remains of phallic worship, has met with much
criticbm {e.g. Robertson Smith, Religion oj the Semites^ and cd.,
pp. 456 sqq.).
For authorities see works quoted under Religion: S§ A and B
ad fin.
PHALTAN, a native state of India, in the central division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the Satara jagirs. Area, 397 sq. m.;
pop. (1901), 45,739, showing a decrease of 31% in the decade.
The estimated revenue is £13,000, and the tribute £640. The
chief, whose title is nimbolkar, b a Mahratta, tracing his descent
to a grantee from a Delhi emp>cror in the 14th century. The
town of Phaltan b 37 m. north-east of Satara; pop. (1901),
95"-
346
PHANARIOTES— PHARISEES
PHANARIOTES. a name derived from Phanar, the chief
Greek quarter at Stamboul, where the oecumenical patriarchate
is situated, and applied to those members of families resident
in the Pbanar quarter who between the years 171 z and 1821
were appointed hospodars of the Danubian principalities; that
period of Moldo-WaUachian history is also usually termed the
Phanariotc epoch. It is not to be imderstood as marking the
introduction into the principalities of the Greek element, which
had already established itself firmly in both provinces, to both of
which Greek princes had been appointed before the i8th century.
But whereas the Greek families of earlier introduction gradually
became merged in their country of adoption, the later immi-
grants retained their separate nationality and grew to be powerful
agents for furthering the spread of Graedsm in the prindpalities.
The person raised to the princely dignity was usually the chief
dragoman of the Sublime Porte, and was consequently well
versed in contemporaty politics and the statecraft of the Otto-
man governmenL The new prince, who was compelled to pur-
chase his elevation with a heavy bribe, proceeded to the country
which he was selected to govern, and of the language of which
he was in nearly every case totally ignorant, accompanied by a
horde of needy hangers-on; he and his acolytes counted on re-
couping themselves in as short a time as possible for their initial
outlay and in laying by a sufficiency to live on after the termina-
tion of the prince's brief authority. It was the interest of the
Porte to change the princes as often as possible, as the accession
donation thus became due more frequently. When, owing to the
numerous cases of treachery anjong the princes, the choice became
limited to a few families the plan was hit upon of frequently
shifting the prince from one province to the other: the prince of
Wallachia, the richer of the two principalities, was always ready
to pay a handsome douceur to avert his transfer to Yassy; the
prince of Moldavia was 'dually ready to bribe his supporters
at Constantinople to secure his appointment to Wallachia. To
raise funds to satisfy the rapacity of the Porte the princes became
past masters in the art of spoliation, and the inhabitants, liable
to every species of tax which the ingenuity of their Greek rulers
could devise, were reduced to the last stage of destitution. The
active part taken by the Greek princes in the revolt of 1820-21
induced the Porte to revert to the appointment of native
princes.
PHANIAS, of Eresus in Lesbos, Greek philosopher, important
as an immediate follower of and commentator on Aristotle,
came to Athens about 332 B.C., and joined his compatriot,
Theophrastus, in the Peripatetic schooL He wrote works entitled
Analytical CaUgoriae and De inter pretalione, which were either
paraphrases or critical commentaries, and seem to have added
little to Aristotle's own writings. Alexander of Aphrodisias
refers to a work vpdt AtSSupov, and Athenaeus quotes from
another treatise. Against tite Sophists. Outside philosophy, he
and Theophrastus carried on the physical investigations of
Aristotle; Athenaeus frequently quotes from a work on botany
which manifests great care in definitions and accuracy of obser-
vation. From Plutarch {Life of Themistodes) we learn that
he was regarded as an historian of importance. The chief of
his historical works is the Prytaneis Eresii, which was either a
history of his native place or a general history of Greece arranged
according to the period of the Eresian magistracy. He wrote
also works on the Tyrants of Sicily and on tyranny in general.
The value of these books is attested by the frequency with which
they arc quoted on questions of chronology {e.g. by Plutarch,
Suldas, Athenaeus). To the history of Greek literature he
contributed works on the poets and on the Socratics, both of
which arc quoted.
He must be distinguished from another Phanias, a Stoic philo-
sopher, disciple of rosidonius. Diogenes LaCrtius mentions a
work ci his wherein he compares P(»idonius with Panactius in
arguing from physical principles.
PHANOCLES, Greek elegiac poet, probably flourished about
the time of Alexander the Great. His extant fragments show
resemblances in style and language to Philetas, Callimachus and
Hermesianax. He was the author of a poem on paederasty.
A lengthy fragment in Stobaeus {FhrUepum, 64) describes
the love of Orpheus for the youthful CaUb, soo of
and his subsequent death at the hands of the
women. It is one of the best extant specimens of Greek
poetry.
See N. Bach, PkHetae, HemusiaHactis^ et Phanodis rdiquiae (i
L. Prellcr, AusiewdhUe Aufsatse aus dem CebieU der
AlterlkumstBisscnukaft (1864).
PHANTASMAGORIA, a name invented by a certain Phili|ista]
in x8o2 (from Gr. ^aitraana, phantasm, apparition; and Ay^tpA,
assembly) for a show or exhibition of optical illusions (noduccd
by means of the projecting lantern {q.v.). The word has sinoe
been applied to any rapidly or strikingly f hanging snue, and
especially to a disordered or fantastic scene or picture ik the
imagination.
PHARAOH (Par'oh), the Hebraized title of the king of Egypt
{q.v.), in Egyptian Per-'o; Pheron in Herodotus represents the
same. Its combination with the name of the king, as in Phaiaob>
Necho, Pharaoh-Hophra, is in accordance with contemporaiy
native usage: the name of the earlier Pharaoh Shishak (Sbeshonk)
is rightly given without the title. In hierogl3rphic a king beats
several names preceded by distinctive titles. In the IVtli
Dynasty there might be four of the latter: (i) V^ identxfyiBf
him with the royal god Horns; the name is commonly written
in a frame ^^ representing the fa^de of a
perhaps a palace or tomb, on which the fakon stands, (a)
connecting him with the vulttire and uneos goi-
desses, Nekhabi and Buto of the south and north. (3) jfti
a hawk on the symbol of gold, signifying the victorious
(4) ^nFi the old titles of the rulers of the separate kii
doms of Upper and Lower Egypt, to be read stni, " butdier(?) "
and byti, ' beekeeper (?) " The personal name <d the kiB|
followed (4), and was enclosed in a cartouche CDI s^
parently symbolizing the circuit of the sun which aloac
bounded the king's rule. Before the IVth DynaiQr the otf-
touche is seldom found: the usual title is (i), and (5) does sol
occur. In the Vth Dynasty the custom began of giving the
king at his accession a special name connecting him widi the
this was placed in the cartouche after (4), wad a fifth title
added: ($)
Si-rC, "son of the Sun-god/' to
a cartouche containing the personal name. The king was bddlf
spoken of by his title stni (see 4), or h'^f^-fi "his servioet" orll!|!^
" liege-lord." These titles were preserved in the sacred writiv
down to the latest age. An old term for the royal psha
establishment and estate was Per-'o, " the Great House, " ui
this gradually became the personal designation of Fhanflk
(cf. the Grand Porte), displacing all others in the popuhr
language. (F. Ll. GJ '
PHARI, a town of Tibet. It is supposed to be the hi^iest ul
coldest town in the world, being 15,000 ft. above the sea." Ask
commands the road between the Chumbi Valley and Lhasa ill
also one of the chief passes into Bhutan, Phari is of ron$idft»Ml
military importance, and is defended by a large fort or Jesii
which was occupied by the British expedition of 1904. Plwi
Jong is supposed to have been built about 1500 aj).^ and «M
enlarged or rebuilt in 1792, under Chinese advice, as a dcfeaci
agaiiist the British. It has the appearance of a medieval aatk,
and seems to have been built in imitation ci the Eanpm
style.
PHARISEES, a sect of the Jews first mentioned by JeMphai»
in his account {Ant. xiii. 5, 9) of the reign of Jonathan, tht
brother and successor of Judas Maccabaeus. The name, vUch
may be translated " Separatists," indicates their devodon ta
the ideal, enforced by Ezra and Nehemiah upcMi the rdactaM
Jews, of a nation separate from all other nations in viitiie d ii
PHARMACOLOGY
347
pecsEar zcktion to Yahwdi (Neli. iz.). This ideal nation
onssted of all who were prepared to obey the Law of
MoMi, irrcq>ective of their natural descent. Consequently the
PbuDsea, who seem to have been an order of religious teachers,
woe coDcemed to make converts (proselytes), and some of thdr
(Rttcit teachos were of non- Jewish parentage. They were
abo ooDcemed to insst upon the strict observance of the Law,
n fir as it was compatible with the exigences of ordinary life,
aad to train disriples who should set a proper example to the
OMi of the people.
Tbe ideal of separation descended from the Great Synagogue
(Aaembly) of the time of Ezra to the Synagogue of the Qasi-
daeans (Assidaeons),. who allied themselves with Judas Macca-
baens when his followers decided to suspend the law of the
Sabbath, in order that the true Jews might preserve themselves
boa annihilation and survive to keep the Law as a whole. This
adioQ of the Qasidaeans is dearly the practical outcome of the
pdndple which Josephus describes in the language of philosophy
it the characteristic of the Pharisees — " some things and not all
itt the work of Fate " {Ani. ziii. 5, 9). Fate is the Stoic term
fer God; and these forerunners of the Pharisees judged that the
tiae bad come for them to take action rather than to watt
pUBvtfy <m God. But then and always the prime concern of the
Pharisees was the eztensbn of God's sovereignty (the Kingdom
of God) throu^iout the world. God's will, which all men should
obey, was revealed in the Law, and though He might appoint
pnnon over them. He remained their King, and no governor
^ was not a prophet — God's mere mouthpiece — could com-
xaod their unquestioning obedience. When Judas reconquered
Jenoalem and re-dedicated the desecrated Temple, his work,
bm the Pharisees' point of view, was done. The Temple-
vonhip was part and parcel of the Divine plan, and a legitimate
Hi^ Priest was necessary. Alanius was, therefore, welcomed
bjr the Hasidaeans, and only his treacherous murder of sixty of
thdr nomber tau^t them that any Syrian nominee was their
My. Later they acquiesced in the election of Simon to the
^'frpriesthood with the condition " until there should arise a
i^ihhl prophet "; but some of them remonstrated against the
ooBbJo^ion of the sacred office with the position of political
'>krio the person of JohnHyrcanus as contrary to the precedent
*t by Moies at his death. When Alexandra came to the throne
^ Pharisees were the real rulers and imposed upon the people
^ deductions from the written Law which formed the growing
My of their oral tradition. Their reign was long enough to
ettabliah this tradition in respect of ritual, and even when this
foiden age — as it seemed to later Scribes — was over they
OBdaed a paramount influence upon the common people.
Hiey had learned to read God's will in the events of history, and
dedaced (for example) the doctrine of the resurrection of the
dead from the death of the martyrs under Antiochus Epiphanes
and Aldmus. And what they learned from current histoiy and
bom the ancknt histoiy of the nation recorded in Scripture they
taaiJit in the syiugogues, which corresponded not merely to the
parish churches but also to the school&--day schools and Sunday
Khoois'— of to-day. Apart from their control of public education,
their power was enhanced by their efforts to better the position
of women, and by their notorious leniency in the matter of
poaisbments. Everjrthing — the repeated statements of Josephus
and the facts of Jewish history after a.d. 70 — goes to show that
the Pharisees moulded the religion of the people. Attempts
have been made in modem times to represent the Apocalyptists
as opposed to the Pharisees and as occupying the position in
popular estimation which Josephus ascribes to the Pharisees. But
for siadi re]»escntations there is no solid ground. Superficially
the language of wpocalypse% diSen from that of rabbinic ded*
SDo^ and where the seer takes a comprehensive view of the ages
the rabbi Iqpslates for particular cases. But even in the Talmud
the reign of Alexandra is described in apocal3rptic language such
as is commonly applied to the future age, and if allowance be
■ade for the symbolism proper to revelations it is clear that
itially the scribe and the seer have the same purpose and
the same doctrines. The Pharisees were occupied with the
piecemeal realization of the dreams of their supposed opponents),
which gain a vague fl^ry from their being far off. *
The goq)els generally have left upon the minds of men an
impression unfavouraUe to the Pharisees. They contain de-
nunciations attributed to our Lord and assigned — with obvious
injustice m some cases— to the scribes of this sect. It is to be
remembered that the Pharisees were the only sect of the Jews
who survived in Christian times and that the Pharisees were
never a homogeneoiu body possessed of a definite policy or body
of doctrine. Moreover it is clear that our Lord denounced not
all the Pharisees but the hypocrites only, as did the rabbis
whose sayings are reported in the Talmud and other Jewish
books. Again the third goq>el in particular betrays rdations
between the Pharisees and Jesus very different from those of the
common Christian view, which conjures up an impossible picture
of an absolute breach between the Prophet of Nazareth and
the whole corporation of the Pharisees as a result of a quarrel
with certain members of that dissident sect of independent
thinkers. Gamaliel and his pupil St Paul are better representa*
tives of the non-hypocritical Pharisee; and the Pauline Epistles
or the writings of Philo are the best extant examples of the manner
and matter of their teaching. As for the denunciations, apart
from the charge of insincerity, it appears that the scribes in
question are pilloried for the defects— or the excesses— of their
qualities. Lideed they are corroborative evidence for the
reverence with which the Pharisees were regarded by the
people generally, and for the zeal with which they strove to
fulfil God's will as contained in the Law and elucidated by the
TradiUon. 0- H. A. H.)
PHARMACOLOGY. Systematic writers on the subject differ
considerably in the exact meaning which they attach to the term
pharmacology (^dpfuuow, a drug; Xbyot, a discourse), some
making it much more comprehensive than others. Binz, for
instance, defines it as treating of the origin, nature, chemical
and physical qualities, physiological actions, and therapeutical
uses of drugs; in France and in Italy it is restricted to the mere
description of medicines and their preparations, the action and
uses of which as remedies are included in the term therapeutics.
In En^ish-speaking countries, and by the majority of (German
writers, the meaning is now restricted to the study of the action
of chemfcal substances (as apart from foods) on all kinds of
animals, from bacteria up to man; it is, in fact, a comparative
study of the action of chemical bodies on invertebrate and verte-
brate animah. One of its practical aims is to obtain a wide and
accurate knowledge of remedial substances in relation to their
iq>plication in the treatment of disease, while another is to
discover new or improved remedies. This meaning of the word
has now become fixed in the English language by use and wont.
The term pharmaco-dynamics (0dp;MiKor, jdva/ut, power),
which is etymologically more correct, is often used as its equiva-
lent, but it has never become widely adopted. The study of
pharmacological actions was at first almost entirely confined
to those of remedial agents, and especially to the remedies in the
different national pharmacopoeias, but in many cases it has now
been extended to substances which are not used for curative
purposes. The introduction into practical use of many medi-
cines, such as paraldehyde, phenazone and strophanthus, has
followed the study of their actions on animals, and this tends
to be more and more the case. Pharmacology is a branch of
biology; it is also closely connected with pathology and bacteri-
ology, for certain, drugs produce structural as well as functional
changes in the tissues, and in germ diseases the peculiar symptoms
are caused by foreign substances (toxins) formed by the infective
organisms present in the body. The effects of many of these
toxins bear a close resemblance to the action of certain well-
known drugs, as in the case of tetanus toxin and strychnine, and
are studied by the same methods of observation and research.
It is impossible also to dissociate pharmacology from clinical
therapeutics; the former investigates the agents which are used
in the treatment of disease, the bttcr is concerned with their
remedial powers and the conditions under which they are to
be used. Hence the word " pharmaco-therapy " has come into
348
PHARMACOLOGY
use, and most of the ne#er standard textbooks combine together
the consideration of pharmacology and therapeutics. Pharma-
cology is also related to toxicology, as many remedial and other
agents are more or less poisonous when given in large doses, but
it does not include the detection, tests, and the other strictly
medico-l^al aspects of poisoning.
Pharmacology proper began as the result of the application
of strictly experimental methods to physiology. Hie discovery
fff^fjff^^ («riy in the igih century) that plants owe their
remedial and poisonous qualities to small quantities of
definite active principles, such as alkaloids and neutral bodies,
which can be extracted in a chemically pure condition, had also a
very important effect on its development. We meet first with
experiments made by investigators who perceived that observa^
tions on man and animals might lead to a better understanding
of the action of drugs. In 1676 Wepfer and Conrad Brunner
demonstrated on dogs the tetanizing action of nux vomica, and
similar rough experiments were repeated from time to time with
other substances by later investigators. In 1755 Menghini
published an elaborate study of the action of camphor on a great
variety of different kinds of animals. Albert von Haller G>.
1708) sought to elucidate the action of remedies by observations
on healthy men, and in 1767 William Alexander made experi-
ments on himseU with drugs, which were, however, brought to
an abrupt termination by his nearly kilUng himself. In 1776
Daries, by observations on himself and on cats, established the
mydriatic action of belladonna and other atropaceous plants.
Hitherto no attempt had been made to determine what particular
parts of the body were especially affected by drugs, but Fontana
showed, in his great work (Florence, 1765) on the venom of the
viper and on other poisons, that the general symptoms were
brought about by an action on particular organs. He performed
more than six thousand experiments, more than four thousand
of which were on animab, and he determined the effects on the
heart and other important structures. These analytical methods
of research were well known to the second Monro in Edinburgh,
and to his pupils, one of whom, William Alexander, wrote a thnis
in 1790 entiUed " De partibus corporis anfmalis quae viribus
opii parent." His methods were doubtless known also to the
French physiologist Magendie, who improved upon them, and
who in 1809 published a research on the Upas Heuti and other
strychnine-containing plants, in which he showed that their
effbcts were due to an action on the spinal cord. The researches
of his pupil, Claude Bernard, on curare, were equally exact and
logical, and have served as the modd for many subsequent
investigations. In consequence, from the time of Magendie
pharmacology may be said to have been put on a more exact basis.
By the middle of the 19th century there were many workers on
the subject, and the actions of sudi drugs as digitalis, morphine,
alcohol, and many others had been frequently and minutely
investigated. About this time Buchheim, professor of materia
medica in Dorpat from 1846 to 1879, founded the first pharmaco-
logical laboratory on modem lines in Europe, and'he introduced
a more rational cUssification of drugs than had hitherto been in
use, arranging them in groups according to their pharmaco-
logical actions. In the herbala and oldo: treatises on materia
medica and therapeutics no explanation is usually offered of the
action of medicines, and in such works as that of Cullen (1789)
only a few of the more obvious actions are occasionally explained
according to the current theories of physiology and pathology.
In works such as Parcira's dements of Materia Medica and TherO'
peutics (1842), the physiological effects of medicines are usually
described, but very briefly as compared with the materia medica.
At the present day most textbooks dealing with medicinal agents
and treatment devote a large part of iheir space to pharma-
cology, and a corresponding change has taken place in the
teaching of the subject in universities and medical schools.
Since Magendie's time numerous papers dealing with pharmaco-
logical subjects have appeared in the Journal of Anatomy and
Physiology t the Journal of Physiology ^ Virchow's Archio, and the
principal medical periodicals of all countries. In 1873 the Archiv
ftr experimentelU- Pathologic und Pharmahologie first appeared.
in 1895 the Archives InlematUmaUs de Phttrmakodymaw^ m
in 1909 The Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics (pob
lished at Baltimore, U.S.A.), all <tf which are chiefly or cntiii^
devoted to pharmacology.
The methods of research are essentially those employed b
physiologists, the action of substances being studied in the v^
way on bacteria, leucocytes, frogs, rabbits and other animal
Not only are the general symptoms investigated, but it is neoc
sary to carry out experiments on the nerves, musdes, drculatioi
secretions, &c., so as to get a more exact knowledge of tl
reasons of the general action. It is true that many of the
animals react somewhat differently to drugs, both as regards
other and as regards man, but for the most part the differena
are quantitative rather than qualitative. Aftor carrying out
series of observations on animals, the drug can be ■«aigwjirf to il
special group, and a good idea can be obtained of its poenU
practical value or the reverse; hence there b a saving of time aa
an avoidance of the necessity of testing its effects on man. Hi
action of a drug may be caUed direct when it acts on any pai
to which it is immediatdy applied, or which it may
reach through the blood; and indire t when one organ
is affected secondarily to another, as, for instance, in
strychnine poisoning when the musdes are violently contractc
as the result of the action of the alkaloid upon the qunal con
In a few cases the action is merdy physical, but most frequent]
it is chemical in its nature, and is exerted on the living rrfli tft
activity of which is dther stimulated or depressed. In son
cases the substances actually enter into a chmical combinatio
with the protoplasm, which may be temporary or (much lei
frequently) permanent; in other cases they seem simply I
modify or disturb the usual chemical activity of the cells. Fn
longed or excessive stimulation invariably leads to drprrmin
or paralysis, the tissues becoming fatigued, and from this cm
dition they may recover or they may not. When we come I
consider more in detail the residts of these acticms we find thi
the various secretions of the body, such as the sweat, gastii
juice, bile, milk, urine, &c., may be increased or *<s-«s»»i«i»*«
that the heart may have its muscular or nervous a^jpaxati
stimulated or depressed; that the nerve-centres in the bcdi
medulla and spinal cord may be rendered more sensitive or tl
reverse; and that the general metabolism of the body may I
altered in various ways. In addition, the fluid omstitaeaCt
such as the lymph and blood, may have their oompoaitioo an
bulk considerably altered, while the q)edal senses, Uie tempcn
ture, and, in short, every function and tissue, may be mofe c
less affected.
Some drugs given in excess are poisons to all forms of prate
plasm, but when given in doses much short of the lethal the.
usually exhibit a distinct tendency to affect specially, and at ai
early period, certain organs or tissues, and hence result diflereoce
in action ; others may act only on certain organs, leaving the othen
practically untouched. It is often possible by appropriate dos^
to contrive that these special parts or organs may be afliedd
and the rest of the -body left practically intact, and it ii by
taking advantage of these sdcctive actions that remediil tf
therapeutical effects are usually obtained. Some sabstsaca
have a very wide range of action, and involve a great variety flf
structures, while others, such as purgatives, have a very Uaitd
sphere. The action of drugs is often modified by circomstaacci
peculiar to the individuals or animals to whom they ait 1^
minbtered. In man the most important of these drcumsusca
is age, but speaking broadly this is really a question of bift.tk
child being affected like the adult, but by smaller doses. T^K
are exceptions to this, however, as children are more afeclt'
in proportion by opium and some other substances, and loilV
mercury and arsenic. In old age also the nervous ^stcB tf'
the tissues generally do not react so readily as in youth. &biti
race, personal temperament, emotional conditions, disease tbe
time and drcumstanccs of administration, and other •coil''^
causes may also modify the action in man. Some spedtt*
animals are much more susceptible to the action of C0(ii*
drugs than others, a condition which depends on
PHARMACOLOGY
349
« nknown stractnnl or meUboIic differences. In the same
v^r some individuab show a special tendency to poisoning by
ioaes iA certain drugs which are harmless to the great majority
el mankind, and hoice we get unexpected or unusual results,
tese arising faom special susceptibility on the part of certain
scgsns. Tboe idio^iicrasies are not confined to drugs, but are
aea with a few articles of food, such as ^gs and shellfish. It
m wdl known that the habitual consumption of certain drugs,
wh as tobacco, Indian hemp, opium, arsenic, alcohol and
Bsay others, gradually induces a condition of tolerance to their
eSeds, so that large doses can be taken without causing symp-
Uns of poisoning. In all cases, however, there a a limit, and
after it is reached the ordinary effects of these substances are
Hen. Some individuals, however, never become tolerant, and
Aov potscmous effects on each repetition of the dose. The
de|Re of tolerance often differs in individuals at different
fines and in different circumstances, and may become lost by
^Raking off the habit for a short time. The explanation
lewally given is that the nerve and other cells become
•ocustomed to the drug, so that they cease to react, or that an
iBtitoxin b formed which antagonizes the poison, or that the
poboQ b rapidly destroyed in the body. Recent researches
« UKnic and atropine, however, point to the leucocytes as
piayiog an important part in the production of tolerance, as
(boK gradually become capable of ingesting large amounts of
the foreign substances, and thus render them more or less
kttmbs to the tissues, until they are gradually excreted from
the body. When the amount is too large to be dealt with
hjr the leucocytes, poisoning seems to occur even in the most
hibitusted. T<^rance b therefore analogous to, but not
iiieaticd with, the immunity which takes place with the toxins
of iaiectioas diiraaes and snake poison. Certain substances,
BotaUy digitalis, lead, mercury and strychnine, exhibit what is
oiled a cumulative action — that b to say, when small quanti-
ty have been laktn over a period of time, poisoning or an
naHve action suddenly ensues. The explanation in these
(vei is that the drag b absorbed mor6 'rapidly than it is
ooeted, hence there b a tendency to accumulation In the
iMiy ontil a point b reached when the amount becomes
poboDoas.
Bodies whkfa have a dose resemblance in their chemical con-
*tituti(» exhibit a similar resemblance in their pharmacological
ictioo, and as the constitution of the substance becomes modified
dKaically so does its action pharmacologically. Numerous
jcieardies have demonstrated these points with regard to
individual groups of substances, but hitherto it has not been
PoeiUe to formulate any fixed laws regarding the relationship
i>ct«em fhfmiral constitution and physiological action.
When drugs are swallowed no absorption may take place
^ the alimentary canal; but, as a rule, they pass from there
^ the blood. Absorption may also take place from the skin,
^ the rectum, from the re^iratory passages, or from wounds,
■ad bom direct injection into the subcutaneous tissue or into a
'^ vesKL Very rardy, as in the case of silver salts, excre-
^ doei not take place; but usually the drug b got rid of by
the ordinary channels of elimination. Just as drugs act upon
the tttsnes, so they themsdves are in many cases reacted upon,
^ bndcen up or altered. While in the alimentary canal they
'''(Ribjected to the action of the digestive fluids and the varied
^'Wcats of the stomach and intestines, and after absorption
they cmne under the influence of the constituents of the blood
[ ^ lymph, and <tf the chemical action of the tissue ceUs. In-
|- oiiutie bodies, such as metals, may enter into albuminous
' OBobioations which nuiy greatly modify their effects, and
^^pjik substances may be ^>lit up into simpler compounds by
^'(idstion or reductloo, or may be rendered more complex by
imheib.
The antagonism between certain drugs has been much
J^wfied in relation to thdr use as antidotes in poisoning, the aim
^ciflf to counteract the effects rather than to obtain a direct
M|iiological antagonbtic action. Substances which directly
taiagoniae each other by acting on the same tissue are few in
I
number, but there are numerous instances in which the effects or
symptoms may be obvbted by acting on another tissue. Thus
curare may stop strychnine convulsions by paralysing the
terminations of motor nerves, and chloroform may exercise the
same effect by abolishing the irritability of the spinal cord. If
two poisons act on the same tissue, one stimulating and the
other paral3rsing it, the paralysing substance removes the
action of the stimulant substance, not by bringing the tissue
back to its normal state, but by aboUshing its excitability;
hence, although life may be saved by such an action, yet it
can only be so within certain limits of dosage, because the
antagonbm b never complete at every point.
Speaking in the widest sense, every substance has an action
on living protoplasm, but for convenience pharmacological
substances have come to be limited to those which are used
as drugs, or which have a dbtinct action upon the animal
organbm. Such substances are derived from (i) the chemical
elements and their compounds; (2) plants; and (3) animab.
The first class includes such substances as iodine, mercury, iron,
carbon, and their various compounds, and such bodies as
alcohol, chloroform and chloral, all of which are found in
nature or can be prepared by ordinary chemical processes of
manufacture. From plants many substances are obtained which
at the present time we are unable to make in the chemical
laboratory, and of the constitution or composition of which
we are in many cases ignorant. Some of these, such as resins,
gums, essential oib and fats, are readily obtained as natural
exudations or by very simple manipulations, while others, such
as the alkaloids, glucosidcs and vegetable acids, often require
to be extracted by very complex processes. Substances ob-
tained from animals indude gland secretions, pepsin and other
ferments, musk, cod-liver oil, &c., and to these may be added
various antitoxins. The classification of substances having
pharmacological actions presents so many diflicul-
tics that no satisfactory or universally adopted IJ^
method has yet been proposed. Our knowledge
presents so many gaps, and the mode of action of many remedies
b so obscure and imperfectly understood, that any arrange-
ment adopted must be more or less tentative in character. The
close alliance between pharmacology, therapeutics and clinical
medicine has induced many authors to treat the subject from
a clinical point of view, while its relationships to chembtry and
physiology have been utilized to elaborate a chemical and
physiological classification respectively as the basb for system-
atic description. Certain writers in despair have adopted an
alphabetical arrangement of the subject, while others have
divided it up into inorganic, vegetable and animal substances.
These last-mentioned methods are far behind our present state
of knowledge, and need not be discussed here. The objection
to a strictly chemical dassification b, that while many sub-
stances closely allied chemically have a somewhat similar action
in certain respects, yet in others they differ very widely — a
striking example of which b given in the case of sodium and
potassium. A ph3rsiological classification according to an action
on the brain, heart, kidney or other important organ becomes
still more bewildering, as many substances produce the same
effects by different agencies, as, for instance, the kidneys may
be acted upon directly or through the circulation, while the heart
may be affected dther through its muscular substance or its
nervous apparatus. A clinical or therapeutical classification
into such divisions as anaesthetics, expectorants, bitters, and
so on, according to their practical applications, also leads to
difficulties, as many drugs are employed for numerous purposes.
The idea] method of grouping pharmacological substances
would be in reference to their chemical action on living proto-
plasm, but as yet our knowledge b too scanty for this. At
the present time the method adopted by Buchheim, or some
modification of it, b the most scientific. As the result of
painstaking investigations he grouped together all those sub-
stances having similar actions, giving to each group the name of its
best-known or most thoroughly investigated member. Once the
groups were more or less fixed any new substance could, when
PHARMACOLOGY
iu iclioB wu teeimioecl, be Jtttmd to lU own group, (nit twTvliiniiKl»iiioointlmtl»yaimi
thui be pUccd or dui&ed. Ai lew nibKuca are »b»lbldy ™™; f™ 5'SJ^ iSiSid'iSif S,
identic'] In ■CIton, but only broodl/ limilai, [l is oticn difficult niuKlr and iwe poimu. iikI durini
to divide ihuply one gtoup fnni uMtber, In i, rlniU it it uuuUr iniuie it •cvtrrty, b
nauifeiliy impoaibie to pus in review eveiy phumicolofpcnl imouiil id produce umibr eBa» wben nveo by the t
ubeluce, ud we thiU therefore confine ouiielvcs to thoK f^", " "•?'"'° '*'""'/ "'° ,' ^n ■* «P«" the I
L'L f .-1- _. .. -'j'-ji the blood pfTHure end ibe nervous lyvieni, end durin
Toape. which lie of praclicil unporliace. M«ny individual p„,|y irAswe the bowel iiid the kidn^ When
lute quantitiet VT abeofbed and thj
LiiiiLi^^Jy so to Focn haoDockibiq. Sdub
(xrMic and ttUcy^i haveinecific effect* whkh have no rcEatHRihip pven by the mouth, little action b^ond tl
local action, varying irooi complete d^nKtlon of the iiHua to mncli the fame deprening ^ect upon the hca
nore or lev irriiation. When conBderably diluted they are only Silver leflembka tbem cl«el^, but diffon by
■Jifhtly imtaliuB; evtenully applied and In the Koinaeh they have it ia depofited permannily in minute cranu
■ninlBcptic action; thev incmie the eectelion o( nliva, and Ihui without alleetiiiK the KeiienI health, atain
uwage tbim. In the inteuine tbeynnbiiK with ammoflii and colour (ar«yrial. Mciruiy and lad are abi
al lOCtUioUBm- Boi^ acid only beiongt (BTtiaily muvul:!
to thia ^TDup, aa it and it* compouiid bonu have certain apeofic colic and
, jnd vefy marked c«he]
IBtic pMaidi, eaualic soda, Anenic and antimony da no< iorm combinarioi
and bkarbonalea, bom. but they tmb greatly deprm tlie central ntr
il theae aubetancea, apart they cauK fatty de«enei
■e the addi in the Konuch and other pans el Gaoup VI. IltdcttHs.—
tiiauB. bfit lOK tlui of the thyroid (I
of their cartwnalei '■" '-"-'—
on albumen. Iliey an in addition poweilul ii
apUtiing up water may act aa ojuditing aBcnta.
•Irong affiuily for the hydroflen of orpnic com[
act at bleachers and deodoRKTL Iodine hat a ■
tic, but mafM body beyond their ■aline' ac
"" their Hline action, Juve ,-, -„ ,
md leai matke
tuiftcient doKa a dq
applied hxally aapi
intoluble »apa mtl -^vuit. ^^^.^-^ i^vhij/vu^hj* «,«. ,*r
which maket them o( a limibr land.
Apart from alkal Gaoup VII. 5i>(p*iir.— Sulphur „
pharmacolo^cally. breuiht intoeontact iritb the lecieliani it fonna udph
>hile aodiu
r Vlll. PkoiMloru.—
loalot ibeie lut or alkaLne iul|dudei ban a tliihtly iniuimc cScct I
id indiapenaable _ ........ . . T" ..
'cioup^i. £uilT atiarted SiIIi.— Sodium chloride oiav I
■hea at the type oT thoK taitt which diffuie readily, and >
icrtfaie eaiily abiotiicd. Sodium nitiBte, potatiiuni nitrai
cptaaaium chloride, ammonium chbride, tlie alltaEne iodidea ai
mnudea, alw belong partly to thia gnxrp. ahhnifb naoA of the
ive alio ipccihc aciionL Looilly tbeyautecouiderableirritaljo
and tuiphuretted hydronen. a
■■ ■ e. B
ivT a tliihtly ir
^melabaliam.
1. hypophD^phite:
il in concentnled Bolutioo may ca
and inleni net, they are n»dly i
GaouF IV. SalU atmrbcd wiU riijlliiilfy.— Thia gmip include) . i
the Kilpbalei of udium, potasium and maxneHum, the acetate
and tartrate o( potash, citiate of maincsum. lodium photphate. _ . i
todium tartrate and iimitar aaltt. Locally tlieir action ia tlioht, (CO) and aotnc other irmpirable gaae* pcodure their
but when taken inlematly. diieoivcd in water, they arcoot abwnnj calty by atphyxiaiion. When dissolved in water, how
from the aUmenta acid su ia a gentle itimjlant to the mouth, ^romai
therriore remain I Ibc mixtuR being abftoibed more rapidly than pUin
purgative action aJ oxygn to the tiiauct, but it alao hat a tpcdfic efieci
The small portion paralytit of certain ports at the central nervous systi
Gaoup V. Ht IIS value as an anamhetic; when given in small a
aluminium, chron with air it produces a candblion al evhilaration.
■till locally they h and kidneys, while it also stimulates the general met.
cbemical action r body and the eacreiion of nitmgenoui prodi
albumen and ores '*" "■ ' ■*■■' -"---
]w active locally than the ioluhle, and in many caaea h..« ^—r ^-^y",' ."•" ■-■ — "■ /■<■."-- ■'.■..»■ ...... .- ■..
'to tucb gall-nuts, otV bark, bearbcrry leaves, ihatany rooi.
PHARMACOLOGY 351
Nd nn, bad [rait, liicnod sad witcb hud, iD oF wkich in mm) ibe man; liriuimi of them incrBK ihe Sow of blood la the
hi^wd u iHAdin. In thne tli ■-^. -. .— i- --;. • — ..^ .-.. . ■_ . .
■p dinr all iiiiMiM il^ power of unnin nw hUk* And of pre
01 nacUr Uv nc, bat ahbiHufa then an iliflhl chemidl djfftr auie abofttoo. The vuioiu cunpbon,
. .i._^. _» .1 :? J = ■-■J 1 _< "iraeo ampbor, nmlllal ind cummrin.L-
■mtia] oiU. and differ only tuperftcially {nun tben
C«ou» XVI. />*«((— Ti.r;~j..,i_ . _~ 1.
I rhemkally tllied
1 ur. «■ ur. ou Of anc "™^ j^JJ
/"ihnMj.— Thu inclodH * my liije niimbn- of
' u ciAalic ȣid, Hilplio-
o the Wood it low tbia dVcct cartnlatn, cnoaotc, vnd tv, rmI tar, od of cade. IhvAol, u
il,Eii>IuiU>el
■ it k paft^ broben ini into gallic acid iDd partly conburd vitl acid, bnuoic arid, naphihol. fawboqainoo, cnol, guaiacoU iebA]
dloia. tutb of ubid djaiyi nullify iti anno upon albnoKiL Bcchaiin and many Dthrta. Tlw all natnbk caibolic acid a
CXIOr Xllt. LkbI frrimU.-'^Ahhaufh iDine sf the drop or IcH cloHly, and may be deicHbn] aa (Oicial ptotoplatni jnilolH.
^nady csntidmd ban a local iniaat aclun. Ibey product olbei Locally Iheir dniruclivt aod iiriialbig rifmi vary a piod dtal. but
■ore uaportant cUccta, but Ibe MibAancei beie ranged under Ibp even Ahen veiy dilute they all have a marked poinnoua action on
hnAii depoid entirely for their action on tbeir local iiritani baclena, whiu blood cocpuidea, y^»t and lunilar or^^aniimL
dicB. After (baorplioil ourt of tbcoi exercue a depieiaing eHect upon Ibe
a. Theae arhidi act upon the alimenlary canal: Simple bitten nervoui tyitem, and are capable of leducini bigh lemperature.
*dk aa qua^B tvood, columbo root, taraxacum, teritLIin, cbiretta They are m«tly eacreted in the urine.
aad i^unr ocherv. iirilate fently ibe muconi membrane dI ibi Gaonr XVlT Atakol. — Tbia Kroup alio iocludet a very larie
». and By incre**ina the iecretiooi improvi number of cbemical badie«>wi1y aTewofwhicll are OKUlioned bcre.
nion. The aramalle billen surb aa cbamp Elhyl alcnbol ii taken ni a t^ic of Ibt ulloa of ndb^ akobo).
ntitiei ol eKenlialol. which incieaM Ibiii (ulphoul, chlomlDrm. melbyl chloride, elhyl rhloride. cbbral
■ocal aajoo. Ihe active priociplea in nnie of Iheie bidm havi hydrate, butykblorai bydiale. and almoat any number of tkrivativea
bven iaoiared Ffue, and bave been found 10 be alkaloidt or neutral (ram theae. Some of tbcm are n volatile that (bey pnxluce Iheir
lacR-ni&fa and riocar irrilarc the aloniacb and bowel much ir Inlenae cold and tben Anaefltheiia; bul taken in the
le way. bui are more pungent, and arecorueqnentlyiiird ""
- mis. Some of rbeie nave a dmilar but lean marked etfi
apoa ibe tUn. The taip m '
cnbrta aad Cauda balaara: the gum-reiinj, lucb 11 iBlnidi. __ ^ .— ,
aiyrih, aaUDOniacum and galhanum; and ibe Ime baluim. tuch the symplomi produced by Ihem vary very nratly.
» btuiin. itoiai, baham ofTuluand baliam of Peru. The retina I. Morphine and the other opium alkaloida (codeine, narcotine.
vte [akn iolerually have moch tfa^ aame aclion ai caaential oih, laudanine, &.) hove two pnHDincnl acljom-a ibrerriic followed by
^^a^ He cloaely allvd chcmirally, while ibe ben&nc and cinnamic a tetanic aclun. In morphine, on the higher animals ai teaal, Ibe
*idi in the baluma modify their actiona very ilighlly. Akhoush narcoTic aclion ii very marked, the tcLaniiing action alighily aa;
^ plaimacijinicilly ihey are fundamentally similar' They an liVe (hat of Miychnine. Moqifiine eiercim'ilt cHvcli chiefly upon
teni A^j»».,., ..-•-m on pmtopUifli, which rmhe* them useful the cerebrum and the medulla obtonntia in man. Il baa ia liMiEion
IM the lareat. aind dimini»iiin bowel periilaiti
• ibey aliihlly in
t of Ibe
.n erf ilie bowel. They are readily abaorbed 2. Strychnine and brucine very cEoaely n
.. .7 arc cicretCTl chiefly by the kidnrya in a action, and under tbia heading curarine n
nalteied form, and probably alwljy loedifferentmucaua Theae bodira atimulate the grey matter in
. ._ . „ a leelirTf of marked nmpton _
. Ai the lame (ime they iocrcaae the movementa of (be refleaea- Compared ariih morphine, codeine and the 01
1. and alao in thij wa ■ - " ■ ■ ■ ■■■■•!-
R cancel:
form, and probably alw
^^ generally, is exerted on the brain and spina] cord, and ia almoat at once by paratyiif <^ the Icrmlnationa of the motor Dervct.
^ int alwhtly atimulani aod afterwards depre*iinE, even to the 3. Caffeine is (he active principle ia tea, coffee, kola, matt and
^an( ct fleepineaa and slirpor. Locally applied they depress piarana; while (beobroffiiBe, a body doarly allied to it, ii found
^ [lar heart arxl ciiculaiion the effects arc siimulaht unless lar^ in the brain and cord, this being the foundation of tbeir dieletic
*>a iie given, when the pultf becomes slow and blood .pressure value and tbeir use afl nervine stiDnibnla. They also marbedty
^A leaned. During evcretion (bey irritate the kidnejs and the increase (he tecmioa of urine by vtimulatiBg the accreting cela
*M(fhnds. and thereby incrcate the excretion of unne and of 4 ibr kidneys.
Mtit. Tbey abo iacreaae ibe oumber of leucocyte* in the blood, 4. Cocaine it tbe active prindpie of the coca leaf, which it cbevid
PHARMACOLOGY
■L Atropiiv, byovcyanuitCi homalropiMj duboiuw, (Utunne
and totat olbrr bodis luvc a panlyting action upoa tbe ciidi
of Ihe Boiof and ifcmory nm™. Tfiry xhatlon IcHn all
& NicDtiiK» ^curijie and lobcline aj« Ifae ftctive pruiciplei of
tobaoCD and wva nhvunn* which are HDOktd u AiiDUlanl
un«tic«. In lar^ doon (hey are poverful pcrve poiaons, but u
vainLly taken tiiey everciie a Really HLmulant «fect upon Ihe
by unall floaCB being chiefly raamive iwealii^ an^l lalivalion). it
is capabJe of being utilLied in iDcdicioe. Muniine baa a very
close rtveinblance in action to pilocaipine.
7. PbyHHigmine. Ihe aciive piindpje of the Cakbat bean, aili
It eontneti Ifae pi^iU.
& Conine, gebemininc and apaiteioe all exert a par?1y«ipff
— , — , ..„-,, ^--^. ,, ,-, implication
td which the weaheHd _gait and other iymptopia are due.
9. AoHiiline, detphinioe and many of thdr derivative* have a
very wideapfead depretaing action on mmcle and nerve.
*?- ApoAorpluiie i* eaannially a pimde pn»n. bnl mrins to the
iplonu aR obacrvablE. iti onetio acUon
fad that miniilc dnwa Himulale 1
a tbe beal-itguiiling
:iaa nmilai 10 that of
'?vi:?Ss:SE
u tree), and aevHa]
ivxia neiitnl bodio.
efly iipHi the mntck
d the hern and bbod venela. The individiuT n>u>cle-hbn om-
J,™!,e*hi."'",?riXJd*t'^*'™''l«
■ut Ibe diauole and >vM<^
e. tbe pniK i. doW. and
Ihe blood -pn^""!. rai»rd."TTir'i^lowu7g ollhe haul la pMly
brouiilil about by an acrion on the vagm
OKI I he anion al picroloiin
ii eifRrI chiefly on the nwdulfary ncrv
! ccni™. whereby immilai
Cacwf XXri- 50^,..,-S3poi.ln
and many alEcH bodie.
number of plants Ihe chid
and otheti, knavfn collectively B4 toapik
ona. They all art a> local
after >b«cpli«. are more
■^MUf kxUh Cy«H^.—Th
E!,.r^r:esssr.f
cvanic acid. Hydijjcyanic acid ia
in the higher Sal. it_ .pi^il^
PHARMACOPOEIA
tfHa tor lb* pvpoM af au^si niniti
rffirt, to clfeuue)
intHtiiiAl caiul,
«■
i), *■(; u Duoeu, « tnr
.at4tmtiaV^.lfmmJi, .
IGi. B^wnA. tltuidtiti which pRiducc wucty evKuuia
OWunu (Gt. xid4. b& ^r-T''- I™"*) «" iwmil™ wh
KItnriKnuaa the Osw of bOe, Blhcr by cutiiif u iacttu
mrtM tfj. podophvlhiiii) w by nwpiDc it naivanb
CHBolttiDC tba imratuul cDOtractioiu ^t.f. uukiwI^,
nc icm tirmitiit (Lil. K>mu. word, au'
" 1 luwuy Evtii ■Iter tut »ITT — .
°imi'imiii™itTL«. fmi.. -
drugi which djreaty kill Che cniouu. while
V, Dfvp Actifw on tbt rnvniivc tytttm. Af^ndiiiact (Gr.
'IMh^, the Eoidna of krv^ inncuF the •aioa ol Che EinEnilve
CMkt'iOt. JS*W>", .10 ilmi" oii™« i«j<«ief"«^«S!
■ntv (he meutrual Bow, Goiuionfui (Gr. ^ AAa, rnillc) in-
mtttbi •caniDn of milk, while uUiis/aagfctiu (i^. bcUuknu]
Mdki ttHix ih« BjAiEd
« bodily hew. Amli-
LCHin, cdU wiier, Ac.
c ilda. Diaflanlki
id pfcitKl tht
CL Dfup acdnff oa
^MQjn drufi which
■c^BIbtToathciiaii
UnKdt? BCIIInl^ I
~BUni. ^odwiuui
^^q, nBDbnw) *re tl
^ m lirge do» dcpro*
cntnl or pniph«rai^ Altodynet (Gr.
rv pun <jnly, but, ■« in Aralfiiitj
um (lid incolierence. Hypnaliu (Gt.
5«fw(A:j tLat. lofBT. ■ deep ileip) an drup which
-ithoul cauunc cirehral BtrileineiW. livctlki
u of RSfontion and
• bydd
1. Dnia w)
r by inlutHt
igrcH of pulrcfactioD
(SSi^cSui)!" (H
nUMACOnBU ait. tbt
^ftpmmdcrj, in iu modem 1
4irKtiaiil lol the idcntific^on oI aunplei uid tl
of oonpoiuid medidoa, uui publiihed by Ibc 1
(nmuoeht or of a medical or phannaceutical
K haa also been applied to aimLlai compeadii
The £nt woA nt lilt kind pi
autboiitT appon
MQse, a book containing
«^iBiM>i
r-**^"f ttudent lumed Valeriua Coidua sh
»II«tIon ol medical reccipti, which he had Kiccted Inm the
itjiig] ol the IBOM emincDt medical authohlia, to the phy-
iana ol the town, who uied him to print it lor Ihe benefit
the apotfaecahca, and obtalnrd lor hit work the aanctioB of
i aenatua. An earlier woric, known aa the AnJideiafium
JttrentiHum, had been published under the authority of tbe
college ol medicine of norcnce. The tenn " phannacopocia"
Snt appean at a diitinct title in a work publiihed at Baiel in
iSlSl by Di A. Foei, but doei not appear to have come into
general uae until tbe beginning of the 1 7th century, Befoic 1 543
the worki priucipall)' uted by apothecariei wen the ireatiaei
on ^mplei by Avicenna and Scnpion: the Di jynmyiiHi
and ^iit pri quo of Simon Jaoueniit', Ihe Liba nrriltrit
ol Bulchitim Ben Abciuerim, which deicribed the pre-
puationi made from plants, azumtlt and iiilDeiali, and wai the
type of the chemical portion of modem pharmacopoeiai; and
Ihe AHHinUriam of Nicnliut de Salerno, coataining Galenical
compounda arranged alphahetlcaily. 01 tbit latt work there
in the latter leveral of tbe compound! deicribed in tbe larger
Until 1617 auch drugi and raeiiifiDes u were In common nic
were told in England by the apothecaries and gmcen. In that
year the apotbecariei obtained a icpante charter, and it wat
enacted that 00 grocer tbould keep an apolhecaiy'i ihop. The
tbe apothecariei, upon whom pressure wu brought to bear 10
make them diipenie accurately, by the issue ol a phaimacdpoeia
in May ifiiS by Ihe College ol Fhyiidana, and by the powa
which the wardeni of the apothecariet received in common with
the cenion of the College of Physidans of examining the ibopt
ol apotbecariei within 7 m. of London and deslioying all Ihtf
campound* which they found unfaithfully prepared. Thii, tba
fint authoiiied Landen Pianmamptiia, wu lelecled cliieSy
from the worka of Meiue and Nicoiaui de Salemo, but it wat
found to beio full of emn that the whole editionwiscinceOed,
and a frctb edition wat publiabed In the following December.
At thia period the compound! employed in medicine were often
helerogeneoui miituiei, some of which contained from 10 to 70,
or more, ingredienti, wliile a large number at timplei were uaed
in Loniequence ol the tame aubstance being supposed to posieai
diffeitat qualitiei according to the lource from which it wai
derived. Thus ccaba' eyes, pevlt, oyilcr-thelli and coral were
tuppcaed to have diSerent propeniei. Among other ingredi-
enti entering Into lome of "' ' '
inakuUat
d other
most growing 01 .
Although other editloos of the L^ruiffn Pkarmocotatia
were Ittued in 1621, 1631, 1639 and 1677, it was not untQ the
thai any important allentioni wen made. In this Issue many
ol Ihe ridiculous remedies previously in ute were omitled.
although a good number were still retained, such aa dogs'
bolaniol nanni of herbal remediei were for the hnt lime added
to tlie official ooe*; the simple distilled waters were ordered of
London, although Hill in
oidy those preparations
approval of the majority
vera] a
cordials
I longer used in
;ue elsewhere. A great impRive-
ition published In 1746, In which
i retained which had received Ibe
« drugs only which were supposed
An attempt wu made to simplily
I by tbe rejection ol luperfluoui
published in 1788 the tendency 10
es ol physidant for 1000 years were ditcaided, 1
wcrful drugs which hid been considered 100 danger
uded in the PliaTmacapiicia of 1765 were restored ti
IS position. In [S09 the French chemical nomenl
35+ PHARMACOPOEIA
«u adopted, ud in iSi; ■ correcud Impccuion of tbe ume >>» BriHih Piarm
*i* iuucd. SdbieqiienC cdHiou iieic publithtd in 1S14, ^ ~'"
iKjfiud iBst. I
The fint £duihtrft Pkarmaatvtia vu publiilKd in 1699 ]
ud Ihe Lul is 1S41; the £nt DtUiim Pkarmacapotia in i'
■nd the kit in iSjo.
The pttpuntioB. contained in theie thrte phumacopoeiu J^ ^SS^.iS
were not »U umlonn m itrength, ■ murceof much inconvenitnce ihe purely phirmj ,
ud duget la tlie public, tibea powerful prepumdoni luch u ea« in pbumuy. lumiuted by the phu
dilute hydrocymic uid were ordeted in the one country mnd C™t,Bnt«in ind Inlind.^^ippoiiind 10
diH^ed ^cording to the nation.] phx™«^p^ in .«,thcr "gSi ^^^HJI^ J^-^ ^S"^ ^ ^ Ad
In consequence ol thu inconvenience the MedicAl Act of iSsB o( Food «od Dnigi Ael CDneeroini tl« uie S (he Phui
ordained that the Ceneni MediciU Council ihouid cause to be !■ a Le«l itKndud fof the dmys uid pmnrations canu
publiifaed » book containing ■ list o( medicines ud compounds, TJePfijmmcopoiUL. deEned
"w.f^"".^'r'^ P*-™^.*««. which should be . fX'J.llliS^'^ 'lSy'« S-iughoi.
nibstitulelhiDughoul Great BntiiD and Ireland for the separate one unilonn suit-* — ' — ' ---■ — •■ — ^- -■-'
m sundud and guide wbereby the nalun an
The fim SSu* Pkarmaapoeia nt publiierto"Se"'EWw! dft'ermiofd." Il Is obvuiB lh« it cunoc be an esc
language in 1M4, but jave such leneral diualisfaction both to f "ih«»«es nud In iMdnae, anl cu ool); be ucd/a.
the medical pnifesslon and to chenusts ud druggists that the othere. It hu been heU a the Divi>ic»ial Courts (
General Medical Council bnughloutancwand amended edition fiuiutcnm) thai the Pharmscopceia ii a ilaDdanl for c
In 1B67. This dtssatislaclion was probably owing paitly lo the PtraUoiu asked fur under their phvminpaeia] name.
Iict thtil Ihe mijotilx o[ the compUen of the work were not "" '"
engaged in the practice of pbirmacy, and therefore competent
rather (o decide upon the kind of prepaiatuHU required thu
upon the method of their muufacture. The necessity for this
clement in the construction of a pharmacopoeia Is now fully
recogoiied in other counliies, in moat of which phaimaceutical
chemists are represented on the cominitlee lor the preparation
of the legally recogoiied roapuala.
National pharmaoipaeias now sdit In (he loHowing coustria:
Austria, Betgium, Chile, DenmaikFiuce, Ceimuy. Giw Britain,
Gmce. HoUud.Hiuvaiy. ladlLjapan, Mako, Norway, Pocti«al,
""■■■■ 1, ItahTSwiUHbad, the United States Jt
TIk Fieach Cado has probably a ,
other nbannacopoeia outside its own country, being. In codnesiea
with DorvaultV VOfiana, the standard for dnwista In a large
ponion of Central and South Aniei^~ ■ ■• =■ -'— ^«^-i :- t-.j —
The luin'tocsl of the drugs and a
__ _ _^....._. __ ,jf dnwista In a lar
in of Central and South America; it is also cKdal in Turin
jum-tocsl of the drugs and j>reparaIioi
1, or double the avenge of other nx
I the active principles have to ■ targe extent replaced the cnide liioinnt
I from which they were derived. From time to time such leen inn
t remedien of drugEiBta or phydciant as have rtiet with pt^lar ubly ler
trs necessary frequent new editions of the national phamia- copoeia whi
rise, (he office of which is (o funtisfa definite foimulae lor pre- Another Iwal tJiHicuLty connected with modeen phana
tiani that have already come into enteniive uie in medical ii the incluiun in same of then tt synlhetic chemfcri
:ice, so as la ensure uolfonnlty it iticngth, and CO give Ihe the premaes for pnparing which have been patented. 1
icters and tests by which (hefr purity and potency may be subnances are sold under trade-oiarli names sudi n ven
"miotd. But each new edition requires several yearn id carry icieniiAc chemicsl name is often long and unwiddy,
or devising suitable formulae, so thai phytician prefers when writing a preacriplion to uie iW
the publication of luch non- pharmacist is compelled to uk the more eapentive psieat
''■ £ifra Pkamaapona, In which all new remedies under in pharinacopoirial name when the paremed artic
unepieparations in Ihe diAerent inlringemert of patent righta The only pUn, iheirlDcc*
Th need of such works to phyiiciac to use Ihe chemical name <which eannot be i
_r, — 1 WwB by the lacc that they are as given in the Pharmacopoeia. « — lor those syathecit
even mote largely used than the PhaimaeopDeia itieK, the fine ofA included in the PharmaropDeia—to use the icieB
having beeo issued in iB and Ihe second in rj editions at compara- chemical name Riven in the Biiiiah Pharmaceutkcai Codes-
tively short intervale. In England the taak of eUtnrating a riew /attmarinndi Phnrmaapotia. — Incr^ied facilities fnr irj
Pharmacopoeia is entnutcd to a body of a purely medical chaiacter. brought into greater prominence Ihe imponaitce of an
ind legally the pharmacist has not, as in other countries, a voice to uniformity in the tormulae of (he more powerful lec
in the matter, notwilhitanding the fact Ihat, although Ihe medical order to avoid danger to patients when a prescriprion is
praciitioner is naturally the best Judge of Ihe drug or preparations In a ditferent country from that in which it was writlen-
Lhsi will aBord the best therapeulic result, he ia nM n competent have bren made by inlemationa] pharmaceulical and
Is the pharmacist to say how that preparation can be produced in conferences tosettlea batison which an inlematioBalpharT
die meal effective and latisfactory manner, nor how the purity of couUI be prepared, but. owing to national jealouiirs and ll»
PHARMACOSIDERITE— PHARMACY
onlyatnce; thii cc
PntablyiB
a td the dfw, ukd tUII in in prnantio
tai] pCuimdM, wbo tboufd be
V pcrpanEut
..vvdinwxBDftheBriciili Emoretn Jndian*
od mUjiIhI ia 1900 tii whkb ach iitick nccva ofic
li iM.niiiiinwi i*^fT*t*^ u the fcxpt of the monofn
nal phiRiiaciipeaL
■IphuBHCofneiu have bm
ttu hkhEno, The method edDpted by the PAtuguei
omk coaei oea™ ■— — -' — - -'^--'- "
Pna mcb eqiul p
■nk tuniine in
n o( the (lki)<id> u
::tureB of [he irah pfani* t
the droD And akoWic □
jve put* of alcohol of ^ve:
■ wcU I
iSS**'-'
PHI BliCOWPlBITK, ■ mioenl ipccin coa
"Hnlol bisc lenic aneslte, 9FeAsOrFe(OH)rsHi
UJi hin the I«io of imall, ihiiply defined cubes of a
dKDbenl was ally kDown aa " cube ore" (Ger., I
"m uioe phannacotideriu, given by J. F. L. Hai
tl}, alladca la the anenic and iron ptesent I
Mnt, and >lfv«i >™°)- '^^ Cacei of the cube ai
I«nlltl lo one diaconal. and altenate conicn are
'*Iluid by facet of * letiahedron. The ctyslali
*wily rrfiactlng, and in polarized light exhibit
^ncture panllel (0 the cube facea The bardneu ii :
^BaSc gnvity I'S. Recent analyaea prove the pre
^aJI but variable unauBt of potaaiium (K^. i-fii
it tbt Coimlh GiyMalt, thou^ in thcae f com Uiuga
D take the place of buie
throughout the whole crystal to red; on placing the red cryttal
in dilute hydrochloric add the green colour is reslored- Natuial
cryllals art somctunes boncy-yeUow to browii in ct>lout, but
thii appean to be dut to akoation.
a mlnnl of iFciiiidary origin, the ciystab
. It wee iound in loine abundance si Ihe end of the iMb
fling attached to
le copper mines of tl
■ince been Eound at - '"—
leawall.
few other localities, for ^mcde, at
IT Schemniu in Huogaiy. and In the llniic cfiuiict
la uua. lX- S- S.)
FBARHACT, alRinvhichin theoriginalGieehfonniignified
the use of any kind of drug {^ifiiiajtaf}, potion or spell,
signification it is applied to the act of preparing, preserving
and compounding raedidnea, according to the procnptiona
ol physicians. It was used first in (his sense in 1597.
In the earliest periods of the world^s history of which we have
any rtrord, this ait, like tbat of the perfumer, was practised
by a Ipedsl class of Ibe plicstbood, ai in the case of f^eaiar
(Num-iv. 16], and thatol medicine by another class (Lev. liii.).
Egyptian inscriptions indicate that the pbyiidan-priests
sent their prescriptions to be dispensed by the prieata of Isis
when, accompanied by the chanter of incantations and •pcllt,
they visited the sick'. A papyrus of Sent, jjoo MX:., gives
directions as 10 the preparation of prescriptions. In the Eber*
papyrus, 1550 a.c, mention is nude of blisters, oinlnKnta,
dyilen, mineral and vegeuble dniga The art of the spothe-
ory is alluded lo very early in the Old Testament blMoiy
{Eiod. u*. ij-35 and b uoviL 10) and again in the timeol
Salomon (Ecclet i. 9), but this word, which is translated far
{nmtv in the French version, only indicates tbat the preparation
of fragrsnt unguents and inccDM farmed, even al that eai4y
data, a part ol pharmacy, since the diugs mentioned, via.
galbanum, myrrh, stacte, frankincense, f»i»mtHj cassia and
being probably the kind distinguished at the present time in
the Bombay tnarket as perfumed myrrh or bissabol, which
still forma an ingredient of the jou sticks used as incense in the
temples in China. The myirh mentioned in Gen. laiviL js
is described imder aitather Hebrew word, and refers to ladanum,
a frsgrant reun produced in Cyprus, and the use of Ibis drug,
as well as that <rf cinnamon and chssia, indicates even at that
early period a kiKJwledge of the products of Somaliland, Aratua
and the East Indies and the eaistencc of trade between the
faitbet East and Egypt. In China also at a very early period
the an of pharmacy wa) practised. Cbing-Hong, a contem-
porary of Mena I. of Egypt, was learned in the »it, and made
decDctiona and extracts of plants. The materia medica of the
Chinese
thee
t the I
: ol drugs, and ol the
these from the ea
rliesi
Inasmuch a
s it sliU
comprises
articles that were fo
nnerly
used
in medicine
now been
utterly discarded.
Thus
the d
octrineol
ugnaturei
IS evident
in the use of the
ed G
insengroot
f China, which, like
Ibal of the mandra
;elC
14-16), owed its en
pbyment
lo the fact thai Ih
branches
4mbbng
Ihe arms and legs
fam
d tbis resemblance gave rise la
Ibe belief that il
englh and
viriUly.
Tbeume
belief is shown in Ibe bo
anical
names ippUed to ma
ny planla.
l-t- Pulmonaria. H
d others.
beUel
hat plants, animals and m
nerabare
under the influenc
plan
is is shown
in Ihe 0
er names
of some of the me
als, e
t. Sal
m tor lead
Venml
r copper,
and Man tor iron
and
be belief that ih
of flower.
»^n.edidnal
virtues of plants were
due CO the spirits wh
withi
them.
356
PHARMACY
indicated the particular planet they were under led to their use
in diseases and for constitutions supposed to be under the same
planet. Physicians to this day hesid their prescriptions with a
sign that originally meant an invocation to Jupiter, but now
represents the word recipe.
The belief, which is still held by the Chinese, that the excrements
of animalft retain the properties and peculiarities of the animals
from which they are derived, led to the use in medicine of these
disgusting remedies, which are still sold in drug shops in China,
and were only omitted from the English Pharmacopoda as late as
1721. At that date the science of chemistry was very imperfectly
known, and the real constituents of ordinary remedies so little
understood that dififerent virtues were attributed to different pro-
ducts containing the same constituents. Thus, prepared oyster-
shells, coral, pearls, crabs' " eyes " and burnt hart's horn were
regarded as specifics in different complaints, in ignorance of
the fact that they all contain, as the chief ingredients, calcium
phoq>hate and carbonate. The celebrated Gascoigne's powder,
which was sold as late as the middle of the xgth century in the
form of balls like sal prunella, consisted of equal parts of crabs'
" eyes," the black tips of crabs' claws, Oriental pearls. Oriental
bezoar and white coral, and was administered in jelly made of
hart's horn, but was prescribed by physicians chiefly for wealthy
people, as it cost about forty shillings per ounce. Superstition
also entered largely into the choice of remedies. Thus various
parts of criminals, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man,
moss grown on a human skull, &c., were used, and even the
celebrated Dr Ciilpeper in the X7th century recommended
** the ashes of the head of a coal black cat as a specific for such
as have a skin growing over their sight."
In course of time the knowledge of drugs, and consequently
the nimiber in use, gradually increased, and some of the prepara-
tions made in accordance with the art attained a celebrity that
lasted for centuries. Thus diachylon plaster was invented by
Menecrates in a.d. x, and was used by him for the same purposes
as it is empli^ed to-day. An electuary of opium, known as
Mitkradatumf was invented by Mithradate8VI.,king of Pontus,
who lived in constant fear of being poisoned, and tested the
effects of poisons on criminals, and is said to have taken poisons
and their antidotes every day in the year. The prescription
for the general antidote known as Mithnuiatum was found with
his body, together with other medical MSS., by Pompey, after
his victory over that king. The prescription was improved by
Damocrates and Andromachus, body physicians to Nero. The
first was subsequently known as MUhradatum DamocratiSi and
the second as Theriaca Andromacki, the name Tkeriaca or
Tiriaca being derived from the snake called Tyrus, the flesh
of which was added to it by Andromachus. llie former con-
tained 55, or, according to some formulae, 73 ingredients, and
occurs in all the dispensatories, from that of Corvus Valerius
up to the pharmacopoeias of the xgth century; and aromatic
preparations of opium are still used, under the name of Tkeriaka
in Persia. The Theriaca prepared at Venice had the highest
reputation, probably because in Venice the component parts
were exposed to the inspection of wise men and doctors for two
months, to determine whether they were or were not fit for use.
The apothecaries' ordinance at Nuremberg provided that no
Tkeriaca should in future be branded with the seal of the city
unless it had been previously examined and declared worthy
of the same by the doctors of medicine, and that every druggist
must know the age of the Tkeriaca he sold. Inasmuch as its
action changed very materially with age, " the buyer should in
all instances be informed, so that he may not be deceived."
The last public preparation of Theriaca took place at Nurem-
berg in 1754.
In A.D. 77-78 Dioscorides of Anazarba, in Cilida, wrote his
great work on materia medica, which still remains the most
important work on the plants and drugs used in ancient times
(of which about 400 were enumerated) and until the 17th century
was held as the most valuable guide to medicinal plants and
drugs extant. Nearly ico years afterwards Galen, the imperial
physician at Rome (a.o. ijx-soo), who was learned in surgery,
pharmacy and materia medica, added about 300 more plan
to those described by Dioscorides.
Galen believed in the doctrine of humours ori^naOed 1
Hippocrates, which supposes the condition of the body to depei
upon the proper mixture of the four elements, hot, cold, moi
and dry, and that drugs possess the same elementary qualitic
and that on the principle of contraries one or other was indicate
e.g. a cooling remedy for a feverish state. This doctrine w
held for many centuries, and drugs are classed by all the 0
herbalists as having one or other of these quah'ties in a great
or less degree. Galen is said to have invented hiera-pia
which he employed as an anthelmintic; it is still used
England as a domestic remedy. In the 6lh century Alexand
of Tralles used colchicum for gout, iron for anaemia, and rhub«
in liver weakness and dysentery. The practice of pharmacy w
extended by the Arabian physicians, and the separation of
from medicine was recognized in the 8th, and legalized in ti
X ith century. The practice of " polypharmacy," or the use of
ku-ge number of ingredients in prescriptions, which was comxm
in the middle ages, was greatly due to the view enunciated 1
Alkekendo, and held by one of the Arabian schods of medidn
that the activity of medicine increases in a duj^cate rat
when compounded with others; and it was only in the first hi
of the x8th century that the practice was altogether diacontinni
in the pharmacopoeias, although the theory was shown to 1
incorrect by Averroes in the X3th century.
The establishments for dispensing medicines at Cordov
Toledo and other large towns under Arab rule, were placed und
severe legal restrictions. Frederick II. in aj>. 1233 paned
law, whidi remained in force for a long time in the two ^dHi
by which every medical man was required to ^ve informatii
against any pharmacist who should sell bad medidne. T
pharmacists were divided into two classes, the stoHonani, wi
sold simple drugs and non-magisterial preparations at a tar
determined by competent authorities, and the confediottar
whose busmess it was to dispense scrupulously the pfcaai
tions of medical men; all pharmaceutical establiahments wc
pUced under the surveillance of the college of medicine,
the monastic period pharmacy was to a great extent uiKkr ti
control of the religious orders, particuUriy the Benedictines, wl>
from coming into contact with the Arabian physicians, d^oCi
themselves to pharmacy, pharmacology and therapeutics; bi
as monks were forbidden to shed blood, surgery fell Urgdy in
the hands of barbers, so that the class of bari>er-surgcoQs can
into existence, and the sign of their skill in blood-letting A
appears in provincial districts in England in the form of tl
barber's pole, representing the application of bandages.
In England the separation between medicine and pharauM
was somewhat later thai) on the continent of Europe. TI
earliest record of an apothecary's shop in London was in 134
The status of the apothecary, as subordinate to the pbysida
in the time of Henry VIII., is evident from the foUowiog, oot <
21 rules laid down by a prominent apothecary, who was a coos
of Anne Boleyn: " His garden must be at hand, with plorty e
herbs and SMds and roots. He must read Dioscorides. Bi
must have mortars, pots, filters, passes and boxes dean tad
sweet. He must have two places in the shop, one most deu
for physic, and the base place for chirurgic stuff. He is ncitkr
to increase nor to diminish the physidan's prescription; k ii
neither to buy nor to sell rotten drugs. He is only to nddk
in his own vocation; and to remember that his oflke is only If
be the physidan's cook."
The drugs used by the physicians and i^>otbecarics vat
purchased from the grossarii or sellers in gross, who were silb>
sequently called grocers, some of whom spedalized as dnfl*^
and others as chymists or chemists. The apothecaxks, ^
were the pharmadsts of those days, were not represented \ff
any corporate body, but in the reign of King James I., in ifc^
were incorporated with the Company of Grocers. Hus antflf^
ment was not, however, approved of by the physidans, ^
obtained in 161 7 a separate charter for the apothecaries to
the number of 114, which was the number of
PHARMACY 357
(CKtiiing [n Loodon. At Uw lune time It <ni cnictfd Itut no metropglii and picvincial towns. On the iSthoFFebnuiy iStj
part ihould keep in apolliccuy'I (hop, ud (lul no aurgeoa s coyil chuta of iocoiponttion wu giutcd to the lodcty, lod
ihaiild sell nudicina, ud thai tlie phyiidioi should hsvc the ■ peimuienl iliiui was tfaut scquind. Oxmiit* in buiincs
power to lesjch the shops of the apolhearies viLhtD 7 m. of before the grsntin^ oF (he chiulH irere entitled to joia the
Lmdon under a peoahy of £100 m cue of a refiual to permit society as mcmben^ but those who wished to join it subsequently
i- Soon after the apothecaries were [onned iiilo a sepanle could do to ooly on condition of passing in euminatloo for the
iDopany they toolt into couidentioD means to prevent the purpose of testing their knowledge of pharmacy, A school of
Itudsud idulteralionspnctised by the grocers snd druggists, pharmscy wii tnitiluted, and ■ muirum and Ubniy wen
ind. to remedy the evil, established 1 minufictoiy of their own stirled. The chemicil bliaialary in conneaon with the school
h 1636 so Ifaal they might nuke prepaiations for their own was, when first instituted, the only one in England for teaching
Bembetv. The frauds ind adulterations were probably due in purposes, and the museum is now reputed to be the bat
VUl U> the ipotheciries. [or Dr Mertil. a colletille phyuciin phirmacctilica] one in the world, the library sow ooDtiining
b( London, stated that " such chymiits which sell preparations about tj,Boo volumes.
kntnly made coni|d»in that few spothtciries wiU go to the Thr exanunatioRi are three in numbeT. Tie first It of a pen
pncE of them." The medicinal preparations which required jinunory character, qu':iLfyiT '-■--■ ...
ibiiiiofa furnace, such as mineral earths, wen undertsken by spptenii™; in lieu of this eia ,
lit Aymists. who probably derived their name from the " ' Jir^'S^^rJ . " ■™7,*'? "Tl
MAymistt, who flourished from the i4lh to Ihe 16th centuries. I ch^«^ dniWi^
Vln llie word was discovered to be derived from an Arabic and mii»i be pi»oif bci
MAroustt. who flourished from the ,4lh 10 the t6th centuries- "cheniiHTrd d™K^STb"™S«i!iir^",S
id"5i"
ing'i.sliUcondnuedloasmaUe.lent. The ^j^SStSS^^JtoSSdaS^""'"
rabic and muvt fte rastcd before anyDne can legally dispense, ampoond
Bslury the word chymist became altered lo cb^t, although '»>?"}'• tSf""^" nunphoW awl physioloiy, cheraietry. rfiym,
.. ?. . ... '. ....■ i ,. . 11 ^.... T?. ■Mtens medka, pharmacy, dnpcmiii, posoloEy, the mdiDa ol
loasniaUeilenl. The p^™riplioqs.aBd'Wtoowtd,eTpoi.l.iBdtKraniidMS^^
lk«iginil spelling is Sim continued 10 a snuu extent, ice „,,^-piioiiiHd'". toiiWd^S>iiiS.;;
Pdibods and Pharmacy Act ot 190B (lerdDii
the fungdd
immonly to be seen until the middle of the 19th power to lenilate the pcelindoary training. snangB ■ cunkuium,
mlwy, were signs used by Ihe alchemists to indicate various ""l^liri"'' ™ qu^ljlymg eamiBation into two parts, » that an
A^^ I L . T A .1. .i._.^^-^ v^j ;»^»..»j ijipronmation to the standard of pharmaceutical educaiion on rhe
Amai lubsuiKcs. In 1694 ll« apol}«ar«(^h!id "^^^^ dontiMnl i. likely In take place wiVhin a tt»n pe.riod- IXs>«> in
liilhtlrniiiomerianilloasiuniethefunclionsafthephysician. thequesiJOTof srantlngdepm. ...,.,,
.b.™«ledin,697byestablishi.gdi!pensaries,»heremedicincs ./.'^^i!^^'^£r;,":;X.",k^ .Se"t!!:^" ^'SSI^
■Mid be procured at ihcir intrinsic value, or at cost pnce. The one. but ranks la an honours euminalion. The education [or tkia
•■sllnis employed at these dispensaries after a lime appear eaminatioo has kepi pace with the rapid advances of science, all
Hkmionc into business on their own account, and in this way the Wtowing subjects o- '- —' >■- —•
iWdiipensirg chemists, as 1 class, appear to have originated. "^eture ol niani. and
Is 171S Ihe Apothecaries' Corporation obtained 1 charter indudincilioac
■covering them to license apothecaries to seU medicines in astoenabJetheiniDcafTyaui inepretcni
f^ika or within 7 m and intended to use it to restrain snalysii: the uie of the polariscope and ...... ^..,.......... .
*™; ...1 d™Ki«.' i™. p...r™ pb.n.w, ••' » ijtssSis ri'i££r3"s'.S£'S
(ntibit physicians and surgeons from wUing the medidnes diteasesandinsect pensofplanta.
lirr prescribed; hut the apothecaries, by paying increased Tboie who have passed ihii enmination are competent 10 perform
utmlBn to medical and surgical prjclice, hid not only alien- an^j™ o( all kindfc and generally obtain the prclerence (or various
■ripiiHii. When a further attempt was nude in iSij lo hring been done in conneiion with the naiional pharmaCDpoeii under
• U into parliament including provisions (or prohibiting Ihe K^^^'™ °' '^ PbinnacDpoeia Comnultce of the Medical
Wctite of pharmacy by uneducated persons, and giving power 'J'"''™'
I'c&mine dispensing chemists, Ihe latter became alarmed, A pharmacy act, whidi was passed in iSj), established a
W, Snding Ihst the proviuons ot Ihe bill were entirely in the distinction between registered and eiarained, nnd unregistered
■■tiBU of the ipothecanes, and directed against chemists and and uneinmined chemists and druggists, creating a register
^)l were so fat successful as to prevent apothecaries from so that the public might discriminate between the two cbises.
lileTfering in any wny with, or obtaining any control over, A subsequent phanna^ act, passed in iSiSS, added a register
<^e!i and druggists. In 1S41 another attempt was made by of chemists and druggists, and rendered it unlawful tot any
'^ imliiecaries to ccmtrst the trade of chemists and druggisu unregistered person 10 sell or keep open shop for selling the
°B tic gTDnnd that no adequate tiaim'nation or education in poisons mentioned in the schedule ol this act. The adminis-
P^aoiicy existed, and that such should be insliluted, and be tration of the act was entrusted to the pharmaceutical society,
Unugllol by the apothecaries and physicians, but the latter and the duly of prosecuting unauthorized practitioners baa
'"liiined any deare to take an active part in the matter. The been performed by the sodely ever since, without any pecu-
l^iUB and druggists, recognizing that no institution for the niary assistance from the stale, although Ilie legal cipenses
i>Htjiiaiic education and exatninaiion of chemists and druggists involved in prosecution amoiULt to a considerable portion of its
^ti in England, and that no proof could be given that each income.
■Bdividuil possessed the necessary tiualihcalions, decided thai The Poisons and Pharmacy Act of n)0& extended the schedule
'^i> cifajcction must be met, and that pharmacy must be placed of poisons instituted by the act of i8(iS, and it now includes
■Wi more ideatiEc footing. They therefore resolved upon the arsenic, aconite, aconitinc and their preparations; all poisonous
^^tdilionof a voinnlary society, under the title of thePtianna- vegetable alkabtds, and their salts and poisonous tterivatives;
fWtiiil Society of Great Britain, "for advancing the know- atropine and its salts and their urenatations: belladonna and all
fc^ of chemistty and pharmacy, and promoting a uniform preparatio
■mnnofeducation [or thosewhothould pnctisethe same, also tiining 01 % or
l" frotecting the collective and individual interests and privi- its poisonous de
kp) of all its members, in the event ot any hostile attack in coca-leaves conlai
Mianient or elsewbere." This society was instituted in tS4i. sublimate; cyanK
Ike sri^nal founders being chemist* and druggists in Ihe and Ib«r prepai
358
ibe'ocltnltHi o(% act o( lUA. The wj?^ tfriTSriS
^ — s. coflfiitutF hinudf with « few otben. evea if inenBI
0 oi pharmacvi into a Umitfd Uibility conpuiy* wbicfi would ItKn ha
ma bnn cHitude the pcnm of the act. ■nd not mbiect to iti provUn
□runic iddiMvinindilioil, and all preparations or idmLrtuiti bwn oMinde the pcmerm of the act. and not wbitct to iti pcoyMM
penoa who ii unlinowii to the Bcller, udIcsi blroduccd by a
penon knawii to the sellec, and kdi uiiiil after u entry i> On the coDIinent of Europe the di^nsing
made in a book kept (at tbe puipoH, stating, in the presciibed i> confined to phamudsts (pliaiimBciitti and afauu- _ .
form, the date of sale, name and address of purchaser, the jterr], ^ey are not allowed to prescribe, tior the bIZ^Lm
name and quantity of the article sold, and the ptupose for medical men to dispense, except under qiedal ticedce.
which it is stated by the purchaser to be retiuiied. The and then only in small villages, where tbe phamudit could n
tignalure of tbe purchaser aiMl ioliodiKer <if any) must be make a living. Tbe prindple of " one man one Uiop " is genen
affiled to tbe entry. a pharmaciit may not own n»re tbaa one shop in the same ton
Tike fcdlowing pi^sons may not be sold, dther rttaQ or In Holland he may not enter into any agreement, direct
wholesale, uoteu distinctly labelled with the Dame of tbe ullcle. indirect, with a medical man with regard la the supply of loei
and the word poison, with the name and address of theMUer>y dnes. In Austria, Germany, Italy, Rumania and Ruiaia t
Aliaondt. cBeniiil oil of lunliH deprivrf ol prjHJc spd). Anti- nnmber of pbatmides b limited according to the populatic
nwmal wine. Camhande., tiiKiute mjd all venoiuriB liq"-^ In France, Switierland, Belgium md Holland the Dumber b a
nrpantiona or admuitures or. Canwiic acid, and liquid pre- .... '. l.^jT l l i ■ i .
^ntioni at aibolic add and in homolopie. conUinini more than bnuled, and every qualified pbaimacisl has tbe light to opee
3 % of those Bubitaocea, exn^pt prejumtioru for uje OS •heep-wuh shop or buy a pbarmacy- Where the number of pharmac
of Ihe twcial puipnn for which the preparaiiolu an inirndcd. the pharmacist for either three or ten years, aceordmg tot
Chloral hydrate. Chloroform, and all piipaiati country, and a certified copy (pven to the patient, written
conuiiune more than io'/,rA chlonrfotm. Coc while paper if for iniemal uie, or oa eolound paper (uiai
ejanide. Oxalic acid Poppie., all preparation and the Unff for dispensing prescriptions a fixed by gorci
— ■ -■ ' —' ies Ifapmr menl authority. In Russia a prescnptioa containing any 01 I
D — :..;, poisons indicated In the schedules A and B ta the RiMi
pharmacopoda nuy not be repealed, except by order of I
It has been etroneously represented by interested persons j "^fj '
s.rrs SiM 1. lb, «i»di, tL, k, »id b, ..,»» " •?■ ,'""■: "' ■»". ■■""","'*'- ."^ p«-im,
luai 13 uui u.!.,,..^ ,„ uu- «.-, , _ _ . TnT J ^ J classical eammation, u usually that of niuvetiily malnculata
as. IDT mslance. red lead, suipnate or copper, etc. ine outy oi _ ._ _ . _, . ^tl _? j » , j ■ '_»..
p™t«l lb. pubbc bj- "bdtn'^J' » 'bfficull m.u.r M^bU^n g^^a,^ ^ 1^1 f^^ to .ix bHoBaid. ^.TS.
the poisons most frcquenlly used for criminal purposes- In ..... » .«...". ...... '.^^
190*. by
being neither pharmaceuT
len more sinnnent. Spain. In GpcsI Britain the period at study It vohiniaiy, a
,. ,^ ,^ .., ... o .-. ,..jled by certam manufacturcii i'*"'''.)' occupies only one year. Two or three yean of appn
e ori^Knn waialnembei* oi'prlianiFnt]. who were prosecuted ticeship is required in most countries, Induding Great BriU
™uirrJVy iht Pharmacy Ad of 1668. a new. ao ^ ^«d in Tbe subject of patent medidnes it but little understood by
«, by. which pe™,n,, .wjt!»ul^?ny ™'&i^"],'Sd'd^KiiS Sontral public Any medicine, the compoiilicm of whid, i. k.
by local authoriiies to wll pDiwnous secret, but which is advertised on the labd lor the ,^^
I in agriculmre or honiculrure, lor the cure of diseases, must in Cteat Britain bear a patent ?*?T.
a or bacteria, or as sheep dips or weed- nudjdne ilamp equal to about one-ninth of iti face '
mco^^ng v*'"°- TheStitishMcdicalAssodationpublishedtaivoTawa
ately ienored on S«ra Ktnidii!; tiikal iMcy itsl and wkiU Uuy caUan. n
e granting a analyses published in this work show that neatly all the nd^
'^ ^{^'^^V advertisKl secret remedicscontainonly well-koown Aadinsp*
^ aiu Tnv ^'^ drugs. Tbe riunnaceutical Sodety on the other hud !■
ilice. or Iroin also published a Pkanmtaaiai! Jturnat FarmtJtry, incbdAg
e applitatjon several hundred formulae of proprietary medidnes loJd if
ip lake legal pharmadsts, so that it b now possible for any medical "I
^i^U,^^ ioascenain what they contain. TT,egove.uB«iE«Mpl.dlt;
vnulvto the therein publiihed formulae as " known, admitted and apfHVKd '
Moreover, .... -
*° 4! 'f^' In this way widdy advertised secret temediacanhctqlbadlil
'contM ^ medidnes of known composilion and accepted value in uiT1i»
cnt support, of the world. Most contiuental couoltics have issued sln>l^
dead letter, laws against the sale of secret remedia, and thcie han If
I co-operative gaidy stteaglbened in Germany. France and Ilalf. !■
niit'oT^^ Swilietbrid secret remedies cannot be advertised "ilii*
ihe'law. U submitting the formula and > sunplt ol the remedy u iki
has been decided in the law courts that a Umiied liability company board ol heallh. (£, U.HJ
PHARNABAZUS— PHARYNX 359
raABNABAZUI, hniin nhjier ind Hilnmu, the ton d[ food, KiuUccietduandlhedrinliirgofluaiivcwaifn join in
Fkunuxs. belonged to k lamily wbkh fi«in 478 fovcnied the rnisring hulth. (E. O.*)
Blnpy of Fhiygii on <he KcUMpont, from its budquirlcn at PHARVHZ <Gr. i^ifiuyt, thnul). i-i uatomy, Ihc cavity into
DaKylium, and, occoiding to a diuovery by Tli. Njildckc, «ra> whicb boib ihe nose and iiioiiih Icid, which it pmlonged inlo
locnidcd Inn Olino, one of tbc uuciales of Daiiui ia Ibe the onophagus m gullet bdov, lod froin which tbc liiynl or
■mrdcr of Smcrdis. Pbinubanu finl ippcgn ai latiap ol thia ut lube comes oil below and in front; it iherefon urv« ai a
pravince in 413, wbtn, having icccivcd ordcn from Darius II. passage both foi food and air. Il may be likened to an empty
Ruit, he, like Tissaphemes of Caria, entered into ncgolialions back and sides of the saclt arc formed by the thiee coiulrictor
•iib Sparta and began war with Athens. The conduct of the nusdesot the phaiynx, each of which overlaps the outer surface
(irwas much bindered by the rivalry betweea the two ulrips, of the one above il, and these are lined intemaUy by thick
it litm Phanubazus was by tar the tnoie energetic and up- mucous membrane. The upturned bottom of the sack it
rifbt. After Ibe war he came into conflict with Lysander (q.t.: attailicd £>nily 10 the base of the ckuU and the inlerztal piety-
Kt alto PELoroNNCSiiN War), wbo tried to keep the Creek goid plates, so that this part cannot collapse, but below Ibe
□tia under his own dominion, and became one of the causes of anterior and posterior walls are itl contact, tod a tnnsveise
lis overthrow, by t letter which he sent to the epbois at Sparta section of the pha^tu is a mere llit-
'.^ j'"' "J-'*'P°*. '■y- *; ^.'^"?- ™' "J; "' '«"yr^ Fmn, the froat wall,™ . level with ihe floor ol the no
trigues of Cyrus, but wheD the Spartans covrred with imicmii irwmbraiK, pTDJen?
td glandular tv
:he cavity, and divide* it into an upper part or ruH-phaiYna
. lower or oral {^rynx (ice fie.). This Mvlf is ihe iofl palaU,
rom the middle of its free border hangs a worm-like project ion,
niliei. (Plul. Alc,% 37 sQq-; Diod. liv. i>). When ii. „, .... ^^ ,„^ ,^^ ,,^,^ ^ .^ free border hangs a
■ir with Sparta broke out be again tried to conduct it slrenu- „[ variable length but averaging about Tul
ostly. With the help of Conon and Evagoras of Stlsmis he The whole of Ow front waU of the nawph^ryni is wanung. and
«iuiiid the Persian fleet, and while he was hard pressed on here the mity opens into rhe now ihrough the ponerior natal
laadhvAgeMlaushepreparedthedecitivesea-batUe, which was aperture, (lee Olfacioiiv SvsrEiil. On each iHfc of the najo-
fJortl A 1 i C du» iind r bis and Conon'a command P"*'yu^a™ inenKoie almve the •oil palaie, 11 the [aiTpmianggUr
Bad nnpletdy destroyed the Spartan decl. He sent support lo lympanum {lee EAa). Behind this opening, and reaching up to
UitallietinGreece,bywbichthewaJi5oflhePeiraeuswere rebuilt, the r»(,of the natd-pharynx, ii a matt t* lymphoid ti»De,,n»il
Buin Ihe war on land be struggled in vain against the Jethaigy ■™''™' "> ■*■«"». I"""" » '*" pharynge"! tonsil. This tusue.
ud ditorianiulion of the Fenian Empire; and when at last, laH po^, ihe
ta ]l7, in consequence ol the- embassy of AntaJcidas to Susa, upward, while
tic ling decided to conclude peace with Sparta and lo enter lie Eustachian
•gun bto dote alliance with her, Pbamabiius, the principal h,'Sf„'' h'''.'^;
opliiaent of Sparta, wis recalled from his command in high ^g;^ ^b^™
h«gn, to many Apame, a daughter of the king (Flut. Arlai. louth. and ibe
i|). In jSj be was.one of the generals lent against Egypt, and S"!^"" "''
a m be was ordered 10 prepare a new eipedilion against the ™,IiL'"-fhf'
nllty of the NHc. The gathering of the army look years, and t^^llalaiiiie
■km a 313 all was ready, his attempt to force the passage of ihcr, made by
til Nile failed. A conflict with Iphicrates, the leader of the » away in the
Citd menimriei. increased the difficulties; al last Phama- d'^aM '
hutaled the army back 10 Asia. From these campaigns dale
tk dvei coins with the name of Fhamabaiui in Aramaic [rdbymucaus
•nliig. When he died ia not known. enernally iu
. l.d. „me of AWxand« w. meet -,tb a P^^^^' ^™; ^^X^^i
reiRTHOITIS. Thephirynit.or upper portion of the guUel the cricoid carTllace in (mni and ol the liith cervical vertebra
bmu, large eilent on lookiiig at the back of the mouth) it '"^'"1l'™E^S''£r"fi P".™ ""° '•« «**'"8"'' ^""^ '™'«1
foqamlly the seal of a chronic inflammatory condition, usually ' tS' „;Su> mtmtanrot'The na«.pharyna, like that of the M
XHoated with deranscmenls ol the digestive organs, or wilb of the mplraioiy trad, is liiud by ciliated columiur epithelium,
ooaive tobac^o-smoking-especbUy ol dgarcliea. On in- ^-'l";';!^) ""^^^J ?«^h^;Vwi^?W^iSSdl"irSiW^
>9d |}a»d. and dotted over with enlarged follicles. The con- constiictor muKin it ihe phaiyngeal anoncurasis. which blends
ffliicB produces considerable iniiaiion and "dryness," wilb above withibc perioneum of ihebaseoftKeikuU.
W>* and discomfort, which may eventually become chronic. . £".*'y<rf"(y.-Th= phar,™ 11 Mrtlyfoniad from the ecto-
Wnt consist, i» removing all source, of irritation, in JST^Sr.^!:^ "r^J^r^h^ IX 'S^^Ik'^^^ Illi
wtJyiBg gastnc disturbance, and in the appbcalion of the entodcrrnal mraodaeum. Up 10 the fifteenth day (tee MoutH), the
tlirlnc CIUIC17, of BSlringent lotions or of mild cauilic solutions, bucco-i^rymteal membrane separates Ihoc ttruccurca. and. Ihough
Htpain may be relieved by spraying with certain anodyne i» vestige, ofit remain. It ia clear that Ihe uppnand front part of
v-.. ^,,^ .. .. J.""- J 0 1,1.' the nato-riiaryna b itomatodaeal while Ihe teit u metodaeal,
Wolons. In the case of adenoid growths {see AMNOIDS) Ihere ^^ ^ve SSSal arches with their intervening cWt. or pouche,
laflni an associated granular appearance of the pbaiyni, due surround Ihe pharyna, and the Eutlaehian tu6e is a remnant of
lo mltTgement of the minute glands of the mucous membrane. Ihe first of Ihete. The second pouch is Tepretcnted in the adult
Tleiaflaniedpharyn«oftheorator("clergyman'sso.e-throat") by the ton^lar rimis, and unti^ btely ihc laieral recesanl the
•ar be out ridil bv lessons in elocution or by complele rest for P""V" *** ™«™ "P™ " Pft of ihe aane, but it has now been
• lime. The gouty ibroal may call lot a change of diet, or for a pr^lily repreteniiiCturt of ihe Eourth gnnvc frnn whkh the
Say at one of the watering-places where elily rising, moderate faienl Inbn of the ihyroid body aie derived.
360 PHEASANT
The Aura pliarynifa «u at so Iibw looted upon » tbi plu thai for
whence the jMsiury body hut been derived linni the ml ot the lunpRr
^urynXt bui thi» ii odw dupmved Hod its maiddi It uobiawn "*" '"
The toniil u (anMd \n the lECiiiid bnnchial cMl or nAn pouch,
for the ck{u ant latielr Incamiiku in man, about the lounta month!
iu lymphoid liifeuc, u bell u thai elKwhecc la the pharywE. ii
(oriiid (nmi lymphocyte* In the lubiuxnl mCKDChyDie (•« En-
htoukt). though whRber th«e wander la from the bkwd or arc
doived from ORBioal meanicbyDie ceUa h Mill doubtluL The
n (he wnplnl type cl true [ntetnal (Dla. b
(Amnwcoetea) th«T are eight gUI ilitt opealB
but hi the aduJt {PetramyzDo) they aiv Tvdm
■Dd ■ ntvnl paw* (onrard ■— -'-- -
pan of cbc pbaryu ftom the i
bony fiihca, there i« an ei^iial |
In the Dipooi or mud fiah the '
(Illi li ihaird by ihat o( the lui
developed (nun the cctoderaul |
till ihtl, Ent appear, [n the
pUbUai CUndelkTthe firu an
In ^ laiDC oodcUtloD aa all the J
■alamandcn (Neclurtu and E^
two ciU ckft* noiain patent. '
all the Amphibia an eatemal a
orpbDxit from Ibe (adpok vaee
ll/Thfch. unlike lh<iof Si.
id'^biidiHve'^ cMii ai^^
tal Scctioa thmugh Moucta. Tongue, Larynx, Phuyni and
iiilightl)^ oblique, and the poalerior edge of the naal lepl
The ipecimcn is viewed lUchtly from below, hence in pf
f the pharynx k dealt with in
the uticle* Tohcue and Ri
For literalure lee Quain'i
1008). and ]. P. McMun
ILondoD. I90&).
he Cycloatomaca a reduction of Ibe number o
and an incrraaed area for reapiraiion ii pruvi
n lined by pIraKd lolda ol edlodermal muci
In the praceii of phylogeny then
lupprenion of the gill cMta begil
pjj^,^^ ftion pDslerior one*.
TTie solt palate i" nret found I
and pharyngeal tonnl ate lound ir
;ij4d i> rariiculirly lai^e.
For literalure ind further 1
R. Wiederjheim'i Otmpanlitt .
VcTUhraUi. tranJared bvW.
■lUhci Zeotoiy (Landon, 1S97). (
PHEASANT (Mid. Eng. /<
Ft. /siidH— all from the Lat.
nTpkasiana, sc. ans), the bird bn
vity. thebankoof the river FhB*ii,noi
ptnm nai been pre^ . in Cokhi), where it ii Hill abu
>an the low pmition Introduced, according to legci
Argonaut! into Europt Judgii
recognition of (he remains of several speda referred to
Ihat the ordinary pheasant, the P. ciickiaii of am
may have been indigenous to this quarter of the globe,
introduced inio England, it must almost certainly
brought by the Romans;' lor, selling aside several eaii
of doubtful authority,' Stubbs has shown thai by the 1
of King Harold in 1059 hrm fiaiiaiHii i) prcictit
'Thew'are P. anh'aei from PiVenni, ;■. oCu and
from the licustilne bed> ol Sanian, and P. deiHTcrii Iron
•ee A. Milne Edwards. OU. fill, de li fraw <u. 319, m
PiDbert°r'tran!laliw'of'rfa 3«inU ^. eTcamlr^
pp. 367. 36S), wherein eitracts are given from Welsh
sumably of ihe age ol Howel the Good, who died io 9^
PHEIDIAS 361
dunative of tiioputridfes or Other birds ftinonf the" piuntiae*' from the beautiful tinge of that colour that in certain light*
(ntioDs or commooi, at we might now say) of the canons of pervades almost the whole of its plumage, and» deepening into
Waltham >U>bey, and, as W. B. Da wkins has remarked (/6tj, 1869, dark emerald, occupies all the breast and lower surface that in
p. 358), neither Anglo-Saxons nor Danes were likely to have intro- the common and Chinese birds is bay barred with glossy black
teed it into En^and. . It seems to have been early under legal scallops. Both of these species have been introduced into
pratection, for, aca»ding to Dugdale, a licence was granted in England, and cross freely with P. cdckkus^ while the hybrids
tk teign of Henry L to the abbot of Amesbury to kill hares and of each with the dder inhabitants of the woods are not only
phaunts, and from the price at which the latter are reckoned perfectly fertile inter se, but cross as freely with the other
isvinoas documents, we may conclude that they were not very hybrids, so that birds are frequently found in which the blood
•bondant for some centuries, and also that they were occasion- of the three species is mingled. The hybrids of the first cross
aliy utifidally reared and fattened, as appears from Upton.* are generally larger than either of their parents, but the superi-
«)» wrote about the middle of the isth century, while Henry ority of size does not seem to be maintained by their descendants.
Vni. seems from his privy purse expenses to have had in bis White and pied varieties of the common pheasant, as of most
household in 1532 a French priest as a regular '* fesaimt breder/' birds, often occur, and with a little care a race or breed of each
and to the accounts of the Kytsons of Hengrave in Suffolk for can be perpetuated. A much rarer variety is sometimes seen;
i<io7 mention is made of wheat to feed pheasants, partridges and this is known as the Bohemian pheasant, not that there is the
quQs. least reason to suppose it has any right to such an epithet, for
The practice of bringing up pheasants by hand is now ex- it appears, as it were, accidentally among a stock of the pure
ttnivej^ followed, and the numbers so reared vastly exceed those P. coUkicus, and ofifers an example analogous to that of the
thu are bred at large. The eggs are collected from birds that Japan peafowl (see Peacock), being, like that breed, capable
aie either running wild or kept in pens, and are placed under of perpetuation by selection. Two other species of pheasant
draiestic hens; but. though these prove most attentive foster- have been introduced to the coverts of England— P. reevesi from
Bothers, much additional care on the part of their keepers is China, remarkaUe for its very long tail, white with black bars,
needed to ensure the arrival at maturity of the poults; for, and the copper pheasant, P. soemtnerringi, from Japan. The
being necessarily crowded in a comparatively small space, they well-known gold and silver pheasants, P. pictus and P. nyctke-
ue subject to several diseases which often carry off a large merus, each the type of a distinct section or subgenus, are both
proportion, to say nothing of the risk they run by not being from China and have long been introduced into Europe, but are
provided with proper food, or by meeting an early death from only fitted for the aviary. To the former is allied the still more
vuious predatory animals attracted by the assemblage of so beautiful P. amktrstiaet and to the latter about a dozen more
Biay helpless victims. As they advance in age the young species, most of them known to Indian sportsmen by the general
pheannts readily take to a wild life, and indeed can only be name of ** kaleege." The comparatively plain pucras pheasants,
kept from wandering in every direction by being plentifully Pucrasia, the magnificent monauls, Lophophorus, and the fine
BVpiied with food, which has to be scattered for them in the snow-pheasants, CrossoptUum — of each of which genera there
covots in which it is desired that they should suy. The pro- are several species, may also be mentioned.
portion of pheaoanU artificially bred that " come to the gun " _, All. the species known at the time are beautifully fieured from
•mtl/i ^- „-_, .,./«.^,.,v...i., ««♦ ««!« :.^.«..u..i,. a/.^»,.^:«„ drawings by J. Wolf in D. G. Elhol s Monograph of the Phasianidae
•WW seem to vary enormously, not only irregulariy according (, ^^^^ fof. 1870-1 872)-the last term befng usci in a somewhat
to the weather, but regularly according to the district. In the general sense. With a more precise scope W. B. Tegetmcier's
ostemcountiesof England, and some other favourable localities, Pheasants: their Natural History and Practical Management
perhaps three-fourths of those that are hatched may be satis- (4th cd., 1904) is to be commended as a very useful work. (A. N.)
^Ktorily accounted for; but in many of the western counties, PHEIDIAS, son of Charmides, universally regarded as the
thw^ they are the objects of equal or even greater care, greatest of Greek sculptors, was bom at Athens about 500 B.C.
^ would seem that more than half of the number that We have varying accounts of his training. Hegias of Athens,
hve to grow their feathers disappear inexplicably before Ageladas of Argos, and the Thasian painter Polygnotus, have
the coverts are beaten. For the sport of pheasant-shooting see all been regarded as his teachers. In favour of Ageladas it may
Sbootinc. be said that the influence of the many Dorian schools is certainly
Formerly pheasants were taken in snares or nets, and by to be traced in some of his work. Of his life we know little
liivkiiig; but the crossbow was also used, and the better to apart from his works. Of his death we have two discrepant
obtain a " sitting shot." — for with that weapon men had not accounts. According to Plutarch he was made an object of
Ittmt to " shoot flying "—dogs appear to have been employed attack by the political enemies of Pericles, and died in prison at
is the way indicated by the lines under an engraving by Hollar, Athens. According to Philochonis, as quoted by a scholiast
^diedin 1677:'— on Aristophanes, he fled to Ells, where he made the great
-The Feasant Cocke the woods doth most frequent. statue of Zeus for the Elcans, and was afterwards put to
Where Spaniells spring and pearche him by the sent."* death by them. For several reasons the first of these talcs is
Of the many other species of the genus Phasianus, two only ^'^^^f ^l • • v i* * t> • , ,. .
CM be dwelt upon here. These are the ring-necked pheasant ,/^"^"'^ .?*y5« "*,.^^* l»fe of Jencles a charming account of
<rf China. />. /orW/w, easily known by the broad white collar, ^^\ ^**^ "^»^*\^ *^^'^»^y ^^»^*» ^Y*^"* °" ^'j Athens while that
Whence it has iU name, as weU as by the pale greyish-blue of its ^'f^^man was m power He used for the decoration of his own
«pper wing<overU and rump and the Ught buff of its flanks. '''^ the "loncy furmshed by the Athenian allies for defence
•nd the J? versicolor of Japan, often caUed the green pheasant JF^'?^* ^'^[f^^^ »' " I'J '^"^""^^^ ^^^' ^^^^ '^« *'"^^ ''[^^'"'^i
.^ , . r .. Persia made no deliberate attempt against Greece. " In all
«M«tMntssoaatofindout the original word rendered pheasant these works," says Plutarch, " Phcidias was the adviser and
ey the translator; but a reference to what is probably the same ^..^^^^. ^t -o • 1 - »» t»u -j- • . j j u- "
P»W|e with the same meaning is given by Ray {Svnops. meih. overseer of Pencles. Pheidias introduced his own portrait
Jjwo/iiiw, pj). ai3, 214) on the authority of Llwvd or Lloyd, and that of Pericles on the shield of his Parthenos statue.
«pwh there is no mention of it in Wotton and Clarke's Leges And it was through Pheidias that the political enemies of
SriJ'S?* A <J*rt«; (Kemble. C<7J. rfi>rfom. iv. 236). pro- Penclcs struck at him. It thus abundantly appears that
••WMly of Edward the Confessor, granting the wardcnship of r,u -j- 11 . j -.l « • 1 j i- ■ "!
«n»in forests in Essex to Ralph Peperking. sf^ks of " fesant hen " Pheidias was closely connected with Pencles. and a ruling spmt
<ad " Icsant cocke." but b now known to be spurious. m the Athem'an art of the period. But it is not easy to go
'In his De studio militari (not printed till 1654) he states (p. 195) beyond this general assertion into details,
^^he pheasant was brought from the East by " Palladms an- ij i^ important to observe that in resting the fame of Pheidias
»Qu<ited by the writer (Broderip ?) of the article " Spaniel " ^P^" ^^^ sculptures of the Parthenon we proceed with liiile evi-
>> the Penny Cydopaedia. The lines throw light on the asserted dence. No ancient uTiter ascribes them to him, and he seldom.
Welsh practice mentiooed in a former note. if ever, executed works in marble. What he was celebrated
362 PHEIDON— PHELPS, A.
for in aatiquity vif hb sUtim in brooxe or gold and ivory, war, his real intention bdng to put them to death; hot the pbt
If Plotarch tdls ns that he superintended the great works of was revealed. Pheidon assisted the Pisatans to expd the Elcu
P^rides on the Acropolis, this phrase is very vague. On the superintendents of the Olympian games and presided at tk
other hand, inscriptions prove that the marble blocks intended festival himself. The Eleans, however, refused to leoogBbe tbe
for the pedumental statues of the Parthenon were not brought Oi>-mpiad or to include it in the register, and sboctly aftcmaniit
to Athens until 434 BX., which was probably after tbe death with the aid of the Spartans, who are said to have hwked qw
of Pheidi^ And there is a mariied contrast in style between Pheidon as having ousted them from the headship of Gicca;
these statues and the certain wt»ks of Phridias. It b therefore defeated Pheidon and were reinstated in the piMMHiiinn cf
probable that most if not all of the sculptural decoration of the Pisatts and their former privileges. Pheidon is said to km
Parthenon was the work of pupils of Pheidias, such as Alcamenes lost his life in a faction fight at Corinth, where the monaidgr
and Agoracritus, rather than his own. had recently been overthrown. The affair of the games hain
The earliest c^ the great works of I%eidias were dedications important bearing on his date. Pausanias (yi^23, 2) dcfin'te^
in memory of Marathoo, from the spoils of the victory. At states that Pheidon presided at tbe festival in the 8th dyniiiid
Delphi he erected a great group in bronze including the figures (t.r in 748 B.C.). but in the list of the suitors of Agaxiste, daq^
of Apollo and Athena, several Attic heroes, and MOtiades the of Qeisthenes of Sicyon, given by Herodotus, there ocean \k
gencraL On the Acropolis of Athens he set up a colossal bronze name of Leoccdes (Lacedas), son of Pheidon^f Aigos. Accoid-
image of Athena, which was visible far out at sea. At Pellene ing to this, Pheidon must have flourished during the early put
in Achaea, and at Plataea he made two other statues of Athena, of the 6th century. It has therefore been fim'Pfif thA
also a statue of Aphrodite in ivory and gold for the people Herodotus confused two Pheidons, both kings of Aigoi. Tfcc
of Elis. But among the Greeks themselves the two works of suggested substitution in the text of Paxisanias of the sStb fcr
Pheidias which far outshone all others, and were the basis of the 8th Olympiad (ix. 668 instead of 748) would not Mngit nto
his fame, were the colossal figures in gdd and ivory of Zeus at agreement with Herodotus, for e^ed then Phddon's son codd
CNymfua and of Athena Parthenos at Athens, both of which not have been a suitor in 570 for the hand of Agaiiste. Btf
belong to about the middle of the 5th century. Of the Zeus the story of Agariste's wooing resembles romance and has sSgkt
we have unfortunately lost all trace save small copies on coins chronological value. On the whole, modem authwities ttafa
of Elis, which give us but a general notion of the pose, and the Pheidon to the first half of the 7th century. Herodotus fulber
character of the head. The god was seated on a throne, every states that Pheidon established a system of weights and ncaiuRS
part of which was used as a ground for sculptural decoration, throughout Peloponnesus, to which Ephorus and the PiriM
His body was of ivory, his robe of gold. His head was of Chronicle add that he was the first t6c<Mn silver money, aadlhtf
somewhat archaic type: the Otricoli mask which used to be his mint was at Aegiua. But according to the better autboriqr
regarded as a copy of the head of the Olympian statiie is certainly of Herodotus (i. 94) and Xenophanes of Colc^hon, the LydiM
more than a century later in style. Of the Athena Parthenos wercthcfirstcoinersof money at the beginning of the 7th ccstaiyi
two small copies in marble have been found at Athens (see and, further, the oldest known Aeginetan coins are of later dtfe
Greek Art, fig. sS) which have no excellence of workmanship, than Pheidon. Hence, unless a later Pheidon is assiaicd, tk
but have a certain evidential value as to the treatment of their statement of Ephorus must be considered unhistoricaL Kt
original. such difficulty occurs in regard to the weights and meBsaia;
It will be seen how very small is our actual knowledge of the it is generally agreed that a s>'stem was already in enstcBce in
works of Pheidias. There are many stately figures in the Roman the time of Pheidon, into which he introduced certain cbaaitl
and other museums which clearly belong to the same school as A passage in the Aristotelian Constitution 0/ AUuns (a. 1)
the Parthenos; but they are copies of the Roman age, and not states that the measures used before the Sdonian period d
to be trusted in point of style. A. Furtwjingler proposes to reform were called " Pheidonian."
find in a statue of which the head is at Bologna, and the body Sce Herodotus vL 127; Ephorus in Strabo viu. 358, 376; PbBRi
at Dresden, a copy of the Lemnian Athena of Pheidias; but his Amaloriae narratioues, a; Marmor parium. eP. «>; FoUia ix. I3:
arguments {Masterpieces, at the beginning) are anything but NicoUus Damaacenus, frag. 4> (jnC. W. MQIler s Fnt. WAfW-
conclusive. Much more »ti,facto|y » evidence are „me jth 'iZ'^''k^i,^TCmTf.'ii^i: 'Sr^t^*'^"^
century torsos of Athena found at Athens. The very fine torso Uctrologie (1882): G. Rawlinson's Herodotus, appendix, bk- i.'
of Athena in the Ecole des Beaux Arts at Paris, which has note 8. On the question of Pheidon's date, see J. B. Bunr.JTt*!
unfortunately lost its head, may perhaps best serve to help of Greece, ii. 468 (1902) ; J. P. Ntahaffy. ProbUms in Creek Bt^
our imagination in reconstructing a Pheidian original. X'^Xl^l ^JcSt^L'^^^^^^
As regards the decorative sculptures of the Parthenon, which Tricber. Pheidon von Argos (Hanover, 1880), and J. BdoA »
the Greeks rated far below their colossus in ivory and gold, see Rheiniuhes Museum, xlv. 595 (1890), favour a later date, abei*
the article Parthenon. 580.
Ancient critics take a very high view of the merits of Pheidias. PHELPS, AUSTIN (1820-1890), American CoogiCfitioBrf
What they especially praise is the ethos or permanent moral minister and educationalist, was bom on the 7th of Jaxmtf
level of his works as compared with those of the later " pathetic " ,32© at West Brookfield, Massachusetts, son of Eliakim PWpfc'
school. Demetrius calls his statues sublime, and at the same ^ clergyman, who, during the boyhood of his son was' ^oaii^
time precise. That he rode on the crest of a splendid wave of ©f ^ girls' school in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and later pi«W
art is not to be questioned: but it is to be regretted that we have ©f a Presbyterian church in Geneva, New Yoik. The K
no morsel of work extant for which we can definitely hold him smdied at Hobarl College in 1833-1835, then at Ambent hr
responsible. (P. G.) ^ year, and ini837 graduated at the university of Pouayb*"'-
PHEIDON (8th or 7th century B.C.). king of Argos, generally, He studied theology at Union Theological Seminary, at tbe Y*
though wrongly, called " tyrant." According to tradition he Divinity School, and at Andover, and was licensed to pw*
flourished during the first half of the 8th century B.C. He was jn jg^o by the Third Presbytery of Philadelphia. He «•
a vigorous and energetic rxiler and greatly increased the power pastor of the Pine Street (Congregational) Church in BaW
of Argos. He gradually regained sway over the various cities of jn "1842-1848, and in 1848-187Q was professor of sacred rhrtsA
the Argive confederacy, the members of which had become and homiletics at Andover Theological Seminary, of wbickk ,
practically independent, and (in the words of Ephorus) " re- ^as president from 1869 to 1879, when his failing health lowrf i
united the broken fragments of the inheritance of Temenus." him to resign. He died on the 13th of October 1890 at B« ]
His object was to secure predominance for Argos in the north Harbor, Maine. His Theory of Preaching (1881) and W«* ]
of Peloponnesus. According to Plutarch, he attempted to i Eliakim Phelps afterwards lived in Stratford, Hertenerco-Jy. !
break the power of Connth. by requestmg the Corinthians to New York, uhtrc his house was " powessed " and was loi« a |ibs I
send him 1000 of their picked youths, ostensibly to aid him in of curious interest to students of " spiritualism^." |
\ PHELPS, E. J.— PHENACETIN 363
If^ k PaUii Oitaam (1U3I beome Hudird tniboolu ind hinudf tppcared ia > very tiieiuive and varitd rcpcnoiy.
, ad pmonaUy ba wu > briUiut preacher. He miniKl U Thiny-Ioui o[ ShikcspFirF's pkyt hck preHnlcd Ihcie under
il|] Oiabnb Sluut (iSis-iSji), eldcit diughicr of Mow liii direction, wiih great educiiiouil tB^t. both on public *nd
Saul, IbcD pniidait of Andovcr; ibe wu the author of tbi pUycn. In 1S61 Greenwood retired Irom Ihe pannenhip,
pg^alai itai> SuHyiide (iSji} and of other books. In iSj. and Phelpt, unable lo cope with the buiincu of maiugenunt,
kmnicd hei liiter. vho died only cighleeD nwolhs lilcr; uc retired fiom il in Ihe fotloHinc yeai. For Ihe neit fifleen yean
h itjl he nunied Uaiy A. Johnson, of Boiton. he acted under various managements, achieving conliderahle
Widi PinfcBon E. A. Parli and D. L. Furber he edited Hymt. success in some of HaiUday't diamilic versions of Scolt't novels,
SmhwaL'T?*™^ '^^'^ h™''/,?^^'' ""?■ ^S such as TAe for(i,«, 0/ JVii*/ and ;«..*«. His last appear-
Htaire: TU Ntw Bitik (lefi;). ponrayinf convenion (in lomi ^'*' '^ November 1S7S. He was a sound and capable actor,
■Dicet) at a gradual change; Sabtalt Hmri (iB;4): Sruiliii Oj rather than one of any muknl genius; and, in Itdie of his
t,ai;1S^-';!S'"ii'w^'fl£r?;il?f"' ^'^"''°'"' "**"' P«dilK'iof t"' •«B«iy, «.. most successful in such charwler.
'Si%^%S^,<^W^fN<t'YSk-.8,.)byhi.daugh.e. "I comedy a. caUed for dry humour. Perhaps Sir Fertina,
Bitehauairfiilp^wTr* ^ Mognm Maciycophanl in Charles Macklio'j Tli Han of Ou Will' -
ntirs. EDWAHS JOUir (iSii-iooo), AmerCcn Uwyei ^1'^*"^^ j^^™"J,",°' J?.' ?c^^^ " "™'""' "
of Shakapei
mitind law In New York City until 1857, when he r«ura«J
"og a De
HUdeba
u the Democratic candidate for govemoi of his :
VmSTH; graduated from MiddlebSry College r.«40 PHELYPEAUX.a French family of Bl(«ii Its t«. pdndpal
™»schoolDii»lerforaye»iin Virginia, and was admiiied ic ''"■".™ *"' '°"» "' 'ht siegneun of Herbauli, La Vnlhere
anuria lUi- He began ptaciice al Middlebury, but in \f ^""' t^""""!. «od of the counis of Ponlchanrain and
■hi •moved to Burlington, Vemoni. From 185. to .85] hi ""J^P^t. *^"°?^, Pheiypeaui, se.ff-eur ol HerbauU and
WKcoDdcocptroUerTf the United SutesTreatuiy, and .hen La^VrUhh* (d, .619), was ireasur.r of .he £,«,(« in .j,,,
— ■■ ■ New York City until .Bs7, when he re<u™«J andbecame wmury ofauie in .6:.. His «.nl^i( succeeded
Becoming a Democrat after the Whig pan, >"■" ■» ">■» letter office, and Aed .n .6».. Bahhaaar Phely-
■ - ' - debar«d (torn a political career in P""' ™^V" ^^ Chi.eauneuf (d. >?oo), and Louis, marquis
dc La VnUiere (d. 1715), respec.ivety con and grandson ol
Lovb. were also lecreuries ol slate. Louii Pheiypeaui (1705-
177;). count of Saint Florenlin and alierwardt duke ol La
VriUi^ (>7I<>)> lucceedcd his falbei as secretary ol sine;
became minister of Ibe king') household in 1714, a minister
ol slate in 1751, and discharged Ihe lunclions of minister ol
forriga aSain on the disgrace ol Choiseul (i7]a}. He incurred
great unpopularity by his abuse ol Itllra di cMkii, and hid to
resign in 1775. Rainwnd Balthazar Pheiypeaui, seigneur
du Vergei, a member of the La Vrilb'tre branch, was senl is
ambassador to Savoy in 1700, where he discovered the inirigut«
brother of Ihe £tst-oi
rt «s it
■ Brtiiden
It in
iS«o-,88i. From iSSi until hii
talb he wii "Kent Prolea
01 of Uw in Vale University. He
nmiaisie
1 to Great
lin from i&Ss to iSgfl, and in 1893
Bnjass.
rniorcoun:
seliol
: the United Slates before Ihe inlet-
■UiDUllrit
> adjust the Bering Sea conlroveny.
Bd«iEg
, requiring eleven days for its dehvery.
ol the case. Phelps lectured on
sprudence
at the univetily of Vermont in iSSi-
'%udo,
:iDnd
Uw at Boston University in iS8^
iBj, ml d
elivered n<
uDietout addresies, among them that on
"n* L'nilcd States Supre
lie People
" at Ihe
Wki.n' in
1 1890 and an
oralion at the dedication of Ihe
fc.dng.on.
11. unveiled in 1891 at Ihe centennial
•IVrraoLt'i
1 admisJio
Ihe Union. In politics Phelps was
»X)i Conservative.
1H, C,H.OaH,NHC0CH. (para-acelamino-
-„, , „„, . „,, , „,„ „„ <ln« prepared by acelylaling para-phenelidin,
bdoniMo. Ihe Iree-silve. movement in 1&J5. when he supported "// ^'■'"^ para-acelylaminophenol and pota»iiim ethyl
tl» KepublJcan presideniial ticket, and after 1858 becoming '""Pl"" "Hh alcoholic soda to 150° C. Para-phentlidin is
i-eipansioni!
CmiMticut, on the Qth ol March 1900.
!r Ibe Oralani ami Eiuyi n! Eiaard Joltii Pkrlpt. edited b'
r i(--..n...-L _.u . ., w.. >.u. ,», s.cwart INrw Vorli. . -
Edward J Pht(|K.' EtO-C.H.-NH,-»ElO-CJI.-N,OH->EiOCJI.N,C,H-OH-»
e, and reducing the nitrophenetol to lura-DhenelJi
nopheneiol. The yield may be dr
tC. McCullough. wiiha Jl/(m«; by John W. Sicwari INrw \'ork para-pheneiidin. coupling with phenol, el hylai
Lileand Public Srrvice»o( the H. ~
bJ!«IfCT H. Buckham. in fi-««d«(i ol the Vermont Historical ElO-CJI,-Ni'CJ1,-OEi->iEiO-Cai.''NH»'
iwiy (Burlingion. Vi., 1901]. „ crystiWia from water in colourless plates, melting si i]i° C.
raOPt. SAMnEL [i8c4-iS73), English actor and manager. It is soluble in aboul 70 parts si hoi and in about MOopaiUof
■ubom at Devonpon on the ijlh of February 1804. He was cold water.
^Hf thrown upon his own resources, and worked in various Several compounds related to phenacetin have been inlro-
^Bipir (d 1867), he accepted a theatrical engagement in the phenin is laclylphenelidin; pyrantin is para-elhoiyphenyl
'lA cimiil at eighteen ihilliogi a week, and altcrwatds luccinimide. ElOCJI.NICOCHJi; salophen or ssliphenin ia
■nciiid in wulh of England towns in prominent tragic r&lcs. ulicylphcnetidin; amygdophenin is mandelylpbenetidin. In
ginning lufhdent attention to be spoken of as a rival to iddiiion, several other derivalivn have been luggesled which
tein. He nude his first London appearance on the i8ib !iaveagreaieisalubilitythanpbenacctin,c.^ph«in, which isihe
<( August 1S37 IS Shylock at the Haymarket, Aliet a short lodium salt of phenacetin lulphonic acid, apolj-sin and citropben
*Oim there be was with Macready lor about siir years at ^citrophenin], which are citric acid derivatives of parA-pfaenc
Csvcnl Garden, the Haymarket and Drury Lane successively '" -
1» lUt he became co-lesve ol Sadler's WeUl Theatre with
nomas L. Greenwood and Mrs Mary Amelia Warner <i8o4-
■Iftl. Greenwood supplied the business capacity. Phelps was
Ot theatrical manager, and Mrs Warner leading lady. In
Oiis potilion Phelps remained lor twenty y^ars. during which
liiae be nised Ibe Sadler's Wells bouse lo an important poniion.
364 PHENACITE— PHENAZINE
t«iidi to panTyK the ictlon of the eanIL, -, —
bodily htat it cicrciKi ■ nirlicd eflect, dKnuini the actjon
h^.*^;f'.C'«ud"g'""»^"u"i!^5fp^t»^rir''?^'^.^ ;ii™l"only hail'lhe lii, ol Flum^», prirn^
dov> Ibc blood bK0ir» dirk and UKkith [nin (he fomuiioo ol tCRniiul joints of the lirnba inlennediale bclwec
methumoElQbin.indlhcuiinc itching incalaurlnnnitiepiiuEe diwi, and Lhe first ind fiith ids liking iheir lull
«t'il!^lEi^ndT<^.''^''L'^Tn'"mii''ni« ^W^Im'J'iK '"Pf"" "' "" •"»'" "• '*" '^l'- ■"«" '" 8«
■utHCiiieiy^.inutcoKalneiinliiiindlDCDm^oiatuiL regaided »i lonning [he oulial stagn ia the evol
hone, coming beJovi Hyracalkinum {i™ EQUio*a).
PHBKACITE, 1 mineiat con^ting o( beryUlum onbotilicite, As inceston o[ the Aniodaciyle section of ihc I
BtiSiO,, ocouioniUy uted as ■ gem-stone. It ociure »i isolated aiy liwk lo foraij more or less doscLy relittd X,
crystaJi.vrhichaiechombohednilii'ithpiraUd-fuedhenuhedrism, Ameriun Lown Eocene genen UiKlaaui and
and ire either lenticular oc prismatic in habile lhe lenliculai leipeclivcly typifying the families Uieclatnidat
habil is delennined by the developmeni ol fates ol Mveral IfilHar. They were five-toed, bunodont Condylan
obtuse rbombohedia and the absence oE prism lacea f the accom- decided approiimaiion to the pcrisiodaciyle type I
psnying figure is a plan of such tun of the feel. A tbini tyiie ol Condyiaithia Iro
a ctysial viemd along the tiiad, American Loner Eocene is repRscatcd by the lao
or principal, axis)- There is no Iheriidai, including the genera Utniicrlheiiiim u<
cleavage, and the liaclure is Tliesc, it ii suggested, may have been nlsicd to t
toncboidal. The hardness is Hyiacoidea. Teeth and jiin preibably referable to
high, being 7J-8; the specific atthra have been obtained in European early Ter
grivily isi-pS. llie crystals are lionj. All Ungulala probably originaled from Con
somelintci perfectly colourless Scr H. 7. Otborn. SttUum ej Pluiucoim pHmctm;
and iraBspareot, but more often ""h EuprWim't. BulL Amer. Mat, x. 159.
they are greyish a yelUmish PBEHANTHRENE. C„H,h a hydnxarboD ix
and only translucent; occasion- anthracnie, witb which it occurs in lhe Iraciion of
ally they are p^te rose-red. In dislillale boiling belwcen I7a°-400° C. ll may 1
general appearance the miniial Irom the anthracene oil by repealed fnciional
is not unlike quitti, lor which [ollowtd by fractional crystal liialion from alcohol
indeed it had been miilaken: on ihii account it was named, by being the leu loluble), and finally purified by cu
N. Nordenskiold in iSjj, from Cr, ifini (a deceiver}. residual anthracene with potassium bichromate ai
Phenacite has long been known Irom lhe emerald and chryso- acid (R. Anschutz and G. Schidii. .Inn., 1879, 19I
beryl mine on the Takovaya iireara, near Ekaterinburg in the two hydrocarbons may be separated by carbon
the Urals, where targe crystals occur in mica-Khist. Il it also in which anthracene is insoluble, tt is formeil
louod wiib topai and amaion-slone in the granite of lhe limen vapoursof toluene, ililbcne,d>bentyl. or ho-ditolyl,o
mounlaiu in lhe southern Urals and of the Fike's Peak region and benzene are passed through a red-hot tube;
in Colorado. Large crystals ol prismatic habit have more morphine wiih zinc dust; and, with anthracene, b]
tecenlly been lound in a felspar quarry at KragetS in Norway, ol sodium on ortho-brom benzyl bromide (C. L. J
Framoni neatSchirmeckin Aljaceisanotbcrwell-knownlocahiy. J. F. White, Amtr. Cktm.Joia., 1880, 1, p. jgi). K
Still larger crystals, measuring ii in. in diameter and weighing incoloutlessplaleiorneedlei, which rneli at oq° C.
iS lb, have been found at Greenwood in Maine, but these are in alcohol and ether have a taint blue fiuorcsce
pscudomorphsol quartzafter phenacite. heated to 150° C. with red phosphorus and hydii
For gem purposes the ilone is cut in the brilliant forni, ol gives a hydride C„ H». Iiisnitrated by nitric acid a
which there arc two fine eiamples, weighing 43 and a carats, aied by sulphuric acid. With picric acid ii forms
in lhe British Mu5euni. The indices ol relraction Cw-t-6S40, soluble pictite, which melts ai 145° C, On the ■
i-i.6s>7) are higher than those ot quatu, beryl or lopat; a phenanlhtcnc in alcoholic solution tee R. Bihrend
laceted phenacite it consequently nlher brilliant and may Ckm., iSoi. Q, p. 40;; 10, p. i6j. Chronic 1
sometimes be mistaken for diamond. (L. ).S.) pheninlhrcne, first to phenanthrcne-quinone, at
PHEHACODUS. one of the eariiest and most primitive of diphenicacid, HOtC>CJI.'C.H,.C0,U.
the ungulate mammals, typifying the family Phcmadmlidat ;>teiu>ililrfiie vh-xo"'. 1C>H,UC0],, cryiullLtesin oi
and lhe sub-order Condylanhra, The typical PlKxacedm which nwli mi I9»; C. It p>i».in the charKtcriu
frfmaen.!, of lhe Uwer or Wasalch Eocene ol North America, ™ ^ .^°,?™T.rh'^^ll!mili"'''l"™ wn-OSut
the digitigrade fashion of the modem tapir. The middle toe prcwn™ of acetic acid, 10 Torm plmiana.
was the largest, and the weight of the body was mainly supported . 0" "« ""«"■""" "f pheoanihrene m C»»ust*y
OD this and lhe two adjoining digits, which appear Id have been PHEHAZIIfB (Aiophenylene), C„H,M,, In organii
encased in hoofs, thus foreshadowing lhe tridaclyle type the parent substance of many dyestuBs, t.t. the
commoniBpeKstodactyleandcerlaineitinctgroupsolungubtes. toluylene red, induUnes and talranines. It is a c
The tkull wat small, with proportionalely miouie brain; and diaiine having the formula given behiw. It may
the arched back, tlrong lumbar vertebrae, long and powerful by dislillingbariumaEobeDzoate(A. Claua, Brr., 187
tail, and comparatively feeble fore-quarters all proclaim kinship by pasting aniline vapour over lead ozide, or by ll
with the primitive crcodont Camivora (tee CHEODONtA), from of dihydrophcnaiinc, which is prepared by healing [
which Pitnacadas and its allies, and through them the more with onbophenylene diamine (C. Ris, Bf., 1S66, i
typical Ungulata. are probably derived. All the bones ol lhe It is also formed when onho-aminodiphenylaniint
limbs are tcpataie, and those of the carpus and tarsus do not over lead peroiide (O. Fischer and E. Hepp). It n
alternate; that is to say. each one in the upper row is placed im- yellow needles which melt at 171° C, and are onl
mediately above the corresponding one in the row below. The soluble in alcohol. Sulphuric add di^ves it. fora
fuUteriesof rorty-fourieethwBsdeveloptdjandtbeuppetmolars red solution. The more complu phenaanes, s
were short -crowned, or brachyodoni, with sli low cones, two naphihophenaiinej, naphthalines and naphtholol.
Internal, Iwo intermediate and two nternal, so that they were he prepared by condensing ortho-diamincs with ort
of the lypical primitive bunodont sinicture. In habits lhe (O. Kinsberg, Aiti., i387, 137, p. 34a); by the oir
animal was cursorial and hcrbivorout, or possibly camJvorDiu. onho-diamine in the prcscntrc of a naphthol (O. W
PHENOLPHTHALEIN— PHERECYDES OF SYROS
llqr idd <m alkyl iodvla mdily > (otmliif tikyi I
" ' ce «f unloD or bydrmryl iroiipt i
, coDpoimib! ly coDdcndni qdnm dithlarimide or obKrved by ihe kbm*. Thus tht ra-ng ot ihj .
earthquake art w
B paililM, or by okUiinc mbB-hydKnydkaiiBiiilipheiiyknuBa uiriiin the mcorrKI colloquiil »
undrrtoinB hydrolytic diiaacutLon m ■□»«»■
When bstld iritll coDcrntnUd hydrocbloric iilid Ih>
■■■■10 traop B rtpUccd by tlic byrlniEyl [imp mnd the pbeoolic
•din il
Uicrcfore regirdcd u being more r»L, the objecti of reuon
niher thin o( leiuet wbich ire " bad witneuet." In modem
phiLouphy (he pbcoanienaii 1> nellber the " ihiog-in-ltielf,"
thought, b
iwAcRd ..
mi*ayle»e
''°^!^'*^^ In-ilMll u il ippeui to the mind in icnutioD (lee ispeciiUy
!-iS?i??K? lLofT;»ndMET*P»Y5K3l. InthlsKnKtheiubie«ivech.ncteF
\). lothlsKi
Dicniliim" ud " FhcnomeDolagy." Phmomtniliaiii ii either
"f™.~- "" (i) the doctrine lh«l there can be no knowledge eicept by
^"■"^ " phenomena, ij. leBM-^vca dau, or (i) the doctrine th.t »J1
i> an Eunier at pbenailne. to iibich it brarm the amt known thing! are phenomena, i.e. that (heir an no " thing>-in-
pb«ian[hn« bcara to anlhraceoe. It ia FonnRl tv tbemulve)." " Pbenomenology " ii the idence of phenomena:
rh&dinitrodip^ryl with v^ummmmlpm and Mthyl (very ipecial KiiBCe b»i a Ipecial lection in which in particular
If riiw in mv pHK.nn i rmnne wi phenomena are deicribed. The term was firtt U4ed in Engltih
b the jid edition of the £iicy. Bril. in the article " Fhilouphy "
nyKKio. by J. RobiiOD. Kant baa a ipecial uie o[ the tenn loi that
aN. -V j^ jN, y. yN:N. part of the MilapkyiU of Halurt which contider* moIioD and
lYl"fl Y]./^-\—J>-\ ™t a. predicate* Ola judgment about thing..
Jj A/ \A« A/ >^^^~~\_/ PHEBKCRATffl, Greek poet of the Old Attic Comedy, waa a
PheiBdu. Pheiuione. conlemporaty of Cralioui, Crate! arH *rl«nnl,.n™. Ai Kru
in organic there
a priie for a play in 438 ■.
Thee ' -' . • . . - . .
Wnd bom phthalophenone, or diphenyl phthalide (foimula ^,^^^ [,i> pUy Th WOi Utn. Like Cratei whom he imitated
U Ibe anhydride of Iriphenyl-carbinol-ortho^boiylic acid, i,^ .bandoned penonal Mtire lor more geneial themei, although
Ad x obtained by condeniing phth^yl chloride with ben«ne ;„ „„, „, j^, f„,pneM, of hij play) we find him attacking
fc tie ptMence of aluminium chlonde. The phth^emi are Aldbiadea and othen. He wai especially lamed for hi. inven-
fcraid from thu anhydride by the entrance of hydroiyl or ^^^ imagination, and the elegance and purity of his dictbn
to (map. into the two phenyl radiie., and are prepar^ ate attested by the epithet iTTinlmrot (most Attic) applied
^ onduuing phenol, with pbtbalic anbydnde, phenol itself ^g ],[„ ^j, Athenaeu. and tlie lophijl Phrynichui. He wu tlie
pmi rise to pbeoolphlhalein ((ormuii U.) together with a io,(n,or „/ , oe, melte, called alter him Pherecratean which
■ajipiantity of fluorane (formula III.) whibttesorcin under tr«,uEntly occurs io the cboruse. of Creek tragediei and b
■nhi condition, yields fiuorescein (q.v.). The phthaleinl an Horace.
«tK^ yield phthalima, which are deriWive. of ttiphenyl- ^ „n^™ble number of fmsment. Iron hii 16 (or 13) play.
"Shne carboiybc acid; these ttducuon pHxluct. are colourless |,„ btsn pmtrved, collrtted in T. Knelt. C™iconini Auicmm
admybe regarded as the leuco-compoundsot the phthaleins, Frtfutnu, i. (i§8a), and A. Mdneke, PocUuM't Camiamm Crat-
UnpheiulphthalQn itself pves phenolphthgline (loimula IV.). "«■" F'ntmf^ ("SSJ).
Wjidnting agenli uiuilly convert the phenolphthalines into PHBHECTDES OP LEROl, Greek mylhogiaphei, ft. c. 4S4
_L__ . .._..._.■..._ _. 3es of Atheni,
0 by I. Lipsiu.,
have been bom
railed an Athenian
ause he spent the greater part of hi. hfe and wrote his great
rk there. Of hi. treatises, On Lais, On Iphigtntia. On Ikt
\(-„ H Falital, 0/ Dimyiw, nothing remains; but numerous fragmenU
IV. Phenol phthalioe. of bis gencalogiei of the god! and heroes, virioudy called
Pbtsciliihthilein i. obtained when phenol and phthilic anhydridt 'Iirooioi, ro«XoYlia, Alrri^»im, in ten books, written in the
■• tnled with concentrated lulphuiic add. li crysulliiei In Ionic dialect, have been preserved [see C. W. MUllcr's Frat-
gul™ cniits and il nearly '|'j«l.''l'J^.|^ ™7'rrt ' "l^' W '" *"*" *'"'■' ""'* '' ?'' """- '°'- ^' modified the legends, iwl
2r'S^^'™in'^SIic™ra'?Sl'c^Li^al]^^''to a° popularbeliefs. Hecionot.lhefefoie.heclaMedwiibHecalaeua,
■Bbtioa whkh probably contains lalti of a noii.quinonaid character, whose method was far more scientific.
Tka (bflernce in behaviour ba. led to coniderable ditcuHioD c*. r in.v- i»t.»....i«. m;— r^A.. ;....... ,bj*i^. iir rh.:^
ft*n'inS'rfc'^^2S;-.iS%JS.?^'^^',S"-n 'St ft^^£ii^=rJ:i??SLSr(iS a'^'.iSixff-BSSS:
)f-^9«- A-.C. PetkiB •odCrm. J»fr-,«!«- ■»*;-. '^:_R_ 3??.*; PVK*;rfoB*< Sl-dini (i«9«).
FRERECTDES OP SYROS, Greek philosopher (or rather
■sophicil theologian), Houriihed during the 6Lh century B.C.
to have been the teacher of Pylbagorai. With the posalble
/TPh,, XtCJifOHiw. X|C^.l^ although iheiwoaie diitinguished by Suldas (»i
CJl/ >!0, Cyl< >0, CH.< JO Quaisliima lotOFapkicai, iSSt). He seems tc
%C0 -^ Vo ^ VO ^ Si the island of liros, ind to have been cal
I UplHqlphihalide. II. r '■
Sp a»4»: A. C. Perina and Green. J™-- Or* 5k.. iw. P- SW, y^rity^Mii^^
fnu with eauitk alkali, phemJphthalrin yields benzoic acid *■•"'»)""«»« io^^™
—i naia jlihydmiybeiuoptewine, which shon that in the orijinal
cmenBtian Ibe phthalic acki itaidue bai taken the [ara poutian
ID At hydrovyl gnopa of the pbenol.
Flnoniie ia a pnidiicl nt ibe eondenBIion o( the phihalic and
■wJk ifl tba oruw pOBiioa 10 the hydioxyl groupa of the phenol.
366
eictpUon ol ddmui (g.t.) of Milcliu, he iru tbc Gnt Cnek and buutiluUy illuitrUcd uditMlogial voki pi
proae-wiitcT. He bcLoiigcd to the ditlr of PdiiBtnlus «I Uboun of CockcrclL uid biA compuuoQs wen richly iwi
Atbent, uid wu the founder oS in Orphic community. He not ooly were Hifficienl remiini ol the uchitectDnl ta
il chucteiiied u " ona of the nrlint repreientUiva o( ■ diKovered to show cleirly the whole dcagn. hut the SM
hiJJ-CTiticAl, halE-creduloiu cclc^dam " (Gompen). He wu 'Kulptured frieze of the ccUa wu foaDd ftioiDA perfect.
irediled with luvinc origiiutal Ibe doclnDe ol melempiycliaiii ud other fngments of iti Kulpitue at now in the B
<f.i,), Khile Cicero uul Augutiine usen that be wu the Gni to Museum. The cslonude tri ihe temple bu hecn lec
tetch the immorulity of the uul. 0[ bii utrocomicai studis restored by the Greek luthoritia.
he left ■ proof in the " heliotiopion," b ave at Syn» which The iMpireihowiilieplin of ihelemple, which i.(< the Doifci
•erved to determine the anniul tuming-poinl of the sun, like E"ii'"'?Sr"l!'''S!SS^ ai" **'
the giolto of Poiillipo (PosUipo, Povlippo) at Napta, and wu ji,v.tBl Mi/^ly artificial pUieiu.
In bi> coamogonie treatise on nature and the gods, called ol the oik-tlid mountauu of
HinV^M (Prcller's correction of Suldas, who hu *rTim;xoi) J^Sl"' J^l^ m2^b Gulf
from the five elementary or oiipnal prindpla (»elher, fire, air, uniii^ other Doric lemplei. which
water, earth; Compen lubgiitutei imoke and dartnen for uwally Rand eait and west; this ii
aether and eutb), be enunciated a lyitem in which science, plawd nonh and south; hut it has
»ll(«0iy and mythology were Mended. In the beginning were uJlJvE"^^? mJ™ rS^n. ™
■e principle of lime; Zeu (Zas), Ibe principle of ,iri£^E;*^-nJl{r^
Ufe; and Chtbonie, the earth goddess. Cbrono* b^al fire, aii iiiirty.ngln calumni of lis periKyle
ud wato, and from these three sprang numere ■- •■- — -■" - — ■■■-- — ■■■ -■-
Smokeandd,.kne«.app«r_inala.er«.dition. A tragment iTth^ ;;S;bk™1S"i;^"p
n these three sprang numerous other gods, are AilL KiandinB^ with Ibe ercatcr
i\ ippear in a laler tradition. A fragment 1*",°' their aniSiliive, but the test
M Ik. "..^j ™.,^.~.^^ 1.. .-A rk.K^n» w.. (m^ nn •< '■* eiUablatun and both
of the aatred marriage of Zu and Cblhonie wu found on ,^„„ [^„ f^^^ lojeiher wi
Egyptian papyrus at the end ol the i^tb century. greater part oC the inlemal eolumiu
SeeH. Diels, fwfMiiMibr Pwiufcahilfr (T^ojhalKjO. Keiii.D. ol Ibe cells. It will he seen fren
Orpibi, E^mniilii. /'Ii/r«)ii(u Uupiiiu (iSU): D. SprliolopouliH. (be plan that these are very
CmJ #ip«^4av TDv Zbftt^ (Atheru. 1^) ', T. Gompen. Grttk Tkinktri ftrapgdy pUced. apparently withool
(Eng. tnn>.). i. iy. B. P. Grrnlell. JVn CloiiicaJ Fratmtutt (1897): •ymnietry. » legards the iolciior,
iL n^^ £litdel 3iir ranli^iU ^tcqmt {tgoo). Uiough they aR iet Rf^uhrfy Cf>-
PBIOAUA, or PraoAim (ft-riVa or ft^aWn; mod. Pinlitia). '^ib'ThT^j^jMlJi! ETSUl « the
anancicnt Gteekdty in the souIh.WBtingleof Arcadia, situated Knith end. which it Corinthian, the
OD an elevated rtKky ute, among some of the hi^est mountains internal column* are of the loiuc
in the Peloponnesus— the most mnspicuoua bdog Mt Colylium ordei. and are engsged with thecella.
and MtElasum; the idenlific*tion of the latter is uncertain. "ich My'"tM« b^ deii^S^
In 6S9 n.c. Phigalia wu taken by the Lacedaemonians, conuin riatu«- Another pcrulj.
but soon alter recovered its independence by the help of .the ariiy of ihii iaCetior is that (heie
Aetolians in sir B.C. il wu held by Dorimacbui, who left it ^'^'J ™ °^Bm ihe"mh^''^
on the approach of Philip V. of Macedon. In common with ,„ ,he unlal Doiic fashion. Then
the other dlies of Arcadia, it appears Itom Strabo to have inner columni earned an Ionic PI" "'the Temple 1
fallen into utter demy under the Roman rule. Several curious f""^™'"',''' ■•''''' "« 'j™ "ow Ba-se.
culU were preserved near PhigalU, Including that of the fish. '° "* ™'»* Museum fonned a
tailed goddess Eurynome and the Black Demeler with a horM's
bead, whose'image was renewed by Onatas. Notices of il in
Cieek history are tare and scanty. Thou^ its existing luins
and the description of Pousaniu show it to have been a place
of considerable strength and imparlance, no ikutonomous coins
of Phigalia are known. Nothing remains above ground of the
temples of Artemis or Dionysus and the numerous statues and
other works of an which eiislcd at the lime of Pausaniu's
visit, about AJ>. T70, A great pari of the dty wsll, built in fine
Hellenic muoniy, partly polygonal and partly isodomous, and
a large square central fortress with a circular projecting tower,
are the only remains now traceable — al leul without the aid
of eicavalkin. The walls jmie nesriy > m. in dmiit, are strongly
placed on rocks, whicb slope down 10 the little river Neda.
One very important monument still exists in a fairly perfect
Rate; this is a temple dedicated to ^x>tlo Epicurius (tbe Pie-
KTver), buill, not al Phigalia itself, but al Bassae, s or 6 m.
away, on the sbpe of Mt Cotylium; it commemoratet tbe aid
temleied by Apollo in »iop])ing a plague which in the sth century
I.C. was devastating Phigalia. Tills temple is mentioned by
Pausaniu (viii. 41) u being (next to thai of Tego) tbe finest
in Ihe Peloponnesus, " from the beauty of iU stone and the
symmetry of its proportions.'* It wu designed by Ictinus, who, Tneei of poiatuiB on nricmi arcfutectural nwmbcrs weiel*
with CalUoates, wu joint architect of the Parthenon at Athens, by CockeieH. buiiEeyweie 100 much faded for the eolown
TWb visited by Chandler. Dcdwdl, Cell and other Englirfj jll^X'SSysud^.tyS^e Sa'^ di^ ^^ ""^
travellers, tbe temple was neither eiplored nor measured till Thetcutplureliol thcireaieiHialereB.ubciBgdcsv^n'
■hen C R. Cockerel! and some other archaeolo^sts rate one of the finest iHiildingi in Ibe Peloponneni ia tie km
qient several months in making excavations there. After of ihesthtentury B.C.; « Brit JJm. Colo/*r«^&«l|«i^w
oeaily fifty years' deUy, Professor Cocterell published Ibe ,o7^ ^™ir^;"h\5,^a|!^'i„'^i3'^™Sl^iS,*E
results of these labouis,u well uof his previous work at Aegina, marble 4I to ]i
is TtmfUi :tf Aiti»a and Baiuu (iWo), ooe of IbcnoM careful andiheCeuaui
PHILADELPHIA 367
Mtb New Yott uul CUcigD. In i«oo,
_ . M*.]ST. M 77-18% wtre Mliw-bm,
u icudH only 6j% utive-born In Me* Ygck and 6;'43%
utive-born in ChicigD. 0( PhiUddphii'i nilive-boni white
populilioD, boHcvET, 414,091, 01 44'i4% not dI [octign-
boni puinUgc. The forogn-boni populilion induded 98^17
bora in Irduul, 71,319 bora in Gcniuny, je,7si boin in
Ensluid, iS^ji botn in RunU (lufElr Hebren), 17,8^0 bom
in luly, S479 bora in Scoilud ud S154 bora in Atulrii; ukI
tbe coloured cDiuistcd of 63,613 ""S""*- "6i Chinoc, 134
tndiuiind ii Japanoc In igiotbc populilion wu 1,549,008.
Strait,— V/U3i the exception of a Limited number of diicDMl
thoKKighfira ud of iiieeu laid out in oullying diitricti In
oi the frin, aiid ilie l^iecti confonoily with tiie natural contour o( llit ((roond the plan ol
jidenllr been c«efiilty coiui "« aty it ngnUr. Marliel Stretl— which Penn called High
■viable from bdow, an left cooparativeLjr ro Street — ii the principal thoroughfare eait and wal, Broad Street
■Kpibwhail b nHwl, and the haoda of , ^ ^ the principal thoroughtaie ngith and loulh, and these ilTMts in-
bdetcctod. OnlMMiglcilieexeculionie Botequal tothebeauly ,-™^ ..^1., i_ .,<•;,.. ii.n e„ _• .1 u ■ ,_
■ BiaKmirwbatnHfndbyanevkleiil ■«»««« nghl «iglei u Cjty Hall Squ;^ m the biuu™ centre.
B o( effect with the loft psaible ^^ Unctl pandld with Broad are nurabatd from Fint or Front
-I fran (he almgn gcni-like finiih Street wtat (torn the Delaware River to Siny-Third Street,
1 the deiign B iileriocto t^ taling the prefii" North "north of Market Street and the piefii
l^Jt^^b^^tX ™^ " ^"' " ""'^ "^ =•• "»"««' I*™^ "th Market are nan,ed
In the Gn of iu vari^ actioa and "lortly from tnei and from the govemora and counties at
ia Hbiletv ol opmiiaa that (hit Kulpture nuet eueli. The Penniytvaaia.
wUe uBvementaol the heroic Gretfa form a Knking contrait M The ■bole»ale£ttifclii centred at the e«t end ol Market Street
Bad Armii in ihar chariot i> full at gaix and ^guJM pcma. ™ "^ ■™t>> 'Me of Chettnul Street and on Market and Arch
TfaenaitilEia wtiicb thiifiiocitKulpliirediaKiiiKwJutaianeBiH] atrecta. Host of the leading banks and trust' tomparuea are on
m^iunijie: the dab. amew ncn to have b«n built into ihdr plan ChertnutSltietand on TMrdSlreetbetweenChestnutand Walnut
hae iied afterwmrdi, with the aid a two bronie boltj dnvea throuKh -i|»-t- Several ol the larrer oihce huildinm and [he itationa of
01 the netapea, which were > Ic 8 in. iqiiarc, only one eiini '''' Feiuuylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading railwayi are ia
mriy cDopleie. with eleven frapieaui the one alnuB perfect the vicinity of the dty hall; here loo, are the Baldwin Locomo-
^a'TBef ofa nude '™™' wStfiatntiiig diacwy. ovmominB a i[v« Worki. The large leitile milU, Ihe gnat coal wharvea
ISi'S'5t?SrJ55hri^'Jtan"St'5Xl';;le^".lKlA^ ?S5 '^ '^^ ^^'^y^ ««,"'•» -^nh^J,.! .lan« the
wnh >• mbki in eJtaracla ani lupctior in eurution. Delaware, and in dutncli weat of Iheie are the leading manu-
In additioo lo the works mentioned in the tefl. He Leake, Uortt factories ol iron and iteel. There are large augar refineries in
t.49oandiL ii9jCunhifcP*(efc™M. L 319; Ron, Xriin <■ the (outhnaatern part ol the dty. Rillenhouse Square, a abort
Flitfmnai: Stadidberg, IJer ApuUt-Ttmid at Baisat (i8s6); ji„. --...v __^_i .1.. ^... k.ii .-. •>.. ._ j .k. jj
L^n^^^Bu-reMifi A PvHttSTH i/pkii^it (1834); a,y '"•'-nce loulh-wo* of the dty haU, is the centre d the old
Hianvt oC ScolptHn mentioned under GuiE Aar. anjlocratic tesideBtlal district, and the aouth ade ol Walnut
U. H. M.; E. Gi.) Street between Fourteenth and Nioeieenih alreets ia a fashion-
ratLUtEIPHU, the Greek nane (i) ol a dly in Palestine able parade. There are fine midencct on North Broad Street
ialhelandof Amnion (see AioiONrTEs), and (a) of a dty so-called and on some of the streets crcKiing it. and many beautiful villas
in honoor of Attalus 11. of Fergamum, the modern Als-Shehr in the i^cturesquc suburbs of the north-iTest- Tlie most con'
tt-t,], tested tenements, occuixed hugely by Italians, Hebrews and
nULADBLPHIA, (be third dty in population in the United negmo, are along the alleys between the riven and soulh of
Siita, (be chid dty of Peimsylvania, and a port of entry, Market Street, dten In the rest of sonie of the best ol the older
axcneittive with FhilAdelphis county, extending W. Itom the residence*.
Odiware river beyond the Schuylkill River, and iRnn below The prindpal structure it the dty ball (or " Public Buildings ")
the coafhience of the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers N.E. one of the largest hiiildingt In the world in ground space l^\
iheot ij m. along the Delaware river and Foquoiing Creek, sera). It rises ^8 ft. to the top ol a colossal bronxe stalue
bdvcadence HaU, which is a few squares east by south of the (17 It. high) of William Perm (by Alexander Calder) surjnounling
ci^baII,iiio39° jjy 57*i'N. and;s°8' 54-75' W. The port is the tower. It accommodates the state and county courts >s
•bgu io> m. from the Atlantic Ocean, and the dty hall is 90 m. well as the munidpal and-county ofEces. The loundatian atone
b7 na S.S-W. U New York and 135 ni. N.E. ol Washington, was laid in August iBjj. On in first floor ia Joseph A. BaiUy't
IhcdtybisaD Bfeaol 131-7 sq. m. At the southera extremity uatue of Washington, which was erected in front of Indepen-
Biln^ndsptotectedbydikesfronthe li<le;thebusincsscentre dcnce Hall in 1869. About the Public Buildings are statues
baaten the rivert it. about 40 ft. higher but levd; the district if Generals McOellan and Reynolds, FresidenI McKinley, and
vcM of the Schuylkill is generally rf^ng; and in the upper Joseph Leidy and St Gaudens's " Pilgrim." On all sides are
dBlria the Birfice rises from the Delaware toward the north- jreat buildinp: on the north the masonic temple (1868-1873)^
*m sntil in the extreme north-west it a picturesque district m the south the stately Beta Building; 6n the west the enormous
«ndMking Wissahickon Creek from hills enrcding 400 ft. in Broad Street station of the Pennsylvania railway. The Penn-
^4>t- lylvania Academy of Fine Arts and the Oddfellows' Temple
_ ft^lim.— When the first United State! census was taken, ire among other notable buildings in the vicinity. The post
» irao, Philaddphia was the tecond largest dty In the Union, iffice, facing Ninth Street and extending from Market Street
Ukad a population of 18.511. It hdd this rank until 1830, :o Chestnut Street, was opened In 1884; la front is a seated
i4a it was exceeded in tiie by Baltimore as well as by New ilatue ol Benjamin Franklin, by John J. Boyle. Tbe mint is
W. In 1850 it was ■mailer also than Boston; hut in 1854 it the coraer of Sixteenth and Spring Garden streets. The
w Coudidation Act encnded its boundaries so as to indude rustom-house, on Chestnut Street, was designed by WlUiatn
d rbOadelphta county and In i860 the dty had risen again itricUand(i787-T354],inhlsdayiheIeadingAmericanBtchilecl.
■a«csnd rank. This rank it held until 1S90 when, although It was modelled after the Parthenon ol Athens, was built loi
bpofnlatioB had grown to 1,046,964, it was 50,000 lest than he Second United States Bank, vat completed in 1814, and wat
<>>< e( Chicago. In 1900, with a pc^nitation ol 1,193,679, It Ml to its poent tne in xi^^ Other prominent building ol
368 PHILADELPHIA
vhkh SlHcklud wu Ihi udiitict ue [be itock eicbmge, fir Irom thii boiisc a Chriit Churdi (ProtataBt Epbooial),
St Piul't PcolaUDt Epucopil Church, St Stcpbea'i Chinch, the ■ fine colonial edifice doigned nuinly by Dr John Eorricjr
(lauhouw ud the Unjied Sutts Ntval Aaylum. The maia (i6a4-i77i). TfaccoinentoDewuludm i7>7,'">>ilx'Uc|ili,
building of Girard College (on Girard Avenue, between North in pan deigned by Beiijaniin Fraaklin «ad containing a famoai
19th and North ijlh alieeti), of which Thomas Uitick Waluc chime o[ eight bella, wu not completed untD I7$4. Hit
<iSo4-iSS7l, I pupil ol Sliicldand's, wu the irdutecl, il one of interior wu re51orcd to its ancient chancier in iSI>, the pev>
the final spedmeniof pure Crteks/chitectuie in Amenea. Nrar of Washington and Franklin are preserved, and a ttl vt coin-
the SchuylJiill river, in Wat Philadelphia, aiE the buildings of raunion plate presented to the church by Queen Anne in iTsS
the univeisily of Pennsylvania. Its free museum of science and is used on great ocfavons. Tu the churchyard are [be grave*
art, at South 13rd and Spruce, on the oppoute side of the rivet, of Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris. Brigadiei^GeiKral John
wu buil( from the designs of Waller Cope, Fcsnk Miles Day Forbes, John Penn, Peyton Randolph, Francis Hc^mca and
and Wilwn Eyre, and itt nonh-wnlem part wu first opened BcDJamin Rush. St Peter'l, the second Piotataat EpoCEVal
in iS9<). Tall itcel-frame structures, of which the Betz Building, Church in the dry, bu a masuve [ower and > linpte qui;
completed in 1893, wu the first, have become numerous. The within are Lhe original pews. In the south-east part of the dty
Roman Catholic Cathedral of St Pelcr and St Paul, eail a! near the Delaware is Lhe ivy-dad Old Swedes' Church, built el
Logan Square, wu begun in 1846 and waa tigh[een years in brick in i69&-i7oa. The house which William Penn buill
building. The Arcb Slrec[ Melboditt Episcopal Church is abou[ 1683 lor his daugh[er Letiila wu ranovcd to FaimuBBl
one of the moa[ handsome churches in the dty. The South Paik and rebuilt b iSSj. In Gernautowti (7.*.), a ubarb
Memorial Church of [he Advocate (i£97), on fdorth i8[fa and which wu anneied in 1854, are several other hiatoric buitdiop.
CathednL rows, in street after street, of plain Lwo-itorey or threfrstoref
Feihape lhe most famous historical monument in the United dwellings of red (" Philadelphia ") pmtd brick with wUlt
Suto is Independence Hall, on Chestnut Street between Filth marble steps and triDmingi, and with white <N' crten diutttfl,
and Sixth streets, designed for the state house by Andrew each intended for one family.
Hamilton (c. 1676-1741), speaker of the assembly, »od was used tit,_,,. e_._.
for that purpose until 1700 The foundalions were laid in 171 1 Parks. — FiirmDniit Parlrntendi along both hanks ol the Scnvrt
the entire building «u not completed until 1751. The steeple mmsniic glen lot 6 m, lis area a about _mi8 aen. Fne sens
wu taken down In 1774 but wu restored by Strickland in iBjS, of an estate be1ongir» In Robert Morris dunng the War of Iflriepcfr
and further restorations of the buUding to Us original condition ^ence and known as^ Fair Mount," or " TheBilla." wer
™ eS^ b™ In tLit^^*« L Zs^ot this ^^'iT,r■.■'^^rr5,!.°Q,S?hi'^
building the second Continental Congress met on the loih of lions by puirham and tilu. The «
May ij;s, George Washington wu chosen commander-in-chiel aie: the McPhcnon maniior '-
of the Continental army on the islb of June 1775, and the
Declaration of Independence wu adopted on the 4th of July
1776. The room contains much of the fumilure of those days,
and on ila walls are portrails of foily-Gvc of the fifty-sii signers
of the Declaration and a portrait of Washington by PcDle. At
the bead of the stairway it the famous Liberty bell, which bears
the inscription. " Proclaim liberty through all the land unto all
the inhabitants thereof" and is supposed (without adequate
evidence) to have been the first bell to announce the adoption
of the Declaration of Independence. It wu cut in Enlland
recast witb more copper in Philadelphia, and wu cracked again
Id 1S3; while being tollird in memory of Chief Justice John
MoishaU, and on the iinti of February 1843 this crack wu so
increased u nearly to destroy its sound. On the second floor
b the original ol the charier wbich William Penn granted [0
(he dty in 1701 and the painting of Penn's treaty with the
Indians by Benjamin West. The building hu been set apsrt
by the dty, which purchased it from the state in. jBl6, u a
museum of historical relics. On the norlb-wcst comer of
Independence Square is old Congreu hall, in which Congress
ut irom 1790 to i3oo, and in which Washington wu inaugurated
in 1793 and Adams in 179). A( the north^^ut comer is the
old city-hall, on the second Qoor of which the Supreme Court
of the United States >ai bom 1791 to 190a. A short distance
east of Independence Square in Carpenters' Hall, in which the
first continental congreu assembled on [he 5lh of September
J774 and in which the national convention in 1787 framed
the present constitution of the United States; the building wu
also the headquarters of the Pennsylvania committee of corre-
spondence, the basement wu used as a magazine for ammunition
during the War of Independence, and from -igi to 1797 t^''
whole ol it was occupied by the First Uiuled Slates Bank. The
Carpenieis' Company (established in 1714) erected the buOding
In 1770, and since i8j7 hu preserved it wholly lor its historic
assodalions. On Arch Street near lhe Debwsre is preserved
■lanallonalmonument the house in which Betsy Ross, in 1777,
made what has been called the first United States ftag, in accor-
dance wilh the icaolution of CangiCN of the 14th ol June. Not (1S71 ^'reorganised in iBtg and 14C«).
PHILADELPHIA 369
■dikil>ail>pirkiyiUiiiiai<gi;iiilI i> the HOIK hsuie. with i>^ FmnVJia tmMei, A Pnfutt ftr Pnmaltnt Unji-i KunMK
ojitCLd wjibi vhich the Camtni boiaoUt built with hi* own hiiicu. liant in Amenta, In 1769 it uniicd with
Tbouih the eflotti o( the City Park Awicution, ofisiuird in uinc ol) " The American Society held it
Suei luvv ydid on Leasue liUnJi Penny ruk Cteck Park KraTiklin; htn, luo. im nun^ inieiniini
ttfili^cjtt; Cubb'i Crti-k Parli, cxicndine :iboui 4 m. tfVtniE the we^- pcniience and an auIoffraiA cooy o{ the
<n todct ; Fairmouni ParbwLiy, jtu [I. wide un 1 dirm Tine unt K- ( ha) puUiltuxJ IT quailo vull. J Trtioai-
uu irgm Fair ovum Pjrit la Lucan Square jnd Mtmcwhat narrower tt^ni ri7TI-l9oBJ; ir* ProifrJtniS have bceo publltbrd regularly
fnimUsan Square la Ibeeily-hall; and Tom.-<4lalel>jrkway(joofl. linee iHM.and in ltlK4 Ihove [nm ITU to iSjB, comjlilcd irom the
•ideaiJloi n. 1^1, fcuni Hunting Park. 4I m. north of the city- nunuienpl minulci. were a1>a puLliihed. The Academy ol Natural
UU akuiK •! diim line north-vatt to the city limit). A pUaa at Science* of Philadelphia. EDunded in IHli, has b<en noted f« ill
ifae iniencctnit ol Droad and Johiuon Mrceti, radiatiiv ttrceu culU^iDnof birdairinnit aniuirud. in [H46. ihen^lectionof the due
thenfioiii. and the widcnini oi Bioid Stnet to joo It. hom thii de Kivuli Bumbering more than la.ooo specinu^ns; le^ml imaller
Uua to League liland Paik an alio on the city plan. Laurel cdlcclioB have unce been added. The academy hai a notable
HiO mnetery, on a hiKh bank of Ihe SchuylkUl and cont^ou> 10 ic " lypci " of Leidy. Cone. Say.
Funnoant Park, ii Ibe city'i Dtinciiul buryuiE gniund; in i( arc the t library- It it comiiOKd of the
iDBtn of Dt ElLJu. Kent Kane, the Arctic eiplom', and Major- id microuopical (iMS^. cnlomu-
Gnvnl Meade. neraloEical and Dcttlnaical (1877)
.—The 6m Shak«peamn ncrformanee in ibc United publiSied a JiunHTuiKe iiij
. ™niv.hii, :■> Philadelphia in 1741); a noiher_ company ind pniodicjli on entonuilogy,
« wiihaul charje. The
nctbeBtitiihoccupatkincilIhccily.and Hhich rEaitiadln iBa4.hui valuable
jUecal exi^tericc wai opened " by auihariiy " cjudine the lupen of the Penn
" " -- " -■" - ^- -" -^ - - eollectkino^ Amcrkan colonial
inted h
liladelphia 11. .„.,.
,4;andini7(>6wa>huiltihcOldSo....
or John Andi« and Ca,itain John Peter
stre ItBoSl
pliy-bniie in the Uniied Statci. Other iheaiRi arc the Oairirk. printed handUlU and booki
ittUiie Atademy of Muik. the ChcHnui Street open houie, the (Mpreially of Bradford, Franklin and ChriBopher Saut). poRiaiti
lyr€. Ihe A^iphi, the Park and the CfCrmaiL and relin. With the pnxvedt of the vnety's publintini lund ibe
CWi. — Amwiw locia] eluba are the Union Lcnsue, the Unlvcr^cy PmayhaKit JUagasint of Hialory and Biopapky ^— '-^^ — ■-■--i.-j
the City, the Matkhan, the Minalocturert ilncc 1877. The Numiimaile and Antiiiuarian Society of Phila-
.-- iheL»ryeit.theClaver, thePenand^ncil, ddfihia, orcaniied la 1858. ii Ihe oMe« luimiunatie crianiEilion in
Mocamik, levnat country dubi and athletic clubt the Unltnllilatni it hai a collection of coin, andiince iMjit^
luiUy the Racket), aad Ihe hrcnuM cricket clubt in the Uniinl puMiihed its fncenfinit. The Colicge of Phywiana and Sui^nim
ant, the Bdpnni. the Philadelphia, the KeyUone. the Merion hat an ewdknt ncdiial liUary- The fret library of Philadelphia
tu Hamfcid). and Ihe GirnLintawn (at Maaheini). Icdablitbcd 189 Ij inclodc* ■ mdn litauv and •e%nnl lirarKhei.
Ummmi, l£anud SocHtifi and Libraritt. — In ihc KKithen nnrt Other impoTtanl ribTarieaamlbt of the univenity c>f PmnNvlvania,
•i Funnint Park i> a aoolonial garden with an eicellent collection. Ihe Mercantile, thai «l Fiankin Inuilulc. that of the Law Aiuicia-
InnieiithefaniiereKaleol John Penn.gtand»nof William Penn. tion of Philade^b, the Athenacun, that ol the Ctrman Society
ThtcnlkctioDit anotitgrowthof (beinu9eitni,thcG»t In theUnitcd of Pcnruytvania. and Appremieea'. The free mLteum nl science
wu, opened by Charlei Willvin Peak in Independence Hail in and an ol the uiuveruiy of Penniylviniahai valuable archaeuhiincal
iki. It t> BOW owned by the ZcnliiKicnl SnciiAy gncorpoiaicd in collcctioni. notably the Aincrican and the Babylonian calk^iona
ut: lbs bounical collection in honiciilliiral hall; and in nn'marial Jlrikiis^.— William Penn in hit fiame ol covemment provided lor
S^teil oTIndunrial Am and the WiUtaeh eatleeiion o( polntinn March i68j, jnmil an aet which provided that all children ihiiuld
(iboMjoo). iaeiudinc eumple* of the Italian ichooli froni llic isth be taught lo read and write by the time ihey were tmlve yesutd
^thel7thcenturi« andcf motlem French and Ameiican painter), aj^e, (hat (hen they abould be taught lome uicful tratle. and (bat
Humm'a >Htf>nL...i nnt^n. mentioned above aa a dly park, wa» for every child not to tauuhl tb* parent or '-•••"t-in ,JuuiIH h* Arwi
in Bartram (1640-1777) and H the oltk«t hve poondt. At a mccline of the pn
he'^ii93[* ^. . , ^ ...
HBVums. founded in rS^l, a a notable intutution lor promoting maver, Enoch Flower, who for twenty yean
1^ foreiga commerce of itic United States, having a ctiicction of in England. Bjt Bchoolt were left almi
1 gajden in America. The rhilaiUlldlia Cammercial Philadelphia in 1683 the eovemor and council appointed
A. founded in 1894, a a notable institution for promoting maver, Enoch Flower, who for twenty years had held ih
n* vaieriaU and manufactured products Ironi all countrict, a initiative until 1818. The lini gnunmar Khool. commonly knoi
iibcniory and a library. The institution inveatigatet trade coiidi- in its early years as the Friends' free tcbool, was eitabJiahrd
am and the lequiremcnts oi markets in all pans of the world. l6Sq under the care of Ihe tclebrated Ceone Keith: aithou
rd by the Frierids it '
American nponeis and a monlbiy pubiiation foe foreign buyerii year) wm the only public [dace for free iDstniction
^ has pubJished several "forejgn commcreiai auides " and other It was chartered by Penn in 1701. 1708 and 1711,
aoBtttaal worki. Themuicum is maintained chiefly by municipal known as the William Penn Charier School, and it:
iKnpriaiions and by fees, lit contiol it veiled in " The Bmrd school on Twelfth Street. In 174a a buiklin^ wat erected
of Truttjvt d the Pniladefpbia Mo^umt," compotcd of foarteen " charity school " and tor a " bouse c^ worship," but the 1
ddinaof Phila'lelpfaia chosen for life and eight n aJErio members had iwt Doen opened when, in If 44. Franklin published his Pr0]
delpfaia chosen lor life and eight tx q^ia members had rwt been opened when, in If 49. Franklin published his Prfl^Mufl
the building ar
re home and foreign advisory iHiards, and the immediate influence of this pi
. .ricnd of Pel - .
iy bequest (he libraries of the Rev. ^umu-. -., ,
of William Mackunile o( Philadrlnhia. izedihci
Aooof the rarities in the latter was a copy of Coxtoa't Golden which wj
fvaJ (i486). In i86a (he Lilmity Company was made the free clen , ... ... .
•*mi6ntry. under the vill of I>r Jamct Ruah (i786'tB69), of an age, and since then the system has developed unti
^le nSivi at about a million dollars, and with this mooey Ihe Central High School fee boys, which hoi a aemi'
Hidfaay branch was esubli»he<! in 1878. The librnry has owned with a dipanment of pcdagoey and confers the ricgn-vs oi ia.n. umi
is IHo and wa4 enlarged in 1^^ was converted in 184H, in which most of the teachers of the
^ \it oldest and the nHAt [amuus academy uf science in America- School are permitted to enter; the William Penn High School
Ita Dr^nitation was the immediate consequence of a circular tiy for girls (ojxDed 1909) with acidemic, conunerdal. applied an^
370 PHILADELPHIA
homctlold BCicau and lihnry Honmiy departmcnti^ ■ Srbool of and applied ckctriclly, ind lughi cbsn In ihgtt walbieCL
uiduntrial ma two nunuaL Inining icbooUi about one hundred Erwiund and archlKxlural dnwiMj the Philnddpliii S
nighl Khwb (ittHided mainly by adulli); icvcial wiial icbuoli Oiaign (or Women (iliyi). oi whidt Eaiily Sana-- - -■--
[or habitual tnuntt or imubonUnate aod diwidcily chiidnn ; and i John Saniin^bixanw iirinciiial in IHM. and a a
In 1409 diitrii:! hiDh Khuuli wtwt pLuinnJ a< a [>an ul ihu publu: cily, and not lar bryond ihc ciiy Umiu it the Wulu
■chool lyML-m. The ciiy hoi alio nuny pHviIe IiihIi kIiooU and o[M<ThanicalTra(feB(illlltl).endinvdby luiahVi
acaduoiin. (iSo.l-lWkl) »ilh mem; ihan ls,<>».a» for the iwrv inunini a
^^ > univciB y 0 cnnsy vjnu a en ra .e ^ '^"j^^J^^f^" ^*SnHl'"\h£"uIi^™ln«iiu'Sii"'3
lea NrwipafiTi a-J Perioiics;!.— The Antrttam Wrttij Uirtmn n
dl~ Iht £rat Dcnpapcr published in rh31adc1phia and tht Ih^ ■
[ou Ihc colonics. It was liriit iuriied on the »nd oC Dizcember 1719 ^
ol'' eolonl™. The Bxond ntwJS'l" in^ ci'y and^ETmina
He was the I/ntrermJ /n.lnMrlw i« ad .iHl d»f ^chkm avl i>na.
in s-^rmGaziBt. It uat cuabliihcd in I71B bySainiKl Krimn. M
oB< less than a year afterwards il became the property dL BmiaiA
gai Franklin nnd Hush Meredith, who ihortcncd iia litle to the Fr«»
en( lyhania Gaulle. The only one o[ the aewspipen cKaUiiM
pel during (he mhmial era which urvived tho Iqih evntury waa Ik
(IH Pmniytvania Patkei or Gtntral Aiwrtuer.whKh was started in im
and in 190; the Philadelphia UenUl College, ono <^ the b«l known by John Dunlap. and during Ihe War a[ IndependciKX was puhGM
denul schools in ihc rouniry. joined the univciHty. In 1893 •-■mi-woclily, with ocvawnial "ponscripis oC imuonan am
in iKj9 it wat absorbed by the Narlk Ammam (i&n). with ^M
the (/iiili4 5W»Gi»'II((iT«9lm united in iS«7 and which iad
published ai the ATdrik Amrriam, The ^urara and Cniiraf Air-
liia, established in i79Dby Benjamin Franklin Bache {iw^'iA
a grandson of Frankhn. was a notorious anti-KedcraHsl or^n BJa
early years. A pioneer amonE ncwspapenat modern prkaillk
FiMie Uiprr. [onndcd in i8t6. and in 1S64 purchuaTby Ctgv
William ChiUIs. Oihii prominent daily papers now puUiihcd me
tht liupaia (Republican; 1*19), the Fms (Repul>li^j \t^\
the Fewri (Independent Detnoerat: iByo), (he Drmtkrat (Gq«ib;
1B38). thei^niar AnUrlii (Republican: tMablidied in itT><->k
^mrruia Sttamdl, the Csniai llim (1817). Ibc EHmvtt
(IndepeodcniRepubliean: iM4),and the faieUUI (Labour:
early AmHkan^siers(eq>«iX€ilbcR'!Hurl.^VhniU has LaJui' Hunt JH-rul (lasj), the ■cmi-moai'hly with ththv*
the largest collection), 01 mwlem American anlsU (especially in circulation, are owned by the nnw company. The /arai Jmtd
•'■' ''iiDpIc collection), and, in the collection of Henry C. Gibiog, (1877) is a well-known agriniltuial nonihly.
-nch bndicapB. Tbo DrenI Insthulc o< Acta and Scicnni. rmili. Ckcniia, Sx.— Gifsrd CoHegc and thiny4i|bt flW
-■ ~ -891 by Anthony !. Drmd ond endowed by him with -'■--■-— ■— : — ■ — -' ■'■ ■- -■ — —
xupiea a beautiful buildinE (Chcnnul Street and 3>nd :
mf an<> — ■'■- '-11—-— -■ ■ ■ •-■-
I 1891 by Anthony I. DmH and endowed by him with charities air mainiamed out ol the
, Occupua a beautiful buildinii (Chcnnul Street and 3»nd i "hirh are adminislcrrd by a board of
^ _ 1S91) and finbraros (he fullowinji depaitmentfl: archi- members, appointed by the courts of e^ — t._-„ ^_ . ,-^
tt, acaence aikd techaoloBV. eominercc and £nanre. dunicstic president 01 the aclect council, and president of the cao^
CE,doa»tleart(,UbraryKliaol. Englishlanguageandlileraluie, council as or-oJbto mnnbeis. In 1907 the invested rapinlrfd*
ry, di^l government and economics, phyvcal training, eveninE Girard Trutt alone amounted ti^ja.j67,77oandtlicincwstheMi
history, di^l government and economics, phyvcal training, eveninE Girard Trust akine amounted t<kb4.467,77oandilieinevaitfMi
clasKt, department of free public Icclureaand concnti, li^tyand wa9tt,9«8,0M- The total caiitirol all the minor irosisiatbliia*
reading mom, and muteum and picture nllcry- The institulion
bestows frr icholanhiin on a conHdernble number of students
and diarget the other* very moderate fees, ha buildinf bonnes
a library, a collection of rare prints and autonaphs, and a museum
with a picture gallery and eahiLits of embroidery. teAiles. ceromict,
wood and metal woA. Sc. The Penniylvania Museum and School
at BroSTnd Kii^stRetl^tbe muse^ is h'oulei'in hSemorial
Hall in Fairmount Park. The schuol is a pioneer in America; it
was oriflnally a school of appUed art. but in i(Hl4 tlte Philadelphia
tertile achool was tsUbUshcd as another department. The Wagner
Free Innitute of Science, founded by WHtiam Wagnrr ia lisj. hasa
library and a natural history muvum, providn free Imures on
scientific wbiecls. and pub1i>h«. TViniortim. containing acirniilic
memoiia. The Franklin Inxitute for the promotion of mechanic
aits(iS34l has a technical Ubiary (with f nil patent record* of several
lUTloni): since 1814 it has held exhibition* of manufactures: H ha*
published since lSj6 the jBumat of tht FranUin /■ifihifr; the
machine design and navnl architecture. The Sp^ng Garden Insli- rrailfiorlalion nnJ Cii»I«rT».— Nearly every street in At
tute (tSjl), with day cLisscs in mechanical drawing, haodlimk, business centie and about ODC>third of the aiieeta thiwighoit P*
PHILADELPHIA 371
biBk4p poniDa of the dty have a mtig]t tTBck of elcclric railway piintt. bootaand than, clecliicAlafvaraliu. and catbge and twinr,
Ifivcrtacod uolky). and mou of the wider onca. uapt Droad Sm«t» and among nvcablc iadivEdual «*tab1ithnKQU ore ihe Ddldwin
■Ucb hu Dooe. have a double Inck. A tubway Uoc hu been Locofnixive Wotki. Ihe Cnimp :shii>-Vaidt and ihe Dialon or
^ned Isr a ihofl diKascc under Market Stnci, and otlw (iibny Ke>>tsne Saw Workt. Thne arc iclnJeum ri:6ni]rici at Faint
Van, at wtU at elevated GneL liave b«n projected. TV cniirv DircicnGarihc nwuthol the SchuyLkiU^ petroleum i«pped to tbcm
nun. einbndnf in 1909 a total oC 63A-21 m., [■ ormtec! by (he fivni Ihe nonh-wnt part o( the state-
Whifeiphis Rand Tranat Company. Se'^l inlEr-uiban elsuic IftiUT Supply,— TWc 6m Diunki|wil waterworks, initalfed In
1 vice ID nei|liboiiiin( iowiu and ciliei The 1799-lBoi. pumped wali.T_ by jleam ^wir (rum the S«hiiylluH
: Ualllmoie & Obio
ailway affonia AandtMhit wasoocof thceoriicu appiidiioiuaf tienmioii
to Ealtimore, waier pumpinE. In Tftii-Ll^fS new ilvam woria were ins
19 coillieldi d Quarry Kill, or Fainnounl; in 11)19-1811 pumpinx works
and Chicagn. The Philadelphia & Reading it was in great cart lor the preiervaiiDn ol the purity ct Ihe wai^
dly with ihc great anihracite mal tejion. supply that Fairmoont fteic wai created. The park, huimer, did
pbia A Kcading and the Pennsylvania canlrol not serve ita purpov In this respect. The water WAS ionpurc and
r. The SehuylbU is navieable for inull cioli inadequate: (ddilional, works wen tmtalled Inm lime 10 time,
oil lEfineriiTi al Point Breeze. 3 m. [mni Ihe reservoirs from whicKdiitiibutiDnwaiinade bygiavliyiand to meet
Irem to Ihe head at navigatioo the channel the inciTasing demand! new 6ltraiion worka and accesufica vera
it lowwaier in ita shallowest part below the Cffrrrnnuni and Financet^ — Tiusrnueh u it boa been proved
imeased between 1836 and iSw to 16 It. that in 1M3 Ihac was in uM in I'hiJadclphli a Hil bcatiDglbe
areiche.), andaptoieci of the FHiwal govern- instriplion " Dliladclphia .8j. William. I'cno. Proprietor, and.
'^ttd5?1?"[tra?:iSrnft^«aie''j ^O"™" " »>^,i» ''I fP«" f^"'^'' '™ 'J« P"™-"
iaUd »750,M» lor the improvement of the »»l or the lounly ual, it iceini that there was then » diMincI
y and Ihe aoiiiliem boundary of the siaic.i government for the city. In July 1684 the provincial fouDCil,
[iS-iSSSSiSiir.! !;'^r^i^''^^P°h^« fa »^^'^ dTe""wi*!t'^']rhii
i&h Point ap the Delaware Itiver to [be RiiLuklphia & commimt, and it ii uDCCitain what Ihe government of Phila.
lurminalai Fun Rkhmond, a dittioce of about B m., and delpbio wis for the neit scveniccn yean.' In 1701 Pcnn bimselt
n aiaor hafboar facilitiea on the SehuylkUL The natural issued a cbincr creating a clow comoration modelled after Ihe
hdmiogeIherwiihtbeimprovcnieinsthaIhavebccDniadc,wcre E^iiji, borouirh and under Ihis the cilv was governed until
Im oiiet by an oefScienl pott adminUtiation under an antiquated T* „. ™™'>? "°" """" ""* 'f' "'■' ""^ govern™ untu
^-- ' • Ihe Wat of Indepenrlence. Upon the annulment of the Pcnn
charter by Ihe Itnlaialion of Independence, govemmeni by
commissions was cslablished, but Id 1789 a new charter was
granted and, although the goveramcnt has since undergone
many and Rrent changes, il is by virtue of this charter thai the
rsic. liome yon liiei Pliiladelphra lost lu luciaiis-e LIuna Kaeic, city remains a corpoialion UMlay. The Consolidation Acl of
3s Sri^=.ijJli"ti"£h*»rtMji^'tirf'?h!^fv'™'o!ll- ''"'"yi'W "« """"y goveramcnt, changed the corporatewme
SEd i«?o.^rSd^ b?%^^k%.t:S. sSS fZ^ V^ ' «« - W»y«. Atder^en. and Citizens ol Philadelphia " to " lb.
Ifev OrkiBa. JBy 1900, however, the value of ita imports had City of Pbiladclphia," created the oBices of controller and
*ea to (49.I91JJ6 and the value ol its e.porti 10 »Si,ji7,70(; receiver of taics, end considerably modified Ihe powers and
tli^i^k^fhit o(X^Y'S.^'!;°S^"oZ°hv°'N^ '*'"'" "^ "" ™P«»lioo and its officers. The BuUilt Acl.
IfS^BSSi a^ fie v^e SV e.^^i?f^ ja,.6^^74 !«"«" '»' 'SSs to go into eff«t in ,887, and since ,885 atnended
an asuuni lest Ihan one-eighth that of New York, but eiceeded and supplemented, is a new charter except in name; pirtlculirly
Qtly by New York, Galveston and New (Jrleans. The principal notable Is its transfer of the balance of power from the councils
l^m are «jar, drn js and ehemieals, foat.kins. wool, tobacco, ,„ j ^^o^ idl.peipclualing Commissions to the mayor.
JA and burlao. and cotton Roods, iron ore. monulacluml iron, 1 r- » /
irs and is not eligible
h* of jllD3 which permitted the wharves to pass bigely u
Imife comrcJ: but in '*"" '' " ' ■ "* — ' '""
■M^hed and in i» pb .
•tBia, dock! and letri
llMil tbe opening ol II
im. i^^.'^u"SiTaitit'^^.mat''pt^ 10 Iho office f« the neat succeedii^ l^rVl.h
y of Ihecily lo.'iew Yotk.whencernany of con«^nl of Ihe ttlccl cout ' ■
.__■ ™._ __!_ ° "L?^fl,_.'"_ ""^ imports _ fP^,r;^^'_' ,_._!^ 1907) "t
jraH/iK(«ni.— Philadelphia has always been one of Ihe forcDK.^
■aufaciuring oenlret in the United blates, and in 1905 it was perrons to examine any department and
■■tianted DnTy by Mew York and Chicago.' The Inlal value ol its may remove any officer whom he has . .
tiaory product vat fs'9.9Bi.B» in 190a, and fMI.]»l<,o;a in 1905. cuiends to ilcmt Is ippnprlallan bills, bni nr
Mowtred by the value ol the products, f^iladclpliia tanked hrsc may bepasscd over hlavelowltMnGvedaysof
Iwiiiii ihi iiliii I III II. ill 1905 in refining sugar and lAolisses nuiive vute uf thne.fiflhi of Ihe members cle
DuneUisco
' A document purporting to bo a charter, bearing the date of the
oih of May 1691, and aigni'd by Thonus Lknrd, 3cpuiy.Eo\'einor,
lat discovered in 1887, but the gimt Kal is missing and there is no
ridence thai the charter was even in opeiatiafl. The nunuies al
a mirting of the Council held at Philaitlphia on the thin) day of
ixth Month 1*01 " mention "' tlumphiry Money Ihe preacnt
•- - uf Ihe dty of Phib'lHphia"; - " "' ■--
'The div had prrviouily npendcd 5i,5SS,ooa on ihc improve- PHImltlMia: III Amiu'iiii; anil .Wi: XrinrI eV ikt Cenminn
^H of the bela ware and Scduyl kill rivers. . . . to drUrmw IV Yfar rf lii nytind aid Lic^ Faumlat nj H,
^ 'The Philadelphia Museums claim that eirludii^ llaughtcr- Cify iV'''kiCii'<''^iii (PUUdHphia. 190)1).
^Inared products is gicater than that of any other cjiy in the from the mnyiir and wsIrI it in Ihe eouncils, but Ihis Ir^slatioil
m: public «Itl¥, public mitb. irnivir oC mm. city Imuurer. ,j^, when LincMler beoB.* (be opitiL Diuinf ncuir Ui
SjL ™tS5" dMk. .^to™rd1!riJ^ 'Si^'l^ "id "'"'• "^ "" P"™* i'lfu d» the nml imnorunt div in
372 PHILADELPHIA
PC: public nit
ty corn roller.
ly (DjDCiU), Meinbcn oC the ■
importanc dty ca
menially, politically uid toddly in the cakmie*. Qnakt
influencB remiined itrotig in the city, e^ieciiJly up ta the b<
[ ddphii long aflet it bad given way bdon the Scolch-Iriih I:
I the [Bt o( Pennsylvuui. Butevmio PhiiadelpMa the anilii:
. _-. ... — ^ .._ , J (later the univenity of Penniylvmia) uon cwBC aDder Ik
— f the deF»rtmnn of public taftly. and at Ibrit eonliol ol the Protejtanl Epiaeopal Cburch. 'nefintCoBlb
S^t u"tC'^f:^'.3';?riS2«''™L^"'^ ^epSS^isr:; ""■ <^^ t- ^ ^r'*' "f ™ ^.^ii!i!r^
educiikid i. adir>bi.tei«l by . ccmial bc»nl .ppoiiteSfat [.ip) 'TMi the »«™"i in the old itiie houie (IndepetideDte Hal
bylheiudgaoIthccDuniaf coiDiiHin pl«>. on Ibe loth of May 177 j; and throughout the War of Indepo
Theaiaetted viLueof tuableKopcny inlbecily inoiaiedfroni dence, except from the i61h ol September 1777 to the ilth 0
'.SSJrf Ki iis;.*"^ in ?gSi i|M%o^ i^^I " ■" ^' •^'^ "P'"! o* ^ ™'='°i«i i' "» • brilliut »d>
tjo.6iSj4e in 1900. and 10 (48^)11,630 in 1909. The principal dty, cipedally during the Briliib posscuioii. The natioBil
items of eipeiidiiuiT In i9cq wrrc: lor public ichoola fiMJ'i: convention which framed the preient coutitutiaa of the Unild
l","".^?" "'•»"'■ ti"?™: 1°' "in™ and higtw™, gj^j^, „j ^^ philadelplua in 1787, and from ijoo to i8golli
which }is.e]i,u3 were Inm the propiny lax (muincipal and David RiiieDhouH nude then gnat ronlnbutwu to idaa,
tutc), and hs)9''<"4 were Iromilie water tax. The dly'a indtbud- uii| here Waihington delivered hit faiewell addrai to [bepoffc
"™ 'l'^"' 'V''' L'°hJH ""^y 'la^'i^T JS^A 'fir^' "' "" 'Jii'"! Slates. Here, in July and August 17*9, Lk
li6.78'M70,°by tbe Ugin™« o'"*870 it Sd mwUTto^,^ clerical and ky delegate* £lDm the Proleslant Episcopal Chnnta
iUo 10 57a.970.041. By the new Hate ill the United Stalea met and foimally oiganiied the Proteiuri
i 00 munKipality ii permitted locreate Episcopal Chureh in the United States. Here the fint lut
SHcucd value ol III taxable P«>pmy.' in the eolonie.— tbe Bank of North America— was opesed k
T^mJ^i^'orSwi^Scti^ W8i, and here the £nt mint iot the coinage ot the money dlk
held by the luikins fund, wu leduced United Stale) wa) established in 1791. The dty was viaiid
10 fUiim.'fS- "nie grail eapeiue ol with an epidemic ol yellow lever in ijgj and again b IJ*
*K; ^^"* '^IWI^to'*™™' ^ ""I 1= 'Sj' neiily "™ inhabitants died of Asiatic cbsbn.
Itotil funded dSJ was Hj.SjIs^'i!!' ^ The oripnal boundaries reizuined undianged for i]i )>m
1,901,610. but tlie adjoining territory as it tiecame populated was eicasl
Hiriwy.-'Ihc patent Biantcd to William Penn for the terrilo-y '»"> <™POrated di«ricla in the lollonring ordn: Sogthnd
embiaced within the present tonunonweallh of Pennsylvania (1761), Northern Libcruo (1771), Moyamensing (iSii), SptOf
HIS signed by Chart* U. on Ihe 41h of March 1681 and Penn Garden (1813), Kensington (iSk.), Peon (i&u). RichaW
agreed that " a quantity of land or ground plat should be laid ('847), West Philadelphia (1851) and Belmont (.!«). Id iIH
out for a Urge lown or diy in the most convenient place upon ■" '•'"' distncts, together with the boroughs of Cermaniiw^
the river lor health and nivigalion " and thai every purchaser Ftnnlifotd, Manayunlt, While Hall, Bridesbutg and AnBli|^
of soo acres in tbe country shall be aUo»ed a lot oi 10 acres in ""I ""e township* of Passyunli, Blodiley. Kingseninc, S«-
the town ordly "if the pbce wiU allow it." In Seplen.be r borough,Germanlown, Bri51o[.Oiford,LowerDublin,MoctUid,
Penn apptnnted William Crispin, Naltanid Allen and John Byberry, Delaware and Penn was abolished and the bimtol
Beian a commission to pweed 10 the new province and lay «' Pbdadelphia were e.lend^to the omnly lines by a bi^
out the dly, directing Ihem 10 Klect a site on the Delaware "« '''„*^","J*;J^Jor"^ffid^n "^'"^'"^ "^"^
Zh!re m«t'*ah™'c^"bL\''ri'de, of'dt^t d.ll"ght*^f ira'le^ *»'* t*™ occasional oulbre^ of daordet: on the Mth of My
i( possible 10 load or unload al the bank or key side without -SjS " anti-aboblion mob had burned Pennsylv™. BA
boating or Ugblering of it." Crispin, a kmsman ot the pro- "hi^h had been dedicated three days befote to the ducuM
priclor. died on tbe voyage out, hut William Hcage bad been of abobtion, tempetance and «iu»hty; ui May 1844 «J
named a fourth commiaioner some tune after Ibeippoinlmeot Catholic rioters had burned St Michael's and St Aogmue*
of Ihe others and the three survivors arrived in the province chi«l'«, "^ ™nof "o" ^^ occured ui iBjs, 1S4J aariW
toward the dose of the year. They had been pieceded by Philadelphiawasltom tbefirst slronglyuiti-^veryin wiu^
Pcnn-s cousin. Captain William Markham, as depuly.govemor. ■""! '^ was here m December iSjj that the /UiencuA*
and were loon followed by the surveyor-ecneral, Thomas Holme. Slavery Soaely «is otganited, and m 1856, on the annimsHT
Ahbough the Swedes had eslablished a K:ttlement at the mouth "' 'J"= ^'"f, ?f bunker HiU, that the £tst nalional c«v»«
of the Schuylkill not bier than 164J and the sile now selected "I "■« Republican party met. Dunng the CivJ War iheaooj
by the commissioners was held by three brothers ol the Swaenson ""^ "" Southwaik navy yard «.e busy naaufactunng asimj
family, these brotheis .peed lo take in cschange land in what '<>; ■!« ^•^'■'^ armies, the Qty was crowded with wooM
is noi kno-n as Nonhem Libetlies, and as early as July .681 "W.™. "d here m .84, •« heM the gn^t umluy iu te
Holme, according to modiBed mstruclions from Penn for makmg '!« benefit of the United State, samtary commtsuon » «P^
the lolj smaller than originaUy intended, laid out Ihe rity '"" for Ibe relief Jmd care of wounded s^ s«kiok&iaU
e.lcndinB from the Delaware rivet on the east to the Schuylkitl '87<, the cenlennial year of Amenian mdependenei, 1 !«■
Hver on the west a distance of about 1 m and from Vine exhibition of tbe industries of all nations was held in Fainas*
Street on the north to Cedar (ibw South) Street on the south, P"^ ("» "« "^l" "• ""/ '" '*>' ""'' -^ Noi™ber, asd^
a distance ol about i m. Penn bnded al New Castle on the fi'ty buildings were erected ior the purpose. In Orto"
Delaware on the 17th ol October .481 and iwo days later came '881 the dty celebrated the b.-centcnmal at the lai.di«I«
up as lat as Upland, now Chester, ij m. south of Philaddpbia. William Penn, and m Oclober 1908 Ihe iijlh anniveisaiy «* "
but when he came to bis newly founded city is not known. He four"'"'""
is known, however. 10 have presided at a meeting of Ihe pro- '
vincial council hdd here on the lolh of March 168]. and from I".
that time Philadelphia was the capital of Pcnniylv;
1 1f the debt ol a city alieady exceeded the 7 % limit i
PHILADELPHIANS— PHILARET 373
Ihe Itinplc of lui with it> bEtth-temple In tKe Gni court, Ihcrc
RKSiiii]l»teniplaorihrinnafArHnuplui.Manduli>, Imuttia,
Hatlin, Hsrcndgio (> form oi Monu) and Autiutui (in the
Roniin itylc). beiidci unnamed ono. Then wen ilii) inonu-
nentil gilevayi, and the iiland vu prolKlcd by a ilanc quay
ill round with the nemur]' itaitcue, lie., and a Nilomelet.
rhe mcKl beautiful nf all the building ia an unfinished kioique
Bed." GraAili of pilgrimi to the ahcine of I>Jt are dated *t late
u the end of the 51b centgry *.d. The decree ol TheodoMua
[a-o. J7S) ni'bich auppmsed pagan vonhip in the empire waa
if rell^oui myttlcs, founded In al Utile edccl m the extreme wulh. In AJ>. 453 Mliiminm,
Untenin tbebttupart oEthe t7Ibcen(ui>. In 16;] Drjohn ibc general of the emperor Mi rdan, after inflicting a uven defeat
rodme {1607^1681), rector of BradSeld, BerLahire. gathered on tbeNDbalaeandBlemmya whovereKlllcdiaLoweiNubia,
Hplliet a few loUowen of Jakob Boehme, the chief of whom ind thence raided Upper Egypt, made peace on temu nhich
mjanc Lead or Leade Inte Ward; 1613-1704). Potdage wa» included peimisiion for Iheae heslhen iribn to viiit ihe temple
qmid from bia living by the Ttien in i6j5, but waa restored md even to botroo the Iinif>e of Isis on certain occasioni. It
fi ii6o. Mn Leade had been from girlhood ol a myiticil nai not till the reign of Justinian, a.D. 5)7-56:, that the temple
tf^mueat, and experienced phantums which the recorded af FhilaewaafinallycloKd.andtheidolstslieDtoConstaBtinopie-
B I diary entitled A FeuitUiin af Garinu, beginning in i6;o, Remains of CbriiliaD churches Here disclosed by the thorough
kiriiicfayearthePhlladelphiansociety wasdcfinitelyorganized. explottitian carried out in 189J-1S96 in view of the Bamge
Stedrtwup for it "The Laws of Paradise," which show that icbeme, under the direction ol Captain Lyooa. The accumula-
1^ CDlerprise was designed " to advance the Kingdom of fkid lions of rubbish on Ihe island were cleared away and the walla
^ iofiloving the life, teaching the loftiest morality, and enforc- ind foundations of the stone building were tH repaired and
■t Ik duty of universal brotherhood, peace and love," Its itrengthcned before the dam waa completed. The annual
■Bgben bad a strong faith in what they railed the " Divine Gooding now appears to be actually beneficial to the stonework,
Ssnts," the vmnden of GoA and nature, the profound spiritual by removing the disintegrating salts and incrustatioDl. The
attrieoccs of regeneration and soul-rcsutTecIion, and the tops ol most of the buildings and the wbole DUdeua tg Ihe
Mmd Advent. In 169] some of Mn Leide'a wriiingtwcre temple of Isis to Ihe floor remained all Ihe year round above
UuiUted into Dutch, and by this means and her acquaintance Ihe water level until the dam was raised another 76 It.— ■ work
•illi Francis Lee (iWr-iji^), an Oxford scholar who studied begun in 1(07 — when the templei were entirely submerged
■eiidne at Leiden and became her son-in-Uw, a connexion except during July-October. But the beauty of the island and
mspened up with Germany and Holland. In 1703 the PhiLi- iig ruins and piiio Iieea, the joy of tnvcllen and artiili, ii
(h^ibians drew up their confession, hut they made no further almost gone.
(ngica and «wn decUned. The Holland branch wilhdrew. See H. C. Lynns, A RifoH m lb /ilaiul <»J Timtla if Fkiltt
nd the English government forbade Ihe (ociety In meet. For (Csiro, iSa6), with numeroua plans and pboi«r»plii; ■ .•jcoBd
Tvef. a conudetaWe number of people regarded "P°"j ■* ^.^^ .""V. Ti"^ f'.il*'^'''?}:. '' "
iCed by »
Kn Laade'a viiiona, which were published in a long series of ^ fiiSof the Annan dam; BaiSilier'i E(y(«; and on tbeeffem
■ndatt, aa proofs of her divine calling. In her later yesra she of (he iiibmermn. &c. Tetnrti in A nnaiet lu unUt iti aiUioMiti^,
v-TTr* _■' ._ _..i ... ...vi.v ,:....j L.. . ^1^ i„, ^, ■" (F. ll.1;.)
PHIURET ITnEOooBE NnmCB RomahovI (? iS!]-'6j])>
or great patriarch of Idosfow, was Ihe second son of the boyar Nikita
fcaoy and intereat, but sbce the completion of the Aasuan Romanovich. During the reign of hii first cousin TTieodoie L
du ia 1^1 submerged except for a lew months yearly during (1584-1508), Theodore RomiDOV distinguished himself both as
Bi^ Nile (July "> Oclobu), when the water is allowed to run a soMiet and a diplomatist, fighting against Ihe Swedes in
•eUHt Island lo the point wfaeie the ancient deaen road from einpcrot Rudolph 11. in ij^j-isqt. On Ihe desth of Ihe childlesa
Amn rejoins Ihe rivet south of the cataract. It marks also tur, he was the popular candidate for the vicanl throne; but
Ihtndol Ihe cataract region. Below II the channel Is broad he acquiesced in Ihe election of Boris Godunov, and shared the
•"dunight with rocky granite islands to the west. The name disgrace of his too-powciful family three years later, whCB Boris
a Egyptian was PiUik, " the angle (?) island ": the Arabs call compcUcd both him and his wife, Xenia Cheilavaya, to take
ilAiiisein'agud,*fteIthe hero ol a romantic tale in the AraHcn monastic vows under the names of Philiret and Martha rcBpec-
Kitlu. Ancient graffiti abound in all this district, and on lively. FhUarel waa kepi in the strictest confinement in the
Bittk, a Uiger island adjoining Philie, Ibere waa a temple as Aaloniev monastery, where he was exposed to every concdvahlo
oriyaslhe reign of Telbmoss III. The name of Amasis 11. indignity; but when Ihe paeudo-Demetrius overthrew the
(170-555 B.C.) is (aid 10 have been found at Fhllae. and it is Codunovs he released Phiiitet and made him metrDlwIitan of
Mible that then were still older buildings which have been Rostov (1605). In 1609 Philarel fell into the hinds of pseudo-
•nlgwcdupinlaterainstructians. About 350 n.cNekbtnebl, Demetrius II., who named him patriarch of all Russia, though
Ike list of the native kings of Egypt, built a temple to Ills, his jurisdiction only extended over the very limited area which
BoKof which was destroyed by fioods. Ptolemy Pbibdelphus ackcowlcdgcd theimposlor. Fnim i6io-r6i8 he waa a prisoner
»t«umcted some of this workandbeganabrge temple which in Ihe hands of Ihe PoUsh king, Sigismund 111., whom he refused
'iikay Euergetea I. completed, but the decoratian, carried to acknowledge aa tsar of Muscovy on being sent on an embassy
Mioder later Ptolemies and Caoais, wis never finished. The to the Polish camp in 1610. He was released on the conclusion
■aple of Isis was the chief sanctuary of the Dodecaschoenus, of the truce of Deulino (Feb. 13, i6ig), and on the md of June
Ut portion of Lower Nubia generally held by the Ptolemies was caaonlcally eathroned patriarch of Moscow. Hencefonh,
tad Romaiit. The Utile island won greal favour as a religious till his death, the established government of Muscovy was a
■>nl, not only for the Egyptians and ihe Elhiojuans and others diarchy. From 1610 lo i6j] there were two actual sovereigns,
*ka frequented Ihe border district and the market of Assuan, Tsar Michael and his father, the most holy Patriarch Philaret.
Wilso for Greek and Roman visitors. One temple or chapel Theoccllcilly Ihey were co-regents, bul Philarel frequently
■Aer anoihrr sprang up upon it dedicated to various gods, transacted aHairs of slate without consulting Ihe tsar. He
rf&hicpia.sharedirith the Ptolemicsinthebuilding. Bcude! of assessing and coUecting the taxes. His most important
PHILATELY— PHILEMON
m wu the '■'■"'"'■■ g ol the peuuliy lolbetoil,
vei iactfiuibg mi^ntiDD of the
down-trodden urfa to the iteppo. where they beams Iree-
booten iiuletd of tu-piycn. Tlie loutioa o( the tur'g
dymlniHe ly^i, oi mlUury lenuiu, wu t Gnt itqi towatdi
Ibe pTOpottioEul tuAlioQ ai the hitherto phvLLeged dauei.
FUUret'i leil for the purity oi arthodoiy Eometima led him
into eiceuesj but lie encnuniged the publialiori of ihmlDgicul
wotki, foimed the Ducleua of the aubiequEntly finwui Patti-
'archjtl Ubrary, lod commanded that cvety Archbishop should
otabliih \ Kminaiy Eor the dergy, hipuelf letting the e^umple-
Another great service rendered by Philant to bis country was
the leorfmluIioTi oi ttie Muscovite army with tiie help of foreign
gScen. His death in Octobei i6j3 put an end to the Russo-
Polish War (1632-33), withdnwing the strongeat pi^ from an
executive (eeble enough even when supported by *11 iJie weight
of hia authority.
FHIUTKLT (Gr. ^IXot, loving, and InXitf , tne of tu). the
lludy and collection of poalagavUmpa and other maiki of pre-
payment issued by post-oScta. The fancy for collecting poatage-
iT uid F
y have been the
itamps began a short time after the Issue ol
penny and two-penny stamps in i^[> (see i
Service), Dr Cmxi an officdal of the BriElsh niiseum, ncgan
collecting theni soon after their appearance, and an advertise-
ment in an issue of The Tima ol 1S41 asks for gilu o[ cuceUed
stamps for a young lady. In 1841 the new hobby was ridiculed
in Funck, It wu not until about 1S60, however, that stamp
cx>UceIiiig began to be syitematically can^ on with full regard
to such miaiaiai u the difierent kinds of paper, waler-maiks,
perforation, shade of colour and distinctive outline- About
JS63 a teacher in Paris directed that foreign stamps should be
cdlecled and pasted upon the pages of his pupils'
geographies according to countries, ai ' ' '
first form of the syitenutic classification of stainpsi
Of ciisling collections the oldest were begun between iSj3 and
1S60, by which yeai French coiledon had assumed especial
prominence- Professional dealers Dow made their appearance,
and in iSSi philatelic literature, now of vut eitcnt, was iU'
uigunted by the publication in Strasburg of a catalogue of
•tamps Issued up to that time- Tlie Paris coUecloi* were the
first to classify alarapa, meisuie them by the gauge, note the
water-marks and separate the distinct issues of each country.
Collecting with due regard to the relationship of diBcrent issues
ts called plaHnf. The first English catalogue wai issued in
1861, followed in December of the tame year by Tit Slamf
CiUalar'l IMtw and UmUJiIy Adurlistr, published in Liverpool,
the first philatelic periodical, the second, TIk Stamp Cdicclai'i
Ustaiat, appearing in 1863. In 1W3 also appeared Le Timbri-
Pejte, a Brussels Journal. Up to igro over Soo philatelic
periodicals bad appeared.
Although amall bodies of enthusiasts had banded together
in England, France and the United Stales for the study and
collection of postage-stamps u early as 1M5, it wu not until
1869 thai the first great club, the PMUalilic Smtly of Lmdm,
still the most important In the world, wu founded. Other
sodelies in Great Britain ace (be Junior PkOaidic ol Loudon,
and those of Biimingham, Manchester, Edinburgh and Leith.
Association; in France the SscilU /rsHtoin i€ timb-iiogU; in
Germany the liUtrnalwnalir Pkilaldiilat-Vaciit, More than
400 such organiutlons are now in eiistence, the majority of
them in the United Suies and Germany. At a philatelic con-
of philatelic sodelies " to discourage unnecessaryor speculative
issues "wu considered.
Not only the stamps themselves were collected, but " entires,'*
i.t. postcards, envclopu with the stamps still adhering, flic.
Marks of prepayment at last became so numerous that, about
tgSo. specialists began to appear, who restricted tbeir collections
lo the stamps ol some panicuUi country or continent, or 10
iceUed s|
acb stamp,
:o the British
e British Musi
that bequeath
T. K. Tapling, M.P., now ii
imponinl ccdlecliotis may oe meniioneu toosi
Postsl Museum in Berlin, of King George V. of 1
Aveiy, H. J. Duveen and the earl of Crawjor
for that of M. I
The value of a :
; of Eun
Guiana (one known copy); the Italian 15 tat.
1865 converted by an overprint into 10 aaUr.
the Cape of Good Hope tiiangular, printed by n
intended for stamps of other coioiLiu (four copies'
stamps of the earliest issue of British Guiana {u
Oflice " Kfaurilius, for which bigher prices have
for any other stamps, although aj copies arc
out ol the 1000 issued. For a fine specimen of
stamps fjooo has been oHered. Two o( them
for £1400. Philatelic eihibitions such u thOM
in 18^ and iSgT and in Manchester in 191
is, taken ftorn tit
II of the original issue. Foixeries of the r
imon but are easily delected. Modem postal
ollcn beautiful specimens of the printer's ar
very Itnown stamp being fpven in the origioi
PHILEMOH (c
361-J63
B.C-), Gre
ckpo
u bom at Soli
n Cillcia
tly in lile. and his first
plsyw^
pn-1
nd rival
ol Mena
nder.
anquished in pi
ntesls, r
nd attributed Philemon
> success
otheeas
t,andresi
ded,
ng of Egypt,
ime. Plu
IDtC
relates that on his Journey he was driven by a s
and fell into the hands of its king Magas, whom
saliriied. Magu treated him with conlFRipt,
missed hitn with a present of toys. Various acco
are given; a violent outburst of laughter, eici
dramatic vicioty, or a peaceful end while engig
his lut wort (Apulciu
a have
.-, P- 71s). <
mposed, the lilies of
k of bis son, Ihe yoi
composed fifty-foi;r
iiwe of Philemon we
PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO— PHILETAS 375
..^.J tl«96), u mil u in Dr A. H.
nuiy (Londan, 1906}. (J. Ml.)
d Meuddcr. PHILBMOM ud BAOCO, the boo ud hooiiie of b boulijul
tjKkt.UauuMa PiiltwumU rdig,.ia (iai3 iacluiint Mory tgld by Ovid (Udam. Tiii. 610-715), the Berne ot wbicb
B;(i8«*r^ ■ "'™"'™''™'-''°'*"^ li lud in PhrygU. Z«iu. wxompimed by Heraw, viiiiri e.tlb
^^' in bumu form; tired «nd weuy, they lought iliiltM for the
HUBMOI, ZPIRLB to, > laiplure of the New Teilanient. nyn_ but tU ihdl Iheii door* agunit them oeept ma ifcd
teunm, * ilive. twd robbtd (». i., iB-19) "id run iw.y couple livim in » humble coltige, who aSorded iliem ho^itmlily.
hnhani«iterPhifcmon,ipnMpenjiu»Bdinflueoti»]Chnitii.B Bdon Iheii d*p«rture the godi revelled thenuelves, ud b«dt
diam ot Cakne (CoL iv. g), either offence tendering him linble ^ar h«u follow them to lb* lop of » mounuiln, to eu>pe the
HI be cnidfied. Voluntmtily or «cddenl»Ily, he cune Bcrou puniibment denined 10 fill on the nm of the iohahitinti. The
fal, who iiDo him ovei lo the CbniUu, (»ilh. In the few country wu overwbehned by ■ aood; the cotUge, wbkh ikme
ueiil ud dunning Ubo of thii brief oote, the ipotlle ind) rcmiined itMding, was chuiged into a mignifcenl temple
liBbicklohiimiiterwithapleaforkindlyttealmeBt, After The godi appointed Philemon and Baudi priert and prie»leM,
mUiK Philen»n and hii wife, mth Archippus (pouibly their ,nd granted tbeir prayer th»t Ihey might die logethet. After
n^ind the Chiiiliani who met for wotihip at Philemon i house niany years they were changed into tim^Philemon Into an
ht i-lj, Faul rejoices over <»r. 4-7) bis correspondent's oak, Baucis into a lime. The story, which emphauies the
laactef; It CDCOonces bim to make an appeal on behalf of Hc„t] duty of hc^iitably, is probably of bcal Phrygian origin,
thmwoithy Oneiimui (S-si), now reluming (CoL iv, 9) (long pu, logiiher from two widely circulated legends of the visits
mi Tychicus to Coloaiae, as a penilent and sincere Chtiuian, of gods to men, and of the preservation of certain individuals
■ drier 10 resume bis place in the household. With a line ot from the flood u the trward of piety. It lingers in the accoBiit
iw 0* personal delaU (ii-ij) the noleckjsea. (Acts liv.) of the healing of the lame man by Paul at Lyslta. the
lane wonld be a more natural rendezvous tor fugitivaiii inhabitants of which identified Paul and Banubas with Zeus
Immy il«vei) than Caesarea (Hilgenfeid and others), and „d Hermes, " come down in the likeness of men."
ilainhahle thai Paul wrote this note, with Philippians and Sbnibr stories ate pven in J. Gtimin, DtUiclu llyduleik (Eof.
Umiub, from the metnpolii. As Laodicca is dose to Colossae trans,, iBSj, iL jSo. and iii. jsj.
il ds« not follow, even if Arehippus be held lo have belonged PHILBI, KUUIL (t. 1175-1145), of EiAetu), Bysantine
IslW former town (as Lighlfoot argues from CoL iv. i]-ij), poet. At an early age he removed to ConstanliMple, where
Iht Phileroon's nsdence must have been there also (w A. hg ,„ ,[„ pupU of Ceor»ua Pacbymeres, in whoK honour be
Mm, Ihiencb, W«elet. *c.). Paul mnoot have funvertcd composed a memorial poem. Philes appear) lo have travelled
niksni at CalDssae {Col. ii. i), but elsewhere, possibly at eitensively, and his writings conUin much infoimalkin concnn-
^iens; yet Philemon may have been on a visit to Epbesm, jng ,he imperial court and distinguished Byiantines. Having
kewn were the EpbesianOnesimus of Ignatius (Eph. Ii.) the offended one of the emperors by indiscreet remarks published
*HiBBI ot this note, it would not prove that he had always („ , chronogiapby, he was thrown into prison and only released
W that. No adequate reason hal been shown for suspecting ^,„ „ .bject apology. Philes is the counterpart of Theodonia
an the note it interpolated at any point. The assxiation of Pmdromus in the dme of the Comneni; his character, aa ihowa
Thotbtos with Paul (». i) docs not involve any official tinge, ;„ hi, poemi. is that of a beg^ng poet, always pleading poverty,
*4 woold justify the deletion of «ai TwiWioi i iiiX*4i jiov in „d ^.^y 10 descend to the giDuctI flattery to obtain the tavour-
lkilrerse,andof*(i£i»inf«.i-j(soHoltimann), and Hausrath's .ble notice of the great. With one unimportant eiceptioa, bil
■^•cions of the alluBon to Paul as a prisoner and of I. 11 are productions are in veise. the greater pan in dodecasyllabtc
■Wily Bibitniy. T1» construction in r?. 5-6 ii difficult, but Iambic tiimeten, the remainder In the fiftem-syllable " political "
11 lieUi to ei^etical treatment (cf. especially Haupt's note) measure.
■iI doa not involve the inleipolatioo of matter by the later . . , . , , .
Biwor of Cok«iaa and Epheaians (Holtsmann, Hausratb- ^Ic^JJ^i^'S^i^S'MLS^iJ^^^^^
UiBriickner. Riikafclt' i- paxi- Briije. wo seq.). . jld^je poem of Bme »io liiS. dedicat^ to Michael ftCeol
The bievily of the note and its lack of doctrinal significance logus; on the elephant; on planti; a necrDloiical poem, probalily
inwntrf it from gaining frequent quotation in the early wntien 00 the dnih of one of ihe km oI tie "n^P™! house; a
•tad CotoaiaBS led to the rejection of Philemon by some critio pin™ for Itlelr bearing on Byunline iconography, since the
— ^ — "--J '"' — '■m the worici he describe*, and alio the most
e pimphlel on the slave question- J^'ji'^t^™
■ ibtiration of literary criticism (reproduced in Ency. Bil,.. which are simply b^nl fctti
milcq.) which needs simply to be chronicled. It is interesting Editionsi the luiunlhistor
» observe that, apart from the letter of commendation lor PiOv bmliti - -"-•—■■-' "■
lo*. (Rom, xvL). this is the only letter m the New Testa- S^"i,^t-,i^.- ,-,„\-i
•« iddresKd. even in part, to a woman, unless the second ^i^]^^^^^'lit^„.
<|sHlc of John be taken as meant for an mdividuaL
PBimU of Cos. Alexandrian poet and critic, flourished
in the second half of the 4th century h.c. He was tutor to the
son of Ptolemy I. of Egypt, and also taught. Theocritus and the
grammarian Ztnodotus. His thinness made him an object of
ridicule; according lo the comic poets, he carried lead in bis
ahoes to keep himself from being blown away. Over-Study of
Megarian dialectic subtleties is said to have shortened his life.
His ele^es. chiefly of an amatory nature and singing the praises
of his mistress Battis (or Bittis], were much admired by the
Romans. He is frequently mentioned by Ovid and Propertiut,
the laltct of whom imitated him and preferred bim to hb rival
_ _^ _^»^ .^^^_-^ Csllimachus, whose superior mythological lore was more to the
'ffiwry ^ At We. T-o*«f« n™ (IB9S), iv. ij»-ii3. See. taste ot the Alcandrian critics. PhUelis was also the author
•ilhi,Scb(oWaMli(-Z(»tH. iv. sji-sji. of a vocabulary called Aram, eipbining the meamngs ot ran
376
PHILIDOR— PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)
and obscure words, including words peculiar to certain dialects;
and of notes on Homer, severely criticized by Aristarchus.
Fragments edited by N. Bach (1828). and T. Bergk, Poetae lyrici
graecii see also E. W. Maass, De tribus Phiietae carminibus (1895).
PHIUDOR. FRANCOIS ANDR^ DANICAN (i726-i795)>
French composer and chess-player, was bom at Dreux, on the
7th of September 2726, of a musiad family. The family name
was Danican, but that of Philidor, added in the middle of the
X7th century, eventually supplanted the older name. Francois
Ao.dr€ received a musical education as a member of the corps
of pages attached to the orchestra of the king; and subsequently
he earned his living by giving lessons and copying music. Much
of his time was, however, devoted to chess, at which he soon
became an expert. He spent many years in travelling on the
Continent and in England, meeting and defeating the most
noted players of the time, and is regarded as the strongest player
and greatest theoretician of the i8th century. Returning to
France in 1754, he resolved to devote himself seriously to musical
composition, and after producing several works of minor im-
portance brought out at Paris, in the year 1759, his successful
light opera, Blaise le Savetier^ which was followed by a number
of others, notably Le Soldai magicien (1760), Le Jardinier et son
seigneur (1761), Le Sorcier (1762), and Tom Jones (1764). He
died in London on the 31st of August 1795.
PHILIP (Gr. ^[Xiirros, fond of horses, from ^cXcty, to love,
and trwos, horse; Lat. PhUippus, whence e.g. M. H. Ger. Pkilippcs,
Dutch Pilipst and, with dropping of the final s, It. PUippo^ Ft.
Philippe, Ger. Philipp, Sp. Felipe), a masculine proper name,
popularized among the Christian nations as having been that
of one of the apostles of Christ. Notices of distinguished men
who have borne this name are arranged below in the following
order: (i) Biblical; (2) Kings of Macedonia, France, Germany
and Spain; (3) other nders.
PHILIP, one of the twelve apostles, mentioned fifth in all
the lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark iii. 18; Luke vi. 14; Acts i. 13). He
is a mere name in the Synoptists, but a fiigure of some prominence
in the Fourth Gospel. There he is said to have been " of Beth-
saida, the city of Andrew and Peter," and to have received his
call to follow Jesus at Bethany, having previously been, it would
seem, a disciple of the Baptist (John i. 43, 44; cf. 28). Philip
was at that time the means of bringing Nathanael to Jesus
(John i. 45), and at a later date he, along with Andrew, carried
the request of the inquiring Greeks to the Master (John xii. 22).
Philip and Andrew alone are mentioned by name in connexion
with the feeding of the five thousand (John vi. 5, 7), and Philip
is also one of the few interlocutors in John xiv. Slight though
these references are, all agree in presenting Philip as of an inquir-
ing and calculating character, slow to take the initiative, but,
when convinced of the path of duty, thoroughly loyal in following
it. After the resurrection he was present at the election of
Matthias as successor to Judas, but he docs not again appear
in the New Testament history; it is, however, implied that he
still continued in Jerusalem after the outbreak of the first
persecution.
Little reliance can be placed on the traditional accounts of
Philip, owing to the evident confusion that had arisen between
him and the evangelist of the same name, who appears in the
book of Acts (see below). According to Polycrates, bishop of
Ephesus, in his controversial letter written to Victor of Rome
towards the end of the 2nd century (ap. Euseb. H. E., iii. 31,
v. 24), the graves of Philip " of the twelve apostles," and of
his two aged virgin daughters were in (the Phrygian) Hierapolis;
a third daughter, " who had lived in the Holy Ghost," was buried
at Ephesus. With this may be compared the testimony of
Clement of Alexandria, who incidentally (Strom, iii. 6) speaks
of " Philip the Apostle " as having begotten children and as
having given daughters in marriage. On the other hand,
Produs, one of the interlocutors in the " Dialogue of Caius," a
writing of somewhat later date than the letter of Polycrates,
mentions (ap. Euscb. H. E., iii. 31) " four prophetesses, the
daughters of Philip at Hierapolis in Asia, whose tomb and that
of their father are to be seen there," where the mention of the
daughters prophesying identifies the petsoii meant with tlw
Philip of Acts (cf. Acts xxi. 8). The reasons for setting aakit
this latter identification, and for holding that the Philip who lived
at Hierapolis was the Apostle are dearly stated by Li^tloot,
Colossians (2) note 3, p. 45 seq., and fresh confirmation (rf his view
has recently been afforded by the discovery of an inscrqptioB
at Hierapolis, showing that the church there was dedicated to
the memory " of the holy and glorious apostle and theologiaii
PhiUp" (Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics ef Pkrypa, vol L,
pt. ii. p. 552).
See also Corswn, " Die Tflchter des Philippas ** in die Zeitsekri^
far die neutestameniliche Wissenschafl (i90i)t p. 29g aqq. The other
view, that the Philip of Hierapolis is the Phiup of Acts, is taken bf
Zahn, Forschungen Mur Gesckickte des ueuUstamenUicheM Kamau
Cr900), vi 158 sqq.
A later stage of the tradition regarding Fliinp appears k
various late apocryphal writings which have been edited bj
Tischendorf ia his Ada aposlolorum apocrypha, and in hk
Apocalypses apocryphae. According to xht Acta PhUippi,t
work belonging at the earliest to the dose of the 4th oentuy
(see Zahn, op. cU. p. 18 sqq.), Philip, with Barthdomew and hb
own sister Mariamne, exercised a widespread missitMiaiy activity,
preaching not only throughout Asia Minor, but abo in Hdlai
the dty of the Athenians, in Scythia, and in Gaul, &c. Acoutfini
to one account he died a natural death; according to another
he was hanged or crucified, head downwards. An apocryphal
gospd, which describes the progress of the soul through the oat
world, bears his name (Hennecke, NetUesiamenilicho Afokryphm,
1904, p. 40 seq.).
Since the 6th century Philip has been amunemorated in the
West, along with St James the Leas, on the xst of May, thdr
relics being deposited in the same church in Rome; in the \
Church Philip's day is the r4th of November, and that of Ja
the Less the 23rd of October.
PHILIP, "the evangelist," is first mentioned in the Ads
(vi. 5) as one of " the seven " who were chosen to attend ta
certain temporal affairs of the church in Jerusalem in ooat-
qucnce of the raurmurings of the Hellenists against the Hebretf.
After the martyrdom of Stq>hen he went to " the dty ef
Samaria," where he preached with much success, Simon MifM
being one of his converts. He afterwards inst ructed and btptia'
the Ethiopian eunuch on the road between Jerusalem and (>as;
next he was " caught away " by the Spirit and " found at Axotoi "
(Ashdod), whence " passing through he preached in all thedtkl
till he came to Caesarca " (Acts viii.). Here some yean sftff-
wards, according to Acts xxi. 8, 9, where he is described as "the
evangelist " (a term found again in the New Testament oolf
in Eph. iv. 11; 3 Tim. iv. 5), he entertained Paul and Usood-
panion on their way to Jerusalem; at that time " he had foar
daughters which did prophesy." At a very early period ha
came to be confounded with the apostle Philip (see above); (ha
confusion was all the more easy because, as an esteemed menbtf
of the apostolic company, he may readily have been described
as an apostle in the wider sense of that word (see further SabA
Introd. to the New Testament, 7th ed., p. 313 sqq.). A late ttadkiM
describes him as settling at Tralles in Asia Minor, wlieie he b^
came the overseer or ruler of the church. *' PhUip the desol
is commemorated on the 6th of June.
PHILIP I., king of Macedonia, a semi-legendaxy priBCCt **
of Argaeus, was, according to Herodotus (viii. 137-139) **
Thucydides (ii. 100), the third of the Macedonian kings- i>^
texts of Dexfppus and Eusebius he ranks sixth, Caraaus, Coca*
and Thurimas (or Turimmas) bdng there regarded as the pt*'
dcccssors of Perdiccas I., whom Herodotus and t^aijf^
regard as the first king of Macedonia. Eusebius and TkBp^
assign to Philip I. a reign of 38 and 35 years req>ectively. T***
is, however, no real evidence for his existence. (E.R-BJ
PHILIP II. (382-336 B.C.), king of Macedonia, the ana •
Amyntos II., and the Lyncestian Eurydice, rdgned IVtVr
At his birth the Macedonian kingdom, including the tut^i^
peoples of the hill-country behind, was very impcffectlf ^
solidated. In 370 Amyntas died, and the troidtled f^ *
PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)
nuBp't eldest brother, Alexander II., was cut short in 368 by
his assassination. His murderer, Ptolemy of Alorus, rvJed as
ictcnt for the young Perdiccas, Amyntas's second son. In 367
F^lq> was delivered as hostage to the Thebans, then the leading
power oC Greece (by whom does not seem clear). During the
three years he spent at Thebes the boy no doubt observed and
karat miKh. When he returned to Macedonia (364) Perdiccas
had succeeded in getting rid of Ptolemy, but he fell in 360-359
bdbre an onset of the hUl tribes instigated by the queen-mother
Eurydice, leaving only an infant son. Various pretenders sprang
op ud the kingdom fell into confusion. PhiUp seized the throne
a&d drove back his rivals. He now began the great task of his
fife— the creation of the Macedonian national army. The first
experiment he made with this new organism was brilliantly
SKxessful. The hill tribes were broken by a single battle in 358,
and Philip established his authority inland as far as Lake
Ocfarida. In the autumn of the same year he took the .Athenian
cokmy, Amphipolis, which commanded the gold-mines of Mt
Pu(iens. Hieir possession was all-important for Philip, and
be Kt there the new city, called after him, Philippi. Athens
VIS temporarily pacified by assurances that Amphipolis would
be handed over to her later on. The work of fashioning the
Macedonian army occupied Philip for the next few years, whilst
bii difdomacy was busy securing partisans within the states of
Greece. He avoided as yet a forward policy, and having taken
Pfdoa and Potidaea soon after Amphipolis, he made them over
to the Olynthian confederation (see Olynthus). His marriage
sith the fierce witch-woman, Olympias, daughter of the Epirote
Hi^ falls in this period, and in 356 she bore him his greater son,
Akxasder. In 353 Philip was ready for strong action. He first
attacked Abdera and Maronea, on the Thracian sea-board, and
tbea took Methone, which belonged to Athens. An overt breach
vitb Athens was now inevitable. In the same summer he in-
vided Thessaly , where the Aleuadae of Larissa ranged themselves
OB his side against the tagus Lycophron," tyrant " of Pherac.
Aene called in the help of the Phodan mercenaries, who had
Ptofaned Delphi, and Philip met with a check. He had, however,
the advantage of now being able to present himself to the Greeks
IS the champion of Apollo in a holy war, and in 352 the Mace-
doniaa army won a complete victory over the Phcraeans and
Phodans. This battle made Philip tagus of Thessaly, and he
chimed as his own Magnesia, with the important harbour of
Pigasae. Hostilities with Athens did not yet take pbce, but
Athens was threp.tened by the Macedonian party which Philip's
|oid created in Euboea.
From 352 to 346 Philip did not again come south. He was
KtKt in completing the subjugation of the Balkan hill-country
to the west and north, and in reducing the Greek cities of the
coast as far as the Hebrus (Maritza). For the chief of these,
iadeed, Olynthus, he continued to profess friendship till its
Baihbour dties were in his hands. Then, in 349, he opened war
*ipoD it. Athens, to whom Olynthus appealed, sent no adequate
i^ces, in spite of the upbraidings of Demosthenes (see his
(iiyntinacs)t and in the spring of 347 Olynthus fell. Philip razed
it to the g^und (see Olynthus). Macedonia and the regions
adjoining it having now been securely consolidated, Philip
cdebrated his " Olympian " games at Dium. In 347 Philip
■<tvanced to the conquest of the eastern districts about the
Hd)nu, and compelled the submission of the Thracian prince
^^cnobleptes. Meanwhile Athens had made overtures for peace
(see the Z>< falsa legatione of Demosthenes), and when Philip,
10 ^6, again moved south, peace was sworn in Thessaly. The
^ was come for Philip to assert himself in Greece, and the
Pbocians, who still dominated Delphi and held Thermopylae,
could furnish a pretext to the champion of Pan-Hellenism and
ApoQo. The Phocdan mercenaries at Thermopylae were bought
^>od Philip crossed into central Greece. Here he made Thebes
"s lUy and visited the Phodans with crushing vengeance.
JJe ^thian games of 346 were celebrated at the delivered
Oe^hi under Philip's presidency Pan-Hellenic enthusiasts
'I'ttdy saw Philip as the destined captain-general of a national
'iiiade against Persia (Isocraits, Fhilip^t about 345). And
377
such a position Philip had determined to secure: the Macedonian
agents continued to work throughout the Greek states, and in
the Peloponnesus Sparta soon found herself isolated. Euboea,
too, submitted to Macedonian influence, and even received some
garrisons. But more work had to be done in the Balkan high-
lands. In 344, or one of the following years, the Macedonian
arms were carried across Epirus to the Adriatic. In 342 Philip
led a great expedition north " comparable to nothing in antiquity
since Darius' famous march to S<^thia." In 341 his army ws^
still campaigning in eastern Thrace, when Philip felt compelletl
to show his presence in The&saly. During these years, although
Athens had not overtly broken the peace of 346, there had been
various diplomatic bickerings and hostile intrigues between the
two powers (d. the Philippics of Demosthenes). Athens had
even sent emissaries to the Persian court to give warning of the
proposed national crusade. She now egged on the cities of the
Propontis (Byzantium,Pcrinthus, SeIymbria),who felt themselves
threatened by Philip's Thracian conquests, to declare against
him. The sieges of Perinthus and Byzantium (340, 339) ended
in Philip's meeting with a signal check, due in some measure to
the help afforded the besieged cities by Athens and her allies.
Philip's influence all over Greece was compromised. But before
marching south he led another expedition across the Balkans
into the country now called Bulgaria, and returned to Pella with
much spoil but severely wounded in the thigh. In 338 he once
more crossed into central Greece. The pretext was the con-
tumacy shown by the Locrian town Amphissa to the rub'ngs
of the Amphictyonic Council. Philip's fortification of Elatea
filled Athens with abrm. Thebes was induced to join Athens;
so were some of the minor Pdoponne^an states, and the allies
took the fidd against Philip. This opposition was crushed by
the epoch-making battle of Chaeroneia, which left Greece at
Philip's feet. In the following year (337) Philip was in the
Peloponnesus, and a congress of the Greek states at the Isthmus
(from which, however, Sparta hdd sullenly alooQ recognized
Philip as captain-general for the war against Persia. Philip
returned to Macedonia to complete his preparations; an advanced
force was sent into Asia in the spring of 336. But Philip's plans
were suddenly blasted by his assassination in the same year
during the marriage festival of his daughter at Aegae, the old
capital of Macedonia. He left, however, in the Macedonian
army a splendid instrument which enabled his son within ten
years to change the face of the world.
Philip stands high among the makers of kingdoms. Restless
energy, determination, a faculty for animating and organizing
a strong people, went with unscrupulous dupOdty and a full-
blooded vehemence in the pleasures of sense. Yet Philip was not
untouched by ideal considerations, as is proved by the respect,
no doubt sincere, which he showed for Hellenic culture, by the
forbearance and deference with which he treated Athens, the
sacred city of that culture and his mortal foe. A special interest
belongs to the Macedonian kingdom as it was shaped by Philip,
since it forestalls a system which was not to find the time ripe
for it in European history till many centuries later — the national
kingdom quickened with the culture developed by the ancient
dty-states. The national kingdoms founded by the Northern
races, after the fall of the Roman Empire, under the influence
of the classical tradition, are the beginnings of the modem
European system; Philip of Maccdon foreshadows Theodoric,
Charlemagne and William the Conqueror. But this first national
kingdom within the sphere of Greek culture could not ultimately
live between the surge of the Northern barbarians and the
Roman power.
Sec the authorities under Greece: History. Avividandmastcriy
sketch of Philip's personality and work is given in D. G. Hogarth s
Philip and Alexander (1897). (E. R. B.)
PHILIP III. [ArrhidaeusI, king of Macedonia, was the
feeble-minded son of Philip II. of Macedonia by a Thcssalian
wife. He was chosen by the Macedonian army at Babylon in
323 to be nominal king conjointly with the infant Alexander,
and was killed in Macedonia by order of Olympias (3x7)*
(See Macedonian Eupire.)
378 PHILIP (KINGS OF MACEDONIA)— PHILIP II. (FRANCE)
PHILIP IV.« king of Macedonia, was the son of Casaatider, to perform it. Philip's open simony had long been m c
king of Macedonia: he reigned only one year (297-296). friction with the papacy. When he added bigamy and mA
PHILIP V^ king of Macedonia, son of Demetrius II. and Urban II. excommunicated him. The bisl^ of Chail
Chryseb, was an infant at his father's death in 230-229. His consequence, refused to bring his vassals to help Phfll^)
cousin, Antigonus Doson, administered the kingdom as regent Robert, duke of Normandy, against his brother WiUiam i
till his death in 221-220, when Philip was eighteen years old. Bertha died in that year, but Fulk was still living, a
Philip now ascended the throne and reigned till 179. His sentence was renewed at the councO of Autun on the :
reign was occupied in the vain struggle to maintain the old October. Philip replied by summoning the bisbopa ti
Macedonian supremacy in the Balkan Peninsula, which became to try Ivo of Chartres for treason. He gained a rcsgSi
hopeless after the intervention of Rome and the decisive the papal sentence by promises of submission, but the ai
battle of Cynoscephalae (197). See Rome: History, § II. was renewed by Urban at the council of Clermont in s
" The Republic " (period B, § b). (E. R. B.) 1096, and in 1097, and at Poitiers in zioi, despite the
PHILIP 1. (105 2-1 108), king of France, eldest son of Henry I. of William IX., count of Poitiers, who entered the chtm
of France and Anne, daughter of Jaroslav I. (d. 1054), grand his knights to prevent his suzerain from being excommu
duke of Kiev, came to the throne, when a child of eight, by the on his lands. Philip was reconciled with the Churda in is
death of his father on the 4th of August 1060. He had been took an oath not to have any converse or sodety with B
crowned at Reims, in the presence of a nimiber of magnates, except in the presence of *' non-suspect " persons. Bi
on the 23rd of May Z059. Philip passed most of his early years seem to have gone on living together, and even visiU
in and around Paris, where the castles of lawless barons, such Rechin (Bertrada's husband) in company on the zsth ol (
as that of Montlh6ry, threatened even his personal safety. His 1x06. Philip died at the end of July 1108.
minority came to an end in 1066. In the long reign that fol- His reign is chiefy remarkable for the steady growth
lowed he showed no great ability or energy, and a looseness of royal domain. In addition to the gains mentioned, he
morals which embroiled him with the Church. Before he was in iioi a large slice of territory, including Bouxges and J
fifty years of age he became " fond of nothing but good cheer Roi, from Eudes Arpin, viscount of Bourges, who wm
and sleep." But he increased the lands of his house around on the crusade; and toward the end of his reign took Moi
Paris, maintained order in them, and held his own against whose lord beset the southern approach to Paris. By !
William I. and William II. of En^^nd, whose power in France queen he had four children : Louis VI., who succeeded him;
far exceeded his own. This he accomplished for the most part who died young; Charles; and Constance, who married E
by taking advantage of the quarrels among his vassals. When count of Champagne, and later Bohemund I., prince of A
Baldwin VI. of Flanders died, in 1070, his son Amulf was By Bertrada de Montfort he had three children: Philip, o
atucked by his uncle Robert the Frisian, count of Holland. Monies; Fleury or Florus, who married the heiress of 1
Philip interfered, at the prayer of Amulf 's mother, Richildis; and Cecilia, who married, first Tancrcd, prince of Galil
but the allies were defeated near Cassel on the 22nd of February Antioch, and secondly Pons de Saint Gilles, count of Tirq
1071 and Amulf slain. After a second war peace was sealed, j^^ materials for the reign of PhHip I. are in the Xte
apparently, by the marriage of Philip to Robert's step-daughter historiens des CauUs et de laFranu, vols. xi. to xvi. See cq
Bertha, daughter of Gertmde of Saxony and Florence, count the critical examination by Dom Brial of the historians wh
of Holland. In 1074 a new mpture led to Philip seizing Corbie, g»i«np' ^'^Pj' a^ *>^ begmning of yoL xvi Qwwi
pjtrtof thedowerofhbaunt Ad«e,whohadmarriedBaldwinIV. f^^^.^^!^: &?ref^S:SfV"c^.^^^"?8j^fS
of Flanders. By this he secured a sort of outpost m the direction Premiers Capetiens " in E. La\'issc'8 Histoire de France (II.
of Flanders. The other main episodes of his reign were the 168-175). More recent is tht Recueil des actes de PkUippe J^
quarrel over the Angevin inheritance and his wars with the dukes by M- fron (»9o«). *."<* »• Monod's Essai surUs rapftortsdePa
JfNomiandy. In the stm«;le between Fulk Rechm and his ^^^^i ^ffolJS^J-L^^i^S^^^
brother Geoffrey the Bearded for the inhentance of their uncle, esp. p. 307 et seq.).
Geoffrey Martel (d. xo6o), count of Anjou, Philip received from
Fulk in X069. as the price of his neutrality, Ch&teau Landon PHILIP II. (1165-1223), known as Pbziip Augustus, 1
and the Gatinais. This acquisition linked the county of Sens, France, son of Louis VIL and Adela, daughter of Thcobi
acquired in 1055, with the rest of the domain round Paris, count of Champagne, was bom on the 21st of August
Melim and Orleans. War with William I. was chronic but On the ist of November 11 79 he was associated with his
intermittent. In 1076 Philip forced him to raise the siege of as king by being crowned at Reims, and at once his b
Dol in Brittany. Peace was made in 1077, and in December illness threw the responsibility of government on him, the
X079 they together besieged Kobert Curthose in the castle of of Louis on the 19th of Septemberi 180 leaving him sole kii
Gerberoy. On the 8th of May xoSo the siege was raised and The boy-king found himself and his kingdom in a di
peace made. War with William began again in 108 1 over the and humiliating position. His long strip of royal doraai
county of Vexin, which Philip had seized on the retirement of hemmed in by the Angevin Empire on the west and by the kiz
its count, Simon of Valois, to a monastery in 1076. William of Aries on the south-east. Henry U. of En^and was t
demanded reparation for the raid of Philip's vassals and the lord of the greater part of France, practically all west of
cession of Pontoise, Chaumont-en- Vexin and Mantes, but died which began at Dieppe and ended at the foot of the Pyi
after sacking Mantes in the same year. In 1098 there was war more than half-way across to' the Mediterranean, whSe a
between Philip and WUliam Rufus in both Maine and the Vexin. point it nearly touched the Rhone. Philip's [»edecessor
William came in person from Maine to lead the attack in the consolidated the Capetian power within these narrow limit
Vexin in September, and crossed the Seine, penetrating to he himself was overshadowed by the power of his xmdes, Wi
within 30 m. of Paris on the west; but the campaign brought no archbishop of Reims; Henry I., count of Champagne; and '
results. In his last years Philip left the duty of repelling the bald V., count of Blois and Chartres. He secured an aJfyH
attacks of his Norman and other enemies to his son Louis, them, and an addition to the royal domain, by manyiiig,o
associating him with himself, as " king-designate," some time 28th of April 11 80, Isabella or Elizabeth, daughter of Baldv
between the 24th of May X098 and the 25th of September iioo. count of Hainaut, and of Marguerite, sister of Philip of A
It was his second marriage which was the cause of Philip's the reigning count of Flanders, who ceded Arras, St Oiner,
greatest difficulties. On the xsth of May X092 he carried off and Hesdin, and their districts, as Isabella's dowry, a di
Bertrada, daughter of Simon, baron de Montfort, wife of Fulk afterwards called Artois. On the 28th of June xiSo Philip
Rechin, and prepared to marry her, though his wife Bertha was a treaty with Henry II. at Gisors, and his reign thus o|
still living. The bishops, headed by Ivo, bishop of Chartres, auspiciously. But from 1181 to X185 he had to strug^af
refused to attend the ceremony of marriage, but one was found a feudal league of his Champagnard undes and otker
PHILIP n. (FRANCE)
btvoos, whoie mbft active member was Stephen L, count of
Saacene (1152-2 xpx). Though attacked from both north and
Mvoh, the king's activity enabled him to compel the count of
Saacore to implore peace in ii8x. On the doith of Isabel of
Vcnnandob, wife of Count Philip of Flanders, in zx8a, Philip
dumed Vetmandois and seized Chaun£ and St Quentin, and
focced his father-in^aw, Baldwin of Hainaut, to svq^port him
hj threatening to divoroe Queen laabeL The count of Flanders
vasoUiged to sign the treaty of Boves in July Z185, which gave
the king, in addition to the expectation of Artois, his wife's
dower, sixty-five castles in Vermandois and the town of Amiens.
By 1x86 Hugh, duke of Burgundy, the only member of the
coafitioa not yet subdued, was forced to submit. Then, secure
It home, the king turned against Henry II., and by the truce of
Chlteainottx in June 1x87, gained Issoudun and the seigniory of
Fiiteval in the Vend6mois. Though the truce was for two years,
PhOip asiembled an army in x 188 to invaule Nomumdy, demand-
tog Gisors and the conclusion of the marriage which had been
inuged between his sister Alice and Richard of England, who
hid meanwhile deserted his father. But the news came that
Saladia had taken Jerusalem and Richard took the cross.
Shntly afterwards Philip took advantage of a rising against his
(|sondam friend Richard, who was duke of Aquitaine, to seize
the county of Berry At a conference at Bonmoulins on the
i8th of November Richard again abandoned his father, and after
•seoond conference at La Fert£ Bernard, Philip invaded Maine
tad forced Henry U. to conclude the treaty of Azay on the 4th of
Joly 1 189, by which the English king did homage and sur-
Kadeied the territories of Gracy and Issoudtm. Henry died two
daji later Pledges of mutual good faith and fellowship were
Roeved between Philip and Richard of England on the 30th of
I^ttember 1x89, and they both prepared to go on the crusade.
Before setting out Philip arranged for the government of
Fnoce during Us absence by his famous testament of 1 190, by
*Udi he proposed to rule France as far as possible from Palestine.
The power ojf the regents, Adela, the queen-mother, and William,
uthbisbopof Reims, was restricted by a council composed mostly
of dais who had the king's confidence. An annual report on
the state of the kingdom was to be sent him. On the way to
FiUestine the two kings quarrelled. At the siege of Acre Philip
^ ill, and on the asnd of July, nine days after its fall, he an-
Boooced his intention of returning home. He reached Paris at
Christmas xzgz, having concluded on his way an alliance with
the emperor Henry VI. against Richard, despite his pledges not
to molest his lands. When Leopold I., duke of Austria, took
I^chanl prisoner and delivered him to the emperor, Philip did
^ utmost by offers of money to prolong his captivity, and,
>UKd with the English king's brother John, attacked Richard's
'ioouins, but upon Richard's return the Normans rallied cnthusi-
isticaily to his aid. Philip was defeated at Fr^teval on the 3rd
^July 1 194, but he continued the war, generally with ill success,
^ the next five years. Again a formidable coalition was formed
*6uost him, including Baldwin IX., count of Flanders and Hain-
^1 Renaud of Dammartin, count of Boulogne, Louis, count of
^^ and Raymond VI., count of Toulouse. In Germany, Otto
^Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV., allied himself
•ith Richard, while Philip was supported by Otto's rival, Philip
•'Swabia. Richard's death, in April 1199, removed his arch-
^^y, and Richard's successor, John, concluded the treaty of
^Goulet with Philip on the 22nd of May 1200, ceding to him
the cooDty of Evreux, Gragy and Issoudun, and the suzerainty
^ Berry and Auvcrgne. John renounced his suzerainty over
Brittany and the guardianship of his nephew, Arthur; he engaged
"''t to aid the count of Flanders or Otto IV. without Philip's
^sent, paid him a relief of 20,000 marks, and recognized himself
*^ his vassal for his continental fiefs. Philip's son Louis, after-
^irds Louis VIII., married Blanche of Castile, John's niece,
^t in 1 202 the war was renewed, John having seized some castles
^m the family of Lusignan, whose head was the count of La
^^Tche, and taken for his queen a prospective bride, Isabelle
^^iHefer, from Hugh, son of Hugh IX., count of La Marche. At
^ interview at Le Goulet on the 2Sth of March, Philip demanded
379
the cession of Anjou, Poitou and Normandy to his ward, Arthur.
John refused; he was sununoned to Paris before the royal
judges, and failing to appear was sentenced at the end of April
iao2 to lose all his fiefs. Brittany, Aquitaine and Anjou were
conferred on Arthur. Philip invaded Normandy, took Lyons-
la-Forft and Eu, and, establishing himself in Goumay, besieged
Arques. But John, joined by William des Roches and other
lords of Maine and Poitou, jealous at the increase of Philip's
power, defeated and took ^thur prisoner at Mirebeau. Philip
abandoned the siege of Arques in a fit of fury, marched to the
Loire, burning everywhere, and then returned to Paris. But
John soon alienated the Poitevin barons, and William des
Roches signed a treaty with Philip on the 23nd of March X303.
Then Philip continued his great ta^, the conquest of Nomumdy,
captiuing the towns around the fortress of ChAteau-Gaillard whidi
Richard had built to command the valley of the Seine. P<^
Innocent III. tried to bring about peace, but Philip was obdurate,
and after murdering Arthur of Brittany John took refuge in
England in December X 203. The fall of Chiteau-Gaillard, after
a siege which lasted from September xao3 to April 1204, decided
the fate of Normandy. Rouen, bound by ties of trade to Eng-
land, resisted for forty days; but it surrendered on the a4th of
June 1 204. The conquest of Maine, Touraine, Anjou and Poitou
in 1204 and 1205 was little more than a military promenade,
though the castles of Loches and Chinon held out for a yean
Philip secured his conquest by lavishing privileges on the con-
vents and towns. He left the great lords, such as William des
Roches, in full possession of their feudal power. In 1206 he
marched through Brittany and divided it amongst his adherents.
A truce for two years was made on the 26th of October 1206 by
which John renounced all claims in Normandy, Maine, Brittany,
Touraine and Anjou, but it did not last six months. Then
Poitou was thoroughly subdued, and another truce was made in
x2o8, little more than southern Saintonge and Gascony being
left in the hands of John. Philip had reduced to a mere remnant
the formidable continental empire of the Angevins, which had
threatened the existence of the Capetian monarchy.
Philip then undertook to invade England. In the assembly
of Soissons on the 8th of April 1213 he made every preparation
for carrying out the sentence of deposition pronounced by the
pope against John. He had collected 1 500 vessels and summoned
all his barons when Innocent III., having sufficiently frightened
John, sent Pandulf with the terms of submission, which John
accepted on the 13th of May.
Disappointed of his hopes of England, Philip turned his arms
against Ferdinand, count of Flanders. Ferdinand, son of
Sancho I., king of Portugal, owed his county to Philip, who,
hoping to find him a docile protfg^, had married him to Jeanne,
heiress of Flanders, daughter of Count Baldwin IX., who became
emperor of the East, using the weak Philip of Namur, her guar-
dian, to accomplish that end. They were married in January 1212.
On the morrow of the marriage Louis, afterwards Louis VIIL,
seized Aire and St Omcr in right of his mother, Isabella, and
on this account Ferdinand refused his feudal duty in the English
expedition. Moreover, the trade interests of his subjects, who
got their raw wool from England, drew him to an alliance with
England. Philip's attack brought this about on the 22nd of
May X213. He invaded Flanders and took the chief towns
within a week; but he had part of his fleet burned by the English-
at Damme, and had to bum the rest to save it from falling into
their hands. He returned to Paris, and Ferdinand retook roost
of the towns which had been taken by the king. A war of fire
and pillage began, in which Philip and his son Louis burned their
way through Flanders, and Ferdinand did the same through
Artois.
In 1 214 came the great crisis of Philip's life. All the forces
against which he had been stmggling united to overwhelm him.
Paris was to be attacked from Flanders and Guicnne at the same
time. A league including his rebel vassals, Renaud of Dammartin,
count of Boulogne, and Ferdinand, count of Flanders, with the
emperor Otto IV. and a number of German princes of the Rhine
region, had been formed in the north-east, while John of England
38o
PHILIP II. (FRANCE)
made one more attempt to recover his heritage at the head of an
army of mercenaries aided by the fickle baronage of Poitou.
John landed at La RochcUe on the i6th of February 1214, and
was at first successful. On the zgth of June he laid siege to La
Roche-aux-Moines, the fortress which defended Angers and com-
manded the Loire valley; but on the approach of a royal army
under Prince Louis on the 2nd of July his Poitevin barons
refused to ri^ a pitched battle, and he fled hastily to La Rochelle.
The Angevin Empire in France was lost. Meanwhile Phil^)
himself won his greatest victory at the bridge of Bouvines, among
the morasses of Flanders. At fijrst taken by surprise, he turned
the abortive attack into a complete rout. Renaud and Ferdinand
were takea prisons, and Otto IV. fled from the battlefield.
The army of the alUes was utterly destroyed (July 37, 1214).
Nothing shows the progress of the Capctian monarchy more
than the enthusiasm and joy of the people of France, as described
by William the Breton, over this crowning victory. The battle
of Bouvines, a decisive battle for the history of Germany as well
as for France and England, sealed the work of Philip Augustus.
The expedition of his son Louis to conquer England can hardly
be considered as an incident of his reign, though he was careful
to safeguard the rights of the French Crown. More important
was the Albigcnsian crusade, in which he allowed Louis to take
part, though he himself, preoccupied with the king of England,
had refused time after time to do anything. He treated Simon
de Montfort as if he were a royal bailli; but it was not in virtue
of any deep-laid scheme of his that in the end Amaury de Mont-
fort, Simon's son, resigned himself to leave his lands to the Crown
of France, and gave the Crown a power it had never before
possessed in Languedoc.
Even more than by his conquests Philip II. marks an epoch
in French history by his work as an organizer and statesman. He
surroimdcd himself with clerks and legists of more or less humble
origin, who gave him coimsel and acted as his agents. His
baillis, who at first rather resembled the itinerant justices of
Henry II. of England, were sent into the royal domain to super-
vise the conduct of the prMts and hear complaints, while in the
newly acquired lands in the south local feudal magnates were
given similar powers with the title of stntchal. Feudal service
was more and more compounded for by a money payment,
while additional taxes were raised, all going to pay the mercen-
aries with whom he fought Richard I. and John. The extension
of the system of sauvcgarde, by which abbeys, towns or lay
vassals put themselves under the special protection of the king,
and that of pariagc, by which the possessor surrendered half the
interest in his estate to the king in return for protection or some
further grant, increased the royal power. The small barons
were completely reduced to submission, whilst the greater
feudatories could often appoint a castellan to their own castles
only after he had taken an oath to the king. Philip supported
the clergy against the feudal lords, and in many cases against
the burgesses of the towns, but rigidly exacted from them the
performance of their secular duties, ironically promising to aid
the clergy of Reims, who had failed to do so, " with his prayers
only " against the xnolence of the lords of Rethcl and Roucy.
He clung to his right of regale^ or enjoyment of the revenues of
bishoprics during their vacancy, though it was at times com-
muted for a fixed payment. The attempt to raise a tithe for
the crusade in 11 89 failed, however, before a general resistance
owing to an unfair assessment.
It has been said with some justice that Phih'p II. was the first
king of France to take the bourgeoisie into partnership. He
favoured the great merchants, granting them trade privileges
and monopolies. The Jews he protected and plundered by turns,
after the fashion of medieval kings. Amongst the subject towns
administered by priv$ts a great extension of the " custom of
Lorris " took place during his reign. But it is as the ally and
protector of the communes that he takes his almost unique place
in French history. Before him they were resisted and often
crushed; after him they were exploited, oppressed, and finally
destroyed. In the case of Senlis he extended the jurisdiction
of the commune to all crimes committed in the di^lrict. It is
true that he suppressed some communes in the newly eonqocnd
fiefs, such as Normandy, where John had been prodigal ol
privileges, but he erected new communes in his own private
domain, quite contrary to the custom of other kings. He seems
to have regarded them as a kind of garrison against feudal
unruliness, while the rents they furnished increased his fi»i|«ft«l
resources. He created no new types of commune, bowere*,
except Peronne, which received a maximum of political inde*
pendence, the twenty-four electors, who named the jurit and
other officers, being elected by the corps de milters.
The newly organized powers of the Crown were in evidence
evoywhere, interfering in the family affairs of the great feuda-
tories and taking advantage of minorities, such as that of
Theobald IV. of Champagne. The great feudatories accepted
his legislation on dower in 1214 and 12 19 and the HablisseiBeiU
of 1 209 making co-heirs of fiefs hold direct from the king and not
from one of their number. The Toumois was substituted fof
the Angevin money in Normandy after 1204. The army whidi
safeguarded this active monarchy consisted chiefly of mcrcenariei
The old feudal ost was but rarely convoked. The communes,
though they appear as taking part in the battle of Bouvines, coa*
pounded for their service by a money payment as early as X194.
Philip's policy of building up a strong monarchy was pursued
with a steadiness of aim which excluded both enthusiasm and
scruple. But he seems to have prided himself on a certain human*
ity, or even generosity of temper, which led him to avoid putting his
enemies to death, though he did not scruple to condenm Renaud
of Dammartin to the most inhuman of imprisonments. He was
impulsive and could display extraordinary activity at times, but
he possessed also a certain coldness and caution. He shrank
from no trickery in carrying out his ends, and had no room for
pity. He could not even trust his own son with any povtr,
and was brutal in his relations with his queen, Ingeborg. He ii
described by Pai&i G&tineau as " a well-knit, Ksndfffmf mu,
bald (from his illness at Acre), of agreeable face and raddy
complexion, loving good cheer, wine and women. Generoos lo
his friends, he was miserly to those who displeased him; veiy
skilled in the art of the engineer, catholic in his faith, far-sednf;
obstinate in his resolution. His judgment was sound and qokL
He was also quick in his anger, but easily appeased." As the
result of his steadiness of aim and patient sagacity, at the end of
his reign the Crown was victorious over the feudal nobility aod
the royal domain extended to the frontiers along with 1071!
authority. Artois, the Amienois, Valois, Vermandcns, the grealff
part of the Bcauvoisis, Normandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, lod
an important part of Poitou and Saintonge, were added to the
domain during his reign. The number of prMUs was increased
from thirty-eight to ninety-four, and the royal revenue inaeucd
from 19,000 livres a month to 1200 livres a day.
Philip Augustus died on the 14th of July 1223. He was tkrioe
married. His first wife, Isabella, by whom he had one sos,
Louis, died in 1189 or 1190. After her death he married la^
j&rg or Ingeborg (q.v.), daughter of Valdemar I. of De&nuiL
This unlucky marriage was negotiated, it is said, chiefly toacqoiic
the old claims of Denmark over England, to be used as a vespo
against Richard I. However that may be, he soon repo^sted
this Danish princess, for whom he seems to have conceived ts
unconquerable aversion on the very morrow of hn mairisfe to
her, and in 11 96, in defiance of the pope, who had refused M
nullify his union with Ingeborg, married Agnes, dau^tcr^^
Bert old IV., duke of Meran. This led to his excommunictiii*
and brought the interdict upon France, and did more to veika
him than any other act of his. In 1 200 he was forced to pot avV
Agnes and to recognize Ingeborg as his lawful wife, but be kept
her in prison until 1213. By Agnes (d. 1201) he had a soo Pbffi^
called " Hurepel," count of Clermont, and a daughter Maryi ^
married Philip, count of Namur (d. 1213), and then Beuju^
duke of Brabant. Ingeborg lived until 1236.
Sec A. Luchairc in E. Lavissc's ffistoin de Fnncft ^SSiT
8^-284 (Paris, 1904). and literature there indKated; L WWJ
Catalofue des acU's de Philippe Auguste (Paris, 1856 and IfOlli
A. CartelUcri, FkUtp J J. August, Iki. I. Bis turn Tode LeitHrft*'
PHILIP III.— IV. (FRANCE)
381
(LripQir. 1899). Bd. It I>cr JTmnnif (1906} ; and W. H. Hutton,
nim Auiusttu (in the Foreign Statesmen acrica, London, 1896).
A. Molinier, Les Sonnes de I'kisUrire de France (tome Ui. pp. 1-^),
^vcs a complete bibliosTaphjr of the aourcet for PhUips reign,
ndttding the hittory of tne Third Cruiade.
mUP m. (x 345-1285). sumamed " the Bold " {U Hofdi),
U^ of France, son of Louis IX. and Margaret, daughter of
Raymond 'B^renger IV., count of Provence, was bom on the
3id of April x 245. His funeral monument at St Denis depicts
1 man with bieardless, square-cut features, but lacking character
and animation. The authenticity of this efiigy is fairly well
borne out by what is known of him from other sources. He had
many of the virtues of St Louis, but neither decision of character
nor devoUon to duty. He was pious, charitable, of unimpeach-
able monlity, quick-tempered but placable, no great scholar,
and only energetic as a hunter. The absence in him of the qualities
that fit a man to rule made his court the arena of intriguing
(actions, which in reality ruled France during his reign of fifteen
yean. Matthew of VendAme, abbot of St Penis, an old servant
of Lottis IX., acted as Philip's counsellor, so the chroniclers state,
thnoi^out the reign; but he is only a shadowy figure, and it is
difficult to recondle the statement that " everything was done
according to his will " with the known facts. It was probably
»ith adminKt ration, and not policy, that Matthew was chiefly
ooQcemed. In one instance at least his advice was openly
flouted. Coming to the throne by the death of his father on the
35th of August 1270, Philip bc^ his reign by falling entirely
ander the influence of Pierre de la Brosse, who had been surgeon
and valet-de-chambre to his father, upon whom he lavished
lands and honours, making him lord (sieur) of Langeais, Chatillon-
ur-lndre and Damville. Even Edward I. of England and William
DuRpierre, count of Flanders, strove to win his favour by gifts.
Bat his fall was assured when Philip, who in 1271 lost his first
vtfe, Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, married
in 1274 Marie, daughter of Henry III., duke of Brabant. She
vas young and beautiful, and supplied a centre round which
those idw wished the downfall of the favourite grouped thcm-
Klvcs. In June 1278 he was charged with various crimes,
induding one of poisoning the king's eldest son, and hanged at
Montfaucon. His death left the parties of Marie, the queen, and
Margaret, the queen-mother, to struggle for the mastery. The
fini sabject of dispute was the inheritance of the count of
^romice, Raymond-B^rengcr IV., father of Margaret and of
Beanor, wife of Henry III. of England. Upon his death, in 1 245,
lus youngest daughter, Beatrice, wife of Charles of Anjou, the
l^'s uncle, succeeded to his lands, to the exclusion of her elder
linen, who claimed some portion of them for themselves. In
t38i war nearly broke out on this question. Margaret and her
fneods formed the league of Mftcon against Charles of Anjou,
^t the king managed to keep them at peace. The settlement of
^ daims of the king of England in Aquitaine by the treaty of
Amiens in 1279 was a victory for the party of Margaret.
Agenais and southern Saintonge, which fell to the Crown by
^ death of Alfonse of Poitiers in 1276, as part of his vast
possessions in Aquitaine and Languedoc, were ceded to Edward
'- of En^and in accordance with the treaty of Paris 1259.
Another portion of the heritage of Alfonse, the Venaissin, was
^*ded to the papacy to redeem an old promise. In general the
Krong will of Charles of Anjou directed Philip's policy. He
'^cretly urged his nephew's candidature for the imperial crown,
left vacant by the death of Richard of Cornwall, king of the
Romans, in 1272, but without success. In May 1275 ^^c party
^ Marie secured for Philip, the king's second son, the hand of
Jc^ne. the heiress of Navarre and Champagne, along with the
K^Urdianship of the kingdom of Navarre during the minority of
J^nne. But early in 1276 Jeanne's mother, Blanche, the widow
^ Henry III. of Navarre and Champagne, married Edmund,
^ eari of Lancaster, brother of Edward I.; and she and her
Coglish husband kq>t Champagne until, in 1284, Jeanne came
^rfage.
An e]q)edition of Philip against Castile in aid of the children
^ his sister, Blanche, proved abortive. Regardless of this
fining, he was induced in X284 to take up the quarrel of his
uncle Charles in Sicily, after the Sidlian Veipen in is8s. Two
assemblies of barons and prelates were held at Bourges in Novem-
ber 1283 and February 1284 to deliberate on the question. This
was a mere matter of form; Marie of Brabant and her party had
decided the matter beforehand, and the crown of Aragon, which
the French pope Martin IV. had declared forfeited by Peter, was
accepted for Charles of Valois, Philip's third son. The project
was strongly opposed by Matthew of Vend6m^, who was in
correspondence with the king of England on the subject. It was
the first warlike expedition undertaken by the house of Capet
outside France. It proved a disastrous failure. The French
army laid siege to G«ona on the 26th of June 1285. The town
surrendered on the 7th of September, but disease and the defeat
of the fleet by the Aragonese navy at Las Farmigxias Islands led
to a retreat, during which, on the 5th of October, the king died.
In the same month the garrison placed at Gerona surrendered.
It is typical of Philip's diaracter and career that he should die
thus, in an expedition undertaken against the interests of his
kingdom, at the instigation of his ambitious tmcle.
Philip was twice married. On the 28th of May 1262 he
married Isabella, daughter of James I., king of Aragon, who died
in 1271. By her he had four children: Louis, who died in 1276;
Philip, bom in x 268; Charles of Valois, bom on the 12th of Mareh
X270; and Robert, who died young. By his second wife, Marie
(d. 1322), daughter of Henry III. of Brabant, whom he married
in 1274, he had three children: Louis, count of Evreux; Margaret,
who married in X299 Edward I., king of England; and Blanche,
who married Rudolph III., duke of Austria.
See Ch. V. Lanslois. Le Rbrne de PkUippe le Hardi (Paris. 1887);
and in E. Lavisac a Histoire de France, tome iii., ii. I13-I17 (Pans,
1901): Fr. Walter. Die Politik der Kurie unler Cregor X. (Bcriin.
1894); Roisters of Gregory X. and Nicholas III., published by the
French school at Rome; R. Stcrnfcld. Lndwigs des Heiligen Krenexug
nock Tunis und die Politik Karls /. von SisiRen (1896); P. Fournicr,
Le Royaume d' Aries (Paris, 1891). For complete bibliography ol
sources see A. Molinier, Les Sources de Vkisteire de France^ tome
iiL 171-187 (Paris, 1903).
PHIUP IV. (1268-1314), called "UBd" or " the Fair." king
of France, was the son of Philip III. and his wife, Isabella of
Aragon. His reign, which began in October X285, is one of
the most momentous in the history of medieval Europe, yet
it belongs rather to the hbtory of France and to that of the
papacy than to the biography of the king. Little is known of the
personal part played by Philip in the events associated with his
name, and later historians have been divided between the view
which regards him as a handsome, lethargic nonentity and that
which paints him as a master of statecraft who, under a veil of
phlegmatic indifference and pious sentiment, masked an inflexible
purpose, of which his ministers were but the spokesmen and
executors. The first view seems to be bome out by the language
of contemporary chroniders. To his enemy, Bernard Saisset, he
was neither man nor beast, but a statue, " the handsomest man
in the world, but unable to db anything but stare fixedly at people
without saying a word." Guillaume de Nogarct, his minister,
draws a far more flattering picture, enlarging on his charm, his
amiability, his modesty, his charity to all men, and his piety;
and the traits of this over-coloured portrait are more or less
repeated by Yves, a monk of St Denis. There is, however, no
word of any qualities of will or initiative. All of which suggests
a personality mentally and physically phlegmatic, a suggestion
strengthened by the fact that Bartholomaeus de Neocastro
(quoted by Wenck) describes him as corpulent in 1290.
Yet this was the king who with equal implacability brought
the papacy under his yoke, carried out the destruction of the
powerful order of the Temple, and laid the foundations of the
national monarchy of France. In this last achievement Professor
Finke finds the solution of a problem which Langlois had declared
to be insoluble. In X302, in the midst of a hostile assembly,
Philip cursed his sons should they consent to hold the Crown of
any one but God*; and in this isolated outburst he sees the key
to his character. " Philip was not a man of violent initiative,
the planner of daring and fateful operations; otherwise there
* Wenck, p. 49.
382
PHILIP V. (FRANCE)
.would bave been some signs of it. His personality was that of a
nell-instructed, outwardly cold, because cool and calculating
man, essentially receptive, afire for only one idea: the highest
possible development of the French monarchy, internally and
externally, as against both the secular powers and the Church.
His merit was that he carried through this idea in spite of dangers
to himself and to the state. A resolution once arrived at he
carried out with iron obstinacy." Certainly he was no rot
fainiant. His courage at the battle of Mons-en*P£vele was the
admiration of friend and foe alike. It was against the advice of
his tutor, Aegidius Colonna, that on coming to the throne he
chose as his counsellors men of the legal class, and the names
of his great ministers — Guillaume dc Nogaret, Enguerrand de
Marigny, Pierre Flotte (d. 130a) — attest the excellent quality
of his judgment. He was, too, one of the few monarchs who have
left to their successors reasoned programmes of reform for the
state.
The new materials from the Aragonese archives, published by
Finke, give the same general impression of "uncanny" reticence
on Philip's part; when other contemporary kings would have
spoken he keeps silence, allowing his ministers to speak for him.
Isolated passages in some of the Aragonese letters included in
the collection, however, throw a new light on contemporary
estimate of his character, describing him as all-powerful, as
** pope and king and emperor in one person." *
The reign of Philip IV. is of peculiar interest, because of the
intrusion of economic problems into the spheres of national
politics and even of religion. The increased cost of government
and the growing wealth of the middle class, rather than the
avarice of the king and the genius of his ministers, were respon-
sible for the genesis and direction of the new order. The greatest
event of the reign was the struggle with Pope Boniface VIII.
(q.v.). The pope, in his cpposition to the imposition of royal
taxation upon the clergy, went so far in the bull Clericis laicos
of 1296 as to forbid any lay authority to demand taxes from the
clergy without his consent. When Philip retaliated by a decree
forbidding the exportation of any coin from France, Boniface
gave way to save the papal dues, and the bulls issued by him in
1297 were a decided victory for the French king. Peace between
the two potentates followed until 1301. After the arrest, by
Philip's orders, of Bernard Saisset (q.v.), bishop of Pamiers, in
that year, the quarrel flamed up again; other causes of difference
existed, and in 1302 the pope issued the bull Unam sanctatHf one
of the most extravagant of all statements of papal claims. To
ensure the support of his people the king had called an assembly
of the three estates of his kingdom at Paris in April 1302; then
in the following year Guillaume dc Nogaret seized the p>erson of
the pope at Anagni, an event immortalized by Dante. Boniface
escaped from his captors only to die (October 11), and the short
pontificate of his saintly successor, Benedict XL, was occupied in
a vain effort to restore harmony to the Church. The conclave
that met at Perugia on his death was divided between the parti-
sans of the irreconcilable policy of Boniface VIII. and those of a
policy of compromise with the new state theories represented by
France. The election was ultimately determined by the diplo-
macy and the gold of Philip's agents, and the new pope, Clement
v., was the weak-willed creature of the French king, to whom he
owed the tiara. When in 1309 the pope installed himself at
Avignon, the new relation of the papacy and the French
monarchy was patent to the world. It was the beginning of
the long " Babylonish captivity " of the popes. The most
notable of its first-fruits was the hideous persecution of
the Templars (q.v.), which began with the sudden arrest of the
members of the order in France in 1307, and ended with
the suppression of the order by Pope Clement at the council of
Vienne in 1313.
It is now tolerably clear that Philip's motives in this sinister
proceeding were lack of money, and probably the deliberate
* Finke, iL no. 78, p. 122. Anon, to the commandcrics of
Gardeyne and Ascbo: Pus d cs rey et papa ct empcrador! Car
tot lo mon sap, quel papa no es negun et que el fa tot go qucs vol
del papa et de ia esglca.
wish to destroy a body which, with its privileged poddoo and
international financial and military organlzatioD, constituted a
possible menace to the state. He had already persecuted and
plundered the Jews and the Lombard bankers, and repeated
recourse to the debasing of the coinage had led to a aeries of small
risings. But under his rule something was done towards
systematizing the royal taxes, and, as in England, the financial
needs of the king led to the association of the peqple in the woA
of government.
In 1 294 Philip IV. attacked Edward I. of England, then busied
with the Scottish War, and seized Guienne. Edward won over
the counts of Bar and of Flanders, but they were defeated and
he was obliged to make peace in 1297. Then the Flemish cities
rose against the French royal officers, and utterly defeated the
French army at Court rai in 1302. The reign dosed with the
French position tmimproved in Flanders, except for the transfer
to Philip by Count Robert of Lille, Douai and B^thune, and their
dependencies. Philip died on the 29th of November 1314* His
wife was Jeanne, queen of Navarre (d. 1304), through whom that
country passed under the rule of Philip on his marriage in 1284;
three of his sons, Loub X., Philip V. and Charles IV., succeeded
in turn to the throne of France, and a daughter, iMhrlla, married
Edward II. of England.
See the Chronimu of Geoffrey of Paris, edited by M. Booqoet. ia
vol. xxii. of the Recueil des kistoriens des Camles etitia Framct. Of
modem works see E. Boutaric, La Fnmu sous Philippe le Bd
(1861); G. Digaid, PkUippe U Bd et U Sainl^Sikge (1900): C. V.
Langlois in E. Lavisae's Htstoire de France, vol. in. (1901 ) ; K. Wenck,
Philipp der Sckdne von Frankreich (Marburg. 1905); H. Finke.
PapsUum und UnUrfang des Templerordens, 2 vob. (Mfkaatcr L
W. 1907), esp. I. ch. u.
PHILIP V. (c. 1 294-1322), '* the Tan," king of France, second
son of Philip the Fair and Jeanne of Navarre, received the county
of Poitiers as an appanage, and was affianced when a ytu old
to Jeanne, daughter and heiress of Otto IV., count of Burgundy.
The marriage took place in 1307 when he was thirteen jwais of
age. When hb elder brother, Louis X., died, on the 5th of Jtlj
13 16, leaving his second wife, Clemence of Hungary, with ^3d,
Philip was appointed regent for eighteen years by the pariiamcat
of Paris, even in the event of a male heir being bom. Qemence's
son, bom on the 15th of November, lived only four days, and
Philip immediately proclaimed himself king, though several ol
the great barons declared that the rights of Jeanne, daughter of
Louis X. by his first wife, Margaret of Burgundy, ought to be
examined before anything else was done. The coronation at
Reims, on the 9th of January 13 17, took place with the gates of
the city closed for fear of a surprise. The states-general of the
2nd of February 13 17, consisting of the nobles, prdates, and the
burgesses of Paris, approved the coronation of Philip, swore to
obey him, and declared that women did not succeed to the Cnyni
of France. The university of Paris approved this dedantion,
but its members did not take the oath. The Salic law was aoi
involved, and it was later that the lawjrers of the 14th cestify
tried to connect this principle to an article of the Salic law, vUch
accords inheritance in land (i.e, property) to males. In the
Prankish law the article refers to private property, not to pabBc
law. The death of Philip's son Louis, in 13 17, disansoi the
opposition of Charles, count of La Marche, who now hoped to
succeed to the Crown himself. Odo or Eudes IV., duke of 1N^
gundy, was married to Jeanne, Phih'p's daughter, and reoiwd
the county of Burgundy as her dower. The barons all did bony
except Edward II. of England, and Philip's position was tecBici
The war with Flanders, which had b^un under INiilip IV-^
Fair, was brought to an end on the 2nd of June xjaa TteR**
of the Pastoureaux who assembled at Paris in 1320 lo go 0* *
crusade was crushed by the seneschal of Carcassonne, *^?
they marched. One of the special objects of thdf hPg;
the Jews, were also mulcted heavily by Philip, wboeiW^
1 50.000 Uvres from those of Paris alohe. He died at Uft
champ on the night of the 2nd of January 1322. ^
Philip was a lover of poetry, surrounded himsrif with PiuiWF
poets and even wrote in Provencal himself, but he was ^^fj!^
of the most hard-working kings of the bouse of Ci|Mt V
PfflLIP VI. (FRANCE)— PHILIP (OF SWABIA)
383
IiiB iiiiitj ol hi] poddon made bim Ktk the bu
■iiiililiii aod c( pntvinciid olato. Hii tri^
ncnblcd Uwt of Ednid I. of England. He publuhed > scrica
of ofduiaoca orjaiuxiDg tho royal household and affecting th(
ftnln/^*' ubninutralioQ, the " porioncnt '* and the royal FoTcats
Bf aboluhed alJ EarrixMU Lo the towns cxo^I IhoK on the fronLiei
od pfDvided for public onter by aUowiiig the inhabiluls of his
towns to aim tbeniKlves under the
LOlC<
DKasuics. but failfd owing to the opposition of thi
wire alniid of the new laxalion necesiaiy to i
InvoJvid in railing the standard of the coinage, j
to their kxal measuirs and currency partly from
putly as a relic of local liberty. Philip as a icf
many ways before bis time, but his people failed 1
bia» and fae died under the repiruch of extortion.
Sn P. Lehufeur. Hul^ri it f'k'Jjff' 'f L™^ (Piiii. 1897); Ej
:. Iliiuii it Fiai^ ...
ia A. MoliniR, Rlptrlevt it «
fi'if:,^^!^
:*iPari.
FHILIP VI. (i igj-13 jd), king of France, wu the son o( Charles
o( Valois, third son of Philip III., the Bold, and of Margaret of
Sidly, and was thus the nephew of Philip IV., the Fair, whose
sons. LouisX.. PbUip V. and Charles IV., died successively without
leaving duIe heirs. He succeeded to the throne on the death
ofbbeouiin, Charles IV., in iji8. Before his accession Philip
had enjoy«l consideiable influence, for he was count of Vahrii,
AnJDu, Maine, Chartres and Atcn^on. He had married in
■ jij Jeoooc (d. im8>. daughter of Robert II. of Burgundy, a
determined unman who was long known as the real rulet of
Fnoce. An eipediiion to luly in 1319-10 ogainsl Galtas
VocDoti brought him little glory; be was more successful in ■
small expedition to Cuicnoe, undertaken against a revolted
vaaal who was supported by the English.
When Charles IV. died, in Februaiy 1318, his wife was encdnle,
ud il became oeccssaiy lo appoint a regency until the birth of
Ih child, who would, if a son, aucceed to the thnne. At the
SKmbly «l barons called lo choose a regent, Edward HI. of
tagland, the nephew and nearest male relation of Charles IV.,
pi in a claim. Edward III., however, descended from the
iDjal bouse of France by his mother Isabel, and the barons,
pitibably actuated by an objection to the regency of an English
log, dedded that neither a woman, " not by conMquence bei
Bi, could succeed to the kingdom of Fiance," and Philip ol
ViUs, in spite of his belonging 10 a junior branch of the family,
•H riected regent. On the birth of a girl lo the queen widow
>!» rejency naturally led lo the thmne of France, and Philip was
'nnBl It Reims on Ihe iQth of May rjiS. Navarre had not
■rcepttd the recency, that kingdom being claimed by her husband
(■Josne, countess of Evreui, the eldest daughter of Lou ijX..
tb Qnmt of Evceux himself being, like Philip of Valois, a
PudkEiof PhiliptheBoM. Thenewkingsccurcdihefricndship
Hi lie count hy allowing Jeanne's claim 10 Navarre, in return
'« 1 miundalion of any right to Champagne. Edward III. of
^°tfuil, alter more than one dtolion, tendered verbal homage
Inpul of Cuienne at Amiens in TJ19, but he declined to place
>!<> lands between those ol Philip VI., and thus formally to
''^'Hwledge him as his liege lord. Two yeara later, however,
^ loivinled the acknowledgment by lelten patent. Mean-
luk Philip VI. had won a victory, which be turned into a
■WKre, at CaucI (August 13, ijiS) over Bruges and the
"lirr towns of West Flandcis, which under the leadership of
S** van Anevekle had thrown oil (he authority of their
"Will, Louis of Nevers. The count of Handera was reinstated,
^ iminlained his authority by a reign of lerroT,
Much harm was done to Philip VI. 's autboiity by the scandal
J^ni out ol Ihe prosecution ol Robert of Artois, count at
"Ounionl, who was the king's btolher-in-law. The count had
JtKcvled to the parlemenl of Paris forged deed!
d by his
1, Mahau
le English
re he was
m from Fiance aod bii
t in Brabant and then
kred as a relative and a
Philip VI. enjoyed powerful alliances. In Italy he Wat allied
with his uncle, Robert of Anjou, king of SicDy, and with hii
former enemy, Galjas Visconli; In Ihe notib with iIm duke of
Brabant and the princes of the Netherlands; on the east with the
rcigningprincFsof Lorraine and Savoy; with the king of Bohemia
and with Pope John XXII. at Avignon, and his successor,
Benedict XII. In 1316 it seemed that the Crusade, for which
Philip VI. bad long been preparing, would at last slilt; but Ihe
rcbtiorii with Edward III. of England, wbich bad always been
on the siiuggte of the Hundred Years' War. The causes which
disputed rights in Guienne, the help ^ven by France 10 Ihe
Scoli. and the unnatural silualion ol an English king who was
also a vasal of Ihe French Crown are deali with elsewhere (see
Funce: History). The immediate rupture in Flandeis was
due chiefly to the tyranny nf the count oi Flandera, Louis of
Nevers, whom Philip VI. bad reinstated. Edward III. had won
over most ol niib'p's German and Ftemi^ allies, and the English
naval victory ol Sluyi CJune 14, IJ40), In which the French
fleet was annihibted, effectually restored English preponderance
in Flanders. A truce followed, but this was disturiied after
Briltany. Edward III. supported John of Montfort; PbilipIV.
his own nephew, Charles of Blois. A [ruce nude at Malesiioitin
i]43 at the inviialion of Ihe pope, was rudely broken by PhBip'i
violence. Olivier de Clisson, who with fourteen other Blelon
gentlemen, was suspected of intrigue with Edward III., was
invited to a great tournament in Paris. On their arrival they
were sciicd by Philip's orders, an<[ uilhoul form of trial beheaded.
Then (oltowed Edward Ill.'s invasion ol Normandy and the
campaign of Crety (j.».). Philip's army was destroyed ; he
himself was wounded and fled from the Add. He sought lo
vain to divert Edward from the siege ol Cabis by uippoKinf
the Scots in their invasion of England; bill eventually a tnice
was arranged, which lasted until 1351- Philip VI. died at
Nogent-lc-rot on the iith of August ijjo.
Philip VI. met bis necessilics by ihe imposition of the hated
gjbcUe ot salt tax, which was invented by his legal advisers.
The value ol the coinage fluctuated continuously, to the great
hindrance of trade; and although at a meeting ol the States-
General it was asserted that the king could levy no eilraordinary
toies without the consent ol the estates, he obtained heavy
subsidies from the various provinces. Towards the chise of fail
reign he acquired from Humbert II.. comle de Vienne, the pro-
vince of Dauphin^, and Manlpellicr from the king ol Majorca.
These acquisitions made the ultimate anneialion ol Provence a
certainty. Philip married a second wife, Blanche of NaVarre.
By his flrsi wife be left two sons— his successor, John II., and
PhiUp of Orieans, count of Valois.
< lb GaiOaimi it N<inps edited
ion by Paulin Palis; E. tWpiei,
Record Office and the Valkaa;
^itifwi it ta Finfr vol. ik
IrFnna
sa'K
PRIUP (c. 1177-1K1K), (German king and duke of SwaUa, the
rival of the emperor Otto IV., w.is Ihe (iflh and youngest sob
oi Ihe emperor Frederick Land Bcattix, daughter of Renaudjn.,
count of Upper Burgundy, and consequently brolher of the
emperot Henry VI. He entered Ihe church, was made provosl
ol Aii-la-Chapeile, and in 1150 or 1191 vkos chosen bishop ol
WUnbucg. Having accompanied his brother Henry lo Italy
Philip forsook his ecclesiasiical catling, and, travelling
again 10 Italy, was nude duke ol Tuscany in
14511
384
PHILIP I.— II. (SPAIN)
mn extensive grant of lands In 1x96 he became duke of Swabia,
on the death of his brother Conrad; and in May x 197 he married
Irene, daughter of the eastern emperor, Isaac Angelus, and widow
of Roger II., king of Sicily, a lady who is described by Walther
von der Vogelweide as " the rose without a thorn, the dove
without guile." Philip enjoyed his brother's confidence to a very
great extent, and appears to have been designated as guardian
of the young Frederick, afterwards the emperor Frederick II.,
in case of his father's early death. In XX97 he had set out to
fetch Frederick from Sicily for his coronation when he heard of
the emperor's death and returned at once to Germany. He
I4>pears to have desired to protect the interests of his nephew
and to quell the disorder which arose on Henry's death, but
events were too strong for him. The hostiUty to the kingship
of a child was growing, and after Philip had been chosen as
defender of the empire during Frederick's minority he con-
sented to his own election. He was elected German king at
MQhlhausen on the 8th of March X198, and crowned at Mainz
on the 8th of September following. Meanwhile a number of
princes hostile to Philip, under the leadership of Adolph, arch-
bishop of Cdogne, had elected an anti-king in the person of
Otto, second son of Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony. In the war
that fdlowed, PhiUp, who drew his principal support from south
Germany, met with considerable success. In 11 99 he received
further accessions to his party and carried the war into his
opponent's territory, although unable to obtain the support of
Pope Innocent HI., and only feebly assisted by his ally Philip
Augustus, king of France. The following year was less favourable
to his arms; and in March 1201 Innocent took the decisive step
of placing Philip and his associates under the ban, and began to
work energetically in favour of Otto. The two succeeding years
were still more unfavourable to Philip. Otto, aided by Ottakar I.,
king of Bohemia, and Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia, drove
him from north Germany, thus compelling him to seek by
abject concessions, but without success, reconciliation with
Innocent. The submission to Philip of Hermann of Thuringia
in 1 204 marks the turning-point of his fortunes, and he was soon
joined by Adolph of Cologne and Henry I., duke of Brabant.
On the 6th of January 1205 he was crowned again with great
ceremony by Adolph at Aix-la-ChapclIc, though it was not till
X207 that his entry into Cologne practically brought the war to a
dose. A month or two later Philip was loosed from the papal
ban, and in March X2o8 it seems probable that a treaty was
concluded by which a nephew of the pope was to marry one of
Philip's daughters and to receive the disputed dukedom of
Tuscany. Philip was preparing to crush the last flicker of the
rebellion in Brunswick when he was murdered at Bamberg, on the
3ist of June 1208, by Otto of Wittclsbach, count palatine in
Bavaria, to whom he had refused the hand of one of his
daughters. He left no sons, but four daughters; one of whom,
Beatrix, afterwards married his rival, the emperor Otto IV.
Philip was a brave and handsome man, and contemporary
writers, among whom was Walther von der Vogelweide, praise his
mildness and generosity.
See W. von Gicscbrccht, Ceschkkte der devtschen Kafierseit,
Bd. V. (Leipzig, 1888); E. Winkclmann. Pkilipp von Sckwaben
und OUo IV. von Braunsckweit (Leipzig, 1873-1878); O. Abel,
KUnit PhUippder HohenstaufenjEcTlin, 18^2); Regesta imperii. V,,
edited by J. rickcr (Innsbruck. 1881); R. Schwemcr, Innocem III.
und die deutsche Kirche wdhrend des Tkronstreites von JIQ8-1208
(Strassburg, 1882) ; and R. Riant, JnnoceiU 111.^ Philippe de Souabe,
el Boniface de Montferrat (Paris, 1875).
PHILIP I., the Handsome (1478-1506), king of Spain, son of
the emperor Maximilian I., and husband of Joanna the Mad,
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the founder of the
Habsburg dynasty in Spain, and was born at Bruges on the
22nd of July 1478. In 1482 he succeeded to the Burgundian
possessions of his mother Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold,
under the guardianship of his father. In i4(/6 he married Joanna.
The marriage was one of a set of family alliances with Austria
and Portugal designed to strengthen Spain against France.
The death of John, the only son of Ferdinand and Isabella,
Opened the succession to the Spanish Crown to Joanna. In
1503 she and her husband recdved the bomifle of tbe ooite
of Castile and of Aragon as hdrs. Philip returned to Flandct
bdore the dose of the year. His life with Joanna was rendwa
extremdy unhappy by his infiddity and by her jealouqr* vUdi
working on a neurotic temperament, precipitated her insaaiqi
The princess gave way to parozysms of rage, in whidi the wa
guilty ol acts of atrodous violence. Bdore her mother's deatl
in 1504, she was unquestionably quite insane, and husband aa
wife lived apart. When Isabella died, Ferdinand endeavouxe
to lay hands on the regency of CasUle, but the xiobles, «h
disliked and feared him, forced him to withdraw. Philip vi
summoned to Spain, where he was recognised as kli^ H
landed, with his wife, at Corunna on the aSth of April 150!
accompanied by a body of German mercenaries. Father an
son-in-law had interviews at Remesal, near Pueblo de Senalm
and at Renedo, the only result of which was an indecent famil
quarrd, in which Ferdinand professed to defend the interest
of his daughter, who he said was imprisoned by her husbaiM
A civil war would probably have broken out between then
but Phihp, who had Only been in Spain long eixHi^ to proi
his incapacity, died suddenly at Burgos, apparently of typhd
fever, on the 25th of September 1506. His wife rehtsed for Ion
to allow his body to be buried or to part from it. niflip w»
the father of the emperors Charles V. and Ferdinaxxl I.
PHIUP IL (1527-1598) kmg of Spain, was bom at VaDadoD
on the 2ist of May 1527. He was the son of the cmpen
Charles V., and of his wife Isabdla of Portugal, who were fin
cousins. Philip received his education in Spain. His tutoi
Dr Juan Martinez Pedemales, who latinized his luime to Silicei
and who was also his confessor, does not appear to have don
his duty very thoroughly. The prince, though he had a foot
command of Latin, never equalled his father as a linguist
Don Juan de Zuftiga, who was appointed to teach him the on
of arms, was more conscientious; but he had a very poor pofB,
From his earliest years Philip showed himself more addicted to
the desk than the saddle and to the pen than to the sword.
The emperor, who spent his life moving from one part of iii
wide dominions to another and in the camps of his annia^
watched his heir's education from afar. The trend of his lettefs
was to impress on the boy a profound sense of the high destiniei
to which he was born, the necessity for keeping his nobles apirt
from all share in the conduct of the internal government of ha
kingdom, and the wisdom of distrusting counsellors, who vnoU
be sure to wish to influence him for thdr own ends. Fbifip
grew up grave, self-possessed and distrustful. He wns bctoved
by his Spani^ subjects, but utteriy without the power flf
attracting men of other races. Though accused of extraae
licentiousness in his relations with women, and though he Hvd
for years in adultery with DoAa Maria de Osorio, Philip «tf
probably less immoral than most kings of his time, induding lui
father, and was rigidly abstemious in eating and drinking. Hii
power of work was unbounded, and he had an absolute km of
reading, annotating and drafting despatches. If he had not
become sovereign of the Low Countries, as heir of Mary of Biff*
gundy through his father, Philip would in all probability bv*
devoted himself to warfare with the Turks in the MediterruMsa,
and to the conquest of northern Africa. Unhappily for Spoil,
Charles, after some hesitation, dcdded to transmit the Netbo^
lands to his son, and not to allow them to go with the tapit
Philip was summoned in 1548 to Flanders, where he went itt-
willingly, and was ill regarded. In 1551 he was back in SpttO,
and Intrusted with its government. In 1543 he had been married
to his cousin Mary of Portugal, who bore him a son, the unhappf
Don Carlos, and who died in 1545. In X554, when Chario «>
meditating his abdication, and wished to secure the positioa of
his son, he summoned Philip to Flanders again, and arranged tk
marriage with Mary, queen of England, who was the daughter
of his mother's sister, in order to form a union of Spain, the
Ncthcriands and England, before which France would be po««^
less. The marriage proved barren. The abdication of his falhtC
on the i6th of January 1556 constituted Philip sovere^ ^
Spain with its American possessions, of the Aragooese iaheritaaoe
PHILIP III.— IV, (SPAIN)
385
li Italy, Kapks and Sidly, of the Burgundian inheritance — the
Kethcriands and Franche Conit£, and of the duchy of Milan,
vUd) his father separated from the empire for his benefit. It
wail kgacy of immense responsibilities and perils, for France
«is bound in common prudence to endeavour to ruin a power
whid) encircled her <m every side save the sea and threatened
kr independence. France was for a time beaten at the battles
of St Quentin and Gravelines, and forced to make the Peace of
Cktna Cambr^sis (April 2, 1559). But the death of Mary of
Eo^tnd on the 17th of November 1558 had deprived Philip
of EagUsh support. The establishment of Elizabeth on the
EngSsh throne put on the flank of his scattered dominions
another power, forced no less than France by unavoidable
poKtkal necessities to be his. enemy. The early difficulties of
Qnbeth's reign secured him a deceitful peace on that side for a
line. His marriage with Elizabeth of Valois on the a 2nd of
Jnne 1559, and the approach of the wars of religion; gave him a
ttBpnary security from France. But the religious agitation
*» affecting his own Flemish possessions, and wh^ Philip
vat back to Spain, in August 7559, he was committed to a life-
long ttraggle in which he could not prove victorious except by
tk conquest of France and England.
If Phflip n. had deserved his name of the Prudent he would
liave made haste, so soon as his father, who continued to inter-
voe in the government from his retreat at Yuste in £lstremadura,
*u dekl, to relieve himself of the ruinous inheritance of the
I^ Countries. It was perhaps impossible for him to renoimce
^ ri^ts, and his education, co-operating with his natural
^spQiition, made it morally impossible for him to believe that he
dnid be m the wrong. Like the rest of his generation, he was
coBvbced that unity of religion was indispensable to the mainten-
iKe of the authority of the State and of good order. Family
pide, also, was carried by him to its highest possible pitch.
T^ eztenud and internal influences alike drove him into con-
vict vith the Netherlands, France and England; with the first
iKcune political and religious discontent combined to bring
^t reviolt, which he felt bound in duty to crush; with the second
iBd third because they helped the Flemings and the Hollanders.
The conflict assumed the character of a struggle between Pro-
tcsUotism and Roman Catholidam, in which Philip appeared
•s the diamptoo of the Church. It was a part he rejoiced to play.
He became, and could not but become, a persecutor in and out of
Spain; and his persecutions not only hardened the obstinacy of
^ Dutch, and helped to exasperate the English, but they
provoked a revolt of the Moriscoes, which impoverished his
^inidom. No experience of the failure of his policy could shake
^ bdicf in its essential excellence. That whatever he did was
dooe for the service of God, that success or failure depended
^ the inscrutable will of the Almighty and not on himself, were
^ guiding convictions, which he transmitted to his successors.
TIk " service of God and his majesty " was the formula which
*9Raed the bdief of the sovereign and his subjects. Philip
Bntt therefwe be held primarily responsible for the insane
PoHqr which brought Spain to ruin. He had a high ideal of his
duty as a king to his qwn people, and had no natural preference
^ violent courses. The strong measures he took against
^■orderly dements in Aragon in 1591 were provoked by extreme
^■ixQoduct on the part of a faction. When he enforced his
c^ to the crown of Portugal (i 579-1 581) he preferred to placate
^ new subjects by pajn'ng attention to their feelings and their
Iinvileges. He even made dangerous political concessions to
*ccure the support of the gentry. It is true that he was ready to
"Bihe use of assassination for political purposes; but he had been
*»ughi by his lawyers that he was " the prince," the embodied
*^te> and as such had a right to act for the public good, /rgi&Mj
*^*s. This was but in accordance with the temper of the times.
^<^y. Lord Burghley and William the Silent also entered into
^"der plots. In his private life he was orderly and afifectionate
^ his famQy and servants. He was stow to withdraw the confi-
^^BKe he had once given. In the painful episode of the imprison-
^t and death of his firstborn son, Don Carlos, Ihilip behaved
wwurably. He bore the acute agony of the disease which
killed him with manly patience, and he died piously at the
Escorial on the 13th of September 1598.
As an administrator Philip had all the vices of his type, that of
the laborious, self-righteous man, who thinks he can supervise
everything, is capable of endless toil, and jealous of his authority,
and who therefore will let none of his servants act without his
instructions. He set the example ol the unending discussions in
committee and boundlen minute writing which finally choked
the Spanish administration.
The Hisicire de PkUippt II. of M. H. Forneron (Paris. 1881).
contains many references to authorities and is exhaustive, but the
author has some violent prejudices. Pkiiip 11.^ by Martin Hume
(London. 1897), is more just in its treatment of Philip's personal
character, and gives a useful bibliography. The main sources for
the (folitical history are the Documentos IiMitos para la kiUoria de
EspaMa (Madrid, 1842, &c.)t vols, i., iii., vi^ vii., xv., xxi., xxiv.,
xl., xcviii., d., ciii., ex., cxi. and others; L. P. Gachard, AcUs des
U(Us thUraux des Pays Bas, 1576-1585 (Brussels. 1 861-1 866); and
the Calendars of State Papers, Foreipi Series, Eiitabeth (London,
1863-1901). See also Martin Hume, Two Entlisk Queens and
PhUip (1908).
PHILIP in. (1578-1621), king of Spain, son of PhiUp II. and
his fourth wife, Anne, daughter of the emperor Maximilian II.»
was bom at Madrid on the 14th of April 1578. He inherited the
beliefs of his father, but no share of his industry. The old king
had sorrowfully confessed that Ciod had not ^ven him a son
capable of governing his vast dominions, and had foreseen that
Philip III. would be led by his servants. This calculation was
exactly fulfilled.. The new king put the direction of his govern*
ment entirely into the hands of his favourite, the duke of Lerma,
and when he fell under the influence of Lerma's son, the duke of
Uceda, in 1518, he trusted himself and his states to the new
favourite. The king's own life was passed amid court festivities,
on which enormous sunui of money were wasted, or in the practice
of childish piety. It was said that he was so virtuous as hardly
to have committed a venial sin. He cannot be justly blamed for
having been bom to rule a despotic monarchy, without even
the capacity which would have qualified him to manage a small
estate. He died at Madrid on the 31st of March 1621. The
story told in the memoirs of the French ambassador Bassom-
pierre, that he was killed by the heat of a brasero (a pan of hot
charcoal), because the proper official to take it away was not at
hand, is a humorous exaggeration of the formal etiquette oi the
court.
R. Watson and W. Thompson. History of Pkiiip III. (1786),
give the most-available general account of his reign; see also tl^
continuation of Mariana s History of Spain by Mifiana (Madrid,
1817-1822).
PHILIP IV. (1605-1665), king of Spain, eldest son of Philip
III. and hb wife Margaret, sister of the emperor Ferdinand II.,
was bom at Valladolid on the 8th of April 1605. His reign,
after a few passing years of barren successes, was a long story
of political and military decay and disaster. The king has been
held responsible for the fall of Spain, which was, however, due
in the main to intemal causes beyond the control of the most
despotic ruler, however capable he had been. Philip certainly
possessed more energy, both mental and physical, than his father.
There is still in existence a translation of Guicciardini which
he wrote with his own hand in order to qualify himself for
govemment by acquiring a knowledge of political history. He
was a fine horseman and keen hunter. His artistic taste was
shown by his patronage of Velasquez, and his love of
letters by his favour to Lope de Vega, Calderon, and other
dramatists. He is even credited, on fairly probable testimony,
with a share at least in the composition of several comedies.
His good intentions were of no avail to his government. Coming
to the throne at the age of sixteen, he did the wisest thing he
could by allowing himself to be guided by the most capable man
he could find. His favourite, Olivares, was a far more honest
man than the duke of Lcrma, and was more fit for the place of
prime minister than any Spaniard of the time. But Philip IV.
had not the strength of mind to free himself from the influence of
Olivares when he had grown to manhood. The amusements
which the favourite had encouraged became the business of the
386
PHILIP V. (SPAIN)— PHILIP THE BOLD
king's life. When, in 1643, the disasters falling on the monarchy
on all sides led to the dismissal of Olivares, Philip had lost the
power to devote himself to hard work. After a brief struggle
with the task of directing the administration of the most ex-
tensive and the worst organized monarchy in Europe, he sank
back into his pleasures and was governed by other favourites.
His political opinions were those he had inherited from his
father and grandfather. He thought it his duty to support
the German Habsburgs and the cause of the Roman Catholic
Church against the Protestants, to assert his sovereignty over
Holland, and to extend the dominions of his house. The utter
exhaustion of his people in the course of a hopeless struggle with
Holland, France and England was seen by him with sympathy,
but he considered it an unavoidable misfortune aqd not the result
of his own errors, since he could not be expected to renoimce
his rights or to desert the cause of God and the Church. In
public he maintained a bearing of rigid solemnity, and was seen
to laugh only three times in the course of his life. But in private
he indulged in horseplay and very coarse immorality. His
court was grossly vicious. The early death of his eldest son,
Baltasar Carlos, was unquestionably due to debauchery
encouraged by the gentlemen entrusted by the king with his
education. The lesson shocked the king, but its effect soon
wore off. Philip IV. died broken-hearted on the 17th of
September 1665, .expressing the hope that his surviving son,
Carlos, would be more fortunate than himself.
The best accounts of Philip IV. will be found in the Eshtdios del
rtinado de Felipe IV., by Uon A. Cinovas del Castillo (Madrid,
1889), and in the introduction by Don F. Silvela to his edition of
the Cartas de Sor Maria de Agreda y del rey Felipe IV, (Madrid,
1885-1886).
' PHIUP V. (1683-1746), king of Spain, founder of the present
Bourbon dynasty, was the son of the Dauphin Louis and his
wife, Maria Anna, daughter of Ferdinand Maria, elector of
Bavaria. He was bom at Versailles on the 19th of December
2683. On the extinction of the male line of the house of Habs-
burg in Spain he was named heir by the will of Charies II. He
had shared in the careful education given to his elder brother,
Louis, duke of Burgundy, by Finelon, and was himself known
as duke of Anjou. Philip was by nature dull and phlegmatic.
He had learnt morality from F^nclon's teaching, and showed
himself throughout his life strongly adverse to the moral laxity
of his grandfather and of most of the princes of his time. But
his very domestic regularity caused him to be entirely under the
influence of his two wives, Maria Louisa of Savoy, whom he
married in 1702, and who died in February 17 14, and Elizabeth
Famese of Parma, whom he married in December of the same
year, and who survived him. He showed courage on the field
of battle, both in Italy and Spain, during the War of the Spanish
Succession, and was flattered by his courtiers with the title of
£/ Animoso, or the spirited. But he had no taste for military
adventure. If he had a strong passion, it was to provide for his
succession to the throne of France, if his nephew, Louis XV.,
should die, and he indulged in many intrigues against the house
of Orleans, whose right to the succession was supposed to be
secured by Philip's solemn renunciation of all claim to the
French throne, when he became king of Spain. It was in
pursuit of one of these intrigues that he abdicated in 1724 in
favour of his son Louis. But Louis died in a few months,
and Philip returned to the throne. At a later period he tried
to abdicate again, and his wife had to keep him in a species of
disguised confinement. Throughout his life, but particularly
in the later part of it, he was subject to prolonged fits of melan-
cholia, during which he would not even speak. He died of
apoplexy on the 9th of July 1746.
The best account of Philip's character and reien is still that given
by Coxe in his Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of the House of Bourbon
(London, 1815).
PHILIP THE BOLD <X343-X404), duke of Burgundy, fourth
son of John II. of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was bom
on the isth of January 1342. He eamed his surname by his
bravery while fighting by his father's side on the field of Poitiers.
After the defeat of King John he accompanied him into captivity
in Engknd. In 1360 he received the title of duke of Toonli
and in June 1363 was entrusted with the government of Boifuad
which John had united to the crown at the death of the li
duke of the Capetian family, Philip of Rouvre, in 1361.
September 1363 John bestowed on Philip the title of duke
Burgundy, together with that of first peer of France. Jd
was anxious not to displease the Burgundians, who were aca
tomed to their independence; and, moreover, with Philip
duke of Burgundy he was in a better posture to resist the ki
of Navarre, Charles the Bad, who laid claim to the duchy. T
donation, which was at first kept secret in spite of a reqw
made in 1363 for its confirmation by the emperor Charles F
was ratified at the accession of Charles V. of France; bat
consequence of Philip's preoccupation with the Grand Cot
panics, which had invaded France, it was not until Noveml
1364 that he definitely took possession of the duchy. Chai
continued to show favour to hb brother, appointing him (in ij(
his lieutenant in Champagne and marrying him to Mai|Bf
daughter and heiress of Louis of M&le, count of Flande
and widow of Phih'p of Rouvre. Edward III. of FtigbiH «
negotiating for the marriage of this princess with his son Edmu
earl of Cambridge; but Charles prevailed upon PopeUibas
to refuse the dispensation necessary on grounds of ifgwh^p^ ai
even consented to give up Lille, Douai and Orchies to Flande
on condition that Margaret should marry his brother. Phil
eventually won the day, thanks to the support of the Jhi
count's mother, and the marriage took place with hi^ lofc
at Ghent on the 19th of June 1369.
During the succeeding years Philip proved a faithful djf
to Charles. He took part in the almost bloodless campi^
against the duke of Lancaster, who had hinded at Calas; ii
1377 he took several towns in French Flanders from theEi^bh;
and in 1379 relieved Troyes, which had been besieged bf III
English. On Charles's death Philip found himself, with Hi
brothers, the dukes of Anjou and Berry, in charge of the govcn-
ment of France in the name of Charles VI., who wu a iBia<
and in the absence of the duke of Anjou, who left France ii
1382 to conquer the kingdom of Naples, Philip occupied ihl
most powerful position in the realm. He persuaded tht yomi
king to intervene in Flanders*, where the citizens of GbcHi
whose rebellious spirit had necessitated Philip's intervcstiM
in 1379, had again revolted under Philip van Artevekle and kil
expelled Louis of M&Ie. On the 27th of November 1382 thi
Franco-Burgundian chivalry crushed the rebels at RoMtecfcih
and on his return the duke of Burgundy took part in icprai'
ing the popular movements which had broken out in Ptiil ni
other French towns. In 1383 an insurrection in Fhsdcfl
supported by England gave rise to another French rrpJ^'-i
but in January 1384 the death of Louis of Mile made WS^
master of the countships of Flanders, Artois, Retbd tii
Nevers; and in the following year the citizens of Ghent deddrf
to submit. At this period Philip sought to ingratiate faflHii
with the emperor, who was a near neighbour, and of wham Ii
held a part of his dominions, by giving two of his ffinli^t*
in marriage to two princes ot the house of Bavaria; he ahl
took an important part in bringing about the marriage df ■
princess of the same family, Isabel, to King Charles VL
Hostilities, however, were renewed between FtSBoe td
England. A formidable expedition was prepared andcr tti
direction of the duke of Burgundy, and a fleet of 1400 fli
assembled at Sluys; but the enterprise failed owing ts Ik
dilatoriness of the duke of Berry. The fatiguing and ii^brflit
expedition in the Netherlands, into which the duke daflrf
Charles for the purpose of supporting his kinswoman, Jon if
Brabant, against the duke of Gelderland, shook PhiBpi cnA
with his nephew, who on his rctum declared himself of age ili
confided the government to the ancient counciUors of hit btiA
the " Marmousets." The king's madness (1392) restoici tf>
uncles to power, and particulariy PhiUp, who after hhoiC
peace by treating with the duke of Brittany and by iuthrihg*
truce of twenty-eight years with England, made streBOOOlcftltt
to put an end to the Great Schism^ visiting Pope Bcaedkl ZDL
PHILIP THE GOOD
387
It Av^Bon in 1595 in the hope of obtaining a voluntary
nipttion from him. But the growing influence of the king's
brother, Louis of Orleans, who was on terms of great intimacy
with Queen Isabel and was accused of being her lover, was a
Krioos obstruction. Discord broke out in the council, and but
ior the intervention of the dukes of Berry and Bourbon the two
piBKts wnuld have come to an open struggle. For a brief
period Hiifip was dispossessed of authority, but he regained
k is 140a and kept it till his death, which took place on the
17th of April 1404. The cathedral of St B^nigne at Dijon
(OBlaios h^ remains, and his tomb (formeriy in the Chartreuse
of Dijon) is now in the museum in the H6tel-de-ville.
Altbou^ he had to curb the independent spirit of the seigneurs
of Fnuiche-Comt6, and in spite of frequent collisions with his
nanb in Flanders and with the citizens of Besan^n (who in
1386 dtracted from him a promise to respect their privileges),
WS^ ippears to have governed his territories with sagacity
isd a certain moderation, and he was particularly successful in
opbying the resources of France in the interests of Burgundy.
He glinted numerous privileges to the inhabitants of Dijon, and
cwUed in 1386 two cMambres dcs compUs, one at Dijon and the
other at lille. He was, in the phrase of a contemporary,
"kisdly and amiable to high and low and those of middk rank,
Bhenl is an Alexander, noble and pontifical, in court and state
Ufnifice^t." But his liberality and his love of display in-
volved him in eiu^rmous expense, and he left so many debts that
liii widow was compelled to renounce her personal estate to avoid
the responsibility of discharging them. By his wife Margaret
(<L 140s) he had a numerous family: John the Fearless, who
■oeeded him; Charies and Louis, who both died in infancy;
Anthony, count of Rethd, and Philip, count of Ncvcrs, both
kiBedat Agmconrt; Margaret, who married William of Bavaria,
nmt of Ostrevant; Catherine, wife of Leopold, duke of
Awiis; Mary, wife of Amadeus VIII. of Savoy; and Bonne,
*k> was betrothed to John of Bourbon and died young.
(R. Pa)
mUP THB GOOD (1396-1467), duke of Burgundy, son of
Job the FeariesB, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Bavaria,
*u bom at Dijon on the 13th of June 1396, and succeeded his
iuher on the loth of September 14 19. The natural outcome of
ikeasHssination of John the Fearless (q.v.) was to drive his suc-
ttsor to the English side. In 141 9 Philip signed with Henry V.
of England the treaty of Arras, by which he recognized Henry
liRSent and future heir of the kingdom of France, and in 1420
|Ke his adherence to the treaty of Troyes. Early in December
MM Philip entered Paris with the king of England, and sub-
X|oently took part in the defeat of the French at Mons-en-
Viaea. By a treaty concluded by Philip at Amiens in April
M23 with the dukes of Brittany and Bedford, John, duke of
Bedlord, married Philip's sister Anne, and Arthur of Brittany,
Ori of Richmond, became the husband of Philip's sister Mar-
pkL A few years later discord arose among the allies. When
the duke of Bedford besieged Orleans the inhabitants offered
to nrreiKlsr, but to the duke of Burgundy; whereupon Bedford
Moctcd that " he did not beat the bushes for others to take the
Kids.** When this speech reached Philip's ears he withdrew
Ui troops in dudgeon, and concluded. a truce with France
(1439). Bedford, however, succeeded in conciliating him by
pioodMs and presents, and in 1430 Philip took part in the
cuBpugD against Compi^gne.
But another conflict arose between the duke of Burgundy
ind the En^ish. * Jacqueline, countess of Hainaut, the divorced
*ife of the duke of Brabant and the heiress of Holland and
Zcehnd, had married the duke of Gloucester, who attempted
to take forcible possession of his wife's territories. Philip,
however, himself claimed Brabant as having been bequeathed
to him by his cousin Philip, the late duke, with the result that
the Bugondians repulsed the troops of the duke of Gloucester,
Od Jacqueline was forced to recognize the duke of Burgundy
ii her lieutenant and heir. Moreover, the duchess of Bedford
Ud died in 1433. Charles VII., who in spite of the efforts of
the cardinal of Ste-Croix and the conferences held by him at
Auxerre and Semur had hitherto refused to return to France,
finally decided to take part in the conferences which were
opened at St Vaast d'Arras on the 6th of August 1435, ^od to
which the whole of Christendom attached very high import-
ance, all the princes of Europe and the pope and the council
of Basel being represented. Philip consented to a reconcilia-
tion with the king of France, and agreed to recognize him as
his legitimate sovereign on condition that he should not be
required to pay him homage during his lifetime. Charles, on
his part, solemnly craved pardon for the murder of John the
Fearless through the mouth of the dean of the church in Paris,
and handed over to the duke the counties of M&con, Auxerre,
Bar-sur-Seine and Ponthieu, and the towns on and near the
Somme (Roye, Montdidier, P£ronne), reserving the option of
redeeming the Somme towns for 400,000 gold crowns. Philip
proved a faithful ally of the king, aiding him in re-entering Paris
and preparing an expedition against Calais, which, however,
failed through the ill-will of his Flemish subjects (1436). In
1440 he paid the ransom of Charles of Orleans (the son of his
father's old enemy), who had been a prisoner in England since
the battle of Aj^court; received him with great honour at
Gravelines; and married him to Mary of Cleves, upon whom he
bestowed a handsome dowry. In 1442 Philip entered into a
conspiracy to give the duke of Orleans, a larger share in the
affairs of the kingdom. To Ren^ of Anjou, the duke of Lor-
raine, he showed himself less generous, setting up another
claimant to the duchy of Lorraine in the person of Anthony of
Vaudemont, and taking Ren^ prisoner in 143 1; it was not until
1436 that he consented definitively to release Ren£ on con-
dition that he should abandon sevend strong places and pay an
enormous ransom. In 1445, at the conferences of Chilons-sur-
Mame, the duchess of Burgundy renounced these claims in her
husband's name in order to assure the execution of the treaty
of Arras.
Philip was frequently disturbed by the insubordination of
the Flemish communes. He had to quell seditions at Li6ge
(1430), Ghent (1432) and Antwerp (1435). In 1438 he was
driven with the duchess out of Bruges by the revolted citizens,
a revolt which he repressed with great severity. In 1448 the
citizens of Ghent rose in rebellion, but, disappointed of French
support, they were defeated at Ruppelmonde and in 1453
were overwhelmed at the battle of Gavre, where, they left
20,000 dead on the field. At a banquet shortly afterwards
Philip vowed that he would lead a crusade against the Turks,
who had seized Constantinople, and the knights of his court
swore to follow his example.* The expedition, however, did not
take place, and was but a pretext for levying subsidies and for
knightly entertainments. In 1459 Philip sent an embassy
under the duke of Cleves into Italy to take part in the con-
ferences preparatory to a fresh expedition against the Turks,
but this enterprise likewise fell to the ground. In 1456 the
duke of Burgundy had given an asylum to the Dauphin Louis
(afterwards Louis XI.), who had quarrelled with his father
and had been forced to leave France. The " fox who would
rob his host's hen-roost," as the old king called Louis, repaid
his protector by attempting to sow discord in the ducal family
of Burgundy, and then retired to the castle of Genappe in
Brabant. At Charles VU.'s death, however, Philip was one of
the first to recognize the new king, and accompanied him to
Paris. During the journey Louis won over the seigneurs of
Croy, the principal counsellors of the duke of Burgundy,
and persuaded PhiUp to allow him to redeem the Somme
towns for the sum stipulated in the treaty of Arras. This
proceeding infuriated Phib'p's son Charles, count of Charo-
lais, who prevailed upon his father to break his pledge and
declare war on the king of France. On the 12th of April 1465
Phih'p handed over to his son the entire administration of his
^ This was the singular vow known as " the vow of the pheasant."
from the fact that Philip placed his hand solemnly on a pheasant,
which had been brought to him by his herald, and vowed that
he would fight the Turks and challenge their sultan to nngle
combat.
388
PHILIP (OF HESSE)
estates. The old duke died at Bruges on the zsth of June
X467, and was buried at Dijon.
PhiHp was a great lover of po^^> and luxtiry and a friend of
letters, being the patron of Georges Chastelain, Olivier de la
Marche and Antoine de la Salle, and the founder of the col-
lection of MSS. known as the " Biblioth^ue de Bourgogne "
(now at Brussels), and also of the university of D61e (1421).
He administered his estates wisely; promoted commerce and
industry, particulariy in Flanders; and left his son a well-
lined treasury. He was thrice married: in 1409 to Michelle
(d. 1422), daughter of Charles VI. of France; in 1424 to Bonne
of Artois (d. 1425); and in 1429 to Isabel (d, 1472), daughter of
John I., king of Portugal, (hi the occasion of his third marriage
Philip founded the order of the Golden Fleece. He was succeeded
by Charles, afterwards known as Charles the Bold, his only sur-
viving son by Isabel. He had several illegitimate children,
among them being Comeille, called the Grand Bastard, who was
killed in 1452 at the battle of Ruppelmonde.
(R. Po.)
PHILIP, Lamdgravs of Hxsss (i 504-1 567), son of the
landgrave William II., was born at Marburg on the X3th of
November 1504. He became landgrave on his father's death
in 1509, and having been declared of age in 1518, was married
in 1533 to Christina, daughter of George, duke of Saxony
(d. 1539). In 1523 and 1523 he assisted to quell the rising of
Franz von Sickingen (9.V.), who had raided Hesse five years
previously, and in 1525 he took a leading part in crushing the
rebellion of the peasants in north Germany, being mainly
responsible for their defeat at Frankenhausen. About this
time Philip adopted the reformed faith, of which he was after-
wards the zealous and daring defender. Indifferent to theo-
logical-, or even to patriotic, considerations, his plans to protect
the reformers rested upon two main principles — unity among the
Protestants at home and military aid from abroad. The
schemes he put forward as one of the heads of the league of
Schmalkalden, aimed primarily at overthrowing the house of
Habsburg; to this end aid was sought from foreigner and
native, from Protestant and Catholic alike. Envoys were sent
repeatedly to France, England and Denmark; Turkey and
Venice were looked to for assistance; the jealousy felt towards
the Habsburgs by the Bavarian Wittelsbachs was skilfully
fomented; and the German Protestants were assured that
attack was the best, nay the only, means of defence. Before
the formation of the league of Schmalkalden Philip was very
intimate with Zwingli, and up to the time of the reformer's
death, in 1531, he hoped that material aid would be forthcoming
from his followers. In 1526 he had aided John the Constant,
elector of Saxony, to form an alliance of reforming princes;
and in 1529 he called together the abortive conference at Mar-
burg, hoping thus to close the breach between Lutherans and
Zwinglians. More aggressive was his action in 1528. De-
ceived by the forgeries of Otto von Pack (q.v.), he beli^ed in
the existence of a conspiracy to crush the reformers, and was
only restrained from attacking his enemies by the influence of
John of Saxony and Luther. He succeeded, however, in com-
pelling the archbishop of Mainz and the bishops of WUrzburg
and Bamberg to contribute to the cost of his mobilization;
Philip was freely accused of having employed Pack to concoct
the forgery; and, although this charge is doubtless false, his
eager acceptance of Pack's unproved statements aroused con-
siderable ill-feeling among the Catholics, which he was not slow
to return. In 1529 the landgrave signed the " protest " which
was presented to the diet at Spires, being thus one of the original
" Protestants; " in 1530 he was among the subscribers to the
confession of Augsburg; and the formation of the league of
Schmalkalden in the same year was largely due to his energy.
His next important undertaking, the restoration of Ulrich,
duke of Wilrtemberg (q.v,) to his duchy, was attended with
conspicuous success. Wtirtemberg had passed into the posses-
sion of the Habsburgs. but after Philip's brief and victorious
campaign in 1534 the humiliation of Charles V. and his brother,
the German king, Ferdinand I., was so complete that it was
said the landgrave had done more for ProtestantliAi liy tl
enterprise than a thousand of Luther's books wcmld do. Ail
this victory Philip entertained the idea of ooming to ten
with Charlte V. on the basis of extensive concestions to t!
Protestants; but he quickly vetumed to his iormer plans f
leading a general attack on the Habsburgs. The Conoonl
Wittenberg, made in 1536, wu favourable for these schem
but after five years spent in assiduous preparatioa war w
prevented by the serious illness of the landgrave and t
lukewarmness of his allies. Recovering from his malady,
had returned to his intrigues when an event happened wU
materially affected the fortunes of the Reformation. His oni
with Christina was not a happy one, and having fixed I
affections upon Margaret von der Saal (d. 1566), he obtaia
an opinion from Protestant theologians that bigamy was i
forbidden by Holy Writ. Luther and Melancthon at lem
consented to the marriage, but stipulated that it shoukl
kept secret, and it was celebrated in March 1540. The marrisi
however, became known, and a great outcry arose agaii
Philip, whose friends quickly deserted him. He objected
Luther's counsel to deny the existence of a second marriai
abused John Frederick, elector of Saxony, for not coming
support him; and caiued bigamy to be publicly defeadb
Alarmed, however, by the strength of his enemies, and I
their evident determination to punish him as a bi^^miit, 1
in June 1541 made a treaty with Charles V. at Regenibii
In return for a general pardon he undertook to break <i
relations with France and England and loyally to support tk
emperor.
During these years Phih'p had been forwarding the profm
of the Reformation in Hesse. This was begun about 1526, vks
an important synod was held at Homburg; the univcisitjif
Marburg was founded in the interests of the reformers in ipji
and after the diet of Spires in 1529 the work was conducted siA
renewed vigour. The Catholic worship was siqtpressed, and tik
secularized church revenues supplied an endowment of the new
university.
The peace between the emperor and the landgrave wis MB
broken. In 1542 Phih'p persuaded the league of SchmalkiHai
to attack Henry II., duke of Brunsixdck-Wolfenbattel, oAtaMf
in the interests of the Protestant towns of Brunswick and Godtf^
The duchy was quickly overrun, and Henfy-<-a Catholic ;
driven out; but the good understanding between the
and the landgrave was destroyed, and the relations bctvefli
Protestants and Catholics became worse than before. Nor «M
the fissure in the Protestant ranks closed, and Charics UnI
advantage of this disunion to conquer Gelderland and to msMt
his preparations for overthrowing the league of SchnuIkakkB.
Unlike John Frederick of Saxony, Philip divined, or psitlf
divined, the emperor's intentions, and urged repeatedly that til
forces of the league should be put in order, llib advice pawi
unheeded, and when Charles suddenly showed his hand, and il
July 1546 issued the imperial ban against the landgrave and tk
elector, it was seen that the two princes were almost iaolriii
Fighting began along the upper Danube, and when hnkaiM
and want of funds had ruineid the league's chances of soocH^
Philip returned to Hesse and busied himself with seeking hd|p
from foreign powers; while in April 1547 John Frederick «M
captured at MUhlberg. After this defeat the Umdgravc i«
induced to surrender to Charles in June by his soihbJk^
Maurice, now elector of Saxony, and Joachim II., dectarrf
Brandenburg, who promised Philip that he should be pardomi
and were greatly incensed when the emperor refused to ssRit
to this condition. There is, however, no truth in the itaiy ^
the word einiges was altered by an imperial servant into mfit
thus making the phrase "'Without any imprisonment " is ^
treaty of surrender to read " without perpetual irapriaooM*
Philip was sentenced to detention for fifteen years, and as hi ^
heartily disliked by Charles his imprisonment was a liffin*
one, and became still more so after he had made aq attcHpt V
escape. His acceptance of the Interimin 1548 did not hrini^
freedom; but this came in consequence of the hunuliatia*
PHILIP, J.— PHILIP, K. 389
Cluki V. ■! Ihe huHb of Maurice in 1S51; ud iflcr tbe con- Iriumphed, O'llibu wu dkmiiKd, and PbQip returned to ibe
a^^th les active Ihan fonnerly, the lindinve did not uau iSccling the Datives. Foi a tine his plin ol buaei itatci waa
aiouijuecnibchalEaf the ProtstantsKbile continuing Ihe work Bmal out, but in 1S46 another Kaffir rising convinced him of
II Rfonning and organizing the Chuicb in Hesse. In ij6i Lhe futility of hi) schemes. The Kaffir chief who bid accom-
hiided the HugueuoU Kith troops, and he waa frequently in panied him to England joined the enemy; and many of hi*
iHuiuiikation with the ioiuigentt in the Ncthetlandsi but hii ronvena showed that his eBorls on their behalf had eSected no
tfciU to form a union of the Protestants were fruitless. Philip, change in their character. This was ■ blow from which he did
•to ii sometimes called the Uapimimmu, died at Cassel on the not recover. The anneialion of the Orange River Sovereignty
Jiitof March ij6;. By Chriitba he had [our ions and hve in 1848 followed, finally datroying hi) hope of maintaining
Hflituned at hit death bftween his soni. He had alio by with polilica and retired to the mission station at Hankey, Cape
Huiuel von der 5a*l seven sons, who were called caunU of Colony, where he died on the 2;th of August iSji.
Dini, ud out daughter. SeeSaiiTHAiBicA:ifii(or>:G. M'C.Thearsf/iiiiirye/Scnill.tf'tia
ifKi 170S (Loitdoii, cd. ir^): Uiumarj Maiannc (le^e-iSs'):
R. WanEaw's Fajural Sirmim. i»sa.
PHIUP, KWO (<. iej<>-l6)6), chief sachem of the Wam-
panoag Indiana in America, and the son of Massasoit (d. 1661)—
as the English, mistaking this title (great chief) for a proper
name, called Woosamequin (Vcllow Feathri)-wha for forty
yean wu the friend and ally ol the English colonists at
Plymouth. To Masuioit'i two sons, Wamsutmand Mctacomel,
the English give the namea rtspcctivcly of Alexander and
Philip. Alexander succeeded his father as sachem, and in the
jtatBt (Ca«cl. IWUJ i Von Dnch and lt6r«.cl.c Die BiUiiuK ^^^ ^, ,tit !„ Marshficid, whither he hid gone to explain
i-C, PUipp,. publi.i;^ by the V^i Si, *e.n«ll. a«*W*(, ',;";'^?'i'«^ ""'""^'^ "'* "j'-'T^"' '^ ^"^^'f
_i i__j. 1..^^. t.- 1 ,^(. 1^ Pjlijee Jit Cnumiiltti. ill ; he died r- '•- •■ Dt.i.- _i 1_
muP, JOHH (i7T5-iSsi). British mia^nvy in South in the internal ifFaiii of tbe Indians.' In 1M7 oi
Uia, was born on the i.(lb of April i;7S.at Kirkcaldy, Fife, the Indiansaccusedhim toihe English of altcmpling 10 betray thcni
■aofaKboolmaUeTinthallown. After having been apprenticed to the French or Dutch, but this charge was not proved. Id
III Snendnper, and for three years a clerk in a Dundee buslnea 1671 the Plymouth authorities demanded that the Wampanoagi
hoe, he entered the Hoilon (Congregational) Theological ahould surrrodDr Iheii arms; Philip consented, but his FoUowen
Cdltge. and in 1S04 was appointed to a Congiegatianil chapel [ailed locomply.andmtasuies were taken to enforce the promise.
■ Aberdeen. In lgig he joined Ihe Rev. John Campbell in his FhUip thereupon went before the general court, agreed to pay an
■Hold journey to South Africa to inspect the sutiona of the aonuiil tribute, and not to sell lands or engage In war with other
loion Missionary Society, and reported that the conduct ol the Indians without tbe consent of the Plymouth govemmenl. In
Cip( ColoniHs towards the natives was deserving ol strong 1674, when three Wampanoags were executed at Plymouth lor
Kprnbition. In 18 j 3 the London Missionary Society appointed the alleged murder of Sassamon, an Indian convert who had
^ iDperinlendent o( theii South African stations. He made played the part of informer to the English, Philip could no
hi headquarlen at Cape Town, where he also esiahliihcd and longer hold his foUoweia in check. There were outbieaks in the
udenmk the pastorate of the Union ChapeL His indignation puddle of June iC?;, aod on the >4tb of June the massacre of
m aroused by the barbarities inllicted upon the Hottenloti whiles began. There was no concened movement of the various
•ai Kafhrs (by a minority of the colonists), and he set himself to tribes and the war had Dot been previously planned. The
midy their grievances: but his leal was greater thin hii Nipmuck Indians rose in July; Ihe tribes along the Connecticut
boricdge. He misjudged tbe character both of the colonists rivet in August; those in Ihe present states of Maine and New
ud of tbe Datives, his cardinal mistake being in regarding the Hampshire in September and October, and the Nairaganseta
AhioD as little removed from the European in intellect and in December, when (on the igtb) they were attacked and seriously
opicity. It was the period of the agitation For the abolition crippled, in what is now the township of South Kingstown,
•f Avny in England, where Philip's charges against the Rhode Island, by the English (under Governor Josiah Winstow
ctfaaiits and the cokmial govetnmenl found powerful support, of Plymouth), who suspected tlieir loyalty.
lEsmflueoce was seen in the ordinance of 183S granting all free The colony of Connecticut took quick measures of defence,
oibvred peraoits at the Cape every right to which any other guarded its frontier, maintained its alUance with the Mf^egans,
Sriloh suhjecta were entitled. During 1816-181S he was in and suHercd little injury. Massachusetts and Plymouth were
Eoglud, and in Ihe last-named year be published Raarchii slower in acting and suffered great loss. Rhode Isbnd raised
ia Sh^ Afriia, containing his views on the native question, po troops, and suffered severely. Early fn the autumn Philip
Hit leaHnmendaliiHii were adopted by the House ol Commons, went neatly as far west as Albany in an unsticcesslul attempt to
but his uopopularily in South Africa was great, and in iSjo hi get aid from Ihe French and Ihe Mohawks and supplies from the
ni mnvicted ol libelling a Cape oRicial. The British govern- Dutch traders. At DeerAeld on the iSlh of September about
— - • . .. ^ ..... 60 English were killed at ' ....
■J«tK«ii' (Camel. 1004); and Pliiltpp itr Cniiimadrt. ill ; he died on his way home. Philip, whoauccecdedAlexi
»rCrii*i'>lciri>i(iIj>inii,>itfHi>vr2nl.publiWiedbyihc suspected the English ol poisoning his brother. Tbe £
■"■'■"■ ■ " w (Maibuig, 1904). hadg»wnilrongerandinorenumeroua,andhadbegHnton
to th( views of Philip, who (or over twenty years eietcissl
Ihe spring of 1676 it became evident that the Indian power was
waning. The warriors had been unable to plant their crops;
they were weaker numerically and more poorly armed than the
Ilx destinies of the country. One of Philip's ideals was thi
English, and the Utter had also made an alliance with the friendly
•alive tutes around dpe Colony. In Sir BcDJamiD D'Urbar
N-aticksand the Nianlics. On lhe >st ol August i6;6 Philip's
wife and nine-year old ton were captured, and on the nth of
ailiws. WTienhoweverat Ihcdoseof the Kaffir Warofi8i4-3:
August an Indian traitor guided the Engbsh to the sachem's
DTtban annexed the countiy up to the Kei River, Pblip'-
hiding place in a swamp at Ihe foot of Mount Hope (in what is
taliBly waa aroused. Became to England in tgjS, in companj
now the township ol Bristol, Rhode Island), where early tbe neii
Mb opinion asuut lhe Cape (ovemroenl. His 1
39°
PHILIPPA OF HAINAUT— PHILIPPIANS
on a pole in a public place, where it remained fior a quarter of a
century; his right hand was given to his slayer, who preserved it
in rum and won many pennies by exhibiting it in the New
England towns. The struggle was now over in southern New
England, but it continued along the north-eastern frontier till
the spring of 1678, and nearly every settlement beyond the
Piscataqua was destroyed. In the colonies of Plymouth,
Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut six hundred
men (or about 9% of the fighting population), besides many
women and children, had been killed; thirteen settlements had
been completely destroyed, and about forty others were partly
burned. Plymouth had incurred a debt greater than the value
of the personal property of her people. The Indians suCTered
even worse: in addition to the large number of pien, women and
children slain, great numbers, among them the wife and son of
PhiUp, were sold into slavery in the Spanish Indies and the
Bermudas. Many others migrated from New England to New
York; and the few remaining Indians, feeble and dispirited, were
no longer a power to be reckoned with. Philip was an Indian
patriot and statesman, not a warrior; he united the tribes in their
resistance to the colonists, but was not a great leader in battle.
' See George M. Bodges, Soldiers in Kine PhUif*s War (Leo-
minster, Mass., 1896); John Gorham Palfrey, History of New
England, vol. iii. (Boston, 186^); and especially George W. Ellis
and John E. Morris, King Philip's War (New York, 1906). See
also Entertaining Passages Relating to King Philip's War (Boston,
1 7 16; new edition, edited with notes Iw H. M. Dexter, Boston,
1865), the account by Colonel Beniamin Church (1639-1718), one 01
the principal leaders of the Enelish, of the warfare in south-eastern
New Enjg;land, in which he took part ; it is one of the most famous
and realistic accounts of early Indian warfare.
PHIUPPA OF HAINAUT (c. 1314-1369). queen of the English
kiAg Edward III., was the daughter of William the Good, count
of Holland and Hainaut, and his wife Jeanne de Valois, grand-
daughter of Philip III. of France. Edward visited the court of
Count William in 1326 with his mother Isabella, who immediately
arranged a marriage between him and Philippa. After a dispen-
sation had been obtained for the marriage of the cousins (they
were both descendants of Philip III.) Philippa was married by
proxy at Valenciennes in October 1327, and landed in England
in December. She joined Eklward at York, where she was
married on the 30th of January 1328. Her marriage dower had
been seized by the queen dowager Isabella to pay a body of
Hainauters, with whose help she had compassed her husband's
deposition. The alliance ensured for Edward in his French wars
the support of Philippa 's influential kindred; and before starting
on his French campaign he secured troops from William the
Good, as well as from the count of Gclderland, the count of
Julick, and the emperor Louis the Bavarian. Her mother
Jeanne de Valois, visited her in 133 1 and further cemented the
community of interests between England and Flanders. Before
133 s Philippa had established a small colony of Flemish weavers
at Norwich, and she showed an active interest in the weaving
trade by repeated visits to the town. She also encouraged coal-
raining on her estates in Tynedale. Her eldest son, Edward the
Black Prince, was bom in 1330, and she subsequently bore six
sons and five daughters. In November 1 34 2 she became guardian
of John of Gaunt and her younger children, with their lands.
Her agents are said to have shown great harshness in collecting
the feudal dues with which to supply her large household. The
anecdotes of her piety and generosity which have been preserved
are proof, however, of her popularity. She itaterceded in 1331
with the king for some carpenters whose careless work on a
platform resulted in an accident to herself and her ladies, and on
a more famous occasion her prayers saved the citizens of Calab
from Edward's vengeance. There is a generally accepted story,
based on the chronicles of Jehan le Bel and Froissart, that she
summoned the English forces to meet the Scottish invasion of
1346, and harangued the troops before the battle of Neville's
Cross. She certainly exerdsed considerable influence over her
husband, whom she constantly accompanied on his campaigns;
and her death on the isth of August 1369 was a misfortune for
the kingdom at laige, since Edward from that time came under
the domination of the rapacious Alice Perren, Fbil
patron and friend of Froissart, who was her secieUi
to 1366. (^een's College, Oxford, was not, as
Skclton's version of her epitaph, founded by her,
chaplain, Robert of Eglesfield. Her chief beoef:
made to the hospital of St Katharine's by the Tow
See Ajg^nes Strickland, Lives of the Queens 0/ En,
In addition to the account given in his CkroniqueSt Fi
a formal eulogy of her, which has been losL
PHIUPPEVILLE, a seaport of Algeria, chief
arrondissement in the department of Constantine
N. by E. of that city, on the Bay of Stora, in 36* 53'
It is connected by railway with Constantine, Batna
The town derives its importance from being the pen
tine. The harbour works, with every vessel in
been destroyed by a storm in 1878, a more commod
was built, at a cost of about £1,200,000. From C^
the east a mole or breakwater projects 4592 ft. to 1
while from Ch&teau Vert on the west another m
1312 ft. to the north, leaving an entrance to the port
wide. The protected area comprises an outer a
basin. The depth of water at the entrance is about
side the quays about 20 ft. The quays are faced
of white marble brought from the quarries at F
distant. Pop. (1906), of the town 16,539, of the com
of the arrondissement, which includes 12 communes
Philippeville occupies the site of successive Ph*
Roman cities. By the Romans, under whom it att
state of prosperity, it was named Rusicada. In the
the town ceased to be inhabited. The site was pui
the Arabs by Marshal Val6e in 1838 for £6. Some
Roman theatre remain, but the stones of the a
which stood without the walls of the modem town, a
French found in an almost perfect state of preset
used by them for building purposes, and the rail'
through the site. On a hill above the town are
reservoirs, which have been restored and still sup|
with water. They are fed by a canal from the Wadi
The Roman baths, in the centre of the modem to
collars for military stores.
PHILIPPI (Turk. Filibejik), a dty of ancient Ma.
steep hill near the river Gangites (mod. Angistoi),
an extensive plain and at no great distance from thi
Aegean, on the highway between Ncapolis (Kavaha]
lonica. Originally called Crenides (Fountains),
later name from Philip II. of Macedon, who made hi
of the neighbouring gold mines of the Hill of D
fortified the city as one of his frontier-towns. In .
the victory gained over the senatorial party by <
Antony, it became a Roman colony, Colonia Julia
which was probably increased after the battle of
Aug. Julia Phil.). The inhabitants received the .
and Philippi was one of the specially designated "
(Acts xvi. 12; see Marquardt, Rom. Slaatsvenoali
The city was twice visited by St Paul, whose
the Philippians was addressed to his converts her
now uninhabited, is marked by niins — the substn
amphitheatre, parts of a great temple — which ha
interesting inscriptions. A little to the east is th
monument of C. Vibius, known to the Turks as Dikt
to the Greeks as the Manger of Bucephaltis.
See Heuzey and Daumct, Mission arch, en MaUdoine
and other authorities in bibliography of Macedonia
Lai. iii. i.
PHIUPPIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. a book of the
ment. Communications had already passed betwe
tians of Philippi and Paul, not only when he was at
(iv. 15-16), but at some subsequent period (iv. 18),
roditus had brought him a present of money from
possible that this gift was accompanied by a letter,
the extant epistle is the answer to one received from t
Christians, who had evidently desired infonnatic
PHILIPPIANS 391
MacedoDian churcbct. The miio argumint [or pulling It oulicr
ii derived fnin the admitted (fiinitics between it and Romuu,
H mum to Ukd (L 15 icq.). the Colouiin ind Epheiiin epiiUcs conliining. it is held, i mon
(■r 1 brM (raetiot 1 sdvunced chriElology [u Lighlfool espeeially, 8iid Hoit, JuiaitHc
'SloSU'it^K™ dedsive. P»u] inole liDni lime to time, Mt in the eHmittoi
Hdud thui be 1^ "I ■ liuniy plin, but at diSeteal objecti 01 interests called out
r HR ID avoid any ) his powera. The PhilippiiDS did not require, and therefore did
r imy ' as a cbunh (1 not receive, the sime elaborate •amiiiD as tlie Asiatic churches.
llrS^aMta'lSjS'i!;!! Hence on the one hand it is unreal %„ by stress on emncidences
■« WM CTToiiui ol niU) Romans, as if these necessarily implied that both epistles
■Hot unity i< PWlip musl have been composed shortly alter one anolhet, nhile again
■ withiomeijeiioiiatactjmiiv. io-»JJ. the further sUge' o( thought on Christ and the Church, whith is
Ml is a prisoner when he writes, and the place o[ compatiliog evident in Colossiam, doa not prove that the litter
I thenfore be Ciesarei or Rome {Acts iiviii. 16, 30-ji). foUowed the ton
:endence upon the whole seems to point 10 Ihe latltr. The Ibe e[Hstle sti
■at eUa KoliB^nt (iv. ii) suits Romebcllcrlhan Caesarea, epistles.
, wbile TpvTuifim (i. 13) don not necessarily imply thi The attempts made during the igth century to di^rove Ihe
ital. it is most naturally understood of Rome.' But Uu Pauline authorship now possess merely an historic interest, nor
it tone of the episllc suggests that Paul expected a speedy hive the various hypotheses of more or less extensive ifiter-
Ippeal to Caesar involved a protracted process, and El la to the view that the epistle is mcde up of two separate nolo,
tBtion. The critical outlook of Philippiaos does not corre- found in Ihe abrupt hiatus of iij. i, and evidence is led from
>i with Ibe posllion of Ihe apostle at Caesarcs, nor can the supposed inconsistencies between the earlier and the latter parts
tt Uwn be said to have been a centre of vigorous Christian ot Ihe epislie. Bui the flexibility of a leiier-wiitct, under
pipiida {i. 17}. Finally, the ccmlentton that no visit ol different moods of feeling, which would naturally lead to rapid
■Ay to Rome is known b an argument from silence which transitions, may be adduced as some explanation of Ihe latter
llilllemore weight than ihc plea of Spitlilhalthecupidity phenomena. The eiegcsis don not ibtoluidy nccessilale a pani-
Ui (Acts uiv. ifi) was CKcilcd by Ihc atriva] ot the money tion of the ejHslle, which (so Hcinrichs and Paulus) would make
1 rtaippi (Phil. iv. 16). iii. i^v. 10 1 special letter addressed to some inner circle ol Ihc
. farther eiaminaiion of the epistle shows that it must have apostle's friends (in spile of iv. ioscq.),ortakeiii.-iv. (Hausnith,
inittenlawardsthecloseollheiurfa3Xi)Df Acuuviii. 30, Hiilaty •>! H . t. Timei,iv. 161 stq. ind Bkob, SUry if SI Paul,
a Ibe eiriier part of Ihe Roman captivity. Paul is on pp.367seq.)aseBrticrlhanI.-ii. Besides, as Pflcldc ret pdnlsoul,
K^ and eve of the great decision. Behind him (i. ri-ij) the hypothesis is shipwrecked on the difficulty of Inueining tk-it
1 period during which cnnsidersble progress has been made " each ol Ihe e[nslles had but one essential pui: the linl, in
be bat preaching and eiteiuion ol Ibe gospel, nor dots the particular, lacking an ciptcssion of thanks for the gilt from the
Uge «f the apostle suggfst that this fiesh departure in the FhilippUuu, which must nevertheless, according lo ii. >5, have
agaida was stimulated by Ihe mere novelty of his arrival, already Isken pUcc," In his letter to the PbiUpplans (iii. i)
Ihenwre. Ihe relations belween the Philippians and himself Polycarp indeed observes that Paul wrote InsroUi to them;
nppcoe, on any lair estimate, an interval of lime which but, even if the plural could DOI be liken as cquivaleitt lo k
■I be crushed into a few months. News of his arrival must single despatch, it would not necessarily support the partition
:rtachedlhem: money was collected (ii, ij, Iv. i&) and then theory of the canonical Philippians. Polycarp may have known
irded by Epiphrodilus, who fell sick after be reached the ol more than one Pauline note lo Phi!i[^i, no longer eitanl, or
til; news' of this again floated back to Philippi, and subse- he may be referring loosely lo 1 Thesulonians, which was ad-
idr Paul heard oi Ihe Philippians' concern (U. 16), Not till droscd to t nelghbounng Macedonian church. The etegclical
i£d he compose this letlet. argumentiire, in short, Ihe Anal court ol appeal, and thcli verdict
luEfi(iians is thus the last eilant letter we possess from Paul, letls rather in favour (A Ihc epistle's integrity. The timjdcst
■ some of the notes embedded in ihe pastoral epistles are account of iiL r is to su[q»se that Paul slartcd afresh to complete
edited subsequent lo iis cnniposiiion. Il unites the dose or supplement what he had already wriiicn, possibly liecause
a career in Rome wiih the beginning of his missioa work in some fresh tidings from Philippi had reached him in Ihe Inlerval.
ipc (iv. 15; cf. Acts ivi. II). and illustrates nol merely Ihe Psycholo^cally Ibe change from ii, iQseq., with its nole of forc'
Uioo of the apostle al Rome, but the terms of eiccplional well, to the impassioned outburst of iii. 1 seq.,is not incredible in
lion which existed from first 10 fast between him and Ihe an informal letter from a nun like Paul. The hiatus is striking,
'a ihe Hrong Chriuiaii consciomneK of solidarity, preuippoicd but 11 cannol be hdd lo neccssllale an editorial dovetailing of
ePtiilippianv lee Von Dobtchuu'i CkriUuiii Liji m Ikt Fiimilae two separate epistles. It is doubtful, therefore, if the ingenioiu
ii'I^i' 3^?iF?u I,, ii ,1 f.«™ i ..1 I. r,..jv,u„ .„ !,• attempts lo analyse Philippians have proved much more con-
sys.isslE-s.Vi^fti'iisrSfS.!:,': ™a.k.n,';K-''™'™™°'""'«'=ii=.-.p..*.
nol to undcnabe a joumtv 10 Macedonia, or to pcriorm «me nrst Phihppic of Demosthenes, where research has swung back
r KTvn which he desired, and Ihe words only eiprm the in the main lo a conservative portion (cf. A, Baron in Witntr
Muiy diaj^ntmenl of a man who was impcisonod and ready Sluditn iSSl IJi-ioO
.!« the F«pe! " (Drummond). Cf. Renan". Anli^in., (Eng. J^^ g^^ ^J ^^ ^, ^^^ ,^^ »rc heard in Polycarp,
f>ie lootled lo(ion in {Jutiin's?} Di Hturrecl. a: Onar 4> 'hough It wos probably known to Clement ol Rome and Ignatius
V '¥ ■•'•bifsi. ititxitr. icemB a mere echo of iiL K. (cf. Ihe evidence tabulated in Tie Sea TtsUinat in Ike AttiMic
>i if. i Von Sodcn notn {HiOnrj 1^ Ea'ly CkriiHan LOenln'r, • To the details rumlihed in ihc pn«^nt writer's HiaaHai Krw
HI Ikit " it i> » if we heard the ripple of the wives at the rtslamm (ind ed., 1901, pp. 614-635) may be addrd prfetmces id
rSn^^bi -it"— "- -.r- -- P^-^:"
liHT^'^h^"
393 PHILIPPICS— PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
PaAm, 1905, pp. SjMq-, 71 nq., M mi'i *illi R. J. KnowUni'i PRIUPPIRB ISUHDt, 01 Tbb pBiumms, mb udo
Tatimtny^ St Fa^leCktUt, pf. ill M)]. ud Grecory'* Caim belonfiDtta tbe United Suict ol Aacriu, liiuilcd iboui
ard Ttxii/ N. T., 1907, pp. »oj-io6). oH ihe S.E. cout of Asii between 4' 40' and 11' lo" (
~ " "' 'tlwGiTck belwnn ii6°4(>'and ii6*j4'E. li Is bounilcd W. and
r ind Id., ihc China Sea, E. by Ibc Pacific Ocean, and S. by the Cdct
addJd'^c and the coastaJ walen ol Borneo. Of the brge iilandi.
, LightroM (40,969 tq. m) U the most nonherly, and Mindanao (
■ipKli an sq. n), the in«t »ulheily. Between Luion and Mindan
'r™w^ ^•™" 'S"^' ">■ ■"'■ ^'«™ '***■ '^- >").?»>")■ U6"*
™hv E5 "''"'°" 'J^S' "^^ " '• !'>■" <"'" «l- "•)> C't-'i ('!»' "
^Bnien BDhol(i44i «!. m.] and Maibatc (iije tq. m.). Fanhe
ork on the and Kparited from the soulhini ponion ot this chain ij ib
P**'^*"- njitow island ot Palawan oi Parapia (40J7 K[. m.). Tbi
^p™' land area of the Philippine! 13 aboui 115,016 sq. m., and 9
igc'iihM- "<'' " included in the eleven islands named above. The
[1S99} and twenty othen, which have an atea noRing from 106 sq.
hbrC. S- 6S1 iq. m., and the total nunbei of isbnds enumerated -
10 w'r^ the archipelago i»ji4i jot these Ji;s contain less than 1 .
["mhJtji Ph'iail ftglnpei.— The iilandi an mainly of volcanic ariei
etoMBiwiu ((« JVefiK OM PjkiJ., 186J): A. Sibaiici (£.™/. rf« '"" ";"■" ■* muchbrolicn by hill.. uoUted vokaiwr
Kinm rdit. x. S<*-S7])i J- abb (Hauinn'. Dirt. Biili, iii. mMiniain nnEei, trending nmh and »ulh. i»nh-.r« and
MA^JTfesyssibS'&K: s-.ss.;r„M'si;u'f.^-f.!KiK-:
and in r*«/. yoJtrt.. Wpp. SOI «q., iBji, pp. iU icq.); E. RinicTi ™V. complex; the eenl.al nd« u m ™ne port, a rolling F'
anluhtfi/ur mil. Tiia:. HI7J. Pp. !9 Kq.Si STflockitra ITtttl. «" " ."" '" "' ?■'■ " ?J** [1-. and nitmeroiu lofiy ^u» f
^MuS^,.',»^s. pp. 4.6 «q,^ A.S'™<'-?-.(P' c»".-." ^ S: „":tr'aid'"^TSiSr !s;™'".C":£«'jr
BMween Ibe Sena Madre and Caraballoi Occidrntakt i> ihi
of tbe Cigiyin river, about ja m. wkle, and east U Ox 7m
lanic i> a kwland baun, about ISO m. lonx and so m. niik
Ibe eninn ink-ana of Ailyai rim Id 3364 ft. The tfaia
eS Huiheni Luzon i. orcuiHed by i»kit(d vokanoc. and im
nuiH ol hill, and muuniainL M( Ma>im (79l«. It-I. no
peiltct cone. Of leu promiiienre ate Ml Baniiao (71U li
luidf (C6J4 'I.) and Ml Mauraga (5144 It.), file isTaRd d
daaao i. iravened lunli In nuih hv mountain tanm. '
ritt &A Ihrir Hnnmin to heiihti eaeeetGng 41100 ft. Tlut
the eau eoau I. lonEen and traai broken, and bctiiTcn it on
neat raotc inland it Ihc kvel valley of the Agutan rivrr. In
to 50 m. wide. Farther we?4 and nouth.wetf i. ibe vaNey f
Rio Grande Mindanao, the lartn»t river on the hLind. and hr
the lower cour^ of this ri^-er and the mith eoj«i i. a uha
ranee wilh a north.v'est and 90uth.ea>t trend. On ihe ra^ I
o( the Knith portion of the Uiiin ul Ihe Rio Granik Muida:
_....~«« - , ■ 1 .- . . Mt Apo (10,31) ft.), an olincc vokano and the hichtit eln
PHILIPPICS, in c.iHir.il kreralure. a vrm of nralions :.. <i..s ..».!. :mW»k *
PHIUPPtCS, in classical liteialure. a senes of orations In the archipelago,
delivered by Demosthenes against Philip of Macedon, The Each of the larger iiUnds between [.uion and Mindaain. •
name was applied to the spei-chei of Cicen) against Mark ^""'^fjj ^'*"' ■^j"'™"'' l?'^'"''"''^*' *'^ * ""►'^ T^
PHIUPPICUS, East Roman cmpeior, 7ii-7tJ. ".-al Ibe ion of a!ld it cutminaic.'^n*I.it'nalc4n Sl>out'S»™)."'li Ned
the pattician Kiccphoius, and became dislinguished lua'ioldicr Mt Canlafin Miga It.), a volcano, and »yeral jummli. rm
..«„;«».. n. m „„,.«, .». i-,.,» M, SSSJ^r-fSViir^iSKSt'S'S^K,
Atmenian ongin, wa» Batdanei. Relying on the jUMJOtl ol the High, and inCebfi no) mwh more Uian looD It. In Saniac
Monothelite patty, he made tome pretensions to the Ihnne on are irregular nu»n of hilla. Tbe Huibem ponion rl bS
the outbreak ol the first great rebellion against Justinian; these very hillv. but Ihe norlbem nanion is more leveL l^alakan )
led to his relcgilion to Ccphatonia by Tiberius Absimarus, and j""' SJlL'i^liJSiX's whhan^i'^^SriHM w «
iubsequently to his banishment, by order ol Jusliniin, la »„d » [„ „„„«, ,ho«, toon ft. Sfli. Sabmarine ■>»
Cherion. Here Bardancs, taking the name of HiilipiHcus, ranges canned nut onlj; Ihe i^iindi wilhin tbe IrcMii'bgA. Ic:
successfully incited the inbabilanu to revoil, and on the assas. the archipelago it"ell with BurneoandCefcJiefc so that only *
....™ .1 j.,w.. h. ., ..« «....<. , J, ,.,1. «.„ M. ss'ST-s; S j-a "'. ~a5s.'Sf,Er;,';
fir^I act! were the deposition of Cyrus, the orthodoi patnarch |„ H,„pi,, ;, longed with coral reds and broken by numnci.
The Cagayin river, in north Lvr
si«h general council. Meanwhile r^!?..'l!'."_f«?^"~_'"_-^!»".«_!''
uTth ol the Idaml. TS
Terbelis, king of Ihe Bulgarians, I^niJ™! "P '" "« *»">"' r,rnn*de'hlin'lnw'(kU!SinitViip^™™MtiieRiPB'li
inroaiis from the Asiatic side. The feign o( Philippieus waJ Mindanao and i. wcond In lin. U and the Agi^n. whiih '
brought to a close through a conspiracy headed by two of hii ^''5,S^^^5S."TK'wil3S ri™ J^ih^ l^JbS'
geocials. who caused him to be bUnded. „, ^,„, ,_„„„ „„ ,^, p,^^„^ ,„,! ,h, Agna The Pami
See Gibbon, Dtdnt and Fall cj iIk Stman Empirt (ed. Buiy, ri-n in the highLindi nn the niinhnnst hnnlrr. How. MnNh bv
London, >«'/>]. V. 1S1-1B4, and diKharges through several channili into Maiula Bty.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
393
in the nouotaint on the north boixler, Bowi touth,
ind Durth-wcst, and discharEcs through leveral channel*
iU of Lingay^ Each of these has» a great number of
taries, and along the coast of this lowland basin are
tide water stieanu. The Pasig is a short but commvr-
tant stream connecting Laguna de Bay with Manila Buy.
xJ, which rises in LaJce Uaio and flows N.N.W. into San
, is the principal ri\rr of sciuth Luxon. Saraar, Panay,
'te, Bohol and Ceb^ are drained by many streams, and a
: in Samar, Panay and Negros are of considerable sixe.
■rland basin of central Luzon, 6 m. inland from Manila
{una de Bay, the largest body of fresh water in the
It is 33 m. long from north>west to south-east
it-line, broken on the north bv two hillv peninsulas, is
. Lake Taal. a few miles south- west of Laguna de Bay.
e crater of a great volcano. It is 17I m. long ana
The country rises ^ntly to it on all sides, and on an
its centre is the active volcano of Taal, 1050 ft. high,
luon is Lake Cagay&o. In Mindanao there are lakes
uasan and Buluan in the west«ccntral portion and
it. Pinaya, Dagun, Sadocum and Linao in the valley
iin. There arc small lakes in some of the other islands.
-The Philipiiincs appear to be the remnants of a some-
ex !»y$tcm of mountain arcs, which from their similarity
I direction seem to be in some way connected with the
ingcs of Annam. The oldest rocloi exposed are gneiss,
ind serpent me, with intrusive masses of^ gabbro and
he^ic are overlaid by a limestone, upon which rests con-
■crics of sandstones with coal seams. The age of these
mown, in some of the islands nummulitic limestone
Turs. Coral limestones, probably of Middle Tertiary
a found, ranietirucs 4000 ft. above the sea, and marine
I. very late geological period occur near the coast and in
ig dcprca&iun^ Volcanic rocks of modem date cover
rcas. especially in the southern part of Luzon and in
In Luzon trachytic tulTs are sometimes interstratified
uJitic limestone, thus showing that the eruptions had
un in the EL'xene period.
and Eartkqwikis. — I'here arc twelve active volcanoes in
ago. They are Babuyan Claro, Camiguin de Babuyanes
in the Babuyanes lalancis off the north coast of Luzon;
sua in north Luzon; Taal, May6n and Bulusan in south
laon and Mag'i.s6 in Negroe; Camiguin de Mindanao in
f Camijcuin, txi the north coast of Mindanao; and Apo
in Mindanao. Only a few eruptions ha\'c been recorded
liese, howevvr, except Ta;il and May6n, and there has
ut eruption of Taal since 1754. But there were 36
[ Mayon in the 19th century, and those of 1814 and
r great violence. That ci 1897 began practically without
the sjrd of June, becimu alarming on the 24th and
on the 25th, and ceased on the 30th. Streams of lava
destroyed several villages and injured others, as well as
f San Fernando. The lava flow extended more than
nl, and a rain of ashes extended 100 m. to the east and
; west. There arc eight other volcanoes, which although
lurmant have well-preserved cones. Thev are Ar&yat,
n Criatobul. Isartw; and Malinao in aoutn Luzon, and
ind M.ttutum in Mindanao,
kes arc frequent and occasionally violent. In the
1O03-1908 the microseismograph at Manila recorded
irthquakes. In the 47 years ending March 1909 the
ons of the nrchipcla(;o were visdted by about 60 strong
; 16 of t\nM:, in ten diflerent regions, occurred in the
. 1890 to 1900. There were 8 in tlw year 1897 alone, and
'. r-jim.1l the town of Zamboanga in west Nlindanao and
iderablc hi&s of life by falling buildings and immense
A new isvland apiwared at this time off the coast of
ir Labuan. The principal centres of disturbance are
V f'f the Agusan, in the region of May6n volcano, in
I Taal volcano, on Masbate Ihland, and along the north
zon. The islands of CebCi, Bohol, Negros and Palawan
i.'iken.
The Philippines, politically speaking, and the Philip-
ri^atWy «i>eaking. are not identiciu areas; Balabac,
i the Calaniianes bt'ing characterized by the occurrence
s Bornean forms whicn arc conspicuously absent from
ng islancR Although the Philippines are commonly
1 an eastern extension of the I ndo- Malayan sub-region,
rge amount of specialization in the fauna of the islands
the Palawan group. Mammals are scarce. No mar-
ir. The edentates are represented by the pangolin
') of the Palawan group. In the seas are found the
:ha]ot nnd dugong. Wild hogs of at least two species
beautiful axik deer oi Sulu has apparently been brought
in. Rc-d or brown deer occur in Basilan, Mindanao,
ir and the Calamianes Islands. The number of species
spcctive rani^es have not been satisfactorily determined.
, Panay, Guimaras and Negros there is a dark-coloured
ked «ith buff spots. Deer are absent in Palawan,
Tablas* Romblon, Sibuyan and Siquijor. Humped
cattle are railed on mott of the islands. They are killed for their
flesh, hides and horns, and little attention w paid to their milk-
giving properties. The water-buffalo, or caraboa. occurs in a
wild state in Luzon, Mindoro, the Calamianies group, Maabate,
Neg;ro« and Mindanao, but the wild henls are believed to have
orinnated from domesticated animals. The domesticated water-
buttalo w slunish in its movements, and will not work through
the heat of the day; but it b a wonderful swimmer, and hums
its way through the worst quagmire with ease. It is universally
used as a draught animal and beast of burden. The most inter-
estinff of the ruminants is the timarau {Bubalus mindorensis, Heude),
peculiar to Mindoro. Unlike the water-buffalo, it does not bathe
in water or wallow in mud. It is extremely wild, feeding by night
and sleeping by day in the densest jungle. It sometimes charges
the hunter without provocation, and is very dangerous when
wounded. It attacks and lolls the much larger wild buffalo. All
attempts to domesticate it have failed. A che\Totain w found
in Balabac. The house rat, introduced by man, is a common
nuisance, and mice occasionally seriously dama^ sug[ar<anc and
rice. Squirrels are confined to the eastern chain of isiamls from
Basilan to Samar and to the Paiawan-Calamianes grou|x In the
southern islands there is a tiny species, the size of a mouse. Veiv
large flying-squirrels are found m Palawan and Mindanao. Squirrel-
shrews occur in the Palawan-Calamianet group, and true shrews
at various points in the archiiielago. Amon^ the Carnivores
are the binturong and an otter, both found in the Palawan-
Calamianes group; two dvet cats, which range throughout the
archipelago, and a wild cat of small size, which has been found
in Palawan, Panay, Negros and Luzon. Bats are very numerous,
and a number of the species are peculiar to the Philippines.
CaUopUkecus and Tarsius ran^ from Basilan to Samar; the former
occurs also in Bohol. In spite of all that has been said to the
contrary, but one species of monkey (^Macacus pkilippiiumsii,
Geoff.) has been discovered in the Phihppines. It occurs on every
island of any importance. Its flesh is occasionally eaten by tfaie
natives. Albino specimens of this monkey are not uncommon,
but the pure white monkeys, not allnnos, said to inhabit Mindanao,
are mythical. The large fruit bats {Pteropus) occur in immenie
colonies, and are sometimes eaten by the natives.
Especial importance attaches to the unexpected discovery by
Whitehead oi a new and peculiar mamnulian fauna, inhabiting
a small plateau on the top of Mt Data, in north Luzon, at an altitude
of more than 7000 ft. Specimens of 15 species were obtained,
embracing 5 new genera (Ciilaemomys, Ckrotomys, Rhynckomys.
Batomys and Carpomys). Eight of the species were new and
strikingly peculiar. ^ Their zoological relationships are probably
with Celebes and with Australia. Other discoveries include a few
new squirrels and bats, and the occurrence of a lemur {Nyctictbus
tardigradus) in Tawi Tawi.
Thie islands are as rich in txixls as they are poor in mammals, the
total number of species recorded up to 1906 being 693, of which
about one-half are peculiar to the Philippines. A study of their
geographical distribution has demonstrated that the islands may
be divided into fairly well-marked groups, in each of which the
birds show a degree of specialization closely correlated with
diversity of environment and completeness and probable duration
of (tcparation from adjacent groups. Balabac, Palawan and the
Calamianes show a very strong Bornean element. Mindoro stands
by itself. Luzon and the small neighbouring islands have 51 peculiar
forms. A close relationship exists between the birds of the entire
eastern chain of islands. Numerous genera and some families
which are absent from the central islands range from Luzon to
Basilan. These genera usually have distinct representative species
in Luztm. Samar and I^'te, Niindanao, and in some cases in Basilan
also. The greatest differences occur lietween Luzon and Samar
and Lcyte. The latter iblands hax-e 22 peculiar species. ^
Sulu and Tawi Tawi belong zoologically to the Philippines, but
have 12 well-marked peculiar species, and many of the character-
istic Mindanao-Basilan forms are Uckins. Panay, Guimaras.
Negros and Masbate constitute a sharply denned area, characterized
not only by the occurrence of 30 peculiar species, but by the absence
of important genera, and even whole families represented in the
eastern islands. Most of the mammals characteristic of the latter
region are lacking. It b a curious fact that Cebfi stands quite
by itself, although the deep channel separating it from Negros
narrows at one point to about ^ m. Ceb6 possesses 9 striking
spedes of birds not known to exist elsewhere, and lacks manydf
tne characteristic forms of the central and eastern islands. The
zooloncal position of Bohol has not been satisfactorily determined,
but ail existing evidence indicates that it must be grouped with
Samar and Leyte.
Amons the more interesting birds may be mentioned the " mound
builder {Megjtipodius cuminf^, Dillwyn), which buries its large
eggs in the soft sand along the sea beach, or under great mounds of
earth and dead leaves, often at a depth <^ three or more feet below
the surface. The young arc forced to dig their way out and shift
for themselves. Tne eggs are highly prized by the natives. The
jungle fowl abounds. Tnere are 35 species of pigeon* and doves,
nuiny of them most beautifully coloured and ail edible. Snipe,
plover, tumstones and other shore birds are abundant dunqg
39+ PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
. , > .—A uniEnrmly Ugh tcmpounR, iitmlit bunitdltr.
art pccu^Ur to the iroup, heavy ninfAlli kiuL viulciii tropic«I lUiniv, ki»vn u t)iibD«u or
pr ihan a Bparrow iMiero- bagiiiH, ace ehancteriatie of th« Philinuie cUnutc. At Muiila
monkry-oitching u^le tPilhfeitpAaga tho mcao liuiiul tcmpentur
f'gtryi, Cfjnt), winch ii siionE unuuiih to kizk iiionkry> u ihcy monthlj' tempeialure f^", (mm n* in Jumaiy to B3-4S'
bip Iniiin Im- lu iiue. TKL-te jit 31 intxiia <i( kiiufiilicn. i; and ihc tanec of eitrcnHS (duTinE tbo period Irani iWi
boing peculiar. Of Ilie la i-necita ol hombilli not oik ouun yi-yi' fmm 6o.o8* in January if'- * ■- " --
outudt ol the PKiliniiinn. Krug-nuwlhi, bce-birdt. night-hawlu acconlancc wiib the iDOniUy vu
■nd BinEtc oTT (■Hind in comidfnblo variety- Oiie of tlie btt the yeai it dii-ided iato lime
(Calliicalia iTBilalylrj, Clay) conMract* tbo edible nc«> » highly December, Jinuary md Februity;,
ir!...! hu.h-thiiwK. Tbc best serta aie olnaintd on ibe jnwipi- intennedian! (Marcb, July. Septem
iKptilonderMnB.betneenCulianandBuMianga. tbc urchipclago tho nwao annual
There nuy also bo mcolkHicd 31 cuckooii 1 coi:lalOQ. » parrot* with ibe aititudc than with the latitude, but the lanp ia
,j ^..^L^w.,. .« ,..^^i.^^i^.^ k^.4,^. k«».ii^ii^ ^^M^,^ .........LI,. .^ ......— I—. 1^ — 3-96'F.at Divaj>,AliKJ
' urcd dalL)
■nd paraluctt, to woudpeckcr*, birbets, bRndUillii, etuiinst, monthLy teni[
otkiln, weavcr-Sncho, larlo, nulhatchea. tB brainifully cnloined In 7* i' N. li
nnbinb-and 33 Bower-peckcn. litoiice. ihriko. Mallow-^rikea. N. The cq
-,._^ _„-,- — ,- — , ^_. - ,- — , ^-_ _,. , „., „. , Daa]lii£D» ^tan Jiluda, ia ao' 2
iliir-tiBi, thruihM, (ruii-ihnuh™, lalry , .^ ....
itcben.4BK'a]Loin,aad5tpeclnDf nHttbeaulifuLlyeolourcd dally nngr of temperature at Manila vaciea from l3-a*in Jub
namet cannot be readily fitF^icd- humidily langra [rum 70.7* in April to B5-5* i
Rrplila and balnichians an abundant, but bin been little annual a\Trage ii 79>4°. The nuiaii annual t,unmu u uu luj a
Etudied. Pylhona occur ihioughout the group, and Kiaetiiaei about 76 in., and nearly Ihiec-founhi ol it ii Iroin the middle el
■tUin cnoTmoui hic. Then: are numcnius vrnomciui icr^ienli, June to the middle of Oclobcr, when the windl blov (toa the
but the monality from inakc-bite it low. Gecbaa may be iccn iDUIh-woi. During Ihe period Innn iBiJ to IWJ tbc annul ns.
on the walli and ceiling a( any house. Firing liucdi abound lall varied from u<« in. in 1M5 la Ii;'i in. in 1867 whn ia tb*
Id the Fofcsla. Large igujiuu arc numeroui. Their «jp are priud month ol September alone them waa a lall of 57-8 in. Id Jal^
by ibcnative4,and thelkshDroner.pcciei.i(ni>wnat iuiTof peiubid, August and Scntemticr Iwo-thirdi ol the diya are rain)^ but ■
B highly esteemed- Croctnlilc* are catTemcly numenina in many F<4jruafy, Mamn and April only one-tenih ol them are ruay. Oi
of the ttreama, and are occaidonally found la Ihe aea aloi^ the the Pacific coaat ol Luun, Samar, Leyte and Mindanao the nar
coaitt. Specimens have been obtained nwuuring 18 It. ia lenglb. scaaon ii Iron November to May, when the windi blow Inaike
Land luRlei ol imall u» arc connuKL Very laira: ica tuiiln can or Ihc north-eatt. Intheyenreodlnt Aiinist ifojihcawn^
are often captured Tiy Ih^' fiahcrmen, and thdr ll^h ia Jiighly apprt- of rainfaQat 41 abscrvatioa staliooa widely distribiitod thm«lBit
cialvd aa an anicle ol lo(jd._ A canvdemblc busincaa ia donv^iq the archipelago varied Imm 16-j in- at Zanboanga in weat Miadia*
appetuv in immenv numbers with the onconUng of the rainy scaaon. Phihpninca ore viutcd on the avcrap by twenty or more typbietf
ftiidaliughttlieniilfeofilsouIcryalRUHt deadensothuTMunds. annually- About one-AIth of them occur in Sepiemher. DulBf
Rshet. eqieciallv marioc Bihca, are numcnui and varied. About January, Fehniary, March and April they an ran; in Mar. !■■
500 ape<^ o[ lood fishes haw been luuml. and common among and July they become Increaidngly comnon, and ia August tane
■*— " *™ the bangoB or milkfish, the banak or mullet, nuckenl, la a falling off in the aumber, which reachct ita -.-..:—'" ■■
.__■...!._ _ ._j ,, L._ —■ jiy djcKising in October, NavCT
..„.., ._ ,._!^^''M™ila,anim«enaeami»ni(^ili
dance ol their land mollusa. Fresh-water and marine mnlluaca Simar and Lcyie during the neat Ul ■ ■"— "^
chiefly 10 iIk concholDein. there are a numlcr of edible forma, heivy £■■ of life and propnty-
The thella o( Plotaoa pLcmla. L.. splil into thin Ibl ^ lair, and, &1I-— The toil, uaujUy ol a leddiJi-l
window glass. The v^lvci of tlw giant cUm (rriduliHii) some- ally them ia alao a miilui* "< M^--~r
limes attain a len^h of 5 fl. and vti^ hundreds of inunds. Pearl- Atrkultlltt. — A^ricullun
0)-«iurs are abundant in (he aouthvm waiers of the archipelaao. about 40% ol theworidai
Pearl-Eihing ii an importaot industry in the Sulu Islands. The punaita. The industrv u,
shells of the pearly nauiilus are cumuKmly used by the Viiayans The native farmcn aie lary and alow to appiocvw tna ■vh'v^
lor diinkinz cupL From the giot opcrcula of certain marine ol tlie melhoda lecomiDcnded by the Ameriiana. (Mr 9-l%'
forma biacclels and other onumenta arc carved, while the hard all the land in the archipelaio waa loduded la " lamia la l(ak
aerraied edMa of other apccie* air Bomeiimca employed in place and lesi than one-half ol tbe farm land vaa under euhiviliafr
ol knives fur harvesting rice- The land mollusca have been La Laguna. Liuon. vaa tbe only province in wfaick am Ihia
thoTOUGhly clanified. but much slill nmainj to be done tHib the ^ % oltbe bud uraa included in" laima." and Ceb^ tbe only iiu
jrJW>A/d are very abundant and OA yet little hnoym. 5hrlm|», laivc island of Mindinaa only 1-4 ^^ in Maabaie only i-A ^ sd
cmbsand lolmcra fn^rm an impurvinl aoumeof lood supply. Mot. in Mindoro oidy 3-9 %. There were 81 54S3 " lanna "firiadiriw
quitoes are numeroua in (he wet lowlands. Reea are abundant. hoUings, but more than ooe-fifth of tbe^ vcce amall pticris*
and wild honey and wax are t^atlicred in conutWrable quantities, gardcna coiilaininf lest than an acre each: about one-half cooiaisH
The number of apeciei ul ants Is very large. Some of them Infest Ina than ij tens each, and the avenge aiie waa g.cy acres. Km
dwtlling-houtca and awarm over the food- The Ittinilos, or to- than four.ffllht of them woe woilied by owners, and the imaia*
called white ants." inflict creal damage on wooden building cfaiefiy by share (cnanta. The prindml crupi arc hemp iftad^.
Plagues of locutla cccationaUy. during a drought, rvin growing aiigaTi tiioacca. coco-nuts and ivx. hlott ol Ihc benip iSi^^
crops; in damp wet weather these injects am deatroynl by alunsua acres in 140a) is Erown in south Luion and in Samar aad Lefit,
growifa (EJhpua trytlw} wiibin (heir bodiea. but amaller cropa are prnduccd in Cebi^, Mindoro, Mtriadaqifr
Land-kecki nam in the damp lowland furrsis- The cnal north Mindanao and south Negros; the crop became of csBiaBisj
beds ol MinlanM and tbe Sulu Archipelago are ul unsurpassed importance about 1835, and in 1007 the yiekl lor eixain amiuBA
beauly. aad riutmafaa, CeW and Siqiujw are oompletcly csvcnd to iiijlos tona. Al'uut two-thiids ol the auiar la nnidasa ■
with a tMck cap of cmal Unntoae. NeEna, but it it an importanl cnv In Ihe pravincea ol PiimHi
nnra.— Tin lich ind wled flora of the Philipi^net b eaaealially andTariac within the luwlanil haain ul Luna, alao in tbe >nii^
Matayan, intemiiiitil with Cbluue and AuHraliaa ehimenlB. bul of Batangu oa Ihe touth ccoH ol Luioa, la the Huth aad eana
wi(h tuScknt ipdMduaKty to conatltute a aulMv^on, there being Paaay, and in Cebd. The ivoduclion incrcatcd from abaal.an
at least 7^ apecica pccoiur to the archipelago- Mocv than two- Ions in 185510 300.000 torn in I8g3. and lor many years pw*
Ihlcda oTlbe und suifacs it covered with lomt*. In the lowlandt 1887 it wasa more i
and on Ihe lower mounuin alopca the fofcfta are compoacd chiefly occapation the cri
of brood-Waved tret,-*, common among which are the bamboo, the waa i7T,6ao acres
coco and other palma, and the banynn tree; but on the higher tons. Ai>^jumai
mounlain tlopea fiinn arc mixt abundant- About 750 apcciea of 37,465 tfi in looa
wood arc of commercial or local value, amonc them arc woods anil most of the
well- tuitBd for structuralpurpuacs. ln<ade 6nishii^. cabinet work Dcighbouring prov
■nd carriage maldiiB- Punlt valuable far iheir fibsv number Panay, Cd)a, Mai
abuist 30a, and smoin them ia the abaci (ifan leiilii), from Ihe inatcad of tobacco,
leaves ul which Manila hemp ia marie. There arc gulla-percha, dor than teAWD
India- rublx-C and other Irees and plants yielding eum«. the banana, vinre of f-iviina I
mani^it.nnrl nunyoiher (rtcsandp1ant4yieldingrruiia;and variuut coco-nut lAlm. ai
trees and plinla yielding nuts. Epicc». oilt and nicdicioeL land in thia prov
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
395
hw been planted with tbcw tren. Tbey thrive well alto in mo«t
kvw (btncts along the coasts; in 190a about 375,000 acres were
devoted to the culture of them.
Rke IB the suple food of the natives. Wberi the Philippines
were discovered by the Spaniards it was the only cultivated crop
of importance, and until the lOth century it was the chief article
of export, but as the culture 01 the more profitable crops of hemp,
•ufar and coco-nuto was extended it became an article of import.
As late as 1902, however, about one-half of the land under cultiva-
tion was flown to rice. It is ^rown most extensively in the lowbnds
of the south half of Luzon, m north Pianay and in Ncgros. but the
cnkure of either the bwland or the upland varieties lor local con-
■imprion is very general. In some districts Indian com is the
^txflt food instead of rice, and the production of this cereal in small
C[iaatities for livestock is geneniL It is grown most extensively
u the valley of the Cagay&n river, in 1903 the total acreage in the
txtiapdOgp was about 254,470. For several years prior to 1894,
coffee, grown principally in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas
aad Lepanto-Bontoc, Luzon, was nearly a» important a crop as
toboco, but between 1891 and 1898 most of the coffee plantations
vac destroyed by insects and disease. A small quantity of coffee
' »wn in the province of Benguet, Luzon, and is of superior
Cotton, the cultivation 01 which was discourag;cd by the
government as a means of increasing the cultivation of
tobaoco a a very small crop, except in the provinces of Ilocos
Norte, and Ilocos Sur on the west coast of north Luzon; in 1902
tkcre were in these provinces about 5525 acres of cotton. Many
mfiical fruits grow wild but their quality is often inferior: those
coltivaied taou extensively are mangoes and bananas. Grapes,
hhdd)erries, figs and strawberries hav-e been introduced from the
Voted Slates and arc grown successfully in the province of Benguet.
The satives care little for the garden vegetables common to Europe
ttd America, but in the vidmty of Manila and other brge centres
^ pQpuhtion the Chinese grow many of these for consumption by
Eunpcan and American inhabitants.
With the exception of the water-buflTalo. which is indispensable
for agricultural purposes, the domestic animals are very inferior
■ qolity and few in numbers. The horses, which are of Mexican,
Spboh and Chinese origin, are small and poorly cared for; some
Aoerican horses have been introduced for the purpose of improving
tkc breed. The neat cattle, which arc of Australian and Indian
9npn, are raised chiefly for beef, their hides and their hornj:
■brat nine-tenths of them were destroyed by the rinderpest and
Ae war at the dcse of the 19th centur>-. Swme arc numerous but
ikejr are of a kind known in the United States as " razorbacks."
Thr are manv goats but only a few sheep. In one district
■v Manila ouck-raising is of considerable importance, but
the principal branch of the poultry industry consists in the
niug of game-cocks for cock-fighting, which is the national
iporL
MimenU ResonruM. — Numerous mineral deposits have been
wovcrcd, but little has been determined witn respect to their
value. Sub-bituminous coal is widelv distributed. That near the
Niface b generally poor In quality and the di(7icultics of deep minmg
B>y be great because of folds and faults in the rocks. Tncre arc,
wsevcr, promising fields near Danao, in CebA; on the island of
rafllo. off the caitt coast of Luzon; in the south part of Mindoro;
OB Batin Island, off the south-east coast of Luzon: on Dinagat
hhad, off the north coast of Mindanao; and in the north-cast
oner of Negros. Gold has been found in small quantities in nearly
iB the provinces. There u some rude j^old mining^ by the natives.
Ai the result of favourable indications extensive gold-mining
opentions ha\*e been instituted in the provinces of Benguet and
Aaboi Camarines in Luzon, and on the island of Masbate. Copper
i> Karcci^ leas widely distributed than gold, but the production
of it awaits smelters and better facilities fur transportation. There
ve extensive deposits of iron ore (magnetite and hematite^ in the
province of Bulacan, Luzon. Iron ore has been found in other
pnriooes of Luzon and in the islands of Ccbu, Pa nay and Marin-
<i<i(|oe. There are outcn>ps of lead in Marinduque and Cebu. and
■ Marinduque considerable silver b associated with the lead.
Aoioag other minerals are sulphur, lime, gypsum and phosphate.
UoMufactures — The manufacturing industry conMsts mainly ^ in
pnparing agricultural products for market, and in the production
hjr the natives of wearing apparel, furniture, household utensils, and
Miier articles required to supply their primitive wants. The most
■■portant factories are those for the manufacture of cigars and
^prettcv but most cigars and some of the cigarettes arc made by
ttsd la the manufacture of su^ar most of the mills in use extract
Mly about three-fourths of the juice from the cane: in 1902 about
73 % of it was manufactured by 528 mills opicrated by steam:
'7 % by 470 mills operated by hand or by a carabao: and 10 % by
nnills operated by water-power In the principal rice-prcxluciti)^;
^^licts the rice is threshed and cleaned by machines, but in other
™tnct8 more primitive methods arc cnipl«>yid. Most of the cloth
*wh the natives wear the women weave in their own homes
j*te are three principal varieties: sinamay, which is made from
^^tod hemp fibres and b worn by both men and women, jmji,
*^ is maoe from a mixture of hemp and pineapple-plant fibres
*^ or without the additkm of some cotton and ulk and b uced
for making women's dresses and men's shirts; pina, which b made
from^ the hbrcs in the leaf of the pinuapple-plant and b used for
makine women's garments, handkerchiefs and scaris. Nipa, made
from tne fibre of the agave or maguey plant and worn by women,
b less common. Hats are made of palm leaves, alaci leaves, banana
leaves, split bamboo and various grasses. Mats, rugs and carpets
are made principally of split bamboo; chairs and beds of balinag
and other wooas and of rattan. Alcohol is distilled from nipa,
coco-nuts, buri {Corypka umhractdiftra), cauong {Caryota onusla),
pugahan iCaryaia urens) and Indian corn. Other manufactures
of the natives include vehicles of various kinds, harnesses, indigo,
coco-nut oil, soap, salt and lime.
Communications and Commerce. — ^Tlie first railway in the Philip-
pines was the line from Manila to Dagupan (120 m.) which was built
by an English corjioration under a guaranty of the S|Uinish govern-
ment and was opened in 1892. There was no further construction
for ten years. But in 1902 and 1903 the Philippine government,
as established in 1902 by an act of the Congress of the United
States, granted franchises for the extension of the Manila- Dagupan
railway to Cabanatuan (55 m.) and to Antipolo (24 m.^. The nrst
of these branches was completed in 1905, the second in 1906. In
February 1905 Congress authorized the Philippine government
to aid and encourage the construction of railways by guaranteeing
4 % interest on bonds; the duty on imported materials uwd in the
construction of railways and the internal revenue on Philippine
forest products used lor that purpof>e ha\'e also been removed.
With tnis assbtance the Manila Railcrxid Company, organized
under the laws of the state of New JerBC\', agnxxl to construct
about 600 m. of railway in Luzon; and the Philippine Railroad
Company, organized under the laws of the state of^ Connecticut,
agreed to construct about 300 m. in Panay, Ccbfi and Negros.
In 1909 there were in operation more than ^00 m. in Luzon, 60 m.
in Ccbfi and 50 m. in Panay. At the beginning of the American
occupation the roads were \'cry bad and in many of the islands
there were none; but in 1909 there were at least 400 m. of good
roads. The Cagay&n river, which b navigable for native m>ats
160 m. from its mouth, and for rafts 40 m. farther up, b an important
highway of commerce in north Luzon. Many miles of inland
water communication with small boats or bamboo rafts are afforded
by the Pampanga, Aeno, Abra, Pasis and Bfcol rivers in Luzon, and
by the Agusan and Kio Grande de Mindanao in Mindanao. There
are few luirbours which admit vessels drawing more than 15 ft. of
water, but many which admit smaller vessels, and at the close of
1909 there were 151 steamboats and 434 sailboats engaged in the
coasting trade. Manila b the principal port of entr>', and since
the American occupation Manila harbour has been made accessible
to vessels drawing 30 ft. of watcr.^ Ccbu in Ccb(i and Iloilo in Panay
are ports of entr>' second and third in rank, nlthough small in com-
parison with Manila; there are others of minor importance.
The forcipi commerce of the Philippines consbts chiefly in
the exportation of Manila hemp, dried coco-nut meat (copra), sugar
and tobacco, both in the leaf and in cigars and cigarettes; ana in
the importation of cotton goods, rice, wheat-flour, fresh beef,
boots and shoes, iron and steel, illuminating oil, liquors, paper and
pa|>er goods. The value of the exports increased from $19,751,068
in the year ending the 30th of June 1900 to 832,816.567 in the year
ending the 30th of June IQ08, and the value of the imports increased
during the same period from $20,601,436 to $30,918,^57. A very
large part of the trade is with the United States and Great Britain.
The imports from Great Britain exceed those from the United Stat(^,
but the exports to the United States are much greater than those
to Great Britain, and the total trade with the United States is
({rcater than that with any other country. In 190Q 8*05 % of the
imports were from the United States and 17*8 % of tne exports
were to the United States; in 1908 16-4 % of the imports were
from the United States and 31*4 % of the exports were to the
United States. In I90(j) free trade was established between the United
States and the Philippines in all goods which are the growth, product
or manufacture of these countries, with the exception of rice, except
that a limit to the free im]x>rtation from the Philippines to tne
United States in any one year is fixed on cigars at 15,000,000;
on wrapper tobacco and on filler tobacco, when mixed with more
than 15 % uf wrapper tobacco, at 300,000 Ih; on filler tobacco at
1,000.000 lb and on sugar at 300,000 ^ross tons. In the case of
manufactures the law provides that only those articles which do
not contain more than 20 % in value of foreign materials shall be
admitted free.
Population — ^The total population of the archipelago as
enumerated in the census of 1903 was 7.635,426. Of this
number 6,987,868 were classed as civilized and 647,740 as wild,
7,579,288 or 99-2% were nalivc-bom and 56,138 were foreign-
born; 7,539,632 were of the Malayan or brown race, 42,097 were
of the yellow race, 24,016 were of the black race, 14,271 were of
the white race, and 15,419 were of mixed races. Of the black
race 23,511, or 97*8%, were Negritos, who are believed to be the
aborigines of the PhiUppines. Nearly all of them live in a
primitive state in the interior of Luzon, Panay, Mindanao and
396
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
Negros. They are very short of stature, 4 ft. 10 in. beiiig about
the average height of a full-grown man, and the women are
shorter. Their colour is black, their skull deddedly.round, their
hair thick and frizzly, their legs thin and almost without calves,
and their toes so prehensile that they can use them nearly as well
as their fingers. They tattoo themselves and wear very little
clothing, usually only a geestring. They have no fixed abodes
but roam about in groups of a few families. They are skilful
with the bow and in throwing stones, and they can easily kindle
a fire, even in the wet season, by rubbing together two pieces
of dry bamboo. Their food consists principally of game, roots
and wild fruits. The women, who do all the work, collect wax
and honey, which are their principal staples in trade. Few
Negritos live to be fifty years of age. The brown race, which
came from the south in successive waves of immigration beginning
in prehistoric times, is composed of twenty-three distinct tribes
varying widely in culture, language and appearance; their
languages however belong to one common stock and there is a
general resemblance in physical features and in quality of mind.
The great bulk of the popiUation, approximately 90%, is included
in seven Christian tribes as follows: Visayan, 3,219,030; Tagdlog,
1,460,695; Ilocano, 803,942; Bicol, 566,365; Pangasinan, 343,686;
Pampangan, 280,984; and Cagay&n, 159,648. The Visayans arc
the principal inhabitants of the islands in the central part of the
archipelago (Panay, Ccb6, Negros, Leyte, Bohol, Samar, Masbate
and Paragua) and on the north and east coasts of Mindanao;
they were perhaps the most civilized people in the archipelago
when discovered by the Spaniards, by whom they were originally
called Pintados because they were in the habit of painting their
bodies; but since then their progress has been less rapid than
that of the Tag&logs — who constitute the bulk of the population
of Manila and central Luzon and the majority of the population
of Mindanao — who are now the most cultured of the brown races
in the Philippines. Most of the Ilocanos are in the western half of
north Luzon; most of the Bicols in south Luzon; most of the
Pangasinans in the province of Pangasinan, which borders on the
Gulf of LIngayin, most of the Pampangans in the province of
Pampanga, which borders the north shore of Manila Bay; and
most of the Cagayfins in the valley of the Cagay&n river. More
than three-fourths of the wild population is included in the Moro,
Igorot and Negrito tribes. The Igorots (197,938 wild and
13,582 civilized) are the chief representatives of the early Malay
immigration to the archipelago. They are the principal inhabi-
tants of the provinces of Lepanto-Bontoc and Benguet in north
Luzon and are numerous in the moimtain districts of neighbour-
ing provinces. Among the wildest of them head-himting is still
a common practice; but the majority are industrious farmers
laying out their fields on artificial terraces and constructing
irrigation canals with remarkable skill. The Moros (275,224
wild and 2323 civilized) were the last of the Malays to migrate
to the islands; they came after their conversion to the Mahom-
medan religion, and their migration continued until the Spanish
conquest. More than one-half of them are in Mindanao and they
are the principal inhabitants of the small islands of Jolo, Basilan,
Siassi and Tawi Tawi south-west of Mindanao. Slavery is
common among them. They are generally miserably poor,
cruel and haughty. Nearly three-fourths of the foreign-bom
and 97*5% of the representatives of the yellow race come from
China. The mixture of the races is principally that of the Chinese
with the Malays or the Spaniards with the Malays. More than
half the representatives of the white race (1903) were Americans.
Most of the inhabitants live in groups of villages. In 1903 there
were 13,400 villages and nearly three-fourths of them contained
fewer than 600 inhabitants each. Laoag in north Luzon with a
population of 19,699, Iloilo in Panay with a population of 19,054,
Ceb(i with a population of 18,330, and Nueva C&ceres in south
Luzon (10,201), were the only towns with a population exceed-
ing 10,000; and Manila (219,928) was the only city. After the
1903 census many towns were enlarged by annexation of suburbs.
Covcmment. — At the beginning of the American occupation,
in August 1898. a purely military government was established;
but in May 1899 the military authorities began the re-establish-
ment of dvil courts, and in July of the same year they began tlH
organization of civil mtmidpal governments. To continue the
work of organizing and establishing dvil government the pcesdent
of the United States appointed in Febrxiary 1900 a Philippine
Commission of five members, with William H. Taft as chairman.
On the ist of September 1900 this bodyasBumed the legislative
functions of the central government at Manila; on the 4th of
July 1901 the executive authority was, by order of the president,
transferred from the military governor to Judge Taft, whom he
had appointed dvil governor; on the 6th of September 1901 the
Philippine Commission, by authority of the president, established
the four executive departments, of interior, commerce and
police, finance and justice, and public instruction; and on the
2^h of October 1901 the president appointed a vice-govenar.
The Congress of the United States, in an act approved on the
ist of July X902, ratified and confirmed the ggvemment as
thus establish^ but required that future appointments by the
president of the governor, vice-governor, members of the con-
mission and heads of the executive departments should benudt
with the consent of the Senate. The organic act contained a
bill of rights, provided for the establishment of a popalir
assembly two years after the completion of a census of the
Philippines, and more definitdy provided for the organizstioB
of the judiciary. The first pc^ular assembly, of 80 membeo,
was opened at Manila on the z6th of October 1907, and since tha
the legislature has been composed of two branches, the ThSippue
Commission (five Americans and four, formerly three, Filqiboi},
and the Philippine Assembly. The members of the Assonfa^
are dected by districts (the population of which is approzimttcfy
equal) for a term of two years. A voter must be twenty-tluee .
years of age, must have been a resident of the munldpality for ai
months, must not be a dtizen or subject of any foreign countiy,
and must possess at l«ist one of the following qualifiatiooK
have been an ofiice-holder under Spanish rule, own real esttte
worth 500 pesos, pay taxes amotinting annually to 30 pcsoik
or be able to speak, read and write dther Spanish or E^iik.
The legislature meets annually; a regular session b limited t»
90 days, and a special session to 30 days.
Justice is administered prindpally by a supreme conxt, cootf
of first instance, and courts of justices of the peace. The tapaaft
court consists of seven members, four Ainericans and thne
Filipinos; and the chief justice and associate justices of ik
supreme court are appointed by the president of the United Stattt
with the consent of the Senate. The judges of the courts of fint
instance are appointed by the governor with the consent of ik
Philippme Commission. A judgment of the supreme coat d
the Philippines which affects any sutute, treaty, title, ri^ ff
privilege of the United States may be reversed, modified ff
affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States; an tppoA
to the Supreme Court of the United States may also be bad
in any cause in which the value in controvert exceeds $25,0001
The most common form of provindal government is that by*
governor, who is elected biennially by the munidpal couodlka
in convention, and a secretary, a treasurer, a supervisor, and t
fiscal or prosecuting attorney, who are appointed by the VtiHf
pine Commission. Each munidpality is governed by a preaideit,
a vice-president, and a munidpal council, all of whom are dectrf
biennially by the qualified electors of the munidpality. Tk
Philippine " municipality " is an administrative ares, oftcs
sparsely settled, is often called a town, and may be cunpandti
a New England township; the munidpalities are the units iri»
which the provinces are divided. Each munidpality is made i^
of barrios or small villages (about 13,400 in the entire ardripriipJ
and of one. or more, more thickly peopled areas, each called a
poblacton, and rescmblmg the township *' centre " of Kc*
England
Education — ^Thc establishment of an effident system of <
schools has been an important part of the work of the . — ^^
administration. ^ Under Spanish rule the Church uulfidWj
coIlefi:es and seminaries for trainin{( .priests, but the Spsdih q^W
of secular schools for elementary mstruction, estabUned it iM^
accomplished little; the schools were taught by unqualified '^
teachers and the supervision of them was very lax. The '~
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
I on the iatud ol Cebli, San Miguel. Ibc fiist permanent Spianisb
etllcmenl in the islands, dslincd to tKcamc ihe VilJa di: &>nt(-
imoNombredeJesui, later the city of CcbO. In 1571 the city
I M3DiliwiisfDuiiiledandliecanietiieinsul4rcapital. Legaspi's
Un-like groups, Ih
ough I
«bys.
lility and ircachcry of the
'. (nd in i<)oa the niitippine Ircl-
blinhment of a univrruty of the l^i
avenue b di^rind biTcly '
c i'i-iiTJ'oo, ajiS tho I
at Uinriaiao, from whicl:
aods. He
1e little i:
nds were discovered by Mjigellan
on which he landed was Malhou,
ailed north-west, past Bohd to
larbour in the bay on uhich the
adc an alliance with (he natives,
fMactan,«here he wai billed
BliUrmisb. A Portuguese by birth, he had been saillnR in the
(Bpliiy of King Charles I. of Spain (the emperor Charles V.)i
(idi the objeel of proving thai tfae Moluccas lay niihin thai part
of tbt mid ithich Pope Aieiandcr VI. and the treaty of Toide-
tiUis [June 7, 1404) h>d given to Spain and not to Ponugal.
Migd^ named his discovery the Archipelago of San Lazarus.
Tbe Spiniards, however, called the group the tilas it Ponitnlt
IWbuib Islands], The Pgrtugucse called Ihem the Wjj <fe
OnitU. The distinction was not accidcntall To the Portuguese
ilsyconstiiuied the eastern boundary of their world. From the
Spiaiih point of view the islands were on the eitrcmc u-cstem
<ni|c of the national dunuio. In 1510, by (he treaty of Zara-
fs), Spain relinquishcrl to Porlucal allclaimstolheMuluccasand
ipitd that no Spaniard should trade oc sail west of a meridian
e Moluc
This
m of any tiKhls over the Philippines, which lie !
Mjrtei west of the Moluccas. This fact, however, was ij
lull Id ii4J an attempt to conqaci the Philippines was in;
KnyLopeide ViUaboa [c. ijoa-ij44). Villabos chose to !
liK lidr-jpparent of the Spanish throne by naminKsome
■Uadi which he discovered, west and nocth of Mn^
tocoveiy, the Islas FilipLnas. Afterihe accession of I'h;
I'SSj-iji!) a much more important eipcdilion was fitted
tte Mdican coast, under the direction of the disting
■, Miguel Lopei de Legaspl (1314-1371). '.
" was used ai
■iling directions,
lb nhnse ""las Isb
eitiit irchipelagn. Starting on the and of .
IWtmlesl of colonial pioneers. He was acco
AHoiiniui Irian and four hundred men. In \
applying to the
le great
«, repelled the Portu
: on a practical basis. Before his death in ijii he had eiplored
and pacified a large part of the island territory, had established
trade, and had anntcd the progress of Mahommedanisn.
The conquE^u of the Philippines was essentially ■ missionary
conquest. Inspired by apostolic leal the frian braved the
tcrrorsof tifein |he remote villages, mised the natives TttfrUn
\ from barbariioism and taught ihcra tbe forms of iMiiW
iristianity. A» a result of their labours the Chris- OflWiii.
n Filipinos stand unique as the only large mass of Asiadci
ivcrted to Christianity in modem (imea. Tbe frian promoted
' ' ' ' ' at of (be islands, cultivated
iUppiiies. ,
^i^ed by"th'
was patterned on that of Spanish
IDIcrica. Ihe powers of the governor-general were limited
nly by the aKikncia or supreme court, of which he was presi-
lent, and by the resiJrtKia or officuil investigation a( the ciinra-
ion of bis term. The islands were subdivided into provinces
indcr alcaldti majer/t who eietciscd botheiecutlve and judicial
The favouriiism and corruption th.1l honeycombed
the civil service of Spain frequently resulted in pbcing in r
sible positions pcrsoni who were entirely unHt. Hairdressers
were made into alcaldri, and sailars were transformed into
cobcnmdart by the miraculous grace ol royal decrees. The
provinces were subdivided into fnrtlts, each unde( a natii*
eobcmadnKillii, elected annually. The permanent ofKces could
be bought, sold and inherited. The mistake was made oi paying
for illegal enactions, Tbe ditbcully of securing proper officials
gradually resulted in the more important civil functions being
' " iara, who frequently ex ' " '
despotism,
bnguage w
Spanish. E
of tl
vcdialcci
. It w
undred villag.
. ThcSpanii
half after (h
, worth recording. There were border
wars with rebellious savage tribes, attacks made by Chinese
pirates seeking plunder ot icCuge. volcanic eruptions, eanb-
quaLcs, tornadoes and the periodical vi^ls oC marauders from
In i76].howcver,aianincidentof the war between Spain and
England, a British fleet of thirteen ships, under the command of
' iral Samuel Cornish (d.'i77o) and Brigadier- Brtiitt
General William Draper (17J1-1787), was sent 10 Onprnikm
Ihc Philippines. Tfic available Spanish army eon- •"<•»''■■
listed of about 6co men, while the attacking force numbered
e.Sjo. After a bombardment, Manila lell and on the jih of
October the British entered the city. By the terms of the
iholc of the archipelago was surrendfri'd 10
the British and an indemnity of 4,000,000 pesos was to be paid.
iRojoibutbisauihorily was set aside by a war-party who
1 proclaimed binucll govei
ically
398
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
succeeded in confining the British to Manila. At the close of
the war the Philippines were returned to Spain. Manila was
evacuated in March 1764.
For the first quarter of a century after the Spanish conquest
the islands were allowed free trade. Then came the familiar
BcoaoaUe restrictions, limiting commerce to a fixed amount
Dtvthp- annually, and effectively checking economic dcvclop-
acflt mcnt. In 159 1 direct trade between the Philippines
and South America was prohibited. In 1593 trade between the
Philippines and Mexico; the only route open between the colony
and Spain, was limited to two ships annually, the ships not to
exceed 300 tons burden. The result was that the command of
the Acapulco galleon was rarely worth less than $50,000. The
passenger fare from Manila to Acapulco, at the end of the i8th
century, was $1000. This monopoly lasted until the Mexican
War of IndcF>endcnce forced the Spanish government to regard
the Philippines as being in the East instead of the West. Spain's
colonial policy was not based on an exaltation of the conuncrcial
ideal. However much the administrators may have fallen short
in actual practice, the Spanish ideal was to preserve and civilize
the native races, rather than to establish lucrative trading posts
where the natives might be easily exploited. In America the
laws which provided elaborate safeguards for the protection of
the Indians were, to a large degree, nullified by the lust for gold
and silver and the consequent demand for labourers in the mines.
In the Philippines the humane policy of the home government
had no such powerful obstacles to contend with. Business was
not developed. The natives were allowed to live the indolent life
of the tropics. Compared with the results of English or Dutch
colonization the conversion and civilization of the Filipinos is a
most remarkable achievement. Notwithstanding the undeniable
vices, follies and absurd illiberalities of the Spanish colonial
regime, the Philippines were the only group in the East Indies
that improved in civilization in the three centuries following
their discovery. The chief defect in the Spanish Philippine
policy was that while it made converts it did not make citizens.
Self-reliance, free-thought and mental growth were not encour-
aged. Progress in scientific knowledge was effectively blocked
by the friars. Their presses confined their activities to the
production of catechisms, martyrologics and handbooks in the
native languages after the fashion ql the presses of Mexico. Five
hundred such works were printed and distributed in Manila
alone before 1800. To reach the masses, unfamiliar with
Spanish, manuals of devotion and outlines of Christian doctrine
were translated into the various native bnguagcs. Of the Bible
itself, no part was translated or published. A knowledge of
reading and writing was generally diffused throughout the group.
The era of discontent may be said to have begun in 1825 when
the loss of her colonies on the mainland of America caused Spain
B„ f to take a more immediate interest in the Philippines,
DiacoatetA ^"^ increased emigration to the islands. Between
1840 and 1872 thirty newspapers were founded. The
introduction of secular books and papers, more or less surrepti-
tiously, helped to spread the seeds of sedition. In 1S52 the
Spanish Filipino Bank was established. In 1856 foreign trade,
hitherto confined to Manila, was permitted to enter the port of
Iloilo, and foreign traders were allowed to open branch houses
outside of the capitaL- The change in Spain's economic policy,
including an attempt to exploit the coalfields and to encourage
both agriculture and commerce, helped to awaken hitherto
dormant elements. In 1601 the Jesuits had opened a college
in Manila for the education of Spanish youth. In Z768 they
had been expelled. In 1859 they were permitted to return
on the understanding that they were to devote themselves to
education.
The Spanish Revolution of x868 caused a further influx of
Spaniards and also the introduction of the pernicious "spoils
system." With every change of ministry in Madrid came a new
lot of himgry politicians anxious to fill even the more humble
colonial offices. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, followed
by the establishment of direct steam communication between
Spain and the Philippines, sounded the death knell of the peaceful
missionary era and brought about the definite entry of the
islands into the world of commerce and progress.
The friars, by perpetuating medieval conditions in & oovmtiy
that was now being opened to contact with the civilized worU^
increased the feeling of discontent. The natural result was a
violent conflict. The more advanced Filipinos desired the fulfil*
ment of the decrees of the Council of Trent whereby the incum-
bencies in Christianized towns and villages should be held by
regular clergy and not by friars. Fih'pinos bad for generations
been ordained into priesthood although not xeceivbd into
monastic orders. This measure was really aimed at the political
and economic supremacy of the Spanish-bom friars, who bad
by this time acquired 400,000 acres of agricultural land, moce
than half of it in the vicinity of Manila. The agrarian question
added to the growing discontent. All the revolutions began h
the province of Cavit£, where the friars owned 125,000 acm
In 1872 the secret agents of the friars induced the native garriMi
at Cavity to mutiny and thus give the friars an excuse to press for
vigorous action. The mutiny was not successful, but Father
Burgos, the leader of the reform party, was publicly garrotted
with three other native priests; and the native dagy ireic
declared to be incompetent to have the cure of souls. Sevaal
of the richest and best educated Filipinos were convicted of
treason and banished.
With the increased facilities for European travd FiUpiiui
began to visit Europe and return with new and broader noCioni
of life. The most distinguished of the travellers was
Jos6 Rizal (1861-1896). Bom in Calainha, in the
province of Luzon, of pure Tagdlog parentage, he attended
the newly reopened Jesuit university in Manila. He vas tbei
sent to Europe to complete his studies, first in Madrid, where hi
became a doctor of medicine, and later in Germany, iriiere hi
received the degree of Ph.D. He came into touch with advanced
methods of scientific research, acquired great ability as a inilci;
keen perception of truth and an unflinching realization of the
defects of his own people, and the unpleasant but essential {Kt
that to have better government they must first deserve it Hil
propaganda, aimed at the small body of Filipinos who had nfi*
cicnt education to appreciate political satire, was very cffectivt
His most famous novel, Noli me tangcre^ was published in iVk
In this he drew a masterly picture, not only of the life aad
immorality of the friars but also of the insolent Filipino ddcfe
or caciques t subservient to the powers above, tyrannical to tkw
below, superstitious, unprogressive and grasping. Cadqiria
or " bossism," government by local aristocrats, was the poM
feature of village life in the isbnds during the entire pcriid
of Spanish rule and existed long before their arrival.
The campaign of Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Gradano La|Xf
Jaena and Apolinario Mabini, the leaders in the "Yoial
Filipino Party," was a protest against both the
of the friars and economic and administrative
caciquism. To escape the vengeance of the friars,
Rizal was obliged to flee to Europe. In 1892 be
returned to the islands on the assurance of the governor, Eiikv>
Dcspujols y Dusay, that he might live there in peace. BBi
enemies, however, succeeded in having him arrested on a daV
of treason. Meanwhile he had organized a reform party vadtf
the title of Liga Fiiipina*. Its object had been to procure^ ky
pacific means, several reforms in the government of the idaad^
the chief of which were the expulsion of the friars, and thevU^
drawal of the govcmor-general's arbitrary power to d^Nrt
Filipinos. The friars importimed Despujols for Rixal's ISk M
he persistently refused their demand, and met the case haK-MV
by banishing Rizal to Mindanao. Incensed by the faOmeof thdr
plot, the friars obtained the recall of Despujols.
The new governor, Ram6n Blanco, was like Dcapnjob ui
many of his predecessors, humane at heart, but he could do ltd*
more than hold in check the t>TannicaI schemes of -^
the clergy. The banishment of Rizal convinced the /[g/^^
reform party that peaceful endeavour was futile.
A secret organization, the. Katipunan^ was therefore ttaitt'
to secure reforms by force of arms. It was founded by AiM
7t»im
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
399
Booifado, a schoolmaster of Cavit6. In 1^95-1896 'the friars
acting as spies for the government, obtained the banishment
of many hundreds of natives.
On the day after the Katipunan conspiracy had been brought
pccaaturcly to light by a traitor, .three hundred prominent
^ Filipinos were lodged in prison. This precipitated
JJH^*' the revolt The insurrectos attacked the dvil guard
outside the city, but were unsuccessful. A week later
lOBie hundreds of insurgents attacked the powder magazine at
Su Juan del Monte, but were completely routed. Four of their
dieb were taken prisoners and executed in Manila. Ten days
after the plot was discovered Manila and five other provinces
voe officially proclaimed in a state of siege. The insurrectos
coKentrated all their encrgiies upon Cavit6 province. Several
viBages feD into their hands. The insurgent commander-in-chief
luEmilio Aguinaldo. He was bom in 1869 in Caviti, son of a
aative farmer of considerable ability, and of a half-caste mother
vhott father was a Chinaman. After attending the Tag&log
adxiol at Cavit^ he entered the Jesuit College in Manila but did
Bot graduate. In 1893 he became municipal alcalde of Cavit£,
ud later joined the Katipunan.
Tbe government was in a difficult position. General Blanco
itid extremely few European troops at his disposal, and it was
(kmblful how far native troops could be trusted. Reinforce-
Dents were on the way from Spain, but the demands of Cuba had
tlready depleted the Peninsula of the best fighting material.
Blanco, blamed for not acting at once, was recalled. In
December 1896 General Camilo ' Garcia de Polavieja (b. i838>-
tnived as his successor, with General Jos£ Lachambre (b. 1846)
udiief of staff. Before Blanco left he had released Rizal and
aOo«cd him to go to Spain, but the friars caused his arrest and
ke vas sent back to Manila, where he was executed by Polavieja's
trim in December 1896.
Lachambre took the field in Cavit6 with energy and succeeded
iaqneOingthe rebellion in that province. He was then despatched
ntb. Numerous small battles were fought with Aguinaldo
nd the insurgents, who were repeatedly defeated only to re-
appear in other places. Polavieja's demand for more troops
bvingbeen refused, he resigned, and was succeeded in the spring
nf 1897 by General Femando-Primo de Rivera. Hostilities
continoed, but the wet season set in, making operations extremely
fiffioilt. Before Primo de Rivera could make much headway
i|i(pst the insurgents affairs in Cuba became so serious that the
Spanbh government cabled him that pacification was most
Ufeotly desired. As a result he suspended operations and signed
tbe treaty of Biacabat6 (Dec. 12, 1897), by which Aguinaldo
lad thirty-five of his chief followers were allowed to retire to
Boo^ong with a cash indemnity of 400,000 pesos. The Madrid
fDveroment refused to confirm the terms of peace, and the peace
Rjoidngs in Manila were followed by the persecution of all
tkie who were known to have sympathized with the movement.
On the isth of February 1898 in Havana harbour, the U.S.S.
"Maine" was blown up. On the 15th of March Primo de
4phm- Rivera, learning that theAmerican Commodore George
I*"*"" Dewey was. mobilizing his fleet in the harbour of
Hongkong, called a council at which the Spanish
Admiral Patricio Montojo (b. 1S39) stated that, in the event of
a omflict, his own fleet would be inevitably destroyed. Primo
<ie Rivera was now recalled and General Basilio .\ugusti (b. 1840)
^ his place. With a new governor-general all plans had to be
'Considered. Before suitable defences could be made, word
cuie from Hongkong that Dewey had started for Manila and
Montojo hurriedly sailed from Subig Bay to Cavit6, barely in
^ to anchor before Dewey arrived. Few among his crew
■oderstood handling a gun properly, and owing to the poor care
^iidi his vessels had received they were actually inferior to
^ individual vessels of the American squadron. Commodore
Dewey arrived in the Bay of Manila on the ist of May, and totally
<|stn>yed or disabled the Spanish fleet. The surrender of the
city was refused. The Americans occupied Cavit6. The battle
tf Uanfla Bay and the defeat of the Spanish fleet destroyed the
fmtjfe of Spain throughout the islands. Insurrections began
in nearly every province. Aguinaldo and his friends were
allowed to come to Cavit6 in an American transport. With the
approval of Commodore Dewey, who allowed arms to be supplied
him, Aguinaldo successfully renewed his campaign against the
Spaniards until practically all Luzon, except the city of Manila
and suburbs, was in his control. Reinforcements arrived, and
on the 13th of August Manila was taken by the Americans, under
General Wesley Merritt (b. 1836)
The refusal of General Merritt to permit Aguinaldo's troops
to enter Mam'la created resentment on the part of the Filipinos.
A so-called constitutional convention was held at Malolos, and
a constitution was adopted. At the same time the Visayan
Republic was organized, and it professed allegiance to Aguin-
aldo's government. Neither Aguinaldo's government nor the
Visayan government was able to maintain order, and the whole
country was subject to the looting of. robber bands. The treaty
of peace between the United States and Spain, by which the
Philippine Islands passed into the hands of the former, was
signed in Paris on the loth of December 189S, but it was not
confirmed by the Senate until the 6th of February 1899. During
this period the Filipino army remained under arms. On the 4th
of F.ebniary hostilities broke out between the Americans and
the Filipinos. The latter were defeated on the 5th, at Paco,
with heavy loss. The American troops, now under General
£. S. Otis (b. 1838), following up the enemy, drove KvvoH
them out of Malolos and then withdrew \.omg^a»ttbt
Manila to await reinforcements, which brought '*••'*■«»•
the total American force up to about 60,000 men. It is
unnecessary to trace in detail the gradual conquest of the
islands, or the hundreds of engagements, often small, between
the rebels and the Americans. Owing to the nature of the
country, and the hope of securing independence from a possible
overthrow of the Republican party in the United States, the
war was prolonged for two or three years. With the capture
of Aguinaldo on the 23rd of March 1901, the resistance became
little more than that of guerrillas.
Civil government was introduced as fast as possible. During
1899 the Schurman commission, headed by Dr Jacob G.
Schurman of Cornell University, was sent by TbtTatt
President McKinley to report on the state of affairs. Commbtr.
In February 1900 a second and more powerful ■'•■•
commission was appointed, consisting of Judge W. H. Taft,
Professor D. C. Worcester (b. 1866), General L. E. Wright
(b. 1846), Mr H. C. Ide (b. 1844), and Professor Bernard Moses
(b. 1846). Under the presidency of Mr Taft it began to exercise
a legislative jurisdiction in September 1900. Its first act was
to appropriate $1,000,000 for the construction and improve-
ment of roads. It next provided for the improvement of
Manila harbour, which involved an expenditure of $3,000,000.
The fifth act extended to the islands the benefits of a civil
service based on merit. In 1901 a general school law was
passed under which 1000 American school teachers were intro-
duced. They were scattered among 500 towns, to teach- 2500
Filipino teachers English and modern methods of school
teaching. Other legislation provided for the organization of
a judiciary, a supreme court, the enactment of a code of civil
procedure, the establishment of a bureau of forestry, a health
department, and an agricultural bureau and a bureau of con-
stabulary, made up of native soldiers officered by white men.
Ladronism was very widely distributed under Spanish rule,
and the old guardia civil committed outrages almost equal
to those of the brigands themselves. The new constabulary
has been eminently successful in maintaining law and order.
Great progress has been made in the scientific mapping of the
islands.
On the 4th of July 1901 the office of military governor was
aboUshed, the military forces being largely recalled, and the
part remaining being made henceforth subordinate Ova
to the civil authorities. Mr Taft became governor- Oorem-
general. A general amnesty was granted to all ■"•**•
rebels and political prisoners who would take the oath of
allegiance to the United States. On the i st of July 1 902 President
400 PHILIPPOPOLIS— PHILIPPSBURG
RooKVeli signed an wt establuhing *lia dvil govtnimeni [J volt, Bactolona. iooo-i«n). I. M.niutt* Z4Be».H«*n«*
^ .he Phiiippipe. .nd providing l« . «w IogUl..^« ^y f I'^P^^^'^-'^T^ 'hif^J.'^J^fSi^'^
A census was iUlhonzed »nd was uk™ m looj. TIm act of ^/oi WftiiiflUe. fla-ia/aj FiiipiMj (Minili. i8«)i £G. Bour»
1901 also lulhoiiud the purchase ol land belonging to the DiHemy, Cenqucn and Early HisUry of Hit notpprnt tilaai
liiais. AlihouEh among luch an ignorant and diversified body <Clevi^iid. ioot): F. Cdmtn (t&kxiUj). AuMna ii ifwdcHi
a that of the Fiiipinos public opinion =n hardly b. «id jE/.fr« jili'^i '^VpU. (lia^rSl'X^'rTRMSSS"" to
■tsaL When tlie revolution eamc Uic membeti F. D. Millet. Tki £ipoiili™ Id ikt Pkaifpaui (London,' ■««»)
of the (our orders had to flee for thcii lives, although the people and J. Pi'llieeoa y Upci. La Vaiad ubn ftUpnai (MuiU, igw
vho killed or imphaoned those they could f
good Catholic*. As the insular goveramcii
allow the friars to return to their parishta tuc nuia iduua ' .. ^ . -
were bought for S7,ooo,ooo. Mr Taf t tnanaetd the deUcate task popolis. Bulguia; situated . . _
ol conducting ncgoliatlou with the Vatican witfaoul arousing enunencis on the right bank of the nvcr Marilza, 96 tn. ILS.E
Ihe hostility of either Catholics or Protestants. On the isl ol of Sofiaand 97 m. W.N.W. of Adtianople. Pop. (1906) 4i.J7>,
February 190+ Geocni] L. E. Wright became governor. He "' ™'" '."^Se majonly are Bulgarians, nnd the remaiadei
was succeeded in 1005 by Mr H. C. Ide, who was succeeded '='"™)' Turks, Greeks, Jews, Armenians or gipsies. Philip-
by General James T. Smith In 1006. The elections for the I"!""' » ™ ""= """ railway from Vienna to Connaiitlnqili;
-■■- Belgrade and Sofia. The Marina is navigable up to Ihi
II, and as the city has cotnmunication by rail both vilh ikt
were elecied. The total vote osl was about 100,000. In Von-otOiia^uii on the Mediterranean and that of Buipi
many disliicia the Nationalists' candidates promised that U on the Black Sea, and a situated in a remarkably fertile cotuiuy,
Iky were relumed immediate independence would fSow. '' h»^ bKome ihe chid commercial centre of southern Bulnrk.
When the Assembly met it became apparent that the great "■' ° }f' •^^ of both Gi«k and Bulgarian arehhahe^
majority were more anilous to act as n digniSed branch of the ^™ residence! ol the ncher Cirecks and Bulgarians ooupytBe
■ ■ ■ -• ■ ■ "■' -' -Ir pre-election ''op= o' '•« largest eminence, the Jarabai-tfp*, in the cenot
'.~J:_j ;„_ ol the dly: between it and the Noblcl-lfpf, from the sumak
of which there is a magniGcenl view of the dty, i
y^ , w. - J „.j introduced by the Commission lunrter; ne;^ the bridge over the MintilB the pooj
and 49 by ihe Assembly. Among the acts was one providing 1!™?:"; ™ south-west ol the Jamhattip* there b a sibiBt
(or the continuance ol Spanish as the official bnguage of the ?' "'^''^ 9° ^i" Bunan-tipt a monument has been.enod
amrts until 1911; an act providing for bankniptcy; and an by "w Russians in commcmorationof the war of i8;j, and dot
act fixing the age of maiorily at ii yeais. Ihij Is the new palace of the king of Bulgaria. The SiW-
Governor Smith left the isbnds in May 1909 and was sue J'P* I* ,*?T5f'. ^^ ' clock-tower. Not lar from il an tk
Ceededby W. Cameron Forbes. On the 6th of August 1909 beauli'ulExhibitionFatklaid out in iSfli and ihe fine Joon»-
tbe Payne and Collon bills became ti>r, greatly promoting trade !»>"' M,«q™- Near the Mintaa are the remains of theaacM
between the Islands and Ihe United Stiles (sec Communicalaiti ">"»'' (palace) of the. Turkish pashaj, the pubbe park (oml
end Commera). On the ind of November 1909 delegates by Ihe Ri^ans in 1877, the gymnasium, and Ihe new C«t
were elected (or the second Philippine AMcmbly. (H. Bi.) calhedtal. The city has a Urge commerce in nee, attar of tM
BiBLioci*fiiv.— See. in Bcnersl^ A. P. C. Grima, A LiU ef 3Kik! "™> racoons; other exports being wheal, *ine, labacca,alaU
« 1*1 Pkiiifpi'i Iilaads i* llie library of Ccnvai (Washington, and hides.
'9>i}. with relcrcntes to periodicals; T. H. Fatdo de Tavcra, Eumolpia, a Tbraciaa town, »a» captured by ftil^i(
ol J'kilifpopilii, or "PhDip's City." Under tbe lUaia
Philoppopolis or Trimoniium became the capital of Thodi;
and, even after its CJptuie by the Goths, when ioo,aoo-pm»
cily till it was again sacked by the Bulgarians in iios. Il
passed under Turkish rule in 1363; in 181S il was destnyt'lir
an earthquake; and In 1846 it tuffered from a sevotof
Jbgration. During the war of 1S77-73 the dty wn occqU
by the Russians (see also Bin.cA«i.: Hislory).
PHIUPPSBURQ. a town of Germany, in the grand ddcbr^
Baden, situated on a sliiEgish arm of the Rhine, 15 m. V.<1
Karlsruhe, on the railway Bruchsal-Cermeraheim. Pop. (igld
r6!;. It has mami(iclure$ of lobara) and cigait. and Ml
trade in cattle and bops. Philippsburg, formerly id inpt(l><
II. t. Potior. r*e£Bil rcNtay o«( T-c-mmi-™ (ibid, igoal; F. (onr«8. originally belonged lo the ecdcsiastical ptiac**
Dltimcnirin. DU Phaippiin (Hamburg. 1900); H- P. ttlllij, o( spir«.and wasnamed Udenheim. In iiiSit wasnimSi
%U''\t^:i,iTm;hM^'vtmZ'tl,ftlfoS^^^ "i'.^. •■«'■». by ^>^ Gerhard A bter bishop a Spn
U'l/e jibid. 1968J; W. B. Freer. 7"^ PhJ.ppmi Etaaitaafit an Philipp Christoph von Sdlcm, made the place his rcudenctoA
Ammmn Tiaihrr (ibid. 1906): J. C. Schurnian, WJ.pl^iK ^jfair. in the IJth century, Bircnglhened the fonificalions, and rMH'
™i "^'1 'w- "^-p^^'j f'fJ^T^ ":JK^'r''^f""\if^- '' PWlippsburg after himself. A( the peace ol WestpUa '•
190J); and Spaial Rrpial u lla Pmiitnl t* Iht Ptiltpptiui (Wash- ...a ,u' t_„i, : i ; - ' ,.\. . i^h
.nnon, 1908); and HVC McGregor. jWo.iuI e/ WWmii.; B.fJ, 1648 the French remained in possoi.onof the Iowa, W*
(New Ycck. 1009). For the hiitory of the Islandi. swE H. Blair '^'9 '• *" restored to Germany, and though agiiD at^Wi
and J. A. Robertson. Tlu Pkilippiiu lilandi. 1403.1898 (JS vols., by the French In iMS it was once more restored in i6g7- fc
«^ ?, ■i^^''^\^J| ^^^iT'.dl'^V^'^"^?^''''^ "'^ '*"' <lil-PWa>ed fortress fell an easy prey 10 Ih. Fro*
f:7,"-.^8,r')/«r^t«;;<'^^.!yr l% I.^T^ under Marshal Berwick who, how«xr. K^^his life t-ri
i78S-i™jir Caspar dc San Agurtin (1650.1714), CenimiMs it "s *»"s> " *" restored to Germany in 17J5. »«l "»•"
(uj uiat Phbpisat (I mW, Vjlladoia, 1890]; Le Gentil, besieged by the French in 1799. Tbe town was aspid M
Vajati dam In mm it tliii (Paris, i;*!); F, Colin taJor Baden in 1801.
mni/lua mmiilrrui apBil^iau it In. ebrini it la lomfaSu
it Jtiui. /loubiin. y ftuptaat it tn pnmncia « siftu Faiphuu Sec Nopp, GUcttclitt ia SudI Plullffittif [PliiMm^nu iM
PHILIPPUS, M. J.— PHILISTINES 401
IBIUPPDSt MARCUl JULIUS, Roman emperor a.d. 244 Church, Oxford. He was a careful reader of Virgil and of Milton.
to 249, often called ** Philip the Arab/' was a native of Bostra In 1701 his poem, The Splendid ShiUittg, was published without
b AabitL Ttachonitts. Having entered the Roman army, he bis consent, and a second unauthorized version in 1705 induced
me Co be praetorian praefect in the Persian campaign of Gordian him to print a correct edition in that year. The Splendid SkiUing,
IIL, and, inspiring the sddiers to slay the young emperor, was which Addison in The Taller called " the finest burlesque poem
nised by them to the purple (244). Of his reign little is known in the British language," recites in Miltonic blank verse the
ocept that he celebrated the secular games with great pomp miseries consequent on the want of that piece of money. Its
k 348, when Rome was supposed to have reached the thousandth success introduced Philips to the notice of Robert Harley and
jcar of her existence. A rebellion broke out among the legions Henry St John, who commissioned him to write a Tory counter*
if Moesaa, and Dedus, who was sent to quell it, was forced by blast to Joseph Addison's CampaigH. Philips was happier in
the troops to put himself at their head and march upon Italy, buriesquing his favourite author than in genuine imitation of
Ph3q> was defeated and slain in a battle near Verona. Accord- a heroic theme. His Marlborough is modelled on the warriors
iMto Christian writers, he was a convert to Christianity. of Homer and Virgil; he rides precipitate over heaps of fallen
See Aufdius Vktor. Caesares, 28: Eutropius, ix. 3; Zonaras, horses, changing the fortune of the battle by his own right arm.
"^•^...i. A *••»»•« / < X p !• u . w ^y^ (1708) is modelled on the CeorgUs of Virgjl. Cerealia,
^^F"?! AMBROSE (c. 1675-1749). English poet, was bom ^^ jf^Uation of MiUon (1706), although printed without his
Ji Shropshtie of a Leu»t«shir€ famUy. He was educated at name, may safely be ascribed to him. In aU his poems except
Aiewsbtiry school and St John s College, Cambridge, of which ^^.Uuim he found an opportunity to insert a eulogy of tobacco,
ke became a feUow m 1609. Hf. «e°>» ^\}^''^ l*ved chiefly p^y ^icd at Hereford on the isth of February 1708/9. There
It Cambridge untU he resigned his feUowship hi 1708, and hu j, ^„ inscription to his memory in Westminster Abbey,
jnorals probably beteng to thB period. He worked for Jacob s^ The WkcU Works 0/ . . . John Phtiips . . . To wkUh it
Tnnn the bookseller, and his Pastorals opened the 6th volume prefixed his life, by Mr iCf Sewell (^rd cd., 1720); Johnson. Lwu
if Toosoo*s Miscellanies (1709), which also contained the of the Poets', Mnd Biographia Britanntca.
mnh of Pope. Philips was a stanch Whig, and a friend pHiuPS, KATHARINE (1631-1664), English poet, daughter
i^ ^ ^**^^^.l" ^J*- "'. 'h ^° ^H^ ^'. ^'713) of the ^j j^^ p^^,„ ^ merchant of Bucklcrsbury. London, was bom
(MiM he was mjudioously praised as the only worthy sue- ^^ ^^e ist of January 1631. Her father was a Presbyterian,
^^ ^'S*'- ^JIJ!^" ^^ ^^t P^"' T^S ** f uPPOf«l JO .„d Katharine is said to have read the Bible through before she
JriJf"jn**Tf.?^*"' f^'il^y 'f^l^ ^''^' * P"^Tr^ *" five years old. On arriving at years of discreUon she broke
hlhe5#ej*itor Addison appUuded him for k^tt^ ^ijh Presbyterian traditions in both religion and poUtics,
k.fa|wnttenEn|fshedwes unencumbered by the machi^^^^ j^^^ ^ ^^^^ .^mirer of the king and his church poUcy.
ddsincal mythology. Pope s jealousy was roused, and he ^„j j„ ^^ ^^^ j^^„ Phi,i ^ ^^ ^^i,^ j,er
W an anonymous wntnbution to the Guardtan{No. 40) »n ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ p^^^y, Cardigan, became the centre of a "society
tU^ he drew an Ironical comparison between his own and ^j friendship," the members of which were known to one another
nSp's Ptttorals, censimng himself and praising PhUips s worat ^ ^^„^^^j^ ^^ Mrs Philips being " Orinda," her husband
piii^ PhOipa IS said to have threatened to cane Pope with „ Antenor," Sir Charles Cottcrel " PoUarchus." The " match-
V^ ^ ^^*^ ""^ *L^""''° *w~?""**!J^um' ^^'^ P"7^* »«s " Orinda, as her admirers caUed her, posed as the apostle
i ^ c.*^ T*? ^^^ ^?^ burl«qued Phihps s imtorals ^f j^^^^,^ friendship. That there was much solid worth under her
it )k ShepkenTs Week but the parody plca^ by the very ^ffecUtions is proved by the respect and friendship she inspired.
Jjfty of smphaty which it was mtendc^ to ridicule Samuel j^ Baylor in 1659 dedicated to her his " Discourse on the
Jibm/kscnbes the relatio^ between Pope and Phihpa as a ^ q^^ ^„j Measures of Friendship," and Cowley, Henry
pnpetnal ieapr«:ation of malevolence. ' Pope lost no Vaughan the SUurist, the eari of Roscommon and the eari of
ytimtty of scoIBi^ at Phihps, who figured in tht Ba^ Co^,^ ^„j 0^ ^ celebrated her talent. In 1662 she went
■d tte Dunacd, as Macer m the Ckaractns; and in the In- ^^ p^^Un to pursue her husband's claim to cerUin Irish estates,
tedou to a porter how to find Mr CurU s authon " heis a ^^^ ^j,cre she completed a translation of ComeiUe's PompU,
PSoduk tjTiter in red stockings." In 1718 he started a Whig p^duced with great success in 1663 in the Smock AUcy Theatre,
S^'Ji" 'i"^"*f ' m conjunction with Hugh Boulter, then ^^ ^nted in the same year both in Dublin and London. She
ifar of St OUve's, Southwark. He had been made justice of ^^„^ ^^ Lo^^^^ j^ I^^^^^ ,^ ^^y^ ^ ^^^^ completed transU-
tikpoce for Westminster, and m 17x7 a commissioner for the jj^„ ^j Comeille's Horace, but died of smaUpox on the 22nd of
J^. and when Boulter was made archbishop of Armagh j^„^ ^h^ ^^ atmosphere of her circle is preserved in the
n^ accompanied him as secretary. He sat m the Irish „^^„j ^,^, ^j ^nWa to Poliarchus, published by Bernard
P^nent for Co. Armagh, was secretary to the lord chan- Lintot in 1705 and 1709. " Poliarchus " (Sir Charles Cotterel)
dkr b 1726. and m 1733 became a judge of the prerogative ^^ ,^t„ ^j ^i^^ ceremonies at the court of the Restoration, and
eoot His patron died m 1742, and six years later Phihps afterwards translated the romances of La Calprendde. Mrs
Rtencd to London, where he died on the i8th of June 1749. phOips had two chUdren, one of whom, Katharine, became the
Jfa ooatempoiary repuUtion rested on his pastonds and ^^ ^( Le^, ^ ^f Boukton, Pembrokeshire. According
9U0, paiticulariy the desmption of winter addr^ by him ^^ ^^ q^^ ^^^ ,^d j^^^ been " Joan Philips." the
fcoQi Copenhagen (1709) to the earl of Dorset. In T. H. Ward s ^^^y^^ ^j ^ ^^^^^^ ^f ^^„^ p^,^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^
^ Poets, however he is represented by two of the simple ^^ich are in the style of Orinda, and display genuine feeling
UA cbaxmi^ i»«es add^ to the infant chfldren of Lord ^j^ very UtUe reserve.
uitcict and of Damd Pulteney. These were scoffed at by _ -, ,,, ^ -. . .t. ^ ^ t.. j- , oa \ »
Swft IS « little flams 00 Miss Carteret," and earned for Phihps - ^ee E. W. Coa«. Sa,enUaUh Century Stndtes (1883). Poenu,
t^ .. " »*•••»»«*■**«» ,« Jt C \> il If *""***" By the Incomparable Airs K. P. appeared surreputiously m 1664
nws Henry Carey the nickname of Namby-Pamby." , and an authentic edition in 1667. Sdected Poems, edited with an
PWBpi's works are air abndgroent of Bishop Hackct • Life of appreciation by Mim L. L Guiney. appeared in 1904; but the best
1*8 Winans (1700) : The Thousand and One Days: Persian TaUs modem edition is in Saintsbury's Minor Poets of the Caroline Period
(1733)1 from the French of F. Petis de la Croix; three (vqI, {, loos)
phyi: The Dtstrest Mother (1712), an adapution of Racine's Andro- ' ^^ , . , -.
■■fw; The Briton (1722); Humfrey, duke of Gloucester (1723). PHIUSTIirBB,* the general name for the people of Philistia
Jttsy of his poems, which included some translations from Sappho. (Ass. PalaStu, PiliJtu; Eg. p-r-s-t), a district embracing the rich
^SSTp^^^i%!'^ published separately, and a collected lowlands on the Mediterranean coast from the neighbourhood
mUPS, JOHN (1676-1 708), English poet and man of letters, * " Philistine." as a term of contempt, hostility or rcproachj
Tl^.^d^*^ PhiUp.^«<hde.con of Sh«.p,hir^ w„ bo™ ^^^ ,*."Jhi"4'5'l?i S ieTrTh ^ ™,^"i„!f Ut^JyTZ;,
tthl father's vicarage at Bampton, Oxfordshire, on the 30th of term for a bailiff or a dieriff's officer, or merely for drunken or
I'lciember 1676. He was educated at Winchester and Christ vicious people generally. In German universities the townsfolk
XXI J* \a
402
PHILISTINES
of Jaffa (Joppa) to the Egyptian desert south of Gaza (on the
sulMequent extension of the name in its Greek form Palaestina,
see Palestine).
I. Eiyptian Evidence. — ^The name is derived from the Purasati,
one of a great confederation from north Syria, Asia Minor and
the Levant, which threatened E^pt in the XXth Dynasty. They
are not among the hordes enumerated by Rameses II. or Mer-
neptah, but in the eighth year of Rameses III. (c. 1 200-1 190) the
Purasati hold a prominent place in a widespread movement
on land and sea. The Syrian states were overwhelmed and the
advance upon Egypt seemed irresistible. Rameses, however,
collected a large fleet and an army of native troops and mer-
cenaries and claimed decisive victories. The Egyptian monu-
ments depict the flight of the enemy, the hoivy oz-carts with
their women and children, and the confusion of their ships.
But the sequel of the events is not certain. Even if the increas-
ing weakness of the Egyptian Empire did not invite a repetition
of the incursion, it could have ajlowed the survivors to settle
down, and about a century later one of the peoples formerly
closely allied with the Purasati is found strongly entrenched
at Dor, and together with the more northerly port of Byblos
treats with scant respect the traditional suzerainty of Egypt.*
That some definite political changes ensued in this age have been
inferred on other grounds, and the identification of the Purasati
with the Philistines may permit the assumption that the latter
succeeded in occupying the district with which they have always
been associated.
The Egyptian monuments represent the Purasati with a very
distinctive feather head-dress resembling that of the Lydans
and Mycenaeans. Their general physiognomy is hardly Cilidan
or Hittite, but European. Their arms comprise two short
swords, a longer spear, a round shield, and they sometimes wear
a coat of mail; a curious feature is their tactics of fighting in a
circle of protecting shields. The chariots resemble the Hittite
with two crossed receptacles for the weapons, but obviously
these were not used by the Purasati alone. On archaeologicd
grounds the Purasati have been connected with the people of
Keftiu, i.e. Mycenaeans of Crete, although a wider ^plication
of this term is not to be excluded.
See further, G. Maspero, Strvgg^ of Ike Nations, pp. 461 iqq. ;
W. M. Mailer, Asien u. Europa, pp. 35^ "Qq^; MiUeil. d. vorderasiat.
Cesell. pp. 1-42 (1900), pp. 113 sqq. (1904): H. R. Hall, British
School of Athens, viii. 157 sqq.. x. 154 sqa.; Proc. Soc. Bibl. Arch.
xxxi. (1909) passim; R. Weill. Re9. archiol.t I 52 sqq. (1904};
R. Dussaud. Ke». de Fhist. des rdig., ii. 52 sqq. (1905). More re-
cently, A. Wiedemann. Orient, lit. Zeit. (1910), cols. 49 iqq. dis-
putes the identification of Keft with Crete.
2. History. — Biblical tradition, ■ too, has recognized the
Philistines as immigrants from Caphtor (Amos ix. 7). They
appear in the pre-Mosaic age (Gen. xxL 32, 34, xxvi.), at the
Exodus of the Israelites (Ex. xiii. 17, xv. 14), and the invasion
of Palestine. They are represented as a confederation of five
cities (Ashdod, Ascalon [Ashkelon], Ekron, Gath and Gaza)
which remained unconquered (Joshua xiii. 2 seq.. Judges iii. 3;
contrast Joshua xv. 45-47, xix. 43). The institution of the
Hebrew monarchy (c. 1000 B.C.) follows upon periods of Philistine
oppression (Judges iii. 31, x. 7, xz, xiii. z-5; see Samson; Eu;
Samuel; Saul; David). The subjugation of them is ascribed
were called by the students Philister; they were " outsiders." the
enemy of the chosen people. It is supposed that this use arose
in 1693 in Jena after a " town and gown " row in which a student
had b(^n killed and a sermon preached on the text " the Philistines
be upon you, Samson " (sec QiuirUrly Review, April 1899, 438, note,
quoted in the New English Dictionary). " Philistine " thus became
tne name of contempt applied by the cultured to those whom they
considered beneath them in intellect and taste, and was first so
used in English by Carlyle. and Matthew Arnold (Essays in Criticism,
" Heinrich Heine," 1865) gave the word its vogue and its final
connotation, as signifying " inaccessible to and impatient of
ideas."HED.l
*So the Papyrus first published by W. Gol^nischefT (Fee. de
traoaux, xxi. 74 sqq.). on which see A. Erman, Zeit. /. aegypt.
Sprache, pp. 1-14 (1900): W. M. Mailer, Mitteil. d. vorderastat.
Cesell. pp. 14 sqq. (1900); J. H. Breasted, Hist, of Eg. pp. 513 sqq.;
Historical Records, iv. 274 sqq. ; H. W. Hogg, in the Theotog. Series I.
of the publications of university of Manchester, p. 90 seq.
to Samuel (i Sam. viL 13), Saul (zhr. 47), and David (a Sib
viiL i; for Solomon see x Kings z. 20); but they cridoitlt
recovered their independence* awl we fixKl that twice witfak i
short time the northern Israelites hud siege to the border ioftrei
of Gibbethon (i Kings xv. 27, xvL xs). Although this pbc
has not been identified, it b mentioned in a list of Danite dtk
with Aijalon, Ekron, Eltekeh and Timnah (Joshua ziz. 44, zii
23), names of importance for the history. Somewhat later th
evidence becomes fuller, and much valuable light is thrown upoi
the part which the Philistine coast played in the political lustoc;
of Palestine. Gaza, the most southcriy and famous of th
Philistine towns, was the terminus of the great caravan-rout
from Edom and south Arabia, with whose Bedouin it wa
generally on good terms. It was " the outpost of Africa, th
door of Asia " (G. A. Smith), the stepping-off point for th
invasion of Egypt, and the fortress which, next in tmportaac
to Lachish, barred the maritime road to Phoenicia and Syria
It is necessary to realize Gaza's position and its links with tradini
centres, since conditions in the comparatively small andhaH
desert land of Judah depended essentially upon its relations witl
the Edomites and Arabian tribes on the south-east and witl
the Philistines on the west.* Jehoshaphat*s supremacy ovc
Philistines and Arabians (2 Chron. xvii. ix, partly implied ii
I Kings xxii. 47) is followed by the revolt of Libnah (oca
Lachish) and Edom against his son Jehoram (2 Kings viiL 20^ it)
The book of Chronides mentions Philistines and Arabians, am
knows of a previous warning by a prophet of Mareshah (csi
of Lachish; 2 Chron. xx. 37, xxL 16). In like manner, tk
conquests of Uzziah over Edom and allied tribes (2 Kings xhr
22, see 2 Chron. xxvi. 7) and over Gath, Ashdctd and Jabncl
(ibid. V. 6) find their sequel in the alliance of Samaria and Dantt>
cus against Ahaz^^ when Edom recovered its independence (so read
for " Syria " in 2 Kings xvL 6), and the Philistines attacked
Beth-shemesh, Aijalon, Timnath, &c. (2 Chron. xxviii. 17 seq.).^
These notices at least represent natural conditions, and the
Assyrian inscriptions now are our authority. Tiglath-piksef
IV. (734 B.C.) marched down and seized Gaza, removing its godi
and goods. Its king Hanim had fled to Mu^ri, but was puincd
and captured; Ascalon, Judah and Edom ^pear in a lot of
tributaries. Mu$ri was entrusted to the care of the Arsbin
Idibi'il (of the desert district), but continued to support asti*
Assyrian leagues (see Hoshea), and again in 720 (two yean sftcr
the fall of Samaria) was in alliance with Gaza and north Pskittei
Ass3rria under Sargon defeated the southern confederatjoo at
Rapi^ (Raphia on the border of Egypt) and captured Haavi;
the significance of the victory is evident from the submiMiot
of the queen of Aribi (Arabia), the Sabaean Itamara. and Miqn.
This Mu$ri appears to have been a district outside the limits of
Egypt proper, and although tribes of the Delta may wdl hi»i
been concerned, its relations to Philistia agree with the tHi^
pendent biblical account of the part played previously by Edois
and Arabian tribes (see Mizsaim). But the disturbances cos*
tinucd, and although desert tribes were removed and settled iR
Samaria in 715, Mu$ri and Philistia were soon in armssfus.
Ashdod (see Isa. xx.) and Gath were taken and sacked, the
people removed, and fresh colonies were introduced. Jodiki
Edom and Moab were also involved, but submitted (711 ac).
Scarcely ten years passed and the whole of Palestine and Sfot
was again torn with intrigues. Sennacherib (Sarcon's MC*
cessor in 705) marched to the land of the *' Hittitcs," tiavcflcd
> See G. A. Smith, HisL Ceog. of the Holy Land, chs.ix.tf4-;
and M. A. Meyer. History of the City q( Caea (New York, i^h
For the traditions associating Gaza with Crete, see the h»ft
Index, s.v. Minos; the resemblance between the Minaeans of Son
Arabia- -and Cretan Minos has afforded grounds for all kiadi ■
speculations, ancient (Plinv vi. 157) and modem.
* Between the central Judaean plateau and the Utter by w
" lowlands " (ShephClah). a district open equally to JudaesMiM
Philistines alike. j.
* Cf. Gaza and Edom against Judah in Amos i. 6. and, {orw
part played by Damascus, the later vicissitudes under the Nwl^
aeans (Josephus. Ant. xiii. 13. i). It is difficult to date the aSr
of Syria and Philistia against Israel in Isa. ix. II seq. (oQ lte<
the commentaries).
PHILISTINES
Oe cout uid, '*T'»~''"e from SIdon, took Jifli, Bctb-digon,
lodmk, Ekna ud Tuniuh (lU in the diMrict ucribcd to the
mthernDu). At Eltekcfa (ulio In Dan) tbe tlUet wm defeated.
Tinker Motli cune Ibe turn ol AkiIob, Lichiih ud Lihuh;
JhUi nnder Hexeklah tuffered ttfvtnly, and [ti watem cilis
vn truulcTTcd to the [uthful vuuls of £kron» Ajhdod md
Gu. The immcdiite mbiequent events are obocuie (lee
fntbei Keieeuh). In the 7tli cealiuy Cim, Aiolon, Aihdod
nd Ekim were Aisrriati vtssali, tosether with Judiji,.Maiib
md Edooi— in all, twenty-liro king» o( the " Hiititea "—and
Ike dkeovery of Aaayrian contimct-tableta at Geaer (c. 650)
Mr indicate the pnience of Auyrian garrisons But ai the
Avjniao povcr declined EEyptian moaanrhi (ornted plaoi of
■OtaadiienienL Hendotui mealkiai the Scythiao fovuian
uduckadbe ten^ of Aphrodite Uiania (Aiiaile) at Aicalan,
tho the prokxiced nege of Astadod by Fiammetichus, and the
OEcgpuioo at Kadyilt (? Gaaa) by Necho [i. los, ii. is7 iqt).,
ft ;), BM Ibe Babylonian Empiie followed upon tndilitnul
iaa md timni back Egypt, and Nabonidui (jjj i.e.) daimi
b nsili ai f ar ai Gaa. The PeniaE) took over the realm
i thdt piedctesan, and Caia grew in imponance ai a leat of
^""•Imil eonraerce. Nehemiab ipeaki not of Pbiliitinea,
in of Athdodilet (iv. 7), ipeaking an " Aihdodile " dialed
bn, 94) ; JiBt aa Strabo regardi the }ew>, the IduDKuDi, the
Gua and ibe Aihdodita ai four cognate peopla having the
OBmoa chaiacletiilic of combining agriculture wilb commerce,
li KwUwti Fbiliyia at least, Arabian immigration became
■BE pncounced. Id tbe lime of Cambyia Anba wereiettlcd
KJajiaa wnth ol Gaaa (Herod, iii. s), aod when AloandEr
■uthcd apaa Egypt, Can with iu array of Arab* and Pertian*
iftnd a itrenuoiu retlatance. Recent diacoveria near Tell
^^binnih (oe Maifihah) have revealed the presence of
Nnh AiaUan (Eibimite) namci about the ind century B.C.'
(h iht UaUBy ol tbe dittrid « further Jews; Maccabies;
i Pkiatuu TrtHHtiu.—Tiie interdependence of the touih
hhttieian pcoplei foOowi from geogiaphical cODdillooi which
at oKhangeablE, and the fuller light thrown upon the lait
kA> of the Sih century B.C. niuminats the more fragmentary
"ilHx citewbere.' Hence the two aiego of the Philiitine
CibalBB by the Iinelila (above) obviouily have )ome lijIuG-
Wit (or Jodaean history, but the J udaean annalt unfortunately
l^ni DO help (leo Asa). Again, (he Aramaean attack upon
bid by Uatad of Damaicua kadi to the capture of Cath
(lIupiiL tl), and thii, together wilb the itatcrcent that be
iMt " the PbOiltine " from Jehoabai of Israel (ibid. liii, 33,
Udu'i nceniion), bean upon Judah, but Ibe ilatements aie
Uued. Somewhat later, the Anyrian Liog Adid-nireri IV,
<Uul tribute from Edom. Fhilislia and Betb-Omci (Ibe
hrtiiiu kingdoml ; the curious omission of Judah has suggested
lat,i„), Hie FbilisliDcs natunilly had a prominent place
^ ptiialar indiiion. and the story of luac and tbe Philistine
Abindeth (Gen. nvi.. cf. uti. ]i) is of great inteist for lis
wtiutd represenUtiOB of inlercourae, enmity, alliance and
'Voaut. But it is important to notice that a parallel etory
(il] b without thi* distinctively FkUisHne background, and
Uiikliii)w;
CtHUuhu
xived a
if the Israelite
Lquest of earh'cr ^ant Inhabitants
Gaza, Calb and Ashdod (Joshua il
•m,
PHcn and Thiersch, Fainlti rmii
ipi (I Kings il. 16) wai pre-
•tai* to ^uduk'i imi Pakili... ,.. .. _ _ ., _._
4 All, Inatl ■. Armtm. pp. r^jS (Le^img, 1909)._. I" would
jmj. DxaniDg amhigmul" of Caoaaa and fliilisiia (SmIL iJZ.
(Dent. IL ij, lee Joshua lill. j). Saraud's great defeat ol the
Philistines leads to "peace between Israel and lEie Ameriia "
(i Sam. vii, 14) I and tbe migntion of the Danites is [4accd af ler
Sanuoa's condicti with Ibe Phillitioes (Judges iviil, leq.), or is
due to the prosure of Amorllo (i. 34). Even in David's fights
with the Philistines in Judah, Jerusalem is Jebuiite, neighbour-
ing DOD-Isiaelite dtiea arc Hivite or Amorite (Jcabua ix. 7,
3 Sam, jcu, 7), and bis sliangc adversaries find a close psiallel in
the senii -mythical tons of Anak (9 Sam. nL 16, iS, », »),
This ductuation, due partly to the dideinil dtcles b which tbe
biblical narrativea took shape, and partly 10 definite reahaf^nf
of lbs traditions of the past, seriously complicates aD attempts
to combbe the early biilory of Israel with the eitemal evi«
dencc The history of tbe Philistine district goes back long
before the lirae of tbe PunsatI (c. iioo B.C.), and if the
references to Philistines in pte-Mosaic lima are treated u
anachronisms, those which can be applied to the iith-iitb
century do not at once acquire an historical value.' Tbe refcr-
— whatever cbronological scheme be adopted — must be taken
ineiioB with a cueful euDuuitioD of all the evidence.
It is inherenlly not improbable that a recoileclion baa been
preserved of Philistine oppressions in the nth century, but II
' Tmely difficult to sketch any adequate sequence t>f events,
and among tbo conflicting traditiona are utuations equally
ipplirable to later petiods of hostility. Biblical history ha*
ireaented its own views of the Isiaellle and Judaean monarchies;
Israel has its enemia who come pouring forth from tbe south
n. xlii. 17, ifl), while tbe founder of tbe Judaeac dynasty
[ech, Ps. (niv.), or, from another point of view, dean the
t of a prehistoric race of gianla. In the stories of Samson
imuel, the Philistines are located in the i
■c.) they ho
of Saul's I
■cntly
Tsrnet(iSBm.u. rA,:Kui, ;.
0 historical eorttinulty between
the two situations, and the Inunediste ptelude to tbe aehieve-
raenu of Saul and Jonathan Is lost. The lublical evidence does
not favour any' continued Philistine domination since the time
3f Rameses III., who indeed, later in his reign, made an eapedi-
tion. Dot against the Purasati, but into North Syria, and, aa
ippeais from the Papyrus Harris, icatoted Egyptian supremacy
jvcf Palestine and Syria. Upon the (incomplete) eitemal
evidence and upon a careful critidam of tbe biblical history of
:bis period, and not upon any proraiscuous combination of the
two sources, must depend the value of tbe plausible though
broad reconstiuctioDS which have bceo proposed.*
Considenble Btiess is often laid upon Goliath's antiour of
bronie and his Iton weapon, hut even David bimself has helmet,
sword and coat-of-raail at his disposal (i Sam. xvii.), and suits
lour had already been taken from Mesopotamia by Teth<
IU. CbariotsoflronaRascribedtotheCaDaaniteaUosbua
6, 18, Judges L ifl, iv. 3); but if eariy references to iton
eated as unbistotical (Gen. iv, 11, Num. xad, 11,111V. 16,
iv, K, viii, D, »;*, J, nvii, s. Jctviil. 48, miii. 15. Joshua
, 14) (joliath's iron apeat-bead must be judged together
with the whole Dairaltve in the light of a consistent historical
• The inhabltaata of Ascalon
nied a> Hiilitea. For an att>
<« a> hixorica], see A Nmni
•See oa iheM. W. M. MQ
39ieq.: G. F. Moore, £«]
q-._aTldri._H. W. HogfT, ep. .
J iHl., 1]I irq.. 136 ■en.. 14,
. Vincent, O^aait d'aprii Ct
ed hardly be (aid tint the hi
a
E
4.04 FHILj
4. CnuJuiMi.— Tlie PhiKHtns ippeu in t!ie Old Taumenl
BA (L Semitic or Al icau i thoroughly Semitiud people. Thdr
proper tiime$ tboiF Uul before snd even during the Peniia
age their langiujei diSered only diiJectially (mm Hebie*.
AmoDgtheciceptkuu muAt be reckoned Achifth (Sept. 4ig(Dvt).
WLtb which hu been complied Ikausu^ i king of fikion (7th
ceatuiy) and Ilie "Keftiaji" ntiiie Akailuii of tbe XlXth
EgypLiu dynasty. Nama Id -alk (Goliath; Abuzzath, Gen,
uvi.) arc not rotiictcd to Pbiliitinci, and Phkol (ibid.) ii
Tbe nude god DofiOo bu hii pannei Aitarte Iqq.r.), and
Bial-ubub, a funaui oracle of Ekron (1 Klogi L) find)
a parallel in the local "baali" of Faleitine.' Even when
Peniu tge, It it not to cerUia tbal Creek culture pervaded
alt duMS {mc G. F. Mooie, Buy. Bib. coL ];ifi), although
a cntaia amount of fordga biflueace probably made ItMlf
felt upon the coaiMowni at all linu*. Tbe uu o( the
term IXM^uXot in Maccabaian and later writings (cf. the
contemptuous hatred of Ben Sin, Ecdcsiasticua L 36, and the
auibor of Jubilea uiv. jo sqq.) cotrcctly eipreua tbe con-
ditions of Ibe Greek age and the Maccabaean wan, and naturally
any allusion to the situations of many centuries previously is
quite unaeccnary. similarly, the biblical evidence represents
the iraditiima in tbe form which tbey bad reached in the writer's
time, ibe true dale of which is oden uncertain, Anlagotiijoi
and, altbougfa tbe fotmer are styled " undrcmncised " (chieay
in the sioriea in the book of Samuel), the term gained new force
when tbe expulsion of undrcumdied alieoa from the unctuary
cf Jerusalem was proclaimed in the writings ascribed to EsekjeZ
(diilivj.*
In tact the question arises whether the history of the Philistines
is not Chat of a territorial designation, lather than that of the
lineal doceadaau of tbe Punsati, who, if one of tbe peoples
who took part in tbe events of the XXth Dynasty, may well have
bequeathed their name. Hie Mediterranean coast-land was
always exposed to incursions of aliens, and when Carians appear
as royal and temple guards at Jerusalem (3 Kings xi. 4), it is
sufficient to recall old Creek traditions of a Cariu sea-power
and relatiou between Philisija and Greek lands.' Even the
presence of Carians and Jonians in the time of ^ammerirbus I.
may be assumed, and when these are planted at Defnch it is
noteworthy that this is also closely aaodated trith a Jewish
cohiny (vix. Tahpanhea, Jer. xliiL teq.). Altbougb the Puiuaii
appear after the ]5tb-J4th centuries, now illuminated by the
Amama tablets, their own history is perhaps earlier.' But there
la no reason at present to believe that their entrance caused sny
break in the archaeological history. Tbe apparently " Aegean "
inSuence which enters into (he gcieral " Araama " period seems
to begin before tbe age of tbe Amama tablets (at Lacbish], and
Viiug (Oifnrd, rM). pp. at aqg.;
tbe BtrUa Academy lor tbe Hit a Oc
E. Meyer, 5iBiii(ikcricklt of
Gath be identified with Tel ef^, Blisa and Mas
excavated It, found no trace of any InterruptioD in I
Only at Geaer — perhapa Philistine, 1 Sam. v. >f—
been found evidence for a strange race with several
features. Bricked vault tomba were diaa>vered
bodies outstretched (not contracted) ; Ibe deposit* 1
unusually fine cbaractcr and comprised silve , slat
Tbe culture appears to find Carian ■
idhasb.
naUyl
Uw
r, however, ol the dtlis lying *id
mediatdy eipoaed to Philiillne iaflueacc, tbe dbc
Gezer areimique.*
According to the biblical ttaditiona the PhUiBUar
remnant of Caphtor Qa. xlvu. 4, Amoa ix. ;], and the <
drove out Che aboriginal Awa from Caxa and tlistx
Horitcs and Repbaim were displaced by Edom an
(Deut. IL13). These Capbierim, together witb Ludim
and other petty peoples, apparently of the Delta,
reckoned to E^t (Cen. x. r().' By Caphtor tbe '■
baa soDctunes understood Cappadoda, which indcc
valid for its age, but tbe name is to be identi6ed
Egyptian K(a)ptar, which in later Ptolemaic times
mean Phoenicia, although Kefliu bad had another txi
The Cheietbiiea, anocialed with Ibe Philistine disui
ui, 14. 16, Eiek. nv. it, Zepb. iL ; seq.), arc somelt
nized by tlie Septuogint as Cretans, and, with the
(often taken to be a rhyming form of Philislinca),
port of tbe royal body-guaid of Judaean kings (1 Sai
tv. 18. a. 1. 1 Kings I. jS, 44; in i Sam. ix. ij the H
baa Carites). However adequate these identifical
seem, tbe persistence of an independent clan or tribe
thites-Cretsns to the doie of the Jth century irooU
unbroken chain of neatly six hundred years, unless
herenriy more probable, later immigrations had occur
tbe interval. But upoiT the ethnological rclalionB eit
south Palestinian coast or of the Ddla it wouU be
dogmaliae. So lar as can be aiceitaiDed} then, tbe fir
of the Philistints belongs to an age of diiturbance ■
in connexion with movementa in Asia Minor. Ard
evidence for their influence baa indeed been additnd
certain that some account must be taken also of tbi
by land from North Syria and Asia Minor. Tie
whether imm the Levant or from the north, were be
to tbe age of Ramescs III. alone, and the biblical
especially, while possibly preserving some recoUecti
invasion of the Purasali. is in every case Ute and may
by later hislotical vicissitudes. It is impoaiibie thai
should have remained untouched by the external d
in connexion with tbe Delta, the Levant and Asia 1
il is possible that the course of internal history in tbe a|
d after
m lines di
;. VrpxHiUt ill i'Utt
theorici)W
Emcj. BriL. 9ih tc
PBILtSnV, Creek historian of Sidly, was boTD at
about the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (43r 1
was a faithful supporter of the elder Dionyajui, sad a
_ '%e R, A. S. Miolisier, QuorlrHj Slal. of tbe Palexi
7). 'On the other hamf H. TUa
liery of Tel et-^. ic. wiib the
. col 37S (qq., Berlin. igcA); d.
IJd-rlm.
Hall. Pr
e (later » E
1909) ; EvaoB, Scnfia Itint
PHILLAUR— PHILLIPS, A
« jetlousy of the lynnt
d Uk dXidd. In jU be
bf Movtly DUTTying bb nil
Bt Kttled at Tburii, but tHemnds removed to Adrii, where
h Kouned onlQ ibe dcUh ol Dionyiiui (366]. He wu then
ivalkd bjr the younf:ei Dionyiiui, whom he peniuded to
AdUm PUto ud Dion. When Dion set ui] irom Zacynthui
nib the object ol Ijbcnting Syranue fmn 1he()TaiTfiu, FhiliMui
■aentmsted with the cxHEunijid oE the fleet, but he wu dcieated
ad put to death (556). During bis stiy at Adria, PhilisLiu
Bccnpied bimielf with Ibe composit joa oi hit ZiMt^xMk, a history
oi s^ in df ven booki. The fint pari (bks. i.-vU.) comprised
Ik Ustoiy ol the island from the earliest limes to the aplurc
fl( Afrigcntani by Ibe Cartbaginiani (406!^ the second, the
liKoy o( the elder and Ibe youngFr Dionytiua (down to j6j).
Tm this point the work wu aiiitil on by rhilistua'i fellow
omuymau Albinai. Cicero (ad. Q Fr. ij. 13). who bad a
ld|b ifuiian ol bis work, coUi him the oiullalure Tbucydidei "
l^nBu Tkacydiiti). He wu admitted by the Aluaodrwn
(Blics bto the oinon ol historiographers, and Us work wu
hriJir valued by Alexander tbe Great.
Sa DkxL Sie. uiL roj, dv. S, ». 7, xvL II. 16: Ptutarcb, Dim.
Urj/i: Cicm. BrmUa. 1;, Dt traUri. U. ij: Quintiliin. Imlil.
ii.74;rniRini»and llfebi C W MQIIer. RafiwMa tuldriuran
nrWH. voL L (1S41): C. Wachtmulh. £iiilnfiiit( m du .SlxJima
toiUn Ccictxtlt [iB^j): E. A. Freeman. ttiMfy tf Suilf (1891-
ilM);A.Hoi^, CuotifLi
miUtnt, a town at BiIiEih India. Id JuUundui district.
?B^, on the north bank ol the river Sutlij. g m. N. ol
laOisaa. Pop. (1901), AqM. Founded by Ibe Mogul emperor
SUl Jihao, it wa* long ot imporlance ai commanding the
amb^ of Ibe Sullcj. At the Mutiny in 1S57 the lort coniained
Ik littt tiaio. which was sent safely to Delhi; but the sepoy
i^pmeat In tbe cantonment shortly afterwards mutinied and
ooped. Tbe fort Is now occupied by the police training school
M Ihecentnl bureau o( tbecrinunil Identilicalian department.
mumOKS. IIB ROBBBT JOSEPH (iSio-iSSs). English
Mie, third (an ol ■ weU-known (ccle»utiul lawyer, Dr Joseph
FUUmore, wubomil WbitehaUon the ^tbof November iSio.
EdKUdal Westminster and Christ Churcb.OifDrd.wherea life-
bfliwDdsbip with W. E. Cladslone began, bis fini appointment
m Lo a dfikship in the board of control, where he remained
hm i!ji to 1SJ5. Admitted aa an advocate at Doclois'
CMDuns in igjQ, be was called to the bar at tbe Middle Temple
it 1)41, and me very rapidly in bis profession. He wu engogcd
•1 EMEsel in almost every case of importance that C9me belOTC
tbi idmiralty, probate or divorce courts, and bccime succeu-
Mj Baata of faculties, commissary d( the deans and chapicra
<l U Panl-s and Westmiuler, t>mcial of the srchdcaconriet of
IMrilm I and London ,imd chancellor of tbe diococs olChithKier
Ul Ssliibary. In iSj3 be entered parli
1 energies 1
L iSj4 he inlroducei
: devoted
le biU for
to amtiarty measures,
■Wtaf viva voce evidence in loc ccciramiiicai touiLS. nc xii
fei Tnjttock natil iS;;, when he offered himself as a candidate
far Cntntry, but wu defeated, ife was appointed judge of
UtCupiePartiin 185;. Queen's Counsel in iSjS, and advocale-
plmlinulmlraJly in 1861, andsuccecded Dr SlephenLusbing-
» Mj-tS)jl ujudge oi tbecourt of arches five years loler.
Bn hii Ofe. patience and courtesy, combined with unusual
^iPdityofexpression, won general respect. Ini875,inaccordance
Ktt the Pablic Worship Regulation Act, he resigned, and was
atrnded by Lord Penzance. When the Judicature Act came
^ lofce the powen of the admiralty court were transferred
>o tbe B^ Court of Justice, and Sir Robert PhiUimore was
tafore the last fudge of tbe historic court of (be lord high
Xabal d England. He continued to sit u judge for the new
■toshy, probate »nd divorte division until 1B83. when be
*^Jtd. He wrote Ealtihaical Lam nf Iht Ciurck tf EHi-Janil,
>nck wluch slUl holds its ground. CimmctUana m Inlcraariaaiil
Im, Bid a translation of Lesong's Lmmm. He married, in
■y Chariolte Anne, daughter of John Denison of Oasington
■d, NtvaA. Hewai knighted In iS6i.and created a baronet
■ Itti. H« died at SbipUke, out Henley-on-Tbames. on
the 4lb of February iggj. His eldest son. Sir Walter C F.
Phillimore (b. 1S4S), also distinguished as an authority on
ecdcsiasiical and admiralty law, became in 1897 a judge of
the high court.
PHILLIP. JOHN (1817-1867), Scotlish painter, wu bora at
Aberdeen, Scotland, on tlie iqlh of April 1817. His father, an
old loldlcr, wu fa humble drcumslances, and the son became
inter and hazier. Hiving received some techn
>m a local artist named William Mercer, he bci
about fifteen, (0 paint portraits. In iSjt b
D Londo
James Forbes, an Aberdeen portrait painter. He bad already
gained a valuable pairon. Having been sent to repair a window
in tbe house of Major P. L. Cordon, his interest in Ibe works of
art inthehouse attractedtheaitentionof their owner. Cordon
brought ihe young artist under the nolice of Lord Panmure,
who in rSjfi sent him to London, promising 10 bear the cost of
his art education. At first Phillip wu placed under T. M. Joy.
but he soon entered the schools of Ihe Royal Academy. In j8jg
be figured for Ibe firiL lime in the royal academy eibitution wilh
a portrait and a landscape, and in Ihe following year he was
represented by a more ambitious figure-picture of "Tawj in
Disguise relating his Persecutions to bis Sisler," For Ibe neil
ten years he supported hlmscU mainly by portraiture and by
painting subjects of national incident, such as " Piesbylerian
C»Lcchi7[r.g," " Baplism In Scoiland." and the " Spaewife."
Kii productions at this period, u veil as his earh'cr subjctt-
piciurea, are reminiscent of tbe practice and methods o( Wilkie
and the Scoiiisb genre-painters ol his time. In iSji his health
showed signs of delicacy, and be went lo Spain in search of ■
warmer climate. He was broughl face 10 (ace for [he first time
wilh Ihe brlliant suTishine and the splendid colour of the soulh,
and it was in coping with these that he first maniiested Us
artistic Individuality and finally displayed his full powers. In
the " Letter-writer of Seville " (1SJ4). commissioned by Queen
struggling wilh new difficulties In the portrayal of unwonted
splendours ol colour and light. In 1857 Phillip was elected an
Bssociaie of ihe Royal Academy, and in 1859 a full member. In
iSjj and in 1S60 further vi»is to Spain were made, and in each
case the poinier relumed with fresh materials lo be embodied
wilh increasing power and subileiy in the long series of works
which won for him ihe ilileof " Spanish Phillip," His highest
point ol eiecuiion is probably reached in " La Gloria" UZfit)
and a smaller single-figure painting of Ihe same period enlilled
" El Cigarillo." These Spanish subjects were varied in i860
by a rendering of the marriage of the princess royal with Ihe
Clown prince of Prussb, executed by command of Ihe queen,
and in iBtj by a picture of the House of Commons. During his
bsl visit ID Spoin Phillip occupied himself in a careful study ol
the art of Vclaiquct. and the copies which be made lelched large
prices alter his dcaih.eiamples having been lecured by ibe royal
and tbe royal Scotlish academies. The year beiore hii dcsib he
visited Italy and devoted attention lo Ihe works of Titian. The
results of lUs sludy of the old masters are viable in such works
u " La Loleria Nadonal, "left uncomplcied at his dealh. During
this period he resided much in the Highlands, and seemed to be
returning to his first love for Scottish subjecls. painting several
national scenes, and planning others thai were never completed.
He died in London on tbe 17th of February 1867.
PHILLIPS. ADELAIDE (1833-18S1I. American contiallo
nger, wu bom at Slralford-on-Avon. England, her lainily
emigrating lo America in 1840. Her mother taught dancing.
+06 PHILLIPS, E.— PHILLIPS, S.
uid Adelaide bcgui a career on (be Bbiod ituc at lea yean ipriniDl 1614 Smith oeiil to Vork to dctiveracaiaa
ohL But in 1850 her ulenl for singing became evident, uid on geology, and his nqjhev uxompaniol him. PhiO
Ihruugh Jenny Lind and othen ihc waa sent to London and to engagetaealA in the principal Vorluhire lowu lo a
luly to study. In 1855 ibc relumed to America in acmm- muieunu and give courxa ol lecturet on the coUectio
pushed vocalist, and ior many yean >fae «■* the leading theieb. Yoik beunie his reiidence, ohete be ■
American ramrallo, equally lucccisful in oratDcio and on iLe 1815, the nlualion oi keeper of the Yorkshire 11
conceit plailorm. She died ai Carlsbad on the 3rd o( October lecretaiy o( the Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
i88j. centre he eiwnded his operations 10 towns beyond
PHILUPS, EDWARD (16J0-1696), English author, ton of udin iSjt hcindudedUniveniLy ColIegc,LondoB,i
Edward Phillips of the crown office in chancery, and hia wife of his aciiviiy. In that year the British Aisocia
Anne, only sister of John Milton, the poet, was bom in August Advancement of Science waa founded at York, arul
I&30 in (be SLrond, London. His father died in [6ji, and Anne one ai the active minds who organized its mad
Phillips eventually married her husband's successor in the crown became in iSji the Brat assistant secretary, a post w
office, Thomas Agar. Edward Phillips and his younger brother, until iSji). In iSj4 he accepted the prolcssonbif
John, were educated by Milton. £dward entered Magdalen at King's CoUege, London, but retained bis poaC a
(fall, Oxford, in November 16^, but lell Ihe univenily in 1651 iSj4 he was elected F.R.S.; in later yean he n
to be a bookseller's clerk in London. Although he entirely degreaofLL.D. from Dublin and Cambridge, and
diHercd from Milton in his rell^ua and poliliol views, and Oiford; while in 1S4J he was awarded the WoUaaU
seems, to judge from the fre« chataclet of his Uysteria 1/ Lnv Ihe Geological Society of London. Id i&4Sbe resigu
and ElmiHerice (lAjS), to have undeigone a certain tevulsion ol ibe York museum and wai appoinled on tbc
from his Puritan upbringing, he remained on aSccllonate terms geological survey oI Great Britain under Dc la Becb
with his uncle lo the end. He was tutor to the son of John «ome time in studying the Falaeoioic fossils of Devi
Evdyn, the diarisl, from 166] to i6)j at Sayes Court, near and West Somerset, oi which he published a desciip
Deptfotd, and in i6;j-tfi79 in the family of Henry Beanct, (1841); and he made 1 detailed survey of ihe le
earl of Arlington. The dale of his death is unknown but his M:ilverD Hills, of which he prepared the elaborate 1
last book is dated 1696. appearsinvol. ii.of ihei/«BDifio/l*ei'iirKy(i848).
Hit mo« important wort is Thialnm pttUnm (t67i). a list of became professor of geology in the university of D>
^rJ!'^^"hort l:?fSl'^™™'a |^"!?.^B^^^^ years laler, on Ihe dealh of H. E. Strickland, who 1
He also wrote A Ifn WarU in Wmili. ir a CrninJ Dulumurt theuniversilyofOilord.Fhillipt succeeded 10 the pM
(■6S81, which wennhmugh many ediiion; a new edition of Baker'i gnd al the dean's dfalh in 1S56 became himseir It
amsKlr or »h«h the m.ion on the period from isjo to i6sB wa. „],ich beheld to the time or his dealh. During 1
ES& J?"^L'^t;??SEi vlf H inCoifht'n^w m^^m^^'r^ i^ :^j "ii"«
S<^'i;:,r,;)'^wi"£a'viu;ble^nJ,r ' /'"l,.!!" "Sl'^niXi-Vhim^^™ J^'l^r^iS'tS
His brother, JoaN Pmitips (1631-1706), Id i6si published „„„„„ (™„ ,854-18,0. In 1859-1860 he was
a Latin reply to the anonymous attack on Milton entitled Pro ,f„ Geological Society of London, and in 1865 pro
Ree C fopida ai.(/ica«o. He appears to have acled as un- ^,nj^ Assodalion. He dined at All Souls Collegl
official secietary to Milion, but. disappointed of regularpoliucal ^j ^pj^ ,gj, but on leaving he dipped and tell d
employment, and chafing against the discipline he was under, ^f ^^ ^^„ and died on the fotkiwing day,
he publiiAed in 1655 a bitter atlack on Puritanism entilled a "« J
Sstyr a^iiut Hyptcrilts (i6ss). In 1636 he was summoned
before the privy council (or hii share in a book o( licentious
poems, Sporliw iVii, which was suppressed by Ihe auihoritiei
but almost immediaicly replaced by a similAr coUcciion, tVil
mid DiaUtry. In Uetiiditn ( 1 660) he ridiculed the astrological
almanacs o( William LiUy. Two other skits of this name, in
1661 and 1661, also full ol course royalist wit, were probably by
another hand. In 1678 he supported Ihea^UlionofTitusOalei,
writing on hb behalf, lays Wood, " many h'es and viUanies."
Dr OaUi'i NanaliH of Iki Pofisi PIM iniicaltd was the first
of these liacu. He began a monihiy historical review in 16SS
cnritled J/arfera Hiilory or a UonMy AtcimM e] aU cnsidaaNc
CkcurrciKCI, Cieil, Ecilisiailical and Wifiljry. followed in 1690 by
Thi FreieiU Suit oj Europt, or a Hiilorkal and PolilUat Mercury,
which was supplemented by a preliminary volume giving a
hiiloiy of events from 16SS. He executed many llansbtions
(rom the French, and a veislon (1687) of Doh Quik^i, ^
An extended, but by no means friendly, account of the brothers ,
11 given by Wood. AHnn. nan. <<d. BUu, iv. 764 icq.),
WiRialn Godwin's Lira of Edvard and John Pkiaipi (iSij), with fiilh, he relurncd to England and entered Sidney Su:
which it reprinted Edward PhilUp>'. Lift of Jckn JftUw. Cambridge, with Ihe design of taking orders. His lai
PHILUPS. JOHM (1800-1S74). English geologist, was bom however, prevenled ihis. and in 1S41 be uxA 10 hi
on the isth of December iSoo al Marden in Wiltshire. His He wrote 3 novel, Calib Sixtcly (i36i), and othe
(ather belonged to an old Welsh family, but settled in England about 1843 began a connexion with Tlu Tinus as li
as an officer of excise and married the sister of William Smith, In Ihe (allowing yeai he purchased the Jokn Bafj
the " Father of English Geology." Both parenli dying when and edited ll (or a year Two volumes of his Eiia
he waa a child. Phillips came under the charge o( his uncle; and rimer appeared in 1833 and iSs4 Phillips took ar
alter being educated at various schools, he aooinpanicd Smith on in Ihe (ormation of the Crystal Palace Company
hii wanderingt in cnnseikm wltli hh geolaglcal mva. In the tbeii deiciiplive guides. In iSsi the univenity c
London,
PHILLIPS, S.-
■■tend npoD Urn tbe bomnry degree ol LL.D. Be died
uBii^lOBOD tbe uth of October lis*-
miLIPf, STBPHn I1B68- ), Britub poet ind dnnutlM,
n boni on tbe iBtli of July iS&g at Somenavn rmr Oilocd,
Ik DD o[ Ibe Rev. Slepben Phillipt, precentor ol Peterborough
CuMnL He wu educated at StratFoid aod Peterborough
ftuHwinr School*, and entered Quecn'a College, Cambiidge;
tedunng bii Gnt terra at Cambridge, when F. R. Benion'i
dninatk company visited tbe town, he joined i(, and lor lix
Jtia played various small paita. In eSi}o a atender volume of
me vai published at Oxford with the title Primmra, which
CDUained contributions by him and by his cousin Laurence
Bbroo asd others. In i£^ be published Eremus, a long poem
of loose structure in blank verse of a philosophical complexion.
Id 1S96 appeared Ckriil in Hodis, forrning with a few other
dnt pieces one of tbe slim paper-covered volumes of Elltin
Uilben's " ShUling Garland." Tliis poem arrested tbe at-
BaioG of watchful critics of poetry, and when it was followed
bf I collection of ^DeMi in lim the writer'!
PHILLIPS, WENDELL
Irious cfaartctcrt
" Chris
n Had<
igelher
■Mirpe.a.""The
Woman with
he Dead
Soul " "
Tbe Wii
lid ihoner pieces.
iduding the
ne lines'
To Mil
m, Blin
ojlercdb
the Aia
'™V ne.
pqn lor Ihe best [
■vbookolils
itoughhidfado:
ed Mr Phillips's i
bylhepubUi
IkiQinll
faiths of his poem " Endymi
n," Ceo
ge Ale:
.nder, 1
scetlsii
damoui
ciido lor a Utersiy
commissi
ile him a play, t!
nng Paoin aitJ Fi
a(.<.
la founded
lb inal success ol the drama in its Lleiary form, Mr Aleunder
indond tbe piece at the St James's Tbeatre in the course of
ign. In tbe meantime, Iklr Phillips's n«t pUy, Htrod: a
TniBty, bad been produced by Beerbohm Tree on the jiit of
Ooober 1900, and was published as a book In 1901 ; t/Jyiiei.alw
tndsccdtqi Bterbebm Tree, was published in igoi; Tkc Sin of
IW, a drama on the story ol David and Baihsbcbi, translated
ks the liioes and terms of Cromwellian England, was published
i 'VH\ ud Nao, produced by Beerbohm Tree, was published
is 1906. In these plays the poet's avowed aim was, instead ol
>tlaq)tirLg to revive the method of Shakespeare and the Eliaa-
bdbu, to icvitaliu the method of Greek drama, Paolii and
htnaia {nhkb admitted certainly one scene on an Eliiabelhaa
mid) iFU tbe most successful, the subject being best adapted
lolbclyri^cait o[ Mr Phillips's poetical temperament ; but bU
owsined fine poetry, skilfully stage-managed by a writer who
U pcutiol experience of stage daft.
>hilIipBinP«(l>ir'te Vaaxnr Gnten-
) : also the articles on " Tragedy and
iam Watson, in the FarlnitiSy Knim
il Mr Stephen PhJUipm" in ihc £i«<i>-
' Mr Stephen Phillips." in the Cnlury
<• and " Mr Stephen Phillip.,'^
I903.>"
PmUPS. TBOMAS (1770-1845), English portrait and
"hjecl painter, was bom at Dudley in Warwickshire on the
iW d( October IJJO. Having acquired the art of ghss-
(liiting at Birmingbam be visited London in 1790 with an
■Ugduction to Benjamia West, who found him emploxment
« the windon tn St George's Chapct at Windsor, In 1741
AiOips painted a view of Windsor Castle, and in the ncit two
yita be ciUbited the " Death of Talbot, Earl of Sbrevsbuiy,
« the Battle of Castillon," " Rulb and Naomi," " Elijah re.
■•ring the Widow's Son," " Cupid disarmed by EuphroiyBC,"
ud other inctora. After I79d, however, he mainly con-
faed himself to portnlt-painting. It was not long before
k became Ibe chosen painter ol men oi geidus and talent,
HtnlbsUDdiog the rivalry of Hoppner, Owen, Jackson and
bnoKc; aod be Idt bcbiod portraiu ol oEuly all the illua-
day. Id 1804 be «u elected associate
■DO in laoa memixr 01 the Royal Academy, In 1814 Phillips
succeeded Puseli as professor ol painting to tbe Royal Academy,
an olTict which be btld till iSji. During this period be de-
livered ten Litlioa n Iht Hiilsry and Principla s/ PuMlint,
which were published in 1S33. He died on the loib of April
■a*j,
PHILLIPS, WEKDELL (1811-1884), American ontor >Dd
reformer, was bom in Boston on the igtb ol November iSii.
His father. John Phillips (i77i>-iSi]), a man of wealth
and influence, graduated at Harvard College in 17S8, and
became successively " town advocaii
and in iSii £iat mayor of Boston, ihet
Wendell Phillips himseli attended 1
itered Harvard College before he w
■ Sjr
n Job
iduated
Lothrop
Motley, He graduated at the Harvard bw school ir
and WIS admitted to the bar in Boston. lie soon came under
the infuence of the anti-slavery mavemcal, uiloessing in 1835
the mobbing, in Boston, of William Lloyd Gairison, On tbe
8th of December i3j7 a meeting was beld U Faneuil Hall 10
express the seniimcnis of the pco[Je on Ibe munkr of Elijah P,
Lovcjoy, at Alton, Illinois, for defending his press from a pro-
slaveiy mob. In the course of the meeiing a speech was made
in oppoMiion to its general cuiient by James T, Austin (17B4-
i8jo). attorney-general of the stale, who said that Lovejoy
had died " as the fool dieth," and compared his tnurderers to
1 who threw the tea into Boston harbour just belore (be
Independence, The speech seemed likely to divide the
e. when WendeQ Phillips took the plaiform, " When
," he said, " the gentleman lay down principles which
placed the murderers ol Alton ude by side with Otis and Han-
cock, with Quincy and Adams, 1 thought these pictured lips
jnting 10 thrir portraits) would have broken into voice to
uke the recreant American, the slanderer of the dead." This
wat not merely determined the sentiment ol the meeting,
gave Wendell Phillips his first fame and determined bis
cer. Although loving his profession, and this especially
the opening it gave in the direction of public life, he prac-
Llly stepped outside the spliere dearest to young Americans,
I Uvcd hencelorib Ibe life of an a^talor, or, like bis father,
I of a " public prosecutor." Accepting unheHtatingly the
lership of Garrison, and becoming like him gradually a
jnionist, he lived essentially a platform lile, intercsled in a
iely of subjects, but first and chieHy an abolitionist. In
.5, however, alter the Civil War, be broke with Caniion
over ihe question of discontinuing Ibe Anli-Sbvety Society,
from that date until the sodeiy was dislunded in 1870 be,
sad of Canison, was lis president. He was not, moreover,
his great leader, a non.reastant, nor was be, on the other
hand, like John Drown, borne on by irresisiible nccessiiy to
Not did he find, like his fellow-worker, Theodore
Parker, the leisure lo keep up his scholarship and lead in part
the lile of a student. Eaily study and travel bad indeed fut-
cl him witb abundant material for rhetorical illustration',
le was also a great reader of newspapers, but he used to
hat he knew in bis whole life but one thing ihoroughty,
ly, the history of the English Civil War, and there were
cca»ons when he could not diaw from it the needful illuv
in. His style of eloquence was direct and briUbnt. but
mtly sctl-cont rolled. He alien tuipiised bis facatcts by
the quietness ol his beginnings, and these were very often the
speeches which turned out most brilliant and most Itredsliblc
re the dose. He may be said lo have introduced the direct
nd colhiquial manner upon the American public platform, as
istincl from the highly ebborated and often omale style
hich had been established by Edward Even-It; not has Ihere
ver been a rever«on since his day to the more artificial
method. He was capable at times, nevcithclcss, of highly
periods witb superb dimaics; yet bis favi
style ■
. His I .
It be loved Ihe Oi
niiled,
* lapicr, and
4o8
PHILLIPS, W.— PHILLPOTTS
was never happier than when he had to face down a mob and
utterly foil it by sheer superiority in fencing. The two volumes
of his speeches, as edited by James Redpath, were fortunately
made from verbatim reports, and they wisely enclose in paren-
theses those indications of favour or dissent from the audience
which transformed so many of his speeches into exhibitions of
gladiatorial skill. He was a tribune of the people, associated
unflinchingly not merely with the unpopular but with the
unpolished; always carrying about him not merely a certain
Roman look, but a patrician air. After slavery had fallen
Phillips associated himself freely with reformers occupied in
other paths, herein separating himself from the other patrician
of the movement, Edmund Quincy, who always frankly said
that after slavery was abolished there was nothing else
worth fighting lor. Among other things, PhiJUps contended,
during his later years, for prohibition, woman suffrage and
various penal and administrative reforms. He was not always
the best judge of character, and was sometimes allied in these
movements with men who were little more than demagogues.
But the proof he gave by his transfer of energies that the work
of reform was never quite finished — this was something of
peculiar value, and worth the risk of some indiscretions. The
life of a reformer did not in itself make him thoroughly
happy; he chafed more and more under its fatigues, and he
always felt that his natural place would have been among
senators or ambassadors; but he belonged essentially to the
heroic type, and it may well have been of him that Emerson
was thinking when he wrote those fine words: " What forests
of laurel we bring and the tears of mankind to him who stands
firm against the opinion of his contemporaries." His domestic
life was most happy, though his wife was a confirmed invalid,
seldom quitting her room. She was a woman of heroic nature
and very strong convictions. Her husband used to say that
she first made him an abolitionist. They had no children, but
adopted an orphaned daughter of Mrs Eliza Gamaut, a friend,
and this young girl (afterwards the wife of George W. Smallcy),
brought much light and joy into the household. Their worldly
circumstances were easy, though they were always ready to
impoverish themselves for the sake of others. Wendell Phillips
died in Boston on the 2nd of February 1884.
See Lorenzo Sears, Wenddl PhiUips^ Orator and AgUator (New
York. 1909) (T. W. H.)
PHILUPS* WILUAM (1775-1828), British mineralogist and
geologist, son of James Phillips, printer and bookseller in
London, was bom on the loth of May 1775. He early became
interested in mineralogy and geology, and was one of the
founders of the Geological Society of London (1807). His
Outlines of Mineralogy and Geology (18 15) and EUmentary Intro-
duction to the Knowiedge of Mineralogy (18 16) became standard
textbooks. His digest of English geology, A selection of Facts from
the Best Authorities, arranged so as to form an Outline of the Geo-
logy of England and Wales (18 18), formed the foundation of the
larger work undertaken by Phillips in conjunction with W D.
G>nybeare, of which only the first part was published, entitled
Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales (182a). This
volume made an era in geology. As a model of careful original
observation, of judicious compilation, of succinct description
and of luminous arrangement it has been of the utmost service
in the development of geology in Britain. In this work Phillips
reprinted his admirable description of the chalk cliffs of Dover
and other parts of East Kent, published in 1819 in Trans. Geol.
Soc. voL V. Phillips was a member of the Society of Friends.
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1827. He
died on the 2nd of April 1828. •
His brother, Richasd Phillips (i 778-1851), was distin-
guished as a chemist, and became F.R.S. in 1823. He was
appointed chemist and curator to the Museum of Economic
(afterwards Practical) Geology, then situated in Craig's Court
(1839). He was the author of papers published in the Annals
of Philosophy and Philosophical Magazine. In 1796 the two
brothers, together with William Allen and Luke Howard, took
pMTt in fonning the Askesiui Sodety.
PHILUPSBURG, a town of Warren county, Ne«
U.S. A., on the Delaware river, opposite Easton, Pens
and about 51 m. N.N.W. of Trenton, N.J. Pop. (igoe
of whom 990 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. ctoaad
Served by the Central of New Jersey and other raili
town is situated in the river bottom and on a bto
commands beautiful views. The river is spanned
several bridges. The town has railway shops and varioi
factures. In 1905 the value of the factory piodt
$6,684,173 (45*8% more than in 1900). Phillipsbuii; wi
about 1750. It was only a straggling village when tfa
Banking and Canal Company was chartered in 1834
growth was accelerated by the canal (no longer used]
establishment in 1848 of an iron furnace, and by the co
of the Central Railroad of New Jersey to tbis point
the town was incorporated in i86x.
PHILUPSITE, a mineral of the zeolite group; a I
potassium, calcium and aluminium silicate, appro
to (Kt, Ca) Al3(Si03)4*4HtO. It varies somewhat in con
and a variety (" pseudophillipsite ") containing rat
silica has the formula (Ki, Ca)tAl4Si»Ou*9HiO. Ciy
monodinic, but only complex cnidform twins are knoi
being exactly like twins of harmotome (^.v.). Cr;
phillipsite are, however, usually smaller and more tia
and glassy than those of harmotome. Spherical groi
a radially fibrous structure and bristled with crystal
surface are not uncommon. The hardness b 4},
specific gravity 2*2. The species was established by
in 1825 and named after William Phillips. Frendi
use the name christianite (after Christian VIII. of Di
given by A. Des Cloizeaux in 1847.
Philliftsite is a mineral of secondary origin, and occ
other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basic
rocks: e.g. in the basalt of the Giant's Causeway in
Antrim, and near Melbourne in Victoria; and in lend
Rome. Small crystals of recent formation have been •
in the masonry of the hot baths at Plombi^res and Boi
les-Bains, in France. Minute spherical aggregates «
in red clay were dredged by the " Challenger " from th^
of the Central Pacific, where th^ had been formed
decomposition of lava. Q^
PHILLPOTTS. HENRY (1778-1869), En^ish bishop, 1
at Bridgwater on the 6th of May 1778, and was edo
Gloucester College school and at Corpus Christ! College,
He became a fellow of Magdalen CoUege, Oxford, in 17
orders in 1803, and was sdect university preacher :
In 1805 he received the living of Stain ton-le-Street, Durl
in addition was appointed to Bishop Middleham, Durhai
succeeding year. For twenty years he was ch^)lain I
Barrington, bishop of Durham. He was appoined
Gateshead in x8o8, prebendary of Durham in 1809, a
of St Margaret, Durham, in 1810. After holding the li
of Stanhope, Durham from 1820, and the deanery of
from 1828, he was consecrated bishop of Exeter i
holding with the see a residentiary canonry at Duiiia
published works indude numerous speeches and pa
including those connected with his well-kno#n Roman
controversy with Charles Butler (1750-1832). He
energetic supi>orter of the Tory party, even when
contrary to his views in passing the Roman CathoUc £1
tion Act of 1829. He died on the i8th of Scptemb
" Henry of Exeter," as he was commonly called, waso
most striking figures in the English Church of the 1 8th
His intellect was strong rather than broad, his positi
that of the traditional High Churchman, with Uttle s;
either with the Evangelicals or with the Tractarians.
one hand the famous Gorham judgment was the outooi
refusal to institute to the living of Brampford Speke a d
George Cornelius Gorham (i 787-1857), who had op
avowed his belief in baptismal refreneration; on the
denounced the equally famous Tract XC in his
charge of 1843. As bishop he was a strict discipKna
PHILO
+09
dU much to restore <»der in a diocese of which the clergy
had become extnordiiurily demoralized. Though accused of
avarice and pluralism, Phillpotu was generous in his gifts to
the diarch, founding the theological college at Exeter and
spending large sums on the restoration of the cathedraL
PHILOb Jewish Hellenist, and author of an epic poem in
Creek hexameters on the history of Jerusalem. Alexander
Polyhistor (c. 105-35 B.C.) quotes several passages of the poem,
vid b the source of the extracts in Eusebius {Praeparalio
aaMfdica, ix. 20, 24, 37). This is probably the Philo who is
neatioaed by Clemens Alexandrinus (Strom, i. ai, 141) and
\itf Josephus {Contra Apiorum, i. 33), who caUs him " the elder."
See M. Phitippson'f work on the Jewish poets Ezechiel and Philo
Oiectin. 1830).
PHILO. often called Philo Judaeits, Jewish philospher,
tjipesis to have spent his whole life at Alexandria, where he
va probably bom e. 20-xo B.C. His father Alexander was
tUhsich or arabarch (that is, probably, chief farmer of taxes
<A the Arabic side of the Nile), from which it may be concluded
that the family was influential and wealthy (Jos. Ant. xviii.
S, i). Jerome's statement {De vir. ill. xi) that he was of
priotly race is confirmed by no older authority. The only
event of his life which can be actually dated belongs to aj>. 40,
vbcD Phik), then a man of advan^d years, went from Alexandria
to Rome, at the head of a Jewish embassy, to persuade the
cnpenr Gaius to abstain from claiming divine honour of the
^n. Of this embassy Philo has left a full and vivid account
{Dt kgationo ad Cainm). Various fathers and theologians
q{ the Giurch state that in the time of Claudius he met St Peter
k]tooe;*but this legend has no historic value, and probably
uue beciuse the book De tUa contemplativaf ascribed to' Philo,
B vhich Eusebius already recognized a glorification of
Christian monasticism, seemed to indicate a disposition towards
Chrittianity.
Thott^ we know so little of Philo's own life, his ntmierous
eitaot writings give the fullest information as to his views of
the vyvenie and of life, and his religious and scientific aims,
ttd 10 enable us adequately to estimate his position and impor-
tuoe ID the history of thought. He is quite the most important
>9R9entjitiye of Helknistic Judaism, and his writings give
V the devest view of what this development of Judaism
*» and aimed at. The development of Judaism in the
<i>aqMra {q.v) differed in important points from that in Palestine,
*iieR, since the successful opposition of the Maccabee age to
the Hdlenization which Antiochus Epiphanes had sought to
'6xpf throu^ by force, the attitude of the nation to Greek
cahuie had been essentially negative. In the diaspora, on
Mother hand, the Jews had been deeply influenced by the
Gicdu; they soon more or less forgot their Semitic mother-
toogoe, and with the language of Hellas they appropriated
BiKh of Hellenic culture. Th^ were deeply impreucd by that
■leshtfide force which was blending all races and nations into
^ great cosmopolitan unity, and so the Jews too on their
<bpaiion became in speech and nationality Greeks, or rather
"Hdlenists." Now the distingiiishing character of Hellenism
^ Bot the absolute disappearance of the Oriental civilizations
iiefore that of Greece but the combination of the two with a
gyondgance of the Greek element. So it was with the Jews,
"tt ia their case the old religion had much more persistence
than in other Hellenistic circles, though in other respects they
loo yielded to the superior foree of Greek civilization. This we
*iBt hdd to have been the case not only in Alexandria but
^''RMil^Kmt the diaspora from the commencement of the Hellen-
^ period down to the later Roman Empire. It was only after
*>tiait civilization gave way before the barbarian immigrations
**1 the rising force of Christianity that rabbinism becan^e
^fttat even among the Jews of the diaspora. This Hellenistico-
Jndaic phase of culture is sometimes called " Alexandrian," and
Ibe e]q>reasion is justifiable if it only means that in Alexandria
ft attained its hi^e^ development and flourished most. For
. 'Enteb., H. E. H 17, i; Jer, nt supra; Phot. BiH. Cod. 105:
here the Jews began to busy themselves with Greek literature
even under their dement rulers, the first Ptolemies, and here
the law and other Scriptures were first translated into Greek;
here the process of fusion began earliest and proceeded with
greatest rapidity; here, therefore, also the Jews first engaged
in a scientific study of Greek philosophy and transplanted that
philosophy to the soil of Judaism. We read of a Jewish philo-
sopher Aristobulus in the time of Ptolemy VI. Philometor, in
the middle of the 2nd century B.C., of whose philosophical
commentary on the Pentateuch fragments have been preserved
by Clement of Alexandria and Eusebius. So far as we can
judge from these, his aim was to put upon the sacred text a
sense which should appeal even to Greek readers, and in par-
ticular to get rid of all anthropomorphic utterances about
God. Eusebius regards him as a Peripatetic. We may suppose
that this philosophical line of thought had its representatives
in Alexandria between the times of Aristobulus and Philo, but
we are not acquainted with the names of any such. Philo
certainly, to judge by hb historical influence, was the greatest
of all these Jewish philosophers, and in his case we can follow
in detail the methods by which Greek culture was harmonized
with Jewish faith. On one side he b quite a Greek, on the other
quite a Jew. His language is formed on the best classical
models, especially Plato. He knows and often cites the great
Greek poets, particulariy Homer and the tragedians, but his
chief studies had been in Greek philosophy, and he speaks of
Heraclitus, Plato, the Stoics and the Pythagoreans in terms o^
the highest veneration. He had appropriated their doctrines
so completely that he must himself be reckoned among the
Greek philosophers; his system was eclectic, but the borrowed
elements are combined into a new unity with so much originality
that at the same time he may fairly be regarded as representing
a philosophy of his own, which has for its characteristic feature
the constant prominence of a fundamental religious idea.
Philo's closest affinities are with Plato, the later Pythagoreans
and the Stoics.* Yet with all this Philo remained a Jew, and a
great part of his writings is expressly directed to recommend
Judaism to the respect and, if possible, the acceptance of the
Greeks. He was not a stranger to the specifically Jewish
culture that prevailed in Palestine; in Hebrew he was not pro-
ficient, but the numerous etymologies he gives show that he
had made some study of that language.' His method of exegesis
is in point of form identical with that of the Palestinian scribes,
and in point of matter coincidences are not absolutely rare.*
But above all his whole works prove on every page that he felt
himself to be thoroughly a Jew, and desired to be nothing else.
Jewish "philosophy" is to him the true and highest wisdom;
the knowledge of God and of things divine and human which
is contained in the Mosaic Scriptures is to him the deepest and
the purest.
If now we ask wherein Philo's Judaism consisted we must
answer that it lies mainly in the formal claim that the Jewish
people, in virtue of the divine revelation given to Moses, possesses
the true knowledge in things religious. Thoroughly Jewish
is his recognition that the Mosaic Scriptures of the Pentateuch
are of absolute divine authority, and that everything they
contain is valuable and significant because divinely revealed.
The other Jewish Scriptures are also recognized as prophetic,
i.e. as the writings of inspired men, but he does not pkure them
on the same lines with the law, and he quotes them so seldom
that we cannot determine the compass of his canon. The
' The fathers of the Church have specially noticed his Platonism
and Pythagoreanism; an old proverb even says, with some
exaggeration, Ij nxdrofi* ^XsMf^ti # ^l\b» irXaruflfti (Jerome, Photius
ana Suidas, ut supra). Gemcnt of Alexandria directly calls him a
Pythagorean. Eusebius Ui. E. ti. 4, 3) observes both tendencies.
Recent writers, especially Zeller, lay weight also on his Stoic aflinities,
and with justice, for the elements which he borrows from Stoicism
are as numerous and important as those derived from the other
two schools.
• See the lisfof these in Vallarsi's edition of Jerome (iii. 73i-734[).
and compare Siegfried, " Philonische Studien, in Merx's Archh. li
»43-i63 (1872).
* Sec Siegfried. PkUo,
pp. 1A2-1VJ^
4IO
PHILO
decisive and nonnative authority is to him the *' holy laws "
of Moses, and this not only in the sense that everything they
contain is true but that all truth is contained in them. Every-
thing that is right and good in the doctrines of the Greek
philosophers had already been quite as well, or even better,
taught by Moses. Thus, since Philo had been deeply influenced
by the teachings of Greek philosophy he actually finds in the
Pentateuch everything which he had learned from the Greeks.
From these premises he assumes as requiring no proof that the
Greek philosophers must in some way have drawn from Moses,
a view indeed which is already expressed by Aristobulus.
To carry out these presuppositions called for an exegetical
method which seems very strange to us, that, namely, of the
allegorical interpretation of Scripture. The allegorical method
had been practised before Philo's date in the rabbinical schools
of Palestine, and he himself expressly refers to its use by his
predecessors, nor does he feel that any further justification
is requisite. With its aid he discovers indications of the pro-
foundest doctrines of philosophy in the simplest stories of the
Pentateuch.^
This merely formal prindple of the absolute authority of
Moses is really the one point in which Philo still holds to
genuinely Jewish conceptions. In the whole substance of his
philosophy the Jewish point of view is more or less completely
modified — sometimes almost extinguished — by what he has
learned from the Greeks. G>mparatively speaking, he is most
truly a Jew in his conception of God. The doctrine of mono-
theism, the stress laid on the absolute majesty and sovereignty
of God above the world, the principle that He is to be worshipped
without images, are all points in which Philo justly feels his
superiority as a Jew over popular heathenism. But only over
popular heathenism, for the Greek philosophers had long since
arrived at least at a theoretical monotheism, and their influence
on Philo is nowhere more strongly seen than in the detailed de-
velopment of his doctrine of GoidL The specifically Jewish {i.e.
particularistic) conception of the election of Israel, the obligation
of the Mosaic law, the future glory of the chosen nation, have
almost disappeared; be is really a cosmopolitan and praises the
Mosaic law just because he deems it cosmopolitan. The true
sage who follows the law of Moses is the citizen not of a particular
state but of the world. A certain attachment which Philo still
manifests to the particularistic conceptions of bis race is meant
only " in majorem Judaeorum gloriam." The Jewish people
has received a certain preference from God, but only because
it has the most virtuous ancestry and is itsdf distinguished for
virtue. The Mosaic law is binding, but only because it is the
most righteous, humane and rational of laws, and even its out-
ward ceremonies always disclose rational ideas and aims. And
lastly, outward prosperity is promised to the pious, even on
earth, but the promise belongs to all who turn from idols to the
true God. Thus, in the whole substance of his view of the
universe, Philo occupies the standpoint of Greek philosophy
rather than of national Judaism, and his philosophy of the world
and of life can be completely set forth without any reference
to conceptions specifically Jewish.
His doctrine of God starts from the idea that God is a Being
absolutely bare of quality. All quality in finite beings has
limitation, and no limitation can be predicated of God, who is
eternal, unchangeable, simple substance, free, self-sufficient,
better than the good and the beautifiil. To predicate any
quality (inxdrnt) of God would be to reduce Him to the sphere
of finite existence. Of Him we can say only that He is, not what
He is, and such purely negative predications as to His being
appear to Philo, as to the later Pythagoreans and the Neo-
platonists, the only way of securing His absolute elevation
above the world. At bottom, no doubt, the meaning of these
negations is that God is the most perfect being; and so,
Qonvcrscly, we are told that God contains all perfection, that
He fills and encompasses all things with His being.
A consistent application of Philo's abstract conception of
> For details, sec Of r6rer, Philo, I 68 9e<^. : Zcllcr, Phil, der Gr.
(3rd cd., vol. iii., pt. ii., pp. 346-352): Siegfried, Philo, pp. 160 icq.
God would exclude the possibility of any active rdatkn of Gc
to the world, and therdore of reUgion, for a Being abiolatd
without quality and movement cannot be conceived as activd
concerned with the multiplicity of individual things. And lo i
fact Philo does teach that the absolute perfection, purity aa
loftiness of God would be violated by direct contact with impe
feet, impure and finite things. But the possibility of a connexk
between God and the world is reached through a distinctk
which forms the most important point in his theology and cot
mology; the proper Being of God is distinguished from tl
infinite multiplicity of divine Ideas or Forc^: God himself !
without quality, but He disposes of an infinite variety of divis
Forces, through whose mediation an active relation of God t
the world is brought about. In the details of his teaching 1
to these mediating entities Philo is guided partly by Plato an
partly by the Stoics, but at the same time he makes use oi tt
concrete religious conceptions of heathenism and Judaisa
Following Plato, he first caUs them Ideas or ideal patterns (
all things; they are thoughts of God, yet possess a real eiisteaa
and were produced before the creation of the sensible woric
of which tbey are the types. But, in distinction from Ftatt
Philo's ideas are at the same time efficient causes or Forte
(&;yd^icts), which bring unformed matter into order conformabl,
to the patterns within themselves, and are in fact the medi
of all God's activity in the world. This modification of th
Platonic Ideas is due to Stoic influence, which appears als
when Philo gives to the t&koi or iwinuM the name c^ X^yot, ii
operative ideas — parts, as it were, of the operative Reasoa
For, when Philo calls his mediating entities >6yot, the sens
designed is analogous to that of the Stoics when they caO Got
the Logos, tus. the Reason which operates in the world. Bvi
at the same time Philo maintains that the divine Forces an
identical with the " daemons " of the Greeks, and the " angds '
of the Jews, ».e. servants and messengers of God by means oJ
which He communicates with the finite world. All this shows hoi
uncertain was Philo's conception of the nature of these metfift
ting Forces. On the one hand they are nothing dse than Ideaj
of individual things conceived in the mind of God, and as soci
ought to have no other reality than that of immanent eiincna
in GodI, and so Philo says expressly that the totality of Ideas,
the xAiTfiot voirr6s, is ^mply the Reason of God as CreaUv {Btm
Xbryos ^ Koaiwrocowros). Yet, on the other hand, they aie
represented as hypostases distinct from God, individual entities
existing independently and apart from Him. This vadllatios,
however, as Zellcr and other recent writers have justly xtaaAti,
is necessarily involved in Phib's premises, for, on the one hand, it
is God who works in the world through His Ideas, and tberefoit
they must be identical with God; but, on the other hand, God
is not to come into direct contact with the world, and tberetoc
the Forces through which He works must be distinct from Ifisk
The same inevitable amphiboly dominates in what is tau^ »
to the supreme Idea or Logos. Philo regards all indivital
Ideas as comprehended in one highest and most general Idei'
Force — ^the unity of the individual Ideas — which he calb ik*
Logos or Reason of God, and which is again regarded as opcrstivt
Reason. The Logos, therefore, is the highest mediator betvcci
God and the world, the firstborn son of God, the ardiaiifd *kt
is the vehicle of all revelation, and the high priest who suadi
before God on behalf of the world. Through him the vodd
was created, and so he is identified with the creative ^'^jf.
God in Genesis (the Greek Xbyos meaning both " reasoa ' t»
" word "). Here again, we see, the philosopher b tmabk M
escape from the difficulty that the Logos is at once the inunaao'
Reason of God, and yet also an hypostaus standing betvea
God and the world. The whole doctrine of this mediatonil
hypostasis is a strange intertwining of very dissimilar thitt^
on one side the way was prepared for it by the older }c^
distinction between the Wisdom of Cvod and God Himm^
which we find the beginnings even in the Old Testamest 0^
xxviii. 12 scq.; Prov. viii., ix.), and the fuller development IB t*
books of Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom, the latter of whidi
very near to Philo's ideas if we substitute for the tern '
tttto((diviiM) "Kcuoo.'* InCrskphr
an luvc itta, chicBy followi iIk Plito
i^ iIk Soul of the Wocid, ud Ibe Stoic i
UgiM oc ReuOD opcntivt io tbe voild.
lUld doctiioe wu pulliflitic, but Philo
pa^tm timply by drawing m. ihuper dil
kfoi ud the world.
Like his doctrine of God, Philo'i docti
cmlion nau od tbe presupficaitioa of ui i
csettut betin«a Cod Mid tbe mild. The
Lo God only [n la fjr u it li « cotraot
utcriil ubitrAtum ti not even indirecl
Uuts (tXi), or, u the Stoici said, aLaia) :
bu a itidf sa empty one, its essence beisc
me Msf. It is ■ lifeless, uninovcd, il
ttich God formed (be ictuil worid by nu
Wm Forces. Stticlly ipe»king, the woi
m Genesis ind two no Eiudus, bi
aiU-M-J-d-ClI.
' msinly lews, lor ttie lorm ii modtlle^
Tbe mun idea is thai Ihc chuicter
n properly sUegorics of stairs of the sou
emni and sclkou being inlrrpmcd
a wbolp il a very nlenstvr body of ^"
Witb this exception, h*
I* ixXrmJmi includes
laiHt bodies; these souls ai
the Gcdwa
iiaaa oi sis and all evil. Tbe body, tt
"&>, a a tnve foi the wul wkicb leeks
Fnot ihis anihTopolofy tbe priocipld i
ilBTitd, its highest msiim oecessahly b(
>k«i4 of sense and the mortification <
*ue In carrying out Ibis thought, ss i
clbMhica] taching, Phila closely IdUok
ki^snied from Stoical ethics by his sue
hat (ijlov
B ihe nys o( true wisdom and virtue.
DO Inr inil only with God's help, lo to
M cf that effort. Even in this life the tr
' Ufud above bii sensible existence, and
't^rtkr step, via. eniiie liberation from tl
IhrHiimof tbesoul to its original unditi
ud Diiist rise tn Him agsiiL But natu:
■^■nrDniation only to those who, while
J it npressly,
ve a twofold obiK
)f Ihe^MoHlcUi
f' <^ Jrwoh rel^lon. wboar holy rrc
T^ u a binary tiiure I^iiliL in con!
<^ it [™(i?n^"lh
, TK liile. of tbe numcrDui eilani wiitin.
^•Ifblainoit confuvnamoliipliciiy. M
W niriii. Three such great worics on t
I. The rfflalteM of these is the ZtHv"
>>vEiiKtSM IH. E. ii, i«, i.'s^ Pra
■ritni, hot (he Creeli teit i> non
"iHt one-half presaved in an Ar
^mi to liave occitpied sia books.* I
*W five books. In the Armenian 1
^rltsmed Mecbitaiist, J. Bapi. AucI
■See, apccially Mai. Seripa. ibU. ■
i, i7i-»99),onGm.vi.4-ia. (ioln«J
not tbetJiiloMphcrs ali
yfDct.
a, {flrml
'-i^»pb^iJ)pwii^
tiy anoiha whidi put together the
drunlmneai (lJ)a.>lri£l(l.^.N£.
- i.K.a4. (14) n_J svTjil<«B4
K. !. 404-
immmm kura HI. M. L 475-51
Hal <v> di rl rpHuMfiua n.rtl» (,
iimii cama.M. Lsi9-54S), onGcn-ivi. 1-6. (18) C^«
■ ■., hi. LiA-Sij). on Cen. .vi 6-14. (,9} B.
STTs^i?), on Gen. xvli!'Ma!inlh'ii wotk'philo 1
he hid wrillen two books, now wholly kiat. lUtt t.tfifi
D-6(B1. on the two dreams of jatob. Gee. 1
ii. of the same (M. i, 6s9H5m), on the di
buller, the thief Inker, and Pharaoh, C
iL. ali. EiBtl»us nukes Philo the sulhor of five b
in
Ihechiel
iL.ali.
II f. A 1
ark of a very diflerent kind is the group of aTillngs
Ely oil " An ^position of tbe Mosaic law tor Gentiles?^
The method of npoai
fraJ^l;'vi'
648-680^ Mai, ep. cil.. vol. vii.
d'byMai. Clais. .1 wu. iv. 4J0
tcbrndorf (p. 144 seq.).
of ibe Wtuout— {King, u to kpukt the Livinf bawriticd Ihwi w
uoLike WTitten Um, pment the |«ienL lypet of moni com
(f) Lcgitlation Proper, id two fubdiviunfr-Ka) the ten prin
di«pten of the Un. W the ipcdal lin beknigins to och oE i
t«- Ad kmendiK fcdck & view of auch Imvb u do not JmM u
thcTubricBot t>iedccklDgue,amiigbluDdcrLhe headingt of ce
e kEBlalion refuinfc to prieKbood
in Arnwi^nvenlon.coniiitsaftirabwlit. the Gmcif which __ Edilinni of ihc (raijrncnit by J. C Onlli fiSifi) and C. Mailrr.
at Kfwiffey in a cwivcni in i^Hiuul. now eoniidertd Bpuriouf), Tbr
oCUipiii. EnglithlruiUlioubyl. P.Cory (iBiSJuidDitbaplLCumlj
PHILO OF BYZANTIUM— PHILODEMUb +13
IMl). 'BolhWKillvtf
SsH-^; SIS ..',:;,'?;r;i:r..'s;„xt.'=i':r,
hiiiiDo(ilvalilie«byC. i. ■■»!)- ■"'I intcrprclcr of >ign>, ud > man of considRablc Innucnce.
LncMiuiii.— The bev vinie foind in He mu ilnnely anli-Miccdoniin in nolitia, and > biller onpo-
SitlnBl. P*il* "" •4'». !■ Mito-Jintanii nenl o( Dtnwlriua Poliorectei. When Antigonui Conalu Ihe
SSSS'{'iMi^, ^""w. ^S^la^in, "a "On o( the laller, betitgtd and raptured Alhen» (rfi).
BJitB, PtA>»fVuf/iiJiii*a (LeipiiE. 1S79I. An eicdlcnt gcnciai rhilochonis «u put la death for having Hipponcd Ptoleiny
Ktoiuu will bi Inind in Scliibw. 1% Jtmit PnfU i* lit Urn, «/ rUladclphus, who luid encouraged the Alheniani in their
'"S.-.'^'''..'^'!*^ "*"■:, JS"';. "J" DTiEdmhciin-i aniclc taiuance to Macedonia. Hii Inveitigalions into the usanj
d >k, pnuineneH and hfnbrical value of ihcTf. «(a £«.tm(rf.(mi. f "'1 cuiloma ol ha native Atl.ca were embodied in on Allia.
tLHtmiiiaa, tn Rav drrkisairr dri rdiiimi. nA mi. (Parii. in leventeen iuoks, a huloiy of Athens from the earlietl limet
Mji.F.C, Coaylxait, Fkilo: Abnul On CcnUmplalm Lift lOxtoni. lo ibi B.C. Cansiderabic fragment! are prtaervcd in the
l«9il;G. Fay«, fiiuti n.r fci IW.oJwitf« (CcoJvj ifco) H E. leiicographen, scholiasts, Athcnaeul, and else»here. The work
Liou, Di» TilmiOHjfii (SlnuibjTv. iSSo); P. Wend jnd. Die :Z—:\i i. .1.. .!.„ i._l-n j i_... i... » • -
Itafnto (fjipmV 'W. AI»F Cumom. P*.lA*-flrf ««~<i ™,*I"'''"'*^ ''K Hie author himidf, and l»t« by Aun us
[im-. J. Bctniysln the Abko^. ttf k. AkU. itt V/nt (iS;6). PoUio of TioUes (perhaps a freedman of tie famous Guui
(E. S.-; C Bi.) Asinius Pt^lio). Fhiiochonis also wrote on oracles, divination
TffiU) OP BTZANTtini, Crcelt writer on mcthinin, and tacrihccl; the mythology and teligiout observances of Ihe
ImiibedduHiiBihebttcrhaliafthe indcentuiy B.C. (according letrapolis of Attica; the myths of Sophocls^ the livH ol Euri-
10 SK, a century eiilier). He was the author of a kirge worit pidesand Pythagoras^ the [onndalionol Salamis. He compiled
ICnvut obraEn), o( which the fourth and (in efulome) chTOnolocicsl lists ol the archoiu and Olympiads, and made a
ilih booii are cilint, treating of missiles, Ihecontlruclion of collection of Atlic inscriplions, the first ol its kind in Greece,
. mnneiits and life in C W. MUIIcr. Finmntt iiOmktnm
Ktklt- v-ut^im. vol. 1. (l&tO; A. BSckb, CcrammtUtlHrin, Stkrifltm. vdt.
■■ 'l831).onthcii!.nnoflhcwork;I.Slrcni[i!.pM«lioiKj**iV*»«(
ttiKEcn, if^): C. Wachsniiiili, Ei'biUint i( 4ia Sliiinm in
ni^ahSa, wH, L 1853; E. A. Rochas d'Aiglun, P-Jiantiiqia 'i<'«
faCHO. 1871). Another portion of the work, on pneumatic ^' ^,_^^^
Jg^"^ '*f".P'?t™f' '";*". '''™ "I » V^'i" ln™lalion pHILOCTETES. in Creek legend, son of Poeas king of the
(«iV"'" ituUualiboi) made from an Ar«bic version (ed. tj„,,,^ -,,%,, rL,. „n,„i,i„^,i,A«nrH>i™ .nrf . J^rf,r.i«i
". Sdmidt, with German transUlion. in the works of Heron of w^^l,. ¥^,^ w., H™^ ™™l„ V^,« ,^, S
Afcu»d,i..W t, in "Teubner Series," i8«; with French ^^ "jjliL^'l^.'J^"™ "J^th t^^w^ t^^^
fS" Sf ^"^"^ ^ *^" '" ^a«o^ ■ ■ . i"' by aXke on the journey lo Tmy «a left 'behind in the island
Afofc't™<'i, On ,k. Sc«n W,„dtr, »/ rt( W«U. wrongly l' l*""?; »"'' '.*■" *•" iil^q-tmly nitirncd home in ufely.
■namoi to Philo. pr^bly licljni[i to the (Hh ccnUiry ».o fi These Ijticl allusions were ebborated by the "cyclic poets.
mu) OP LARIStA, Greek philosopher of the hist hull of by Aeschylus, Sophock« and Euripides. Id the later form of
1^ ISI CHiIury B.C. During Ihe Mithradalii wars he lell the story PhiloclclH was the friend and armour-bearer of
him and took up his residence in Rome. He was a pupil of Heracles, who presented him with his bow and poisoned arrows
Qlgnuckus, whom he succccdnl as head ol the Third or New as a rcwani for kindling Ihe fire on Ml Oeta, on which the hero
^^^AoDj. According 10 Sextus Empiricus, he was the founder immolated himself- I'hiloclctes remained at Lcmttos till the
I* Die Fourth Academy, but other wiitcn refuse to admit Ihe tenth year of the war. An oracle having declared Ihal I'roy
■9uite eiistence ol more than three tcademi<s (see AcuDEHV. could not be taken without the arrows of Heracles. Odysseus
GiEu). In Rome he lectured on rhetoric and phikHophy, and and Diomcdes (or Neoptolemus) were «cnt to letch Philocletes.
'°'etted around him many eminent pupils, amongst whom On his arrival before Troy be was healed of his wound by
QMS was the most famous and the most enthiniislic. None Machaon, and slew Parisi ihortly afterwards the city was
'tis works is eitanl; our knowlcdjte of his views is derived taken. On hia return to his own country, finding that a nn'olt
Inn Numenlus. Seitus Empiricus and Cicero. In general, his had broken out against him. he again took ship and sailed for
pUbuphy was* reaction against the sceptic or agnostic position Italy, where he founded Pctilia and Cremissa. He felt Aghling
iW immigrants from Pallene in Achaea, His tomb and sanclvary
,»Cry)!ir.Dir^*difmih>'PIibinirf/4i>IrWilK](l849)^ Hermann, wereshoivn at Macalla, on the coast of Drultium.
^ t-A"" (Cirtiagen. 185. and ,8ss>. O, ,^^ A«chyleaa and Euripideai. tragedies only a few fra.mrnt.
niLO. HBBSmnUS. of Byblus. Greek grammarian, was remain: of the t»o by Sophwici. one is e>tani. the other. Bealinji
«n, acnrding 10 Suldas, in *,B. «i. He lived into the reign "iih ihe (oriuiKt of PhifocietM lifoit Troy, is low Some light 1.
•fBsilrian, ol which he wrote a history, now lost. He was the L^""" JL^^" l"^ j^!^»n.^,!^.^7^IS™TSr^;i^^^
«ttor ol varimB works. O- «e AcquUUhn ^nd Ck»« oj Book,; X^^{^iy-^^l^J^X^^ll%i%^% c?K «W«W«
''■CiiKiciidf;lc(r fsMDiu Ifcn, cpltomiied by the^mmanan of Euripuln. Philocteies was alw the lubject of tragedies bv
™a Setenus, and one of the chief authorities U! ' ' * ' ..... ^ . • . ^. ..,._. .l_ r. j _
Itejcliiu^andStephanusofByiinlium; On Syfwi.y^r, ol ^ b.£,,-h»,1 Pl
IVnoMtanl an epitome by AmmoniusCiammaticus. Buthe ^-.^ ^^^ fto b a fonS oi'".hi"'L<^'niiS'Kph.iuVw
"oixflyknown tor his Iranslition of the Phoenician history of al%hied an the iiland when flung out of Olympus by Zeu. Li
Whunialbm, who wax said to have lived before the Trojan him-heislameandanoutcatt lor nineyeani^lke him.hehbnuf
»a Of this work consideraWe fragments have been preKtved. [Sj',';;^'ii™^'^'„,VJj,*fi;;^SX"u ' m Hkii m^S^ m oil
^!y present a euhemerijlic r&Aon/i ol Phoenician theology ' ?^' Ho™. Hf!5'!i.Vi^'(Wyi«>.'?i'.'V^ viii.''ji9; Sopl"!
■n^ mylbology. which is represented as translated from Ihe Pkilixirlri. and Jebb'i lnlndiuMti: Diod, liic. Iv, 3&: Philoitrai
"itinal Phoenician. Sanchuniathon is probably an imaginary «""««. 6: Sirabo vi, IS4; Hyginus, Fti. 36. lOJ.
Penonage, whose name is formed from that of the Phoenician PHILODEMUS. Epicurean philosopher and poet, was be
414 PHILOLAUS— PHILOLOGY
sellled in Rome in the time of Cicero. He was a friend of See Botckh, Pkilolaus des Pythatfireers Lehreu neba 4em Bnd
Calpumius Piso and was impUcated in his profligacy by Cicen> gSi}"^;,-. '^^^'^'pt^t^; \Vt^)f'^"f&J^SS!^
{tn Ptsonan, 29), who, however, praises hira warmly for his ^raeci: ZcUer. HUtcry of Greek Philosophy; Chaignet, PylUgm
philosophic views and for the eUgans lascivia of his poems et la philosophie bylhagoncUnne, conUnant Us fragments de FUMm
(cf. Horace, Satires, 1. 2. 120). The Greek anthology contains «' d'Architas (1873); Th. Gotnpen, Creeh Thinkers (Eng. tna
thirty-four of his epigrams. From the excavations of the ii^Jj); »• "3 kw. 5« sqq. and authoritiM th^
•II * TT 1 / \ ^L I. L J «!.• 4 rvTHACORAS. For fragments sce Rittef and PreUer, tfii/. PA(<0«0^
villa at Hercujancum {q.v.) there have been recovered thirty- ^h. ii. •"-•v"
«iix treatises attributed to Philodemus, and it has been suggested piitt nr/uiv »k. »<«......ii.. .^<.»,^*^ ^..^^l : -.
that the villa was actually owned by him: but this is gcneraUy f., ,?'"?^^;.i^* generally accepted comprehensive nam
vua.K KiK »uu» w« av.i.u«jijr vnm,u uy luiu, uuu tu» » K«:u«:iaujr f^^ ^j^^ study ol thc word (Gr. X67os), or languagcsi it designate
denied. TTiese works dad with music, rhetoric ethics, signs ^^^^^ branch of knowledge which deals with hu^i speX*!*
virtues and vicc^, ^d defend the Epicurean standpomt against ^^^ all that speech di^loses as to the nature and wTlo^y c
thcStoia and the Penpatetics, / p. p. x .u n "^»°- PhUology has two principal divisions, correspondiq
The Rkelortc has been edited by Sudhaus (1893-1895); the I7« .„ ,u^ ^^^ „.«- ^t « ^^-j ** ^- «««rx-wk »• «- e:-«:f..r«/->:tiJ
/ra and ihe /?« Pwtote by Gomperx (1864 to 1865): thr^r Afwtca l© the two uses of word or speech, as signifying eil he
by Kcmpke (1884) ; De VUiis by Ussing (1868) ; De MorU by Mcklcr what is said or thc language m which it is said, as either ih
(1886). See HerciU. Vdum. (Oxford, 1824 and 1861); Mayor on thought expressed — which, when recorded, takes the form 0
Cicero's De Natura deorum (1871). literature— or the instrumentality of its expression: thes
PHILOLAUS (b. c. 480), Greek philosopher of the Pytha- divisions are the literary and the linguistic. Not all study 0
gorean school, was bom at Tarentum or at Crotona ^ (so Diog. literature, indeed, is philological: as when, for example, thi
LaCrt. viiL 84). He was said to have been intimate with records of the ancient Chinese are ransacked for notices o
Democritus, and was probably one of his teachers. After the astronomical or meteorological phenomenal or the principles 0
death of Pythagoras great dissensions prevailed in the cities of geometry are learned from the textbook of a Greek sage; while
lower Italy. According to some accounts, Philolaus; obliged on the other hand, to study Ptolemy and Euclid for the histoi]
to flee, took refuge first in Lucania and then at Thebes, where of the sciences represented by them is philological more thai
he had as pupils Simmias and Cebes, who subsequently, being scientific. Again, the study of language itself has its literal]
still young men (woi^koi), were present at the death of Socrates, side: as when the vocabulary of a community (say of the andem
Before this Philolaus had returned to Italy, where he was the Indo-Europeans or Aryans) is taken as a document from whirl
teacher of Archytas. He entered deeply into the distinctively to infer the range and grade of knowledge of its speakers, thdi
Pythagorean number theory, particularly dwelling on the circumstances and their institutions. The two divisions thn
properties inherent in the decad — the sum of the first four do not admit of absolute distinction and separation, thouf^
numbers, consequently the fourth triangular number, the telractys for some time past tending toward greater independence. Tin
(see VU. Pythag. ap. Phot. Bibl. p. 712) — which he called great, literary is the older of the two; it even occupied until receoti)
all-powerful, and all-producing. The great Pythagorean oath thc whole field, since the scientific study of language itself Ittl
was taken by the sacred telractys. The discovery of the regular arisen only within the iQlh century. TUI then, literary philolagji
solids is attributed to Pythagoras by Eudemus, and Empedodes included linguistic, as a merely subordinate and auxiliary part,
b stated to have been the first who maintained that there are the knowledge of a language being the necessary key to a know*
four elements. Philolaus, connecting these ideas, held that the ledge of the literature written in that language. When, there-
elementary nature of bodies depends on their form, and assigned fore, instead of studying each language by itself for the sake
the tetrahedron to fire, the octahedron to air, the icosahedron of its own literature men began to compare one language with
to water, and the cube to earth; the dodecahedron he assigned another, in order to bring to light their relationships, thdi
to a fifth element, aether, or, as some think, to the universe structures, their histories, the name "comparative philok^gy*"
(see Plut. de PI. Ph. ii. 6, k bk too iuSwa^pou r^v roD wayrds naturally enough suggested itself and came into use for the nen
ff^aipov and Stob. Ed. Phys. i. 10,6 rot a^alpas 6Xk6s). This method; and this name, awkward and trivial though it may be
theory, however superfici^d from the standpoint of observation, has become so firmly fixed in English usage that it can be odj
indicates considerable knowledge of geometry and gave a great slowly, if at all, displaced. European usage '(especblly German)
impulse to the study of the science. Following Parmenides, tends more strongly than English to restrict the name philolQgy
Philolaus regarded the soul as a " mixture and harmony " of to its older ofTice, and to employ for the recent branch of know*
the bodily parts; he also assumed a substantial soul, whose ledge a specific term, like those that have gained more or las
existence in the body is an exile on account of sin. currency with us also; as glottic, glossology, linguistics, linguistic
Philolaus was the first to propound the doctrine of the motion science, science of language, and the like. It is not a questioa
of the earth; some attribute this doctrine to Pythagoras, but of absolute propriety or correctness, since the word philolagjr
thereisnoevidenceinsupportof their view. Philolaus supposed is in its nature wide enough to imply all language-study of
that the sphere of the fixed stars, the five planets, the sun, moon whatever kind; it is one, rather, of the convenient distinction
and earth, all moved round the central fire, which he called the of methods that have grown too independent and important
hearth of the universe, the house of Zeus, and the mother of to be any longer well included under a common name,
the gods (see Stob.^. Phys. i. 488); but as these made up j ^y-,,^ Science of Language in general.
only nine revolving bodies he conceived, in accordance with his *,..,, . n • „ T .
number theory, a tenth, which he called counter-earth, AvrlxOu^p. , I'h'loogy m all its departments, began and grew up tf
He supposed the sun to be a disk of glass which reflects the light classical; the history o our cu-ilization made the study fl(
of the universe. He made the lunar month consist of 29J days, ^"^^ ^"<^ J-^^'" ^°"8 H'C exclusive, stdl longer the ^
the lunar year of 354. and the solar year of 365! days. He was Predominant and regulating occupation of secular ^s*-»
the first who pubUshed a book on the Pythagorean doctrines, scholarship. The Hebrew and its literature were held
a treatise of which Plato made use in the composition of his fP^'V ^^ something of a different order, as sacred. It «*"<
Timaeus. This work of the Pythagorean, to which the mystical 'l?^^''''^^, ^^.^ ^"^ ^^"6^^ ^« which culture and litenuw
name B4kx« is sometimes given, seems to have consisted d>d not lend importance was worthy of serious attention &«•
of three books: (1) Utpl Kbaixoo, containing a general account ^^^^^^^' The first essays in comparison, hkew«e, weie M*
of the origin and arrangement of the universe; (2) H^pl ^uaco;,, "P^'^, ^^^ ^}^'^^^ ^o"f"?. a"^ ^^re as erroneous m mrtW
an exposition of the nature of numbers; (3) Hcpi ^^^, on and fertile m false conclusions as was to be expected cooadjnj
the nature of the soul. ^ narrowness of view and the controlling prejudices of tljo«
,_ ,, , ..,.,, . . , , rs. . . who made them; and the admission of Hebrew to the compawi*
, I^J'J.P^'^u ^'' ^'^^ hti^^tcn the joth and 95th Olympiads ^^j j^jj^ ^^ ,,, confusion. The change which the prf
(49^396 B.C.). He was a contemporary of Socrates and Democritus, \ . . . "^ "••• ••"*' vi.«»ft*. «..«,« * r-_
but Rcnior to them, and w.ns probably somewhat junior to Empc- century has seen has been a part of the general scientific va^
docles, so that hU birth may be placed at about 480. ment of the age, which has brought about thc estabUsbiDcm
PHILOLOGY
415
of SO many new branches of knowledge, both historical and
phjfsical, by the abandonment of shackling prejudices, the
(mdom of inquiry, the recognition of the dignity of all know-
ledge, the wide-reaching assemblage of facts and their objective
OMnpanson, and the resulting constant improvement of method,
litenry philology has had its full share of advantage from this
movement; but linguistic philology has been actually created
by it out of the crude observations and wild deductions of
earlier tiroes, as truly as chemistry out of alchemy, or geology
out ol diluvianism. It is unnecessary here to follow out the
details of the development; but we may well refer to the decisive
influeoce of one discovery, the decisive action of one scholar,
h was the discover/ of the special relationship of the Aryan
or Indo-European languages, depending in great measure upon
the introduction of the Sanskrit as a term in their comparison,
and derooost rated and worked out by the German scholar Bopp,
that founded the science of linguistic philology. While there
is abundant room for further improvement, it yet appears that
the grand features of philologic study, in all its departments,
are now so distinctly drawn that no revolution of its methods,
bat only their modification in minor respects, is henceforth
probable. How and for what purposes to investigate the
Kteratore of any people (philology in the more proper sense),
combining the knowledge thus obtained with that dcrivcfl from
other sources; how to study and set forth the material and
structure and combinations of a language (grammar), or of a
body of related languages (comparative grammar); how to
ciH>rdinate and interpret the general phenomena of language,
as variously illustrated in the infinitely varying facts of different
tongues, so as to exhibit its nature as a factor in human history
>od its methods of life and growth (linguistic science) — these
ve vhat philology teaches.
The study of language is a division of the general science of
uthr(^l(^ iq.v.), and is akin to all the rest in respect to its
MtUtaf objects and its methods. Man as wc now see him
^^^'^f is a twofold being: in part the child of nature, as
, to his capacities and desires, his endowments of
p^nd and body; in part the creature of education, by train-
p% in the knowledge, the arts, the social conduct, of which
^ predecessors have gained possession. And the problem
^^ anthropology is this: how natural man has become
foltivated man; how a being thus endowed by nature should
^ve begun and carried on the processes of acquisition which
^^ brought him to his present state. The results of his
l**<fcccssors* labours arc not transmuted for his benefit into
^Wi\ instincts, in language or in anything else. The child
w the most civilized race, if isolated and left wholly to his own
purees, aided by neither the example nor the instruction of
h^ fellows, would no more speak the speech of Lis ancestors
Jhanhe would build their houses, fashion their clothes, practise
l^yof their arts, inherit their knowledge or wealth. In fact,
^ would possess no language, no arts, no wealth, but would
have to go to work to acquire ihcm, by the same processes
*nich began to win them for the first human beings. One
*dvantage he would doubtless enjoy: the descendant of a
titivated race has an enhanced aptitude for the reception of
tultivation; he is more cultivable; and this is an element that
*•** to be allowed for in comparing present conditions with past,
*s influencing the rate of progress, but nothing more. In all
^MT respects it is man with the endowments which we now
""d him possessed of, hut destitute of the gradually accumulated
'^Its of the exercise of his faculties, whose progress we have
^ explain. And it is, as a matter of necessity, by studying
'^t observable modes of acquisition, and transferring them,
^ih due allowance for different circumstances, to the more
P^mitive periods, that the question of first acquisition or origin
* to be solved, for language as for tools, for arts, for family
*nd social organization, and the rest. There is just as much
^ just as little reason for assuming miraculous interference
•JhI aid in one of these departments as in another If men
**ave been left to themselves to make and improve instruments,
^ form and perfect modes of social organization, by implanted
powers directed by natural desires, and under the pressure of
circumstances, then also to make and change the signs that
constitute their speech. All expressions, as all instruments, are
at present, and have been through the known past, made and
changed by the men who use them; the same will have been the
case in the unknown or prehistoric past. And we command
now enough of the history of language, writh the processes of
its life and growth, to determine with confidence its mode of
origin — within certain limits, tis will appear below.
It is beyond all question, in the first place, that the desire
of communication was the only force directly impelling men
to the production of language. Man's sociality, ctetMo/
his disposition to band together with his fellows, Lsagmagf
for lower and for higher purposes, for mutual help ""^^V-
and for sympathy, is one of his most fundamental character-
istics. To understand those about one and to be understood
by them is now, and must have been from the very beginning,
a prime necessity of human existence; we cannot conceive of
man, even in his most undeveloped state, as without the recogni-
tion of it. Communication is still the universally recognized
office of speech, and to the immense majority of speakers the
only one; the common man knows no other, and can only with
dinficully and imperfectly be brought to see that there is any
other; of the added distinctness and reach of mental action
which the possession of such an instrumentality gives bim he
is wholly unconscious: and it is obvious that what the compara-
tively cultivated being of to-day can hardly be made to realize
can never have acted upon the first men as a motive to action.
It may perhaps be made a question which of the two uses of
speech, communication or the facilitation of thought is the
higher; there can be no question, at any rate, that the former
is the broader and the more fundamental. That the kind and
degree of thinking which we do nowadays would be impossible
without language-signs is true enough ; but so also it would be
impossible without written signs. That there was a time
when men had to do what mental work they could without
the help of writing, as an art not yet devised, we have no diffi-
culty in realizing, because the art is of comparatively recent
device, and there are still communities enough that are working
without it; it is much harder to realize that there was a time
when speaking also was an art not yet attained, and that men
had to carry on their rude and rudimentary thinking without
it. Writing too was devised for conscious purposes of com-
munication only; its esoteric uses, like those of speech, were
at first unsuspected, and incapable of acting as an inducement;
they were not noticed until made experience of, and then only
by those who look beneath the surface of things. There is no
analogy closer and more instructive than this between speech
and writing. But analogies are abundant elsewhere in the
history of human development. Everywhere it is the lower
and more obvious inducements that are first cfTcctivc, and that
lead gradually to the possession of what serves and stimulates
higher wants. All the arts and industries have grown out of
men's effort to get enough to cat and protection against cold and
heat — just as language, with all its uses, out of men's effort to
communicate with their fellows. As a solitary man now would
never form even the beginnings of speech, as one separated from
society unlearns his speech by disuse and becomes virtually
dumb, so early man, with all his powers, would never have
acquired speech, save as to those powers was added sociality
with the needs it brought. We might conceive of a solitary
man as housing and dressing himself, devising rude tools, and
thus lifting himself a step from wildness toward cultivation;
but wc cannot conceive of him as ever learning to talk. Recogni-
tion of the impulse to communication as the cflicient cause of
language-making is an clement of primary importance in the
theory of the origin of language. No one who either leaves it
out of account or denies it will, however ingenious and enter-
taining his speculations, cast any real light on the earliest
history of speech. To inquire under what peculiar circumstances,
in connexion with what mode of individual or combined action,
a first outburst of oral' expression may have taken place, is. on
4i6
PHILOLOGY
the o(her hand, quite futile. The needed circumstances were
always present when human beings were in one another's society;
there was an incessant drawing-on to attempts at mutual
understanding which met with occasional, and then ever more
frequent and complete success. There inheres in most reasoning
upon this subject the rooted assumption, governing opinion even
when not openly upheld or consciously made, that conceptions
have real natural names, and that in a state of nature these will
somehow break forth and reveal themselves under favouring
circumstances. The falsity of such a view is shown by our
whole further discussion.
The character of the motive force to speech determined the
character of the beginnings of speech. That was first signified
ficff00Av» which was most capable of iniclUgiblc signification,
otspttck not that which was first in order of importance,
aadWrUag.^ judged by any standard which we can apply to it,
or first in order of conccptional development. All attempts to
determine the first spoken signs by asking what should have
most impressed the mind of primitive man arc and must be
failures. It was the exigencies and possibilities of practical
life, in conditions quite out of reach of our distinct concep-
tion, that prescribed the earliest signs of communication. So,
by a true and instructive analogy, the beginnings of writing
are rude depictions of visible objects; it is now thoroughly
recognized that no alphabet, of whatever present character,
can have originated in any other way; everything else is gradu-
ally arrived at from that — as, indeed, in the ingeniously shaping
hands of man, from any central body of signs, though but of
small extent, all else is attainable by processes of analogy and
adaptation and transfer. Now what is it that is directly
signifiable in the world about us? Evidently the separate
acts and qualities of sensible objects, and nothing else. In
writing, or signification to the eye, the first element is the rude
depiction of the outline of an object, or of that one of the sum
of its characteristic qualities which the eye takes note of and the
hand is capable of intelligibly reproducing; from that the mind
understands the whole complex object itself, and then whatever
further may in the circumstances of its use be suggested by it.
So, for example, the picture of a tree signifies primarily a tree,
then perhaps wood, something made of wood, and so on; that
of a pair of outstretched wings signifies secondarily flight, then
soaring, height, and whatever else these may lead to. No
concrete thing is signifiable in its totality or othem'ise than by
a facile analysis of its constituent qualities and a selection of
the one which is both sufficiently characteristic in itself and
cafxible of being called up by a sign before the mind addressed.
And what quality shall be selected depends in great measure
upon the instrumentality used for its signification. Of such
lostnmta* instrumentalities men possess a considerable variety.
taikitMot We must leave out of account that of depiction, as
£«^fVM/oa. jyj^ instanced, because its employment belongs to
a much more advanced state of cultivation, and leads the
way to the invention not of speech but of the analogous and
auxiliary art of writing. There remain gesture, or changes of
position of the various parts of the body, especially of the
most mobile parts, the arms and hands; grimace, or the changes
of expression of the features of the countenance (in strictness,
a variety of the preceding); and utterance, or the production
of audible sound. It cannot be doubted that, in the first stages
of communicative expression, all these three were used together,
each for the particular purposes which it was best calculated
to serve. The nearest approach to such action that is now
possible is when two r>ersons, wholly ignorant of one another's
speech, meet and need to communicate — an imperfect corre-
spondence, because each is trained to habits of expression and
works consciously, and with the advantage of long experience,
towards making himself understood, yet it is good for its main
purpose. What they do, to reach mutual comprehension, is
like what the first speechless men, unconsciously and infinitely
more slowly, learned to do: face, hands, body, voice, are all
put to use. It is altogether probable that gesture at first
performed the principal part, even to such extent that the
earliest human language may be said to have been a
of gesture signs; indeed, there exist at the present *
gesture-languages as those in use between roving
different speech that from time to time meet one ano
most noted example is that of the gesture-language, <
considerable degree of development, of the prairie
American Indians); or such signs as are the natural
those who by deafness are cut off from ordinary spok
course with their fellows. Yet there never can hav
stage or period in which all the three instrumentalii
not put to use together. In fact, they are still all used
that is even now an ineffective speaking to which grii
gesture (" action," as Demosthenes called them) are a
as enforcers; and the lower the grade of development an
of a language, the more important, even for intelligi
their addition. But voice has won to itself the
chief and almost exclusive part in communication,
insomuch that we call all communication *' languij
"tonguincss") just as a race of mutes might call it "ha
and talk (by gesture) of a handiness of grimace. Tk
in the least because of any closer connexion of the
apparatus with the muscles that act to produce audibi
than with those that act to produce visible motions; no(
there are natural uttered names for conceptions any n
natural gestured names. It is simply a case of *' su
the fittest," or analogous to the process by which iron ha
the exclusive material of swords, and gold and silver of
because, namely, experience has shown this to be the
best adapted to this special use. The advantages of ^
numerous and obvious. There is first its economy, as ei
a mechanism that is available for little else, and lea^
for other purposes those indispensable instruments th
Then there is its superior perceptibleness: its nice di
impress themselves upon the sense at a distance at whic
motions become indistinct; they are not hidden by int
objects; they allow the eyes of the listener as well as tl
of the speaker to be employed in other useful work; th
plain in the dark as in the light; and they are able to c
command the attention of one who is not to be reache
other way. We might add as the third advantage a
capability of variation and combination on the part oi
sounds; but this is not to be insisted on, inasmuch as w
know what a gesture-language might have become i
ingenuity in expression had been expended through
upon its elaboration; and the superiority, however r
hardly have been obvious enough to serve as a motive: c
there are spoken languages now existing whose abunc
resources falls short of what is attainable by gcstur
utterance is the form which expression has inevitably
the sum of man's endowments being what it is; but it i
a mistake to suppose that a necessity of any other
involved in their relation. The fundamental condil
speech are man's grade of intellectual power and h
instinct; these being given, his expression follows,
itself of what means it finds best suited to its purpose;
had been wanting it would have taken the next best,
certain well-known cases, a marked artistic gift on the
individuals deprived of the use of hands has found r
exercise in the feet instead. But men in general hav
instruments of exquisite tact and power, to serve the
their intellect; and so voice also, to provide and use t
of thought; there is no error in maintaining that the
given us for speech, if only we do not proceed to draw fi
a dictum false conclusions as to the rebtion between
and utterance. Man is created with bodily instrument
to do the work prescribed by his mental capacities;
lies the harmony of his endowment.
It is through imitation that all signification becomes
suggestive. The first wTittcn signs are (as already
the depictions of visible objects, and could be
nothing else; and, by the same necessity, the first
uttered signs were the imitations of audible sounds. To r
PHILOLOGY
417
ny found of which the originating cause or the circumstances
of (Moduction are known, brings up of course before the con-
ception that sound, along with the originator, or circumstances
of ori^nation, or whatever else may be naturally associated with
it There are two special directions in which this mode of sign-
oakiflf b fruitful: imitation of the sounds of external nature
(u the cries of animals and the noises of inanimate objects
vken in motion or acted on by other objects) and imitation of
IniiMa sounds. The two are essentially one in principle,
aithoQgh by some held apart, or even opposed to each other, as
npecUvely the imitative or onomatopoetic and the exclamatory
or interjectional beginnings of H>eech; they difTcr only in their
ipbeto of significance, the one being especially suggestive of
atenul objects, the other of inward feelings. There are natural
kunan tones, indicative of feeling, as there are natural gestures,
pQMs, nodes of facial expression, which either are immediately
intelligible to us (as is the warning cry of the hen to the day-
M chicken), or have their value taught us by our earliest
i operiraces. If we hear a cry of joy or a shriek of pain, a laugh
« ft {roan, we need no explanation in words to tell us what it
•toifies any more than when we see a sad face or a drooping
utitode. So also the characteristic cry or act of anything
ttitside ourselves, if even rudely imitated, is to us an effective
'ndnder and awakener of conception. We have no reason
to question that such were the suggestions of the beginnings
^ littered expression. The same means have made their con-
tnbatioQs to language even down to our own day; we call words
^ product ** onomatopoetic " (i.e. " name-making "), after
^eumple of the Greeks, who could not conceive that actually
■^e* additions to language should be made in any other way.
What and how wide the range of the imitative principle, and
*hat amount of language-signs it was capable of yielding, is a
^object for special investigation — or rather, of speculation, since
anything like exact knowledge in regard to it will never be
Attained; and the matter is one of altogether secondary con-
>><}aence; it is suflkient for our purpose that enough could
<>crtainly be won in this way to serve 4s the effective germs of
ipeccL
AU the natural means of expression are still at our command,
And arc put to more or less use by us, and their products are as
i^^,^^ intelligible to us as they have been to any generation
of our ancestors, back to the very first. They are
Aaalogoos also to the means of communication of the lower
*<>imals; thb, so far as we know, consists in observing and
^terpreting one another's movements and natural sounds
(^here there are such). But language is a step beyond this,
And different from it. To make language, the intent to signify
'iii^ be present. A cry wrung out by pain, or a laugh of
AQkusemrot, though intelligible, is not language; either of them,
^ consdoudy reproduced in order to signify to another pain or
Measure, b language. So a cough within hearing of any one
Attracts hb attention; but to cough, or to produce any other
AouBd, articulate or inarticulate, for the purpose of attracting
Adotber's attention, b to commit an act of language-making,
'^h as in human hbtory preceded in abundance the establbh-
"^^t of definite traditional signs for conceptions. Here begins
^ appear the divbion between hugian language and all brute
^^{tre&uoa; since we do not know that any animal but man ever
^'^mtely took thb step. It would be highly interesting to find
^ just how near any come to it; and to this point ought to be
**pcdaDy directed the attention of those who are investigating
^ communication of the lower animab in its relation to human
^^Hunanication. Among the animab of highest intelligence
^^ associate with man and learn something of hb ways, a
5'^*tain amount of sign-making expressly for communication
1^ not to be denied; the dog that barks at a door because he
l^kows that somebody will come and let him in b an instance of
'^i perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from
^ Qock, whose warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the
^^leat of danger, b as near an approach to it as b anywhere
But the actual permanent beginnings of speech are only
reached when the natural basb b'still further abandoned, and
signs begin to be used, not because their natural suggestive-
ness b seen in them, but by imitation, from the lm^mw
example of others who have been observed to use Cm^**-
ihe same sign for the same purpose. Then for the ^'•■*'»
first time the means of communication becomes something
to be handed down, rather than made anew by each indi-
vidual; it takes on that traditional character which b the
essential character of all human institutions, which appears not
less in the forms of social organization, the detaib of religious
ceremonial, the methods of art and the arts, than in language.
That all exbting speech, and all known recorded speech, b
purely traditional, cannot at aU be questioned. It b proved
even by the single fact that for any given conception there are
as many different spoken signs as there are languages— say a
thousand (thb number b rather far within than beyond the
truth), each of them intelligible to him who has learned to use
it and to associate it with the conception to which it belongs,
but imintelligible to the users of the nine hundred and ninety-
nine other signs, as these are all tinintclligible to him; unless,
indeed, he learn a few of them also, even as at the beginning he
learned the one that he calb hb own. What single sign, and
what set of signs, any individual shall use, depends upon the
community into the midst of which he b cast, by birth or other
circumstances, during his first years. That it does not depend
upon hb race b demonstrated by facts the most numerous and
various; the African whose purity of descent b attested by every
feature b found all over the world speaking just that language,
or jargon, into the midst of which the fates of present or former
slavery have brought hb parents; every civilized community
contains elements of various lineage, combined into one by
unity of speech; and instances are frequent enough where whole
nations speak a tongue of which their ancestors knew nothing;
for example, the* Celtic Gaub and the Germanic Normans of
France speak the dialect of a geographically insignificant dbtrict
in central Italy, while we ourselves can hardly utter a sentence
or write a line without bringing in more or less of that same
dialect. There b not an item of any tongue of which we know
anything that is ** natural " expression, or to the possession of
which its speaker b brought by birth instead of by education;
there b even very little that b traceably founded on such
natural expression; everywhere &iffis or human attribution
reigns supreme, and the original ^dats or natural significance
has disappeared and is only to be found by theoretic induction
(as we have found it above). It seems to some as if a name like
cuckoo (one of the most striking available cases of onomatopoeia)
were a " natural " one; but there b just as much 6kais in it as
in any other name; it implies the observation of an aggregate of
qualities in a certain bird, and the selection of one among them
as the convenient basis of a mutual understanding when the bird
is in question; every animal conspicuous to us must have its
designation, won in one way or another; and in thb case to
imitate the characterbtic cry b the most available way. If
anything but convenience and availability were involved, all
our names for animab would have to be and to remain imitations
of the sounds they make. That the name of cuckoo b applied
also to the female and young, and at other than the singing
season, and then to related species which do not make the same
sound — ^all helps to show the essentially conventional character
of even thb name. An analogous process of elimination of
original meaning, and reduction to the value of conventional
designation merely, b to be seen in every part of language
throughout its whole hbtory. Since men ceased to derive their
names from signs having a natural suggest iveness, and began
to make them from other names already in use with an under-
stood value, every new name has had its etymology and its
historical occasion — as, for example, the name quarantine from
the two-score (quarantainc) of days of precautionary confine-
ment, or volume from its being rolled up, or book from a beech-
wood staff, or copper from Cyprus, or lunacy from a fancied
influence of the moon, or priest from being an older (irpeoPOripoi}
person, or butterjly from the butter-yellow colour of a certain
4i8
PHILOLOGY
common species: every part of our language, as of every other/
is full of such examples — but, when once the name is applied,
it belongs to that to which it is applied, and no longer to its
relatives by etymology; its origin is neglected, and its form may
be gradually changed beyond recognition, or its meaning so far
altered that comparison with the original shall seem a joke or an
absurdity. This is a regular and essential part of the process
of name-making in all human speech, and from the very begin-
ning of the history of speech: in fact (as pointed out above), the
latter can only be said to have begun when this process was
successfully initiated, when uttered signs began to be, what they
have ever since continued to be, conventional, or dependent
only on a mutual understanding. Thus alone did language gain
the capacity of unlimited growth and development. The sphere
and scope of natural expression are narrowly bounded; but there
is no end to the resources of conventional ^gn-making.
It is well to point out here that this change of the bads of
men's communication from natural suggestiveness ta mutual
^^^^ tmderstanding, and the consequent purely conven-
s^etek tional character of all human language, in its every
mad Mamma psiTt and particle, puts an absolute line of demarca-
^P*^^ tion between the latter and the means of communi-
cation of all the lower animals. The two are not of the same
kind, any more than human society in its variety of organi-
zation is of the same kind with the instinctive herding of
wild cattle or swarming of insects, any more than human
architecture with the instinctive burrowing of the fox and nest-
building of the bird, any more than human industry and accu-
mulation of capital with the instinctive hoarding of bees and
beavers. In all these cases alike the action of men is a result
of the adaptation of means at hand to the satisfaction of felt
needs, or of purposes dimly perceived at first, but growing
dearer with gradually acquired experience. Man is the only
being that has established institutions — gradually accumulated
and perfected results of the exerdse of powers analogous in kind
to, but greatly differing in degree from, those of the lower
animals. The difference in degree of endowment does not
constitute the difference in language, it only leads to it. There
was a time when all existing human beings were as destitute of
language as the dog; and that time would come again for any
number of human beings who should be cut oft (if that were
practicable) from all instruction by their fellows: only they
would at once proceed to recreate language, society and arts
by the same steps by which their own remote ancestors created
those which we now possess; while the dog would remain what
he and his ancestors have always been, a creature of very
superior intelligence, indeed, as compared with most, of
infinite intelligence as compared with many, yet incapable of
rising by the acquisition of culture through the formation and
development of traditional institutions. There is just the same
saltus existent in the difference between man's conventional
speech and the natural communication of the lower races as in
that between men's forms of society and the instinaive associa-
tions of the lower races; but it is no greater and no other; it is
neither more absolute and characteristic nor more difficult to
explain. Hence those who put forward language as the distinc-
tion between man and the lower animals, and those who look
upon our language as the same in kind with the means of com-
munication of the lower animals, only much more complete and
perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true nature of language,
and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No
addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make
anything like human speech; the two are separated by a step
which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other
hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those
institutions the development of which has constituted human
progress, while their possession constitutes human culture.
With the question of the origin of man, whether or not
developed out of lower animal forms, intermediate to the
anthropoid apes, language has nothing to do, nor can its study
ever be made to contribute anything to the solution of that
question. If there once existed creatures above the apes and
below man, who were extirpated by primitive man as hb (
rivals in the struggle for existence, or beaune extinct in ■
other way, there is no difficulty in supposing then to ki
possessed forms of speech, more rudimentary and imperfect tl
ours. At any rate, all existing human speech is one in I
essential characteristics which we have thus far noted or at
hereafter have to consider, even as humanity is one in
distinction from the lower animals; the differences are in m
essentials. All speech is one in the sense that every buoi
being, of whatever race he may be, is capable of Lm^
acquiring any existing tongue, and of using it for fff_
the same purposes for which its present possessors C"*>"
use it, with such power and effect as his individual ai|Mci
allows, and without any essential change in the mental opeiatifl
carried on by means of speech — even as he may acquire •:
other of the items of ctdture belonging to a race not his oi
The difference between employing one language and anoClKr
like that between employing one instrument and another
mechanical arts; one instrument may be. better than anodi
and may enable its user to turn out better work, but the bmm
ingenuity behind both is the same, and works in the same wa
Nor has the making of language an3rthing whatever to do «l
making man what he is, as an animal species having a oerUi
physical form and intellectual endowment. Being what be i
by nature, man has by the development of language and och
institutions become what he is by culture. His acquired odUi
is the necessary result of his native endowment, not tb
contrary. The acquisition of the first stumbling begininM
of a superior means of commtmication had no more influence li
raise him from a simian to a human being than the present hil^
culture and perfected speech of certain races has to lift then ^
to something more than human and specifically different froa
the races of inferior culture. It cannot be too abacdutdy W
down that differences of language, down to the poeaaAni
language at aU, are differences only in respect to education oii
culture.
How long man, after he came into such bring as be nov k
physically and intellectually, continued to communicate lid
imitative dgas of direct significance, when the /fg^^i^
production of traditional signs began, how rapidly mamttt
they were accumulated, and how long any traces of <^m"V
their imitative origin dave to them — these and the ■**
like questions it is at present idle to try to answer even aMiK>
turally: just as it is to seek to determine when the first isMf
ments were used, how soon they were shaped instead of bd^
left crude, at what epoch fire was reduced to service, and s» A
The stages of development and their succession are clear enooijb;
to fix their chronology will doubtless never be found piactiabis
There is much reason for holding, as some do, that the voyM
items of culture were hardest to win and cost moat tine^ (i*
rate of accumulation (as in the case of capital) increaaiBg ^
the amount accumulated. Beyond all reasonable queitiBi^
however, there was a positively long period of purdy imitativi
signs, and a longer one of mixed imitative and traditional aB4
the latter gradually gaining upon the former, bdoic ^
present condition of things was reached, when the prododiH
of new signs by imitation is only sporadic and of the attMl
rarity, and all language-signs besides are traditional, tM
increase in any community being soldy by variatioD ad
combination, and by borrowing from other communities.
Of what nature, in various respects, this earliest laagaap
material was is suffidently dear. The signs, in the finft pba
were of the sort that we call " roots." By this is
only meant that they were integral signs, significant
in their entirety, not divisible into parts, of which
one signified one thing and another another thing, or of '
gave the main significance, while another was an added flp<
kind or relation. In a language of developed structure fikcai
own, wc arrive at such " roots " mainly by an artificial strip|Ma(
off of the signs of relation which almost every wwd stiU faav*
can be shown to have once had. In un-cost-li-ness, for exaai^
cost is the centrally significant dement; so far as!
PHILOLOGY
419
it it a root, tbout which cluster a whole body of forms
lad derivatives; if we could follow its history no farther it
iwdd be to us an ultimate root, as much so as bind or ting or
MM. But we can follow it up, to the Latin compound con-sta,
I root sta with a prefixed formative element con. Then j/a,
ibkh in slightly varied forms we find in a whole body of related
Ungues called " Indo-European," having in them all the same
aioificance " stand," is an Indo-European root, and to us an
nlUiiute one, because we can follow its history no farther; but
tbcre always remains the possibility that it is as far from being
Ktoalfy original as is the English root cost: that is to say, it is
Mt viUun our power ever to get back to the really primitive ele-
■cntsof q>eech and to demonstrate their character by positive
ciidence. The reason for accepting a primitive root-stage of
hngoage is in great part theoretical: because nothing else is
wconcflablf with any acceptable view of the origin of language.
TIk law (tf the simplicity of beginnings is an absolute one for
cmytUng of the nature of an institution, for every gradually
dndoped product of the exercise of human faculties. That an
wiginal q>eech-«ign should be of double character, one part of
k meaning this and another part that, or one part radical and
tke other formative, is as inconceivable as that the first instru-
Beats should have had handles, or the first shelters a front room
ud a back one. But this theoretical reason finds all the
lutorical support which it needs in the fact that, through all the
tUervable periods of language-history we see formative elements
comiog from words originally independent, and not from any-
t^ else. Thus, in the example just taken, the -/i- of costiiiuss
ii a suffix of so recent growth that its whole history is distinctly
tnccaUe; it is simply our adjective like^ worn down in both form
aad meaning to a subordinate value in combination with certain
«Hds to which it was appended, and then added freely as a
■fix to any word from which it was desired to make a derivative
adjective'-or, later but more often, a derivative adverb. The
am ii ouch older (though only Germanic), and its history
I obcarer; it contains, in fact, two parts, neither of them of
I faDoostrable origin; but there are equivalent later suffixes, as
^P in hardship and iom in wisdom^ whose derivation from
I Ubpcodent words Kshape, doom) is beyond question. The
I ■••of mautiiness is still more ancient (being Indo-European),
I ttd its probably pronominal origin hardly available as an
Bostntion; but the comparatively modem prefix 6e-, of become,
• yk, &C., comes from the independent preposition by, by the
lUK process as -/y or -ii- from like. And the con which has
ontriboted its part to the making of the quasi-root cost is also
^origin identical with the Latin preposition cum, " with.'* By
>11 the known facts of later language-growth we are driven to
^ opinion that every formative element goes back to some
Previously existing independent word; and hence that in
ttabrsiog our present words we are retracing the steps of an
ttriier synthe«s, or following up the hbtory of our formed words
lovard the unformed roots out of which they have grown. The
^rine of the historical growth of language-structure leads by
* logical necessity to that of a root -stage in the history of all
l>%oage; the only means of avoiding the latter is the assumption
^ a miraculous element in the former.
Of what phonetic form were the earliest traditional speech-
%D$ is, so far as essentials are concerned, to be inferred with
reasonable certainty. They were doubtless articu-
late: that is to say, composed of alternating conso-
nant and vowel sounds, like our present speech; and
IIkt probably contained a part of the same sounds which wc
Mr use. All human language is of this character; there are no
Muds in any tongue which are not learned and reproduced as
cttOy by children of one race as of another; all dialects admit a
Btti^netic analysis, and are representahle by alphabetic signs;
Od the leading sounds, consonant and vowel, are even practi-
^ythe same in all; though every dialect has its own (for the
■Oit part, readily ' definable and imitable) niceties of their
piODtmciation, while certain sounds are rare, or even met with
mif in a single group of languages or in a single language.
Aiticttlate sounds are such as are capable of being combined 1
with others into that succession of distinct yet connectable
syllables which is the characteristic of human speech-utterance.
The name *' articulate " belongs to this utterance, as dis-
tinguished from inarticulate human sounds and cries and from
the sounds made by the lower animals. The word itself is
Latin, by translation from the Greek, and, though very widely
misunderstood, and even deliberately misapplied In some
languages to designate all sound, of whatever kind, uttered by
any living creature, is a most happily chosen and truly descrip-
tive term. It signifies " jointed," or broken up into successive
parts, like a limb or stem; the joints are the syllables; and the
syllabic structure is mainly effected by the alternation of closer
or consonant sounds with opener or vowel sounds. Tha simplest
syllabic combination (as the facts of language shovg is that
of a single consonant with a following vowel; and there are
languages even now existing which reject any other. Hence
there is much plausibility in the view that the first speech-signs
will have had this phonetic form and been monosyllabic, or
dissyllabic only by repetition (reduplication) of one syllable,
such as the speech of very young children shows to have a
peculiar ease and naturalness. The point, however, is one of
only secondary importance, and may be left to the further
progress of phonetic study to settle, if it can; the root-theory,
at any rate, is not bound to any definite form or extent of root,
but only denies that there can have been any grammatical
structure in language except by development in connexion with
experience in the use of language. What particular sounds, and
how many, made up the first spoken alphabet is also a matter
of conjecture merely; they are likely to have been the closest
consonants and the openest vowels, medial utterances being of
later development.
As regards their significant value, the first language-Mgns
must have denoted those physical acts and qualities which are
directly apprehensible by the senses; both because ctvmctt
these alone are directly signifiable, and because it otBarty
was only they that untrained human beings had 4P*«cfe.
the power to deal with or the occasion to use. Such signs
would then be applied to more intellectual uses as fast as there
was occasion for it. The whole history of language, down
to our own day, is full of examples of the reduction of physical
terms and phrases to the expression of non-physical conceptions
and relations; we can hardly write a line without giving illustra-
tions of this kind of linguistic growth. So pervading is it, that
we never regard ourselves as having read the history of any
intellectual or moral term till we have traced it back to a physical
origin. And we are still all the time drawing figurative compari-
sons between material and moral things and processes, and
calling the latter by the names of the former. There has never
been any difficulty in providing for new knowledge and more
refined thought by putting to new uses the earlier and grosser
materials of speech.
As a matter of course, whatever we now signify by our simple
expressions for simple acts, wants, and the like, was intended to
be signified through the first speech-signs by the users of them.
But to us, with our elaborated apparatus of speech, the sentence,
composed of subject and predicate, with a verb or special
predicative word to signify the predication, is established as the
norm of expression, and wc regard everything else as an abbrevi-
ated sentence, or as involving a virtual sentence. With a view
to this we must have " parts of speech ": that is, words held
apart in office from one another, each usable for such and such a
purfwse and no other, and answering a due variety of purposes,
so that when they are combined they fit together, as parts
composing a whole, and the desired meaning is made clear.
Inflexions, too, lend their aid; or else auxiliary words of various
kinds answering the same purpose — namely, of determining the
relations of the members of the sentence. But all our success
in understanding the earliest stages of language depends upon
our power to conceive a state of things where none of these
distinctions were established, where one speech-sign was like
another, calling up a conception in its indefinite entirety, and
leaving the circumstances of the case to limit its application.
420
PHILOLOGY
Such a language i& far below outs in expUdtness; but it would
suffice for a great deal of successful communication; indeed (as
will be shown farther on) there are many languages even now
in existence which are little better off. So a look of approval
or disgust, a gesture of beckoning or repulsion, a grunt of assent
or inquiiy, is as significant as a sentence, means a sentence, is
translataDle into a sentence, and hence may even in a certain
way be called a sentence; and in the same way, bilt only so, the
original roots of language may be said to have been sentences.
In point of fact, between the holophrastic gesture or uttered sign
and the sentence which we can now substitute for it — for example
between the sign of beckoning and the equivalent sentence, ' I
want you to come here " — lies the whole history of development
of inflective speech.
What has been this history of development, how the first
scanty and formless signs have been changed into the immense
Drwfep- variety and fullness of existing speech, it is of course
mnat of impossible to point out in detail, or by demonstration
Lavtu0g9 qI facts, because nearly the whole process is hidden
in the darkness of an impenetrable past. The only way to cast
any light upon it is by careful induction from the change and
growth which are seen to have been going on in the recent periods
for which wo have recorded evidence, or which are going on at
the present time. Of some groups of related languages we
can read the life for three or four thousand years back, and by
comparison can infer it much farther; and the knowledge thiis
won is what we have to apply to the explanation of periods and
languages otherwise unknown. Nothing has a right to be
admitted as a factor in language-growth of which the action is
not demonstrable in recorded language. Our own family of
languages is the one of whose development most is known, by
observation and well- warranted inference; and it may be well
here to sketch the most important features of its history, by
way of general illustration.
Apparently the earliest class-distinction traceable in Indo-
European speech is that of pronominal roots, or signs of position,
iaiado' ^"'^"^ ^hc more general mass of roots. It is not a
Europeaa formal distinction, marked by a structural difference,
SfcA, hut^ SQ f^r as can be seen, is founded only on the
assignment by usage of certain elements to certain offices.
Formal distinction began with combination, the addition of one
element to another, their ixxsion into a single word, and the
reduction of the one part to a subordinate value, as sign of a
certain modification of meaidng of the other. Thus, doubtless
by endings of pronominal origin, were made the first verb-
forms, or words used only when predication was intended (since
that is all that makes a verb), conveying at first a distinction
of persons only, then of persons and numbers, while the further
distinctions of tense and mode were by degrees added. To the
nouns, which became nouns by the setting up of the separate
and special class of verbs, were added in like manner distinctions
of case, of number, and of gender. With the separation of
noun and verb, and the establishment of their respective in-
flexion, the creative work of language-making is virtually done;
the rest is a matter of differentiation of uses. For the noun
(noun substantive) and the adjective (noun adjective) become
two pKirts of speech only by a gradually deepened separation of
use; there is no original or formal distinction between them;
the pronouns as a rule merely add the noun-inflexion to a special
set of stems; adverbs are a pKirt of the same formation as noun-
cases; prepositions are adverbs with a specialized construction,
of secondary growth; conjunctions are the products of a like
specialization; articles, where found at alii are merely weakened
demonstratives and numerals.
To the process of form-making, as exhibited in this history,
belong two parts: the one external, consisting in the addition
of one existing element of speech to another and their combina-
tion into a single word; the other internal, consisting in the adap-
tation of the compound to its special use and involving the
subordination of one element to the other. Both parts appear
also abundantly in other departments of language-change, and
.throughout the whole history of our languages; nothing has to be
assumed for the earliest formations which is not plainly iHmtfatcd
in the latest. For example, the last important addition to the
formative apparatus of English is the common adverb-making
suffix 4y, coming, as already pointed out, from the independent
adjective like. There was nothing at first to H«»»^ng"»fh a
compound like godly (godiike) from one like stcrm-Ussedt save
that the former was more adaptable than the other to wider
uses; resemblance is an idea easily generalized into ai^purtenanoe
and the like, and the conversion of godlike to godly is a mofk
result of the processes of phonetic change described farther
on. The extension of the same element to combinatioii witk
adjectives instead of nouns, and its converson to adverb*
jnaking value, is a much more striking case of adaputioo, and
is nearly limited to English among the Germanic lingiiagrs that
have turned like into a suffix. A similar striking case of coa*
bination and adaptation is seen in the Romanic adverb-makisf
suffix mente or menl, coming from the Latin ablative iMafe,
" with mind." So, to make a Romanic future like donmm,
" I shall give," there was needed in the first place the pn-
existing elements, donncr, " to give," and at, ** I have," and Ikir
combination; but this is only a part; the other indispombb
part is the gradual adaptation of a phrase meaning ** I haw
[something before me] for giving " to. the expretsion of iiB|ib
futurity, donabo. So far as the adaptation is concaned tk
case is quite parallel to that of fai donni, ** I have ghro,"
&c. (equivalent phrases or combinations are found in mqf
languages), where the expression of possession of somethiiic tttt
is acted on has been in like manner modified into the espiuaBi
of past action. Parallel in both combination and adaptaria
is the past tense /ovecf, according to a widely accepted thofi
from looe-did, while we have again the same adaptatjon wilkMi
combination in the equivalent phrase did late.
That these are examples of the process by whidi thevUl
inflective structure of Ind.-European language was built npadali
of no reasonable question. Our belief that it is so rests \
solid foundation that we can demonstrate no other
that this one is sufficient. It is true that we can prove i
origin for our formative elements in only a small nunocitx.rf
instances; but this is just what was to be expected, ooaaidBiiC
what we know of the disguising processes <rf l«imi«pi.yBitk
No one would guess in the mere y of ably (for ahle4y) the pratM
of the adjective like, any more than in the altered final of M^
and the shortened vowel of Ud the effect of a did once addd M
send and lead. The true history of these forms can be AfN^
because there happen to be other facts left in existence toihovkf
whore such facts are not within reach we are left to infcr \$
analogy from the known to the unknown. The validity d MT
inference can only be shaken by showing that there are faoM
incapable of having been made in this way, or that there aicaiA
have been other ways of making forms. Of the former IkcRk
evidently but small chance; if a notm-form meaning, "vidl
mind " can become the means of conversion of all the a4iacliMl
of a language into adverbs, and a^ verb meaning " have " (ni
yet earlier, " seize ") of signifying both future and part li■i^
there is obviously nothing that is impossible <^ att^noMAl If
such means. As regards the latter, no one appears la hM
even attempted to demonstrate the genesis of formative dcBCM
in any other way during the historical periods of lanfMie; it
is simply assumed that the early methods of lincnigr wHt
will have been something different from and superior in
tancity and fruitfulness to the later ones; that certain
or forms at certain periods, were made out-and-out, at
that signs of formal distinction somehow exuded froa
and stems; that ori^nal words were many-membcred, aid llil
a formative value settled in some member of them — aiid the An
Such doctrines are purely fanciful, and so opposed to the i
ings both of observation and of sound theory that the
absurd is hardly too strong to apply to them. If the later i
developed intelligence, and trained in the methods oC a
expression, can only win a new form by a long and ;
cess of combination and adaptation, why should the
comparatively untrained, generations have been able to da Hi
PHILOLOGY
421
tier? Tlie advantage ought to be, if anywhere, on our side.
It progress of language in every department, accompanying
it^g^^ and representing the advance of the race, on the
whole, in the art of speaking as in other arts, is from
the grosser to the more refined, from the physical
to the moral and intellectual, from the material
• the formaL The conversion of compounds into forms, by the
dactlon of one of their elements to formative value, is simply
part of the general process which also creates auxiliaries and
nB>words and connectives, all the vocabulary of mind, and all
le figurative phraseology that gives life and vigour to our
pcech. If a a>pula, expressive of the grammatical relation of
ndkation, could be won only by attenuation of the meaning
(mfas signifying *' grow," " breathe," " stand," and the like;
i ow auxiliaries of tense and mode all go traceably back to
Kids of physical meaning (as hate to " seize," ntay to *' be great
r strong," shall to " be under penalty," and so on); if of comes
nn the comparatively physical off^ and for from " be/ore, for-
nrd "; if relative pronouns are specializcid demonstratives and
■tecrogatives; if right means etymologically *' straight," and
tmi means " twisted "; if spirit is " blowing," and inteliect a
"piding out among," and understanding a " getting beneath,"
wi ieHdopnent an *' unfolding "; if an event takes place or
CMKS to pasSf and then drops out of mind and is forgotten (opposite
of |Mtai> — then it is of no avail to object to the grossness of
Bjr of the processes by which, in earlier language or in later,
tke equtasion of formal relations is won. The mental sense of
^ idatioa expressed b entirely superior to and independent
flf the means of its expression. He who, to express the plural of
■n, says what is equivalent to man-man or heap-man (devices
1^ are met with in not a few languages) has just as good a
MM of plurality as he who says men or homines; that sense is
WBoce degraded in him by the coarseness of the phrase he uses
Istfpafy it than is our own sense of eventuality and of pastness
^ the undisguised coarseness of take place and have been. In
iati, it is to be laid down with the utmost distinctness and
CMfidence, as a Uw of language-growth, that there is nothing
fanal anywhere in language which was not once material;
tktt the formal is made out of the material, by processes which
k(|ui m the earliest history of language and are still in action.
We have dropped here the restriction to our own or Indo-
Enopean language with which we began, because it is evident
C«rtgf that what is true of this family of speech, one of the
^aa#iiiost highly organized that exist, may also be true of
the rest — must be true of them, unless some valid
be found to the contrary. The unity of human nature
> human ^leech alike in the character of its begiimings and
In the general features of its after-history. Everywhere among
■ea a certain store of expression, body of traditional signs of
ttOB^, being given, as used by a <xrtain community, it is
Cipdde of increase on certain accordant lines, and only on them.
bmne languages, and under peculiar circumstances, borrowing
ha great means of increase; but it is the most external and least
Wpnically important of all. Out-and-out invention (which, so
Cv as we can see, must be of the kind called by us onomato-
poetic) is found to play only a very insignificant part in the
hhtorical periods of Unguage— clearly because there are other
lid easier modes of gaining new expression for what needs to be
In the course of phonetic change a word sometimes
> ibto two (or more) forms, and makes so many words, which
Be differently turned to account. Everything beyond this
aatt be the product of combination; there is no other way, so
ir as concerns the externals of speech. Then, partly as accom-
•qpittg and aiding this external growth, partly as separate from
id mpplenienting it, there is in all language an internal growth,
■ting DO appearance in the audible part of speech, consisting
I ■tnhiptication of meanings, their modification in the way of
RBdnon or comprehension or correctness, the restriction of
ordi to certain uses, and so on. Along with these, too, a con-
aat diange of phonetic form constitutes an inseparable part
' the life erf language. Speech b no more stable with respect to
t aounds of which it is composed than with respect to its
grammatical forms, its vocabulary, or the body of conceptions
signified by it. Even nearly related languages differ as much in
their q)oken alphabets and the combinations of sounds they
admit, and in their uttered forms of words historically the same,
as in any other part; and the same is true of local dialects and
of class dialects within the same community. Phonetic change
has nothing whatever to do with change of meaning; the two
are the product of wholly independent tendencies. Sometimes,
indeed, they chance to coincide, as in the distinction of mintUe
" small," and minute " moment "; but it is only by chance, as
the spoken accordance of second in its two meanings (" next "
and " sixtieth of a minute ") shows; words that maintain their
identity of value most obstinately, like the numerals, arc liable
to vary indefinitely in form (so four, fidvor, qitaluor, riacap-ts,
&c., from an original kvoetwor-^five, quinque, irbrn, cote, &c., from
penkwe — while, on the other hand, ftcro and three show as striking
an accordance of form as of meaning through all the same
languages); what is far the most common is that the word
becomes very unlike its former self in both respects, like priest
from the Greek Tpfcfiintpos (presbyter), literally " older man."
Human convenience is, to be sure, the governing motive in
both clianges; but it is convenience of two different kinds: the
one mental, depending on the fact (pointed out above) that a
name when once applied belongs to the thing to which it is
applied, to the disregard of its etymological connexions, does not
need to be changed when the thing changes, and is ready for
new application to anything that can be brought into one class
with the latter; and the other physical, depending on the organs
of speech and their successive movements, by which the sounds
that make up the word are produced. Phonetic convezuence is
economy of effort on the part of those organs; and to no other law
than that of economy of utterance have any of the phenomena
of phonetic change been found traceable (though it is also to be
noted that some phenomena have not hitherto been successfully
brought under it, and that the way of effecting this is still
unclear). " Euphony," which used to be appealed to as explana-
tion, is a false principle, except so far as the term may be nutde
an idealized synonym of economy. The ear finds that agreeable
which the organs of utterance find facile. Economy in utterance
is no isolated tendency; it is the same that plays its part in all
other kinds of human action, and in language appears equally
in the abbreviation of the sentence by leaving out parts that can
be spared without loss of intelligibility. It is an insidious
tendency, always lying in wait, like gravitation, to pull down
what is not sufiBciently held up — the holding-up force in lan-
guage being the faithfulness of tradition, or accurate repro-
duction by the learner and user of the signs which he has acquired.
No generation of men has any intention to speak otherwise than
as its predecessor has spoken, or any consciousness that it is
doing so; and yet, from generation to generation, words are
shortened, sounds are assimilated to one another, and. one
element passes out of use while a new one is introduced. Abbre-
viation and assimilation are the most conspicuous depart-
ments of phonetic change, and those in which the nature of the
governing tendency is most plainly seen. Taken by itself,
one sound is as easy as another to the person who has accustomed
himself to it from childhood; and those which the young child
most easily acquires are not those which in the history of speech
are least liable to alteration; it is especially in the combinations
and transitions of rapid speaking that the tongue, as it were,
finds out for itself easier ways of performing its task, by dropping
and slurring and adapting. To trace out the infinitely varied
items of this change, to co-ordinate and compare them and
discover their reasons, constitutes a special department of
language-study, which is treated under the head of Phonetics.
It only needs to be pointed out here that phonetic change plays
a necessary part in the structural development of language,
by integrating compound words through fusion and loss of identity
of their component parts, and, what is of yet more important;^,
by converting them into forms, through disguise of identity of
one of the parts and its phonetic subordination to the other part.
It is this that turns, for example, the compound god-lik« into
422
PHILOLOGY
the derivative godly^ the compound Une-did into the vert>al
forin loved. And yet one further result sometimes follows: an
internal change is wrought by phonetic influence in the body of
a word, which change then may in the further history of the
word be left as the sole means of distinction between one form
and another. It is thus that, in the most recent period, the
distinction of led from Uad and met from mee/ and so on has been
made; the added auxiliary which originally made these preterites
induced a shortening of the root-vowel, and this was left behind
when the auxiliary disappeared by the usual process of abbrevia-
tion. It b in the same way that the distinctions of men from
man, of vxre from was, of sd from sU, with all their analogues,
were brought about: by a modification of vowel-sound (Ger.
Umlaut) occasioned by the presence in the following syllable of an
(-vowel, which in the older stages of the language is still to be seen
there. And the distinctions of stng^ sang, sung and song, of hind^
bound, band and bond, are certainly of the same kind, though they
go back so far in the history of our family of languages that their
beginnings are not yet clearly demonstrable; they were in their
origin phonetic accidents, inorganic, mere accompaniments
and results of external combinations which bore the office of
distinction of meaning and were sufficient to it; in some of our
languages they have been disregarded and effaced, in others they
have risen to prominent importance. To regard these internal
changes as primary and organic is parallel with assuming tjic
primariness of the formative apparatus of language in general;
like this, it ignores the positive evidence we have of the secondary
production of such differences; they are, like everything else in
linguistic structure, the outcome of combination and adaptation.
Borrowing, or the taking-in of material out of another language,
has been more than once referred to above as sometimes an
important element in language-history, though less
9rMxS deep-reaching and organic than the rest. There is
nothing anomalous about borrowing; it is rather
in essential accordance with the whole process of language-
acquisition. All our names were adopted by us because they
were already in use by others; and a community is in the same
way capable of taking a new name from a community with which
it comes in cohtact as an individual from individuals. Not that
it seeks or admits in this way new names for old thin^; but it
accepts new things along with the names that seem to belong to
them. Hence any degree of intercourse between one community
and another, leading to exchange of products or of knowledge,
is sure to lead also to some borrowing of names; and there is
hardly a language in the world, except of races occupjring
peculiarly isolated positions, that does not contain a certain
amount of foreign material thus won, even as our English has
elements in its vocabulary from half the other tongues in the
world. The scale of borrowing is greatly increased when one
people becomes the pupil of another in respect of its civilization:
hence the abundant classical elements in all the European
tongues, even the non-Romanic; hence the Arabic material in
Persian and Turkish and Malay; hence the Chinese in Japanese
and Corean; and, as a further result, even dead languages, like
the Greek and Latin and the Sanskrit, become stores to be drawn
upon in that learned and conscious quest of new expression
which in the school-stage of culture supplements or even in a
measure replaces the unconscious growth of natural speech.
So, in mixture of communities, which is a highly-intensified
form of contact and intercourse, there follows such mixture of
speech as the conditions of the case determine; yet not a mixture
on equal terms, through all the departments of vocabulary and
grammar; the r^ulting speech (just as when two individuals learn
to speak alike) is essentially that of the one constituent of the
new community, with more or less material borrowed from that
of the other. What is most easily taken in out of another
language is the names of concrete things; every degree of removal
from this involves additional difficulty — ^names of abstract
things, epithets, verbs, connectives, forms. Indeed, the borrow-
ing of forms in the highest sense, or forms of inflexion, is well-
nigh or quite impossible; no example of it has 'been demonstrated
in any of the historical periods of language, though it is some-
times adventuioitaly assumed as a part of prehistoric grovttL
How neariy it may be approached is instanced by the presence
in English of such learned plurals as phenomena and s^ata. TUi
extreme resistance to mixture in the department of i"(^riftn ii
the ground on which some deny the possibility of mixture in
language, and hence the existence of such a thing as a nund
language. The difference is mainly a verbal one; but it wodd
seem about as reasonable to deny that a region is inundated so
long as the tops of its highest mountains are above water.
According to the simple and natural meaning of the term, neady
all languages are mixed, in varying degree and within vaiyiKg
limits, which the circumstances of each case must explain.
These are the leading processes of change seen at woik ni
all present speech and in all known past speech, and heooe to
be regarded as having worked through the wlxde htstoiy of
speech. By their operation every existing tongue has bees
developed out of its rudimentary radical condition to that
in which we now see it. The variety of existing langusga
is well-nigh infinite, not only in their material ^t in their
degree of development and the kind of resulting stmctat
Just as the earlier stages in the history of the use of toob ait
exemplified even at the present day by races which have netv
advanced beyond them, so is it in regard to language abo-
and, of course, in the latter case as in the former, this state d
thin^ strengthens and establishes the theory of a gradvi
development. There is not an element of linguistic structni
possessed by some languages which is not wanting in
others; and there are even tongues which have no
formal structure, and which cannot be shown ever
to have advanced out of the radical stage. The most noted
example of such a rudimentary tongue is the Chinese, lAA
in its present condition lacks all formal distinction of tte
parts of speech, all inflexion, all derivation; each of itt
words (all of them monosyllables) is an integral sign, aot
divisible into parts of separate significance; and ea^ ii
general is usable wherever the radical idea b wanted, with ^
value of one part of speech or another, as determined by tki
connexion in which it stands; a condition paralld with tbft
in which Indo-European speech may be r^arded as csildiV
prior to the beginning of its career of formal developiaal
briefly sketched above. And there are other tongues, reiitif
and tmrelated to Chinese, of which the same description, «■>
nearly like it, might be given. To call such languages radial
is by no means to maintain that they exhibit the primal loMS
of human speech, unchanged or only phonetically changnii *
that they have known nothing of the combination of ckoMil
with element. Oi some of them the roots are in greater «r
less part dissyllabic; and we do not yet know that sD ilt
syllabism, and even that all complexity of pliable bejna'*
single consonant with following vowel, is not the roalt if
combination or reduplication. But all conSbination is Mt
form-making; it needs a whole class of combinatioos, vftk a
recognized common element in them producing a
common modification of meaning, to make a form. The
elements which (in Latin, and even to some extent in
also) are of formal value in constant and pre-did lack ^
character in cost and preach; the same like which vi^
adverbs in tru4y and right4y is present without any sndi vabi
in such and which (from so-lihe and who4ike); cost udfitKk,
and such and which, are as purely radical in En^iah as adS
words of which we do not happen to be able to dLiiiarfi*
the composite character. And so a Chinese wumMjfi^
or an Egyptian or Polynesian dissyllaUe is radical, vales thcK
can be demonstrated in some part of it a formative vatae; aad
a language wholly composed of such words a a ioot4aiipB^
Recent investigation goes to show that Chinfte had st 1MB
period of its history a formal develc^ment, since eitiagaiiM
by the same processes of phonetic decay whidi m Enflidi bEH
wiped out so many ugns of a formal chvacter and broo^te^
so considerable a part of the vocabulary to mopoayHalAw ^
languages thus constituted the only possible external altenliw
is that phonetic change to which all human speech;, iMi ^
PHILOLOGY
423
K
i«y beginning of its traditional life, ia liable; the only growth
■ iatemal, by that nraltq^cation aofd adaptation and improve-
■cat of nwMiningf which ia equally an inseparable part of all
hngnage-hiatocy. Thia may include the reduction of certain
demeata to the value of auxiliaries, partidea, form-words, such
as play an important part in analjrtical tongues like Eng^sh, and
ve perfaapa aJao inttfancfd in prehistoric Indo-European speech
bjr the cUaa of pronominal roots. Phrases take the place of
«imprtiifMi« and of infleziona, and the same element may have
aa auxiliary value in certain connexions while retaining its full
loioe in others, like, for instance, our own have. It is not easy
to define the distinction between such phrase-coUocations and
tke H»ginning« of ag^utinatiou; yet the distinction itself is
ia general dearly enough to be drawn Gike that in French
between dounerai and ai donnS) when the whole habit of the
hwgnafr ia well understood.
Mch languages, constituting the small minority of human
are wont to be called "isolating," ix. using each
dement by itself, in its integral form. All besides
are "agglutinative," or more or less compounded
into words containing a formal part, an indicator
flf dasa^value. Here the differences, in kind and degree,
lie very great; the variety ranges from a scantiness hardly
mpeaat to Chinese isolation up to an intricacy compared
vhh which Indo-European structure is hardly fuller than
Chniese. Some brief characterixation of the various families
of lafijif j> in thia respect will be given farther on, in con-
loioQ with their clarification. The attempt is also made to
diiHfy the great mass of agglutinating tongues under different
kads: those are ranked as simply " ag^utinative " in which
thoe is a general conservation of the separate identity of root or
Mea OQ the one hand, and of formative element, sufi&x or prefix,
on the other; while the name " inflective," used in a
higher and pregnant sense, is given to those that admit
liqKrior fusion and integration of the two parts, to the disguise
tad kw of aq>arate identity, and, yet more, with the devdop-
■at of aa internal change as auxiliary to or as substitute for
the original agglutination. But there is no term in linguistic
Kieace so uncertain of meaning, so arbitrary of application, so
dependent on the idiosyncrasy of its user, as the term " inflec-
^" Any language ought to have the right to be called in-
flective that has inflexion: that is, that not merdy distinguishes
puts of q)eech and roots and stems formally from one another,
bat iho conjugates its verbs and declines its noims; and the
uuBe is sometimes so used. If, again, it be strictly limited to
ipifjr the possession of inner flexion of roots and stems (as if
iaply agglutinated forms could be called " cxflcctive "}, it
■sriu only a difference of degree of agglutination, and should
be caiefully used as so doing. As describing the fundamental
ttd predominant character of language-structure, it bdongs
to ooly one family of languages, the Semitic, where most of the
*Kk of grammatical distinction is done by internal changes of
vnrd, the origin of which thus far dudes all attempts at explana-
tioB. By perhaps the majority of students of language it is, as
ifeoerally descriptive title, restricted to that family and one
<tber, the Indo-European or Indo-Germanic; but such a classi-
fcation is not to be approved, for, in respect to this character-
^, Indo-European speech ranks not with Semitic but with
^ great body of agglutinative tongues. To few of these can
the name be altogether denied, since there is hardly a body of
nkted (Ualects in existence that does not exhibit some items
sf '* inflective " structure; the Aryan b only the one among
4em that has most to show. Outside the Semitic, at any rate,
flae should not speak of inflective and non-inflective languages,
Wt only of languages more inflective and less inflective.
To account for the great and striking differences of structure
aiiKmg human languages is beyond the power of the linguistic
student, and will doubtless always continue so. We
are not likdy to be able even to demonstrate a corre-
lation of c^Midties, saying that a race which has
this and that in other departments of human activity
%igiit have been expected to form such and such a language.
Every tongue represents the general outcome of the capadty
of a race as exerted in this particular direction, under the
influence of historical circumstances which we .can have no
hope of tracing. There are striking apparent anomalies to
be noted. The Chinese and the Egyptians have shown them-
adves to be among the most gifted races the earth has
known; but the Chinese tongue is of imsurpassed jejune-
ness, and the Egyptian, in point of structiu^, little better,
while among the wild tribes of Africa and America we find
tongues of every grade, up to a high one, or to the highest.
This shows dearly enotigh that mental power is not measured
by language-structure. But any other linguistic test would
prove equally insufficient. On the whole, the value and rank
of a language are determined by what its users have made it
do. The reflex action of its speech on the mind and culture of
a people is a theme of high interest, but of extreme difficulty,
and ^t to lead its investigators away into empty declamation;
taking everything together, its amount, as is shown by the
instances already rderred to, is but small. The question is
simply one of the facilitation of work by the use of one set of
tools rather than another; and a poor tool in skilful hands can
do vastly better work than the best tool in unskilful hands —
even as the andent Egyptians, without steel or steam, turned
out products which, both for colossal grandeur and for exquisite
finish, are the despair of modem en^eers and artists. In such
a history of development as that of human speech a fortunate
turn may lead to results of unforeseen value; the earlier steps
determine the later in a degree quite beyond their own intrinsic
importance. Everything in language depends upon habit and
analogy; and the formation of habit is a slow process, while
the habit once formed exercises a constraining as well as a
guiding influence. Hence the persistency of language-struc-
ture: when a certain sum and kind of expression is produced,
and made to answer the purposes of expression, it remains
the same by inertia; a shift of direction becomes of extreme
difficulty. No other reason can at present be given why in
historical time there has been no marked development out of
one grade of structure into another; but the fact no more shakes
the linguistic scholar's belief in the growth of structure than the
absence of new animal species worked out under his eyes shakes
the confidence of the believer in animal devdopment. The
modifying causes and their modes of action are clearly seen,
and there is no limit to the results of their action except what is
imposed by circumstances.
It is in vain to attempt to use dates in language-history,
to say when this or that step in development was taken, and how
long a period it cost, espedally now that the changed views
as to the antiquity of man are making it probable that only
a small part of the whole history is brought within the reach
even of our deductions from the most andent uaityot
recorded dialects. At any rate, for aught that we Oilgiaoi
know or have reason to believe, all existing dialects Speech,
are equally old; every one alike has the whole immeasurable
past of language-life behind it, has reached its present
condition by advance along its own line of growth and
change from the first beginnings of human expression. Many
of these separate lines we clearly sec to converge and unite,
as we follow them back into the past ; but whether
they all ultimately converge^ to one point is a question quite
beyond our power to answer. If in this immensity of time
many languages have won so little, if everywhere language-
growth has been so slow, then we can only differ as to whether
it is reasonably certain, or probable, or only possible, that there
should have been a considerable first period of human existence
without traditional speech, and a yet more considerable one
before the fixation of so much as should leave abiding traces in
its descendants, and that meanwhile the race should have
multiplied and scattered into independent communities. And
the mere possibility is enough to exclude all dogmatic assertion
of the unity of origin of human speech, even assuming unity of
origin of the human race. For to prove that identity by the
still eiBting facts of language is utterly out of the question;
424
PHILOLOGY
the metamorphosing effect of constant change has been too
great to allow it. In point of fact, taking languages as they
now exist, only those have been shown related which possess
a common structure, or have together grown out of the more
primitive radical stage, since structure proves itself a more
constant and reliable evidence than materiaL And this is
likely ever to be the case; at any rate, to trace all the world's
languages so far back toward their beginnings as to find in them
evidences of identity is beyond the wildest hope. We must
be content with demonstrating for those beginnings a unity of
kind as alike a body of formless roots. But, on the other hand,
since this imity is really demonstrated, since all structure is
the result of growth, and no degree of difference of structure,
any more than of difference of material, refuses explanation. as
the result of discordant growth from identical beginnings, it is
equally inadmissible to claim that the diversities of language
prove it to have had different beginnings. That is to say, the
question of the unity of speech, and yet more that of the unity
of the race, is beyond the reach of the student of language;
the best view he can attain is the hypothetical one, that, if
the race is one, the beginnings of speech were perhaps one —
but probably not, even then. This negative conclusion is
so clearly established as to leave no excuse for the still oft-
repeated attempts to press language into service on either side
of the controversy respecting human imity of race.
That all making and changing of language is by the act of
its speakers is too obvious to call for discussion. No other
VacmaadoM ^^^^^ capable of acting and of producing effects is
Onwtb either demonstrable or conceivable as concerned
ttimtfft in the work. The doctrine that language is an
LMvUmaU, orgjuignj^ growing by its own inherent powers,
exempt from the interference of those who use if, is simply
an indefensible paradox. Every word that is uttered is so
by an act of human will, at first in imitation of others, then
more and more by a formed and controlling habit; it is acces-
sible to no change except by influences working in the speaker's
mind and leading him to make it otherwise. Not that he is
aware of this, or directs his action knowingly to that end. The
whole process is unconscious. If any implication of reflective
or intended action can be shown to inhere in any doctrine of
linguistic science, it vitiates that doctrine. The attitude of the
ordinary speaker towards his language is that .of unreasoning
acceptance; it seems to him that his names for things are
their real names, and all others unintelligent nicknames; he
thinks himself to possess his speech by the same tenure as his
sight or hearing; it is " natural " to him (or, if he reasons about
it, he attributes it to a divine origin, as races beginning to
philosophize are wont to ascribe their various social institutions
to their gods); he knows nothing of its structure and relations;
it never occurs to him to find fault with it, or to deem it insuffi-
cient and add to or change it; he is wholly unaware that it
does change. He simply satisfies his social needs of communi-
cation by means of it ; and if he has an3rthing to express that
is different from what has been expressed before, he takes the
shortest way to a provision for the need; while any relaxation
of the energy of utterance tends to a variation in the uttered
combinations; and thus changes come by his act, though with-
out his knowledge. His sole object is, on the basis of what
language he has, to make known his thought in the most con-
venient way to his fellow; everything else follows with and
from that. Human nature and circumstances being what they
are, what follows actually is, as already shown, incessant
growth and change. For it we have not to seek special disturb-
ing causes in the history of the speakers, although such mav
come in to heighten and quicken the change; we know that
even in a small community, on a narrow islet, cut off from all
intercourse with other communities, the speech would grow
different — as certainly, if not as rapidly, as anywhere in the
world — and only by the action of its speakers: not that the
speakers of a language act in unison and simultaneously to
produce a given change. This must begin in an individual,
or more or less accordantly in a limited number of individuals,
and spread from such examj^ through the oomimmity. loitift-
lion by one or a few, acceptance and adoption by the lot— >
such is the necessary method of all linguistic change, and to be
read as plainly in the facts of change now going on among oar-
selves as in those of former language. The doctiine of the
inaccessibility of language to other action than that of Its
speakers does not imply a power in the individual tptaka to
create or alter anything in the common tptedk, any mofe thu
it implies his desire to do so. What he suggests by his fHnqiit
must be approved by the imiution of his fellowB, in order to
become language. The common speech is the commoo pro-
perty, and no one person has any more power ovtr It thai
another. U there are, for example, a thousand tptaktn of t
certain dialect, each one wields in general a thousandth part cf
the force reqtihred to change it — with just so much more as mjr
belong to his excess of influence over his fellows, due to reoof'
■nized superiority of any kind on his part. His action Is Umlud
only 'by their assent; but this is in effect a very narrow
tion, ensuring the adoption of nothing that Is not m near
dance with the already existing; though it Is abo to be UBUd
that he is as little apt to strike off into startling diange astlcf
to allow it; since the governing power of already fonned haUs
of speech is as strong in him as in them. That change to vkkft
the existing habits naturally lead is ea^ to bring about; ogr
other is practically impossible. It Is this tendency on dii
part of the collective speakers of a language to appnmM
reject a proposed change according to its conformity itt
their already subsisting usages that we are accnstamied to ol
by the fanciful name " the genius of a language."
On the relation of the part played in language-^aifi kf
the individual to that by tbe community, in combinatloaifch
the inevitableness of change, rests the explanation of
the dialectic variation of language. U language were
stable there would of course be no dlvaiication; but
since it is always varying, and by items of differeiKse that ptwrf
from individuals and become general by diffusion, there CH U
uniformity of change only so far as diffusion goes or as tki
influences of communication extend. Within the Umksflf a
single community, small or large, whatever change arises
gradually to all, and so becomes part of the general
but let that community become divided into two (or
parts, and then the changes arising in either part do not tpnd
to the other, and there begins to appear a difference In
usage between them. It is at first slight, even to
not greater than exists between the dialects of different
or ranks or occupations in the same community, without ddii*
mcnt to the general unity of speech. This unity, namdjr, lOli
solely on mutual intelligibility, and Is compatible iritk M
small amount of individual and class difference. In vtxMuft
in grammar and in pronunciation; indeed, in the atridot
sense, each individual has a dialect of his own, difiereat fnB
that of every other, even as he has a handwriting, a countcsBBOi
a character of his own. And every item of change, as it taktf
place, must have its season of existence as a load or dtf *
trade peculiarity, before it gains universal currency; aoBi ^
them linger long in that condition, or never emeige fnm^
All these differences in the speech of different sub-ODBuamritiB
within the same community are essentially dialectic; thejdifa
not in kind, but only in degree, from those which aepantete
best-marked dialects; they are kept down by general uiuuMii
cation within the limit of general mutual intelliglblKty. VhA
that restraining influence ceases the linut Is gmAalBj Mt
surely overpassed, and real dialects are the residt fM
what we know of the life of language we can aay|MMiUii|f
that continued uniformity of q^eech without oootinocd ciW*
munity is not practicable. If it were possihle to divide «l^
ficially, by an impassable chasm or wall, a people OM fv
ages, and continuing to occupy the same seats, the
of the divided parts would at once begin to be
different; and after sufficient time had elapsed each
become unintelligible to the other. That is to say,
a community of uniform speech breaks up, its
PHILOLOGY
425
q» abo; nor do we know of any other cause of dialectic
dhrcnity.
In a^ying this explanation of dialectic growth we have
to allow for modifying drcumstances of various nature, which
liter not indeed the fact but the rate and kind of divarication.
Some languages grow and change much more rapidly than
others, with a corresponding effect upon divarication, since
tUs is but a result of discordant growth. Usually, when there
ii ^visioa ci a community, the parts get into different external
dicamstances, come in contact or mingle with different neigh-
booring communities, and the like; and this quickens and
increases their divergence of speech. But the modifying factor
of by far the highest importance here, as elsewhere in the history
<rf language, is civilization. Civilization in its higher forms so
miltiplies the forces of communication as to render it possible
that the widely-divided parts of one people, living in circum-
sances and under institutions of very different character,
ikould yet maintain a substantial oneness of speech; of this
tbcre a no more striking example than the two great divisions
of the En^ish-speaking people on opposite sides of the Atlantic.
Ob the other band, a savage people cannot spread even a little
lithout dialectic disunity; there are abundant examples to be
net with now of mutually unintelligible speech between the
aaOest subdivisions of a race of obviously kindred tongue —
■I the different clusters of huts on the same coral islet. It is
vtb linguistic unity precisely as it is with political unity, and
far the same reasons. Before the attainment of civilization
tte buman race, whether proceeding from one centre of dis-
pnkm or from several, was spread over the earth in a state of
■tier disintegration; but every centre of civilization becomes
iho a centre of integration; its influences make for unity
flf 9eech as of all other social institutions. Since culture
bs become incontestably the dominant power in human
Uitory, the unifying forces in language have also been stronger
Iku the divenifying; and with culture at its full height, and
^Knd equally to every land and race, one universal language,
Ike one universal conununity, is not an absurdity or theoretic
lapoisbility, but only a Utopian or millennial dream.
Dialectic variation is thus simply a consequence of the
■ovenents of population. As the original human race or
oca, so the divisions or communities of later formation, from
point to point through the whole life of man on the earth,
kive iprod and separated, but jostled and interfered, have
QHMjuered and exterminated or mingled and absorbed; and
to vpetch has been affected accordingly. Hence something
^ these movements can be read in the present condition of
kasoa^, as in a faithful though obscure record — more, doubt-
^ tlttn can be read in any other way, however little it may
k when viewed absolutely. Dialectic resemblances point
Stably back to an earlier imity of speech, and hence of
inanity; from what we know of the history of speech,
^ are not to be accounted for in any other way. The longer
^ separation that has produced the diversity, the greater its
^^pK. With every generation the amount of accordance
tfecreues and that of discordance increases the common
^ii|in of the dialects is at first palpable, then evident on examina-
'ioo, then to be made out by skilled research, then perhaps
^ loDger demonstrable at all; for there is plainly no Umit to
,the possible divergence. So long, now, as any
evidence of original unity is discoverable we c^
the languages " related dialects," and combine them
^to a " family." The term " family " simply signifies a group
^ languages which the evidence thus far at command, as
Cidfflated by us, leads us to regard as descended by the ordinary
PiQcesscs of dialectic divarication from one original tongue.
TImI it does not imply a denial of the possibility of wider
l^jationship is obviotis from what has been said above. That
UlcK is abundant room for error in the classification repre-
sented by it is also clear, ainct we may take purely accidental
or the results of borrowing, for evidence of common
It, or may overlook or wrongly estimate real evidences,
%hkh more study and improved method will bring to light.
Grouping into families is nothing more than the best classifi-
cation attainable at a given stage In the progress of linguistic
science; it is in no small part provisional only, and is always
held liable to modification, even sweeping, by the resulu of
further research. Of some families we can follow the history
by external evidences a great way back into the past; their
structure is so highly developed as to be traced with confidence
everywhere; and their territory is well within our reach: such
wc regard with the highest degree of confidence, hardly aUow-
ing for more than the possibility that some other dialect, or
group, or now-accepted family eveU) may sometime prove its
right to be added on. But these are the rare exceptions; in
the great majority of cases we have only the languages as they
now exist, and in more or less scanty collections, of every degree
of trustworthiness; and even their first grouping is tentative
and incomplete, and involves an adjournment of deeper ques-
tions to the day of more light. To complete and perfect
the work of classification by relationship, or the establish-
ment of families and their subdivisions, is the first object of
the comparative study of languages. No other classification
has a value in the least comparable with it; that by grade of
structure is a mere recreation, leading to nothing; that by
absolute worth is of no account whatever, at any rate in the
present state of our knowledge. On genetic relationship, in
the first place, is founded all investigation of the historical
development of languages; since it is in the main the comparison
of related dialects, even in the case of families having a long
recorded history, and elsewhere only that, that gives us know-
ledge of their earlier condition and enables us to trace the
lines of change. In the second place, and yet more obviotuly,
with this classification is connected all that language has
to teach as to the affinities of human races; whatever aid
linguistic science renders to ethnology rests upon the proved
relationships of human tongues.
That a classification of languages, to which we have now to
proceed, is not equivalent to a classification of races, and why
this is so, is evident enough from the principles
which have been brought out by our whole discussion
of languages, and which, in their bearing upon
this particular point, may well be recapitulatoi here. No
language is a race-characteristic, determined by the q>ecial
endowments of a race; all languages are of the nature of in-
stitutions, parallel products of powers common to alL mankind
— the powers, namely, involved in the application of the fittest
available means to securing the common end of communica-
tion. Hence they are indefinitely transferable, like other
institutions — ^like rcUgions, arts, forms of social organization,
and so on — under the constraining force of circumstances.
As an individual can learn any language, foreign as well as
ancestral, if it be put in his way, so also a community, which
in respect to such a matter is only an aggregate of individuals.
Accordingly, as individuals of very various race are often
found in one community, speaking together one tongue, and
utterly ignorant of any other, so there are found great com-
munities of various descent, speaking the dialects of one common
tongue, which at some period historical circumstances have
imposed upon them. The conspicuous example, which comes
into every one's mind when this subject is discussed, is that
of the Romanic countries of southern Europe, all using dialects
of a language which, 2500 years ago, was itself the insignificant
dialect of a small district in central Italy; but this is only the
most important and striking of a whole class of similar facts.
Such are the results of the contact and mixture of races and
languages. If language-history were limited to growth and
divarication, and race-history to spread and dispersion, it would
be a comparatively easy task to trace both backward toward
their origin; as the case is, the confusion is inextricable and
hopeless. Mixture of race and mixture of speech are coincident
and connected processes; the latter never takes place without
something of the former; but the one is not at all a measure
of the other, because circumstances may give to the speech
of the one element of population a greatly disproportionate
426
PHILOLOGY
preponderance. Thus, there is left in French only an insig-
nificant trace of the Celtic dialects of the predominant race-
constituent of the French people; French is the q^eech of
the Latin conquerors of Gaul, mixed perceptibly with that
of its later Frankish conquerors; it was adopted in its integrity
by the Norse conquerors of a part of the land, then brought
into Britain by the same Norsemen in the course of their further
conquests, this time only as an element of mixture, and thence
carried with English speech to America, to be the language of
a still further mixed community. Almost every possible phase
of language-mixture is traceable in the history of the abundant
words of Latin origin used by American negroes. What events
of this character took place in prehistoric time we shall never
be able to tell. If any one chooses to assert the possibility that
even the completely isolated dialect of the little Basque commun-
ity may have been derived by the Iberian race from an intrusive
minority as small as that which made the Celts of Gaul speakers
of Latin, we should have to admit it as a possibility — ^yet
without detriment to the value of the dialect as indicating the
isolated race-position of its speakers. In strictness, language
is never a proof of race, either in an individual or in a com-
munity; it is only a probable indication of race, in the absence
of more authoritative opposing indications; it is one evidence,
to be combined with others, in the approach towards a solution
of the confessedly insoluble problems of human history. But
we must notice, as a most important drcumstance, that its
degree of probability is greatest where its aid is most needed,
in prehistoric periods and among uncultivated races; since it
is mainly civilization that gives to language a propagative force
disproportionate to the number of its speakers. On the whole,
the contributions of language to ethnology are practically far
greater in amount and more distinct than those derived from
any other source.
The genetical classification of languages, then, is to be taken
for just what it attempts to be, and no more: primarily as a
classification of languages only; but secondarily
as casting light, in varying manner and degree, on
movements of community, which in their turn
depend more or less upon movements of races. It is what
the fates of men have left to represent the tongues of men
— a record imperfect even to fragmentariness. Many a family
once as important as some of those here set down has perhaps
been wiped out of existence, or is left only in an inconspicuous
fragment; one and another has perhaps been extended far
beyond the limits of the race that shaped it — which, we can
never tell to our satisfaction.
I. Indo-European (Indo-Cermanic) Family. — To this family
belongs incontestably the first place, and for many reasons:
the historical position of the peoples speaking its dialects, who
have now long been the leaders in the world's history; the
abundance and variety and merit of its literatures, ancient and
modem, which, especially the modem, are wholly unapproachcd
by those of any other division of mankind; the period covered
by its records; and, most of all, the great variety and richness
of its development. These advantages make of it an illustra-
tion of the history of human speech with which no other family
can bear a moment's comparison as to value, however impor-
tant various other families may be in their bearing on one and
another point or department of history, and however necessary
the combination of the testimony of all to a solution of the
problems involved in speech. These advantages have made Indo-
European language the training-ground of comparative philology,
and its study will always remain the leading branch of that
science. Many matters of importance in its history have been
brought up and used as illustrations in the preceding discussion;
but as its constitution and ascertained development call for
a fuller and more systematic exposition than they have found
here, a special section is devoted to the subject (see Part II.
below; also In'do-Eurgpean Language).
9. Semitic Family. — This family also is beyond all question
the second in importance, on account of the part which its
peoples (Hebrews, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Syrians, Arabs,
Abyssinians, &c.) have played in history, and of the nak
its literatures. For a special treatment of it see Sckit
Languages. Some of the peculiarities of the language hv
been alluded to above, in the monotony and rigidity of i
triliteral roots, and in the extended use which it nukes <
internal vowel-change (" inflexion '* in the special sense *
that term) for the purposes of grammatical distinction, it
more peculiar and unhke all the other known families of hi
guage than these are unlike one another. There are, and pe
haps will always be, those to whom the peculiarities just na
tioned will seem original; but if the views of language and i
history taken above are in the main true, then that opittio
is untenable; Semitic language must have grown into its preset
forms out of beginnings accordant in kind, if not ideotia
in substance, with those of other families; and the only questio
remaining to be solved is, through what processes and nndc
what governing tendendes Semitic speech should have arrivct
at its present state. And with this solution is most obviouiij
and incontestably bound up that of the other interesting am
much discussed question, whether the Semitic family can bi
shown to be related with other families, especially with (k
Indo-European. To some the possession in common of ga/t
malical gender, or of the classification of objects in general m
masculine and feminine, is of itself enough to prove such Kb*
tionship; but, though the fact is a striking one, and of M
small importance as an indication, this degree of ^ue can bf
no means be attributed to it in the present state of our koov>
ledge — any more than to any other single item of strvctM
among the infinite variety of such, distributed among tk
multitude of human tongues. M^y others compare the Seoutie
and Indo-European " roots " with one another, and bdieit
themselves to find there numerous indications of identic of
material and signification; but these also must pass for insnfr
cient, until it shall prove possible by their aid to work out a
acceptable theory of how Semitic structure aliould have gnvi
out of such radical elements as underlie Indo-European stnB*
ture, or out of the accordant initial products of a strurtnnl
growth that afterwards diverged into two so discordant kiM.
To show that, both the material and the method have bcca
hitherto wanting, and any confident dedsion is at least pi»-
mature; but present probabilities are strongly against thi
solubility of the question. While many general oonsidentioM
favour the ultimate unity of these two great dviUzcd uA
civilizing white races of neighbouring homes, and no disconban
of speech (as was shown above) can ever be made to prove tkir
diversity of origin, it seems in a high degree unlikely thaltte
evidence of speech will ever be made to prove them one.
. 3. Hamitic Family. — The prominent importance of tMi
family (see Hamitic Languages) is due to a single one of to
members, the Egyptian. It occupies the north-eastern concrd
Africa, with the border-lands of that continent stretching voi*
ward along the whole shore of the Mediterranean, and Mtk*
ward to beyond the equator. It falls into three priodpil
divisions: (i) the andent Egyptian, with its descendant, Ae
more modem Coptic (itself now for some centimes estiact;
see Egypt, Copts); (2) the Libyan or Berber langiufei«(
northern Africa; (3) the Ethiopic languages of eastern MotL
Its situation thus plainly suggests the theory of its intraiiil
from Asia, across the isthmus of Suez, and its gradual spRi'
from that point; and the theory is strongly favoured by Ae
physical character of the Hamites, and the historical position
especially of the Egyptians, so strikingly different from thttcf
the African races in general. Linguistic evidences of ^
relationship of Hamite with Semite have also been noi''*
and by many believed to be found; but the raainteoaace if
the two families in their separateness is an indication that thfli
evidences have not yet been accepted as satisfactory; and vA
is indeed the case. The Egyptian is a language of oticai
simplicity of stmcture, almost of no structure at all. Itsndkri
words are partly monosyllabic, partly of more than one qpbbkr
but not in the latter case any more than in the former
traceable signs of extension by formative processes fiom wt
PHILOLOGY
427
drments. It has no derivative apparatus by which nouD-stems
IR made from roots; the root is the stem likewise; there is
lothing that can be properly called either declension or con-
ioption; and the same pronominal panicles or suffixes have
BOW a subjective value, indicating use as a verb, and now a
pBac«ve, indicating use as a noun. There is no method
koovn to linguistic science by which the relationship of such a
tongue as this with the highly and peculiarly inflective Semitic
OD be shown, short of a thorough working out of the history
of development of each family taken by itself, and a retracing
is some measure of the steps by which each should have arrived
It its present position from a common starting-point; and this
Ins by no means been done. In short, the problem of the
idation of Semitic with Hamitic, not less than with Indo-
Eoropean, depends upon that of Semitic growth, and the two
most be solved together. There are striking correspondences
between the pronouns of the two families, such as, if supported
byevuiences from other parts of their material, would be taken
n signs of relationship; but, in the absence of such support,
they are not to be relied upon, not till it can be shown to be
posiiUe that two languages could grow to be so different in
iB other respects as are Egyptian and Hebrew, and yet retain
by inheritance corresponding pronouns. And the possession of
punnatical gender by Indo-European, Semitic and Hamitic
speech, and by them almost alone, among all human languages,
tkw^ an extremely noteworthy fact, is (as was pointed out
ibovc) in the present condition of linguistic science quite too
veak a basis for a belief in the original identity of the three
fuoilies.
Efyptian is limited to the delta and valley of the Nile, and is
Ik only Hamitic language which has ancient records, of the
otbeis the existing forms alone are known.
The Libyan or Berber division of the family occupies the
Uitbitable part of northern Africa, so far as it has not been
fiqibced by intrusive tongues of other connexion — in later
tines the Arabic, which since the Mahommedan conquest has
been the cultivated tongue of the Mediterranean coast, while
tbe earlier Vandal, Latin and Punic have disappeared, except
ii tbe traces they may have left in Berber dialectic speech.
Ik principal dialects are the Kabyle, the Shilha and the
Tiarek or Taroashek, corresponding nearly to the ancient
Nttaidian, Mauretanian and Gaetulian respectively.
The third or Ethiopic division includes as its chief members
tbe Beja or Bfsh&rin, the Saho, the Dankali, the Somali, and
tbe more inland Galla; the first two lying along the Red Sea
WMtb of Semitic Abyssinia, the others south of it, to the equator.
By some authorities (Lepsius, Bleek) there is added to the
H^itic family as a fourth division a group from extreme
HMthem Africa, the Hottentot and Bushman languages. The
mmnd of this classiScation is the possession by the Hottentot
^ tbe distinction of grammatical gender, and even Its designa-
tion by signs closely corresponding to those used in the Ethiopic
^vision. Others deny the sufficiency of this evidence, and
tlak the Hottentot as a separate group of African dialects,
adding to it provisionally the Bushman, until better knowledge
^ tbe latter shall show whether it is or is not a group by itself.
If tbe Hottentot be Hamitic, we shall have to suppose it cut
off at a very remote period from the rest of the family, and
hrctd gradually southward, while all the time suffering mixture
Uxb of speech and of blood with the negro races, until the
Physical constitution of its speakers has become completely
iietamorphosed. and of its original speech no signs are left
tlve those referred to above; and while such exceptional
phonetic peculiarities have been worked out as the use of the
dicks or clucking sounds: and this must be regarded as at
lost extremely difficult.
4. Afonoiyllabic or Soutn-eastern Asiaiic Family. — This body
Of languages may well enough be the next taken up; and here
9gain (as was the case with the preceding family) on account
itf tbe prominent importance of one of its dialects and of the
people speaking it— the Chinese people and language. The
territory of tbe family includes the whole south-eastern corner
of Asia: China on the northeast. Farther India in the south,
and the fiigh pUteau of Tibet, with the neighbouring Himalayan
regions, to the westward. The ultimate unity of all these
Uinguages rests chiefly upon the evidence of their form, as being
all alike essentially monosyllabic and isolating, or destitute
of formal struaure; the material correspondences among them,
of accordant words, are not sufficient to prove them rebted.
The Chinese itself can be followed up, in contemporary records,
to a period probably not far from 3000 B.C., and the Unguage,
the people, and their institutions, are then already in the main
what they have ever since continued to be (see China); the
other leading tongues come into view much later, as they receive
culture and religion from China on the one hand (the Annamites),
or from India on the other (the Tibetans, Burmese, Siamese);
and the territory includes great numbers of wild tribes unknown
until our own times, whose race-relations and language-relations
are as yet very obscure. Current opinion tends to regard
the Annamites, Peguans and Cambodians (the Mon-Khmer
group) as forming a more nearly related group or division, and
as having been the earlier population of Farther India, in part
dispossessed and driven forward by the later intrusion from the
north of Siamese and Burmese, of whom the former are more
nearly related to the Chinese and the latter to the Tibetans.
The Mon-Khmer group is itself more nearly related to the
Kolarian and Malay- Polynesian.
The character of the languages of this family, especially
as instanced by its most important member, the Chinese, has
been pretty fully set forth in the general discussions above.
They are bnguages of roots: that is to say, there is not demon-
strable in any of their words a formative part, limiting the word,
along with others similarly characterized, to a certain office
or set of offices in the formation of the sentence. That the
words are ultimate roots, come down from the first period of
language-making, we have no reason whatever to believe;
and they may possibly have passed through processes of growth
which equipped them with some scanty supply of forms;
but no evidence to that effect has yet been produced. The
indications relied on to show an earlier polysyllabism in the
family (though already in Chinese reduced to monosyUabism
before the earliest historical appearance of the language, some
4000 years ago) are the comparatively recent loss of certain
final mutes in Chinese words, and the presence on a consider-
able scale in Tibetan spelling of added initial and final
consonants, now silent in the literary dialect, but claimed to
be still uttered in some parts of the country. If the theory
connecting these phenomena be established, the Tibetan will
approve itself to be by far the most primitive of the dialects
of the family, furnishing the key to the history of the rest.
For further details respecting the various tongues of the
monosylbbic family, the articles on the different divisions of
its territory (Burma; China; Siam; Tibet, &c.) may be con-
sulted. The bnguages all alike show an addition to the
resources of distinction possessed by languages in general, in
the use of tones: that is to say, words of which the alphabetic
elements are the same differ in meaning according as they are
uttered in a higher or a lower tone, with the rising or the falling
inflexion, and so on. By this means, for example, the mono-
syllabic elements of the literary Chinese, numbering but 500
as we should write them, are raised to the number of about
1 500 words.
5. Ural-Altaic (5cy/Atafi, Turanian) Family. — China and
Tibet are bordered on the north and west by the eastern branches
of another immense family, which stretches through central
and northern Asia into Europ>e, overbpping the Europ>ean
border in Turkey, and reaching across it in Russia and Scan-
dinavia to the very shore of the Atlantic. Usage has not so
definitely determined as in the case of most other families by
what name it shall be called; Turanian is perhaps the com-
monest appellation, but also the most objectionable. Five
principal branches are generally reckoned as composing the
family. The two easternmost are the Tungusian, with the
Manchu for its principal division, and the Mongol (see Mongols)
428
PHILOLOGY
Of these two the language is exceedingly simple in structure,
being raised but little above the formlessness of the Chinese. The
Tungusian, however, some authorities would couple with Japanese
as a separate branch. The three others are: the Turkish or
Tatar, the dialects of which reach from the mouth of the Lena
(Yakut) to Turkey in Europe; the Samoyed, from the Altai
down to the arctic shore of Asia, and along this to the White
Sea — an unimportant congeries of barbarous tribes; and the
Finno-Hungarian, including the tongues of the two cultivated
peoples from which it takes its name, and also those of a great
part of the population of northern and central Russia, to beyond
the Ural Mountains, and finally the Lappish, of northern Scan-
dinavia. The nearer relation of the Samoyed is with the
Finno-Hungarian. The Turkish is a type of a well-developed
language of purely agglutinative structure: that is, lacking
that higher degree of integration which issues in internal change.
Whether this degree is wholly wanting in Finnish and Hun-
garian is made a question; at any rate, the languages named
have no reason to envy the tongues technically called " inflec-
tive." Of a value not inferior to that of inflective characteristics
is one that belongs to all the Ural-Altaic tongues, in varying
measure and form, and helps to bind them together into a angle
family — the harmonic sequence of vowels, namely, as between
root and endings, or a modification of the vowels of the endings
to agree with that of the root or its final syllable.
While the physical race-characteristics known as Mongolian
are wanting in the speakers of the western dialects of this
family, they are conspicuously present in the people of Japan
and Korea; and hence the tendency of scholars to endeavour
to connect the languages of the two latter countries, since they
also are of agglutinative structure (see Japan and Korea) with
the family now under treatment, as also with one another.
Other languages of north-eastern Asia, too little known to
group, and too unimportant to treat as separate families, may
be mentioned here by way of appendix to their neighbours of
the most diversified and widespread Asiatic faniily. They are
the Aino, of Yezo and the Kurile Islands with part of the neigh-
bouring coast; the Kamchatkan; and the Yukagir and Tchukt-
chi of the extreme north-east. These are sometimes combined
with the Eskimo under the title of the Arctic or Hyperborean
languages.
The opinion has been held by many scholars that the agglu-
tinative dialects — Sumerain, Accadian, &c.— of the presumed
founders of Mesopotamian culture and teachers of the Assyrian
Semites (see Babylonu) belonged to the Ural-Altaic family,
and specifically to its Finno-Ugrian branch; but the data for this
view are still very uncertain. The mere possession of an
agglutinative structure cannot be taken as proving anything
in the way of relationship.
6. Dravidian or South Indian Family. — This is an important
body of nearly and clearly related tongues, spoken by about
50,000,000 people, doubtless representing the main population
of all India at the time when the intrusive Indo-European tribes
broke in from the north-west, and still filling most of the southern
peninsula, the Deccan, together with part of Ceylon. They are
languages of a high grade of structure, and of great power and
euphony; and the principal ones have enjoyed a long cultiva-
tion, founded on that of the Sanskrit. As they obviously have no
Indo-European affinities, the attempt has been made to connect
them also with the Ural-Altaic or Turanian family, but altogether
without success, although there is nothing in their style of
structure that should make such connexion impossible.
7. Malay- Polynesian Family. — Not all the tribes that make
up the non-Indo-European population of India speak Dravidian
dialects. The Santals and certain other wild tribes appear to
be of another lineage. These are now generally known as
Kolarian, and are connected with the Malay- Polynesian family.
The islands, greater and smaller, lying off the south-eastern
coast of Asia and those scattered over the Pacific, all the way
from Madagascar to Easter Island, are filled with their own
peculiar families of languages, standing in a more or less distant
relationship to the languages of the Mon-Khmer group, and the
Kolarians on the mainland and the Nicobar iahuideii. IW
principal one among them is the great Malay-Polynesian familx.
It falls into two principal divisions, Malayan and Pblynesaa.
The Malayan includes, besides the Malay proper (sec Malais),
which occupies the Malaccan peninsula (yet doubtless not at
original home of the division, but by immigration fnm the
islands), the languages also of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Ac, cf
the Philippine Islands, of part of Formosa, and of Madagascar,
together with the coasts of Celebes and other islands occupied
in the interior by Papuans. The Polynesian divison indndei
most of the tongues of the remaining scattered groups of islaadi,
and that of New Zealand. Probably to these are to be added, as t
third division, the Melanesian dialects of the Melanesian Archi-
pelago, of which both the physical and the linguistic peculiari-
ties would in that case be ascribed to mixture with the blad
Papuan races. All these languages are extremely simpk la
phonetic form, and of a low grade of structure, the PolyBcaia
branch being in both respects the lowest, and some d the
Malayan dialects having reached a development conaidetahlf
more advanced. The radical elements are much oftener of
two syllables than of one, and reduplication plays an impoftnc
part in their extension and variation. Malay literatnre ids
back as far as to the 13th century, and there are Javan iccorii
even from the early centuries of our era, the result of reSfMi
and culture introduced into that island from Brahmanic IndM.
In recent years more active investigation has bee
on with a view to tracing out the special laws of
development prevailing in the family.
8. Other Oceanic Families. — At least two other
connected with the preceding and with one another, are
among the Pacific Islands, and only there. The cunliwitil
island of Australia, with its dependency Tasmania (w1ieft,ho«*
ever, the native tongue has now become extinct), has its oat
body of probably related dialects, as its own physical typt
They have been but imperfectly investigated, their impoctiai%
except to the professed student of language, being nothiBC hit
they are not destitute of a rude agglutinative structure d tkk
own. Still less known are the Papuan or Negrito hngiwin
belon^ng to the black race with frizzled hair inhabiting ■■!
of New Guinea, and found also in the interior of some of tbeolkr
islands, having been driven from the coasts by superior intnideii
of the Malay race.
9. Caucasian Languages. — Of the existing languages of Am
there remain to be mentioned only those of the Caucasian Boa*
tains and highlands, between the Black and Ca^nan Seas,picsHl
upon the north by Slavonians and Turks, upon the aoiilh hf
Armenians and Kurds and Turks. Its situation makes of ik
Caucasus a natural eddy in all movements of emigration 1
A^a and Europe; and its linguistic condition is as if
of many families otherwise extinct had been stranded and pt
served there. The dialects north of the principal rang^-Ci^
cassian, Mitsjeghian, Lesghian, &c. — have not been proved tok
related cither to one another or to those of the south. AbnI
the latter, the Georgian is much the most widespread andiapi^
tant (see Georgia) and, alone among them all. puidtwn *
literature. The Caucasian dialects present many exceplioid
and difficult features, and are in great part of so high a yidi
of structure as to have been allowed the epithet inflective If
those who attach special importance to the distinctkw thfl
expressed.
10. Remnants of Families in Europe. — The Basque |M|iB
of the western Pyrenees, at the angle of the Bay of Bixay.M
shown by their speech to be an isolated remnant of soae IMI
which was doubtless once much more widely spread, bat IM
now everywhere else lost its separate identity; as sudi it il*
extreme interest to the ethnologist (see Basques). The Baii^
language appears to be unrelated to any other on earth. It i>^
a very highly agglutinative structure, being equalled in vAvaCI
of combination only by a part of the American dialects. Uaiu'
as it is in territory, it falls into a number of weU-maAcd didiOi^
so that it also may not be refused the name of a ** family**
The only other case of the kind worth noting b that ol lit
PHILOLOGY
429
CttiBcaa langiingp of nortbem central Italy, which long ago
hframe extinct* in consequence of the conquest and absorption
d Etruria by Rome, but which stUl exists in numerous brief in-
loqitkMH (see Etruua). Many attempts have been made to
mimpct the languagB with other families, and it has even quite
lecently been pronounced Aryan or Indo-European, of the
Italican branch, by scholars of high rank. But its supposed
hdo-Enropean relationship was at once shown to be erroneous
vben, In 1892, a sniall book which had been used to pock a
mommy was diKovered in the museum at Agram, and published.
The probability of relationship with the andent Lydian, as was
the opiuon held in ancient times, has been increased by recent
nKarch, and is likely soon to be verified or disproved by the
jhcorery of Lydian records.
In order to complete this review of the languages of the Old
Worid it only remains to notice those of Africa which have not
been already mentioned. They are grouped under two heads : the
^*g"*fll— of the south and those of the centre of the continent.
IX. S^mik African or Baniu Family. — This is a very extensive
tad distinctly marked family (see Bantu Languages), occupy-
ing (esccpt the Hottentot and Bushman territory) the whole
Muihau peninsula of the continent from some degrees north
of ^ equator. It is held apart from all other known families
of i^«r*«gr by a single prominent characteristic — the extent
tofrinch it makes use of prefixes instead of suffixes as the appar-
itos of grammatiad distinction; its inflexion, both declensional
nd coojugational, is by appended elements which precede the
ttem or root. The most con^cuotis. part of this is the variety
ot prefixes, different in ungular and plural, by which the various
dmes or genders (not founded on sex; the ground of classifica-
tion is generally obscure) of nouns axe distinguished; these then
Kippesr hi the other members of the sentence, as adjectives
nd verbs and pronouns, which axe determined by the noun,
tkn pntdodng an alliterative concord that runs through the
ntcaoe. The pronominal determinants of the verb, both
Mbject and object, also come before it; but the determinants
«i node of action, as causative, &c, are mostly suffixed. The
Insmge in general is rich in the means of formal distinction.
Ikie dialects which border on the Hottentots have, apparently
W derivation from the hitter, the clicks or ducking-souncb
lAidi form a conspicuous part of the Hottentot spoken alphabet.
13. Central African Languages.—Thc remaining languages of
Abies form a broad band across tlie centre of the continent,
Wiveen the Bantu on the south and the Hamitic on the east
ttd north. The Bantu group, extending from north of the
*9aUK to the Cape of Good Hope, with a vast variety of dialects,
fc tltt most important of all African languages. To it belongs
SwaldH, the language of Zanzibar, only less valuable as a means
^coominnication and trade than the Haussa of the Sudan, the
liostimpOTtant of the dialects under the influence of the Hamitic
^Hfnsges. The African languages are by no means to be called
* funOy, but rather a great mass of dialects, numbering by
^Qndreds, of varying structure, as to the relations of which
tkete is great discordance of opinion even among the most recent
^ competent authorities. It is no place here to enter into
^ vexed questions of African linguistics, or even to report the
Hxyittg views upon the subject; that would require a space
%bdDy disproportioned to the importance of African speech
^ the general sum of human language. There is no small
^^riety of physical tjrpe as well as of speech in the central belt;
*ihl, partly upon the evidence of lighter tint and apparently
l^gfHT endowment, certain races are set off and made a separate
^visioo of; such is the Nuba-Fulah division of F. Mtlller,
>fe;^ctcd by Lepsius. The latter regarded all the varieties of
Miysical and linguistic character in the central belt as due to
^liztuxe between pure Africans of the south and Hamites of the
%lrtli and east; but this is at present an hypothesis only, and
^ ytry impxobable one, since it implies modes and results of mix-
hire to which no analogies are quotable from languages whose
V^tory is known; nor does it appear at all probable that the
^l^lision of two races and types of speech should produce such
t% fanr»*^*«<» and diverse body of transitional types. It is far
from impo»ible that the present prominence of the South
African or Bantu family may be secondary, due to the great
expansion under favouring drcumstances of a race onct haviji|;
no more importance than belongs now to many of the Central
African races, and speaking a tongue which differed from theirs
only as thdrs differed from one another. None of the Central
African languages is a prefix-language in the same degree as the
Bantu, and in many of them prefixes play no greater part than
in the world's languages in general; others show special forms
or traces of the prefix structure; and some have features of an
extraordinary character, hardly to be paralleled elsewhere.
One group in the east (Oigob, &c.) has a gender distinction,
involving that of sex, but really founded on relative power
and dignity: things disparaged, induding women, are put in one
dass; things extolled, including men, are put in the other.
This is perhaps the most significant hint anywhere to be found
of how a gender-distinction like that in our own Indo-European
languages, which we usually regard as being essentially a dis-
tinction of sex, while in fact it only indudcs such, may have
arisen. Common among the African languages, as among many
other families, especially the American, is a generic distinction
between animate beings and inanimate things.
13. American Languages. — With these the case is dosdy
the same as with the Central African languages: there is an
immense number of dialects, of greatly varied structure (see
Indians, North American). Even among neighbouring
families like the Algonquin, Iroquob and Dakota, whose agree-
ment in style of structure (polysynthetic), taken in connexion
with the accordant race-type of their speakers, forbids us to regard
them as ultimately different, no material correspondence, agree-
ment in words and meanings, is to be traced; and there are
in America all the degrees of polysynthetism, down to the
lowest, and even to its entire absence!. Such bdng the case,
it ought to be evident to every one accustomed to deal with this
class of subjects that all attempts to connect American languages
as a body with languages of the Old World are and must be
fruitless.
Literature. — Many of the theoretic points discussed above
are treated by the writer with more fulness in his Language and
the Study of Language (1867) and Life and Growth of Language
(1875). Other English works to consult are M. Miiller's Lectures
on the Science of Language; Farrar's Chapters on Language;
Wedgwood's Origin of Language (all more of less anti-
quated); Sayce's Principles of PhilUogy and Introduction to
the Science of Language, &c.; Sweet, The History of Language
(iQOo). In German, see Paul's Principien der Sprackgcschichte
(Halle, 18S0); DclbrUck's EinUitung in das Sprachstudium
(Leipzig, 18S0; 4th ed., 1909; 5th ed., 1910; there is also
an English version); Brugmann and Delbriick's Grundriss
der vergleichenden Grammatih der indogermaniscken Sprachcn
(1886-IQ00; a second edition of the first volume was pub-
lished in 1897, two parts of vol. ii., including the stem-
formation and dedension of the noun and pronoun appeared
in 1906 and 1909); also the works of W. von Humboldt and of H.
Steinthal, the most important of whose linguistic works, Cltarak"
teristih der hauptsdcUichsten Typen des Sprachbaucs (1861),
was recast and brought up to date under the same title by F.
Misteli (1893). See also handy summaries covering the same
ground, but without bibliography, in F. N. Finck's Die Sprach-
stdmme des Erdkreises (1909) and Die Haupttypcn dcs Sprach-
bans (1910). Many of the languages of India and Farther
India have been treated in the Linguistic Survey of India,
edited by Dr G. E. Grierson (a government publication still
in progress). A short popular account of the subject is given
in Porzczinski's Einleitung in die Sprackwissenschaft (1910),
a German translation of a Russian original. The Bantu
languages have been treated by Black, Torrand, and most recently
by Meinhof, whose Lautlehre der Bantu Sprachcn (1910) is the
most complete handling of the subject. As to the dassifica-
tion and relationships of languages, see Hovelacque's La LinguiS'
tique (Paris, 1876) and F. MUlIer's Grundriss der Sprachwissen-
schaft (Vienna, 3 vols.; a fourth was left incomplete at the author's
430 PHILOI
dulh). Boita wDiii in ilretdy (uindi^f intiqtuted. As
to the hisLoiy of the iludy. i« LetKh'i Sprankpliiliitiiflai itr
Alia (1840); Steintlul'i GadiklOi da Sfriukwisinaiiaft id
im Criahtn ufid RSman (i»6j)i Bcnfey'a GackitkU ia Sfnck-
vuscHickaft und Orinialitckm Piatltcii i* DaiticUtuaHiitg);
Sudyi'i Hiilery 0/ CItiikai Si^MnlarMf (j voIl, 1906-1908);
VUb. Thomsea'i SprQBHdaiflatau HitUriai KtrltaUilfrantUiHi
(.B02). (W.D.W.)
n.—CimparaliPt PJiMatyf 1^ If^Sanpan Lmimt"-
The iludjr ot Indo-Europem comparative philology hu from
ill outset DCFKsarily been in doK conQeiion with the study of
Sanaktit, m. language unpuillcled a
rebtioiulup of the
family ot ih
SaniLiit beg!
It thai we find no dear <
wilh legard to other lajifuafes until
the altrnlian of European philologists,
of Suukrit as an object of study was
']y Eollgwcd by the discovery of the originBl commimily
vast niLgc oF languages and dialects hitheito not brought
coani^on at all, or only made th« objects of bascle^
speculations. We meet with the first cl
f this i
I WiOiain Jones, who,
: follows: "Tie SansI
1 of an Indo-Eui
the dislinguishei
s early as ■;86,
I language, ^dia
jpean comir
English B.
ctthanlheCrMk,
n, and mote aquisiicly refined than
searche*, and thus bdng his
hibiting a striking regularity
I where they colndde and where they di
Dst object to investigate and illustrate
tbta nnitii*] nJatioB-
■ Gothic and Ihe Celtic, though blended wilh a
lad the same origin wilh the Sanskiit."' Bui
un Jones nor any ol his older contemporaries
It similar conclusions ever raised ibis important
d and syslematk comparison of the languages
ip («■'■)■ ll
is the I
Sc phUoIogy
Iking booli, Uibt, das Co
>p had published his
lolilty diflercnt. Bopp's intetist was not cc
comparison as such, but chiclly inclined towards 1
of the origin of grammatical forms, and comparisi
only a means of appioaching that end.
In this more or less speculati
a philosophical period whe
general
linguistics rtcfi
ived its characlei
isLic SI
Lamp from the
labours
rf men like the 1 wo
SchlegelsandWilhetm
von II>
.mboldl. Jacol
1 Grimm's aims
.f a lea lofty
characK
CI Ihan those of Bopp, whose woi
rk, to
his own mind.
wned by his th<
*ry of the origin
of inl
neaion Ihmugh
agglutir
lation. In conii
ning his task to
a more limited range
than lY
>c vast field of
Indo-European Is
inguages embraced in
'For
thisquoutionan
d ihE follaving hi<l
a'S5
•«Th.
lJenr.-y, G,„kUI,
U At 5pM£rJto,i«-
iK*o/l. :
1W9I. '
. OelLrE-k. /a/r-dKhi.,
Uni<tatt. p. 1 (L-Hprij.
l8ai;.BIth German edil
lio- appeared in
"£
sse
PHILOLOGY
43 >
I dnddation of Lfttin uid the cognate Italic idioms. In
I Compendium Schleicher undertook and solved the difficult
ik of sifting down the countless details amassed since the
y% of Bopp and Grimm, and thus making the individual
ifoages stand out dearly on their common background,
life Bopp's attention had been especially occupied with what
• common to all Indo>£uropean tongues. There are two
aninent features which characterize this part of Schleicher's
■k — his assumption and partial reconstruction of a pre-
toric parent speech, from which the separate Indo-European
were supposed to have sprung, and the estab-
of a long series of phonetic laws, regulating the
by which that development of the individual idioms
id taken place. On Schleicher's views of and contributions
wuds general comparative philology (which he erroneously
nposed to consider as a branch of natural science) we need
It enter here. (See Ewdution and the Science of Language in
knin and Mvdem Science, 1909, pp. 526 sqq.)
For some time after Schleicher's premature death (in 1868)
ido-European philology continued in paths indicated by him
Rd Curtius, with the exception, perhaps, of the school founded
f Benfey, who had always stood on independent ground.
!he difference between the two schools, however, was less
tiikin^y marked in their writings, because it chiefly concerns
ItBcnl views of language and the Indo-European languages in
articular, although the characteristic task of the period alluded
e ms that of working out the more minute details of com-
union; but behind all this the general interest still clung to
Bopp's old glottogonic problems. In 1876, however, a new
movement, inspired in the first instance by the
works of W. D. Whitney, began, and a younger
Khool of linguists has sprung up who are united
a their opposition to many theories of the older generation,
ret often differ materially both with regard to method and
ik aohtion of individual problems. In its present state this
fomger school (often branded with the name of Neo-Gram-
■uius, ** Junggrammatiker," by its opponents real and
■aijiury) is marked by certain distinct tendencies. In the
int place, they are inclined more or less, and the older members
rf the school perhaps more than the younger, to abandon
liottogonic problems as insoluble, if not for ever, yet for the
fntal and with the scanty means that Indo-European philo-
biy ak>ne can furnish for this purpose. In this they are in
Vpttitran to the whole of the older school In the second place,
ttcy object to the use of all misleading metaphorical com-
Nsons of processes in the history of language with processes
rf erginic development — comparisons used at all times, but
npedally cherished by Schleicher. In the third place — and
tUi las been of the greatest practical importance — they hold
tktt our general views of language and our methods of com-
piuon shoMld be formed after a careful study of the living
iugu^, because these alone are fully controllable in every
■inite detail, and can therefore alone give us a clear insight
■io the working of the different motive forces which shape
Vd modify language, and that the history of earlier periods
Ihaguage, consequently, can only be duly illustrated by trac-
^ out the share which each of these forces has had in every
Kfindoal case of change. Of these forces two are found to
e especially prominent — phonetic variation and formation by
Hlpgjr. TTiey generally work in turns and often in opposi-
■B CO one another, the former frequently tending to diffcrcntia-
on of terlier unities, the latter to abolition of eariicr differences,
lledally to restoration of conformity disturbed by phonetic
inge. There are, however, other important differences in
the action of the two forces. Phonetic change
affects exclusively the pronunciation of a language
by substituting one sound or sound-group for
ther. From this simple fact it is self-evident that
necic changes as such admit of no exceptions. Pro-
ciatkm — that is, the use of certain sounds in certain
ibiiiAtions — is perfectly unconsdous in natural unstudied
xb, and every speaker or generation of speakers has
only one way of utterance for individual sounds or their
combinations. If, therefore, a given sound was once changed
into another under given circumstances, the new sound must
necessarily and unconsdously replace its predecessor in every
word that falls under the same rules, because the older sound
ceases to be practised and therefore disappears from the language.
Thus, for instance, the sound of the dhort so-called Italian a
in English has become exchanged for the peculiarly English
sound in man^ hoi, &c., which is so exclusivdyused and practised
now by English speakers that they fed great difficulty in pro-
nouncing the Italian sound, which at an earlier period was
almost as frequent in English as in any other language that has
preserved the Italian sound up to the present day. Again,
the sound of the so-called long English a in make, paper, &c.,
although once a monophthong, is now pronounced £ls a diph-
thong, combining the sounds of the English short e and t, and
no trace of the old monophthong is left, except where it was
followed by r, as in hare, mare (also air, their, where, &c.), where
the a has a broader sound somewhat approaching that of the
short a in hai. This last instance may at the same time serve
to illustrate the restrictions made above as to sounds changing
thdr pronunciation in certain groups or combinations, or under
given circumstances only. We may learn from it that phonetic
change need not always affect the same original sound in the
same way in all its combinations, but that neighbouring sounds
often influence the spedal direction in which the sotmd is
modified. The different sounds of the English a in mahe and
hare are both equivalents of the same Old English sound A
( — the Italian short a) in macian, hara. The latter sound has
b^n split in two, but this process again has taken pbce with
perfect regularity, the one sound appearing before r, the other
before all other consonants. It is easy to see that the common
practice of comprising the history of the Old English a in the
one rule — that it was changed into the sound of the A in make
except when followed by an r — can only be defended on the
practical ground that this rule is convenient to remember,
because the words exhibiting the former change are more
numerous than the instances of the bttcr; apart from this there
is nothing to justify the assumption that one of these changes
is the rule and the other the exception. The fact is, that we
have two independent cases of change, which ought to be stated
in two distinct and independent rules according to the different
positions in which the original A stood before the splitting
began. It is also easy to observe that the variety of modify-
ing influences may be much more manifold than in the present
instance of make and hare, . and that the number of special
phonetic rules in such cases must be increased in proportion
to the progress made in the investigation of the said modifying
powers.
In truth, however, the study of phonetic laws falls into several
different stages, and the meaning attached to the phrase phonetic
law has varied at each of these stages. Moreover, the sweeping
nature of the original generalizations has become so hedged in
and contracted by limitations that a recent writer has been
compelled once more to formulate the question whether phonetic
laws actually exist. It must be admitted in the first place that
the word law has been ill chosen for use in this connexion. In
phonetic laws there is no dement which can be identified as
coming under the definition of a law as propounded by a jurist
like John Austin. There is no authority which enunciates the
law, there is no penalty for the breach of it. But the philologists
who first used the term were not thinking of iaw in its strict
signification, but of its use in such metaphorical expressions as
scientific laws, for, as already mentioned, Schleicher and his
followers in the middle of the 19th century had taken a keen
interest in the development of the natural sciences, and had to
some extent assimilated their terminology to that employed in
those sdcnces. It was, however, soon recognized that the laws
of language and those of natural science were not really alike or
akin. A scientific " law " is only a brief method of expressing
the fact that universal experience shows that certain causes
universally produce certain effects. In chemistry two atoms of
432
PHILOLOGY
hydrogen and one of oxygen will make water, and they will make
nothing else at any time or at any place the world over. Phonetic
laws, however, do not hold true universally. They axe often
curiously limited in the area to which they apply. In andent
Greek, for example, the sound 'S- between two vowels, which
had been handed down from the original language whence Greek
and the sister languages arc derived, regularly disappears; in
Latin, on the other hand, it changes into -r-; thus an ori^nal
genitive of a neuter substantive we find represented in Greek by
ytP€-otf a form which comparison with other languages shows
to be traceable to an earber *genes-0St preceding the separation
of the languages, while the same original stem with a different
vowel in the ending appears in Latin as gener-is. Similarly an
early *euso appears in Greek as cuw, in Latin as uro. This
disappearance of original intervocalic s pervades all Greek
dialects — the apparent exceptions come under the heading of
analogical change; with a very few exceptions similarly explic-
able Latin intervocalic s has become r. But Latin was originally
limited to a very small part even of Italy, and the next neigh-
bours of the Latins on the cast and south — the Sabines, Cam-
panians and Samnites — retained this intervocalic s without
changing it into r. On the other hand, the neighbours to the
north-east — the Umbrians in and beyond the Apennines —
shared in this rhotacism. Yet the Celts, who bordered on the
Umbrians along the Po, and who spoke a language in many
respects very closely akin to the dialects of Italy, in this regard
agree rather with Greek than the Italic languages. In Latin,
again, the period of action of the law which chang;ed intervocalic
s into r did not in all probability exceed the centiuy from'450 B.C.
to 350 B.C. So unlike, indeed, are phonetic laws to the laws pf
natural science in universality that an opponent of the dogma
which declares that phonetic laws have no exceptions has
compared them with the laws of fashion. The comparison is
not so outrageous as it may seem at first sight. For in language
there are two kinds of sound change, that which is unconscious,
universal at a given time and within a given area, and, on the
other hand, that which belongs only to a particular doss or
dique, deviates consciously from the pronunciation of the
majority, is therefore not universal, and exerdscs no permanent
influence on the language. The second kind of sound change
corresponds exactly to the laws of fashion; it is in fact one of
them. Such sound changes are the pronunciation pf the English
ending -ing as •in', which was fashionable in the middle of the
XQth century. This had, though probably without the know-
ledge of those who used it, an historical justification in the earlier
forms from which most of the Engli^ words now ending in
-ing are descended, and which survive in numerous local dialects.
A similar conventional mispronunciation was the 11^ affected
by some would-be artistic persons at a somewhat later period.
Belonging to an entirely different social stratum, and now
equally obsolete, was the London pronundation of the first half
of the 19th century typified in Tony and Sam Weller's treatment
of V and w in the Pickwick Papers. This, however, made a much
nearer approach to being a genuine dialect peculiarity. It
undoubtedly pervaded the pronundation of the lower classes
in London at one time; had it survived it might conceivably
have spread over a wider and wider area until it embraced tht;
whole population of England. A later change, that of the
diphthong at into ri (so that day, daily are pronounced </y, dyly),
has spread from E^ssex and the Eaat End of London over a large
part of London and of the adjacent counties, and is still widening
its range both geographically and sodally. The history of these
sound changes has not yet been investigated in detail with the
thoroughness which it deserves.
There is, then, a part of sound change which is a matter of
fashion and which is conscious. This sound change appears
frequently in the pronundation of individuals who have migrated
from one part of a country to another. In many parts of
Scotland, for example, the prepositions with and of appear in
dialect only in the forms in' and o\ which were originally the
unaccented forms. In the conscious attempts to pronounce
them as they ^pear in literary English, the educated Scotsman,
if he remams in his native place, as a rule pnmoaxtccs tbem as
with (with the final sound unvoiced as it appears in the SoottiA
legal preposition otUwitk) and as off, the final sound here aba
bdng unvoiced. If he migrates to England or to Australia he
will probably in course of time adopt Uie pronundation with a
voiced final sound. In the course of years habit iriU beoone
second nature, and in this respect the speaker's pnmundatiM
will become identical with that of his neighbours. It is' clear,
however, that changes of this nature cannot take place on a Iai|e
scale. If a large number of persons migrate in a body and
continue to live in close intercourse with one another and bai
little in contact with the outside world, changes soch as tab
place in the pronunciation of the individual emigrsnt do nut
occur. There can be no imitation of alien sounds, for there sr
none; no greater effort to be intelligible is required, for the aDdi>
ence has not changed. Hence it has been often remarked tint
a population which history shows to have remained undistoxM
for very long periods in the same geographical situation ■Mwtfuft
but little change in its language. Thus in Arabia and lithoisii
the population has remained practically unmixed in the susi
habitat for thousands of years, with the result that the langoiiei
spoken there remain at the present day the most archaic mesdxn
of the linguistic families to which they req)ective]y bdoog.
From what has been said it will be obvious that a pbooelic
law is only an observed uniformity in the treatment of a
or a combination of sounds within a linguistic area at a
time. In the defiiution the term Unguixtic area is a veiy
quantity. Thus it is a phonetic bw that a sound of the
Indo-European language, the precise pronunciation of
cannot be determined, but which was at any rate a palatal l
(k)t appears in the Indo-European group (Sanskrit, Zend, OU
Persian, with their descendants), in Armenian, in Balto-SUvaok
and Albanian, in the form of a sibilant, while in Greek, tts
Italic dialects, Germanic and Cdtic, it ai^)ears as a i-sooiMl {//it
Indo-Eitropean Languages). Here the linguistic aics ii
extremdy wide, and it is dear that the difference betweca til
two groups of languages must be dated back to a vtryttAf
period. Again, it is a phonetic law of Greek that the ori^
combination st- at the beginning of words is retaiiwd in GicdL
How then are we to explain the existence side by side of #fh«
and riyos ? The former apparently complies with the Isw, As
latter does not. The former has by its side the verb arim
while riyos b supported only by the rare riyif. Yet the I
of the verb and substantive found in the Germanic
leave no doubt that the forms without s- represent an citica4f
old form, for the English tkaich could not have changed to
original t- into lA- if it had been preceded by j>-, the law bdsf •
strict for English as for Greek that initial sl^ remains uialmnrfi
On the other hand, a phonetic law may be limited to a ytxjmd
area. Thus in the dialect of Eretria, and nowhere die vitkti
the area of the Ionic dialect of andent Greek, do we fisd ill
change of the soimd which appears elsewhere in Greek u <^
between vowels into -p-: airijpiF for oininF (act. wtik
rapafiotvoypuf for rapaj9alj«xriv (3rd pi. subjunctive). VAf
this change should take place here and nowhere die *e dl
not know, although It may be conjectured that the csssemt
mixture with immigrants si>eaking a different dialect, a ■otai
which andent tradition supported. Undoubtedly sodi odlM*
are the chief conditions of (^onetic change, the effect of vttdik
universal. The manner in which the change, takes pisce is ^
the basis of articulation, the method in whidi the stMsd fe
produced, becomes changed. Thus along the " Hi^ihad Bk'
in Scotland, where the English and Gaelic-q>eaking popslniM
had their linguistic frontier for centuries, the wh- H ta^SA,^
Anglo-Saxon Av-, becomes universally /-, wfcof beconisc/if
tehite, file, &c.,/ being the sound which it was mosteaqrtOfdM^
tute for the difficult kw-. The history of Spanish in the iMfci^
communities of South America excellently illustrates tbii pQ^
After the discovery of America there was a hrge isiBi ii
Spaniards into Chile, who ultimately, and chiefly by n
riage, incorporated amongst them a considerable
amongst the native Araucanian Indiana. The itsah
PHILOLOGY
433
ge of Qdle is Spanish, pronounced not with the
>f Spanish, but with the sounds of the Araucanian
tuted for them. Elsewhere in Spanish America
the conquerors remained comparatively pure,
sniards were much fewer in number, and had
ntain themselves as a caste tifont. For the same
» q>lit up into the numerous biunches which we
Romance languages. The particular line of
liich, e.g. French followed as compared with
. the language of the Rhaetian Alps was condi-
ature of the sounds in the language which pre-
ame area, and which was spoken by the ancient
ited Latin. The difficulty found in all of these
r of the same kind as that which an adult at the
aking one language finds in attempting to learn
3n of another language. On the one hand, it
greatest difficulty that muscles for many years
)erform one set of movements can be forced into
ther set which are very similar but yet not
i other hand, to an untrained ear the difference
> sounds may remain unappreciated. The result
language is pronoimced with the sounds of the
d language. If the new language is adopted by
to whom it was originally foreign, the children
it from their parents with the sounds of the old
has now become obsolete. Thus the basis of
tianged, and if, as was the case with Latin, this
mtly repeated among peoples speaking languages
I widely differing one from another, it is clear
different dialects of the adopted language has
fhis kind of change is immediate and tmiversal
whole area where linguistic change has taken
ange, on the other hand, does not affect the
' a language as a whole in the way that phonetic
t is confined to the formation, inflexion, syntax
single words or groups of words, and therefore is
r an entirely arbitrary and irregular character.
will be sufficient to illustrate this and also to
pparently irregular phenomena of analogy may
) In Old English a certain number of substantives
irals by mutation of the root vowels, as fdl, fit,
klodem English this system of inflexion has been
le cases, as in foot, feet, and altered in others, as
ow, while foot, feet and book are the regular
c equivalents of the old fdt, fit, bdc, the plural
way be phonetically traced back to the old bic,
quivalcnt of which in Modem English would be
ly possible explanation of a form like books is
'c was at some date given up and replaced by an
nation, shaped after the analogy of the numerous
iral in -s without modification of the root-vowel,
'hich are very numerous, exemplify the first kind
ch is generally termed formal analogy. Other
c almost entire disappearance from the language
er and en, which were earlier used as plurals in
they were originally stem and not case suffixes
the point. In Middle English, as in Modern
s spelt as a plural; oxen survives, but eycn, except
jrms as the Scotch e'en, has been replaced by the
s. Similarly in Middle English the sutTix -er
words w^hich had been originally of the neuter
he plural of child was childcr, of calf was calvcr,
besides the survival in dialect of childer and of
by the i6th century in northern Scotch car —
:akr — which is still in common use), arc to be
ice, and hence personal, names Childer-lcy and
e old plural of brother was brclher, where the
contained an original -r, not -s changed into -r,
d calver. In Old English, alongside the form for
plural childer, there* had been a masculine form
J in 'S. It would not have been surprising there-
fore if in Modern En^ish the plural of cAi/d had been cAiUf. But
in spite of the common tendency to make the plural of all noun-
stems in 'St child has gone in the opposite direction and has not
only maintained its -r , but has addend to it the -en of stems like
oxen and eyen. In Widif we find a similar pluhd to calf, calveren,
but here calves has long replaced in the literaxy langiiagB both
the earlier forms.
(6) Let us now take another instance from the English verb.
In Old English the different persons of the preterite indicative
in the so-called strong (irregular) verbs were generally distin-
guished by different root-vowels; ridan, " to ride," and bindan,
" to bind," for instance, form their preterities thus; 4c rdd, OA
ride, hi rdd, wi, gi, hii ridon, and ic band, 06 bunde, hi band, wi,
gi, hii bundon. In modem English this difference in the root-
vowels has been abandoned, ai^ rode, bound now stand for all
persons, rode being the modem phonetic equivalent of the xst
and 5rd sing, rdd, while bound represents the »- form of bindan.
When one form or set of forms ousts other varying forms from
the same paradigm, the change is described variously as
material or logical analogy. Inasmuch as a similar process of
levelling to that seen in rode has been carried through in all
preterites of Modem English, regularity prevails even here, though
a few traces of the old conflict are still visible in such poetic
forms as sung for the preterite side by side with sang. But
when we look to its resiUts in the individual verbs we soon find
that the choice amongst the different forms which might have
served as starting-points has been entirely arbitrary. It is
indeed impossible to say why the old singular form should have
been chosen as a model in one case, as in rode, and the old plural
form in another, as in bound. From these and numerous similar
instances we must draw the conclusion that it is beyond our
power to ascertain whence analogical rhangfs start, and to
what extent they may be carried through when once begun.
All we can do is to classify carefully the single cases that come
under our observation, and in this way to investigate where
such changes are especially apt to take place and what is their
general direction. As to the latter points, it has been observed
before that levelling of existing differences is one of the chief
features in analogical change (as in the case of rode and bound).
As to the former, it must be borne in mind that, before any ana-
logical change can take place, some mental connexion must exist
between the words or forms serving as models and those which
are remodelled after the types suggested to the minds of the
speakers through the former. Of such natural mental combina-
tions two classes deserve special notice: the mutual relationship
in which the different, say inflexional, forms of the same word
stand to each other, and the more abstract analogies between
the inflexional system of word-groups bearing a similar character,
as, for instance, the different declensions of nouns and pronouns,
or the different conjugations of verbs. The instance of rode,
bound may serve to illustrate the former category, that of books
the latter. In the first case a levelling has taken place between
the different forms of the root-vowels once exhibited in the
different preterite forms of rldan or bindan, which dearly
constitute a natural group or mental imity in consequence of
their meaning. The form of rode as a plural has simply been
taken from the old singular rdd, the long a of which has become
in Modem English d, that of bound as a singular from the old
plural bundon, the u- souiid of which has in Modem English come
to be pronounced as a diphthong. In the case of book, books for
bdc, bic, this explanation would fall short. Although we might
say that the vowel of the singular here was carried into the plural,
yet this would not explain the plural -5. So it becomes evident
that the old declension of bdc, bic was remodelled after the
declension of words like arm, arms, which had always formed
their plurals in -s. The changes indicated may generally be
shown by a proportion, the new analogical formation being the
unknown quantity to be ascertained. Thus in the case cited
above, arm: arm^ » book: x; and clearly the form to be
ascertained is books. Isolated words or forms which are no
part of natural groups or systems, inflexional, formative or syn-
tactical must be regarded as commonly safe from alterations
k
43+
PHILOLOGY
through analogy, and are therefore of efqpecial value with regard
to establishing rules of purely phonetic development.
(c) In syntactical analogy the mental connexion between the
two series of constructions between which the change takes
place is generally still more conspicuous. The connexion may
be one of similar or of contrasted meaning. In Latin, adjectives
of fullness, Like other adjectives, no doubt ori^^nally were followed
by the genitive case; participles, on the other hand, were followed
by the instrumental ablative. Thus Plautus in the Avlularia
813 and elsewhere could say avlam auri plenam, " a pot full of
gold," or 802 aidam onustam ourOf ** a pot laden with gold."
From these the transition was easy to the construction aulam
onustam a«n, as if in English one should say (as was possible
in Earlier English), " a pot laden of gold." In English, con-
trasted words often tend to assimilate their syntactical construc-
tions. Thus, the adjectives like and similar are followed by
the preposition to (though in Modem English like need have no
preposition), and upon the analogy of such words, dijereni aind
averse, with which correct speakers and writers couple from, arc
by no means rarely followed by to. Nor is it uncommon to
hear or to see differ with instead of differ from, upon the analogy
of agree with. Curiously enough, Latin, from which differ is
descended, is found to follow the same analogy even in good
writers. Thus Cicero (Academica Pr. ii. 143 ) combines dissidere
with cum, as later does Seneca (Epistulae, 18. i).
{d) In the development of analogy in meaning, similarity of
sound is often the effective cause. Thus impertinent is properly
irrelevant, not to the point, and is still so used in legal language;
its more common signification of " saucy " arises from its
accidental resemblance in sound to pert, a word which curiously
enough has reversed its meaning, being now used in the sense
of mal-apert, while the Old French apert, aspert (a confusion of
Lat. apertus, " open," with expertus, " skilled "), meant both
" open " and " skilful." Thus from very early times the verbs
fiy and flee have been confused, though they are of entirely
different origins. When Middle English began to lose its verb
endings in -en, it was very easy for the verb leren, " teach," and
lemen, " learn," to be confused. Hence frequently in Eliza-
bethan English learn stands side by side with teache in the same
signification. Cf . Tottell's Miscellany, p. x 29 ( Arber) :
" I would not have it thought hereby
The dolphin swimme I roeane to teache:
Nor yet to learn the Fawcon flie:
I rowe not so farre past my reacne."
It is true that the distinction between phonetic and analogical
change has always been acknowledged in comparative philology.
At the same time it cannot be denied that analogical changes
were for a long time treated with a certain disdain and contempt,
as deviations from the only course of development then allowed
to be truly "organic" and natural, namely, that of gradual
phonetic change (hence the epithet " false " so constantly
attached to analogy in former times). Amongst those who have
recently contributed most towards a more correct evaluation of
analogy as a motive power in language. Professor Whitney roust
be mentioned in the first place. In Germany Professor Schcrer
{Zur Geschichte der deulschen Sprache, 1868) was the first to
apply analogy as a principle of explanation on a larger scale,
but in a wilful and unsystematic way. Hence he failed to
produce an immediate and lasting impression, and the merit of
having introduced into the practice of modem comparative
philology a strictly systematic consideration of both phonetic
and analogic changes as co-ordinate factors in the develop-
ment of language rests with Professor Leskien of Leipzig, and
a number of younger scholars who had more or less
ScfoL experienced Us personal influence. Amongst these
Brugmann, Osthoff and Paul rank foremost as the
most vigorous and successful defenders of the new method, the
correctness of which has since been practically acknowledged by
most of the leading philologists of all ^ades of opinion.
While the syntax of individual languages was one of the first
features which attracted the grammarians' attention, at any
nte in so far as particular authors differed from a given
standard, it is only in very recent times that syntax ki
received methodical treatment from the comparative point flf
view. It may indeed be said that almost the
whole fabric of the comparative syntax of the
Indo-European languages as it exists to-day has
been reared by one man — Professor Berthold Delbrlkk of JcBi.
In a series of brilliant studies beginning with a pamphlet ob the
Locative, Ablative, and Instrumental, published in 1867,0!
continued in his Syntactical Researches (Syntaktische PmA-
ungen) in five volumes, comprinng a treatment of the
conjunctive and optative moods in Sanskrit and Gredi (1871X
the theory of the Sanskrit tenses (1877), the order of words ii
early Sanskrit prose (Catapatha Brahmana; 1878), the foasib'
tions of Greek syntax (1879), and the syntax of the oldest Sn-
skrit (Altindische Syntax), dealing exclusively with theUtentBl
of the Vedas and Brahmanas (1888), Professor DelbrOd Ud
the foundations for his treatment of comparative syntu ii
three volumes (1893, 1897, 1900), which has foroMd fti
completion of Bmgmann's Grundriss der ver^ieichiaim
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. The only vnk
by another hand (on a large department of the sobjed)
which deserves to be mentioned by the ude of Ddbrichi^
studies is the small treatise by HUbschmann on the tkosf
of the cases {Zur Casuslehre, 1875). ^o' the conptntivi
neglect of this field of investigation there are several nuam-
The earlier philologists had so much to do in determimog tli
languages which should be included within the Indo-Ettra|MM
group, and in organizing the field of research as a whole, tkit
it is not to be wondered at if they were unable to devote oMfc
attention to syntax. In the 'seventies, when attention bc|ttl»
be more directed towards comparative syntax, the rensAlMt
discoveries mdde by Veraer with regard to accentuatiMii ni
by Brugmann, Collitz and others with regard to the fhomkff
of the Indo-European languages, again distracted attcMiss
from the subject. Moreover, the research in itself is infinl^f
more difficult than that into sounds and forms; i<x the
may be carried on by the help of grammars and
with a comjKiratively small knowledge of the literatut «i Wf
individual language, while on the other hand the study of syMi
is impossible without a thorough and intimate knovled^rf
the literature and modes of expression in each separate
It is not, therefore, matter for wonder that DelbrQck has
himself in the investigation of syntax to a part on^ of the
guages whose sounds and forms are discussed by
in the earlier volumes of the Grundriss. To cover the
ground is beyond the powers of a sin^e man, and theieilt
great lack of preliminary studies on the syntax of many of til
languages.
One of the most difficult problems connected with qMr
but primarily, as it appears, a question of morphdogy, a ih
origin of grammatical gender. It cannot be said to be an
tage to the languages which possess it, while languages
like English, have dropped it except for an occasional
suffer no loss. Nor is the problem confined to the
gender in the substantive. Even more perplexing is the
duction of gender into the adjective. The pronouns of the lA
and second persons, which are certainly very old, sbowoo'
of gender; the pronouns of the third person, which are» _ _
the nature of deictic adjectives, generally possess iL 1^ M
question how grammatical gender arose in the substantric^ i^
answer was till comparatively recently supposed to be M
primitive man was given gready to perMnification,
inanimate things with life and attributing to then
benign or the reverse upon his own existence. The
is not quite sufficient, for though this tendency to
which philologists have perhaps unduly decried or
denied, might account for life being attributed to
objects, it hardly explains why some should be treated
line and others as feminine. Nor is it true, as has aho \0^
suggested, that in the case of the lower animals the gcMikMV
for the larger and stronger ammals is ma^rti^^nf and that to V
smaller or weaker feminine. In both Greek suid Latli At^
PHILOLOGY
435
ind the fox feminine, but the Iamb or the chicken
robs from the fold or the henroost is rarely feminine,
sculine. Nor docs this explanation account for
I those languages being of the masculine gender,
ret or cat which caught them is feminine (7aX$>
(planation which completes the theory of personi£-
oes not altogether drive it from the field, has been
by Brugmann.^ In its briefest form this explana-
ender was attached to certain sufiUxes. because they
ccur frequently in words which markedly implied
Indo-European languages the commonest suffix
!mnine gender is d. According to this theory it
' nothing to do with gender, but as some early words
wife ended with this sound it came to be identified
It gender. Similarly the ending os in o-stems
n in names connected with males and so became
h the masculine gender. But many stems indicate
• indifferently, and even the very old sex words
9thcr have the same ending. But when masculine
endings have been attached to certain suffixes in
comes it that in one series of stems the neuter shoidd
ot by an absence of all suffix but by a separate
These are the (vstems, other forms of which have
ly identified with the masculine gender. As this
, like the others mentioned, goes back apparently
>re the separation of the Indo-European languages,
in hardly pass beyond speculation. It is, however,
hat the neuter form of the nominative is phonetic-
with the accusative form of the masculine, and
ingeniously argued* that such forms were used
he accusative, such neuters not forming the subject
"o the same writer the most plausible cxpbnation
:e of gender in the adjective is due, vi2. that gender
lie deictic pronoun *so " that man," *sd "that
1 that hence it passed to the adjective with which
iras so frequently accompanied. If this explanation
ogy has brought into the Indo-European languages
ultiplication of gender marks in such sentences as
t piUcrae feminae caesae sunif where the feminine
icated no less than four times v/ithout any obvious
e English These fair joomen were slain, where
gender is no longer obviously indicated at all.
a.ted to this question is that of the history of the
, which was first fully worked out by Professor
unidt of Berlin.* The curious construction, most
Qcient Greek, whereby a neuter plural is combined
lar verb, is now demonstrated to be an archaic
I the time when the neuter plural was a collective
us a word like the Latin iugum was a single yoke,
la, however, which was earlier iugJ, was a collection
1 the same final d as is found generally in feminine
The declension ought therefore to have been
3minative iugd, genitive iugds, &c., like tnensa, &c.,
edension. But as iuguum was used in the neuter
x>th nominative and accusative, iugd when it was
trresponding plural was used for the accusative as
ominative, while the other cases of the' plural were
om the masodine (^stems, with which the singidar
n was so closely connected. That collective words
)ed for the plural is not surprising; the English
an abstract, next a collective, and. finally an
a case in point.
jly history of the syntax of the verb Greek and
important above all other languages, because in
^'nal forms and .the original usages are better pre-
hey are elsewhere. And it is in the verb that the
ies of comparative svntax present themselves. The
is so jirell preserved La several languages that, when
Jntemationale Zeitschri/t fur Sprachreissenschaft, iv.
rler. Journal of Germanic Philology, ii. 528 sqq.
tngjtn der indogermaiUschen Ncutra (1889).
the number of the original cases had once been determined, the
sifting of the pro-ethnic usages attaching to each case was
tolerably easy, for besides Sanskrit and (to a less extent) Latin,
Lithuanian and Slavonic have kept the pro-ethnic case system
almost complete. The ideas also iddch had to be expressed
by the cases were on the whole of a very concrete character, so
that here the problem was much simplified. On the other hand,
the ideas expressed by the forms of the verb arc of a much more
subtle nature, while the verb system in all languages except
Greek and Sanskrit has broken down earlier and more completely
than the norm. It is clear that the verb of the original Indo-
European language possessed two voices, and forms correspond-
ing to what we call the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Optative
moods, and to the Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, and Perfect
tenses. The imperative mood seems primitively to have been
confined to the second person singular, ''just as the vocative,
which, like the imperative is a stem form without suffix, was
confined to the singular. The infinitive, as is well known, is
ii> all Ixmguages of this system not originallv a verbal but a
substantival form. The pluperfect, where it has developed,
seems to be a mixed form arising from the application of aorist
endings to a perfect stem. Thus far the history of the verb
system is tolerably clear. But when we attempt to define the
original meaning of the moods and of the tenses we^xiss into a
region where, in ^ite of assiduous investigation in many quarters
during recent years, the scanty amount of light thrown on the
problem has only served to make the darkness visible. As
regards the tenses, at least, it has been shown that without doubt
there is no difference in formation between present, future and
aorist stems, while the earliest meaning of the perfect was that
of a special kind of present expressing either repeated or intensive
action or a state. It has also been proved that the original
meaning of the aorist is not past in time, and that in fact the
only element whereby these languages could express remoteness
in time was the augment. The augment seems to have been
originally a pronominal deictic ptarticle. Thus, as there was no
original pluperfect, as neither, perfect nor aorist originally
referred to past time, and as the future, except in Lithuanian
(with sL'ght traces in Slavonic) and the Indo-Iranian group,
cannot be clearly distinguished from the aorist, the system as
a method of expressing time absolutely breaks down. The
tenses in fact did not originally express the times when the action
took place, but the type of action which took place. Thus the
present S3rstem in the main expressed continued or durative
action, the aorist only the fact that the action had taken place.
The action indicated by the aorist might have been of consider-
able duration, or it might have been begim and ended in a moment ;
its characteristics in this respect are not in any way indicated
by the aorist form, which intimates only that the action is
viewed as a completed whole and not as a continuous process.
The present system, however, is built up in a great variety of
ways (thirty-two according to Brugmann's enumeration). It
is a priori unlikely that such a multiplicity of formations had
not originally some reason for its existence, and Dclbriick thinks
that he has discovered a difference in syntactical value between
various forms. The redupUcated present forms of the type seen
in Sanskrit jlgdU, Greek ^itapu., &c., he regards as expressing
originally an action which consisted of repeated acts of the
same nature (iterative), though this iterative meaning frequently
passed into an intensive meaning. Presents of the type seen
in Sanskrit Uf iyali, " is thirsty," and Greek xalpu, " am glad "
(for *xapi^)i where the j^ (y) of the suffix has modified the first
syllable and disappeared, he regards as cursive— i.e. they express
continuous action without reference to its beginning or end.
Verbs which have regard to the beginning or end of the action
he calls Icrminative, and finds them represented (a) in verbs
with -»- suffixes, Sanskrit vt^ti, ipvwriy " sets in motion,"
aywfu, " break to pieces "; (6) in verbs with the suffix -sko-,
Sanskrit gdchati, "goes" (to a definite destination), Greek
fi&ana, &c. The roots he classifies as momentary (punktuell)
or non-momentary, according as they do ox ^o noV tx^\«t& VCi.
action which is begun and ended al oncit*
436
PHILOLOGY
This method of classification was no doubt suggested in the
first instance by the characteristics of the Slavonic verb system.
In this system a clear distinction is drawn in nearly all verbs
between those which express a process (durative verbs) and those
which express a completed action (perfective verbs). When
perfective and durative verbs are formed from the same root, the
perfective are distinguished from the durative forms (a) by having
a preposition prefixed, or (b) by having a different stem forma-
tion. Thus in the Old Bulgarian (Old Ecclesiastical Slavonic) to
strike (hit) and to strike dead are expressed by the same verb, but
in the latter meaning a preposition is foimd which does not appear
in the former, hiti (infinitive), "to strike"; i^-hiti^ "to strike
dead." To strike is dwative\ to strike dead is perfective. As an
example of difference of stem formation expressing this difference
of meaning, we may quote sisti, " to sit down " (perfective),
sldtiif " to sit " (durative). Verbs with a suffix in -n- have
often a perfective meaning: cf. the Sanskrit and Greek verbs
quoted above. The perfective vorbs correspond in meaning
to the Greek aorist, and are to be carefully distinguished from
perfect forms. The same distinction of meaning is often achieved
in other langiiagcs also by means of prepositions, e.g. in Latin
(Seneca, Epp. xciii. xo). Quid autem ad rem pertinetf quamdiu
vites, quod evitare non possisf " What does it matter 1k>w long
you go on avoiding Idurative] what you cannot escape [perfec-
tive]." From this example, however, it is dear that, though
the means employed to make the distinction are different, there
is no difference in meaning between such perfective verbs and
those classified by Delbrtick as terminative. Here, as in many
other parts of this study, the ideas are new, and grammatical
terminology has not yet sufficiently crystallized, and still leaves
something to be desired both in clearness and in precision.
As regards the moods, the difficulty has been to find any
criterion whereby the functions of one mood should be differen-
tiated from those of the others. It has long been recognized
that the difference between indicative and subjunctive is one
of meaning* and not one of formation; that, e.g., ik Sanskrit
bkarati (3rd sing. pres. indie), "bears," is morphologically
identical with kanati, " may slay " (3rd sing. pres. subj.), and
that the latter is described as a subjunctive only because of
the meaning, and because there exists a dissyllabic form, hantif
which makes the indicative " slays." Similarly in Greek it is
impossible to distinguish morphologically between rabodj, " I
shall check" (fut. indie.) and raifou, " let me check" (ist aor.
subj.). Moreover, in the earliest forms of the languages which
preserve the moods best (Greek and Sanskrit), the connexion
syntactically between the indicative and the subjtmctive forms
is closest. Not only does the future express futurity, but also
the determination of the subject to carry out the action expressed,
which, in DelbrUck's discussion of the moods, is precisely the
point chosen as characteristic of the subjunctive. On the other
hand, the present optative differs from the present (and future)
indicative and present subjimctive in having a special mood
suffix, and in having secondary while they have primary personal
endings. Nevertheless its meaning O'^erlaps that of the other
forms, and some excellent authorities, like Professor W. W.
Goodwin, see in future indicative, subjimctive and optative
only different degrees of remoteness in the future, the remoteness
being least in the future and greatest in the optative. DelbrUck,
however, abides, with slight modifications, by the distinction
which he propounded in 1871 that the subjunctive expresses
Will and the optative Wish. Here again the problem has not
been solved, and it is doubtful how far any definite solution is
likely to be arrived at, since there are so many gaps in our know-
ledge of mood forms. These gaps, owing to the break-up of the
system at so early a period, it is hardly probable we shall ever
be able to fill. It is possible, however, to do a great deal more
than has yet been done even in the most familiar languages.
In Latin, for instance, even now, the facts for the uses of the
moods within the two centuries of the classical period are very
imperfectly known, and it is no exaggeration to say that more
has been done in the last hundred years for Sanskrit than has been
done in two thousand yean 0/ continuous study for Latin or Greek.
A still later addition to the domain of Philology^-the ttudy
of meaning — presents fewer difficulties, but until recent yean
has been equally neglected. The study is so recent that the
literature of the subject is still extremely small. The only
attempts to deal with it on a large scale are M. Br£al's Essci it
Sifitantique (1897), now translated into English under the title
of Semantics (1900), with a valuable introduction and appendis
by Dr Postgate, and M. de la Grasserie's Essai d*ume Simantiqitc^
inteprale (1908), a work which deserves mention for its attempt
to make a thorough classification and a corresponding teraiino*.
logy for semantic phenomena, but the value of which is mn^
diminished by hasty compilation and imperfect knowledge 04
many of the languages quoted. From the practical point of vir^
many of the phenomena have been classified in works on riwtor^
under the headings of Metaphor, Synecdoche and Metonyia^
The psychological principle behind this superficial dassificitkan]
is that of association of ideas. Here, as elsewhere, changes proceed
not by accident, but according to definite principles. Hew
as elsewhere in language, in history, and the other moral sdeocei^'
the particular principle in operation can be ascertained only
by beginning with the result and working back to the cause.
In the development of meaning much more than in i^ionetici k
this necessarily the case. In phonetics all speakers of the suse
dialect start with approximately the same sound. But the ame
combination of sounds which we call a word does not recall tk
same idea to all persons who use that word. The idea that tht
phrase railway station calls up in the mind of a Londoner is veiy
different from that which ocaira to the mind of a child acquainted
only with a wayside station serving the wants of a cooatiy
village of a few hundred inhabitants. The word herring wggBti
one idea or train of ideas to the fisherman who catches the fiik,
another to the merchant who purchases it from the fishenBia. ,
a third to the domestic who cooks it, and so on. To mcnba
of the same family the same word may often have widely diffoai
associations, and, if so, the metaphors foi which the word «3
be employed will differ in each case.
For the history of meaning it is necessary to have regud to
all the forms of association of ideas which psydxdogyrecofDBi
These are contiguity in place or in time, resemblance and oootniL
G>ntrast, however, as J. S. Mill and Bain have shown, is not 1
simple form of association, but is evdved partly from contlgntyt
partly from resemblance. An artificial hollow generally 'mfSm
also an artificial height made of the materials enavatcd tai
the hoUow. Hence M most languages some words occur vilk
the two contrasted meaningjL Thus in English we fiod ijkt
in use both for a ditch and for a motmd fronted by a ditdi,tkl
word ditch being, in fact, but a dialectal form of dyk. I>
Scotland, on the other hand, where earthen mounds 'and stoat
walls form more frequent boundaries between fields than ia
England, the word dyke is now practically limited to dented
botmdaries, whUe ditch is limited to excavated boundiriia
Thus ihe proverb, " February fill dyke," which in £i«M
implies that the February rains wiU fill the ditches, b cittn alde^
stood in Scotland to mean that in February iht snow vfll ^
level with the tops of the stone or turf walls. Similai^ ^
Latin Tadtus can say fossas proruere, which can only vpi/in to
levelling raised mounds; while in Greek Xenophon aba tali
of the ditch (trench) thrown up (rd^poi dra^Sc^Xvin)- ^
is only natural, therefore, that other words with sevcnl bms*'
ings should be used similarly: mo(U, originally a mound of caitk
or peat, has come to mean a big ditch; while, conversely, loldMtf
in trenches are not so much in ditches, as the word oofht to
signify, as behind breastworks. Sometimes, when two actio*
opposed to one another are contiguous, a word seems to chia|P
to the exact opposite of its original meaning. Thus the £b|^
verb ttvan, which meant originally to accustom (to cooked lixA
has been transferred to the necessary preliminary, to db*
accustom to the breast.
Resemblances may be (i.) genuine, and (a) of external ipfH^
ance, or (6) of other characteristics; or (ii.) fanciful or anelniirA
From resemblance in the external appearance of the object, ttl
Word gem, which in Latin {gemma) usually mcaos-a bad, IM
PHILOLOGY
oat a mun Enl i pcul uid Ihen by ti
urpietioiii none. From the conccnti
■ bolh, Ihe Latin word [ot > putl (mid,
IB Eii^iih u tnitn. EiAmpln where
H of ulcRul kppaiuin are tuch di I
lb Rtwiu Uor. which ii '
Lbc Zmd proper Dj
jr ling-ior.
X Hianvah (Choimn
"cfa hive eiU
J (pn^rljr in
\s already poiDled
bnntg firt ui
•til. Tbe UDie b true 01 the luppoKQ reiaiion 01 uie vem
(H Id ndlaii, lulUr and c%lUl. While Irsi'n nJ really BKuil
tiliiidrdijt like lean (c[, German TkrUm), most people coonMt
it iritli nilny inin*. The naembbnce in some cisea is merely
in liiKiios. Thu>, though the 6t and the oak have no mem-
ktate DDE to the other, the word M i> now generally identified
»ilb llie Latin fwrciu in elymolngy (d. /our and qualluor),
in lit une way at the Litin /nfu, " beech." is with the Greek
*fl^, "oak," the users of the word hiving, in the course oi their
ifiilions. passed from 1 Iind with oiks to 1 Imd with £rs m
U» «c rise, and from ■ land of beeches to a bnd of oaki in the
ettcr. Resemblance ai the basis ot metaphor hai a very widely
etmied inBuence on languace.
_ Tbe moil numerous and nunt varied fonns o[ change b mein-
■( dtiiend, however, upon tbe law of contiguity. Perhaps the
iiiliatiEg lome accompanying feature or condiiion repluei
Ut wrd (or the object felemd 10. In the tountriej that border
<k Ueditemnean the beat of middiy Ii accompoDied and
^■oiiified by tbe dying away o( the irind, a chancterisiic
^uked npon by Aeschylus {Atan. 565): " What time upon
MtDeanday couch, windless and wiveless sank the sea to rest."
I'm tbe Greek won! uDuo, " burning heat," arises through
Ule Laim the English fsJM, where the absence of wind is the
^r idea present, thai of heat hiving iltogether disippeorcd.
Wi, in bx^r, which is ibbreviated for butftkern. the word
•iich siiTvivei properly means inM m, and the originally more
Vfotaol element is losl. In a combinilion tike lifKr ImfU the
*Hd has gone a stage further; the origin: '
kn tin disappeared. There is no longer
is that Di a
Of cloak {capdla) of St Manin,
■Wi »isproerved as a sacred relic by the Frankiih liings, comes
l*e wrd t*a^. The word was first transferred from the
*rt 10 the holy pbce wherein it was kept, and thence to
•"■ibr shrines, and ultimately to any place, not being a church,
*^ pnyer? were said. A jit wis originally not the dance,
^ the £ddle which supplied the music for the dance. Th(
^tBtt of liquors an often replaced by some iccompanimenl
■1 of the place, part, skttry, ckampapu, or by a <Lua!ifyinB odjec-
^ IS in frdjufy, prttperly '* burnt," from the Dutch brondc
^n; Df, again, only the Iss important element of the word is
■tlabtd as in tdtiiltf, Utenlly " water," for the older tuqai
^•1*, a corruption of Gaelic words meaning (he " water of lik
U(H silu). Replacement of lubslanlives by Iheii accompany
*t tdjeclive* is common in most languages. One of the mo!
(Mmm methods of coining a name for a new article Is to giv
ft Ike name of the place or pei^le whence it comes. Thus we
^n arras, lawn (from Laon), cravat (Cioat), coach from Koci
h Hgngary, bObocs (both fetters and swords) Irom the iron
^tats of Bilboa in Sfiain. Equally common arc the names of
^mlDTS— pinchbeck, (ontine, silhouette, guillotine, dctrick.
^'' the thing cantained has lakcn its name from the container.
il (boxwood. Lat.
^ iriudi it wu niiied. while in hu the mat
Hiw. Greek, wifot) has usurped the plate
Jb hfrr (he disease (Lat. Upra, the rough 1
"ts^l rtm) hot been made into the name
^ ciilier called a leprous man. A* a <
^biUotivc Ufmy has to be (okcD fnup tbe adjective
The individual becomes coll
the collective betcmi
:h of grapes," passes Ij
uited the fleshcr.
I, nivy, body (of
ould come
e and pejora
.^'(LaTm'^
■<-<)v
lially u
cs from tl
Jgnificsi
1, applications 01 more general terms to avoid ihe
le ipecific act or object which is unpleosim, as
bankruptcy, debt, ftc., while metaphorical terms
lings come under resemblance. These eiamplej
Ihe forms ol contiguity which appear in language,
lOugh to show how far-reaching the effect of thii
ion of ideas is upon language, a ' '
investigation before (he i
e other branches ol ih
of language.
UTnORITHS (since iMj).— For metliadi o
I, FrincipUn in Spmcliitiiliiililt (ird n
elenli. Dit Spmlmiiimicluifl (ind td.. 1^
Ls the investigatior
;neiic clasMlication of languagos given
some further guidance as to the actual
le philological section is arranged may
Supplem
ineral conclusions baaed (hereon,
nails undc Csite) wUl be found
regarding (be Cretan distoverie!
I iNScumoNS
NSciuFTioss, WunNC end
deal with ancient documents of all
those spedmciu of ancient writing,
lie or icgai, which were committed (o codicca,
by Ihc use of the sl\l\a, V\« ™A m ft« ■5«\\
»ilh documttili enpiNtA cti iMmt «« w^^^
PHILOMEL— PHILOPONUS
439
raiLOMEL (FY. Pkitomele; Ger. Pkilonule or Staklgeige),
a masical instrument similar to the violin, but having four steel,
wire strings. The phOomel has a body with incurvations similar
to those of the guitar; therefore, without corner blocks, the out-
line of the upper lobe forms a wavy shoulder reminiscent of
the viob but more ornate and fanciful. The peg-box sometimes
termixuites in a fancy head instead of a scroll. The philomcl,
never used in the orchestra, is the instrument of the dilettanti,
frequently played in Germany with the bowed zither. The
accord^ce of the phOomel is the same as for the violin; the
timbre is shrill and crystal-like. There is also an alto philomcl
corresponding to the viola. The bowed melodion is similar
to the philomel, and has four steel strings of the same accordance
ftS the violin, but arranged in inverse order; instead of being
fseld like the violin and philomel, under the chin, it is placed
on the knees of the performer, so that a hook under the finger-
board rests against the table. (K. S.)
PHILONt Athenian architect of the 4th century B.C., is known
as the planner of two important works — the portico of the great
HaD of the Mysteries at Eleusis and an arsenal at Athens. Of
the last we have exact knowledge from an inscription. E. A.
Gardner {Ancient Atkens^ p. 557) observes that it " is perhaps
known to us more in detail than any other lost monument of
antiquity." It was to hold the rigging of the galleys; and was
so contrived that all its contents were visible from a central
hall, and so liable to the inspection of the Athenian democracy.
(See Athens.)
raiLOPATRIS, the title of a dialogue formeriy attributed
to Locian, but now generally admitted to be spurious. Its date
and purport have long formed the subject of discussion. The
KCM is laid at Constantinople. A certain Triephon, who has
Ikqi coQverted to Christianity by a bald, long-nosed Galilaean,
vho wu carried up through the air into the third heaven (an
evident allusion to St Paul), meets a friend, Critias, who is in a
lUte (A great excitement. Triephon inquires the reason, and
^invocaticm of Zeus by Critias leads to a discussion on pagan-
^ ud Christianity, in which all the gods proposed by Critias
^rejected by Triephon, who finally suggests that Critias should
'^ by the Trinity. (The sub-title, ij 6iSatrK6fuvot, refers to
^l* instruction " of Critias in matters relating to Christianity.)
Critias goes on to relate how he had been introduced to a gathcr-
^ of pessimists, who predicted all kinds of disturbances in
^empire and defeat at the hands of its enemies. In the mcan-
^i&c a third person appears on the scene, with the news that
^ imperial armies have obtained a glorious victory. The
^eisexpressed that Babel (Bagdad, the chief city of the caliphs)
^y soon be destroyed, Egypt subdued (that is, reconquered
iroQ the Arabs), and the attacks of the Scythians (Riissians
or Balgarians) repulsed. The whole concludes with thanks
^ the unknown god of Athens that they have been permitted
^ be the subjects of such an emperor and the inhabitants of
^ so empire. The Philo pain's was for a long time regarded
^ ta attack upon Christianity, and assigned to the time of
i^n the Apostate (emperor 361-363). Chronological indica-
^ {e.g. the allusion to a massacre of women in Crete) led
^lebahr to ascribe it to the reign of Nicephorus Phocas (963-
^)i and this view is now generally supported. There being
^ that time no pagans in Constantinople, the " pessimists "
'wied to must be Christians — either monks, esp>ecially the
'^iiDate friends of the patriarch of Constantinople, who, ag-
liicved at the measures taken by Phocas in regard to the
IJyity of the Church, were ready to welcome the defeat of
^imperial arms and the ruin of the empire; or harmless vision-
*f^ who claimed to predict the future by fasting, prayer and
*Vl* In any case, the author, whether he was a sophist com-
'IniKnied by Phocas to attack the monks, or some professor
*k hoped to profit by singing the imperial praises, represents
the views of the " patriotic " (as the title shows) as opposed to
tke " unpatriotic " party. According to another view, which
Ui%iis the dialogue to the time of Heraclius (610-^41), the
Mthor was a Christian fanatic, whose object was to make known
the rnttmrt of a cooventide of belated pagans, the enemies
alike of the Christian faith and the empire; it is doubtful,
however, whether such a pagan community, sufiiciently numer-
ous to be of importance, actually existed at that date. The
object of the first and longer portion of the dialogue was to
combat the humanism of the period, which threatened a revival
of polytheism as a rival of Christianity.
BiBLiocxA PHY.— Editions by J. M. Gesner (1715) and C. B. Haie
in the Bonn Corpus scripiorum kist. byx. (1838), vol. xi.; alto included
in Jacobitz's edition of Lucian (1839). See R. Crampe. Phah'
patris. Ein heidnisckes Konveniihd des siebenUn Jahrhunderls s«
Constantinopel (1894); R. Gamett, " Alms for Oblivion " in CornkiU
Magatine (May. 1901}: C. Stach, De Pkitopatride (Cracow, 1894).
who shows its late origin by linj^istic tesu; S. Reinach in Reptit
arehiologique (1902), vol. i.; B. G. Niebuhr, " Uebcr das Alter des
DialoesPnilopatris " in his KUine kisloriscke Sckriflen (1843), vol. ii.
and, for further authorities, article by Von DobtchOtz in Hcrsog-
Hauck's ReaUncyUopadu fur proUstantisckf TTteologie (1904).
PHILOPOEHEll (253-184 B.C.), Greek general, was bom at
Megalopolis, and educated by the academic philosophers
Ecdemus and Demophanes or Mcgalophanes, who had dis-
tinguished themselves as champions of freedom. Avoiding
the fashionable and luxurious gymnasia, he devoted himself
to military studies, hunting and border forays. In 333-a
Philopoemen skilfully evacuated Megalopolis before the attack
of Cleomenes III., and distinguished himself at Sellasia (333).
The next eleven years he sp>ent as a condottiere In Crete.
Elected commander of the League's cavalry on his return, he
reorganized that force and defeated the Aetolians on the Elean
frontier (210). Appointed to the chief command two years
later, he introduced heavy armour and close formation for the
infantry, and with a well-trained army beat Machanidas of
Sparta, near Mantinea. The new " liberator " was now so
famous that Philip V. of Macedon attempted to poison him.
In 303-I Philopoemen drove Nabis, the Spartan tyrant, from
Messene and routed him of! Tegea. After another long sojourn
in Crete he again received the command against Nabis. Though
unsuccessful at sea, he almost annihilated Nabis's land force
near Gythium, but was prevented by the Roman Flamininus
from taking Sparta. In 190 Philopoemen protected Sparta,
which meanwhile had joined the League and thereupon seceded,
but punished a renewed defection so cruelly as to draw the
censure of Rome upon his country. At Messene he Ukewise
checked a revolt (i8q), but when that city again rebelled, in 184,
he was captured in a skirmish and promptly executed. His
body was recovered by the Achacans and buried with great
solemnity.
Philopoemen's great merit lies in his having restored to his
compatriots that military efficiency without which the Achaean
League for all its skilful diplomacy could never stand. Towards
Rome he advocated a courteous but indcr>endent attitude. In
politics he was a democrat, and introduced reforms of a popular
character (see Achaean League).
Polybius* Histories (x.-xxiii.) are our chief authority. These and
a special treatise on Philopoemen (now lost) were used by Plutarch
{Philopoemen), Pausanias (viii. 49-51), Livy (xxxi.-xxxviii.), and
indirectly by Justin (xxx.-ocxxiv.).
PHILOPONUS, JOANNES {Jomt the Grammarian), Greek
philosopher of Alexandria, lived in the later part of the 5th and
the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The surname Gram'
maticus he assumed in virtue of his lectures on language and
literature; that of PkUopontis owing to the large number of
treatises he composed. He was a pupil of Ammonius Hermiae,
and is supposed to have written the life of Aristotle sometimes
attributed to his master. To Philoponus are attributed a large
number of works on theology and philosophy. It is said that,
though he was a pupil of Ammonius. he was at first a Christian,
and he has been credited with the authorship of a commentary
on the Mosaic Cosmogony in eight books, dedicated to Scrgius,
patriarch of Constantinople, and edited by Balthasar Corderius
in 1630. Other authorities maintain that this, as well as the
Disputatfo de pasckale, was the work of another author, John
the Tritheist. It was perhaps thb Philoponus who Vc\t4\.^ %»n%
the Alexandrian library irom VYvt caXv^V Otcv«LX ^\\^x Kxcvvk ^
victory in 639.
440 PHILOSOPHY
The more certaih writings of Phitoponus consist of commentaries Aristotle's most usual name is " first phflosophy " or. as a modi
on Aristotle. These include works on the Phystca, the Prwr and the mitrht sav " first nrincInlM »»• hut Thi^w. hac «iiir* K*«a .m.,
PosUrior Analytics, the MeUordogica, the De antma, the De tenera- migdt say, nrst principles . but there has aince been appi
liotu animalium, the De generatione et inUrilu and the Metapkysica. pnaled to it, apparcnUy by acadent, the title meUphyaio
These have been frequently edited and are intercstii^ in connexion " Philosophy," as a term of general application, was not, iodc
with the adoption of Anstotelianism by the Christian Church, restricted by Aristotle or his successors to the disciplines ji
They seem to have embodied the enumerated. Aristotle himself includes under the dtlc, besk
tions by Philoponus, and are remarkaDle rather lor elaborate care . ^. n .. u • i » » "•.•v, •^«^mv
than for originality and insight. He wrote also an attack on Proclus mathematics, all his physical inquiries. It was only m t
{De aeUmitate mundi). Two treatises on mathematics are ascribed Alexandrian period, as Zeller points out, that the special sdeiM
to him: A Commentary on the Mathematics of Niconuukus, edited attained to independent cultivation Nevertheless, as the nu
irwtrument, and its authenticity b rendered almost certain by iu na»"e phUosophy ceased to be apphed to inquiries conceiB
reference to Ammonius as the roaster of the author. with the particulars as such. Tlie details of physics, for cxamp
PHILOSOPHY (Gr. <UXo«, fond of, and <ro^a, wisdom), a were abandoned to the scientific specialist, and philosopl
general term whose meaning and scope have varied very con- restricted itself in this department to the question of the rebts
siderably according to the usage of different authors and different of the physical universe to the ultimate ground or author
ages. It can best be explained by a survey of the steps by things. This inquiry which was long called " rational cosio
which philosophy differentiated itself, in the history of Greek logy," may be said to form part of the general subject of mei
thought, from the idea of knowledge and culture in general, physics, or at all events a pendant to iL By the gradual sifti
These steps may be traced in the gradual specification of the out of the special sciences philosophy thus came to embrs
term. The tradition which assigns the first employment of primarily the inquiries grouped as "metaphysics" or "G
the Greek word ^iXocro^a to Pylhagorashas hardlyany claim to philosophy." These would embrace, according to the Wolfil
be regarded as authentic; and the somewhat self-conscious scheme long current in philosophical textbooks, ontology prof)
modesty to which Diogenes Laertius attributes the choice of or the science of being as such, with its three-branch sciences
the designation is, in all probability, a piece of etymology (rational) psychology, cosmology and (rational or natun
crystallized into narrative. It is true that, as a matter of fact, theology, dealing with the three chief forms of being — the stK
the earliest uses of the word (the verb <^\oao^iv occurs in the world and God. Subsidiary to metaphysics, as tly centn
Herodotus and Thucydides) imply the idea of the pursuit of inquiry, stand the sciences of logic and ethics, to which may h
knowledge; but the distinction between the <ro06s, or wise roan, added aesthetics, constituting three normative scienca-
and the 0iX6(ro^os, or lover of wisdom, appears first in the sciences, that is, which do not, primarily, describe facts, Imt
Platonic writings, and lends itself naturally to the so-called rather prescribe ends or set forth ideals. It is evident, hoveicr,
Socratic irony. The same thought is to be found in Xcnophon, that if logic deals with conceptions which may be considend
and is doubtless to be attributed to the historical Socrates, constitutive of luiowledgc as such, and if ethics deals with the
But the word soon lost this special implication. What is of harmonious realization of human life, which is the h^bot
real interest to us is to trace the progress from the idea of the known form of existence, both sciences must have a gmt dol
philosopher as occupied with any and every department of of weight in the settling of the general question of metai^iysks.
knowledge to that which assigns him a special kind of knowledge In sum, then, we may say that " philosophy " has come to be
as his province. understood at least in modem times as a general term covtrinf
A specific sense of the word first meets us in Plato, who defines the various disciplines just enumerated. It has frequently
the philosopher as one who apprehends the essence or reality of tended, however, and still tends, to be used as specially cok
things in opposition to the man who dwells in appearances and vertible with the narrower term " metaphysics." This » eot
the shows of sense. The philosophers, he says, " are those Who' unnatural, seeing that it is only so far as they bear on the oe^
are able to grasp the eternal and immutable"; they are "those central question of the nature of existence that phikiiopkT
who set their affections on that which in each case really exists " spreads its mantle over psychology, logic or ethics. Vit
(Rep. 480). In Plato, however, this distinction is applied particular orgaru'c conditions of perception and the assoditi**
chiefly in an ethical and reUgious direction; and, while it defines laws to which the mind, as a part of nature, is subjected, ii*
philosophy, so far correctly, as the endeavour to express what facts in themselves indifferent to the philosopher; and therefbi*
thingsareinthcirultimateconstitution, it is not yet accompanied the development of psychology into an independent ideDA
by a sufficient differentiation of the subsidiary inquiries by which took place during the latter half of the 19th centoiy ted
which this ultimate question may be approached. Logic, ethics may now be said to be complete, represents an entirely oatvsd
and physics, psychology, theory of knowledge and metaphysics evolution. Similarly, logic, so far as it is an art of thoa^t<v>
are all fused together by Plato in a semi-religious synthesis. It doctrine of fallacies, and ethics, so far as it is occupied with *
is not till we come to Aristotle — the encyclopaedist of the ancient natural history of impulses and moral sentiments, do neither c^
world — that we find a demarcation of the different philosophic them belong, except by courtesy, to the phil<Mophic provBBOt*
disciplines corresponding, in the main, to that still current. But, although this is so, it is perhaps hardly desirable to dqio**
The earliest philosophers, or " physiologers," had occupied ourselves of the use of two terms instead of cme. It willBOtbf
themselves chiefly with what we may call cosmology; the one easy to infuse into so abstract and bloodless a term as "nrtf
question which covers everything for them is that of the under- physics " the fuller life (and especially the inclusion of etUd
lying substance of the world around them, and they essay to considerations) suggested by the more concrete term "phikaoptfT
answer this question, so to speak, by simple inspection. In We shall first of all, then, attempt to differaiUate phikiefikf
Socrates and Plato, on the other hand, the start is made from a from the special sciences, and afterwards proceed to take 19 1^
consideration of man's moral and intellectual activity; but by one what have been called the philosophical sdenoes,irith At
knowledge and action arc confused with one another, as in the view of showing how far the usual subject-matter of eick "
Socratic doctrine that virtue is knowledge. To this correspond really philosophical in its bearing, and how far it bdoofi laAf
the Platomc confusion of logic and ethics and the attempt to to the domain of " science " strictly so called. The order k
substitute a theory of concepts for a metaphysic of reaUty. which, for clearness of exposition, it will be noost convening ^
Aristotle's methodic intellect led him to separate the different consider these disciplines will be psychology, epbtemokglf J^
aspects of reality here confounded. He became the founder theory of knowledge, and metaphysics, then logic, aesthelici^
of logic, psychology, ethics and aesthetics as separate sciences; ethics. Finally, the connexion of the last-mentioBed «V
while he prefixed to all such (comparatively) special inquiries politics (or, to speak more modemly, with jurispnideaoe tf"
tAe investigation of the ultimate nature of existence as such, or sociology), with the philosophy of history and the philoia|ilv*
of those iSrst principles which are common to, and presupposed religion, will call for a few words on the rdation of
^, every tutnower £eld of knowledge. For this inves\\^av.\oii lo general philosophy.
PHILOSOPHY
441
PUtoicpky and Naiund Science. — In distinguishing philosophy
faom the sciences, it may not be amiss at the outset to guard
igUQSt the possible misunderstanding that philosophy is con-
cened with a subject-matter different from, and in some obscure
wiy transcending, the subject-matter of the sciences. Now
tkt psychology, or the observational and experimental study
of mind, may be said to have been definitively included among
the positive sciences, there is not even the apparent ground
viiidi once existed for such an idea. Philosophy, even under
its most discredited name of metaphysics, has no other subject-
matter than the nature of the real world, as that world lies
around us in everyday life, and lies open to observers on every
tide. Bat if this is so, it may be asked what function can remain
for philosophy when every portion of the field is already lotted
oot and enclosed by specialists? Philosophy claims to be the
science of the whole; but, if we get the knowledge of the parts
from the different sciences, what is there left for philosophy to
teil us ? To this it is sufficient to answer generally that the
synthesis of the parts is something more than that detailed
hwwledge of the parts in separation which is gained by the man
of scknce. It is with the ultimate synthesis that philosophy
concerns itself; it has to show that the subject-matter which we
lie all dealing with in detail really is a whole, consisting of
uticuhted members. Evidently, therefore, the relation existing
Vtween philosophy and the sciences will be, to some extent,
<»eof reciprocal influence. The sciences may be said to furnish
philosophy with its matter, but philosophical criticism reacts
Bpoa the matter thus furnished, and transforms it. Such trans-
fonnation is inevitable, for the parts only exist and can only be
6illy, t4. truly, known in their relation to the whole. A pure
tpccialist, if such a being were possible, would be merely an
iBstnunent whose results had to be co-ordinated and used by
others. Now, though a pure specialist may be an abstraction
of the mind, the tendency of specialists in any department
uturally is to lose sight of the whole in attention to the particular
categories or modes of nature's working which happen to be
Qenq^lified, and fruitfully applied, in their own sphere of invcsti-
l>tion; and in proportion as this is the case it becomes necessary
for their theories to be co-ordinated with the results of other
fo<ittiTeis. and set, as it were, in the light of the whole. This task
<rf coordination, in the broadest sense, is undertaken by philo-
Mphy; (or the philosopher is essentially what Plato, in a happy
■oment, styled him, <n;TOrrc«6i, the man who takes a " synoptic "
or oomprehensive view of thA universe as a whole. The aim of
I^iilosophy (whether fully attainable or not) is to exhibit the
Universe as a rational system in the harmony of all its parts;
^ accordingly the philosopher refuses to consider the parts
<*t of their relation to the whole whose parts they are. Philo-
•Jphy corrects in this way the abstractions which are inevitably
■*fc by the scientific specialist, and may claim, therefore, to be
the only " concrete " sdence, that is to say, the only science
^^uch takes account of all the elements in the problem, and the
^ sdence whose results can claim to be true in more than a
provisional sense.
for it is evident from what has been said that the way in
•fcich we commonly speak of " facts " is calculated to convey
* ^ impression. The world is not a collection of individual
^s existing side by side and capable of being knowTi separately.
A fact is nothing except in its relations to other facts; and as
tlicse relations are multiplied in the progress of knowledge the
iiature of the so-called fact is indefinitely modified. Moreover,
•vwy statement of fact involves certain general notions and
theivies, so that the " facts " of the separate sciences cannot be
itated except in terms of the conceptions or hypotheses which
are. assumed by the particular science. Thus mathematics
asomes space as an existent infinite, without investigating in
*hat sense the existen>'% or the infinity of this Unding, as Kant
called it, can be asserted. In the same way, physics may be
said to assume the notion. of material atoms and forces. These
aod similar assumptions are ultimate presuppositions or working
AypoChcses for the sciences themselves. But it is the office of
pbilotopfay, as a theory of knowledge, to submit such conceptions
to a critical analysis, irith a view to discover how far they can
be thought (ml, or how far, when this is done, they refute them-
selves, and call for a different form of statement, if they are to be
taken as a statement of the ultimate nature of the real.* The
first statement may frequently turn out to have been merely
provisionally or relatively true; it is then superseded by, or
rather inevitably merges itself in, a less abstract account. In
this the same "facts" appear differently, because no longer
separated from other aspects that belong to the full reality of
the known world. There is no such thing, we have said, as an
individual fact; and the nature of any fact is not fully known
unless we know it in all its relations to the system of the universe,
or, in Spinoza's phrase, sub specie aetemitaiis. In strictness,
there is but one res compUta or concrete fact, and it is the business
of philosophy, as science of the whole, to expouild the chief
relations that constitute its complex nature.
The last abstraction which it becomes the duty of philosophy
to remove is the abstraction from the knowing subject which is
made by all the sciences, including, as we shall see, the science
of psychology. The sciences, one and all, deal with a world of
objects, but the ultimate fact as we know it is the existence of
an object for a subject. Subject-object, knowledge, or, more
widely, self-consciousness with its implicates — this unity in
duality is the ultimate aspect which reality presents. It has
generally been considered, therefore, as constituting in a special
sense the problem of philosophy. Philosophy may be said y> be
the explication of what is involved in this rdation, or, in Kantian
phraseology, a theory of its possibility. Any ^uld-be theory
of the universe which makes its central fact impossible stands
sclf-condcmncd. On the other hand, a sufficient analysis here
may be expected to yield us a statement of the reality of things
in its last terms, and thus to shed a light bnrkwards upon the true
nature of our subordinate conceptions.
Psychology, Epistemology and Metaphysics. — ^This leads to the
consideration of the main divisions of philosophy — Psychology
iq.v.), epistemology (theory of knowledge, Erkennlnisstheorie),
and metaphysics (ontology; see Metaphysic). A spedal relation
has always existed between psychology and systematic philo-
sophy, but the closeness of the coimexion has hccn characteristic
of modem and more i>articularly of English thought. The
connexion is not difficult to explain, seeing that in psychology,
or the science of mind, we study the fact of intelligence (and
moral action), and have, so far, in our hands the fact to which
all other facts are relative. From this point of view we may
even see a truth in Jacobi's dictum as quoted by Sir W.Hamilton:
" Nature conceals God; man reveals God." Nature by itself,
that is to say, is insufficient. The ultimate explanation of things
cannot be given by any theory which excludes from its survey
(he intelligence in which nature, as it were, gathers herself up.
But knowledge, or the mind as knowing, willing, &c., may be
looked at in two different ways. It may be regarded simply as a
fact; in which case the evolutions of mind may be traced and
reduced to laws in the same way as the phenomena treated by
the other sciences. This study gives us the science of empirical
psychology, or, as it is now termed, psychology sans phrast. In
order to give an adequate account of its subject-matter, psych-
ology may require higher or more complex categories than are
employed in the other sciences, just as biology, for example,
cannot work with mechanical categories alone, but introduces
the conception of development or growth. But the affinities of
such a study are manifestly with the sciences as such rather than
wth philosophy; and the definitive establishment of psychology
as an independent science has already been alluded to. Since
it has been taken up by specialists, psychology is being estab-
lished on a broader basis of induction, and with the advantage,
in some departments, of the employment of experimental
methods of measurement. But it is not of mind in this aspect
* The revisional office which philosophy here assumes constitutes
her the critic «>f the sciences. It is in tnis connexion that the mcan-
inK of the definition of philosophy as " the science of principles "
ran best be (tccn. This is perhaps the most usual ^CkStaNSKvev^ 'axt&.
though vague, one o( the Wa&X. tav^^eai^ASVib.
442 PHILOSOPHY
that such assertions can be made as those quoted above. Mind, we return to the distinction between epistemology and psychol-
as studied by the psychologist— mind as a mere fact or pheno- ogy, by way of illustrating the nature of the former, we may
menon — grounds no inference to anything beyond itself. The talie the following summing up by Professor James Ward in a
distinction between mind viewed as a succession of "states of valuable article on " Psychologiad Principles " in Mimd (April
consciousness " and the further aspect of mind which philosophy 1883, pp. 166, 167) : " Comparing psychology and epiAemoIogy,
considers was very clearly put by Croom Robertson, who also then, we may say that the former is essentially genetic in its
made a happy suggestion of two terms to designate the double method, And might, if we had the power to revise our ezitticg
point of view: terminology, be called biology; the latter, on the other hand, is
" We may view knowledge as mere subjective function, but it essentially devoid of everything historical, and treats, sub specu
^u *l'Iii" ™f*"'"8 9"*y ?» »*." ^^J\ ;? !f-&"^".^ ^**** "![* "^X attcrnUatis, as Spinoza might have said, of human knowledge.
call objective fact, or is such as is named (m different circumstances) •**•«■"•;•'"•-» « .jpi»w«» um^hi «»»*; o-iu, v. iiuu«ui m*tvmmi%a^m,
V real, valid, true. As mere subicaive function, which it u to the conceived as the possession of mind in general."
psychologist, it is best spoken of by an unambiguous name, and for Kant's problem is not, in its wording, very different from that
this there seems none better than Intellection. We may then say which Locke set before him when he resolved to " inquire into
i!?i;iir/?S°&;;^??."''w k'nV'dl'If^Su'fi^^^^^^^^ "«« 07? ■«". ccrumty and extent o{h»™.n knowkdge togeU«
(perception, representative imagination, conception. &c.) according with the grounds and degrees of belief, opimon and assent."
to the \'arious circumstances in which the laws are found at work. Locke's Essay is undoubtedly, in its intention, a contribution
Philosophv, on the other hand. U theory of XwowWw (as that which to the theory of knowledge. But, because time had not }-ct
isknown). -'Psychology and Philosophy, Mtnd(iS8i),pp.is.i6. made the matter dear, Locke suffered himself to digress in his
The confusion of these two points of view has led, and still second book into the psychological question of the origin of our
leads, to serious philosophical .misconception. It is hardly an ideas; and his theory of Tcnowledge is ruined by the failure to
exaggeration to say that, in the EngLsh school since Hume, distinguish between the epistemological sense of "idea "as
psychology superseded property philosophical inquiry. And we significant content and the psychological sense in which it is
find even a thinker with a wider horizon like Sir W. Hamilton applied to a fact or process in the individual mind. The sune
encouraging the confusion by speaking of " psychology or meta- confusion runs through Berkeley's arguments and vitiates hit
physics," » while his lectures on metaphysics are mainly taken conclusions as well as those of Hume. But appearing with these
up with what belongs in the strictest sense to psychology proper, thinkers as the problem of perception, epistemology widc» itt
with an occasional excursus (as in the theory of perception) into scope and becomes, in Kant's hands, the question of the posii-
epistemology. J'he dUtinction between psychology and theory bility of experience in general. With Hegel it passes into s
of knowledge was first clearly made by Kant, who repeatedly completely articulated " logic," which apparently claims to be
insisted that the Critique of Pure Reason was not to be taken as a at the same time a metaphysic, or an ultimate expression of the
psychological inquiry. He defined his problem as the quid juris nature of the real.
or the question of the validity of knowledge, not its quidfacii or This introduces us to the second part of the question wire
the laws of the empirical genesis and evolution of intellection (to seeking to determine, namely the relation of epistemokgy to
use Croom Robertson's phraseology). Since Kant philosophy meUphysics. It is evident that philosophy as theory of kaow-
has chiefly taken the form of theory of knowledge or of n. criticism ledge must have for its complement philosophy as raeUphyacs
of experience. Not, indeed, a preliminary criticism of our (ontology) or theory of being. The question of the truth of our
faculties or conceptions such as Kant himself proposed tt) knowledge, and the question of the ultimate nature of what «
institute, in order to determine the limits of their application; know, are in reality two sides of the same inquiry; and thetefote
such a criticism ab extra of the nature of our experience is essenti- our epistemological results have to be ontologically exprcaed.
ally a thing impossible. The only criticism which can be applied But it is not every thinker that can see his way with Hejd W
in such a case is the immanent criticism which the conceptions assert in set terms the identity of thought and bdng. Hence
or categories exercise upon one another. The organized critidsm the theory of knowledge becomes with some a theory of htunafl
of these conceptions is really nothing more than the full expli- ignorance. This is the case with Herbert Spencer's doctrise
cation of what they mean and of what experience in its full of the Unknowable, which he advances as the result of eptstcmo-
nature or notion is. This constitutes the theory of knowledge logical considerations in the philosophical prolegomena to his
in the only tenable sense of the term, and it lays down, in Kantbn system. Very similar positions were maintained by Kant mJ
language, the (fwdilions of the possibility of experience. These Comtc; and, under the name of " agnosUcism " (^.r.). the theory
conditions are the conditions of knowledge as such, or, as it may has popularized itself in the outer courts of philosophy, ind os
be put, of objective consciousness— of a s^lf-consciousness of the shifting bordcriand of philosophy and literature. The inith
a worid of objects and through them conscious of itself. The is that the habit of thinking exdusively from the standpoiat
inquiry is, therefore, logical or transcendental in its nature, and of the theory of knowledge tends to beget an undue subjecthity
does not entangle us in any decision as to the conditions of the of temper. And the fact that it has become usual for fflcnlo
genesis of such consdousness in the individual. When we inquire think from this standpoint is very pUiinly seen in the ilnost
into subjective conditions we are thinking of facts causing other universal description of philosophy as an analysis U ** apefr
facts. But the logical or transcendental conditions arc not ence," instead of iu more old-fashioned designation as an iiiqi07
causes or even factors of knowledge; they are the statement of into " the nature of things." As it is matter of univcnal «^B^
its idea. Hence the dispute between evolutiom'st and transcen- nient that the problem of being must be attacked iadixedlf
dentalist rests, in general, on an iguoratio elenchi; for the history through the problem of knowledge, this substitution »»> he
of the genesis of an idea (the historical or genetic method) does regarded as an advance, more especially as it implies thst the
not contain an answer to— though it may throw light on— the fact of experience, or of self-conscious existence, is the chief W
philosophical question of its truth or validity. Speaking of this to be dealt with. But if so, then self-consciousness mwl b*
transcendental consdousness, Kant goes so far as to say that it is treated as itself real, and as organically idatcd to the rest fi^
not of the slightest consequence " whether the idea of it be clear existence. If self-consciousness be treated in this objcrtirt
or obscure (in empirical consciousness), no, not even whether fashion, then we pass naturally from epistemology to metapfc]rs*(>
it really exists or not. But the possibility of the logical form of or ontology. (For, although the term " ontology " has been i>
all knowledge rests on its rdation to this apperception as a faculty good as disused, it still remains true that the aim of phikwpky
or potentiality " (Werke, ed. Hartenstein, lii. 578 note). Or, if must be to furnish us with an ontology or a coherent and adeq»l«
* It is true that he afterwards modifies this misleading identifica- theory of the nature of reality.) But if, on the other hui
tion by introducing the distinction between cmpiriciil i)5ychology knowledge and reality be ab initio opposed to one anolher-il
Ti^ j'i'^'Ufrte.lrlir'* nut L"/rom^I.J!;7o ni'?L°tn.^; consciousncss bcsct on onc sidcasoveragainst reality. and mcfdlf
tology, I.*, metaphysics proper, nut he continues to itw the terms , ... .•..!. •* r n -.i. 1 . »— ^
"philosophy." '' metaphysics,' and " mental science " as synony- holdmg up a mirror to it— then it follows with equal natmM
aous. that the truly real must be something which luxks vamwutk
PHILOSOPHY
443
kkuid the subject's xepmentation of it. Hence come the differ- I
cot vtrieties ol a so-called phenomenalism. The upholders of
fidi a theory would, in general, deride the term * metaphysics "
or** ontdogy "; but it is evident, none the less, that their position
todf implies a certain theory of the universe and of our own
pbce in it, and the establishment of this theory constitutes their
metaphysics.
Without prejudice, then, to the daim of epistcmology to
onstitute the central phUosophic discipline, we may simply
note its liability to be pressed too far. The exclusive pre-
occupation of men's minds with the question of knowledge
during the neo-Kantian revival in the 'seventies of the last
century drew from Lotze the caustic critlcbm that '* the continual
dtarpeoing of the knife becomes tiresome, if after all, we have
BothiDg to cut with it." Stillingfleet's complaint against Locke
ms that he was " one of the gentlemen of this new way of
itasoDiDg that have almost discarded substance out of the reason-
aUe part of the world." The same may be said with greater
troth of the devotees of the theory of knowledge; they seem to
iave DO need of so old-fashioned a commodity as reality. Yet,
liter an, Fichte's dictum holds good that knowledge as know-
ledge—i.c. so long as it is looked at as knowledge — is, ipso facio.
Sit reality. The result of the foregoing, however, is to show that,
u soon as epistemology draws its conclusion, it becomes meta-
physics; the theory of knowledge passes into a theory of being.
The ODtological conclusion, moreover, is not to be regarded as
snnethiag added by an external process; it b an immediate
implication. The mctaphysic is the epistemology from another
point of view — regarded as completing itself, and expbining
in the course of its exposition that relative or practical separation
oi the individual knower from the knowable world, which it is a
il>eer assumption to take as absolute. This, not the so-called
>suniittion of the implicit unity of being and thought, is the
\ RaQy unwarrantable postulate; for it is an assumption which
*c are obUged to retract bit by bit, whUe the other offers the
vlioie doctrine of knowledge as its voucher.
^«SK, Aesthetes and Ethics. — If the theory of knowledge
^ passes insensibly into metaphysics it becomes somewhat
^fi^biit to assign a distinct sphere to logic (^.r.). Ueberwcg's
^Itfinition of it as *' the science of the regulative laws of thought "
(tt " the normative science of thought ") comes near enough
to the traditional sense to enable us to compare profitably the
Qnal subject-matter of the science with the definition and end of
pJnlosophy. The introduction of the term " regulative " or
"normative" is intended to differentiate the science from
Piych<d(^ as the science of mental processes or events. In this
'*'atDce logic does not tell us how our intellectioiut connect
^litBisdves as mental phenomena, but how we ought to connect
^ thoughts if they are to realize truth (either as consistency
*ith what we thought before or as agreement with observed
^). Logic, therefore, agrees with epistemology (and differs
boQ psychology) in treating thought not as mental fact but as
^Bovledge, OS idea, as having meaning in relation to an objective
*i>dd. To this extent it must inevitably form a part of the theory
^ bowledge. But, if we desire to keep by older bndmarks and
Baintain a distinction between the two disciplines, a ground for
^^ so may be found in the fact that all the main definitions
^ ^'c point to the investigation of the laws of thought in a
•ubjcctive reference — with a view, that is, by an analysis of the
^Pciation, to ensure its more correct performance. According
to the dd phrase, logic is the art of correct thinking. Moreover
*B commonly find the logician assuming that the process of
tboQght has advanced a certain length before his examination
^ it begins; he takes his material full-formed from perception,
without, as a rule, inquiring into the nature of the conceptions
vliich are involved in our perceptive experience. Occupying
< position, therefore, within the wider sphere of the general
theny of knowledge, ordinary logic consists in an analysis of the
ttture of general statement, and of the conditions under which
*e pass validly from one general statement to another. But
the logic of the schools is eked out by contributioiut from a variety
of sources it.g. from grammar on one side and from psychology
on another), and cannot daim the unity of an independent
sdence.
Aesthetics (q.v.) may be treated as a department of psychology
or physiology, and in Engbnd thb is the mode of treatment that
has been most general To what peculiar cxdtation of our
bodily or mental organism, it is asked, are the emotions due
which make us declare an object beautiful or sublime? And,
the question bdng put in this form, the attempt has been made
in some cases to explain away any peculiarity in the emotions
by analysing them into simpler dements, such as primitive
organic pleasures and prolonged associations of usefuhicss or
fitness. But, just as'psychology in general cannot do duty for a
theory of knowledge, so it holcb true of this particular application
of psychology that a mere reference of these emotions to the
mechanism and interactive pby of our faculties cannot be re-
garded as an account of the nature of the beautiful. Perhaps by
talking of " emotions " we tend to give an unduly subjective
colour to the investigation; it would be better to speak of the
perception of the beautiful Pleasure in itself is unqualified,
and affords no differentia. In the cose of a beautiful object the
resultant pleasure borrows its specific quality from the presence
of determinations essentially objective in their nature, though
not redudble to the categories of science. Unless, indeed, we
conceive our faculties to be constructed on some arbitrary plan
which puts them out of relation to the facts with which they have
to deal, we have a prima fade right to treat beauty as an objective
determination of things. The question of aesthetics would then
be formulated — What b it in things that makes them beautiful,
and what b the relation of thb aspect of the universe to its
ultimate nature, as that b expounded in metaphysics? The
answer constitutes the substance of aesthetics, considered as a
branch of philosophy. But it b not given simply in abstract
terms: the philosophical treatment of aesthetics indudes also
an exposition of the concrete phases of art, as these have appeared
in the hbtory of the world, relating themselves to different phases
of human ciUture.
Of ethics {q.v.) it may also be said that many of the topics
commonly embraced tmder that title are not strictly philosophical
in their nature. They are subjects for a sdentific psychology
employing the hbtorical method with the conceptions of heredity
and development, and calling to its aid, as such a psychology
will do, the investigations of all the sodological sdences. To
such a psychology must be relegated all questions as to the
origin and devdopment of moral ideas. Similarly, the question
debated at such length by Englbh moralists as to the nature of
the moral faculty (moral sense, consdencc, &c.) and the contro-
versy concerning the freedom of the will belong entirdy to
psychology. If we exdude such questions in the interest of
systematic correctness, and seek to determine for ethics a definite
subject-matter, the sdence may be said to fall into two depart-
ments. The first of these deab with the notion of duty, and
endeavours to define the good or the ultimate end of action; the
second lays out the scheme of concrete duties which are dcdudble
from, or which, at least, are covered by, thb abstractly stated
prindple. The second of these departments b really the proper
subject-matter of ethics considered as a separate science; but it
b often conspicuous by its absence from ethical treatises. How-
ever moralbts may differ on first principles, therie seems to be
remarkably little practical divergence when they come to lay
down the particular laws of morality. It may be added that,
where a systematic account of duties b actually given, the
connexion of the particular duties with the universal formula
is in general more formal than real It is only under the head of
casuistry {q.v.) that ethics has been much cultivated as a separate
sdence. The first department of ethics, on the other hand, is
the branch of the subject in virtue of which ethics forms part of
philosophy. As described above, it ought rather to be called, in
Kant's phrase, the mctaphysic of ethics. A theory of obligation
b ultimately found to be inseparable from a mctaphysic of
personality. The connexion of ethics with metaphysics will be
patent as a matter of fact, if it be remembered how ?Va\A*^
philosophy b summed up in Vb« V^ca^ q\ \>cv,^ v^q^^ ^TA\iS]r«
ArlMotk aba cmployi (lie aaenthDy ctliicsf nollon of end ts t
ullinule category by which Ihe univctM may be eipliincd
leduced lo unity. But Ihe nCMisily ol the coinciion is tl.
Apparent, unleu we are la £uppoae that, aa ttg^tdt rhe cautse
PHILOSOPHY
would hold Ihat il
raihn (to adopt the fort
e of Maicus Anttlius) *
If, 01
ch, by
irabJe — &t6ptarvfoi' AytMt,
lUy rclaled 1
lure," then it i> a legilimalt
weought to find the key ol
I method of approach muai
■II that, in Lotic'a linpiage, gives
The argument a anaioffa Mominii
far: but If a " chief end of man " bf
.Ariitotlewiiely insisted thai
•ophy. If " I
perfection II
whole must ]
uKant
really IP
ultiinately teptcscntahle as a nonJ
. rn luch at Leibnitz named, In wotds botiowed
from St Auguilinc, a city of God.
PkUosotky 0} Ike Slalt (Peliliciil PkSomfiy), Phamphy of
Hillary, Philojofky ej JWJfi'on.— In Plato and Arfclolle elbici
and politics arc indissolubly connected. In olhec o-ordg, seeing
thai Ihe highest human good is [ciliuble only in a community,
the theory of the state na the organ of morality, and llsclf in its
structure and institutions Ihe cjrprcssion of ethical ideas or
qualities, becomes an integral port of philosophy. The difllculty
already hinted at, which individualistic systems ol ethics experi-
ence in connccling particular duliea with the abstiaci principle
of duty isaproofofthefoilore of their method. For Ihe content
of motalily ire are necessarily referred, In great part, to the
experience ciystalliied In laws and intliluliont and to the un-
written law of custom, honour and good breeding, which has
becomeorganlcinlhcsociolyof which we ire members. Plalo'i
RlpiMk and Hegel's Pkilenipkir dis RnMt are Ihe most tyJBCal
esamplesof a fully developed philosophy of the stale, but in the
earlier modern period the prolonged discussion of natural rights
and the social contract most be regarded as a contribution to
such a theory. Moreover, i( philosophy is to complete lis
ic work, It must bring the course of human history
There only remains to be briefly noticed the relaljon of pUt-
Bophy to Ihcology and the nature of what is called PhilOKiiitj
of Religion. By Ihcology ij commonly understood 11* ijitt-
malic presentation of the teaching ol some positive or hisloiilll
religion as to the eilstence and attributes ol a Supreme Bciib
including his relation to the worid and especially to man. BH
these topics havcalso been treated by philosophers and rdi^cai
thinkera, without dependence on any historical data or sprdd
divine revelation, under the title ol N'alural Theology. Nattnl
Theology la specially asiodaled with the Stoic Ihcork* of |«iiiv-
dence in ancient limes and with ebboralions of the argiiaBl
from deugn In the lEth cenluiy. But there ii do wtmgt to
restricting the term to any 4>ecial mode of approacluDf tk
problema indicated: and as these form the central lubjrttof
metaphysical inquiry, no valid distinction can be drawn betvcd
natural theology and general metaphysics. Tfie phtloupl? sf
religious consciousness and the value of its pronouncemeiiTi m
human life and man's rebtlon to the ground of things. I'oitr,
reconciliation, peace, joy, "the victory that overcocieih Ik
world "—such, in slightly varying phrases, is the conlal i^
religious failh. Docs this consciousness represent an (uikDiic
Insighlintoultlmatefact, or bit a piiiful illusion of the wnii
born of man's hopcsand fears and of his fundamental iiinonKe>
The philosophy c^ religion assumes the first alten
within
.n ol re
le philosophy of histor
m is traceable. This
a peculiarly modem
and historical pdnt
imtile of Ihis intciprcl
jlated m
isophy in gcnei
■cligiousexpt
(rfon
more elaborate German theories. Tile philosophy of history possilntity of mciaphy
diflcn. It will be observed, from (be purely scientific or descriptive things, arc still o'"
sludies covered by the general lille ol sociology. Sociologj
conceives itscllisannturalscienccclucidalingafaclualsequencc
The philosophy of history is essentially Ideological : that is tc
say, il seeks Id Interpret lliv procecs as the icalizalion of an
immanent end. It may be said, therefore, lo Involve a complcti
metaphysical theory. Social inslitutions and customs and Iht
diflercnl forms ol Elate-otgnniiatlon are judged according to Ihc
degree in which Ihey promote the realiiation of the humi
ideal. Ilisloryis thus represented by Ilegel, lor example, as 11
reiliiaiian ol the idea of freedom, or rather as Ihe reconciliiilon
of individual freedom and Ihe play of cultured interests
Ihe si.-ible objectivity of law and an abiding consciou
of the greater whole in which we move. So far as the c
of universal history can be Iruly represented as an api
malion lo Ibis reconciliilion by a widening and deep,
of both the elements, we may claim lo possess a philosophy of
history. Bui allhougTi the possibility, of such a philosophy
Jeemi implied to liic jiosliJaled nalioiuiUly of the unii
acUvily. The certainlies of reUL
or immediate assurance, and are expressed In the pciMul
language of ima^nalion. It becomes the function of pbiloHrtl-
dealing wiih these ulterauces, lo relate them to the renhid
other spheres of eipcricncc, and lo deiennine theb- real otinil
in Ihe more eiicl terms of thought. The philosopby of nll(i<i
alio traces In the diflerent historical fonnsof religious belief ••'
practice the graflual evolution of what it lakes lobe the trolk^f
Ihe matter. Such an account may he dlstinguisbed frmnvkt
i) usually called the science of religion by Ihe leleologial *
metaphysical presuppositions it involves. The science of nipB
^vcs a purely hbtorical and comparative account of tbtniioB
manlfestaiioniof tbcieli)poui insliocl without pronooDcfal o
their relative Inilh or value and without, therefore, ifiBBH
10 apply the idea of evolution in the philosophical seme. Tbi
idea is fundamental in the phUosopbyoI religion, which ihniM
can be written only from the standpoint of a consiructive atu-
physical theory.
II is, indeed, only Irom the standpoint ol such a theory lh<
the definitions and divisions ol Ihe different philoiojAicll
disciplines adopted in this article can bessid to hold good. M
agnosiicsnnd scepiics,d(iiy*
., naiunof
d to retain philosophy as a IbeaT^
justify Ifac asaertcd.limiutioaNiBpo-
PHILOSTRATUS— PHILOXENUS
LATUl, the nunc of Kveral, time (or four] , Gmlt
he Ranun iinperul period— (i) PhilaLraliu " tbc
[c. ijo-145), (i) hit Dcphev (?) Fhilatnliu "of
[)nic.i9o);(j)»gmid»n(?)o[Cj). Of then the
u Phikatiatiu " Ehe Athenian," luthci of the Ufe
I Tyana. which he dedicated to Julii Domna. HiTe of
cveiui and mother of Caracalla (tee Afouahid*
He imte alio Bla Zo^HOna (Lait tj Ikt Sophiili),
ud E^'jlofwCmainlyotaneroticdianiclet). Very
ID of hi) cueer. Even hii name i> doublfuL The
rjp*u(i gives Iho praenomea FlaWus, which, however,
swhere only in Tieties. Eonapiiu and Syneiiui
emnian; Pholius a Tyrian; hii letlen refer to him
ian. It is pn>bable that he waa bom in Lemnos,
Uught at Athena, and then icltlcd in Kome(where
tnrally be called allieiiiauii) as a membei of tbe
: with irhich Julia Domna lumninded henelf. He
idgn of Philip (144-iig). The fact that thcauthoc
I i> ilu the author of the LiMi g/ ikt SipkUii is
f intrmal evidence. The bttet is dedicated to a
nius Gotdianud, perhape one of the two Gardians
led in 138. The work 19 divided into two patu: [he
with the andcnt Sophiiis, t-t- Gorpai, the lecond
K-MUnwhcr.
linl (Paria,
wnt u Athenian island, a
4+6 PHILTRE— PHLEBITIS
Flivian 11., who had accepted lie decrees of t!ie Council of liao [or ibe insull pul upos a pitncesa of Lhe nril Inue (I
Chalccdon and vas patiurch o[ Anlioch from 498 to 511. The Atbent.
Monophysitcs bad the sympatby of the emperor AnastasLui, ApoElodonii i, 9» 21. Ai. 15, 3; Sopbodea, Amtitvmt. 066, «{|fc
andwerefinollyiuccessfulinoujtingFlavianmsiiandicptidng Jobb'. noIc; Dipd. Su: iv. 43. 44: ServCui m AimM A. K>n
him by Ibor partiaan Sevenia. Of Philo«enus'a part in the S'J'i'l- o" Apolloniu. Rlodii.u. ■;*.
atniEgle we po»e»s not too tnistworthy accounlVby hoslUc PBIPS (or Peipp5), SIB WILUAM (l6st-lSgs), colooid
writers such as Theophaaci and Thcodorua Lector. We know governor o( Mmaiiuietli, wai bora on (he »nd o( Febrvary
[lialin4aBhewas5layinBatE(le55ai;inotaboiitso;,eccording "^St, al Woolwich, Maine, near the moulh of the StnadMC
[0 Tbeophanes, he was summoned by Iheempctor 10 Constanii- river. He wai a ihepherd until he wai o^uen, and tbco >
10 finally pioiidcd it a lynod at Sidon which was^he ""ip carpenter a apprentice^ for four^j™;
ol procuring ' ' ... - — n <_. . .. .l.. ... 1
and in 519 Lhey were irolh lentcnced to baniahmf
I., who aumcded Anasta- '""I "''ll his wile's property cstabliihed a ihip-yard on
the party of Scverus and Shecptcot rivet is Maine, but soon abandooed II becani
Indian disordera.
Philoienus'waiscnttoPhilippopolisinThraie.andaflerwardslo Bn'ish Crown, he aeatched vainly for a wrected Sptmlh
GangrainPaphlagonia, where henelhisdeithbyfoulpUyiosiJ. '™""" "tip of which he had heard while on • vtqn«c U> tbt
. >._.__ . ...__ , ™ ijjjj amount much went to the duke of Albo-
d fitted out the second eipedilioa. Fbiix le-
'chlT^^mi ■
01 Jiu icnaunnip — inc mUDXcnun v^raoii 01 me Dioic — only toe ^ : , . i' t . . l. J L V WW J
GaveU and eeruin portion, of luLih an known lo nirvive (•« teivcd £16,000 as his share, was knighted by Janm II., and w»l
appointed sheriff of New £ng!and under Sir Edmund AadKa.
Poorly educated and ignorant of law, Fhipi could acconpSih
little, and retutned <o Enghmd. la i6Sg he returned la tlun-
chusetls, found a tevalutionuy govcnunent in conlml, andal
once entered into the life of the colony. He joined the Nont
Church (Cotton Maiher'g) aiBotion, and wia loan qipontcdlo'
Ihe Geoctd Court commander of an eipedilion apint tbt
French in Canada, which saDed in April 1600 and eaaQycaplani
Port Royal. A much larger expedition led hy Phipa In Jwij
against Quebec and Montreal ended disaalmualy. fVps
generously bought at IhcJr par value, in order to givE tk»
credit in the colony, many of the colony's biUs Imed te pir
for the expedition. In tbe winter of ifi^o be returned le Big-
hind, vainly sought aid for another eipedition agalnil Cawh.
and urged, with Increase Mather, the colonial agent, a mun-
lion of the colony's charter, annulled duttn« the Kip d
Charles It. The Crown, at the niggcMioD of Uathet, ^ifniiud
EihiofM. <N. M.) him the first royal governor under Ihenew chann. Oa ladkt
PHILTRB (Lat. p/iillrum, from Cr. ^rpov, A>iir, to love), Boston in May 1691, Phips found the colony in ■ kit *■
1 drug or other medicinal drink supposed to have the nugical ordered condition, and though honeit, penevciiiig >Bd bA-
property of eidling love. posed to exalt his prerogative al the expenae al tha pMfk. it
PBIMEDS, in Creek legend, son of Agenor, the bb'nd king of »^ unfitted for the diKcult poiltion. He appoiDUdaTedd
Salinydcssus on the coast ol Thrace. He was skilled in the art commission to Iry the witchcraft cases, hut did aothiat <•
of navigation, and Apollo had bestowed upon him the gift of stop the witchcraft mania, and suspended the vLtinp d di
prophecy. His blindness was a punishment from the gods for court only aJter great atrocities had been committed I>
his having revealed the counsels of Zens To mortals, or for his defending the frontier he displayed great oiero^, hut Vt
treatment of his sons by his firsl wife Cleopatra. His second policy of building forta was expensive and therefoic onpojala
wife having accused her stepsons irf dishonourable proposals, Having the manners of a i7ih.centu(y sea enptain, he becut
Fhincus put out their eyes, or exposed them 10 the wild beasLs, involved in many quarrels, and engaged in a hitler nntiofoq
or buried them in the ground up to their waisu and ordered with Governor Benjamin Fletcher of New Vork. Haaam
them 10 be scourged. Zeus oUcred him the choice of death or complaints to Ihe home government resolted In Ui b^
blindness. I^ineus chose the bticr, whereupon Helios (the summoned to England to answer chaigea. While In LvdM
sun-god), offended at the slight thus put upon him, sent the awaiting trial, he died on the lEth of Februaiy 1695.
Harpies 10 torment him. In anolher story, the Argonauts See Cotton Mather's
(amongst whom were Calais and Zclcs, the brothen of CTco- (London, 1697; rrpubli.
paira), on their arrival in Thrace found the sons of Pbincus S?*" '.' . '^■" •
Lilf-buried in the earth nnd demanded their liberation. Phineua ■■ sS'tfem I'hW'' ^
refuscd,andafight tookplacein whichhewajslaiaby Ifcraclcs, lenn i, voL ii. (Ponla
who Irecd Cleopatra (who had been thrown into prison) PkipiidrTaMQuclvc {Qii.
and her sons, and reinstated them as rakrs of Ihe kingdom. t-*l^',^i!""J' ^'l'.
Tragedies on^t he subject of Phineus were written by A«Sj!us ""^ '' """ ^''^'^•' '
nnd Sophocles. These would directly appeal la an Athenian PKLBBITtS (from Cr. ^X!^, a vcm), inflammation aft iA
audience, Phineus's first wife having b»n Ihe daughter of When a vein b irllamed the blood in It is apt (0 font a (W,
Orithyia (daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens), who had or thrombus, which, if loosened and displaced fram its oi^
been carried off by Boreas 10 his home in Thrace. The punish- position, may be carried as an embolus (owardi Ihe bean Ml
■nent of Phineua would naturally be legirdcd a£ a Just retribu- there be anested; or It may pass ihrou^ Ihe cavitici <l di
■ ChrBKuU of Joshua Siyliiei^ ch. m heart into Ihe lungs, there 10 bdge and to ^ve rise Id ahrdV
■OnthneaMrothn-pamtsaceBudge'iinlraduclian (ohtsKiond aymptoms. If lhe thrombus Is fonned in Ihe inflamed^
;[^l' J^uZS^.?^"J" J'™ ' I'l^ °"'" '"''" "^ "'■'"'^" of a pile ii may pass as an embolus (sec HuHounn) Wi
'One by Martin (TnC-SZ^o cirtKHorJt^ rf tf««,.«„, !>« "i™ " an embolus is tamed through .he kft ■*<**
lintuat lyrfatat) and one by Cuidi (La LrUtn ii Mnieno al heart il may enter the large vessels al the root of the aictat
mtraadi rtH 'Aids). reach Ihe brain, ginng rise to serioui ccnbial dinurtMceit
PHLEGON— PHOCAEA
447
ta a Caul paraJysii. The thrombus may be formed in gout
and rheumatism, or in consequence of stagnation of the blood-
curent due to slowing of the circulation in various wasting
cfiseascs. When a thrombus forms, absolute rest in the re-
cnnbat posture is to be strictly enjoined; the great danger
is tbe dispbcement of the clot. An inflamed and clotted vein,
ii near the surface, causes an elongated, dusky elevation beneath
tk skin, where the vein may be felt as a hard cord, the size,
petliips, of a cedar pencil, or a pen-holder. Its course is marked
faf (Teat tenderness, and the tissue which was drained by the
Ivandics of that vein are livid from congestion, and perhaps
bony ukI [Mtting with oedcnui. If, as often happens, the
inflamed vein is one of those running conspicuously upwards
fnn the foot — a saphenous vein (aa0^, distinct) — the patient
ilwild be placed in bed with the limb secured on a splint in
order to protect it from any rough movement. Should the clot
become detached, it might give rise to sudden and alarming
faintoesi possibly even to a fatal syncope. Thus, there is
always grave risk with an inflamed and clotted vein, and modem
aorsery shows that the safest course is, when practicable, to
place a Ugature on the vein upon the heart-side of the clotted
piece and to remove the btter by dissection. When, as some-
tnm happens, the clot is invaded by septic organisms it is
paiticalariy liable to become disintegrated, and if parts of it
an carried to various regions of the body they may there give
>ise to the formation of secondary abscesses. In the ordinary
tetment of phlebitis, in addition to the insistence on perfect
Rst a&d quiet, fomentations may be applied locally, the limb
iKiog kept raised. Massage must not be employed so long as
te is any risk of a clot being detached. (E. O.*)
nUGON. of Trallea in Asia Minor, Greek writer and freed-
■aa of the emperor Hadrian, flourished in the 2nd century a.d.
Ha chief work was the Olympiads ^ an historical compendium
^ aztccn books, from the ist down to the aagth Olympiad
(77^ LC to A.1X 137), of which several chapters are preserved
bfhothtt and Syncellus. Two small works by him are extant:
0» Hands, containing some ridiculous stories about ghosts.
Prophecies and monstrous births, but instructive as regards
*ioent superstitions; On Long-lived Persons, a list of Italians
•ho had passed the age of zoo, taken from the Roman censuses.
^^ worics ascribed to Phlegon by Suldas are a description of
Sc3y, a work on the Roman festivals in three books, and a
^•praphy of Rome.
rnrments in C. KIQllcr, Frag. hist, graec. iiL; of the Marvels and
^•■jJnwl in O. Keller, Rcrum naturalium scriMores, i. (1877);
•e aho H. Dids, " Phlcgons Andrc^yncnorakel in SibyUimsche
«tlln (1890).
PHbOGOFITE, a mineral belonging to the group of
*IKM (f «.). It is a magnesium mica, differing from biotite
^CBotaining only a little iron; the chemical formula is
IH|KXHgF)]3Mgt.'\l(Si04)]. It crystallizes in the monoclinic sys-
**■! hat the crystals are rouglily developed. There is a perfect
^*>nge parallel to the basal plane; the cleavage flakes are not
^Bte 90 elastic as those of muscovile. Sometimes it is quite
^I^Ndess and transparent, but usually of a characteristic yellow-
"^hiown colour, and often with a silvery lustre on the cleavage
■■faces, hence the trade name " silver amber mica " for some
^^^rieties* The name phlogopitc is from Gr. 0Xo7anr6s (flery-
■ookiB^, the mineral being sometimes brownish-red and coppery
''I ^ipeuaDce. The hardness is 2^-3, and the specific gravity
^'78-2*85. The optic axial plane is parallel to the plane of
^ynmetry and the axial angle o^-io**. Phlogopitc occurs
^^y as scales and plates embedded in crystalline limestones
^ the Archean formation. The mica mined in Canada and
OyioD is mainly phlogopitc, and is largely used as an insulator
^ dectrical purposes. In Gmada it occurs with apatite in
l^nnene rocks which are intrusive in Laurentian gneisses and
ClyKaDitte limestones, the principal mining district being in
Ottawa county in Quebec and near Burgess in Lanark county,
Ootark). In Ceylon, the mineral forms irregular veins,
tudy exceeding one or two feet in width, traversing granu-
Ike^ eq>crially near tbe contact of this rock with crystalline
IimcstonB. (L. J. S.)
PHLOX (Nat. Ord. Polcmoniaccae), a genus of about 30
species, mostly perennial hardy plants of great beauty, luitivei
of North America (one occurs in Siberia), with entire, usuaUy
opposite, leaves and showy flowers generally in termina dusters.
Each flower has a tubular cidyx with five lobes, and a salver
shaped corolla with a long slender tube and a flat limb. The
five stamens are given off from the tubef of the corolla at different
heights and do not protrude beyond it. The ovary is three-
celled with one to two ovules in each cell; it ripens into a three-
valved capsule, ^fany of the species and varieties are tall
herbs yielding a wealth of bloom throughout the summer and
early autumn. These require a deep, rich, and rather heavy
loam, and a cool, moist position to flourish.
The dwarf perennial spedes and varieties, the " moss pinks "
of gardens, are charming plants for the rockery and as edging
to beds and borders. They are trailing and tufted in habit,
the branches rooting at the nodes. They succeed in poorer
soil, and drier situations than the tall kinds. Seed is seldom
produced. Propagation is effected by cuttings in July and
early August, pbce<l in a cold frame, and by division of the
plants, which should be lifted carefully, and cut into rooted
portions as required. The tufted kinds decay in patches in
winter if the situation is moist and the weather mild and wet.
Phlox Drummondii and its numerous varieties are half-hardy
annuals in Britain. It is a small-growing hairy pbnt, flowering
profusely during the sununer months. For early flowering
it should be sown in heat in March and April and transferred
out of doors in June. It succeeds if sown out of doors in April,
but the flowering season is bter and shorter.
The tall-growing border phloxes are divided into early and
bte flowering kinds respectivdy, the former derived mainly
from P, glabcrrima and P. sufruticosa, and the latter from
P. maculata and P. paniculata. The salver-shaped flowers
with cylindrical tubes range from pure white to almost bright
scarlet in colour, passing through shades of pink, purple, magenta
lilac, mauve and salmon. New varieties are obtained by the
sdection of seedlings. Owing to the frequent introduction
of new kinds, the reader is referred to the current lists published
by growers and nurserymen. The " moss pinks," P. subulaia
and its varieties, are all worthy of a place in the alpine garden.
The varieties arc relatively few. The following list indudes
ncariy all the best kinds: —
P. sUbulata, pink with dark centre; Aldhoroughensis, rose; annulala,
bluish white, nngcd with purple; airolilacina, deep MIac ; atropurpurea
purple-rose and crim.<ion; Brightness, bright rose with scarlet eye;
compccta, dear rose; Fairy, lilac; G. F. Wilson, mauve; grandiflora,
pink, crimson blotch; Little Dot, white, blue centre; Netsoni, pure
white; Vivid, rose, carmine centre; all these arc about 4 in. nigh.
P. divaricata, lavender, height I f t. ; P. ovata, rose, i ft. ; P. reptans,
rose, 6 in.; and P. amoena, rose, 9 in., arc also charming alpines.
P. Drummondii varieties come true from seed, but arc usually
sown in mixture.
PHOCAEA (mod. Fokia or Fokha) an andent city on the
western coast of Asia Minor, famous as the mother dty of
Marseilles. It was the most northern of the Ionian dties, and
was situated on the coast of the peninsula which separates the
gulf of Cyme, occupied by Aeolian settlers, from the Hermaean
Gulf, on which stood Smyrna and Clazomenae.* Its position
between two good harbours, Naustathmus and Lampter (Livy
xxxvii. 31), led the inhabitants to devote themselves to
maritime pursuits. According to Herodotus the Phocaeans
were the first of all the Greeks to undertake distant voyages,
and made known the coasts of the Adriatic, Tyrrhcnia and Spain.
Arganthonius, king of Tartessus in Spain, invited them to
emigrate in a body to his dominions, and, on their declining,
presented them with a large sum of money. This they employed
in constructing a strong wall around their dty, a defence which
stood them in good stead when Ionia was attacked by Cyrus
in 546. Eventually they determined to seek a new home in
the west, where they already had flourishing colonies, e.g.
* It ^'as said to have l)ccn founded by a band of emigrants from
Phocis, undcT the guidance of two Athenian leaders, named Philo-
gcncs and Damon, out it joined the Ionian confederacy bv alOce^^XDfl^
the government of Athenian rulers ol X.Vvt Yvo\xai^ cJl C<y\t\ait.
448
PHOCAS— PHOCIS
Alalia in Corsica and Massilia (mod. Marseilles). A large part
of the emigrants proceeded only as far as Chios, returned to
Phocaca, and submitted to the Persian yoke.
Phocaea continued to exist under the Persian government,
but greatly reduced in population and commerce. Though it
joined in the Ionian revolt against Persia in 500 it was able to
send only three ships to the combined fleet which fought at
Lade. But a Phocacan took the supreme command. It never
again pbyed a prominent part in Ionian history, and is rarely
mentioned. In the time of Timur Fujah was a fortress of
Sarukhan, but had been previously in Genoese hands. The
ruins still visible on the site bear the name of Palaca Fokia, but
they are of little interest. The modem town in the immediate
neighbourhood, still known as Fokia, was founded by the Genoese
in 143 1 on account of the rich alum mines in the neighbourhood.
It has a fair natural harbour, which is the nearest outlet of the
rich, district of Menemen. About x88o, while the Gedix Chai
was throwing its silt unchecked into the Gulf of Smyrna and
gradually filling the navigable channel, there was talk of reviving
Fokia as a new port for Smyrna, and connecting it with the
Cassaba railway. But, in deference to Smymiote protests, a new
estuary was cut for the Gediz. Fokia has acquired local impor-
tance however as a port of call for coasting steamers, and it is
used to some degree as a summer residence by Smymiotes.
(D. G. H.)
PHOCAS, East Roman emperor (602-O10), was a Cappadodan
of humble origin. He was still but a centurion when chosen by
the army of the Danube to lead it against Constantinople. A
revolt within the city soon afterwards resulted in the abdication
of the reigning emperor Maurice, and in the elevation of Phocas
to the throne, which seems to have been accomplished by one
of the circus factions against the wish of the troops. Phocas
proved entirely incapable of governing the empire. He con-
sented to pay an increased tribute to the Avars and allowed the
Persians, who had declared war in 604 under Chosroes II., to
overrun the Asiatic provinces and to penetrate to the Bosporus.
When the African governor Heradius declared against him,
Phocas was deserted by the starving populace of Constantinople,
and deposed with scarcely a struggle (6zo). He died in the
tame year on the scaffold.
Sec J. B. Bur^', Tkf Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), IL 197-206.
FHOCION, Athenian statesman and general, was bom about |
40a B.c.,^ the son of a small manufacturer. He became a pupil
of Plato and in later life was a dose friend of Xenocrates. This
academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a soldier
rather than as a philosopher that he first came into notice.
Under Chabrias he distinguished himself in the great sea-fight
of Naxos (376), and in the subsequent campaigns loyally
supportc<l his chief. He won the confidence of the allies by
his justice and integrity. In 351-349' he entered the Persian
service and helped to subdue a rct)cllion in Cyprus. Hence-
forward he always held a prominent position in Athens, and
although he never canvassed he was elected general forty-five
times in all. In politics he is known chiefly as the consistent
opponent of the anti-Macedonian firebrands, headed by Demos-
thenes, Lycurgus and Hypercidcs, whose fervent doquence he
endeavoured to damp by recounting the plain facts of Athens's
military and financial weakness and her need of peace, even
when the arms of Athens seemed to prosper most. But although
he won the respect of his audience, his advice was frequently
discarded. Yet his influence was fdt at the trial of Aeschines
in 343, whom he helped to defend, and after the disaster of
Chacroneia (338), when he secured very lenient terms from
Philip. He also rendered good service in the field: in 348 he
saved the force operating against the philo-Macedonian tyrants
in.Euboea by the brilliant victory of Tamynae. Under the
Macedonian predominance his reputation steadily increased.
* DiodoruH* statement that Phocion wan 75 at his death (i.e. that
he Ix-camc general at 30 and wa« clect«i 45 years in succession)
would give 394-393 as the date of birth; but he must have been
quite 25 as secnnd-m-command at Naxos (376).
' The rhronoloj^' i^ uncertain; the dates given for thb period are
Se/ocA 'm (GriechiuJU GesckUkk, i\.).
Though by no means inclined to truckle, to the Ifaoedoniani*
as is shown by his protection of the refugee Hmrpalus mod hit
spirited campaign in defence of Attica in 333, he won the ood&-
dence of the conquerors, and in the restricted democncy whick
Antipater enforced he became the virtual ruler of Athens. Old
age, however, was telling on him; when Polyperchon by his
proclamation of " freedom " raised a new crius in 318, Pbodon's
dilatoriness was interpreted as active treason on r«HMnder*s
behalf, and the people, incited by the restored democrats,
deposed him from office. Phocion fled to Polypercbon, bat
was sent back by the latter to be tried at Athens. The assembly,
containing numerous slaves and all the city mob, shouted
Phocion down and condemned him to death unbcud. Noc
long after, the Athenians decreed a public burial and a sUtne
in his honour.
Phocion 's character and policy were throughout inspired by
his philosophic training, which best expbins his remaikabfe
purity of character and his prudent coundls. To the same
influence we may ascribe his reserve and his reluctance to
co-operate heartily either with the people or with the Macedontu
conquerors who put their trust in him: a greater spirit of enoif
and enterprise might have made him the saviour of his oouDti)r.
Phocion remained famous in antiquity for the pithy sijuifi
with which he tiscd to parry the eloquence of his oppooeBli
Demosthenes called him " the chopper of my periods."
Plutarch (Lt/r of Phocion) draws much ^ood informatioa frsa
Philochorus and Duris (vyho reproduces Hicronymus ti Cirdia^;
his numerous anecdotes arc n*pcated in other works of his sad is
Adian iy^r. hist.). Diodoruit (xvi.-xviii.) is likewise ba«d as
Duris. Sec Holm. Gib. Hut. vol. iii. (Eng. trans., London, 1896).
(M.O.&C)
PHOCIS, an andent district of central Greece (now sdcptit-
ment, pop. 63,346), about 635 sq. m. in area, bounded oe tki
W. by Ozolian Locris and Doris, on the N. by OpuntianLocriii
on the E. by Boeotia, and on the S. by the Corinthian GdL
The massive ridge of Parnassus (8068 ft.), which travenei tki
heart of the country, divides it into two distinct poctidii
Between this central barrier and the northern frontier nafe of
Cncmis (3000 ft.) is the narrow but fertile valley of the Ccph^A
along which most of the Phodan townships were scsttflwL
Under the southern slope of Parnassus were situated ibe t«<
small plains of Crisa and Anticyra, separated by Mt Ciipki^
an offshoot from the main range. Bdng ndther rich in nateriil
resources nor well placed for commercial enterprise, Phods m
mainly pastoral. No large cities grew up within its ieniW7>
and its chief places were mainly of strategic importance.
The early history of Phods remains quite obscure. FMM
the scanty notices of Greek legend it may be gathered tint 11
influx of tribes from the north contributed largely to its popnl*'
tion, which was reckoned as AeoUc. It is probable tktf tk(
country was originally of greater extent, for there wasatrvlitios
that the Phocians once owned a strip of land round Dapkn*
on the sea opposite Euboea, and carried thdr frontier to 'nK^
mopylae; in addition, in early days they controlled the ptal
sanctuary of Delphi. The restriction of thdr territory vasdK
to the hostility of their neighbours of Boeotia and Tbesii||f«
the latter of whom in the 6th century even carried their M
into the CcphLssus valley. Moreover the Dorian popnUli*
of Delphi constantly strove to establish its independoKt ti^
about 590 n.c. induced a coalition of Greek states to pioduB*
" Sacred War " and free the orade from Phodan
Thus their influence at Delphi was restricted to the
of two votes in the Amphictyonic CotmdL
During the Persian invasion of 480 the Phodani st W
joined in the national defence, but by their irresoluu eoadict
at Thermopylae lost that position for the Greeks; in the caS"
paign of Plalaca they were enrolled on the Persian ode. b
457 an attempt to extend their influence to the head wstcn*
the Cephissus in the territory of Doris brought a SpaitSB V^
into Phocis in defence of the " metropolis of the DorisBk'' A
similar enterprise against Delphi in 448 was again fnitratM
by Sparta, but not long afterwards the Phodans recapHni
the sanctuary with the help of the Athenians, with vhoatk^
PHOCYLIDES— PHOENICIA
449
hftd entered into adiaiice in 454. The subsequent decline of
Athenian land-power hjui the effect of weakening this new
connexion; at the time of the Pcioponnesian War Phods was
nominally an ally and dq)endent of Sparta, and had lost control
of Delphi.
In the 4th century Phods was constantly endangered by
iu Boeotian neighbours. After helping the Sfmrtans to invade
Boeotia during the Corinthian War (395-94), the Phocians
were placed on the defensive. They received assistance from
Sparta in 380, but were afterwards compelled to submit to the
growing power of Thebes. The Phocian levy took part in
Epaminondas' inroads into Pdoponncsus, except in the final
campaign of Mantinea (370-62), from which their contingent
was withhdd. In return for this negligence the Thcbans
fastened a religious quarrd upon their neighbours, and secured
a penal decree against them from the Amphictyonic synod
(3S6). The Phocians, led by two capable generals, Philomelus
ud Onomarchus, replied by seizing Delphi and using its riches
to hire a mercenary army. With the help of these troops the
Fhodan League at first carried the war into fioeotia and Thessaly,
ud though driven out of the latter country by Philip of Macedon,
nttiatained itself for ten years, until the exhaustion of the
temple treasures and the treachery of its leaders placed it at
PUlip's merey. The conditions which he imposed — the obliga-
tkm to restore the temple funds, and the dispersion of the
population into open villages — were soon disregarded. In
339 the Phodans began to rebuild their cities; in the following
Jttx they fought against Philip at Chaeronea. Again in 323
they lock part in the Lamian War against Antipatcr, and in
^9 helped to defend Thermopylae against the Gauls.
Henceforth little more is heard of Phocis. During the 3rd
ceatuiy it passed into the powcrof Macedoniaandof theActolian
LciSue, to which in 196 it was definitely annexed. Under the
daoiinion of the Roman republic its national league was dissolved,
bat was revived by Augustus, who also restored to Phocis the
votes in the Ddphic Amphictyony which it had lost in 346 and
cuolled it in the new Achaean synod. The Phocian League
blait heard of under Trajan.
Sfe Strabo. pp. 401, 418, 424-425; Pausanias x. 1-4; E. Freeman,
««*ry »f Feaeral Cocemment (oil. 1893, London), pp. 113-114; C.
Kuuotr, Dt foederis Pkocensium tHStitutis (Leipzig, 1899; ; B. Head,
autorja numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 287-288.
(M. 0. B. C.)
PHOCYUDESt Greek gnomic poet of Miletus, contemporary
of Tbeognis, was bom about 560 B.C. A few fragments of his
"maxims " have been preserved (chiefly in the FloriUgium of
&obaeu5), in which he expresses his contempt for the pomps
iad vanities of rank and wealth, and sets forth in simple language
liii ideas of honour, justice and wisdom. A complete didactic
poem (230 hexameters) called Ilmi^/za voi'dtriubv or 7i'u>/zai,
bearing the name of Phocylides, is now considered to be the
voriL of an Alexandrian Christian of Jewish origin who lived
between 170 B.C. and a.d. 50. The Jewish element is shown in
Tertial agreement with passages of the Old Testament (especially
the book of Sirach); the Christian by the doctrine of the immor-
Ulity of the soul and the resurrection of the body. Some
Jewish authorities, however, maintain that there are in reality
tt) traces of Christan doctrine to be found in the poem, and
that the author was a Jew. The poem was first printed at
Venice in 1495, and was a favourite school textbook during
the Reformation period.
See fr^mcnts and the spurious poem In T. Bct^k, Poctce lyrUi
ttt«i. iL (4th ed., 1882); J. Ik-rnays Vber das PliokyUdci^ckc
ittdkU (1858); Phocylides, Poem of Admonition, with intnxiuction
tadcomnocniariesby J. B. Fcnlini;, and translation bv H. D. Good-
*in (Aodover, Mass., 1879); F. Suseinihl, CeschichU acr ^riechischcn
jMtmUur in der AlexandrinerzeU, (1802), ii. 642; S. Krauss (s.v.
"pRodo-Phocylideb ") in The Jeaeish linc^lopcdia and E. SchUixT,
BitL of the Jevrish People, div. ii., vol. iii.. 313-316 (Ent;. trans.,
1886), wha« full bibliographies are given. There is an English verse
traatbtioo by W. Hewett (Watford, 1840), The Perceptive Poem of
Phocylides.
raOESB* in astronomy, the ninth satellite of Saturn in
Older of discovery, or the tenth and outermost now known in
the order of distance. It was discovered by W. H. Pickering
in 1899 by photographs of the stars surrounding Saturn. It is
remarkable in that its motion around the planet is retrograde.
fScc Satukv )
PHOEBUS (Gr. for "bright," "pure,"), a common epithet
of Apollo (q.v.). Artemis in like manner is called Phoebe, and
in the Latin poets and their modem followers Phoebus and
Phoebe are often used simply for the sun and moon respectively.
PHOENICIA* in ancient geography, the name given to that
part of the seaboard of Syria which extends from the Eleutherus
(Nahr el-Keblr) in the north to Mt Carmel in the south, a
distance of rather more than two degrees of latitude. These
linu'ts, however, were exceeded at various times; thus, north
of the Eleutherus lay Aradus and Marathus, and south of
Carmd the border sometimes included Dor and even Joppa.
Formed partly by alluvium carried down by perennial streams
from the mountains of Lebanon and Galilee, and fringed by
great sand-dunes which the sea throws up, Phocnida is covered
with a rich and fertile soil. It is only at the mouth of the
Eleutherus and at Acre (* Akkil) that the strip of coast-land widens
out into plains of any size; there is a certain amotmt of open
country behind BeirQt; but for the most part the mountains,
pierced by deep river-valleys, approach to within a few miles
of the coast, or even right down to the sea, as at Rfts en-Nftl^Qra
(Scala Tyriorum, Jos. Bell. jud. ii. 10, 2) and Ras d-Abiad
(Pliny's Promunturium Album), where a passage had to be cut
in the rock for the caravan road which from time immemorial
traversed this narrow belt of lowland. From the flanks of
Lebanon, espedally from the heights which lie to the north of
the (^^simlyeh or Kasimiya (Llt&ny) River, the traveller looks
down upon some of the finest landscape in the world; in general
features the scenery b not unlike that of the Italian Riviera,
but surpasses it in grandeur and a peculiar depth of colouring.
With regard to natural products the country has few worth
mentioning; minerals are found in the Lebanon, but not in any
quantity; traces of amber-digging have been discovered on the
coast; and the purple shell {murex trunculus and brandaris)
is still plentiful. The harbours which played so important a
part in antiquity are nearly all silted up, and, with the exception
of Beirut, afford no safe anchorage for the large vessels of
modem times. A few bays, facing towards the north, break
the coast-line, and small rocky islands are dotted here and there
just off the shore. Sidon, Tyre and Aradus, though now
connected with the mainland, were built originally upon islands^
the Phoenicians preferred such sites, because they were con-*
venicnt for shipping and easily defended against attack.
The chief towns of ancient Phoenicia, as we know of them from
the Amarn.i tablets (15th century B.C.) and fmm Rgyptian, Assyrian
and the Old Tc^itament documents, were the following: Acco (now
Acre or 'Akka, Judg. i. 31). Achzib (now cz-Zib, ibid.), Ahlab (in
Assyrian Mahalliba. ibid.; — thrt'c towns on the coast south of Tyre,
Kanuh (Josh. xix. 28), Tyre (Phoen. §«5r, now $Qr), Zarcphath
or Sarepta (i Kings xvii. 9 now Sar.if.ind), Sidon (now §atda),
Bor>-tus (Binita in Etjyptian, Biruna in the Amarna tablets, now
Beirut), iWblus (in Phocn. and Ilcbr. C}ebal, now Jcbeil), Arka, So m.
north of Sidon (Ccn. x. 17, now "Arkd), Sin (Assyr. Siannu, ibid.)
Simyra (Gen. x. 18, now ^umril). Marathus (now Amrit) not impor-
tant till the Macedonian |>criod, Arvad or Aradus (in Phoen.
ArwSd. now Kuiid, Gen. x.^ 18; Ezek. xxvii. 8, 11), the most
northerly of the great Phoenician towns, and always famous as a
maritime state.
Race and Language. — ^The Phoenicians were an early offshoot
from the Semitic stock, and belonged to the Canaanite branch
of it. Curiously enough in Gen. x. Sidon, the " first-born "
of Canaan, is classed among the descendants of Ham; but the
tabic of nations in Gen. x. is not arranged upon strict ethno-^
graphic principles; perhaps religious antagonism induced the
Hebrews to assign to the Canaanitcs an ancestry different from
their own; at any rate the close connexion which existed from
an early date between the Phoenicians and the Eg>'ptians may
have suggested the idea that both peoples belonged to the same
race. The Phoenicians themselves retained some memory of
having migrated from older seats on an eastern sea; Herodotus
(i. i; vii. 89) calls it the "red sca^" Trvt;itv\iv^ ^x^iN^^ >^^
♦50 PHOE
Pcnian Cull; the tradition, thnclon, kru to ihow that Ibc
Bnbybni). hy Killing iilong the Syiian coul they developed
I ttrgngcly im-Semilic love for the Ka, and advanced on diffeceM
tnn Itom the oihgr C>na3iutM who o((upied lie interior.
They called iherastlvo CinsanitM and Iheit land CaoaaB;
luch ii ihcii Bime in the Ajnama tablclj, KimMi and KiaaiHi;
and vith thia agrees the atatemcnt assigned to Hccalaeus
(Fr. kill. p. i. 17) that Phoenicia, was formerly called X>a,
a name which Fhilo of Byblus adopts into his mythology by
o[ the Phoenicians (Fr. kiiL fr, iii. ibt). In the leisn of
Aniiochui IV. and hU successors the ctiiu of Laodicea of Libanug
bra. (he legend "Of Laodicea which i» In Caoaaa";' the Old Nmh°ASea°dll'ihe7th
Tcsiament also tonwtimef denotes Phoenicia and Phoenician* ■ 1 — •>..-.. .
zVL*^,"thc.^the'^™'n^e>'^e.Sy''ha™a^m^«- BulBty.-Tbt Vbofrddtm. in Imitalloa "t^^JtTfl^
^'^f'cl^^^^^^^^^
Ihc Old Testament and in Lhc Assyrian monumenls {Siduntm);
and even at the time of Tyre's gteilcsl ascendancy we read of
SidoniansandnotTyiiansinlheOUlTeslamentandinHomer; : 3. . . . . , j ^ , j . ,„
thus Elhbaal king ol Tyre (}». A»l. viii. ij. 2) is caUed kuig ^^'1""' ^^ ^^ '^"= f""""!^"™ of Tyre V* V^
cbimed that their oldest cities bad b«n [ounded by Ibe full
ihcmKlvcs, and that their race could h
antiquity of 30,000 yeire (Aftitanus in S
■ Herodotus '" '
ni. vjn. ij, 31 a coiicu ung i-,' rtnr A V ITlfiEb
iBSi «- vi. i,T) and ♦o{««r, *o,ri«, (Od. »iiL iji. xi". >88 S,d™.foundrfTyrc intheyeat bctorethetallof TjpyjporiJ
«q.. Ae.l, and both tern. toRclher (Orf. Iv. 83 seq., //. niii. ")^ ^" '"? "■"■.■ ^^^.^^^ Mcnarderof Epho^ (u, J»^
^j «q.)" And the Phoenician. them«lv«'«sed Sidonians y|ii j. , «,d c X/.t tS) aa that I™, whch the m <*>
V a general name; thus in the oldest Phoenician inscription '"^'V- ™l "'" '" ""l 'P«'' "J^ J"*" moumis.ua.
known (C/S i <:-HSI No ill Hiram II kine of Tvrein "rlainty, however, can be allowed lo these traditiooal dme-
the Bth centity it styled"" king of the Sidonia'ns." But among ^"- . I' » P^^l^ble that in renBte ^ B.byk»i. eBftM
the Creeks " Phoenicians " wis the name most in use <hbi^ ' """itltraWf inllucnce upon Syna and its coast toUBK l«
(plur. of *oI«£) for the people and *«f1o, for the land (cf. MrL.W.Kinghasshown that thetnditit
PiroEMx). The former ias prohaUy the dder word, and may '" ""'-'" ^"'"■' ' " '""""> ""■
be traced to *oit6i-." blood-ted "; the Canaanile sailors were
then the land from which they came waa called after them;
«D»«I - - -
Sugon I. (f. jSoo I.e.) with the wniem laadiil
»a, has been misundcniood; It wai the sea in ibeaisi, Utii
Persian Culf, which Sargon crossed {Cknmidtt uttfPBf
£or/y Bab. Kinis, vol. i. ch. 2, 1907).
The otension o( the Egyptian empire tn the diiKlka<(
began about [600 B.C. under Ahmoai (Aahmci, Amia^U
wm was lujguiien, nnu new jonns anu meanings were ... ... x.*^tt.l 1^ . i. - j
enled. Thus ^n( came to mean a "date-paUn"; but lhc f™-"!." "I th= XVTiUh l^ty who amed
the dale-pah
Syna. and conquered at least Palestine j
kardly grow there; *«-.{ in this sense has nocomiexion ^fJ''r'^hrF.^,^I'*'™o^»«'I^
the F.gyptian monument* {HUller, Al.
0>U
lZl.,ZtZrr^T.Z F^li^'p I ™^ ..^^ Eur. p. ISO. -VVhc^her the campaign of HBthnie. CTrtlw-d
^ririn of the name- Wt he ^fZ iZ\^^. Za^I 1- '" '»« Enphrates produced aV^ling re«>lt. I dwhttd;
ongjn 01 the name but the word rc«# was apparently used ol . .rt. .l ..t / \ \. . j j j
AsUiticbarbariansik general. without anyspecLiJreferenceloth. " wasTJothmcs HLCijoj-.w) whorepeatedandcooiohd^
Phoenicians (W.M.MUllcr,ylr«KB.£i,r<.^,, p. ao8 seq.). The t*" °^V conquest, and estabhshed Egyptian sUBaWJ
Lat. /•«-.« L of course merely an adaptation i the C™t form.' ^J" "" !*« ^I'y states of Syna «>d Phocn™ (.« E«r.
' ' ■."■■■ Iliilmy, I.). For the geography and civihiation of Canaaaita*
l^ 1400 B.C. we have valnabk evidence in the Etyptian pi|V»
in Anaslasi I., which mentions Kepuna (Gubna, GdMkBybM
bi ihe holy city, and continues: " Come then to Beiytin, ta S'''
°y toSarepta. Where is the ford of Nal-'ana (7 Kahr d-Eldp
n. or a town)? VVlieic is 'Eutu I? Uau. Palaetynu) t Ad
III city on Ihe sea is called a haven, D'ar (Tyre) is iu bum, <
'<' ii carried to It in boats; it is richer in fiih than in laiidi." '
f}^ Ihc luUest infotmation about the note of Phoenida in tk i^
di. and 14th centuries b.c comes from the Amama tabko, an*
an which are many Icltcn from the luhject princtt lal >)■
^ Egyptian governors of Phoenicia to the Phofaoh.' IlwaiatiX
rtmcmliercd tSni our maiprL.I a •ninty and limired [a ramie- the "' ""*'' PO'''''^ ditturbante. The Hiltitet ((.».) were BnM
rhucniciani wi'n.- in no ivnv a literary piiHilc- moreover with' one ^y™i nomads fiorn Ihe desert supported tbe invasOD; 1^
eireptioii ICIS. i. 5). aliimn all ilie nactipiions are sulncqumt many of the local chiefs were ready to seiu the opptftod?
'LoiAi-. AVrt-.S(«.ili( iHUfifUiM (dycwliere abbreviated lo throw ofl the yoke of Egypt. Tlie towns ol Phoenicia ««
KSI.j. No. 149 II. «. ipor Ihe Phocn. in«:rr. ace Cor/niJ >iucn>li«iu HMiilwm.
' In ihn luasage rhocnlclana l> a (enerat name for cairien pt. L, bniughi up 10 date piDviiionally liy R/ptrUn tIfV-
o(c..n.iiierc<;,nolihemhabnantiola|anicuUrcouniry. Similarly i(«. A ■election ii nabliihed by Lidibanbi. Aaiilfuk^aaM.
SnUmian in // yi. ia», is taken to mean Seiniin in ernrril. A>(rqp*rt (iH^a); Cooke. Teilitok ol NmO^StmHit iMMriff
Elsewhere Ptioeucians niv m'tchano. kklnappen, 4c., '^Sidon- (190)!, with tranilalion. and notes: Undau. Bnlrin a .4111*^
lans are ani>|l(; to indicate nationality both names leera to be i.Orirnli (iSw-ifuejiLidibanki. ^(Urw. 7"atr (lao?), pt-i.
IIen^tlv,tt(Miin.J7J.iov.l8)l.».4i4- 'Sec W. M7Mu!ler.foe. (il. pp. jr. t7» "N. iB+^Rq-:J">**
'5™l[y ™«lii™n, Cn^, if^^ifiiuifr, 13 sqq., and fa. .<. r, mi«*tt r*. nff. OieaU, p. 301 acq.; JtHwBflTfcA*
r Bold, "'TWin^r, Ttll-a-Am. Ullm Nos. 37 aqq.l PUfi^ ^r**^
£iy^ ia lie TcU d ^ M. £(IKri.
u.i. ^. r..^ ed.. laj. '
PHOENICIA
451
ivM, Simyn, Sidon supported the rebellion; Rib-
lual of Byblus, and Abi-melech, king of Tyre, held
>t; but while all the towns made professions of
were sdieming for their own interests, and in the
Mt them all except Byblus. The tablets which
ite of affairs are written in the language and script
, and thus show indirectly the extent to which
nilture had penetrated Palestine and Phoenicia;
time they illustrate the closeness of the relations
Canaanite towns and the dominant power of
•X the reign of Amenophis IV. (1370-1366) that
sed altogether; but his successors attempted to
ad Ramses (Rameses) II. reconquered Phoenicia
at, and carved three tablets on the rock beside the
> to commemorate his victories; under the XlXth
ynasties this seems to have remained the northern
Egyptian Empire. But in the reign of Ramses III.
at changes began to occur owing to the invasion
eoples from Asia Minor and Europe, which ended
hment of the Philistines on the coast near Ashkelon.
rs of Ramses III. lost their hold over Canaan; the
sty no longer intervened in the affairs of Syria;
I (Shishak), the founder of the XXIInd Dynasty,
:. endeavoured to assert the andent supremacy of
Kings xiv. 25 sqq.), but his successes were not
as we learn from the Old Testament, the power of
le henceforward practically ineffective. Not until
iraoh (Necho) lead an Egyptian army so far north,
defeated by Nebuchadrezzar. During the period
1 before the rise of the Assyrian power in Syria
ins were left to themselves. This was the period
dopment, and Tyre became the leading dty of
be withdrawal of the Egyptian rule in Syria and
idvance of Assyria there comes an interval during
ich the city-states of Phoenida owned no suzerain,
e history of this period is mainly a history of
re, which not only rose to a sort of hegemony
Phoenician states, but founded colom'es beyond
low). From 970 to 773 B.C. the bare outline of
»plied by extracts from two Hellenistic historians,
Ephesus and Dius (largely dependent upon Menan-
bave been preserved by Josephus, Ani. viii. 5, 3
. 17, 18. From the data given in these passages
t Hiram I., son of Abi-baal, reigned ini Tyre from
:. He enlarged the island-town to the east, restored
1 the temples, built new ones to Heracles {i.e.
Melqarth) and Astarte, founded the feast of the
f Heracles in the month Peritius, and reduced the
>f Utica to their allegiance. The Tyrian annals,
uded to the connexion between Hiram and Solomon,
ime, indeed, the Phoenidans had no doubt lived
:nns with the Israelites ' (cf. Judges v. 17 ; Gen. xlix.
two nations seem to have drawn closer in the time
3 Sam. V. II, which brings David and Hiram
>bably antedates what happened in the following
Solomon's palace and temple Hiram contributed
: trees as well as workmen, receiving in exchange
payments of oil and wine, supplies which Phoenicia
'awn regularly from Israelite districts (i Kings v. 9,
xxvii. 17; Ezr. iii. 7; Acts xii. 20; Jos. Ant. xiv. 10,
return for the gold which he furnished for the temple,
ed the grant of a territory in Galilee (Cabul, i Kings
This alliance between the two monarchs led to a
X. 13 (cf. 9. 6, iii. 3) the Sidonians are mentioned
pmsors of Israel ; but there is no record of any invasion
iMe Phoenicians, and the statement is due to the post-
rho introduced generalizations of ancient history into
d^^
viii. 3. I, dates the building of Solomon's temple in
of Hiram, and 420 years after the foundation of Tyre.
Fyrian era which began in 1198-1197 B.C., i.«. at the
e Philistines settled on the coast (tf Canaan, an event
joint expedition from Eziongeber on the Gulf of Akaba (strictly
Aq&ba) to Ophir (? on the east coast of Arabia, see Ophis) for
purposes of trade. The list of Hiram's successors given by
Josephus indicates frequent changes of dynasty until the time
of Ithobal I. priest of Astarte, whose reign (887-855) marks a
return to more settled r\ile. In contrast to Hiram I., king of
Tyre, Ithobal or Ethbaal is styled in i Kings xvi. 31 " king of
the Sidonians," i.e. of the Phoenidans, showing that in the
interval the kings of Tyre had extended their rule over the other
Phoenician dties. Under Ethbaal further expansion is recorded ;
Botrys north of Byblus and Aoza in North Africa are said to have
been founded by him; the more famous Carthage owed its origin
to the civil discords which followed the death of Metten I. (830),
his next successor but one. According to tradition, Metten's
son Pygmalion (820-773) slew the husbi^d of his sister Elissa
or Dido; whereupon she fled and founded Carthage (q.v.) in Libya
(813; Justin xviii. 4-6). At this point Josephus's extracts
from Menander come to an end.
From the time of Ethbaal onwards the independence of
Phoenida was threatened by the advance of Assyria. So far
back as 1 100 B.C. Tiglath-pileser I. had invaded North Artyrfam
Phoenicia, and in order to secure a harbour on the KiU9,8n»
coast he occupied Arvad (Aradus); but no permanent ••'*^
occupation followed. In the 9th century, however, the system-
atic conquest of the west began. In 876 B.C. Assur-nazir-pal III.
" washed his weapons in the great sea," and exacted tribute
from the kings of Tyre, Sidon, Byblus and other dties, including
Arvad (Keilinsckr. BiMiotkek, i. 109). The inscriptions of
his son Shalmaneser II. mention the taking of tribute from the
Tyrians and Sidonians in 846 and again in 849; the Byblians
are induded at the latter date, and among the kings defeated
at Karkar in 854 or 853 was Metten-baal, king of the Arvadites
(ibid. pp. 141, 143, 173). Thus Shalmaneser completed the
conquests of his predecessor on the Phoenidan coast, and
established a supremacy which lasted for over a hundred years
and was acknowledged by occasional payments of tribute*.
In 741 Tiglath-pileser III. mentions on his tribute-lists " Qiriim
of Tyre "; and here for the first time a piece of native evidence
becomes available. The earliest Phoenidan inscription at
present known {CIS. i. S'^NSI. No. 11) is engraved upon
the fragments of a bronze bowl dedicated by a certain governor
of <^rth-hadasht (or Karti-Hadasti, " New City," i.e. Citium),
" servant of Hiram king of the Sidonians to Baal of Lebanon."
It is to be ^oted that this Hiram II. was not only king
of Tyre, as the Assyrian inscription calls him, but of
Sidon too; and further, that by this time Tyre had established
a colony in Cyprus {q.v.). In Tiglath-pilcser's Philistine
campaign of 734 Byblus and Aradus paid tribute, and an
Assyrian chief officer (the Rab-shakeh) was sent to Tyre
and extor^ from the king, now Metten or Mattdn, the
large sum of 150 talents of gold {KB. u. 23). For
the period which follows a certain amount of information is
furnished by Menander (in Jos. Ant. ix. 14, 2). Elulaeus IX., in
Assyrian Lull, who ruled under the name of Pylas, was king of
Tyre, Sidon, and other dties at this time (c. 725-690), and at
the beginning of his reign suffered from an invasion by ShaN
maneser IV. or Salampsas (Jos.) ; this was probably the expedi-
tion against Hoshea of Samaria in 725; " the king of Assyria . . .
overran all Phoenicia, but soon made peace with them all
and returned back." In the rdgn of Sargon Phoenicia itself
seems to have been left alone; but the inhabitants of Citium
revolted, showing that the authority of Tyre in Cyprus had
grown weak; and Sargon received the submission of seven
Cyprian princes, and set up in Larnaca (probably in 709) the
triumphal stele now in the Berlin Museum (Schrader, Cuneif.
Inscr. and 0. T., 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. 87). But Elulaeus, according
to Menander, suppressed the revolt of Citium, and early in the
reign of Sennacherib joined the league of FhiUstia and Judah,
which had considerable effect upon the cities of Phoem'cia (above,
Justin xviii. 3). In the Tyrian annals (los. c. A p. i. 18) the reference
was probably to the felling of timber in Lebanon for Hiram's teavvV«b\
Josephus then roisinterprvted this by l K\ti^% v.f>.
452 PHOENICIA
b lUIuKc with Egypt ud Etliiopii, nhicb aimed it thiewing to diiplm the Childam lupnDUcyi be ddaled Tyn
oS the oppreuive tymay ol Asiyrii; u usiul, however, the Sidon, uid terroriied the other citiet inlo luhiiuiiion (He
dty->talei of Fhoesida could not combiDe even nEninsI i ii. i6i; Diod. Sic. i. 68). Some tf <he FhMnidin diicb, u
comooo tot, and KVend broke swiy hosn Tyre, » Meiundcc tbem Ilhobil 11., the new king of Tyre, while forced to yU
telli u>, isd ^ded with Auyiia. la the great campaign of jgi n change of masten, were bold eaouch to dedue their boni
Seuiachcrib came down upon the revolliog province!; be forced to the Babylonians. This itate of aSain did not e*c*pe
Lull, king of Sidon, to fly for refuge to Cyprui, took bis chief vigilance of Nebucbadreuar. After the fall of Jenaakoi
dlics, and set up Tuba'lu (Ethbaal) as king, imposing a yearly inarched upon PhDcsIcia; Apnea withdrew bii army, and
tribute {KB. il. gi). The blockade of Tyre by sea, signih- tiege of Tyre began. For thirteen years the great mocl
canlly pused over in Sennacherib's Inscription, la described by city held out (585-573: /»- '■ ^t- '' "1 cf. Eiek. i '
Menander. The iiland-dly proved to be impregnable, but it Eickiel uya that Ncbuchadrez '
wia the only possession left of what had been the catensive For their heavy service agalnsl
kingdom of Elulaeui. Sennacherib, however, so far sccompUahed that the city capitulated on faw
his object as to break up the combination of Tyre and Sidon, reign ends vrilh the cloie of the iiege, and the royal famitj
which had grown into a powerful state.' At Sidon the successor subsequenEly found in Eabylon. The king appcdnted
of Ethbaal was Abd-milkath; in alliance with a Cilidan chief be Nebuchidreizar was BuJ II. (574-564), alter whose dealt
rcbetled against Esarhaddon about the year 678, with disastrous republic was formed under a ungle luflete or " judge " UUf
coniequencH. Sidon was aifnlhOated; Abd-milkath fell into Josephus(lgc.cil,)i9againourau1ho[ily[at thechangnofgon
the liandi of Eaaihaddon, who founded a new Sidon an the ment wbich lolloned until Ibe mouArchy was revived,
mainland, peopled it with lorcigners, and called it alter his own length under Uirom 111. Phoenida passed Irons Ibc Chaldic!
name. The old name, however, survived in popular usage; to the Peisiani [5jS),andaI the ume time Amasis (Ahnn)l
hut the character a[ the city was changed, and till the time of of Egypt occupied Cyprus (Hetod. ii. iSi). There seen
Cyrus the kingdom of Sidon ceased to exist CX£. ii. 115 acq., have been no struggle; the great siege and the subecqflc
I4S; KAT.' &S). Tyre also came in (or its share of hardahip. civil di»rdei« had eihiusted Tyre, and Sidon took iB pb
Elulaeus was followed by Baal, who in 671 consented to join aa the leading stale. About this time, too, Carthage msilti
Tlrhaki, tlie Ethiopian king of Egypt, in a rebellion against effort for independence under Hanno the Great (5jS-j>i}, t
Assyria. Esarhaddon, on his way to Egypt for the second time, real founder oi its lorlunes; the old depeadence upon Tyn ■
raised earthworks on the shore and cut oQ the water-supply; sending of delegates ffiiiipai) to the festival of Melkaith (Atd
but he did not capture the dly itself. His monument found at ii. u; Polyh. iiii. », 11). The disasters and humiBuio
Zenjlrli represents the great king holding Baal of Tyre lad which helell Tyre during this and the loregoing period nl|
Tirhaka of Egypt by cords fastened in Ibeir lipa;' there is no suggest that its prosperity had been seriously damaged. I
evidence, however, that he actually look either of them prisoner. Tyre always counted for more in commerce than in pcW
Early in the reign ol Assur-t>ani-pal Tyre was besieged again and in the year 5B6, just belore the great siege, Eaekid dn
(MS), hut Assur-bini-pal succeeded no better than bis prede- a vivid picture (ch. ixvli,) of the eateat and tfAatbia <l :
' princes ol Gebal and Arvad, Manassch oI Judah, and the other on the mainland the dty ilsell was not captured; il) icillfi
Canianite chiels; in the Island ol Cyprus the Assyrians carried trade went on; and though by degrees the colonies woe Is
all before them (KB. a. 149 scq., 169. t7j). ,0n his relum yet the ties of race and sentiment remained strong enco^
from the Arabian campaign Assur-bani-pal severely punished bind tbe PhoenidiDS of .the molher-counliy to Ihar Hat
the rebellious inhabitants of Ushu (Palictyrus) and Akko, and beyond the leas.
innsporled the survivors to Assyria (ibid. 229). In Fhoenlda, .. t. i. _!_• u u:,.. _i
u elMwhere. Assyrian rule created nothing and lelt notbing
behind it but ■ record of barbarous conquest and eitottioa.
An interesting sidelight is thrown upon this period by tbe list
of the Thalas»ocrad« in the Ch,o»u,n ol Eusebius (p. .16, ed. «™aed™*£M ™id'S. _
•^-■-—ne), which platcsthe 45 years of ihcsea-powerol Phoenicia 1 power, howrvcr. was limiwl by 1
h probability, may be conjectured rho poMOMed great influence ia^
,. ...Kml.f.rf i« s,rm>„ n„AiJ.. or wir OT peice to bc dctnled al T]
IS suamiitea to sargon. ana 004, ,y,^ i„ ^i ^n, (^^^ - ,j,
le of Assyria. II Ihjs dating is intof Mdkaitha(Tyrewa.lh«iw
I why Tyre gave so much trouble ' Gebal (Byblui) fiuni tbe eiiliM A
' : 11 Sidon tlili council CaaHOcd d I
, . . , » hain alw at TvR.' InicTipEJOflSd't
dying power of Assyria the Egyptians „„[ion j g^i, ^^ci} in SMox Cjp
I. ... ni..,^;^;^. ],„^ j{,^^ jl,^,^ defeat > posiiTOn «as it is diScull ten;
mish (60s), the Cbaldacans ™ a diniicl goycmor. Duntf M
w«t.rn A.ia Iprfmiah's = *«"■ ' "public took the pbtedl
wcKcrn isii. ''■''="'""° monarchy at Tyre, and the govomnnMit was idminiitiRd bl
to the approaching downfall „„c„|on of sulfetcs (tudgn): thrv buld oSda: for ihan tema *
d Sidon and tbe coast-land in one imlancc two ruled logelhei for hi ynn. Maeh litei.ist
sclllementi on the Meditcr- Jrd cenluiy B.C., an insciipi™ Inin Tyre nKBtlons a mewe («
Pt,™.nlrr,n .HIM m-nvniml No. S) without adding nujte loour knowlcdae. Caclbige, ol (^
rnoenician_ states tccovcreu ^^ jonmnl by rwo MiBeien, and ihe«; oflkrn are Irtquanly im
in conoeiion with the C»lliai?nian cotunics (.V5/. p. i is f
but we niusi be careful not to draw the inlTrenn that PbsHS
ItselF hid any uch imipMialea. Under the Persians a Mail'"
'The above interpretation of Menander and the A-yn'an evidence was fornn.-d compriningSldon. Tyre and, Arad-u.^^^ *T
is baud upon Ed. Meyer, £Ky. Bii. cul. 37S5- For a dilleriTt n-as to lonirihule 300 tnremn 10 the PcBun Oat (Hand. >»»
cuplaMtion ice Landau, fleifr.r.<lUmii"ii*.rf.O>. vol. i.. followed by ' — ; ; : — ijTTvwS
reler to the later warof &a3iAlon and Aisur-bani.pil against Ten. vi. j). Arabs. CntVt. iraced the demni oT hmfc I"™=.
Baal o( Tyre the gods. W. R. Smith, Ar»jft[poiJUaiTiBie, p. J06;S.LClHi
• Si^c the facsimile in_,liiJ(r'^iiri»ft.rt&»fK*ifK {Berlin. 1893), i-HHrnrf &".. Jtcf, 7j ■ -
caUed tdpf. Tk n
date which, with
much ]
toli,
e between 709, whe
nCypr
whe'
nEgypt threw off the -ru
Kt, and the Phoen
ician se
tba,
to the Assyrian kings.'
I the last crisis of tl
ic dyin,
Ion
1 short time liud ha
*>~iH became the
(WM.W^-aUuuon (xiv
. ij) in
USI
"■*=■ of the kings
ol Tyr
PHOENICIA +J3
rwns being under the command of the great cit!e«. Aradus to obtain much information. The *native' uucriptions, however,
er three Mibordinate townships (Aman ii. 13); Beiytus, now become available, though most of them belong to the t)eriod
00 kine of its own, prol>abIy formed with Bybius a which follows, and only a few have been discovered in Phocntda
Jom; while Tripolis consisted of a federation of three itself. One of the earliest of these b the inscription of Bybius
itcd by a stadium from each other, and provided a meet- (CIS. i. i^NSI. Na 3), datins; from the Persian period; it
r the federal coundl, which was chiefly occupied in dealings records a dedication made by Yehaw-milk, kine of Gcbal, and
.Tsian government (Diod. xvi. 41). But federation on a mentions the name of the king's grandfather, Uri-milk, but tlio
was never possible in Phoenicia, for the reason that no exact dates of their reign are not given.
itical unity existed to bind the differerit states together. ^yjj^^ Alexander the Great entered Phoenicia after the batUc
I interests dommatcd everything else, and while these - - , « ^ \ .t 1 • u * -.u »u t» _• a *
a municipal life not without vigour, civil discipline and ^^ !»"» (333 B.C.), the kings were absent with the Persian fleet
e but feebly felt. On occasion the towns could defend in the Aegean; but the cities of Aradus, Bybius and jf^^
endence with strenuous courage; the higher qualities Sidon welcomed him readily, the last-named showing iN^cvdioalia
5 for a progressive national life the Phoemciana did not special zeal against Persia. The Tyriansalso offered P»rM,
a now became part of the fifth satrapy of the Persian »"bnussion, but refused to allow the conqueror *"^»»*c;
.A ^»*..*^ ..J^- -r>«ii «r ^.«»^i7f;»« ~.«^» .n,i to enter the aty and sacrifice to the Tynan Heracles. Alexander
Id entered upon a speU of comparative peace and d.^^mined to make an example of the first who should
prowmg prosp^nty. Favoured for^t^^^^ offer opposition, and at once began the siege. It lasted seven
their fleet, and having common interests against »v «r-.i. * -i .u 1 • j_^ * «. 1 * ^—
f. 1 A tji.^..- * „ «,«^ «.«««« ♦!,.«,/«♦ months. With enormous toil the king drove out a mole from
^^^ ,^ IZ^ T .^rn-r^^Jl ^ Ihe "■""^■'d to ">« »•»•«> «»<1 thus brought up hi» engines;
ecu of tte empire. At this period Sidonoccu- Phoenician towns and from CyprJlen^
position of leading state: in the fleet her king . . * , . .. j«»v . > 1 -.u * j • t 1
STo Xerxes andbefore the king of Tyre (Herod ^'^'". "<•- "'<' '»'? ">«» « "'"f" »•» '"'"d 'n July 33>;
her situation afforded advant4cs fo? expansion ^J^TJ^'j^^X^-'^aI'^, ,T ' f ° ^.1 ~
.. on its small and densely popuIatSi island codd not notables the langAxenulkw, and the festal Mvoys from (^^^
dty was distinguished by U, cosmopoUtan character; !*p had taken refuge m the ^.nctuary »' M'Ucanh. were spared
redded there when he came to Phoenicia, and the (^'<>^: ""■ '»o-46 • It is not unhkely that Zech. ix 2-a refers
,narch had his paradise outside the walls. In the to. his fanjou* »•«««• /or the tune Tyre lost tts pohiKd
f the 4th centur^ Straton I. (in Phoen. 'Abd-'asklcrt «?»te°ce. whJe the foun<Uuon of Alexandrut presently changed
too,/) was king c. 374-36». He cultivated friendly the Im«i of trade, and dealt a blow even more fatal to the
I'^.^'ST'o^T^'r/r No' tThUclT^^'Jimed Duri^rthe wm of Alexander's succe,«.rs Phoenicia changed
r. er. No. 03 = LIU. No. 07): nis court was tamed , , •* , ^. , , ^l »? .• j .v o •
iryfand thrextent to which phU-HeUenic tendencies hand. «veral tun« bf''"" 'he Eo^t^n^^d he Syrian
•e the story of Siraton's death in Jerome adv Jovin ^^'^ *°** ^^® range of her ambitions. A special luiciuat aLiaui«i
' „ , u^t c-^«« ««o-«-* *u^ P^^:.».' ♦««l «!,/.« to these silver tetradrachms and didrachms (staters and half-
new revolt of Sidon against the Persians took place ^. x because thev were used bv the Tews for the oavment
5 Tennes owing to the insults offered to the Sidonians ^.u. because they were usca Dy tne jews lor ine payment
eral diet in Tripolis. With the aid of Nectanebus ^^ ^« '^"^^^ ^ as.".ahckels of the sanctuary" {NSL pp.
'^^nffc^vul^jf J'hTJ'lnnfo^^^^^^ ^^Am^ni the Phoenician states we know most about Sidon
; rest of Phoenicia with them and drove the satraps , . *; . . , m. ^ . *. ^ .• . j * 1 -
J nv •« «..* «f 4u^ ^«..„.«, T-««o- v./x».»J^ during this penod. The kingship was continued for a long
nd Cilicia out 01 the country. Tennes, however, ,. «.. v^ ^v . ai j • j . .1. .1 ^T
. . ^, ^«„««,i .K^ ^:,„ ♦« A,*o**.-r«. TTf . time. The story goes that Alexander raised to the throne a
lis people and opened the cily to Artaxerxes ill.: , * .t 1 r -i *uj 1 u !••-•-
, «»V«« .u^ «..Jkl., «f .« ««/«,.• <^;a ♦« !.««- «-♦ member of the royal family, Abdalonymus, who was bving in
Lants to the number of 40,000 are said to nave set . _ •\ , . ■" ,■' /t •• • /-«^ «*
^ ' obscure poverty and working as a gardener (Justin xi. 10; Curt.
^^^^i^, uvxuic tu^ X v.*i*« X-X..JJ.- -^- -- ^ --; Qf this king has been found at Athens (Michel, No. 387, cf. i i6i);
the close of the 5th century the Phoenician coins begin ,. , ^ ,»t„^» »„„„ „:„„«j i„„„ p«, .,, lu^ «„,i Ar ♦*,« ^/u
?nt our historicalsourccs (see Numismatics). From the but he cannot have reigned long. For at the end of the 4lh
irius the Persian monarchs issued a gold coinage, and and the beginning of the 3rd century we have evidence of a
themselves the right of doing so; but they allowed their native dynasty in the important inscriptions of Tabnilh, Esh-
J vassal states to coin silver and copper money at mun-'azar and Bod-'ashUrt, and in the series of inscriptions
Hence Aradu*. Bybius, Sidon and Tyre issued a coinage , ... ^ .,^ .,«.^ .«.,\ j:1^^„«.«j ,. n-...„„ ^^u ckslu .,«--
1. of which many specimens exist : thi coins are sUmp?d (repeating the same text) discovered at Bostan csh-bh«kh near
iih emblem or name of the city, sometimes with the Sidon (NSI. Nos. 4, S, 6 and App. i.).* The last-named texts
e ruler.* Thus from the coins of Bybius we learn the imply that the first king of this dynasty was Eshmun-'azar;
>ur kings. 'Elpa'a!. "Az-ba'al (between 360 and;j40 B.C.), his son Tabnilh succeeded him, then came Eshmun-'azar II.,
. -Ain-el; from the corns of the other cities it is difficult ^^^ ^.^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ Bod-'ashtart, both of ihcm grandsons
val expeditions against Greece in 480-449 and Sparta of Eshmun-'azar I. With Bod-'ashlart, so far as we know,
were mainly fitted out by Phoenicia. See Persia: j^e dynasty came to an end, say about 250 B.C.; and it is not
ftory, for the whole of this section. ,,, ', ^/ ^ - c"j • 1 1 ^c ' j 1 -.
xviii. 3 tells a story about Tyre during this period: unhkely that the Sidomans reckoned an era of independence
fter being worn out though not defeated in long wars from this event (NSI. p. 95 n.).
-r'Jans. was so enfeebled that it was seized bv the slaves, Qf the other Phoenician cities something is known of the history
nd massacred their masters; one Straton alone escaped ^f Aradus. Its era began in 259 d.c, when it probably became a
lerwards made king. The reference to the Persians is ^public or free cily. While the rest of Phoenicia passed under the
ncorrtct; the story, if it can be taken senously at all, — 1
to one of the siwjcs by the Assyrians or Chaldaeans, and, 'The date of this dynasty has been much disputed; but the
ugeests (Ency. Bib. col. 3760), may be derived from the reference to " the lord of kings " in the great inscr. of Eshmun-
dalonymus of Sidon mentioned below. 'azar (line 18) points to the Ptolemaic period, for the Persian monarch
>ecially £. Babelon, Lcs Pcrsfi 4dUm6nidcs, and cf. is always styled " king of kings." The interpretation of many
19. . decaUs of tlieinscr. from Boston e^-Sh£khift«tAlkvvttfjawou
PHOENICIA
Bui iu vtaK pcrioc! did Fhocoicui fint ilie to be a power ia ihc Ucdiur-
thc pel rancanP We arc gradmiUy appmacfajng a ■olutioB of tis
[? '""' obscure problem. R«inl discovcria in Crete (q.t.) haveln^
/i^H^'i lo light the eiislence of a Cretan oi " Miooan " ma-fowa d
attcmp lemote antiquity, and it ii cleai that ft great deal oI irfial dbI
which 1 to be described u Phoenician mint receive quite a diScM
jl"^!' designation. The Minoan wo-power vu at tost broLoi up If
(o^„,^ invaders from the north, and a Carian rule Ixcame domiiii^
bnd. 1 in the Aegean (Herod. L i;r; Thucyd. i, 4, g). It wis a tidt
(Sirabc ol disorder and coDflicI due' to the immigration of new not
^''" J) into the ancient seat) of dviliiaiion. and it lynehrmiiial ¥itk
ip^h the ireakening of Ibe power o( Egypt in the counlrin wUd
U\nna bordered on the eastern Mediterranean. This was in the iXt
ft Heir century B.C. The Tyrian trader saw that his opportimity n
fni'll^ come, and the Aegean lay open 10 hb merchant veads. Wbm
bT^ muchisBtillobscurc, all that seem! cenaiiris thai IbeantiQBftT
K^lcucii o' Phoenicia as a sea and trading power bu bra grisi(f
•iiecall eiaggeralcd both in ancient and in modem times; the Mieal
'''[^^ power of Cnossui preceded it by many centuries; the 'aSiaa
'' '~ ol Phoenicia in the Aegean cannot be carried back much wis
ACtei than the nth century B.C., uid, comparatively ^leaking, it <m
revolts " foreign, late, sporadic."'
ol Syi A vivid description of (be Phoenicians' trade at the tincrf
Bcrytu Tyre's prosperity is given by Eickiel (nviL 11-15), aodititon
in 110 how extensive were their commeKial teUlions not only br 1^
inaugu. but by land as well. It was they who distributed to tie ntf
fell int of the world the wares ot Egypt and Babylonia (Herod. L 1).
>iv. 3, From the bndit ol the Euphrates and Tigris regular tradHHla
tttongl led to the Mediterranean with trading-stations on the mTi
was ht jevetalolwhicharementioned by E«kicl(iciiviLaj). IiEo^
At la the Phoenician merchants soon gained a (oolhdd; theyih*
ordcro were able to maintain a ptoAlable trade in the anarehic taa
,,^_^_^ ot (be XXIInd and XXIlIrd Dynasties {815-650 B.cl.wto J
„!, other fordgn merchants were frightened away. Tbongli ita*
were never any regulac colonies ol Phoenicians fn ^ypt, *
August TyrUns had aquarterof thrirown in Memphis (Herod. 3. iti).
legions The Arabian caravan-trade in perlume, spices and incmse piNri
colonia through Phoenician hands on its way to Greece and the Wai
chief (I (Heriid. iiL 107); these arlidei of commerce were mainly ^
characi ductd not ioArelsa, but in Eail Africa and India, and ibetnk
Macedi had itscentrein the wealthy staleofSheba in Ycmco. BtMW
ground brad and Phoenicia the relations naturally wen due; t*
the nal lbrn>er. provided certain necessaries ol life, and receind h
the Ro eicbange articles of luniry and splendour (Eiek. uvu. i6-il).'
and on Israelite housewives sold their homepun lo Pboenidao pedka
entirel] (Prov. ml. 14 R-V.M.); In Jenuilem Phoenician mnthstf
which and money-lenders had their quarter (Zeph. i. 11). and aW
mythol the Return we hcarofTyrians selling fi.'^h and all mannetcfoB
putposi in the dty (Nch. liiL 16), and introducing other lea ilnii«»
but An imports, such as foreign cults (Isa. Irv. 11). The FhoiBtia
charact wonia which made theit way into Creek at an early periodliA-
langua) cale the kind of goods in which the Phoenicians traded vilk Its
Haii, West, or made familiar through Ihcif commerce^ the fi«e«i(
■ seata are some of themj-xpuo*,, x""". fiineot, Mto^, iiilfa, lifK
vcnturt tinpos, ^ijut, iwa, laWiuit. PaiTiiimi, Another nlalb
with ai article ot commerce which the Phoenicians brought iato di
of thei market was amber. Thry can hardly have fetched it Ihtrndn
winds E fiom the Baltic or the Morth Sea, it came to iheio by tnid-
Fl'.oenii marked routes, one from the Baltic lo the Adriatic. Iheoda
iv. t')- up the Rhine and down the Rhone. A deposit of ambsta
indispe also been found in the Lebanon, and perhaps .Lc fhutiiiriW .
Alciani worked this and concealed Its origiti.
^"k"! .hIt^Z°^S^5SS^'«"muri'?Sl;'£U?'u " S'ta 5«I
hoard t ThalaxocroclM piesrrvcd ty E<»<biur<arry ui'bi^ » dw ink
handle< ccnturyB.C. See Professor JohnL.M>Tei'>eiHyiiferTw)uiliM.
■Sec Eupo1emiis(IJi>-ieuk.c.)i|ea<ed by Aleunlrr PuMiflib
who. in a auppuwd letter Irom f>ot«nQn to Ibe kioB el Tj^
merrioni the food-supplies repaired by the Tyrian u3 taJm
PHOENICIA +55
'itea fouude! In lit d«yi of Tyre'i greatneu hfi power ruled direclly on Ilia
I undoubledJy liue. Cypnu posioKd roourcci moEbri'-dlyt and paid tilha of tbeir Rveoua (o iti chief godt
Mbcr ukI coppervtiich couldiiatful U> lemptlbe keen-eyed Melquth, ud seal cavoyi uwiully to bii leut. Tien at ibe
en acms the wUa, wbo made Citium (from Eitiira, tlu beginning of the 8ih century b.c. Ibe colonitl ponn of Tyre bepm
t vi the origioaj non-Semitic intubitanti) Ibeir cbief settle^ lo decline; on the mainland and in Cypnji the Aayriana gained
U and thence established Ihemselvea in Idolium, Tamauus, the upper band ; in the Greek iilandi the Phoenicians had already
Ahut, Laruka, Qarth-badasht (Karli-hadaslj) and olhci been displaced lo a great extent by the advancing tide of Dorian
IL In the inscription! of the 4lh la 3rd eenluriei, Iht colotuzslkin. Bui as Tyre detaynlio power the colonies lunitd
Efddaii potentates in the island call Ibrmsdves " kings ol more and mote lo Carthage as their nalurat parent and proleclor
« and Idalion" (JV5/. pp. 55-89!. Bui the Pboeuidan For effective conlrol over a colanial empire Carthage bad the
was not BO andeal as used (0 be supposed. At an euly advantage of ailualion over fat-away Tyre; tbe traditional
id Gieeks (mm the south coast of Asia Minor hod leltlcd bonds gnw lax and the ancient dues ceued to be paid, though
;jp™» before the Phoenidiins founded any colonies thcie; ns late as the middle of the 6th century Canhage tendered liibei
h 1* uliceahle that in the Assyrian liibute-lists of the lattei lo the Tynan Melqanh. And the mother-country cheiishtd
cf the 7th centuiy {KB. ii. pp- 14a, 141) not one of the ten its claiina long afler Ihey had lost reality; in the ind ctnlury
dao kiogi mentioned appear* to be Phoenician by name, nc, (ot example, Sidon stamped ber coins wiih the legend,
luder fUtes Ooa. Am. U, 14, 1) that the kings ot Tyre " ifotiier of Karnb* (i* Carthage), Hippo, Kilion, Tyre "
1 over Cyptua at ihe dose of the 8th century; but a dear INSI. p. 351)-
(tiatlhePhoenicianrule was neither aadent nor uninler- , """W^'^'i- riHtnliani. Arl.—rma an early dale the lown.
adhpv=nbythela«.J.t.heCypri«iGreek.t»k.h. l-t^t;^»„'X"SJ:n?S:*?^trh';;^kS;;'.?TS^i';i2
Me lomvenl a Greek luneiform character (Cy^nofc} modelled ol thar own: emtiallv Durf.lc-dveiiu! and tcilile fabries (11. vL
tbe Assyrian.
■Dei represents tbe Pboeniciana as present in Greek waters
pscposa of lislGc, but not as Killers (tl, iiiii. 744). They
Vie^ trading-staiions on some of Ihc Aegean btands and
he iMbmns of Corinth. One of iheii objccls was the collec-
rfmurei, of which an enormous supply was needed for the
ag industry ^specially famous was the purple of the Laconian
■V the isles of EUshah of Eiek. iivii. 7. But a great deal
ihit was formerly sssigDcd to Phoenician influence in Ihe
ISA at an early peiiod-— pottery, otiuments and local myths
at be accounted for by the vigorous civiliialion of nacicnl
£. la the Greek world the Phoenicians made themselves
lily detested^ their characteristic passion for gain {t&
•XnO-aot. PUto, Sit. iv. 435 E-) *" not likely lo in-
iut them with those who w«e compelled lo make use of
Fsetvice* irhile they suffered from their greed.
inhB wat in the Mediierranean Phoenidan letlleracnls
! planted Eint in Sidly.on the soulb coast, at Heradea or
Uelqanb; the islands between Sicily and Africa, Melila
Ka) on account ot its valuable harbour, Gaulus and Costuta ,„, oitKinuiaHa ine KnowKagc ana uie oi mein.
: also occupied {Diod- v. ij); and a beginning was made with The an of Phoeiucia as diaractetiHd geiieTallyby its dependence
xlnuiation of Sardinia and Coreica; but farther west slill, ;pon the art of the neighbouring tacij. It •truck out nooriginal
eo Ihe AtUntie eoisli to Ihe tight and left of the straits, ;'Sd"' R^°^^'^I™enmvIn™AS^S Km^'dS^
! permanent colonies were tslahlishtd. It was the trade :icirly the eource to whicrihe'PhMnkian anlm went lor inipiia.
Taishiih, ijr. the region of Tanetsus in toulh-west Spain, the suit
h tootribuled most to ihe Phoenicians' wealth; (or in this ■ It was
« Ihey owned not only profitable fisheries, but rich mines iT^ul^
Qvcf and other metals. The profits of the trade were icteristbc
Duui; it was s^d that even the anchors of shijn reluming of Gebal
Spain were made ol silver (Diod. v. 35). From Cadeira "SL.*"'
dcCftfSr, Lai. Crafci, now Cadii), the town which Ihey built iSLS
I island near the mouth of the Guadilquiver, the Sidonian rl^^
ftk-wesi Spain or from Ihe richer deposits in the Casiiterides, Ht llmea
he Tin Islands. These were discovered lo be, not a part of 2iSt^
HI as was ima^ned al Erst, but a separate group by Ihem- otMalned
9, DOW known as the Scillies; hence it is improbable that adl fait,
nncnicians ever wortied the lin-mines in ComwilL i ef an,
ie rich trade with Spain led lo Ihe coloniaation ot Ihe West. ^ ""te^
bo dates the KlOemcDls beyond Ihe Filbrs of Heteulcs soon ^vMlan
:ihe Trojan War (i. j, i), in the period of Tyre's (itst ejpan- ^Cings
. LiniilnMaulctania.CadcsandUlica.aresaidtohavebccn woiwsot
ded, one af let Ihe olher, as far bad: as the 1 ,lh century B.C. YjS^S
1 of the African colonies were no doubt younger; we have 'n « al"
itiDiia] dates lor Aoaa (SS7-855) and Carthage (S13). A ^ni much
pan <A Notlh-*csl Africa was colonised from Phoenicia; nporlam
J lo these first setllers, and afterthem tolheCarthaginians, —Z Z '. ~ ; — '. T 7~ — ; 1 7"
Phoenician language became the prevaUing one, just as .^ZTai.XxTKi'!^^TJ^I^"t^'^-.^h Sa^bmn wkea
I and Arable did in later limes, and the country assumed „ „i„ 'to'ihii quarrying icTittfch ot iron- la. av. n. Sw
a Phoenician chaiactfi. Beniiivei on 1 Kings ii. i>). '
456 PHOENICIA
mut in Kvtral tim one bcMnd iht otber. Whilg in oily
ate slain wcRCOMtriKtcd down to Ike chinbcn. liwdcid
'Uricdvithcrin thvBoor (often inn mrcopliiffui). Dr. AKordiiu
^ r,M„m. in lucbct. TlH rooutlu o( Ihe unah* vtn mlWd
will) >teb>, and ocownslly cippi (Phoen. owfMf*)
1. .!.. — . XI . i„iKilchral iDonumnici.
r«h'bhL'kh near !iiJon have uimrthcd jparli of Uie eneloflUTe or end une •cliDUn prrfcr *' 'A^htart of the I
fnund:i(Lonii of the Icmpli; of likhmun (SSL p. 401): llie nfndiliU p. 37), Aoolhcr fioddni, ipcculLy hooDum
of I^A pL-'v\in. bouih of Tyre, are CDDudnvd lobc ut ancient dale, (pninunclalkm unceitain]; oothuiE u Irnow^ „ .
With rcpnl lu the plan ami dctita of a Phncnkian Inaplc. it li the ii raulirlv connccud milb Bi'al db the Canbagii
probjUc Ehjl ihcy vvrc in many retpccli ktmibr to thcne ot (he
icmpL' at JvEu^lum. and (he probability it confirmed by Ihe re*
mains of a Hnclu^ry near Ainnt. in whicn there In a cvlla Mandinv
in the millet «t a Ijr^c cnun hewn out of the rock, logclhcr mth
hcaliDv, wDn>ra^
the pjimn dotv d
Bf, iIk-Iisc'k
xdinitolliclaal
prcKtvtdby Plulareh [Jf Ii.ilOt. ij). jaunwyed to^ybfoi. Ant
the wai called Ailartc. The Phivniciin Ktllen u At PorHK
worehipned the Atsyiiui Ncrgal, and their nroprr nunnarrn*-
pounded witli the unn of Abylnnian ittS Arabian deilin (.VJt
p. lot). Cknr Intimacy with the Unek worid uiunlly brnak
about modlfioitioiu in the diaracier of the native fodi. wbah
bticane apparent nrhmBa^l of Sldon or Ha'al-sbamEmwaiidcwiiM
irilh Zcm, l^nlth with Dcmetct m Ancmii, ■Aiulh vhh Atkon.
Ac.: the nocion of a luprnne Ba'al, whi ^ - • - •. ^^
goj calletl Baal: rel^^on, e^iuciaDy from the rell^oitr ceniret in Cyprut and ^Sr-
_, *tI. or AI'ii (the goddoiof Byb1i»k«t~
•luubt encounged by Fonicn inAuenm. On Ihe other hiiid IV
nfl (Bc'rl) and UabylO' Phocnieian* prodvccd a conildcrable efli-ct upon Gr ' "* —
. I afi{iellailve, a dmniption of A ereat - _.., _..,., ...„ ,
i and the lame i> the caie with Milk Bamn.r.(.5gibi>i-yathon(SanchunialhDn). 'Alid-HiM. $id-y3
' ' t fardt mfikrr. The and IrHh one* are continually belns ditroverrd- It nai then
hnr, (ard. iinfkrr. The 1
^ Orca«ioaBlly we know 1
» Mdqarth [aielkanh), ]
(he llani of fynr wa> Mtlnarth raielkanh), nmnotthgcodiiinfonilnirproper nanlna^dlhuIMnIlr^•d^•■
.„ cnly " kinj) ill the city "; almllariy nnuHie Iha tioa or iniTike favoii}-, tbiia Ijanni-ba'al. 'Abd-niekiink. H»-
laat Ihv Da^iI u( llairan wai the noon-nd Sin. At each ^tabiait, Ei4iinBii-'aur. The proper name) further niiulnit (>•
r ili>trkl lud lu own llall, Ihe aathor of It* fcnilily, Ihe way in which Ibolelationrfnan lntJodwunnnJcd; Ihrmna*
>«rf " rn F.«m... „^,i„, «i h.-^ of the land which be frni- CH Inrnu an wmiir (^bri, r^. -Abd-^rhurt). miiilvr or hot b>f.
the Old TMament wriU'n ej. Hod-mclqaith), cBul or ttrit («r, tf. Ccr^muiO: Ut
. >._^ >..._ ^ tttli|riiiuiii5t«ofthBB[ri(iifndntyhod«iori(tiBinlhe(ocij1niil"
itf catendiniE humtality ID n ilrancer and in the tM Snniiir nM
K fprrial of uncIiMiy. TIif inlcrnreuiion of turh namcM ai '.AhrbV
Ihech'iet (laiher of Iti-al). IJiminulh (brother of Milkaih). Kiiui ibniM
nle niinh Airira. nerhapi " the (Inuring Ba'al," the pxl nf the eialleil one) ia not allofcther certain, and can hanr t*
! warmth, and Ra^l-iluaihii " Ba'al of the bravenn." ■ di«-iiHr'l bnr.*
ikity *a> viilely vmrraicd thmuthasl Ihe North- Prubably like other Canaanltn Ihe Phoenlcijnt ofltieit <a^
rkl; hit name, which don nut appear in the Phoenician " on every hJKh hill and under e\'erysreFD tree ^'j bur fi jud^cfriff
Mure Ihe iid crnlury u.r., iinplin rnhaiw a mote the alluowt lu Mncluark^ In Ihe Imcriptiont and iIh",—^
lion gt deity than cidhtiil in the uriicr diyt." where, tlv lU'al or 'A^tart of a pL^ wat irtujih-rTT": -j
" ' •• T fmple, which rontimd of a coim orrXzT
nufed ihtine irith a ponk» or pilland
couklalluihilnthena'Sllniaf theneJchlBuilniCanaanlleai Some- luliiiiiiui ides of the e _
tlme» the &d iveeiwd a diriineuiwnii nttrunile which indkaleii itf catendiniE humtality to a urancer and in the tM
an atMclatW nut with any punlrular |ilace. but with Kinie fprrial of uncIiMiy. TIif,' -' "'
woMUp^jL-d
an;l iii.;icl..«:« riDjl waien C'"'}'^; «■"■ 'ft.„ „ .- . _ pHilpaWy Ihe lymhid rf Attarte. a. on the RoiBanc*iii.rj( Bit*»
: Thu I- ..11 ImKjKht "■' l-V O. F. ttill a«r» Qmu^i Jt». [inm.ira'ii..l in kiwlin»n. PhpnMa. 116, IVrr« el ChH«. Bii.
l;\prili<inHj,p,t Ii«-i4i, whokpcdallyemphaMCiiSecYKlencciif rfc fuM. in. in: iv alw f)hae(alvh-IUchter. Cyf7ti.3.h.Lit
Ihr rhooiu i.in i-wnt. „,...„ .-. temeoiw at Id.ilinq). StencocbnmieiinaiHt/tbc eoJ>n"*'
' To the hird ja. which Baal-thiUcm .. .Yowcd, it.: upiniheKin.lu3tic«{A'S/. Not. l3ieil..»)-»7.30.*cT:»Bilbr*
<-i J B 1 „ ... tW the hjW/wfmetrnrKiioneilwKch were ™nWi»rnAA
y^l ndhriiMl*. Kllnn. aicaln, had a pmmfaient plM* in the nun Kie
^ fore thi' rhrine (mah ilnd. pp. HU aeii.] : but it it not known >lMhr
iK<; Ihe Kicn-d pi.le foiWrnM. an invartaUe tntnn of a Cauaailt aw
1 ™ lajty. wn u-ujI in a I'hcenicLiB temple fiWd. pp^ go ng ) T*f
e hah bren louiid «i an impiirtani
t9h rrH]iiHit1y ^-alu of hii n
a.dfii Syrii, I90SJ.
ciiina wvn buJoniu to thoae wl
(ibid. p. 117). /Tlie (buiLy pradi
Llymeffjy,
rlL 16;). _ Tbt
'Malai:h^'"tkieC
afl Cuihai^e And Gad«; iKc cuacopi Ur'--*
I. Xnolhcr horrible ucrifice mi
iituiE. That uiDiiic pnxiinitci an ttlicd
aca-d men. wofncn. in the Old TeBumiU
llv. M. *=•)■ OtliH- pcnoin «tt»cbed 18 »
;ui>, Bcrilian. birijcra. aSciili In charge
.. 4c. (JV5/. No. »),: « heu iIb of
imorg thr living (t.(, ft'Sf. No*. I9. 19. Jl. ul 1 if there
hildrrn to fulKI ihc pious dmy, a monumrnl would be Kl
iio during hii lihlimE (ibid. No. 16 ; d.iSam. iviu. iS|,
tkm of tie tomb Ml regarded with the grcatMt lionor
. I. s). The guve wi» oiled » rcsting.placc libid. Not, 4,
, and the departed lay at rcet in the underworld with the
ill Dotion pnJviilirf. ai it did iIm imong the GteeL. and
K^I. KSrs<S."!nicrilS'^t'h'rt^ ni««ac. gcnenUy a
ch it was dennd to convey to them.
L toenlioned in the text and notM of this articfe. The
wJlMit and eritieal account of Philo'i woik it givm by
£lmi€i or la ril. Urn (2nd ed,. 190s), ch. u.
4S8 PHOENIX— PHONETICS
(mm Arabia, dcllghliDg Ibe gods wilb hiilngnncc lad ruing factuie o[ >1r1 ii UiU [he _ . ..._..,
IrDDi the siDkini flinn of the mamipg glow, wu enough PboeruivilJcwuscitlediD i73i,uid«uuicocpontcdiB i&m.
to suggest most of Ibe itajii maierUliied in Ihe dusicil piciuia PHONETICS (Cr. ^un), voice), tbe icicnce o( tptech-tOBaii
of the phoenix. Thit the bcnu is the prototype d[ the phoenii ud the ut of pionuiiciiliaa. In il> widest •cue it ■
is further conEtmed by the fid thst the fonnrt word in Egyp[i»n the "itirnteof voice," desling not only •rith articoUle, buisbi
means also " palm-tree," just as the latter does in Greek. The with the inaniculatc loundt of ^i^imfl^ as weD a4 men. Tit
very various periods named mahe it probable that thepcriodical originally synonymous term, "phonology," is now nstiicW
return of the phoenii belong only to vulgar legend, mateha- to the hislory and theory of saiind<hanges. The most ohvioB
lizing what the priests knew to be symbolic. Ot tbe birds ol the of the practical applications of phonetics is lo tbe acqutntn
beron family the gorgeous colour! and plumed bead spoken ot of a correct pronunciation of foreign languages. But its spplia-
by Pliny and oLhen would be leut inappropriate to the purple lions to the study of the native language are not less iznponiri^
beron {AnUa pwfiirea), with which, or with Ihe allied AriUa it is only by tbe help of phonetics that it is pouiblc to dnl
atata, it has been idcnIiBed by Ltpsius and Peters {Ahislt efettively with vulgarisms and provindalisml o( pniniiliditin
Tall its TodltKiiicki, 161S7, p. 51). But tbe golden and purple aod secure uniTormity of qieecb; and it is only on * ptoBOk .
hues described by Herodotus may be the colours of sunrise rather basil thai the deaf and dumb can b« Uughl articulstt veed. I
tban the actual hues of the purple heron. How Herodotus Ftom a more theoretical point of view pbeDetia is. ia the iiC
cvne to think that tbebitdwas like an eagle is quite uneipUined; place, Ihe science □! linguistic observalion. Ulthost pkeaie
perhaps Ibis is merely a slip of memoiv. training the diolectologist, and the rnjssionary who is cenfriBlel
Manj mmmeiitaio™ «:ir undeimtand the_word Waat ip7ob with a hilhcito unwritten language, can neither olwm Edf
with which they hiYiU
i (A.V. "Bind
perhapi uold a4 the lonEinal) Septuaguit, and is current with the . , *. ■ ■ l ■ -j j ^ j
tVerJew!. Among the A%b. the ««7of Ibe pboc<iiawa.coDlu>ed "l*^ These mvestigations have greatly widened them^d
with that of the salamander: and Ibe laiiiaRd or eanuuida] (f>ainiri. ibc saence of language. The modem philologist no kiitB
"■^V^I " "''T'Y'^hH''^"^*? '"IS^-™ t^^'^Eih' ''*^'" colloquial and illiterate forms ol spcnh. Oa lit
£irot''plui^Be. and Mm°ihn™lv™''iaJto5'bV'ihe same name language a itca more dearly than in dead Uietaty laggan
(d. Vinui i. ^29, and Doiy, s.tX The •tnU (Pcis, ilMirrf*), a on whose study the science ol comparative philology wutifaa
■tupcndous bird like the roc (tukh) o( Marco Polo and the A'oiiim eiclusively bgjt up. It was not till philobgists bepa lo lA
K^^'JlrJSu'^'^nl!^^^<^^ltr,''^^f, bi>?S hliSiid "*■" •"" "" "^ *"" underlying the comparison, of the nrktM
the parent of oppmile >ei hum iiielf ilive. In the book of Kalila words in Sanskrit. Greek, Latin, and the other Indo-Eonfea
and Dimrta Ihe jtwiir or 'Biijtd is tbe king {^birda. the Indian garAta, languages, embodied in such generalizations as Grimn^ Uv,
PHOEHIX. the capital of Arizona, U.S.A., and Ibe county- logy). The Kse and decay of indeaioDS, and the devdtpBrt
teat of Maricopa county, situated on the Soli river, in the of grammalical [ornia generally, are, from Ihe (Mnal p^ tf
loulh central part of the stile. Fop, (iSoo), iis'\ (190°). ^'''*', mainly phonetic problems; and phonetic* enUn mam
5544 (955 being forngn-bom and 14K negroes); (igroj 11, 154. less into eveiy department ol historical uhI hwHIiHW
It is served by the Ariiona Eastern and tbe Santa Ft, grammar,
I^eseott * Phoenii railways, the former connecting at Mari- MMods */ Study mi /mufifafiM.— PbODetkl b the idcn
copa (j5 m. distant) with the Southern Pacific and the latter of speech-sounds. But sounds may be considered fnB li>
connccling at Asb Fork, near Frescolt (104 m. disUnt), wilfa opposite points of view— tbe orfSHJc and tbedcsulic. FrtBltl
Ibe Atchison, Topeka & Sania Ff . The dly is a popular winlet organic poinl of view a sound is tbe result of certain ac1i«t at
and health resort, wiih a fine dry climale. Tbe dly is the see of positions of the organs of speech. (3 when we define / u • 1^
• Pnlesiaol Episcopal bishopric. About j m. north of the city teeth (dento.labial) consonant. This is tbe point ol view rf Ik
is -Ihe Phoenii (non.rescrvation) boarding4cbool for Indians, speaker of a bnguage. To tbe hearer, on the other bawl,/il
supported by the United Stales government, with an avenge not a tip-teeth, but a hiss consonant similar to that ioMi
attendance of about 700 pupils. The city lies in a great plain, by Ot. This is the acoustic point of view. Theoietioly, da
in the centre of a region of pastures, gardens aod orcbards, Ihe organic study of phonetics is a branch of anatomy aru] phyBCikir
largest and most beautiful farming district of Aiizona, itiigited that pan of these sciences which deals with the organs of qna
with waicr iiored by the gieai Roosevdi dam (about jo m, (see Motrni) and ihdt functions (see Voice); while, frc«i lb
nnrth-east of Phoenix). Local inleresti are almost entirely in opposite point of view, the study of phonellcs is based on tM
agriculture, stock-raising and fruil.growing. In the surrounding branch of ph>'sical science known as acoualica (see Soc^
region are several Large ostrich farms and a small eibibition together with the anatomy and physiology of the apMd
ranch, Fboerux was settled in 1870, became the county-seat Hearing (f.a.),
onlheorganizationof Maricopacountyin iS7t,wasillcacponted Unfortunately, this bass is slill imperfect. Tlie prindpkarf
in iSSi, and became the capital of Ariiona in 1&B9. acoustics aie well established, and we know much about dt
PHOBHIZ ISLANDS, a group of eight smaU island* <a tbe anatomy of ih« ear. But how the ear transmits to the M
Pacific Ocean, about j° S., and 171° W., beloDgbig to Great tbe imptesuon of sound is slill a mystery. Again, allhoiwl da
Britain. Tbey have a Land area about t6 sq. m. and a popula- mecbaiusmof the vowel is clear enough, there is still no fBidlf
lion ol 60. Their names are Phoenii, Gardner (Kemin), Hull, received acoustic theory of its formation. In laa, bim ■
Sydney. Bimie, Endecbury, Canton (Miry) and McKcao. To physical science point of view there is a* yet no Koai
tbe north-west of tbe group (between tbe equator and 1° N.) pbonelics.
lie two more islets— Baker and Howland. The islands were The real (unction oF phonelia is pbilolo^nl and liioaiT. D*
annexed hy Great Britain in i83o-i»9i. only sound baais of a theoretical knowledge of pbonelkiklb
PHOEKIXVIUA, a borough of Chester counly. Pennsylvania, practical maaleiy of a limited number of sounds-thatisloaT^
U,S.A„ on tbe Schuylkill river at the moulh of French Creek, of the sounds which are already famiUac to the leamo B *
about iS m, north-west of Philadelphia. Pop. (1S90), £514; own language. It is evident thai Ihe more familiar a loaadk
negroes; (191a ceosua), 10,743. H is served by the Pennsylvania it when heard. It is indispensable 10 cultivate both tbe op''
(Schuylkill division) and Ibe Phibdelpbia & Reading railways, and the acoustic sense. These processes we are cgntiMl
and by electric railway to Spring City (pop, in rgio, >8So), carrying out in ordinary conversation. All, tboefotb Utt M
S m. nortb-wesi of PhoeniiviUe on the SchuylkiU. Phoeniiville have 10 do in dealing with native sounds ia to defdeV *
oMlt >nvA»v"noii2l{>e^rgnlin tbe country, and the manu- inalyticone. The first step is 10 learn to isolate enck nol:*
aoonn it, w fir u poubte, tp
man it unchui^cd (tirauflh c^
tc, and in every cDmbiiui»D at
ive Hipunedcd the niEiml onb id tht
:pew^Aed the Romu ounwnli. Thii '
459
t at tin
nutbodi
le Aniric
B in the Kcood DDE. Inlbeuine
■BCa in the pgoilioD ol the tooff
I nvd to (odUiec. Wbea the
xoni^iIyitudiediD ihiiKay, tbek
ui thry appFir in the pubbthed d
4Hioq *hcir;cr the tbickneit evea i
M«V Ihl IKDld.
Tht nwchodi hilhftEa conudered ]
**Biple- Good mimpfca oi thow u
lIWi iave«i(»><>ii( o( vowel-qu)
IwidiiiiT, UpoKila, 1903), Thtir 1
d«a(T. ind the minutenca ol Ihcrii
■^*I the nngt of ihe biiniin at
■b ol nliM. they muR aJnyi b
nedaiim o( innrummul phuiitt
■feBEbl forward 04* late year* Lhal Ihr^
V lb am amienuivt o( die old
Snaid-Nolaiim; Spdixnt Kiferm.—Kat to the malyiii of
Lhe sounds Ihemselves.the most imponiiDl problem oE pbonelJcs
stheii rcpicsenUtion bymeaiuof nHitcnud primed lymboli.
rbe tradilionil or " nomic " onhoEnphics o[ must luguaca
ue only imperfccily phohetic. And, unfortunately, of the
langvaees in most ijencral use, Iwo are eiceplionaUy unphonelic
}| Imgulariiy and arbllrariness. The Gemian onhography is
inmpamivcly phDocIlc: it has hardly any silent Ipllcn, and it
lenoally has one lymbol for each sound, each symbol bavins
}nly one value, Ibe eicrplions falling under a few limpte luln.
■hicb are essily rcmembtred. There ate other languages which
hive still mare phonetic otthographiea. such as Spanish, Wekh
tnd Fuioilh. But ei'en the best of them arc not perfect: even
■heo they are nol actually misleading, they aic always inade-
quale. On the other hand, no lyslem of •nlling is wholly
luiphonetic Even in French and English there ate many won^
whose apelluig not even the most radical Kfoime t would think
ol altering. la fact, all writing which has once emerged lioni
the hieroglyphic stage Is at first purely phonetic, as far as it*
defective means will allow. The divergence between sound and
symbol which makes spdh'ng unphonetic is the result of Ibe
retention of phonetic spellings after tbey have become un-
phonelic (brougb changes in the pronunciation of the words
themselves. Thus, such English spelling as jlni'fM and ttrigU
were slill phonetic in the time of Chaucer; lor at thai time the
initial consonants of these words were still pronounced, end the
fli still had the sound of th in German ic*. So also n< and »•
ore written differently, not by way of arbitrary distinction, but
because Ibey were pronounced differently tiU wiihin the tasl
lew centuries — as they still arc in Irish-English.
Where there is no traditional ortlugraphy, as when Old
spelling was necessarily phonetic; but where there a a largo
literature and a class of professiotul scribes, the influence of
the traditional orthography becomes sltongcr, till at last Ihe
invention ol printing Ind the diflusion of one standard dialect
over I brge area occupied origiiially by a variety of other dialects
make changes of spelling as inconvenient as they were once easy
and natural. The ideal orthography for printers is one which
is absolutely uniform over the whole territory ol the language,
and absolutely imchangeable. In such orthographies as those
cofTcspondcnce between sound and symbol: they are, in in-
tention at least, wholly unphonetic; tbey ue preserved by
graphic, not by oral, tradition.
But unfdioneticncss has its |>Tacllcal limits. A purely un-
phonetic degradation of an originally phonetic system of writing
sounds and Ictteii-cou
lid not be mastered even
by the most
oty: it 11
muld be e>
ren more dilli.
rult. than Ihe
Chinese writinj
5. Hence a phoncli
c reaction is ii
ncviiaUe. In
the middle ag
es the s
pelQng waa
. periodically
teadjusted in
hthecha
ngesoEproi
far. of course,
g orthography
.-ould allow.
This adjust met
1 even alter
the introducli.
on of printing
In fact, it is 01
nly wilhi:
n the last }
lundred years
orsotbilihe
sf Englis:
h and Frer
ich have becor
leliHd.
1B49, the pionccti ol ».te rooiwii i^^o:^-tA'K^
460
PHONETICS
movement — A. J. Ellis and I. Pitman — brought out thePonetic
Nus, few of those who joined in the chorus of ridicule exdted by
the new alphabet stopped to consider that this uncouthness was
purely the result of habit, and that the Authorized Version of
the Bible in the spelling of its first edition would seem to us not
less strange and imcouth than in the new-fangled phonotypy
of Messrs Ellis and Pitman. Nor did they stop to consider that
phonetics and phonetic spelling, so far from being innovations,
are as old as civilization itself. The Alexandrian grammarians
were not only phoneticians — they were spelling-reformers; they
invented the Greek accents for the purpose of making the. pro-
nunciation of Greek easier to foreigners. The Romans, too, were
phoneticians: they learnt Greek by phonetic methods, and paid
great attention to niceties of pronunciation. The Sanskrit
grammarians were still better phoneticians.
As a matter of fact, English spelling was still phonetic as late
as the time of Shakespeare — in intention, at least. But although
people still tried to write as they spoke, the inherited imperfec-
tions of their orthography made it more and more difficult for
them to do so. Hence already in the i6th century a number of
spelling-reformers made their appearance, including classical
scholars such as Sir John Cheke, and A. Gill, who was head-master
of St Paul's School in London. Gill has left us extracts from
Spenser's Faerie Queene in phonetic spelling; but, strange to
say, nothing of Shakespeare's, although he and Shakespeare
were exact contemporaries. But Gill's and the other alphabets
proposed were too intricate and cumbrous for popular use.
Nevertheless, some important phonetic reforms were success-
fully carried through, 8U<^ as getting rid of most of the super-
fluous final r's, utilizing the originally superfluous distinctions
in form between i and j, u and v, by using >', u only as vowels,
y, 9 only as consonants, instead of at random — a reform which
seems to have begun in Italy. Another important reform was
the introduction of ea and oa, as in sea and bt^at, which had
hitherto been written with ee and 00, being thus confused with
see and hoot.
All these were as much phonetic reforms as it would be to
utilize long s and tailed s ( j , 5) to denote the final consonants in
fish and rouge respectively; a reform first suggested by A. J.
Ellis, who was himself the first to call attention to the works
of these early phoneticians and to utilize them in the investiga-
tions enshrined in his great work on Early English Pronuncialion.
With all its defects, the present English spelling is still mainly
phonetic; we can still approximately guess the pronunciation
of the vast majority of words from their spelling. So when we
say that English spelling is unphonetic we merely mean that
it is a bad phonetic spelling; and all that spelling-reformers aim
at is to make this bad into a good phonetic spelling, that is, an
efficient and easy one. But the difliculties are great; and the
more we know of phonetics, and the more we experiment with
different systems of spelling, the more formidable do they appear.
One of the difficulties, however, that is commonly supposed to
stand in the way of spelling-reform is quite imaginary: namely,
that it would destroy the historical and etymological value of
the present system. Thus E. A. Freeman used to protest
against it as " a reckless wiping out of the whole history of the
language." Such critics fail to see that historical spelling, if
carried out consistently, would destroy the materials on which
alone history can be based; that these materials are nothing else
but a series of phonetic spellings of different periods of the
language, and that if a consistent historical and etymological
spelling could have been kept up from the beginning, there would
have been no Grimm's Law, no etymology; in short, no com-
parative or historical philology possible.
The advantages of beginning a foreign language in a phonetic
notation are many and obvious. In the first place, the learner
who has once mastered the notation and learnt to pronounce the
sounds the letters stand for, is able to read off at once any text
that is presented to him without doubt or hesitation, and without
having to burden his memory with rules of pronunciation and
sptUing. Another advantage of phonetic spelling is that when
tAe /earner sees the words written in a representation of their
actual spoken form he is able to reo^nixe them at once vbci
he hears them. And if the learner begins with the i^MDctie
notation, and uses it exclusively till he has thoroughly masteted
the spoken language, hfc will then be able to learn the ordiDaiy
spelling without fear of confusion, and quicker than he would
otherwise have done.
Spelling-reform may be carried out with various degrees of
thoroughness. After the failure of many schemes of nulkal
reform, an attempt was made to begin with those nuisenaf
spellings which are both unphonetic and unhistorical, or ue
against the analogy of other traditional ^lellings. Accordiiigij,
in 1881 the Philological Society of London " aproovd (sic) d
certain partial corectlons {sic) of English spellings," whidi nm
also approved of by the American Spelling-reform Aisodatioa;
and a list of them w^as issued jointly by the two bodies, and
recommended for general adoption. A similar movancst
has been started in France. But the general feeling a(q)ean to
be that it is better to keep the ordinary spelling undianged. ud
wait till it is possible to supersede it by one on a more or ka
independent basis.
If the existing Roman alphabet is made the baas of thene*
phonetic notation of any one language, the most obvious coone
is to select one of the various traditional representations of cack
sound, and use that one symbol exclusively, omitting, of coone^
at the same time all silent letters. A. J. Ellis's En^isk Qotac k
an example of such a phonetic spelling on a national baus. Tb
following is a specimen: —
Ingglish Glosik iz vcri cezi too reed. \^dh proDcr trudi( •
cheild foar yeerz oald kan bee redili taut too reed Glodk baol&
But a system which, like this, writes short and long vomb
with totally different symbols (i, ee) is only half phonetic: it fc
phonetic on an unphonetic basis.
A fully phonetic system, in which, for instance, long
and diphthongs are expressed by consistent modificatioos v
combinations of the symbols of the short vowels, and in vkick
simple sounds arc, as for as is reasonable and conveniettt, d*
pressed by single letters instead of digraphs such as sk, anMt
necessarily discard any national basis. The best basis on ikt
whole is obtained by giving the letters their original codbmi
European sounds, i.e. by returning to the Late Latin proomdi'
tion, with such modffications and additions as may be advisabiL
As regards the vowels at least, this Latin basis is veiy vd
preserved in German and Italian. In French, on the other had,
the Latin tradition was greatly corrupted already in the <
period through the rapid changes which the language
Thus when the Latin u in luna assumed the sound it dov kl
in French lune, the symbol u was still kept; and when the aood
u afterwards developed again out of the diphthong 0m, this digniik
was used to denote the sound. So when the Frendi system d
spelling came into use in England after the Norman Conqodl
these unphonetic symbols were introduced into English spdBi^,
so that such a word as Old English and Eariy Middle Eb|^
Aflj, " house," was written hous in the Late Middle TJn^iAd
Chaucer, although the sound was still that of Scotch Ams, m M
being also used to denote a true diphthong (ou) in such wocdiM
knou, know, from Old English cndwan.
• By returning, then, to the original values of the letten M
get the " Romic " or international (Continental) baasasoppoad
to the Glossic or national basis. Thus the passage quoted abow
appears as follows in Sweet's " Broad Romic " notation;-'
i n gli/ glosik iz veri iizi tu riid. wiff prope trcinii) a t/atld t» ]■>
ould ibn bii redili tot to riid glo«k buks.
Another important general distinction is that between " broad
and " narrow " systems of notation. A broad notatiui is otf
which makes only the practically necessary distinctions in cacfc
language, and makes them in the simplest manner poHftki
omitting all that is superfluous. From a practical point of new
the necessary distinctions are those on which diffeitnces d
meaning depend. A distinction of soiuid which is Bgnifrai*
in one language may be unsignificant in another. Thai tti
distinction between close i and open i,iis significant in TtesA,
as in pickeff picker; so if in French phonetic writing the :
PHONETICS
461
by (e), it is necessary to find a new symbol (e) for the
d. But in languages such as English and German,
short e is always open, there is no practical objection
le unmodified (e) to denote the open sound, even if we
as the proper symbol of the close sound. And in
uages in which the short e is al^'ays open and the long
lose it is enou^ to mark the distinction of quantity,
the distinction of quality to be inferred from it (e, ee).
case as this it is, of course, possible to apply the prin-
loring superfluous distinctions in the opposite way: by
e k>ng and short vowels in such a language (e, e),
e quantity to be inferred from the quality. But the
Ihod is the more convenient, as it does not require
Iter. The " broad " principle is especially convenient
diphthongs. Thus in English Broad Koraic we write
ongs in high and hew with the same vowel as ask (hai,
, although all these (a)'s represent different soimds in
outhem English pronunciation. But the pronunda-
se diphthongs varies so much in different parts of the
eaking territory, and the distinctions are so minute
iiild be inconvenient to express them in writing; and
listinctions are non-significant, it would be useless to
) and (au) are symbols, not of special diphthongs, but
ises of diphthongs: they can stand for any diphthongs
in with a vowel resembling the Italian a, and end with
.tions to i and u respectively. Theoretically it would
xnrcct in English and German to write these diphthongs
But these notations are misleading, because they
mple sounds.
aring the sounds of a variety of languages, or of dialects
age, and still more in dealing with sounds in general,
: a " narrow," that is a minutely accurate, notation
he whole field of possible sounds. It is evident from
wen said above that such a universal scientific alphabet
ed for practical work in any one language. But the
f such a notation as Sweet's " Narrow Romic " are of
It use as keys to the exact pronunciation of the vaguer
: the Broad Romic notations of each language,
ent confusion between these two sjrstcms of notations
mic symbols are enclosed in ( ), Narrow Romic in [ ],
the same time serve to distinguish between phonetic
: spellings. This in English i (i) » [i] means that
'ih vowel in Jinny is the " wide " sound, not the
' one in French fini, although in the Broad Romic
of both languages (fini) is written for finny and jfn»
Romic was originally based on A. J. Ellis's " t'alaeo-
diich, as the name implies, no new letters are employed,
ols of Palaeotype are made up, as far as fmssiblc, of
I generally accessible in printing-offices, the ordinary
ower-case letters being supplemented by italics
I capitals (i, «, i) and turned letters (a,D), many
th, sh) being also used. This notation was a reaction
's earlier phonotopy, in which a large number of new
re used. Some of these, however, such as J=(sh),
Ktn afterwards adopted into Broad and Narrow
In his Palaeotype Ellis also discarded diacritical
hich, as he rightly says, are from a typographical
Tew equivalent to new letters. In Narrow Romic a
tmber of diacritical letters are used, such as (ft, &),
hich are already accessible. Palaeotype is a Roman-
Ltion, the main difference as regards the values of the
etween it and the later systems being that it is more
nd arbitrary. Ellis afterwards had the unhappy idea
icting a " Universal Glossic " on an English-values
ch is even more cumbrous and difficult to remember
eotype.
Romic systems were made the basis of the "Intcr-
alphabct used in Le Mattre Phonitiqtu, which is the
the International phonetic Astociationf directed by
Although this system is at the present time more
own and used than any other, and although it is
e
«
ei
«
a
constructed on the international Romic principle, it is not really
an international system. It is rather an attempt to make a
special adaptation of the Romic basts to the needs of the French
language into a general notation for all languages. But the
phonetic structure of French is so abnormal, so different from
that of other languages, that the attempt to force a Broad
Romic French notation on such a language as English is even
more hopeless than it would be to reverse the process. Although
well suited for French, this alphabet must from a wider point of
view be regarded as a failure: it is too minute and rigid for
practical, and yet not precise enough for scientific purposes.
In short, although it has done excellent service, and has helped
to clear the way for a notation which shall command general
acceptance, it cannot be regarded as a final solution of the
problem.
Of the numerous other notations now in use, some still adhere
to the diacritic principle of Lepsius's Standard Alphabet (1855),
intended for missionary use, but found quite unfit for that
purpose because of the enormous number of new types required.
Most of them prefer to use new letters formed by more or less
consistent modifications of the existing italic letters. A. J.
Lundell's Swedish dialect alphabet and O. Jespersen's Dani^
dialect alphabet are good q>ecimens of this tendency. In the
Utter Roman letters are used for special distinctions, just as
italic letters are used in the Romic systems.
But in spite of all diversity, there is much agreement. As
regards the vowels, the following approximate values are now
pretty generally accepted.*^
a as in father. i u in it.
ai „ time. o ,f beau (Fr.)*
au „ houte. oe „ pcur (Fr.).
m „ man. o „ lalL
„ M (Fr.). oi „ oil.
„ veil. ou „ souL
„ there. u >, fulL
„ further. y „ une (Fr.).
Vowel-length is in some systems denoted by doubling (aa),
in others by special marks (a: &c.), the diacritic in d being used
only in the nomic orthographies of dead and oriental languages.
The only consonant-symbols that require special notice are
the following: —
c as in tyt^k (Hung.). n as in sing.
q „ ich (German). J „ fish.
C „ then. p „ thin.
j „ you. w „ wc.
J „ nagy (Hung.) x „ toch.
fi „ ogm (Ital.). 3 •• rouge.
All the systems of phonetic notation hitherto considered
are based on the Roman alphabet. But although the Roman
alphabet has many advantages from a practical point of view,
it is evidently impossible to build up a consistent and systematic
notation on such an inadequate foundation of arbitrary signs.
What is wanted, for scientific purposes especially, is a notation
independent of the Roman alphabet, built up systematically —
an alphabet in which there is a definite (elation between sound
and symbol.
This relation may be regarded either from the organic or the
acoustic point of view. The tendency of the earlier attempts at
an a priori universal alphabet was to symbolize the consonants
organically, the vowels acoustically, as in E. BrUcke's Phonetiscke
Transscription (1863). It is now generally acknowledged that
the vowels as well as the consonants must be represented on a
strictly organic basis. This was first done in A. M. Bell's
Visible Speech (1867), which appeared again (1882) in a shorter
form and with some modifications under the title of Sounds and
their Relations. Bell's pupil, H. Sweet, gave a detailed criticism
of Visible Speech in a paper on Sound-notation (Trans, of Philo-
logical Society, 1880-188 1), in which he described a revised form
of it called the Organic Alphabet, which he afterwards employed
in his Primer of Phonetics and other works. Sweet's Narrow
Romic notation already mentioned is practically a transcription
of the Organic Alphabet into Roman letters.
Such notations are alphabetic: they go on the g|eiveTal^tv&.o.v^
of providing separate siymboVs lox ta^ TAXCcy^ vai>&siii. '^'^^^
462
PHONETICS
the number of possible shades of sounds is almost infinite, even
the most minutely accurate of them can do so only within certain
limits. The Organic Alphabet especially makes a large use of
" modifiers " — characters which are added to the other symbols
to indicate nasal, palatal, &c., modifications of the sounds repre-
sented by the latter, these modifiers being generally represented
by italic letters in the Narrow Romic transcription; thus (In) »
nasalized G)*
In the Roman alphabet such symbols as /, v are arbitrary,
showing no connection in form either with one another or
with the organic actions by which they are formed; but in the
Organic symbol of 9, for instance, we can see the graphic repre-
sentation of its components " Ups, teeth, voice-murmur." By
omitting superfluous marks and utilizing various typographical
devices the notation is so simplified that the symbok, in spite of
their minute accuracy, are often simpler than in the correspond-
ing Roman notation. The simplicity of the system is shown
by the fact that it requires only about no types, as compared
with the 280 of Lepsius's very imf>erfect Standiurd Alphabet.
All the systems hitherto considered are also alphabetic in a
wider sense: they are intended for continuous writing, the more
cumbrous "narrow" notations being, however, generally
employed only in writing single words or short groups. An
" analphabetic " basis was first definitely advocated by Jespersen,
who represents each sound by a group of symbols resembling
a chemical formula, each symbol representing not a sound, but
an element of a sound: the part of the paJate, tongue, kc,
where the sound is formed, the degree of separation (openness)
of the organs of speech, and so on. The two great advantages
of such a system are that it allows perfect freedom in selecting
and combining the elements and that it can be built up on the
foundation of a small number of generally accessible signs.
As regards Jespersen's scheme, it is to be regretted that he
has not worked it out in a more practical manner: that in his
choice of the thirty odd symbols that he requires he should have
gone out of his way to mix up Greek with Roman letters, together
with other characters which would be avoided by any one con-
structing even a scientific alphabetic notation. And his use
of these symbols is open to much criticism. In fact, it cannot
be said that the analphabetic principle has yet had a fair trial
Tke Organs of Speech. — Most speech-soimds are formed with
air expelled from the lungs (voice-bellows), which passes through
the two contractible bronchi or bronchial tubes into the also
contractible wind-pipe or trachea, on the top of which is fixed
the larynx (voice-box). Across the interior of the larynx are
stretched two elastic ledges or cushions called "the vocal
chords." They are inserted in front of the larynx at one end,
and at the other they are fixed to two movable cartilaginous
bodies " the aretynoids," so that the passage between them —
the glottis — can be narrowed or closed at pleasure. The glottis
is, as we see, twofold, consisting of the chord glottis and the
cartilage glottis. The two can be narrowed or closed independ-
ently. The chords can also be tightened or relaxed, lengthened
and shortened in various degrees.
When the whole glottis is wide open, no sound is produced
by the outgoing breath except that caused by the friction
of the air. Sounds in whose formation the glottis b in this
passive state are called " breath " sounds. Thus (f) is the
breath consonant corresponding to the " voice " or " voiced "
consonant (v). In the production of voice, the chords are
brought close enough together to be set in vibration by the air
passing between them. In the " thick " register of the voice
(chest voice) the chords vibrate in their whole length, in the
" thin " register or falsetto only in part of their lengths If the
glottis is narrowed without vibration, "whisper" is the result.
In the " weak whisper " there is narrowing the whole glottis;
in the " strong whisper," which is the ordinary form, the chord
glottis is entirely closed, so that the breath passes only through
the cartilage glottis. In what is popularly called " whisper " —
that is, speaking without voice — the breath sounds remain
unchanged, while voiced sounds substitute whisper (in the
phonetic tease) for voice. Thus io whispering such a word is feel
the (0 remains unchanged, while the following iroird ami e»
sonant are formed with the glottis only half doied. Whipmd
sounds— both vowels and cbnaonanta — occur in oidinuy lod
speech in many languages. Thus* the final oonaooasts in tuk
English words as leates, Migg are frlaspend, except vba
followed without a pause by a voiced sound, as in Mp^,
where the (3) is fully voioed.
Above the glottis— still within the lazynz— comes the " upper "
or " false " glottis, by which the passage can be nanowei Oi
the top of the larynx is fixed a leaf-like body, tfie " cpi^ottii,*
which in swallowing, and sometimes in q>eech, is pfeawl don
over the opening of the larynx. The contractible cavity bctweci
the larynx and the mouth is called the " pharynx." The nd
of the mouth consists of two parts, the " soft ** and the ''lull
palate." The lower pendulous extremity of the soft pshtc^
the " tivttla," in its passive state leaves the passage into tti
nose open. In the formation of non-nasal aoonds, wdi n 0^
the uvida is pressed up s6 as to close the passage firom dli
pharynx into the nose. If (b) is formed with the pasnge opo^
it b<xx>mes the corresponding nasal consonant (m). The ochs
extremity of the (hard) palate is bounded by the teeth, bdnid
which are the gimis, extending from the teeth-rim to the sidHii
— the projection of the teeth^-roots or alveolars.
There is great diversity among phoneticians as icgirdi tk
piapping out — the divisions — of the palate and tongu^ of
their names. Foreign phoneticians generally adopt vety lainrti .
distinctions, to which they give Latin names. Bdl la lii
Visible Speech makes a few broad fundamental diviMa
In the arrangement adopted here (mainly based on his) mmk
formed on the soft palate are called " bade," and art subdraidBi
into "inner "-nearer the throat, and " outer "»neaicr tkt
teeth, further subdivisions being made by the terms " innenBQrt,*
" outermost," the position exactly half way between that tsi
last being defined as " intermediate back." Sounds food
on the hard palate or teeth may be induded under the coooHi
term "forward," more accurately distinguished as "tectk*
(dental), "gum," "front" (palatal, afterwards called "top*
by Bell), which last is really equivalent to ** mid-pslstsl,*
induding the whole of the hard palate bdiind the gam. ii
of these divisions are further subdivided intd " inner," te,
as with the back positions.
Of the tongue we distinguish the "back" (root), "faoil'
or middle, " point " (Up), and " blade," which indodcs fit
point and the surface of the tongue immediatdy behind iL Hi
tongue can also articulate against the lips, whidi, agib, ctt
articulate against the teeth. The Up passage can be drnd,
or narrowed in various degrees. Sounds Inodified by lip-nBOMP>
ing are called " Up-modified " QabiaUzed) or " round " (raodeft
the last being spedally used in !^>eaking of vowek.
Speech-sounds. — The most general test of a simpk as oppfldl
to a compoimd sound (sound-group) is that it can be IcBgClKHi
without change. As regards place of articulation, no svi *
is really simple: every sotmd is the result of the abapt of tti
whole configurative passage from the lungs to the Up»; and tti
ultimate sound-dements, such as voice, are never heud itoisttd
The most indistinct voice-murmur is as much the rcanlt of til
shape of the superglottal passages as the dearest ud Mt
distinct of the other vowels; and its organic formatian ii M
definite as theirs is, the only difference being that while hi iM
we regard as unmodified voice aU the organs except the vocd
chords are in thdr passive, neutral positions, the other voaeb
are formed by actively modifying the shape of the sapetiftttd
passages— by raising the tongue towards the palate, nanon^
the Ups, &c
The most important dements of speech-sounds are those wMA
are dependent on the shape of the glottis and of the watk
passage respectivdy. It is on the rdatioo between that tit
factors that one of the oldest distinctions betwcea sooil
is based: that of vowel and consonaMi, In vofwds the doo^
of voice is the predominant one: a vowd is voice noiBfitdtf
the different shapes of the super^ottal passages. In <
on the other hand, the state of the glottis is on^
PHONETICS
tanouil* an (mnSy tb< nralt of (odlbtc filction, u in (0,
■ tC complete MOfipict, u in (p). II Uie glottiais it Iheumc
6ai left open, u In 0, p), the ouuaDuit i) " breath " or
■nnleM " — U it bnuioiied enough to make tbe chordi vibrate,
ata (v, b), the oonMOUit ia " voice "or" voiced "; intermediaie
piatiDBi pioduciiig the armpotuSia^ " wUipered " canKnanta.
fandi an chancUiixed netatively by the abtence of audible
btjoo or iloppige: il an (i) U foniied with the (oogue aa dote
la Ibe palate aa to onie bitsiiic, it become* a v>riel]r of the
te amananl (j). Then ii. of coune, no difficully in fonning
1 igvcl vith the ^ottia in the position for breath and whisper^
Ital tccath (i) may often be heard ia French in luch wordi at
•ak (otIB at the fronl-brealh' comonanl (s). Tlie diviiion
il Tt ate. the clatet ■ vowel il — that is, the narrower ils con-
iltnlivi psutge b— the more like it ia to a ccnionant, and ihe
Innl it
(a Ihe otbei hand, have ao Utile buzz (hat acoiutlcally ihcy
Eoaniiule a class between conaorunu and voneb— a clau oS
'md-like " or " liquid " conaonanu, luch lu n, m, 1).
The dutnges in imindi which remit Irom active nariowing of
Ik puiagFS admit d ao imporunt distinction as " souad-
■sffijiog" and " saimd<Dlouring," although Ihe distinction
k iDt alwayi definite. Nuulily and rounding are eiunplcs
4 Mud-modifying proceiaea- Ilus we hear a certain lesem-
bhace between (b) and (m), (i) and (y}. but we regard all Ihcse
bur at diitincl and practically Independent sounds. Coo-
tnaioB a( the pharyni, on the other band, u also of the false
^Miit and windpipe, have only a sound-colounng effect:' if a
•Md il fonned with inch coattactioni ilt quality (timbre)
hiUercd, bat It ttiU renuint the tune voweL It follows from
Ik definition of qteech-sauuds that they admit of a twofold
dirification: (t) oigaDicand(i}acoiittlc A* alnady lemuked,
air, Iht voweb mainly from the acoustic pohit
ba to give an adequate organic dataification of tJ
Ik anthoi of Viiiilt Speak. Bell gave at the
AevDwelt. His acoostic daisificalion consists simply in airang-
M the sounds in the order of their " pilches " (tone-heights).
Tic pilches of the breath consonants are absolutely fixed in each
UiridiuJ pionuDciatton, while those ol spoken vowels can be
nried indefinitely within the compost of each voice by lightening
Ik meal cbotdi in various ways and tbortening iheir vibrating
pRknt: the tighter and shonet the vibtiiing body, the quicker
Il ribrationi, and the higher the tone. But when a vowel
k nhiipeted or brcaihed nothing it beard but the resonance
i( the canfignrative passages, especially in the mouth, and the
fikha of these resonant cavities are as fiicd a* IhiMe oF Ibe
kiaih contoDanu; in olhei words, a whispered (or breathed)
nad cannot be sung. Al thou^ the absolute pitches of voicrlcss
■mdi may vary (mm individual to indivWmJ the rclaiioni
•flhe piichei ate constant: thus in all pronundaUons (c) and
■hatcieil (!} are Ihe highest, breath (w) in Kkal and whispered
(a) neatly Ibe lowest in pitch among consonants and vowett
uld be
i[ pbonetica wen ai
a ideally perfect s(
•(ihe vowels and the other speedi-sounds
■ (oil itesciiplion of each sound would nee
ant determination of its organic (ormi
uafyss of the sound ittcK, both (rom i
tobje
il the :
mply (i) an
Live physical
ocdvcd by the e
bra solved to so
Ihe organic fonnalion and the acoustic effect is often Kll-evident.
Il B evident, lor imlanct. that [i] and (c) owe [heir clear sound
aad high I«tdi to their bdng [ormed t^ short, narrow passages
)■ the Iraat of the mouth, while (u] owes iti low [uich to being
htmti In exactly the oppcule way, the aound bdng (attber
d the pitch conteqnently tliU n
463
■e loweivd by the
One reason why it la impossible to classify the vowels exdu-
tively on acoustic piincipla is that (wo vowels formed in quite
different ways may have the same pitch. Thus the " high-
fronl-round" (y) and Ihe " high-miied " (l) have the same
pilch, (he tODgue-retraclion of the mixed position of the
latter having Ihe same eSccI aa the roundiog of (he fanner.
It is evident, therefore, (hat the (undamenul dassificatlon of
And although for practical purpoaea it Is often convenient la
classify sounds partly from the acoustic point of view, a full
adenine trca(menl must keep the Iwg points of view ttijclly
apart, and make a ipeda! chapter of the idations between them.
y™t;j.— TTie m
le share of Ibe lips in
dilation
_ ._. ..^ ^} the lips aie pDHivt., _. ,....
separaled and spread out at (heir corners, by which the vowels
actively approilnialed. thty become the nauid vowela (y) and
" open " (o) rencclivdy.
VoweU are iDrmcd with dUTcrenl degrees ol rounding. At a
general rule, tbe nanawncH dI the lipj-iKiMage carre<ponis to Ihe
natiownrtt of (he moulh-pauage. Thus, in piissng from (be
II there is also abnormal rounding. Thus, if 1
nth the lips in tbe potilion they have In ion
r England: (he tongue posido
rough! (ngcthcra liKleatthcc
The mouth potitiont of the n
rl " in the North
Ci) the degree irf its retraction. Bell distinguishes three decreet
of height: m his system (u) is " high," the (d) of bay it " mid,"
and (he (rt o( law it " low. He alio has three decrees of retrac-
It, such aa (u), the root of thed
Mot o( thete ■lope-poiidani yield VDwelt of a ifistiac( and clear
in which (he loogue ii in a more or Icit neutral pwiion. If the
tongue is raised litini (he low-flat pontlnn of (#)) in frird (0 the
hiih posidoo. we get Ihe (!) of North WeUi dya " man." which, aa
already obKived, is aeouflically liniilar to M.
TheHa( voweli were called ''mixed " by Bell in accordance wi(h
lalion. And aUhouah Ihli view is now generally abandonrd, the
■icdbylbeEnBl
Inlhis »:ay Be
mapped ou( (he w
5;m
low-back
m!j.rii!rf
l^w-milied
Sis
b(iliide*aIid''£^'Sil
n^lital Iricli^
on.aredefinild'L"
areli^
"a^thTa^}^^.
swels fall under one of these ca(c^Drlcfk Thus, tbe primary
h 0) and the cofresponding Engbih nidc (i) are both high-
voinrU, and yet they arc dittinct in sound: the English vowel
emilonc lower in pitch. Bel] explained (he greater opennesa
e wi<]e vowels at the result of greater expansion of the
nx; and he considered (he other class to lie most riearly
ui foming ni
46+
PHONETICS
part of the tongue where the aound b formed, the tongue being
clenched or bunched up lengtnwuer to as to be more convex than
in its relaxed or " wide condition.
The distinction between narrow and wide can often be ignored
in practical phonetic writing, for it generally depends on quantity ;
length and narrowness, shortness and wideness going together.
When the distinction is marked, wide vowels may be expressed by
italics, as in German (biino, bin).
Bell's category of " mixed-round " vowels had from the beginninj;
been a source of difficulty to students of Visible Speech. But it
was not till 1 90 1 that Sweet showed that they are only mixed as
regards position: they arc really the corresponding back-round
vowels moved forward into the middle of thie mouth while pre-
lerving the slope of back vowek, instead of having the tongue
flat as in the (unround) mixed vowels. They are " out-back "
vowels: there is an exasperation of the outer back position of such
a back-round vowel as the English (u) compared with the full back
(m) in German muUre.
In the same way by moving the tongue backwards while forming
a front vowel another leries of " in-front " vowels is obtained.
The " in-mixed " vowels are obtained by shifting the neutral
mixed positions into the full back position, keeping the tongue
flat, so that these vowels might also be called " back-flat."
The out-back, in-front and in-mixed vowck are included under
the common designation of " shifted," as opposed to " normal "
vowels.
There is a large number of other vowd-schemes, of which a survey
will be found in W. Victor's EUmente der Phonetik. Many of the
older ones are in the form of triangles, with the three chief vowels
a, i, u at the three corners, the other vowels being inserted between
these extremes according to their acoustic relations. Since the
appearance of Visilde Speech many attempts have been made to
fit his new vowels into these older schemes.
Of all the vowel-schemes the one now most generally known is
perhaps that of the International Phonetic Association already
mentioned. In this scheme the distinction of narrow and wide,
though admitted and occasionally marked, is not an integral part
of the system, the vowels being cbssified first as " velar ' (back)
and " palatal " (front), and then according to openness as " close,"
•• half-close," " medium," " half-open " and " orcn."
Consonants. — ^Thcse are the result of audible friction or stoppage,
which may be accompanied either with breath, voice or whisper.
Consonants admit of a two-fold division (i) by form, and (3) by
place. Thus (p, b) are by place lip-consonants, while by form
they are stopped consonants or " stops."
If the mouth-stoppage is kept, and the nose-passage is opened,
the stop becomes the corresponding "nasal"; thus (b) with the
soft palate lowered becomes the nasal (m).
In " open " consonants the sound is formed by simply narrowing
the passage, as in the back-opcn-brcath (x) in Scotch and German
loch. In some open consonants, such as the lip-teeth (f), there is
slight contact ot the organs, but without impeding the flow of
breath.
In " divided " consonantn there is central stoppage with open-
ings at the sides, as in the familiar point-divided (1). These con-
sonants arc sometimes " unilateral " — with the opening on the side
only — the character of the sound not bdng sensibly modified
thereby.
When open and divided consonants are formed with' the nose-
passage open they arc said to be " nozalizcd.'* Thus (m) with
mcomplete lip-closure becomes the nasalized lip-open-voice, con-
sonant.
" Trills " (or rolled) consonants are a special variety of un-stopped
consonants resulting from the vibration of flexible parts against
one another, as when the lips are trilled, or against some firm
surface, as when the point of the tongue trills a^iainst the gums
in the Scotch (r), or the uvula against the back of the tongue, as in
the Northumbrian burred (r), and the French and German (r),
where — especially in German — the trill is often reduced to a mini-
mum or suppressed altogether.
As regards the place of consonants, there is, as already remarked,
great diversity among phoneticians, both in mapping out the |)alatc
and tongue and in the names given to thc^e iJiviMon.o. The classi-
fication and nomenclature given here is, in the main, that of Bell.
By place, then, we distinguish seven main classes of consonants:
back, Iront, point, blade, fan, lip, and lip-tccth.
" Back " (guttural) con.sonants arc formed bctwxwn the root of
the tongue and the soft palate. In most languages the positions
of thc^ consonants vary according to those of the accompanying
vowclit : thus the back-stop and baclc-nasal in king arc more forward
than in conquer.
" Front ' (palatal) consonants are formed between the middle
of the tongue and the hard palate, the point of the tongue lying
pasHivcly behind the lower teeth. It is easy to make the front-
opcn-voice (j) in you into the corresponding stop (1) by narrowing
the passage till there is complete closure, as in Hungarian nof^y
(njj) " world." In the same way the open breath (5) in German
uA may In* made into the stop (c) - Hungarian /v. (j) naKilized
becomes {a)— Italian gn, Spanish fi, French gn in vifne. The front-
dividcd-voicc consonant i» the Italian gf and Spanish «. TVkwc axe
all simple sounds, distinct from the (Ij), (nj) in French and EncV
miZ/unf and English omimi.
" Point " consonants when formed against the teeth aie cdN
" point-teeth " (dental). English (f ) in thin is the poiat-teetfc.
open-breath consonant, (ff) in then the correspondiiic voice a»>
sonant. If (9) is modified by turning the tip of the toogoe lack
into the inner positbn — about on the arch-rim — it becomes ik
unt rilled (r) in English rearing, in which position the t
easily trilled, the trilling becoming more and more
the more the tongue is approximatea to the point-teeth
In French and many other languages all toe point co
(t, d, n. I), &c., are formed on the teeth, except (r). which is alwqi
more retracted than the other point consonants. If the lipflf
the tongue is turned so far back as to articulate with its lovtr ds
af^inst the arch of the palate — that is, farther back than for m
" inner " position — it is said to be " inverted." Inverted (r) ii
frequent m the diaU.*cts of the south-west of England. Tk
opposite of in\'ersion is " protrusion," in which the tip of the toipi
articulates against the upper lip.
" Blade " consonants arc formed by the blade or flattened tf
of the tongue against the gums, as in English (s, x), or agaiBst tM
teeth, as in the corresponding Frtnch sounds. If these comoaan
arc modified by turning the tongue a little back, so as tobrii)|ik
point morc into play, they become the " blade-point " coosotttfi
(/, 3)i as in fish, measure. (/) is acoustically a dull (»). Inna
languages, such as German, sounds Mmilar to If ) and (z) are UamA
>f^r
partly by rounding, which lowers the pitch of the hiss in the
way as retraction does, so that the tongue-articulation i« ttif
imperfectly carried out. When the rounding is \Try maftai
there is only a slight raising of the front of the tongue, as ia mm
Swedish dialects; and if tne tongue-articubtion is progrewrd^
shifted back, and the rounding diminished in the same propofM,
(/) can at last develop into tne pure back-open consonant (i)»*
in the present pronunciation of Sixinish x and j.
The English point consonants (t, d. n, I) are formed on the Ml
just behind the teeth, the point of the tongue being flattrnedi ■
that they are almost blade consonants.
" Fan " (sprcx^d) consonants — the " emphatic " oonsonaov^flf
Arabic — arc modifications of point and blade consonants, in «liA
the sides of the tongue arc spread out, so that the hiss of nft •
consonant as (s) is formed partly between the sides of the M^
and the back teeth, which gives a peculiar deep, duU qualitj f
these sounds.
" Lip " consonants, such as (p. m), and " lip-teeth *' codsomA
such as (f, v), offer no ditficulty. The simple lip-open-bmA
consonant does not occur in EnglUh; it is the souna produnih
blowing out a candle. The corresponding voice sound b fnoHl
in Orman — especially in Middle Germany — in such woiv a
quelle.
If the lip-open consonants are modified by raising the bock of Al
tongue, they become the " lip-back " consonants (wh. w) ia Ei^
what, tee, which may also be regarded as consonantiscd (■). h
them the lip articulation predominates. In the "hacMp"
consonants, as in German auck, the re\-erK b the case.
This lost b one of a lar);e number of " lip-modified '* Luiuoiii*^
of which the already-mentioned German sck is a further mir^-
In a similar way consonants may be " front-modified." (l) il
peculiarly susceptible to such modincations. In French and odv
languages it b formed with the tongue more conx-ex than in EiyBA
and consequently with a tcndenc>' to front-mod ificatioiL FroM-
modified (s) and point (r) may be heard in Russian in such ysftk
as ^usl " goose," tsarl " emperor," where the final voweb are dat
Some consonants are formed below the mouth.
When the glottis is sharply opened or dosed on a passage of bioA
or voice an effect b produced similar to that of a stop in the ■oolki
such as (k). This "glottal stop" is the sound produced ia hi»
cuping; and is an inclcFiendent sound in some languages. sachH
Arabic, where it b calletl " hamza." InGermanalluoidsbepi*''^
with a strcsiscd (accented) vowel have a morc or lc«s dbtinct i^on
stop before the vowel.
^ Of the passages liclow the glottis, the bronchiaU and the
pipe are both susceptible of contraction.
Spasmodic contraction of the bronchial passages b the
factor in producing what is known as "the asthmatic vhi
If this contraction is regulated and made voluntary it resnb* ■>
the deep hiss of the Arabic hd. If this aound is x'cnccd. it CUM*
a peculiar intermittent vibration of voice, which b hahttnil ^^
some speakers, especblly in Germany. If thb effect b softened )f
filightly expanding the bronchial passages, an (r)-like mmd ■
produced, which is that of the Arabic 'atn.
Contraction of the windpipe produces a sound Hmilar to Al
Arabic kd, but weaker, which when followed by a vowel hu W
effect of a strong aspirate. When voiced it becomes a mete cff'"^*
of the accompanying voice-murmur, or vowel, to which it ii
a deep timbre.
Non-expiratory Sounds. — All ^ the sounds hitherto
imply out-breathing or expiration. Many of them can aInM
formed with in-brcathing or inspiration. In English it b a irt
uncommon trick of speech to pronounce no in thu manner, to 1
cr(^V>\valic deniaL
PHONETICS +65
I wilhoal cithn In- or Dul-bnsihinE. ai piwblc, id that lh« intctiifiiing " (Tide " b nu naticcd— circpt
^iluiialiin, by
ral in icnind HR
n«.'Thij lj
Svtdlik ind
dTwinguidicd.
ptmps dickft ait a pait of ordiruiy ap«cll-
ill — BBidcl)iiulr>ingeacli sound Kpinilelyrphonclin
■I willi Ibe phenomena which accompsny lynthnis
ibiutioD of >0UDdL Ailhough a Bentence may consist
void, and that word of a ungic vowel, sounds moally
f in CDntbioAtion with one another. Tlie otdinaiy
ark oS seuenccs and cut Ihem up into Holds unlil
what Ihcy mean and are >blc to analyse Ihem gnm-
But the logicaJ division into senlences corretpondt
[tent with the phonetic division into " bieslh-gniupl,"
! by our inability to utter more than a certain number
i IhcM bicalh-group) Ihfre is no nMtajary pauM
: general facton of lynthesis: quantity, stress and CliJti.— Such a word u cat consijls not only of the vowd
Id. giu^iiy. i( b enouih lor ordina^ purpo« to di^ "^f^.J^ ™™a''nt"t"th^'w c^s"ol^ 1^ blem'ed""
jflo'"'°h^rf"™^Jt»™"™"'^." '"■"*' '™li' '*? <k)-l™lion to the (ae)-poMtion. The number ol then
mnmn^i^'Tlie RoJISBce"li'ii'rr«i:r> l^it UiDii"t;iil position of the symbols, lor it b (uumed lliai In all Itinsi-
loa bnauaiM. Thi dinmciionm ol nuaniiiy <pply lo Although the direction of a glide is dependent on the position*
Mi.!wW.Ilieiin»lcoiBoiianlbquiM'i£rt°'cioii»nantt. Im varied both by the shape of the lonfigurative passign—
1, (Kod to become iheit when unatRHcd. Bui in tome especially the glottis — and by streas and quantity.
'"hi.FinwJiuia Munnrian. urep ha> no etTect on la the word given above Ihe " ofF-glidei " Irom the consoMnta
Sir « l5q'^ i?^JSa ™ rt'i^i^lbX: »™ ^[^ beeath-glides, the gtotlis being kept open duringlhe
Eiglisb we often leiwthen final unttrencd vo.rel. in unnution from the voiceless consonant to the following vowd,
nt, u in what a fily? Some languaees. tuch is the or, as in the case oi the final consonant, to tilcnce. The " on-
bngua^es and Rimian. tend to level die dlKioctioas ol gU^e " fmni the vowel to the (t) t«. on the other hand, ■ voice-
"" '" " tbt"il''m' with wliKh the ^liile. '!■• closure of the glottis being maiataiaed till the stop
I, onanically the mult of the lata wii:
■peUed from, the, lungs; while acouaticalty il
: the bijger tlie waves, lie louder the tound. and the voiceless consonants are followed by voice-glides. Thus
tie biEE^r the waves, the louder the t ' ' '
^iah only three, tliey are called local
^.. ., .,„, ,. J,.,™, u.,™„ J
TH b ^k^l^^nnccted ihequeslion of syllabU-di
French and most of the languages of the south of Europe
Wi»^f^ French qui there i» no escape of breath after
I the same is <° English Kty. Other language) again have breath on-glidea
malce com- before voiceless slops.
\t ivILiblcs 11 so independent strong stress la put on the breath-glide at
Ji,°i'^i™ English iey, il is heard almost as a lull independent consonant,
3d to mark *nd becomes an " upifste." Aspirated steps may be heard
' Irish-English pioonnciation of such words as lill, and also
., ,^ nish, and in Sanslcrit as pronounced in India. If the
,nd non-iyllabLc depends on "nanl aspirates of Sansfcnl and its modetn descendanU
being the voiced ones, while are produced, as in Sanskrit dkaau.
^ilJ^S a'S'"™l5" Xi"™ Acouslka"? "Jl^kJn^Tndi^," vokdc" st^ arT'pure glide!
. But in .uch a word as intervening ^es. In English these latter arc fully vnced
"luiu!iion indlihe'wholc "'"" •'"X ^"^ between voice sounds, as in a(o; but when
he beginning of a syllable preceded by voiceless sounds or by a pause, »i in (oi they are
id .yilablc just before the stop is loosened. So also initial English (i) aa
ond (k), <hc
Bm (k)
the rapidity languages which have voice-gUdc
^ the Cigher initial (g, a) &c. are fully voiced.
as being the Consonnnl-glides may be furlht
ihoul change ^ ''" lormation of " implosive " stops, sicti aMA<»tve.^iKi.&a.
't as quicHy Gennui, AniMniuiaiidolhci\ui{;aaitei,-«Ac^kxsai.\'>^V^^'*^
re-gUdcs alter v
:c modified in
466
PHONETICS
tv volce-glida ire modified by ^uluneoui doniR of the
gloltii, the Larynx bang nixd by tneani of its mmcla, » that
it Bcti lUie 1 plug, ciimpre»iD£ the uc between the closed gloliis
ind the mouth-itap, >o that ohen the latter ia rdcued a
peculiar choky effect ii given to (he oli-glide.
Rounded ^Aa may b« heard in Ruuion in such words aa
kaiiuM, when the rounding of the (o) t> aatidpaled in the
preceding conaomkbt, being beard, of coune, only in the off-
gGda ol the consinaiit. Tile acoustic elect is between that of
(kwo) and ocdinsry (ko).
GlidctesB consonant-comUnationa remain lo be coniidered-
The general articulative principle oi taking the ihortest way
being effected without any glide at alL Thii is
the point of the
legularly
and diflcT only
In such combin
ol enlirely by
ta in English nymphs
Even when consonai
n jBssi
n form, al in (nd, dll), nl
unmoved through the
lions as (ml) the veiy slight glide is often got rid
le place of (he fij
ti an formed in different parts of the
lie to join ihcm wilhout any glide. In
ons as (kt, pi) are glidelcsi,
:he genera] phonetic nuterii]. Each one hai oaly > Gndui
L— g{ Kiundii and each one maket only > limited tat a
ihetic distinctions of quantity, itrtss *iid iatanatioo. A
we have seen, many of these differences between iodividiu
iguBge* are the lesult of, or may be rcfened to, diSennCB
their orgajiic basis.
Just as cognate languages differ from each other in phooeta
iictute, 10 alio dialects of the same language* diflei from ead
other more oi less. Thus the uund-syilem of Lowland Scolcfa-
s, histoticsly, a dialect of Nonliein En^iih — diflsi
considerably Iiom that of ilandard English. Staridacd Eo^id
itself was originally that miiture of the Klidland and the Southea
dialect which was spoken in London in the niddie ttt*, jutt M
Itandard French is, historically, the dialect of that district
h Puis is tlie centre. Standard English, like itaodiri
Is now more a class-dialect than a local dialect: it li
;be Language of the educated aJL over Great BritaiiL But ft
is not yet peifectLy uniform. It is siil! lisble to be inHmncri
by the local dialects In grammar and vocabulary, and still nen
English
,pf ihe tongue Lxing brought into portion before the preceding
Idop ii loosened. Id French and niost other languages such
CorabinalioM of Hops and vowel-lilie consonants (tr, gl, kw)
are glideless in English and most other langunges. In English
the bceatb-glide after a voicelcu slop unvoicci the beginning
of the following vowd-like consonani ; thus fry is almost (trh-
Vvntt-^idei. — VoweLi are btoun and ended tn miDua ways.
In the Eiadual beginning." which is Ihe uiusl one in Englith
and FreiKh. the cloitis is aradually narroned while breath lb bein^
emined, in the clear" boginniag the breath u kept back IiLl Ihe
■killii ii clc«d foe voce, whfh bcfini wiihout any ^- breaihineu."
GeimanfavDiirt the clear begioninii, generally exaucraling it into a
ich are distinct in one generation may be coDfonided ii
another, and new distinctions may be made, new soimdi oaf
arise. A ^>oken language is, theiefon
and floating entity, and EngLish is no i
The very fixity ol its written form gives au tne tner plsj ■
the in^ueoces which cause change.
A standard spoken Language is. strictly speshing, an shrine
lion. No two speakers of itandard English pronausce saOlr
alike. And yet they all have something in common in eiBT
lound they utter. There are some divergencies, some pcciErf-
ties of pronunciation, which pass unnoiiced, while oUien, !■
considerable perhaps in tbemselva, are at once fell ■
1 by the raajotily of educated fpeakci*.
SonKli if £ji(/ij*.— The fa" " '
of the vowels of standard Engl
lie '• or, (h), which in Enjliil
od^ips grad''ili^y'"nic
avel while the eI^dIiu
niiion fpr the fntJowi^
In mon languaees. when an aspirate comes between vrnced loiiBdi
il it^nmed with imperfect vocillly, the contrail ol which with the
full vocalily of the olher souods it enough to produce Ihe effect
of brealh. Thus in Eiu^ith (vMJ (he voice runs on without
any actual brolc, the glottal cloaure being simply relaxed, not
fully opened for breath, ai in the eraphalic lAa I In lome languages,
such at Bohemian, this " voict-upirale " is uied everywhere,
initially as well as medijliy.
Jrianic Buu.^Eveiy language has certain general b
irganic basis " o'
1 to flatten and loi
rom the lecih, white the lips arc I
itral position. The Battening o
:s the dull l|ual
Ihe I
.( of mixed vovels,
teeth sounds; while the neulrahly of the lips eliminates ftont-
roiind vowels. In such a language as French everything Is
revcned. The tongue is arched, and rused, and advanced, and
the lips articulate with energy. Hence French sounds tend
Jfatumal S9und-syaims.—£xii language use* only > part ol
PHONOGRAPH +67
■at oM^ b tkc fgr Oflitiulmtl., iSjA, *. i.}. In Ibe tuK rev Sicmimd
■ -.'' ^* ■ ff"^' Theodor Stdn pholognphol the vibntioni of tuning^forki,
^.rZ^^^^f^ violin ilringi, Ik. {Pbu- Ann., i8j6, p. 141). "Tbrn Irom
ill duv Thomu Young dowDnrdl luccculiil cfioTts liul ban nuda
10 monl graphicilly on moving >iuf bos the vibniioni of •otmdi,
but the Hundi go recorded could not be lepioducoL llib
mi (ccompliihcd by T. A. Ediwn in 1870, tlic fint latent
being dated Juuuy ]877.
it movrd fiDoi ligbl (a left, u in the phoruutognph. The recorder
n qI breath •mtched over tbe end of ■ Son bnit cyUcder iboiit *
?'^4d-beater'~i Ma
„ - abrane there
int* 0, r) and the needle having ■ chiKl-ihaiied ed^. and a itiS bit of iteel iprinf
wat toldercd to the OMdle near iii point, while the other end d
wbId an: H. the ipriDg wai clamped to Iheedin ol the biua cylinder over which
oS); E. Sevm, the iDEnibiane w» niruhRl. The recorder wai tbea •> placed
toi)! W. Vieior. beude the large cylinder ihar the ihirp edge of the needle ran In
lid Fmi»iiucite» the middle of the ipiral ktodw when the cylinder wu rotated.
'Imtlik (LeipiiE, The cylinder wu covnrd with a ibeet al nft tinioiL During rautioo
ng, iBA^-igM); of the cylinder, and while the roembrane wae not vibrating, tbe
jMi tuimHjinuJt (harp edge of the marker indented the tinJinl into the ipirBlnoovei
For the lewi of and when the membrane «u cauied lo \4bmte by ninda being
E^xa: H. Sweet, Ihrown into tbe abort cylinder by a fohnel-ebaped opeung, the
uoy. £11 Oaxfi- vaciatiou ol preaiure corrreponiUng to each vibration canaed th*
uguage-tcaching marker lo make indentaliona as tbe linfoil in the bottom o( Hm
(LondoD. t8aa)i vnxivr. That indentatlofu coneaponded to tlie iound-wana,
idon, 1901). For To reproduce the loundi the recorder lAi drawn away from tha
lorthaod. H- Sweet. A Mtamai of Currnii SMrUuKd cylinder, and the cyliDdcr waa rotated backward* until the reecrder
19». For the amlicallnn of phoneiici and phonetic waa brought 10 the point at which it Kaned. The cylinder waa
„ the practical ■tuify of tpeclal laoBuagea, H. Sweet, A then rotated forwarde lo that the pcont of the recorder ran over
fimir ef Spclm fini/ii* (and ed,. Oiford. lessT; F. Beyer and the elevaiiooi and depre«ona in the bottom of the groove. Tbeaa
. „_._. I: e...^ 1.. L r_ .._■ ^,^ ^_ elevation, and -■ ■ "— - -" ■—-- -■
(I (Leipiig, pmauii of ear
H.S».) Ihrough the o. __
I (Or. ^rfi, tound, -jpitur, to write), in -^^ 'o "no" 'o the ■mi way u it did wheo it
1 Spctm BnWii* (and ed,. , _ .
^ tUmeniarbuch dti triprofhtnen FranzSniEk (and ed-, elevatioru and depreiuont. corretpoodina to
„, ,.■.,__ „ L._ r.__....i.._ •-■-irifl{Lafaii, pmauii of each lound-wave, acted baehwardi
(H. S».) Ihromh Ihe ovdiuin of the B ' ~
CMen, 190^ ; W. Victor, Dtiiii£ktM Lri'batli Ht Laaiiihrifl (Leipzig, pmaun of efl
terooenl lot imprinting the vibration, of Kiund on > moving SS^7th7 " ™ 'J^l ^"^ ba?"rf'^SSrZ,Z;S
--.- ., .;.,.. „, .« in .uch * form that the original aound. ™"p,Siu^"™ tS^I^P^iS «unl«vS^ CoiSj^^l^
u be faithfully reproduced by tuii^le mechaniam. Many i
Ucmpli had been nude by earlier eipetimenlen to obtain ■
ndngi of tbe V
t>w phonograph wbb reproduced with c«ii-
iSjS Flceming Jcnkin and t. A. Eiing
nade 00 thla innrumcnt by the iDUBda el
iDini-Ibrki. membrana, and glail or metallic disks. In 1807 (rrou. Ssy. &v. £i{i>f. nviU. 743). The niarluon the tinloil wen
Ttacai Young (Leaurii, L 191) described a melfaod of recording al» eaamincd by P. F. F. Crdtintr, Mayer, Graham Bell, A. M.
iIk nbrttioos ol a luning-torli on the surface of a drum; bis Fierce, and Lahr (•« Tkt TiUphntt. i^ ilicrofluiu, and tin
(fffitm-jku JUT VHaslicill, V- mm.). Recording the vlbtalioni 1878). . . . .- .. -.
^.membrane wi. first accompliidied by Lem Scott in .857 by tT.* tinfon phonognpii.howevet, was an imperfect inatnimenl,
Ike fflvcniBn of the phonautograph, which nay be regarded boih a» teganb the medium on which the ioiprinU were taken
■ tbe precunor ol the phonograph {Comfla miui. y, p. 108). (linfoii) and the general mechaniim of the injlnuncnt Uany
. ™iiflnmin«,tcon.i.lcdofathinmembranelowhichadelicale in,p,ovcmeoU weie attempted. From i8,j 10 .888 Edi«»
Im •»• att^etLThe mem^e waa itretthed ov« the ^„ ta&pi [n vmrking out the deliila of the wai-eylbder
■mow Bid of an brtguUrly-ahaped fimnel or drum, while the pbonogr^h. lo ,83; A. G. Bell and S. Talnter patented the
■drf tbe lever ot Darker waa broujhl agaout the aorface of " graphophone.-andin >887,EmiIcBerliner,aGermandomicUed
atyhndrromjtd-nlh paper on which loot had been deposited ;„ America, patented the " gtumophone," wherein the cylinder
fan a flame of tnrpeotine or c»mpbor. The cylinder waa y„ coaled with lampblack, and the friction between it ud
ind on a fine Kttw moving boriionlally wben the cylinder (j^^ stylus was made unilonn for all vibrations Incidentally
WIS rotated. Tbe marker thu* described 1 spiral line on the ^ ,^y be mentioned that Charles Cross deposited in 1877 *
bckened autlace. When tasaii were Iransoutlcd lo the ^^Icd packet irith the Acadfmie des Sciencta, Paris conlainina
■onbraae and the cylinder »« rotated the osdllalion. ol the „ .uggattion for reproducing sjund from a Scott pbonautomph
■uka were recorded. Thui Iradngi o( vibration, were jf^aiA. The improi-emcnts made by Ediioo consisted chiefly
Ititained. TTda inMrtmenl was much improved by Karl (,) („ niUtitutfng lot linfoil cyUndere or disks made of a w-aiy
bdolpb KOmg. of Yak, who also made with it many valuable .ubawnce on which pcrmanenl records are taken; (a) Id niUti-
*•"**"**:, {Sec Nairn, Dec it, 1901, p. 1B4). TTie tuting a Ihln glaa. plate for the parchment membrane; (3) in
■"fcaoi*" " "* rocorduig lever or marker waa Improved by improving the mechanical action ol the marker: and (4) in
Vaiam Henry Bartow, in 1874, in an liuirumeot caUed by him A^^-\^ ihe drum carrying the wax cylinder at a utilfonn and
tk( "logofniph" {Train. Xoy. Set., .874). The neit step rapid speed by an electric motor placed below the initrument.
■u Kfaig"* invention of manometric flamea by which the i„ ,),r dm pia„^ permanent records can be taken on the wan
ntiUuioct of a thin membrane imder Kiund-pressure. acted which !• compned of ataHn and paraflin. This material ii briitlel
•• . a-i.tl n>«mnir of gi. Connected with a flame, and the but it readily takv« iho imprints nude by the marker, which is
■ Timilur mirmr .rr™d. oow a tiny bit of sapphiiv. The marker, when uvd for rtcordins.
heatslone. Thus flame- rounded when the marker ii Uhcd for n-n^u'eing the Bund. The
: obtained (Peit ^"t-. marker also, iulead of being a Hilf nrnllc coming fnno the centre
aei HpHfiai i'aeini- of the membrane or iHaH plat*. I1 now a lever, woighicd » as to
dec of aapphur: but
Irtd for repTTMlueing I
e also Qadfua apHfiai i'aeini- Dl^jbe^mernbnne or iHaH
rtjpir, Paria. lUi'). CUrenct Blake in 1876 employed the drum- Jj? " i ?^"' "■■? 'IS ""*? 'l"' "^""- * "."l!* "ii'v;-
h^ol the human ar as a tegograph, and thus obtained t-jdw dimln^i^'^p™"* VA'".™«,.v' JT^"™ ^li^oSl *
MiluletlwMn*dcJ)yartiSdalmenibTanaitiddi.kiMr(&)S. an increue ol ptcsaun the action ot t^ ^cvb \s vkVVbu., ii«ii
468
Uw wu Cvt
PHONOGRAPH
rapidlv that
of Ibe eIoh
inch kpajt. Tfaut vfth tbe U/ie cylLndcr t tfwal fnjm< itf
500 ydt. nuy be dctcribcd by the recorder, mad —**^ - ^^
.1 1...: — J ,!„, djm„„ i.
Iciuihei
By ^i*hif*.*hipf [tie iijeed <d t«
lie is also uniform. Add bv ■ ni
bluik under tbe iDund^oK Co
] detai±ri a iot unbnilceB thm
3t of the blank to a depih al jt-
t the fpiral groove Co vitbia a to
irdiPE to tiK length of the mnac I
, , a tbediak and c^li
ncontcd. lie eneDlial diffi
maduDC !• that in the lonner ue vain are ra
motion over the dieli, vlule io the latter the
The following
diiphragm^ Th
and tl;e recorditi
The amngemej
-ecording and inccnti&ed in rtpr
tmedyine thU the etylui kii like
mauix h nwk itcoi it in tbe ubiu!
I taken of tbe re
emaikable BdeU ty.
that tbe ininc of the marker be in the
centrv of the groove^ In the older phoao-
paphi thii required anuratc adjiittment
cen^Q anuRint of lAienl cncillatiDD ie
aUowvd to the marker, by vhich it tlipn
aulomatically into the girnvT. Two olbef
miu over nearly r4 in. in one HCDiid, while
with the larger It mm over About 3p in. Tbe
fore 1ei< likely to be crowded lofielher
vitb the larger ntioder. and thete higher
tone* in particular aie inore accurately
c^l^ the aoo-thmd nuchine motion ol
the inch, and by a tyirem of gearing the
tbe lOMrker in the sroovei when thw were w
ioo la tbe jacb, to thai Che froovea on the C]
o-granwphone or auicDophone. patcatad
proved by the Hob. C. A. Panooe, it ah
ophonc hut attalM iti reeuha ia ■ dift
DocShort Kxind-boi then b b> <Gap
PHONOGRAPH
469
■ it mmiireil ik k axOrtM by, 1 Miatdy ■diiHHd Tbe knidncn would corre^KiDd to the dtpth cf tub lodlvfiiail
bS lirSIt*.. <i ^L™™"Sk mSS"^* Sols '""^ ™ ^' cylinder « the width on (he di>k. ■ Tht fiMler
it, Mtowiiv the linn <i( vibiMwi. fiinl on ibc nmrd ind "" 'iep'l' "I a Kiia of (ucceaive Burkj produced by > loud
IT or doiUag the ilocm in ibe vKive KAt. Tbe calumn of tone, the greater, in reproduction, would be the Amplitude of
Sdr^dSt'T^S.^^E^i^^"!.'^^^ np4d^?"LulV' tbe tonn"''t^*™l^"ll^nd^W
■IB lor wpplrli* eoMprtMiJ »ii, coiulninD of ■ ■iith-hone individual vibrationt would determine the quality of the lone
-electric DKKordirriiiflbecodipfettor, an oiriitTer.a mervoir or Dole reproduced, by which we can diatinguiah the tone of
I duw collectiir la keep the air abantuldy [ne Inxn ioreifn one initnunCDt (mm anotlier, or the Kiuation prodncHl by a
H. Ukdy u lateffen with the «tk« of the vJve. ,„„, „[ ^^„ „a ^„pi, ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ !„„ , ^_bowed
( practical potdbOitle* at the gramophone are being tuning-fork or aa open organ pipe, and that given by a Uumpet
1 irtiati have been depoiited at the Britiih MuKum bknded logeiher. When the phoaogrsph records the lound
1) ibe CruK! Op*i» in Pnri». Austria eitabliihed a public of an orchestra it doe» not record the tone* of each instmmenl,
(pun record office in njoj, in which are collected folli- but it imprints the fonn of impttsiion coirespondiog to the very
■ -vl records_ot all kinds lor enriching Ihc department comi^ea wund-wave formed by all the i ' ' ■
ivinpby. Tfaeu
ii Germany xhia pi
arm
A
0
JMVM
i$k
#l|f
w/wjt
m
Jfiflf
i6*y.o
•4444
ii
I been explained,
inhnitely varied, will reproduce hickwardi.
, » ID 11 la
• immimaiiavnisitioi
paniment of the
m of
complex leriei 0
sound
When reproduce
d, the
wave-formi aga:
In the air aa ve
ple< variation) c
pres-
drum-head of the
lunun
ear, there is trau
there
an analyiii of the com-
nvatesodetiei and by royal museums. In Hungary records the oboe, or
t variow dialecta have hem secured. Hie pos^bililies of voice from
lamopboae as a teacher are far-reacbing, not only in the obbUgato.
in of music but in learning languages, &c.
undersUnd how the phonograph records and reproduce!
al tones, It k Hceasary to temember (i) that filth or
racy ''f™*- od the ruimbcr of vibrations eieculcd by the
tiflf body in a given period of time, or on the duration
ch vibiatioa; <i) that inJnui'y or Wfnu) depends on the
ilHie of Ibe movement of the vibnting body; and (j) that
y.tininorefam, first, depends on Ibe lonn of Ibe individual
tiona, oc nther on Ihi power the ear possesses of apprcci-
y^ this to tbe record of the phonograph,
c oe tooe of 4 certain jHlch wiD be heard wli
ovci a nnmbcr of elevations and depressions
E bBtaeocj of thai note. Thui if the note
o vibntiona per second, and suppose lb;
Fic. 3.
onion of (he cylinder {Joun. t{ Anal.
itc1i"mpli'llcd1fial."?^«c^. S«! Min..
Soc. Eii'., 1S06-1S07. Opening Addmi;
iraph. Prof
ol KoniaJxiK, look up ihi
idcr phonoEraph. He obtained photographs
wax cylinder, ■ beam of lipht reflected from
id to the vibntinK disk of tKe phonograph bei
1S90.
irWof?
1 ^U/it'i PitynDlnty. iL nil.) Boeke, o( Aikmiar, hni dcvi
would run over Ibe 30 marks In ^,of dianieler of tbe imprei»DnE on the surtace ol the cylind
th*t frequent would be reproduced- differeat (generally equidistaiil) parts ol the period, %Da ^
(rDin that meuurenwitti (he deplb of the irapnoflonf on the
cum ai the vibntiou of Ehc tone whkh produced Ebe impn
A O
PHONOGRAPH
i> the curvM ai the mm vowd tauaSToaSe mat eXt
•bowD by two rkUkxU, that tl Hcrmuui ud tkM d M
Iffwl
w#
l\f^
Wwh
iJiUllilJliI
ifplWW
WW
libiiliiiliiiJiKilliiilJ
(nivpf|(i¥ii[iii|iiv'(r|P
Hi
isi.i
u-w
»•"
>. 113-3. 24° ■od 'S^ "nie Bi^lm J]>
^.-Aixedby the umc vawri. niDg by hktf
1^ 13. [t will be Ken tb&t the bov Hng the Docei caalr 11
ictKve higher. Fig. 6 ihon Ihe nuxkA pradodd by vne ama
P10.6.
-oundt. E*rh ihowi on the rigln-hiiid ride Ibc rnrvi deda
Dulch Oiorhincbrynpilogicil [roniIhcnurlu.i"dunderit lEraplucilivpmeiiuiioDDl checul
. nyinj Ulusntioni. wEich will give the leadei a lair conception ordinatej reprraenl the nniplilude ol the iubiet|uent buvri
oftienalnreoithe markionthe wnicjlindctptoduad by vnrioui conilituenti. No. 41 ii the period ol the tound o( ■ pBcfc^
and enlarged 1^ Boeke one and a hsU limgi. The numtcn I to 4 a Dutch pilEh-pipe. also tound^^ a' (414'•(^ double (SbiI
refer to period* ol the vowtl A (u in " h^rd "). Hung by Hermann per lecond). No. 43 i* a record ol Ihe perud of a nuod fvote
on the noieif f £ f*. Number* 5 to s thow thecL]rv«<^ the vowel by blowing between two nripe ol indiarubbcr to itnitalt tbe i«
0 {a« in " go ") aiing to the tame noteL The number of vibratxHia cord». with a frequency of 453 double vitntirmi per aecoiid. Ii
i* alu vov^. BocKe measured the marki lor the ume vowel* by 4^ la that of a telephone pipe UKd by Hcnnaiia (yn double via
hia method, from the tame cylinder, and eonsliueting the curvea, tioni per Kcond). No«. 45 and 46 ahow the marat of a cva
indnitationt produced by the ume vowel*. Hjng by Hermailn on e of 300 double vibratioiu per tecorid. In fig. 7 are ibovn aa^
Ihe noiH £ f f f* on the Hmephorwgraph eyiinder. but delineated ot vowel eurvei for the vowela o. Ol. A, s and I. Each cutwk
alter tiii method. The curvee are al*o ahown in linear on the right-hand aide a graphical reprevntation of iti haraai
■,nt From tbeae meamre- anal)*.. The curve, are In five ^- '
UL'Oan.!. i. Ht. /■tyiul. Bonn, Bd. I, S. 197; aln Prx. Rm.
htit.. 1119a). , .
Society Dr Boeke haa permit
PHONOLITE— PHORMIUM
\taai ildc ol tarh Aawian, bf BocWi HHtbad, el two ncrladi
llr urki dI tbe vovri. The mETki >Tt ibawB tat Ihe Dulch,
iTHui^ Eiwlish and Fmch lanBiuEn. The iDunda of the VDVtIi
■ *. likes In "bo"; h. like m m^' IDa "; ■. yke the Genua d
-PUim"; a, like din "hard"; (. like ■ In " tike ": <j, notln
«U wotdh but ■Dmnhat like 1 in " bell "; and 1. like « in
bar." The lirA lectnn cDntdint only Dutch yrrvti lounda,
Iks lung or tpokcn by Booke v memben of hit famify. Tlie
EDad wclion contain* curvn Imm Ihc vai» of PrAfeunr Hnmann.
iDf Boeke.and IbelouitlL _ .
nlwuT de I'inaiiul del Sonidk-Mi
'oo IlK^^TuctLaa of t^aisun^oc^ L. N. Reddie, jwra.
■m.A-aU<,o»).
nONOUTB (Gc. «urf, lound, and Xtfot, Hone), In petrDiogy,
raicnelite and liicon occui In the lAanoliia, ud qtbtnc ii often
rather comiDon. Another mineraJ »hich it more fnquent in
fdionc^ta than in many oLhci rocks is brown rRcbnitc ganwL
Recent age, but in Scotland Carboniferoui phonoljlei occur
in Kvcral [ocalilics, e.g. Tnprain [n Haddingtonshire, alM
in the Eildon Hills and in Renlrenhire. In Brazil phonolilct
beloDEinjF to the iame epoch are also known. There are several
ierable numbers, as in Auvergne (Mani Dor), the Eilel,
ana uonemia. The Wolf Rock which lio off the south coast o(
ComwalE, and is the »te of a weU-knonn lighlhouK, is the only
m^iss of phonoljle in England; it is suppo&ed 10 be the remaina
oi a Tertiaiy lava ot inlnuion. The Canity Wandi, Capo
Verde Islands, Sstdinii, Aden, British East Afrioi and New
l^u. The tenn " dinkitone " was formerly given by geolo- ZealiBd contain many types of phonolites; they are known also
in to B;)ny fine grained compact lavas, which split into thin in New South Wales, while in the United Slates pbonolitcs
N(h plates, and gave out a tinging uund when struck with the occur In Colocsdo (at Cripple Creek) and in tbe Black Hilts oi
■UB. Some ot these clinkstones were phonolites in the Soulb Dakota.
■den sense, but as the name clinkstone was used for a large Leucite occunln place of nephclinelna small group of phom^
winy of rocki, many of which have no close alTinitics with one lites (the leucite-plionolitcs), known principally from Roco
laxLcr, it has been discarded and "phonolite" is substituted for Monfini and other places near Naples. Blue hallyne Is nther
t Tbe gnup includes neks which are rich in alkalis with a conspicuous mineral in some of these rocks, and they (bo
■ly a inodcrale percentage of silica^ hence they cotitain no free contain a good deal of iphene. When sanidine, nepheline and
piru but mnch alkali felspar [uuidine ud anotthocUse) and teuclte all occur together in a volcanic rock it is clissed ainon(
•pielioe. Large plates of lanidine ate olien visible in the the leudlophytes (sec PKmouwY, Phite III, fig, i"
' " i is usually not obvious to the unaided eye. The cbenical an ~
eishow
ts and in the smaller c
/ofca
ndy crysuliine with a dull or shimmering tu:
■». Marked chancteritiica are the readine
coBpoae, and the frequency of veins and a
UiDliic. anakile. scoleciie and other leoli
oin oi augite or hornblende and tomelin
lOyoe may be seen in the rocks when (hey a
. with which they
Ilies occupied by
sa. SmaU black
t blue specks ol
^ftcdi.
Uithey
<yp«-
PHOHCTS (Phoicds, rnoEClN), in Greek mydwlofy, son ol
Pontus (Sea) and Gaea (Esith), father of the Gracae, the Gotgons,
Scylla, and Ladon (Ihe dragon that guarded the golden applet
ol the Hespetides). In Homer ((Myiicy, aiii. ««) he is an aged
sea-deity, alter whom a harbour in Ithaca was named. Accord-
ing to Vatro (quoted by Servius in Arnrid, v. S14) Phorcys was
-. king of Corsica and Sardinia, who, having bi ■ ■ ■ ■
bphibole, various felspathoi
iBUiUy in two generations,
lallened and tabular sha[
(nented by small rectanj
andir
King
! Carlsbad plan. They contain often :
■ch soda ai potash. The nepheline takes Ihe form of heiagon:
bnii with flat ends, and may be completely (epiaced by fibroi
Blitcs, 10 that it can only be recognized by the outlines of ii
mibnjoiphi. In some phonolites It is eicccdingly abundai
5 subsequently won _ _ _
PHORMIUM, or N'ew Zealand Fux (also called " New
Zeabnd hemp "], a librc obtained from the leavo of Phormixm
Irnai (rial. otd. Liliaceae), a native ol New Zealand, the Chatham
Islands and Norfolk liland. This useful pknt is one of the
■ - - discovered by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr
mpanied Captain Cook on his first voyage
seeds brought home by Banks in i?;! did
c plant was Introduced by him to the Royal
I i;8g, and was thence Uberally distributed
Gardens
SiO,
Al,0.
Fe^.
F1.0
MeO
CaO
Na,0
K^
Hfl
S6-J6
J. 70
II. PhonDlilc. Teplitier SchkriilH^n-, Bohemia
S9l6
31-57
s«-4e
1956
in Great Britain and the continent ol Eunjpc. It grows luiuri-
anily in the south of Ireland, where It was introduced in xt<^
: il; in olben it is scarce and the rocks resemble trachytes
and also flourishes on the west coast of Scotland, and is generally
niaining ■ tittle nepheUne (trachytold phonolites). The
cultivated as an ornamental garden plant in Europe. Il ha*
■pilboid minerals, sodaUle, haUync and nosean, which
been introduced for economic purpose! into the Azores and
ntatliie in isometric dodecohedra, nie very frequent compo-
California. The name Photmium Is from Cr. »o(i,iAt, a basket,
ntsof the phonolites; ihrir crystals are of ten corroded ot partly
in allusion to one of tbe uses made of its leaves by the New
adved and their outlines may then be very irregular. Small
Zealandcis.
In its native country the plant is generally found near the
coast. It has a fleshy rootslock. creeping beneath the surface
blackish green aerfrine (soda iron pyro.enc), and in many
of the soil and sending up tuiurianl tufts of narrow, sword-
es are complex, the outer portions being acgiiinc while the
shaped leaves, from 4 to 8 II. long and from i to 4 in. in
lire is diopside. Fine needles of acgirinc are oflcn lound in
diameter. Tho leaves ate vertical, and arranged In two rows as
ground-mass. The commonest hornblende is dark blown
in the garden fiig; they are very thick, stiff and leathery, dark
kevicile. Biotite and oHvine are not really frequent in
green above, paler liclow, with Ihe margin and nerve reddish-
se rocks, and usually have been alTeclcd by resorption.
or.mge. From the centre ol the lull ultimately arises a tall
1 ordinary accessory minerilj of igncoua
rocks.
apatite.
flower- b-
■aringsl
m, slo
i I., hie
|i, tKaxin
4<m\«.
«aoi«wa
PHORONIDEA
dilais into ■ nomuh, Inm vVicti thg legriiin Ink <
U-4bapv] akimcuTAry caiul panes diicctty to ttv mhl
which li« near the basn of the lentaclei. The \hmm-vimI ai
pboraJ coclom le OHHiaued inlo each at the tcflt«l9 ud kt
a End at Phornis,
FlO. 1.— DoimI \'»iir o[ Plutrimil milralii, ttmrinc tin ^
CfflLed CDdB o1 the lophophcrr-
I. Anui. m. Poiltiiin dC the BOi*
D. PHlerior tucface. ■.«,. Nefihridiil nitfim.
i(, EpislanK. >>4.. Ncphridul cipeuv.
{(, Lophophpral orEin- tJ-, Buem ol goief tenoii
t-t, Bua hi inner tentaclet. V, ABterior lurfHe-
body-wall. Each nrphridiuni i* pnnridfd with other oic i
TheiiervDU)irMein1iniiithccpi<>nnu*,ciuni>llytallctifl
membniic- A general nerve-ptonit fvobably mbo OM
Hderable pirti of the *)un, and Ibeic ace ipecial Bum* a
Intking in the irtion ol thx epinom ud aloiif • iluiiili a
(A') which Csllowtthe parietal allachnetil iif iln iiiihiinii K
The pan which lin at the baH o( the eptHanie i> iauwt*|
dotwTin po>il>on. It uuidbySchuhi (il) wd»c>ii|i,£M
whkh are Tegcnerating the tof^ophoral end. from aa inM
of the octodflnn; and in tlua condilioa ia fffiBpand hf wk
PHORONIDEA
Tent vhhI (of) I
lis Ibi: tcnUckt.
I vvDCn] uUKfllery. The pnnepul
iva» and it untiu in part u tbe (wo
«(• o( the iduLt. It conuiu two tufu
dcKribcd by Goodrich (5) u " Klenr^
« blirkd eiHU of % pwi of nephiidlL
jgh tbe leptum and o«n to the otcrior
bi'rffdha hu kd ■ pelagK life for tome
ventrmi invuinntion of ita body-vaH
uiorT|bo«4» tni» bc is everted ud tlw
nio it in thi toon of ■ loop (fig. 4. 3. «)^
region irui the urviL ter^idet lepanle
tM alimenury conaL where they uv
are deadv very di^rent from thw which obtained in the Wvl
The donal ntface of the adult ii the one between the noiith and the
anuii while tike median ventni iine ia tiin otie wliich correiponda
with the convedtr ol the alimentan canaL Thii view of the un-
facea ii» hawever»_ diipnted inr Dc Sely^Loagciianpa» win legarda
fumiah the eajAination of the relation
^puncfiloid Gvphyiva, in w
he ^h edition of thia work
, — Diagrarn of oral end of Plurffnis 1
9I (ventral) mcaen' N, P«t-or^ 1
IWK of lophodwre.
ntJ., Dixzl of ncphridiuin.
H./.. Luger upKriduI [uniiel.
u lofihaphanl v<
pbpnl organ.
. •<L, B3100I0UI
fl. Intsnioc.
r.B., Bight elfere
■J which bilumtn al ill base (sr tig. 1).
:t the cocLoinic aeplum (1.). the right veei
-tior Bide of the DnophaKUt. aa ihown in fi
tub a ajrfarichnic hiiui which nirroundA the
■Don ia maintained by the ihythmiul contraction of
I vettcl and by lem regular cantr»:1iaiu of Mine of the
:1a. The rrproduMive oijana lie on the left nile. near
ead, both ovary and testis being prcaenc in [he nme
in H<ne of the epccies. They are aid 10 be developed
The reproductive crfla pas* to the exteiioc by meant
phridiL Reproduction by budding does not cccur, '
{xntaninoa Iragrnenuiion of the body, followed by AB. AnteropouerioT asia. 3. Comn
■geinalloa of each of the pie™. i> known 10 take place. DV. Doraoventtal uda. moi ^,
n of the tentacular end ol the animal u of frequent 1. a. Actinotrocha. 4,Uter .t
ml and Al^nilia.—Tbe eggt of Fi ' !o™ii
■ergo their early development attac
It- The attachment ia probat^y e
j^gic Urva, known aa AtUKOInxlui
omotion ia effected [winci^lly by .
I surrounding the anua- The mou
eai OP the ventral aide, and ia ov
od, IB arUch ia the pnodpal part of the opvgua ayatcm.
. — Diagrama illustrating the
w eaplained by
liigbly modihed
to be rnarded
474- PHORORHACOS— PHOSPHATES
/>t»<»iiiIi»roiiEb«nrrf;ard«tH>pow1>lcallyci(»iiMc;biini Thoe binli wne il firal coiuidered m ellluT h*™.,.,., ™ „
£!moo«"i""Vf"r.J«™/i'n /('iilJtfii? t™«S!mi™ R»lil«. " «t '«»< telited to Ihcm, unlU C. W. Andrew*, ilta
priFDial hnad dI ^cliFialrHbi (t[. <■£. 4] Formponcli witK the MkueuiD, ihowcd Ihc gruiform iSiuIici of FkBrarlutsi llbii,
■■ prutBntii " of PirrobranrKii; thr iuccmlinB "^^ion. a> far u iggj, pp. 1-11), a concliuion which he wti ible lo further m-
feoion wkhthe^niMa'mnt l^Mcimn'i mcmilciliLcdrMwiKiM "bora'* »'t" the clMiing of tht »dh«eiit stony tutrix ftom lit
h7ve tor the mw (uri b»i> nJKicd l.y Dihu m«phDjG(iui. One ikuUs (T'- Z. 5. 1901, iv. pp. js-M, pli. M^U)- Tlie dull
of the moit formidable diSeuJtiri in the way st the aiicmpt to Of Pi. ItntiiiiiKiu u Bbout i ft. long and lo in. hi^; Lint
nnJuce AiUnTtKla 10 the Plerohiaiidiiale type of Kmcluie I> the of Ph. iaialai a- 13 in. lortg, and thii creature ij nippuM
5SSi',^"t;?n;sirSt?;Ji'55.Lr3r;id2?'^ "j"™ '"■^rV "■ *■«!■ " "^"'"li'-r' "^ '^'- ,'^
region of the tentacle-l^uei. Even if It be admitted Ihal the pou- »""" ]«" <* slightly curved upuratd) and it Rinlaini a lai^
ieptal uece may be the meiajcmutic cavity, the pneiqnal span fomnen as for instance ft) Pnpka and in UyiUAa. Tic
can hardly be regarded aieodomlc In nature, ilneeit If inconlimilty sltongly hooked «M*r beak b very high, and very much cob.
Si^y'Vr''p:iSS^,:f''('irS?2SSl*^'S;c'S:^^J)''S P^^.'^r;!'"' "^ 'f'* i» imperfectly desn^gcLbo,
•epantedfiomtliat o( the aiipp<>«9i<£l^hi* received no con- as in CifioiaM-', within '""nspcuous vomer. TJicquidnlt
Gimation. in ipitc of theie difficultiea It miin be conceded that has a double knob for lis articulation with ihe skull, and bu^
the donal flexuie of the alimentary canal of the Plerobranchia lerygoid processes are «bs*Bt. What little is known «( U«
and leniaclci. Reginjing (hit ai a tstlarcsvity, it becomes tinclly ulendcr, the tibia of Pk. infialui being bctwecB ij ai
Em^'tli'^tilcs""*™ 16 in. in length.
the coclom of which develops ^or further detail ace F. AmeghTno. "5ur l« ocieauK ToHlfldr
that the lm)hophoron(J'*iwii( li Pdiagonic." Baia. ina. (cop, eriaUina. nv.. chi. 11 utf 11
of the collar lUK a> it Is in 1 (i&)Sl:T. P- Moreno and A. Merceiat. CiM/.™ J, la ptjau
the adult Fluwtms cannot wril /sulci dt It FitiUka .IrteMino. An. Uiu. La Flali Iihi: lia
conlinuou* with the lophophoi 11 pLitei]. (H.F.CJ
pouiblc that this ronsideiatio PHOSOEHTTB, a tare mineral conssting ol lead dllnwiN
anterior bod)^viiy in P*mi> bonatc, (PbCljiCOi. The IclragoBal (bolwymmclrit) apak
larval orgxn "'ihi' 87|3!K," are prismatic or tabular in habit, and are bounded by smooll^
IS^ lISini2i7« noiI?X '"isht faces: they are usually eoloutless and transparent, ui
of Ihe pmboirli. In ipileaf 1 have a briltitnt adamantine lustre. Sometimes the cryllA
on the cDKliidon that Ptsisii have a curious helical twist about the tetrad 01 principal isl
isthujpoMible that the view is. Tj,, hardness is 3 and the Hiccific gravity 6-3. The mincrilil
should uke Iheir place, with ,,ik-,. ™.iil- .^rf ™n™.„-n.w ^,. r-.^li l~,.^ .. ".»««
btanchia, ssan order o( Ihe Hemlebordala. "'^" f?"'' „ 'Ji"?^"™ '^, ■, . '^ known ai csntM
" (ODenhnm. Qmrf. Jtun. JJic. Sk. ho. iij '"d (Get. J/wnNci). The fanciful name pbosgemli m
1, Prtc. Jioy. J«..«in[i -»..-...->- f . , . •. . . ■ ..,...—
<i«fo): (I) Caldwell, Prac. Xsy. Sw..iin!v. 371 <i8Bi); (i) Coif given by A. Breilhiupl In 1810, from phosgene. iheoM BM
ZriiiiU Kin-Zacl. IL jgo ('^O: (4) Fc«lw. art. - Hemielionta.- „( a.,\Ma oiychloridc, because the mineral contains the ekooii
2"r f:^\^^)^ff.l'%^%^SSi'ti?^ -f^i/frrtSt '-"-o". o.ygen and chtorin^ Al Cromford. near MaUjk. »
branchW. O^ojji {7) Ikeda. /. Ce&ScL /iMii. xiiiVmT (wi): was long ago found in an old lead mine, being aaooated mk
(SI Unkester, an. "PolyHn," £w]f. £nr. xbi. 430. 431 (i»Sj): an^esitc and malhickite (PbiOCl,) in civiiic* In dcceopMed
h) [)c Sdys-Longchanini. Arck. Bui. xvBL fa (l»o>)l I*''", galena: hence iU common name croniortite FinecrvUlbscAt
30 Monogr. 0<io;)i (lo) MaMemwi. Oiart. }c«m. Uk. Soi. xl. 'a'gcs' are those recently found near Dundia in Ttmaam^
i»i (ia«(i); idiii. 373 (1900): (II) Schvlti, Zriiukr. wui. Ztd. Crystals of phosgenile, and also of the corresponding btwiM
W- W". 471 (iwO; ill} Shearer. «;H*; .mJ. Suj. Kaptl. compound [PbBr),CO., havebeenpirpatedarlificially.
ivii. 487 (1906) r (iJ) Shipley. Cambr. KaL Uiil. u. 4S0 {"^^ >- i~ 1 1 . ■" 1— (L. ]■ W
(3, r. H.) BUni^HaTiei. in rtumioru Iho nana. nu... I,, uiu J
PHOSORHACOS. the bcsl-know
PHOSFHilTES. ii
__, . ... ..L , .. •^ -.r. . .L . phospbotic acid. As stated under Pho5pbd«us. pbMi
£s:'i^;sz?s.?™.c™isl,k,Siifa3 •"'^ '■^' "•""• ""• '•'•• " ""• p">i-i^»~
.. i_i„ .t _,j ><• 1.. %■ .1. - _i . _ jki. HiOPiOi orllPOi, mctapbospboric acid; jK.OPi(\ or HiWK
S^irt F^Al-^ht?, ;^4w i T«^, aT^^ pyrophosphoricacid;and3HK>F=0.orH.PO..orthoph«,*»k
wbich F. Ameghino deanbcd .n iSS? as thai of an cd^i'te „ ^^^ phosphoric add. Tbew adds each give 01^ >
nnuninal under he name of PWy»-*u.« /"-j:"."" (BM ^^^| JJ ^, '^^ ^^ „( ^^- ph^horic addtaka
ifu. dc fa Kofa.i. =4). In tSgt (Jt«. Anrnl. H.>t. N3I. 1. .15) tht most important, and, in addition, a.e^dely disnibad
in the mineral kingdom (see below under ilmna! Pktiftates).
Onhophosphoric ncid, HiPOi, a tribasic acid, b obtsi>d
by boiling a solution of tbc pcntoiidc in water; by oiidiiitl
red pbosphoras with nitric add, or yellow pbnphenis nata
the surface of water by bromine or iodine; and also by denapas-
ing a mineml phosphate with sulphuric add. It uauaDy ini
add dt'posils hard, transparent, rbomlnc prisms wbick ndt A
41 7'. On long healing Ihe synip is partially convened into pjw-
pbospboric and melapbospbocic acids, but on adding wals ui
boiling the ortho-acid is le-formed. It gives origin to ibffi
classes of sails: M'H;PO. or M'H.F.O,; MSHPO. or UllFCV
be amended the name and recognised the bone as (bat of M'iPOi.M'iPAorM"'Pa.wbi:rcinM'.M'.M"'dcnBteaaB0»i
a bird. Phorariarti, which with BrtiUoruis and others con- di-, and tri-valent metal- The first set may be called moBOOeuBic,
siituted Ihi' fimily Phurinkaiiiiit. About sii species of the (he second dimelallic, and the third Irlmctallic Hits. Fo^dl
f-iyv^'nifs are now known, tbe most complete being i'A.iii/dlui, sails of the alkalis, cf. (K,Na,NH.)Hk(PO0i, "» •>» fann:
with skull, DiiBiiibk, pelvis, limbs md some o! tbc vertebrae, these may be regarded as compDiRl ol .
PHOSPHATES
*ithpln)pI<ork*a*d, lbuimf,PO,RiP<X Tlw three principil jAcPO|+jH/)-AtiPO,+ iH>POi. On balins (Hth
pnfa differ tctrurkkbly in tbcir betuviour tomrda indicaton. or caiboule ihty yirld a IriirvtaUJc orlhophoaphaU
Tbt noDomfUUic aalti an itrongly acid, [lie dimetaliic an diuidc being evolved in Ehe Liller cue. Afclaphoiph
Bdn] or fainlly alkaline, vhiLsl. the aoluble trimctallic ulti cu be dislinguiabei! ErDoi the other (no acidj by i
m anngly alkalin«. Tlie monometallic ailti of [he alkalii of couffuiating albumen, and by noi being precipitated by
ud alkaline caitbi may be obtained in ciyilal fonn, but th
4 ihe heavy metala arc only atablc when in solution. The
■kblc trimetaUie aalti are detompoied by carbonic acid inio Uinaili Pitnpkala.— Those
tfineuUicaalt and aa add carbonate. AH loluble orthophoa- phosphate which ire not disllncll, .
iblagive withiilver nitntea characteristic yellow predpitals ^"^ occur in fibrous, compact or earthy masses, ouen nouuiar,
<t dvcr pho^hate, AciPOi, soluble lo ammonia and in nitric ^nd man or les impure, are included under the general term
Bi Since (be nactbn with the add salu b allended by phosphorile. The Bine leenu to have been given originill)'
SiiUion of nitric add: N«H,PO,+jAgNO,-Ag,PO.+NBNOi lo !*« SftaHh phosphorite, probably becuje il phosphoresced
+1HNO1, N»,HPa+3Ag*JO.-Ag,PO.+ 2NaNO.+ HNO., it when heated. This mineral, known aa Eatrtmaduri phosphale,
hxauiry to neu[r»liie the nilric *dd if the complete pre- <xcan at Logtosiin and Cicerta, where it fornit an imponant
tVOii™ of the phosphoric add be dctirtd. The ihne leriea deposit in djy-ilaie. Il B*y contunfrom ss lo S'%of (alciun
fcdiffet when heated: [he tiimelnllic aalis, ranuining fi«d phosphite, with about 7% of (oagneuum phofphite. A aome-
Ibh aie unaltered, whLlii (he mono- and dimeiallic ulii yield *'^' limilar mineral, forming a fibroui Inmijiaiion, with a
■u- ud pytophoiphatei reapeclively. If the hialing be wilh roimmilLiiy aurfice, and containing about g% ol calcium caibo-
ducaal. the trimetallic aalts of [he alkalii and alkaline eanha mte, 1» known aa itafTcLtc, a name given by A. Slcin in 1866
■ciaaltered, whilst Ibe mono- and di-saltj give free phosphorus t™™ (he hjcality Slaftrl, in the valley ol the Lower Lahn,
■ad a tiimetallic aalc Other precipitants ol phosphoric acid *heie(aajd«>in IhevaUey of itslribuliry iheDiU) laigedepoKls
w lu salts in solution are: ammonium molybdate in nitric of phosphorile occur. Dahllile is a Kor»-egian phosphorite,
■dd, which gives on heating a canary-yellow predpitatc of containing calcium carbonate, named in i&83 by W. C. Brfiggcr
BBMium phosphomolybdale, uiMoO,! (NH,),POj, insoluble tod H. BSckslrUm after the NomegUn geologist. T. and J.
fa Kill but readUy soluble in ammoBia; magnesium chloride, DahIL Osteolite is a white earthy phosphorite occurring in the
^BMhim chloride and annnonia, which give on standing in clefts of basaltic rocks, named In 1S51 by J. C. Bromrii [ton
moniuin phosphate, Mg(NH|)P0i-6H,0, which a wluble in Phoaphorile, when occurring in large deposits, is a miDeral ot
Idb but highly insoluble in ammonia solutions, and on heating much economic value for lonvenion into the tupctphoipbale
la ndian give* magnesium pyrophosphate, Mg,P/),; uranie largely used u a fertilizing agent. Many of Ihe impure aidi-
■tale and ferric chloride, which give a yellowish-white pre- stances Ihui uliliied are not .Iriclly phosphorite, but paaa
<fiUle,sohihleinhydrochloricaddand«mmonia, but insoluble under such^mmn aa " rock-phosphate," or, when nodular, a<
*Mk in nit'ric add, and bismuth nilMlc which gives ■ whin! ullimaie source of these mineral phosphates may he referred
^■dliiulc, insoluble in nilric add. in uiotl caaA to the apatite widuly dislribuled in crystalline
fjnflimHwit atii, K.PJ3,. is a telrabailc acid which may be "cks. Being soluble in water containing carbonic add or
iVidid as derived by eliminating a molecule of water belwwn organic adds it may be readily remoied m lolutioo, and may
l«»moleculeso(otdin»iyphosphoric acid; its constitution may thm furnish plan U and animals wilh the phosphate* required
fctton be written <HO)OP-OPO[OH)h It may be obtained in iheir structures. On the dtcay of Ihew siniciuies the pho»-
aifUuy mats, indistinguidiable from melaphosphoric acid, phates are relumed to the inorganic world, thus completing
tr heating phosphoric acid to 115*. When boiled with water Ihe cycle.
t imni the onho-add, and when healed to redness Ihe mela- There are three soi
•cU After neutraliialion, it gives a white precipitate with geologically. They <
drer nitrate. Being a tetrabasic acid it can form four classes morphicTocka as an
il Hha; for example, the lour solium salts Na.P.O,,Na,HP^„ wilh igneous tocks, a:
&iHiF/)i, NaHiP,0, are known. The most important is Itagmenls or in secondary ce
da normal salt, Na,r,0., which is readily obtained by heating The first mode of occurrence is ol lillle HgoiBcance ptactically,
ADdhun ortbophosphate. N'a,HPO,. It forms monoclinic f°' I^lt ,'5^*1 w.-k^IS^SIJ Iv ?n"'li'Se^^ r«k ^'^''^aiai
pAm. (with loHsO) which are permanen. in air. AU soluble Soi)ahtSti...rfSm™KfX'^li"li2!S^S^.f«.rte.^hi«
pynphuphata when boiled with water for a long time ate of CaU> de Cdta in wiiiih-eui Spain. wKch contains ir-ij%,af
MMfkcipluric mid. HPO,, is a monobasic add which may be *!"> i*"™" tj^'"^ ™'"fw!j'-''"*S''u't,H,S;^™
■ \^ ■..-... I r. ,. I, . 1, 1..-:, J u .1.. i_._.i- . occur. The Sweduh, Nomesian. OnMrn and kllfhigan mines
Mpidtd at denved fromorthophcaphoRC acid by the abstiaclioll ^y ,^ ^ ,^1. fci,Jj ^ thwigh „»it of then tan le pmiilably
riOM molecule of water, thus H.POi-HJa-HTO.; Its const itu- iortrd as a wiurce of pbos|«ate. >■« on nduelm the ore il may
If tbercfore (HOJPCV The acid is formed by dissolving herttainedinthc ilagt.aBd ihusmiclmdavallaUcfaraniculture.
pbonu penloxide in cold water, or by ilmngly healing Another ,roup of i>lia>pha»c ilrawM comurtcd with igneous
which ar
of
mport
occur (b) in crys
aUinc ignc
original constitue
t, (1) in V
ry rocka eilhe
ajorgi
n Canada. '
glacial phosphoric add." It is readily soluble (tcePxEUUATOLYSisl.and have been fomsed by thi
nuch more rapidiy on boiling, 'hi' 'vpc ott^r at Oedcgardm in Norway ami Dundrct iii IJpland.
»»lypeiCMPO,)..whetciiBiaybei, i,3,*,6. They may be ob- JmT in'd^ii^i"' of "™lM"Kiii.re.' The lotaTo'tput of Canada
■ idhy heatiogamoooinetallicorlhophosphaleofafiied base, in 190; «asoiily68otons.
dimeUllic ortbophosphate of one fiaed and one volatile base. The phmphai« rockswlwh occur among the >cdiBienUuviii
..' ..i, — . •!* rhe nHnapal KJuirej nf plii»i*al*t for mnimene and 1
ffi.TS1r'?li^ MH=PO.-MPO,-|-HA!NH,)NaHP0.- ^« J« ^^ S'lriJnforSri^.TallTg^
MKM-NH.-t-HiO; they may also be obtained by acting to thoic which are accumutailng ai the present (-.., .
~aU pbotphotut pentoiide on trimetallic orlhophosphates: ibebot knownisxuano (lecMaHUieiniid MaNUM?.-..
- fcJO^+PA-jNaPO^ The aalta are usually non-crystallint ^^^''^T^lit^^^^'^^^M tK'S'
r-dl»ibte. On boilmg tl«ir solutions .l«y yield or.hopho^ J^osph'^wa'^lJd'outrf^t'Tua^rv b^S^^^^
H|iiln. wbilsl those of the heavy metab on boiling with walci TtiIo rombinalion with the cVcmenl* nt iV luc^ \KncuV. ^1
« • UiawUllic (nthopho^ihate aad onhaphotphoiic add. of Uieoceanic Islets are compuedci uin!i\u«vvioEi'<fttvit
The MluUe
476 PHOSPHORESCENCE
my tKconn iiliaiphatiicd; oUit™ bit igntouv ninii«ine of Algeria in 1007 wu not lea <'>•••' > miDian Ic
2lSj2riSt'S?iSii'« ™™b'ir'[L™u'^"ar^ih3'^ii^™ ^^^ <™ii Jb in Egypl, in the doett tu( oE Kcndi ud la Ik
or alumina in any ijuantity nad^ ihem uauiiud ^rlhe prcpan- I>i>><<i> <Bii> in the Libyan iaaU
tkin oE ajtifidat manum. FijiDce it rich in EnineraJ phosphatei, the chief dapouU bciai
.The 'Mclicd pianoi ami phoiphaliicd rodtt which m jioupcd the dgpartmoiH of the PiMic-Calaia, Sonme, Aiuw, CKk ii
Sowland* JirSTand' McKean lilandsrbctw«n long ISO"' to iSo* menl! of Lot, Tani-et-Caronae and Aveyion, in the uulh-WEili
W. and laL 10* N. lo 10° S. In the W«t India Sam Vrne- phoiphita occur also in the Pynoeo. Tbc dcpasls DOT
lucla ID ihe Bahama! and in the Caribbean Sea many idandi Caylui aod in Quercy Occupy Guurei and pockeli in Juibc
jjeldiiippJiMOi leached gu.no.; tteloUowinjai^imp^ m Unatone, and have yielded a rematkable aBonhiage ol the
■ lSS,3^'b^a^'^.^:;:^'5lt;fc'«-,^^.; «li= rf Te-iary mammd, «,d other l«^ ^Scwtaa
Jalait l.laod ia the Maldive Archipclan, Banaba or Ocno l.land, occur In Belfpum, especially neu Modi, and thcK, like the*
and Nauru or Pbaant l.laiid. On Chriitmu Idand the i^aiphaie of nortb-ait France, are priacipally in the Upper ChaU. Tn
w u^TiZIL^ ^.;^^t^ tL.. .«« »» ,^„- ^ .^^-.^^.^ ^— — „i^! 4 VIZ, the ohoaDhatic chalk and the nhaiDhate land, the bltu
nated thai soo.ooo loni of pfeoqihale wen obuined '^- '^ phoiphatic chalk and the phoiphace *and, the bits
juba. ijwo.ooo loni '^m Cuncm lince the dipouts were resulting from the decompoiition of the fonntr. Lvie ai*
ivered In iBto. and Chriilma. I.Iaad ia 1907 yielded 990,000 valuable depoiita of the land have been obtained b liohi u
In the older foTtnatlons the phoiphatet tend (0 become more on tl:
and more niineralized by chemical processes. In whatever but in France it is Etill large (375,000 toni in 1907).
form they were originally tlcpoiiled they often luHer complete In the Laha district of Nasuu CCermany) there arepkaptilc
or partial lolution (od are redeposited ai concretionary lumps bcdi in Devonian rocks. The deposits were rich but dt^^
and nodule), often called copcolitcs. The " Challenger" and and local, and were much worked Injin tS66 to 1SI4, butina
other occanographic expeditions have shown that on the bottom longer of economic importance. In nonheta EstteuadiD a
of the deep sea concretions of phosphate are now gatbeiinf Spain and Aiemtczo in Portu^ there are vein depoBtt d
around the dead bodies of fishes lying in the CKuei; consequently pho^hate of IJme. As much as 100,000 torn of phoqihatchnt
the formation of the concretions may have been carried on been caiscd in these provinces, but in iga6 the total praddttia
Eimuhaneously with the deposition of the itratB in which they of Spain was only i^oe too). Large depoaits <rf phoqMt
occur. occur in Russia, and those in the ndgfabouchood of Ketldilm
Important deposits of mineral phosphates are now worked attracted some aiieDtioni It is laid that the CittaceOMndi
pissing that of soy other pan of the world. The most active supplies of phosphate, though pi>bab1y of low (ndc
operatiObs are carried on In Florida, where the phosphate was Phowihatic oodi - - - 1
and their caita, occur at various geotiarial hcrinis la GcHt Bihlib
fiindi of black nodiiLei, highly pboipliatK, are loaad al thi Uff
^ h phoiphatic limestone, are known as bate of the Gaull. The Lower GRenaaad jpho^ihBIn ha.. -_
" soli phosphate ": those found as smooth pebbles of variable worked, under the name of " coproUlei." 11 PMlea ia BcdMU*
colour are called " land pebble-phosphate," whilst the pebbles gl^^I;;!^ tir^ohS>K"ic"oS!£^KS!^ ^SSlI
of the river-beds and old river-vatleys, usually of dark colour, chalk Mart. The clialkoccaibnally become* pbDacihatiBiiia
are distinguished as "nver pebble-phosphate." The Und Tiplow (Bucks} and Lew«<5ut«s). At the bw ol tk WmtCm
pebble Is worked in centra! South Flotidai the hard rock chiefly in East Anglia, and occoiiooally ■■ the base of the otbs HMi
between Albion and Bay City. In South Carolina, where S?|^'£STA\„J^^^^SIi^:SJ!L'i!£^
«k.» -« :»»»4.>.^« j.».:,.^r »v«.Kk.<. (,«».»i.. _,,-. with rolled teeth and Dooes, which were lonnerTy woehHiai «p^
there are important deposits of phosphate, formerly more |][„.. f^^ ,,„ prepiraiion of artifidil manure. PtalaimXi
productive than at present, the " land rock " is worked near Strutt has found that phojphaliied nodules and boats aie dck h
Charleston, and the "river rock "in the Coosaw rivet and other radioactive constituents, and ha* brought tbti Into idatiM ^
!"■■.-. «f",»-i-. Ti» pH«pi,.„ i^ „.„,. E«... "s;,«yJS,r-F, a™*.. -»*, 7^ K.^.
Mying strata and many Itagmenls ,[ ji^i,^^ by FrancU Wyatt (kt& ed.. New York and Li
of Pleistocene vcrlebrata such as mastodon, elephant, sljig, '\^'{'{iiKai,^\'^rp^i'm SUUiol'lUmimtfAiVSOA
horse, pig, Sc. The phosphate occurs as lump) varying greatly CcoL Survey), includint bo* valuable repoit. by C W. H«
in H«, scattered through a sand or clay; they often corxtain »i» '•l™ ■"?'''r'"'',-i'''"^,f"t'"!r'i- ^""'."'SFS*
phosphali«d Eocene lossils (Mplli.5Ca,J,c.), Sometimes the ^nl'i^^TS^ (.MB™ >;<JL ^^SSJSfSS?
phosiAate is found at the surface, but generally it 11 covered by /'(ioie*a»i. by C. C. Hoyer Miller (London, itw)i aad Tltlfa
alluvial sands and clays. Phosphate mining began in South metallic iSiiurali, by G- P. Merrill (1004). Maay cf the ala
Caiolina in 1868, and for twenty years that stale was the prin- include descriptiont of mineral phnoHite* in Mh« psfuf j
tipal producer Then the Florida deposit) began to be worked. ^^?T^°^:i^^^,^'=^'^Z^'^l^,^-^iltltZ
In iSg] the phosphates ol Tennessee, derived from Ordovician />,«, Ctol. Aimc xvL jM <i9ai]. Ceiuiah aba £^ t^t
limestones, came into ihc market. From North Candina, iir J<i jhlsspjkgiei, by A. Decken (Li«ge, i8u).
Alabama and Pennsylvania, also, phosphates have been obtained O- S. F.:F. W. tl
hut only in comparatively small quantities. In 1(100 mining for PHOSFHORESCEMCB. ■ name ^vta to ■ variety d |ilijn
phosphates was commenced in Arkansas. In tQoS Florida phenomena due to diSetent causes, but all ooMti ' "^
produced 1,673.651 tons of phosphate valued at 11 million emission of a pale, more or less iU-defined lifht, Dot
dulbn. An the other slates together produce less phosphate due to combustion. The word was first used by P^
than Florida, and among them TeniRssee takes the first place describe the property possessed by many subMaDces tl tta»
with an output of 403,180 tons. selves becoming luminous after exposure to light. Hasp
, Algeria contains important deposits of phospbotile, especially has been noticed from early times. Pliny tpaii J
near Tehcoa and at Tocquerille in the province of Conslantlne. gems which shine with a light of their own. and Albcftvl
Near Jebd Kouif, on the frontier between Algeria and Tunis, knew thai the diamond becomes pbosphocaCEnl wte»— ^^-j
there an phosphate workings, as also in Tunis, at Gafsa, The atcly healed. But the first discovery d Ihn pnfaty ^B
depati'U belong to the Lower Eocene, where it leau unconform- apparently attracted scientific atteniioa ■
tbly upon Ibf Creliccoia. The joint produtUon otTuma and t.hatolthcBok«Dastone(bariiimsulphMk},
PHOSPHORESCENCE 477
hy VlDcenio Cuartula, i cobbler of Botogiu, in ibouL 1601, ^larDpluiK,i\^riRy<>f fluiir^iw.tlKhtateflhehudiiwakleat
««noi which btcome lumioOHi either »aere.posuri! 10 lighi ,„™Mry, K?'|aniJi"l!wt*lo^d°^ta''TllSi5^?um"pU^
"phuphori " (liom 4ui and ipifta, bringing light) was given. <lic Icmpcuturr o( liijuid *ir and tx|>awd \n LJKht, thiy do not
U. light. b^Vtclf-l^mbo^^c^;^^ ii"ly far'. [r^^o^oU K';,V'rpr!:jr,^-;'S"lf«?'SSlSr!'hh'V"^^^ h'»bS
Koad). The general Icim "luminescence" has been proposed ii broken in Ihc dark, or Iwo mttali of qiuni rublnil togcthrt-,
by £. Wicdenunn Id iDCtuiIe nil casei in nhich bodiei give oil or 1 pi«e of mica ckrt. a flub at iifht ii icen. l-ut Ihia k Brobably
li(bl not due W ignilion. Thii senenil lerm cmbmn. several '^ eleorle.l.origir. Ckwt^ird » Uiu farm of lii»lne>ceacc U
■bdiviiioM. Thus, fluorc»c*nee (j.r.) and pbMphoreKence '^.an^S^Sc t%Jr!Xll^"h«ti^''vMT?^y
lit included under the lame heading. " phalalumineiceiice," i. cihibiied by aiKDi«u acid nhea oyMalliiiDE [mm •ulutiaa in
being diilinEuiihed from e«h other only by the fatt that bydrocblorte add.
luoresceol bodit* emit (heir characleristic light only while v5*t"r".'-"'"i!? !L r J"^ '"^ '" '""^ '!'** "'" "**''
M..j_ .1.* '..ii _«« -f .1.. »^.:.>- ;ii..»;....;^» h.i.;i1 «>.« chemical aclioil producesliBht without any giMt nfeol tcmneralurt
under ibe influence of the eicil ng illumuiatan while phos- ph<«ph„n,. „pj^ „ „„•}„ „[r i„ . darVman ^inc> with a »(c
phorejcent bodies are luminoui for nn appreciable Uino alter lieht due to skiw oxidation. Ui-rayinji n-ood and other vifetalita
theucltinf licbE is cut off. kubftlaiices aflcd oibibit Ibc Kme property.
vj^liJmd. Mmygaan iiie i^Dipiucneiiinl fe
....... . ^^^ 1^^^ 1^^ iiisir rl Ihrout^. . . ^ ...... ^^^
te. eqvcUly diamoiHband ruTiieti are Uron^ly photphon
erpoeed to1aUhodcn>'« In a vacuum tube.
atlv. Winkehnann. llanHmcli itt Pkytik, B<t. n (I««):
_ ».s~.e1. la L4w»rc (IMT). (]. R. C.}
Fhttphoracnct in Zim/dgy.
ide nwy be orange- Tbe emission ol light by living substance b a widespread
'iSi^i^uTi^i'*^ occurrence, and is pad of the general nelabolism by which Iba'
1 while liKhi. The potential energy introduced as loud is Itanslormcd into kinetic
[ opoHirc 10 lichl. energy and appears in the (orni of Diovemcnt, heat, electridly
'n by a iprdmcn of .gd light. In many cases it is pmbably an accidental by-
i.JSin|"'^u. product, and like the heal radiated 1^ Uving ii,.,ie.,b not
ao', 40-, TO-, loo- Of «»• C. Tlie Juration o[ necessarily ol use W Ihe organism. But in other case* th«
:c vaiica greatl|i with dillereni wbitajicH. It may capacity to produce light is awakened on stimulation, at when
or days oi for only a fiaction of a Rcond. the wind Tipples the surface of the lea oc when the water 1*
BtoiSeS'^;S^iS''S!Sl^Si!Ii.lit5ynK°t^^ diituibed by the bhdc of an oar. It bai been suggested that
tliaa ihoK ri Ibc aelting light. Thus the ultra-viokl poniun of 1'"' roponi* 10 the stimulus may be protective, and that cnemin
ibr ipectnim is unnlly the most efficient in cicitin( rays iKluniinK are frightened by the flash of light. In luminous insects and
ID ih> liHble pirt ot the specininL V. Wall and Ph. Lenard dccp-ica fiih the power ol ciniliing light anpeaia (0 have a
ii^^^^^u'iMsr^'SJ^'^ii^Si^ie'^p^':^^^ rr'jr'is"'' r** r^ ''^'^"■f,'™^'"--* >-« ^
tt minute quantities of oditr sCbrti^ such as copper. I^smuth developed. The pale glow of phosphorescence has a certain
and mantancte. The maximum intenaly ol phoipharesrtnt light resemblance to the light emitted by phosphorus, and iI was an
k obtained when a certain definite prpjunlon ol the impurity ia early sunrstion that Ihe phenomenon In livbig organisms wai
oiweiit. and the intensity u diminiibcd iJ thit proportion IS uurcaml. iH„, i„ .k,, ..ih.i.nrf Phn-nlinni. hnuwi.. nn.1 Ti. ln...i.u..M.
It appears likely that when I. phofphomcent body heipo-fd to „ . j jf ■ ' "f'Ph*'™*' noweiTr, and lis luminous
Btht. tbTeBecgy ol the ligbt is (toml up in some kind of sirain compounds are deadly poisons to all bving lijsues, and newr
or k«'slow remjry Irom this luic of iirain. Watt aniT Lenard phosphorescence ot Ule cannot therelore be assigned to the oii-
SL^&£lSJ& " "^SS'IS ™'^™"'''' pl^XridSSoSllVhe'emtlon of'fi^ ™!ln!^
anliil by felatin. only in the presence of oxygen. J. H. Fabcc showed in iR;5
n'hen the duration of phoipSoieicence ii brief, some iDrchanical that the luminous fungus. AtiHiia, dijchatgcs more carbonic
t ™ '^T^w.^i?' '°,^-' '£™""i"''fc!l£Cl^.i" EciJwhenUiscmiitingIigbl,an<l.MaiSchultielniMi showed
^■^^Si^s^^Liu^oU l^lSTTnlm^h^ JnStl^cS^rk tl"' i" !««■» !>« l"™nous cells arc closely associated with the
Inside It «rc Bn-d tnduae. and that during phosphorescence they withdraw
J. __| oiygen from Ihcm. In iSSo B. Radiisienski showed that
in uic ^""'f '"*■ "tlx^'eal oils and alcohols emit light when slowly'
SS!li.°the*oth«™'the'^i^t'i^°and thc'lmm a "wTmnild combined with ojygcn in alkaline fluids at appropriate lempcra-
Ibit. when Che disks are made to rotate, the hole in one end is open lures. Probably the phosphorescence ol organisms is due to a
L".-^"^ rti'Ve t-XS'Tohki ^'S! '1 tle'di.k; bi ol^n"ll™"^''ira7b^ll'ob^^'rihe''^w"™m'! fi^^!
made to involve wJtb great vckicity by means ol a tiain of toothed britllc-ttars, centipedes anil annelids; blue in the Italian Bre-lly
wbeds the object will be prewn^ to the eye almoit instantly (ZBcrd/d i7fi/rcu); blue and light green are the predominant
alleritha.beene>™edtosunlighl.andtheie™cKntntionsfiic«cd „lo«rs in Ike phosphocesccncc of marine organisms, but red
o« another »> rarudiv as to rrodnce a Knse ol coniii.uou^^|^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^.^ ^1^ ^^^ obser,-cd. The Lantern-Fly (Fa/g™
, m cut oil. pynrkyntini) is said to hare n purple light, and E. H. Giglioli
Fee this purpow we rcquin to, know merely the number ol sectors has recorded that an individual Afprnjicuhria appeared fiTsl
y temperatures bi a dark room begin to do so if ihey arf
lya'enum
i'%'z
478 PHOSPHORITE— PHOSPHORUS
foiud that it conii
brighl lina. The ^__^ __ odd™
cqiul lumincoiUcB ut compared. nay eacrd to Ih
Muiy o[ Ihc iBcterta of pulrefultiin in iihiiqihanKcnt. uid the orean ui bin
ligbl tmilKd by dad fuh at nuUuK* or auh ii probtMy due in Ih^ {, , 1,^
every cue to tre praeiice of tbcie. Unda the ddicnicope» the tjie j.k;« oihir
individiuU bacteria AppuruihiiiiDCpdntiofUfht. Thepbo^4ier- iv c4 the pHion
3Dd i« due to the pntenca of tbe inyccliuin of lover iaw. ju^ 11
varioua other ipecia of Afviciu haw been lunuDoui oAaa
— ^.^ — Tbe gmt diipUyi o< pnoepbaacencc in -nt^ ^ Ao^ ^tji
■™-wiier in; uiiially due 10 the piucKC of vny kuie numben THijl put if tb
01 inuU lununoui oi^niiirii, eilber proloioa or protopbjru. Of the dor coopbi
UE the m»I (requcnl, the Im lance Deal land and the biter In ril^lSoibinM
■"f-™?- - , . . . J 1. .■ ■ 1 'he iiieciea, thni
In hliher ammala the phoiphlnwtena lend. ID be limittd to oisaiu may icrvr aa nxoenilion marlo. i hey may alw »nuo
■pecial piRi o( tbe body wbich may iDcm elabnniE and b^hly pn.'y, and Irom their uiociation with the ejn in licb ■ nalKB
^™^."i . ""?™' "«?"■ }'^''"y ™len"«a"« •how the brgin- „ „ «nd Ughl downward! and forwardt 11 i> probable ihai is
■unit of ■>Knlaabzatuwi;mmedu>aelhc whole lurface may be lumid- the hiehn' typa ihey are ueed by the hih actually aa lantem in the
oua. but tbe Ilgbc ia brJKhicr alonj the radial canala, in the ovartei. darii abyiv* of the au. (PCM)
or in the marv^nal Kiuc-or^ana. In PennaluUda each polyp h^*
Aioriau mtUtus, and variaua other fp«ia of Afviciu haw
__ „ iviiy. PHOSPHORITE, in minetalojy, the name givoi la m\
Some Chaetopoda IChiuliMmii and TtmcpUm) have luminoui maitivc apatite log - kc alio I^osfuates)
oruna at the baaea uf ibe laien] pruccarei of ihc body, Fyrowma, nunsnuknitu tr, ^' 1- i.> ^_ '» k.^.\ iv. ^
r££W»tla«aaddIan.i.iC4>D'a:iMrior»u.eo(lh;mMtIrik- PHMPHOBUl (Gr. *«, light, tip^. 10 bear) Ite ■>
lai dbpUnoT^iaipbaRMCiKe In tropical «iii il ha. 1*0 tnHll onginally given to any lubatance which poueiied the pnFRtr
lutebei of eelU at Ibe .....
lutehee ofeelU at Ibe ba.c of each Inhalenl lube which on .timula- of phoiphoTcsccncc (f.p.), i.e. the pover of ahining in the diit,
tuM ducharie light, and Ihe lumlnOHl^ hav bi-cn obicrvcd u .prcvd hut now nnerally restricted
throueblliccolonyfronKhepiHntof imtalion. „,_ £„, !,»„...., ... iiL.-.Ab»^
Amonnt the Cruuacea, many pelagie Copcpodt an phosphor-
eKxnt. W. Cioibnxht hai ihown that the li^bl is produced by a ' . .
" ^' ' d by certain dermal glands. A Hmllar fluid in oincr found free. In Ihe mineral kingdom it ia eaceplioailly abifr
Copepod«liiiitleii.toformnproloctivo™c,aiiditmaytiethatthe ji„t fotnUng tacge deposit. o( pholpbiitt* r».0.
1^'^'&T^Z'^^a%''y^'^'/^J'^i:T%^°^ n™«uy.o«dmal»dvegeUblelife(«cMa«r..) »<;
the Myiid CiiJl*ii^Bifa Mtnilarfy produce a luminoui imTtLoTi. '" "" "nM, Wood, tiisuen, and bona of uOmali, cal
In Ihe IfuphauHacea, on the mhM tand, phoiphoracence a pto- phosphate fonning about sBTd of bontl, »hidl OW* thai lif
: app«ui to have been Gral obt^ned ia i6i9 ^
lumiiuiu.. A. Ateick obnrvcd Brand of Hamburg; KiaSt bought bit «
na a iuminout Hcrction vai di.- exhibited qwcimena ui Englajid, where it created an imDiaii
e, bulionn»i caMithcIumuiout itniation. Ill prepajalion va* aaaiduoualy lought for. at
^i;?™rb;S;rnXl::^«XrT.^'E^nr^n:w X^'pho.. ^unckel m .6,8 and Boyle in "Mo '"^W in obtaini«»
pbomceni, ha. luminou. orKan. along tbe anurior border ot the by the aame ptoceia aa was diacovered by Btand, i.e. b> o-J[tn-
ruantle, two Knall triangular patchnat the entrance of the anierior ting urine to dryneaa and dialiUing the residue wilb sand. Tu
■inhon. and two long paralld cord, within the liphon. Tluf cells method WIS generally adopted iuilili;;s. when Scheekpupu"
Aswciaiion in 1907. breught together olwrwuians on the occur- CUcium phosphate. Schecle treated bone ash with mine ao
rcnoe ol lununou. organ in no hn* than ttdny-thne apecics of prcciintitcd (be calcium as tulphate. fillrrcd, eviponled >'
Cepbalooad.. In HilmttiiUii, Srpiela and Riaia Ihe Ught ii distilled the residue with charcoal. N'icola) and Felkl
sst'uyiSSTh.t.vf'i'K.sss.'iS.KS i-rT'."'^ 'sr*.? *"""*»•»■ '-"■"i.s
- '„..,... — -■■--■- -,bol,atlea»t inthecaie with sulphuric add; whJal Fourcroy and \ auquehn htmtc
geieeted into Ihe water, further economics. In modern practice degrtased bona
. an. nonglaodubt and may l« CelaunJ, or bonmsh which has lost its virtue as a fihi
'"h™ wlh mSw ptaTiS medium. &c.. or a mineral phosphate is treated with nfi
..»,. .. ..,u ...p.,...!..^,^ ..J (or the moat itiri inhabiiann sulphuric acid to precipitate all the calcium. thecaJciumwl'
depths ol the Ka, it has been niggcsled that ibey icrve ai filtered oS, and the filtrate concentrated, mlicd with du
■ cuii.utlaa marks. . „ , . . coke or lawdust and dried in a muffle furnace. The pn^
ore^u"SbS:l'fnlr ^'k%.^''J'kT:.^'\^'t&. S:'S^. ;'■" ^^^^ f™- S.ou,brid„. day „to,t^ arTanged in a
kMve > luminous trail. Amonw inmrtt, ilaborato luinin,«. furnace, previously heaHil to a red heat. Tbe terp
ornaM am dei'dupcd in Kvcrjl uks. The abdonivn of a Cerlonev u now raisul to a white heat, and the product led by m;
May-fly (refrtiiiwjM) Is laminouii. The Hbcallul New Zealand inm pinei into condenung troughs containing water, '
•■^r)w.wuno''^i»tbelaniMof thefly BjfetapliiVa/ailliano.awltomc r—.l^l.. The chemical Tearlioni ore aa (oUow*. the In
gi^s have btea otaerved to be lunrtnous.*alihoogh tbe Bigs"!"!- TTk^ ■ 7 h , ".k^ "1 ■ '<t J^
isthatinlhi.-itCMdi-eisclspr™inandlheliBhtem4n.iH".irom of the calcium phosphate with the acul gives phbtpho
phMi-horevent bacteria. An nnl (IMu) and a pnduran frlnars- IIil'Oi, which at a red heat U>k1 water lo giveimrtopt
ttorui) are wcankwally lumlnoua. The v)-ealled lamem Aie^ are gi^ij HPOi' this at a white heat reacts with corbor
Ionun«enaI1jedteibeCicadt<,andilKHip^^ hj-drogcn. carbon monoride and nhospbotiu, tbun
HahiuerroM'cHinloltholnintoflhchejd.trii.'mUnglhcluminonly 'U ,,,,^^11.
of «1iirh thcR b ■nn doubt. Tbe glinr-wonra and true fiie-flat «-J-ll:+6l.O-Ht
nn.- Iwetlci. Eftf. Unie and adult, ore in »me ca« luminoui. Elect rolhcrmal processes ate al» empTojcd. Calc
■ivK Ihe.KiAt, and a di....piT byej whi.* may art as » i*fleetur. fumj^,, pnivide<l with a closely fitli^ covet wtib
Thev an; m dose conne:d w wnh the trai1if.ie and the liihl u, riro- , ,. '"^ , ., .1. i _ _. _ _. .1.- 1
duc.ll by the ouUtion of a nil.,t,tnre formed nniler Ibe >nllu™re leading to a condenser At the temperature 01 the 1
of the nervous syHvn, .nnd pr.4siMy omw kind of oreanie (al. sibci (sand) attacks the calcium phosphate, formi
In Ihe (emak.s (he phn>pbnreirm-c b pnihal.ly s •cnol lure; in . and setting Irec phosphorus pentoiide. which it )
"%iIi£*i.™1^™J,*."'te!^,. .i-i.jj™ ,_ ,!...».«;»:. "« CMbon. [omdng pb"spburus and carbon mo
..^JS£""n™'n?^"?hoXS.;S 'rffl^'e^Mi^'Sld'h^" Ph'^n'.orus boil, at a^o* C. (su' F.). it is produced
tcea denloped la wkl^ diSennl UoUia tjliuiiuliiai, Sufdiiu. oi vapour, which, mingtcd with carbon monoxide,
PHOSPHORUS
479
it is condensed. It is then cast under water.
ate remains in the furnace in the form of a
may be run off, so that the action is practically
»lin may with advantage be used in addition
stitution for sand, because the double silicate
lore fusible than the single silicate of lime,
urrent is generally used, the action not being
i of the special advantages of the electrical
cess is that the distilling vessels have a longer
fact that they are not externally heated, and so
itivcly high temperature when in contact with
formed in the process. The Readman-Parker
. Soc. Chem. Ind., 1891, x. 445) appears to
r adopted. Readmati, experimenting with a
1 Staffordshire in 1888, patented his process,
year Parker and Robinson, working indepen-
a similar one. The two inventors then co-
nmental plant wa» run successfully, and the
en over by the leading manufacturers. With
aining a valuable by-product in place of the
. this furnace, several patentees {e.g, Hilbert
idot, Bradley and Jacobs, and others) have
le the manufacture of calcium carbide and
ifing only .caldxmi phosphate and -carbon,
duction by carbon at a high temperature,
phorus is purified by melting under water and
rough animal black and afterwards through
or by treating it, when molten, with chromic
: of potassium bichromate and sulphuric acid;
purities to rise to the surface as a scum which
off. It is usually sent on the market in the
rhich were at one time prepared by sucking
rial up glass tubes; but the dangers to the
or disadvantages of this method have led to its
. continuous process, in which the phosphorus
;-pot for a pipe surroimded by water, in which
a.n be removed as a continuous rod.
ben perfectly pure phosphorus, is a white, tranS-
1, but as usually prepared it is yellowish owing
the allotropic " red phosphorus," J. Bfleseken
I. Soc., 1907, ii. 343, 760) prepares perfectly
by heating the crude product with chromic
shing and dr3dng in a vacuum, first at 40**,
emains colourless in vacuum tubes in the dark,
t rapidly turns ycUow. -At 25° to 30° C. it* is
but it hardens when strongly cooled, and can
with difficulty. The fracture is distinctly crys-
stals, either regular dodecahcdra or octahechra,
I by cr>'5tallization. from carbon bisulphide,
&C-, or by sublimation. It is a non-con-
ity. Its density at 0° is 1*836; this regularly
the melting-point, 44*3% when a sudden drop
phosphorus is a viscid, oOy, highly refractive
' be supercooled to 32° before solidification. It
ning a colourless vapour which just about the
responds in density to tetratomic molecides,
1700°, however, Biltz and Meyer detected
Pi molecules. Beckmann obtained P4 mole-
•iling-point of carbon bisulphide solutions, and
the same conclusion from the lowering of the
benzene solution; £. Patemd and Nasini,
1 dissociation. Phosphorus is nearly insoluble
solves in carbon bisulphide, sulphur chloride,
of turpentine,
highly inflammable, taking fire in air at 34**
a bright white flame and forming dense white
toxide; in perfectly dry air or oxygen, however,
1 unchanged, H. B. Baker showing that a trace
vas necessary for combination to occur. When
r a stick of phosphorus undergoes slow combus-
evealed by a greenish-white phosphorescence
I viewed in the dark. This phenomenon was
minutely studied by Boyle, who found that solutions In some
essential oils (oil of cloves) showed the same character, whilst
in others (oils of mace and aniseed) there was no phosphorescence.
He also noticed a strong garlic-like odour, which we now
know to be due to ozone. Frederick Slare noticed that the
luminosity increased when the air was rarefied, an observation
confirmed by Hawksbee And Homberg, and which was possibly
the basis of Berzelius's theory that the Iimunoaity depended on
the volatility of the dement and not on the presence of oxygen.
Lampadius, however, showed that there was no pho^horescence
in a Torricellian vacuum; and other experimenters proved that
oxygen was essential to the process. It depends on the partial
pressure of the oxygen and also on temperature. In compressed
air at ordinary temperature there is no glowing, but it may be
brought about by heating. Again, in oxygen under ordinary
conditions there is no phoq>horescence, but if the gas be heated
to 35^ glowing occurs, as is also the case il the pressure be
diminished or the gas diluted. It is also remarkable that many
gases and vapours, e.g. Q, Br, I,NHa, N|0, NOi, HsS, SOk, CS^
CH4, CiH«, inhibit the phosphorescence.
The theory of this action is not settled. It is certain that
the formation of hydrogen peroxide and ozone accompany the
glowing, and in 1848 Schonbein tried to demonstrate that it
depended on the ozone. £. Jungfleisch {Combes renduSf 1905,'
Z40, p. 444) suggested that it is due to the combustion of an
oxide more vohitile than phosphorus, a view which appears to
be supported by the observations of Scharff {ZeiL physik, Ckem.,
X908, 62, p. 278) and of L. and E. Bloch {Combes renduSf 1908^
147, p. 842).
The element combines directly with the halogens, sulphur
and selenium, and most of the metals bum in its vapour forming
phosphides. When finely divided it decomposes water ^ving
hydrogen phosphide; it also reduces sulphurous and sulphuric
adds, and when boiled with water gives phosphine and hypo-
phosphorous add; when slowly oxidized under water it yields
hypophosphoric add.
AUotropic Phosphorus. — Several allotropic forms of phos-
phoriis have been described, and in recent years much woric
has been done towards settling their identities. When the
ordinary form inmiexsed in water is exposed to light, it gradually
loses its transparency and becomes coated with a thin film.
This substance was regarded as an allotrope, but since it is not
prodnced in non-aerated water it is probably an oxide. More
important is the so-called " red phosphorus," which is produced
by heating yellow phosphorus to about 230* for 34 hours in an
inert atmosphere, or in dosed vessels to 300', when the change
is effected in a few minutes. £. Kopp in 1844 and B. C. Brodie
in 1853 showed that a trace of iodine aLv> expedited the change.
The same form is also produced by submitting ordinary phos-
phorus to the silent electric discharge, to sunlight or the ultra-
violet light. Since this form does not inflame imtO heated to
above 350°, it is manufactured in large quantities for consump-
tion in the match industry. The process consists in heating yellow
phosphorus in iron pots provided with air-tight lids, which,
however, bear a long pipe open to the air. A small quantity of
the phosphorus combines with the oxygen in the vessel, and
after this the operation is practically conducted in an atmosphere
of nitrogen with the additional safety from any risk of explosion..
The product is ground under water, and any unchanged yellow
form is eliminated by boiling with caustic soda, the product
being then washed and dried and finally packed in tin boxes.
The red variety is remarkably different from the yellow. It is
a dark red microcrystalline powder, insoluble in carbon bisul-
phide, oil of turpentine, &c., and having a density of 2*2. It is
stable to air and light, and docs not combine with oxygen imtil
heated to above 350° in air or 260° in oxygen, forming the
pentoxide. It is also non-poisonous. When heated in a vacuum
to 530^ it sublimes, and on condensation forms microscopic
needles.
HittorTs phosphorus is another crystalline allotrope fonned
by heating phosphorus with lead in a sealed tube to redness,
and removiog the lead by boiling the y^todusX '^\2Dk. xfiX:^^ 'vd^
4So
PHOSPHORUS
trmpcnture- TTi^ pumm ai
lAHFOusly inilsiniiuliic. Oa (
"in.if*
MlWl phniihli. .
ialkyl pSiatpliinK addi, ltiFO(<
, r r K very veu lam, thnr sha
readily dccoidpoicd by mtcr. Tbc tenivy pboi|)biMi
iRiiBl by tlieS nadiiua to =— ~ J--— f~ ~—^
Thp bDiiir^-pDinln of
r,mw.
S^™di.y.
Tmw.
»' : :
!3S;f': : :
laamyl . . ,
,.i
TTic alkyl pbmphini
ind aknhoL Tin li
, „ _.J RMiP" "■ '
■Im ai(omln«niii.pjiiim™— ^
: KIlM-POi and RM.FO. (M-g
of which an iiuohiMt in HIcr. They ykiu only oh HiMjri^
OrfJfi.— Pbotphnnn rormi Ihr» nH-dcBn«l taida, PAN"
anil P/>i: iwnolhcn. I'J) anri rrf), hivt hnTi dncribcd. ^ ^
rimifhona itilmidr, P<0, b raid to be fonpcd, niad nn ••
PHOSPHORUS 4.81
*hea the tltovnt Ii burnt In a lid^tcd misply of u( noctkn. ExpoiuR to iir ^t-e* ntiovp^Droui and phonihoric
Ixyxtn DOikr reduced preMin (E. Junfflciidi, Abt^ acidi, and oa Beating £1 ^vtt nhoiplunn and phoiphDrn; acid- A
Sic., 19071 D. 761), and alio whoi a aolotioa of phoi- charaeterittic reactEoo ia tha lormatioii of a nxi pncsphate of
i trichlonde or IribroDide U ^"p'**^ to lEght. It it a cdpRHii hydride, Ciiilli> wbea heated with copper aulphate tuUitloii
powder which beoDocadaric led on beatin^jltiiitable 10 6o*p It iaa moADbaiic acid forminK ulti which are pennaneat
-an be heated to 300* without decoDpotilion. Iti eX' in air, but wluch are gradually okidiicd In aqucout toCmion. On
pwevcTt hat been denkd by A- Stock Cihi. Jeur. Chem. heating they yield pboaphlne and leave a re^tie of pyrophotpbate,
iL 111)- The oidde P^ W3» obtained by BcaaoniCmi^' «a muctnreof meta-and pyroplutphitc*. with a tittle photphonia.
)7. IT4iP- 763: Lgoi, pp. lu. 1556] by naiingLmiKtirF Tliey react at rcducuw anntt. On baling with cauttic potaih
_;.._ C — ■■j. .... .v_-u L,.^j- : ,_, UiCTevoivehydnmnTpddipiar--'----
Plwflwnmt tea, ,P(Oll}>. diB
phoiphoTui oxychlonde in tukd
,PiO.. diKX
1019). JuiiEflcijcb bu
by Sage in 1777, It » product obtained by dittolvviE itt anhydridcp PtC^. in cold water
Lbiution of phwplionii in air. Ii may df can- immcrvnE ttickt of phowlioTui In a solution of copper tuipiiata
into pliDipliDroua and hydrochkiric acidt- ft may alio be prepared
by lading a current of dry air into photphorut trleUoride at 60*
and lAiniic the vapoura into water at o*, the crvHala Ihua formed
beinf drained, waihed with Ice-cold water and tlticd In a vacuaa.
The cryitak melt at 70*. The add it veiy deliquetccnt, and oiddiiea
on eapotuR to air to pbotphoric acid. It deonnpoBca od hcatinc
Into photphlne and photplioric odd- It la an cnerfEctic reducing
agent; for osunple, when boi5ed with copper midphaie -«».ni-
copper it predpilated and hydrogen evolved- Alibough ni
Tin metallio pfaoqihita are itable both dry and in .._ .
strongly healed Iney evolve hydrogen acid yield a pyroptioaplute.
or, eaptfjally with the heavy melalh they give hydrogen and a
pidtuR of phoaphide and pyrophoephate.
Hyfaphiipluric odd, liJPA or HiPO., dlBovcnd by Salter in
1877 among the oiddation productt of phoepbortjt by moiit aii,
may be prepared by oxidiiing pho^pborui in en aqueoiiA tolution
of copper nitrate, or by oodixing tticki of ph«phckm< under water,
neutnili^ng with tedium caiboiute, forming the leul talt and dccom-
poqng (h» with lulphuretted hydrogen 11. Cavalier and E- Cornce,
Ala. /our- Ckim. &£., 1910, iS- 3O. The uqueou. •olutigo may
Iretiit. Ff>,, wat obtained by Thorpe and Tulton
product of the limited combustion of photphorut
liinurcof tranaparent, liiRhly lustroui-onhorhombic
^< lndV°''p>™^'*^^<- Pto!+3H,^-'H|p£+
pour dcn«iy at about 1400" ii im, U, tlightly leu
"--■■" (West, Jour. Clitm. Sot., 1902, p. 911).
atmHphcrk prevure (JuUEfleiKh, ioe. Haiofen Compourtds. — Pimpkorui
- '--■ named '' Aowers ol phoiphorut" Daxy. may ^- --------J — -— j —'-'
oft, docculont powder, which on combinaTian
inocUaic cri-ttafi. llitenremcly Ide (.\lac1«j
ly Boyle and named " Aowers ol
•phidc aiid liiid liuaiMB 7hT Moi»inj . Tt ia ; ™u™ rio^
xiit. carbon mononide being formed timultancouily. and lOatmospfieiM; the liquid bmlint-os'andtoUdifieaat -ii..
denuty at 1400' poinu to the double formula (Wat, <M<HHan,Ci«if^iraHfMi,i904.i3a,p-7S9^ ft doei not bum in air,
. Sor.. 1B96, p. IMI' but eiplodet, under the aetimi of a Same or the electric tpsrii,
.— Phmphonn fnrmt several oirtddi: hypophoiphoroui when mined with half itt volurocofgnyKen, giving the oiyfluondc,
5. and hypophmphoric acid, H.P.O. or H,PO,, ot which POFi. It i> ilowly decompoicd by water pvingTiydroBuoric and
dnareunienown:phDsphDrou^aCLdtHiPOjtdcrivedfrom ohotphoroua acidt, or, in addition, duorpbosphorous acid, HPFi.
iperphosphoric acid, HiPOii penihoiphaticncid, HiPiOti It hat no action on glau in the cold, but when heated it givciphoi-
DVTa-.andanho-D>io9i>liaricaciib,derivedfrDmPiOii.for phonit and tilicon tetrafluoride. Fkaipluna ptnla/lamit. PFi.
ditcovercd by Tboipe IPnc. Roy. Sst., 1877, aj. p.
ipluirimt arid, KP(OH)i. dlvoveml by Dulong in 181G, obtained by burning the trifluotide in lluorii
id crystalline by Thomson in 1^74 (Brr., 7, p. 91M), is chloride and anenic triRuoridc and fmn the iril
I the rorm of itt barium salt by warmins pnospharus the Artt formed fluorobroniidc, PFiUri, decomposing into the pei
I water, removing the euess of baryta by carUin dioiide. bromide and penuduoride: gPFiBri-jPl'i-l-iPBri, II ii
.iiing the filtrate. The acid may be prepared by evaporat- colourleu gat 4I times heavier than air, and liquefies at 15* ur
cuum the solution obtained by decomposing Ibc barium 40 aimosphcra, solidifylnii when the pressure Is diminished- I
it quiclEly decompoatd by water givioi hvdnAuwK ^t, ^jaw^v:ffK
482 PHOSPHORUS
•entabromfcie.
I do the Hnriu:Khride AUlpliunrtEcd hydmtED ; Btldlu form a thSopHoiphAn
(tvncv of puniavAkiLC uid a diloridr.
phHj'Korui in a eucouv compQund; diuixuitfaui, hovtfvtr, into Plurfihonn Iribrtmide, PBrj, pnpand by mLxinK iolutiooi
the rrilluonde and Iro 6uoffine may be biought jbout by inductioii cWmcott incArbondiiulpbideanddiiiillliie, ii a traiumrtdt, Ww*
■[urki of 150 ta 300 min. ia Iciwih. [I comtriort dinctly with 1>gu>d, boiling at I7(' 4nd n»einblin£ Lht trichluridc dvirioBj.
amnonia in ibc propiiitigii il'FiUNHi. ind with nitronn prniule Tbe ptnlabraniif. PBri. which rauili Irom phnphann ud ii
■t -10* in ihe pcDponiDn PFiiNOfr Pknpkonti triflwodKUwiit, occni of brorninF. ie 3 yellow tvlid, andctotely-mcDbJatht phi»
VFS^i,. prrparcd ttom chlorine and the triHuoride, ii a punEcni- chloride. The trniwUiindr, PCIiHii. ii an anneKoiiniBl *U
■melline gaA. vliich at isa' givet the pnitadiloride and duiiride. formed from bromine and the tridUoride. into which eosipoHiii
The<rulllrir«Jilrflllift(llFeHbovc)iiaiI>niber4»kniiHlmob3ellquid. it decompom at JJ*. eimpkcryl IrOnmiir, POBr.. ii • n^
nsjflgrjjtrilltwnlil, POPi, nHybcobuincdbyeipliidingiviilumn meltingiii4s°iindlnilineat 195°. TkiafkiapkoTtt irtmiii, KEtai
of ^oiptaonu Iriluoride with i volume nl uiygcn (Mdihid, iSSa); ebtaintd niter the manner of the mcmpofiOing chloride, \tim
by heating ipaniof finely-divided I yellow nnabcdm which melt at JB*. and tui-e a penitniiDi. in-
peoloilde Ciboil>* ">d Hautity, ■ matic oduur. With water it xiva lutphur. luliihuteited biifniiiL
or from phogphory] dilarlde and li h>drabromiei fibospliorou* and photphoric acidi. ihc uil^iur ud
colourlett fuming ^a, which Itqu pruMphotouiacidbeing rroducedliythi; interaction of [heptevint^
-50*, uid under ■ preiaiiziB of 15 formed iutnhuti--ttcd hyampen and phosphoric acid, FyrMei^ri
•olidiHedlaaHOK-likeiiiiua. Wi liwireiiit^. (fUnSJiS, and nrU^fiuMeryf Itwinni^. f^St.n
iluDridc, I^Fi, <ri>taimd by heatii I'hoaphorui tomu three indidei The lubiodide, P.I, wai -^
penlaiulphldc to 100*, bacolonik lalncd by R. Boulongh [CamfuiTndui, igaj, 141, p. 156), •bo Kvd
to a dear tiaupairnt liquid. It . with dty iodine on phnnhonii diEialvcd in cailxrn dimliibdr;
oDRini and when tha p> it imaii with alkalii it elvn P.iOHJ. The ili-iodide and tri-indide ait, bi»i
II probably one <f [ha culikn kn u iio'loared lujuid i<w Doughiy, Isur. Ama. Cirm. St, im,
followt Iho equation H5F>-K)|' 17> P- I444)< whilK the teroncl farmi daiii-red beiagesal fbia
a higher tcmiieiature dcc«di>o«r whicli melt at 55*-
loPFt-fsOi-(JT.+lP/)i, lI'Fi- Si^flUia aii nuHui<fl.-PhHpharui and nilnhur oetiiH
action lendinc to the cqutiont encntetJcally wlthconfldcraljlL-riieaftemperature tolrtfrntulFiiite
IcAOi. The gaa dlnuhn In wa The ivaiatchn of A. Slock IBtr.. tm o.j.
d aulphur. I>SF>- I>F,-f S; 4PF,-|-]5iUi- The iiroduct ii cxtiactcd with the iti!**
_-_ 1._ _- — -' '-» '-ecBuiphurand the di»Iilled in carbon dioudc. IC " ' ' — '
H^SfHiPOt-l-aHF. but la more . . 306a: 1010,43. pp. lU. 41
Klutioniwlth the fonnaliofl of fluotide aod thiophouihatc: FSF,-|- The Btit li pretan.'d by he
GN-a0H-rra.H!>O]-)-3:4aF. Heated in ■ glau tube it givei tiUcon wtphur in a lube Haled a
HuuriJe. phpipborui and aulphur. Pf" "•' "=- ■* ' -^■■' " --■ - ■ ■
jSiF.-l-P.-l-.lft. Electric .parka jiv
liiBuuridc, tbe latter at a bigher tc
,.- . - — . -- ^ —^ -eraperaiure spljtting into tbe benzene, which mdtat I7i5*flnd liibi ilraii^
peotalluoridc and phodphonn. W^th dry ammunia it glvq an- position. AlbaltH give hydmg rRe tead,
^ — ;.,_ a. — .-.I ,1 . .Z. 1 viviii'd." h.u- -...i^,; — ii-.Iit^tiniia nii and tuU>
[ven.byl-^ >llizin|!ii<i
K Dillon. AlbaltH give h-
S., ii obtained by hntinti
-■-"-■—'- t,._..,- ~-. ... ^- pn-pottiota given C
I ditulphide in which
. -jgB a KHumm ■iienii " '— '-
in carbon onaipiiidc IpurifylnK in the lallL-r ihntl.i
Iqio. 43, p. ii>3i. irtw boned ulphur with phoBjiaru* in
diMifdSla aoiution with a tim oTlodine to lao^ijo*. li
In two fonm, one haviiw the fbmula FA^ and the olWr 1
— '~»brii^^ Wldiliqiild ■miBoob It ^IH {V<r7NK>
IC, rOISKH,
.__ ^m tMoi*a,_.
tC-mf nitrite, MP:S (Stock, ibid., Ifa6, M. p. 1967).
PrCii. ThMunpliatia lenll on dfwinw the mitawlnhSde ia aDalii.
-li' ai Sodium moiioIhiaidmHilian N'a^Si&ItlUD. iaoblaintd liyaMn
phoish onaP^toH[KaOH7addB)|iical>ot.di9aolnngthcprcripHB'
•iau[y water and liealiis to go*. On eeuliDa tbe lali vHratu u lUi
'■■ -- -=^-' -"— SaSnm dUhitqrfioqihate, Na.t-:i=Uk-illIia it
foiiTKd obtaiped hy bealiiil the above lohiiian only ta ju'-js', iia!iii|ud
aolid, which by fUKOn under prcHHire give* priunatic cryinaJ*. It aildlnjt alcohol, whleh ptcelpltatca the dithio «alt. On huties i
~ n heated, Init infdur idtuurc it rndti al 1^*, gh-ing dvea tite nuntilllio ult. McQum trithicphoi^haie
our densly, Init oa funhur heating it diaaoeiatoa into formed when the pentaaulphitle acts with wdium
atmojAheru iif chUiriiw. It fuinee Mrondy in cttcd hydrugea j
^tachlurle acid and pbopplufyl rhloridu, H)Gi; eaars at rediKing agcntL
' JVfmfraOM^idi.— Fhnai
the tTichhiride and chlotiite; thii ^itoelallofi may be retatiM by at ao*. All thlopboipliattfl ate th-cotnpwd by aciiii glvinjc BtfpAtf^
.■...---...-,.- * .t. ....^ 1^ riimee Mromrly in cttcd hydrueea and aamctlnea fzctr aulphur. Thry aui act la odT
.phof>-l (Woride, roa,! - - - ■ -■
„. __. ., _..-_, , J hirieaeidh
i>li<>iHt*yf!i'cU>nilrorMaipWiu«}(JUtei^,FCK:ibrarTe«oad-
ing lo lAoiphocIe add, (IKDiFO, dUcovcicd in 1847 by Wurta,
may be phiduced by the action of maay nibMancei coaldlnlnii PN^IIi, a Hibatanre 6m dciRilwl by Da
hyurtHiy grouEH isn the pentaehloride; Inn the trirhluridc antl InfUBiUc, very ttaUu loliil. wluch tkccH_, , ^— -,r
' Lisium chkvute: Iw kovLw pbmphorua penttHttdc ia cont.'bcE giving annmnu and m'taplmphoric acid. whILi alkalii !>*■
. hydiochliitlc acM: aFiJA+jlin-l'Otli-t-JllFO.; or by an analogounnctioB. Wilk nelhyl and ethyl alcoholi Ii bm
Bntaehloridc and jientojddi! under prUMUre! aPCU-f- leeondary air' - ■■"-■-' " ' - ^. ...
Hint air, giving hydtachkirle acid and phoppliufyl rhlc
L'ith water it givH pluHiiltoilc and hydnichlurie aeidh
Plaiphtt^ SiMtriit orpkasHmui HjcJttvtfr.FOCI.
riniitun,- by fraclkma] ilbaULnioe
..- - --_, .. , .._- jk,ao,TV740;a1riDieelkuonaiir. .„_
w.iiT it i:i»-< i-hii-tAiTir and hyibu'hlnru: Biidn- TiiipitiHitfl Ji-'Vil- The UBmnunut form iiPiNii
<Mi»tifr. rSI'li.ni.iy1vo1itaiDCdlVlhEd!iTrt(umbiiuiwnii(Hilphur in waii-r, Inii lohibk In alenhol and 1
with the trirhlmlile; fmm tulnhun-ttul hydnit;ea and ifav pnitii- have latn di<Kr!hcd. ThedIan^de,F
rhIiifiJei fr,im .lallaiuny tTini1|i]iidi- and the imlathhiridc: hy beat- feniachlinldr i> uluntnl wilh.aun
inirlhi.-u<nl.i'uIiihi.lr*iihihL-|icnlarliliiriili<;an<MiydiiisoIviKrbOk- (hlniophD>i<hanilde, PLIiCMUi, la
i>huru>bi iul|4utrihkirUr ami dritillinii IhetiJuiiimT >l'-l-^1i- triimiclr, rO<NII|)i, ninlu fmiB ai
4S-H>l-SCk It I> a ciJourleu nubile liquid. Lulling nt iij-i* rhlncide. DuthdK.eRimpouiMli>eBh
and haviag a puB|i-Bt. liiahily aromatic odnur. It it iluw\y dccom- IflM. of which a polynier (PONh
ooicti by water giring phtitjihuric and hydrochloric audi, with (Cua-diiit, Ildl., illi|>>,a9 (ii.), p-jjc
PHOTIUS 4.83
a.i<diiSM.iS.PP-ri], iMKuidcKrilEdPCitOHliNIf. indcpCDdcnt tcding at the Euton Churcb. Fhotbu Idt himKU
hun, he rcpbed by a counier-uoimDiuDitMion. Munwhik, Ihe
Kd by BcncUui. sliutiion wu tuddinly diinged by the murder ol Pbotiiu'l
! '"ir'^^J^*- P"'"". Birdu, by order of the emperor Slichiel, who wu
h b^ntiCf ™Ji himacU uuuinatRl by bii coUeigue Baii] in the (iillowins yeu
Ama. Ckim Sot., (867). The [all ol Pholiu* immedialely eiaucd; he wureiDoved
., , . . . r ptiotphaie, whicn (ove the value Jl-O*. [ram his office and baniihed about the end ol September B67,
nmftaHa.~-1ie phupboiua uxd in the Hriliih ph«m«- ,, tew dayi after the aoxuion of Baiil, uid Ignlliua wii
nsa a obtained Irom oldum phosphite, and i* • mulike relntlaled on Ihe ijrd ol November. About 8;6 PhotEua wai
iMiictallic lubHucB »oluble in oila and lummoui in the dark, luddanly mailed to Conitantinople and enlrujicd with tba
IOC are vaiioui medicinal picparaliona. In young animali education of BaiQ'* children. On Ihe death o( Ignatius,
mphonu bas X nmarkable innucnce on the grovth of bone, prabably in October 878, Photlui, alter a decent ibow of rcluo
ung a proiiferalion of the jelly-Ute masses and finally a t»nce, again filled Ihe patriarchal Ihmne, He then proceeded
[Mil in them of Itue bony material. Owing to this influence to obtain the formal recognition of Ihe Christian world. In
hia been used in rickets and otlcomalacia. Its moat effective November Bjo a »yqod wi* convened at Constantinople. The
!, howcvs, i. as a nerve Ionic in paral>-iis agitans, locomotor u^y^ of Pope John VIH. attended, prepared lo acknowledge
CBt> such as psoriasis, chranic eoema and acne indujala, „„ mud, „n,gmi hy Ulip opinion. Be Hood firm, however,
i^ilKtnis la very useful, andcnsea of diabetes mellitus and on the other two poinU which had long been contested betwetq
B[««lB>oma have improved under some ol iU ■ compounds, the Eulem and Western Churches, the ecclesiuticol jurisdiction
• bypopbo^ihites have been recommended in pulmonary ^va Bulgaria and Ihe hitroduclion of the " filioque " claiw
(ctioDS, being said to set ss free phosphorus without being jmo ^g „pjd. He disowned his legmes, who had shown a
iunt, and the glyceio-phosphates are certainly useful lo tendency to yield, again eicommunkated Pholiui, and thin
oalate meUbolism. Dilute phosphoric add is used as a »roo»ed the open hostility which hag never been appeased 10
Brie alimulaoU It does not resemble phosphorus in lU ,1,1, d,y. Strong In the support of the councU, Pholius simply
I action and cannot be used to replace it. ignored ),;„,. At the height ol glory and success he was suddenly
— Poisonous amounts of phosphorus art frequently predpitsled Irom his dignity by another psiace revolution,
™ „ _^^islered, criminaUy or acddenlally, it being euiily Alter the dealh ol Basil (8M), his son and successor Leo, who
CBBbk to the public in Ihe form of malehes or of vrmm h^j formerly been devoted to Pholiua, but in recent yesn
MO. Tbey may have been swallowed several hours before jijpUyrd great haired towards him, deprived him of his offic*
nfUDS oE acute poBOning show themselves, with nausea .^j banished him to Ihe monastery ol Bordi in Armenia. Fram
d mmuting, and a bunung m the oewplugus, stomach and ihi, ,inic Pholius disappears from history. Xo lellera ol this
dcoKB. Ihe important Ihing is to prevent the nbsoiption pj^od ol his lile are eitant, which leads to the inference that hil
tbepoJson.ioemel«s and purgativcsihould begivenatoi.ee. imprisonment was severe. The precise date of his death It
lph>te of copper, ui do«s of 3 to j gr , free y diluted and not known, but it ISiald lohaveoccunedoB thcOIholFebnuiy
pcated every few minutra forms the hormlfia, black phosphide ^j
opps, which is tipidly eliminilcd by the kidneys. TTie For long alter Photius*. detlh his roemoiy was held in no special
(Mlutbn of permanganate of polash, an enema of the same Creek Oiuirh and stale weie alike io danger Irom Latin encroMh-
tatk- bring given. The old French oil of turpentine is the S™5e^lS^"rft'™nt* "T^i.'X^^rV'lir^S'^^
B antidote to use in phosphorus poisoning, delaying the loaii pnncniion. Ft- men. ll Is probable, have been pme atrodowly
cell; but ordinary oils are not only useless but harmlul. calumniated: but, when every specific statcmeBt to his piejiidic*
bcD aome time has ebpsed belore treatment and the phos- ha. bm ceinled, he sliU appears on a gencnl review rfhi.actioBS
, , .1 ilT^.i,. „ :, J ,:.„ ,1,, woildly. crally and unicrupuloiii. Yet he shows to no Utile advan-
■nt has bKome ahsorl«d, the organic degenerative changes ^,-^^ edile-astioil iUtcMnan. His firmness was beit^c. his
wot be easily controlled. For the chrome lorm of mduslnal „gjaly prolound and_ lar-ieeinjl be supported good and evil"
mT^i™i^r t loc2li^ hliwi'toiy ^[e^lion"iS"th^ and locc« and versatUity of intellect he far sutpa«id every conlem:
rinleum, ending with the death and eifoHalion of part ol owned
e bone — see KIatcii. ecdon
nonUI ((. 810-891), patriarch ol Constantinople (858-867 itthm
id gj8-M6). From his early years he displayed an cstra- 1^^
dinary talent and appetite for knowledge, and as soon as he had n„ gf
opteled his own education he began to teach with dislinguiihed nd lb*
eccsa grammar, rhetoric, diviniiy and philosophy. The way rr also
public life was probably opened for him by the marriage of ™||j
ibntber Serous to the princess Irene, sister of Theodora, who, wouU
Vn tbe death of her husband Thcophilus in 841, hail assumed dbtiis-
e regency of Ihe empire. Photius became captain of Ihe guard ^erpls,
4 subsequently first imperial secretary. The dissensions ^°^1^
tween the patriarch Ignatius and Bardas, the uncle of the a «C
BtlifiU Empemr Michael III., brought pramoiiun to Photius. I'nded
lathii was attested and imprisoned (Nov. SjS), and upon ,*'.*''''
jing t„ ™g„ hi. office wasniegally deposed, while Photius. ^SllTS-^ef'tlne^V^^irthlT^o^ra'Sl^c^nuTTorriltl^^
bDDgh a U>Tnan, received all the necessary sacerdotal ordcra ^acion ol Thomas C^le iq.r.}. and now in the library of Trinity
bin *ii days, and was installed as patriarch in his place. College. CamhrMiicled.S. A. N'abcr. iK4.Klthiiilraductionontbe
WiiU, cuntinuing to reluse Ihe abdication which could alone auihoriiieN critical rommentary, and wiluablu iodcm). His bom
C givm Photius's elevation a semblance of legalily, was ™^"^^™*^t3"!^^i';Lffi,'i"^"J"„-S^^'^^
-th extreme severity. His cause was (ubsequenily i„ Amphll^hius. arehhishon ol Cyricus M. Sophocles OiMmooa*.
Wlin caticme seventy, riis cause was suosequentiy ,„ AmphlWichius. archhishnn ol C
d by Fope Niclwlas in ■ manner highly offensive to the Aiheu, 1838), Other eiiaiUt «<
484
ihe L4tiiit on the
politick And privatf
PHOTOCHEMISTRY
I fell ojDtnivflw with
Spirit Hi> Efiuiu,
hnrw upon tbe chancier and vcr-
aletcag, London, 1U4)- A large
lormUea have been edited by S,
implite rdition ii Biiliop Matou't
CT. R. Rrif«n«rin (Z& - '
of tde Roman
VbiaaedaEainsi
and lympathy
■Hauck'i Hvt-
the widest MBse, tbe braticb of chemii
with the optical properties o( lubitance
chemltal conjtilulion and
owet, colour, fluoteacence,
jeclroMpy, ac— aubJKI
Efiaition.
Piobably the
»ocialed with ll
light on chemical change. Tbe
bjccts aa refiictive and dispeTsive
which ate treated imdel other
the subject mat tei of the huiowei
lestigatlons were
-.r IhE
_ , , -c >ub»eiiuently ulUiied
photography (q.t.). At the aame time, however, it had been
obȣVEd (hat olhcr chemical cliangea were regulated by the
access of light; and the first complete study of such a probleni
was made by J. W. Draper in 1843, who investigated the combi-
nation of hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrochloric add, a
reaction which had been previously studied by Cay-Ltissac and
Thenard. Drspci concluded that the £i3t actios oi aunlighc
consiKcd in piudnclng an allotrope of chlorine, which aub-
sequenlly combined with the hydrogen. This was denied by
Bunscn and Roscoe in 1S57; and in 1887 Pringsheim suggested
that the reoclion proceeded in two stages: HiO-|-Ci,-aiO+H>,
iHi+Cl,O-H,0+jKa. This view demands the presence o(
walei vapour (H. B. Balier showed thiil the perfectly dry gases
would not combine), and also eiplaina the period which elapses
chlorine monoxide neccssaiy to the second port of the ceaclion.
The decomposilion ot hydriodic add into hydrogeo and iodine
was iludicd by Lcmoine in 1877, who found that So% decom-
poaed after a month's eiposurc; he also observed that the reac-
tion proceeded quicker in blue vessels than in red. A broader
bund that the red rays genendlyoitdised inorganic compounds.
ntirely o.
other
suggested the
mcasuringlheacljnicellect of lightwaves. The most important
employ silver salts; Eder developed a form based on the
iHgCt,+ (NH.),Cia"iHgCl + iNH.CI + jCO„ the eitent
of the decompasiiion being detennined by tbe amouDU of
mercuious chloride or carbon dioiide liberaial.
The article Pbotooraphv (^.t.) deals with early Invesligitioni
on the chemical aclion of tight, and we may proceed here to
modera work on organic compounds. That lunlight accelerates
the aciloa of the hahigeas, chlorine and bminine, on such com,
lown. John Davy obUbcd phosgene, COCli,
bj-rli
lof d
1 (sec Weigcrl, Asa, i. Fhji., 1907 (iv.), 1.
'■ SS>i
chlorine combines with half Its Tolnme of iwth>1 C
in sunlight, whilst in diBused light it substitDtem; wiL
it ^ves beniyl chloride, C JliCHiQ, in sunlight, and cU
C,H,(CH)iCl, in the dark; with beiuene it givo n
product, CUiiCli, in sunlight, and substitute* Id I
addition pnxlucta with uniatunied compound* moi
in sunlight. Sometimes itomerization may occur; [or
(he dark, and dibromtiglic add in sunlight. Many ■
decompose when exposed to sunlight ; [or eumpie, alkj
darken, owing to the libention of iodine; aliphatic add
ally dibasic) in the presence of unmic oiddc lose orbos
polyhydric alcohols give products IdcDticil with UuK .
' ' ■ ■' " aliphatic ketone* give t hjd
ids, bena
lebyde pves a
and tetramcric beocaldehyde, benioic add and hydi
(C. L, Ciamidan and P. Silber, AUi. R. Acad Limt
in alcoholic solution it gives hydrobenzoin; whilst vi
bensene it is oiidised to benaoic add, the nitrobcmene
reduction to nilrosobenzene and phenyl-^hydiotylu
latter isomeiizes to ortho- and pala-acniiiopbeiiiil, 1
turn, combine with the previously farmed beoiDic u
lariy acetophenoue and benzophenone in alcoholic sohi
dimethylhydrobenioin and bcDiopiDacone. With d
pounds Ssch and Hilbeil condudrd that those tcH
-CH- ^de group In the onho position to the -NOi fP
decomposed by light. For example, onho-nittobeDiak!
alcohobc solution gives nit rosobenzdcoter and iVan
acid, with the intennediate formation of tutrobeui
diethylacetol, NO,.&H,-CH(OC,H,), (E. Bambeiicr
Elgar, Ahi, igio. 3JI, p. Jiq). Bamberger also ins
nitiosobeniene, obtaining aioiybennne as cUef
together with various aio compounds, niitobemesc,
hydroquinone and a resin.
For Ihe pholochemiitry of diois derivatives ■* KdI i
Btr.. 1401, u. p- 16^. aod of the terpenes lee C. U Cjim
P.Silber,fl<T., laojandijoS.
Ught is also powerful in produdng isomeriiatjon ■
merization. laomerizatioo chiefly appears in the i
of stable slereo-isomcrs from the labile forcos, and mo
in inducing real isomerization or phototropy {Uaidwa
As examples we may notice the observation of Cbaltawa,
Citen. Sx. T906, 89, p. 462) that many phen]^
(yellow) change into azo compounds (ted), of Sf. Paik
Gmziani {Aai, R, Aaad. Limti, [qoq) od ibe ^napUl
moes (tbe o-compounds on not phototropic), and vt ,
and F. G, Shephord {Jman. Cktm. Sx., 1909, 95, p.
the arylidene- and napbtbylidene-amines, which din
yellow to orange on exposure to sunlight. Li^t nccc
in the same direction as heat (changes due to hat
termed llicrmalrsfk). For eiample, beat changes the 1
reverses this; similarly heat and light luve revcise icti
oi-dipbcnyl ethylene, CH,:C(CJU< (R. Stoenner, Bf.,
Senier and Shephcard's compounds. With tetant Ui I
lation we may notice Ihe produclioD of benieBe it
fiom acetylene and its bomohigues, and ol tetraB
from Ihe olefine*.
JAiury of PkoUidicmiciil Actum. — Althou^ mwi '
been done in the qualitative and quantitative study '
the theoretical explanation of these phenomena.
suggested by Ciotthusi in 1S18, who laid down: (1) <
rays which ore aljsoibed can produce chemiad dkug
action of the light is analogous to that of » voltaic cc
regarded light as made up of positive aitd nefatlTe <
The £rst prindple received early acceptance; bat tb
ment of the second is due to W, D. Bucmft idn. in
PHOTOGRAPHY +85
91 la Iht Jrm^ ^ Ptyikal Citmiilry (or 1908 aniJ 1909, wbcre the influence of Ilgbl mi aotkcd at tbe be^nnlng of ihc
^■plied it gcDcnlly to Ihe Tcacliou imda comidentian, iglh cestuiy. Williun Hyde WoUulon obKCved ihe convenion
tkctnlytic aciion dcnuitds a cenain infalminn electro- of yellow gum guaiacum into > gnea lint by tbe violet rays, and
ivc force; ihii, however, cu be diminiihed by niitabli the nalorotion oi the colour by tbe red ray*— bolb of which are
daiizen, which generally act by combiDlnfl with a product the effect of absorpLJon of li^t, the original yellow colour of
Jie dccom posit ion. Sisiiliriy, b Knne pbotochemiul the gum abwrbing the violet ray>, whilst the gmn colour to
Lions the low electromotive force of the light is tuSdent to which it i> chaogcd absorbs the red iiys. Sic Ilumpbty Davy
ce decomposition , but in other taa 1 dcpolariicc must be found that puce-cotoured lead oxide, when damp, became red
at. foe eiampte, ferric chloride io aqueous tolution is in the red rays, wbUit it blackened in the violet rays, and that
lanfed by light, but in alcoholic toluUan reduclioo (0 ferrous the green mercury otlde became red in the red rayi— again
ode occuo, the liberated cUoiine combining with the an example of the neceuity of absorption Is effect a molecular
mL la tbe uoc my Bancroft showed thai the solvent or chemical change in a subitance. U. R. T. Le Bouvier
ia employed is photographic plates act aa depolariien, Desmonies in iSoi observed the cbange effectedln Prussian
nine theory eiplauu the action of sensiliien, which may blue, and Carl Wilhelm BSclman noted the action of the two
fXicaDy or cbeniicilly. In the first case they are substancei ends of the spectrum on phosphorus, a research which John
Bf idKtive absorptloB, and hence alter Ihe aensilivily of William Draper extended farther in America il a bter date.
^Mem to certain rays. Tn the second case there are no To England belongs the honour of first producing a photo-
If absorption bands, and the lubstancei act by combining graph by utiliaing Scbeele's observations on silver chloride.
Use decomposition pnxiucts. Bancroft applied bis theory Tn June iSoi Thomas Wedgwood (t77i-i8o5) publl&hed in tbe
le explanation of photochemical oxidation, .and alio to tbe Jeutnai of Ibe Royal Institution the paper — " An account of a
: and bmminatlon of bydrocarboni. In tbe latter method of copying piinlingi upon gloss and of maLing piordei
' by the agency of light upon nitrate of silver, with observations
by H. Davy." He remarks Ihit wbile paper or white leather
nu. moistened with 1 solution of silver nitrate undergoes no change
udard lieatTses are: J. M, Eder, BmUMh itr P)iM>tniptii, when kept in a dark place, but on being eipoied to Ihc daylight
. p«. 1 (TO06I : H. W. vogcl. Phabxhcmti (1906). An atcount of It speedily changes colour, and, after passing through various
nion or fight on orpinir compound, i. given in A. W. Stewart, jt^j, oi -rjy j^ brown, becomes at length nearly black. The
H^SSfSTp^'v f?-"" SriJ^M^f „H ,^^,. ,. -.-i,! 1>«?ti» of "l^r <«ke; place more speedily in proportion s,
„. ^ and light tranunitled tbrouEh diflerent-CDloured glasses acts upon
BisUry. it wilE dilfcicnt degrees olimcnsly. Thus it ii found that led
would be lomewhat difficult to fil a date when what we now ««. or the common sjnbcamt paMrd IhrouKh rrf gla«, have very
, .. " photographic «tion " was first recorded No d«ibt iS^^viSeTligrp'^^^" mlf^d'^S IX^rfTeff^i:" " '
tanning of Ihe skin by the sun s rays was what was first _, . . , j t. .,. T . , -
T^d this is as truly the eflecl of sJar radiation a, is "'^"^ Bon on lo descril« the method of using th»
sensitive naoer which is now In use in P"P"" P»P" ■'J' throwing shadows on it, and mfcrcntially
by what we now call " contact printing." He states that he has
inate the traces of the silver salt which occupied the unex-
d or shaded ponions. Davy in a note states that he bas
tOnXlBAPH? (Gr. «&, light, and TP^ir, ., ,
lemkally prepared (»
larkeoing of the u
ographic printing operations. We tnay take It that K. W.
ek was the first to Investigate tbe darken!
ght on silver chloride. He laund that when ■
of light beneath w
c (silver nitrate], caused the prectfnlati
:roscope, the
r chloride, and that on a'pplying a solution of ammonia to '"^^ <^ ™^' "''»«" ™''' "*">' ^ "Pi<^ "" ""* P»P«-
ilachened chloride an insoluble laidue of metalUc silver was ^Iv^" X;r'thl^o''^fh?bonl^th^^Irl« it'2Sn^"«Se«
behind. He also noticed that of the rays of the spectrum ,]„, ,he murau was the more tmccpliblc. and both were more
, we have the first who appLed combined chemical and Even in the twilight the colour of the idmh muriate of nlver, •pread
Lnun analysis to the science of photography. In 17S1 ^■S^i^^S^iin^'^ fwe'^.lS^tt" al!"!aii^' ™
mebier repeated Scbeele's eipcriinents, and found that in „po„ ^le niiralc. . . . Nothing but a mcihod of prcvciiing the
«red rays did in twenty minutes.' In 1798 Count Rumford toihedayu wanting lorcnder this proccasasusrfuiaiilLsileganl.'*
ribuied a paper to Ibe PhUoufhiaii Trimsatliinis entitled In this method of preparing the paper lies Ihc germ of the
attributed to light," in which be tried 10 demonstrate that spread of chemical knowledge Ibal Ihe hiatus which was to render
lects produced on metallic solution coukl be brought about the " process as useful aa ll b elegant " was filled up — when
1 temperature somewhat less than that of boiling water, sodium thiosulphutc (hyposulphite of soda), disroveted by
-rt Hanup in i8oj, however, conclusively showed in Franjois Chausaier in 1799, or three years before Wedgwood
alson'i Jfiumat that, at all events, salts of mercury were published his paper, was used for making the print permanent,
ced by visible radiation and not by change of temperature. Here we must call attention to an important observation by
iSoi we come to the neit decided step in the study of Seebeck of Jena In iSio. In the Furkn/cAre of Goethe he says.-—
ographic action, when Johann Wilhcbn Rltler (1776-1810) "" irian is
ed lie exislence of rays lying beyond the violet, and found be con-
they had the power of blackening silver chloride. Such a ifowiM
ivery naturally gave a direction to the investigations of [vW«i
rs, and Thomas Johann Seebeck (17JO-1831) (between ani tbt
andiao8)and,in i8i],JacqaeB&icnDe B&4rd(i7S9-iS69) '^^iSl
ed their attention to this particular subject, eliciting valuable [tlSda
t may here he remarked thai had he used a pure niectnini he ind tha
d have found Ihat the red rays did not blacken the material »»■&«
486 PHOTOGRAPHY
die brown bind. . . . vhidi w» pndBnd In the viotct. Ibr i
tS'^"'^"ir'!h^ diE?^««°IhS vwS^.ii^^'.h;'" M oif'xM'-prio'ias dcwU^men'l fmm Ih„ back of d«"«I«Bl tta
ImmF liKhier. Bc>™d the nd, « the conlrafy. the ehloride » »l>»]utcly ascnlial, »ince it depend* oo ihe ume pciiic^ib
totAt a fnble red tint Tor A niuidcnble dBtanee. When moUt na doei heliograpby, qnd in this ibc lamc made of pncrdmck
chloride nl liliTr, having received the action oC lijlit for s lime, advisable
fc"rtK."y'3f"5iiSS'.S''S'S""'i™; ,,i',r.S;ff=l!;',i!?!K,iSiS.'SSiiSS."
that the ulver chloridv bvcomce paier; . . - the naru arted upon ■ „■*' ., ,i,,_ j^-"rvlL««^.,Ivi»«i^ «^I2,vrT^^J^!j?S
by the red n>y> and by tho« beyond take . lifiht colDni.ion." '"«■ ^^ i? rte R^rSrtJ KESon Sh a^ ai
ThB ku been bioDghl foiwud by J. M. Eder u being the fim pr™^j^i„ ,hat ^loSy iVi publla^",' KSArr™ in-
Rcoid ve have of photueniphic ulion lending iueli to producliDn i-cnled bceauie the pims. iil which cxainpin wen ihon, mi
ol natural colouti. Thb ob«ervaiioo of Scebedt was aUowed to •cem one. In an auihentic MS. copy at Nirpre'i " Mtncit-
lit fullo* for Biiny years, unUl U wa. icain taken up and di^^n-,^„^ ,i^^,„'^e'^'^f«ht*bui thai W Ai^
published as B novelty. chemital agent, the lone may be daikenid." Thi. *on M
The Gist to found a ptocna of photogr^y which gave Nicpce wa> familiar with the idea of udng lonKdarkEniiiiiatd^
pictures that were subsequently unaffected by light was Nie*- even with hi> photograph, taken on tin plate.,
phore de Niep«. His procos, which he c^ed provisionally Da[iitrr/i)lypt. — We h»ve noticed is the Joint piKtS ol
" h£liographie, dessins, Ft gravurcs," consists Id coatiiig the Daguerre and Niepce that polished silver platei were vftd, ui
■arfaci of a mcuUic pbte with a solution of aspbaltum in oil we know from the latter that amongst the chemical aguts IiU
of lavender and exposing it to a camera image. He recommends iodine suggested itself. Iodine vapour or lolution applied toa
that the asphalt um be powdered and the oil of lavender dropped silvered plate would cause the fonnation of filver iodide on Ibov
tipoD it in ■ wine-glass, and that it be thes gently heated. A parts not acted upon by light. The removal of the roiU
polished plate is covered with this varnish, and, when dried, ii picture votild leave an image formed of metallic Bilver, irisbt
ready for employment in the camera. After requisite exposure, the black patts of the original would be represented by Ihe duiT
which is very long indeed, a very faint image, requiring develop- silver iodide. This was probably Ihe origin of the daguercDtni'
ment, is seen. Development is cUccted by diluting oil of proceaa. Such observers as Niepce and Daguette, who M
lavender with ten parts by volume of white pctmlcum. After formed a partnership for prosecuting their reaea/cbe^ *aiM
this miiture has been aUowed to stand two or three days it not have thus formed silver iodide without notidng Ilot it
becomes clear and is ready lo be used. The plate is placed in a changed in colour when exposed to the li^l. What ian>
dish and cnvered with the solvent. By degrees the parts respectively Daguerre and Niepce played in the devrk|i««
unaffected by light diasolve away, and the picture, formed of of the daguerrrDlype will probably never be known viih
modified asphollum, is developed. The plate is then lifted from absolute accuracy, but in 1 letter from Dr Bauer to Dr J. f-
Ihe dish, allowed to drain, and finally freed from Ihe remaining Bcnnelt, F.R.S., dated the Jib of May 1835, the former siyl-—
(olvents by washing in water. Subsequently, instead of using "| received a very interesting letter fram Moni. Iiidon Htf-
oil of lavender as the asphaltum solvent, Niepce employed an dattd nth March [about a monih after the publkat™ J *•
SS-i"'" "" * "^ "'"" "* "°" ""°" " "■■ fssT'ss5;'i'.;™'s'"iT?S3i;
Later, Louis Jacques Mandi Daguerre (T7S4-1S51) and Niefice <
DMd a< a solvent the brittle residue obtained from evapoMtmg jy^ Bauer evidently knew m , . —
the oil ol bvendcr dissolved in ether ot alfohol— a transparent than most people, and at that early period be cfcarty tho^
•olullon of a lemon-yellow cobur being formed. This solution [i„t an injustice had been done to Niepce at the htt* J
was used for covering gloat ot silver pUtes, which, when dried, Daguerre. It should be remarked that Nictpboti * Niqm
ODuld be used in the camera. The time of exposure varied jj^d ;„ ,8^^^ j^j , n„ agreement wal enleml into bet«««
somewhat in length. Daguerre remarked that the tune his son Isidore dc Niepce and Daguerre to continue the prtlMi-
required 10 procure a photographic copy of a landscape is from ^i^^ jj j^^;, researches. It appeiis further that Niepa o»
seven to eight hours, but ungle monuments, when strongly municaled his procrsi to Daguerre on the jlh of Decembo ill*
lighted by the sun, or which arc themselves very bnght, can be At his death some letters from Daguerre and others «m M
taken in about three hours." Terhap) there is no sentence that by him in which iodine, sulphur, phosphorus, ftc, «
illustrates more foiably the advance made m photography from ni,nlioned as having been used on the metal plates, and itaf
the lUyx when this process wa* described. The ratio of three sensitiveness to light, when thus treated, 1 '"" —
bouts torfxthofa second is a fair cstimatcoftheprogressmade i-
«nce Niepce. The development was conducted by means of j
petroleum-vapour, which dissolved the parts not acted upon by j„„^^^ ^^ ,„.„, ,«,t „vtj ^umu... >v a. ,u« uh»., — ..— ,
light. As ■ rule silver pbtcs seem to have been used and publication ol the process, life-pensions ol 6000 frames .I«l4»»
occasionally ^iss; but it does not appear whether the latter ftancaweregiventoDagtieneaodtoIodoreNiepcereipetin*'
material was chosen because an image would be projected j^ p^„, gf (btonology the publication ol the discoveiy ol *
through It or whether simply lor Ihe sake of eHecl. Viewed in daguerreotype process was made aubsequetiily to the Tilbd-
the light of present knowledge, a more perfectly developable [j™ process. It will, however, be convenient to coalipK Ik
image In half-tone would be obtained by exposing the fibn history of the dngneneotype, premising thai it waspubkshei"
through the Imtli of the glass. The action of hghl on most ^y^ ^^^, ^f February 1S39, whilst Talbot's process wu gliisl*
organic matter is apparently one of oxidation. In the case of ^^ „oild on the Jtth of January of the same year.
asphaltum or bitumen of Judaea the oxidation OUKS a hardenmg n.™™««,™ rj^,.™ -«, n„-„-„.ii- .nmiiiri
of the material and an insolubility in Ihe u«ial wlventa. Hence D.P'"«?'«» l«"™ 'XxrSdCt^^hS; SiSrtS-
that surface of the Clm is generally hardened first which Erst Hlver of any ihicbwa. Aasett"
feels the influence of light. Where half-tones eiist, as in a ». A brighify-ocrtiAed siho pl»»
bndscape picture, the film remote from Ihcsurfate first recriving S.S''i*.^Sjir.„'Sl.'fJS£i
... ,.,^1. ... ■„... ..™. -, al, «.d remain. «,luble m the ^ SjJS^ ^.Th^sSS
1 that, in the case of half-tone Ji^..rf. Thn ntsi* ihu nMRd. ■
pectcd of Dapuerre'i mancnivres with pof* Nil^plKne, biT Mr
Isidore observes that for the present that letter might betDnsA™
solvent. It is thus readily seen that,
picture), or even in copying engraving! ,
continued tuflicienlly long when the surfi
, pbte, thus pRfsiri. h
Sman tragneeu oTisAs «
' ' gauae. Ov« tUi IW |l»
nuca suracieniiy long wnen ine sunacc 01 ine uim iarinr>i ™iiw oa MiMwtL juid^» ilP*
the gbss was firai acted upon. Ihe layer next the j^ass would !^ upon it aSurfie of iilrtr3*.
in tome places remain soluble, and on devebpmenl would be ^irc .-...».
iinolved Away, auiying the top Uyn oi binkncd rewiou* levnal itageh the varying coloun
PHOTOGRAPHY
BBTORY]
iuh] bytbe diffent tliielmMa el
sdik. The niic at nuiinum ten
I B of a K^dcn onnge colour Jn tbi«
Ad Rmavtd lo the dark ilide ol l)w
i pUa frnutotty adDpted (o givv an
Ituralc a card with Mine and iM thi
be anL Long expimmt wen lequiref
B thiity minutzL Tbe len|th at Ih
■aner U ludEntBiI, moit particuUrlv
B avil whicb « called -'nlafitatioi
■( to the DiidatloD of the Iodide by
Aa a Platter td biliary It may be nn
avrry oTDuuem. It appean that f i
ublicatiOQ pftbe dajucmocype method be had been evperimcnting
rith iodiaed diver fnatea, ncodiidni imam by whar woiild now be
■Ued the "priBIini out procaa. Thia opermiion iovaJvcd n
H an esrpoHire that be BttEht iome meona of irducinE it by the
ppljeatbii of diffetent nagenu. Haviog on one octsAion ripDant
aA a plate to a camen-Emage, he acddtritally pinced it in the dark
ipae of a dubt that he had a perfect imaae develc^ied. Uy (he
nx:^ of eiliauatton he arrived at liie fart that it was the mcnrury
t au thii dncovery chat enabled the cxpoeurev to be very consider-
Uy fhortened fmin ihuae which it waa found oeccnary Co give in
dTccted by placing the-crpHcd
of ibc Iioaic
'co's^JH;
:^K™,^i
niily ol
^hl^d
.».»«. - K--'-— -- ■*- - '-■ — ^ attadied
l«lf to the altered illver Iodide. Pimf thai aueh waa tbe caie
ma aub««iiieflily nlTordcd bf the fact that the mecciirlal Image
kal it wai poMibIc to camine the piclure through a yellow ^av
rimlDw whilat the ima^ wat being brought cut. Tlic neat opcrm-
ion waa to lix the picture hy dippitiff it ui a ulutioD of hyposulphite
i loda. The imaiie productd by thia method ii ao deliate that it
riD not bear the alighteit handling, and haa to be pcotccted fmn
Iccidental toucbiog^
Tlie Gnt great improvement in the dDguecTcotype procaa
■u Ihe roeniitizing of the lodiicd lilin by bromine v»peui.
FohD Frederick Goddard publisbcd hit account of the UK oF
xoinine in CDDJunclion with iodine in iSio, and A. F. J. Cliudct
;ij9j-i867) employed a mmbinalion of iodine and cblotjne
npouT in 184J. In 1S44 Dagucrre published hia improved
Detbod of pteparinR Ihe platca, which ia in reality based on the
Be o( bromine with iodine. That this addiliOQ point) to
nil, and ol large stie, have been laLcn on pliles so prepared— a
leat which i& utterly impossible with ibe original process as
dcKtibed by Dagucrre. The next improvement in the procesa
was toning or gilding the image by a solution of gold, a practice
mtrodnceil by II. L. Fiieau. Cold chtoiidc is miied wilb
faypoaulpbite of soda, and the tevellcd plale, bearing a sufficient
(piniity of Ibe fluid, is warmed by a jpitit-lamp until Ibe tc-
' ' ■ t lights. Nearly all tl ' "
487
Zlaj.wSmU
paper an equal
The prepared
I.- after a ihoR
drying ilighiEy
Lt having been
ling, and be
without the
ned by Foi
y puMiJbed.
idvance when
pee, employed
Id the banda
thand ajlowed
rglnaj la drawn
rSn. The heat
It have
catcd ir
10 IbiiOperation. Images
Foi-Talbal Fracas.— la January 1S39 Foi Talbot described
tbe fint of his pmccascs, photogenic drsKiog, in a paper 10 the
Koyal Society, He ]ti1C9 that he began etpcilmcn ling iniHjq,
and that in the solar microscope he obtained an outline of ihe
object 10 be depicted in full sunshine tn half a second. He
inibHshed In the PkOosofhii^ Uotavii full dclaib of his
BMbod, which onuisted essentially in soaking paper in common
■lit, brushing one side only of it with about a 1 ) % solution of
ahvt nitrate in water, and drying at the lire. Foi Tolbol
nated that by repenting the alternate enabes of Ibc silver and
nil— alwaya ending, however, with the forniei— grt.ilcr sensi-
tirtocsi was attained. This is Ihe same in every respect 35 the
(Mtbol pmcttsed by Wedgwood in iSoi; but, when we come
\iy gallic oci
lly lottoduci
lad been ma<
483
PHOTOGRAPHY
the introductisD of collodk
iccouDl o! Ihe iacilily w
d, Had Also bccDUK it is a Bi
:cd by Ailvpr niLrate, vhich h
compound, bi do Eelolin, ilarch and gum. Tht emplnynent ol
cotlodbn K'u fini Bugsnlcd by Lc Gray, but it nouUDcd for
Frederick Scott Ardirr ol London, dosdy foUowcd by P. W. Fry,
tomakeo rpaUy practical UK of thediacovrry. When collodion is
poured on a gbjs plate It leivca on drying a hard tiuupaient
film which under the microscope is slightly reticulated. Before
drying, the film is gcUtinoui t.nd perfectly adapted for holdizig
■■ lilu salts soluble in eihec and slcohoL Where sucfa lalts
are present they crystalliic out when the Elm Is dried, hence
such a film is only suitable where the plates are reuty to be
immelEcd in the silver bath. As a rule, about five grains of the
soluble gun-cotton are dissolved in an ounce of a mixture of
equal parts of ether and alcohol, both of which must be of low
specific gravity, -;is and '8aj respectively. If the alcohol or
ether bo much dilated with water the gun-cotton (pyroxylin)
precipitates, but, evea if less diluted, it forms a film which is
" cmpey " and uneven. Such was the material which Le Gtiiy
proposed and which Archer brought Into practical use. The
opaijue silver plate with its one impression wis abandoued; and
(he paper support of Talbot, with its inequalities of grain and
thickness, followed suit, though not immediately. When once
. ■* fu., ETEas^'tiSffisa^ ._
se wiUi other iSjjUaLBwtn.Aiiraaj. iSu). Twenty-five cralai <
t definite silver cyanide to one ounce of wua u the xicn^ o( the soli
••hhirii(h»
lolatieaiHaBy
employHl. The reaction ef both thBe fixing agents ia to fdm w^
the aeiiBtive ulu o( silver double hypoHilpliitei ec na^dei, vUct*
aicnlubleinwiicraadHh. The utMiy ofbniinidei & IheeatotoM
'en neagnlBd in iu wUeit da;!. Score
UnjAam (iflja) both meotimini iL V^
tee a pateal-rijUil in iu use wit •oath''^
I, tha patent beui Okcaon br Ju^^
Culling in July 1854.
Ptiilin fidara by
swing high iighls by al
ly transparency (as was
' number of impicssions
unly eclipsed tl
be case, too. in the talotype gcophera.
ouldbeoblninedbymcans V«<< Cdhdiim
A by Fox Talboi, and they working of the colli
: refincmrnt of detail that should be exposed
:iblained from a caloEype
CalMAm Preait. — In the iiirim jp
01 the coHodion process it was shown by Hone that a bc^i-i^
Image could be made to assume the appeanacc of a paitir-«
by whitening the metallic silvei depoiiL This be tSecled ^31
using with the pyragallic add developer * inuU qnntity o«
nitric add. A better result wit obtained by P. W. Fiy witAi
ferrous sulphate and ferrous nitrate, whilst Hu^ Diunond |iv^
effect to the matter in a practical way. F. Scott Archer ^sl
mercuric chloride to whiten tha image. To Kobett Hmii,
however, must be rewarded the CTcdit of Dotidng the actn ci/
thissi!tonthcimsge(i'*Arro«.,i84])- Tbe whitened piOBii
may be made to stand out against black velvet, or blad vanoh
may be poured over the filni to give the neceaswy bluk but-
ground, or, more recently, Ihe positive pictures may be pcodned
on japanned iron ptales (f .-trotype plates) or on jipanaed lealb.
""' '" ' lally practised by itii
—It la M
tithes
process it was necessary that the line
shortly after it* prrparation; tUiia
italed taking a heavy Btap-
calotypc process, or the waicd-papcr process of Le Cray with
its sLilt kinger prepanilioa and dcvdopmcnl, the advent of the
collodion nielhod must have been citrcmely welcome, since it
cifecied a saving iu lime, money and uncertainty. The rapidity
of photographic action vu much increased, and the production
of a diStT^aX chntactet of pictures thus became possible.
icnl into the field. IniSsS, Sir William Crodkaandj.Spk
ublished in the PkilasBfliKal Uotamt a procea wbrnbr Ik;
ere enabled to keep a film moist (so as to prevent ctystsSiiKiia
: the silver nitrate) several days, enabling plates to be pnfwi
L home, exposed in the field, and then devdopod in the dsl
Ktm. The plate was prepared in the usual way and a lofatES
[ xinc nitrate and sDver nitrate in water waa made to flwecQ
The hygroscoiHC nature of the xinc salt kq>t snfidisl
1 the d
Dry Plata. — It would appear that Ihe Grit 1
coUodiOD dry plates were due to Marc Antaise Augusun iiW^
Id La LumOtt of the iind of April and Ihe 17th id U17 liit
he docriba his n:starches on the question; whilst in Esfki'
G. R. Muithead, on the 4th of August tin, UaUd Ikit
Ught acts almost a* energetically on a dry surface ai o >
wet after all the silver has been washed away fiom the iaae
previous to desiccation. J. U. Taupenol, however, neM I"
have been the first to use a dry-plate process that wB tolf
workable. His original plan was to coat a plate with rijlirfr*!
sensitixe it in the ordinary manner, wash it, cause a vdotke (^
albumen to flow over the surface, dry it, dip it b a balh div
nilrtte acidified with acetic add, and nuh and dry ii >V>-
The plate was then in a condition to be eipowd, and wuW h
devdoped with pyrogallic add and silver. In this loetU "
have a double manipidation, which ii long in executko, dsifb
perlcclly effective.
A great advance was made in all dry^jlatc pmcosH h *
introducr"— -' -■-' ■- ■■ ■"■- " -■■--■-■— ' — >—
on the reduction of metallic silver by some such agent u Jtm*
sulphite, the reduction taking place gradually and the id»l
particles aggregating on Ihoseponionsol the film which hid tea
acted upon by light. The action of light being 10 redmita
silver iodide, bromide or chloride, these reduced paiiiclei mlj
acted OS nuclei for the cryslalliicd metaL It win be eviiesl
that in such a method of. development the molcculai attncM
It cornpind trith Ihc t
9RV]
I diiuntcs reUtivcly (i
r molecula ibcratdvcs.
i paitlcla of silver ult it wu j^ain th&t devElopment wouL
n rapid, and alio Uut Ibe number of molecula reduced b
roDld be snullcr if the mclallic silver could be derived f tor
compounds withJn shorter distances of the centres c
bIot atLnictian- Alkaline development accomplished thi
nry rcmarluble eiteal; but the method is only leall
able i*heii applil^l la films containing silver bromid
hloridc, as silver iodide is only slightly smenibie lo Ih
le development. The iniroduction of this devckiperi
v iS6i Major C. Rusidl used it with ibe diy plates h
mcd fiini' The dcwlopmcnt 'was prolonffed until an imaE
ed through the UDetpoicd film, when the plate was fixed
I and dried- A piece oi platinous paper was ceniented 01
fier 61m, aod a timilar Piece oa the lower after both bai
Lnppcd off The ^Uu. When quite dry Ihe two papers wer
/ leparatrd, a blm adhering to each. The upper film, oltkout
zpauJ to tiikt, showed an imue io some caeci mon intenv
V under film. The action of tH alluUne developer was hcri
It; the lUver bromide in close contiguity to the eiposa
PHOTOGRAPHY
489
mined together in equal pruportion
fliey all- give 1 black in lieu of that diik obve-grecn depoui oi
silver which it so oltcn found with pymftallol developers- All are
alkaline developersi and the ImaEe ii built up from the sennlive
salt within the Elm- They are applicable to ReUtin or ooUodion
_i i... . — t. 1 rather mote biomide of an alkati is added.
M dry plates dependent on the
"ic slate is founded
in be utilized. In
I Willis announced
ncly proJoni
to retard fogging-
Another set of <
reduction ol Ihe silver bromide and the t
00 the Fact that certain organic salts of iron
iS;7 M. Carey Un of PhiLwlelphia and Willii
almost slmultpneoiuly that a soluLion of
neutral potassium oialale was effcelive as a
that time its use has been acknowledged,
demonstrated that gelatino-silver chloridi
developed with ferrous citrate, which couli
accomplished with ferrous oxalate. The ei
pbtes when developed by the latter was e:
In the same year Abniy showed that il ferrous oxalate were
dissolved in potasBum citrate a much more powerful agent was
formed, which allowed not only gelatino-chlorido plates lo be
readily developed but also coUodio-chloridc plalea. These plates
were ontievclopable except by the predj^talion method until
the advent of tbe agents last-mentioned owing 10 the fact that
the chloride was as readily [educed as the sub-chloridc.
Amongst tbe components of on alkaline developer we men-
tioned n ratrainer. This factor, generally a bromide or chloride
of an alkali, serves probably to form a compound with the silver
salt which has not be«n acted upon by Lghl, and whicb is bsg
easily reduced than is tbe silver salt alone — the altered partidd
' ' intact. Tbe action ol the restrainer is regarded by
thel ' -
lefacl
Jl less an
It the I
But whichev<
oreduc
which act tbrougb physical means, ati
(lample of which we have in the preparation of a gcbtin irtale.
fn Ibis ease the gelatin wraps up tbe panicles o( tbe silver
compound in a colloidal sheath, as it were, and tbe devekqjing
solution only gets at them in a very gradual manner, toe tbe
natural tendency of all sucb reducing agents is 10 snack the
IHrticles on which least work has to be expended. In the case
jf silver sub-bromtde the developer has only to remove one atom
jf bromine, whereas it has to remove two in the case of silver
nomide. The sub-bromide formed by light and that sub-
^qucntly produced in the act of dcvckipment are therefore
educed. A large proportion ol gebtin compared with ibe
>ilver sail in a film enibies an alkaline developer to be used
»ilbout any chemical restrainer; but when Ibe gelatin I
iVith collodion films
» of bromide ai
inenvelnped, and hence in this case sor
no kind of chemical
cstrainer is absolutely nec«sary. We may
say that the organic
ron developers require less restraining in 1
ihcir action iban do
he alkaline developers.
In Maior RusseH's process the pbte was prepjied by ItnnierMon in
pplied: Thelast-namedagentexecutHtwoli
Bsorb the halogen liberated by the adion ol
0 preserve Ihe filra from aimMoheric action,
tusseli employed, if we mistate not, is a p
MlghTwd^he oAer
Tannin, which Major
lalogens.aBdaclsaaavamishtolhefilm. Olh
erc^llKlion dry-plate
lie bodies bdng also
mi^oyed. In most oses ordinaiy iodiied
le of . a small percentage of loliible bromide b>
HngaslTniVeMldedto
;. When plates »-cre developed by the 3
mm bromuj^ Induced density, vnce It was Ih<
rhich wu amenable to il, the iodide being almi
s5ar-^
49° PHOTOGRAPHY nsicn
Dry-PlaU Belk Pntai.-^Oat of tbe moit (ucccnful batb nltnU, wen removed, vben the Urn vu opnri wO. «
dry-plaie proccus wu Iniroduccd by R. Muncn Gordon, alloitcd to diy ud then upoHd. Tbe npidiiy of ibie jliui
The pLite wu pvcn in e<!ging oF ilbumca uid thcD coaled with wu not in iny way remukible, but the procat hid tbe im
otdlniry [odiud coHodion to which one gma p« ounce oC advuitige of doing iway with the ■eniiliiins nitrite of sNir
cidnuum bnimidc bid been idded. It wis kept in tbe lilver- bitb, and Ihut avoidiiij ■ tircwme opcnlion. T^ ptits rr
nitrate bith [or lec minutes, ifter which it w» wuhed developed by the illuling nethcxl, ud live imigB wUdi, S
iborougfaly. The iollowing prcMrvatlve WIU then applied: — not ptiinirily dente enough, could be intensified by the Mffta-
SCumorifaic togn. lion of pyrogallic uHd ud silver nitnte u in tbe wet csiaSoo
SjMtouidi. jj procen. Such w«i tbe dude getnl of 1 method whidi mit
1 Slfc »cid ! ' 1 m. destined to effect 1 completo diuge in the upect al ptOt-
j Witer ''''*' iSr giapbic negitive taking'; but lor lOiDe time it lay donnim. Il
■nieie ingredient* were mlied just beloi,: use and. ' «[t« 'fl ^*"^ "?"• S"' Tf^ '? diwoumge trial o( it, >ii> ih.
61teri.«.^«t(otoneminu.eto'tbepla.e.whichwasidlowed *''*J,°r , "^T.lt-'^'^T'- • „ n,—
turdly. GrSTlatiludeis admissible ™"i?^ ^bflt^^lS^f;^ taSllu^Tle'",Sitaito5
iDlheeipa>iire;it ihould ran^ly be leu thu foul times or more Lea, by inirodudnKMuid inlolbe einuliion. sublimed i
than twenty times thai which would be required for > wet pble aMc mlkidiun cmuLBon pman, i ''
under ordinary circumstance*. The image may be developed p" netiiivt piaum free trow
glacial acelic acid, to which a tolution of silver nitrate the tiw. Jw of acid w« Ihoool
, by whkb lUi oiiU bt
u added jiu> before ipphcation, or by an alkaline developer. effecinl without hopdcHly •poilinc tbe eimiUoB. The iddidii d
In [Aoto([r ■ ■ jlie inipiT,d icidt tuch as Carey Craenmloyed is to P«™^
psrticlci in it ^a I^c iiUce. Abney firat ihowed the tbeorRial effect d idA
qu.iniity of th the at>ave compDundi (icc Iwlow). A more valuable iqoditwiia
poinit out th *ai in1rodu;nl in 1874 by W. D. Bolton, one of the orifiiuion H
■tiauld take n tbe prucew, who slUin'cd the cilier and tbe alcohol of the csiWiii
gated tbe lul
atwori) ail the phomgraphKally aclivn raya, 'Hiis m-na called
" bacViDgn plate."
CdUojiVfi E«i<Jii^n PrKtistl.— la 1864 W. B. Bolton and
B.J. Sayce published IhegFrmof a process which revolutionised
pbotogrnpbic mnnipulatiai^s. In the ordinary collodion process
1 icnsi live film b procured by coating a glass pUte wiihcdlodion
containing ibeiodideandbromideof some soluble salt, arid then,
when set, immersing it in a solution of silver nitrate in order 10
form silver iodide and bromide in Ibe film. The qucsiion that
presented itself to Uollon and Saya was whetbcr it might not
be possible to gel the Knsitive sails of silvei fomivd in the collo-
dion whilst liquid, and a sensitive fdm given tea pUle by merely
letting this colkxiion. containing tbe ulLi in suspension, Sow
over Ibe glass plate. Caudin had attempted 10 do this with in ■usprnri.injand it it ineveiy caseWt for loloio hounw •«
silver chloride, and later G. W. Simpson had succeeded in perfect- is tediniially culled " ripen." or, in other wotds, to becoaie avp
ing a printing process with tullodion containing silver chhiride. »^hcn pouted out upon * gla« plate. When tbe eoiuWt* "j
citric add nnd silver nitrate; but tbe chloride ualil rccenlly bos '[.'""^Ji.'^T, "= T** " ™™ " '^ T*"^ «".!'"°**".''3'"
been considered a slow *«ki"8 «1^ "■( "wtly incapabfc of ^.."Ks^X^h^ ™^?n «^%^itX'K^5^X«
devefopment. Up to the timcof W. fl. fiolLon and B. J. Sayce's carried aw.-iy. Alter ihia It may be eitlier iprTad out on a club id
eiperlmcnts silver iodide had been considered the staple of a dried or trcitcd with two or ihrec d«s of alrubol. and dior
sensitive film on which to lake ntealives; and though bromide di-«l.™J in "Tiual l«in> «f alcohol (.™ci&c_(nviry, .<«1 inirOB
had been used by Major Russell and olhcts. i. had i»t met with i'5;'^i^"X;; ^t dStS'ViJhii and 'the"(ita "<iri, "^
10 much favour as to IcndlolbeomisHOnof the iodide. At the lie wa>liiil and •ime of the many ptuervativei. Hich u altsBii.
dale mentioned the suspension of silver iodide in collodion was ben. niffn. kuib, &c., apclicd. .
n« thought praclicable, and the inventors of the process turned ._^' JM* "f » •^'•^ alkaline developer f« collallan pjans •■
their allenlion 10 silver bromlih;, which Ihey found could be , .
securcdinsucha fincstiicof division that ilremainedsuspcnded ''jJ^Ss 1?
for a considerable time in collodion, and even when precipitated , 1 IVaMium liromidc ' ! '. ! 11 pi-
could be resuspcnded by simple agilalion. The outline of the *l WaturdiitiUed lis.
method was to dissolve a soluble bromide in plain collodion, and j. i AmiDoniuro carbooale . . . *l)|n•
lalt«"blinR\ «™Tr tWecV^ccJIdb^Vt™ wi'lTIrf' the '^^J^;;;}'3iS!^t^^^i^^J^tM;i^^l^Ji!i^'*i
operator. To prepare a sensitive surface the colhidion contain- ,!,„ wajhuig the pn'«™iti.-e off under tb. tap. Soioeti«t««
ing thf emulsified sensilive tall was poured over a gliu plate, .... " - ■ ^'S
allo^cl to «t. and w^ri«d till aU the soluble salts rculting from «„^Vf2^'^,M'i^\E?iSCi*£ J«i^^
Ibc double decomposition of the soluble bromide and the silver t The advantascs of this salt me peiatad oM by Lton Wan*
ailmte, logcibKr wuh the luullercd soluble btomidc or silver In 1B75.
PHOTOGRAPHY 491
J* ?™'?=S5 '" •?*' ^'^- •"""^•^ ihe loludoii The winning pnmsi lotioductd by Bennell wu tooa supe
S^wrn ciitfiS^h^'S^Dhru iSiS^v mv S '^'^ Colonel SluMt Wortley to igjr, announced IhM, t
T todiuiq hypoAuiphit
r ttUT <iv " Axing"
iVbere mort ifl had lu fcnwii onlatc dcvtLopmenli ttewcd to 15a* F., Enatead of dayi being required to give Ihe
t a made in one of two w*y»— (1) hyulunting a ckaired lenaibilily only a Itw houn were neceasaiy. A funber
fJ^,^™o??SXnToi^Ti2^™'tniilni »*™™ "» made by boiling tbe emuliion, first ptactixd, we
bnmidetonwraintliejction,or(i)byiiuiing,aecord- btlieve, by G. Manifield in 1879. Anolber imptovement vai
1 plan, 1 volumes by meuure of • aturaled toluliati effected by W. B. Bolton by emutsifyisg tbc silver salt in I
ium cnalatf wiih I vDliimeby nieaauie of a taturated imall quantity of gelatin and then raising Ihe emuliion 10 boUing
e. The dcvelopmeni ii mndjcted in preeite^^he "P«lity «" attained. Many minor improvemenia in Ibis
' as indicated above, and the image la fisud by ooe of process have been made from time to time. It tnay be useful
'"o- to give an idea of Ihe relative rapidities of Ihe various procesies
mbun f riKCJi,— TTie facility vith which silver we have described,
ulsion could be prepared in collodion had turned DacDermtypc, origliully. . . . half in houc'i npneure
had produced natives of rate excellence. In £^^™''iZl«<.,; : ." ; : Jf.^'^ Z
Sj] J. King descnbed a simUor pnxess, getting nd
e salts by washing. Effort] b^ also been made in TECHnqnE 01 Puotoceafhv
1 by J. BiitgeM in July iSjj. R. Kennett in 187* CdaliB Emalsimi.
to have been the, &m to put toward the geUiin ^he following Is an outline of two reptesenuiive proceisel
«« m a pmclical and workable f<,nn,« he .hen ^^ operaLions^ould be conducted in light which cA .« but
omnia winch p>ve good and qu.ck raulls. It was ^.^^ ^ ^-^^ ^„ employed, «id this i. n.or.
however, thai thegrcatcapabihliea of silver bromide n^j^^^ ^ih .|,{, nroccsi than with others on account of the
suspensionbygelatinwete fairly known; in March ^„„„^ ,^ ^^ ^^^ ^ equilibrium of the moleade, 1,
C. Bennett showed that by keeping the gelatin „p„( -^ ^^^ ^ ,„ ,t,j molecule which is devekpable. TTit
I en Ihe se
with is gaslight or candlelight passing tl
BOinqn or tne suve. nromide seerned to be altered 5^^^ ^^ ^^ ^„„ but feTSKmlcaUy effective ra^Tto
Dcnahle to a far more powerfui develcjwf than h.d .^^^ i ,til,j the orange paper diffusa the light, U
1 draml of 1= "874 J. S Stju had ^o»n hat g^. ^^ be em^oyed, it is a, ,!dlVo have . double tWck««
^iZhi ™n ^oWlaVco^mo^^n'^^h^ °' """-^^ ^^ ^' '■'"°™l' ''^""'^ >" "'S^'" °"'^-
- , , L *^. .. - J L I J t' PotaMium wdjde ,..--.- 3 gra,
s) of the bromide was atlaioed by prolonged warm- ,, Pola»iiim bromide .,...., ijj ,.
■ be said that the advent of rajMd plates was 1878, 3. Ndjon's No. i photographic gelatin . . 30 „
: full credit of this diacovery should be allotted to 4- Klver nitrate t7S „
B.,bK™n„dB,~,„.Hd.,«.„i.bi. sSr.TNl.'JSs:' ■*:■". : : :IS:
lemulsiooby woshingjindinordcrloaLtainsuccess !■ •
te that the bmmide should be in cicess of that aeces-
■ediMlating a silver bromide by dropping a solution
iquid was decanted, and after two or three washings
he precipitate wa> miicd wilh the proper amount
D. B. van Monckhovcn of Ghent, In eapcrimeating
L:eis, hit upon the planof obtaining the emuhion by
vec carbonate wilh hydrobromic acid, which left
lIis to be ejitracted. He further, in August tSjg,
lit he had obtained great rapidity by adding to the
Ision a certain quantity of ammonia. This addition
ed the silver bromide from lis ordinary state to
leculat condition referred to above. At this point
branching ofl of the gelalm emulsion process into
^heating, and the other In which it was gained by iqueering. jhrwh^gelatta "«f^l'9 "» "MuHive salt an be
., ' ..,i,j: .,;,;„_ „,i;„i, .-, ;_..; °j ._ ,1,' Hide to ull iHto coM watCT; bv tWa means the soluble aaha are
nmonui-a subdivision which is maintained to the .„caaca. This is nadily dune Ih two or three hours by f requemly
Opimons as to the ments of the two methods are :hanging Ihe water, oe by aUowing running water lo flow over the
1, some maintaining that the quality of the heated rmulsion-threads. The gelatin la ncn drained by straining canvas
ictler than that produced by alkalinity, and vice •™- ? j" »'«l '•"^"f out the thrcada on id it. after whidi it te
.w„...r.il™,tn>rn .SB. n. i H»™rl..1 infr^J,.™^ '^"^ "> » Bask, and warmed oil il diwolves. half an ounce of
lay mention Hat iD lilBi ui A. Meischel Introduced ,|„^ ^^^^ ujj^j FinaUy It is filtered through chamces leather
Llung an aJcohohc gelalm emulsion with the idea of „ swanidown cilLco. In this stated is ready for the plates,
d drying of the pbtD, and in the same year H. W. The other method of forming the emuluon ii with ammonia. The
[in introduced a method of combining gcbtin and ^"w quantiti« a. before are wighcd out. hut the Blutioiu of
.1. X. ^-^^^ ^t „ -hki....... ...kvL ^J. J .k *Jos. land t aTchnt mued together and No, 4 is dissolved in t 01.
■ether by means of a solvent which acted on ho ,, ^^^_ ^^ Unrnj ammonS^ .pcdfie gra^ty -Btlo added to it
llowcd the addition of alcohol in order lo dissolve \a ibj onde first predjataied a jun redissolvod. This solution
V This " collodio-gelalin emulsion" was only a t then dropped into Noa. s and 3 aa previously detcribed, and
- u^i',.',^.. ^f ,1.- f,..*« ^F r,,-^,:^ ^^- 1 <eure rapidity it is as well thai the emuUion should be kept an
mhalation o( the fumes of acetic acid. ,^^^ ^, a lentperature of abon. 00' F„ alter which half the total
r details the reader ii tefetted to Imtnulin in FiaUh luanlity of No. s ii added. When set the emulsion ii washed,
d.. p. 361, Itaianl. and tediuolved ai befixc ; but in order to give lenwuKI
492 PHOTOGRAPHY ihchkio^
to thi celitin Af Tnoaindo' of No, S li added k/nrt the iddllion Teiihtt and Fixl*t '1^ Prwf.—'nie nnt opention ii la tmc ^
qE Ihc dlmhol. and brfore Altniiir. bx tlu print. Id the rviis- day* thu vaa uxcHnpliibcd by — ^^j
Coatint Iht Plates, — Claw plain arc bat cLcancd with nltfk of a bath of ut d'or — ■ mixture of hypcMulphiie ol loda and "biZ
acid, rinifdtand then treali-d with jiDta^iio1ulion»rIaicd3pAin. and chloride. Thii gildnl the darkened pula ai (he print vliicb ^S
cmul!4oflt which, nflrr bcipg vrarmi^ to about i}o* F., b pourod chbridc by meani of bypowlphite an inuac ctHnpoied of gietafc
on Ihi-m to covet well the nitroce. Thit bcini done, the plalM tiJvct, an oifaiiic eall ol ailver and aoM wai lull bcbimL Tbn
arc iilaccd on a level FbcU and vUowtfJ iq atay tncrc till the eclalin waa a Ukpicioii, hoHevcr. that pan of the coloraEiOD vai due rot
u ihiircughl)' Kti Ibcy aretbcn put in adiying cupboard, through cwnbinilion of aulphut with the illver, not that pore Hlveriulfi^
thjt the wmlh ii only neccwiry to enable the air to take up •ceioa to be liable to chanfe. Thti gave place to a n«M<'
the rai^^iure from the pbtci. They oughi Id diy in about twelve alkaline tonioi, or islher, we ibould Hy, of anitnl tniiti, t)
houri. and Ibey arc ready fur uae. emplo^nv sold chloride with a nit, nidi aa the carbvmr iv
Expt/iure^—Kiih a f^ond cmulHon and on a brishF day the ex- acetate of »da, chloride of Eme, bonx, Ac By tbii mcani rbn
poHurc ol 4 plate to a bndicapc, with a lena whov aperture ia waa no daoj^er of tutphuriiation during the tonipg. to whirb ibt
unc-BJatti^nth that of the hical tUtunce. abould not be more (ban method by iH d'or wai prone owing to the decompouLioB ^ ite
one-hall TO Dnc-Hlh oE a (ccond. Tliia lime dcpendi, of coune, on hypoiulphite. The nibKancea which can be employed in loriri
Ehunaiurcuf the ^'icw; if there be foUagcin tike immediate forrground aeem lobe iEhhc in which an alkaline bale ia combinH with i "cah
it will be longer. In Ihc portAil-atudio, under the aame cin:um- acid, Ifae latter being readily displaced by a atronper arid, luh v
alancca. aa expoaure with a purti^t Icna may befrvmhalEa lecond nitric acid, which muftexidmlhe paper alter print mg- ThiiEivich
lolourot fivewcoBdi. of (Aotography owe* much lo the Rev. T- F., Ha_rdwicli.hr tavint
oxalate xilution or nlkallne pyrcfsillic acid may be uied. _Ho nibiR|ucnt yean. A; Uavanneand A. Cinrd, ■ UitlclUfr. ilia
(he eelatin ilHull acta ai a |ihy»iral r«tininiT. II the alkiline The following ULly be taken aa two typical tonini-bathi:-
dcvcloiicrLe u«d, the foUowini! may lie laken asa good standard;— I Ck*! chloriiie .... . . . 1 pan.
( I^i(all-<1 so ECS. I Sixlium carbonate lo poiia
la Ihc latUT M and W,
he latter (•) and (fi) arc mined in tnual pa
UBU. Each of Ehcic if better used only ona
'hereupon the imago ^qditajly Gold chloride .
"■''-- "iiSu s
smsi
Chloride of lit
Chalk
-Lt.
-mr. After Iborough it free nlveT nitrate or w« xm
oialale. Thii procen ity. In 1S7* Abnry ihoard ibx
Itained. With nioBC tilvcr nitrste mixht be diaiiciiri.
riL,
■ICC ia apt Co becmne yellow and in a lolution of a lalt ru
ft- ceded rapidly and wiEhoi
legitive ia oftoi pnlecled by * toning, which wai not
lion and then a coat of ibellac vaa totally removed and
ITiii protecti the jjriatin from Thii wu itn imnwfa
IE* itmncd with the ulvcr nilrnte and or
owina to ti»ntnft with the ien.4Ii\¥ p_per uwd in ulver printing, lilvcr nilrste ihould only be partially removed by waA
Anntni-r v.iminh ia a Hilulion uf n'lloulin in amyl acetate. Thia u print, having been panially waihcd or IhonHighly varia
an excellent proteclion againit damp. ea«e may E>c._ia_imm€-rHd in lEic tonin|^-ba1h lit] the inu;
iV.Md'iiI Ptorisia. tiS/fion u>
The first pritilinB ^I«C5S may be said lo be thab of Foi to™mi«i _ _ _
T^ilbul (sec a)»vc). which Iini continued lo be generally em- connrrKJoo ~iA the chioriil^ bito hypD>ul|4iili: '^'iitrt. vhkk it \
ployed (with Ihe addition of albumen lo give a surface 10 the »luble in hypoaulphiic of aoda ancT can be irmoved ^ nitif
pri...-.n addilkm firsl mode, we believe, by Fox Tolbol). ^!rt^lS^lSly^l3'uS;, "riJAtMhTim^b ilj^^ -
rapitr for nrinting ia prefDivd by tnhiinit ISO parti of ammonium If it li not irmoved there ii a luli^ur compound left hW. ,
cliliinde with ^40 partanf fiaritaef wine and 2(a» jiarts of walcr. aceucdiog to J. Spiller, which by rime and expoauie brcotaei jnl^
tiirniiih Ihu jmjHjftiMns nLiy vnr^. Tbew ingredivoii are diuolvcil. The iiae of potoiHum cyanide for fixinc printi ii id beanM
and the whiles of fiftei'n fairly-aizcd egga are added and ihe whole aa thii leagcnl attacki the of^w oic cukmrcd oxide whgh. if m^*^
Ireaien up IDA froth. Id hot weather it iaadviulile to add a drop would render the print a ghoil. The waihing of vlver ncion a^
of i:arl<nUc arid lo pnvcnt dcoomporiliml. The albumen b allowed be very camnlele. aince it ii uid thai Ihe least tnn of hynol^M
thw daya lo leuk'. when U is lltercd through a sponge left behind r_ .i_ (,j:_. j .k. :_,„. ^...^j,^
1 a funnel or through two cr three thicknesKcsuf fine oiu^hn.
tr.:n>^rrrnl In a Hal dish. The uipcr i:
, ,. ... ., »&al
dccompoaci the faypomlfMle
.. ^ ........ «. ami dried la a wam rooiii. Kur drad prims, no „-^ _-., .. r--— ^^
which toLHirinc ii bi lahe filoce. |ilald lallvd paper b uwful. Il iwsuljihiteliy timcbnot theoccaiioaellidi^
on lie maikr c^ ihe followiflg pro|airtl,ina — go parts of ammonium upic characlct is. This, however, ia s a^ |
ihliiriiL-. Inn parts of milium eiliate. 10 ]uns at itelilin, sooo parts to wash the prims some hour* in i«in*l
uf di-lillnl wau-r. The gebtin b tnt dlMulved in hi-l water uad that half a doua changes ol wain, ■■
nnd the rcmaininit components are added. It in next Glten-d, nnd changei' the. applieallon of a tponte to, I»
Ihe p.ini'r allowed to diut ub h tor three mimnvs. then withdrawn leparalely. ate ci|itally or mote cSisnM |
awl dni'-l. aaumn a darker tone than it hai af m toi4
StnsiHsnt fliifih.— To scBiitiie the ppcr it is floaied on a io'!4
sobiliim of lilvcc nitrate for thm: nunutcs. Il ia then hung up n thus be given la a prim by diffeient toilf-
and alliiwo-1 lo dry. after which it is rcai^ fw use. To pHol Ihc ilself may be dep«ited in a ruddy fn i^
exf-iMcil to liehr. Il if allowi-d to print till luch lime aa Ihe Inuge sr
tpptan ralbcr darker than it should finally appear. of
PHOTOGRAPHY
iptrfuHyprinttd,
Sihir FriiMni Pncti,.-
UK «U DUdc of Iht HJ
-In 1
Bgenk
ilycai
ht Unory of ihc
' C«r«c WlunciD
jdion 3(1 part* o( Ko, I. previ-
, ar? added ; 60 parti of Ao- 3
^ applied 10 glut p1at«i.
— — .-^-— obtaipcd in p- _.
u«d, ihoueh an appairntly Btronf imaffc would
I £uiig orlv a f«ble tfa« of it wouia be kfl.
Kcin w proDE (o be decomposed by kbipiDE
'TOO ..
miKca lODether i^iiK warm, and No. 1 it then
fclatin HTuiioD bciag kept In biiak a^itaiioa,
3t tuspcndtd uUs ii Iwalcd for five nilnu(«i at
11 !■ allowed 10 cool and 6ubu<iiJCEitly t]if[lil1y
Elatino-btamidc cmuIsioB. It i> tlwn ready for
' or £laH- Die printi are of a beautiful colour,
\y jKTniancnc. They may be readily toned by
chloride of Lime tonfna-balh, and are fixed with
cture on an ocanie ground wat
lucrel announced that paper
1 in potaitiiim bichronute «ai-
iicd paper Joaeph Dixon of
maitcrvd (lun And
Till Bme MDCcw
Dinu'a nanhod.
SSL ..._..__
iihed in tSja. On the ijth
took out a patent in Englind.
bod of taking a direet carbon-
Ihrough the action of lifhl on
ig talKB np by John Pouncev
Teuud dc Dcauregard took
revin-.attheendof 1857
;hel«ol JanMty 1859; but,
thii wat firat pointed out Ijy
t tbeir hold on the
iSSSwaathefintto
pSnlin|jJn^jj_p.
10 be able after-
jnacHd-upon portion
Hinted from, the fmn
le tit depth to which it haa
insoluble perti being on the
ii( the iolubic part irom the
;; » that either nothing ia
till the inner loluble pan i>
I Qomei bodily away, leaving
cxpoAng through the bock <d
ictory, and in 186a Faigier
:poaure to light of the gelatin
^ace was coated with collodion.
, where it icparatcd from the
c cfklorTdeao
SSCfS
X..S'K
x>n. "^^i^'-fj-^^i'-^-
WaXre'";
> short ^riod^
n place most readily t^ te
tone the print. The prim is produced in the
inide- The print ia finibhed by immersing in
MMlei: Carin PriiUj,— The first mention of
^o Ponton in May. 1639. when he Haled that
i!S!^™" beT4.5Sut Cif
iL\md a&uxvai^ v
PHOTOGRAPHY
a dib. The miimit i> (I1ur«l ihc whnlc became oMpjIited icnijcrtd tMm ui
Spcr briiiE bntughl
hcnng n^dc to r^^
iiig LC pmponiofiaL ._
tlir papn 19 drawn over the Keluini the ilowcr the nowmc
thirter tlie cluiinB. The paper i* taken off the ""'-" -'- ■'
and hunR up to Jry on vrooden lathi. " '^ ^
^Diild be piiwd with the inernlicnta in the above fi
car^ion-tiHuc when prepamT ■hoiild tie Aih '
tnth coiuq«1inE of ane part of pulatffuA U
oT water- Thi* v^ cflectcd by turning up i .._
end of the theet ol titMic (rut to the nroper file), mahbiK a mil
d( it, and kttioE ■' unroll alitni; the lurtace of the ■ciifUiritu i»lit<
tUm. wbcTT it i> allnwe'l In teinaln till the Eclatiii film tab tuft.
It ii ihen taken -jll and hun^ iifi to dry In a datk mini thmuRh
which a cunvnl otdiy wafm air n panin^ TbHK dried quirlily,
•^y dried." A>the'^iKba>1'iiin:d7U<> nM pOMiIbk to aacenain
by impcclion whether the iiruitini; oprtalion ii ntBicieally cairii^
out, and in ordtr lo awinain Ihfc it b uiual • -' ' — -*
ordinaiT Hlvi-Rd paper inanactlnometer.or i>
the Dubao.lime lo aaceriain ihe anmunl oI_
riiiuilert bcioE on arr — _- -—.--„ --
o( lold-beatcr^* fkia. The value of I . i. 3. &c. IhickE
■kin aa a screvrl to the li^t 1* a«»rtaiiiud by experii
pmng it it judiicd ihat a >hn.-l of ilHite under unne one nrEatii .
otJKht to be expncd to lUtht eurrefpondina to a icfvtn miniber of
tbiclcnCBKa. ehwrtilc of riivcr paper u placed alonnide the ncnatf w
beneath ihe utinmaeter and allowed to irmoin inere until it take*
a vMhfe liflt towaih ■ minlir of iMcknww
Alter the Amis [■
- — - _,.. ,. btouEhl
Xthcr and placnl Bat. Tbc waler la tutiiijl out with an iixBa-
icreqimf!erDr''K|unscr"aiid thrtwoiuTEantadhcre. Abnul
a muple gt ninolea later they are pland In warm vatrr of aliout
90* la loo* F.. and the paper nl the tUoie. loiaeiird hy the E<,-hlin
aolution neM it LcoHnlfw atihible, mn be itrijiped iiff, kavinic the
Ima^e (rcn-ned u teKatda liilhl and kFl] on the llexililit vlpiion.
An appllcatinn of warm water rennn tka m( of ihc nlulile
(cljiin and pljimeiii. When dried the inase ii traniilenwl to tii
permanent uippiin. Thk luoally conwli of whilD piper enaled
with Eelatin and AAde insoluble with ehmna alum, tliou)[h it may
be niiied wilfa hariuA luilphatc or rfher Bmilar piEmcnln- Thu
dampeij print ii [vnui^ (i
waa dime with (he Ih'iiLde nup
luppart and the caitwa-tliEur. When dry the retramfcr-pjper the oidinar^' kjv. — . ,.
bearing the sdatin Iiiiaui; can be Hrlpped off Ihe flviilik rui'pon. F.K.S.. liMVcht (orward Ihe Siuthamf
which nay be used a^in «ateni]»rarympponfnrothiTnictiin:i. Etaphy. which hid I '■■" •~-
llaHT^ie^nefiatii-clvuicd ihelinai;e may lie tran«ferreilat nncc j^cnii, R.K. The "
in ii> gnal Hppnn inatml of to the lenporaiy rtenilOo iunpgit. In iS;o («c Utiiix
which w 0 piani of pianloii value. (Ince riDgle-tcanilix ant better
than doubk-iranirr nrinii. Pialarrailii in Nalnrat Cdmiri
ft|-.(.nj[«irt.'SilIjV/™i— STjohBHenehdllBdRobeitHont ^ ^ i-Karopapar i» rt aiuroi L«™ri.
enirml ini.i vaiinui metbnda of priniliw irith mIii of iron. At The GrsI notia on record of coloured Lgbt impmuBI <u
the piT)i:nt lime In or three ate pneiiaeS, hdnK uied In di3ujhii- own coluun on a unsitive surface ii in the pauifte diw
nii'n<.d1keirorr,jp^trarine4(uSi:x-cpFni(c|. „viHci from ihc Pjrhcniekn of Goethe, when T. J. SeelxA
Fk-lB-nala»ir,i! TriBttat AnrniH^-^^uitevia claimed to ha™ Jji^^j (,5,0) dtjctibci the impresiioo he obtained on [»fn
biihrnmate, nfirr' beiiBt actnTopon tyUght and dim(^0B, woulil impreEnated wiib moisl lilvet chloride. In iBjs Sir J. H[i*id
rc«Kr itrcaty iiikoii ih«« part* irhlcn had bevn.TJInnalby lighi. (.{Ihcnutum, No. Aii) e^vc a Kmewhal aimilai- deuiipiu*'
IJul I^iul.Unljth »enn> to iHvt nnde the dijcmi-ry jmnnu. to j^ ,5^3 Edmond Bccquctcl luccecded in lepioduciin npM 1
i'n'^ii'aL"XCth°Ufei'a'n,^rrj::rk^',S"-fe dagu^rcolj-pc plato not otdy the »lour. ol .he ^t» ,
C.M.Ti.-»iedeMii>av(iai<lMamlC.R.MaiHhal>JUt'ti,how.-v«. bul alio, up lo a cenaia point, the colour* of iat^i9
eei-m tit luve been the fint tomuduce half-loAea from j^elatin filiiH and objeclB. Hb method of proceeding vu to P^ ^
by nuMn. <' Rieuy ink. Thrir .P™^Pfo«^"«. «n«^'d. '» (ilvcr plate a Itain coating of iilver chloride by imnimwt ii "
or an?n..™u« uSj,^« ?^™r.iK?*a'SllK:Slyrt^^^ '"™ " '"Pri<^ •^'^'^^ '» "'>' "» ^ ""°""^ '" ''^■''
ili™in-.iiiBBwiih5n™ol«ito,eiino*ii*tnlishithni.ii;Uaiie::aiivr. water till it lakei a feeble rose tint. Bccquciel pitttml «
wj^ini:, inking with a Uthngrapliic mlkr, and priniinE triim the chloriniic the plate by immersion in a tolulion ol hydn>±!in
plate, a. for an tirdiury liih<^ra|<h. The haK-tinu by thn pi<ice» „i,n ;„ ^.^i„ attaching it to the positive poleol a voltaic nmfe
!;^'^3?^U w^iT'^^^.^SSl'^olY-S^^tli^lli™."^ "'^'« "«.<"t" ^Y 'I" ?""'=.'? " ' Platinuu, jtol ^
hmii'vir, was max lahuriout, aad U wai ilmi.lifieil l.y A. Allien Eramcnicd m ihc acid solution. After a minuic'i ii:b]K-.Ki> »
of Munich. Kebaillireniiperinicniini[lDrnunv\van,en<kMviiur- (he current the plate took succesdvely a grey, a yello', > ''»<
iiH! to mate Ihe pjatin Alms mom durjlJe tlian iW «» Te.* Je „„, j (,,„„ ,i„, ^hj^h order wns again repealed. When <»
& ■llWd'iKT^'Sv'S'^Xrn^ J-ti^V^ThS vWe, tin, appea^ifoMhe second lime .he^e was wi.hdr.«
diOcuhy ef adding jufficienl lo the m.iss in in lii(uid stale Uforc and wuhcd and dncd oi-er a spim-lamp. In Out BiU «
TicimiouKi PHOTOGRAPHY 495
Brahmd the ^KcUnrn coloure, bat it «U found bctlei lo hcu appropriatF dyn (onhodinniclc i^ita); the aponn *u miRh
VioofchlomuadbychlondeolLincuidiiudtlhesuriaconiow o( .ht ptatf «m..ote loobuiDr™T«Bitiv=filo .SihUlMy.
Hnitive by applying ■ »luIioD a! lead chloride in dulnn, or. u nl) fvfdu, with tbe le*M pooibfa, " inio " in Ibc icniiiiv*
C. W. Simpson alio obUintd coloured inuges on nlvtr chloride ""l'- A lomijla publbbnj by LiimiSn: nou lo attain Ihii object,
cmuliion in collodion, but they were less vivid and »Usfacloo' Xr^Th ,"T '''h'53 *"'''P^, '™8? ftffii^ ordinaiy n^-
than those obtained on dapjcrreolype plate*. Poitevio oblsined -n^ ^ not p™ moiiDc^niatic "lounj, b" ha™ v^ mudi
cotoured images od ordinary silver chloride paper by prrpajtng the quality ol coloun obtained by polari«d Lighr. it appran
it in the usual manner and washing it and cipoaing it to light, ihat they air produced by what may be Itrmrd " nodes " oT dilfoent-
Itwnsaiterwardstteatedwithnwlutionofpouusiunibichroniate ^^J^'*^"*;^,'^^ S'lS^^fleSillK Se^'r^^m
and cupric mlphale, and dried io diilinesa, Shetu » prepared netatd back' rmm it, and the«, with the incident wavei ot I«hl.
could be filed by lulphuric acid (CtmpUs rendui, iS68, 6i,p. ii). ihoK obtained in a cord •imcbcd bHwten (wd poinu when plucked.
In the B>JU,in <b la SoiUU FroHfjue (.874) Colonel St Ftorent iS^° j^^ 'fijSa'^ltfla.'.'jJ !^„f tiTnS "ibi wS.'jS
dMaibtdeiperimenu which he made with the same object. He the image I™ been developed. iheorelfcaUy only Tayaol the wave.
iBUDened ordinaiy or albununiied paper in silver nitmte and lenphi which lomcd-thcH nodei an nSected to the eye. and thai
iHrrwinb plunged it into a solution ot uranium nitrate and line « get aa imprcHiDn d colour,
ckloridc addulaied with hydrochl( * ' ■ '- -■
to licbt till it took a violet, bli
nposure the paper " '
der tint Be^ Actim ef Liehl en Cktmical Comptundi.
=4««.. ^. p.^. ™ u„ . .. n^rcl^c nitrau'; R(fera>ceha» been made above lo early investig,
tororface dried and eiposed to a coloured inuge. '^« chenucal action of hght. In .7)7 Karl Wdhela
Bipposett-thougbitisYcrydoubtlulifitbew-thalthe <""°''' ««"«*" '• '^'1*') '"^ 1* f oUowing ciperinienti
nalnre of the chloride used to obtain the silver dJotide has a ""^ •"'""■ ''"''■
neal efleel on the coknjri impressed; and Nicpce in 1857 made " I preciniuied ■ Klution of lilyH by lataimooniii; then I
KUDC obiervalions on the relationship which iwmed to eiiit fj'^""!'!," "f '*""' the precipitate and eiP^d rt to Ihe
between the colouird flames produced by the melal and the colour T„T^^<^ Te a™ .^rS'tf™ "Hereiiio i poiS^™
impiBaed on a plate prepared with a chloride oi such a metal, cauitic iprrit of sal^amnioniac (•tnjnc ammonia) on Ihii, in all
In iBSo Abney ibowed that the production of colour really appearance, blaclt powder, and xt it Ey for digestion. This men.
tORdted from the oddalion of the chloride that was coloured by
li^l. Plates immersed in a solution of hydrogen peroiidc took
the colours of the spectrum much more rapidly than when not
ed, and the size of the molecules seemed to regulate the
IT. He further sUted that the whole of the spectrum colours
it be derived from a miituie of two or at most three siaa of
jltsofcolour-pbotognphy
td ailver fluoride. A paper waa waihed with nil *.— .-
■ ■ olhe
R of the irellow
bine ny. Aa far as the intSo the aclion was anilorm, whilu
lie nolet the. paper look a brown (int. When it was pieviaii
previouiiy
' wh^''in '^'^i " f"' "> *' know, b the first intimation of the reducing
'the violet action of light. Fion this it is evident that Schecle bad found
ihese coloured images that Ihe silver chloride wa» decomposed by the action ol light
o( silvH are not liberating some form of chlorine. Others have repeated these
e''.;tis's^ "p"!?"-^ '-''-^™'"' ""' 'u""" " t^H' li^«"'^'"'» "«
nrvm is usually chloride; but it is necessary that some body should be present
ordinary .Klver which would absorb the chlorine, or, at all events, that the
'0 'T''^S!l11. J chlorine should be free lo escape. A tube ol dried silver chloride,
of thi dark^ "*^ "P '" '™""' "i" '*' discolour in the light, but keeps its
eitrai in the blue Ordinary while colour, A pretty eiperiment is lo seal up is
ind iiol a differ- taiua, at one end of a bent tube, perfectly dry chloride, and at
ride and manic (he other a drop of mercury. The mercury vapour volatilizes
""' -mn^v ,SriS'?i " » eertain extent and fills the tube. When ciposed to light
In IhTc^ c4 chlorine is Ubetaled from the chloride, and calomel forms on
. otoralion by the dried chloride sealed up in dry hydrogen discolours, owing lo the
,*«,ed im^e. which have b«n c*Si",ld. tS^Kr^l^M Edill T^v""',''! ^ ''''""I'.t.TK'N"" ,''J"'7^\ '"1"^'' 'H''
u dcMTov iSeni. It pcDleded from oxygen they last longer than ". W. Vogel £ist enunc.ated the bw that for the Riluclion by
U they have free accEH (a it, ai ia the cue when the surface is Ughtofthebaloidsaltsofsilvethalogen absorbents were necessary,
o^i^dloOirair. and it was by following out this law that the present rapidity in
»iiSr^l^?rS.^i^,Sfi^rT,;iS^^ ob,ainmgc^ralmag« has .b«n rendered p^We. To put
nay be briefly dexribed aa follows: A penBlirt pbie is placed « briefly, thon, (he m.We action of fight U a reducing action,
U cDoiaei with a film o( Biercuiy, and the eipesurc to ihe ipectnim, which is aided by or entirely due to Ihe fact that other bodies are
HT 10 Ihe imagB ol eolsured otiiicu to be phutocraphed. Is made present which will absorb the halogens.
SESi'S.'r'-,"'.?.'? i ssts; 5S 'SK~'s:?.; ,■» "■ ■'•" •• »■•■ ■■■" » ■>• ■'■•'• ~"». •■ ■«■"
.I:pm.in«tcly tlHW ol .h. t*Kt. Th. Scenao- "»™™ w lalUL It by no mans foUon thaHh. «p«ure of i siIvct uJt
S^inen. «i»l it rvquircd co^u^JcTObic manipuljtion to bring out other action takes place is shown by the fact that the silver
Ite coloura coneetly. A. Lumifac unl gFlaiin plaia dyed with salt is capable of alkaline development., 1.ta.V vs, v^ v'^^^'^':^
+96
PHOTOGRAPHY
suffered ■ change in ihetr moleculeft can tx icduced
silver, whilst tlune which have Dol becQ acted upon
llcied by the ume chenici] scency. Two theories
offered to ciplain the invisible ciiuige which lakes
ill plict. THs, il is ptdum*
in before the impact of light
Kould allow the developer to
contact with them. Theoihcrtheoiyialhat, asinthcc
viiiblo effects of light, some of the molecules ate at ono
ind that the devtloper finishes the disintigtalion which
bal begun. In the ax of the alkaline development the i
molecules next those primarily reduced combine with thi
■liver Atom and again form on unstable compound oj
The fint tbrory could nquin Bme nid
nenlkmcd to take pUce and cause the invisi
ilie ihaking apart of the light-Birickeii inolecu.__ .„ — „_., _.
h is hard Co see why other unacted upon ntoleculei cIorc to thow
»hich were mado unRtal^le and whico have bern ihakf-'o ajurt
by the developer should tbcmielvn be plofed in uiutable equilibnum
and amenable to mluction. In the lecaDd thcwry, called the
"chemieol theory," the reduction ti peifccily eaiy lo undmiarJ.
Ahney aiiopts the chemical theory a> the balance of uniubitaniuiLf I
hydnecn. the oxygen i> miihdiawn and the image ii again capable
Speclrum Effccis en Silter Compmaiii. — The neit inquiry is
as to the effect of the spectrum on the diEcrent silver compounds.
We have already described Seebeck'i (1810) eiperimenis on
^vcc chloride with the
.aphs, 1
, and fousd that ii
the viohit tays than in any
e been already quoted. IV
d a speciru
blackened
may mention Edmond Becquerel, John William Draper, Alpbonsc
Louis Poilevin, H. W. Vogel, Victor Schumann and W , de W.
Ahney. Fi«. i la compiled irom a cut which appeared io the
Prx. Bay. Sac. fat iflSj, and shons the researches midt by
Abney as regards the action of the jpeclmm on the three
principal haloid salts of ailver. No. j shorn the effect of the
spectrum on a peculiar modification of silver bromide made by
Abney, which is seen to be sensitive to the infra-red ra^l.
EJul el Djti m StHsilnn Filmi.—In 1874 Dr H. W. Vojel
of Berlin found that when films were stained with certain dyes
and exposed to the spectrum an increased action on develop-
ment was shown In those parts of the spectrum which the d)-e
absorbed. The dyes which produced this action he called
halogen liberated by light he called " chemical sensitiiers." A
dye might, according Co him^ be an optical and a chemical sensi-
tizer. He further- claimed that, if a film were prepared in chidi
the haloid soluble salt was in cicesl and then dyed, no action
took pbce unless some " chemical scnsitiicr" were present.
The lerm "optical scosiliieT " seemi a misnomer, since it is
meant to imply that it renders the salts o[ silver sensitive Io
those regions of the spectrum to which ibey were previoujlj'
insensitive, merely by the addition of the dye. The Idea of tie
that such an action did really exist. Abney shoned in iS;s
that certain dyes combined with sliver and formed truecoluirtd
organic salts of silver which were sensitive lo Ught; and Dt |
otsilvc
leof tl
dya
upon by J. Waterhouse, who hod closely followed Dr Vogel, smi
proved that the spectrum acted simply on those parts vhirJi
were absorbed by the compound. Abney further dcmonslnitil
that, in many cases at all events, the dyes were IhemaJm
reduced by light, thus acting as nudci on which the silnt nuM
be deposited. He further showed thai even when the hiloid
soluble salt was in excess the same character of qieclruD >u
produced as when the silver nitiale was in excess. Ihoii^li itf
exposure had to be prolonged. Tliis actioti he nmcludnl ni
CcrralRcttderiHt «f Ctlwi in UeKacheme—In Plate IV,.£t
14 ihe sensitiveness of a plate stained with bomoid
{s shown, and it Is evident that a* it is stcsiiix
throughout the visible spectrum there must be uirt
. . . . r. means of cutting off ^ a transparent screen 10
much ol the spectrum luminosity at different put!
, . . . P. that every colour having thesameluminosiiylalhe
eye shol! be shown on a negative ol equal df orilj.
n this
J or in a prir
devised a si
employed,
■le light of
Fic. t.
m Effect
rvcloJped ; l.e. — long
two for their histoticsl interest, and pass OD <o the study o( Ih
action ol the spectrum on different compounds by Sir J.Henchi
iPkil. Tram.. 1840). He describes many opf' ■"'-
'Set Ahnny,- "Driiniclion of the Photoaraphi
JOf. (1S7S). yol. v.; also Pm. Siy. Sk. iiSjt].v
thewhll
duccd li
j^hlThelum
Phil, tan be t
blue „ „
[>. rneasurcd; if i-in- squared of these coloured sl£S3<l
"^^ together with a white glass of the same Bits, If
D placed in a row and cemented on white gl™. *'
"" have a colour-screen which we can make t^iMk
r. for finding the kind of light-filter to be eiaployei
This is readily done by reducing Ihe luminosity a
P-., the light coming through all the gbsscs lo thai d
the luir'— ^- -' ■■- '■-•■ '-- -■-
Vof its original value, and so with the other (Uho.
isily of the light coming through each small gla« Kl^w
de equal by rotating in front of them a disk in *^"^
ire cut cocrespondlng 10 the nduoiioa T«)iuKd.
PHOTOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
PHOTOGRAPHY
Continuous Spectrum taken with the Electric Arc.
Fluorescent Spectrum of Eoain.
Spectrum of Volatilized Lithium and Sodium.
Absorption Spectrum of Ej>ai
Graduation Scale on Homocol Stained '
Graduation Scale on Unstained 1
Spectrum of Bright Lines of Me
■rcawioua PHOTOGRAPHY
Uuc ftb^ for inttuiee, woatd Dot be covered by the diik it iD,
■bile eppoiite the while tqiun tbe diik would bave in iperluie
of an ui^ a( 18*. \Vben 1 plale is ci|>o>cd bcbind Ibe raw of
|lui sqium, with the light pauing Ihrougb Ihe rotating disb,
banng the appropciate ipciturH lor cacb gtau, the negative
obtaiaed vould iWer ordinary conditions, show square patches
o[ very difftrent opacity. A light-fillet ot ionic transparent
colour, if plK^ in Ibe path of the light, will aher the opacitio,
ud evcDliully one can be found which will only allow such
CDlournl licbt to be tnnimilted as will cause all the opadliel
ia the nesative to be the same. As the luminosilics ot the while
^1 putinx tbnugli the glasses are nude equal, and as the
photogiapbie depoaili are also rendered equal, this light-Uter,
ilmedin front o[ ihe camera lens.wUl render all coloured objects
IB coiRCt moDOchraine luminouly. Another plan, bawd on Ibe
Bmc piiaciplei, ii to place segments of innuluses of vcnnilioa,
chniBe yellow, emenid green, French blue and while on a disk,
ud to compktc the arinuluies wiib bbck segments, the amount
ol blacL dcpcodicg on the tuminosity of the pigments, which can
be radily Bwuurtd. Ulicn the disk is rallied, rings of colour,
andificd in brightness by black, are seen, and each ting will be
it iba iame luminosity. As bclbre, a screen (ligbi.filict) to be
aied In fimt of the lens must be found which will cause the
developed imagn of all Ibc rings to appear of eiiual opacity.
It muil be remembered that tbe light in which the object is
to be pholographed must be the same a) Ibat in which Ihe
■ ' fly of tbe glasses or pigments is measured.
< b/ Me St«tnm m Ckrrmic 5ii'ii.— The ulu most
onployed in pholography are the bichromata ot the
Tbe lesult of spectrum action is confined to its own most
_ Ue end, commencing in the ullra-violct and reaching as
Intbc lolar spectrum. Fig. i shows the relative action ol
Fit J.— The lop
letter, have re
fereoce
othe
Fraun
hofer line*
are the inilia
ol the
r^ The relali
nbythchcLBl.
olliic
cbaie-lin
Ik vsrious parts 0
the sped run
onpoi
ornate.
re employed
(he act
Ibel
und to b
teloahlyweUrepre
senled by the
figures.
isth
eflcclDf
of > shorter
one. It
riiou
dben
licedlh
Be nluiioD ol potassium lichro
male ah
raysalon
■Mth are effective
in alleiing the bichrc
mate
This
diange
^tiu aj tiu SfalruM m .Hj^Ifunr.— This lecnu to be
•aiiaucd into and below the red, (be blue rays, however, are
tttooMcHective. The aclion ol light on this body Is to lender
kkanluble in its usual salventi.
Sitiin »S Ikt Sfalnm m Sattj of Trm.— The commonest
W ub in UK is Ihe oxalate, by which tbe beautiful plathiotype
prim* ate produced. Wetfve thisasareptcsenlation(fi8. 3) ol
Fig. j^-Samc dcaaipiioa as lor fig. a.
ctra obtained on ferric salts in general. Here, again, we
n example ef tbe Uw that eiisli as to the correlation
1 abaorptioD and chemical action. One of tbe most
•X and later by Lord Rayldgh, v
+98 PH0TCX;RAPHY rTECHHiQn
SJtcl b/ SyitttcH Foeadt at Seaaliti Kow.— Dr W. ]■
Ruucll made a uris of aperimenu on the eSta oS eqnsR ^
teniitive plaia lo the action of vipoun and ffiw> fo( ki|
perioda. It has long bcvD known that coalact of Fdalsvitlii*^
OD devcloprntnt. By a SDOicHhat ciliauitjve leni d e^
menls, RuucU showed thai the probable cuua of thn lof k
faydrogcD peioiide, lincc tuhiunce* oliich favound in ^
inilion produced the game effect. Tbii is mnewhat remlTtil*,
as this same subttance will completely destror the eStit l)al
light has bad on a Koiitive pUle; Indeed, it aflonta oDCwiTi'
dalroying a light image on t Mtuitlve collodioa plait It*
eiperiments of Ruuell give a waming to Uote Eipaicd ibut H
brief perioda. It appeals that negaiivei wratjipl in vaaii
paper ate secure from this dagger.
Tie AppHioliat ej PkeUpapky It QhmJiUIim VMt«a.-b
order lo employ photography for the raeaaunmcDt of h^ 1^
was neouaiy thai some Dieani should be deviled b7 i/HA tk
opsdly of the deposit produced cm ibe devdopmoit of a (t«
could be delecmined. It is believed that in tBKtbebttatMfl
wu made by Sii W. Abney to do this, [o the PO. Hi- *
ment, tbe dlaphaDometcr, he had devised, in obkk tnafM^
lECRNIQlTE]
PHOTCXJRAPHY
bA wcdgB wen used to miit maicbo bttweCD Ibe naked U^t
gd ihe same lifht af tecpuiing tbiough ihe photographic opacity
bt nuling Kcton, »bicb cauld be mtde to incteaK oc diminish
keapenureiat pleaiure during iti lotii ion, tbe measurement of
padtia btcune easy. Tbc Rumfoid metbod of comparing
it Hffat tbrousb Ibe deposit inib the diIlr) beam, using the
tdon to equalize tfae jllununatioa, wu adopted, the depoail
ens traced between the ligbc and the scieeo, the comparison
(ht b(3ng a beam reflected from the lame light on to the
Owing to the fiet lb
r tcHi (he opAciiiCB d
riating. The Gn^l p
c of any deilred ilupe.
Light thniwd from
X matched with light
e lo pTTvent this bghc
row""fn'B lES'lo™
uslly bright
lak. and it on >lu be u
aniivc phoiographtc bright
r_the corona as
1 taken. Boih
ian a[ the coi
IB (rom difTtrc
a^nd°KrQmcrun Ihen'beenb^aplkaU
■d thrown on the pan of the Knen A. The nintum at tt.
t Ibe Kale and the tcbiive " phoiognpliic" brightnco of iV
itfont parti of the ureanicr be aiceitaincd by comparison wit
Tbe aanw method at meaiurernenc wit adopted in aicertainici
■aBlitatiwIy ihe lendlivcneH of the ■Rrorum ol oidiiaiv pljii
Md ol ptalei in which dyo are pmeni. The figures on PI. IVsho
■riBKd eoDlinuous ipectrum: no. B ahawi Ihe bright hnes <
laals: no. J the line spectrum o( volaliliied lithium and lodiL:
« the ab»rptian and Buoreicent ipecin ot eoiin. No. 5 ii t)
ladiiation icale foimed by a bromogelalin "Seed'" piste staint
s ■ similar icale'Toniied by an unstained ptaie. Th^ sn^
gmbcn placed below the dBferent bands show an empiric ica
ifakb is Dade to apply to each ol (hem. The lint step ii 10 meaiu
^ f^Bcity o^ the gradation Ksle. next the opacity or the contiauout
pectrum at (be various numbers of the eni^ric scale, and also (he
pcity dI (he c^bcr bands at the same scale numbers. The con-
Eruus ipectmni irill give the sensitiveness of (he plate (0 (he
iCerent parts ol the ipectrum when the measures of its difTcrvnl
ITM^*i— are compared with those ol the scale of BradstlDn, sod ■
me of lensitiveMsa can be plotted from these comprisons.
I li endeni that the meaiures ol (he other two bands will give us
ilmaation as 10 the lluareKence and the ab«rpIion ol the coen.
ig. f ibows the cum cl opadiy «l Ibe image ol the spectrum at
rm parts ol the spectrua
This last ia derived
499
of the plate
anirmtia a} lit RsfUily eja Plah.—Tbe Snt atlempt tbat
nade to ascertain the rapidity of a plate was by Abuey
. Hag. 1874], *bo demonsttaled that within liinita the
e logatithm of the eiposure.
. for general use. though il Is
be of pTscIica] 1.
4 described below.^
>r<ktC+C)\ whei
! at>icifesae marking the same esposure, wiU 0V9 the n
Ivenea ol the two platea In (emu of taa i*. In 1890 Htuter
)rillield (7n>n>. Soc Clitm. Ind. Jan. 19. l8gt) worked oat a
mpicical formula connecting Ihe exposure E with the density
■Hit. which in an approiimaie shape had the form D -il«(E/0,
: D is (he density of deposit (or li^i/T),i the " inertia ol the
portion of a plate was eipDicd to a
■ approami
: light a.
he densities ol
-^ ,, ^ ..-iTMr a
reduction of tlie sinighi portion (o meet (he axis of X. to
the relative sensitiveness of diHerent plates by the distance
e intersection from the lero point L. (See also Eitsnrs
I. below, under f I, ArraUTUa.)
'ccl ^ Ttmpttalvt »■ Sciuilitmat. — In 1B76 Abney
Ed Ihal heat apparently increaied, while cold dioiiniahed,
Enutivenss of a pbte, but the eipciimenU were lather of
ualiutive Ihan the quantitative older. In lS«], from fresh
" ■ ' It the effect of a difference in tempera-
3f sc
riably a
ring more than 1
;-ig°C.ll;
, . te olten
a tempenitUTe ol
. The general d(
u the consIiluenU of tbe plate (gelatin, lie) were unaltered.
am« Dewar slated at the Royal Institulion in i8«6 that
emperalure ol — i3o° C. certain senutive films were reduced
niitiveuBU to leu than a quarter of that which they posses*
diDary tempenturea. It appeiis also, from his subsequent
irf liquid hydrogen (— jsj° C.) the loss in sensiliveneai
mea asymptotic as the absolute xero is approached. Prc~
ibly, therefore, Some degree of sensitiveocsi would still
Uct of Small IiUtmilia of Liikl on 0 Scniilive 5iiA.'~Whea
te b exposed for a certain time to a light of given intensity,
commonly said to have received so much exposure (E). If
[me be altered, and tbe intensity ol the light also, so that the
rare (time X intensity) is the same, it was usually accepted
tbe energy expended in doing chemical work in the £lm was
lame. A series of experrmt
ot the c
mits) the
.cr Is thee
ise the light (within certain
esulls obtained io three ca:
hose apfliiabk la Hit cam
d by photography have
bney. Prat. Rty. Sec i8c^
ibney, Fnt. Bay. Stc. 1893. and Jeurn. Comm CIol, iBqV
mical
lat tbe scale of abscissae
ihcd and confirmed by
PHOTOGRAPHY
is tbe inteniity of tlie light In poi
ihoK the pcTCcntaga of chcmi
chciDical tclion remained the lai
vu reduced, E remaining the u
be ihown 13 a iliaight line i[ the beigtil ot loo, which it tbe tnm!
pomicy of deposit with the unit of light. As it is, they sboi
g perceniaga u the light inteiuity ii diminishnl
tTECHKIQDt
iiof the
md the ordinate* inleniity of light b, of count. In each o
produced. If the The slope of the curve due to the i .
' " ' steep than that due to the uc light, and the luier, igta,
ii much less sleep than that due to the amyl acEtue Itap.
A luilher investigatioD was made of the effect of inoeuinf
the lime of expoiun when the intense light i
and it was found that with all plates the u
energy acting oa a plate was least with the mosi intense Hihi,
but increased as tbe intensity diminished, thou^ tbe tiav
was correspondingly increased. This is the revcne ef wtul n
have recorded as taking place when a comparativdy feeble li^
was employed. Further, it was proved that the wialioa mi
greatest in those plates which are ordinarily considefied to be llu
al li|ht when the ui
gator has shown that, If a total ti
d chemical energy is at a
ea for each kind of plate,
a SiHiilin SaU.—'nc
eiposun
ie chemical a<
itlve salt is I
ity of the light ii reduced tOtV of the
exposure is prolonged A4 limea, the useful
ntcm plate is only jo%o[thate<pendc<!
Iso proved that the bnger the lime of reat between the ictB-
iltlent eipoiures (within tlmits] the lese was the chemical altifo.
Ie may quote one case. Eipoiures were Gnl made to a mini
;ht, and afterwards to the same tight for sii times lonpl, u ■
)tating disk intervened which had 1 1 apertures of 5* cat in it il
isure are eaca unity. la the cases equal Intervals apart, and ; 10 intermittent eaposoca pa imBil
the light used was a standard were ^ven. The plate was moved to diflenot '<'rf'~" turn
of Intensity taken was this light the light, so that the Intensity was altcied. Hk appuot ka rf
iiance oi 2 u. irom me plate, and the unit of lime was eiposute by the intervention ot the disk increases as the iataikr
nds. The lamp being moved to 16 ft. from the plate, diminishes, tbe ratios of the chemical energy usefuHy cofiki^
1 intensity of ^Ihe unit, and the time of exposure had of tbe naked light eiposure to that ol the intennlliuc espMoa
icieascd to 6)0 seconds, so thatE was Ihesame m both being: —
origina], and the time of
energy eipended on a b
when the light and time
to which the diagram
. Further, it 'was found ihi
Serene parts of the plate w
fixed distance bdng used lo
d series, tbe slopes of the ci
1, Ught
Forlnteui
)
I,, soo
nothcr.
nages ai
atigitl
ned by diflerent intensiElcs of light, not very diSereul from
se of the amyl acetate lamp, the time ef aposim being the
le for all intensities. The deductions made fiam the investi-
ion are that with a slow plate the energy eipended in chemical
in is imallet as the intensity is diminished, while with a quick
ly that
muchle
Soal* of Intanait/eB in
Powers of 2
ESecl d/ wry l«U
Ligki m a Stnnliie S
—Another Inveatigat
acetate lamp, anolhei
made that one of the
, opacities produced on
the plate from exposure
These results appear to be explicable by the theontksl (•-
sicteiitions regarding molecular motion.
EJta rj iionKhtmalk LiiU 0/ Yaryint
Smsiiist Sail, — It has been a subject of '
whether the gradation on a plate is altered when expasum w
made to lights of different colours; that is to say, wbctkcr lb
shades of tone m a negative of a white object tUumiulcd hj,
say, a red light, would be the aame as those in the xp^ I
illuminated by a blue light. Abney ^ aimounccd thit ll<
gradation was different; and, quite indepeaidently, Qtftw
Jones made a general deduction lor isochroBiatlc plates t^
eicepl with a certain developer, the gradation was Beepd (iW
is, the curve shown graphically would be iteeper) the ffialB
the wave-lengths of tbe light to which tbe lensitlve mh m
subjected. For plates made with the ordmaiy hakM ■ksd
silver Chi '
ic light l[.
employed, it ilia
-- -- „ — -- wave-lengths of light iU
are less, and also with those which are greater, than the V
whose wave-lengths has a maximum effect on the MB>tifen>
eipe rimenied with. Thus with bromo-iodlde rf sllv« tbe nan-
mum effect produced fay thcspcclnun u dose to the-Uie Etkaa
line, and the gradation of the plate illuminated with that B^
is less steep than when the light is spectrum violet, gnen, yifc*
or red. From tbe red to the yellow the gndalioD is nnih ih
steepest. Whethei these results have any prsnical hcanaf*
ordinary photographic exposures is not settled, but tiat ttrf
must have some decided eliect on the accuracy of threeolM
work for the production of pictures in appnuimattty Bh>J
colours is undoufatni, and ihey may have 1 direct b ~
the determination of Stat magnitudes by mean* of *
KepTodtitlim 0/ Cihtrtd Objati by maiu if
grafhic Pmlais.—Ita't Proem.— \ practical plan 0* pt"**
ing images In approilmatcly the true ooloon of Batm In) bM
devised by preparing three positives of ths lune vbiKt. #>
■ Fnt. Sty. Stt^ 1900.
A
PHY
501
. ihc pb» » iDovnl into the ilir« r
nitioiii
L Tht
: tliT«
"J
« i'llj
t i. i«dy (cr
"^i^blc a
1 limn, pailiciilailr in ih.
of land""'
e lilMhE rna
ly viiy and ihe iky may
have n
cloudi.
Diouret «<™ld ihon- wri
whirK
•hould
icin. Sanecr-Shtphtnl haj a " onc-ri
m by
Ihelhrainu
tp°™
I Abncv hi:
H which ihixild be li^
on be done by pUcid; in f rofil of Ihe plafe and eitendioB itt whole
knglh a Kale nt indation Ihmigh which the light nnung from ■
immmm PHOTOGRAPHY
afcimimtjH by ■ nd, Ibe othei by i green, and the third by k blue '
li|bt; the imaca from thtw ihnc itanspaienda, whea visually '
ombiDed, will ihow the colours of the object. Thli plan wu ,
■denlifically and pncttcally worked out by F. K Ivcs of FhiU- I
ddpliu, Ibougb Id Frsnce and elsewhere il bad beeo foriDulated, ■
opetuUy by Hauroo Du Cn». \
The following description nuy be taken as [hit of Ivei's —
caa: by the triihnmatic thHiy o' colout-vision every Colo
■ature can be accounted for by Ihe muture of Iwo 01 Ihiee o
three-colour Beoulioos, red, green and blue, to which the e
■appoKd lo re^wnd. Thus a mixture o[ a red and green sens^
produces the sensation of yellow; oE a green and blue, that
hlue-green; of red and blue, that oi purple, and of all three, luai —j-i -rrr- ;■ -v- —;— ~J''Z~\ T T "V " "' ",:'
Uke the ipectmm of while Kght as the only perfect Bcaleof pure PUIM raiplojTd (of the puipoMol ^ thirwi*]ur m^ti™™
eadteil by > large put of the visible Bpectnim, bucnilh varying a„d development muK be carried out in 'a dnh with a cover to it.
■ilia. II, then, we can on a photographic plate produce a The plile is manipiilaud in the usual way.
' Image of the spectrum which eiactly corresponds in
J pocillon to the amount of red ilimulation eiciled /oly'ii'rrKeii.— Pmfcstor J. Joly.of Dublin,iniS97intrDduccd
in tboK regioni, we tfaall, on iUuminsttng a tnuuparent positive a colour process by which an image in apptoiiDiately tialuial
taken from such a negative with a pure red Ught, have a repre- colours could be thrown upon a screen by an optical lantern,
•eutatton of the spectrum such as would be seen by an eye which only one transparency being employed, instead of three, as in
was only endowed with the sensation of red. Similarly, if the Ives process- A " taking " screen was ruled vith alternating
■egalives conld be taken to fulht the like conditions tor the green orange, blue-green and blue lines tVi to xij in. apart, touching
and lor the blue sensations, we should obtain poailLves from them one another and following one another in Ihe above order,
wluch, when muminated by pure green and blue light respectively, When such a screen was placed in front of a sensitive plate in the
woqld show the spectrum as seen by an eye which was only camera, and exposure made to the image of a coloured object,
' ''' ~ - 11 .- _ Evidently if by some there were practically three negatives on the same plate, each
' eing confined to the area occupied by linei of the same colour.
he shades of colour and the depth of the colours used in rulTng
tpended on the brand of plate. When a perfect triune negative
. . ^ . as obtained, a transparency was made from il, and in contact
intermediate between those used for the illumination of with this was placed a screen nUed with lines the same distance
the potitivea. For the purpose of producing the three suitable apart, but of the colours corresponding to [he three colour sensa-
Begalivca of the spectrum, three light-filters, through which tions, namely red, green aod blue. The red lines were made
the image has to pass before reaching the photographic plate, to fall on the image taken through the orange lines, the green
kave to be found. With all present plates thoe are compromises, on that of the blue-green, and the blue or violet on that of the
Sai^;hlyspcaking,tbescreensusedfortaking the three negatives blue. On the screen there ate practically three diEerently
■re an oraoie, a bluish-green and a blue. These transmit those coloured image* shown by one transparency. Theeye blends the
parts of the spectrum which answer to the three sensations. diSerent colours togelber and a picture is seen in approximately
Wkcn theie are obtained an image of a csbured object can be the correct colours of the original.
■' ' ' AKlathrcme. — A very remarkable piocesi, founded on J Joly's
process, waa introduced in 1907 by A. Lumi^re et sea Fils of
Lyons. Starch grains of very minute siie, some of which were
dyed wilh a red stain, a second portion wilh a green, and a third
portion with a blue, are mixed together in such proportions that
a fine layer of them appeaia grey when viewed by transmitted
light. Under a magnifying glass the grains are coloured, but
.™"_'?^ Ihe other. Such a layer b embedded on the surface of a glass
[j^ plate in a waterproof vehicle, and a film of senaiiivc emulsion
held in sila in some malerial, Ihe composition of which has not
., ... , -- been published, coven this layer. When such a plate is placed
■^"^ S^bto'^™ iS'rri ' ■" '*" «™*". "i"" "' bKk oS lla flate neat th<i lens, the light
u be^lwd which, when plSrd In (r> P»™* through the coloured granule*, and again we have three
iiTii-rti-r of the dqxni on ihe plate, negatives on one plate, but instead of each negative b<dng repre-
«J ^HB. In he tbc ttme Ehnnighout senled by lines as in the Joly process they are represented by
K proper rei joU oi silver deposit. Owing to the w
u loutiag on a diJ["caa'2« coloured film is prepared, it n evident that a posiuve laaen irom
_agnpb on the correct rendering '■"'■'^ » negative could not be backed with granula of the
As to the caBBia for the amateur, whose plates are not as a rule right colour, as the granules are placed at random in Ihe layer.
knt. an b( th* Ibret nnalives sbouM be obuiiKd on one plate, sbice Lumiire, to overcome tits difficulty, converted the negaUve int.
' -' .....'.. ^ pyrogalljc and ammonia m the usual way. but mstead of naing
wbkfa win then beekae 10 Ihe plaK; nich a one hai
br E. SaocoiSbepbad. Tbt B^ ftmu thmgh
and sulphuric add. This dissolved all the ulver that had he<
QiThe'fixwr deposiled during development and left a film of unaltered ^vi
been deviieJ "It. On looking through the plate Ihe colours of the colourc
S02
PHOTOGRAPHY
tAPPARATOS
first deposited appeared in view, and the image was the image
in colour of the object photographed. The plate after being
washed was taken into the light and redeveloped with an alka-
line developer, which converted the sensitive salt of silver to the
metallic state. The image now consisted of black particles of
silver and the coloured image. The plate was next fixed in
hyposulphite of soda to remove any unreduced silver salt that
might be left, and the picture after washing was complete. The
coloured image so obtained is a very close representation of the
true colours, but as the " taking " screen is the same as the
" viewing " screen some little variation must result.
Positives in Three Colours. — Ives was the first to show that a
transparency displaying approximately all the colours in nature
could be product on the same principles that underlie the three-
colour printing. This he effected by pnnting each of the three
negatives, produced for hb triple projection process as already
described, on gelatine films sensitized by bichromate of potash.
Each of the three transparent films was dyed with a colour com-
plementary to the colour of the light which he transmitted
through the positives when used for projection. Thus the " red "
positive he dyed with a blue-green dye, the " green " positive
with a purple dye, and the." blue " positive with a ydlow dye.
These three films, when superposed, gave the colours of the
original object. Sanger-Shephcrd has made the process a
commercial success (see Pkocess) and produces lantern slides of
great beauty, in which all colours are correctly rendered. Instead
of using a dye for the " red " tranq>arency, he converts the silver
image of a positive image into an iron salt resembling Prussian
blue in colour. (W. de W. A.)
n.— Photographic Appaxatus
Photographic apparatus consists essentially of the camera
with lens and stand, lens shutters, exposure meters, prepared
plates for the production of negatives or transparencies, sensi-
tive papers and apparatus for producing positive prints, direct
or by enlargement. Besides these there are many subsidiary
accessories.
Since the introduction of highly sensitive dry plates and their
extended use in hand cameras, the art and practice of photo-
graphy have been revolutionized. Numerous special forms of
apparatus have been created suitable for the requirements of the
new photography, and their manufacture and sale have become
important industries. The value of the exports of photographic
materials from the United Kingdom in igo6 was £32,716. The
most important improvement has been in the construction of
anastigmatic lenses, which, having great covering power, flatness
of field, and freedom from astigmatism, can be worked with very
much larger apertures than was possible with the earlier forms of
rectilinear or aplanatic lenses. The increased rapidity of work-
ing thus gained has rendered it easy to photograph objects in
very rapid motion with great perfection. This has encouraged
the construction of the very light and compact hand cameras
now so universally in use, while, again, their \ise has been greatly
simplified by improvements in the manufacture of sensitive
plates and films and the introduction of light, flexible, sensitive
films which can be changed freely in daylight. The introduction
in 1907 of Messrs Lumiere's " Autochrome " process of colour
photography has also been a great advance, tending to popularize
photographic work by the facility it offers for reproducing objects
in the colours of nature.
The Camera.
Historical. — ^The camera obscura (^.r.) was first applied to
photographic use by Thomas Wedgwood between 179 a and 1802.
No description of his camera is available, but it was probably
one of the sketching cameras then in use. In 181 2 W. H.
Wollaston fotmd that by using a meniscus lens with a concave
surface towards the object and the convex towards the screen, a
diaphragm being placed in front, the projected image of the
camera obscura was greatly improved in sharpness over a larger
field. The first photographic lenses made by V. and Ch. L.
Chevalier in Paris (1830-1840) were on this principle. The
fAotograpbic camera in its simplest form is a rectangular box,
one end of which Is fitted to carry a lens and the opponte
with a recess for holding the focusing screen and plate hoklen»
these ends bemg connected by a ngid or expanding baae^Manl
an^ body, constructed to keep out all light frcmi the aemttne
pUtte except that passing through the lens. In 1816 Joseph
Nic6phore Nicpce, of Chalon-sur-Sa6ne, for his photognpbic
experiments made a little camera, or artificial eye, with a boi
six inches square fitted with an dongated tube carrying a loh
ticular glass. There are now in the Chalon Museum cameras of
his with an uis diaphragm for admitting more or leas light to
the lens, some with an accordion bellows, others with a doable
expanding rigid body for adjusting the focus. The uis dia*
phragm was adopted later by Chevaher for his {rfiotograpbc
lenses. In 1835 W. H. Fox Talbot constructed simple boi
cameras for taking views of his house on senstive paper, and
claimed them as the first photographs of a building {Pkil Met
i839> 14> P- 206). Fr. von Kobell and C A. Steizdieil, early m
1839, niade a camera with an opera glass lens for taking land-
scapes on paper. Later in 1839 J. W. Draper successfully used
a camera for his daguerreotype experiments made of a qxctade
lens, 14 in. focus, fitted into a cigar box. He also used a camera
fitted with a concave mirror instead of a lens. Similar csmerai
were constructed by A. T. Wolcott (1840) and R. Beard (1841)
for reversing the Image in daguerreotype portraits. They have
also been recommendnl by V. Zenger (1875) and D. Mach (1890)
for scientific woric.
L. J M. Daguerre's camera, as made by Oievalier in 1839 far
daguerreotype, was of Niepce's rigid double body type, fitted
with an achromatic meniscus lens with diaphragm m front oa
Wollaston's principle, the back part with the plate moving avaj
from the lens for focusing, and fixed m its place with a tbunib>
screw This expanding arrangement enabled lenses of different
focal lengths to be used. With modifications cameru of tbs
type were in use for many years afterwards for portrait and
studio purposes. For work in the field they were found man-
venient, and many more portable forms were brought out, aoonf
them G. Knight's and T Ottewill's smgle and double fbUiflg
cameras (1853), made collapsible with hinges, so as to fold on to
the base-board. Cameras with light bodies made of watetproof
cloth, &c., also came into use, but these were superseded bjr ,
cameras with collapsible bellows-body of leather, which, uveotcd
by Niepce, were used in France, m 1839, by Baron A P de
Siguier and others for daguerreotype The first record of tbea
in England is, apparently, J Atkinson's portable stereoKopc
camera of parallel-side bellows form (PA J own. x8s7. 3, p ^>)t
which was soon followed by C. T. H. Kinnear's lighter couul
form, made by Bell of Edinburgh (PA. JoMm 1858, 4. p t66)
They have since been made in various patterns, comod, oUoac
and square, by P. Meagher, G. Hare and others, and are stii
in modified forms, in general use as studio, field or hand camem
When wet collodion plates were used many cameras wot fttcd
with arrangements for developing in the fidd
Information on these and other early cameras will be fooad h
the photographic journals, in C. Fabre'a TratA emcydofU^ai '^
photopraphie, vol. 1., and in J. M. Eder's An^iJvUclm Hudk»
der Pnotographte, 2nd ed., voL L, pt. IL
The distinctive feature of present day photography b tbe
world-wide use of the hand camera. Its convenience, the cue
with which it can be carried and worked, and the remirtaMy
low prices at which good, useful cameras of the kind can be
supplied, concurrently with Improvements In rapid lensiirx
plates and lenses, have conduced to this resulL It has aho M
a valuable educational influence in qmckcning artistk perccpcioi
and scientific inquiry, besides its use in depicting scenes and pttr
ing events for historical record. Small portable cameras M
been made by B. G. Edwards (1855), T. Scaife (Pistolgrapk. j
1858), A. Bertsch (i860), T. Ottewill (1861), and othen, butl
was not until rapid gelatin dry plates were avaibble in 18K1 tktf
T. Bolas brought out his " detective " camera (PA. Jovru, tSSi,
p. 5q). It consisted of a double camera (one as finder, tbeotho
for taking the picture) enclosed in another box, suitably covend,
which also contained the double-plate carriers and had apeittRi
PHOTOGRAPHY
lOBMUd pilented an opera glau camera. Vuioui j^ij t, .lucbed to the amen, ■!» > vit» mttn oi Sndw,
OTUble Duguine urarru loUowed, among them A. ihowinE ihe cnct eitnit ei tbc pKiun on the Iocubiij glui. In
»"R*pe»lLiigC»iB*ra"(iSBi),W.fioucn'i"Eureli»" 'he view meter the pictim u mewtd diitcily tbnnijh a pin-lufe
KnigeEer's camera Ibook lo™, .M81, and olhera in """">■«• " the b«k of the cu»n u ll appan la . tnm wilb
rTfono, di^guUed a, book., w^Jch.^ *c., but JJr;oryTKe'"^TS^S3^:5^";!^»'',^'SS^
It come ulogcDeral uK bclcie iSas, itbeil the East- and a reduced image ii iien leflrclcd from a miiror oi priira. A
■any o( Rochester. U.Sj^., brought out Ibeir very rectangular mncavc glaia mounied on the camera ii alw a con-
"S ^2.™ iTaL-i" "Jttirt'jiLS SiiS li^r^S Si'™? iSsS." "Jtss!
IS UQCe become H very important and flouiuhmg ihould currnpand eiadly iritb thu oo Ihe p&te. When the ri^
I Crtal Britain, CmnaDy, France and the United front ii unt ipecial arrangemenU have to be made to euuie the
H nntninrthv that the in<ni Tniv)i-m fnrm nf honrl confpanOBXx of Ifac imags IS the fiiider and oo the ground-
. ™S™^^ vl,l ,« , «T^ , ^ r ^M i „ «"«■ Thit i. done in IhT^Adam. IdeoIoKop. " (1908), which
7t- ?? '^^'f °^ ""'^^ '^ «r portable camera • fi„^ „ jh. ^^ [„„, ^ tilimtd by > Ever lofoiiow the
lIRd by Jobuu Zahn in 16S6, in which a mirror vai mo^tmenl of Ibc leni.
Becting the image on to a botlionlai focusing screen, Plau-luilJtTi er Dark-ttida. — The dark-ilidea or bacb, holding
: time reversing it. Tlu fint photographic c —.-.»"««-.— .» «. -„, _-_.„ 1. _ .u_ n..
le wasT. Sulton'i (iS6a}, which has served
t'» (1891) wen early eiampieaoi the hand camera meiaipiaie; itiree 01 iBtm usually lorm a •«, toe tnulten Eieui(
reat improvemeau have since been made. f^^ _^ be''u«d for amall^plaia 3"deiired!*Thl ilidef •bouS
linens differ BO much in dcfaiLi El eatily iulo the camera and the aliudera run vKxitbly out and
in- Th^ murt be perfectly light.tiBlit, theccmer j<HDta, tite liingea
in the •hultert and Ihe openinji in the lidea aud lop o( the book-
< ,:^ .. 1. -,, equirineocca^onal '' — ~-
ilaum. Tie ahum
fl
°ri^w
and flronjly n
hen let up. to
«^|
i iTMnMl^be
ndicular to th.
nade 1™ venici
,iHUl! the len. 1
It lisht or k ahutten; they are ligbler, mgre compeer and let* liable to admit
camera haa light to the platea. An •ome caaea one tilde can wffice for the
the riiinii front auording a> t1 envelssea. at In the Wiihan-Mackenile " slide, the " Victrii "
cically. the finder thowing in and other timilar one*, or contained in a tinvlc packet, ai in the
xd on the plate. Tlie b™i modem field camctat are " Prcmo Fllmpack," and
I iwing-back or twing.front and aometlinea with both, similar amngementa which
hianeceitary for iHinging back the pble to the vertical eriable twelve thin celtuloid
aa 10 prevent convergence of vertical linea, when the films to be placed in the
to be tilted. A riling awlrtg-.fninl, in which Ihe tens camera. eap«ed one after
inher lilting It ncceuanr. when uking high bulldinBa again lalely in dayllBhI.
ng.back and front may both be required, but muit be tlie pack being replaced, if
.1 and parallct and the effect is that of an abnormal necessary, bv another. The
Many modem camerat are fined with a double liiing packets of tilint are made
vertical and side swings arc also useful for equalizing of light cardboard, and
•a of ohjcctt at diflerrnL distances from Ihe camera, effect a gieat aaving of bulk
ler the perspective. These swing-movements ahould and "eight Ifig. I). Roll-
'lens froM oTL"hinil!. When ille''rismg'tmirii°ijtnl Sfdoid fflmTm lengSi'of
ended covering power is desirable, and it may be neces- six Of twelve expofluies,
I it down to obtain good deliniiion over the extended rolled on ipooli, which can
adjualing the rccna. TTie camera Changing bcnes for ho^g f,;^ 1.— Premo Film-pack.
rfectly bgbt.tiiht and all mner br a reserve of plates or cellu- '
to prevent TCllcclions fnm bright 1 Imd films in aheaths. arc
-. The black varnish used, prefers uaed with BDme m^iaiine and other cameraa. They are arranged
II spirit, must have no deleleriouf e to fit on the camera in place of the dark.slide and the plates ace
e weight and bulk are increased it ii changed autiHuatically to that eapoaed platea are placed in
square and fitted with a reversible order uccetsively at the back, a fresh plate going forward foe
:ih of the ptale niay Ik horiionlal or eapoiure and the number nl the exposure bmng recorded at the tame
n some Fiench cameras the back i SluJiB cameras, for portraiture, are usually of the acjuaie beUomt
d clamping it with a thumb-KiTW working in a dot in long or short focus brsea to be used, with extra eitenmon foecopy-
ird. When bellowa cameras were introduced they nere ing or enlarging. They are generally fitted with repeating backs,
working either in front or at the back of the camera or nght or lengthways, and are fitted with double swing movements
y hancT cameras, nnuiring to be brought to focus at at tbe bacli. When single dark slides are used they are bea fitted
ted irilh studs (infinity catches) which fi( the front in with a fleilble shutter to avind jerking and movement of the
:ant objects, nearer distances bnng noted on an engraved camera. For portraiture they are mounted on solid pillaT sunds,
ed to the base-board. Such scales should be vcrilied being raised oc lowered with an endless screw or rack-work, and
menl. In hand cameras with lixed infinity focus, the table-top usually haa votical and horiamtal a — '
y adjustments for distance of near objects are made on meota, Large cameras with long eitei
unt. The focusing screen may be ruled with parallel are made in many forms irith apccid ar
'or purposes of measurement, and as a check on the phcHo-mechanicai processes, and are niounua on BunonuBi
>f the camera when phDtoor.iphinE: buildines or other table-stands with screw adjustmenta for ufat^ning tbe various
vertical Uncs. Thecfini * • - ■ -<—' ■ ■- =—
Id from Ihe sensitive plan
his can he tested by it
30+ PHOTOGRAPHY iai
tooKher with the copybig board, on iwinein; sUod*. to Avoid tlie fv u pncticible. A cutnlu' levd pbced omr tl
cflecti ol vitmtion. uhJuL
Pmlabh and ItcM caiKiaa indudE cuncni o( llw Hair and The dxicx ol a hand ameia depcfab upoa Iha li
Mcae^ tyP™ ^°^ DUIdoor work and veneni purpoKi □□ pUl» in wSich il la ui be uied. And the piupott for vUch It ll
ij In. X 11 in. to St in. X ^L'^^" ^"^ "< I'EI'Ix' (o<n» fmni ') 'n. nquiitd. For geoeai imfc ind irilh Ibi madoB I
X t] in. to 4l in. X ^1 in. For Ecneiat purpowt they an uiuaJly carrying and changing platea and £]nu In (k]di|fat, tl
nude with iquafe beLlowg and foldiHE taU-bo4rd. rather more auI>' folding hand or »tand omeni [or pbts. Bat « nw fil
vork. There are many _panenu, the prLnripid modern improve- in whif^ a avppiy of cut film! or pU
mentj in 6cld cameraa fccinE awinging fronts. Inpod head and mm- mpclunicaljy. and^ erpoaed npadly in
movcmenta from Ihe hack and fninl for long or ihort locui leniei. A Ihini cUb are Ibq refia
fitred with a locuiinB loeen and are inteiuled for me on a tripod with focal fA^at ihiitlen for
Htand, (hovgh aome at the amaller aim of Ibe modeni light hud or apeciaJly rapid intaiitai^
■land canxraa can be uied as hand camvna willl finders. Hm eout worlr aa noticed bdow,
plalei are ants] In Ibe luual datk'dldet, but the (maOer bni. Theie are (wo tna si li(fat
from half-plate downvatdi, can be fitted wilb rolMialdeta f« Beaible fal(Un( hand or ataod aa-
Glnn. or with Um packt or other dayUghl chinipiic arrancemeata. enu, serially adapted far
Fotdint and Hand CaMcror.^FoMlng cameraa fom a data of hand camera won — thdae
quartcT'^^te to 7 in. X
il'oe Ettinn^a >ta)[d
take claia platea, fiat or
nil ana, but have the
era, lena and ihuller, all
In pc^iion for Immediate Fic. J.— Eneoaan'a Pvcktt OuMO.
ufc when opened out an apooli, or with an atta£^
(fig. i). Mom of Ibem meat for focuiinf glaa and dmli-Jidea ftt taUaf pluaa *■] at
are fitted with focming lilma. Attached a a lUng-ainip the quartcMilatt Jm na br
■laB and fioden, and guile ccnvenientlr carried in a lide-packet. Watasa^ " [M '
■nay focui by Ksle in folding canxn ii fitted irith
the «me way aa hand a focal plane abutter (fir. x).
camErai. With an ap- The " Sclfii carbine " camera
FiGp 3. — Sinclair Folding Camcru- paraLua of Ihii land on haa a utj-€reaini front biing-
a li^ht atarKl any cUa ing the lena at once into
of ordinary indoor or outdoor work can be undertaken within the poaitian for uae oa opeidng
■iie of the ptate, and the catenijon of the bellowa. which ahould be out. Thaw fillFd with leaaei
quite double the focua of the lena. of fairly large aperture, double
The mulfipltcity of fomu and imnEementa of hand cnmcrai eiienstnn. and riling and fall,
make* it difficult to clauify them into distinct type«; but thty may inrr fronti are to be preferred,
be mainly divided into hai and /oUinf camerai, and further into Ofboi or moguine cameru
S) cxmcraa with enclowd changing magaiinei for plates or fiat there i) an immenie variety.
ma;{t) witbencloi hanging In tome the Icna ii lued in
ake rIus platea in ' filna In it adfuated by a focu^ng
tuilable theatht or D'packa icale on the lens or by an
or roll-holdeii. Thi guarter- citandinf lioni. Some have
platet^lin. Xi\ut: X4in. a dngle mauiine. ol hen two , " , „
"'■'•"-''"lularHie. XjI'n, or more. Some take only glin plala, otbert i^tta or rut tu
lantern pi i, nme eipoiure. One of the earlint forma of tintle manaine caanaii
m ol ate: in the «ill in tat. ai in the ■' Eureka ■■ and " Yifle," i. the ■' bag." a
eimplilKd and adapted for rapid focusing and expoatng. The
focuiing Bcreen ii luperacded or npplemcnted by finden arranged
to ahow the llmhi of the lubject on the plate, the focut bein; all-
juBtcd by the infinity catchct and focuqng icalet above potKed.
Swing^baclcB and Ironci are often dispenacd with, but ore dcaiiable
adjuncta, and a rinng and falling front particularly «o. Leiuea of
fairly large aperture, //& to //B, and j^ood covering power, prefenbly
of the anostlgmitic type, or a rapid aplanat. ahould be uird. but
for very rapid worW aruatjgmata workirsp from //4 to //6 win be
more useful. Hand cameraa can alw XX fitted with telcphoio
with tingle lan^Eapc Icnuea nr aplknali working about Jill or
".A^S.
or ihew focal plane shutlen are prefenble. behinc
"iS,
ically changingp
ic type mo«\e certain in action. »mple nient ii limple and (
order. IpecijI care being taken to avoid leather w clbth, It lu
npwH eSould plates are keot in
s pieveated oa eapoaun
. the beck, a Iretb plat
tfPARATUS]
SEsT'somlor
■cope ■■ U(. 6) i>
PHOTOGRAPHY
t effective tad popular on h
ie pUIn Inirv in Iheli plii;
pe. AR oJ ihii cb»i and hj
FM. T-— BKk'i Dai-Cocnn Diylii1ii-I«d;ag Ci
tnx, ipiciilly conanicled for uiirg iiill lellulDid
Win an Botded on nn> lidei and piclted in bundle
vhh cvda wnilarir naccbrd. The pack of Alms and a
bi ■ ga^iinf at liic back of tlK cameia. and by tlw
re kept ready
■e [or filnii. xilbout which
can be u*ed aepaEatety For
iteL ILand I. Beck'inev
Dal-Coi«jt " !• a ircal in>-
i dayll(lil-
Eor piatea, Ihe platea beirw
pacl«d in a bundJe of lidfted
, „ _ ihEiihi. u that they are
I (.anwra. ^^^^^ protected (rom licKt and
' ■ ■ — '^j;x'i,ii)
imitij
- --d eniwd cu..~-....y. .-; -"- .- -■—..
-"—J -It c( Trnmaiy unportann hand
a 6tted with wry rapid leuci
and focal plane iliutten are oecenary,
'veraf forma of portable cdlapdhk
rorkiiv iD two aeparatc campAitniBiti
bg. gi V more imiply with a miiroi
Jtrovuif a fuU-Hied uDreverard liiu£(
et the object ffora Ibc kna oa tf
eoctly e^ud focot and focuaed tofedter t^ the aarne motioa oi
tlK ™cl(-*orli. the obiect being viewed on the foeuiiiig krcd oi
tbt aH« T-imfinirr"'. and the plate kept mdy in ths lawn
»fter expoaun. the k
- " -I- -.-!-- Bine
M an ate
oa ia miiiaaij though two are cob-
ewlul aa in ng. 9- They gEneraUy
containing a movable durmr Uciot
browing up the image pnkcted from
reen, on wtuch it ia viewed thnuih a
n the upper pan of the caineta Wkea
ler to get the greateat rapidity of
er {■ genetaily 6tted» and by a
E the mirror it •nmthtv KCtaH VhI
it&l^tM
lid be Biied n
.« for very n
iilly ibcR i> a Ir
in.andt.1"-'-
acknotbi
ftiveo, a iirlng-back not being gcner-
ibinter. In the " Emei" camira
gement by which the camera back,
nflcctor are made to awing bmul-
IB movement, Tliey may av> bavv
or quiddy changing the poaitioa of
,} in. X 4) in. an 8ie,ii>iia] aim if
f^maiuhip and perfect mechaniim
Hdom from any jarfiog movement
■IfcC focii* of the Itne on the plate.
ge can alB be viewed at the beigbt
Fio. 10.— ReSei Camcn.
a, LUL
■, Mirror.
c. Ground.g1aaa.
D, Plate.
L judging the ejpoaun nqvired (or
the advantage! of a aland camera
rvcd dagueneotype (iatei. and cover-
iCaaanl'i " CylindnMpbe ^' of 1U9
- type, tt coniiita of a lemi^iKalar
5o6
br. ihc CI
PHOTOGRAPHY
[t IflnDcd of ligfat-pnof cl
ivcd Bexible cufien. The leu u
11 Ibc AodaJ poiat of emergena reiuii
u RvoivEa round it by mcaiu of t haiKlIc worked t
in adjuiublc venial ilit in i lube attached to i
bai. and by alterinE the cate il vhkh the lent
piclun taken embrace 1e» than IM*. TIk
tofether and ii qnile poitable; il i> (ullv dnciil
Li Cyiindrarniglii tPaiu. iSg9). Th
" PlDonm Kudak (1911DI art on III
"il
""Vjf. I
Fio. II.—" AI-VlHa " Panaraniic "
Cimen. doKd. •><
uMdlotneteMcopicorHiwIepinuia. Otbe
tout of the hciriion. Ainong them C. Darnc
whkb can be utcd inlh lenses of different foe
on a niU-filn. which b unrolled ai the IDII
tE.Jb.. 1908, p. 3
i. wli^'
dolile " (i&M)p and siin
leleicopea, levelt and divided circles, an instni
luitable lor Dhotofaphic lurvcying. Impcnve-
topographieaf surveying with stencMthatncnpl
the priDdple wotked out by Dr C. Pulfrich, ol A
in hit sten<^<oniparator (J^), aie bdng prac
and much inforrnation regarding them wilf be U
E. Dolelal and otherm in J. M. Edcr't Jakrbiil
>]» a paper by Licui. F. V. Tbomiiwo in &»
Cuuru 7^ nrei-Colaiir Pkaliitniplir.—Kini
bavc been conilruclcd for it**--"" "— '■-'— -
fortn
■^\
.,., The
iaia tbiee caaipaitnenli. and fitted iiilh a specij
can be rHEiilaled for the varying senaitivenru ol c
plates. Tbc central image is impceued diirctly
othertwobyrefleclion from prisms ana nved so as t
of tbc Ibree images on (he aensitive plates, the
"ioSf-^^h!«'%i rh'"prirK?pk ^" F. e'. iJei
(br. 111. It is CDnvenrail ud ^uinirul
, elabonled b
F°'b.''r™
(iSS
cussed by W. Gamble (i"*. ynr. ioh, alv. ijs), tbelaltaatoh
E. T. Butler (ibid. p. m). SitWTde W.^lLtwy baa de_i4c
threv-colour cameras [or iandjcBpe work in Pk. Jmr- 1904, air
or transparency at one
at tbe other, ibe lens be
bang placed on a bied panitm bema tb
^ms ol ^' dayligbt enlargera " caa be used *
.., Other cbB^^c^ ooea are on Iba fiid fn
, , — Enlarjcn far nae with artilkial light an Bade Eb 1
magic lanlem, with a condeuer. prD)eciiiir an entarfed iDia|» ss
atiangement for diyUglit enlarging ii to fii a nlilabla caoca ■
to a laiieT o« by a iDdiag front, and Bount tba t«B ea a andii
iUod lilted (o that tbe image may be iltiumnand by tbc opea Ay.
a*timiIiieapiu.—Mimy sponl ciniena •«! >«— •>._ i_
intnxluceil Tor taUi^ on a lOnf flcail^KI
Kriea ol small phougrapha of lEe lucccssivi
biographs, Ac. As each phologra^ ivquir
time for eAposure and must be kept in true ixHuua m
with the rest, some means of iwulaiing the intermiit«at
and keepini the film ia pnsiiion have to be adopted 1 aad
many ddferenl ways of dihnf il. either by a continuout
milient motion and exposure of the Glm white it is beina
from one roller on to another. The films used an simi]
in widUi, the length varvinir wiih th* niimhH t<J ,-nv
Special lenses ol short focus, (ion I in. to 3 fa.^ wiib good or
power aod large aperture* jy4 to//>, an required both fur pmavr
gnpbing and pnjeciingi several such an noted bdow. AbaoMi
rigidity in Ibe camera it eiaentiaL Special stands an nidt In
the purpose, but U a tripod stand it uted it ihould be wtU !■«<.
Speaal.apparalua it required for devetDping and finng tbcesvund
filmt. They are wound on large rollert supported o — " — "^
™,fa;mn» >h, f.«^.urv mIihIoM Is« ClKElUTOO
T treated in H. V. Hop
B
'Si™''g
rm
: K. W. ttoli-CJapel,
'. Hopwood. IMnl
1, fkMtnipkic Oflia (1909);
'l90J)twI
cinematograph machinery and GliDS. Tbne conditions aiefuUM
by the use. in place oE the ordinary rcvol^na setter shutter ip latf
of the lens i»uing intermittent white Ij^t. of a tpedil na
orange-red glass, another with bluish-gmn riatt and tao tav
mediate Dpaijue tecton. to that ar every rrvolutioa of the ih*af
an exposure it made through-the red and arten glasses slterwrfr
The former passes white and yellow, and then csange. starlet a
deepest red: whilst the latter also passes white and yellow, p«a
Wue^gieen, blue, all in proportion accocdiog to the ^^ "^ -^
sensiriveness ol the specially sensirivd paiuhromaii
photograph]
s, folding in tw(
ted in ifie base-h
indadjuiiabkialcagdil*
"' may be litfii, but i°g
be firm and rigid when set up. To prevent slipping, UOCS of iis^
rubber or cork may be fitted to the poinU ol the kn, aad ia s^
case, il m.iy be de.iraHe to strengthen the tripod by a loMiH
adjusrolilc brace. W. Butler's " sj-— " ---'^--'- ■■
to enable the camera lo be tecuiel.
"ini/io Th"Wl'&c. Vo?ha"d a^^, tC?^
metal folding and walking-stick stands an CD
PHOTOGRAPHY
507
Mtpafhic Objtaiva tr Lmia
,1,
'.T^^.tt.'rt'E
ltd upon >he Manx
rjs
™» lulBcieii
•^..^It. * SlS
[oidly
t pan HjAtcient lieht to produce the require*
raphic plale with snort eipoaiirei; tbecbemki
jA crancide ciiaclly. ind it mutt not dittor
[Newtypa.
he foci ol They lie al» Hinetiaiei cU^fiFcl laoHiDg to their rapi<Uty, u
li the Lrns. etpiTuRl by their effective HperlurFfl, into "cutn rapid»" with
rmmeirka] Awording to the aoftle of vieir, " lu '-" — '- --•-" 1:. —
^ J^ti-
lionial lino, the other radially
h the obliquity oi thr rayi._
h"hc «'n|ic mi
.ng tangeniially the earliest lonii oT photoffrapbic ebkctivep
aft more or leu WollaEton'i icnpravea bngle pemcoi^ men.,
the rayi and lrn>(lg|j>. It was made achromatic by Ch. I
■Teen horiionlal by L, J. M, Dagueirr. though it TCtluiml correcti
rvaturt of firld, focui. u did the object jlauea oE teleicopei or or
(5> DiiUrlion. UKd ior^pholoi|Taphy. The lin^le landica
!»•!>■
I o( the u the type o( the " oM
.... _.. irdttht (liE. I4)> It it wed vitl
appear with concave the object and a diaphragm in ftont, t
... f. It can be corrected ducii^ inward or barrel-lhaped difltorlioa,
ilh the convea iidca outwardi and a in ih» type of objective, and rendering i
and le^r^oto typca fenenlly ahow the latter noticeable
lb> Carflwdrir attwiuttt produced by the haa to be
vhile li^hi puaing through the lena, and the prove defii
aya eompotiiig it coming to a focua at different proved fo
tiv fosititni and jiiri o' '""" ' '"" "*"" ""' "
r ordinary photoin'aphic
lurlaccL In Bome or ita improved and
preferred hy_ portraitiata (or Utr
Fic. 16.— Kapid Landscape Lena.
, (fiK.i5>: J. H;I>aUiBeyer't" Wide Angle L»nd
I oil loD improved. The"RBpid kk
■ (long locus) Landicapc Lena " 1^
^-'
IhTLture
oltheglaaa
mployed by mean
Flint tla»U indicated lb
u.:-
:rown|laii
oI low refiat
tive power tho.;-
:n,«.glaa.
olhighrefra
ctive power Iho. >-
the inlro
^Ora light
lint gbia th
tiaiatra, »«**«..
So8
PHOTOGRAPHY
FiaiS.— FintEnjIiih
Ft. iroa VniftUndEt in 1&4I.
5K,
■(*iV'»>"''™*"'^.'
wfaich [xwait -— _ ^-,-—
far'sortnitun by Kme ol the rapid uuili(nii
nil Ltai'\ilKo).}li2. uir!
irm dT Dbiective qukkty *upplBiit«l ail
iiill 1it|cly vied, Ihough it bu defect!
r pneial purpoKi and i> bani auHnEded
of the rapid uuilitmiu. In liii " Quick
'"' " ' ■ - ■ ■- pjllmeyer
— Group Aatiplanet-
IBi by tl;e "Ponnit
PHOTOGRAPHY
ctiva of rairijr l«rge
■ gnuiik and a 1i(hi II
■ concave kni. Uwugh vlov,
nn aJonc and Dihcr more r
Ic «( nini CarCZciii&Ci>..J<
IheobliquFjaviaAd tbc vanlof nu^juli
7^ Of field WI™
ivir in angle oT ts*. It wai a
J been Kiperieded by the ^' Hci.
>uli(niai>. Dr Paul Rudolph, of Mt
509
(Sf . s4). TTii
Bj.inittti'; " L«idacape."/yi3 toj/is, angle 90*. al« uied theobliiiieiaviand tbe mntof DUf^iialdefinitkin
IKRibleKtt! "Wide Ancle Landtcape.'V/»<o//lS. angle ■
-Wide Aoile RewoduciTon,-- limjlar to the Ij.i. but wKh E59I
Icnn They are now iuued at " Pmtan." wiio l[a
Sit: v., jilt. In 1891 D[ Rudcdph devoted himieir
the linslc biulKape leu» and conMnicled on the nm
floalecooibinatiDn of three leniei.tliec«n1iaJ ouehavm
[ndex between the Indazea ot the two olhere. and one of
unacea oiveriing, wniie ine other wa«
km gave an anadwinaticaJly flat image
'""'"'"" tible kiu or " Sati-V-
CTMandu)- Inth
fDtA.SleiiIheilh>d
'IX^Z
bad devoted himidl 10 perfr
'1 ^n^a dmbfelTur Rudolph
Coerr iccuird the priority of p
out their " Double ~
limilirto RudolphX
^. .~««s,^jh had had Ibe nme
priority of patent in 189}, and
FlD-K.
RomXkxa " Dvor." Scrio llfT
rtjvity» bvt abot-t equal or higher di^ienioiL tsoth uw
freedom from aitigmatitm with flalneia of ftdd and great coverine
gww at the large apcnuie of fh-i (if. 35)- Both Iheie typea of
ia'i " pTMan'' and Coen'i '■ OaiM ananicmau han tiaa
bMn made by Mem Riiaa i
out ihcic (iin " OnhoBiiinii. _ ...^ , , „ , ...
i-iili^H. w^rviinaM^tomaiiuUetiinllbcinjAGcnnaiiy.aadihey WL..
t and Engluid. They wen folloircd by a tecoDd
PHOTOGRAPHY
SKinheil brou^t thete Leniei ir d
I ta be fife fnim diapbnfliD
lie nepilve km it mule u clot
rbtch hju dnce been iiaued in ttvttal leriei by Mei
r Mean Beck is England (fig. j6). Accmding
!il (£. jy, iSgr. P- 'J'l Mt lena wai an apslicali
• lu^iy bi A. Sicinbeil aa nemaary i<« th<
o Dr R.
HI of two
-l-E
111 Lena. F)c. 40,— "Cookt'liB
(or rcpUc nr cbe back krta 1:^ a low-power uieuaua ka (^
your i»9S 19. p.**). S*rietlII..//6s (fa^K a^WBiy,
d SuHon of^uuf^ln ■"lau.-r >erin"vi.'^OI), ^sA tbu idlHiiiii
lure that IhediHuaine AdiuUmenI and iiis dv '
rcom tbe back oTlbe camera whSe newj
A special fully comcled "Proceta'* Icdi
principle ba* recently been brcueht out fo
nne<1ine Rpnduclion. Another diKincIly r
objective invoWinf aeveral new principtu. ■» ^.,~^^„. — —
palenledlnrH. L. Aldia in 1B9S. and bnuihi oat by Mm W
nw>'er in three lerin. under the name of "StiiDialK" (Pk /Vi
1S96. », p. TI7}. Il alio aKHoacbea the triplet cooiInctiM BJ
lcn«t.*An^aidinE to AkCthncoSK^na "™
■ ■ " -rfdlreelro ■ ■ ■ -
_„ IiniatiiRi:{l)'nic«o>t>Tki
nax unirle "^"■" n>uH.be of high, the diveving of kw. rcfnctivc iniaitil
r. R. piil- JooiiSeral^'"inleiial:''S7'"h*ic"nS3«ua5am tlmikl be iwl
The fifit ■■ Slijnuiic " waa a ponro' ' ' "
^■^"Tc^
L I., i»9«J^<-
Send Vila. fi6 3.
:. H 1
iDciiHc but (Wf
Fic 41.— S<«Badc ta>
Serioli;
1 Zei» iuued the " nanar," an Dbjectfre rf kV
an the prinriple of the Gaiiu telncope objKtn^
i:aL doublcl. eat h element coniiiting aTihrtc kB*
m beinjr a double convex and a double conoif. "
but diflcrent dL»pcr>ive powrr, cctncDIrd lOfX^
fraturcj, conuiucinl and jutcnlcd by H. D. Tayloc. 1
tiqs by Mnurs Taylor, Ta^k>r^& MoIhhi uwlcr the
ible new fnliaruIIlDui Kork w'ith the i
from //y6 to ftfc will. pBta*
' HaincH of field ever an ai«k d
ry niud wide>UEle lena gaf al I"
natogiaph aiH *— ' -— •'-
later bv Metara Vcnttl^lndcr a
liita of three airwlc Icnaei, two ol them
nglauwilh hiefTrcrrjctionand lnwdl>
_ ... ™icnjgi»phy and tolatrnnao ■
«r E. Jt.. iM. P- 7* Von Rohr, p. nok wd LmW-
chromatic planan with nduced a^pBdaiy ^mtnua w
I in 1903 for thnc<oloiir pbolocnpby. aad an ita
ilmphoto(rra[>hy, the circle of diSinon being lujian*
PHOTOGRAPHY
Fio. «.— Zrln'i ■■ Diur."
" Double Anudfnut Cclor/*
irtrkAl doublet, each cknicpt
ofliiive of hifth and a negative
raled by an air-^aie (Gi. 4S)' It ii
' ' uint: the refractive
c nbtaivt power
th a Mill larger aperture. Series Ir,. //6-3i
lendcd for hand cameras, the aperture
'■ Hyperjon," (1900) //ji, angle 135". 1> ■
red, while open or reflecting
a haa been paid to perfect
■e ccntn oC the fleld. It U
II. Tlie"Duo"lenio(tlie
ce Ihe f foot leni and double
•ilhoul any loaa of quality.
™U^).SIS-6S.^^'S?.
wibic to make a ipherically.
ected photographic objective
{ Mewa BuKhof Ralbenow,
i) that it it quite poeaible to
*. and that it i« immaterial
' crown u the hivher. An
i by Mem Bia£ m 1901,
Mi. Serie.ll.,/ft.5.aMle
•ued. It a a lymnietrical
Fio. so.—Rote'i
oi lower r^raction with an
a neiaiive leiu. The bacit
laar ■^■rie^ by G. Rodeo-
4 brought out the " Hofno-
rlement contiating of a iiega-
' an air-ipace (lig. JO). )l a
> not altered in focua with
luiiiie defining pnvr. The
aiffercnt cdouied imafei tit
ndcring it apecially auliabW
bacli Inu can be lucd (leiK.
xHit double Ihe focui nl the
".•J'?J-A:!! i.'.L:i^"?v'f
BvE
' a diaphragm. It i<
re. ji.— Vpigilioda'a
B lor CDPi^Ing and enlarging,
■■TcMar (icBj) i.a rapH
traiturc, and V/4-S for hand-
^"^w'fi^d^nSton"'^
mialion. The /ft .5 portrait
IE power of the F^tival lent,
rtlon. Mtars Vdglllnder'a
iitated by Dr H. Haning, it
5'»
PHOTOGRAPHY
lafier ii vefv ui
They cm be Bitcd withHucabJiT
uccvllv cofnctcd to
I -:.k HucaUe nvCTiiiii piuD
, adiuiuble lor kfiup or
•Bgl*. y-.i?^t
ii^J^
obicctivn ot Ibe load, triple or qiudfupkr obb
^cdj with air-ipua, in rauy moAfiOLliOQI^ h«i I
Endiih tnd fonuEii nuLen^
i^utafat' ■ — -
Fio. S«-
long tocus,tor porlmiiufe. «e.; Il-./ft-S. tn^ ToMorjeneral uie, ■ pinhie objectivM no* aviiljl
nl_J/7•J.M(1^6s^•■^ullrtolI.butkB^^pia^lV.//6■]..n^k9t.^ which i» doubt wis the bar
iviilibk the km of ii
ancle, givinfiiiiilictorrdiiiBlliDii a) lull apenuiT over in inile I been overconK. ■ ltd drfinkion h
So 10 B5'. Hnirinl HCk ■ Uiif mem ol covering power the I aholi can readily be nude with 1
inunrity •(■■!'■?
M ia ttii An***
ii& iSac cl onliiurr intnuily tht tt
■Gbo^, «nd EOOd dc£(UIH>ll can be obEuncu una ui CKLCiib
Tk o^<k^ principle on which iline camhinAtiDu Aic bu
hilTT luiple. Aod win be undtntcnd from i%. J6. It dcpei
PHOTOGRAPHY
Mnm Djllracyn'i
Ibvh, tnd ii back oF^iivF
" Adoa ■'■ i. fi5^ o"Si '^
J^. m.y b. L.L™ on .
leLcphotoiqiphtc Icnf
plti'l
liUrroidinihii
xUde u ibc Uigc.ii
the Royil PbotoirtphLC Sflcieiy in ]8tl dr
wrrc Tcviml ui iH^i and again io 190E. 1
PHOTOGRAPHY
_._. _, _ JM niloi. «hkh
Tbc lornwr lUiKlanl unii
' ' have bRo aboliibol
dvpeodcnt upon the
lAFPARAm
11 (otlowi
. ._, The et._
The leiii miitl
tht Gallic
■hat <i< the effectivi
he ?KpoiMm nauired by ine ;. ,
,rc lobe niMle in unitnnnily with Ihc Hale, wilh the emption
highot inlcDHty, <.(. ■ leiu of M] would be muked lor //6-J,
fli.Sc TIk ciim«iaDdin( BUKilicn iR knows u/niunben. but
nrc on)/ applicable lac a leni locuied lor diftance. Other mteni
of notatioaaRin uk, but the above iiEcneially adopted (ice Fabre,
r.E.P. SuBpl. C. jtl), RmcIiI ilianlicafliii arc in luc lor proceH
work with ruled Krttat ba N.S. AinMuti. Iliiulbiiik ^Pluao-
lUnre litiingi. and foe the acrcwa Gitcd to camnat lor niochmcat
to (he kund or for Hxing movabk parte, have alw been laid down
{Pk, Jeurn, 1901. 15, p. 311).
^r,;;
nrially fc
nd patten
iphic eqiiipmeM in ""gfo
thV rair«^biin^ ^uiicnTutedbelc^K or behind thelenaVand the~l<
plane ihutter, la front of and cloic to the plate and lorming
the back of the camera. The uxial limit of npidil — ■ ■
loriner is nominally about ilg of a trcond, and Tor ._.
pDiei higher ipeedi are KldoD required, while with tbc latter
^j.V«fl to 1A1 of aKcomI may be attained.
Two imponaat faclun in the uic of lent ibulten m then
01 ipsnt. neaiurcd by the total duration of eipouiie Iron o|
to cliAlng, and the tficiemry. meatvred by the ratio of thi
opcn'ioto'S ekiu^ng. "uothfocwr. arem-- -- ' -'^-'-^"'
•oth d-Rncnceiol conitruction. of diii.hi
of the thuiter with icjaid to the plan
Hie of the tiUecI aa it approaehii '
An object moving t m. an hour advano
a km of 5-tn. focus thli would lepn
ground GUH, for an object ^ ft, awaj
. the distance beinrrcai^. (he noidhle
rivaled in the aame proponlon. w t nat tbe
hour at Jun ft. diuancc would only rcquin
1*1 to A of a vcnnd. On the other hand,
at an object moviiur I m. an hnur wlihln
be hilwcrn fy and i)t of a vcond. Thi>
Df the i<m>iliwn«^ uTthe pkilr. and only
:u of the |Uate, and the inteuoi
itenuty and ai
II ef light
acting upon it throwh the lent and ihuttcr. muit be adintida
a* If) produoe the d^rrd plKitofiraphic crfiit vithia tut ii«r
With a lent of 11 in. local k^th ^die di^plan-mciit •^oiM han ii-
e>t»>uc^"|LniI^le w^'be'^.ISi'^ t?A if a IkoSTtS
■howa that there u an advantage in uang •bort-lociu kriunfitiai
rapid eKpoeurea. In praetln:, mott work of thit hind it ikn 1^
auatter-pLiteaUtXj) b.) wllhlcKnnf 4i 105 in. focui. Mt
diiplacement will be ercateit lor an ubiect movine at a riibt ^
.h. .,i. -J .fc. u.. lulKcient lor tbi.>^
n Abncy hat tfibeu
££
treated mathematically bji W. B. Covenlry i
Ilmd CuHcra, iu which wJl be found fonnulae ana
taining the diftancvt and limiline expoHirvt for
aliawiuifarabluTof ,1, ofaninch. Infondgnt
a HuaJly calculated for a diiplacement of A of
about til of an inch.
An emcrcnt ihutter ihould fulfil the following Tfmiflrnw k
......I.I >^ i^^j jg^ compact, timpte in conttructkiii ani actiia
made, and kn liable id e« out of oricri capable if U)
' iltling light into the eaiDen;ca>ilyRleaHlwitti
' 'be finger, if a paeumatic rrlvaic ie net fittoLai
onely made, and
: without admitli
._ .... the lull apenutv, arid H nBU not m
31 the eiTcctiv« light pauing thTDUgh the kna, but ibatU
nisinDute it evenly all over the plate: though in landicipr v^
it ii an aJvantoec to uvc the foEcground more eaipeoDe ihia ik
tkv- It should be ai^iutable lor variable inuantaneoa lad kr
pToUinHd or "lime" expoeuret. With a good i^niief then ii
leu riik ol duUng the amen in thon " time^' upoHiriv fna | o
the lenict mun permit of the ui
alteratioiu of ipeed while set.
[cctly or relatively u, an Impo
varying the uccd of a thutter t
of the ilot; (1) by the retacdii
by vaT>'ing the tcnilon of a 1
W. D. C^^iry a> bu the bo
preiure of the finger on the en
prrwiEU, applied by ncaiu of i
which maydrivc a piuon Odin]
inflate a eollapHble bulb at the
lekaae a fleuble v'm aeii direcily on the pitton or irintr nkv
of a cylinder ihutter. It tialsoaiupled for roller-blind, local plH
flap, and varioui formi of bctween-lcni ihuitert. It ii dntiUi.
eSective and convenient (lec fig. 3). In many can both mRtgA
The (allowing ore the principal lypet ef inataaiueDui lUtir:
(i) Flap.. (1) drop. (]) combined drop and Oap. (4) i«ary. (!) nl>
bbnd, m focal plane. (7) moving Made cenical, IS) iiia, nc^a
be applied in four dilTcnni povBoni: (a) in [coat sf the Iw: «
eeatially, near the diaphragm; (c) behind the kai (d) iDowIiiMr
In (nnt of the leniitive plate. They all, howevcc. cone undsi*
main dasei: Lalnel, inckiding thote in which the af^
ithcr la'
id opemnfE and doing t
tnat the beat ponlionfar knsiL.-
the objccdve. and for those of the oin
effective light pairing throujdi the leni.
plate. Thii ii cipcciitly the c
. opemnff am'
best positior
leral -■ in theii sntk ha
ftnd portion of the dsnw
ns and plate, haw a «nM
—'■'-._ on the anoiH.*
ly lalli ofl until the diutl
T pnution the whole of the ia h
-^•' -\\!SS.
..... ... .taBl Vt
t in whicb the fiiit and thiid (bUH ■■
, -jiing the openlae and doaing. aftlv
ired with the anoiul phase of full t^ninf.
' plane ihuttcn, however, Hiffrreni portinu 9 vt
and cflicieBCT throoghout the cipofure.
To lecure (iKxeniful resulto in wing tantantanroui ihuncn. tie
oiKialar (bovld make hjnudl acquninicd with the wofkiiii • ha
4t comparec
Ih the local
MUTUS! PHOTOGRAPHY
1 b DOR impDrtut. hcnr far they can be deundcd on to
Uty. Then an nuny limplc wayi in which (he srtual tint
BOHR irom Dpeninf id doung ran be uccruined HiKdentl'
If for pnct'ial putpotci. They depend upon Ihe meaiuiemcQ
B mo left on i Kiuiiive pUte by (he puuic of a brighili
•Btid object revolvinf at ■ known niea) or nllinf verlicallj
qh a known diiiaixx, when pholiigniphed with diffennl Hnd
■ ihulta arainil a datV background. Theie. and Ihe mv
vitr methDoa Tar obtainine more accurate deicrmioatioai oF ibi
ts-enpoture pcriodi and oi thecormpondinff effective apoture
: iliowinE the actual eflcct o( the ihutter tlutiuEh iti differed
■ iran opening to cloain^— have been deecribed by Sir Wiliian
ET in civ worlc ahvady oimtioned, by A. Lunde In La Plvta
<iimeiaiu lai U PMapaUik mmnlaiiii. An ippanlut In
■ diutten at the NationaT Phyvcat Laboratory wai dHcnbn
,3eCraaf.HunKrinthe(^ua. 19116.
Hmf Sktiiirrt.—TtK vniple Rap ihullen consiiLin^ of a hmget
aomnf upward! in front of tiie \eia. though favouritei in earfj
lar landicape work, and *tiU utefui Tor intermittent expnurei
iik]r-«hadei lot leeuring cloud eflrcti or increaiing hngivuni
■Mu ii.»* h«« -i.»<.^ tupeneded by quicker and more com
, J with aingle and double flap* (or portral
work, Tor which purpose Ehey are made id ki
he allention of ihi titm Guerry'i
ipleoCihelypc. W.WaiKn't" Silent '
a .ingl.
. iquare, or elonnied— ukI wilh thutlen ol Ihe lateral
pot it ii nt^v generally lecogniied thai a moreorlnaeictcaded
ifular opening, of at leau Che full width ol the leni aperture* ii
w ircufine Ihe even admisiion of llghc from all parti of the image
kutttnof Ihe rectilinear lateral type. 10 which thiiand limilar
n. in which • tingle opening paaa acrow the lcn» aperture,
I- Ja Bugch^a " Bky ahadc " thuicer (iw). hieing on che fronc
leu a tingle leaf movei vertically upwardt and descend* again,
S'S
SSXlf^
n.«o.-«neny'
ubIe-lUpShucier
It h hemiipherfcal i
form
and c
.TM
";.=;&
bSsi;r?K-.
edro
s.-S,'.srj,!-
HBpacI and quicker-working re
ihesuK principle. Ichadai
le effect ol diflerenc forma of a
tttMnal Drof aid Flap SiuUrr
.—In eariy dryplale dayi
1 Uxm of <h>s kind of ihucier
(ere broughc «it, under (he
lel Pboenii, Phantom, Ac. but a
•enowhtileuaed, in thcK
», ia addition CO ihe drop ilide
srh.'a.v'K'SS.'j
mure.relca^ihedrap'slide'™'
were uielul and eRtcuve in
wt in the larger. Speed
ly by Che UK ol india-rubber
rSiciency at the highest ipceds by Che
F«3l
PHOTOGRAPHY iapparato
Cmn-AnKliiiit thutKT hai S. Irii ^tviicri.— Tims in ■ funhs dcvclopHBt of At teUi
imvidiiig foe ninety diRvr- curved bbdc ccnlnl ihutun, and nmatiuctnl sn IbC inKific ol
.. jpecd> ut ejipwjfn. rano- the " Irii " diipbrapd. uriih kvovI leavn opening an tarn iht
BfioTni^lOit'aiof a Kcond. centre Ot th« km nnd dodag AgAin. Th^ an utmlly tiid
riid« aulabulb TipOHirti bclweca the ]ni»i ii< double obkclivei. aad can be mde HT
— 1 lo S Kcondi and time Jiiiht ind comcoct. Tbeonlkally ibfa eeaml paitloB d III
lura (% ^). M»t o( ibu<t« ■■ Ihc bcM, and the " Irii^' h the beH fan to m1^
cauH (Uilortlan o( the imaiin They can, however, be uvd with
of i)iiiddy>Tiiovlac obiect*. convertible KCi ot iensc* of diHerent
especially jl near iae camera, (od fitting tbe lanie moont. _ Scvenl
the wulth of the flic and Ebe taRJgD makenj villi three, four or
practically dot oflcn pcrre^- ihutter (fig. 67) may be (alien V ■
tiblc, c«|Kdally if the «lit u type. Gewgen ■ " Central " ihuttcr
libLc, cipcdally if the «l
ve in the it very light and itnool
the objects and can be lued ta fr
by FabiT iT. E. P. Sut^.. C. n. 138), and their practical 1
4(i'(a«i'*o<o(«f*yC'I'hoto-Miniitun: Serin,' No. 77. ■ ,
gnxt Bladi Cfnlrol SkuUnL—Thac ihultera. in which Aboey.CDvenuy, Eder. FabnandLmi
in meul or cboniie pUtn or opaque eurlaini with ivund or _ ..
;uUr apFniirni.or in other ciieii l«a cun-ed Madii, paia Eitenrt iltltt
oickly over each oibcr in opposite directinnj, are largely When gelatin dry plalet came into gi
I many patterns fitted between the lenwe of a combinalicm of many diRirrcnt degiees of K-nNtivcne
ichcd U> Ihem in front or behind. Formed of two unglc the proper eipoiiire for the varioui nuk
■huttcnopcniDtandcbHngintticccDtteof theleniapCTtiiiT, condiiiiint ol lighiing began to be fdt,
ecunic Hnlral. (lie cipOHin: taking place during the ihoct devited for meeting it. Some of then
efficiency the niie of the apcninEi*A<iuicl cormpond wiih the lull i^iEht for thi
ire of the lens:
IbeK data a
" ipeed " of the plate i
'"■■■ Uiiicuin"''siiLt»T. " ' ■■ S™-S^w ■■ Shu'it" '
it i> poisible to fit other kue^ Some lormi are. however, luitable
■' Sce-Saw " (fig, lift), while thoK ol Ihc double ruUrr-hlind t^pe
can be uncd either in Inml of or behind the leu. ihough thii poulion
it Ihc bnt, circBlar apertiim cattiK vfl a itood deal of lighl, u in
the ca>e o( drop nhutten. W. D, tovenltv (o/t ri(. p. «o) baa
discuucd the aetkm of the double nJIcr-bUnd ihutter a> tjrpiau
or the central cLh» of abutters, and abows that while, under Biniibr
cnnclltions with the lateral ibiitter the rfTcctlvc expown ie con-
st.inl and the acliial cnmiBe vaiiahlr at all apcniirea, it b the
—i-.,^ >iiili fh> cEBlraf ihultcrs nml it will rnl be to eaiy to
?■ with differvnt need vtopr. A central thtitter,
~JIB of variable aperture, eivof a more efhcicnt
ml ibulter of the unM dimcnnun). at logg a<
the opening U eteal -.--. — -^.
illuminatiniil of STv
ig aa a diapiira^ of variable at
illuRiinatiun of tlte lent varylnt aa long ai the ahuKcr opening »
imdller than that of the diaphiugm iiied. It ii dnirablc. there-
fore, to incmw the tpeed and u« at large aa aperture at posrible. . ■ ,.
■ ■' t the diaphragm uwd nuy be CBtuely UKOvcnd during Ihc II. a D, itale h direcilj
f^irt of lie exposure. ^1" method hai been :
PHOTOGRAPHY
II Ii ncdilly ulnxcd lor ne
Ini witli theM. A D. nk. bul
tlw relative ipced number ii L.»-,., ^»».^»h.... ^^»»4« ..^
have bcco mule ukx 1890 by A. Walldni, ol Hodsnl, io diflc
517
wllh phta ol annd Dmnbm lene-
eaa be uied with any j^tr of which
ipiciF Mtnaara meter [10907 ■
x plaCF." " diir^niKm / numbcn, naat,
ling." nurlitd P. D. A. S. ind E..uiamn»d
Hind tt cyiindcT, The plate-kpcedi uc Ukoi
' l^t coeffidcfll/' Of " acliaomeEer □tupba,'*
(jme bjrex.
qxKuling to iwe
Hjbiect «pa «
on riii(> (djuiublr
if avTTtained «t tl
p«ing t ^Fce of
tlie initnimoit for Che uunber of
tint u ibovn t^ ui ituchcd
have beat made in it and the
lalcM mttcni (I9D9) is made in
magnaliuni iSr. 69). The " Dial "
meter (1901) n a timpler (orm in
i,^:^ "^rvSr ""nw"' Flo.69-W..fcin.',"Stt».
"■r^.™' act^S^' txp:^tb^it •'^ " """■
Tbe Dumbcrt ihowing Ihc apnd of the plate in uk, the / vSot
o( the diaphrsffm, and the aclinDmeler eipotuR in aeooodi art
brought into the mpective Apenuie* and the eipoMre required
!• read c4[ in the "npinure aperture.
An " indoor meter " ia aiao made, and a
"hand camera calculator" for lue with
the " Standard " or " Dee " melera. The
" Queen Bee " and " Dee " mcten (1^1)
caae, and the aole* ot "f numben" and
" Kghl " oa a revidvin| glau plate. Thli
b lEmhred till tbe/ number on the right
ii oppoajte the ipeed number o( the plate ;
oppoilte the " actinofneter number" on
the left, found ai above, will be found
T (1893) i< alio Io
: tbe glaaa carry in*
iKi Ki^"
™nlmt«r of^llK pitie,
he lilt of plate ipeeda;
Theit are practHally
lira: the Kale of diB-
la. II.— Wynoe'e " I
Uble " Expoaure Meti
'"'»'- «'oo^re"iBj°^r
. wbRi 1M In ui^ 1b ». imaliM
5i8
PHOTOGRAPHY
R o(,t luLrt.-ind thr inlnonHtFT
cornipondiDK to tb« radon of " plile ipHd," " didphra|(m numhrr,"
'"PF"
ind the paper Kale criann?-- ... , , _ . ..
form ii -'E. Dcgrn'i Normil PhMomLIW " (loojl, COnili
tvo tlldlng vmlrt gljiu priimi. one MljiuRd lor the dil
■lide wilh pri.m ii drawn oul n thU Iht pi ....
diviiaon iodiciljnt tlir diaphrarin aurur lo Iw lued; (hr ct
to be pbotonaphtd a Ibcn vnmd dinnly IhnuBh opening
puilied back tlowly liU ibe object vkucd ii ilmoU obKund.
The ittKbed pointer mill Ihen Indicate the upoiiiie icqiiiml.
or, reveninf the order, tbe diapliratiii aperture for a g^vtn cipoautc
can be founds Auiiliary lealeft are attached for very ibon ot very
of (be tinin of eipoiuit are pnjponional (o tlie thicltncvf of the
colouied priwH. "C Heydc'i Acli no- Photometer " (1906} b
OP a Hmewhat dmilar priiidple, and contiitt of a circular itidat
box with dark violet glaia VKvnnf icreeni in the centre of both
liila, with an obiciiriTig itU intkSe the caae wcelccd by revolving
the back of the boi. On the fionl of the iDUruiDeiit ciponiR
tablet are Riven Tor plate* of oveiy rapidity, and foe diaphragm
apHturet from f!i to fl^s. Eipourc nuten of thli tyi
S,"
r Other dmpJc actinomctera
c.. or of a photographu) bc_ .
Sntiilai Dry PlaUl
ptfier under il and em
Plaiei. Films ai
tdy-prepared i
SualeS'CJ^'in"
the piate^ far outKL-ighed it. TTicn: ii aim an cnatmoui uvini
m aUdea. enlaiKentent
gelatin of liliiTchnlniidc.
4 npidilv : '"ilow," for pholo-
ordinary. for general puipoMi
luiml! •• niM, lor hndneape
e cxreedingly «enHitive.
Hnl
cauFr'te Rmovnl bcfon ilcvelopmeni.
:et lued for printut
repared wiili an ei _ _
ilver nirniF and other haioidi.
ing of photocraphic ph
ally imjvTDved Ijy the uic of w -j--. — r—
iwcyanin group, prcpand by Dr E, KUg <f the
My, and known at '- onhoefiitnii T," ■'dicmiit.''
"' pinichmm " and " pinaeyMoL" ilit Imbi rf
nter on ■ lilvn- btonide plate ai high a tem d
Foe ltd atetythmiBdoeitHycllgvialBF. Bq«^
■IT uvially
Iwefi!^,
parlinilarly ._. ,.._ ,_„..„, „ ,
iolel, Tbey are made in diHemil drcieei of geHnl
.__!.^. "inglolhe puTpOK lor wt-~'- ■'
.,iwi3.pp.i8i,]i3t). PaBchromatkptateiBKaavlui
uied and uaed (or all pbotogiaphk; work in slidi a i
g| the refative colour luminoutiei it eamtial. tad ■
1y for (he variout methodt of CDkHir rcpeDdoRiBa It
Ltei are required to be teniitive to red, green tad Uor-
Jbey are made in diHerent decree* of fewral aad eotar
•enuliveneu. according lo the purpOK lor vhich they an icqiM
the ordinary " iKtchioniatic " beiiig mmt acuilive lor yclki* ■•
green, and the " pancfanmalic " for ml, orange and vtHov. •
well at for grceii. blue and violel. To obtain the bts Rate
: coloured glut, or glut ce
^ Ac. or with glait cella con
icbromatic jjatet and tpecial
vc to be uicd (or taking the thi
vptioni bdnf cairfully adjui.._ .
ibc tame applin, but leia itrictly.
Ite cohxjr^ter
Mfor
Dyea ipecUly miaUt
I by Dr E. K«n%. Vn
work are made canmerdally. and Ham Schoct of Jeaa nitl t
ipecial yeHovr glatt in three tintt for the purpoar.
rlaut fir CStia PUtrs^y-— la lUa Loub Ducna da Ham^
amiMg varioui trichromatic methodt patented lor photorathk^
reproducing coloured object! in the coknira of naiuir, iftirrrinrl tat
in which Ibe trichromatic principle, initead of being eanicd «■
on Ihiue ttjiarate platet, wiilobe coobiaed in one plate by owt
tact 'with
pasking 111
chranatic pjate wat to be eapaarf ia i^
to produce a neptin with Unei er ■<■
(aiive itiengih oT the three eolomd ^la
jiMMTra PHOTOGRAPHY 519
Vi natAMy nod uid prtcrictHy loLvr the jvtiblcm td dirm chloride in coUodkw. ind known u " C.C" or " coDoiBoAlortde."
ainr Ikotomphy tn t limpk «pd ItirLy infvpcnuw lOMDEwr The bull of nK»t of (he developable brodidc p«pen uied for en^
jBilfiBli Umttrt, l9og). UiRmenti and diiecl copyinK, conUininf DO free ulver nitnte,
Ii C Lp Fti 'nd with which id inviiible inuge is bnmglit out by developmenl,
pum H tne " Autochmme," th?v proceHei ue ethi 1^ ihjee coloi' * . -
I Ihe cxperitneiiut tuge. 1
Imi. — In order 10 avoid Che weight o( gliii ^lei. ,
rtaaUe " Ai nun, and
ES tSe trie proctHi^
•a piate u ii lufactuted
a HiB of Ml ic oulaie.
tkKttt red, lopiaiaBd
__ nareli paint . ■AalOtAi'B' nmum 10
.■"^i-S^Sr." : . $:: S'Ss:
„ mlKiii«o , . ,!,.■ icolourof
^a^on plate (1009) u a tricolour antcn lormed ,m cjvisf
■ plau with a nuctiire o( linel/ divided panicle* Ik proceia
orance'red. ^reen and bUiC'Violct, without any fijung and
PK. The f rain Eenerally it coancr and mote ,ii icjt,
_ „ the " Aulochrome " plaiet. but optically com- pitmenta
dotely to them than the " Thame. '■ or ■' Oranicokm " |" Autolype/' *c.) tiimet are irepMed coated with (Jgmented
ila_TT™_pl»le._»re ia«ed unMlrf lot^tiK^wil^ any jelatitijn^variou.^^poloun, and VeiV^.iiccejttiil — •-'^ -■—
Md tRitiit isd no loet ol effidencvk Ihouoh luch 61m9 arc tomo- and in tricSronutic printine on paper by the SangeT-Shci^iefd
ttaa U4e to deteriotmiion by iont keeping before or after em- „«hod and Dr Kflnig'i "' Rnatype. ' For Manly'i " Onlypc "
fgm. They are made in two IhickneiaH. itiK or fleiible, the and "Oiobroine" procettet tprcul ntalinind and pigmented
itit btinc ned eiactiy ai platei. but held in a earner or Hinply papert aie made. Cyanotypc " anif " Feironllic " papen are
Wtad with k card or ilaai plate, while the fleuble are made up pieptied(octhei»e<rfarchilecli.engineert, AcinroHtof contider-
k atp«mt« iliiaih* with cardboaid backing, u in the " Kodoid able width, fur the direct refiradiictian of tcacinn and drtwingi
Ab» or ia coBvenienirackain ol twelve or moie in " him packt „ blue or black prinlt by theie and umilar melhodt.
>- i( wlona paciina. Flexiblefilmiof Ihitkindonrellulnid Kavelor Atparalxi /sr DrpiiepiiuM.—Jii recogniiioa o( the [act that
•■ BMr jtm vm alto been prepared in long iiript of dLlfereni (he two principal facton in the develo^neBi of modem phoio-
t ?™'.™'«™ '" *" '° ^ "^j"!^ hi l''" **"lak 'VPC»»'"' in graphic dry platet with • luiuble developer ire lime and lemjieia-
: abac, lad bcint unprotected had lo be ehanjed in the dirk room, many caiei a more convenient and equally elBdent method of
, ta, aa almdy (tued. they an nowiupplied an ipodIi in onndgei developmenl. ha> led to the conttnictHMi of apiMntui Cor enabling
;. -vUeh can be changed in dayliEhl. C. Silvy leemi to have been the opemiirm to be carried out ilmoit autonulkally and for liming
f ttc fnt to employ rhi. method in 1870. In ihew canndm the it, duraiion.
L ^m 11 altadied to a much longer ttrip of black paper, and ">«^ In 1894 A. Watkini brousht out hit factorial tyitem o( devekip-
L Um tlie filea it rddy for eipoiure. Ihit point being marked giivrn plate with a given developing a^nt. the time of development
c* ^Wble Ihiough a red ecreen at the back ol the holder. When all raSo lo the time ol appearance ol the high lightt of the image,
L ImbccBeuowd, the black paper it rolled on for eeveral luma. provided Ihe devekiping power of the lolution remaini conitint
r «■< wbea aktti out of the holder the kxHC end it faitened up till during devekipment; and Ihii rule holdt good for all variaiioni
r '^ Urn it developed. Aa tbeie filmt are principally uicd Cor ol atreogth. amount ol alkali or bromide, and temperature within
1, :. -.. ..„..! ^ Taiie them iiochromalic. and thou Umiti which have been found ule in practice '■ (Plalo. Ni
to nuke them iiochromalic. and iho^ limiti which have been found ule in practice '' IPMe. ffnei,
__jl a vellow icreen. They ate alto (W.i^.pp. ii3,7»;Bndlunher.i'*. Joam.. ijoo.ai.p. Hi), By
i-eurling" by being coated wiih gelatin on both tidct. , aeriet (^obtervalionii he atcertained the muliiplyinn lactort of
-■ 1 Ihete thin filma have the advantage that Ihey moM af the developert in ordinary ute, and in looj brouehl out
either tide without perceptible loit of definition, hit " lactarial cikubtor " and a " dark-room clock '' for lacililating
^tiEk II oiefDl in printing by the tingle innilrr ^bon Groc™. the wotknig of the method! The ft
JaHiaieat 6lma in ibeeti and rollt have alio been prepared upon and carrying a pnnter. The outer d
■iidiMi iclaliD. but it it diffifull to retain the original dimenMont Watkini' facton (or the diHerent dei
^ Ike iln owing to eunnimn of the letalin. Paper cooled with uructioni " accompanyint the inttni
2''lii 1 ™iiiW0Ba hat been lucceiifully 0'*°.™ making ntgalivM [he " time of development " in mini
eapaaure. and unkti developed toon alter eipoture the im-
Bd uvafca may fade and become undevelopable. Such papfrt
bonna. alill uted in meteornlogical and other lelf -recording
^maoitt. Stripping (ilmtol thin celluloid upon a paper tuppon
'VBoinrodyced tw Meur* Wellington and Ward, and tiad advan-
tniduced by Mi«rt Wellinpon and Wa
•■Blet printing (mm rilher tide. Init are not n.-
'niupafhit PnaMf /■a(*ri.— Pari paim with iheiupply ol
p4a(et. all kindi of pholc
^ady^prej pi-
^M BOW b« obtained ready .
Mimt 10 do with the prepai
^SaU albuminiied paper.
^Mfy-erepared tr""iivi' r»nf
^lihvbakMlti
^3*
, tbe chloride beinv uiec
'vlBtioc oiil papert," which coi
■rale, and in tbe " aelf-tani
lh« priaiiBf OBt paper. 1
,c^witT^uT«^; FKi-7"--Wa.k
i£ide''brini uiled"lor%iMt of Ihe " P.O.P." or diik ihowt the '
520 PHOTOGRAPHY
Tfi« *' caTculator " an be lived vith v
bui iht ■■ di ' ' ■■
lor tbe tta
" iSt: T3) l^ b"" "PKially coiiBmcwd
the completed ti
development " by time dependent on the uie oj a jAmJo'iJ " line
developer,'
tun, basig
Full detiil
found in t1
Datlifmru.
C. W. Piper't " photOBiaplin'« Hop clock" (1906) ii 1
ebbonte clock, intended Tec uee not oply in " time deveh>pmenl
bat for all photop^[^ic operation ia wliicli accurate
amnsbl 10 work t^" time "or "buib-'\Opce«uned.b
■iHkioB the Rong at the conplclion of every minute,
■econdi hand leachct the bid point- A fecond preuu
pRHun on a lever itopt it pcnnaocntfy. Ii it thu* useful
any intennitlcnt operatiocu. whilft the clock iddl up the Huartfe
timn and preventB the occurreoce of erron difbcuit id jivoid when
liminE with an ccdinary watcb. By an additionai atuchnent
or an " inilanlancoua " or ihort " time " eicpoture aiven at any
pmmnged lime. Mem HougbtDn't " Ennftn " clock for time
eTpiration of any period from cftic minule to one hour, can be atarUd
or Uopped immediately and ia eneily read in the dark-room, ll
nquiret tw winding up- the action nl letling providing Ilie teniion
for the recording movementi- It can be Hopped and ttaned ai
wiU and liie bell armnged 10 give a thort or prolonged ring. &
Slanley'i ii another convenient form, with* 4) in. dial, divided into
rtvd for developing a number of expwed plates, togetker
rdioary.GT dilute dcvclopcra- with the aid of the factorial
or independently ol ll. The Kodak " Automatic Develop-
Pilmi can be dcvcli^pcd in dayliehl, wiilu
o (fig. 74)- The eipoHd film 11 WDUdd
Fic. 74.— Kodak Developing Tank.
For the " Brownie " films a apeclal davli^t developingbDi ia made.
With the Kodak " Esiiman Plate-devdoping Tank " (lOoS) the
lecial davli^t df
.. Plaie-devdopin
exposed plates aiT removed, in the darh-r--
holden and placed, in pain back 10 back, in a special fr
holding six poire, which is lowered into a metal tank contaimng
be inverted during development- A clock lace- with painter, by
wflJcA the period of development trtiv be noted is fitted outtirle
tin unk. Another apfuratui 0/ the kind ii made tot denlotaH
ttUiihid Slat txpoiai Id the " Premo Film Puka" l&i. 7&V
''iRAPHY 521
hcR, bill it Ii to be noted ns one of Ifaose Iriumphint dcpanurei
from conveniioo whicb bave marlied Hie progressive siagcj of
picteriil pboiDgraphy. At about tbe tame period. MrsCunecoa,
carrying the recommendaiion of " a liide out of fociu " rather
funiier, regardleu of bow her lens was intended to be used by
its maker, secured the rendering diclaled by her own taste and
judgment, with the result that many of her portraits, such as
those of Tennyson, Carlyle, &c., are still ia their way unsur-
passed. Contemporaneously, Adam Salomon, a talented seuJp-
tor, " sunned " down the too garish lights of his photographic
prints, and strengthened the high lights by working on the back
ol the negative.
But, during the concluding quarter of the igth century,
probably the most powerful influence in pictorial photography
was that o( H. P. Robinson, who died in Febraaiy 1901, and, but
lor a brief period about the yeu 1875, was one of the most
prolific " pictuce makers." Inspired by Rcjlander, of whom he
was a contemporary, Robinson will perhaps be best remembered
by his earlier advocacy of combination printing. As early as
1855 Berwick and Annan eihibited a photograph which was the
result of printing from more than one negative, I figure from one
plate being cunningly introduced into a landscape print (torn
another. Then came from Rejlandcr " The Two Ways of Life,"
in whicb, with nonderful ingenuity, thirty different negatives
were combined. Robinsonlollowed, and between 1S5E and 1KS7
eihibiied numemua eiamplcs of comtHnal ion-printing, one of
the most papular and (airly typical eumples bang " Carolling "
[»e Plate 1) .which received a mcdil inihe exhibition of the Royal
Photographic Society in 1SS7.
Though in this combination-printing one may perhaps perceive
the ger.n of incentive towards the production ol special eflect*
not seen in the original, yet the practice was not destined Id
become very papular, for even in the most capable hands there
remains the difbculty, if not impossibility, of fitting a portion of
one negative Into a print from another and still preserving true
eminently popular in character though " Carolling " may be,
Dr P. H. Emerson has said: "Cloud printing is the simplest
we are considering artistic work, Rejiaoder, however, in the early
day! ot photography, tried 10 make picture! by comWnition-
prinling. This process is really what many of us practised in the
nursery, that is. cutting out figures and pasting them into while
spaces left lot that purpose in the picture-book. With all the
care in the world the very best artist living could not do this
satislactorily. Nature is so subtle that it is impossible to do
this sort of patchwork and represent her. Even if the greater
truths be registered, the Itiset truths, still importanl, cannot
be obtained, and the lotlntss of outline b easily lost. The rela-
tion ol the figure to the landscape can never be truly tcptesenied
in this manner, for all subtle modelling ol the contour of the
Pictorial photography received a large accession of volariei
in consequenceof the greater facilities offered by the introduction
gf the gelatino.btomide, or dry-pbtc, process, which, although
dating Innn iSSo, did not notably aScct photographic commuDi-
lies until some years afterwards; and although improvement in
appliances and instruments had little (o do with tbe advance
ol the [Hctorial side of photography, yet, indirectly at least, the
dry-pbte and the ptalinotype printing process have had an
undoubted effect. The tormer gave enormously increased
lacilily, and dispensed with ledioui nunipulations and chemical
knowledge, while its increased light-sensitiveness decreased the
limitations ss to subjects and effects. The platinolype process
was discovered in iB;4-i8Sa by W. Willis, who employed his
chemical skill and knowledge (o give tbe world a printing process
more likely than the hitherto prevalent silver papers to satisfy
Up to iSSi but lew outdoor phglogtaphcrs had ventured to
■ ■ ■■ 'shouldonlybe
522 PH0TCX5RAPHY
conicDt iKHild hive been ^ven evnywhcit to Ibe pnpoiiluin AtoukiI inio cmtei utEvily by
ihat i( would be ibiurd id work when anything like fog oi itmo- Fholognphic SoCKlr begin to piy nu
■phcne hue wu preieat. Iiochninialic plila, introdueed tor nOw bctomc Ihc more popular phue.
(he purpoic oi equalUing the aclinic power of viiioui colour the techniul and tdenlific work wai hung u
luminoiiliei, and BO nndcting CDloun in correcl relative value, " Art Section," and a wpiri
wfrerccoQimeodcd by one wtiler, who ai^ilauded their luppoKd wclion. It beciRif the c
advantage oE enabling the photographer to photograph distance amount oF &pacf to the " art
without any luggestion ol alnuuphere. That evening or morn- ai judgt*. by way of encouraging Ihoie who were devoted La thi
ing haxe might enhance the beauty of a landscape, ot Ihat the pictorial aide lo aend in [or exhibition. In the autumn cl i«d
mystery ol haJf-concealment might itself be beauliful, doa not the New Cillery was secured, and i CDtnprehensive ohihiliH
seem to have occurred to the photographer, who hail become of all phuea of photography was heM.
infatuated by the evjuisite clearness and ihaipncw which, with a It is interesting to note that as a diitinct movemcBl piclinl
minimum of labour, he was able lo achieve. Ii ii therefore photography is essentially of Biitiab origin, ud ihn a iknt
intemting to note one ol the Gnl photographic luccesses which by the manner in which orsaniied photographic bodiraiBViaii,
broke away from this convention, just as Rcjiindet's Solar Club Brussels. Paris, St Petersburg, Florence and other Einftu
group defii'd the formula at itianging human figures like the dlies. as well ai in FhiUdelphii, Chicago, &c, loUnriBg Ik
licit of an amphitheatre. William Kl'Lciih, of Darlington, • eiample ol London, held nhibitions on ruclly simaatliHSU
Scottish gardener who had taken to photography, ind who teeml those of the London Photographic Salon, and invited kMQ
was ignorant, of the old iliclii, lent to the Royal Photographic of the " Linked Ring " encouraged nn interchange al vob
Society's Eihibition in iSSi a photograph entitled " MEity Mom- between Erilijh and foreign uhibiton. with the mull tkU lie
ing on the Wear." a very beauliful view ot Durham Cathedral pcoducliont of certain French, AuMrion and Amerion phtt-
« seen throu^ the mial from across the river. The judges, graphei* are perfectly familiar in Great Britain. Thik io lit
although they that year awarded eleven medals, passed this by; year i»oa, led to a very remarkable cult calling ittell " Ite Xe«
but appreciation came Irom outside, lor newspaper critics, and American School," which had a powcKul induenn oo OHB-
practically all those who were not blinded by prejudice and poraiics in Great BrilaiiL
conventionality, decllrcti it to be lie photograph ol the year. |, ^^y be well lo Oim at such InprcnTmcBIs of pncac
imitators of U'Leiah. and both figure and landscape work began advarw. but rather niadiAcaiinils . ' -^- '^ '-
10 be shown in which there wa* evidence of greater freedom r™""" <° <<" niiuimneati at the
and oii^naliiy.
hieanwhile ihe FholOEraphic Society of Great Britain had
chiefly absorbed in putely scientific and lechnica] subjects. But
the general apathy which eiiiled in respect of Ihe artistic aspiia- _ _ _
tions ot «me workers was the forerunner of a period of rcnaiaancf rherel^ muemliy' iHhHd.'nnie _ _
which wai to end in lifting the pictorial side of photography into prelemng to uK ike simplm form of uncorrected «bjeai«t '
a greatly improved portion. In iM6 Dr P. H. Emetson read "l"iI°,™fS^u"'''Jj!jJSi: SE^'l '.I^^L'S/??^'? "^
t , .i f — r.i 1. It fc' . — |. .. DL . _ 1. IP ■ mmote apcnure. leainKalty called a pinhole. ' Tha is m
bctcne the Camera Qub a paper on Naturalistic Photography, „, eaamplc of many which might be quoted to bearoMIbeiw
which served as an introduction to the publication (i8S;) of his ment Ihat in nhotognpliy lie advance ol aiiythlni ia the UHt
book under Ihat title. Unquestionably this book struck ■ o* artmic qinhtmliai not been camlativc wiih nechawd m-
powerful blow at the many conventionalilies which had grown P^."""".»i ^*" N'"! "■;"■» ™ "''l' •» "« '• l»« ^."
% in the p,«tice ot photography; the chiel doctrine, sel^Lh ':^%' Z"S;h?.SSn;Ka"rtf'£Lv^3:'E!r>JSfi
being the diflereniialion ol focui In diScrent plann, a more spheie of openuloM: but h is perhapi in conneinn with ike ploa
complete recognition and truer rendering ol " lone," a kind ol "^ V^^^llt p™™" >h" more direct advaniagei ban M
iruihlul impressionism derii-cd from a close study and general Sl!SLlTo°ih[i>Sumt™'rv ™"tonf'™™rf^ '■-"".•T
acquaintance ol nature, and a generally higher and more Intel- '"' , bg,V ihe int^iinn i
Icctual standard. Alter the publication ol a second edition in in i8li6 (when B. J. tdwanlt
iBSgDrEmctJon publicly renounced the views he had published, latent, under which he shonlyl
■ • ■ ■■ '- bitterly worded, black-bordered Tl,!^;' iT'fh^ "
■h the book hii'sli"r^'''wc« liM^fu'stiH^ 'iSrdh^ihr r"'- "
onlllct which vrilbia the Photographic Society had become
pparenl u between Ihe pictorial enthusiasts and the oldc
tiic laciuiiai cninuiiasis anu cne oiuci corrected nlalit are found 10 do much towaidi nnovii^ ikcni:
the hanging of certain photographs at the cahibition ol that year; "PWfe.of ''"vj't'"" h'**"£.*" "I™"" "*''■ "^ '" "^^
This (cccssion was to prove Ihe most important event in the iraphcr-m hands imprm 'tl!! ""^"l^J
history of that branch ol photography. The lecetsionists being at ib!'"i^'mrto^ Hlrf'eSSiw
among the moil popular contributors to the annual eihibition boi the toots, and the skeuk ac «■».
gnlhercd round them numerous sympathizers. In the [oIloKing the final print uandinii en as ihebiM
Linked Ring." and in iB«j held their firit " Photographic Salon," i;!l'"iL!r^""''-ff ', 'S SSLJS
al the Dudley Gallery, Piccadilly. The most note^rthy of the bTSlti^ sli"rineb ™ uftaSBE
Annan, whose work was practically unknown until he exhibited "enl wrakeri in New _.._ be menliooid iht
it at the first Sahm; and almost at once he, by general consent, «;;2'HU"wi!?^.iKU"t"lK' ™1S^^«!ll';l SSSHi '^^ Ml
took a pojjlion amongst pdorial pbuographcn lecoDd lo none emrioyrd ,i, break up the eiceuive sharpneu of ih£ {HhhciiS
OccPUlell). image, and by the wptjficial anequaliiiem introduci^ dit iw
PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL 523
is limiled. not oiil> b> (he ImpcrCectiDni of Iheopticil (pparatu)
but by diilurbinca in Ihe KloiMphcre. Aii cuirenli, cilher
oultidc or iDlidc the teleiccipe. *cl u trrrgtdir Icnsa of vftTyiog
■hipe, tnd produce luch deFecU in the Imiie thai mt ftin
nothing by enlarging it beyond 1 ccrtiin point. Such lir dl>-
lurbinea do not trouble the ordinary pholognptaer at all, 01
mrctlyat all: he ii only concerned with 1 few feet of air,
whereas the celMllll pholognpher cannot CKlpe from the
necessity of looking through many miles of it.
(. Sladintis. — In taking a porlnit Ihe pbologrepber it only
concerned to fii his camera Ermiy and to bduce hll ^IteT to
rrmatD stilU The heavenly bodies arc In constant niotlon,
though their real and apparent raovcmenti are fortunately
imootb, etcept far air disturbance! above mentioned. If, there-
fore, it were possible to devise perfectly smooth clockwork, we
could keep the camera oc telescope continually pointed to the
required star or stars. But human workmanship bas not yet
tnade clockwork of sufficient strength and accuracy to keep a
large telescope salisfactorily pointed. The clockwork wbicb
had been found good enough for use with visual telcscopei waa
soon found to be quite inadequate for photography. The first
method adopted was 10 bind two telescopes, one vtsual and Ihe
olherpholographic, firmly logelher; and by looking through Ihe
visual one to keep somd object stcHdily on the crouwiiea by
using the slow motion screws; meanwhile the other teleKOfx
was kept properly pointed lor taking a photograph. A* il wai
sometimes found that eilremely fine movemeotl were required,
electrical airgngemenU were devised, whereby the observer, on
simply pressing a button, could accelerate or retard the rale of
the clockwork by a minute amount, instead of aclnally turning
the screws by hand. And about the ume time Ihe idea arose
of making tbcse corrections automatically. This automatic
correctiao li based on the principle thai ■ freely Bwinging
pendulum, which has no work to do, will nalurally keep
much belter time than the clockwork which has to drive a
heavy telescope; and if such a pendulum is therefore arranged
apparatus can be devised to delect whether the clockwork ii
going properly; and to correct it in the right direction, il il is
not. One or more of these three methods, which may be called
haod-guiding, electrical control, and automatic electric conirol,
ate used in taking all celestial phologruphs.
Tie Phelopafkic Imsti.-Tht imsge of a star on the plale
should be, theoretically, merely a point; but In practice it is ■
small patch on the plale which grows in sin as the eaposure it
lengthened, while at the same time it becomes darker in the
middle. One reason for this is that tight is many .coloured, and
when we attempt to focus it by a lens, we can only get a veiy few
colours. Into even approiimate [ocus; the other colours are not
brought to focus at all, and form concentric patches of fainter
Tlius at best our focusing is only a compromise. When the
eiposure is short, those coloun which have most neatly been
brought to focus have an effect, while Ihe faint light of the olhera
the coloun to be brought most sharply to focus those which are
most important photographically, via. those at Ihe violet end of
the «iecirum. As the eiposure proceeds the faint light of the
other colours affects the plate by accumulation, and hence the
image spreads, while at Ihe same tlme.lhe central put naturally
A reflecting telescope brings (11 colours to the same focus; and
it might appear, therefore, that images formed with it will not
ipiead in this way. There is, however, another cause ol spread-
ing besides that due to colour; neither Ihe leflecling telescope
nor the lens can focus ill the light lecdved by them for mote
than one particular star. Il is Just iheoreticslly possible to
construct a mirror which would focus all the light irom a star
leen in the direction of its ails, but the light fjom anolher star
teen in a slightly diSerent direction would not be truly focused,
since directly we leave the axis, tomrpstlsol the mirror have a.
locus slightly diBerenl (ram iA>iei v»^v. «A 1 <« \w*W
PHOTOGRAPHY, CELESTIAL
pniduad Im nugnlGei), ll li Ken to tivc t ibipe like Uul of >
kiU, Ab the aposunr is proJonged the unall kite-afaaped figure
gradueUy increaxi Id siu from the point towirdi the head, ud
this delect LB the more pronounced the farther we depart from
the ccotn of the piste. The result is, speaking generally, thit
the imiga Dur the centre of a plate may be fairly unall ud
dtcular, but at a ceitiin distance train [he tcntie they become
distorted and large. It is a practical problem of great importance
to have this distance as great as possible, BO that the field of good
definition may be brge. Estimating in terms of angular distance
from the centre of the field, the reflecting telescope his a good
6eW of not more than 40'; a lelcMope with one compound lena
(the ordinary refractor) a field of about 1^, while if twoccmpoupd
lenses are used {as is the case in portrait photography) the field
may be very greatly eitended, 10° or is° having been successfully
coveted. This is naturally ■ very great advantage oi the
" doublet" over otbet forms of telescope, an advantage which
baa only teceolly been fully realiied, Bui there is a compen-
aating drawhacli; to get a laige field we must either use a large
plate, which is liable t&bend or 10 have a permanent curvature;
■mall plate the picture will be on a small Kale, so
geometry of t
-- The point Niiofluodan
it eban and it it oaniial u all
LB^nnHhAi
Slur ClulrU
desired combii
graphic Ditrdit.
,eby photography with any , ^„ „„. ^ ^^^ ^ comp^Slit. ■S^uTS."
.antages. The Cape Photo- that bit* .laii, ..A, a« focuMi beyond the 3rnr»*lo&"
_._,. , --, graphic survey of the southern A. iwarer the object alasi; eiact focui only tew piMftlt fai
hemisphere by means of 150 plates each raveling 5° X s° taken pa"ituli;, nng or, the plate. The it« A will thin be n^JMri
a. the Royal Observatory, Ca'pe oi Good Hope; the plate, being J^^V'^Jl^?;^'' ""wHe,'- ^J 'rli^iElS SStpTSl^iirrr
aflerwtrda measured at Croningen io Holland by PtofeMor J. C. «|ort the cenlri a. hel w^Tand Ui^lSSke it U SSm
mational icheme ibe •tario the optical eenire cuts the plate. If this caa hi *«
iilv hv eighteen !"" 't* t"" "lepiwenM the ■eomettical pcniectioa o( tke l»ii«
tly by eighteen frojnihe point C on to the pIuk PL. The£.iu.»ii.Ilycwtnl
. I, and each of ai lying on the celeqial siJiece, with an arbitnry SSiiiari tarn
aurei of 6 min., ■wh a sphen with C a> cenlie ■ki'cn as i^iiTiE'&^kS
ing pointed in,. "N^wEST^'Jjir.^JtrjSSJr' 5? '.."SSS ST " *"*•
— a"*v ^•-■>v,^.,,l u„,.,.«jv„ j.^1 -.a-.u t.4pv>u , v , » that cach itat to different part of the aity, — —1-" - J^« ' --
about the glh magnitude show: 2 imigei, and itan la the iilh to (iroject. ft ii a lui
or nth magnitude show i; which has the incidental advantage "raight line ptojccii inti
of distinguishing itais from dust-specki. A tluau of linei ^ Jh^Vleiui wjie
accurately ruled at distances 0(5 mm. apart in two directions at ordinate, (i. y) oI a _ _ _
light angles is impressed on the plate by artificial Ught and de- <X. V) of ihe uinc start on another plate, aiid (a, y] an 1
vehiped along with the star images; and by useoftheserelerence ^_J,''",™Jj'".'.''"' " ■""" 1^' '' •* 1^ l»=P««»
lines the placei — .- . -
for a map of the whole sky undertaken
obMrvitoria in 1S87. The {Jales ate only
the nghtcen obMrvalotics must take about
s prove
iich, by a
Kd ^0-10
brgcd iroi
mostly, ai
larger field at once, has photographed the whole sky
fnlcmational scheme; but being systematically sti
Harvard Observatory they form an invaluable refcre
from which the history of remarkable objects can b(
y-o. then X-t and Y-/. which are thus I
Ihe origin ol (<y) on pUle (XV). The covdie
(XY) on plate (lyi can be thoiMi 10 be (*, « if pi
i-J
gllhc
■JtiET"
irdinate* of a star of RA and
le tangent r4ane at the aorth |
the tangent plane al the kjm
t« (f, ,y will be
te(j-D). t-laaCt-D},!
(AM
Cun^A)
of Ihe asteroid En», discovered in 1S0&, was traced back to 1S94 tbeaiiioliibcingdircctediowardtlbepDii. _.__ , .. _
[mm these plates; new stars have been found on plates taken that J^iilcanbceioteued in termaof (*,3abri»talioiiB^t}elli«
previous tothc time ot di,coven'..and the epoch of theit bluing i:>j ™.^S^™Sil5;i' «'rSdSlll,?fSrSr^
up reravered within narrow hmiH; and the history ot many ^1 refraction and a^^ikin. For plateiBf bm ton tan* ■ "^
variable Stan greatly eitcnded. The value of this collection ol dillerentiil refraction and abemlioaarcM nail that tMtfMM
pholographs will steadily increase with time and growth. bv "luares of ihe cooidinalei may be nc«kcttd, Md Iht icari
Dt Ihe object glass ol a telescope the light from each star can be choice of ongin oS am and of ooeniatkiB: la lAkh the ein3
mended into a spectrum: and a chart can thus be obtained proce«ian and mutation for any epocli may he im.liiiliiT Has
■ ■ --'- '---n(brdc*ordinatMft,^ci(aB¥ot^«eloaa*i»kk
o know the poaition of the Elate otwie tK fi*
the all oKutanti in the relaljou
Ai+By+C, n-Di+Ey+F,
only th(
TV Ctcmrlry cjilu Slv dual.— In OS in the figun
£'bh with which the photograph it taken, and lei its
C let PL be the plate, and draw CNpeipendicu
X. y) a.
-ordinatea referred t& aay ana Hi
« detenbined wheH tkw aie Am
1: bat b ^aokekli
PHOTOMETRY
525
m vdl adaoted to folatioa by least squares or any equivalent
device
Phttograpky of Nebulae and Clustcrs.—Somt of the earliest
tod most striking successes in celestial photography were the
pictures of nebulae. Dr A. A. Common (1841-1903), F R.S.,
of Ealing, led the way in 1883 with a successful picture of the
great nebula in Orion, taken with a 3 ft. concave mirror
byCalver. Dr Isaac Roberts (1829-1904) was the first to show
tk real structure of the great nebula in Andromeda, by a photo-
gtaph also taken with a reflector. In the clear atmosphere of
the Licit Observatory in California, small nebulae were photo-
graphed m great numbers by Professor J E Kecler (1857-1900):
and it was shown what a large percentage were spiral in form,
Pwrf. C W Ritchey, at the Ycrkcs Observatory, has followed
up these successes with a a-ft reflector, and is constructing a
$-ft., to be erected on Mt Wilson (Cal.) , but he has also shown
that pictures of clusters are best taken with a telescope of long
fecttt, such as the great Yerkes refractor, and incidentally
that this telescope, although intended for visual work, can be
adapted to photography by using a " colour screen " just in front
8f the plate,»which sifu out the rays not brought to focus.
PkaUgrapky of the Moon.—G. W. Ritchey has used the
imie device of a colour screen for the moon, and obtained even
ktter pictures than those obtained at Paris, which were pre-
viously the best. The positions of a large number of craters
•■d other points have been measured by Dr J. H. 0. Franz
aad S. A. Saunder on photographs, and a new epoch in lunar
topqgraphy has thereby been created.
Pkatog^apky of the Planets.—Some striking successes have
been obtained at the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona:
by cutting down the aperture of the object-glass some of the
Mcate markings, called canals, on the planet Mars have been
photographed; but even these do not approach what can be
nen by the eye.
FMcgrapky of Comets. — Some wonderful pictures have been
•bcatned of comets by Professor E. E. Barnard and others.
Here, as in the case of nebulae, the photograph is superior to
dtt eye in detecting faint luminosity, and delicate details of
iht tafl structure have been photographed which could never
be leen. In several pictures the tails have an appearance of
violent shattering, and if successive pictures can hf obtained
«t such times we may learn something of the nature of such
(fisturbances.
Solar Photography.— 'The h'ght of the sun is so intense thit
the chief difficulty is to obtain a short enough exposure. When
■Kcessfully taken, photographs of the surface show the wcll-
kaown spots and the mottling of the surface. The image
KAsibly falls off in intensity towards the limb, owing to the
duorption of light by the solar atmosphere; and the bright
iictthe (which are thus inferred to lie above the main absorbing
kyer) are seen near the limb. But an immense advance in
loiar photc^T^phy was made about a dozen years ago by the
ioTcnUon of the spectrohcliograph, which is an instrument for
photographing in the light of one very definite colour— say
i sinf^e hydrogen line. The faculous appearances can be photo-
|r^>hed with this instrument all over the sun's disk, instead
«( merely near the limb. The appearance presented varies
coormously with the line selected, or (in the case of the wide
* Eocs " in the spectrum, such as the H and K lines) with the
pmicular fait of the same line selected. But for a full account
flf ittch matters reference must be made to the articles Sun and
StECntOBEUOCSAPH.
AimfOXiTiES. — ^Various papers in the Monthly Notices of ike Royal
AsHomomical Society and in the A sir ophy steal Journal. Also the
baOetifU and circulars of the Harvard, Lick and Yerkes Observa-
tories ; and of the Executive Committee for the A strograpkic Catalogue
inablMhcd by Gauthier Villars for the Paris Academic des Sciences).
ace also nxne especially a paper by G. W. Ritchey in the Decennial
Papers of the University of Chicago, reprinted in vol. ii. (1903) of
the Yerkes Observatory Publications. (H. H. T.)
PHOTOHErRY (from Gr. ^, ^omAt, h'ght, /i^poy, a mea-
Mue), the art and science of comparing the intensities or illumin-
ating powers of two or more sources of light. As in all scientific
measurements, its methods are attempts to give quantitative
accuracy to the crude comparisons made by the eye itself The
necessity for this accuracy in practical affairs of life has arisen
because of the great development of artificial lighting in recent
times. The eye soon learns to associate with any particular
source of light a quality of brightness or pwwcr of illumination
which diminishes with increase of distance of the source from
the eye or from the surface illuminated. This quality depends
upon an intrinsic property of the source of light itself, generally
known as its " candle power." The aim of photometry is to
measure this candle power; and whatever be the experimental
means adopted the eye must in all cases be the final judge.
In the photometric comparison of artificial lights, which
frequently vary both in size and colour, direct observation of
the sources themselves does not yield satisfactory results. It
is found to be much better to compare the illuminations pro-
duced on dead white surfaces from which no regular reflection
takes place, or through colourless translucent material uniformly
illuminated by the light placed on the further side. By such
processes there is always loss of light, and we must be certain
that the various coloured constituents of the Ught are reduced
in the same proportion. This necessary condition is practically
satisfied by the use of white diffusing screens.
Two principles of radiation underlie many photometric
applications, namely, the inverse square distance law, and J. H.
Lambert's " cosine law." Both can be established lanno
on theoretical grounds, certain conditions being squmn
fulfilled. But as these conditions are never abso- iMttaace
lutcly satisfied, the applicability of the two laws '^■''
must in the end be tested by experiment. Since we find that
within the errors of observation four candles, placed together at a
distance of 2 ft. from a diffusing screen, produce the same illu-
mination as one candle at a distance of i ft., we may regard the
inverse square distance law as satisfied. Thus if two lights of
intensities A and B produce equal illuminations on a screen when
their distances from the screen are respectively a and 6, we at once
write down the relation between the two intensities in the form
A : B»a' : i*. The theoretical basis of the law follows at once
from the universally accepted view that light b energy radiating
outwards in all directions from the source. If we assume that
there is no loss of energy in the transmitting medium, then the
whole amoimt of radiant energy passing in one second across
any closed surface completely surrounding the source of light
must be the same whatever the size or form of the surface.
Imagine for simplicity a point source of light, or its equivalent,
a uniformly radiating spherical surface with the point at its
centre, and draw round this point a spherical surface of unit
radius. Across this surface there wUl pass a definite amount
of radiant energy, in other words a definite total luminous
flux, E, which will be the same for all concentric spherical
surfaces. Since the area of a spherical surface of radius r is
4x r*, the flux which crosses unit area is £/4x r*. This quantity
is the " illumination." It is measured in terms of the unit
called the lux, which is defined as the illumination produced by
a light of unit intensity on a perfectly white surface at a distance
of I ft. In the great majority of photometers the illumina-
tions are compared, and the intensities are deduced by applying
the law of the squared distances.
Lambert's cosine law has to do with the way in which a
luminous surface sends off its radiations in various directions.
It is a matter of common observation that the
disk of the sun appears equally bright all over the ^"ij^*
surface. Careful measurements show that this is g^^^^
not strictly true; but it is sufficiently near the truth
to suggest that under certain definable conditions tKe law
would hold accurately. Again, when a glowing surface is viewed
through a small hole in an opaque plate, the brightness is very
approximately independent of the angular position of the
incandescent surface. This b the same phenomenon as the
first mentioned, and shows that thejnore oblique, and therefore
larger, element of surface sends the same amount of radiation
through the hole. Hence the amount ^t >ui\V. v^'ma. ^ftx^. «i&
526
PHOTOMETRY
at a given angle with the normal must be less than that sent off
in the direction of the normal in the inverse ratio of the areas
of the corresponding normal and oblique elements, that is, as
the cosine of the given angle to unity. For most practical
purposes, and so long as the obliquity is not great, Lambert's
law may be assumed to hold.
In almost all accurate methods of photometry the aim is to
bring the illuminating powers of the two sources to equality
This may be effected by altering the distance of either light
fr9m the illuminated surface. Or wc may use polarized light
and diminish the intensity of the stronger beam by suitable
rotation of a Nicol prism, a method particularly useful in spectro-
photometers. The same result may also be effected by inter-
posing absorbent disks, the precise absorbing powers of which
must, however, be known with great accuracy. Another useful
^ method is that first described by H. Fox Talbot in
23r* i834t and used with effect by Professor William
Swan (1849), and more recently by Sir W. de W.
Abney. Talbot's law is thus enunciated by If. von Hclmholtz:
" When any part of the retina is excited by regularly periodic
intermittent light, and when the period is sufficiently short, the
resulting impression will be continuous, and will be the same as
that which would be produced if the whole light were distributed
uniformly throughout the whole period." Talbot deduced the
principle from the well-known experiment in which a continuous
luminous line is produced by rapid rotation of a luminous point.
If the principle be granted, it is obvious that any mechanism
by which a ray of light is obstructed in a regularly rhythmic
manner during definite intervals ^, separated by intervals t,
during which the light is allowed to pass, will have the effect
of reducing the apparent brightness of the ray in the ratio
'/(t + t'). This is frequently accomplished by placing in the ray
a rotating disk perforated by radial sectors, the so-called
Talbot disk.
If photometric results are to be of general value it is essential
to have a unit in which to express all other intensities. For
example, electric L'ghts are classified according to
cf'tSic their "candle-power." The candle, in terms of
whose brightness the brightness of other sources of
light is to be expressed, must, of course, fulfil the conditions
demanded of all standards. It must give under definite and
easily realizable conditions a definite and constant luminous
effect, and it must be easily reproducible. The earlier attempts
to get a candle of constant brightness were not very satisfactory.
The British standard is a sperm candle which weighs i lb, and
loses in burning 120 grains per hour. It is found that these
conditions are not sufficient to determine the luminous power
of the candle, since the length and shape of the wick, the height
of the flame, and the composition, temperature and humidity
of the atmosphere all have an effect upon its brightness. The
same is true of other similar sources of light — for example,
the German standard candle, which is made of paraffin, has a
diameter of 2 cm., and has its wick cut until the flame is 5 cm.
high, but which with all precautions suffers continual altera-
tions in brightness. For ordinary practical purposes, however,
these candles are steady enough. Other kinds of flame have
also been used as a standard source of light. The oldest of
these is the French Carcel lamp, which is provided with a
cylindrical Argand burner, and gives the standard brightness
Vcrven- when 42 grammes of colza oil are consumed per hour.
Hartourt The supply and draught are regulated by clockwork.
p»atMa0 A. G. Vernon-Harcourt's pcntane standard, in which
Stmadard. ^ mixture of gaseous pcntane and air is burnt so as
to maintain a flame 2-5 in. high at ordinary barometric pressure,
gives good results, and is readily adjustable to suit varied con-
ditions. Several forms of this standard have been constructed,
one of the most important being the 10 candle-power pcntane
lamp, in which air saturated with pcntane vapour is burnt in a
specially-designed burner resembling an Argand burner. For
photometric purposes a definite length of the lower part of the
flame is used, the upper part being hidden within an opaque tube.
77ie amyhacelaic lamp designed by H. von Hefner-Altcneck has
been ebborately studied by the German authorities, and at pfcacat
is probably more used than any other flame for photometiy. It
is of simple construction, and gives the standard
brightness when it burns with a flame 4 cms. in JjJJJ[
height in still air of humidity 0*88% and free of
carbon dioxide. The presence of carbon dioxide and incraft
in the humidity have a marked effect in diminishing the brilUiocy
of the flame. If the vapour pressure is e and the barometric
pressure p, the strength of the flame, when all other «rTidiTKW
are fulfilled, is given by the formula
1049-55^/(^-0
One disadvantage for photometric purposes is the reddish colour
of the flame as compared with the whiter artificial lights is
general use.
For an interesting account of the various experimental involh _
{|:attons into the properties of the Hefner flame see E. L, Nickhn
Standards of Light," Transactions a/ the JntemaHonol 'EkOnid
Congress, vol. ii. (St Louii. 1901). Angstrom's .dcterminatiaa «f
the radiation of the flame in absolute energy units* is also of ^xdil
interest.
Attempts have been made, but hitherto with limited
to construct a convenient standard with acetylene
Could a satisfactory burner be devised, so that a steady briSiuKjr
could be easily maintained, acetylene would, because of iu
intense white light, soon displace all other flames as standudi.
J. Viollc has proposed to use as standard the li^t eodttcd
by a square centimetre of surface of platinum at its mehiBC'
point, but there are obvious practical difficulties ia tk
way of realizing this suggested standard. J. E.
Petavel, who carefully examined the necessary condi-
tions for producing it (Proc. Roy. Soc. 1899), finds
that the platinum must be chemically pure, that the cndbk
must be made of pure lime, that the fusion must be by mcuf d
the oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, that the gases must be tborauiVf
mixed in the proportion of 4 volumes of hydrogen to 3 of oxjfEn;
and that the hydrogen must contain no hydro-carboos. Vukf
these conditions tbe variation in the Ught emitted by the mohci
platinum would probably not exceed i %. O. Lummer lad F.
Kurlbaum have proposed as a standard a strip of platinum fai
25 mm. wide and 'Ois mm. thick brought to incandescence by
an electric current of about 80 amperes. The tempertfw
is gradually increased until i^th of the total radiation is tmh
milted through a water trough 3 cm. in width. Thb ratio il
determined by means of a bolometer, and so long as it isadjosud
to i\fth the light is practically constant.
For comparative photometric work the incandescent electric
light is very convenient, having the one great advantage over
candles and flames that it is not affected by atmospherjcchaniei
But it does not satisfy the requirements of a primary standud.
It ages with use, and when run at constant voltage gndui^r
loses in brilliancy, partly because of changes in the filament itsA
partly becaase of the deposit of carbon on the interim of tk
bulb. Professor J. A. Fleming has shown that very good itsahs
can be obtained if carbon filaments carefully selected
and run in ordinary bulbs for a definite time at a
httle above their normal voltage are remounted
in large clear glass bulbs 6 or 8 in. in diameter.
If used sparingly, and never above their marked voltage, these
large incandescent bulbs have been found to remain constaot
for years, and therefore to be eminently suitable as secoDduy
standards. In his Handbook for the Elcclrical Lahofoicrf ad
Testing Room (vol. ii.) Fleming concludes that the best piimsxy
standards are the Viollc incandescent platinum and the Veraoa*
Harcourt pentane one-candle flame; and that the most cob-
venient practical standards are the Hefner bmp, the ten-candle
pcntane lamp, and the Fleming large bulb incandescent dectric
lamp. Comparisons of the intensities of these various standardi
do not give quite concordant results. Thus three diScR^
authorities have estimated the lo-candle pcntane lan^ as beio|
equal to 10-75, "'Of »i'4 Hefner lamps.
A specially constructed instrument or [nece of apparatai
for comparing Ught intensities or illuminattoiu b caUed a
PHOTOMETRY
M capable of giving very pi
RS.
^omt [lom the
irty aUthelichl I
(■ttPQ Kipniyif
TgioD immediate
Ujhts, The edge should 1
f-L . "i- L. . L uier uuj reflectlDd from tin
: type. 7116 two li«hU to be yitibiUty o( N !• irrived at
the sides of ihe wdge, which lounn o[ liihi wliich illuir
i.w ihai ibeeye let in finnt of brifhtiwMi el tlie two khirs
laitd eich by om -JiBMi" "™? f beii ™«wiiv*
■ -' ■ Tbi eiKntuI nvt o( Lumi
idoH
haip aa pouil
wedge along the line
e lights or by moving one of the lights nearer to or
)m the wedge ai may be requiied. The lighu given
! sourres are Ihea aa the squares of Ihe iJistinM* from
the matched parts of Ihe surfaces. Count Rumford
nggeiled the comparison of Ihe intensity of the
ahatlons of the same object thrown aide by side on
>y the two Hghls to be compared. In this case
' '■' ' 'le other alone;
■ light gi
e squares of Ihfir dislan
uidows aie equally intern
1 be near the streen, so as to aveiQ pi
saiblei yet not too near, ao tbat the :
out by tl
n the scr
ind BTDdhun'
partly cutaway, iothal Ibeeenlpijjjjjjjjj^
of Ibe oilier priim. Tbe Canada babam
■■" — ' bring pieucd clotely togHhet
— "— In order lo nub Ibe
Brodtiua make the illuminaud turfacea which are ia he compared
Ihe oppotil* sidei of an opaque acnon td in (he continuatian of
the duvonal fCAl ol tbe bi-pmm, the raya being brought by irflec-
tbo fiom ■ymmetrically lituatcd mirrort ao at lo enicr the u
AB_and AD perpendicubrly.
irt im^til M
. diapcwd with, the sujfacc- .. ^ ^,
1 thai no layer of lie ii lefi betnen tbem.
iidicubrly. An importanl modina
d Bmdhun, i> Ihe 'allowing: By w
djustment should first
xia lies, then Ihe
made ftam the sidi
: views both sidts of tbe paper simultineouily.
"i!;Ide"lo'"d«X''^e^ nprdry'a"i,^'pa"h7w '"j-';?™!i'"ij;
a> a photomner. When ft is placed bn««n two ii,,ILKL,? iE,
■era we ece two parallel curves af lellecKd light, "■""'"*■""■"
due to each »ur^ Mal« the*, by trial. ^luSll^ Sjr.TlLV^
ui™i'lf^d"r^ "*"" '°"™ '"■ >^^"Vp»^
.-. r.r;.m pholometer. invented In iSjii. i) a beautiful JkIIw™',^!?,^
■ ^■-^■- " --'■ - ^^, Al il^MhS'^.S
'"**** coAVHiienl potii
lube. M ilK Ian
.n»nlally II
5S
ndescent electric lamps has led to
IS and device!. The candle power
:nl horiiontal directions, Imtsm-
here is always a risk
be eSeci of centrifugal
ail and therefore the
insmiiied. Thus
528
PHOTOMETRY
measurement of as many rays as can be conveniently com-
bined. One of the best methods of effecting this is by means of
MattbewM'BC. P. Matthews's integrating photometer. By the
lattgntiag use of twelve mirrors arranged in a semicircle whose
'**"'""***^'diamcter coincides with the axis of the lamp, twelve
rays are caught and reflected outward to a second set of
twelve mirrors which throw the rays on to the surface of
a photometric screen. This combined effect is balanced by the
illumination produced by a standard lamp on the other side of
the screen (sec Trans. Amcr. Inst. Elect. Eng.^ 1902, vol. xix.).
So long as the lights to be compared are of the same or nearly
the same tint, the photometric match obtained by different
H^twv observers is practically the same. If, however, they
J*'*"^]? are of distinctly different colours, not only do dif-
"""^'ferent observers obtain different results but those
obtained by the same observer at different times are not
always in agreement. Helmholtz was of opinion that photo-
metric comparison of the intensities of different coloured
lights possessed no real intrinsic value. There can be little
doubt that in a rigorous sense this is true. Nevertheless it is
possible under certain conditions to effect a comparison which
has some practical value. For example, when the intensities
of two differently coloured lights differ considerably there is
no difficulty in judging which b the stronger. By making the
one light pass through a fairly large range of brightness we may
easily assign limits outside which the intensities are undoubtedly
different. After some experience these limits get dose; and
many experimenters find it possible, by taking proper precau-
tions, not only to effect a match, but to effect practically the
Abaty'M same match time after time. According to Abncy,
ffxpgrl' whose memoirs on colour photometry (PA//. Trans.t
m^ais. 1886, 1892) form a most important contribution to
the subject, the observer in making his judgment as to the
equality of luminosity of two patches of colour placed side by
side must not begin to think about it, but must let the eye act
as unconsciously as possible. His method was to compare the
coloured patch with white light given by a particular standard
and cut down to the proper intensity by use of a Talbot's
rotating sector, which could be adjusted by means of a suitable
mechanism while it was rotating.
At the same time, although the eye may be able to effect a
definite matching of two patches of colour of a particular
luminosity, it has been long known that a change in the lumi-
nosity wiU destroy the apparent equality. This depends upon a
physiological property of the retina discovered by J. E. Purkinje
in 1825 (see below. Celestial Photometry). In virtue of this
property the blue and violet end of the spectrum is more stimu-
lating to the eye than the red end when the general luminosity
is low, whereas at high luminosities the red gains relatively in
brightness until it becomes more stimulating than the blue.
Unless therefore account is taken in some definite measurable
manner of the absolute brightness, there must always be some
uncertainty in the photometric comparison of the intensities
of differently coloured sources of light.
Instead, however, of trying to effect a photometric match
in any of the ways which have been found sufficient when the
sources are of the same or nearly the same tint, we may effect
important practical comparisons in what is called hetcro-
chromatic photometry by an appeal to other physiological
properties of the eye. For example, the power of clearly dis-
criminating patterns in differently coloured lights of various
intensities is obviously of great practical importance; and this
power of detailed discrimination may be made (he basis of a
method of photometry. According to this method two lights
DitcHmiaa' are arranged so as to illuminate two exactly similar
t/oa Pfto^o- patterns of lines drawn, for example, on the sides
"•'"'• of a Ritchie wedge, and their distances are adjusted
until the patterns are seen equally distinct on the two sides.
Application of the usual distance law will then give the relation
between the two lights. A discrimination photometer con-
structed on this principle has been designed by J. A. Fleming.
Its results do not agree with the indications of an ordinary
luminosity photometer; for it is found that tlie eye oin dis-
criminate detail better with yellow than with blue li||it of the
same apparent luminous intensity.
Another and very promising method of photometry depends
upon the duration of luminous impressions on the retina. J. A. F.
Plateau observed in 1S29 that the blending into tmttr
a homogeneous impression of a pattern of alternate MAMrtgc
sectors of black and some other colour marked on a disk
when that disk was rotated occurred for rates of rotatioo
which depended on the colour used. A form <^
suggested in Professor O. N. Rood's Modem Ckremalks
to have been first carried out by E. L. Nichols {Amer, J own. ^
Science^ 1881). A black disk with four narrow open sectois «u
rotated in front of the slit of a spectroscope. When the rotation
was not too quick the yellow part of the spectrum appeared as a
succession of flashes of Ught separated by intervals of da^nei
of appreciable length, whereas towards both the red and viokt
ends no apparent interruption in the steady luminosity couM be
observed. As the rate of rotation incrrased the part of the
spectrum in which flickering appeared contracted to a smaller
length extending on each side of the yellow, and finally vilk
sufficiently rapid alternation the yellow itself became steidjr.
This seems to show that the retinal image persists for a shoncr
time with yellow light than with light of any other cokmr; far
with it the intervals of darkness must be shorter before a cot*
tinuous impression can be obtained. Now yellow is the moit
luminous part of the spectrum as it affects the normal hnmi
eye; and £. S. Ferry {Amcr. Journ. of Science, X892) has shovft
that the duration of luminous impression is mostly, If not entiicijri
determined by the luminosity of the ray. Hence the deteinuBa*
tion of the minimum rate of intermittence at which a paitkidar
colour of light becomes continuous may be regarded as a messvt
of the luminosity, the slower rate corresponding to the lovtr
luminosity. Although in the experiment just described the
red part of the ordinary solar spectrum becomes continoM
for a slower rate of intermittence than the yellow part, yet n
have simply to make a red ray as luminous as the yellow ray ti
find that they become continuous for the same rate of inter
mittence. It is, however, highly improbable that the duntioa
of impression depends only on the luminosity of the li^t ud
not to some extent upon the wave-length. There are iwieed
phenomena which require for their explanation the assumptioi
that the duration of luminous impression does depend on the
colour as well as on the brightness.
Nevertheless the luminosity is by far the niore important factofi
as shown by Ogden N. Rood's experiments. He found (Amcr.
Journ. of Science, 1893) that, when a disk whose halves ^^ -
differ in tint but not in luminosity is rotated rather ^^JJ^|g^
slowly, the eye of the observer sees no flickering
such as is at once apparent when the halves differ sligbtly >a
luminosity. Rood himself suggested various forms of pinto*
meter based on this principle. In his latest form {A mer. Jovrn. tf
Science, Sept. 1899) the differently coloured beams of li^t vfaidi
are to be compared photometrically arc made to iUuminate the
two surfaces of a Ritchie wedge set facing the eye. Bctnet
the wedge and the eye is placed & cylindrical omcave kas
which can be set in oscillation by means of a motor in paAt
way that first the one illuminated surface of the wedge and tki
the other is presented to the eye in sufficiently rapid aJtcmatioa.
The one source of light is kept fixed, while the other b inonrel
about until the sensation of flicker disappears. From mk
with this form of instrument Rood concluded that " the acnnci
attainable with the flicker photometer, as at present cod*
structed, and using light of different colours almost spcctial
in hue, b about the same as with ordinary photometeis
plain white light, or Ught of exactly the same colour.*'
Various modifications of Rood's forms have been
from time to time by different experimenters. 'TheckMi^H*
Simmance and Abady flicker phdlometer is an ingeiuoafi^g,^^||„^ig
and yet mechanically simple method by which (as '*im^gtgmtm
were) the wedge itself is made to oscillate so as to throw
on the eye m rapid succession; first the one side aad tkta
the other. The rim of a wheel of white material b
PHOTOMETRY
7 bivc puwd through diScrenL ibsirbing media. Wben
B dniied to tompare ihe iniensiiiM of the ip«ir« Iioni
0 dilcnat uurcs a mnvinicnl farm is the one dacribed
E. L Nichob. A diicct vision spectroscope mounted upon
■t <l the till two light-ingled iriangulai priinia are Kt to
ipnliculailr and a totally (eflected iaia the spectroscope,
c tvo spectra are then seen side by side. AtieniioD being
osen narroT portion, say, in the green, the
^ed alpng the track between the sources uolil
In portioni appear of the same intensity. The process is
repeated until the vhole ipecirum bas been ecplored.
thealan. ^
1« iJ ilie base of Ih.
ly R will pass Ihfou^h
( a tpectrum visible lo the eye placeJat R', while to the
ye Ihne will be viH bid the limilarly diiperwil ray SS' reflected
rsaelly p.
leihod-l
two nym to pan throuRh iIlij of diflrrent widlli leads to good
iMs, but too ireat conAdrnre cannot be placed upon it.
B other lypei of spectrap>ioionietfrH such aa those aqocialed
CMpberKer, A- K&nij, F. F. Martens and othetm. the equillia-
:k eaa be col down si pLcaaure by rotation al a Nicol piiim.
eianip4e. in ibe KaniH-Manens inUrument the two nyt
ji an lo bs coaipucd eater the upper aod lower halve* of a
hat ■pectTophotometcn which depend
le pToperties of polarized light are
lObjections.sucbu: leleclive abioip-
ng the lelaiive iDientitio of the con-
ayi; selective lasses by lefleciioD of
I as lar *9 potable great care
ut b needed, othenriae
; inccesslve parts of two
nedi*.
roceu Is (at too tedious lo be of tBf
rison of 1 wo or more particular paRi of
ripsinlhered.greenindblue. Similar
1 suggested by J. Mact de Leinnay,
ly looking first through a red glasi
then through a chosen green- If R
responding ratios of (he laten^tiei.
■;■ A. CtD«»,(
softheea
530 PHOTOMETRY
practical needs. Spectrophotometric observations are necessary Sir John, in the veiy midst of j^^Kl^fcii^i^ Ug •'
to determine the position in the spectrum of the particular mono- adopting also an instrumental method which rai^ lad Mi
chromatic ray, but when it has been determined a coloured to more definite results.
glass may be made which allows light in the neighbourhood of In the year when Sir John Henchd condnded kb pins'
this ray to pass, and the photometric comparison mav then be metric work at the Cape (1838) Dr F. W. A. Aigdaider a»
effected by looking through this glass. menced, and in 1843 comi^eted, his Urantmdri* mm, ii
This article has been confined ttrictly to the methods of viiual which the magnitudes of all stars visible to the unakkd fjtk
photometry, with very little reference to the resulu. Comparison central Europe are caUlogued with a pccdsioQ and conalctfWl
?e^"SSr?n^'he"'e?i?r<5^.^^^ ^^'^^^J?" .iLS!!!!'" -^'^ '^^ ^..^.
distinct from those which Ue at the basU of photometry in its usual »t ^^ probably be superseded by ustrumental phdOMliyfe
significatioa. (C. C. K.) must ever rcniain a monument of intelligent patience. Ai|l>
lander's labours were not confined to start viBble to the nkii
Celestial, or Stellas, Photometiy eye; by the aid of his assistants, Dr E. ScfaSofcId and Drl
The earliest records that have come down to us regard- Krflger, three catalogues of magnitude* and cdertial OMwfiiilii
ing the relative positions of the stars in the heavens have w«« ultimately published (1859-1862) as the
always been accompanied with estimations of their reUtive musterung, including the enormous number of 3x4.188 W
brightness. With this brightness was naturaUy assocUted and an additional volume containing 133.659 itan wiktf
the thought of the reUtive magnitudes of the luminous bodies the equator was published in 1886.
from whence the light was assumed to proceed. Hence in the ^' »• A. Gould (1824-1896), in his UramtmdrU arfoM
grand catalogue of stars pubUshed by Ptolemy (c. 150 aj).), (»879). has done similar work for 7736 stars visible oatyisai
but which had probably been formed three hundred years southern hemisphere, and his successor at C6rdoba, J. ¥. Ttaj,
before his day by Hipparchus, the 1200 stars readily visible *»" published (1904) three volumes of the Argentine (C«riil4
to the naked eye at Alexandria were divided into six Dwckmusterung containing 489.662 stars between dcdisilM
classes according to their lustre, though instead of that term "" «> -5* • There have been other worthy labovimiilll
be uses the word ^«0oi or " magnitude "; the brightest he •»»« field, each of whom has rendered efficient icrvkcflAM
designates as being of the first magnitude, and so downwards ^' E. Heis and M. J. C. Houzeau.
till he comes to the minimum visible, to which he assigns the I^ » to Sir John Hcrschel that we are indd>ted for the M
sixth. These magnitudes he still further divides each into three, successful attempt at stellar photometry by what mv ■
To those stars which, though not ranged in any parUcular order termed " artificial " means. He deflected the light of the MB
of brightness, nevertheless exceed the average of that order in 0>y »"«»»» <>* the internal reflection qf a rcctaognkr |M
lustre he attaches the letter M. the imtial letter in M«^w (greater), through a smaU lens 0-12 in. in diameter and of ve!7*f
and to those in the same order which exhibit a lustre inferior to ^ocus (023 in.) so as to form a aort of artiiidal star Ii fc
that of the average he affixes the letter e, the initial letter of ^ocus. With strings and a wooden pole he could imm Iki
kUffffuiP. With this sort of subdivision he passes through aU artificial star of comparison so as to be in the nme Haecf i#l
the six orders of magnitude. He does not, indeed, teU us the ''ith any actual star whose light he proposed to mcaMie. Ow
precise process by which these divisions were esUmated, but the strings enabled him to remove it to such a distance fioB them
principle involved is obvious. It is one of the many remarkable that its light was adjudged to be sensibly the nme is fM*
instances of the acutcness and precision of the Greek mind that the star compared; and the distance was measured by a r~^
for upwards of 1500 years no real improvement was made in *ted tape. While he was thus busy at the Cape of Good
these estimations of lustre. J. Flamsteed extended the estima- K- A. Steinhed at Munich had completed f or Dr P. L
tion of magnitude of stars visible only by the telescope, and he ^ instrument neariy the same in principle but mote Ban
improved Ptolemy's noution by writing 43 instead of «, /«— ^ ^o""' "« «^^^«* ^ '"^ object-glasi of a tdcscopt I
indicating thereby an order of magnitude brighter than the two halves, one of which was movable in the directiia *
average of a fourth, but inferior to that of a third— and 34 for "». The images of two stars whose light he desired toce^
«, «, and so on; but it was not till the year 1796 that any real were formed by prismaUc reflecUon, neariy in the aaae Itt tf
advance was made in stcUar photometry. Sir W. Herschel, sight, and one of the lenses was then moved untQ the |gl|
instead of assigning a particular magnitude to stars, arranged the two muges seemed equaL The distance through •»*
them in small groups of three or four or five, indicating the order was necessary to bring the movable lens famished the dittjl
in which they differed from each other in lustre at the time of comparing the reUUve lustre of the two stars in <pc«i»
observation. This method was admirably adapted to the More reccnUy other photometers have been devised, sid »
discovery of any variations in brightness which might occur in scnptions of three of them, with which considerable R»<™
the lapse of time among the members of the group. Sir William have been conducted wiU pow be given. With the fintuiLilIlM
observed in this way some 1400 stars, published in four caU- Wow Professor Pickering of Harvard has made nmc IMt
logucs in the Philosophical Transactions from 1796 to 1799; *nd ™»^**° measures with his own eyes. The remits of his dm* j
two additional catalogues were discovered among his papers tions, and of those of his assistants, wiU be found In the li«i» ;
in 1883 by Professor E. C. Pickering of Harvard istt' Harvard ^«»««^ especially in voL xlv. published in 1901, «kn c» j
Annals, xiv. 345), and have recenUy been published by Colonel tains a general catalogue of about 24.000 stars hrightoW
J. Hcrschel {PhU. Trans., 1906). These researches of the magnitude 75, north of declination -40». With the 2*-^
eld^r Hcrschel were in due Ume foUowed by those of his son, photometer Drs CusUv MttUer and P. Kempf of FMadm
Sir John, about the year 1836 at the Cape of Good Hope. He recenUy completed a similar piece of work, their dtalr-
both extended and improved the methods adopted by his father stars north of the equator brighter than 7-5 amlahmf
at Slough, and by a method of estimated sequences of magnitude stars {Potsdam PMicatums, 1907, voL xvii.). Ite cal
he hoped to arrange all the stars visible to the naked eye at of Professor C Pritchard was smaller, containiBg «T** <•
the Cape or in England in the order of their reUtive lustre, brighter than magnitude about 6-5 and north of itmr^
and then to reduce his results into the equivalent magnitudes " »<>'; but it was published in x886, when very UtOekdy^
adopted by the universal consent of astronomers. Sir John, done towards the systanatic measurement of^tkc W
however, like his father, left this imporUnt labour incomplete, of the stars {Uratwmetna nova oxomemsU, voL S. fif tie
Not only is the work one of great and conUnuous effort, but the University Observatory pubUcations).
effects of ever- varying meteorological conditions greatly impede . Rckmn^'s meridian photometer (i4iMt.^jlri^ Oti
it Moreover, there is an unsatisfactory indefiniteness attending JJ^' S5.XllgrSSiter?SJ^^
All estimations made by the unaided eye; numcncal or quantita- them by two mirrors inclined at an amrle of 45*totlii
dve compuriaoDS are out of the question, and htuct we find If there were a star exactly at the role, ooe «f
PHOTOMETRY
S3'
■ abicAKdy tmi lad wsuld mututly Rflect tha Ufht Dr Spltn louad IW Inlcrul Rfleafeu irilhtii tbe Nicol priun
an be fiwn to Iht niinijr lo u to ktro in vi™ be tliminnied by uiini t •uiuUe diaphngn (i*"- Wol. Jt^^,
•• the pohr ilar itkcted. •'bcthet PaLuit, nth which Mvch l«»c>;Abiiey,ibul.. June lavaj.
" Minoru, which w]
: i88j lyneiiulic ulalogueg of stellir bclghtnct
leBecIu
g two pendlij Ihe pMcil ol «diii»fyni;fli1roiii one object- ol which !• undoubled, but the iSecti ol which 'h»ve u yM
Sub."t^;!^,:l^^1?«^3V'*i^-n^ "" ^^l'^^ tuUy -t,rk«i ou.. i. ,he •' Purtioj. phenon..
ddenl pendle then piW through • Nicol prim lo the eye ">™ (/"/"i*" Ardm. In. jftj). V * bine Knuce of lighl
Dbeerw. who by mutiny the priun round iu uat can ind ■ red uurci appear equally bright to the eye, and iS the
tbem at a definite reading <SepefuIing on Iheir relative intensity of each be diouniahed in tbe laniE ratio they will do
'^'^'SS^et^'"licn^p.1S;;=% !o.«er.ppe.requaUybHgh.thebluenow.pp^-n>thebrigh,^;
■bat the poHtion of the double image priun i. impoiuni. In IW" general Lermi, the equalizing of two difler*nlly
1 ■_ 1..- _-,[.■- . .1. i„ t:. — :.:„ r„L<u[^ llghu by tbe eye dependi upon their Intensity. It ia
r that thia phenomenon must eSetl all pholometric work
sa the itan are all exactly of the same colour, which we
v they are not- For let us suppose Ihat both the compaHson
star of the meridiBD photometer and (he artificial star of the
Zalloet pboIODieter were equslued with a bright star A, and that
they could be also compared injcr h and lound equally bright.
t comparison stars are both reduced lo equality with B.
K> longer appear equal to one another unless they are
E same in colour. In other wordSt the observed ratio of
TMHimalioit. of tbe brifhlness of nriabk stars lequ-red pholonMtric calaloguea ihow ayiiematic differences, due lo
SoS^^t^XSfSta™* """™'' "•"•"■ "" """""'^ " "•"'' '"" ' -"'Snitude. and that
aer*! Lutrument an uuficial star is uken as the sundutl tlM Purkluje phenomenon ia a satisfactory eiplanalion of these
niton. There b only one telescope, and inule the tube diflereDces. This is tbe hrat instance in which the eSect of
near tbe eye end u a plate o( glaia placed at an ai^ ibis phenomenon has been measured in tbe case ol the slan.
» tWuta 'itHH^ I' ni ^""o I" tx Knsible. But there il ■ set ol
ir panel numerical resullE obtained in the labontory which b o( impor-
th iTough a unce for alt such works, via. those obtained by Sir W. Abney
- ,^°^ (Prx. Sny. Soc. Miy iSr>i ; uid Uon. Nm. K.A^. Apiii iSdi),
oloura usually denoted
dually diminiihed, the
onthsoftheoriginal value. Tbeolbei
f-^ti >n<l C U 15' If tbcn we had a' miilure of two lights, oue of
neuirJ- C cidaur is bright as before, and (he other oC G colour looo
'w V" tunes (ainier (a combination in which the eye would be unable
1 wh^ to distinguish the C light al all), and if we continually reduced
tn tbii tlx combined intensify, the luminosify of the C li^i would
thai of diminish » much tnare rapidly tlian Ibal of the G that the laller
I the form oF the innrument. Ifa pencil ol layi Hence the colour of the light would appear pure violet, though
' '---■■- -' I -■' it waa originally deep ted. This eitreme case shows thai the
" last ray to disappear " when a bght is gradually eitinguiihed
may be very different in colour from that of the original light.
iinlight and starlight, which appear nearly while to
e " last ray to disappear " is found to be in the (reedv
E tn the spectium. TUa nvAi \a& \.vb \mca<>Aih
beariiipaailMiiMalUie««dtetAwAtnMUs. A&^^bnx^^KX..
Kt
Swest;;.
wilhlightsCDEFGollhecc
•■"^i
appears (0
Me eye a> bright as an amyl-
Ihe inteniity of each be gia
Ug
hihe
C light .
532
PHOTOMETRY
either the wedge itself should be of a greenish hue, or green light
should be used in finding the scale-value (the constant B in the
formula m«A-f-Bw). In the second, star magnitudes obtained
by extinction with the wedge will agree better with those obtained
by photography than those obtained with other visual photo-
meters, since photographic action is chiefly produced by rays
from E to G in the spectrum, and the E light of ultimate impor-
tance with the wedge photometer is nearer this light in character
than the D light with which other photometers are chiefly
concerned. It would also appear that results obtained with the
wedge photometer are independent of the aperture of telescope
employed, which is not the case with other photometers.
Passing now to the consideration of photographic methods,
it is found that when a plate is exposed to the stars, the images
Ptotom of the brighter stars are larger and blacker thiOi
grmpMe those of the fainter ones, and as the exposure is
^i^A* prolonged the increase in size and blackness contin-
"*'^' ues. Much of the light is brought to an accurate
focus, but, owing to the impossibUity of perfect achromatism in
the case of refractors, and to uncorrected aberration, diffraction,
and possibly a slight diffusion in both refractors and reflectors,
there are rays which do not come to accurate focus, grouped in
rings of intensity gradually diminishing outwards from the focus.
As the brightness of the star increases, or as the time of exposure
is prolonged, outer and fainter rings make their impression on
the plate, while the impression on the inner rings becomes
deeper. Hence the increase in both diameter and blackness of
the star disks. As these increase concurrently, we can estimate
the magnitude of the star by noting either the increase in
diameter or in blackness, or in both. There is consequently
a variety in the methods proposed for determining star
magnitudes by photography. But before considering these
different methods, there is one point affecting them all
which is of fundamental importance. In photography a
new variable comes in which does not affect eye-observations,
viz., the time of exposure, and it is necessary to consider
how to make due allowance for it. There is a simple law
which is true in the case of bright lights and rapid plates,
that by doubling the exposure the same photographic effect
b produced as by increasing the intensity of a source of light
twofold, and so far as this law holds it gives us a simple method
of comparing magnitudes. Unfortunately this law breaks down
for faint lights. Sir W. Abney, who had been a vigorous advo-
cate for the complete accuracy of this law up till 1893, in that
year read a paper to the Royal Society on the failure of the
law, finding that it fails when exposures to an amyl-acetate
lamp at x it. are reduced to o**ooi, and " signally fails " for
feeble intensities of light; indeed, it seems possible that there is
a limiting mtensity beyond which no length of exposure would
produce any sensible effect. This was bad news for astronomers
who have to deal with faint lights, for a simple law of this kind
would have been of great value in the complex department of
photometry. But it seems possible that a certain modification
or equivalent of the law may be used in practice. Professor
H. H. Turner found that for plates taken at Greenwich, when
the time of exposure is prolonged in the ratio of five star magni-
tudes the photographic gain is four magnitudes (Afon. Not.
R.A.S. Ixv. 77s), and a closely similar result has been obtained
by Dr Schwarzschild using the method presently to be
mentioned.
Stars of different magnitudes impress on the plate images
differing both in size and blackness. To determine the magni-
OAMwivrMtude from the character of the image, the easiest
TeMtof quantity to measure is the diameter of the image,
MMgaitudf. and when measurements of position are being made
with a micrometer, it is a simi)le matter to record the
diameter as well, in spite of the indefiniteness of the border.
Accordingly we find that various laws have been proposed for
representing the magnitude of a star by the diameter of its
image, though these have usually been expressed, as a pre-
Hminary, as relations between the diameter and time of exposure.
Thus C. P. Bond found the diameter to increase as the square of
the exposure, Turner as the cube, Pritchard as the fourth
whUe W. H. M. Christie has found the law that the diuKi
varies as the square of the logarithm of the exposure «ili
certain limits. There is clearly no universal law— it vaiki m
the instrument and the plate — but for a given instramatt i
plate an empirical law may be deduced. Or, without dedid
any law at all, a series of images may be produced of stin
known brightness and known exposures, and, usng this ai
scale of reference, t,he magnitudes of other images uuijr I
inferred by interpolation. A most important piece <^ ty^tmA
work has been carried out by the measurement of diameieni
the Cape Photographic Durckmusterung (knm. Cape Oiu
vols, iii., iv. and v.) of stars to the tenth magnitude in tbesMtfl
ern hemisphere. The measurements were made by Profcai
J. C. Kapteyn of Groningen, on photographs takoi at the Of
of Good Hope Observatory; he adopts as his purely emiaDC
formula
magnitude - B/(diaroeter+ C),
where B and C are obtained independently for every plate, fpi
comparison with visual magnitudes. C varies from 10 to li
and B from 90 to 260. The part of the sky photographed w
found to have an important bearing on the value of these ca
stants, and it was in the course of this work that Kapteyn kn
a systematic difference between stars near the Milky Wajrii
those far from it, which may be briefly expressed in the Uw.ll
stars of the MUky Way are in general bluer than the stars m iA
regions of the sky. It is intended, however, in the pran
article to discuss methods rather than results, and we cum
here further notice this most interesting discovery.
Of methods which choose the blackness of the image nth
than the diameter for measurement, the roost interesUaS '
that initiated independently by Pickering at Harvard
and C. Schwarzschild at Vienna, which consists
in taking star images considerably out of focus.
The result is that these images no longer vary appredabtjl
size, but only in blackness or density; and that this gndnh
of density is kecognizable through a wide range of magnituit
On a plate taken in good focus in the ordinary way thete il
gradation of the same kind for the faintest stars; the suIb
images are all of approximately the same size, but vary ia tai
from grey to bkck. But once the image becomes bbcfc
increases in size, and the change in density is not ea^ to Ukf
The images-out-of-focus method seems very promising, to jad||
by the published results 01 Dr SchwarzschUd, who used a pi
pared comparison scale of densities, and interpolated for M
given star from it. The most satisfactory photographic mdhi
would certainly be to take account of both size and bbdae
i.e, to measure the total deposit in the film; as, for instasc
by interposing the whole image in a given beam of liiht, M
measuring the diminution of the beam caused by theobstradk
But lio considerable piece of work has as yet been att»iqpcd(
these lines.
Even in a rapid sketch of so extensive a subject some
must be taken of the application of photometry to the deti
tion of the relative amount of light received on thei.^iri
earth from the sun, the moon and the i^anets.^^**
-The methods by which these ratios have been**"**
obtained are as simple as they arc ingenious; and for tk
we ace mainly indebted to the labours of P. Bongner ■
W. C. Bond (1789-1859). The former compared the 9|
received from the sun with that from the moon in the foBodi
fashion in 173s* A hole one-twelfth of a Paris inch was ■•
in the shutter of a darkened room; close to it was placed a ci
cave lens, and in this way an image of the sun 9 in. ta d
meter was received on a screen. Bouguer found that thii l|
was equal to that of a candle viewed at 16 in. from hb c]
A similar experiment was repeated with the light of the f
moon. The image now formed was only two-thirds of as ii
in diameter, and he found that the light of this iflnage «
comparable with that of the same candle viewed at a dtaai
of 50 ft. From these data and a very simple okula**^
followed that the light of the sun was about 856,189 timcit]
PHRAATES
533
I the moon. Other experiments followed, and the average
fin the results was that the Ught of iho sun was about 300,000
\na the average light of a full moon, both being viewed in
bi heavens at the same altitudes. The details will be found in
trngoer's TroiU d'opUque. W. H. Wollaston in 1829 tried a
sin of experiments in which the raiio 801,072 was obtained;
rt the omission of certain necessary precautions vitiates the
idt {PlaL Trans. 1829). Bond {Mem. Amer. Acad. x86x,
1 195) adopted a different process. He formed the image of
btsuk on a silvered globe of some xo in. diameter; the light of
In iaage was reflected on to a small mercurial thermometer
tSb\ and then this second image was compared with a Bengal
1^ 10 moved that the lights appeared to be equaL The same
ncoB was adopted with the full moon instead of with the sun.
le Rsolt was that the sun's light was 470,980 times, that of
he moon. Seidel long before this date had compared the li^t
f the mean full moon with that of Jupiter in mean opposition;
bicnlt is 6430. So also this Ught of Jupiter was found to be
1K4 times that of Venus at her brightest; and Jupiter was
Mad to ^ve 8-2 times the light of a Lyrae. If, then, these
■Bbets could be accepted with confidence, we should have the
Mas of comparing the light received from the sun with that
Heired from any of the stars. Adopting these precarious
■mbeis on the authorities of Bond and Seidel we have the^
Anriog results: —
Su't Ught - 470,980 that of the full moon.
M ~ 622,600,000 „ Venus at her brightest.
M ~ 302,835,000 „ Jupiter at mean opposttbn.
n ■■ 5.970,500,000 „ binus.
lastly, Bouguer, by comparing the light of the full moon
tewed at different altitudes with an artificial light, found
kit the atmosphere absorbs '1877 of the light incident on it
I the zenith of any place. Professor Pritchard, from photo-
letric measures taken at Cairo, found this number to be '157.
t Oxford it was '209. Thus Bouguer's determination indicates
itbaorptivc capacity in the atmosphere of Brittany just midway
Iween those of Oxford and Cairo. Seidel at Munich expresses
nprae " at finding his own results so nearly accordant with
sqpier's. Although rather outside the domain of photometry
the i^ct sense, a word or two may be said here about recent
tanpts to measure the heat received from the stars, the first
fag made with the " radio-micrometer *' of C. V. Boys. {Proc.
tf. S0C. X890). This is an extremely delicate instrument for
measuring radiant heat, and consists of a very light
thermo-electric circuit (two tiny bars of antimony
tman. mj^ bismuth soldered together at one edge, the
ler edges being connected by a hoop of copper wire)
peadtd by a quartz fibre (a torsion fibre of the very
ettest sen^tiveness) in a strong magnetic field. A minute
iatity of radiant heat falling on one of the jimctions of the
tnit sets up a current in the circuit, which thus rotates in the
ignetic field until brought to rest by the tor^on of the fibre,
r Qie on the heavenly bodies the radiant heat is collected to
as by a reflecting telescope (an object-glass would absorb it),
d when the telescope is pointed to the moon the varying
fiatioii from different parts of the disk is beautifully shown.
I heat comes from the unlit portion, and of the illuminated
itiOD the maximum is obtained from near the limb. But
n pointed to the brightest stars no indications were obtained,
hooigh the instrument is sensitive enough to detect the heat
m a candle more than a mile off. It seems certain that
Bcations of heat from the stars obtained by previous observers
■t be spurious. It is also manifest that to obtain satisfactory
■hs even more sensitive apparatus must be devised, and by
tg a radiometer and the powerful resources of the Yerkes
•enratory E. F. Nichols succeeded in 1808 and 1900 in obtain-
I indications of heat from Arcturus and Vega, as well as from
piCer and Saturn {Astrophysical Journ. xiii., xox), the heat
eived being comparable with that from a candle 6 m. away.
( may place alongside this result that obtained by W. J.
idin {Proc. Roy. Soc. April X892), who compared candle-
it with twenty-one stars ranging to the sixth magnitude^
and found the Ught of a second magnitude star equal to that
of a candle at x 260 ft. (H. H. T.) •
PHRAATES (Phkahates; Pers. PralUU, nyxlem Pcrhdl), the
name of five Parthian kings.
X. PHRAATES I., SOU of Prispatius, reigned c. X75-X70 B.C.
He subdued the Mardi, a mountainous tribe in the Elburz
(Justin xlL s; Isid. Charac 7). He died yoimg, and appointed as
his successor not one of his sons, but his brother Mithradates L
(Justin xU. 5).
2. Phsaatsji n., son of Mithradates L, the conquerolr of
Babylonia, reigned X38-X27. He was attacked in X30 by
Antiochus VII. Sidetes, who, however, in 129 was defeated and
Killed in a great battle in Media, which endni the Seleudd rule
east of the Euphrates (see Seleuod Dynasty). Meanwhile
the kingdom was invaded by the Scythians (the Tochari of
Bactria), who had helped Antiochus. Phraates marched against
them, but was defeated and killed (Justin xUL x; Johaxmes
Antioch,/r. 66).
3. Prxaates m., " the God " (Phlegon, fr. is ap. Photius
cod. 97 and on some of his coins), succeeded his father, Sanatruces,
in 70 B.C., at. the time when LucuUus was preparing to attack
Tigranes of Armenia, who was supreme in western Asia and had
wrested Mesopotamia and several vassal states from the Parthian
kingdom. NaturaUy, Phraates decUned to assist Mithradates
of Pontus and Tigranes against the Romans (see Tigranes).
He supported his son-in-law, the younger Tigranes, when he
rebeUni against his father, and invaded Armenia (65 B.C.) in
aUiance with Pompey, who abandoned Mesopotamia to the
Parthians (Dio. Cass, xxxvi. 45, 51; Appian, ifithr. X04; Liv.
Epii. xoo). But Pompey soon overrode the treaty; he acknow-
ledged the elder Tigranes, took his son prisoner, occupied the
vassal states Gordyene and Osro&ic for the Romans, and dem'ed
the title of " king of kings," which Phraates had adopted again,
to the Parthian king (Plut. Pomp. $$f 38; Dio. Cass, xxxvu.
5 seq.). About 57 Phraates was murdered by his two sons,
Orodes I. and Mithradates IH.
4. Phraates IV., son of Orodes I., by whom he was appointed
successor in 37 B.C., after the death of Pacorus. He soon
murdered his father and aU his thirty brothers (Justin xUi. 5;
Plut. Crass. $$', Dio Cass. xlix. 23). He was attacked in 36
by Antonius (Mark Antony), who marched through Armenia
into )ifedia Atropatene, and was defeated and lost the greater
part of his army. BeUeving himself betrayed by Artavasdes,
king of Armenia, he invaded his kingdom in 34, took him prisoner,
and concluded a treaty with another Artavasdes, king of Atro-
patene. But when the war with Octavianus Augustus broke
out, he could not maintain his (inquests; Phraates recovered
Atropatene and drove Artaxes, the son of Artavasdes, back
into Armenia (Dio. Cass. xlix. 24 sqq., 39 seq., 44; cf. U. x6;
Plut. Antonius f 37 seq.). But by his many cruelties Phraates
had roused the indignation of his subjects, who raised Tiridates
II. to the throne in 32. Phraates was restored by the Scythians,
and Tiridates fled into Syria. The Romans hoped that Augustus
would avenge the defeat of Crassus on the Parthians, but he
contented himself with a treaty, by which Phraates gave back
the prisoners and the conquered eagles (20 b.c, Mon. Anc. 5,
40 sqq.; Justin xlii. 5); the kingdom of Armenia also was recog-
nized as a Roman dependency. Soon afterwards Phraates,
whose greatest enemies were his own family, sent five of his sons
as hostages, to Augustus, thus acknowledging his dependence
on Rome. This plan he adopted on the advice of an ItaUan
concubine whom he made his legitimate wife under the name
of " the goddess Musa "; her son Phraates, commonly caUed
Phraataces (a diminutive form), he appointed successor. About
4 B.C. he was murdered by Musa and her son (Joseph. Anl.
xviu. 2, 4).
5. Phraates V., or Phraataces, the yoxmger son of Phraates
IV. and the " goddess Musa," with whom he is associated on
his coins. Under him a war threatened to break out with
Rome about the supremacy in Armenia and Media. Bui M(V^«:Xk
Augustus sent his adopted son 0^>]& C«L!»ax \tL\j() ^^ «:^>> ''^
order to invade Paitlda, thft "^axt^^vtxA vw^k^^^ ^^ ^tvs\>x^^ ^
534 PHRANTZA— PHRENOLOGY
treaty (a.d. i), by which once again Annenia was recognized as In his view, as in that of most of the earlier writers of oCkl
in the Roman sphere (Dio. Cass. Iv. lo; Velleius ii. loi). Soon nations of antiquity, the heart is the seat of Ufe; to it, noC to the
after Phraataces and his mother were slain by the Parthians, brain, the Hebrew writers refer thoughts and affectk»s, wUc
about A.D. 5 (Joseph. Ani. xviii. 2, 4). (Ed. M.) they considered judgment as seated sometimes in the hepd,
PHRANTZA. GEORGE [Georgios Phkantzes] (1401-c. 1477), sometimes in the kidneys.* This was likewise the teaduag of
the last Byzantine historian, was bom in Constantinople. At the ancient Egyptian philosophy; and hence, whik many dlei
an early age he became secretary to Manuel II. Palaeologus, in were practised and prayers offered for the preservation of Ott
1432 protovestiarius (great chamberlain), in X446 praefect of heart of the deceased, Uiere were none for the oonservatim tl
Spart^, and subsequently great logothete (chancellor). At the the brain.* We learn from Diogenes Laertius* that Pythafoos
capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) he fell into their held more accurate physiological views, as he taught that tk
hands, but managed to escape to Peloponnesus, where he mind and the intellect have their seat in the brain. The tbeoijr
obtained protection at the court of Thomas Palaeologus, despot of Hippocrates was Pythagorean rather than^ Aristotdian, kt,
of Achaea. After the downfall of the Peloponnesian princes although in one passage in his work i%c0nf« he expresses UiBaV
(1460) Phrantza retired to the monastery of Tarchaniotes in doubtfully, yet elsewhere he clearly states that he considcn.tke
Corfu. Here he wrote his Chronicle, containing the history of brain to be the index and messenger of the intellect' Tk
the house of the Palacologi from 1258-1476. It is a most cerebral seat of sense-perception is also taught by Plato,* vk
valuable authority for the events of his own times. puts into the mouth of Socrates the theory that the brun ii (k
Editions bv I. Bekker (1838) in the Corpus scripiorum hist, ftys., organ affected by the senses, whereby memory and opinioo vntt
and in I. P. Migne, Palrologui paua, clvi; see also C. Krumbacher, and from whence knowledge springs. The classic poets ik
Ctschxche der byzantxnuchen Luuratur (1897). notice this dependence of mind on brain; for example, in tk
PHRAORTES, the Greek form of Fravartisht king of Media. Clouds (v. x 276) Strepsiades accuses Amynias of not bdag ii
According to Herodotus (i. 102) he was the son of Deioces, and his right mind, and, on being asked why, responds, *' You Ml
began the Median conquests. He first subjugated the Persians, to me as if you had had a concussion of the brain."
and then a great many other peoples of Asia, till at last he The two founders of anatomical science, Erasistratus ni
attacked the Assyrians, but was defeated and killed in a: battle, Herophilus, who lived in the days of Ptolemy Soter, tau^ Ml
after a reign of twenty-two years (about 646-625 B.C.; but only that the brain was the seat of sensation and of intdkd,
perhaps, as G. RawUnson supposes, the fifty-three years of but also that there was therein a certain degree of locsliatia
Deioces ought in reality to be transferred to him). From other of function. Erasistratus believed that the sensory nerveiiMi.
sources we obtain no information whatever about Phraortes; from the brain-membranes, the motor from the ceretol kb"
but the data of the Assyrian inscriptions prove that Assur-banl- stance. HerophUus was apparently the first who held that tk
pal (see Babylonia and Assyria), at least during the greater vital forces resided in and drcuUted from the ventridesoftk
part of his reign, maintained the Assyrian supremacy in Western brain, at least so we gather from Celsus and the other aittkB
Asia, and that in 645 he conquered Susa. The Medians too were who have preserved his views. By the influence of the writii|l
subject to him as far as the Elburz and the central Iranian of Galen,^ which directly teach that the brain is the seat of tori
desert. and intellect the Pythagorean doctrine prevailed among the bMt
When after the assassination of Smerdis all the Iranian tribes, philosophers. According to the Galenical theory the uiad
the Babylonians and the Armenians rebelled against Darius spirits have their origin in the ventricles of the brain, and pa*
and the Persian rule, " a man of the name of Fravartish (>.e. into the heart from which they are conveyed by the aitda
Phraortes), a Mede, rebelled in Media and spoke to the through the body. Galen in one pkce (viii. 159) refentbor
people thus: I am Khshathrita, of the family of Uvakhshatra origin to the brain-substance, but the ventricular theory was tkl
(Cyaxares)." He reigned for a short time, but was defeated by adopted by his followers, some of whom suggested that there Ml
Hydamcs, and afterwards by Darius himself, taken prisoner some relation between the shape of the head and the diancttf
in Rbagae (Rai), and executed in Ecbatana (520 B.C.; see and disposition of the mind.* The Arabian physicians Avemo*
inscription of Darius at Behistun). (Eb.M.) and Rhazes** adopted the Galenical doctrine and developed tk
PHRENOLOGY, (from Gr. <t>pfiVf mind, and Xftyof, discourse), hypothesis of a fourfold ventricular localization of boJoJa,
the name given by Thomas Ignatius Forster to the empirical which the Greeks had originated. Avicenna" added totksa
system of psychology formulated by F. J. Gall, and developed fifth region. Such of the early Christian authors as refenedbl
by his followers, csi>ecially by J. K. Spurzheim and G. Combe,
by whom it was named " cranioscopy," " craniology," * In the Chaldee portion of Dajxicl (ii. 28, iv. 5, yii. i) virfoauil
" olivciftcrnninv " nr " mnnnmv '» T1«» nnnrinl#»« unrtn which thoughts arc referred to the head. For Other parttcuUrsastoonf
physiognomy or zoonomy. ihe pnnciples upon wmdi views see Nasse on the psychical reUtions of the^heart in Z«ite*r.]t
It IS based are five: (i) the bram is the organ of the mmd; psychische AertU (i8i9), vol. i. A few of the Uter medkal vow
(2) the mental powers of man can be analysed into a definite express similar views; sec Santa Cniz,0^iuc«<a«MtfK», Madrid (iki^
number of independent faculties; (3) these faculties are innate, ' ^.??* of the Dead, ch. xxvi.-xaoc . . *;
and each has its scat in a definite region of the surface of the J^^^"^' ^^*^' ^™ ^'^^^' P* "«'=-^»»^^ « -J ««t^ •* *■
brain; (4) the size of each such region is the measure of the t^e morho sacro, on OpP. ed. KQhn, I 6f2 seq.; abo EfiMlfL
degree to which the faculty seated in it forms a constituent 824. Among btcr writers Ltcetus of Genoa uught the coodcasM
element in the character of the individual; (5) the corrcspon- of soul and body, upon which subject he wrote two boob M^
dcnce between the outer surface of the jkuU and the contour Jj^igiJr.S.SL^^'.JSil.^.SSJSS'^TSSJZ,^
of the brain-surface beneath is suffiaently dose to enable the quibtuiUecordi,hiccerebro,PriHcipatumaUribuitai^}ungn,liUl^
observer to recognize the relative sizes of these several organs * Phaedo, Valpy's ed. 1033, en. xlv., p. 128. See tho Habn
by the examination of the outer surface of the head. It BiU.anat., i. 30. .«!.•- *»_«_. «.•— ^
professes primarily to be a system of psychology, but its second ^ vJrS^uwIJ^i' ^u^^^i^^^i^i^tAl i^JS^JS
and more popular claim is that it affords a method whereby the irtpUxf<reai wh^nXu. See alsovTatM. viiL 159, xv. «to^ b !■
disposition and character of the subject may be ascertained. Definiliones medicae (467, xix. 459} he says that the bBWifc**
History.— TYiZ.i the phenomena of mind are m some measure ^«^«* «^aM«, but docs not specify inwhat part <h«po^i^$!f**L^
connected with the action of the brain ha, been «cogni«dJ«,m ^^ZT^J^'^^t^'P^'^it Vi^^
a very early age of philosophy. It is true that Aristotle' p. 22, c. 7. * «^ * -..
describes the brain as the coldest and most bloodless of bodily * Comment, in ArisU; Latin tr. (Venice, 1550), vi. ^5.
organs, of the nature of water and' earth, whose chief purpose ••"Jmaginatio quidem in doubus ventrkuln ,
i, to temper the excessive heat of the heart, a, the cooler region, ^^ii^ '^S^yll^l^D^^Vi^SSs:
of the Drmamcnt condense the vapours nsmg from the earth. (Basel. 1 554)7 i.9. •— — »
'Departibus anima/ium, ii. c. 7 (Paris.* 1629, p. 986). "X^. canemis (1507), p. 19, and De naimntibtu, c &
PHRENOLOGY
535
0 the relation of soul to body oaturally adopted
1 Galea which they accommodated to their
)y conferring on it an importance which rendered
rult. Tertullian^ in a sense expresses his belief
3cali2ation as also at a later period does Thomas
t3th century Albertus Magnus' gave a detailed
be distribution of mental and psychical faculties
"he anterior region he assigned to judgment, the
[nation, and the posterior to memory. A some-
ilocation was made by Gordon, professor of
ntpellier (1296),^ who assigned common sensation
on of impressions to the anterior comua of the
es, phantasia to the posterior, this power being
naliva and cogUaiiva), judgment or aestimativa
itride, and memory to the fourth.* Figures of a
were given by Petrus Montagnanar* and Lodo-
later by Ghiradelli of Bologna' and by Theodore
rp.' That the "vital spirits" resided in the
doubted by many, and denied by a few of the
he 17th century. G. Bauhin in 1621 *' attacked
and Hoffmann of Altorf showed that, as the
closed cavities, they could not transmit any
That these spirits existed at all was doubted by
dictus," Plater," and a few others; but they were
le great majority of 17th and even of i8th century
, many of whom conceived that the ventricles
leni spiritibus animalibus flammtdis simUibuSt
is intetligimus, sentimus, et movcmus,^ and the
lis view were strongly assailed by J. Riolan and
utionary. Columbus*^ ridiculed the idea that
suriace can have anything to do with intellect,
dverbially stupid animal, has a convoluted cere-
ing to his view, the convolutions are for the
eninjg the brain and facilitating its movements.
r of the surface of the cerebrum was recognized
amic element by M. Malpighi *' and T. Willis."
iv. (ed. Franeker, 1597), p. 268.
7giae, ed. Migne, i. 1094, 1 106-7. Prochaska and
^ycock (Mind and Brain, ii. 163), charge Duns
iin^ this view; probably he did, out he does not
i simply specifies the cerebrum and its root, the
le source oi^ the nerves along which sensory impulses
(. de anima, i. 515 (Leiden, 1637).
\. vi. 20 (Leiden, 1651).
tnae, loi (Venice, 1494).
fth region is interposed between iwtaginatna and
laturaitbus, c. vi.). Thomas Aquinas combines the
he says are possessed by the same eminence. On
he says of ratio particularis, " medici assignant
:ganum. scilicet mediam partem capitb " (i. 1 106).
t (Padua, 1491).
uak si ratione del modo di accrescere e conservar la
lice, 1562).
t, 1670.
mt. scientiae (Rome, 1632).
(Basel, 1621, iii. 314): Caspar Hoffmann, De usu
1619). See also Spigelius, De corp. humani fabrica,
, 1645): VafX>lius (1591). p. 6: Wepfer, Historiarum
ylissimum analomiae subjectorum auctarium (Amster-
i also many of the anatomical works of this age.
Femel. Cabrol, Argenterius, Rolfinck, &c.
enedictus, AntUomtca, vol. iii. (Basel, 1527). Quer-
Laycock (following Prochaska )to have assailed this
s; on what ground is not apparent, as he certainly
f as a believer in the old view; see Tetras eraviss.
:!. X. 89 (Marbure, 1606). Possibly Prochaska may
nire passage in the work of the other Quercetanus
roamaton in librum Hippocratis, p. 14 (Baselj 1549).
er-known Josephus Armeniacus; but he gives no
2, 89 (Basel, 1625).
medica, 22 (Amsterdam, 1663).
lita, p. 350 (Frankfort, 1593)-
cerebro et cort. cercb. ad Fracassatum," in 0pp.,
1685).
utorum, p. 71 (Oxford, 1677), '* hae particulae sub-
us animales dictae, partium tstarum substantias
subeuntes, cxinde in utriusque meditullia," &c.;
The latter regarded the convoluted surface of the cerebrum ait
the seat of the memory and the will, the convolutions being
intended to retain the animal spirits for the various acts of
imagination and memory. Imagination he described as seated
in the corpus callosum, sense-perception in the corpus striatum,
and impetus et perlurboHo in the basal parts of the cerebnim above
the crura. The thalami he regarded as the centres of sight and
the cerebellum of involuntary acts. Succeeding anatomists
simply varied these localizations according to their respective
fancies. G. M. Landsi placed sense-perception in the corpus
callosum, R. Vieussens in the centrum ovale majus. R. Descartes
supposed the soul to be seated in the pineal glami, others in the
brain-commissures especially the pons- Varolii.*' Meyer con>
sidered abstract ideas to arise in the cerebellum, and memory
to have its seat at the roots of the nerves."
Of later writers three deserve special notice, as having largdy
prepared the way for the more modem school of phrenology.
J. A. Unzer, of Halle, in his work on physiology extended the
pre-existing theories of localization. Metzger," twenty years
before the publication of Prochaska's work, had proposed to
make a series of observations on the anatomical diaracters of
the brains of persons of marked intellectual peculiarity; but
apparently he did not carry this into effect. In a more special
manner I^haska of Vienna may be looked upon as the father
of phrenology, as in his work on the nervous system, published
in Vienna in 1784, are to be found the germs of the later views
which were propounded in that dty twelve years later."
The system formulated by Gall (q.v.) Is thus a modem expan-
sion of an old empirical philosophy, and its immediate parentage
is easily traced, although, according to Gall's account, it was
with him the result of independent observations. These, he
tells us, he began to make at an early age, by learning to correlate
the outward appearances and mental qualities of his school-
fellows. Gall's first published paper was a letter in the Deutscker
Merkur of December 1798, but his prindpal expositions were
oral, and attracted much popular attention, which increased
when, in 1802, he was commanded by the Austrian government,
at the instance of the ecclesiastical authorities, to discontinue
his public lectures. In 1804 he obtained the co-operation of
Spurzheim (1776-1832), a native of Longwich, near Treves, who
became his pupil in 1800, and proved a powerful ally in pro-
mulgating the s)rstem Master and pupil at first taught in
harmony, but they found it advisable to separate in 181 3; and
we find Spurzheim, several years after their parting, declaring
that Gall had not introduced any improvements into his system
since their separation (notes to Cheneviz, p. 99). " My philoso-
phical views, he also says, " widely differ from those of Gall."
In Paris, where he settled in 1807, Gall made many influential
converts to his system. F. J. V. Broussais, H. M. D. de Blain-
ville, H. Cloquet, G. Andral, £. Geoffroy St-Hilaire, Vimont and
others adopted it and countenanced its progress. Gall visited
Great Britain, but the diffusion of phrenology here was chiefly
due to Spurzheim, who lectured through the country and through
America, and with the aid of his pupil, George Combe, attracted
a large popular following. His most influential disciples were
J. Elliotson, Andrew Combe, Sir G. S. Mackenzie, R. Macnish,
T. Laycock and Archbishop R. Whately, and in America Caldwell
and J. Godman. On the opposite side many influential men
took up a strongly antagonistic position, prominent among whom
were J. Barclay the anatomist, P. M. Roget, Sir Charles Bell,
Sir W. Hamilton, F. Jeffrey, H. P. Brougham, T. Brown and Sir
B Brodle. The nature of the system rendered it eminently fitted
to catch public attention, and it rapidly attained to so great a
" Fechner, EUmente der Psychopkysih, ii. 396.
* Some of the medieval views were very fancifu1,-thus Shabbethai
b Abraham, the earliest Jewish writer on medicine (d. a.d. 9S9)t
thought that the spirit otlife has its seat in the brain-membrane,
expanded over the brain and subarachnoid fluid, as the Sheldnah
in the heavens arched over the earth and waters. See Der Memck
als CoUei Ebenbild, ed. Jelltnek (Uipzig, 1854). and CastelU.
Commenlo (Florence, 1880).
» Vermischte medicinisehe Sckriftin (176^^, v. «»%.
» See Laycock's trans., m S^rdciih. Socitl:^ \ P«b. V>%V^.
53*
degnt ol populirily Ihit in 1B31 then irere twenly-nine
logical locielia in Great Britain, and Kvenl joutnak aevoicc
to phrenology in Briiain and AmEiici; o(tht»e (he fJifCwioticaj
Jeunai, a quarterly, edited chiefly by George Combe with aid
fiom olben ol the Edinbuigh conlralernity, notably Sii Ce0I|i
Mtckeniie and Macoiob, " the modem Pythagorean," lived
fiom iSij to 1S47. tbnu|h tncDty volume*. The cantroveny
In many placet wu heated and olien penonal. and thli largely
increased the popular inlcreit. In the Edinbttrgk iZfnrvthc
theory vaa severely criticised by Thomas Bnwn, and alterwatdl
In a (till more trenchant manner by JeUiey. In Blaitwctd ll
mi ridicQkd by Professor Jabn Wilson. Being a lubject vhicb
lent itaeli easily to burlesque, It was parodied cleverly in a hing
rhyme by two authors, " TheCraniad," 87 pagea long, published
in 1817, white, on the other hand, vene was preBcd into it!
Krvke in the thyme "Phrenology In Edinburgh" ia 1S14.'
The best delcDCe o( the system was that by ChenevU in the tblid
nnmber oi the Frntign Qiiarltrly, alterwuds reprinted with notei
by Spuriheim.
Tke FatnUui and Ikeir Lecaliliei.— The lyitem of Gall was
eonstnicted by a mcLhod of pure empiridsm, and his so-called
organs were [or the most part idenli&ed on slender ground*.
Having selected (he place of a faculty, be eiamincd the heads of
andinlhcmbesoughlfoi the distinctive les- ' ' ' '
PHRENOLOGY
phreno- '■ PUIoprecenltlvntM M<u
asylums, a:
M at (be
10 become perverted
lehead
leolhi
Bisaciates. in gaol* and In lunati:
mapping out organs of murder, the!
discredit on the system the names '
who claimed as his (he moral a
associated with it. Gall mailced 01
Interspaces. Spuuheim and Combe divided the whole scalp
into abloDg and conterminous patches (see the accompanying
figure)). Other methods of division and other names have been
auggeiled by succeeding authors, especially by Coi, Sidne;
Smith (not Sydney), Toulmin Smith. K. C. Catus of Drtiden,
Don Mariano Cubi i Solar, W. B. Powell of Kentucky, J. R.
Buchanan of Cincinnati, Hide! of New York. Some, like
the btothen Fowler, raise the number of organs to forty-three;
but the system of Spurihnm and Combe is (hat which has
•Iways been most popular in Britain.
Spunheim separated the component faculties of the huntD
mind into two great groups and subdivided these 1* follows:—
L Feelings divided into—
I. PropeDsities, inLcrnal impulses inviting only to certain
a. Sentiments, impulses which prompt to emMion a* well
A. Lower— those common to man and the lower animals.
B. Higiicr — those proper to man.
Il..la(d1eelusl iKuliiet.
3. Reflective faculties.
In the fallowing lisl tbe locality and the dicumstanca of Ibe
Gnt recognition of the organ are appended 10 tbe names, which
are mostly the inventions of Spunheim. Call's names are placed
tof Iheii
DT PkraialBtf otfojaj ID D
. Mrlmtl far lb Hrodpie
i. 760-76S) Ays. iix/v i'
itelleclual powci*.
0. Sett-esteem (Ornuil, /irrUj, at and tmnedlal
" n; found by Call in a bfggar who excused h
It of his pnde. Thii wu canfirrned by the obi
dopted Ai the ti. Love of Approbaiion {Vaitiii). outude the
rciion in which Gait saw a nrotubetanee an (be bea
;»r ^r.bU. II. Caulioujneu (Cmixiiprclum). on the parlH
■1 u#a^, irw6 placed here because an ecclesiastic of bewtatiiu di^
vacillating couKptor of sutc bad both large panHal 1
rCiII IK
PHRENOLOGY
41 iKctK
imaie wbo nunn nit (jrullicn AiH liiifn wKP mcy
I [ha 9f»t Xenocnlci referred thr Uiteklecliui powcn.
rbnt vuiiinf churchn thai thove who prayed with the
THjT were prominent in this rntoo. and il wat alio
. > p[oii> brbiher.
citkiutncB. Bdievininna (Fonttr) unknown n CaU^
y Spunfaeim uiually Ironi ■» dcKkncy. and placed
(fm*vtf^ media ni on the nsiltal luture from
— - ■■-- '— -' ■■■- olelBn. Uvaler fim
id lolly headu
irovenjr served the u
at ion had I '
y by Call.
y [acuity *
ly {Fcim}. nolrd ^Call fiom iU pronllnRK
u; Bid to be the part touched by the hand wl
EjpTil aiilifui), Ibe (lontal eminence, the
lion (Faailu'^iItT}. ii._,_.._.
levoletice and Wonder.
Pirupiat Fccthiei.
irfou^'d'by &
3(i<iu Je bxoiiU), placed above Individualit)^ on
CDimpoodiiia to the upper pari of (he frontal ainu*
. internal to the loit, 6nt mted by Spuraheirn in an
iiality4^^JiiM«Jffr*«n), the median project ion above
luppDted to be the ^at of the memory of evcnta.
below the frontal eminence and a little in front of
t^t dttrap^U dfi louj], on (he foremost oarl of the
iicie. where Call noticed a bulge on (he head of a rauual
lage ISfiti il! lufi), behind (he rye. Thia na (he
Hiticed by Call, ai a clever ■chooirellov. quick a( lan-
. ,.„. __ OM .mi™, L.J 1 .^. „.
II knowledge of Iheir order and dispoiition
orphologial, nol from the phrenoloeiil. Tl
who bi 1830 described the Eisure to which his n
liUle advance wu made until the pul
of L. F, Cnliolel'a' and Hiiichke'i' memoir
r the Gill lime placed tbe dcicription ol the sur
ip«rfectly altempied by L. A. Dt
Isclory biuii-
lArinn (Satfiiili somparoHv). median, at the top of ih<
3( the Forehead, where a lavanl friend of Caira. (and 01
iliiy (Ejphl wUlapiiysi^). the eminence on each (id(
e rv^iont icejii&tnl with incrtwd [jowen of the facull)
"TiKcrih*d'"il
lave obliterated
. The K<rl Labr
riSjil, -llO"^"''
537
.. ., jver-uac. Thurlell. ■ coU-blooded mun
benev^nn wat tarf^. iaiaid to have been gene . — «..«
^•alf-a-fluinca torn fnend, Ac-
The method whereby thesiaeaof Drvaniareeitiiaated iaarbiirarv
.nd the boundariei of the ntiou IndeRoiie. The alienipUof Nicol.
0/ PArmBfon — The phrcnoJo(ica] con^
iful purpose of ttimulaiioi raeatch into
D^but we owe very little of (olid progiea
lelheco
nlulioi
erebmm is of the
le of phrenological
ilely deicrjbed;
n of the I
lave been recorded by Tenchini, Poai, 1
Z'tfflu'!il^^.
rutidti primain (J^rii.
fScUitl. Him. und Sale (Jena. iS^).
' Majendie and Dr-moutinj, Anol. ■*" O'''- .■"
538 PHRENOLCXSY
8. TIk«
Knciacly thr tame con nciiaa*. TKc ronvoluicd amnfrflKnl rnulti 4I ctfcbfrnl urfue La UuporunI to Any theory of ccfAnllHd
«n growth of bnin-tuKace under continint, heH u thr <1ilfcr«it Uon.but luphreiiolocittuiiiveaiuMyorwuliBfwBaiiBBMt
tncu ot (uriacr undcnia propnniiinal ovMtnnnh they nuy tald point. Since the invcHintKn o< J. C. F. BailUner'Bil In
iloog different linei. The accunEncE of Miall dillennes ui the Levis iihu been ihown t^tfODC local diffeiHtiaSuHdiD^
nu of oveiETowih. tesited to by the vuiHic* d the mnliinj da mlly oiil. Thin in tbe coavolinUHU uuind ik Iihi
pHtcrn. can hirdly lail to uuk CDaiidcnble alitnlion intht plui: Robndo the ii>ns1isn<ella of the loaitbbycr arc ol ■■»■»(»
of dcAnile territarin al gny edli. Some nnhod for tKc dslct- Hlliof "11 ] 1 iiiT 'ii It liiliiiiii iifllii limiiiiii iiil liiil
mination g< the liniiii ol the« ihifliiuaof placE i> fcquind beloic abyeral>iuUan|ularccUaCEnBiile-cdli)l>iatapoadlicn«ll
cofflfLiiitooa CM be o( value »■ phfooofcalcal data. ■ :.i-i — j -l e » .•.-. _ia.i.j
4. The coippariioD ui the rate of gnwtn of brain with
ment of mental facultiei i> imponaal not only to the
but CO the piychohigiit. So otaervatioai on thii point wen made Theie ia » abrupt povie Iid
by phrenoloiKal writen, who only ntcr to the finl and rather unniition o( itrucluR of the [rey cottec bctnf at the Uno^
cniJe obaervationa of the eatlJEt anatomliu. We have, however, lulctii; and fiuit-allt. althot^fa of Hualler ue. and Ieh Eta Oi
pynniidal and the lUKBaiKeilat ao that. «Uk ia t
^ ^ ...^ bnin above tbe fUaiireof Sylviua Ibecray cdRcaitntp
i> important not only lo the phRsoloiiit mini pact £ve-layaed.belo«iuid behind that fanin it iiBi^qa
No otaervatiou on thia point were made Theie i> » abrupt paHii(eIroiDtheoiietotheacher.lhcaalyHN
a"oi~T. L.'"W. wai'Biidiofli of th^'a''nieiK"^u"(rihe";. .
'■" *■ ■"" "*■ ' "be cercbf^ircy matter,*
Tucnc. CunDinzhim, and S. Eincr > many particulan aa M the nte pjiti of Ibc cerct
and pnuna. o(l™>>-«">«h. At birth iht brain wi!i(ha oMenth Other looit variation, in atnic'iun: have baa dearibed hi
of the wejihl of the body, and avccaRci alxHit II 01. For the Sniih and other hiMolopui. — *— «-i
fint year Braio-powth and conKqunillv npandon of the Aull xhe leaching ot iMtomy with regard to phrer
promT with great i»pidity,_ the growth duni« a large part of Ibii .ummariied Ihut: (1) the rate o( growth of ^c
period aven^ng one cubic centimetre rfinKi tiii« ^iwwmntia .. -.l .1 .^ j...a .r .. . . i y ..
jncreaae ia chiefly due to the rapid develoi
During tline and the four auccixdinf ywi^the' bue'elofigal^
d Ihui: (I) the rate of growth of brain ia coots*
ate of development of mental faculty; U) there it kt
ttructural dinerentiation aa there are varying im
development of diflert
..... .. 'e'"';"? BoaccordannbelweenlheregiooiofGallandSpunbeiiiaadW*
li lobeiincrcaNng more than the frontal Of lempoTD-aphenoidal- ueji of cerebral aurfact,
„.!ilI!niIlSfdr"Jh'th?'inc^S^B|i«lrt^'^'^ FhMi'tK'-I A,^l.-Tht theory of aotnr of Uk olds -I
■ixth and aevcnth ycari the Ironial lobca grow faaler than the phyvqiana, thai the mind, in feeling and reAectiop, nialai
parieuli. and at Kvcn ihe_uvtrj(:e brain ha> attained the weighi of no malarial injlniment is not Dow accepted by [Bydukgil
oftJ nS-ih'ii 'JiS'l twt " "" advanced by Brougham and Jeffrey ax againit tbelkl
clrrn^i'illy thclronul ol phrenology; but tlu! docliine that (he brain ia Ibe eipi
ghlccn yean of age. then [he mind il now univetully received. While it tsptolBUltt
jt roach in maiimum liie certain molecular chanaei in the grey mstla ai* anlclida
ich period the brain lenda ^^ concomilanti of mratal pbenoraena the preci» — 1»
opment of giey and white tbeie pioceiiei, (o what extent they take place, M bow th}il
to any theory of cerebral among Ibenuetvea bava not aa yet bisn delerminid eft
■ciacafly diverH to e^h nientally; theoccuirenceof thecbangecaoonlybcdeawaM
f-'S^fitfe.!^" ™ ™il[ 1>X f™ »i«^ ™"« »=ll««l " Ihe illered pulutioDof theoW
!io rlni.^£iin.™™r artetie..' Ihe increase of the lemperalure of die boA' I
rgoin and B. Danilewild. abilradion, during brain^ction, ol blood from otlKr iwpM
-, __j _.Li.^ _.„__ ^^ ^^ ^^^ plethytmograph, or the tormatioa of fedtUia
r products rif melabalism ia bnin-xubttina. Aa ft
light has been shed on tbe connexion between the mijcci
11 which take place
.Idling. While our knowledge of the anatomy of the In
idBib^^™"h'liKiS»im "p™»'ly of Ihe gwy nuclei and ot the while bands uniiii«tk
m. of h™l-ihnpe I. given has in recent yean become much more accurate (« Mil
of whirh are srnply afc- BlAIN and Muscle and Meive], out knowledge ol ibc fk/tk
DfcMor J. Clcland (PiJ. of tbe nervccentreaiialiU Indcfinileand ftagmenlaiy.ewiiil
I'T'V ',V';-v.""^'™r'?' '"f""™"™^"." "".^livl In "« "•'"ost aUowance ia nude for the experimental aid
S«Sldi™iSS;,!^,!ddcnt w^h"he""r™ion^SH C. S. Sherrinpon, A.S.F. Gtanbaum, F. Gollx »kI Mbml
All the soalled caiea are given vaguely, with no mcaHitementi, the hypotheses relating to the division o( labour inlhew
and the careful mcaiurcmenta of George Combe in such caaet as centle* il chiefly based on anatomical sltuclure. On
7. The phrenological wint of knawledge of the topography of the nervoua system which are set apart for tbe discha^
the btain.Bifface was neccMarily correlated with igimrance of the scpara-le functions that they obviously form puis rf I
t™"beiehavelienarclu]lyw"kSoulbjE?Hujchke,HSB, mwhioiMn •"•^ fiJfil'™"''' >|«1' '"o^'io"- I"*™^
W. A. Turner, Cunningham a^ul Reid. Some Ulitude. however. th"e <^ ^ subjected to expennHnt we learn that iky .
mun be allowed in topography, as the exact relation of convolution nervous cenlres presiding over the dischatge ol such IubOB
of akull varies with tbe shape of the akulL Giacomlnl ihowed that and it has been determined by experiment, or else itbi
the fissure of Rolando IS perceptibly farther back from the CDOHul >„_ ..,,._:_i ..n.riiiTc tknt in rhnu ^nmtr ra-nt it [
Kiture in dolichocephalic tW in brdchycephJic skulls, and it iastiU '™"' '°*'™„ ^l ' a-^^ ^Ji\
farther bock In IhTextreme bq.>-.h.|!Kl form of k>n|.headednc». ■«'vou5 cenlrra which are more directly coiuMCted i*l 1
Passct shows that there ii > alight lopographkal dlHirenee in the legmeotxl eleraenls of the body there is a attain laialnl
twoK«eifHrc*./.<fiil*™p.. tMi. liv. S^l.andinlheheadsof those of function; hence the centres of pelvic actions, of re^inli
with a lymmelticallv-shaped skull tWre^js oft™ 1 '^JjJ^''^ cardiac action, and inhibition ol vas<>.Blot0I influeoct, dqb
K"?l'-5^a°phiSrrebtten"; of convo1uti<.^.°™d'h!^ .erved not a Hon. »ecretIons, to., can be mapped out in .seinding toe.
punle tbe r^renoliigist. Thus, the artiliciBl dolkihocepbaly ccrtaiD of (beK centres arc united by bands of fibres to ihcH
raribs having bulged tbe squama occipiils. they decided that , . , _i,Li___,ii,™
iiilici OnlruflilaR (iBSt), p. ftj,
'*r*. Ci^Kk. iti ^mte, ivU. 113
derkel.fintrjHS. »JJ.eBlATyoiiaf<M£x;unfArJke£dr> quote
(Bonn, i«8i);Cal[>ii, J^m.dera»id:d<fiD£f«i PM.
tuooingham, CvaniKflBm Umav, Royal lilsh 'Si
fiuKlu (Stutlfan lUi). ■ J. S. Loo i&7).aad£4MI
tnte their own chndnn, Jbuarakci n lb Aiinal ratfsnsJsH ■/ ihe And (Ladea. U
PHRENOLOGY
539
ttd Ii^^-Isring frey portions of the nervous centres there is
aa s priori presumptkm in favour of the extension of this principle
<f localization, "niis has been premised on metaphysical as well
MOB anatomical grounds. A. B. Bonnet long ago bdieved each
poctioa of the brain to have a specifically separate function, and
Bcfbert Spencer has said that *' no physiologist can long resist
the cmviction that different parts of the cerebrum subserve
<fiffeR&t kinds of mental action. Localization of function is the
hv of an organization; separateness of duty is universally
acooiq)anie4 with separateness of structure, and it would be
nanreOous were an exception to exist in the cerebral hemispheres.
Let it be granted that the cerebral hemi^heres are the seats
af the higfauer psychical activities; let it be granted that among
then higher psychical activities there are distinctions of kind
iriadi, thou|^ not definite, are yet practically recognizable, and
it cannot be denied, without going in direct opposition to
established physiological principles, that these more or less
^stinct kinds of psychical activity must be carried on in more
or kaa datinct parts of the cerebral hemisphere."
For a -masteriyr review of the old and the new association and
locafixation theories, see W. Wundt's Crundsuge der pkystUopuhen
fn^otcgie, L aSg sqq.; also the same author's Essays, LeipziK
0»), ppu 109 sqq.
There is a large wei^t of evidence in favour of the existence
of tone form of localization of function. So little is known of
the physical changes which underlie psychical phenomena, or
indeed of the succession of the psychical processes themselves,
that we cannot as yet judge as to the nature of the mechanism
of these centres. So much of the psychic work of the individual
Be consists in the interpretation of sensations and the translation
of these into motions that there are strong a priori grounds
fereqwcting to find that much of the material of the nerve-
centres is occupied with this kind of work, but in the present
cooffia of expmmental evidence it is safer to suspend judgment.
Tlat these local areas are not centres in the sense of being
tafi^wiwablc parts of their respective motor apparatuses is
<kar, as the function abolished by ablation of a part returns,
thoQ^ tardily, so that whatever superintendence the removed
Kgbn ezodsed apparently becomes assumed by another part
of the brain.' Experimental physiology and pathology, by
■Qnting other functions for parts of the brain-surface, are
thos dirKtly subversive of many details of the phrenology of
GaO and Spurzheim.
Psychotogiccl Aspect. — The fundamental hypothesis which
tsdedies phrenology as a system of mental science is that mental
phenomena are resolvable into the manifestations of a group of
■paiate faculties. A faculty is defined as "a convenient
cipreanon for the particular states into which the mind enters
^■dien influenced by particular organs; it is applied to the feelings
*> well as to the intellect, thus the faculty of benevolence means
f^ mode of benevolence induced by the organ of benevolence "
(Cofflbe). In another work the same author says it is " used
to denote a particular power of feeling, thinking, perceiving,
cnaected with a particular part of the brain." The assumption
^contained in the definition that the exercise of a faculty is the
t^fKal outcome of the activity of the organ, and in several
^ the standard works this is illustrated by misleading analogies
^«een these and other organs; thus the organs of benevolence
*ndof firmnei^ are said to be as distinct as the liver and pancreas.
^ mind, according to another author, consists of the sum of all
^ faculties. In this view the unity of consciousness is some-
^ difficult to explain, and consequently there is assumed
7 otheis a single unifying substratum, and on this the organs
*>« supposed to act; thus thoughts are defined as " relations
^ the simple substance, mind, to certain portions of the en-
ccpbalon " (Welsh. Pkren. Joum. i. 206). Gall himself believed
Uat there was but a single principle which saw, felt, tasted,
hard, touched, thought and willed (Ponctions du cerveau,
I 243); and the American exponent of phrenology, Caldwell,
Uy% " the mind is as single in its power as it is in its substance;
> For cases, see Rochefontaine. Archives de Pkysudogu (1883), 38;
Kaacfai, La Psickiatria, L 97.
it is a quickening and operating principle, essential to all the
mental faculties, but does not, by any means, possess them
itself " {EUmaUSt p. z6). It is not easy to understand the sup-
posed relation of this hypothetical substratum to the separate
faculties acting on it. It must be both immaterial and uncon-
nected with tbe brain, as the whole two thousand million cells
supposed to exist in the cerebral hemispheres are all parcelled
out among the faculties, and none are left for the unifying nous.
Each organ is considered as engaged, either independently
in bringing forth its own product, or collectively with others in
elaborating compound mental states, and according to their
several degrees of development and activity they are considered
capable of perceiving, conceiving, recollecting^ judging or
imagining each its own subject. This mechanical conception
of the division of labour in the production of the phenomena
of mind has the charm of simplicity, but is attended with the
difficulty that arises in discriminating the operations of the
different organs one from the other. Phrenolo^ts are apt to
be vague respecting the limits of the several faculties, as about
the boundaries of the separate organs. It was pointed out by
Jeffrey that the lines of demarcation between benevolence,
adhesiveness and philoprogenitiveness were indeterminate,
althoui^ the organs are not very close, and the same applies
to other organs.
It is unfortunate for the clearness of the definition that,
although historically the faculties were the first phenomena
noted, independent of and previous to their localization, yet
in the definition the faculties are defined in terms of their
localities.
The following arguments are adduced in favour of the funda-
mental separateness of the faculties: (i) analogy — elsewhere
in the animal economy division of labour is the rule; (a) the
variety of mental endowment observed among children before
they are influenced by education, and the inequalities in the
mental endowments of individuals; (3) the phenomena of
insanity, especially of monomania; (4) the varying periods at
which individual faculties attain their maximum development;
(s) the phenomena of dreams, and the awakem'ng of a h'mited
number of faculties during them; (6) pain being felt in an organ
when it is overtaxed.*
Such faculties are supposed to be primary — (i) as exist in
some animals and not in others, (2) as vary in their development
in the sexes, (3) as are developed in varying proportions with
regard to other faculties, (4) as may act separately from other
faculties, (s) as are not necessarily simultaneous with other
faculties in action, (6) as are hereditary, and (7) as may be
singly diseased.
According to the development of their powers mankind mAy
be divided into six classes: (i) those in whom the highest
qualities are largely developed and the animal quah'ties feeble;
(2) those with the reversed conditions developed, with large
animal and feeble intellectual and moral faculties; (3) those
in whom good and evil are in constant war, with active animal
and strong intellectual faculties and sentiments; (4) those partial
geniuses in whom a few qualities are unusually developed, while
the rest are at or below the mediocre standard; (5) those men
of moderate endowment in whom some faculties are nearly or
quite deficient; (6) those with an unvarying standard of
undistinguished mediocrity in all their faculties.
It is perhaps unfortunate that the word " faculty " has been
used in this sense of original power by phrenologists. It would
have been better to employ, as Mr Lewes suggests, the term
' It is interestine in this connexion to note that in a case published
by Professor Hamilton in Brain (April 1884), where a tumour existed
on the occipital lobe, the pain was persistently referred to the fore-
h^d. Many similar cases are to be noticed amon^ the records of
localized brain-leuons. Bearing on this point also it is worth noting,
once for all, that in nothing is the purely hypothetical nature of
phrenological description better realized than in the accounts of
what these authors call the " natural language of the faculties,"
— that poets are supposed to touch idealit)[ when composing,
musicians to press on tone and time, and painters 00 form and
colour, when in the exercise of then- aru! Yet we are fE|c«:f«l!i
uught this in the sundard wofcVca ww xVue vd^v^wX.
PHRENOLOGY
re pauivc tOcctions of the nund " (Hamiltoo
15 beta receolly made by Dc Btnutd Holllndei
tnology with tht modera phyiio
valiona which beu upoa the
! nork) Tlu UmUi Fuiulim:
" The Revival of Phrenology '
'each cav. were l^biilated.wcfihouuitne
uund. AKaiDMhnufh Dr Hollaiider x
I hardly amount I to mon
L or co-ordioate the perioru
Praclica! Afplicalian.—" Die ScMddlehre at aneidlnll Di
to Hhr Irrthum ui der Idee ■!> Charialancrie id der AmfObna
layi one of tia most acute critics. Even tbinigh do fault cb
be found with the phyaiology and ptychology ol pliniiiifai
it would Dot neceaaahly follow that the tbeoiy coukj be ulflit
aa a practical method of readinf cbarsclet; for, altlmiikl
inner auif ace of the ikuU is moulded on the brain, aDd tbr ifi
surface approxiEnatcs to panlleliim thereto, yet tbe comvfl
dence is luScieDtty variable to render conduiioiu tbefdn
uncertain. The spongy layer or dtploe which lepaiala thK
pans of the same skull, as In tbe cases docribed by FnAa
Humphry (Jan™. «/ Aiut. viii. ijj). TTie frontal unut,tt
opprebrium pkmaiotitum, is a reality, not unf requently of bf
size, and may wholly occupy the regions of five oigau T
centres ol ossification of the frontal and parietal boas, 1
muicubr ctcsla of these and of the occipital bones alio, dil
in Iheir prommence in diRereat skulls. Premature tyniAa
of sutures mould tbe brain without doing much injuij Vi
pans. In )ucb cases there «re compensatory dilaiatkxB id Btl
directions modifying sometimes to an extreme degree the itWi
□f briin-suitace to skult-surface. The writer ha* found ■
diipUcetnenls in extremely scapbocephalic skulls^ the siae
tnic ol accidental defamulions due to pressure on the inlisl
skull before it coOMlidates. Artificial malfoimations illff i
apparent tkuU shape considerably while tbey aHecI the nku
dcvelopmeni of the parts of the brain cortex but little, i
thise and oiher cojent reasons of a Uke kind, whose [mat
be estimated by ibcne accustomed to deal with the cooint
)f the bead, should lead p' " '
Psychology, physiology and
discredit the practical working
worthless the so-called diagno
application by those who are i
amusing, but it is capable of dc
and other subordim
use it for the purposi
selection of parliami
suggestion which origin
10 the d
t ftO]
te soda] ham, is ■
but experience of the cnecis oi mai
sceptical as to tbe feasibility of this
BiBiiOGKArav
ed with Christopher North of tu
suppress the evil and foster 111
good faith by a writer on pfara
PHRYGIA
5+ 1
■nd their hnn<«(
iheoriKindrpocch
ol mankind
, the Fhryiiui
kingt wen lamili.
godj, and
the land thud Ih
r skill againsl the
godslhem
elvH, .» hear
of Ihe wdl-wallct
citiB of I'hrysii
ud of Ih
nchet or iU
kings. Tradition
boralcd by
irclucoloGical
evidence. In the
n on the u
the SingiHus, be
ween Kutd^ Esk
Shchr ind
Vfium (Afiom)
ibowing a ilyle ot nurked individuality, and implying s high
degree of artiMic akiii among the people who produced Ihcm-
OntwootllieienionumenliaK engraved (he namo of " Midas
Ihe King " »nd of the goddes* " KybiJe the Mother." Even the
tide " king " (imt)" ippem to have been borrowed by Cttek
from Phrygian-
It a impoasiblc to fix ■ date for tlie iwginmng of Ihe Phrygian
LiDgdom It appearl to have arisen on the niins of an older
found in Lydia. Phrygia, Cappidoda and Lyoonia, it well as
in north and central Syria^ point to the existence of a homo-
geneous civilisalion over those counlries, they show a singularly
marked ilylc of an, and are frequently inscribed with a peculiar
kmd of hieroglyphics, engraved boutlropiiedorii and (hey origi-
nated probably from a great ffitlite kingdom. whoH kinp ruled
the counlries from Lydia to the bordcis of Egypt. There can
be traced in Asia Minor an nndentroid-systcm, to which belonfi
th* '• loyil road " from Sardii to the Persian capiul, Susa
(Herod, v. ;5). The royal road followed a route so diEKcult
from any centre In Persia, Assyria oc Syria to (he west of
Asia Minor. It can be underttood only by reteience to an
imperial centre far in (be north. The old trade-route from
Cippadoda lo Sinope, which had passed out of use centuries
before the lime of Str»bo (pp. S40, S46), ties ibis cejilie with
precision. It must be far enough west 10 esplain why Irade
KITGU, tbe name of a laige country in A^ Minor, in- lended to the distant Sinope,' hardly accessible behind lofty
Uilal by a race which the Creeks called tplrirt, jrtcmin. ' and rugged mountains, and not to Amisus by the ihon and easy
t"*^ tpeaking, Phrygia comprised Ihe WHlem part of the route which was used in the Ccueio-Roman period. This rosd-
W central plateau of Anatolia, eitending is far east as the system, (hen, points distinctly toacentreiDnonbemCappadoda
imHilys; but its boundaries were vague,' and varied so much near the Halys. Here must have stood (he capital of some great
u dilennt periods that a sketch of its history must piecfde empire connected with its eitremilies, Sardis or Epbesui on
•nj iccoont ol the geography. According lo unvarying Gretli the west, Sinope on the north, (he Euphrates on the east, (he
Uxluion tbe Phryi^ns were most closely akin to certain tribes Cilician Gales on (he south, by roads to well made as to continue
•f Miiedonia and Thrace; and their near relationship lo the in use for a long time after the centre of power had changed to
BtAnic Rock is proved by all that is known of their language Assyria, and Ihe old road-system had become circuitous and
W lit, md is accepted by almosi evciy modem authority, unsuitable.' The precise spot on which the rily ilood is rnarked
"^ Qnntiy named Phrygia in the better known period of by the great niins of Bogbai Kcui. probably the ancienl Pterin,
^l<>0' lies inland, separalod from the sea hy Faphlagonia. of which tbe wide drcuil. powerful' walls and wonderful rocfc-
■ilhrnii. Mysia end Lydia. Yet we hear of a Phrygian sculptures make the site indisputably the most remarkable lo
*|Uu9iicnicy " at the beginning of the 9th century n.c. Tbe Asia Minor. On this site Winckler found in IQ07 the reconU
"^ ud tbe district round Mt Sipylus are frequently called of tbe Hittlle kings who fought againal Egypt and Auyrift.
"■lypin, as alw is the seaport Sinope; and a district on the The andenl road from Pteria (0 Sardis crossed Ihe upper
<<UI between Seslus and the river Cius was regularly named Sangarius valley, and its course maybe traced by the monument*
UUle Pbiygia; names like Mygdooct, Oolione) and Phrygcs or of this early period. Close lo its track, on a lofly plateau which
WH tc, were widely current both in Asia Minor and in overhangs Ihe Phrygian monument inscribed with Ihe name
mpe. The Inference has been generally drawn that the of " Midas the King," is a grcal city, inferiot indeed 10 Pteria
'^jiaiis belonged to a slock widespread in Ihe countries in eileni, but surrounded by rock-sculptures quite as remarkablr
*«li lie round the Aegean Sea, There is, however, no con- as those of the Cappadocian city. The plateau is 9 m, in dr-
■hsie evidence whether this jlock came from ihe east over cumfercnee, and presents on all sides a perpendicular face of
Amcsk. or WIS European in origin and crossed the Hellespont tock jo 10 100 ft. in height. This natural defence was crowned
*Uo A^a Minor; but modem opinion inclines decidedly 10 the by a wall partly Cyclopean, partly built of large squared stone*."
wieiview. j This city was evidently the centre of the old Pbiygian kingdom
According to Greek tradition ihere existed in early time a • ftrtrr, on the Midas (omb. It is eicpre«ly recorded thai
ftlygian kingdom in the Sangarius valley, ruled by kings among rvm jm a Lydiin word. Bui>.ih reiisii all aiiempti 10 eiplain
>tiHn the name» Gordim and Midas were common. It was " " a purely prcekformation, and the tennination a™
b™, to the anrie,,t Greek, of lorda and (he Troad is something "?ii;;„;f -^f "„Xi'-C»ek enl™,y in jj- ".c- bu, i. i. -id to
tnl and half-divine. When the goddess appeared to her have eiiited long befon Ihat lime.
Iivmiri(e Anchiics she represented herself as daughter of (he ' When (be E^rtians conquered Lydia ihey tetalncd, at lean for
lfa»o(Phrviia;tbeFhrviian3were»aidtobetheo)deMoeoplc. alise-thi'muie. whichtheyfoiindfneionciice. _ _
£( o( Phrygia; tbe Fhiygians were laid to be the ddeat people, ".'xhi'H™'hiC?iSj^ fi^
" The meaning ii riven in Hesych, sr. " B^^r."
t The difBculty A ipccif ying the limits faue Hie 10 a prov^b—
(See Fbtoc. Exphr. A
da and TL17113 fonn a pmip of dlla faimded by tn liuidiiii
. , . iplE In oppnilion lo Aisot. the utunl cipiul o( the |M
It the city alieady cmtcd in that uriicr time, and the ilionghold of the nUivc net Midca tptima IB I
The Phrygian kingdom and art therctore took the place of an the cily ol Midas, and the name it one moR Uok ia the <bi
older civ]iizaliaEL. It IS probable that the tradition oE battles that binda Mycenae to Phrygia. Tbia cobOficiOA, whale*
between the Phiy^ani and the Amazoni on the banks of the insy have been its chuicter. belong to the lemMe period wki
Sanganiis prnervcs the memory of a uruggle betweeo the two the Phrygians inhabited the Aegan coasts. Is the Sth «
races and the victory ol the Fhryges. proliably in the 9th century B.C. communicatioa with Fbryi
Of the monuments that east around this city two classes may seems lo have lieen mamtained optaally by the Gmki ot Cya
be confidently rdcrrcd 10 the period of Phrygian greatness. Phocaeaand Smyrzii. About the end of the gtb ctntlsy tlMfa
That which is inscribed iiith the name of " Midas the Kuig " it king of PbTygi*. married Damolice, daughter ol AguntiBici
the most remarkibLe eiampLe of one class, in which a large the last king o[ Cyme. Gyees, the first Mennn^d kinc of Lji
perpendicular surface of rock is covered with a geometrical (687-653), had a Phtygianenoihir. The wonfaip of Cybck ^HCa
pattern of squares, crosses and maeanders, surmounted by a over Pbocaea lo the west as far aa Maaiilia; rodt moaatfio
pedimenl supported in the centre by a pilaslet in low ttlicl. in the Phrygian ityle and votive reliefs of an Aoatolian typt «
In some cases a floral pattern occupift part of the surface, and found near Phocaei. Smyrna iras devoted to the fUj^
in one case the two sides of the pediment ate filled by two Meter Sipylent It is then naiunl that Ihe Homeiic pce«
qihinies of archaic type.' In some ol these monuments a door- refer to Phiygia in the lenas above described, and make Priaa
way it carved in the lower pan; ihedooc is usually doaed, but in irife a Phrygian woman. After the fovodaiioa ol Iht Gnd
one case, viz. the sphinx monument just alluded to, the valves colony >t Sinope in 751 there can be no doubi thai il fanM
ol the door are thrown vide open and give access to a little the link of conaenon between Greece and Phiy^ HdjiIm
chamber, on the back of which it sculptured in relief a rude and Cappadodan tradcit brought (heir goods, no doria ■
image of the Mother.goddess Cybele, having on each side of her camels, to Sinope, and the Grcf k lailon, the ianirai of Uitm
a linn which rests its lorepaws on her shoulder and places its carried home the works ol Oriental and Phiyfiaa aitmA
head against hers. Sometimes a grave has been loiiad hiddt^ The Greek alphabet was carried to Phiygia and Pteria, dlhl
behind the carved front; in other caidt no grave can be delected, from Sinope or more probably direct east from Cyme, k Ot
but it It probable that they ate all sepulchral.' The imitation latter part of the Slh century. The immense impocttntl
The second class is marked by the heraldic type of two anlnals, doubt that very intimate relations entted at (bit poet bOWi
luually lions rampant, facing one another, but divided by a pillar the Ionic colonists and Ihe nativet. Tbe cfiectsof tUscaaVlt
or tome other device. This type is occasionally found conjoined on the development ol Greece wn« voy great, ItaSlctdkai
with the preceding; and various details common to both classes in the first place, and the mainfand of Greece indirectly; A*
^low that there was no great difference in time between Ihcm. art of Ionia at this period is almost nnknown, but it itf
The heraldic type is used an Ihe monumenti which appear to probably closely allied ta that ol Phiy^* A ttriUig (kI ti
be the older, and the geometrical pattern is often empjoyed on this connexion is the use of a vety ^mpk kind of look capitri
the inscribed monuments, which are obviously later than the in one early Phrygian monument, suggt*liD| that tbc "^
earliest uninscribcd. Monuments ol this class are carved on the Ionic " column came to Greece over Phiygia. It it eMM
front of a sepulchral chamber, the entrance to which is a small that the revolution which took place in the reUtioas hMMB
doorway placed high and inaccesuble in the nckt. There are Phrygiaoi and Creeks must be due to some great moioM
Early Phrygian art stands in close relationship with the art AIkI ii probably correct in placing the iamuls of tbehviMB
of Cappadocia. The monuments of the type of the Midas Eurupean tribes, Bithynians, Thyni, Maiitodyni, tt, iM
tomb are obviously imitated from pattemt which were employed Alia Minor about the beginning of the Qlh catny U
In cloth and catpcli and probably also in the tilework on the The Phiygian element on the coast was weakened and il aW
inside ol chambers varying slightly according to Ihe maleriaL places annihilated; that in Ihe interior was KRvstbtBid; oil
Such paltcnu were used in Cappadocb, and Ihe priest in the ivck- we may suppose that the kingdom of Ihe Sangarins nIkylM
sculpture al Ibriz neius an emhioideied robe sirikingty umitar sprang into greatness. The kingdom of Lydia appears It IM
in style to the pallem on Ihe Midas tomb; but the idea of using become impoitant about the end of Ihe 8th cenlmy, aai H
the pattern as the Phrygians did seems peculiar lo themselves, have completely barred the path between Phiygia and QV
The heraldic type of the second class is found also in the art of or Smyrna. Ionian maiitime enterprise opened a Hv "T
Assyria, and was undoubtedly adopled by the Phrygians finm over Sinope.'
earlier art; but it is used so frequently in Phiygia as lo be The downfall ol the Pbty^an monarchy an be dllid iH
specially characteristic ol that country-' While Phrygian comparative accuracy. Between 6S0 and 670 the QsUBii*
art is distinctly non-Oriental in sturil, its resemblance lo archaic in their destructive progress over Asia Minor owraa nijp;
Greek art-isa fact ot the greatest importance. Il it not merely Ihe king Midas in despair put an end to hit own bfe; aadba
that certain types are employed both in Phrygia and in Greece, henceforth Ihe history of Pbiygii is a story of ilavny, d^a*-
but several favourite types in early Greek art can be traced in lion and decay, which contratta ttrangedy with the (tA'
Phrygia. employed in similar spirit and for similar purposes. legends. The catastrophe seems to have deeply iiiipii 111 t^
The heraldic type of the two lions is the device over Ihe principal Greek mind, and Ihe memory of it was preierved. Tke M
gateway of Mycenae, and stamps this, the oldest great monument ol the Cimmerian invasion is £>ed by the concuirat KKitiW
on Greek soil, with a distinctly Phrygian character. Mycenae of the contemporary poets Archilochut and C tiling of tit *'
was Ihe city of the Pclopidie, whom Greek tradition unhcsiu- chronologisis Eusebius, ftc, and of the b
tingly declares to be Phrygian immigrants. A study of the topo- Assyrian king Esar-haddon. The Cimmei
graphy ol Ihe Argive plain suggests Ibc conclusion that Mycenae, eipelied Irom Aua Minor by Alyattet before mi vai wu i^
■PublLihedin Jnim.//cU. Aitj. riSS4l. Medes under Cyaaares (coo-tgc B.c.1. The niiiitlif
m^^'tbTdl'^cS"«S!^b^ui^Tm"iS^t^™mlcT^''« t''"rf""=- '«" ravaging 5^ Minor. «.d peoBmaUrM
MetmpoUi and Conoi. One group Mh rdund the villaee. of Yaaili- possession of Phrygia, the only country wboe they idM
Kaya, Kumbei. Yapuldak and Sakihiih; the other bc«de Uyen. 'See Fuimngler. CMJiohI wm YUUrMi^ WiiKfctl» fm
Bei Keui, Demirii and Ayaiin. (innn 11 juilli 1I T>| I1 >ii I ilftfriiilia MiiBaa.iy
'The heraldic type cantinues on gnveflonei down to the late« ThecloieuanalDcietofDldPhiygianananiabefoiiBiIlathlMmi
'""''' '~ ' ^netrical pollems of the Creek t>ronxe work in Olympia. Italy and theaorthBBfaa^
at the present time in the ' Hipponax. jr. 36 \^a], rmnra that a tnJe-fOula Ina fVfP
down the Maeander 10 Miktiu was used is Ihe tth iimm|
PHRYGIA
543
ooopkte toccess, till lome time between 6x0 and 590 Phrygia
tkn fen under the Lydian power, and by the treaty of 585 the
Bi^ was definitdy fixed as tlie boundary between' Lydia and
Medis (see Lydu and Pexsia). The period from 675 to 585
■at tfaoefore be considered as one of great disturbance and
pnbtbly o£ complete paralysis in Phrygia. After 585 the
onntiy was ruled again by its own princes under subjection
to Ljnfiin supremacy. To judge from the monuments, it appears
io lave recovered some of its old prosperity; but the art of
^ liter period has to a great extent lost the stron^y marked
JBdhridnality of its earlier bloom. The later sepulchral monu-
■ots belong to a dass which is widdy spread over Asia Minor
bon Lyda to Pontus. The graves are made inside a chamber
CKavtted in the rode, and the front of the chamber imitates a
Wae or temple. No attempt is made to conceal the entrance
W to render it inaccessible. The architectural detaib are in some
cues unmistakably copied, without intentional modification,
hoD the architecture of Greek temples; others point perhaps
to Fernan influence, while several — which are perhaps among
tk early works of this period — show the old freedom and power
of oqploying in new and original ways details partly learned
ham abroad. This style continued in use under the Persians,
uder whose rule the Phrygians passed when Cyrus defeated
Croesus in 546, and lasted till the Roman period. One monu-
iKnt appears to presuppose a devdopment of Greek plastic art
hter than the time <rf Alexander* and is almost certainly of
the Roman time. It would, however, be wrong to suppose
that the influence of truly Hellenic art on Phrygia began
with the conquest of Alexander. Under the later Mennnad
kings the Lydian empire was penetrated with Greek influence,
and Xanthus, the early Lydian historian, wrote his history in
CSredL Under the Persian rule perhaps it was more di£&cult
for Gredc manners to spread far east; but we need not think
thai European influence was absolutdy unfdt even in Phrygia.
The pcobability is that Alexander found in all the large dties
a party ^vourable to Greek manners and trade. Very little
is to be learned from the andent writers with regard to the
state of Phrygia from 585 to 30a The slave-trade flourished:
Pbryglan slaves were conunon in the Greek market, and the
JPhryi^an names Blidas and Manes were stock-names for slaves.
Herodotus (L 14) records that a king Midas of Phrygia dedicated
hb own dudr at Ddphi; the chair stood in the treasury of
Cypsdusy and cannot have been deposited there before 680 to
660 B.C. It is not improbable that the event bdongs to the
tine of Alyattes or Croesus, when Greek influence was favoured
througboot the Lydian empire; and it is easy to understand
low the offering of a king Midas should be considered, in the
time of Herodotus, as the earliest made by a fordgn prince to
a Greek god. The Phrygian troops in the army of Xerxes were
armed like the Armenians and led by the same commander.
It is to be presumed that the dties of the Sangarius valley
gndually lost importance in the Persian period. The final
cntastrophe was the invasion of the Gauls about 370 to S50;
and, though* the circumstances of this invasion are almost
vakaown, yet we may safdy reckon among them the complete
devastatkm of northern Phrygia. At Ust Attains I. settled
the Gauls permanently in eastern Phrygia, and a large part of
the country was henceforth known as Galatia. Strabo mentions
that the great dries of andent Phrygia were in his time dther
deserted or marked by mere villages. The great dty over the
tomb of Midas has remained uninhabited down to the present
day. About s m. west of it, near the modem Kimibet, stood
Metropolis, a bishopric in 'the Byzantine rime, but never men-
tiooed under the Roman empire.
Alexander the Great placed Phrygia under the command o(
Antjfonns, who retained it when the empire was broken up.
When AnUgonus was defeated and slain, at the decisive battle
of Ipaus, Phrygia came under the sway of Seleucus. As the
ftifunenian kings grew powerful, ind at last confined the
Grab in eastern Ph^gia, the western half of the country was
' A goraoneun of Roman period, 00 a tomb engraved in Jcum.
JMLiMCFlxxvi.).
incorporated in the kingdom <^ Pergamum. Under the Roman
empire Phrygia had no political existence under a separate
government, but formed part of the vast province of Asia. In
autumn 85 b.c the pacification of the province was completed
by Sulla, and throughout the imperial time it was conmu>n fcr
the Phrygians to date from this era. The imperial rule was
highly favourable to the q>read of Hellenistic dvilization,
which under the Greek kings had affected only a few of the
great dties, leaving the mass of the country purdy Phrygian.
A good deal of local self-govenmient was permitted; the dries
struck their own bronze coins, inscribed on them the names of
their own magistrates,' and probably administered thdr own
laws in matters purdy locaL The western part of the country
was pervaded by Graeco-Roman dvilization very much sooner
than the central, and in the country districts the Phrygian
language* continued in common use at least as late as the third
century after Christ.
When the Roman empire was reorganized by Diodetian at
the end of the 3rd century Phrygia was divided into two pro-
vinces, distinguished at first as Prima and Secunda, or Great
and Little, for which the names Pacatiana and Salutaris soon
came into general use. Pacatiana comprised the western half,
which had long been complctdy pervaded by Graeco-Roman
maimers, and Salutaris the eastern, in which the narive man-
ners and language were still not extinct. Each province was
governed by a praeses or itt^t*^ about a.o. 4x3, but shortly after
this date an officer of consular rank was sent to each province
(Hierodes, Synecd.), About 535 Justinian made some changes
in the provindal administrarion: the governor of Pacatiana
was hencdorth a comes, while Salutaris was still ruled by a
constdaris. When th6 provinces of the Eastern empire were
reorganized and divided into tkemaia the two Phrygias were
broken up between the Anatolic, Opsidan and Thracesian
themes, and the name Phrygia finally disappeared. Almost
the whole of Byzantine Phrygia is now indudcd in the vilayet
of Brusa, with theexcepUon of a small part of Parorius and the
district about Themisonium (Karayuk Bazar) and Ceretapa
(Kayadibi), which bdong to the vilayet of Konia, and the
district of Laodicea and Hierapohs, which bdongs to AidixL
The prindpal modem dries are Kutaiah (Cbtyaeum), Eski
Shehir (Dorylaeum), Afiom Kara Hissar (near Prymnessus),
and Ushak (Trajanopolis).
It is impossible to say anything definite about the boundaries
of Phrygia bdore the 5th century. Under the Persians Great
Phrygia extended on the east to the Halys and the Salt Desert;
Xem^hon {Anab. i. 3, 19) indudes Iconium on the south-
east within the province, whereas Strabo makes Tyriaeum the
boundary in this directioiL The southern fronrier is unknown:
the language of Livy (xxxviii. xs) implies that the sou them
Metropolis (in the Tchul Ova) bdonged to Pisidia; but Strabo
(p. 639) indudes it in Phrygia. Celaenae, beside the later dty
of Apamea (Dineir), and the entire vall^ of the Lycus, were
Phrygian. The Maeander above its juncrion with the Lycus
forxned for a little way the boundary between Phry^a and Lydia.
The great plateau now called the Banax Ova was entirdy or in
great part Phrygian. Mt Dindymus (Murad Dagh) marked the
fronrier of Mysia, and the entire valley of the Tembrogius or
Tembris (Porsuk Su) was certainly indudcd in Phrygia. The
boimdaries of the two Byzantine Phrygias were not always
the samffr
Taking ^erodes as authority, the extent of the two provinces
at the begixming of the 6th century wiU be readily gathered from
the accompanying list, in which those towns whidi coined money
under the Ronun empire axe italicized and the name of the
neaxest mod«ii village is appended.
h PACATiNA.--(i)£aMftc«o (Eski Hissar); (3) ffi«raAa(M(Funbuk
Kaleni); (3) Mosyna (Geveie); [(4) Motdkypolis, ody in NaUtiat
* This liberty was not granted to the dries of any otbar province
in AnatoBa.
*A number of iascripdons m a lansuage presumably Phrygian
have been discovered in the centre and east of the country; they
belong fsasrsOy to the end of the 3nd and to the 3id century.
m defxodcDt oa am
nuuaji. IDC tuninuunL-n m IDC COaiUfy UV WcU ctf
nature ud of thi^ complete depntdsia mit- Tbdrf
■D fir u we know n, bu a rnddncbDly and myitic toiB
nliEion perteltf of Che tu&e duAcia- Tor t«o d
were Cybcle, ibe Mother, the reproductin ud nooriikii
Einli, Hid Sabuiut. tbc Son. the life ci< ulun^ dvn u
" UT MoTBu OF tHi Gods). TIicaiiB
Sibuiiu, tlut Gnek Dioaywu. «e« to
cl bia wonliippni, who mounied *llh
'itk hk joy. They enacinl the Mory <
the Earth) the Mother, ii Errt ilued oat
■wndulditherepreieniitiveaJ [he nil
IT by a CTud death, jiut as ibe roitii
ncteriiid by ■ fmiy ol devotun. m
orfiadk dancea and nnderiaca in t
nied by the mmic at the flute, cymbal
bourine.' Al aii early time ihi> vonh^i waa ailecled b
infliicQce. coming over Syria fmni BbbyUmia. ^^*v-fiut
tifird with Adonu or Aliii (Aly>), Cybelc oith the Syiiai
and maoy of IhF coancvt ritn of the Phrygian WDT^up, I
whapt cDTrupi: i( diDuLd IDCLiide KJimaborKn near tjeiKb); UiJ abborted amono the Semiief, whercaa it vaa the aiumal
Pncpenuaui (AJtyntaab). la later time* the ioportant lortroa used in purification by the Pbrygiani. Lydiani, Lvctamai
^nd bishopric:] of AcroenuB waa fotmdcd oo the aile o£ the pment The Phrygian religion enrcitrd a very orong inBuoer t
FUbmtliMm (Ak Shchr), i/ufrtiiiHfti^ (i) in Bynntbie'CBUiiiai tAxieda ilirilw ciiVhe Mother ot'thcVidi b^
Amaritoi (Amt near Hanua Hadji). OmHu* (Alikd, or Akkiaa), AthFoiiu were directed by the Delpbic oi
_ _. , _ d by the Del]
s Ttocoada (KaimaaJ; (3) in Byzantine uecuiion of a pf>c>I of Cybele durin
Plitygia ccHitaioa leveTa] wcU-marfrcd gngraphlcal didrida.
.. _. . , , wr — ^ ■cuiion of a priol of Cybele during the P
LjQfc CajfB(Hoiiuin). _^_ ^_^ ^____.__ bijilding_the Mamai^ ^In l^»c_^ other
iiHl the Emir'pagh from uniiudified " barbarian " ritual oi Phrygia.
Holmi (abcxil Tchai) to Tyriaeum nighin); iU walen colli
thevaUt^p in three lakea, which probably supply the great lounuioa 4nc cohik pocu eauiuoi mem, ana riato ana ucmoff
in the Aaylon and through them the Ssn^ariua. (1) AxyLtm. veighed agamit (hernj but they continued to iprrad, wit]
the vait tredeai plaint on the upper Sanganui; there bunt forth fervid enthuiiam, their ftnperwitir^n and their obmc
at varioua pointa great peienniaL loringi. the Salutria foiuitaini wide amonR the wopLe. whoK rcliakHJs cravlngi were nn
ratrabo p. 5U). Iliie Baihl. Bunar B»hi, Ctuk Bunar, tluk Baihi. with the purely external religjont of Hclkniim. The
sCm which Ini the Saneariua Great part U the Axyhm wai myiLciiesweEeDpeniaaL,freeoienDrAUvei, whohaddulyi
awgntd to Galatia. (j) Tlie mt of Phrygia iiinaiintaiDoui (except the preliminary purifications, and smred to the pi
the neat plateau, Banai Ova), consisting of bill-country intersected salvntion and teminion of lins. Under Mvsieuo (f
by nvcrt. Kch of which Aawa thrtHjgh a fertile valley of varying tincrion of character has been pointed out between the tni
'-—--'''-. The nonhcm half ia drained by rivers srhich nui (0 the mysteriei^ such aa the Eleusmian and the Phrygians
bruaius), Sekli Su (f^nhcniva), Bardakchi Tcbai (Xerabatcs), the Erst ceniuiica alter Chiist only the Phrygian and the
aixTBayat Tcbai (Alawlnu}, jiHn thcSangariug, while the western.' rites relainid much real hold on the Gran^o-Roman woiU,
Tauahanl* Tchai rtUiyndacua) and Simav Tchai (Maceatui}, meet itself, however, wai very enily convened to Chrinianity.
and how into the Pmpontia. The Hermui drains a small district inicnptioni io the counliy bi^n in themdandareabund
included in Ihe Byantine Phiygia, but in earlier timea assigned 3rd century. There ii every appearance thai the great d
to Lydia and Mysia. Great part of soiilhem and western Phrygia people irere Christiani before 300, and Euscbius (?.£
is drained by the Maeander with ita cributariea, SandyUy Tchai probably correct in hii itatenitiit that in the time ol :
Kaucus), Sanaa Tchai. KopU Su fHippurius), and Tchuruk Su there was a Phrygian city in which every living soul was
Tui); moreover, Btnne upiand pjalnaon theaoath, capcdaily the The great Phrygian taint of the and century vaa iuibb
ibai Ova (Aukcra), communicata by undcrgmiH channels Marcellus (Abenrjuftl; the mass of legends and nuracls [
' " ■ " ■ " JDgraphy of him loi ' ' ' '
ider. Finally, the Kanyiik Ova in Ihe Btiei
-ough the Kiianet. • tributary of the lildi
Lycian Sea. Phrygia Parorius and all the liver-valleya ai
Ingly fertile, and agiicullui ■-- -■-■-' ' ' -'■
in^ie Lateran Nfuacum in Rome, has
._, _..__.._._ . . ..., ,_.._ aon. and makcfl it probable that the a
»: accoraing 10 the myth, Cordius waa called fiwn the peoole attributed Ir ■-'- -"-'
the thione. The high-Vying plains and parts of Ihe vast entfiunatiic c'
plough ID the tfaione. The higlMying plains and parts of the vast enlhu«astic character cf the old Phrygian religion wa* a
Axylnn furnish good pasturage, which formerly nourished countlcsa lost when the country became Ghriitian, bur is clnrly tra
flocks of sheep. fheRomansalfoobtainedhncbarsn from Phrygia. various berencs that arose in ceniml Anatolia- EspeciaD'
few small districts. F^ cannot be grown in the country, and (he borders of Phrvgii
ancient leferencea to Phrygian figs arc either erroneous tie due In a phia). and was vehe
loose use of the term Phrygia.' Trees are exceedingly BOree in the Of the old^ Phr;^
Erius and the valonia oakt io paitsof the Banai Ovaand a .'
itticti form eiccptiooa The underground wealth [1 nc.
ID be great. Iroo was worked in the diitrict of Cibyia, and the '
marble o( Synnada, or more correctly of Docimium, wai largely i
used by the Romaoa Copper and quick^lvcr were tnined in the |
-f:.: — j:..j.. — ,1, „( iconiurn. The scenery a getierally mono-
■ .K^^^ian'i
onous; even the mom
■ Nos. 1-5 werecallcd the Phrygian '■ Pentip^lis.- _" " 'The influi'ncc which waseicmil on Greek mi
■ In Slrabo, p. S77, i*«i*»im» must be wrong; im'Utvn' a 'There i:i no dinrl evidence ih.il this was p
rue to fact, and is probably the right reading. Olives cannot ship of Cybele. but anatugy and indirect arguni
or grow on these uplajuU, which are over 3000 It. above sia-kvel- ecr1,]in.
PHRYNE— PHTHALIC ACIDS J4.5
csmpoKil US pliyi, of ohicfa the Sclilary (H(w6r)iiiTaf> m*
eihibiud ia 414 ilong wiUi the flinli q( Aiiitaphtai* and guud
the third priie. The Muus cuiied oS the Kcond priie in 405,
AristophaDC* being £nt with tlu Fnfs^ in which he accuKt
Phrynichut af empbying vulgar uicks to niac A tuigh, of
ratacBU in T. Kodi, Ccmictnam aOiurmm /nvHUa (iSSoJ.
3. pHKVNictfus AiAiiiu3» s giwpQuriui of Biihyniii livid
in the lod centiuy ui. AcamUog to Suldu he wu the sutbor
ol <i) in AuidH, or On Attic IVotiii, in loo boob; (2) Tifcobu*
nmrriiirt, ■ coUedion of luhjects for disnunon; (j) Zo^Miuf
mfioaavi, or Sophisticd Equipinent, in forty-teven (or
levcDly-foui) book). Ai modeli of Altic style Phiynichui
■signed the higheit plwx la Flito, Demathenei ud Aeichinei
tbe Socntic. The woik wu leaned, but prulii ud guruloul.
A [ngment canuiud is a Puii MS. wu puhlithcd' by B. de
MontfiucoD, utd by I. BeUer In his Atadaa pena (1S14).
WE, Gmk couilesu, lived in the 4th century B.C. Her Anothu woik of Phtynlchul, not meDlioned by Fhotiu*, but
e wu Mneiaielc, but owing to her complEidaD the perhipi identiol with the Atticitl meniiooed by Suldu, the
<d Phiyne (twid), ■ nuno given to other counesMi SiltHum CBikoY*) 0/ AISc Waiii aiid Pkraia, a eilEnt. It ii
bom It Thopiae in Boeolia, but tana to hive lived dedicated to Comcliuiui, 1 min of lileniy tula, ud one of tlie
I. She acquired » much weilUi by her iitnotdiniry impnial BcntsHet, who lud invited the aulhor to undertake
hat ihe offered 10 rebuild the walls of Tbebei. which the woik. Il is a colleclion ot current words and fonnt which
dcattsyed by Alcucder the Great (jjfi), on condition devilled Imm the Old Attic standard, the true Altic equivaienU
worda " Destroyed by Aleiander, restored by Phiyne heing given aide by aide. The work is thua a leiicon anti-
lesan," were inscribed upon them. On Ihe occuion barbanim, and is inteiestlng u illustrating the clitnges through
vil of Poseidon at Eleusis she laid aside her gamienU, which the Greek language had passed between the 4th ccnluiy
her hair, and stepped into the sea in the sight of the "l^ "il ^^ «>d century aj).
r Apellcs his great picture Edliioniol Ike 'B<>>rr4, wiih valuable notes, haw been nubliihed
ir which Fhiyne sat as model.
Lutherford
.r*' hii allenlion chieSy to the later, Rulherford 10 Ihe cariie
^ nmictd by Phrynichm See alia J. Bmout, Dt f ti^iiia ,
edliUi);Lob«1( devotes
ford 10 (he rariicT UHOei
,,t rim Pl^^,i.l^ Jlii^,r^
med u if the verdict took a leaditig part in establishing the oUgarcby of the Four
anlavouiiDle. He rent ner robe ana displayed lier lovely Hundred al Athens in 411 I.e., and wu assassisaled ia the laina
rhich so moved her Judges that Ibey acquitted her. year (Thucydids viii.).
[ la others, she herself thus displayed her charms. PHTHALAZDIEI (hemo-ortliodiaiincs or beniopyriduilies),
d 10 have made an attempt on the virtue of the philo- In organic chemislty a group of heterocyclic compounds contain-
enocrates. A sutue of Pbryne, the nork of Pnuiletes, Ing ibe ring complex shown in formula I. They are oooeric
xl in a temple at The^piae by the side of a sUtue of with the dnnoUnes (f.I,), The parent suhstuia ot the group,
e by the same artist. phlhslailne, CAN^ i> beat obtained from the (ondensalion
henaeui. m>, sS*. S*?. SSj. S^S. S90. S9t ; Aelian, Yar. ot i^telrabromonhMylene with hydiaiine (D. Gabriel, Btr.,
[3^ Pliny, jVoj. Hiil. audv. 71. 1B9J. t6, p. 2310), or by the reduction ot chlorphthahudne with
nCHCS — t . Son of Polyphradmon and pupil of Thespis, phosphorus and hydiiodic add [Btr., 1S97, p. 3024). li potsessa
: earliest of the Creeli tragedians. Same ol the ancients, basic piopeities and forms addition products with alkyl iodides,
■^rded him as the real founder of liagedy. He gained On Ondation with alWine potassium permanganate it yields
poetical victory in jii B.C. His famous play, the pyridaeine dicarboiyLc add. Zinc and hydrochloric add
' * ' mposed ihorLly after the decompose it with fortnalion of arthaxylylene diamine-
— ■■ . -^ ...._....__ j.^._..-._ ...-, C.H^N,, (formula II.),
' a cflor-
ffl
that no play on the 3
ub^sl
t produced again. In 476 Phiynichus was suci
«sful
m the Phoenician wome
n who
he chona, which celeb.
■ated the defeat of Xer
4S0). Themislodcs act!
cd as choragua, and one
of Ihe
* the play was to remi
the Paiiatu of Aeschylus (471) was an imilal
SUM*. Phrynichus is
SicUy.
the title, of hi, plays,
DdHoWii, Aclaeim, A.
keiffa,
, show thai he tmted
mylhologicil u well ai
J Bihjecls. He inlioduced a separate actor u distinct
leader of the chotus, ai
But in his plays, as ir
1 the early tragedies gem
erally.
dinile 10 the lyric elem.
ed by the chotus ant
1 the dance, Accoidi
'hrynichus liisl Introdu
ced female tharaclen c
,n Ihe
lynl by men In masks), and made special use
of the
-nil in A. NaucV. Trtta"
nn parcantm Iragmrnla 1
ria87)
oel ot the Old Attic cc
I. PhihalaiiBe. If. PhthalaionF.
PHTHAUC ACIDS, or Beniine Dicaaaoxyijc AOM,
aH,(CO,a)i There are three isomers: |i) onho. 01 phthalic
add; (2) meta, 01 isaphthibc kdd; (j) para, or terephibalic
PIdkalU vid was obtained by Laurent in iSj6 by oiidliing
naphthalene tetrachloride, and. believing It la be a naphtfiatetie
derivative, he named it naphthalenic acid; Muignac dElermined
lis lormula and showed Laurent's suppotliion to be inconect,
upon which Laurent gave it its present n»me. It is manuEaciured
by oildlilng naphthalene tetrachlOTide (prepared from naph-
thalene, potassium, chlorate iltd hydrochloric ac»<) with nitric
acid, or. better, by oiidising the hydrocarbon with fuming
sulphuric add. uung mercury or mercuric sulphate u a catalyst
(German pal, qi, Mi). Il also results on the oxidation of Ollbo-
5+6 PHTHISIS— PHYLLITE
didoivUivia of benmw. It (onsi white aytUh, rndtiag U one put antibii the dwft, lie aha Ike haA, MA k
313° *^^ dccompo«i[kij) Idio wkter uid phUialic anbydride; mm continuouily by laik onhodox Jem. Il b olkd Ifb
Ihc Iiller fonni long white DeedJa, mdling u iiS" ud boilinc Kon/Mjt (ij. "Four Conien,'*Deiit. nii. il)ot 'UtlklUl^*
U 384°. Healed with in ems of lime it givs bcniene; caldum ud is, of aniiie, " fringed." Both pbrlutMy ud nmoi
benioile nsulu when ctlduoi phthilite 13 heated with one wen niiqicHd to keep oS bntful deoHU fhif. oa Om.
niolecuJe of Lime to 330*-350^ The add (and anhydride) ut viiLj).
la^y uHd in the colour industn (kc Fkjosxkuh; PkxmoI'- See Sumdiuilua. Jfiidw, L 9 kq.; and BodemAm. HA
,^bLidi). Ko/.d.*«(««y«lB,iv,9"l. tW.R.S..Ca.B<x)
or CJI.rCC:ii)(C0)O. fartDtd bv PBTUBCHm, ■ Gnek hixarian. *bo BatiriiLcd iabf tk
pbami dilonle. i> an oil which time of Antu*, (be atntefrut of Ilie Achaean L(a(i< ia the ]d
. in IDEH reaetiom it behavei i;eolury a.c. Hii birthplace la varioualy livtn at Altai
ndtheolliwatfl'. Ttarcannol and lubeequentJy migrated lo Alhnia. He wa* tke wltaifl
d baTc been livEn ihe lonnulie history m iS booka, covering the period tmn 11k tt*^'"'H ■'
1)0. phihaliiiiide,C.H,(C01iNH, Pynhuikingof ^lirut (aFelopMUic*iB(iii) to tbedolbtflk
tc li ''"'t^ StSIjjSiiSiSS'^ Spartan king Cleomenea (9)0) afta Ut dcfeu by *ui«-
^lorm. 'n-^U« and .ItyriJti. Bi™LBrii!nd poiaib pw '>™™- Polybiua [ii. jMj) chaise* him wftta <
anihianaicadd, CH,(NHi)(C(Wf). (Set iMDloo.) f or Oi J—--. .- . ■»
Itopkikalic add ia obtaiited by oxidiiing meta-iylaie wflh 3^ )r w
chromic add, or by fining polaiaium meta-aulpbobenioate, ot inhkc
mela-brombcniotte with potaaiium formate (terephlhalic add "*"
iaalsoforniedin thclaat caae). It melLa above 300*, and di
in 7!loa paits of cold water and in 4600! boiling. The I
aalt (+6H/)) i» veiy loluble (a dininelion beiweeti phthalie and pHTLB. a mountain fOrtiwa, on a paM leading &•■ k^
terephlhalic addi). I/nlic aciJ, j-methyl iiopblhaiic acid, ia [oBoeotiaandThebe^andcommaBdingafioeviewefttoi*
obtained by oiidiadng meiiiylene or by condeoaing pyrotacemic pj^ja. n j, OlvmuA on the aouth-weat end d Ml PhB. k
acid with buyta water. j, cUefly famout for iu occupation by Huaaybuha at ik M
Tiripkikaiif add, formed by osdinng para-dideilvBtivia of the Atbealaa exlka duili« the luleof the TUtyl^muk
-' *■ ■<' beat by oBdisng caraway oil, a mixture of ^04 ■.€. After defendii« hlmwll ban tUaiA, with tkl4
1 ^ aJH> CuciuUi (lS»J)
akobol and ether; it lublimei without mdting when b >ririm Uunychia. Ckac lo Ph^ b tlie difl '-»-' trnm,
ovtf which the Pythian Kjt.tt.inj. vog wSbed tm ta
reduced f^thallc addi ice FoLnmBTLnni. Athena.
PHTHUU (Cr. ««<ni " waiting "}, a term fotmeily applied PHTLLin {Cr ^WUr, a led, pntMiUy tacnn d?
(like *' Consumption'*) to the disease of the lung now known yidd kaf-likc plalea, owing 10 tJscir temiy)^ fa pttnllfl^t
as Tuberculoaii (;,>.), group of rocks which are in practical^ aO caan meumntaal
PH7LACTBHT (^vXair^fut), > Grtdc word "■'■•■'■■g aigiUaceout ledimenti, consisting taeniially cd qMR^cliitt
" guard " {». against misfortune), i.e. afi amulet' It b applied and miucoviie, and possessing a weU>inaiked pvsBd "V^
in the New Testameul ID the ItfUin or " pityer-thong) " WDtn menl or schisloaily. They form an intermcdlale t^ it W
by onbodDi Jem daily at morning-prayer (wbeiber at home ot leiiei of altered clayt ot thajy depoaiu bit wan dv dMi
in the synagogue). The title employed in Hebrew, ujiiiirt, leems and mica-echists. The day-tlatca have a vtfy aimllw nliMd
really to be derived from an Aramaic term meaning "attach- conslitulion to the phyllitea, ** ^ ~" ' — ~
menla," "ornaments"; it corresponds to the Biblical Hebrew disringuifthed also hy a very
word rendered " fronlkis " (Mafia). The UfiUiH or pfaylao phyllitea alto white mica (mutcc
terles are worn, one on Ibe left arm (the " hand-IefiUa "), and as a rule than in itate, and iuoyiuUiDe plalea ate hlgailti
the other on the head (Ibe "bead-IefiUa "). In each ate Ihe abundanceof micagivalbeaerocktagloaay (beeooatbeMiA
leather Chongs support a small satchel which is fastened to the plans of fissility. Many of Ihe beat Welah date* an nAh
arm and the forehead rapectively, and contains certain passages small tcalea of white mica, which polariae briglillj btfmi
of the Law written (in Hebrew) on parchment, via. Eiod. liii. crossed nicols. The COmish slatca a ~' ' *
i-ioamd 11.16; Dcut.vI.4-oandii. 13-11. The custom of wear- rather coarser grained, so thai they
Ing phylacteries seems to have been derived In the first instance or even phyllitea.
Emm the Pharisees. By the Sadducccs and the generality of A micrrMcopical Kction of a typical
Ihe people in the time of Christ il seemi not to have been ^L"'^'™ "" '"^J^*™*"'"
practised Later it became-not without proteal-one of the Initkiw g^^d^red p«^3°!S^
badges of orthodoi Judaiim, Il is significant that the cutlom onde (nagoeliteand^aeautiie) and
is entirely unknown to tbe Samaritan community. commonly presents Fddspar is abscnl
The phylacteries, logelber with the "fringe" (Irilrf/A) and ■S'^'*3'^''*^,^iwS''°''°E™.
door-post symbol («aMa)-whicb bllet consists of a piece of ■™''' °"™ " ?iS'^!^tei!^lIJol»«?SSiSS**
parchmenl, containing the Hebrew teit of Deut. vi. 4-9 and iL ma smaU prians wUcb may be lanrnMI^
Ij-ii endoscd in a glass or metal tube, and bed upon the right st other rimca it ocaiii aa iBBuka 9 apafc
hand post of the door of each dweUiog-toom in a house-form nit«B_c»itQiial» (usnally. lafcto but s^M^
the three sels of visible sgns by which the Israelite is consl«itly ^Ju!iJ^SSl?Si5^ m E'^TiiS
reminded of hit duty to Ck>d <d. Num. xv. 39-40; I>eut. vi, 9; Juugh railily DverkmkBl. CwiM ««i^
xi, 10). The " fringe " (or " tusels ") was ori^nally attached nple of anetifemutDbytliu beiag laMJ*!*!!
to the common outer garment— a large squan wrap-lhe looae •*< i™S* "tj^ ftSJiSL^SL^ta
end of which hung over the left ihouldei. This garment with a mspiaiaa gaiwet- Mombfcirte^ ?LZ
tassels is mentioned in the New Testament (d. Matt. lx.'io; p^iyiim
liv. 36; TTi» 5 and paraliek). Among modem Jews il has sur- this n,., , , .
vived in two (otnia: (1) the fringed praybg shawl called lalili and mm In hrn iab*aia«ooal plates Aow
worn by every male ortbodo, Jew at the synagogue momfcg «- SlJ^-'d^SSSi^flS^^SSia't;?
nee; and (i) an under-gamtent, ibaped like ■ chest-proteaor, rise to tbt tcUKiDa had onaaL
PHYLLOXERA
[kc imt paftcl aanllt) unngemenl ol
UuioB » cntnUy Cat or lioar. bat i
cr cnimpMi Fmu <b« imjicifcctloa a
•R nRly niitaUe (or m&v matcnali! I
nJudcM •• road Baaia, but tbcy 4n n
A infcnor buUdioc dttHriila. Tbcv an
ll |«ra of the mrld iphcnt mcuinvrpl
Jmniib HiaUaodi. Ca-nmll. Anctncy,
Ardcno^ ue Han MounuirK £uofiy
ip^bctiBui*, the Gnai Ltka diurict in
rHTIlOXERA {Gi. ^UJkw, leaf, am
tliniecti bdoD^Dg ID the iuul^ of Aph
Boooptcniui Kctitm of the ocdei H
kmni from tbeouiilnUiiaL ol one c
Bioat at viae-diteucs. TIic umc wi
1 plut4a(ue which au obKrvcd to "d
h FiDvnkce. About tiwniy-Myen ipe
duaciBucd by length not tictedinj -i
tine ulicuktioiu in the utenau. ooi
Ot Unci, with digitulo, bui without a
Tie folbrwiiw fuH dcicription oF the o
Ik lint, the FkyUaitra nufiUni. or inp
tteuticle Vim in Ittegtheditkuiof (bu.
kir inr Inm mrl^^H^' ^^oaa. Wl
Ijimal ecaiv the Iravn UG diicoJoURt
Av edfCB turned back, and wiibeivd,
klWr tnmrth acid Ibeir iLiii ii wriokM.
■Bamui fiuiform ■wcninf* air found u
ikv «n at fint ycib«iih in colour and
•Ub- ticy become nmen and aHume a b
— Root-InhnUlin Form itiEhcIv
k J" bvKT four mwa o< enuJI tuhock
C Tfai* TDOt-d^eUin^ imrcti nre fenalet, «
^m^ Tbe ineect ■■ fiied by ita proboeeii
. iKm wd layi thirty to forty yellow rsgi
3 a* ^Ht << MI, eight or nnlve dnyi, nccu
^, di tanac hatch out ol the im. Theae i
-' md In appaniEe IT^Kl^lllE tbeir mod
*■ ' They move actively I
c of the catth, and oi
548
PHYSHARMONICA— PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL
of the leaf U protected by rimilar atructurw. Within this gatl the sulpho-carbonate of potassium (KSCSt) remain in ,
PW*^X«r^^",^i.SSr'L",;^n7r'aT^^^ injected into the e^h to kiU the PhyUoxen. on the «oUo».I.
in a single gall; these t^s rive birth after six or eight days to a vine. These methods were chiefly advocated m vmeyanb «f
numerous pn>geny (gnllicola), some of which form new galls and the first class, where it was «-orth while to spend a good deal of
multiply in the leaves, whilst others descend to the roots and become money and labour to preserve the old and famous vines: the
\Yof](j Some good judges attribute the peculiar and not unplcasirg
The particular species of phyUoxcra which attacks the vine favour of certain clarets of 1888 to means thus adopted to klB
is a native of the United States, probably originating among the the phylloxera The Mcond plan was largely ^ed n
wild vines of the Colorado district. It was first observed in Switzerland and on the Rhine, where measures resemblmg tboK
1856 by Asa Fitch (1809-1878). who did not suspect its mischief, i^j''^" ^f'^^** <^^^ <^ *iSP^!:^°( uitltnx wer« appbed to iD
and called it Pemphigus vUiJoliae. In 1863 it was independently ?/«^ vineyards. The third plan, which consists m itplutni
discovered by Westwood in an English vinery at Hammeismith; \« »ff«^?? vineyard with American ymcs-^uch as the Fito
he was ignorant of Fitch's observation, and called it PerUymbia ^*'^^<». V- rtpana, V. rufestrts or V. manttcda-hu pnmd
vitisana. From 1858 to 1863 there were many importations ^*** °*°*' generally successful. ^, , ,
of American vines for grafting purposes to Bordeaux, Roque- uA^SIi?^.^?^ 'TSP''^'" M^/jSlS ^iJ^i ^'fS^iHt^Si
J ,. _* r f V 1 J T__i J r- — by Professor Majct of Montpclhcr (1890), which u the best book M
maure and other parU of France, England, Ireland, Germany, t^Je subject. Reference may also be made to the clasw mcmain
Portugal, &c. It is practically certain that the deadly phyl- of PUnchon. culminating in Les Mauri dt la tkythxtra ie k
loxera was imported on these plants. A year or two later certain ^p* M^77)\ Dreyfus, Uber Pkylloxerinen (1880); LichtciMdi,
vine-growers in the South of France began to complain of the {i»/f"/* *'»* P^^oxerai the I^pports ,"««^« 4,*» *2Si!2!
• J' »« rk 1 * A 1^ • Oic- 1— .^1 supiruure du phylloxera; and the excellent Report on PhjUmnt
new vine-diseasc. M. Dclorme. of Aries, m 1865, appears to have drawn up by the Hon. J. W. Tavemer (Viaoria. 1890. No. wT
been the first who recognized its novelty and had a presentiment (\V. E. G. F.)
of disaster. The disease steadily spread outwards in concentric PHYSHARMONICA, a keyboard instrument fitted with fw-
circles from its first pbce of lodgment near Roquemaure. reeds, a kind of harmonium much used in Germany. Thei*p-
Within two or three years whole departments were infested, harmonica resembles a smaU harmonium, but is diffcrentialed
In 1866 a second centre of infection made its appearance near from it by having no stops; being without percussion actios, it
Bordeaux. The vine-growers were at their wits' end to account jocs not speak readily or clearly. As in the harmonium, ik
for this new plague, which threatened to be even more costly bellows are worked by the feet by an alternate movement, *bi(k
than the oldium. The completeness of the ruin which threatened also affords a means of varying the dynamic force of the U«
them may be illustrated by the statistics for a single commune, according as more or less energetic pedalling inaeascs «
that of Gravcson. whose average annual producUon of wine in decreases the pressure of the wind supply. The phj-shanncwa
the years 1865-1867 was about 220,000 gaUons. In 1868 this feU ^as invented in 1818 by Anton Hilckel. of Vienna; in the of^Hl
to 121,000 gallons, in 1869 to 48.400 gallons, in 1870 to 8800 instrument the bellows were placed right and left immediat4r
gallons, and by 1873 to iioo gallons. under the shallow wind-chest, and were worked by mesaiif
In 1868 Planchon proved that the disease was due to a new pedals connected by stout wire. A specimen, having a ooofM
species of phylloxera, which was invariably found on the roots ©f four octaves and a very sweet tone, is preserved in thecoB»
of the affected vines, and to which he accordingly gave the tion of Paul dc Wit, formerly in Leipzig, now tiansfcntd »
prophetic name of Phylloxera vastatrix. During the next ten Cologne. (K.S)
years a series of students, of whom only RUey and Balbiani need PHYSICAL PHENOMENA, in the terminology of spiritulin
be mentioned here, worked out the natural history of Phylloxera and psychical research, molar or molecular phenomena in tk
vastatrix, and proved its identity with the American grape-louse, physical world not traceable to ordinary causes and refened ta
Its devastations rapidly assumed gigantic proportions. In the action of spirits or of mediums in abnormal psychical iUlei \
France, where the disease was by far the most prevalent— owmg Among the phenomena or alleged phenomena arc: maleriafia- i
in great part to the obstinacy with which the vine-growers at tion, Icvitation or elongation of the medium; passage of nutlff
first refused to take any reasonable precautions against its through matter, alteration of weight in a balance, lying d kaoll
spread— M. Lalande, president of the chamber of commerce in an endless cord, apports (objects brought from a distance) isd '
at Bordeaux, in 1888 calculated the direct loss to the country by movements of objects (telekinesis); the production of wnia«,
the phylloxera at 10 mUliards (£400,000,000), or double the imprints of plaster or other objects; raps, voices and olkf !
indemnity which had been paid to Germany in 1871 1 sounds, including music; spirit photographs; lights and periuwi
The phylloxera has made its appearance in almost every vine- To these may be added immunity against the effects of fire sod
{(rowing country in the world. Thus it apixj.ircd in Austria- ffungary the untying of ropes.
m ibM; in Italy, in spite of the frantic efforts made — as in other Annlrt»«ii« rkk»n/^m«n« «m fA»r./i ;» ««•»«. .%.^. ^ •k^Mll
^«..n»r:..«_»o irrin it on» hv ^frirt i.HrUinfu.n nvmjn.t thp imnort of Analogous phcnomcna are found in many parU of the wH
I ibM; in Italy, in spite of the frantic efforts made — as in other Analocous nhcn*
ountrics — to keep it out by strict legislation against the import of *» *
incs, in 1H70; in Kus!>ia in 1880; in Germany, on the Rhine and \**-*c 1 OLTERCEIST;
count
vi
FiREWALKiNc); spcctral lights are aswriilei
Moselle, and in Switzi'rland in 1872 ; in Madeira. Spain and Portupl. with the tombs of Mahommedan saints, with Buddhist shriaei,
about 1876. The [K-st even crossed the oceans, and appeared in with religious revivab, with Red Indian and other nuiicinl «
Australia, at Geelong. alK>ut 1880; it has smce twice broken out in •.. -_,i __ __-.__ j;_ -,i,«„„_«„« :_ .u« ii:-,i.i,«j, ««j v.«>«*«
Victoria, knd has rav-agt-d the vineyards of South Australia and New «<^-. *"? a*.sporadic phenomena in the Highlands and Nw-iJ-
South Wales. At the Cape, in spite of a long endeavour to prohibit Levitation is asserted of Australian wizards, the rope-inck «
the import of the phylloxera, it ap|)carcd about 1884. In 1885 it Eskimo angckoks; glyphs and direct writing arc found in Mexkli
crossctl the Mediterranean to Algeria. There was only one country and Tibetan cults.
where its ravages were long unimportant; that was its home in the c^ p P«,i™,r.r« xf^^^m C/.;»i«^f.-r«.. c w u xt^,m^ "-
Lnitetl States, where the nStive v nes had become, by the operation p^„^:,Zi^?Il\ 7. C7i VV^^"^'^ ^^' "* *l\?u- tT
<.f natural ^.-lection, immune to its attacks. Yet no imported vine P^sonaltty, il 506; Journal S. P. /?.. vi. 309 sq. (S. %. T.)
has ever Hve<i there more than five years, and in 1890 the phylloxera PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL, the name given to a group «
iTr>s>ed the Rocky Mountains, and seriously damaged the vineyards French economists and philosophers. The heads of the idwl
of Cahfornb. where it had previously been unknown. ^.^^ Francois Quesnay (g.v.) and Jean Qaude Marie Vmcei*,
Three difTercnt methods of fighting the pest have been success- sicur de Gournay (1712-1759). The principles of the school M
fully adoptc<l. One is to kill the phylloxera itself; another, to been put forward in 1755 by K.- Cantillon, a French pcrchirt
destroy it along with the infected vines, and plant fresh and of Irish extraction {Essai sur la nature du comwurce €U gNirJ),
healthy plants; the third, to adapt the secular therapeutics of whose biography W. S. Jevons has elucidated, and whom he
nature, and to introduce American vines which a long acquain- regards as the true founder of political economy; but it nifi*
Uncc with the phylloxera h.\A made immune to its ravages, the hands of Quesnay and (ktumay that they acquired a S}'SteflH
Insecticides, of which the bisulphide of carbon (CS2) and the alic form, and became the creed of a united group of thinkcn
1
PHYSIOCRATIC SCHOOL
549
ud practical men, bent on carrying them into action. The
Bembers of the group called themselves Us iconomtstest but it is
more convenient, because unambiguous, to designate them b}*
the name pkysioarates (Gr. #att, nature, and «por(ir, to rule),
isventcd by P. S. Dupont de Nemours (1739-1817), who was
one of their number. In this name, intended to express the
fundamental idea of the school, much more is implied than the
nbjccticm of the phenomena of the social, and in particular the
economic, world to fixed relations of coexistence and succession.
Tlus is tbe positive doctrine which lies at the bottom of all true
idence. But the law of natuz« referred to in the title of the sect
VH something quite different. The the6logical dogma which
iqiccsented all the movements of the imivcrse as directed by
Avine wisdom and benevolence to the production of the greatest
poHiblc sum of happiness had been transformed in the hands of
the metaphysicians into the conception of a jus naturae, a
krmonious and beneficial code established by the favourite
cility of these thinkers, nature, antecedent to human institu-
tkns, and furnishing the model to which they should be made to
conform.
The general poh'tical doctrine is as follows: Society is com-
poxd of a number of individuals, all having the same natural
n||itL If all do not possess (as some members of the negative
Khool maintained) equal capacities, each can at least best
udcnUnd his own interest, and is led by nature to follow it.
The ndal union is really a contract between these individuals,
the <Aject of which is the limitation of the natiual freedom of
ttdk Jint so far as it is inconsistent with the rights of the others.
Govmunent, though necessary, is a necessary evil; and the
•Bficnung power appointed by consent should be limited to the
tnooat of interference absolutely required to secure the fulfil-
Best of the contract. In the economic sphere this implies
(he right of the individual to such natural enjoyments as he can
<cqaire by his labour. That labour, therefore, should be undis-
tnted and unfettered, and its fruits should be guaranteed to
the posKssor; in other words, property should be sacred. Each
ciliini must be allowed to make the most of his labour; and there-
fatt bcedom of exchange should be ensured, and competition
hi the market should be unrestricted, no monopolies or privileges
hchig permitted to exist.
The physiocrats then proceed with the economic analysis as
Mows: Only those labours are truly " productive " which add
to the quantity of raw materiab available for the purposes of
■ui; and the real annual addition to the wealth of the com-
■aoity consists of the excess of the mass of agricultural products
Wodiag, of -course, metals) over their cost of production.
Oh the amount of this produit nH depends the well-being of the
ammmity and the possibility of its advance in civilization.
The manufacturer merely gives a new form to the materials
cttiacted from the earth; the higher value of the object, after
k hu passed through his hands, only represents the quantity of
pravisions and other materials used and consumed initselabora-
lioB. Cbmmerce does nothing more than transfer the wealth
drady existing from one hand to another; what the trading
dMKs gain thereby is acquiicd at the cost of the nation, and it
il desirable that its amount should be as small as possible. The
Mcupations of the manufacturer and merchant, as well as the
ftenl professions, and every kind of personal service, are
■Rfal '* indeed, but they are ** sterile," drawing their income,
■Bt from any fund which they themselves create, but from the
nperlluous earnings of the agriculturist. The revenue of the
Mate, which must be derived altogether from this net product,
•Qilit to be raised in the most direct and simplest way — namely,
bf a single impost of the nature of a land tax.
The special doctrine relating to the excluuve productiveness
al agriculture arose out of a confusion between " value " on the
Me hand and " matter and energy " on the other. A. Smith
•ad others have shown that the attempt to fix the character of
"sterility" on manufactures and commerce was founded in
Vmr. And the proposal of a single itnpdl territorial falls to the
pRDOod with the doctrine on which it was based. But such
ifaence as the school exerted depended little, if at all, on these
peculiar tenets, which indeed some of its members did not hold.
The effective result of its teaching was mainly destructive. It
continued in a more s>'stematic form the efforts in favour of the
freedom of industry already begun in England and France. It
was to be expected that the reformers should, in the spirit of
the negative philosophy, cxaggcialc the vices of established
systems; and there can be no doubt that they condemned too
absolutely the economic action of the state, both in prindple
and in its historic manifestations, and pushed the laissez-
faire doctrine beyond its just linuts. But this was a necessary
mddent of their connexion with the revolutionary movement,
of which they really formed one wing. In the course of that
movement, the primitive sodal contract, the sovereignty of the
people and other dogmas now seen to be untenable, were
habitually invoked in the region of politics proper, and had a
tran^tory utility as ready and effective instruments of warfare.
And so also in the economic sphere the doctrines of natural rights
of buying and selling, of the sufficiency of enlightened selfishness
as a guide in mutual dealings, of the certainty that each member
of the society will understand and follow his true interests, and
of the coincidence of those interests with the public welfare,
though they will not bear a dispassionate examination, were
temporarily useful as convenient and serviceable weapons for
the overthrow of the established order.
These conclusions as to the revolutionary tendencies of the
school are not at all affected by the fact that the form of govern-
ment preferred by Quesnay and some of his chief followers was
what they called a legal despotism, which should embrace
within itself both the legislative and the executive function.
The reason for this preference was that an enlightened central
power could more promptly and efficaciously introduce the
policy they advocated than an assembly representing divergent
opinions and fettered by constitutional checks and limitations.
Turgot used the absolute power of the Crown to carry into
effect some of his measures for the liberation of industry, though
he ultimately failed because unsustained by the requisite force
of character in Louis XVL But what the physiocratic idea
with respect to the normal method of government was appears
from Quesnay's advice to the dauphin, that when he became
king he should " do nothing, but let the laws rule," the laws
having been, of course, first brought into conformity with the
jus naturae. The partiality of the school for agriculture was in
harmony with the sentiment in favour of " nature " and primi-
tive simplicity which then showed itself in so many forms in
France, especially in combination with the revolutionary spirit,
and of which Rousseau was the most eloquent exponent. The
members of the physiocratic group were undoubtedly men of
thorough uprightness, and inspired with a sincere desire for the
public good, espcdally for the material and moral elevation of
the working classes. Quesnay was physidan to Louis XV., and
resided in the palace at Versailles; but in the midst of that
corrupt court he maintained his integrity, and spoke with manly
frankness what he believed to be the truth. And never did any
statesman devote himself with greater singleness of purpose or
more earnest endeavour to the service of his country than
Turgot, who was the prindpal practical representative of the
school.
The physiocratic school never obtained much direct popular
influence, even in its native country, though it strongly attracted
many of the more gifted and earnest minds. Its members,
writing on dry subjects in an austere and often heavy style, did
not find acceptance with a pubUc which demanded before all
things charm of manner in those who addressed it. The physio-
cratic tenets, which were in fact partly erroneous, were regarded
by many as chimerical, and were ridiculed in the contemporary
literature; as, for example, the impdt unique by Voltaire in his
LHomme aux quarante tcus, which was directed in particular
against P. P. Merder-LariviSre (i 720-1 794). It was justly
objected to the group that they were too absolute in their view
of things; they supposed, as Smith remarks in SF>caking of
Quesnay, that the body politic could thrive only under one
precise regime — that, namdy, which tUe^ Tc«).X3CwtEv<»A^^— vcA
ion (18)^); Drv, Hiiairt da rigmt i*
,Tgrp, £m™ulo >«>(«« ia XVIII'
i. Hi((^ Tlu PkyiacriUt (London, 1897, wilh ■uthsrilis;
550 PHYSIOGNOMY
Ibouelit theii doctrioci univemlly uid immediaLcly applicibla in * tileimrk. Iltpl natatUinut TiiirynHmjii , be ^aakiotlk
ia pncticr. They did Dot, u Lbnriitt, ■ufficicDtLy Like [oto ndvuiUce of ■ knowledge of phyiic^nomy lo ibe pli>iida«,>
■ccoucc Ulioaal divervtia ot diSeitnt lUgn in locul develop- We lEarn both [ram lanblkhiB* ind Poipbyiy' ibU FyUt-
nent^ nor did Ihcy, u politimiu, idequalely nlinulc tbe gonu practised ttae diifiusn at the chancten ol cudidua (■
Itnpedimenti which Ignorance, prejudice and intercBted Dpposi- pupila^ belore admllling then, alifaough be •eemi to hm
lion present to entighlened (tatesnuuuhip. discrediled Ibe cumnl phyiiofDomy o[ lb« icboal^ n k
The physiocratic lyslem, after guiding in some degree the lejccied Cylo, the CnNonian, on accotmt ol bb ptalcaiiig ika
here and there in foreign countries, soon ceased 10 exist ba a
living power; but the good elements it comprised wei« not kat
See the aiticle on QuisHiiT, with bibliography appenilnt Ihereto.
al»tbcanicl«DnMi«ABBAuandTu«<iOi. Mom Fmich hiuoric.
contain an arcount of iKc Khool; lee npecially Tocqueville.
t'i^irm wta,^^ ft Lt riofJttlitrM fW. iii.; TbLdp. Lci Onnitfl dt in
n. la Fiiaail
..ami: d™.
_ '*,.JS3rTi
PHySIOOHOMT, Ibe English focm of ibe middle Creek
^upur^fupio, a contTxction cf the classical ^twiffyMd^idJ^
which denotes a supposed sdence for the " discovery of tbc
disposilion ol the mind by the lineaments of the body " (Bacon); ;
(j) is also used coUoquiilly as a synonym for the lace or outward
appearance, being variously spelled by the old wiiterei/yswitnij
by Lydgite, piiiaomi in Udall'i innslition of Eiuntii on .
UirL iv., pkyimmit in Bale's Engliili VoUriii (i. j. p. «), and
fsnamit ia Att'ivtilllial enJi mil, iv.s(6rafo]M}.
Physiognomy was regarded by those wl» cultivated it aa a
and feature. On account of the abuses of the latter aspect ot 1
the subject its practice was forbidden by the English law. By
the act of pufittnent ij George II. c 5 (1741) all persons prt-
lending to have skill in phyvognomy were deemed TOgucs and
vagabonds, and were liable to be publicly whipped, or »ent lo
sligmatiied 1) unlawful is one ol grcal antiquity, and one which .
in ancient nnd medieval limes bad ia eitcntive though now
almost lorgoLIen iiteralure. It was very eaily noticed that the :
good and evil passions by thrir continual eierdse iismp tbeii
irapcess on the lace, and that each pulicular passion has its own
eipression. Thus far physiognomy is a branch of physiology.
But in ill second aspect it touched divination and astrology, of
which Galen' says that the physiognomical part ia the greater,
and this aspect of the subject bulked largely in the fanciful
Hterature of the middle ages. There is evidence in the earliest
classical literature that physiognomy formed part of the most
ancient praclicot philosophy. Homer was a close alaerver of
crates, wtitingabout 450 B.C., expresses his belief in the inlluence
of environment in determining disposition, and in the reaction
of these upon feature,^ a view in which he is supported later
by Tragus. Galen, in his work flyil rSr rin ifvx^l 49ui>, having
discussed (he nature and immottilily of the soul, proceeds in
(h. vii. to a brief study of physiognomy {ed. Kuhn Iv. 7415).
In ibis passage he deprecates current physiognomical sftecula-
lions, saying that he mighi criticlie them but feared (a waste
lime and become tedious over them. In chapter vtii. he quoles
with appiobition the Kippocratic doctrine referred to sbovej and
'The Aci JO EliiabMh c. 4 Ci597-iS9S> dtclaicd "all penoos
faynin^ lo have knowledp of Plh>>ia(;noniie or Ukc PanUUleall
wardq and openly wliipped until hia body be bk>udye." This was
modified by ll Anne c. 76 (iTIJ), till further by IT GeorBC II. e. S.
which was rcenactcd by the Vagrancy Act 1814. This lait act enry
* GaVcn. IlipZ '■*uJklffH«i wtaywft^vii (ed. KDhn idji. 530).
A physiognomiul 4iud/ of tbe Homeric ticrocs it given by Mal^i,
Cvonorr. ed. Dindorf . v. 105.
'a-Hil/^, Uin^, Tii,m (ed. KDhn, i. in).
PHYSIOGNOMY
551
to lell babiU tram tbs upcct (cf. Ecdui. lii. tg, so).
I ((. AH. 150) compiled ■ treatiw (publiabed 11^4, in
o tin *ubj«t| umiUi in cbftrarter to that of Ariuotle;
Hcd* in (npbk dociiplioiu of diSeroit diipoulionA,
t> ooly from Arialotk in some of his uumal rompuisons.
imponanC work na written hy & converted Jew,
bout A^ 415. Tbii ii in two books, the finl on
of the eye, the Bccond on pfayaiognomy In general,
MI7 Aiistateliui in d
e, Zvuidus,
ay m weH-known pusa
mjt vtd niunoous allusit
Ebm, eipedally Clemc
unple, the f amiliu' passi
While theearhcr clasaical
: bUf medievmt euthon
1 Mtiok>pca] side, their
4cy, onyehomAncy, did
I otiker bnnchei of pjop
MoDg with the medical
ilribnled lo
1 Juvmal, !
. of AlciandiiA
Chluomonti, A. Ingegneri, rmetla, De Ii Chan
R. Fludd, and others al leu importance.
The iSth ccolvty abowt > still gnatei decline of iDleresI in
physiognomy. Hiiiotiant of philoaopby, tike J. Meuisius and
Frani, le^dited tome of [he dauiol wocks, and C. C. FUlkbom
reviewed the relation of phytiogaomy lo phikeophy. Indeed,
the only name wonby of note it that of J. K. Lsvttec (f.>.).
The other autbon of this cenlury aie Peuscbd, Spon, Ekiulx,
Wegelin, J. Pemetli, Ginanner, Oinbnunn, And tevenil anany-
)f phytiog- Paraoni and Peter Camper. The popular tlyle, good illutlr*.
c Christian tiont and pious fliiril pervading the wiitingi of Lavaler have
>Tigen (for given to tbem a popularity they little deaeived, at there it no
lus, t. J3).' tystem in bis work, which chiefly consista of rhaptodical com-
Ictcriptive, mcntt upon the several portiaita. Having a happy knack of
predictive eslimatijig character, especially when acquainted with the
into duro- hiatories of the pctsona in question, the good pastor contrived
Bloraancy, to irrite a grapbic and readable book, but one much fnfetior
: medical sdence of tbe period the Arabiant of Nicold and of Liditenberg were written to refute hit Iheory.
■- literature of physiognomy; 'Ali b. Ragd wrote With Lavaler the descriptive school of physiognomista may be
Rbazes (1040) devoted aevenU cbaplert to it^ said to have ended, aa the astrological physiognomy tapired
1 Anrrso (1 165) made many references to it in hit D< ianilaU, with dc la Belli ire. The few works which have since appeared,
!i (Leiden, iS37). Avicenna also makes tome amle physiog. before tbe rise of the pbytiolDgicaJ sduwt of Sir Charlei Bell and
mal remarlu in bit Cc atiimaliim, which wu translated by Charles Darwin, are undeseiving of notice, the development o(
diad Scot about tl70. Among inedieval wrilera Albertus phrenology hiving given lopure physiognomy the leaf iepia
iSDn* (bom mj) devotes much of (be tcoind section of his by taking into itself whatever was likdy lo live of the older
«m'nalfhit to phy^gnomy; but this diiefly consists of idence. Hie wiiten of the i^th century are MOrstig, Maai,
net* ErOra Aristotle, Polemon and Loiui. He doa not enter Rainet, ThonC, A. StQbr, Scbler, Dr Rubels, Folli, Cardona,
> lb* animal compariaona of his predecessori, but occupies Mttlritni, Diei, Carut, Piderit, Burgess and P. Craliolel.
Md( chiefly with simple descriptive physiognomy as indicative The phy»ologic»I school of physiognomy ms fotethadowed
dMiader; and tbe same is true of the scattered rderences by Parsons and founded by Sir Charles Bell, whose £iiiy m
the writings of Duns Scotut and Thomas Aquinas, Tbe llu Atialimy n/ Ikt Eztraiim, published m 1806, was tbe first
■ovs sage of Balwearie, Michad Scot, while court astreloger idectific study of the pbyatcal manifestation of emotions in
the emperor Frederick II., wrote bis treatise Dt jbnuiail tbe terms of the Diuldes which produce these manifestations.
isffljui'iT, much of which is physiological and of curious In the later editions of this essay the thc^ it elaboratH ^ith
tnat- It was probably composed about 1J73, but not greater detail. Morcau's edition of Lavaler, in JS07, was some-
ttUd tmllt 1477. This was tbe first printed work on the what along tbe same lines. In 1S17 Dr Cress of CIstgow wrote
ijcct. Miysiognomy alto forma the third part of his work hit ddence of a sdentiGc physiognomy based on genera] physio-
IMrelb nalnrai. In ijjj Pietro d'Abano of Padua delivered logical prindples. Tbe eipeiimenls of G. B. A. Ducbenne
Para a course of lectures on this subject (afterwards edited {Utantismt de la phyiiepi'iHit hnuaint. Paris, 1S6O showed
Blondua, IS44). a few years before he waa bumed lor that by the use of declricity (he actioo of the separate musdel
ay. could be studied and by the aid of photography accuratdy
rbe itith centnry was rich in publications on physiognomy, represented. These observali
inrksof tbe classical authors before n
I olbcr treatises were published by JoJ
dress Corvus, Midtad Blondus, Janua lot
Qldd, Pompeius Ronnseus, Gratanlus, Lui
Icuws, Cardanus, Taisnierus, Magnus Hun
English works were anonymous: On Uit
t tf Ftnt^iniFtiliin Etintt ty Inspalun ef llu Uatid {lyn),
I A PUesBHl lalredkcliiia lo llu AH ^ CMmanHcu and ccilt'ln"
yrisguiBudsSg). I>r Thomas EliU's work, rfa! Csnlem^s- Kiiiatio
• tf UanHyiilt, aiOayiiint a sint'ht Discimrie afltr llu Art '^"'^
Ptyiie[iamu, published in 1571, is a quaintly written adapta- ij'^jnd
afram Iheltalian authorsof (he day. Theundated book on ihere it
Its and mevi by " Merlin Britannicus, " after (he modd ol action,
i ibn Ragcl. is of about the same date. "IJ'"
tht devdapment of a more accurate anatomy in (he t7lh "f^'"'
Amy seems to have diminished the interest in phyvognomy,
sabstituting fact for fiction; and consequently the literature,
ogfi as great in quantity, became less valuable in quality,
e piindpial writers of (bis age were T. Campinella, R. Coden-
, Clement, Timpler, J. E. GsUimard, Moldenarius, Septalius,
ludert, C. Lebrun (a precursor of Charles Bell), Elsholi, de la
litre, J. Evelyn (in (be appendix to Numinmala). Baldus,
mi Oa ba PaUurmytlemia), Fuchs, Sponlanl. Ghiradelli,
hypothetical condusions of Bell. The
Inda^ne, Codes, tnachinery of expression having thus been indicated, the con-
omaro, Anlelm neiion of the physical actions and the psychical state was made
Cauricus, the subject olspeculalion by Herbert Spencer (fjytiofoiy, iSSs)-
Ro(hman, These speculations were mluced <o a syilem by Darwin fEifra-
ista della lim a/ EmtlUmi, 1S71), who formulated and illuslralcd tbe
illowing at fundamental physiognomical principles: —
; and involuntary H
"PtfT
Far Scripniiii al
X Vicchiui
_ ._.:issy'H
inoexions of nerve.celli and on habit.
[e propooiliona is adversdy criticized by P.
Mantegaaia as a truism, but it may be allowed tostand with ths
qualiflcalion that we are ignorant concerning the nature of the
influence called "nerve-force." It follows from these pn^iosi-
(ions that tbe expression of emotion Is. for the most part, not
under eanlrol of tbe will, and (hat those striped muscles an (be
most eipreaive which are the least volunlaiy. To (be fore-
going may be added tbe following three additional propoaiUona,
so as to form a more complete exprciaioD of a pbyslogDOffiica]
philosophy: —
U) Certain muKlet coDcerned In produdng cSeie ikiB-(<Ma>it<
coineKreagtbencdbTlBUnia\ai»ki>>,aeAim»>tedu&<toi<3Wik
PHYSIOLOGUS
fulnCH wilh ftdvandDf ■(«, the wrlnkkt a
,»„»^ '>" -""^lar fiDi*4 become pernuiwnl
Ktioa of lliii kind my, bv ....
■ ■ ■ ■ .nllag« vtdU-a tnie
lUl dit- upon uimili
I may.
tmrtfU...
, . .„ .„ U Ibe nenul dIt- upon iziimils. StiU, the conteil in which the ,_.
7}'^v!L'^'^^^''.^'i^"l£ '^t^i i!?j£^ 'B^'B P^i" 1" ^tSl L'lhe v'iliti!2l™u I™ d^n th^i^
uin lanai « nprcHun ue ui uw muier nunc™ « ncnauy. ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ occupied by uumal beinci in tbenUi- -"
[lluiiniion. of lhc« lh«tct.c^i^p™i™u «re io be (o-mi m „^^^■„^ q„ ^^ ^^^^ ^j_ '^ ^i,^^ ^ C«diil I
... ., , -, ' . ... „„.-, , who idmcd the Fkyriolorut to tbe more orthodoi tlmih
rthcr hand, tbe opinion of Cardinil Piln,
"' ' ' t to tbe more orthodoi T
[ the Alcundriuu, b loUy
of tbe itngularitit* of di
■,.-,-_, i""^ £j^«"" (.890), to which the „_^ , ^,^ ™,„,.^„™, „, ™ ,^u,„,™ -
.y be relcmd for further inlomation. p^^,^ ^ui in the Wyiioiar" by Cihier, all of which
met with in Origen. The technical wonU by which the pncoi
of allegoriijns is dwgnated in tbe PkytuLitui, like Ifi^^it,
Buafiia, intyurHi, dXXri'^i'a, arc fimiliar to Ibe fluddt
of Alexandrian cicgcais. It has, tnoreovcr, been lonulltf
that almost all ibe animali mentioned were at bane ia lb
Egypt of thoK diys. or at least, like the elephant, wen le be an
there occasionilly, whereas the slniclure of tbe hed(d«la
instance, Is expliiiQcd bjr a reference to tbe lea-porrupjiie, btUa
known to fUh-buyen on the Meditemncan. Tbe[>bla<fik
phoenii and of the conduct of the wild au and the ape ii Oi
time of the equfnoi owe their origin (a aAtronomiral ^r^tb
belonging to tbe Nile counlry.' In both ch^ten an Egyplta
e Phyiielepu was bomnd ba
s confirmed by many ol Ik IK
filly Christian aJIcgotin much read in the middle B«n, and still commenlaTics on
Biijling in eeversl iornn and in about > doien Eutem and ,;„„ opening wit.. . ,i., .™™-™ v m _».... _». .—
W«lem languagM. A. nearly all it< imagery is token from the .. tut the PhysicJ'o^"«Vi^''" "wh^n ^^oia^ rtarfTfiili
jnimal world it ,s alw known as the fl«<.=r,. There cut be Egj^j^HcUenic ingenuity wai ne«r at a km for a ii«H
hardly a doubt about the time and gcnerJ cuTum«anc« of ,t. ,„^^,-^ jj„mej ,™, ,^5 ,„[ i,„if, but which to aaam
"" ' ~ "?^t .n ',.™rin,n,MJiil™™ copylili apptaiol IS psit of the tcachlng ot the oiigiBal rtj*"
nr. >n i<ii.>m .n nnii.n .>,Arv ^ ^ tyjwcsl lostance we may take tbe di^Ma OP (It
innmuralbi
re that they wan
y Job. iv. II. The ei
book of nature, of which also it was man's sacred duty to take ,pp„^ ,; i^ Septuaginl Iranslaloia to call for a vsU
proper advantage. Both lines of Mudy were readily combined „ndcring, and as there was uid to eiist 00 the AiaUuaoM
by applying to the interprelalion d deKTiptioni of nalurd , iUm-Wkt animal called " mymoi " (kc Sttabo itL m
objects the allcgoncal method adopted (or the interprctalm of ^^i^ ^,^ ,ii. jj ,t, ventured to give tbt axnpsund lo-
Biblical teits. Now the early Chri.liancenturic. were anything ., „y™rtoleon." After «> many yean the ct»n«entaun W
but a period of scienliBc relearth. Rhetorical actranplishments ;„, ,^5 j^, ,g ,],;, unusual term, and only knew thai in cic^
were considered to be the diicf object of a liberal education, and Greek " mytmci " meant an ant Bo the ten " the syrH-
to this end every kind of fcarnlng was made subservient. Instead ygi^„ i,^^ perished for that he had no Dourishment ' Id ika
of reading Anslolk and other naluraluls, people went f« pondering, and olheti reproduced tbeii meditatiom, «ith tkt
information to commonplace books like those of AcLan. in which [oUo^ing „„[[: " jhe PMysi,4«[M, relates about tbe MUto:
Kiaps of firfk-Iorc, trave lets talcs and fragments ofmisappre- ^is father halh the shape of > lion, his (nother that of aa at;
bended (cience were set forth in an elegant Ityle. Theolopcal (^^ (,1^^, ];„,,, ^^^ fl„h^ ^j ^^ ^olhet upon belha. Aid
writcti were not in the least prepared 10 qucMion the worth of ^^ bri„g (<^h Ih« ant-lion, . compound of both, and i« put
the marvellous descriptionj of crtanim that were current In t^ [„ ^d,,, („ ^j, („, p^,^ i, that of a lion, and his hiad [«t
the school! on the faith of authorities vaguely known u the fn^ ^^t of an ant. Being thus tompoied. he i* Dciiha ililt
histoiy ot animals," " the luLturalisit " and " the laturalist ;■ in ,„ ^, n^^ like his father, nor herbs like his motba; tbnfot
the singular numbw (*uinDX*»oj).' So they took Ihcit notions (,c petisheth from inanition "■ the moral follows.
of strange beasts and clhcr marvels of the visible world on ^t a later period when the Church had teamt to k^ itt
trust and did Ihcii b«t to make them available for rcli^us ^^itio„ up„n devotional books likely to provoke the toBH
instruction. In some measure we lind this praclie. adopted by „, „„, ,„d |„j others mlo heresy, a work of this kiad ---"
more than one of the Fathers, but 11 was the Aleiandnan school, hardly meet wilh her approval. A synod of Pope G " '
witb Its pronounced taste for symbolism, that made the most of j„ ^ ^^ censure, among others, on the " Libci 1
it. Oemont himself had declared that natural lore, as uught qj jt, haereticis conicriptua est et B. AmbiDiii iHuniK s^sn
in the course of higher Christian education according 10 the apocryphus," and evidence has eveii been oSered that a mfc
canon of truth, ousht 10 proceed from cosmogony to the „ntence was pronounced a century before. StiU, la v" '
theological Idea, • and even m the little that is left ofthe worka ,„jh ,^0^3010. the FkysMotai, like the Ckuck HUm *
olOngen we have two instances of the proceeding m question. Eusebius or the farter .^ flen™, continued to be re»d rt»
An<l yet tbe fact that these reappear m the rAyiiaJoiiii would ^„j^ interest, and even Cre«tory the Great did not diidiH
not suffice to stamp tbe work as a series of eilrads from Alei- lo ^^Ac to it on occa^n. Yet the Oriental versiom, ■«
an<trian writings, as parallels of the same kind can be adduced haj „nain!y nothing to do with the Church of Rome, iho. lW
■Drigcn Sd. i* Jrtm. ivil 11. tr rf nil {i/ur Unilt; there was no systematic revision made accardiDg to the raikofc
Epiphan, Ait. haer. i. 3, p. 174 <ed. D. Pet.iv.). m *u» d
«wuiU7at: Orieen. //ffin. ivii., in Gea. iliv. ^ "nam phyuulogui ' Cp. Lecmani on Hompono L 16, 34. .
dee.ilulaleoniiiFi-rilnl," Mncluding the Apocrypha. Sn the Icelandic acceoM W «
*5xrpiii.. iv. n. sfi4 (cd- Potter), 4 T«^"r4 rAr tqi dXqhJ*! diudn tlephanl, alio a decidedly Alexandrian fngment upon tbe f^^
*iHr»A rouUtMi *»»<>>>nl>. ■<"<• U InTiI., I. .» nrl founded upon 4 Mace. i. 1. which ha< (ot inio the Kbsla VoaW
^rfwjfri-l ^rjrmi Wtw. 4itiitt irtealiaitt lit rt tmtajwlr Mot. OijutJ aviii. 1 [ii. U3. ed. Diadocf , OaTard, t«U).
Mudud of dodmu. Th> book nmiiricd CBcnlUlly the Hmi,
(ii) the dill
ilbBi pal libcnis were Uken with its dn*ili *ad ouiwird
Ibringi lortti
(arm. Tbere mmt have b«n many imperietl copies in cirtuk-
(14) the tree
lin, rrom which p«^le tnnsciibcd such Kciioni u they found
by iu shadg
« dMc, uid ilterwud. completed Ihiii MS. u oceuion jtrved.
(or hydrippi
V to BK^ogial iffiniix. So little wu Ihe coUtclion coniidered
aint> (of iw
u > Utenry wotk wiih a definite tot thit .very one »swmed >
(adheres to i
t^i to abridge or enUrie, to inien idea* o[ hit own, or frah
(40) the ibu
PHYSIOLOGUS 553
mond (powerful igBioit alt danget); (a) the iwallaw
ibul once;intiiudingaf Ariitoitt, Hill, Ait. v. 13);
resiled perideiion (protecU pigeoni Itorn the serpent
>w); (13) the pigeoiii (of several colours; led by one
ich it of apucple or golden colour); (j6} iheanlelopt
ui; caught by Hi horns in the Ihiiliel); (j;) the fire-
10 teus; combine 'xo produce lire); (iS) the magnet
iron); (jg) theuw-fish (tails in company with ships) 1
, „ _, , ., , 1 (fishcsonly along Ihcshort); (41) Ihi- ibei (desciin
Kiiptural quotations; nor were the scribes and translators by a hunter from afar); ((i) the diamond again (read " carbuncle ":
uy means scrupulous about the names of natural objects, and found only by night); (43) the elephant (conceives after paitaLing
nmi Ihe passages from Holy Writ. FMysioltgui bad been of mandrake; brings forth in the wtter; the young protected
ihaodoned by scholars, and left to take its chance among the from the serpent by the father^ when fallen Is lifted up only by a
tlks and IndiliDtu ol the uneducated mast. Nevertheless, or certain small individual of its own kind); {44) the agate (em-
othet for this very reason, its lymbolt found their way into ployed in pcarl-fiihing) ; (45) the wild ass and ape (mark Ihe
Ik rising literature of the vulgar tongues, and helped 10 quicken etiuinoji];(46] the Indian itone (relieves patients of the dropsy);
Ik bDcy oI the Atitti employed upon church buildingt and [4;) the heron [touches no dead body, and keeps to one dwelling-
imdlure. place); (4S) the tyomoie (or wild £g; grubs living inside the
Tbe history of the fAyjJrWapiI has become entwined from the fiuit and coming out); (49) theottrich (devours all sorts of thingl;
h»jiwifci»g w\\h that of the commentaries on the account of forgetful of its own eggs]. Besides these, or part of them,
oealion in Genesis, ^e principal production ol this kind in certain copucs contain sections of unknown origin about the bee,
sir ppeicsaioq it the Htiarmfren o\ Basil, which contains tevrral tbe stork, the tiger, the woodpecker, the spider and the wild
pnugei very like those of Ihe Pkyiuietia. For bstance, in boar.
Ik seventh homily the fible of the nuptiali of the viper and Ihe The Creek ten of the PtyiMani exiiu only In Isle MSS., and
aanr-al, known already 10 Aelian and Oppian, and proceeding ha. 10 be corrected from the (raniUliont, in Sy.riac 'w*sve a luD
Eram a curious misreadini of Aristotle (HisI An v a >!«) b "''^ '" ' "fb-ceniury t,eyden MS., published iH J. P. N. Land >
1^.), serves to point more than one moral. Notwithstanding in a very late Vatican copy, pubudied by IVchien; and about the
•lkdifle«nceintheolog>-,pajtigeso( this kind could not but be iame number in a late MS. of the Briiiih Museum (Add. I5«7«>
*dcane to the admirers of the Alejundiian allegories. In fall j" Armenian Piira pve some ihin).-lwochspm tram a Parii MS.
._-n» (r,.™ iw,.h R..n .-J ,v. Bt ^j^.-r t.i.i. ..nJ-,. il.. 1)'* eeriury). The Aethlopic eilsli barb in Landon and Pant.
> nedley from both Basil and the Phynaloita ciuts under the ,^ „, ^;,^ „ l^, ,^ ^ Dr Hommel in 1877- l" Aralw
bear aa a title Uipl fu<iui>ayUu. and in a Milan MS. Ihe for Ihe S/^ciiitinm ulamtna, and another vcnion of thirty-seven
■morah"o(lhe Wy«ofBiKj are ascribed to Ba^. The Uyden ^lup™* " Le«l«n- P"Ubly the work of a i»»li at fc™*?'"?-
(_.._;.. , ,'. ■'. ,., 1 . ,. ,.. I ,1.. i,.._ ._j wh&h Land IianilKed and pnnled with Ihe Synac. Tbe Laiin
^ruc It lupidemented with literal e.tr«ll from the latter, and mSS, o( Bern are. after the Vatican glo«ry of ASleubot. the olde-
Ik whole IS presented at hit work. Other copies give tbe d which we know; there are others in several libmiefc and primed
laves of Gregory Theologut, Epiphanius, Chrysostom and editions tv Mai. Heider and Cahier. Bevdes these, s few Iragmenis
UJ^ of sn oldfabridgnienl occur in Vallani'i editinn of Jerome's works
™~ ..... . , , . ■■,„.. (vol. XL coL 118). A metrical /'JjnWoii.i of but twelve chapter.
Al far as can be judged, the emblems o[ the anginal Pkyur- ], ,[« a^rk of Theobaldut. probably abbot o( Monte Catiino (A.n,
Ifiu vere tbefollowing: (i)thelion(footprinUrubbcdoul with lo»-iau). From this was imitated the Old-Engliih fragment
Ha; sleep, with eyes open; cubs receive life only three dayi &!}^Zi^;^'l"f^^tiIS^^'^^f*rC*^'Fl,^lS^°wt
^■S^ '^i^" '"^:'' ^T^H 't' "L' •^-!i»^ <«""^" do"s?in,^3^i5.^ss::^?^u.v;rd^a;?:^3;tnymn
I^L ''^'"^ *' ^*" ""'' ''* tbe chandnut (Deut. iiv. ^g the ■anie idiom; •inee Von der Higen (1824) its varkxis lormi
(stalls iu young to life by its own blood); (j) lhe*owl (or nykti- k^n^. in a C^inha^nHW^ kj^'VIUd'S' 'Tis?!*)'- «
ton.; loves darkness and solitude); (6) the eagle (renewi ilt ,^, ^^ ^^ ^, „ ;„ (j^,^^ i„ O, iiommel-t Awhiipic
youth by aunbght and bathing in a fountain); (7) Ihe phoenii publicaiion. Some Anglo-Saxon metrical fragments are to be
(levins from fire); (S) Ihe hoopoe (redeems its parents from the found in Gnnn'i Bitlielluli. vol. i. Tbe Proven^l (c tiso). pub-
Vtof oldage); (11) the wild ass (suHers no mate betides ilseli); hihed in Banich's Ckraltmilltit ptmntfiiU. omitt the ''^monls."
M O. ,.„, 1U,« .. ,h, ™, .1 b.,h 1„ „„.,.• d=.,M ; (, 0 - " "»"■'• '" "• »="i«"- "Is, pSS.S?~"
ikeseipent (thedlits skin; putt aside its venom before drinking; jj,;. i„, ,^, ,he um.
baftaldof maamastiteofnudity^hidesilsheadandabandons -iy. All the Old-French
lW;re»tofiUbody);{n)theani[orderlyandbboriou>;prevents h^wk^' h"™' " ^ 'w
aoml grain from germinating; distinguishes wheat from barley °' ^i([|i")J|^,JJ™'',£
«■ the slalk); {13) tbe sirens and onocentsurs (Isa. idii. ii, «; ftrsce the ubjectt taken
OBlpoiuid veatutes); (14) the hedgehog (pucks grapes upon rt, the parodies suggeued
ka qidlla); (ij) the foi (i»tch(» birds by simulating death); i-amaa by Richard, de
{lO Ihe pulhet {spotted skin; enmity to the dragon; sleeps for "t^ the encydopsemcal
Ik™ days after meals; allures its prey by sweet odour); (17) the able i» to be found in the
IB4arlai>c {or aqridochelone; mistaken by tailors for an island) ; juoied: S. Efipiniaiii at
(ll) thep»rtridie(hatcheseggsof othetbinjs); (ig}lhcvutture woodcuts) (Roine. isgy);
fcjjtedl in binh by a «one with loose kernel,; (,o) the ^tt-lion *;P- }}^^^\f^S'H.
bbk neither lo take the one food nor to digest the other); g,^ rtiiie. i86j};Ply«i..
(ll) the weasd (conceives by the mouth and brings forth by the , 1795); Clsuui aaclgrti.
m,): (.,,) the imicom (c«ight only by a virgin); {,]) Ihe beaver i C. jHeWj^^ i" ^«*f^
Wm q. iu leMet when pursued); (24) the hyaena (a ber- ^rt^ai^"if ^■
•«a™dil.);(.s)theotter(enhydris;enterslhectocodile-tmoulh ^SiiOhiS^S.^
to kiU it); (>6) Ihe ichneumon (covert ilscU with mud to kUI 2»vibci'H itltimnH iii.
tie diatoai another version of No. is);{i7) thecrow (laketbul Msttsner. ^/<«r(. 5*roi*-
«e <xicK«t in it. life); (,« the turtle-dove( same nature as No. ?•: ^ '^g'^'^A^ii
w,\- fml th* fm* fnlhn Hvins nn t>nd .nH IcIIIkI hv rain. nT n ■J-.V "'_ j 7. ' ir^!lr:_
•J)
; (iq) tbe frog (either
living on land
and
killed by
rain, 01 in
u«
mXT irithoul ever s
eeing the lunl
; {y
0 the slag
(dertroys
>u
asemy the serpent);
(ji) Ihe sals
der (quenches fire);
UnitJiappn, and sen
554
PHYSIOLOGY
publications quoted above. Sec also Lauchert, Cesckickte des
Phystologus (Strassburg[, 1889) and E. Peters. Der grtechische
Pkysiologus und seine orientaliscken Vbtrseliungen (Bcriia, 1898).
PHYSIOLOGY (from Gr. ^\jci%, nature, and X^or, discourse),
the science or theory of the properties, processes and functions
of living organisms. Physiology is distinguished from anatomy
as dealing specifically with the functions of an organism, rather
than its structure. The two main branches of the science are
animal and plant (vegetable) physiology, and in animal physi-
ology that of man stands out as primarily associated with the
word.
Ever since men began to take a scientific interest in the
problems of life two distinct rival expbnatory principles of vital
Miaiarvat P^^nomena have claimed attention: a natural and
Tbtory. ^ mystical principle. The first outcome of the
scientific attempt to explain vital phenomena after
the natural method and by a unitary principle was the doctrine
of the Pneuma, held by the followers of Hippocrates, which
found its clearest expression in Galen's system. According to
this doctrine, the origin of ail vital phenomena was a very fine
substance, the Pneuma, which was supposed to exist in atmo-
spheric air, to be inhaled into the lungs of man, and thus through
the blood to reach all the parts of the body, where it produced
vital phenomena. This doctrine — an attempt to explain the
phenomena of Ufe which was not altogether natural, but even
materialistic — was accepted by the middle ages together with
Galen's system. With its translation into the Latin spirUus,
however, the conception of the Pneuma lost its original force.
The spirUus animalcs of the middle ages developed ere long into
mystical powers, the result being the explanation of vital
phenomena by a supernatural theory. Not until the scientific
renaissance of the i6th and 17th centuries did views again
undergo a change. After the establishment of a scientific
method in physiology by Wiluam Harvey, and the development
of Descartes' mechanical system of regarding living bodies, the
natural explanation of vital phenomena once more universally
found favour. Two schools arose, which endeavoured by
dissimilar methods to find a mechanical explanation of vital
phenomena: the iatrophyskal, originating with the gifted and
versatile Borelli, and the iatrockemical, founded by the Dutch-
man, F. de la BoS (Sylvius). But when both chemical and
physical methods of explanation failed at such problems as, for
instance, irritability and evolution, another change in opinion
took place. By degrees there emerged once more the tendency
to explain vital phenomena by mystical means, finding expression
in the Animism of Stahl, to quote an example; and in the second
half of the i8th century Vitalism, originating in France, began
its victorious march throughout the whole scientific world.
Again the opinion came to be entertained that the cause of vital
phenomena was a mystical power (force hypermicaniquc) — that
" vital force " which, neither physical nor chemical in its nature,
was held to be active in living organisms only. Vitalism
continued to be the ruling idea in ph3rsiology until about the
middle of the 19th century, and its supremacy was only gradu-
ally overthrown by the great discoveries in natural science of
that century. The chemical discoveries resulting from Wdhlcr's
synthesis of urea first showed that typical products of the animal
body, the production of which had hitherto been supposed to be
solely the result of the operation of vital force, could be obtained
artificially by purely chemical methods. Then above all came
the discovery of the law of the Conservation of Energy by Robert
Mayer (1814-1878) and Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894),
and its application to the living organism by Mayer, Helmholtz,
Pierre Louis Dulong (i 785-1838), Edward Frankland, Max
Rubner and others, to prove that the manifestations of energy
by the organism are simply the result of the quantity of potential
energy received into the body by means of food. Finally, the
stupendous results arrived at by Darwin and the establishment
of the fundamental law of " biogenesis " by Ernst Haeckel,
prepared the way for a natural explanation of the enigma of
evolution and structure of organisms. Thus by the second
lisJ/ of the igih century the doctrine of vital foice ivu definitely
and finally overthrown to make way for the trimnph of the
natural method of explaining vital phenomenm, irindi down to
the present time has continued to spread and flourish with «■
unparalleled fertility. It would, it is true, appear as if ia
day, after the lapse of half a century, mystical tendencies
again disposed to crop up in the investigation of life. Here and
there is heard once more the watchword of Vitalism. But al
the so-called neo-vitalislic efforts— sucH as those of Alexander voa
Bunge (1803-1890), Georg Evon Rindfleisch (b. 1835), Johaancs
Reinke (b. 1849) and others — have nothing to do with the«U
vitalism. They originate solely in a widespread confusioa vkk
regard to the boundaries of natural science, their prindpal
tendency being to amalgamate psychological and speculative
questions with problems of purely natural.science. In the (ace
of all these efforts, which by their unfortunate ^^^jg^ntiMm
of Vitalism and Neo-vitalism give rise to entirely fake
tions, and which by their intermingling of psychological
tions and questions of natural science have led to mere
in research, it is essential that natural philosophy shouMbe
called up>on to realize its own limits, and above afl deaiijr to
understand that the sole concern of physical science is theinvo*
tigation of the phenomena of the material world. Phjrsiolaor,
as the doctrine of life, must therefore confine itself to the matcriil
vital phenomena of organisms. It is self-evident, however, thit
only such bws as govern the material world will be kmi
governing material vital phenomena — the laws, that is, i^ich
have hitherto been brought to their most exact and most kpcd^
development by physics and chemistry, or, more gtamMf
speaking, by mechanics. The explanatory prindplcs of villi
phenomena nuist therefore be idenUcal with those d
nature-*that is, with the principles of mechanics.
The investigation of vital phenomena in this tease
in the first place, an exact knowledge of the substratum in
these phenomena are manifested, just as in chemistiy
and physics a thorough knowledge of the compositioo
of the material world is a necessary premise to the^'^
investigation of the phenomena of inorganic nature. He
knowledge of the composition and structure of orgaaisBB hisie
the course of the scientific development of anatomy ifliliiil
to an ever-increasing minuteness of detail, witbcNit baii^
as yet reached a definite limit. The last impwtant step ii dil
direction was the discovery by Matthias Jakob
(1804-1881) and Theodor Schwann (i8io-x88a) that al
bms are built up of elementary living structural
lumely of cells (see Cytology). The details of the
construction of organisms are described under various
priate headings, and a general guide to these will be found
Anatomy and Zoology. We would here merely point out titf
a cell is the simplest particle of living substance which
to be permanently capable of life. Dififerent flmffff
essential, however, to the existence of the ceD — two, at
far as has hitherto been discovered — the protoplasm aad the
nucleus. It must at present be regarded as at least W17
doubtful whether the centrosome, which in recent times It htf
been possible to demonstrate as existing in very^maay odl^
and which appears sometimes in the protoplasm, t^T'Tli'*— ■
the nucleus, is a general and third independent cell-coHdtKM.
On the other hand, the number of special constituent parts iririth
appear in various cell-forms is very large. A question lAkh
has long been discussed, and which hu received wptaaX tfi
animated attention, is that with regard to the finer stnctar
of the cells— with regard, that is, to the protoplasm aad Ik
nucleus lying in it. Views on this subject have direiied W
widely, and several totally diverse theories have been ohmb'
to one another. One theory mAinfainf that the fiviag oel-
substance has a reticular structure; another, that it is fibriloeti
According to a third theory, the essence of the ooastnictioa if
the cell-substance lies in the granules which it amtiim; tod
according to a fourth, it h'es in the ground-subataoce is «Uii
these granules are embedded. One view holds tUi I""*'
substance to be homogeneous, another xegards it as pewfliiC
a fine foam-structure. It may at pieieiit be iffudBd ■
PHYSIOLOGY
555
iKontfovertible that living lubttance is more or less fluicf, and
tbat there does not exist any general structure for all cell-forms.
But in some q)edal cases all tbs theories which have been quoted
ve to a certain extent correct. In different cells there are
wtiniUr, fibrillous and granular differentiations respectively,
and diflerentiations in foam>structure; in many cells, however,
the pnrtoplasm appears to be beyond doubt homogeneous and
vitlKiut a distinct structure, and only under certain conditions
to aMume changing structures. But the fact which is of most
kqMftance fcv the right imderstanding of vital phenomena
k that the cell-substance is always more or less fluid, for only
h a fluid substratum can such intense chemical processes be
OiCted as are to be found in every living celL
Where the analjrtical powers of the microscope in anatomy
GUI go no farther, chemical analysis of the composition of the
cd steps in. By its means the (Dscovery is made that there is
m dementary difference between organic and inorganic nature,
hr only such chemical elements as are known to exist in the
iiocsanic world are found in the organic. On the other hand,
bswever, the living cell-substance possesses chemical compounds
which find analogues nowhere in inorganic nature. The charac-
teristic organic substances which are present in every cell are
piotei<b and proteid-compounds. Besides these there occur,
liddy disseminated, carbohydrates, fats and other organic
■festanrrs, which partly originate in the decomposition of
pnteids and their compounds, and are partly used for their
oostniction. Lastly, there are in addition great quantities of
vitcr auui some inorganic salts.
Such are the structure and (imposition of the substratum
h which vital phenomena play their part. When we consider
vital phenomena themselves in the various living
organisms — in protista, plants, animals, man — there
appears an incalculable diversity of phenomena.
Bere, however, as in the case of the structure of organisms,
•e luve to analyse and to penetrate ever farther and deeper
tU we reach the fundamental phenomena. We then find
tkat the great variety of vital manifestations may be traced
bsdi to a few fundamental general groups, which are precisely
tke same groups of phenomena as those to be observed in in-
Mgaoic nature. All the processes that take place in the organic
vorld nuy be regarded from the three different standpoints of
their changes in substance, in energy and in form; for substance,
cwigy and form are all necessary to our conception of matter.
Acoordin^y, the general elementary vital phenomena likewise
fdl into three groups — metabolism, the mechanism of energy,
tad thie assumption of form. Every cell, so long as it is living,
tikei in certain substances from its environment, submits them
Id chemiral transformation in its interior, and gives out other
This metabolism is manifested in several special
-in nutrition and digestion, respiration and circu-
htkm, secretion and excretion. The essence of the whole
pnxcss is the fact that while out of these ingested stuffs
Eviag rabstance is always agun being formed by the living
nbstance which already exists, it is itself continually under-
fping decomposition, and the products of this decomposition
iir what the cell gives off again to the outside. With
■etabolisra, however, there is inseparably associated a
Hmsformation of energy. These substances taken in by
dtt ceU contain a large quantity of potential energy, which
k transformed into kinetic energy. This has for its result the
■anifold activities of the organism, more especially motion, heat,
dectridty and light. Finally, the chemical transformations in
iving substance may also mam'fest themselves outwardly in
Ganges of form, as is the case generally in the matter of growth,
Reproduction and development. The three general elementary
iRNips of vital phenomena are therefore in reality merely the
tapiession of the various aspects of one and the same process
"-^ the actual vital process itself. The ultimate object
^ aJl physiology is to discover what this vital process is — that
ii to say, what is the exact cause of these manifold vital
goal from which it is at the present day still very
As every physical and chemical phenomenon of inorganic
nature occurs only under distinct conditions, so vital phenomena
are also dependent upon certain conditions of life. ^ _^,
Every living body, every living cell, requires food, SfJJk*
water, oxygen, and, further, a certain temperature
and a certain pressure in its environment. These are the general
conditions of life. But the special conditions on which depends
the continued existence of the individual forms of organism are as
numerous as the forms of organisms themselves. Now, just as
the physicist or chemist varies those conditions under which a
phenomenon occurs in order to get at its causes, so does the
physiologist try to experiment with vital phenomena, altering
the vital conditions: and testing the changes which are thereby
produced. The great importance of this method consists in
the power it gives the experimenter of analysing vital phenomena
systenuitically from definite points of view. Every change in
its normal vital conditions which produces any effect whatsoever
upon an organism is termed a stimulus. This is the only general
definition we have for a conception which is of such vast impor-
tance to physiology. According to it, experimental physiology
is entirely a physiology of stimuli. It further follows from this
conception of stimulation that there must be an enormous
multiplicity of stimuli, since each particular vital condition may
be subjected to some change capable of acting upon it as a
stimulus. But, besides this, other factors may be brought to
bear upon organisms which have absolutely no place among
their vital conditions? for instance, many chemical reagents and
electric currents. These influences come under the general
definition of stimulus, because they likewise imply a change
in the conditions under which the organism lives. From their
qualitative nature stimuli are distinguished as chemical, thermal,
photic, mechanical and electrical. Each of these several
varieties may, however, be applied quantitatively in various
degrees of intensity, and may in consequence produce quite
different results. This opens up to experimental physiology a
vast field of research. But the physiology of stimulation is
not only of the greatest value as a means of research: its
importance is much increased by the fact that in nature itself
stimuli are everywhere and constantly acting upon the
organism and its parts. Hence the investigation of their
action comes to be not merely a means^ but a direct end of
research.
Although it is not at present possible to define all the laws that
govern stimulation, on the one hand because the number of
stimulating effects known to us in the whole organic
world is as yet too limited, and on the other because surnmS.
those already known have not yet been thoroughly
analysed, yet it is within our power to classify stimula-
ting effects according to their various characteristics, and
to ascertain a few facts concerning their general and funda-
mental conformity to law. The first fact, apparent from
a glance at a great many of the various forms of stimulation,
is that all their effects are manifested in either a quanti-
tative or a qualitative alteration of the characteristic vital
phenomena of each living object. The quantitative is the
usual mode of action of stimuli. It is generally found that a
stimulus cither increases or diminishes the intensity of vital
phenomena. In the first case the effect is one of excitation; in
the second of depression. It is the more important to bear in
mind this twofold operation of stimuli, owing to the fact that
in former times physiologists were very apt to conceive of
excitation and stimulation as identical. It is now, however, an
undisputed fact that depression may also occur as a typical effect
of stimulation. This is most apparent in cases where the same
stimulus that produces excitation may on being applied for a
longer period and with greater intensity, produce depression.
Thus narcotics (alcohol, ether, chloroform, morphia, &c.) on
certain forms of living substance produce the phenomena of
excitation when their action is weak, whereas when it is stronger
they produce complete depression. Thus, likewise, temperature
^imuli act differently upon vital phenomena «ccot^t)% V^ >SBit
degree of temperalvut*. vtiy V^'w >.tm\«nX>tt«:& ^«vrmks^x
SS6
PHYSIOLOGY
medium temperaturev exciting with increasng intensity, and
higher temperatures from a certain height upwards again de-
pressing. The effects of stimulation are not, however, always
manifested in merely quantitative changes of the normal vital
phenomena. Sometimes, e^)ecially in the case of long uninter-
rupted and chronic stimuli, stimulation is found gradually to
fffoduce phenomena which are apparently quite foreign to the
normal vital phenomena of the cell in question. Such qualitaiive
alterations of n6rmal vital phenomena are perceptible chiefly in
chronic maladies in the cells of different organs (the heart, liver,
kidneys, spleen, &c.), in which the vital conditions become
gradually more and more modified by the cause of the malady.
To this category pertain all the so-called chronic processes of
degeneration which in pathology are known as fatty degeneration,
mucous degeneration, amyloid degeneration, and so forth. The
characteristic element in all these processes is that the normal
metabolism is diverted into a wrong channel by the altered vital
conditions of the cells of the organ affected, so that substances
are formed and accumulated in the cell which are entirely foreign
to its normal life. But this class of stimulation is still very
obscure as regards causes and inner processes, and it is within
the range of possibility that the ultimate cause of the qualitative
changes in the normd metabolism Is to be found simply in the
processes of excitation and depression which chronic stimulation
produces In separate parts of the metabolism. Thus, at least
with regard to fat-metamorphosis (fatty degeneration). It is
highly probable that fat Is deposited in the proto[^m simply
because, owing to an inadequate supply of oxygen, it cannot,
when It originates, be oxidizied in the same prq^rtion as it is
formed, whereas in the normal cell all fat which originates in
metabolism is consumed as soon as it is produced. According
to this conception, therefore, fatty degeneration Is attributable
primarily to a depression of the processes of oxidation In the cell.
If we may accept this view as correct with regard to the other
metamorphic processes also, the qualitative changes in vital
phenomena under the influence of stimuli would after all depend
simply upon the excitation or depression of the constituent parts
6f the vital process, and, according to such a view, all stimuli
would act primarily only as exciting or as depressing agents upon
the normal process of life.
In accordance with the three groups into which general vital
phenomena are divided, it follows as a matter of course that the
excitation or depression produced by a stimuliis can manifest
Itself In the cell's metabolism, assumption of form, and mani-
festation of energy. The effects of excitation upon the produc-
tion of energy are the most striklhg, and were therefore in former
times frequently thought to have a claim par excellence to rank
as stimulating effects. These reactions attract most attention
in cases where the production of energy is proportionately very
great — as with muscle, for instance, which Is made to twitch and
perform work by a feeble stimulus. Processes of discharge
(Ausldsungsvorgftnge), however, lie at the bottom of cases like
these. Potential chemical energy, which is stored up in a con-
siderable quantity in living substance, is converted by the
Impulse of the stimulus Into kinetic energy. Therefore the
amount of the effect of stimulation — that is to say, the quantity
of work performed — bears no proportion whatever to the amount
of energy acting as a stimulus upon the muscle. The amount
of energy thus acting may be very small as contrasted with an
enormous production of energy on the part of the living sub-
stance. It will not do to make generalizations, however, with
regard to this proportion, as was frequently done in former
times. All processes of stimulation are not processes of discharge.
The influence of many stimuli, as has been observed, consists
far more in depression than in excitation, so that In certain
circumstances a stimulus actually diminishes the normal
liberation of energy. There is therefore no general law as to
the proportion which the amount of energy acting as a stimulus
upon living substance bears to the amount of energy liberated.
Among special varieties of stimulation there is one class of
stimuli which has attracted particular attention — namely, those
ivlu'cb MCt unilAtcradly upon free-moving organisms. It \s
principally with the lowest forms of life that we have heie to do
— unirelhilar protista and free-living cdls in the bodies of higher
organisms (sperm-cells, leucocytes, &c). When from imm^i
one direction a stimulusr-be it chemical, thennal, smm*>
photic, electrical, or of any other kind — acts tipoo '^'^
these organisms in their medium, they are impelled to move fai a
course bearing a definite relation to the source of the ftimohis—
either directly towards that source or directly away from it,
more rarely in a course transverse to it This directive actioa
of stimulation is under such a fixed conformity to law, that it
vividly recalls such purely physical processes as, for iMfance, the
attraction and repulsion of iron particles by the pdes of a magnet
For example, if light falls from one side upon a vesad full of water
containing unicellular green algae, according to the intensity of
the light these organisms swim either towards the tDuminated
aide, where they form a compact mass on the edge of the vesMi,
or away from it, to cluster on the opposite edge. In the same
way infusoria in water are observed to hasten towards or to flee
from certain chemical substances, and leucocytes in our bodia
act in the same manner towards the metabolic products of p»
forming bacteria which have penetrated into an open wooad.
The suppuration of wounds is always accompanied by n
amazing conglomeration of leucocytes at the seat of the lena.
Perhaps the most striking effects are those of the cooitut
electric current upon unicellular (Mganisms, since in this ok
the motion follows the cause with absolutely automatic regulsi^,
certainty and rapidity. Thus, for example, after the estabUshaMt
of the current many Infusoria (Paramaedum) accumuUte at tk
negative pole with great celerity and mthout deviation, and tsn
round again with equal celerity as soon as the direction d tk
current is altered. As such cases <3i directive stimuUtioa n^
occur among all varieties of stimuli whenever stimuli act anHittr-
ally, they have been designated, according to the diitctioa is
which they occur in relation to the source of the stinniha, ■
positive or negative chemotaxis, phototazis, tbennoUiiii
galvanotaxis, and so forth. The strange and peipkaJBg elewwl
In these phenomena becomes clear to lu as soon as we kaov tk
characteristic method of locomotion for each form of otfaaOi
and whether the stimulus in question in the given intcsaty
exercises an effect of excitation or of depression upon the ^Ndi|
form. The direction of motion is the essential
result of unilateral stimulation of the organs of
Seeing that these reactions are exceedinf^y widdy
throughout the whole organic world, and possess a deep bSokfial
significance for the existence and continuance of life, the intoot
they have awakened is thoroughly justified.
One of the most important physiological discoveries of tk
iQth century was that of the '' Specific Energy of
stances." Johannes MOller was the first to establish
the fact that very different varieties of stimuli applied
to one and the same organ of sense alwajrs produce
one and the same variety of sensation, and that, conversely, tk
same stimulus applied to the different organs of sense pndiiccsi
different sensation in each organ — the one, in fact, fridd ii iti
specific attribute. Thus, for example, mechanical, electrical
and photic stimuli applied to the optic nerve produce no «(kr
sensation than that of light; and, conversely, any onevazie^o'
stimulus — take the electrical, for example — produces miyiiinM
of light, hearing, taste or smell, according as it affects the C|Kic,
auditory, gustatory or olfactory nerves. This law of tk
" Specific Energy of Sense-substances,'*' as Johannes UfSe
(1809- 1 87s) called It, has come to have a highly impoitiM
bearing upon sdentific criticism, since it proves experimcstily
that the things of the outer world are in themselves in no «V
discernible by us, but that from one and the same outward object
— the electric current, or a mechanical pressure, for instance-'*
receive altogether different sensations and fonn altofStkr
different conceptions according to the sense-organ sffccted.
But this law does not possess significance for psychoIog]r alMK>
as regards physiology also it has a much more general and wsKt
comprehensive force than MUller ever anticipated. It boMs
\ ^ood, as demonstrated by Ewald Bering (b. 1834) and otkRi
PHYSIOLOGY
557
not of aense-substances only, but of living substance generally,
Each cell has its specific energy in Johannes Miiller's sense, and
in its extended form there is no more general law for all the
Bp^ations of stimuli than this law of specific energy. To take
namples, whether a muscle be stimulated by a chemical,
nwchanlod, thermal or electrical stimulus the result is in each
case the same — namely, a twitching of the muscle. Let a salivary
llaiid be stimulated chemically, mechanically, electrically or
bi any other way, there always follows the same specific action —
I secretion of saliva; no matter what be the kind of stimulus
uting upon it, the liver-cell always reacts by producing bile,
ind so on. On the other hand, one and the same stimulus — the
electric current, for example — gives in each form of living
lubstance a specific result: twitching in the muscle secretion
of saliva in the salivary gland, production of bile in the liver-cell,
kc. That is, of course, with the proviso that the effect of the
itimulus be exciting and not depressing. The following general
formulation, however, of the law of specific energy brings the
depressing stimuli also within its scope: " Different stimuli
produce in each form of living substance an increase or a dimi-
Btttion of its specific activity." As already observed, it will
probably be found that those weak chronic forms of stimulation
vhich produce qualitative changes may also be comprised under
this general law.
The knowledge thus far acquired from analysis of vital
phenomena and their changes under the influence of stimuli
affords but a very indefinite temporary basis- for
the theory of the actual vital process Itself, of
which vital phenomena are the outward manifes-
tation. The conceptions to which physiological research has
mtberto attained in this matter are of a more or less doubt-
ful nature. The facts contained in them still require to be
linked together by hypotheses if we are to obtain even a
rague outline of what lies hidden behind the great riddle of life.
SikH hypotheses, serving as they do to link facts consistently
tocethc^, are absolutely essential, however, to the further
progress of research, and without their aid any systematic
investigation would be impracticable. But at the same time it
BBUst never be forgotten that these hypotheses are merely
piovisaonal, and that whenever they are found to be no longer
In liannony with the widening range of new experiences and
ideas they must either be proved to be facts or be subjected to
Bodification. This is the point of view from which we must
ienl with modem ideas concerning the nature of the -actual vital
process — the mechanism of life.
The fundamental fact of life is the metabolism of living
nbatance which is continually and spontaneously undergoing
^decomposition, and building itself up anew with
'the help of the food-substances it takes in. These
of decomposition and of reconstruction may be
briefly designated as dissimilation (catabolism) and assimilation
(anabolism) respectively. Now the question arises: How are
*e to understand this process of dissimilation and assimilation
horn a mechanical standpoint? I< is quite evident that we
iiave to do with some chemical occurrence; but hew are the
fhemiral transformations brought about? There arc obviously
two possibilities. It is conceivable that the decomposition of
(ood-stufis and the formation of excretion-products in the cell-
Ixxly are caused by the repeated casual encounter of a great series
of diemical combinations and by their repeatedly reacting upon
Mie another in the same manner, bringing about transformations
and forming waste products which are excreted, while at the same
time certain chemical affinities are alwa}rs taking in from without
new chemical combinations (food -stuffs) and uniting them.
riiss theory was in fact occasionally advanced in former times,
particularly in its chemical aspect, and the beUef was especially
ntertained that the enzymes in living substance might play an
important part in these transformations. This assumption,
iioirever, leads to no dear and lucid image of what takes place.
lod, moreover, draws too largely upon auxiliary hypotheses. It
iis therefore met with but little acceptance. The other possible
i^ilanation of metabolism is that its whole process is confined
to one single class of chemical combinations whose tendency it
is to be constantly undergoing spontaneous decomposition and
regeneration. This latter theory was founded by Ludimar
Hermann (b. 1838), Eduard Friedrich Pfliiger (b. 1820) and
others, and has met with universal recognition because of its
naturalness, simplicity and dearness.
Starting with this hypothesis, the path of further research
lies clear and well defined before us. In the first place, we are
obviously met by the question: What conception are
we to form of these combinations on which hinges the
whole vital process? Among the organic matters which compose
living substance, proteids periorm the most important part.
Proteids and proteid-compounds form the only organic matter
which is never absent from any cell. They form also the greater
part of all the organic compounds of the cell, unless reserve-stuffs
are accumulated to a considerable extent, and they are by far
the most complicated of the compmunds of living substance.
While animal life is impossible without proteid food, there are,
on the other hand, animals which can continue to subsist on
proteid alone. This series of facts proves very conclusively
that proteids and their compounds play by far the most impor-
tant part of all organic matter in the processes of life. The idea
thus naturally presents itself that the required hypothetical
compound forming the central point of metabolism will be
found to bear a very close relation to proteids. But another
(mint must be here considered. The proteids and their com-
fmunds known to us are, comparatively speaking, stable com-
pounds, which never undergo spontaneous decomposition so
long as thry are protected from outward injury, whereas the
hypothetical combination which lies at the centre of organic
metabolism is extraordinarily liable and continually undergoing
spontaneous decomposition. Therefore we have to think not of
ordinary proteids in this case, but of still more complicated
combinations, the atoms in the molecule of which have a strong
tendency to group themselves in new arrangements. Owing to
their fundamental impmrtance, these combinations have been
termed " biogens." When we come to inquire how such labile
biogen molecules are built up out of the proteids of food, we
find our knowledge very much restricted. Doubtless the intra-
molecular addition of inspired oxygen has much to do with it;
for living substance when deprived of oxygen loses its irritability
— that is to say, its tendency to decomposition. The fact that the
decomposition of living substance is always associated with the
formation of carbonic acid — a drcumstance obviously necessi-
tating the aid of oxygen — also points to the absolute indis-
pensableness of oxygen in the matter. PflUger has further
suggested that the molecule of living substance owes its lability
and its tendency to form carbonic acid when joined by oxygen
atoms prindpally to cyanogen groups which are contained in it.
According to this view, the following is supposed to be the process
of the formation of biogen. molecules: It is assumed that the
biogen molecules already present in living substance take out
of the proteids of food certain groups of atoms, and dispose them
so as to produce cyanogen-like compounds. The addition of
oxygen atoms then brings the biogen molecule to the maximum
of its power of decomposition, so that — ^partly spontaneously,
but more especially when impelled by a stimulus — it breaks
down somewhat explosively, causing the formation of carbonic
acid. In this proceeding, according to the hypmlhesis which is
the most widely accepted and the most fruitful in results, would
lie the very germ of the vital process.
If we accept these views as far as their general principle is
concerned, assimilation is the re-formation of biogen molecules
by those already existing, aided by food-stuffs; j,,,^,,,,^
dissimilation, the decomposition of biogen molecules, o/cm^ai*
To this primary process, however, is attached a whole
series of secondary chemical processes, which serve partly to work
upon the food so as to fit it for the building up of biogen mde-
cules. and partly to form out of the direct decomposition-products
of the biogen molecules the characteristic secretion-products
of living substance (excretions and secretions). The various
workings of matter in the cell are rcndeced. Ntx>) td>xO(i t&ss^
558
PIACENZA
complex by the circumstance that the living cell exhibits various
morphological differentiations — above all. the differentiation in
protoplasm and nucleus. Again, a transformation of energy is
inseparably connected with metabolism. Along with food and
oxygen potential chemical energy is continually being introduced
into the cell, to be accumulated in the biogen molecules, and at
their decomposition transformed into kinetic energy, which finds
an outlet in the various manifestations of energy in the cell —
motion, heat, and so forth. In the light of this hypothesis the
operations of stimuli also become comprehensible. Seeing that
there is an initial tendency to the occurrence of certain definite
chemical processes, which are associated with the reconstruction
and decompmsition of biogen molecules, various stimuli will
cither further or hinder the course of this metabolic series. A
cell which is exposed to no outward disturbance, and which
continues always in the unvarying medium provided by an exact
sufficiency of food, will be in " metabolic equilibrium " — that is
to say, its assimilation and its dissimilation will be equal (A - D).
When, however, the influence of external stimuli is brought to
bear upon them — that is to say, any change in their environing
vital conditions — A and D will either be altered in similar
proportion, or their mutual equilibrium will be disturbed. In
the former case the vital processes will merely be intensified in
their course; in the latter and usual case the result will be dcter>
mined according to the part of metabolism excited or depressed.
When the effect of a stimulus is to excite D continuously in a
high degree without correspmndingly increasing A, the result is a
dying off — an atrophy. In the contrary case, when A remains
continuously greater than D, the result is growth, increase and
JHHMboKB reproduction of the cell. Experience proves, how-
BtaUh ever, that A and D stand in a certain relation of
***■• mutual dependence to each other, with the result
that when D has been increased by a stimulus, for example, A
corresfmndingly increases during the stimulation, and continues
to do so after its cessation, till the loss in living substance
produced by the stimulation of D is eventually made good, and
metabolic equilibrium is restored. The muscle may be taken as
an example of this self-regulation of metabolism common to all
living substance (Hering's SdbOsteuerung des Siofwechsds).
When a muscle has been fatigued by some stimulation causing an
enormous increase of D, there is a corresponding spontaneous
increase in A. After some time the muscle is observed to have
recovered. It has once more become capable of performing
work; its metabolism is again in equilibrium.
The vital phenomena of the cell may be derived mechanically
from metabolism and the changes it undergoes under the
influence of stimuli. Our ability to do this will increase more
rapidly as we become better acquainted with the details of the
metabolism of the cell itself. The foregoing outline must be
regarded, of course, as embodying only a fragmentary hypo-
thesis, which can serve as a guide for further research only so
long as it does not clash with facts, and which must be amplified,
specialized and developed with the widening of specific knowledge
regarding the cell's metabolism. The relations already known
are so exceedingly complex that only by slow degrees can we
pursue the investigation of separate fragments of the entire
metabolic series. The differentiation of nucleus and protoplasm
in the living substance of the cell alone gives rise to an extra-
ordinary complication in the metabolic process, for these two
parts of the cell stand in the most complicated correlation with
CtO' ^"^ another as well as with the environing medium — a
Pne»MMn fact of which the experiments made by vivisection
th0 Stent in various free-living cell-forms have furnished
•'^'*' abundant evidence. The farther such knowledge
advances, the more rounded, cleat and free from hypotheses
will become our conception of the cell's metabolism. But
the cell is the elementary component part of all organisms,
and from the life of individual cells is constructed the life
of the separate tissues and various organs, and thus of the
entire organism. Hence the cell is the only vital element
which the organism possesses, and therefore the investi-
gat/on of the vital processes in iu separate cells leads
ultimately to a knowledge regarding the raechtBHOi of fill
in the whole.
Vegetable physiology it dealt with in the aitide Plants: Pky$i0-
logy. ¥ot details of different parts of the animal body. «e Amdial
Heat; Respiratorv System; Vascular SYSTBif;ToucH: Smbll
Taste: Vision; Hearing; Voice; Musclb and Nbrv'b; SLtsr
Hypnotisn; Brain ; Spinal Cord; Sympatkbtic Ststbh; Blood;
Lymph; Phagocytosis; Digestive Organs; Nututiow. Ac
The princinal modern English textbooks of animal phyaohgy
are those of Sir Michael Foster (1885), A. E. Schifcr (iM). NoS
Paton (1908). Halliburton (1909). and Starling (1909). See. ham-
ever, the bibliographical notes to the separate articlet. (M. V.)
PIACENZA (Lat. Placcntia), a town and episcopal sec «f
Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Piacenza, 4a) a.
S.E. of Milan and 91 m. N.W. of Bologna by raiL Pop. (1906),
3Q.786. It lies on the Lombard plain, 217 ft. above sea4enl
near the right bank of the Po, which here is crossed by raid ui
railway bridges, just below the confluence of the Trebia. It ii
still surrounded by walls with bastions and fosse in a diciiil of
4 m. The cathedral was erected between 1122 and 1233, in tk
Lombard Romanesque style, under the direction of Ssalo di
Sambuceto, on the site of a church of the 9th century iiAidi had
been destroyed by earthquake. The west front has three dsn
with curious pillared porches. The campanile is a masrivc sqwc
brick tower 233 ft. high; the iron cage attached to ooe-ef ib
windows was put up in 1495 by Ludovico il Moro for the ootfB^
ment of persons guilty of treason or sacrilege. The oypt iii
large church supported by one hundred columns. The otin
edifice has been restored since 1898, and the frescoes by Qmrim
and Caracci, which decorate parts of its roof, thoo^ food ii
themselves, are inappropriate to its severe style. Sant' AvtoiiM^
which was the cathedral church till 877, is supposed tohavcbots
founded by St Victor, the first bishop of Piacenza, in tk 4tk
century, and restored in 903 ; it was rebuilt in x Z04, and aboidii
1857. It was within its walls that the deputies of the Lontari
League swore to the conditions of peace ratified in 1x83 at Cm*
stance. The Gothic brick vestibule (11 Paradiso) on the loitk
side is one of the older parts of the building. San TnaoKM, t
spacious Gothic edifice begun by the Franciscans in 127!^ mi
erected on the site of the palace of Ubertino Landi, a kidff
of the Ghibelline party. S. Savino.afine Romanesque bwSdivof
A.D. 903 (well restored in 1903), contains a mosaic pavnacst of
this period with curious representationsi including ooe of a fOK
of chess. S. Slsto, which dates from 1499. *^ takes the pboeof
the church founded in 874 by Angilberga (consort <A the
Louis II.)t lost its chief attraction when Raphad^
Madonna (now in Dresden) was sold by the monks ii 1754 tt
Frederick Augustus III. Its place, however, is occupied (9 *
copy by Avanzini, and there are also several good intai^ ky
Bartolomeo da Busseto. S. Sepolcro and S. Maris dHls riwrT*
are both good early Renaissance churches; the latter is rid is
frescoes by Pordenone. S. Anna, dating from 1334, was tk
church of the barefooted Carmelites. Of the secular boil&P
the most interesting is the Palazzo Communale, begun is iA<
one of the finest buildings of its kind in Italy. The sqouc is
front Is known as the Piazza dei Cavalli, from the two kssB
equestrian statues of Ranuccio (1620) and hb father Akssidd;
prince of Parma, governor of the Netheriands (1625). BolkiMB
designed by Francesco Mocchi. The Palazzo dd Triboudl asd
the Palazzo dcgli Scoti are fine eariy Renaissance brick IwiHili
with terra-cotta decorations. The huge Famese palace waskfM
after Vignola's designs by Margaret of Austria in 1558, but ft mi
never completed, and since 1800 it has been used as banadi
Other buildings or institutions of note are the oM and the sev
bishop's palace, the fine theatre designed by Lotaxio Tosiba is
1803, the great hospital dating from 1471, the library piueiH'^
to the commune in 1846 by the marquis Ferdinando Lasdi, asd
the Passerini library founded in 1685. The Ifnseo Gvio^
formed in 1903, contains collections of antiquities (tbou^ buJ
of the Roman antiquities of Piacenza have passed to the ■bmob
of Parma), some good Flemish tapestries and a few pktaRS
The castle erected by Antonio da Sangallo the youBftf Iv*.^*'*
demolished. Piacenza is the junction of the Milaa and
line with that from Voghera and Turin. From CodopOb 7
PIANOFORTE jjg
to the DOttb, a bnnch Hoe niu lo Crtmoni. By mad Piiccna row of iioppcre rn Unfnu pmud iawirdi to pnidun the
I indiutriei — Iron and bttv of ihc bi^pci, but origiiuQy tbe three iLiidga foUowed Uie
rinting works ud flour dunging orguium.
anji. In Ihc I itti oatuiy, the cpodi of Gujdo d'Arezio, to whom tbe
PiiccoB wu mide ■ Romu colony in ii8 B.C. While in btginning of muiksl notation ii attributed, the Pylhagonu
vtUl WBC yetruohniihed it hod to repulse an atlack by Ihc monochord, with iti ihitlmg bridge, wal uted m Ibe singing
Canli, and in Ibc laller part of iiS it aflorded pmlHtion tolhi ichooli to teach the inleivali of the plain-aong of the cbucch.
Rmain* oC the Rotnaa aimy und« Scipio which had been de The pnclica! necoaity, not merely of demomlrating the pto-
faatcd in the great battle on Ihc Trcbia. In 30; it wiihiiood i portionale nlationi of the inlervali, but also oi iniiiating pupil*
tmtiBcted tiege by Haidnibal. Five ycoci later the Caub into the dinetent gndationl of Ibe church tonn, bad loon aflet
bDntd the dlyi and in iqo it had 10 be ncruilcd with Ihm Cuido'ilime brought into UMqiudniplel-faihioiKdtnoaochorda,
thamind f«milie». In 187 it wa> connected with Ariminum and which were conilnicled with ac '
ibc nulb by the conHniclion of the Via Acmilia. Later on il practice with themwrnelen wl
beaine ■ very important road ccntrt; the continuation north- Rfaumur and Centigrade, ao Ibal
•antooftheViaAtrniUatowardiMilan.wiihabranchtoTlcinum indicated as many authtnlic and aa mi
rnnarrt tbe Po there, and Ihc Via Potiumia from Ctemona to lonci. Thii arrangement found grtat a
Dstona and Gerua passed through it. Later alill Augualui for Aribo.* writing about £f1y years after tfUido, tays Ibat
NCBBtnicted the road from Dertona to Vade. and into Gallia few monochorda were lo be found withoul it. Had Ibe clivj-
KaibonCDtil, and give it the name of Julia Augusta from chord then b«n known, this make-
FlacBitii ODWirda. The rectangular anangemenl ol Ihc strecti shift contrivance would not have
fa the centre of Ibe town, through which pauej the Via Aeroilia, been used. Aiibo strenuouriy en-
kDodoubtiiurvivalfrDraRonuDtitnES. PlicentiaismeDtiDntd deavoured to improve it, and " by
b IsainDDon with its capture by Cinna and a defeat of the forca Ihegriceof Cod" invcnicd a mono-
el Csrbo in the neighbourhood (Si B.C.}, a mutiny of Juliui chord measure which, on account of
Ooar'a garriioD (jo I.e.), another mutiny under Augustui the rapidity oS ihe leapt be could
(40 a.c], tbe defence of Ihe cily by Spurinna, Olho't (cerll, make with it, he named a wild-goat
a^imt Caedna, Vilelliui'a general {A.n. 69). and Ihe defect of ittprrt). Jean de Muris [Uuiica
Anrdiwi by the Marcominni outside Ihe walls (a.D. ];i). In iptcuhlaa, Ijij) letches bow Irue
5ft Tolilc-reductd Pitcenn by famine. Between 997 and lojj relations may be found by a lingie-
the dty waa governed by iu bishops, who had received the title string monochord, but recommends
ef Goont from OtboIIl. At Roncaf-lia, s m. to Ihe east, the a fout-slringed one, properly a
anlfjut Contad n. held tfie diet which passed the Salic law. In letrachord, |g gain a knowledge of
Bcmbers of tlie Lombttd League. For the most part it remained Ihe musical instnimenls known in
Godiih, tboDgh at time), a* when it called in Galeauo Visconii, his time, but does not mention Ihe
k n* ^ad 10 appeal to * powerful Ghibclline lor aid against in clavichord or moDocbord with keys,
domeitic lynnU. In 1447 the dty waiapturcd and sacked by whicb coutd not have been then
huccsco Slona. Having beea occupied by the papal forces invented. Perbapt one of the earliest
b 1 511, itwuin 1 545 united with Parma (f.s.) to form an here- formsof auch aiitnslninicnl,in which
diuiy ducby for t^erluigi Famese, son of Paul III. In 1746 a stoppen or tangents had been
bwUe between Ibe Fnoco-Spaniih forcci and Ihe Austrians was adopted from Ihe organistnim, it Fic, I. — Earliest eidiliiii
iBBgbt under tbe city walls, and in I7«t it was occupied by shown in lig. i, from a wood carving repnHnulian of a K^ed
the French. In 1S4S Piacenia was Ihe first of the towna of of a vicar diolal or organist, pre- Ij""**^ Ipjlrumenl, from
Lombardy to join Piedmont; but it was reoccupied by the served in Si Mary's church, SL:„S';iW.„- tlZSTS!
Aatiiant liU 1859. Shrewsbury. The blest dale lo l^t^ '■ ^
PUVOfOBTB (Ilal. fisiu, loft, and /orff, loud). Tbegroup which this interesting figure may be
of keyed stringed muiical instruments, amoi,g which the piano- attributed is itfo, but the convcatigaal representation tbowi
fane >* latest in order of lime, his been invented and sicp by thai ibe inslrumcnl waa Ihcn already of a past fashion, althou^
«ep developed with tbe modem an of music, which it based perhaps iiill retained in use and fainiliar to the carver-
npoB Ihe iimultaneoua employmeni of different musical sounds. In the Weimar Wuttdrrtiuli,' a MS. dalcd 1440, with pen and
Ik the icth century the "organum" arose, an elementary ink miniatures, is given a " clavichordium " having 8 short and
QMem of accompaoimeni lo the voice, consisting of fourths and Ipparenlly 16 long keys, the irtisl has drawn ii strings in a
octave* below the melody and moving with it; and the organ recungular case, but no laDgcntt ate visible. A keyboard of
{f.*.],theearliestkeyedin>iiuDient, was, in Ibe first inslance, the balanced keys eiisled in Ihe little portable organ known as Ihe
opieaaion- Tbere was a* yel no keyboard of balanced key windowi. Vilniviua, Di arckiltaara, lib. i. cap. li., translated
levtn; aliden were drawn out like modem draw-su^js, 10 admit by Newton, describe* a balanced keyboard; but the key app«r-
_ . the compressed air necessary 10 make Ihe pipes alus is more particularly shown In Tkt Pniumalii, of Htrt ej
tmltiiT ■™>«1' About the same lime arose a large stringed Alixamdria, translated by Bennet Woodcraft (London, iSji).
instrument, the orgtnistrum.> the parent of Ibe In confirmation of Ibi) bat been the remarkable recovery at
now obaolele hurdy-gurdy; as the organ needed ■ blower at Carthage* of a lern -cot ta model of a Hydrauliboa or water
well at in orglDilt, to Ihe player of Ihe organislrum required organ, dlling from Ihe ind ctnluiy aj>., in which a balanced
■ hudlc-lunwr, by whose aid the three airings of Ihe inslru- keyboardof iSor iQkeyiiatbowD. It •cenu likely the balanced
BCBI were made lo (ound ^multaneously upon i wheel, and, keyboard wu lost, and afierwuds reinvented. The name of
jctwdiBflo the well-known tculpluted rdjef of Si George . s„ .. „„^ ^-b^, .^,4^^." ^„,^ b^ Martin Gertert
dt BocberviDe, one alrmg wa* minipuliled by mean* of a in &r>|>tem accbjiutKidf aiwHiu^TilM). U. 197; and in J. P.
.... Mwne, /'«t«le»iMnirni»««iii«iM«, vol. ISO,™!. 1107-
* Aa oesaiulrum tt ahown in Ihe lower nght hand comer of the '^Cmikeiagieki BiWeOek. See alio L^Alwin ^huli, Dinlicia
fd imf* miuarare o( a fi« mh century p«lter of Enslish work- Umim m and ». JairkumL (Vienna. iBgi), p- 5B, fig. j«.
iauibu>,fDmii>( pan of Ibe Humman collection mainiym.ty ' For an illmtruion of Ihii impocunl piece of evSence, .ee under
£?*. l™S-,?'»«"-„ tP-3' •"'^•^f^'l^ &*iWifl.o/ Oicak: A,uum HiiUn: and for deKiiptiaa and illiBUaiJoifc <*
lOmmaaUi MSS. ai ikt Bi^a[bm F,-u An, Clyi (igoB). balanced keys, n Kivaoau.
560
PIANOFORTE
regtl was derived from the rule (regida) or graduated scale o£
keys, and its use was to give the singers in rdUgious processions
the note or pitch. The only instrument of this kind known to
exist in the United Kingdom is at Blair Atholl, and it bears the
very late date of 1630. The Brussels regal^ may be as modern.
These are instances of how long a some-time admired musical
instrument may remain in use after its first intention is forgotten.
We attribute the adaptation of the narrow regal keyboard to
what was still called the monochord, but was now a complex of
monochords over one resonance board, to the latter half of the
1 4th century; it was accomplished by the substitution of tangents
fixed in the future ends of the balanced keys for the movable
bridges of the monochord or such stoppers as are shown in the
Shrewsbury carving. Thus the monochordium or " payre of
monochorcUs " became the davichordium or ** payre of davi-
chordis " — pair being applied, in the old sense of a " pair of
steps," to a series of degrees. This use of the word to imply
gradation was common in England to all keyed instruments;
thus we read, in the Tudor period and later, of a pair of regals,
organs, or virginals. Ed. van der Straeten' reproduces a so-
called clavichord of the 15th century from a MS. in the public
Ubrary at Ghent. The treatise is anonymous, but other treatises
in the same MS. bear dates 1503 and 1504. Van der Straeten
is of opinion that the drawing may be assigned to the middle of
the isth century. The scribe calls the instrument a davicim-
balum, and this is undoubtedly correct; the 8 strings in the
drawing are stretched from back to front over a long sound-
board, the longest strings to the left; 8 keys, 4 long and 4 short
with levers to which are attached the jacks, are seen in a
horizontal line behind the keyboard, and behind them again
are given the names of the notes a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h. In the
Weimar Wunderbuch is a pen-and-ink sketch of the " davicim-
balum"* placed upon a table, in which we recognize the
familiar outline of the harpsichord, but on a smaller scale.
The keyboard shows white and black notes — the latter short
keys, one between each group of two white keys, precisely as
in the instrument reproduced by Van der Straeten — but no
mechanism is visible under the strings.
The earliest known record of the davichord occurs in some
rules of the minnesingers,^ dated 1404, preserved at Vienna.
The monochord is named with it, showing a differentiation of
these instruments, and of them from the davic/mbalum, the
keyed cymbal, cembalo (Italian), or psaltery. From this we
learn that a keyboard had been thus early adapted to that
favourite medieval stringed instrument, the ** cembalo " of
Boccaccio, the " sautrie " of Chaucer. There were two forms of
the psaltery: (i) the trapeze, one of the oldest representations
of which is to be found in Orcagna's famous Trionfo della Morte
in the Campo Santo at Pisa, and another by the same painter in
the National Gallery, London; and (2) the contemporary " testa
di porco," the pig's head, which was of triangular shape as the
name suggests. The trapeze psaltery was strung horizontally,
the " islromcnto di porco " cither horizontally or vertically —
the notes, as in the common dulcimer, being in groups of three or
four unisons. In these differences of form and stringing we see
the cause of the ultimate diflcrcnliation of the spinet and harpsi-
chord. The compass of the psalteries was nearly that of Guido's
scale; but according to Mcrsenne,^ the lowest interval was a
fourth, G to C, which is worthy of notice as anticipating the later
" short measure "* of the spinet and organ.
The simplicity of the clavichord inclines us to place it, in
order of time, before the clavicymbalum or clavicembalo; but
we do not know how the sounds of the latter were at first excited.
There is an indication as to its early form to be seen in the church
of the Certosa near Pavia, which compares in probable date with
»See Victor C. Mahillon. Catalogue descriptif (1880). I. p. 320.
No. 454: re^al with two bellows, end of XVI. C. Compass E to a*.
* La Mustque aux Pays Bas, i. 278.
* 5^e Dr Alwin Schul/, op. cU., fig. 524.
* V. 410 and 414. See Ambros. CeschichU der Musik (1892).
ii. 226.
* L'llarmonie universelU (Paris, 1636), livrc III. p. 107.
'A.J. Hipkins, History of PianojorU (London, 1896), p- 5»'
the Shrewsbury example. We quote the reference to It fcom Dr
Ambros.^ He says a carving represents King David at holding
an *' istromento di porco " which has eight strings and at many
keys lying paralld to them; inside the body .of the instrumcot,
which is open at the side nearest the right hand of King DaTid,
he touches the keys with the right hand and damps the itzinp
with the left. The attribution of archaism ^>pUes with eqial
force to this carving as to the Shrewsbury one, for when tie
monastery of Certosa near Pavia was bmlt by Ambropo Fosast
in 147a, chromatic keyboards, which imply a considerable ad-
vance, were already in use. There is an authentic representatioa
of a chromatic keyboard, painted not later than 1426, in the
St Cecilia panel (now at Berlin) of the famous Adoniion of the
Lamb by the Van Eycks. The instrument depicted it a positive
Fig. 2.— Diatonic Clavichord Keyboard (Guido's Scale) froi
Virdung. Before 151 1.
organ, and it is interesting to notice in this reafistic punting thit
the keys are evidently boxwood, as in the Italian qnnelsd htcf
date, and that the angel plays a common chord— A with ik
right hand, F and C with the left. But diatonic organs with
eight steps or keys in the octave, which induded the B flat iii
the B natural, as in Guido's scale, were long preserved, tar
Praetorius speaks of them as still existing nearly two buBdrcd
years later. This diatonic keyboard, we learn from Sebaitiaa
Virdung {Muiica geltUsckt und auagaogem, Basel, 1511), was thi
keyboard of the early clavichord. We reproduce hk diagram ai
the only authority we have for the dispodtion of the one ihoit
key.
The extent of this scale is exactly Guido's. Virdong's dtapiB
of the chromatic is the same as our own familiar keyboard, aii
comprises three octaves and a note, from F below the baas staie
to G above the treble. But Virdung tells us that even this
clavichords were made longer than four octaves by repetitiiB
of the same order of keys. The introduction of the diroaadc
order he attributes to the study of Boetius, and the umseqwat
endeavour to restore the three mu»cal genera <^ the Gredo-^
diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic. But the last-named had
not been attained. Virdung gives woodcuts of theclavichonfiasi
the virginal, the clavicymbalum and the davicytheriom. Ve
reproduce three of them (figs. 3, 6 and la), omitting tl
Fig. 3. — Virdung's Clavtchordium, 151 1 ;
as obviously incorrect. Writers on mtisical instnmieBis haw
continually repeated these drawings without discerning that is
the printing they are reversed, which puts the keyboards catiic^
wrong, and that in Lusdnius's Latin translation of \lrdai|
iMusurgia^ siv€ praxis musicaet Strasburg, 1536), which has beet
hitherto chiefly followed, two of the engravings, the davkiB-
balum and the clavicytherium, are tranqx>sed, another came of
error. Martin Agricola {Musica insirumentaiis, IKiltteBbeiit
1529) has copied Virdung's illustraUons with some diffcreBcesof
perspective, and the addition, here and there, <d enoa of hit
own.
"* CeschichU der Musih^ ii. 544-555.
StiD volgarly knovn u monochotd, Viidung's diYichonJ wu bridge, indispenubte ior the v
aSy > boi ol monochoidi, ill Ihc stringi being oi Iheume loiind eiciien (£g. j). The cot
aslh. He dtrivn ihe cJavidiord Irom Cuido's ■nanochord is i liii of cloih. interwoven
1 ht dots the viiginal from the pulleiy, but, it the behind the iingtnii. A* the
use lime, confrtsei he doe> oot kiwv when, or t^ whom, tangenii quiitrd the stringi the
ither inJIiument wai invented. We observe in ihi> eloih imnediitely (topped all
nwing Ihe shotl aound-board, which always remained a vibration. Too much cloih
coiliaiity of the clavichord, and the straight aound- would diminiih the lone of this
oftnl bridge — necessarily so when all the strings were of already feeble f
Be length. To gain an angle of incidence for the tangents gained Ihe n
gainst Ihe strings the keys were made ciooked, an ei - . .. .
PIANOFORTE 561
Ibration, beaido acting as Ihe
unon damper to all the airings
ivlchord in Rubenj's St Cecilia I
(Dreaden Callety)-
as perhapi representing ihs
2-.k" :r^i,,,««iiii»iiil|iis:i
he atrings are merely indicated. The German for fret is Biiiid, damping cloth b accurately p^ , Clavichord Tament.
ndioch a clavichord, in that language, iskoown asa "gebun- painted. The number of keys
lenes Clavichord" both Irel {to rub) and Band (from biaitn, lo theRahown islhreeoclavea anda third. Flo A— Ihe same eitenl
■Dd) having been taken over from the lute or viol. The French ai in Handel's clavichord now in the museum al Maidilone (an
sdtlaliansemploy" louche "and" tasto," touch. Praetorius Italian instrument daled i;i6, and not fretted}, bul with Ihe
rho wrote a hundred years later than Virdung, says mo, three peculiarity of a combined chromatic and (hort octave in Ihe
■lA four tangents were Ihus emp]oyed in stopfnng. There are lowesl notes, to which we iball have to relet when we arrive
3tanl smaU clavichords having three keys and tangents to one at the spinel; we pass it by as the only instance we have
Mir of airings and others have no more than two langcnu to 1 come across in the clavichord.
Me formed by a pair of strings, inilead ol three. Thus seven The clavichord must have gone out of favour in Great Britain
■in of strings suffice for an octave of twelve keys, Ihe open and Ihe Netherlands cariy in the i5lh century, before its ea-
lOUI being F, G, A, B flat, C, D, E Ital, and by an unexplained pressive power, which is of the moil tender and inlJmale quality,
■eciiliarily, perhaps derived from lome special estimation of the could have twen. from the tiature of the music pbyed,ohteived,
met which was connected with the church modes. A and D are —the more brillisnl and elegant spinet being preferred 10 it.
eft tfatougbout free Irom a second tangent. A corresponding Like the other keyboard iniliuments it had no German n^mc.
•ihK of these notes b shown by Iheir independence of chromatic and can hardly have been of German origin, Holbein, in hii
ikentkm In tuning the double Irish harp, as explained by drawing of (he family of Sir Thomas Mote. ijiS. now at Basel,
/tocratio Galilei in his Irealise on music IDialtia idla mmica, indicales the place for " Klavikordi und andei Seytinspill."
loreiKe, 1581). Adlung, who died in 1761, speaks ol another Bui it remained longest in use in Germany — until even the be^n-
ifttiog, but tl must have been an adaptation to Ihe modern ning of the igih century. It nas the favourite " KUvicr" of
•ajor tale, the "free" notes being E and B. Clavichords ihe Baths Besides that of Handel already noticed there are
hat ia to say, la the epoch of J. S. Bach, who, taking advantage buted to Motart and Beethoven. The clavichord was obedient
f its abolition and the consetjuent use of independent pairs of to a peculiaiily of touch possible on no other keyboard instru'
Iringi for each note, was enabled to tune in all keys equally, ment. This isdescribed by C. P. Emmanuel Bach in hia famous
k modem scales having become estnblished. Bach was now mihrt Art ddi Khtio tu Ipidci (" An Essay on the True Way to
Ue to prwiuce, in 1711, Dm vMUmperirIc CUmtr. Ihe first play Keyboard Instrumeou,") It is the BeJunj (trembling), 1
aHection of preludes and fugues in all the twenty-tour major vibration in a melody note of the same nature as Ihe tremolo
od minor scales for a clavichord which was tuned, as lo con- frequently employed by violin players to heighten the expressive
ardance and dissonance, fairly equal. effect; it was gained by a repealed movement of the fleshy end
Tlw oldest clavichord, here called manicordo (as French of Ihe finger while the key was still held down. The Jlfiunj was
indicated in the notation by dots over the note to be aHected by
it, perhaps showing how many times the note should be repeated.
According to the praclice ol the Bachi, as handed down to us in
Ihe above mentioned essay, great smoothness ol touch was
the means taken to produce ihe sound disturbed the accuracy
of the string meoauiemcnt by increasing tension, so thai a key
touched too firmly in the clavichord, by unduly ratung the
siring, sharpened the pilch, an error in playing deprecnicd by
C. P. Emmanuel Bach. This answers Ihc assertion which has
been made that J. S, Bach could not have been nice about
tuning when he played from preference on an Instrument of
0 {Clavkbord) d'Eleoi
Kraus Museum. Flon
bnnJIni "
I diffeeent positioi
ordium. Here we can trace derivation Irom
le psaltery in the sound-board covering the entire Inner lutface
1 impossible position with
sgth, but the aouni
vtted clavichords n:
rth ceoluiy have _ . _ ,
linet. Id the davicbord the tangents alwayi form the Rcond repreienling the insliumeiit. la uiAe^ 1.%^ t^. 'Y^n«'««^&>K
56a
PIANOFORTE
which CT
liihed hb Sficgd itr Ortdrnmhcr (Oigui-buildcn' Minor),
and lutned the divlcbordium and ckvicimbaliun u luniliBt
lEiUluincnts. In Ihe ba\ place, the keyboard, beginiung app^
enlly with fi nalural, instead of F, makn the cUviclnibalum
tmiUer than the viigina], tbc itringi in Ibis inangeincat being
ihottei; In the ncil ptatx it b alinast ccnain Ibat tbe Italian
identical with a "short measure" o( "ihorl octiva " organ
compass, a very old keyboard acraDgemenl, by which Ihe lonnt
note, npteaeating D, really sounded C and C sbaip in like
manner A. The origin ol this may be deduced Crom tbe pialieiy
and many representations of the legal, and its object appears
to have been to obtain dominant tiasBes for cade
cloors having early been sought for as giving pL
Authority for this practice is to be found in &
1036. eapreaaly decribes it as occurring in
' ' Hi:). He says the keyboards of th
me. Now, in his Laf in edition of tb
,..- 0 bridges. It
baa only Ihiny-one keys {rarika] in its keyboard, and as
many strings over ils sound-board (he now refers to (he Ulusln-
tion], so that there are five keys hiddeo on account of the per-
spective— that is to say, three distonic and two chromatic [/ci'nlri,
same as (he Latin /clii. of which Ihe Grw is cut into two
|a divided sharp forming two keys); but these sharps serve to
go down to the third and fourth below the first step, C lef (tenor
clef C|. In order to go as far as the third octave, for tbe eigbleen
princijMl steps make but an eighteenth, that ia to say, a fourth
more than two octaves." The note we caU F, he, on his cngrav-
Fhich the one described is not. The
h. reached by his divided sh:irp,
Illy tl
might bi
e third o
F, but lor that t
iloneB, which bis spi
g to his description, did not possi
in spinels as well as in organs of ■*
call "short measure," and, secon
of divided (harps at the hiwer
ryboard to gain lower notes,
triple strung clavichord, 11
:. the
ued we have na evidence ' Tbe little cmv-V
from cenlred (ongue* in uprights of wood
" (fig. ;), which also cany tbe dainpct*,ud
iression of the keys in front, the quills set t
^ as ihey pluck them in passing, firings at fir
bristle, giving energy to the twang and govts
J. C. Scaliger in Poitkislibriliftim{l%tt,f
that tbe Clavicimbalum and Hari^cboidB
(ai ti;>i niuriiiri6iu). and ttlribult* tbe iol
ame " sinnetta " to them ([rem tfina, a tbccn)
arpichordum lor the present, but tbe eail]
icimbalum and spinelta ia certainly proved.
's etymobgy remained uaqueitioned until
Fonsicchi of Florence discovered anotho' t
nd in a tare book entitled Cnidiaiam ad 1
di D. AJrIant Bi^iviuri (Bohigna, i6og}. tbl
, which translated f ' " '
I SpinettI, a
which was this ii
ong form
and I have tte
we must accept i joj as a late date for one of
IS, seeing that the altered form bad alrt»
IS shown by Virdung, in another country ■
" te there are frequent refen
nd other d
ice. pre*
collections. A spinet dated
.t Bologna' in iS&S; another old spinet ia the
sris, is a pentagonal insirumeni made by Fc
pis at Verona, 151]. The'Milinese Rossi wt
takers, and have been accredited {la Xoliiliii
vini of the keyboard, a feature which had
projected; by the reeesung a greater width wi
sound-boird. The spinets by Annibile Rcsi
ited respectively tssj {Gg. 8) and ij;i
Milanew Spineiu, by Annibale Roisa, IJ
Kenungtoft Museum.
nd may be compared with the ohtcr an
1 1 j6S, by Marco Jadra (also known aa )
[ ''d«i cembali"). Besides the poita,
n heptagonal variety; Ihcy bad neiihi
Eolthe
tseUwi
e keybcaid ii
id four octaves by a semitone, E 10 F; but we i
.est natural key as usuaUy C. and tbe lowest
llyD. in these instruments, according to" short
rectangular spinel, Virdung'a " vir^nal." call
desl we know of in this style, and dated, >
le specimen belonging to M. Terme wbiel
iaM'ArldciiraliUfii.j). VirgiDal i* not an It
PIANOFORTE
563
iry VII. to Charles II., aU quUled iit
:h " s[^nets " during a period Sot irhich tit have
lo 1784. Pepyt bought his "Esplnetle" from
for Is, July 13. i6«4.
it Kecne and Player, nude about 1700, have
ividcd sharps at the t^ end of the liey board, as
■ 1 spinel irith
fivided fihai^ h:
e been assumed to be
. From the tuning of llandrl's Italian cbvi-
oned, which has ihis peculiarily, and from
ic further ' ' ' '
d the n<
:o the nt
Thomas Hitchcock (for w!
name and having divided bass sharps) made a great utvana in
constructing ipineCi, giving Ibem the wide compass of five
octaves, from G lo G, with very fine keyboards in which the
sharps were inlaid with a slip of Ihc ivory or ebony, as the cam
.. Tlieir
nil), 1568: rict. and Albert
iv.iii.,p..53)gi.
mi three alies for spinets
ed lo the oclive i
if the " Ion de chapcUc "
■above the prcsen
t English medium pitch),
> ihe tourlh belo.
w, and one of s ft. tuned
the first, Ihc last being thtrelore tuned
el pilch. Hesjy
Shis own «)inet was one
it, but from Ihe lettering
<ing il would hav.
t been of the second size.
octave spinet, of tiipeze
:imes supposed, becjune model
uent English makers,
■as the diBetencc bevceen Scaligci'
'inbal. Galilei, ihe lather of lh<
le lilllc spinets were pi:
We have now to ask what ■
astronomer ol thai name (£>i
Florence, isSi), says that Ibe barpichord
having resembled sn " aipa giacente,". a pii
harp, proving that Ibe davicymbal was al
Irapese-shapcd spinet; and we should
diHeccnliale barpichord and cbvicymbal as, in lorm,
suggested by or derived from Ihe harp and psaltery, or from
a " lesla di porco " and sn ordinary Irapcie psaltery. We are
inclined lo prefer Ihe Utter. The Latin name "davicymbalum."
having early been replaced by spinet and virginal, was m Italy and
France bestowed upon Ihe long harpichoid, and was continued
as clavicembalo (graveccmbalo, or familiarly cembalo only)
and clavecin. Much later, after the restoration of the Stuans,
the first name was accepted and naluraliied in England as
harpsichord, which we will define as Ihe long instnimeni with
quills, shaped like a modem grand piano, and resembling a wing,
fiom which it has gained Ihe German appcUalion " FlUgel."
We can point out no long instrument of this kind so old as Ihe
RomanccmbaloalSoutbKen5inBlontfig.il). Il was made by
Geronimo of Bologna in 1511, two years before the Paris Porta-
lufas spinet. The outer case is of finely tooled leather. It hast
spinet keyboard with a compass of neariy foul octaves, £ (0 D.
The natural keys are of bi
The keyboard of the Italian ci
d in ftODt.
nal tc
. There
.mple.
—~:?^.~^
^—r ^r^
^
i
dated 1616, with the bass beys carried out v
long measure (unfortunately altered by a rest
(iihoul sharps in
ore.). Ilissur-
IMH
Mil
1
prising lo see with what steady persistence the
Italians adhered
^^S»s
^w
to iheir original model in making the iostnimcnt. As late as
^
*
the epoch of Cristofori,' and in his ijjicemi
two unisons, without power to reduce to on(
The Italians have been as conservative will
=alo at Florence,'
gle keyboard, Ihe
■ by using slops.
Il ihei, forms of
m
spinel, and arc lo this day with Ihcir organs. The startling
»
" piano e forte " of 1508. brought lo light fro
the house of D'EsIc by Count Valdtighi of Mo.
consideration and a desire lo find in it an antic
regard as an ordinary cembalo with power lo
m the records of
Jena.' allcr much
ipalion of Cristo-
re are disposed lo
shift, by > stop.
linel Cipinctl:
. Trnvem),
■ by
Car.
lies Hi
■rd.
' In the harpBchord Crinlofoii made for Prince Ferdinand dei
Meriici in 1701, recently acguiccd by Mr Sicarn
. of Dai-M. ami
IJ-SA. Ihersare
by
ill ust rates
the:
anspi,
?h™ SlKanK \hus arranged/tsl, higlS« keyboard. OCM«
he " spinciii
Iravcrsa,"
)ach 10
Ids
string only; and. Middle, octave and first unison;
he keyboard
dlrapcMonc
. This'tra,
, became fa5
.hior
Labi.
! pins be
spinel, m
Mn Engl.
■ing
ind
no Domini I7;9.^
n,Haward,K
.eene.SLidc
,Pla
Baudi
'^ '"In Ihe Kraus Mmeum Calitogm l,i<)n\-i. ^t
jn, Huby,
Ibe Ilarrir
faJi
lily,
indi
att
lers
* Sec Van der Straewn. vi. 111.
564.
PIANOFORTE
from two uoiioiB (forte) to one utring ([»Eno], it Uut lime *■
Flemiih pnctice, sod moM likely brought to Italy by ooe of U»
Flemiih muiiciiins who founded the Italian school o( compoaltion.
About the year 1600, when iccompaniment wai iaventH for
monody, large cembalos were made for the orcheatTa^ to bring
out the baas part, the performer standing to play. Such an
_ " Two fair pair of mir lon^ Viriin
ilhin a guicr fOt,
We are diipmed to believe that wi have here uoUb
Leyboard harpuchord, Rirabault law ia this aA
instrument, lucfa as Virdung'a danl;
(hg. 11). Having lince seen the ODe in tl
Museum, Floience, it aeemi that 1
fumiture of Warwick Cajlle, 1584, " • t
of double virglnalls," and in tlu I
inventory, r6oj, "one great payn o
virginalls." Hans Ruckeis, the great d
a froi
tc. II.— Romap Clavicembalo by Ceionimo ol Bologna, IJ3I: Vicl. and
adapt
(the i
to him], which incorponted tbc octav
with the large inilruDunI, to be k
playable without the co-operation of anoi
former, was already in use when he began 1
t harpsichord wtis made b)
imlmmenl w»s called " archicembalo,"' a name also applied 10
■ laige cembalo, made by Vito Trasuniino, a Venetian, in ite6,
intended by ihirty-one keys in each of its four octaves — one
hundred and twenty-five in all — to restore the three genera of
the ancient Greeks. How many attempts have been made
before and since Tiaauntino to purily intonation in keyboard
instruments by multiplying keys in the octave? Simultaneously
with Father Smith's well-kuown eiperiment in Um Temple organ,
London, there were divided keys in an Italian haipsichord
to gain a separate G sharp and A fkt, and ■ Kparate D sharp
and E flat.
Double keyboards and stops in the long cembalo or harpsichord
came into use in the Netherlands early in the 16th century. We
find them imported into England. The following citations,
quoted by Rimbault in his Hisltry cfiht PienojorU. but imper-
fectly understood by him, ate Iroro the privy purse eapenses
of King Henry VIU., as eitracted by Sir Harris Nicolas in
" isio (April). Item the vi
daye, paied to WijUani Lexes
cfl4rerwi1h iiiiHoppesbrouelit to
CiTiKwJche ill li. . And lor ii
Kough" ^^tKmaS^ Ui li!^
Now the second instrument
may be explained, virginals
meaning any quUlied instru-
that at Nuremberg by Martin
Fic. 11— Virduni'i Cbvicy- of the other. Again from the
thenum (upriBhi XarpskhonJ), inventory after the king's
iSii;(reve™dfauimde). j„,^ ^^ B^, „„^ Harl.
MS. 1419) fol. 147-
'lavrnttd by Nicola VkTnliao; kc L'AiUia muica rido
kind<
I 1798. *
in of Halt
telyai
Lctea, eicept in Italy, wit
1 known throughout ll
Jan Couchet,
in Fleni' ' '
I'l grandson, Jean Ruct
Before that lii
nhede
were merely a transposing e)
to change the pitch a fourth, from plagal to DULhenIk
versa, while using the same groups of keys. Fortunatelj
a harpsichord existing with double keyboards unaltct
i6j8, belonging to Sir Bernard Samuelson, fcmnert)
possession of MrSpencc,of Florence, made by Jean Rue
keyboards being in their original position. It was not
invention as buuty of lone which made the Rucken
chords famous. The Ruckers harpstchonls in the iSth
were fetching such prices as Bologna lutes did in tbt
existing in Belgium. France and England. Handd
Rucken harpsichord, now in Buckingham Palace; it o
the number of siity-thiee eiisling Ruckers inn
catalogued in Grove's Dutimcry tf ifuie a»i Uaiid
After the Antwerp make declined, London be<*.
eminent lor harpsichords— the ttptesenlative maker
Jacob Kirckmann and Butckhitd Tschudi, pupils of 1
master, one Tabel, who had settled in London, tn
buuness KJrckmann continued through marriage with
widow. Tschudi was of a noble Swiss lamily belongin
canton of Glarus. According to the custom with foRig
obtaining at thai time, by which Kaendel became
and Schmidt Smith, Kitckmann dropped his final ■ and
became Shudi, but be resumed the lull spelling in Ibe
the splendid harpsichords he made in 1766 for Fndr
Great, which are still preserved in the New Palace, (
Bylhesi
added 10 vary
ic harpsichord became a latter.
the '
jf the I
liich was
ligh harmonics by plucking the string dose 10 the bri»
the " harp," a surding or muting effect produced by k
the vibration of the strings by contact of small pieces
leather. Two pedals were also used, thtleft-bandooeac
tion of a unison and lute. This pedal, with the "■
stop, reduced the upper keyboard to the lute register, lb
<A 'n^icib v:t«d upon the strinp near the wiM-tlanl
PIANOFORTE
iiS
air, Ik loiMT kiybatrd (o the ucend unisM. Rekuing the
mduiw iXop &nd quilting (he pcdaJ rcstora the hnt uniuti on
bollkeyboudi uid the ocuve on the lower. The right-hand
tm Bme power of "mil" or nocendo, in invention ol
ttga FIcniiu,' la whom >1mi tlie hsip <lop may be lightly
uiribulnl. Tbii ingtniuus huptidiord maker had been
Hiniilal^d to gain thev effects by the aascent piaAoforte which,
n K ihall find, he wai the hnt to make in England. The fint
idea of pedals lor the harpaicbord to act ai atopi appears to have
boa John Haywaid's (?Uawanl) ai early at ifijb, as we learn
fin Uice'i Umkk't Mmuminl, p. ijj. The French makers
pnlortd a kind of knee-pedat arrangemeDt. known u the
"pmuHin" and lODietimes a more complete muting by one
kit Srip ol buH leather, the " Hurdine." At an improvement
40a Fleniua'i diumy Kwell, Shudi in 1 769 patented the Venetian
miH, a Irambig of louviea, like a Venetian blind, which openM
^ the movement ol the pedal, and becoming in England a
hnmiic addition to batisichanlt, was early iranireiretl to the
(epiDi in which it replaced (he rude " nag'i-head " tweU. A
FiEDCb harp&chord maker, Marlus, ^hoH name is rememtxred
boa a lutiie attempt to design a pianolorte action, invented »
hUof birpiichord, the " davedn brisi," by whicb (he inStru-
■eu could be diiposcd of in a smaller space. One, whicb is
ptK^red at Berlin, probably lonned part of the camp baggage
olFnderick the Great.
It *is formerly a ciutnn with kings, princes and nobles
Ple)^ psrpofes, in Ihe domestic and festive music of Iheir
•"n ri courts. There are records of Iheir inventories,
^■M and it was (0 keep such a collection in playing order
tj^l that Prince Ferdinand deiMedid engaged aPaduan
harpwcbord maker, Bartolommeo Cristofori, the
■ao of genius who invented and produced the pianoforte.'
Ve Icrtunately possoa the record of this invenlinn in a
ilaily form Crora a well.known writer, the UarcheM Scipione
Uifld; his description appeared in the Giornatt dei UlUrati
tlm*, a publication conducted by Apoiloto Zeno. The
due of Maltd's paper was i;ii. Rimbault reproduced it,
■U s technically Imperfect liansbtion, in his Hiiiery ^ '*<
fm^mlt. We leam from it that in ijog Cristolori had
t^kted four " graveccmbali col piano e lone " — keyed-
Wieria with loft and loud— three ol Ihcm being of the long
V vol haipocbord form. A synonym in llaliaa for the
■igiia] cembalo (or psalleiy} is" lalteiio," and if it were struck
*ilk bammen it became a " salterio tedesco " (the Gemun
'■rUreU, n cbopi»ng board], the latter being (he common
Uoacr. Now (he hist no[ion of a pianoforte ts a dulcimer
Bithkcys, and we may perhaps not be wrong in suppoung that
Ihnhid been many attempts and failures ID put a keyboard
la a dgldmer or hammers 10 a harpaicbord belore Crisiofoii
Mnarfully sdved the problem. The sketch of his action in
Uila's csuy shows an incomplete stage in the invention,
■Uoo^ the kernel ol it—the prindple of escapement or tbe
^•tnUed rebound of the hammer — is already there. He obtains
tbr s centred lever [iinftUa tteiilt) or hopper, working, when
ti key is depressed by the touch, in a small projedion from
Moreover, tbe hammer bad a>
aillmel
distance of its fall- There ar
Crislofori. dated repeclively
7>o and
1716, which show
nay even say a peTfccIed. t
for the whcJe of an essential piano movement is there. Tbe
earlier Instrument (now in the Metropoliian Museum, New York)
has undergone considerable restoration, the original boUow
hammer.head having been replaced by a modem one, and the
hammer.butt. instead of being centred by means of (be bolt*
provided by Ciiitolori buniell for the purpose, having bees
lengthened by a leather hinge icrescd id the block;' but (be
i7i« one, which is m the Kiaua Museum at Florence, tetiini
(he oriffnal leather hammer-heads. Both iniirumenia possess
alike a contrivance for delerminlng the radius of the hopper,
and both have been uneipecledly found to have the " check "
(ItaL paramarlille), whidi regtUates the fall ol the hammer
according to the strength of the bbw which has impelled it to
the strings. After tlus discovery of the actual instruments ol
Cristolori tbere can be no longer doubt as 10 the attribution ol
tbe Inven(iDB to him In its initiation and its practical cample-
lioo with esc^iement and check. To Cristolori we are indebted,
not only for the power ol playing piano and Jerle, but for
the infinite variatioiu of toiw, or nuanatt which render (he
inltcument so dclightluL
But his problem was not solved by the devising of a working
action; Ihcrt was miuh more tobcdoiteto insiaJ the pianoforte
It ceatrtd hammer-butt. The
Mft bave been uncertain and incapat>le of :
Ua could be obtained by modifying the strcn
] )«is befon Flenius took out hii patent (1741
I spring,
perfectioaby many generations of Sfnnet and haipd>
chord makers, but the resistance strudure had to be tbooght out
again. Thicker stringing, rendered Indispensable to withstand
even Cristoloii's light hammers, demanded in its luro a itroDgCt
Inining than the harpsi-
chord had needed. To
make his strudure firm
he considerably increased
(he strength ol the block
which hdds tbe tuning-
pins, and as be could not
do so without materially
adding to its thickness, he
adopted the boU expedient
of inverting it; driving his
wcest-pins, harp-fashion,
through it, so that tuning
was eSeded at Ibeic
were attached to their
lower, ends. Then, to
guarantee tbe security of
than had been used
harpiichords, b whid
bold tbe farther ends
^ Fio. I*.— Cibiofori's Kano e Fortei
. I7a6; Kraiii M^ieum, Floienc*. .
block the hitch-pins were driven la
of the strings, which were spaced at
roB Aleaaader Kiaus IMxt vp^i-
566
PIAKOFORTE
tqiul diiUnoa [uiilike the hupnchord}, tbc dampen lying MihiUoD ot Bruauli, bcnttvo', acquired a Fredeiki *
bttw«n ihe pair* ol uniioni. gt»nd" piano, dited ijjj {fig. i6). In Fiedeiici'i upnii
ichoo] of lUliaa puuioforte-making, perhaps from the peculiaT ideaa of ciLher CriiLofori or Schroeler;
Itiiian caDtcrviIiim in nujiul iiutrunients we have already Ihe movement ii praclically idei '
remarked upon. The tssay of Scipione MiRci wa> translated wiih the hammer aciioa ol a
into German, in 1715, by KSnig, the mart poet at Dtei- nun dock, and baa ill oninte
den, and friend of GoUfried Silliermann, the renowned orgui in a plana at Nuremberg; 4 fact 1
builder and harpsichord and davichord maker-' Incited by needs further elucidation. We
Uiis publicalion, and perlupt by having teen b Dresden one of here Ihe earliest example ol Ihe Ic
,-. Ctiitofori't pianotori """ - ' ■■ ...
M-
17x1 to
id only now going o
lof w
Where are « 10 look for Schtoeler's
B
Agritola, pronounced laUures, The trebles were too weak;
copyist if not found in Sabctmann, BBlir:-^
the touch was too heavy. There haa long been another version
Frederici, ot, as we shall presently see, "^^'^T"
to this ttory, vii. that Silbermaon borrowed the idea of his
perhaps J. C. Wagner? It mighl be '
action from a very aimple modd contrived by a young musician
in the harpsichord we hive mentioned.
named Schroeter, who had left it al the electoral court in ■;»,
which, made In .711 by one Brodi lor
and, quilling Saaony to tmvd, had nol aiterwards claimed il.
the elector of Hanover (aftereitda
It may be »; but Schtocler's letter, printed in Mitder'i
George I. ol England), was by him
Bj«w(*c*, dated ijjS, is not iiipponed by any other evidente
Ihan Ihe recent discovery of an altered German harpsichord.
the hammer action of which, in in simpUcity, may have been
berg, near Hanover, and HO
taken from Schroetet's diagram, and would .uffidenUy account
has since been rudely pF>_^^-F-^^erici'.Upnjl
he had nude use of it. In either case it is easy to disiinguish
(fig. 17)'," Th'ere"'is''an'^""^'""'''*^'""°^"™
10 have been no more successiul. Bui an atlempli
bination of harpsichord and pianoforte appeafs as a ve
important an Initrumenl.
intention. The Eneliah d
oetMisoi
whalev
rSilbcrm
iteipenn
k. J. Hipkins, that
he, when succeislul, adopted Critlofori's pianoforte without
further alteration than the compass and colour of the keys
and the style of joinery of the case. In the Silbermann grand
pianofortes, in the three palaces at Potsdam, known to have been
Frederick the Creat'a, end to have been acquired by Ihat
monarch prior to J, S. Bach'i visit to him In 1747, we End the
Cristofori framing, stringing, inverted wrcsl-plank and action
i represe
Bach played in the Tow
e, FotsdiD
!. Il appeared in Marpurg's Ktiitidu
B, I7fi4). Now, immediately after,
in Zumpe, a German in London, wbo ]
T T iJ w '
>
which was to become the most popular d
inslmmenl. Il would seem that Zumpe ns
nol Ihe inventor of the square piano, which
V
to have been well known in Germany bil
date, a discovery made by Mr George Ro
i:'"
PauldeWifi Musical Instrument Museum-i
^^s^^^^Ss^^^^^^^^'
in Leipiig, now transferred to Cokigne-th
small square piano, 17 in, long, lo in. "i
4) in. high, having > contracled k-yb.
It has been repeatedly ilated in Germany that Frederici, of
3 OC
avea and 1 notes. The aclion ot this small insl
Cera in Saiony, an organ builder and musical Instrument
isp
actically ideniical In every detail with thai ol the
"^'" the '■ fort bicn," aa he is said to have caUed it, about
illus
ation.p-3S). ln»de it inscribed: " Friedrich HiMr
though an " upright grand " piano, made by Domenito del
Mela in 1730, with an action adapted from Cristofori's hu
been discovered by Signor Ponsicchi of Florence. Victor
■See Ceure PonMchi, // P.imoJarU. iMi mipm i rtilvfln)
or') patent No. toio). at we know fnm the corre*
ry Granville. Underdateof the nth of January 17II
crlbt!
this invention as a short ha/p»ichonl » fi. lout, b«
bow.
which produced a charmFni uiifiilnlc. in ehancia
(Uipiie, 1S6S).
m the violin tone and that of niuical glaaea.
PIANOFORTE
567
mt matitib. hul de VTt Ittat tht EnttnuiKfit lo (he
ddkol tfae iSlhcxnlury. It hu ill the ippeannce of bFing
ndKed copy of ■ well-aUbliihed type, differing very little
n the bier models, except that it has no tlampen. It
em probable tbat this iraill initruDicnt li i converted
Lvidord. and that tbe action may have been luggeMed by
hnetn't model, Wt in 17J1 at the ElectoraJ Court ol Saiony.
aacj tells ui all about Zumpe; and his instrumenU still
iUing irould fli tbe date ol the first at about 1765, Fetis
miB, hovever, that he began the study of the piano on
Kjfun piano made by Zumpe in I76>. In hit simple "old
u'l hrad " action we have the nearat approach to a realiia-
n dI Schioetei's simple idea. It wiU be observed that
br«lcT*s damper would stop aU vibration at once. This
ied B overcome by Zumpe'l " mopstick " damper.
M a even earlier In Cennany. The discovery ol It in Ibe
1^ limplcsl (ami it to be attributed to V. C. Mahillon,
who found it In a tquare piuio bdongins to Henri
Kidin, painter, o[ Brussels. The principle of this action is
U vbirh was later perfected by the addition of a aood escane-
al by Stein of Augsburg, and was again
iln. Kisfi
Augilnirg, dated 1780, and has
aieui* escapement acuon, two uninna, and the knee pednl,
then and later ommon in Ceinuny.
Moaan'g own grand piano, preserved at Salzburg, and the
two grand pianos (the lalat dated lT)o) by Huhn of Berlin,
preserved at Berlin and Charlottenburg, I
Mm
Fig. :i.— SiEin's Action (the earlini •o-called Vienc
belonged to Queen Luise ol Pnisia,
particulars. These instruments have th
and the muling movement known as a
Stein h*dalso. The wrest-plank is not ini ., ^
Imililion of Cristolorl. We may regard Stein, coming after the
Seven Years' War which had devuialed Saiony, as the Ccrman
the grand piano. Slcin'i instrument was accepted
which ci
model, 1
d J. ,
with her, and had already, ij
It from Slutlgart, and
'7W,
1 personal friend of Schiller. ,
sister dissolviag piitnership, Streicher began hinucll 10 lake
his lull share of the work, and on Stein's lines improved the
for iw lightness of touch, which eontributed to the special
chancier of the Viennese school ol pianoforte playing. Since
i8£i, when Stdnway's eumpte caused a complete molulion
in German and Austrian piino-msking, the old wooden chup
grand piano has died out. We will quit ibe early GetTnan
piano with an illustration (fig. 11) of an early square piano
~isz
A^it
'iaoD by Wagner,
by Johann Coldab Wagner of
Dresden in 1V83. This interesting discovery of Mahillon'a
and it vpears 10 have no relation whatever to the doek-hammer
motion seen in Ffedcrici's.
Bumcy, who lived through the period of the displacement of
the harpsichord by the pianoforte, is the only authority 10
Into England. Ke tells us,' in bis gossiping way, niPim-
that the first hammer harpsichord that came to ft>r»b
England was made by in English monk at Rome. ^vl—*.
~ ' Wood, for an English gentleman, Samuel Criso ol
Chesi
ried up. It was Stein's merit to graft the hopper prirKiplc
■1 this simple action; and Moiart's approbation of the inven-
1. when he met with it at Augsburg in 1777, is expressed in a
t-known let ter addressed to his mother. No more " blocking "
he hammer, destroying all vibration, was henceforth lo vex
mind. He had found the instrument that for the rest of
short life replaced the harpsichord. V. C. Mahillon secured
, . 1. with the added power of the shades of pianB
I imperfect that nothing quick could be executed upon it, yet
I a slow movement like the "Dead M^irch" In Saul it excited
onder and delight. Fulke GreviUe aflerwaids bought this
LStrument for 100 guineas, and it remained um'que in Engbru]
II several years, until Plenius, the inventor of the lyricbord,
touch was beiLcr
lot Father Wood
but the tone was inferior. We have
Plenius produced hii lyrtchord, >i
■Rcea't
ff«.Cxtoparf«,»0
10 dale
568
PIANOFORTE
bupnchord, in i;4j. Viea Uuon imported > piinofone in
>75S> Fulkc Crcville'i could have been no longer unique. The
lulien origia of Fatber Wood'i piano poiDU la a aipy of Criitolori,
but (be desoiption of its capabUiliei in no way confirmt this
auppoaition, uiileu vre adopt tlie very pouiblc thoory thil the
uutnimenl had arrived out of order and there *ai on one in
London vbo could put it right, or would perlupi divine that it
«19 wrong. BuTney further tdla ut that llie arrival in London
of J. C, Bach in 1759 was the motive for teveral of the Kcond-
rato liarpsichord makers trying to make jManoforlea, but with
DO particular lucceea. Of ihtie Americua Backets (d. 1776),
-^1^ laid to be a Dulchman, appean to have gained the
fint place. He was aflerwardi the inventor of
the lo-ctDed English action, and la thii action i) bucd upon
CiiitoKiii'i «e may luppoae he M fint foltoiaed Silberruim In
Flo. jj.— -Grand Piano Ai
copying the original
Covent Garden in K
i6lb or May 1767, »
"End oC Act I. Miu Brickler wit
7>>i>lt^acconiiun«d by Mr Dibdin
in. 1776. The "Eojli^"
tor. There ii an old pla
Broadwood's possession d
oBacken
of this novelty- Backer's "Original Forte Piano"
at the Tbslched House ui St Jsmn'j Slreel, Londi
Ponsicchi has found 1 Baclicrs gnuid piano at Pisioria, dated
that year. IL vas Backers who produced the action continued
in the direct principle by the firm of Broadwood, or wiLh the
reversed lever and bammer-butt introduced by tlw £rm of
CoUaid in iSjj,
The escapement lever is suggested by CriitofoH's first action,
10 which Backers has added a contrivance for regulating it by
^JJUjJI"^ Crijiofoii't second action. No mote durable action
has been conslructed, and it baa always htea found
equal, whether ra^de in England or abroad, to the demands of the
— Broadwood '1 Grand Piano
n, 1SS4. Englnh dlmt
III Till lIlIlllllTl iifTliilinllllllI IlillillllilT flalliillMil
On his deathbed he comipeiided ft to Bra«d*ood^ or, tat
Siodirt ippeais to have beoi the fint to advance H-^raadmt
being probably held back by hii partnership with Wt tmlla.
in-law, the ton of ShuiU, In the barpiicbordbuiiiMS. (Thcdda
Shudi bad died in 17734, Slodatt soon made ■ cooideaUi iqit-
tation with his "grand " pianofortes, a deaignalioi be wai tbifiM
to give them. In Stodart^i grand [»ano we first find an idipti-
lion from the lytichoid of Plenius, ol ited u
wrot-plank and belly-rail, bridging the ^p u]
not [bund in any contemporary German instrunx
have been pan of Backen't.
Imitation of the harpaicbord by "octaving" ■«
an object with piano makers. Ziunpe's imall tquve jiiai M
met with great lucccets; he was soon enabh '
imilalDrs, who were legion, continued his c
slops for the dampers and sourdine, trilh lit
which ilraighlened the keys from the diveigi
the clavichord. John Broadirood took this t
first in hand tb improve it, and in the yeaj
entirely reconstructing it. He tlsnsfcTred Ibe wrcu-piink al
pins from the right-hand side, as in the clavichord, to tlv laii
of the case, an improvement universally adopted alter ba pu*
No. 1379 of i)Sj, cipued. In this patent we first fad itt
iper and piano pedals, since univnsally acopled, but u U
noFon
1, palaicd ^
ippearsto
Backers h
altered dampci
I S7 1 ot 1 786) Ihe hopper 1
of which soon became adopted in Ihe grassbiqjpei o( the «]■«•
_7.— :. :. i._i- — j [,j, Qj-(, ynad(. ^jj PetmW, a Bub bi""
iken later to the escapement effected iQii
nlion here that the square piau was dndi
inucd in England until about the year 1S60, «k
of fashion.
urn to John Broadwood — having launcbcd ba HO*'
iquare piano, he next turned hit attention M Uia^
continue the improvement of it from the pnal d*
The grand piano was in bamkf i^
resonince entirely on the harpsichord prindple. the HMdliiW
bridge beuig still conltnued in one undivided iesglh, lb
strings, which were of biaa wire in Ihe bus, dacatded ii «>
of three unisons to the bwejt note of the SCBle. TtBBM Si
tefl to chance, and a reasonable sliikiiig line ot phce hi It
hammen was not thought of. Theory requira tbtt IW MM
of oclaves should be multiples in the ratio of t to a, by dU
taking the treble clef C at one fool, the bwca F itf Ike h
octave scale would require a vibnting length btim ^
bridges ol 11 ft. As only half this length could be uiu«uiu4
aSorded, we see at once * leason for 11k abuiL wnlnM^
defidendes. Only the three oeUvcs of the WHt, wbi t^
lengths practically ideal, could be tolenhly idJiHted, IkH
the striking-line, which should be al an ei^th or raH talt»>
ninth or tenth of the vibialing length, and bad b«0 **
cared for in the hup^choid, was in the lowot tw* Ms"*
out of all proportion, with cone^Mnding din
. John DrMdwood did not v
n!*kioe«gilbi|«»
PIANOFORTE
5*9
iraOl^liiCtbaebalti. HsaDedlD tbsmldotpratoMd
' Kiave— Tiboius Cavalla, who in irSS publiihcd hu
ikot of tbe tcniion. mod Dr Gay, of tlie Briliih Miucum.
obloD mj lolved by dividing lbs louDd -board bridge,
tt hall of which wu (dvin«d to ouiy the bo* Mcingi.
wtn stilt of bruL The hnt Attempts to «qiiaii« the
■nd improve the itiikiog-plAce were here let forth, to
tctioD might now be considered cooipJele. Tbe greitBt
t of that epoch, eicept Moiut uid Beethoven, were
lid in London— Clemcnti, who fan give the piinolarte
1 chincls, railing it from being i mere variety of the
hord, hfi pupili Cnmer and for a time Hummel, later
n fldd, and also the briUianl virluoii Duuek and Steibell.
«e Duueli, Broadnood in tjgi oiciied bis five-oclive,
'. keyboard, by adding keyi upwatdi, lo five and a hall
^ F 10 C In i;m the addiiional ban half ocuve to C.
Ehudi had fint iotroduced in hii double harpiicliordj,
ven lo the piano. Steibelt, while in England, inslllutcd
■uiliir ligni For the employmenl of the pedala, which
U charm to eidtencnl at Ihe inugbialion iniiigated by
ovcf ao atoiutical phenomenon, the lympatbelic vibra-
i the itringi. In i;im Demenii foundnt apiaooforle
■dory, lo be nbsequently devdoped and cairisl an by
iCellard.
GrM aquate [riano made In France is said to have been
lOed in i;;6 hy Sebaitian Eraid, a young Aliatian.
In 1786 he came to England and founded the
London manufactory of harpa and pianofortes
wu Introduced hy WIDIam Stodart (o |8». A pioaure^ir
bearing of lata- introduction ii daimed lor the Frendi maker,
Bord. The fiial to lee the importance trf iron iharing with
wood (ultimately almoM luppUnling it) bi pianolorte liunlng
WIS a native of En|>land and a dvii engineer by f. „_
protaalon, Jolm Isaac HawUna, known at the
inventor of the ever-pointed penciL He waa living at PbDa-
ddphia, D.S.A., when he invented md Snt produced the Fandliar
It double
with ihorteDed be
I bis ni
It firat adopted fo
FiO. 17.— Stfinwa
sc—' ■ ■ "
collage pianoforte — "portable grand" ai be then called it.
He patented it in Amerio. hit laihei, Isaac HawLini, taking
out the patent (or him in England in the lame year, 1800.
It wiU be observed that the iUuslration here ^ven (fig. iS)>
lepraents a wreck; but i draughtsman's restoration might be
IS upright
There bad been upright gnnd planes as wd
ic English modelL harpsichords, the horizontal instrument being tun
its wider end and a keyboard and action adapted to it. William
Southwdl, an Irish piano-makei, had in 1798 tried a smilar
Fiperiment with a square }Hano, to be repeated in later yeaiv
by W. F. CoUaid of London; but Hawkini was Ihe first to make
a piano, or pianino, with tie iltingi destending to the floor,
the keyboard heini raised, and this, although at the moment
the chief, wis not hii only meriL He anddpatcd nearly every
Mment Action, iS^ The double
.How the hopper whic
■eoJIheba
rr, before
ly engaged upon the
s shown by bis patents, he was
ementaiy action described as
3, of probably Gerrnan origin,
lonf-oontinued labour of inventing and conitructing
lie eaomemeni action, Erard appears to have sought to
ictheEn^isbpowerof gradation of tone with the German
■ of touch. He took out bis first patent for a " (epcti-
action in iSoj, claiming for it" Ihe power ol giving
d stroke* without misung or failure, by very imaL
r motjons of tbe key itself." He did not, however,
I in producing his famous repetition or double escapement
uotS 1811; it was then patented by his nephew Rcire
wlw, when the patent eipircd in England in 183], proved
Torn tbe dificultiei of carrying out the invention, which
1 the House ol Lords 10 grant an enension of Ihe
d invented In iSoA an upward bearing to the wret -plank
by tneati* of agraSes or studs of metal through holes
b tbe string are made to pass, bearing against the upper
Tbe wooddi bridge with down-bearing strings is clearly
rdation with upward-striking hammers, the tendency
•is tnust be to raise the strings from the bridge, to the
ait ol the tone. A long brass bridge on this prkdple
discovery that has sin
instrument (fig. iS) is in
ten introduced as noveL Hia
implete iron frame, independent
strengthened by a system ol inn
s comDinco witn an iron upper bridge, liis sound-
rely suspended. An apparatus for lunuig by
PIANOFORTE
bul Ihe loIniiMnl brtni poar In tbe lone tailed to bring bEm
pecuoiuy reranl or Ihe credit he docrved. Southwell Appean
to have been one of the Ent lo proAl by HavUiu'i ideu by
brin^E out Itae high cahinei pianofone, niih hinged ilickec
aclioni in lAo;. All that he could, however, patent in tt wai
the simple damper action, turning on a pivot to relieve the
dampen from the strings, which is atill ErequentJy used with
luchic
. Tbeoe
D were laken by Robert Wor
produced « diagonally, and in iSij a verl
Womum'j perfected cranit action (fig. ig)
until igi6, when it was patented [oi a cabine
not Rally introduced until tbiee yea
when Womum applied it to his little "
The principle of this cenltcd Icvic cbic
wu iDtioduced into Fads by Pleyel ' ai
tion that iron became introduced as ess
the >
1 William AUen
behind the bridge, a reduction which lute Cartel kid tiiedaM
yean before, but unsuccessfully, to accompliih with a pbU ol
wood. So generally was attention now givea to impnfcd
methodi of tesislance that it has not been found (naibk lait-
teiminc who Gnl practically introduced iho*e long inn « sid
grand pianoa. They were experimented on a* tufaRitUa bt
Ihe woodcD bracing by Joseph Smith b 1798; but to Juut
Broadwood belongs the credit of trying them bnt abort the
sound-board in the treble part of Ihe acale as long ago ai iki,
and again in 1818^ he did not succeed, however, in iijdoil^
property. The Inlroduclion of fixed resistance bars ii nSy
due to observation of Allen's compensating tubes, whiiiim,
at the same time, resisting. Sefaaitian and Pierre EniilBa
10 have been Cnt in the field in 1813 with a complete syHmif
nine leiiitauce ban from treble to bass, with a liinple oolt d
laiiening them through the tound-board to the wooden bcm
beneath, but, although these bart appear in their pttal:!
i8lt, which chieBy concerned their repetition MtiOD, the Eivdl
claimed the combination ol airing-plate and reiiUiKC i ~
which was dearly the completion of (be wood and metal im
ment, differing from Allen's in the nature ol the resilaece h
rvet. left the brass ban out, hot id
impensating tubes a
carrying out the idea.
The firm of Stodan ai
(he patent.
previously used. Il m
way in (he old wooden
trmguig wti always mcreasmg.
ind a heavy close ovenposj*
f the bass strings hut become
general The reiistiu bu
ere increased to five, sii, seve
B, eight and, as we hive ««.
uof IhedifletenlEnglisiuJ
rcnch maimers who used them in
their pursuit of stibilii)'.
The next important addition
0 thegrandiaanoiniwJni'
mo was the harmonic bar of r
rreEratd. introduced is it}L
ooden
this favoured the produc-
lion ol iron and wood, the
tion ol higher harmonics
former material gradually as-
to the treble notes, recog-
design is shown in fig. 30. The
monly call "' ring." A
long banshown in the diagram
similar bar, subsequently
are really tubes fittd at one end
c«cnded by Broadwood
only: those of iron lie over
acrou (he entire wieit-
the iron or steel wire, whUe
plank, was lo prevent
those ol brau lie over the
any tendency in (be
brass wire, the metal plalej
wrEst-pbnk to rise, from
to which they are attached
being in the tame cone
drawing of the strings. A
ability ol (he case and frame.
bution of the Collards,
who had retthicd James
Grand Piano. iSjo. The fir.i a £>ed iron string-pblc, the
Stewart, a Plan of con-
coniDlele mcul framing .yttem juvention ol one of Broad-
siderable inventive power.
applied over the .trmgi rood's workmen, Samuel
Herv*, which was In the first instance applied to one of the
with 'Chickering. This
square pianos of that firm. The great advantage in the iiaed
invention was introduced
tension of Ihe siriags and the abolition ol their undue length
mMcr and 'dJk"aIuchiiS^'iiH'
' Pltytl e.hibiied a imall uprisht piano in Pari, in igjj. Pierre
Ea-xl did oot lum bk aiientlbn to upright pianoi until i^ji.
PIANOFORTE
uous beqiwUiies camcd by ibe biesk'
vcred h
st-plink wiih i
tiding Ihe cimhing of the wood
lin icrosi the pull ol the ilrii
d in America, the [undimentil
casting lor the metal plAtc and
iting Iheni in leparaie pieca.
Elihcock was the picneer to thia
etal construction. He also wai
b the compensation oolloa. and
m icon ring (or a (qgue {uano
•hich, although noi a >u
of 1878. Nftyei
the Farii Exhibition
Idea was improved
i8Sj) of
. ,n by Jonas Chickeringd
Boston, who applied it to the grana piano
lie up to a high dcgiM of peiCection
bliihing by it the independent con-
on of the American pianoforte,
hive now to do with over- or
tringing, by which ihebsBS divi^on
of the strings is made 10 cross
^ over the lenoi part of the
disposition at diverging angles—
\yi
.11 ficn
. Doehm.
n Paris, trie.
best piano pos^ble with the least outlay a
t in London continued Pape's model, bu
r Pape's toot permanent root. The Crea
mtained a grand piano, made by Lichtent ha
ctstrung in order 10 gain symmetry by t»
15. Henry Engelhard Steini
i,;-.87t). who had emigr
:* York in 1819, and had
Sou in iSs3 in that city.
European pianoforte makers, leading ultimately to important
rtsulti. The Chickeiing firm claim to have anticipated ttie
Steinways in this invention. They auen that Jonas Cbickering
had begun a square piano on this combined system in 1S53, but.
It is often difficult to adjudicate upon the claimi of inventors,
so rarely is an invention the product of one man's mind alone.
However, the principle was Uken up and generally adopted in
America and Germany, and found loUowel* elsewhere, not only
in grand but in upright pianos, to the manufacture of which
it gave, and particularly in Germany, a powerful impetus.
Since 1885 the American system of a metal plate [ni
and cross- or over-stringing by which the spun t
cross the longer steel diagonally, has become genera
in Europe with the exception of France, whei
o the oldc
woodensIroctureandparsUilslrin^ngthroughou' „ .
tenacity of the modern cast-tteel wire favours a very much
higher tension, and consequent easier production of the
higher paitials ol the notes, permitting a iaslnula unknown
to Beethoven, Schumann or Cho[Hn. While in iS6> the highest
tension of a concert grand piano worked out at sixteen tons,
since 1SS5 thirty tons has been recorded. Generally speaking,
of a muior third, lo the great advantage ol the standing in tune.
First shown by Henry Steinway in the London Exhibition ol
186], this altered construction attracted extraordinary attention
at Paris in 1S67, and determined the German direction ol
paiticularty noticeable when
average of excellence aitaim
playing. Naturally the ail
lianas are mnde Is the higher
milking, as well as in piano-
quality, the personal note,
lenLs, and permits that Lbtrty
sntion has been given of late years to the touch of
ake it less tiring lor the modem performer, especially
IS-rM6, Anion Rubinstein went through the hercu-
seven consecutive historical recitals, repeated in the
I and principal musical ceniies of Europe. For even
ious player a li(hi, tA>K\t vu \^i&t^nta££Et. \'B-
PIANOFORTE
._. .. , jr power piuio nuken hul been grtdiuUy to fonn a contlnuom flui^ which *p^MfT the fnatto
lacRuing the weight of touch to be overcome by llie hnf^er, the iocxeued modem temwo while providins fMhhtMl
until, to obliia the lalnleil pianil^a ln>m raidCUe C, U the tidty ind equality of vibnlioa powei thnm^HHl 11k ki
froDl edge of the key, from three to four ouncet wu i not uncom- The ibsence of barring ud biadog lead* U> nbdiiB the ■■
moil weight. The Btoadwood gtand piano which Chopin med quality of tone u often obiervaUe in planofottta CBoMii
for his redtallin London and Maocbnter in iM, an imtrunenl with heavy iron framei, aad the bailea sted bnat bdi
that baa never bem repaired or altered, ibowa the reaiilance he much more elastic than the latter, no loB in icaoDaaec h
required: the middle C uunda at two ouncei and a halfi and to ceptlble. The tone of the barlesi grand ii d ■■nr**T It
that weight piano-maken have returned, regarding two ouncee and toooiily and ia even throughout the compaiL
and Ihree-quaiteri aa a pouibic maximum. Owing to the The problem at Tetonancc — with atringed keyboud b
greater substance of the lummen in the baas, the loucb will menta, the TEinfoicemeot or ampli&alion of •ouad—hai, I
the days of tbe lute- and ipinct-maluii, been
emjriricaL With late, (uitu, and viol ot vMin^J^
the sound-box comes in, combining fn the iDsiniDent ^hh
the distinct properties of string and endoied air or
wind. With the qtinet, harpsichord and piano we hs*t tt
chiefly with the piste of elastic wood, to amplify Iht M
aouod o[ ibe itiiiigt: and the old
plan of a thin plate of spruce, put
in slightly convex and with an
under-barring of wood for tension,
has absorbed the attention of
plaoo-makera. The violin belly,
with its bara bar and louod post,
baa relation to it; but the recent
invention of the Stroh violin has
shown that the initial string
vibrations may be puied Ibmugh
a bridge, be can«titrated, and
adequately transferred to an
aluminium disk not much larger
than half a crown. The [nano.
wiih its numeroua strings, cannot
be 10 reduced, but the reinforce-
ment problem ia open to another
a pcssible rivaL The " Gladi-
ator " soundboard is the invention
of Albert Schula, lale director
of the luaDO manufactory of
RitmUllei and SOhoe of Cstlin-
gen, Dr Hoser'i name baa been
associated with the inventor's in
the English patent. In the
" Gbdialoi " two slabs of wood,
Fig. 34— Droadwood Bvuleu Cniut. with grain of opposed diiection
to give the necessaiy lentioB, an
always be heavier in that department, and lighter in the treble glued togetber, aiid the whole
from (he lesser weight. In balondng the k^, allowance baa system of belly bara is done away
to be made for the shorter leverage of the black keys. When with. There is a thinning round
the pbyer touches tbe keys farther back the leverage is propor- the edge, to facilitate promptness
tionately ahortened and the weight increased, and there is also of speech. As we arc still feehng
an ascending scale in the weight of the player's blow or pressure our way towards an accutate
if calculated, would be astonishing. cloinung scientific interest, as wtll
The most important structural chuige In pianos in rrcrnl ns being of possible practical im-
years has been the rcjeclbn of support given by metal bars portance.
orstrulsbelweenlbemetalplaletowbicblhestringsare hitched To return lo the toudi. The
and tbe wiest-plank wherein the tuning^pins are inserted, desirability of what is called
These bars formed part of William Allen's invention, brought repetition — that the |rm^,
forward by Slodart in iSio, and wen first employed for rigidity jack or sticker, which
in place of compensition by the Paris Erards two yean later, from the depression of the key Fic. jv— Can'iRifa^
Broadwood in London intiodudng about that time tlic hied delivers tbe blow thai nbc* the Action.", the bsti ia *
metalplale. The patent Mo. itji, for tbe barleis or open-scale hammer to tbe strings, should > .
piano, taken out In London In iS88 by H.J.Tschudi Broadwood, never be far away from Ibe J"^" «.«.-,-
bremarkableforsimplihcalionof dcsignaswellasolhcrqualities, notch or nose which recdva.lbe thimih a win giatfai '
Ten years elapsed after the taking out of the pstenl before impulse— is as much an object ol^ is that ihwiglMk'
the first barltii pand was beard In public [Jinuiiy iSfl* at St of consideration with piano- ™y •* •"" P""™ J
James's Hall). Tbe metal frame, hotted in the usual manner makers now as H has been smce ^L, J^^^'^T^W
to thebollom framing, is of fine cast steel entirely free from any Sebastian Etatd began those ^,^^ le^cae M the Us
Uwuvcnrlursortcnjls, bcingiastfidtuiDcduproundibcedgea experiments in iSoS which ended repeawL
iiganacliedBthiMl
PIANOFORTE
«ac^
pemtnt"
■clkm. The pHacipte of
t thai
of Won
um ptttoted for upright
gtntrj.
But JOMph Henry Cuy
"83)
> simple mntrivuKe for
, neglecwd it t
eddve
by Dlh.
n, which hu only been
■dsof
he paten
office, while the inventor
li. B
t the utiJity of the iavention bu
in the «tio« of upright
old Eugliih gnnd mction,
liib the
Erud «tion P"P" "jd
Etitd,
of Ule
I gre»t chinge in the fn
: vhe pliyera. Il is true Ihit the genius ol Beet-
he sense u weU u the inI(Uect tbehighcit pleuure,
lions la Cnma'tSluJiei, as pceseived by Sthicdler,
Be louch of the cUvichoid -player and the student
lich's Eitiy on Clatuhurd-Pla^Hi, ai well a* Ibe
onnected by metal
SiEC^'"^'iOT
j'ed ^^harf "• K
573
vcntor of a technique 10 original, and at the time (f.
eitTurdtnary, as Chopin's, sat at the piano with hi> clbowi
immovable, using, foe fleiibilily, neitber nist not aim. With
Chiqiin, to play loudly was anathema. The modem free Hyte
of playing oHoa from Cumy — whom Beethoven despised as
having no legato (BinduHi) — through Lint to the Rubintteins
and to the splendidly equipped pofonnen of our time, to
whom the pedal has become indiqiensable for caotabile and
The most expert peiloraen are now rivalled technically by
piano-playera— the Angtiui, Pianola, Apollo, Ced- ...^.
lian, and other varieties o( the aame idea. The use ^JJ^
of the perforated roll acts by means of the ingenioua
and indeed faultlen application of pneumatic leverage to the
ordinary piano, doing duty for the pianist's fingen; and It a
made possible to ptay loader or soliei, faster or shiwer. by '
personal and indispensable for aympalhy ai
tne singer's vokx or violinist's bow. SiUl, to a violinist, it i*
a bcnehl to have a coirect coadjutor in a Beethoven or Brahms
sona1« with one of these handy companions, just as it is to a
linger to have always at comnumd tbe aixompanimentB to his
or ber repertory. The Apollo baa tbe addition of a useful
transposing apparatus — an aid, however, that, tbotigb often
tried, has never yet been adopted; it is possibly too disturbing
lo the musician's ear. The mechanical tuning-pin is an analo-
gous expciiment wbich comes regularly under notice as the years
go by, to be ai peisisiently rejected, Tbe most practical of
these tuning inventions was the Alibert, shown io the Invention!
Eshibition, 1885. Here, pressure upon the string above the
wresl'plank bridge modified their tension alter a 6rst rou^
adjuslmeni to pitch bad been effected.
The perfonted muslc-sbeet, a mechanbni common (o ptano-
playin^ altachiiienn u well u leK.playing pi
■narreiKhpi-— ■" - ■■■-—-■■'
A United Sute* pateni
IDrc I
1 lU] tiy M. Fwii
■H a^ hMlcnts had been h
{No. J4™, l»9j)rThe u
the Brit lA paieni oBa by I
fulmim bar. finger leven,
is contained In a portable caUoel
riHivinintlv nunnl absut a BH "
1 iSrouid 1901 a total
>rd HolUngwanh White.°of Merideo^
,.^., ~.S.A. There is a pqeumatlc cheat,
bcilowa and pedals. Tlie whole apparatus
—" — ' -wunled upon cailan, so as to be
— The finger leveia or k^ stritai
portion of the manual keyi or clavier
,. _ , K piano-player comprlaa a porubk
cabipet pcovidcd with bellowa and opnating pedals, a pqeuinatk;
icUatuig meehaniini, a tncker adjimed for the use o( a eerfoiated
music-sheet, a poeunuk motor and wJnding-roU raechaBiim to
pnpel the muslc-shect. and a series d finger leven ofierated by the
pneamalic mechanism, so projecting as 10 overhuig tbe piano
keyboard and pby upon it, with rockers or leveis for depressing
the piano pedals. Subsequently [he epparalUB was made capable
of accelerating or retanling tbe tempo at the will of tbe
Dperaiar. A roll of music, i> in. wide and varying in length acGced-
falIow(diniB9>, theApiriloiyn. Thi
While tki
difficult lee
lEinnl roU by a simple^ atop.
ceolallth
the Vit^il P ,
m Kincaid Vireii, an Amerv
cepllvlty (brough rhe ear, is delayed until the playet\ hand Is
the very Kreatest pianists li brouRhl forward as approving of
the tyncm; in the worii. for instance, ol Vladimir de Pachmann,
whose technique was formed long before tbe Virgil Clavier came
ID Europe. Bearing In mind tut the minimum weight of the
oances it Is hardly likely that these skilled perlormerB use this
dumb keyboard with the graduated weight advised for advancing
PIANOSA PIATTI
of Mitdio* (BU), from whidi il ii jj m. S.W. Pop. {iMi),
774. A> ill Dime Indkila, il li quiLc lUt, lod tbe hrghtM
point is onJy q; ft. ibove Ka-lcveL III ira i> fi sq. m. Aufin-
tU) biniihcd to it his gnndun, AgiippI Poitumui. ud khh
nuni o[ bithi ncBi the harbour itill bMr hii nime. It cluii(n]
faandi more than ttact in the wan bctwnn Pita and Gowa in
of FHombinO) but waa depopulated in 1553 by the TurUsh fleet,
and only resettled at the beginning of the iglh century^ Im
1S57 a penal colony nu established heie.
PIARISTS, tbe popular name of i Catholic cducaliout onlct..
the " clerici regulares schoianim ^arwm,- the Pauline CoBgieja ^
tion of the Molher of God, founded by JoKpl] Cilasaiua (Joie ^
phus* Maire Dei) at Rome in the beginning of Ihe i7ih ceniury-
Calasinia, a native of Cafiuni in the pio\ince of Hue«a i .^
Aragon, waa bora on September 11, ijjfi, studied at LeridaaikM
AliJi, and after his ordination lo Ihe priesthood removed ».^
Rome C'S*'). Here he organiied, in 1607, a brotherhood "lii^j
oltimateiy, in 1617, became an independent CoBgntllic^^
numbering al that time fifteen priests, onder Calasania at ih«j.'
head. To the three usual vows they added a lounh, that ^
devotion lo the gratuitous instruction of youth. In l6ij tj^
Congregation received 1 new conslilulion from Cregoiy Xc,
and hid all the privileges of the mtndicanl orders conteriM
upon it, Calasania being retognited a* gcnenl. In 164] Itc
the same cause the Cangrrgaiion was deprived of its privi)^
by Innocent X. in 1646. Caliunu, who died on AuguR 11,
1648, waa beatified in r74S, and canoniied in i;67- lit
privileges of the Congregation were successively reitond il
166a. 1669 and i6qK. The Filtistl. who are not numnm, I
are found chielly in lialy, Spain, the West Indies. Cermur.
and esjiecially in Austria-Hungary. Before Ihe CDiineofnidj J
was regulated by Ihe state, a Piarist eslabliihmenl coatuniil
nine classes: reading, vniing, elemenlary mathemiiics, uMi
poTva or Rudimentorumt schola Frfncipiorum, GiaoiBulio.
SynlBiis, Humamtas or Foeus, Rhclorica. The gentnl provM
of the order is chosen by the general chapter, and with a jtHnI
ptocuraloi and four atsistanlt rctides at Rone. Tlic mnnbni
■re divided into professors, novices, and lay bretbnn. Tidr
dress is very umilar 10 Ihal of the Jesuits; Ibeif mono " U
majus [Helatis incremenlunil"
For Calaanta, lee Timon-David. Vii it Si Jttrft Uunr'
(Marwilles. 1SB4): oa Ihe Piiriiu, P. Helyot. Htu. iit aim nA-
titiail (ITISl, IV, ISli J. A. SeylFert. Ordauticrln irr FtailH
IHaDe, niA: J. Schaller, OAatm Hbtr iit Ordnnfiiit,,, ^f Ft-
cl'iintcl iasi^ur'nn' "■'•'■'
In Hbti d
■ t. 0 _. .
ler, in Keri
SqS). vol. il
RK7RA (Peatea), the capital of the <!
Runjnia, situated on Ihe left bink of the river Bisiriiii,-w
it cull a way through the Carpalhian foolhills. Pop. {if»'-
I7.3<>|. A branch railway passes through tfie town, lud <'
Ilacau mccu the main line from Ctemowiti in Bulewini 1°
Galatz. The church of St John's (or the Piince'i) moniiioy
WIS founded in 140; by Stephen the Great. There aresaa-nuU*
wine and limber. Xeainlzu is one of the most densely Idhu^
regions in Moldavia. Lumber tafia are fioaicd do«a the t^
tritca to the Scrclh, and so on to Galili. Thett are uttnl
tDooasteries in the neighbourhood.
PIATn, CARLO ALFREDO (iSiI-iooi), Italian violiiiRllisl.
the son of a violiiiisl, and became a pupil at the coniirviiow
of Milan. From 1S38 onwards he journeyed over Eimi''
playing with citraordinary success in all the impoctul
cilies of the continent. In 1S44 Ik appeared befOie Ibt
London public al a Philharmonic Concert; and in !>!«>«
the foundalinn of the Popular CoDcerli, he took V <>'
woik with which he wis nwU intimately coumcIhI **
thirty-nine seasons, retaining until 1807 the poft d W
viutoncello at these famous cbambel concerts, dnii^ Ihe bllB
PIAUHY— PICA
575
:h series. His purely classical style, his wide musical
s, and his general culture and charm, would have
im a high position even without his marvellously
xhnical skill. In 1894 the fiftieth anniversary of his
irance in London was celebrated by a reception given
of him and his lifelong friend Joachim. He retired
ic life, owing to a severe illness, in 1897, and until his
Bergamo on the xpth of July 1901 divided his lime
lis native town and Cadenabbia. As a composer he
& wide popularity with some graceful and popular
did excellent work as an editor; and he was an
ic collector and musical antiquary.
f, or PiAUHi, a north-eastern state of Brazil, bounded
. by MaranhSo, £. by Cear&, Pemambuco and Bahia,
Bahia. It has a few miles of Atlantic coast-line on
id the Rio Pamahyba forms the boundary line with
• throughout its entire length. Area, 1x6,523 sq. m.;
*). 354,328. Part of the state on the Atlantic coast and
lower Paniahyba is low, swampy and malarial. South
; country rises gradually to a high plateau with open
This plateau region is watered by numerous tributaries
nahyba, chief of which are the Urussuhy, the Canind6
ibutary the Piauhy, the Gurgueia and its tributary
im, which drains the large inland lake of Pamagu&,
., and the Poty, which has its source in the state of
lie Pamahyba is navigable for boats of 3 ft. draught up
ifork, a few miles above the mouth of the Gurgueia,
be made navigable up to the mouth of the Balsas.
Le is hot and humid in the lowlands and along the lower
L, but in the uplands it is dry with high sun tempera-
cool nights. The principal industry is stock-raising,
es from the first settlement in 1674 by Domingos
afrcnse, who established here a large number of cattle
i secondary industry is the raising of goats, which are
and neglect and a scanty food supply. Sheep have
;en raised in Piauhy, but there is no market for mutton
wool is not utilized. The agricultural products are
gar and tobacco. Of food-stuflfs the people do not
nough for their own consumption. Forest products
bber, camauba wax and dycwoods. The exports in-
es, skins, rubber, wax, tobacco and cotton. The
rherezina, on the right bank of the Pamahyba, 250 m.
nahyba (town), with which it is connected by a h'ne of
5ht river boats. The town dales from 1852, is attrac-
ated, and is regularly laid out with broad, straight
>ssing each other at right angles. The population
\nicipio in 1890 was 31,523, which includes a large
ict. Other towns, with their populations in 1890,
(19,858), founded in 17 18 under the name of Moxa;
(15^525); Valen^a (17,693); and Campo Maior (12425),
given of population being those of the large districts
'5) in which the towns are situated.
, properly an open square or place in an Italian town
w, from Lat. plaUa, broad space, Gr. irXArw, broad),
arcs were usually surrounded with a colonnade or
d thus the word has been loosely applied to a covered
-cade along the front of a building, and in America,
inda of a house.
ARMERINA, a city of Sicily, in the province of
la, 39 m. by road E.S.E. from that town, and the
nee S. of the railway station of Assoro-Valguamera,
of Catania, situated 2360 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
,119. It has a 15th-century cathedral, with a fine
and some of the houses show Norman or Gothic
e. The foundation of the town dates from the nth
id the dialect is Lombard,
ceri in L'Arte (1906), 14.
GIUSEPPE (i 746-1826), Italian astronomer, was
mte, in the Valtellina, on the i6th of July 1746. He
le Theatine Order in 1764, accepted the chair of
c% in the academy of Palermo in 1780, and persuaded
ir, Prince C^ramanico, to build an observatory there.
During a visit to England in 1788 he procured from Jesse
Ramsden a five-foot altazimuth, with which he collected at
Palermo, 1792-18x3, the materials for two admirable star-
catalogues, published in 1803 and 1814 respectively. While
engaged on this work he discovered, on the ist of January i8ox,
the first asteroid or minor planet, to which he gave the name of
Ceres, the tutelary deity of Sicily. He died at Naples on the
22nd of July 1826.
See B. E. Maineri, VAstronomo Ciusep^ Piaxn (Milan, 1871);
R. Wolf, Bio^aphien^ Bd. iv. p. 2^^\ MonaUkhe Corresponamz
(1810; portrait), xxi. 46; A sir. Jakrhuck, liv. 318; Bulletin des
scUnces (1826), vi. 339: Edin. Journal of Science (1827), vi. 193;
Memoirs Roy. Astr. Soc. iii. 119; R. Grant, Hist. Pnys. Aslroncmyt
pp. 238. 510. 549.
PIBRAC, GUY DU FAUR, Seignextr de (1529-X584),
French jurist and poet, was bora at Toulouse, of an old family
of the magistracy. He studied law there with Jacques Cujas, and
afterwards at Padua. In 1548 he was admitted to the bar at
Toulouse, at once took high rank, and rose to be juge-mage,
an office in Languedodan cities about equal to that of pr£vdl.
He was selected in 1562 as one of the three representatives of
the king of France at the council of Trent. In X565 he became
general advocate to the parlement of Paris, and extended the
renaissance in jurisprudence which was transforming French
justice. In 1573 he was sent by Charles IX. to accompany as
chancellor his brother Henry (afterwards Henry III.) to Poland,
of which country Henry had been elected king. Pibrac's fiuent
Latin won much applause from the Poles, but his second visit
to Poland in 1575, when sent back by Henry III. to try to save
the Crown he had deserted, was not so successful. Then he was
employed in negotiations with the so-called politiqueSt and he
managed to keep them quiet for a while. In 1 578 he became the
chancellor of Marguerite of France, queen of Navarre. Although
he was fifty, her beauty and inteUectual gifts led him to aspire
to win her affection; but he was rejected with disdain. He died
in 1584. His oratorical style was too pedantic, but quotations
from the classics had a fresher meaning in his day. He was
the friend of Ronsard, de Thou and L'H6pital, and left, among
other literary remains, elegant and sententious quatraines,
PIBROCH, a form of music as played by the bagpipe. The
word is derived from the Gaelic piobaireachd, the art of the
bagpiper. This special form of bagpipe music, consisting of
a series of variations founded on a theme, was called the urlar.
These variations are generally of a martial or warlike character
and include dirges and marches (see Bagpipe).
PICA, the name of the European representative of a group
of diminutive rodent mammals, also known as tailless hares,
mouse-hares, or piping hares, constituting the family Ocholonidae
with the single genus Ockolona. From the more typical hares
and rabbits they differ by the short and rounded ears, the absence
of a tail, and the relatively shorter hind-limbs, as well as by
complete collar-bones. The soles of the feet are hairy, and the
fur is usually soft and thick; while in some cases the' last upper
molar is absent. Picas are inhabitants of cold and desert
regions. They dwell either in the chinks between rocks, or in
burrows, although one Himalayan species frequents pine-forests.
They are very active, and most of the species utter a piping or
whistling cry. They store up a supply of grass for winter use;
in Siberia it is stacked in small heaps. The Himalayan Ockolona
roylei may be seen in the daytime, but most kinds are nocturnal.
The Siberian species, O. alpina, ranges into eastern Europe, but
Central Asia is the headquarters, although a few species range
into Arctic America and the Rocky Mountains. In size picas
may be compared to guinea-pigs. TUl of late years the group
has been generally known by the name of Lagomys. There are
several extinct genera.
See Rodentia; also T. L. Bouhote, "The Mouse-hares of the
genus Ockolona" Proc. ^ool. Soc. (London, 1905). (R. L.*)
PICA, the Latin name of a genus of oscine passerine birds,
the magpies. The Latin word, by interchange of initial p and
k, is possibly the Gr. idaaa (see Magpie), and probably the same
word as picus, the woodpecker (q.v.). Another derivation would
connea both pica and pictts vvVii \3» xwiX. \^ <A. Vwv«*%Na
576
PICARD— PICARESQUE NOVEL
paint, from the parti-coloured appearance of the bird. It is
this " pied ** or black and white look of the page that probably
gave the name of pica, ** pie " or " pye/' to the ordinal printed
in black-letter (see Pie)» and thence to a size of type in printing
coming next to " English " (see Typography). The Gr. dffsa
and Lat. pica were used of a perverted craving for uxmatural
foods; and the word has been adopted in this sense in modem
medical terminology.
PICARD, LOUIS JOSEPH ERNEST (xSaz-zS;;), French
politician, was bom in Paris on the 24th of December 1821.
After taking his doctorate in law in 1846 he joined the Parisian
bar. Elected to the corps I6gislatif in 1858, he joined the group of
£mile Ollivier. But as Ollivier approximated to the government
standpoint, Picard, one of the members of the group known as
Lcs Cinq, veered more to the left. He founded in z868 a weekly
democratic journal, L*£lecleur libre, and in 2869 was elect^
both for H6rault and Paris, electing to sit for the former.
From the 4th of September 1870 he held the portfolio of*finance
in the government of National Defence. In January 1871 he
accompanied Jules Favre to Versailles to arrange the capitula-
tion of Paris, and in the next month he became minister of the
interior in Thiers's cabinet. Attacked both by the Monarchist
and the Republican press, he resigned in May. Later in the year
he was sent as ambassador to Brussels, where he remained for
two years. On his return to Paris he resumed his seat in the
Left centre, and in 1875 became life senator. He died in Paris
on the 13th of May 1877.
PICARDT {La Picardie), one of the old provinces of France,
bounded on the N. by Hainaut and Artois, on the E. by Cham-
pagne, on the S. by the lie de France, and on the W. by Nor-
mandy and the English ChanneL Its maritime frontier ran
from the mouth of the Aa to the difs of Caux, and it included
the whole of the basin of the Sonmie and paxt of that of the
Otse. The chief towns of Picardy were Amiens, Boulogne,
Abbeville, Laon, Soissons, Montreuil, Pfronne, Beauvais,
Montdidier, St Quentin and Noyon. Its principal rivers were
the Somme and the Oise. Picardy formed part of the arch-
diocese of Reims, and its bishoprics were Amiens, Beauvais,
Senlis, Soissons, Noyon and Laon. In 1789 the province of
Picardy was covered by the three bishoprics of Amiens, Noyon
and Boulogne. It was one of the provinces of the five great
fermes, districts subject to the tariff of 1664, and in judicial
matters was under the authority of the parlement of Paris.
Its area now forms the department of the Somme and parts
of the departments of Pas de Calais, Aisne and Oise.
The name of Picardy does not appear imtil the zjth century,
but was employed by Matthew Paris and was in general use in
the X4th century. In the zjth century the province was
divided into the two bailliages of Amiens and Vermandois, but
its regular organization as part of the kingdom of France only
dates from the beginning of the i6th century. At this time it was
divided into north and south Picardy. North Picardy, or Picardy
proper, formed one of the great military governorships of the
kingdom, while south Picardy was included in the lie de France.
North Picardy was divided into upper and lower Picardy, the
former being the interior part of the province and the latter the
district along the coast. Upper Picardy comprised the districts
of Ami£nois, Santcrre, Vermandois and Thi£rache, and lower
Picardy those of Ponthieu, Vimeu, Boulonnais and Calaisis,
or the Pays reconquis; south Picardy included the districts of
Beauvaisis, Laonnais and Soissonais.
Under the Romans Picardy was part of Bdgica secunda;
it was inhabited by the Morini, the Ambiani, the Veromandui,
the BcUovad and the Suessiones, whose luroes still appear in
Amiens, Vermandois, Beauvais and Soissons. The Romans
intersected the district with roads and built several oistra to
defend the valley of the Somme. In the 3rd century Christianity
was preached here, and St Quentin and others were martyred.
A little later abbeys were founded, among them Corbie, St
Val6ry and St Riquier. Early in the sth century Picardy
became the centre of Merovingian France, for, as the historian
Micbclet says, "rhiitchc dc Tantique France semble entaasie
en Picardie." Clovis had his first capital at Soims, Ckife'
magne had his at Noyon, and Laon was the capital and the
refuge of the later and feebler Carolingian sovereigns.
During the later feudal period Picudy was the home of tk
counts of Vermandois, of Clermont and of Ponthieu, the ijRd
Coucy and others. The neighbouring dukes of Buxgundtjr cut
covetous eyes upon the i»ovince; in 1435, by the fainons tietty
of Arras, the royal towns and lands in the valley of the Soomo
were ceded by King Charles VIL to Burgundy. However, tto
the death of Charl^ the Bold in 1477 Picardy was finally oaited
with the crown of France. The province was eariy an indoitrial
district. Flemish immigrants brought with them the lucntive
trade of weaving cloth, and the Somme towns were soon oonpct'
ing with (hose of Flanders. The Picard towns were noted te
their love of independence, which often brou^t them into
collision with the kings of France during the xjth oentuiy. At
a later time the province received a number of Spanish imaa-
grants. In the middle ages the Picards formed one of tbe kw
" nations " at the university of Paris. Picardy has a higb phce
as a home of Gothic art, this being testified to by thesqwb
cathedrals at Amiens and Noyon, while within its bonkn ii
the famous chAteau of Coucy.
Picardy has a literature of its own, which was rich and popohr
in the X2th century. It suffered greatly from the nvaga cf
the Normans, and later during the Hundred Years' War ui
the wars between France and Spain. Within it are the faaM
fields of Crecy, Agincourt and St Quentin, while it abo iadoda
places of conference like Guinea, Amiens and Picquigny. Tk
Picard had a high reputation as a soldier, being sometimes aSd
the " Gascon of the North," and in 1558 Henry II. crested tk
rigimaU de Picardie. Many anthropological remains have bets
found in the Somme valley.
See Labourt, Essai star rerigitu des vHUs dt Picardit
1&40): Grenier, Introduction d Vkistoire ghUraU de la
Piaudi* (Amiens, 1856); and H. Canioy, LittiraUm
Picardit^ (1883).
PICARESQUE NOVEL, THE. This spedal form of tk
roman d*aveniures may be defined as the prose autobJogrqihyd
a real or fictitious personage who describes his experiences tsa
sodal parasite, and who satirizes the society which be kai
exi^ited. The picaroon, or rogue type, is represented bf
Encolpos, Ascylto& and Giton in the Satyricpm which traditin
ascribes to Petronius; it persists in Ludan, in the Rtmtm k
Renart, in the fableaux, and in other works popular dnriag tk
middle ages; and it is incarnated in real life by such mea «f
genius as the Archpriest of Hita and Francois Villon. Bet ia
its final form the picaresque novel may be regarded aa a SpaaiA
invention. The word ptcaro is first used, ai^Mtrently, in a ktttf
written by Eugenio de Salazar at Toledo on the 15th of ApA
TS6o; the etymology which derives picaro from picar (to pkk q>)
is tmsatisfactory' to philologists, but it suggests the iMcarooa^
chief business in life. In the Tesoro de la Ungua catUBtnt
(Madrid, x6ix) Sebastian Covarrubias y Orazco, the best cf
Spanish lexicographers, describes a pfcaro as a man of boy
character engaged in menial work and — ^by extensi<m— a laacal
who attains his ends by skilful dissimulation; and the caifidi
application of the expression picaro to a character in fictioi
occurs in Mateo Alemin's Guandn de Alfaracke, the first pan d
which was published in 1599. But a genuine mofela piuratt
existed in Spain before the word ptcaro became genen^y
current.
The earliest specimen of the kind is La Vida de LauriBi k
Tormes y de susfortunas y adpersidades, an anonymous tak Ioa|
attributed, on insufficient grounds, to Diego Hurtado de Mendoa
(q.v.) . The authorship of this brilliant book and the draimataaoa
of its publication are obscure; however, it was certainly isued
not later than 1554, and was thrice reprinted before 15591 vheait
was placed on the Index. Imitations of so successful a ttorj
were inevitable, and so early as 1555 there appeared at Antverp
La Stgunda parte de Lazaritlo de Tormes, an anonymous aeqcel
which completely mi^nterpreted the irreverent wit dt the origiBiL
The first part had been prohibited because of its attacks on tk
PICARESQUE NOVEL
577
r; in the teoond part the hero is presented as a ttevout youth
iBifon&ed into a tunny at the intercession of the Virgin Mary,
» thus saved him from death; after many extravagant experi-
MS in this form he is restored to human shape, and proposes
Icadi the submarine language at the university of Salamanca.
UiduU performance naturally failed to please and, meanwhile,
i^y surreptitious copies of the first part were introduced into
^; the Inquisition finally gave up the attempt to suppress it,
Id in IS73 an expurgated edition was authorized. With this
•tHated version the Spanish public was forced to be content
mag the remaining fifteen years of Philip II. 's reign. Upon
Kdetth of this sombre monarch sodety relaxed its hypocritical
Me of austerity, and in 1599 Mateo Alem&n(f.v.) publbhed the
Hmera parU dt CiamAn de Aljaracke, It is modelled upon
aarWt de TorwteSf being the autobiography of the son <Mf a
Maed Genoese money-lender; but the writer indulges in a
idious series of morallzings. This contrasts sharply with the
conic cynicism of LauriUo de Tormes\ but Giomdii de Atfaracke
•rklier in invention, in variety of episode and in the presentation
Icksrscter. Its extraordinary popularity tempted a Valencian
tvyer named Juan Jos^ Martf to publish a Segunda parte de la
'^e id pfcaro Cmmdn de Alfarache (1603) under the pseudonym
[ Mateo Lujin de Sayavedra. Though partly plagiarised from
it nunuscript of the genuine second part to which Martf had
Mnehow obtained access, the continuation was coldly received;
1 1604 Alemin brought out the true continuation, and revenged
imelf by introducing into the narrative a brother of Martf — a
Aqr picaroon of the lowest morality who ultimately commits
idde in disgust at his own turpitude. In LoMariUo de Tonnes^
iditfll more in Cutmdm de Aifarache, it is difficult to distinguish
itween the invented episodes and the personal reminiscences
tbe authors. The Viage entretenido ( 1 6oj) of Agustf n de Rojas
a realistic account of the writer's experiences as a strolling
lor and playwright, and, apart from its considerable literary
arits, it is an invaluable contribution to the history of the
antiJi stage as well as a graphic record of contemporary low
r; the chief character in the book is called the cabailero del
Ea|r», an expression which recurs in Spanish b'terature as the
iivalent of a chevalier d'industrie.
rhe next in chronological order of the Spanish picaresque tales
La Ptcara Justina (1605), the history of a woman picaroon,
ich it has long been customary to ascribe to Andres Pirez, a
minican monk; there is, however, no good reason to suppose
1 the name of Frandsco L6pez de Cbeda on the title-page is a
tidonym. The Picara Justina has wrongly acquired a
otation for indecency; its real defects are an affected diction
I a want of originality. The writer frankly admits that he has
jen material from the Cdestinat from LoMoriUo de TormeSt
m Guevara, Timoneda and Alemin, and he boastfully asserts
tt '* there is nothing good in ballad, play or Spanish poet,
t that its quintessence is given here." Unluckily he has not
; talent to utilize these stolen goods. The Picara Justina was
ice reprinted during the seventeenth century; this is the only
MS for the untenable theory that it is the source of the cultera-
tmo which reaches its climax in Gracian's treatises. The
Mra Justina h now read solely by philologists in quest of verbal
xntridties. Gin6s de Pasamonte, one of the secondary figures
Ihm Quixote (1605-1615), is a singularly vivid sketch of the
anish rogue, and in the comedy entitled Pedro de Urdemalas
Tvantes again presents a brilliant panorama of picaresque
t&tence. He returns to the subject in Rinconete y Cortadillo
d in the Cdoiguio de los perros, two of the best stories in the
ndas ejemplares (1613). The attraction of picaresque life
IS felt by pious and learned critics, and expounded in print,
the Viage del mundo (1614) the zealous missionary Pedro de
nrallos interpolates amusing tales of what befell him in the
ms of Andalusia before he fled from justice to America, where
lived as a sinful soldier till his spiritual conversion was
complished. Crist6bal Su&rez de Figueroa, a caustic critic
his contemporaries and an arbiter of taste, did not think it
Death his dignity to show a disconcerting acquaintance with
t ways of professional rogues, and in El Pasagero (1617) he
fills in the sketch of the knavish inn-keeper already outlined by
Cervantes in Don Quixote. Evidence of the widely diffused taste
for picaresque literature is found in Enrlqua de Castro (161 7), an
interminable story written in Spanish by a Frenchman named
Francois Loubayssin de Lamarca, who brought out his book at
Paris; two years previously Loubayssin had introduced some
clever but risky picaresque episodes in his EngaHos deste siglo y
kistoria sucedida en nuestros tiempos. But his attempt to (ill a
larger canvas is a complete failure.
The roving instinct of Vicente Martfnez Espinel (9.9.) had led
him into strange and dangerous company before and after his
ordination as a priest, and a great part of his Relaciones de la
vida dd escudero Marcos de Obregfin (1618) is manifestly the
confession of one who has regretfully outlived his pleasant vices.
The baffling compound of fact with fiction and the ludd style
of which Espinel was a master would suffice to win for Marcos de
Ohregfin a permanent place in the history of Spanish literature;
the fact that it was largely utUized by Le Sage in CU Bias has
won for it a place in the history of comparative literature.
Within five months of its publication at Madrid a fragmentary
French version by the Sieur d'Audiguier was issued at Paris, and
at Paris also there appeared a Spanish picaresque story entitled
La Desordenada codicia de los bienes ajenos (1619), ascribed con-
jecturally to a certain Dr Carlos Carda, who reports his conver-
sation with a garrulous gaol-bird, and appends a glossary of slang
terms used by the confraternity of thieves; he was not, however,
the first worker in this field, for a key to their gross jargon had
been given ten years previously by Juan Hidalgo in his Romances
de germania (1609), a series of gipsy ballads. Every kind of
picaroon is portrayed with intelligent sympathy by Alonso
Jer6nimo de Salas Barbadillo, who is always described as a picar-
esque novelist; yet he so constantly neglects the recognized
conventions of the Spanish school that his right to the title is
disputable. Thus in La Hija de Cdestina ( 161 2) he abandons the
autobiographical form, in El Subtil cordoUs Pedro de Urdemalas
(1620) he alternates between dialogue and verse, and in El Necio
Hen afortunado (1621) the chief character is rather a canning
ddt than a successful scoimdrel. The pretence of warning new-
comers against the inntimerable occasions of sin In the capital
is solemnly kept up by Antonio Lif^n y Vcrdugo in his Cuia y
avisos deforasteros que tienen d la corte (1620), but in most of his
tales there is more entertainment than decorum.
The profession of a serious moral purpose on the part of many
picaresque writers is often a transparent excuse for the intro-
duction of unsavoury incident. There is, however, no ground
for doubting the sincerity of the physician Jer6nimo de AlcalA
Yaftez y Ribera, who at one time thought of taking holy orders,
and studied theology under St John of the Cross. An unusual
gravity of intention is visible in Alonso^ moto de muchos amos
(1624-1626), in which the repentant ptcaro Alonso, now a lay-
brother, tells the story of his past life to the superior of the
monastery in which he hks taken refuge. It abounds with
pointed anecdotes and with curious information concerning the
Spanish gipsies, and this last characteristic explains George
Borrow's hyperbolical praise of the work as competing with
Don Quixote in grave humour, and as unequalled " for knowledge
of the human mind and acute observation."
At about this time there lived in Spain an ex-nun named
Catalina de Erauso, who fled from her convent, dressed herself
in men's clothes, enlisted, was promoted ensign, and saw more of
life than any other nun in history. Broadsides relating the story
of this picaresque amazon were drculated during her lifetime,
and the details of her adventures arrested the attention of De
Quincey, who would seem to have read them in a Spanish
original which has been admirably translated since then by the
French poet ]oU Maria de Heredia. The Spanish original, in
Its existing form, was issued no earlier than 1829 by Joaqufn
Maria de Ferrer, whose character is not a satisfactory guarantee
of the work's authenticity; but its interest is unquestionable.
No such suspidon attaches to the Vida of Alonso dc Contreras,
first published in 1899; this out-at-elbows soldier faithfully
records how he became a knight of the Order o( Sa:i\uvs^«V«i'« V^
578
PICARESQUE NOVEL
broke all the Commandments, how he found himself stranded in
Madrid, how his fine air captivated Lope de Vega, who housed
him for eight months and dedicated to him a play entitled Rey sin
reino, and how the ex-captain ended by " resolving to retire to a
lonely spot and there servb God as a hermit." Every convention
of the picaresque novel is faithfully observed, and the incidents
arc no doubt substantially true, though Contreras, like most
converts, judges his own past with unnecessary harshness. This
subtle form of vanity also pervades the Comentarios de d desen-
gaiUido de si mismo of Diego duque de Estrada, a rakish soldier
and inferior dramatist whose autobiography (begun in 1614 and
continued at intervals during many years) was not printed till
i860. A far higher order of talent distinguishes the Capitulaci-
ones de la vida de la corle y oficios entretenidos in ella, a bitterly
unsparing review of picaresque b'fe written by the great satirbt
Francisco Gomez de Qucvedo y Villegas (q.v.). These thumbnail
sketches were the preparatory studies worked up into the more
elaborate Vida del buscdn Don Pabios (1626), the cleverest and
most revolting book of its class. There is no attempt to scare'
the wicked by means of awful examples; the moral lesson is con-
temptuously throv/n aside; the veil of romance is rent in twain,
and the ptcaro — the nephew of the public executioner — a revealed
as he is, gloating in cruelly and revelling in the conscious enjoy-
ment of crime. But though Quevedo detests mankind, his
morose vision of existence rarely degenerates into caricature.
In his repugnant, misanthropic masterpiece the sordid genius
of the Spanish picaroon finds absolute expression. Nothing
further remained to be done in the matter of realism; henceforth
the taste for picaresque novels grew less keen, and later writers
unconsciously began to humanize their personages.
The Varia forluna del soldado Plndaro (1626) added nothing
to the established reputation of Gonzalo Cfspedes y Meneses.
A clever anonymous slory, Don Raimundo el entretenido (1627),
missed fire, even l hough it was attributed to Quevedo; yet the
author, Diego Tovar y Valderrama, compiled a sprightly diary
of the events which make up a picaroon's crowded day, and failed
solely because the interest in rogues was waning. Other writers
of undoubted gifts were slow to see that the fashion had changed.
Alonso de Castillo Solorzano {q.v.) tempted the public with three
picaresque stories published in quick succession: La NlAa de los
embustes, Teresa dc Manzanares (1634), the Avenlurasdel Bachiller
Trapaza (1637) and a sequel to the latter entitled La CarduAa de
Sevilla (1642). Clever as Castillo Sol6rzano's stories are, their
tricky heroes and heroines were no longer welcomed with the old
enthusiasm in Spain; the Bachiller Trapaxa was destined to be
continued by Mateo da Silva Cabral in Portugal and to be ex-
ploited by Le Sage in France, and to these two accidents it owes
its survival. Le Sage likewise utilized in CU Bias episodes taken
from El Siglo pilagdrico (1644), the work of Antonio Enrfquez
G6mez (q.v.); but most of El Siglo pilagdrico is in verse, and as it
was published at Paris by an exiled Portuguese Jew, its circu-
lation in Spain must have been limited. The normal primitive
rogue returns to the scene in La Vida y kcckos de Estclanillo
Conzdlet (1646), which is no doubt the genuine autobiography that
it purports to be. If he is still occasionally read by students he
owes it to the fact that Le Sage drew upon him in the Hisioire
d' Estevamlle Gonzdles. By the general public he is completely
forgotten, and the same may be said of many subsequent Spanish
writers who adopted the picaresque formula. The Buscdn is the
last great book of its kind.
Meanwhile, the rogue had forced his way into other European
literatures. The Antwerp continuation (isss) of LoMarillo de
Tormes brought the original to the notice of northern readers,
and this first part was translated into French by Jean Saugrain
in 1561. A Dutch version was issued anonymously in 1579, and
it seems extremely likely that the book had been translated into
English before this date. This follows from a manuscript note
written by Gabriel Harvey in a copy of the Howlcglass given him
by Edmund Spenser; Harvey here mentions that he had received
the Horvlcglass, Skoggin, Skclton and Lazarillo from Spenser on
the 2olh of December 1378. The earliest known edition of
David Rowland's version of Lazarillo dc Tormes is dated 1586,
but as a licence to print a translation of this tale was frtBtcdtt
the 22nd of July 1568/1569, it is probable that a 1576 cditioi
which appears in the Harleian Catalog^ie really existed.
Numerous reprints (1599. 1639. 1669-1670, 1672, 1677) fo to
prove that LaxariUo de Tormes was very popular, and that
Shakespeare had read it seems to follow from an allusioB in
Much Ado about Nothing (Act. 1 1., scl.): " Now you strike Nkc
the blind man; 't was the boy that stole your meat, and yon wil
beat the post." To Thomas Nash belongs the credit, such asii is,
of being the first to write a picaresque novel in English: Tk
Unfortunate Traveller; or the Lije oj Jack Wilton (1594). Naik
carefully points out that his work b a new experiment, " bdi|
a cleane different veine from other my former courses of writing ";
the only possible Spanish model that he can have bid »as
Lazarillo de Tormes^ but he has nothing of his predecfoor'i
sardonic brevity, and he anticipates later Spanbh writers by bis
emphatic insistence on the pleasures of eating and drinkiag to
repletion. Nash led the way, and a reference to "Sftsoiih
pickaroes " in Middleton's Spanish Cipsie indicates that the
picaroon type had speedily become familiar enough for Loodoi
playgoers to understand the reference. Interest in picareM)ae
literature was kept alive in England by a translation (1622) df a
sequel to LaxariUo de Tormes published at Paris two yean earlier
by Juan de Luna, who came to London to supervise the EagUi
rendering; by James Mabbc*s admirable version (1622) cf
Cuzmdn de Aljarofhe; by The Son of the Rogue or the FoUHe Vi4
(1638), an anonymous translation, done through the FreBcli,ii
La desordenada codicia\ and by another anonymous translatioi
(1657), likewise done through the French, of Quevedo's Bud^
The result of this campaign was The Englisk Rogue descrM it
the Life ofMeriton Latroon, a witty Extravagant ( 1665), by Ridiud
Head -and Francis Kirkman. The authors of ihb farrago mA
on the English nationality of their chief character, and repudiite
the idea that they are in any way indebted to Alenio lad
Quevedo. It is no exaggeration, however, to say that alMtf
all the material in the text is taken from Spanish sources, ud
even the thieves' vocabulary b stolen from John Awdck;^
Fraternitye of Vacabondcs or Thomas Harman's Cateof, «
Warning for Common Cursetors. It is not till Defoe's time thit
the Englbh picaresque novel acquires any real importaaOi
and the picaresque intention informs much of his work tint
contravenes the accepted rules of composition. There ii i
female picaroon in Atoll Flanders, and, as Defoe read Spanid^fe
is conceivable that Moll Flanders was suggested by the Pk&t
Jusiina; but this resemiblance does not mal^e a picaresque iw«d
of Afoll Flanders. The satirical spirit which b lacking in Jfil
Flanders b abundantly present in Colond Jack, which bravdiy
aims at exhibiting " vice and all kinds of wickedness atieoded
with misery." Henceforward the picaroon b naturalized ii
English literature, and is gloriously reincarnated in Fiekfiaf^
Jonathan Wild and in Smollett's Ferdinand, Count Fithm.
The classification of Sterne's Tristram Shandy and Morier's Utgi
Baba as picaresque novels is not strictly accurate, bkf
Pickwick and Oliver Twist and Barry Lyndon, they are raibet
varieties of the peripatetic novel, bdt many incidents in aUfvt
recall the pleasing wiles of the Spanish picaroons.
The Dutch translation of Lazarillo de formes (1579) did art
enable the picaresque novel to strike root in Holland, yet htm
it b derived one of the best Dutch comedies, De Spaea^
Brabander Jorolimo (1616) of Gerbrand Bredero. A Genstf
translation of Cuzmdn de Alfirache was published by AegidiM
Alberitnus in 161 5; both Lazarillo and Rinconete y Cortc&t
were translated by Niclas Ulenhart in 17 16, and in 1627 tkeK
appeared an anonymous version of the Ptcara Justint. Tkt
Spanish tradition was followed by Martin Frewden in a est'
tinuation (1626) of Cuzmdn de Alfarache, but the only origical
picaresque novel of real value in German is Grimmelhaaies^
Simplicissimus. The attempt to acclimatize the picaresque nord
in Italy failed completely. Barezzo Barezzi translated Gttmtt
de Alfarache, Lazarillo de Tormes and the Picara Justim ia \^
1622 and 1624 respectively, and Giovanni Pietro Franco did the
Buscdn into Italian in 1634: but there was no important native
PICAYUNE— PICCINNI 579
IntbpiMDI. The tune miy bt will ol Portugil; for though
in CibnJ'l continutlitn of the Baiiiair Trafaa i> cillnl
kwM rcmukible of FonugucK picamque mDMKO, It ia
i^ioDl that O ftrahitliQ it Ctntatt nmtint In inuuKript.
lie cue wu veiy diflereni in Frante, where piclurei of low
Ik tad alwiiyi found tdmirtn. The fint truilation ol laia.
tilt Tmrnri tppeued. u dreuiy nolcd, it Parii in isAiiIhe
■a InnllBtian of the fint put ol Ciamdii it AlfaratJit «u
Hd there by Cibriel Cbippuii in 1600, ud the dictMoc PICIYOBB. Ihemme in Flotidaind Loui«i»n«ol IheSpiniih
Uipekin deigned loi™n»Ule both p«rti in 1619-1610; ihefiru hilf-rt*!,- Aof « dolkt.ei cenu. »Bd hence uied of Ihe United
notion ol the Kimlai cjcmflara wu pubLiihed at Pua in su,„ j ^tDl piece. The French ticaiUm, from whfch Ihc word
itit by Rowct »nd d Aud.guitr; end French trvulaliou of ,„ .dipled in America, vai an old copper coin of Piedmont.
ITvui it Ohtttn. at La Dtsorinaia ItdUm, of the BmiAi and i„ origin ii doubtful, but i> possibly rebted to the Ililian piaUii,
iiit Picva JuliM yttre pnMfA\B ifiiS, 1611, 16]] and ifijs liule. unaU. In America Ihe worf is used of anything Irifling,
JPKlively. Before tha wnei of iranilationi wu completed p,,,^^ „„^ „ comempliWe.
Quia Sorel recounted in Fnmoit (1611) the comic miibaps ptcCilHlHllY. or Piciuninnv, a word applied originally by
aw befall evU-doen. invoking the common eicuie thai it the oegroe. of the Weal Indies to their babio. It ii adapted
a'laaful to End pkuure at Iheu eipense. Many ol the piher from Span. •ea.f*). unnU, or Pon. fcoBwiM, very unall.
^wm .*. .• <.. — ... *n .<,r.iH ..rt ■■«> r.*n f. .« ^^^^^ adoplcd in '
(otM no small pi ^^^_ „^,„ ... „„„,„„ .„„ „. ^.„. ,„,,
^ho, though fribbia or paupen. "nccuili|o/ln'e«La7i]86-Tw)"TtBiiaIi
utinaoKnaepicirooni. TheleEHiiiiateSpan»hlr.dilioBU Pm^ was the son of a butcher. He be«an his military career
Ubnd more closely «ul with much more abihty by Paul j^ J^e^^ of Bracdo da Monione.^o at th«lS.e .a.
StHiDO in the ftnuaa com,q^ (1651), in which boneplay li waging war againu Penigia on hisown account, and at the death
Mmininl. The framework may have been suggeiled by ^ ^^ ^^^_ shortly followed by that of the lalter'i ion Oddo,
k««(adeRoja.DtQuevedo,bolhofwbommlroduceaitrolling pi^rinino became leader of Braccio's cwirfoMo. After serving
iM[uy. and inch chaiaclets as Llandre, AngtUque de I Eloile ,„, , j^^ ^^^^ „„der the Florentine RepubUc. he went over lo
Od Ragotin might be found la any average »w/<i A-™™^- Filippo Maria Visconli, dule of Milan (1415). in ahoae service
ioinn frankly menlion, Caalillo Sol6nano ■ Ca,ii,*a it S«nlla ,og(,her with Niccoli Fottebraccio he fought in <he wanagainM
a Ut test, and hn PrlcuiUu* mMdi and Lt, Hyptcnlti are [^e [agot of Pope Eugeniua IV.. Venice and Florence. He
anincing proofs of close study of ^n»h picaresque ttonei: dciataithepapallorcesat CastelBolognese (i4M).but another
it PMal-n .HUlUt u taken from Ci-min it -<(/o7«*e. and ^ .^my under Francesco Sfona having ddealed and killed
^ Hy^«Uej IS merely a t«nl]at».n of SJaa Baibadillo-. 5;nebnM:do at rmrdimonte, Pictinino w« left in «le commuid.
B^ it CtUM,<». The K™7- iDTiwu (iMkS( rf Antome »nd in » «rie, ol campalgna against Sforea he seized a numbet
Nwifce IS generally de«.;bed aa a [Mcaresque novel hut this „, diiea in Romagna by treachery. In I4}9 he again fougfclln
■nhti a ne<r defioilion of the adjective; the ii™a« fwfuu Lo^bardy with varying success against Slona, who had now
■*"' -"- ■< ■ •'■'■'• suggested ,n,j^ ^^^ Venetian service. Picrinino then induced the diAe
V Pfcaiesque reading, but it is concerned with the foibles of „£ „;;„ ,„ .^^ ^im lo Umbria, Where he hoped, liki
I L.I. ,i._ „,.,„ ,v,„ ,11(1 Ihc sly de«ce» o( common ^^Kt cc^M ' ■ ' ■ '^^ "
kniddle (las* n
defeated by Sloru at Anghiaii (1440)1 but although a number ol
hi) men were taken priionen they were at once Ubcraled. *■
wa) uaually done in wara waged by soldiers of fortune. Again
the war shifted 10 Lombardy. and Piccinino. having defeated
and surrounded Sforza at Martincngo, demanded of the visconti
the lordship of Piacciua u Ibe price of Sforza's capture. The
duke by way of reply concluded a truce with Slona; but the
latin, who, whOe professing to defend Ibe Papal States, had
established his own power in ibo Marche, aroused the feanol
the pope and the king of Naples, aa weL aa of the visconti, who
, , - - . . , , ,, ,- ,. .- . gave the command of their joint force* 10 Piccinino. Sfona
kkBrelonne^uced a sequel (1J76) lothe B«<dn-a sequel „„ j^ven from the Marche, but deleiled Piccinii
neSpanul
1 picaroon U
vei again
in Ca Blot, where,
■ witha
leUerity almost rarer thai
1 original
genius,.
master of literary
all unearthed frc
™ forgotte
n and
«ang1y.or
thlesi
is^i^
h quarries
. GilBlaaisacrea
tionof
k ruler, su
■ spirit; HI
a Beaumarcbais' Figaro he
.aSf«iard
bora
and humanized in Paria, aiu
] these
■<■ are then
nly 1
J whose 1
rtUlive r
«t> gained at
. Ihe
cost of '
It the old (
iriginal
cmdnHwu
:l:intbei
ntervilb
etweenthei
-eofthefl.
irMcr it St^iitt and the Uariat
r it Ficco
'r^"!
to be wellnigh unreadable. The UDlamcd Spanish
tfnt had become impossible towards Ibe end of the iSlh cen-
■y: in the wlh he wa» deliberately rejected when Thtophile
provide* a Spanish atmosphere; the personages have ,j i(,'j „(„( ^j toolherdiness, wonderfu
preparing for a deiperat
rnly recalled to Milan, his an
he died of grief and of his wo
ne and in weak hcallh. he wa
Spanish inscripiion; the hi
pnks French with a Spanish accent; Vallombreuse pans from hiid'no aim beyond hi
Ic msrqni! with a Spanish formula: " beso i vueitra merced ,,™„ ^j p^^
■ Baas. Qbaliero." CapiUiiiu Frataiit is the last important ^ '±^ wcoan of Piccinino ii comahed in vol ill of E Ricotli's
■bA which continue. Ihc picaresque tradition. The potsibiliiie* sutSbOa compapi^ ii iniiKra (Turin, iS4S) ; C. B. Poigio. Viu
(pitaiesque fiction can never heeihaualed while human nature ii K, Piainint (Venice. IJ?!); "» aim the geneial hiHonnol (he
■ UKhanged. Percda (f.e.) in PtJrt Siiulia (1&B4) touches period.
Ic aid theme with the accent of modernity. It may be that ptCCINNI, XICCOU (1718-1800), Italian musica] tompow.
Mad of one continuous tale, Inlemipled by epiaodical „„ bom „ Bari on the i61h of January 173S. He waa
^itisiDo*,thepicartiquefictionof the future will take the form educated under Leo and Durante, at the Conservalorio
f shaft stories independent of one another; but this would he di SanI' Onofrio in Naples. For this Pictinni had to thaak
MUng mote than a convenient mechanical device, a readjust- ihe intervention of the bishop of Ban. his father, although
■M (< means to ends. j, . , „ „ „ ,„ himself a musician, being opposed 10 his son's fallowing
i'^NT-"Ck:rB;'frFJ?^'^i5^n,'J^'Szr.73f,'te • "••z:'^'"'- "- .'r '"z\ ^ ^ ''"^""■
ffc W«ria /•«««« i«5f«.a (The Hague-New Vort. i903l;W. «" produced m ijss. ahd in 1760 he composed, at Rome,
•■(r. Drr trot JMdnnmua, LueriOg m Ttrmti (Stultgan, the cluf i'mrt of hii early hie, La CutUmi. oina ta Inunw
580
PICXX)LO— PICCX>LOMINI, O.
Figliuola, an opera buffa which attained a European success. Six
years after this Piccinni was invited by Queen Marie Antoinette
to Paris. He had married in 1756 hU pupil Vincenza Sfbilla, a
singer, whom he never allowed after her marriage to appear on the
stage. All his next works were successful; but, unhappily, the
directors of the Grand Op^ra conceived the mad idea of deliber-
ately opposing him to Gluck, by persuading the two composers to
treat the same subject — Ipkiginie en Tauride — simultaneously.
The Parisian public now divided itself into two rival parties,
which, under the names of Gluckists and Picdnnists, carried
on an unworthy and disgraceful war. Gluck's masterly Ipki-
ginU was first produced on the x8th of May 1779. Picdnni's
Iphiginie followed on the 33rd of January 1781, and, though
performed seventeen times, was afterwards consigned to oblivion.
The fury of the rival parties continued unabated, even after
Gluck's departure from Paris in 1780; and an attempt was after-
wards made to inaugurate a new rivalry with Sacchini. Still,
Piccinni hdd a good position, and on the death of Gluck,in 1787,
proposed that a public monument should be erected to his
memory— a suggestion which the Gluckists themsdves decUned
to support. In 1 784 Piccinni was professor at the Royal School of
Music, one of the institutions from which the Conservatoire was
formed in 1794. On the breaking out of the Revolution in 1789
Piccinni returned to Naples, where he was at first well recdved by
King Ferdinand IV.; but the marriage of his daughter to a
French democrat brought him into irretrievable disgrace. For
nine years after this he maintained a precarious existence in
Vem'ce, Naples and Rome; but he returned in 1798 to Paris,
where the fickle public received him with enthusiasm, but left
him to starve. He died at Passy, near Paris, on the 7th of May
1800. After his death a memorial tablet was set up in the house
in which he was bom at Bari.
The most complete list of his works is that given in the
Rivisia musicale italiana^ viii. 75. He produced over eighty
operas, but although his later work shows the influence of
the French and German stage, he belongs to the conventional
Italian school of the i8ih century.
See also P. L. Giugucn^S, Notue sur lavie et Its ouvraiu ie Niccolc
Piccinni (Paris, 1801); E. Demoirestcrrcs. La Musipu fratifaise au
tS* siicU Cluck et Piccinni 1774-1800 (Paris, 1873).
PICCOLO (Fr. petite Jl<Ue octave; Ger. Pickeljldle; Ital. Jlaulo
piuolo or oUavino), a small flute of less than half the dimensions
of the large concert flute and pitched an octave higher. The
principles of construction and the acoustic properties are the
same for the piccolo as for the flute, with the exception that the
piccolo does not contain the additional tail-piece with the extra
low keys, which give the flute its extended compass. As the
pitch of the piccolo is so high, the highest of all orchestral instru-
ments with the exception of a few harmonics on the violin, the
music for it is written an octave lower than the real sounds in
order to avoid the ledger lines. The piccolo has been used with
good effect in imitating the whistling of the wind in storms, as in
Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony^ Wagner's Flying Dutchman,
and in conjunction with the violins in tremolo to depict the rust-
ling of the leaves in the breeze, as in the " Waldweben ** in
Siegfried. Verdi employed it to advantage in Palslajf as a comic
agent in humorous situations. The piccolo is generally in D,
sometimes in Eb or F. (K. S.)
PICCOLOHINI, the name of an Italian noble family, which
was prominent in Siena (q.v.) from the beginning of the 13th
century onwards. In 1220 Enghdberto d'Ugo Piccolomini
received the fief of Montertari in Val d'Orda from the emperor
Frederick II. as a reward for services rendered. The family
acquired houses and towers in Siena and castles in the republic's
territory, induding Montone and Castiglione, the latter they sold
to the commune in 1321. They obtained great wealth through
trade, and established counting-houses in Genoa, Venice,
Aquileia, Trieste, and in various cities of France and Germany.
Supporters of the Guelph cause in the dvil broils by which Siena
was torn, they were driven from the dty in the time of Manfred
and their houses demolished; thry returned in triumph after
the Angevin victories, were expelled once more during the brief
reign of Conradln, and again returned to Siena vitk the bdp
of Charles of Anjou. But through their riotous politkal tctivity
the Piccolomini lost their commerdd inflnencc, which piaed
into the hands of the Florentines, although th^ retained tbdr
palaces, castles and about twenty fids, some of wUdi wot is
the territory of Amalfi and of great extent. Manyneabend
the bouse were distinguished ecclesiastics, generals and statcsoxs
in Siena and elsewhere; two of them were popes, vis. Aeons
Silvius Piccolomini (Pius II., q.v.) and Francesco
(Pius III., q.v.).
See Richter, Die Piccolomini (Berlin. 1874): A. UM ssd A.
Liberati, Albero delta fami^ia Pucoiomim (Siena, 1899): aad
articles by A. Lisini in the Miscellanea sloriea semese, jra Kfia
xa, and 4Ui aeries, 17 and 189.
PICCOLOMINI. OCTAVia Pumcb (1599-1656), dokc af
Amalfi, Austrian general, was born on the i ith of Novenbcr ism
in Florence, and carried a pike in the Spanish service at the a|e
of sixteen. Two years Uter, on the outbreak of the Thin;
Years' War in Bohemia, he was appointed a captain in a csvaby
regiment sent by the grand duke of Tuscany to the emperor^
army, and he fought with some distinction under Booqnoy at
the Weisser Berg and in Hungary. In 1624 he served ke 1
short time in the Spanish army and then as Ueutenant-cokiel
of Pappenheim's cuirassier regiment in the war in the Mibaot
In 1627 he re-entered the Imperial service as colond and caiMaiB
of the lifeguard of Wallenstdn, duke of Fricdiand. la thb
capadty he soon fell into disgrace for practising extoctioB M
Stargard in Pomerania, but his adroitness secured Un, after ai
long interval, the rank of " colonel of horse and foot.** Abaai
this time the appointment of his younger brother to the aidt*
bishopric of Siena secured him a position of influence k lk
diplomatic worid. Diplomatic talent was indeed aloHMt tk
birthright of a member of an Italian family, that had acca vm
of its members occupying the papal chair, and WaDenstciB Mr
made use of his subordinate's capadty for ncfotistioa uA
intrigue. In the events of the Mantuan War Picc&adai loak 1
prominent port in the dual r61e of the subtle dipkwiatia sid Ik
plundering soldier of fortune. At this nnoment came the beimm
of (jermany by Gustavus Adolphus. Piccolomini was k/und
at Ferrara as a hostage for the ratification of a treaty, hat k
added his voice to the general call for WaUenstein's iiiaH>ai<
ment as comnumder-in-dud. He was not, however, incMdii
the list of promotions that followed the duke's leappfinm
and he served under (General Hoik, an officer brought in fraatk
Danish service, in the preliminary operations and in the hMdi
of Latxen. His ambition was gratified when, on readiif tk
official report of the battle, the emperor nude hiai a
feldwacktmeister. At the same time, however, Hoft was
a field marshal at WaUenstein's instance, mocfa to Us ntit
chagrin. In the campaign of 1 633 Piccolomini held the csoaMri
of an important detachment posted at Ktaiggrtta to bsr tk
enemy's advance from Silesia into Bohemia. Histofy lepaH'
itself on the same ground in 1756, 1778 and 1866; in the iat<'
these cases it was a Piccolomini, grsjid-nei^iew of Octada, ^
commanded the Austrians; in the last the victorioas PnonHi
passed over the estate of Nachod, which after 1635 was a horf-
tary possession of the family. In May WaUeastciD eatod
Silesia with the main army with the unavowed object d eoapd*
ling or persuading the eleaors of Brandenburg and SaaoiV "
make common cause with the emperor against the Svefo
Piccolomini was with him, and, disa|^>roving of the di^^
poh'cy, joined in a miUtary con^iracy, out of which gie* dt
drama that ended with the murder of Wallenstein on tk >^
of February 1634. Piccolomini 's own part in the tragedy kl
been set forth for all lime in the pages of Schiller's WoEea^
His reward was his marshal's b4ton, 100.000 guMcn sid tk
beautiful estate of Nachod in the Riesengdmfe.
He was WaUenstein's pupil as weU as his slayer, aad k^
learned the art of war from that master. On the 5th-^ <^
September in the same year he distinguished himadf
the foremost in the great victory of Ndrdlingen. He sooa w^
the necessity for foUowing out the linea of nililary pofiqr ^
PICENE— PICHEGRU
581
down by the duke, but odther he nor GftUas, the new UeutenAnt-
feneral of the emperor, possessed the capacity for carrying it
out, and the war dragged on year after year. Piccolomini was
in 1635 allied with a Spanish army, and bitterly complained that
their sloth and caution marred every scheme that he formed.
In 1638 he was made a count of the empire, and in 1639, having
been fortunate enough to win a great victory over the French
(relief of Thionville, July 7, 1639), he was rewarded with the
ofbfce of privy councillor from the emperor and with the dukedom
of Amalfi from the king of Spain. But instead of being appointed,
as he hoped, Gallas's successor, he was called in to act as <uf tatus
to the Archduke Leppold Wilhelm, with whom he was defeated
in the second battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. After this he spent
tome years in the Spanish service and received as his reward the
title of grandee and the order of the Golden Fleece. Some years
hter, having re-entered the Imperial army, he was again dis-
appointed of the chief command by the selection of the brave
veteran Peter Melander, Count HolzapfeL But when in 1648
Melander fell in battle at Zusmarshausen, Piccolomini was at
last appointed h'eutenant-gencral of the emperor, and thus con-
ducted as generalissimo the final campaign of the weary and
desultory Hiirty Years' War. Three days after the commission
for executing the peace had finished its labours, the emperor
addressed a letter of thanks " to the Prince Piccolomini," and
awarded him a gift of 1 14,566 gulden. Piccolomini died on the
nth of August 1656. He left no children (his only son Josef
Silvio, the " Max " of Schiller's IValienstetHt was murdered by
the Swedes after the battle of Jankau in 1645), and his titles and
estates passed to his brother's son. With the death of the latter's
nephew Ociavio Aeneas Josef in 1757, the line became extinct.
nCENB, CsHm, a hydrocarbon found in the pitchy residue
obtained in the distillation of pcat-t^r and of petroleum. This
is distilled to dryness and the distillate repeatedly recrystallizcd
from cymene. It may be synthetically prepared by the action
of anhydrous aluminium chloride on a mixture of naphthalene
and ethylene dibromide (R. Lespieau. Bull. soc. c/rtm., 1891,
0)t 6, p. 738), or by distilling a-dinaphthostilbene (T. Him, Bcr ,
1899, 32, p. 3341)- It crystallizes in large colourless plates
w4dch possess a blue fluorescence It is soluble in concentrated
sulphuric add with a green colour. Chromic acid in glacial
acetic acid solution oxidizes it to picene-quinone, picene-quinone
carboxylic acid, and finally to phthalic acid. When heated with
hydriodic acid and phosphorus it forms hydrides of composition
CsHm and CbHm (see E. Bamberger and F.D. Chat ta way, Ann.t
1895. »84. P- 61).
PfCBNUH, a district of andent Italy, situated between the
Apennines and the Adriatic, bounded N. by the Senones and S
by the Vestini^. The inhabitants were, according to tradition,
an offshoot of the Sabines. Strabo (v. 4, i) gives the story of
their migration, led by a woodpecker {picus), a bird sacred to
Mars, from which they derived their name Picentini (cf Dion
Hal. L 14, 5), just as the Hirpini derived theirs from hirpus, a
wolf. The district was conquered by the Romans early in the
3rd century B.C. and the whole territory was divided up among
Latin-speaking settlers by the Lex Flarainia in 232 B.C. Hence
we have very scanty records of any non-Latin Language that may
have been spoken in the district before the 3rd century. Besides
the problematic inscriptions from Belmonte, Nereto and Cupra
Maritima (see Sabellic), we have one or two Latin inscriptions
(probably of the 2nd or even the ist century B.C.) which contain
certain forms showing a distinct affinity with the dialect of
Iguvium (cf. the name PaSdi "LAiin Pacidit). Hence there
seems some ground for believing that the population which the
Romans dispossessed, or held in subjection, really spoke a dialect
very much like that of their ndghbours in Umbria.
For inscriptions, see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 449.
where the place-names and personal names of the district will
also be found; sec further. Livy, Epit. xv.; B. V. Head. Historia
uumorum, p. 19. (R. S. C )
It was in Picenum, at Asculum, that the Social War broke out
in 00 B.C. At the end of the war the district became connected
with Pompeius Strabo. and his son Pompey the Great threw into
the scale on the side of Sulla, in 83 B.C., all the influence he
possessed there, and hoped to make it a base against Caesar's
legions in 49 B.C. Under Augustus it formed the fifth region of
Italy, and induded twenty-three independent communities, of
which five, Ancona, FLrmum, Asculum, Hadria and Interamnia,
were coloniae. It was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria,
and its branch the Via Caecilia. It was also on a branch leading
from the Via Flaminia at Nuceria Camcllaria to Septempcda.
There were also communications from north to south; a road led
from Asculum to Urbs Salvia and Ancona, another from Asculum
and Firmum and the coast, another from Urbs Salvia to Potentia,
while finally along the whole line of the coast there ran a
prolongation of the Via Flaminia, the name of which is not
known to us.
At the end of the 2nd century aj>. the north-eastern portion
of Umbria was divided from the rest and acquired the name
Flaminia, from the high road. For the time it remained united
with Umbria for administrative purposes, but passed to Picenum
at latest in the time of Constantine, and acquired the name of
Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium, the main portion of Picenum
being distinguished as Suhurbicarium. In an inscription of a.o.
399 Ravenna is actually spoken of as the chief town of Picenum.
When the exarchate of Ravenna was founded the part of Pice-
num Annonarium near the sea became the Pentapolis Maritima,
which included the five cities of Ariminum, Pisaurum, Fanum
Fortunae, Sena Gallica and Ancona. The exarchate was seized
by Luitprand in 727, and Ravenna itself was taken by Aistulf
in 752. In the next year, hqwever, the Emperor Pippin took
it from him and handed it over to the pope, a grant confirmed by
his son Charlemagne. (T As.)
PICHEORU, CHARLES (1761-1804), French general, was bom
at Arbois, or, according to Charles Nodier, at Les Planches, near
Lons-le-Saulnier, on the 16th of February 1761. His father was a
labourer, but the friars of Arbois gave the boy a good education,
and one of his masters, the Pere Partault, took him to the military
school of Brienne. In 1783 he entered the first regiment of
artillery, where he rapidly rose to the rank of adjutant-sub-
lieutenant. When the Revolution began he became leader of
the Jacobin party in Besancon, and when a regiment of volun>
teers of the department of the Card marched through the dty
he was elected lieutenant-colonel. The fine condition of his
regiment was soon remarked in the army of the Rhine, and his
organizing ability was nude use of by an appointment on the
staff, and finally by his promotion to the rank of general of
brigade. In 1793 Carnot and Saint Just were sent to find
rolurier generals who could be successful; Carnot discovered
Jourdan, and Saint Just discovered Hoche and Pichegru. In
co-operation with Hoche and the army of the Moselle, Pichegru,
now general of division and in command of the army of the Rhine,
had to reconquer Alsace and to reorganize the disheartened
troops of the republic. They succeeded, Pichegru made use of
the itan of his soldiers to win innumerable small engagements,
and with Hoche forced the lines of Haguenau and relieved
Landau. In December 1793 Hoche was arrested, it is said
owing in part to his colleague's machinations, and Pichegru
became commander-in-chief of the army of the Rhine-and-
Moselle, whence he was summoned to succeed Jourdan in the
army of the North in February 1794. It was now that he fought
his three great campaigns of one year. The English and Austrians
held a strong position along the Sambre to the sea. After
vainly attempting to break the Austrian centre, Pichegru
suddenly turned their left, and defeated Clerfayt at Casscl,
Menin and Courtrat. while Moreau. his second in command,
defeated Coburg at Tourcoing in May 1794; then after a pause,
during which Pichegru feigned to besiege Ypres, he again dashed
at Clerfayt and defeated him at Rou»elaer and Hooglede, while
Jourdan came up with the new army of the Sambre-and-Meuse,
and utterly routied the Austrians at Fleurus on the 27th of June
1794. Pichegru began his second campaign by crossing the
MeUse on the i8th of October, and after taking Nijmwegen
drove the Austrians beyond the Rhine. Then, instead of going
into winter-quarters, he prepared his army for a winter
582
PICHLER— PICKERING, E. C.
campaign. On the aStb of December be crossed the Meuse on the
ice, and stormed the island of Bommel, then crossed the Waal
in the same manner, and, driving the English before him, entered
Utrecht on the 19th of January, and Amsterdam on the 20th
of January, and soon occupied the whole of Holland. This
grand feat of arms was marked by many points of interest,
such as the capture of the Dutch ships, which were frozen in
the Hclder, by the French hussars, and the splendid discipline
of the ragged battalions in Amsterdam, who, with the richest
city of the continent to sack, yet behaved with a self-restraint
which few revolutionary and Napoleonic armies attained. The
former friend of Saint Just now offered his services to the
Thermidorians, and after receiving from the Convention the
title of " Sauvcur de la Palrie," subdued the sans-culoUes of
Paris, when they rose in insurrection against the Convention on
12 Germinal (April i). Pichegru then took command of the
armies of the North, the Sambre-and-Meuse, and the Rhine, and
crossing the Rhine in force took Mannheim in May 1795. When
his fame was at its height he allowed his colleague Jourdan to be
beaten, betrayed all his plans to the enemy, and took part in
organizing a conspiracy for the return of Louis XVIII., in which
he was to play, for his own aggrandizement, the part that Monk
played from higher motives in the English revolution. His
intrigues were suspected, and when he offered his resignation to
the Directory in October 1795 it was to his surprise promptly
accepted. He retired in disgrace, but hoped to serve the royalist
cause by securing his election to the Council of Five Hundred in
May 1797. He was there the royalist leader, and planned a
coup d'ital, but on the i8tb Fructidor he was arrested, and with
fourteen others deported to Cayenne in 1797. flscaping, he
reached London in 1798, and served on General Rorsakov's staff
in the campaign of 1799. H^ went to Paris in August iSoj with
Georges CadoudaJ to head a royalist rising against Napoleon;
but, betrayed by a friend, he was arrested on the 28th of
February 1804, and on the 15th of April was found strangled
in prison. It has often been asserted that he was murdered by
the orders of Napoleon, but there is no foundation for the story.
Pichegru 's campaigns of 1794 are marked by traits of an
audacious genius which would not have disgraced Napoleon.
His tremendous physical strength, the personal ascendancy he
gamed by this and by his powers of command made him a
peculiarly formidable opponent, and thus enabled him to main-
tarn a discipline which guaranteed the punctual execution of his
orders. He had also, strangely enough, the power of captivating
honest men like Moreau. He flattered in turn Saint Just and
the Terrorists, the Thermidorians and the Directors, and played
always for his own hand— a strange egoist who rose to fame as
the leader of an idealist and sentimental crusade.
There is no really gcKxl life of Pichegru, perhaps the best is
J M Gassior's Vie du gimrtU Ftcheiru (Pans, 1815). For his
treason, trial and death, consult M on t|;ai Hard's Mimoxres concemanl
la Irahtson de Puhegru (1K04); Fauchc-Borcl's hiimoires: Savary,
AUmoircs sur la mart de Pu.hegru (Paris, 1825), and G. Picrrcl.
Puhegru, ion proc6s el sa mart (1826).
PICHLER, KAROLINE (1769-1843). Austrian novelist, was
born at Vienna on the 7th of September 1769, the daughter of
Hofrat Franz von Greiner. and married, in 1796, Andreas Pichler,
a government ofhcial. For many years her salon was the centre
of (he literary life in the Austrian capital, where she died on the
9th of July 1843. Her early works, Olivier, first published
anonymously (1802), Idyllcn (1S03) and Rulh (1805), though
displaying considerable talent, were immature. She made her
mark in historical romance, and the first of her novels of this
class, Agalhocles (180S), an answer to Gibbon's attack on that
hero in the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, attained great
popularity. Among her other novels may be mentioned Die
Bclagerung Wicns (1824); Die Sckwedcn in Prag (1827); Die
Wifdrrcroberung Ofens (1829) and HenrietU von England (1832).
Her last work was Zeilbildcr (1840).
The edition of Karoline Pichler's Sdmtltcke Werke (1820-1845)
comprists no less than 60 volumes. Her Denkwurdtgkeiten aus
meinem Lrben (4 voU.) uj!> published posthumously in 1844. A
selection of her nanativea. AustaodUu EnHkhrngm, appcamf
in 4 vols, in 1894.
PICKENS. ANDREW (i 739-181 7). American soldier io the
War of Independence, was bom ip Paxton, Bucks ooumy,
Pennsylvania, on the 19th of September 1739. His family
settled at the Waxhaws (in what is now Lancaster county).
South Carolina, in 1752 He fought against the Cherokeesio
1 76 1 as a lieutenant In the War of Independence he row to
bngadier-general (after Cowpens) in the South Carolina militia.
He was a captain among the American troops which surrendered
at Ninety Six in November 1775, On the uih of Febnury
1779. with 300-400 men. he surpnsed and defeated about 700
Loyalists under Colonel Boyd on Kettle Creek, Wilkes county,
Georgia; on the 20th of June he fought at Stono Ferry, and later
in the same year at Tomassee defeated the Cherokees. who %ttt
allied with the British. Upon the surrender of Charlestoo
(May 1780) he became a prisoner on parole, which he observed
rigidly until, contrary to the promises made to him, Major James
Dunlap plundered his plantation, he then returned to taive
service. His command (about 150 men) joined General Daniel
Morgan immediately before the battle of Cowpens^ in vbich
Pickens commanded an advance guard I270-350 men froo
Georgia and North Carolina) and twice rallied the brokeo
American militia; for bis services Congress gave him a swori
With Colonel Henry Lee he harassed Lieut. -Colonel Banastic
Tarleton, who was attempting to gather a Loyalist force jut
before the battle of Guilford Court House; and with Lee and
others, he captured Augxista (June 5, 1781) after a siege. At
Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8, 1781) he commanded the left wing
and was wounded. In 178a he defeated the Cherokees again
and forced them to surrender all lands south of the Savannah
and east of the Chattahoochee. After the war he was a member
of the South Carolina House of Representati\'es for a number
of years, of the state Constitutional Convention in 1790, and of
the National House of Representatives in 1 793-1 795. He died
in Pendleton district, South Carolina, on the 17th of August
1817. He had married in 1765 Rebecca Calhoun, an aunt of
John C. Calhoun. Their son, Andrew Pickens (1779-1838),
served as a lieutenant-colonel in the War of 1812, and ms
governor of South Carolina in i8r(i-i8j8.
PICKENS, FRANCIS WILKINSON (1805-1869). AmerioM
I>olitician, wasborninTogadoo.St Paul's parish. South Caroiias,
on the 7th of April 1805, son of Andrew Pickens (1779-183^
and grandson of General Andrew Pickens (1739-1S17). He
was educated at Franklin College, Athens, Georgia, and at SootL
Carolina College, Columbia, and was admitted to the bar in 1819^
In 1832 he was elected to the state House of RepreseniativeSi
where, as chairman of a sub-comnuttee, he submitted a report
denying the right of Congress to exercise any control ow tbc
states. He was a Democratic member of the National Hoiae
of Representatives in 1834-1843, served in the South Carolina
Senate in 1844-1845, was a delegate to the Nashville Southern
Convention (see Nashville, Te.vnessee) in 1850, was United
States minister to Russia in 1S5S-1860, and in 2860-1S6J
was governor of South Carolina. He strongly advocated tbe
secession of the Southern states; signed the South Caroliot
ordinance of secession, protested against Major Robert Andrr*
son's removal from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter; sanctioned
the firing upon the " Star of the West " (Jan. 9. 1S61), "»hick
was bringing supplies to Anderson, and the bombardment *of
Fort Sumter, and was a zealous supporter of the Confederate
cause. At the close of his term he retired to his home at
Edgefield, South (Carolina, where he died on the 15th of
January 1869.
PICKERING. EDWARD CHARLES (1846- ), American
physicist and astronomer, was bom in Boston on the 191b o{
July 1846. He graduated in 1865 at the Lawrence Sciesiific
School of Harvard, where for the next two years be was a
teacher of mathematics. Subsequently he became profesMC
of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technolof^r, and
in 1876 he was appointed professor of astronomy and director
of the Harvard College observatory. In 1877 he decided to
PICKERING, T.— PICKERING
583
svote one of the telescopes of the observatory to stellar photo-
etry, and after an exhaustive trial of various forms of photo-
eteis, he devised the meridian photometer (see Photom EfiTy,
rzLLAR), which seemed to be free from most of the sources of
Tor. With the first instrument of this kind, having objectives
1*5 inch aperture, he measured the brightness of 4260 stars,
chiding all stars down to the 6th magnitude between the North
ok and -30** declination. With the object of reaching fainter
ars, Professor Pickering constructed another instrument of
rger dimensions, and with this more than a million observations
ave been made. The first important work undertaken with
was a revision of the magnitudes given in the Bonn Durch-
fusteruHg, On the completion of this, Professor Pickering
edded to undertake the survey of the southern hemisphere.
n expedition, under the direction of Prof. S. I. Bailey, was
xordingly deq>atched (1880), and the meridian photometer
Kted successively in three different positions on the slopes of
le Andes. The third of these was Arequipa, at which a perma-
nt branch of the Harvard Observatory is now located. The
agnitudes of nearly 8000 southern stars were determined,
duding 1428 stars of the 6th magnitude and brighter. The
itrument was then returned to Cambridge (U.S.A.), where the
rrey extended so as to include all stars of magnitude 7-5 down
-40** declination, after which it was once more sent back to
requipa. In 1886 the widow of Henry Draper, one of the
sneers of stellar spectroscopy, made a liberal provision for
rrying on spectroscopic investigations at Harvard College in
emory of her husband. With Professor Pickering's usual
mprcbensiveness, the inquiry was so arranged as to cover the
wle sky. and with four telescopes — two at Cambridge for
e northern hembphcre, and two at Arequipa in Peru for the
athem — to which a fine 24-in. photographic telescope was
lerwards added, no fewer than 75,000 photographs had been
lained up to the beginning of iqoi. These investigations
.ve yielded many important discoveries, not only of new stars,
d of large numbers of variable stars, but also of a wholly new
IBS of double stars whose binary character is only revealed by
culiaritics in their spectra. The important conclusion has
en already derived that the majority of the stars in the Milky
ay belong to one special type.
PICKERING, TIMOTHY (1745-182Q), American politidan,
ts bom at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 17th of July 1745.
e graduated from Harvard College in 1763 and was admitted
the bar in 1768. In the pre- revolutionary controversies he
entified himself with the American Whigs; in 1773 he prepared
r Salem a paper entitled Slate 0/ the Rights oj Ike Colonists; in
75 be drafted a memorial protesting against the Boston Port
U; and in 1776 he was a representative from Salem in the
aieral Court of Massachusetts In 1766 he had been commis-
med lieutenant and in 1769 captain in the Essex county
ditia; early in 1775 he published An Easy Plan oJ Discipline
r a Militia, adopted in May 1776 by the General Court for use
r the militia of Massachusetts, and he was elected colonel of
s regiment. In the same year he became judge of the court
common pleas for Essex county, and sole judge of the maritime
art for the counties of Suffolk, Essex and Middlesex. In the
inter of 1776-1777 he led an Essex regiment of volunteers
New York, and he subsequently served as adjutant-general
une X777-Jan. 1778) and later as quartermaster-general
780- 1 785) ; he was also a member of the board of war from the
h of November 1777 until its aboUtion. With the aid of some
iicers he drew up, in April 17S3, a plan for the settlement of
e North-West territory, which provided for the exdusion of
ivery. In 1785 he became a commission merchant in
iHadelphia; but in October 1786, soon after the legislature of
mnsylvania had passed a bill for erecting Wyoming district
to the county of Luzerne, be was appointed prothonotary and
judge of the court of common pleas and clerk of the court of
isions and orphans' court for the new county, and was com-
ssioned to organize the county. He offered to purchase for
nself the Connecticut title to a farm, and in the following year
was appointed a member of a commission to settle claims
according to the terms of an act, of which he was the author,
confirming the Connecticut titles (see Wyoming Valley and
WiLKES-BARRi). Pickering was a member of the Pennsylvania
convention of 1787 which ratified the Federal constitution, and
of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention of 1789-1790.
In November 1790 he negotiated a peace with the Seneca
Indians, and he concluded treaties with the Six Nations in July
1 791, in March 1792 and in November 1794. Under Washington
he was postmaster-general (1791-1795), secretary of war (1795),
and after December 1795 secretary of state, to which position he
was reappointed (1797) by Adams. In 1783,, while he was
quartermaster-general, he had presented a plan for a military
academy at West Point, and now, as secretary of war, he super-
vised the West Point military post with a view to its conversion
into a military academy. As head oi the state department
he soon came into conflict with Adams. His hatred of France
made it impossible for l^im to empathize with the president's
efforts to settle Che differences with that country on a peaceable
basis. He used all his influence to hamper the president and
to advance the political interests of Alexander Hamilton,
until he was dismissed, after refusing to resign, in May i8oa
Returning to Massachusetts, he served as chief justice of the
court of common pleas of Essex county in 1802-1803. He was
a United States senator in 1803-1S11 and a member of the
Federal House of Representatives in 1813-1817. As an ultra
Federalist — he was a prominent member of the group Known
as the Essex Junto — he strongly opposed the purchase of
Louisiana and the War of 1812. He died at Salem, Massachu-
setts, on the 29tb of January 1829.
The standard biography i& that by his son, Octavius Pickering
(1791-1868), and C. W. Upham. The Life of Timothy Pukenng
(4 vols.. Boston. 1867-1873). In the library of the Massachusetts
Historical Society at Boston, there are sixty-two manuKript
volumes of the Pickering papers, an index to which was published
in the Collections of the society, 6th scries, vol. viii. (Boston, 1896).
His son, John Pickering (1777-1846), graduated at Harvard
in 1796, studied law and was private secretary to William
Smith, United States minister to Portugal, in 1 797-1799, and
to Rufus King, minister to Great Britain, in 1799-1801. He
practised law in Salem and (after 1827) in Boston, where he
was city solicitor in 1827-1846, and wrote much on law and
especially on the languages of the North-American Indians.
He was a founder of the American Oriental Society and published
an excellent Comprehensive Dictionary of the Creek Language
(1826).
See Mary O. Pickering (his daughter), Life of John Pickering
(Boston, 1887).
Timothy Pickering's grandson, Charles Pickering (1805-
1878), graduated at Harvard College in 1823 and at the Harvard
Medical School in 1826, practised medicine in Philadelphia,
was naturalist to the Wilkes exploring expedition of 1838-1842,
and in 1843-1845 travelled in East Africa and India. He wrote
The Races of Man and their Geographical Distribution- (184$),
Geographical Distribution of Animals and Man (1854). Geo-
graphical Distribution of Plants (1861) and Chronological History
of Plants (1879).
PICKERING, a market town in the Whitby parliamentary
division of the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 32 m.
N.E. by N. from York by the North Eastern railway, the
junction of several branch lines. Pop. of urban district (1901),
3491. The church of St Peter is Norman and transitional
Norman, with later additions including a Decorated spire. It
contains a remarkable series of mural paintings of the 15th
century. The castle, on a hill to the north, is a picturesque
ruin, the fragmentary keep and several towers remaining. The
work is in part Nohnan, but the principal portions are of the
14th century. One of the towers is connected in name and
story with Fair Rosamond. The castle was held by Earl
Morcar shortly before the Conquest; it then came into the hands
of the Crown, and subscH^uently passed to the duchy of Lancaster.
It was the prison of Richard II. before his confinement at Pome-
fract. During the civil wars of the 17th century the castle was
held by the Royalists, and suffered ^ca.v.V^ Vxw^^uQjt. TtA.^'^^^v
58+
PICKET— PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA
furrounding Pickering is agricultural, and the town is a centre
of the trade. Agrioiltural implements are manulactured, and
limestone and freestone are quarried in the vicinity.
PICKET, PiQUST or Picquet (Fr. piquet, a pointed stake
or peg, from piquer, to point or pierce), a military term, signifying
an outpost or guard, supposed to have originated in the French
army about 2690, from the circumstance that an infantry
company on outpost duty diq>ersed its musketeers to watch,
the small group of pikemen called piquet remaining in reserve.
Thus at the present day the word " picquet " is, in Great Britain
at any rate, restricted to an infantry post on the outpost line,
from which the sentries or " groups " of watchers are sent out.
In the United States a " picket " is synonymous with a sentry,
and the " picket-line " is the extreme advanced line of observa-
tion of an army. In the French army picquets are called
" grand' gardes," and the phrase " grand guard " is often met
with in English military works of the X7th and x8th centuries.
A body of soldiers held in readiness for military or police duties
within the limits of a camp or barracks is also called a picquet
or " inlying picquet." These special uses of the word in English
are apparently quite modem (after about 1750). " Picket "
in its ordinary meaning of a peg or stake, has always been in
common military use, being applied variously to the picketing
pegs in horse-lines, to long pointed stakes employed in palisades
or stockades, to straight thin rods used for marking out the Une
of fire for guns, &c. Of the various spellings " picquet " is
officially adopted in Great Britain and " picket " in the United
States, but the latter is now invariably used when a peg or stake
is meant.
Two obsolete meanings of the word should also be mentioned.
The " picket " was a form of military punishment in vogue in
the i6th and 17th centuries, which consbted in the offender
being forced to stand on the narrow flat top of a peg for a period
of time. The punishment died out in the i8th century and was
so far unfamiliar by 1800 that Sir Thomas Picton, who ordered
a mulatto woman to be so punished, was accused by public
opinion in England of inflicting a torture akin to impalement.
It was thought, in fact, that the prisoner was forced to stand
on the head of a pointed stake, and this error is repeated in the
New English Diclionary. In the middle of the 19th century,
when elongated rifle bullets were a novelty, they were often, and
especially in America, called pickets. The ordinary military
use of the word gives rise to compound forms such as " picket
boat " or " picket launch," large steam launch or pinnace fitted
with guns and torpedoes, and employed for watching the waters
of harbours, &c. For picketing in strikes, &;c., see below.
PICKETING, a term used to describe a practice resorted to
by workmen engaged in trade disputes, of pladng one or more
men near the works of the employer with whom the dispute is
pending, with the object of drawing off his hands or acquiring
information useful for the purposes of the dispute. In England,
under the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act 1875, it
is an offence wrongfully and without legal authority to watch
or beset the house or place where another resides or works, or
carries on business or happens ,to be, or the approach to such
house or place, if the object of the watching, &c., is to compel
the person watched, &c., to abstain from doing or to do an act
which he is legally entitled to do or to abstain from doing (§ 7).
The definition of the offence was qualified by a proviso excluding
from punishment those who attend at or near a house or place
merely to obtain or communicate information, in other words
what is termed peaceful picketing, without intimidation, molesta-
tion or direct efforts to influence the course of a trade dispute.
This enactment led to a great deal of litigation between trade
unions and employers; and trade unions were in some instances
restrained by injunction from picketing the works of employers,
The decisions of the courts upon this subject met with severe
criticism from the leaders of trade unions, and by the Trades
Disputes Act 1906 the proviso above quoted was repealed, and
it was declared lawful for one or more persons acting for thcm-
selvcs or for a trade union or for an individual employer to attend
fit or near a house, &c., " if the attendance is merely for the
purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating infenaitin
or of peacefully persuading any person to work <»- afastiio iron
working." The exact effect of this change in .the law his not
yet been determined by the courts, but during the Bdfastcutaif
strike of X907 serious riots ensued upon the efforts oftbeasthori-
ties to cotmteract the interference with lawful bioineii caoHd
by free use of picketing. The change in the law is snppleneBtd
by provisions forbidding actions against trade unions in tapBX
of any tortious acts alleged to have been committed by or «i
behalf oC the union.
PICKLE. In the wider sense the term " pickle " is applied
to any saline or add preservative solution; in the nunmtx t»
vegetables preserved in vinegar. The word appears to be as
adapution of Dutch pekel, brine, pickle; cf. Ger. PiikcL Ik
ultimate origin is unknown; connexions with a supposed ii-
ventor's name, such as BeukeUr or Bdckd are mere inventioBS.
A solution of copper or zinc sulfate is used as a " pkkle " kr
railway-aleq;>ers or other wood, a brine containing salt aad
saltpetre as a preservative for meat, lime-water as "pickk"
for eggs. Domestic pickles are made from small aKmnbeB,
onions, cauliflowers, cabbages, mangoes and unripe wafanis,
by either steeping or boiling them in salt-brine and viacftf.
Chi account of the large proportion of water natural to tkse
vegetables, only the strongest vinegar, containing from $ to 6%
of acetic add, can be used. For the better kinds vinegar mdi
from malted or unmalted barley is as a rule empl^jred, fsi
cheaper varieties simply dilute acetic add obtained from aoemt
of lime. Sauces such as Worcestershire sauce, or YofkAss
relish, consist of fluid pickles, that is of salted and varioaif
spiced vinegar solutions or emuJsions containing tissae «f
vegetables (tomatoes, mushrooms, &c.), <^ of fish (sardiacs m
anchovies).
PICKNELL, WILUAM LAMB (1854-1897), Ameticaa kai-
scape-painter, was bom at Hinesburg, Vermont, on the <3id
of October 1854. He wasa pupil of Geor]|^ Inneasin Roaaefsi
two years, and of J. L. G£r6me in the Ecole des Bcanx Aio^
Paris. With Robert WyUe he worked for several ycais il
Brittany, at Pont Aven and Concameau, where be painted Mi
" Route de Concameau " (Corcoran Art Gallery, WashimMa,
D.C.). His " Morning on the Loing " received a gold xaM
at the Paris Salon of 1895. In z88o he became a mcnbcrsf
the Sodety of American Artists, and In 189 1 an associate cf the
National Academy of Design. He died at Marblehead,
chusetts, on the 8th of August 1897.
PICNIC, a form of entertainment in which the
invited to join an excursion to some place where a meal caa k
taken in the open air. During the first half of the I9lh ccfltaf^
the essential of a picnic was that the guests should eadi bniV
with them a contribution of provisions. At the begiuuBf a(
the X9th century a sodety was formed in London caBed tk
" Picnic Society," the members of which suj^ied at the I^alkai
in Oxford Street, and drew lots as to what part of the nealcath
should supply (see L. Melville, The Beaux of the Regfucy, i^A
i. 222). The French form pique-nique is said to be of leeesl
introduction in 1692 (Manage, Diet. etym.). It is doabtfid
whether picnic is merely a rhyming word, or can be refdicd
to pique, pick, and nique, small coin.
PICO, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, oelonging to Foitivl
and forming part of the Azores archipelago. Pop. (1900),
24,028; area 175 sq. m. Pico is a conl^ mountain, risiaf la
the height of 7612 ft. The soil consists cntirdy of puhrcrised
lava. The so-called Fayal wine, though named after an adjaccsf
island, was formerly produced here, and largely caqwitcd la
Eun^)e. But in 1852 the vines were attacked by the OiH'^
fungus and completely destroyed, while the orange-trees snlcnd
almost as much from the Coccus hesperUum. The pcopk wie
consequently forced to emigrate In great numbeis, till ik
planting of fig-trees and apricots alleviated the evil Pko aba
produces a spedes of wood resembling mahogaiiy, and cqoal is
quality to it. Its chief town is Lagens do I^ca Pop. (s97S)*
PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, OIOVANNI. Coumt (i46rM9«):
Italian philosopher and writer, the youngest son of KSk/nsd
PICRIC ACID— PICRITE
585
Fnaooco Pico, prince of Minndola, a small territory about
jo ItaUan miles west of Ferrara, afterwards absorbed in the
duchy of Modena, was born on the 24th of February 1463. The
booty was illustrious and wealthy, and claimed descent from
CoMtantine. In his fourteenth year Pico went to Bologna,
i^ere he studied for two years, and was much occupied with
the Decretals. The traditional studies of the place, however,
diigusted him; and he spent seven years wandering through all
the schools of Italy and France and collecting a precious library.
Boides Greek and Latin he knew Hebrew, Chaldee and Arabic;
lid his Hebrew teachers (EUah del Medico, Leo Abarbanel and
Jddianan Aleman — see L. Geigcr Jokann Reucklin (i87i),p. 167)
iatioduced him to the Kabbalah, which had great fascinations
for one who loved all mystic and thcosophic speculation. His
kinied wanderings ended (i486) at Rome, where he set forth
for public disputation a list of nine hundred questions and
ooadusioas in all branches of philosophy and theology. He
lenained a year in Rome, but the disputation he proposed was
sever held. The pope prohibited the little book in which they
vcre contained, and Pico had to defend the impugned theses
(Dt cmmi re seibili) in an elaborate Apologia. His personal
erthodozy was, however, subsequently vindicated by a brief
of Alexander VI., dated 18th June 1493. The suspected theses
HKiiided such points as the following: that Christ descended
«tf m/ctm not in His real presence but quaid ejfeclum; that no
inafe or cross should receive latreia even in the sense allowed
by Thomas; that it is more reasonable to regard Origcn as saved
than as damned; that it is not in a man's free will to believe or
disbelieve an article of faith as he pleases. But perhaps the
onst startling thesis was that no science gives surer conviction
H the divinity of Christ than " magia " {i.e. the knowledge of
tbe secrets of the heavenly bodies) and Kabbalah. Pico was
tbe fint to seek in tbe Kabbalah a proof of the Christian mysteries
WMd It was by him that Reuchlin was led into. the same delusive
ptth.
Pko had been up to this (!me a gay Italian nobleman; he was
laO, handsome, fair-complexioned, with keen grey eyes and
yeDow hair, and a great favourite with women. But his troubles
led him to more serious thoughts; and he published; in his 28th
jrcar, tht.He^^us, a mysticaJ exposition of the creation.
Mest he jdanned a great seven-fold work against the enemies
of the Church, of which only the section directed against astrology
was oomidetcd. After leaving Rome he again lived a wandering
fife, often visiting Florence, to which he was drawn by his friends
Politian and Marsilius Fidnus, and where also he came under
the influence of Savonarola. It was at Florence that he died
OB the 17th of November 1494. Three years before his death
he parted with his share of the ancestral principality, and
des^jned, when certain literary plans were completed, to give
away all he had and wander barefoot through the world preach-
ii^ Christ. But these plans were cut short by a fever which
cwified him off just at the time when Charles VIII. was at
Flormce.
• Pico's works cannot now be read with much interest, but the
man himself is still interesting, partly from his influence on
Kaidilln and partly from the spectacle of a truly devout mind
b the brilliant circle of half-pagan scholars of the Florentine
Hb works were publiihed at Bologna in 1496 by his nephew,
Giov. Fran. Pico, with a biography, which was translated by Sir
Tbomas More as Life of John Picus, Earl of Mirandola, in 1510.
See the essay in Walter Pater's Renaissance (1878): and the
itody by J. KigK. orefixed to the reprint of More s Life in the
"Tndor library " (London, 1890).
PIGBIC ACID, or TuNiTROPHENOL, C«HsOH-(NOt)s [i-2-4-6],
aa explosive and dyestuff formed by the action of con-
ceotrated nitric add on indigo, aniline, resins, silk, wool,
leaUier, kc. It is the final product of the direct nitration of
phencd, and is usually prepared by the nitration of the mixture
of phenol sulphonic adds obtained by heating phenol with
concentrated sulphuric add (E. Eisenmann and A. Arche,
Eog. pat., 4539 (1889). It may also be obtained by
yMMang the symmetrical trinitrobenxene with potassium
ferricyanide in alkaline solution (P. Hepp, Ann. 1882, 215,
p. 352). It crystallizes from water in yellow plates mdting at
1 22' 5^ C, which sublime on careful heating, but explode when
rapidly heated. It is poisonous and possesses a bitter taste,
hence its name from the Greek Tu(p6$, bitter. It has a strongly
acid reaction, being almost comparable with the carboxylic
acids. By the action of bleaching powder it is converted into
chlorpicrin, CCU-NOs* Phosphorus pentachloride converts
it into picryl chloride, C«HsCl(NOz)s, which b a true add
chloride, being decomposed by water with the regeneration of
picric acid and the formation of hydrochloric add ; with ammonia
it yidds picramidc, C«HsNH](NOs)>. Silver picrate and methyl
iodide yield the methyl ester, which gives with ammonia
picramide. Picric acid forms many well-defined salts, of a
yellow or red-brown colour. It also yields crystalline compounds
with many aromatic hydrocarbons and bases. It imparts a
yellow colour to wool and silk. The chief application of picric
acid and its salts b in the manufacture of explosives. When
ignited, picric add bums quietly with a smoky flame, and it is
very diilicult to detonate by percussion; its ssdts, however, are
more readily detonated. The more important picric powders
are melinite, believed to be a mixture of fused picric acid and
gun-cotton; lyddite, the British service explosive, and skimose,
the Japanese powder, both supposed to be identical with the
original mdinite; Brughe's powder, a mixture of 54 parts of
ammonium picrate and 45 parts of saltpetre; DesignvUc's ponder,
composed of potassium picrate, saltpetre and charcoal; and
emmensile, invented by Stephen Emmcns, of the United States.
It may be detected by the addition of an aqueous solution of
potassium cyanide, with which it gives a violet-red coloration,
due to the formation of isopurpuric acid. R. Anschutz (Ber., 1884,
i7iP- 439) estimates picric acid by precipitation with acridine.
PICRITE (from Gr. rucfibs, bitter, because thfi&e rocks are
rich in magnesia, a base which forms bitter salts), a rock belong-
ing to the ultrabaslc group, and consisting mainly of olivine
and aiigite often with hornblende and biotite and a greater or
less amount of plagiodase febpar. The picrites are of
" hypabyssal " origin and in their natural occurrence are
connected with dolerites (diabases and teschenitcs). The
distinction between them and the peridotites, which have an
essentially similar composition, b not easy to define, but the
peridotites accompany the true plutonic rocks, such as gabbro,
norite and pyroxenite, are often very coarsely crystalline, and
form large bosses and laccolitcs, while the picrites usually are
found in silb or intrusive sheets.
In hand specimens the picrites arc dark green to black; the
absence or scardty of lath-shaped plagioclase felspars distin-
guishes them from diabases and they rarely have the lustre-
mottling which b a characteristic of the peridotites. Since they
contain much olivine they readily decompose, passing into deep
green and brown incoherent masses in which are embedded
rounded lumps of harder consbtency. They have a high specific
gravity (about 3*0) and may be distinctly magnetic, because
they are rich in iron ores. Porphyritic structure is rare though
occurring sometimes in the rocks known as picrite-porphyrites;
the phenocrysts are olivine and augite. There is seldom any
fine-grained or glassy groundmass, and the. typical micro-
structure b holocrystalline, moderately fine grained and some-
what poikilitic Olivine is abundant in rounded pale green
crystals. It may form one half of the rock but rardy more than
this. The augite b generally brown or reddish-brown, sometimes
violet, and tends to endose the olivine, yidding poecilitic aggre-
gates. Brown hornblende often occurs as marginal growths
around the pyroxene, and may be so abundant as to replace
augite to a large extent; rocks of this class are known as
homblende-picrites. Bright green or pale-green hornblende are
less frequently present, and in many cases are really of secondary
origin. Deep brown biotite is a frequent accessory mineral
and both biotite and hornblende sometimes enclose olivine.
A small amount of basic plagioclase occurs in many picrites;
apatite, iron oxides, chromite and spineb are minor ingredients
seldom altogether absent.
586
PICROTOXIN- -PICTON
The minerals of picrites arc very frequently decomposed.
Serpentine partly or wholly replaces olivine, forming radiate
fibrous masses which arc green, yellow or red in microscopic
sections. Sometimes hornblende (pilite), talc, chlorite and mica
appear as secondary products after olivine. The augite passes
into chlorite or into green fibrous or platy ampliibole. Horn-
blende and biotite are often fresh when the other components
arc much altered. The felspar is rarely in good preservation
but yields epidote, prehnite, sericite, kaoUn, calcite and analcite
are abundant in some weathered picrites.
Rocks of this type arc well represented in Great Britain. In
the central valley of Scotland several masses of picrite have been
discovered, always in close a^sociution with olivine-diabasc and
tt*!M:hcnitc. One of thcfic forms the island of Inchcolm in the Firth
of Forth, another lies near Bathgate (in Linlithgow&hia*). and there
are others at Atxrrdour (Fifi;). Ardrossiin and Barnton (Midlothian).
1 hey belong to the great series of Carboniferous eruptive rocks of
the Scottish nudland valley. These picrites arc not known to be
represented in Kngland, but, on the other hand, there are Devonian
picrites in Devon and Cornwall as basic members of the diabase
and proterobasc series of these counties. Some of them contain
much augite like the picrite (often called palacopicrite as being of
palaeozoic age) at .Menhcniot Station in Comyrall and the picrite
of Highwcck near Newton Abbot in Devonshire, (^hers arc hom-
blemie-picrites like that of Cartuthcr near St (Germans, Cornwall.
Hornblende-picritc occurs also in the island of Sark and several
beautiful examples have bivn describe<l from Anglesey and from
Penarfynnydd in North Wales and from WickTow in Ireland.
Picrites occur in several parts of Germany, notably in the Devonian
riK^ks of the Fichtelgebirgc and Nassau.^ where they accompany
(iiahases and proterobase^ like those of Cornvi'all ana Devonshire.
In hilesia and Moravia oicrites arc found with tcschenitcs like tho:ie
of Central Scotland. In some of the continental picrites ensta-
tite IS present but is rare. In North America picrites occur
among the igneous rocks on the Hudson river and in Alabama and
Montana. (J. S. F.)
PICROTOXIN, a neutral principle obtained from the Cocculus
indicus^ which is the fruit of the Anamirta paniculata. It is
used in medicine externally as an antiparasitic. Internally it
has been successfully used to check the night-sweats of phthisis.
In large doses it is a powerful poison, causing unconsciousness,
delirium, convulsions, gastro-entcritis and stimulation of the
respiratory centre followed by paralysis, from which death
sometimes results. Formerly low class publicans sometimes
added Cocculus ituiicus berries to beer to increase the intoxicat-
ing cflccls. Its chemical formula is CuHuO*' H2O.
PICTET DE LA RIVE. FRANCOIS JULES (1809-1872), Swiss
zoologist and palaeontologist, was bom in Geneva on the 27th
of September 1809. He graduated B. Cs Sc. at Geneva in 1829,
and pursued his studies for a short time at Paris, where under
the influence of Cuvier, de Blainville and others, he worked at
natural history and comparative anatomy. On his return to
Geneva in 1830 he assisted A. P. de CandoUe by giving demon-
strations in comparative anatomy. Five years later, when de
CandoUe retired, Pictet was appointed professor of zoology and
comparative anatomy. In 1846 his dutic*s were restricted to
certain branches of zoology, including geology and palaeontology,
and these he continued to teach until 1850, when he retired to
devote his energies to the museum of natural history and to
special palaeontological work. He was rector of the academy
from 1847 to 1850, and again from 1866 to 186S. He was for
many years a member of the Representative Council of Geneva,
and in 1862 President of the Constituent Assembly. His earlier
published work related chiefly to entomology, and included
Rcchcrchcs pour servir d I'histoire et d Vonatomie dcs Phryganides
(1834) and two parts of Hisioirc naiurdle, f^fuirale el particuliire
dcs inscctcs Neuroptires (1842-1845). Feeling the want of a
hand-book, he prepared his TraiU £lSmcntaire de paltonlologie
(4 vols. 1844-1846). In the first edition Pictet, while adopting
the hypothesis of successive creations of species, admitted that
some may have originated through the modification of pre-
existing forms. In his second edition (1853-1857) he enters
further into the probable transformation of some species, and
discusses the independence of certain faunas, which did not
apj-Jcar to have originated from the types which locally preceded
them. He now directed his attention to the fossils of his native
country, more especially to those of the Cretaceous and Jurassic
strata, and in 1854 he commenced the publtcation of lu gntt
work, MaUnaux pour la palivniologu sutsstt a series of qoaito
memoirs, of which six were published (1854-1S73). In tin
work Pictet was aided by E Renevier, G. Campkhe, P. de
Lonol and others Pictet also brought out Mticnges peliMlo-
logiques (i86^-iS6S). He died at Geneva on the 15th of Mud
1872.
Obituary by W. S.'DaX^Quiut. JounuGeoL 50e.(i873},voLzziz.
PICTON, SIR THOMAS (175^1815). Bntish general, was tbe
younger son of Thomas Pic ton, of Poyston, Pembrokeshire,
where he was bom in August 1758. In 1771 he obtained an
ensign's commission in the 12th regiment of foot, bot be did
not join until two years afterwards. The regiment was then
stationed at Gibraltar, where he remained until he was node
captain in the 75th in January 1778, when he returned to
England. The regiment was disbanded five years later. Oi
the occasion of its disbandment Picton quelled a mutiny aoonfist
the men by his prompt personal action and courage, and «-as
promised a majority in revrard for his conduct. Thh, hovnrr,
he did not receive, and after living in retirement on his father's
estate for nearly twelve years, he went out to the West Icdio
in 1794 on the strength of a slight acquaintance with Sir Joha
Vaughan, the commander-in-chief, who made him his aid^d^
camp and gave him a captaincy in the 17th foot. Shortly
afterwards he was promoted major. Under Sir Ralph Abe^
cromby, who succeeded Vaughan in 1795, ^c took part in the
capture of St Lucia (for which he was promoted lieutenaat-
colonel) and in that of St Vincent. After the reduction flf
Trinidad Abercromby made him governor of the island. He
administered the island with such success that the iphaNt»"*«
petitioned against the retrocession of the island to Spain, and
their protest, with Picton's and Abercromby's representatioai,
ensured the retention of Trinidad as a British posscsskm. la
October 1801 he was gazetted brigadier-general. But by tUs
time the rigour of his government, as reported by his eoenieii
had led to a demand by humanitarians at home for his mnonL
Colonel William Fullarton (1754-1808) procured the appoiotoal
of a commission to govern the island, of which he hinudf *as
the senior member. Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Samiiel)
Hood the second, and Picton himself the junior. Piaon theI^
upon tendered his resignation, and Hood, as soon as the natoie
of Fullarton's proceedings became obvious, followed his euia|4e
(1803). On his way home Picton took part with great credit
in military operations in St Lucia and Tobago. Reali&Bft
however, that the attacks upon him were increasing in virulence,
he quickly returned to England, and in December 1803 he nt
arrested by order of the privy council. He was tried in tbe
court of king's bench before Lord EUenborough in 1806 00 1
charge of unlawfully applying torture to extort a coofcssoi
from Luise Calderon, a mulatto woman of loose character who
was charged, along with a man, with robbery. The tortuR
consisted in compelling the woman to stand on one leg on a flat*
headed peg for one hour. The punishment was ordered under
Spanish law (which in default of a fresh code PictMi had been
appointed to administer in 1801) by the local alcakie, aid
approved by Picton. On these gnmnds the court returned a
merely technical verdict of guilty, which was superseded in
1808 by a special verdict on retrial. It should be xnentiooed
that the inhabitants of the island, who had already given bia
a sword of honour, and had petitioned the king not to accept
his resignation, subscribed £4000 towards his legal expcnsei,
which sum Picton contributed in return to the relief of ibe
suffering caused by a widespread fire in Port of Spain. He bad
meanwhile been promoted major-general, and in 1809 he bad
been governor of Flushing during the Walchercn expedi'Jon.
In 1810, at Wellington's request, he was appointed to comn^
a division in Spain. For the remaining years of the Pemnsolar
War, Picton was one of Wellington's principal subordinates.
The commander-in-chief, it is true, never reposed in bin tbe
confidence that he gave to Beresford Hill and Cratdurd. Bat
in the resolute, thorough and punctual execution of a weS-
dcfined task Picton had no superior in the army. His df^
PICTOU— PIEDMONT
587
owing partly to his naturally stem and now embittered temper,
and partly to the difficult position in which he was placed, was
ulortunate. On the Coa in July 1810 Craufurd's division
became involved in an action, and Picton, his nearest neighbour,
lefused to support him, as Wellington's direct orders were to
tvoid an engagement. Details of the incident will be found in
Oman, Peninsular War^ vol. iii. Shortly after this, however,
tt Busaco, Picton found and used his first great opportunity
for distinction. Here he had a plain duty, that of repulsing
the French attack, and he performed that duty with a skill and
resolution which indicated his great powers as a troop-leader.
After the winter in the lines of Torres Vedras, he added to his
reputation and to that of his division, the 3rd, at Fuentes d'Onor.
In September he was given the local rank of heutenant-general,
and in the same month the division won great glory by its rapid
sad orderly retirement under severe pressure from the French
cavalry at £1 Bodon. In October Picton was appointed to the
colonelcy of the 77th regiment. In the first operations of 181 2
Picton and Craufurd, side by side for the last time, stormed the
two breaches of Ciudad Rodrigo, Craufurd and Picton's second
in command, Major-General Mackinnon, being mortallywoimded.
At Badajoz, a month later, the successful storming of the fortress
was due to his daring self-reliance and penetration in converting
the secondary attack on the castle, delivered by the 3rd division,
into a real one. He was himself wounded in this terrible engage-
ment, but would not leave the ramparts, and the day after,
having recently inherited a fortune, he gave every survivor of
ius command a guinea. His wound, and an attack of fever,
compelled him to return to England to recruit his health, but
he reappeared at the front in April 1813. While in England he
ms invested with the collar and badge of a K.B. by the prince
regent, and in June he was made a lieutenant-general in the
army. The conduct of the 3rd division under his leadership
It the battle of Vittoria and in the engagements in the Pyrenees
raised his reputation as a resolute and skilful fighting general
to a still higher point. Early in 18 14 he was offered, but after
consulting Wellington declined, the command of the British
forces operating on the side of Catalonia. He thus bore his
ihare in the Orthez campaign and in the final victory before
Toulouse.
On the break-up of the division the officers presented Picton
vith a valuable service of plate, and on the 24th of June 1814
be received for the seventh time the thanks of the House of
Commons for his great services. Somewhat to his disappoint-
Bent he was not included amongst the generals who were raised
to the peerage, but early in 181 5 he was made a G.C.B. When
Napoleon returned from Elba, Picton, at Wellington's request,
iccepted a high command in the Anglo-Dutch army. He was
leverely wounded at Quatre Bras on the i6th of June, but
3oncealed his wound and retained command of his troops, and at
HTaterloo on the i8tb, while repulsing with impetuous valour
" one of the most serious attacks made by the enemy on our
XMJtion," he was shot through the head by a musket ball. His
iiody was brought home to London, and buried in the family
ranlt at St George's, Hanover Square. A public monument
iras erected to his memory in St Paul's Cathedral, by order of
Parliament, and in 1833 another was erected at Carmarthen by
lobscription, the king contributing a hundred guineas thereto.
See Robinson's Life of Sir Thomas Picton (London. 1836), with
vhich. however, compare Napier's and Oman's histories of the
Peninsular War as to controversial points.
nCTOU, a seaport, port of entry, and capital of Pictou
aunty. Nova Scotia, 90 m. N.E. by N. of Halifax, on a branch
4 the Intercolonial railway. Pop. (iqoi), 3235. It has
everal valuable industries, and is the shipping port for the
;djacent coal-mines. The Academy, founded in 18 18, played
II important part in the early educational history of the
•rovince, and still enjoys a high reputation.
nCUS, in Roman mythology, originally the woodpecker, the
ivonrite bird and symbol of Mars as the god of both nature
Bd war. He appears later as a spirit of the forests, endowed
ith the gift of prophecy, haunting springs and streams, with I
a special sanctuary in a grove on the Aventine. As a god of
agriculture, especially connected with manuring the soil, he is
called the son of Stercutus (from sUrcuSt dung, a name of
Saturn). Again, Picus is the first king of Latium, son of Saturn
and father of Faunus. Virgil {Aen, vil. 170) describes the
reception of the ambassadors of Aeneas by Latinus in an andent
temple or palace, containing figures of his divine ancestors,
amongst them Picus, famous as an augur and soothsayer. Ac-
cording to Ovid {Mektm. ziv., 320), Circe, while gathering herbs
in the forest, saw the youthful hero out hunting, and immediately
fell in love with him. Picus rejected her advances, and the
goddess in her anger changed him into a woodpecker, which
pecks impotently at the branches of trees, but still retains
prophetic powers. The purple cloak which Picus wore fastened
by a golden clasp is preserved in the plumage of the bird. In
the simplest form of art, he was represented by a wooden pillar
surmounted by a woodpecker; later, as a yoimg man with the
bird upon his head.
PicuMNUs b merely another form of I^cus, and with him is
associated his brother and double Pilumnus. Picumnus, a rustic
deity (like Picus) and husband of Pomona, is specially concerned
with the manuring of the soil and hence called SUrquUinu^ . while
Pilumnus is the inventor of the poundine of grain, so named from
the pestle (pilum) used by bakers. Under a different aspect, the
pair were regarded as the guardians of women in childbed and of
new-bom children. Before the child was taken up and formally
recognized by the father, a couch was sot out for them in the atrium,
where their presence guarded it from all evil. Augustine (De
civitate dei, w. 9) mentions a curious custom: to protect a woman
in childbed from possible violence on the part of Silvanus. the
assistance of three deities was invoked — Intcrcidona (the hewer),
Pilumnus (the pounder) and I>everra (the sweeper). The^e deities
were svmbolically represented by three men who went round the
house by night. One smote the threshold with an axe. another
with a pestle, the third swept it with a broom — three symbols of
culture (for trees were hewn down with the axe, grain pounded with
the pestle, and the fruits of the field swept up with the broom)
which Silvanus could not endure.
PIDGIN (or Pigeon] ENGLISH, the lingua franca of the sea-
ports of China, the Straits Settlements in the Far East, con-
sisting in a jargon of corrupted English words with some inter-
mixture of Portuguese and Malay, following Chinese idiomatic
usage. It is employed as a means of communication between
foreigners and the native Chinese.. The word " pidgin " is the
Chinese corruption of " business."
PIE. (i) The name of the bird more generally known as
the magpie {q.v.). The word comes through the French from
Lat. pica {q.v.). It is probably from the black and white or
spotted appearance of the bird that the name "pic" or "pye"
(Lat. pica) was given to the ordinal, a table or calendar which
supplemented that which gave the services for the fixed festivals,
&c., and pointed out the effect on them of the festivals rendered
movable by the changing date of Easter. An English act of
1549 (3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 10) abolished " pies " with manuals,
legends, primers and other service books. The parti-colourcd
appearance of the magpie also gives rise to the term " piebald,"
applied to an animal, more particularly a horse, which is marked
with large irregular patches of white and black; where the colour
is white and some colour other than black, the more appropriate
word is " skew-bald," i.e. marked with " skew " or irregular
patches. (2) A dish made of meat, fish or other ingredients,
also of vegetables or friiit, baked in a covering of pastry; in
English usage, where " fruit " is the ingredient, the dish is
generally called a " tart," except in the case of " apple-pie."
"rhe word appears early in the 14th century of meat or fish pies.
The expression " to eat humble-pie," i.e. to make an apology,
to retract or recant, is a facetious adaptation of " umbles "
(O. Fr. nombles, connected with Lat. lumbus, loin or umbilicus,
navel), the inner parts of a deer, to " humble " (Lat. humHis,
lowly). An " umble-pie," made of the inner parts of a deer
or other animal, was once a favourite dish. " Printers* pie,"
i.e. a mass of confused type, is a transferred sense of " pie," the
dish, or of " pie," the ordinal, from the difficulty of decipherment.
PIEDMONT (Ital. Piemonte; Low Lat. Pcdemons and Pede-
numlium), a territorial division (com^<ir(imcnto\ ^V lossc^^xu
588
PIENZA— PIER
Italy, bounded N. by Switxerland, W. by France, S. by-Liguria
and £. by Lombardy. Physically it may be l>riefly described
as the upper gathering-ground and valley of the river Po,
enclosed on all sides except towards the Lombard plain by the
vast semicircle of the Pennine, Graian, Cottian, Maritime and
Ligurian Alps. In 1859 it wa9 divided into the fotir provinces
of Alessandria, Cuneo, Novara and Torino (Turin). It has an
area of 11,340 sq. m. The people are chiefly engaged in agri-
culture— growing wheat, maize and rice, chestnuts, wine and
hemp; in the reeling and throwing of silk and in the manu-
facture of cotton, woollens and clothing; there are also
considerable manufactures at Turin, Savigliano, &c The
Piedmontese dialect has been rather stron^y influenced by
French. The chief towns in the several provinces are as follows,
with their commtmal populations in 1901: Alessandria (72,109),
Asli (39,251), Casale Monferrato (31,370). Novi Ligure (i7iS68),
Tortona (17,419). Acqui (13,940), Valenza (10,956), (Srada
(10,284); ^otal of province 825,745, number of conununes 343;
Cuneo (26,879), Mondovi (18,982), Fossano (18,175), Savigliano
(17,340), Saluzzo (16,028), Bri (15,821), Alba (13,637),
Boves (10,137), total of province 670,504, number of com-
munes 263; Novara (44,249), Vcrcelli (30,470), Biella (19,267)
Trino (12,138), Borgomanero (10,131), total of province 763,830;
number of communes, 437; Turin (329,691), Pinerolo (18,039),
Carroagnola (11,721), Ivrca (11,696), Moncalieri (11,467); total
of province 1,147,414, number of communes, 442. The total
population of Piedmont was 2,738,814 in 1859, and in 1901
3,407,493 The large number of commimes is noticeable, as
in Lombardy, and points to a village life which, owing to greater
insecurity and the character of the country, is not' to be found
in central and southern Italy as a whole. There are nimierous
summer resorts in the Alpine valleys. The chief railway centres
are Turin, communicating with the Mont Cenis line, and with
the Riviera by the railway over the Col di Tenda (in process of
construction), Novara, Vercelli, Asti, Alessandria, Novl The
communications with Liguria are dilBc\ilt owing to the approach
of the moimtains to the coast, and the existing lines from Genoa
to Turin and Milan are hardly sufficient to cope with the traffic
Piedmont in Roman times until 49 B.C. formed a part of Gallia
Transpadana, and in Augustus' division of Italy formed with
what was later known as Lombardy the nth region. It f<Mined
part of the Lombard kingdom, and it was not till about a.d. iooo
that the house of Savoy (q.v.) arose. The subsequent history
of Piedmont is that of its dynasty.
PIENZA, a town of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Siena,
9 m. west of the town of Montepulciano by road, 161 1 ft. above
sea-level. Pop. (1901), 2730 (town); 3836 (commune). The
place was originally called Corsignano and owes its present name
to Aeneas Silvias Piccolomini, Pope Pius II. (g.v.) who was bom
here in 1405. The buildings which he caused to be erected by
Bernardo Rossellino in 1460- 1463 form a noble group of early
Renaissance architecture round the Piazza del Duomo. The
latter retains Gothic details in the interior, but the facade is
simple Renaissance work. The other three sides are occupied
by the episcopal and municipal palaces, and the Palazzo Picco-
lomini; the last, resembling the Palazzo Rucellai at Florence,
is the finest, and in front of it is a beautiful fountain. The
episcopal palace contains a museum with some fine ecclesiastical
vestments, enamels and other works of art.
PIER (older forms per or pere, from Med. Lat. pera; the word
IS of obscure origin, and the connexion with Fr. picrre, Lat.
Petra, stone, is doubtful; equivalents are Fr. piedroU, pUier,
trumcau; Ital. pila; Ger. PfeiUr), the term given in architecture
to a vertical support in masonry or brickwork, usually rect-
angular on plan, which carries an arch or superstructure. The
term is also sometimes given to the great circular columns which
in some English cathedrals and churches carry the nave arches.
In early Christian churches, when antique columns, such as
abounded in Rome, were not procurable, square piers took the
place of columns and sometimes alternated with them. The
introduction of vaulting, however, in the nth century, ncces-
sitated a support of much greater dimensions than those which
had been deemed suffideiit when the roof was of timber coly,
and led to the development of the compound or dustercd pio;
To give extra support to the subordinate arches of the atvt
arcade, semicircular shafts or pilasters were added, cairied vp
to the transverse and diagonal ribs of the ouin vault h
Romanesque work the pier was generally square on pita with
semicircular shafts attached, the angles of the fner being vocfad
with smaller shafts. As the rings or orders of the nave ucki
increased in number, additional shafts were added to anj
them, and the pilaster facing the nave had central and side ihsfts
rising to carry the transverse and diagonal ribs of the vatih; tUi
development of the compound pier obtains throughout Eorope
in all vaulted structures. In the Eariy English period the pies
become loftier and lighter, and in most important buikiingi a
series of clustered columns, frequently of marUe, are pbced
side by side, sometimes set at intervals round a drcuhr ceotn^
and sometimes almost touching each other. These shafts are
often wholly detached from the central pier, thou^ grouped
round it, in which case they are almost always of Purbed or
Bethersden marbles. In Dcicorated woric the shafts on plan are
very often placed round a square set an^e-wise, or a kneoge^
the long way down the nave; the centre or core itsdf is often
worked into hollows or other mouldings, to show between the
shafts, and to form part of the composition. In this and tlie
latter part of the previous style there is generally a fillet oo the
outer part of the shaft, forming what has been called a *' ked
moulding " (q.v.). They are also often tied together by baadi.
formed of rings of stone and sometimes of metaL Aboot thi
period, too, these intermediate mouldings run up into and fon
part of the arch moulds, there being no impost. This amnge'
ment became much more frequent in the Perpendicular period;
in fact it was almost universal, the commonest section being a
lozenge set with the long side from the nave to the aisle, and not
towards the other arches, as in the Decorated period, with foor
shafts at the an^ks, between which were shallow mouldiiA
one of which was in general a wide hollow, scHnetimes with vale
moulds. The small columns at the jambs of doors and windoM^
and m arcades, and also those attached to piers or staM&f
detached, are generally called " shafts " (9.*.).
The term pier is sometimes applied to the solid parts of a «al
between windows or voids, and also to the isolated maws d
brickwork or masonry to which gates are hung. (R. P. S.)
Piers of Bridges. — ^The piers of bridges and viaducts oa Ini
are constructed of masoruy or brickworic andoocaaaooaly.ii
the case of high piers, of q>en braced ironwork, as aatm^Md
by the old Crumlln viaduct in Wales and the Pecos visAKtii
Texas. These piers, besides being prop(wtioii«l in ausi inliw
to the weight they have to support, are widened oitt at their tefl^
so as to distribute the load over a sufficient area for it to 1
by the stratum on which it rests without risk of
Special provisions have to be made for the foundatioos of piflB
where the ground is soft for some depth, or loose watcr-beaii^
strata are encountered, and especially where the piers of hige
bridges crossing rivers have to be constructed under waUL
In soft ground, bearing piles driven down to a firm stratum, aad
surmounted by a planked floor or a layer of concrete, provide a
convenient foundation for a pier; and in places where timber ii
abundant, wooden cribs filled with rubble stone or ceoads
have been used in the United States for raising the foundatiosi
for piers out of water. For river piers, whoe a firm, waterti^
stratum is found at a moderate depth bdow the river-bed, the
site is often enclosed within a coffer-dam or a plate iron caioas
carried down into the stratum and raised out of water; and thes,
after the water has been pumped out and the surface byes
removed, the pier is readily built within the cndosore ia the
open air. When, however, a river-bed consists of sflt, and tf
other soft materials extending down to a considersble depd^
brickwork wells are gradually sunk to a firm stratum by reBOviH
the material within them with grabs, and on them the pieis an
built out of water; or bottomless caissons are carried down by
excavating their interiors under compressed air, and the pioi
are built on top of them within a plate-iroa cwJusim^ a wpHiM
VMbtthcplcnof tbcBKwklxn. Si Louii, Forth and oihc
Itbddtcs, tod sMntial toi laming foLnd;itioiii on iloping
i, (Kb u wai tncounterwl in placH undet the Firth of
lurable cooditioDs belong
1/ lo the touDditJoiu ol other stnicturd (tee Fodkim-
)-, hul there ire »me metbodl vhich, by combining bridge
ud their Eoundatiani in > tingle iltucture, mppertain
jj to pien. Tbut iron >crew pilei, sunk by turning into
bolted together with t ipedatJy itrong be
employed for tlie coDstnction of the river
gnduElLy arried down to a watertight &t
iniide, and lubicquently Med up uLid wil
icrou the Thaniea a» notable inalances o
method, which ii well illuitiatedbyihepie
the River Chitttaviti in Indi»
(fig. j). Sometimei, inilead oi two
or more independent cylinder! being
•unli, Ihe w' ■ ■ '
589
it bndgej, being
■rought-in
n, uiualty divided in
nical paniiioni, which ii sank
and filled up ulid in the ume way
I cylinder!, a lyilera adopted. For
lou the Havkcsbuty Rivet in New
South Wales.
Hieiuilc Piers. — The term juer
LI often applied to works iheiteting
1 the Tynemoulh
Landing ttagei also, whether solid
or open, have for a lona time been
e Princi
Wales'! Pier
Fio. I.
-Pief with Diik Pilei
nA bed ol k river till they reach a Sted itiatum or one
destly consolidated by the tupcriocumbent layers 10 enable
t support the wide blades of the acrewa with the weight
■ed 00 them, were formerly often arranged in converging
Ol joined together at the top, » aa to serve as the piers of
^ having several comparatively small spans, and intended
anrisg lightly couilrucled railways acroas rivers In India
ebewbere. Hollow, cast-iron, cylindrical piles also, with a
i circular disk at the bottom to increase their bearing
Dover; but (he c^n piotneimde
pien whkb form a common feature
ini are the type of
iwn to (he general
public These pier* are lUpported Fic 1.— Cylindrical Pien
jn open [rilewotk ol timber or '" """ Bndgea.
a, and consequently eipose little surface to waves in storms
I dt> not interfere with the drift of shingle or sand along the
1st (Gg- 3).' Umber piles ut best suited for withstanding
: shocks o[ vessels at landing stages, at which places they
generally tued; but since Ihey are subject to the attacks of
: teredo, and e^tpose a considerable surface tg the waves. Iron
a are generally adopted for Ihe main portion of these piers.
Hie piaoeer cf these pierm was the aid chain pier at Brighton,
ich wai erected in l&2i-lS2^. It wu fojnded upon oak piles,
I 1t36 h. 1an£, and had a lunber landing'ilage at the end. It
n was first adopted tor (he piei
the wide, sandy Kent and Leve
ecambe Bay (fig. .). Cast-ire
ca ol rings formed of Mgments a
? ibown aa the mode of tuppoft for
(r (lB«ei,v.ieD,^\ai>&^^
590
PIERCE— PIERO DI COSIMO
at St Lconardx (fig. 3). The length given to these ptomenadc
piers depends mainly on the slope of the forcbhore, which deter-
mines the distance from the shore at which a sufficient depth is
reached for steamers of m<xlerate draught to come alonfTMue the
end of I he pier. Thus, whereas a length of 900 ft. has sufficed for
the St Leonanls pier on a somewhat steep, shingly l>each, the pier
at Ryde, constituting the principal lanuing-pbce for the Isle of
Wi^ht passengers, has had to be carried out about half a mile across
a Hat alluviiil foreshore to rtrach water deep enough for the access
of the steamlHiais crossing the Solent. The vast sands, moreover,
at the outlet of the KiliMe estuar>', stretching two or three miles
in front of Southport at low water of spring tides, have necessitated
the construction of a pier 4395 ft. long merely to get out to an
old fluod-tide channel, which is now comi)letely severed by the
sands at low water from all connexion with the river.
(L. F. V.-H.)
PIERCE, FRANKLIN ( 1 804-1 869), fourteenth president of
the United States, was bom at Hillsborough, New Hampshire,
on the 23rd of November 1804. His father, Benjamin Pierce
(1757-1839), served in the American army throughout the War
of Independence, was a Democratic member of the New Hamp-
shire House of Representatives from 1789 to 1803, and was
governor of the state in 1827-1829. The son graduated in 1824
at Bowdoin College, at Brunswick, Alaine, where he formed a
friendship with Nathaniel Hawthorne. Pierce then studied law,
and in i8::7 was admitted to the bar and began to practise
at Hillsborough. He at once took a lively interest in politics,
and from 1829 to 1833 served in the state House of Representa-
tives, for the last two years as Speaker. In 1833 he entered the
national House of Representatives, and although he achieved
no distinction in debate he was a hard worker, and a loyal sup-
porter of the policies of President Jackson. After four years
in the House he entered the Senate, being its youngest member.
In 1842, before the expiration of his term, he resigned his seal,
and at Concord, New Hampshire, began his career at the bar in
earnest, though still retaining an interest in politics. In 1845
he declined the Democratic nomination for governor, and also
an appointment to the scat in the United States Senate made
vacant by the resignation of Judge Levi Woodbury. He
accepted, however, an apix)intment as Federal District Attorney
fur New Hampshire, as the duties of this office, which he held in
1845-1847, were closely related to those of his profession. In
1846 he again declined public honours, when President Polk
invited him to enter the cabinet as attorney-general. Soon
after the outbreak of the war w^ith Mexico, in 1846, Pierce
enlisted as a private at Concord, but soon (in P'ebruary 1847)
became colonel of the Ninth Regiment (which joined General
Wintield Scott at Pueblo on the 6th of August 1847), and later
(March, 1847) became a brigadier-general of volunteers. At the
battle of Contreras, on the 10th of August 1847, he was thrown
from his horse and received severe injuries. At the end of the
war he resigned his commission and returned to Concord. In
1850 Pierce became president of a convention assembled at
Concord to revise the constitution of his state, and used his
intluence to secure the removal of those provisions of the con-
stitution of 1792 which dccbred that only Protestants should be
eligible for higher state offices. This amendment passed the
convention in April 1S52, but was rejected by the electorate of
the stale; a similar amendment w^as adopted by popular vote in
1S77. In January 1852 the legislature of New Hampshire
proposed him as a candidate for the presidency, and when the
Democratic national convention met at Baltimore in the follow-
ing June the Virginia delegation brought forward his name on
the thirty-fifth ballot. Although both parties had declared
the Compromise of 1S50 a finality, the Democrats alone were
thoroughly united in support of this declaration, and therefore
seemed to offer the greater prospect of peace. This fact, com-
bined with the colourless record of their candidate, enabled
tlicm to sweep the country at the November election. Pierce
received 254 electoral votes, and General WinfielJ Scott, his
Whig opponent, only 42. The Democrats carried every state
except Massachusetts, Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee. No
president since James Monroe had received such a vote.
Pierce was the youngest man who had as yet been elevated
to the presidency. For his cabinet he chose William L. Marcy
of New York, secretary of state, Jefferson Davis of MissSMppi,
secretary of war, James Guthrie (1792-1S69) of Kentudy,
secretary of the treasur>'; James C. Dobbin (1814-1857) U
North Carolina, secretary of the navy; Robert McCdland
(1807-1880) of Michigan, secretary of the interior; Juks
Campbell (1 813-1 S93) of Pennsylvania, postmasler-gencnl;
and Caleb Cushing of Massachusetts, attorncy-gencnl. Hiii
was an able body of men, and is the only cabinet In Americaa
history that has continued unbroken throughout an entire
administration. Although Pierce during his term in the Scute
had severely criticized the Whigs for their remoi'als of Drakr
crats from office, he himself now adopted the policy of rcpbdj|
Whigs by Democrats, and the country acquiesced. Pierce had
no scruples against slavery, and opposed anti-slavei>' agit&iioo
as tending to disrupt the Union. The conduct of fortifn
relations was on the whole the most creditable part of his adminis-
tration. The Koszta Affair (1853) gave th^^ govemment u
opportunity vigorously to SLSScrt the protection it would t&vA
those in the process of becoming its naturalized citizens, ^ftlm
the British government refused to prevent recruiting for ik
Crimean War by their representatives in America, their auci::er,
John F. Crampton, received his passports, and the eieqnstun
of the British consuls at New York, Philadelphia and Cincinuli
were revoked. A commercial treaty was negotiated with J^>u
in 1854 after Perry's expedition in the previous >'ear. As u
avowed expansionist, Pierce sympathized v.ith the fih'bis'.cr
government set up in Nicaragua by William Walker, and cmHf
accorded it recognition. It was during this term also that ihr
Gadsden Purchase was consummated, by which 45,533 sq. DLflf
territory were acquired from Mexico, and that three routes ««
surveyed for railwa>'s from the Mississippi river to the Fk^C
coast.
When the Democratic national conven'Ion met at GndnEtfi
in June 1856, Pierce was an avowed candidate for renocuDiliat.
but as his attitude on the slavery question, and c^xciallv lii
subser\'iency to the South in supporting the pro-slavery pu^
in the Territory of Kansas, had lost him the support of tk
Northern wing of his party, the nomination went to Jiod
Buchanan. After retiring from the presidency Pierce ittuad
to Concord, and soon afterwards went abroad for a three >tu^
tour in Europe. Many Southern leaders desired his rcDOoa^
tion by the Democratic party in i860, but he received sc(h
suggestions with disfavour. After his return to Amelia k
remained in retirement at Concord until the day of his doli^
the 8th of October 1869.
Pierce was not a great statesman, and his f:ime hai Ixa
overshadowed by that of Benton, Calhoun, Clay and Wdbdct
But he was an able law>'er, an orator of no mean ttpuUUBO,
and a brave soldier. He was a man of fine appearance od
courtly manners, and he possessed personal magnetism asd tk
ability to make friends, two qualities that contributed inpsl
measure to his success.
A portion of Pierce's correspondence has been publiibrd ii di
American Historical Review, x. 110-127, 350-370. D. W. Bjitknli
Franklin Pierce (Aul>um, New York. 1852), and Nathaniri H«^
ihorne's Franklin Fierce (Boston. 18^2). are two "cainpWi"
biographies and arc very eulogistic. J. R. Irelan's Hiikrj^^
Life, Administration and Times of Franklin Pierce (ChirjfOi, iMQf
U-ing vol. xiv. of his Republic, is a more critical m-ork. but iucct>
rate as to details. J. h. Cooley's Review cf the Admiwisteti^i
General Pierce (New York, 1854) and Anna E. CarroH's Rntw^ '
Pierce's Administration (Boston, 1856) arc hostile ant i^ainitB*'
tion tracts. The best accounts of Pierce's adminictntiDa xt9
be found in James Schouler's History of the United Slates. voL v. (««
I'd., New York. 1894); J. F. Rhodes* History of the Iwifrtf «.■*
vols. i. and ii. (New York. 1893-1894); and J. W. Bur^esA's ifii*
Period (New York, 1900).
PIERO DI COSIMO (1462-1521), the name by which ik
Florentine painter Pietro di Lorenzo is generally known. Hc«fl
bom in Florence about 1463, and worked ia the beUtfi d
Cosimo Rosselli (from whom he derived his popular udcI.
Other influences that can be traced in his work are thoK<'
Filippino Ltppi, Luca Signorelli, and Leonardo da Vinci, and. tt
has been recently suggested by Professor R. Muther, thai id
Hugo van dcr (xoes, whose Portinari altar-piece (now al tk.
i
PIERRE— PIERREPONT 591
r S. Maria Novella in Florence) helped to lead the whole years thereafter Fort Pierre was the chief fur-trading depot
tine painting into new channels. From him, most of the Upper Missouri country. In 1855 the United States
he acquired the love of landscape and the intimate government bought the post building and other property for
5 of the growth of flowers and of animal life. The $45,000, and laid out around them a military reservation of
of Hugo van dcr Goes is especially apparent in the about 270 sq. m. The fort was the headquarters of General
9n of the Shepherds," at the Berlin Museum. He had William S. Harney (1800-1889) in his expedition against the
'. a fertile fantastic imagination, which, as a result of a Sioux in 1856, and jn March of that year an important council
0 Rome in 1482 with his master, Rosselli, became between General Harney and the chiefs of all the Sioux bands»
owards the myths of classic antiquity. He proves except the Blackfeet, was held here. The fort was abandoned
true child of the Renaissance in such pictures as the in 1857. Pierre was laid out in 1880, was incorporated as a.
4 Procris/' at the National Gallery, the ** Mars and village in 1883, and was charter^ as a city in 1900.
t the Berlin Gallery, the " Perseus and Andromeda " Sec Major Frederick T. Wllsonj " Fort Pierre and Its Neighbors,'^
the Ufiizi in Florence, and the " Hylas and the in 5ott/A DaAoto JJJiforJca/ Co/I^diwu, vol. i. (Aberdeen. S.D., 1902);
• belonging to Mr Benson. If, as we are told by tP^Vi'^U. N«S Ywfc linT American Fur Trade of the Far
t spent the last years of his life in gloomy retire- «-«««« JL» .___„■ _r^' «» « , ...
change was probably due to Savonarola, under whose ^ "™^? ^? CASTEU^AU (d 1208), French ecclesiastic, was
he turned his attention once more to rcUgious art. ^'P/^ ^*l« diocese of Montpelher. In 1199 he was archdeacon
maculate Conception," at the Vm, and the " Holy ^^ Maguelonne, and was appomted by Pope Innocent III as
at Dresden, best iUustratc the religious fervour to ?"« ^^ ^^^ i^^" ^°',^« suppression of heresy m Langucdoc.
^as stimulated by the stem preacher. i? "°*' '^J*^" » "Jo"?' »° ^"^ Cistercian abb^ of Fontfroide,
« exception of the landscape background in Rossclli's Narbonne. he was designated to similar work first in Toulouse,
ihe " Senfion on the Mount," in the Sistine Chapel, ^^^ afterwards at Viviers and Montpdlier. In 1207 he was m
10 record of any fresco work from his brush. On the J**'^ Rhone vaUey and in Provence, where he became involved
1, he enjoyed a great rcpuUtion as a portrait painter, "J J^"" ,*t"^« between the count of Baux and Raymond, count
t only known examples that can be definitely ascribed ^^ Toidouse, by one of whose agents he was assassinated on the
t the portrait of a warrior, at the National Gallery, 35th of January 1208 He was beatified m the year of his death
, the so^aUed " Bella Simonetta," at Chantilly, the '^ V ""Pf T?^° J, H^' „. , „. . ^ .
rf Giuliano di SanGallo and his father, at the Hague, A^e^auJan^^^P;^!&S^ Castdnau et let
d of a youth, at Dulwich. Vasari relates that Piero »™»««»«^ . vran*. '' _ . ^ .
1 designing pageants and triumphal processions for "ERREPONDS. » town of northern France, in the depart-
re-loving youths of Horence, and gives a vivid descrip- »"CJ^* <'t.9*^' ? /"' ^^: °^. Compi^gne by road. Pop. (1906),
e such procession at the end of the carnival of 1507, ^f'' }^ « celebrated for its feudal stronghold, a masteipiece
istrated the triumph of death. Piero di Cosimo °l "^"^^^ restoration. The building is rectangular in shape,
x>nsiderable influence upon his feUow pupiU Alberti- ^'J.^^^* ^°^«=^,^^ ^^^ '^^l' *"d ^^ '^? «^«^'e of each of the waUs,
lartolommeo della PorU and was the master of Andrea which are strengthened by crenelation and machicolaUon. A
Examples of his work are also to be found at the !P[^y .^f P. dc^^^dsthc pnnapal entrances on the south-west.
Paris, Ihe Harrach and Liechtenstein collections in Thcmtenor buildmgs are chiefly modern, but the extcnor
he Borghese Gallery in Rome, the Spedale degli fcP«>duces faithfully hat of the medieval fortress^ Pierrefonds
in Florence, and in the coUections of Mr John Burke »»" * ^^^^ <*^'!°? ^~P» ^°"! periods from the nth to the
el Comwallis West in London. A « Magdalen " from 16th century, wd its imnend springs are m some repute. The
ras added to the NaUonal Gallery of Rome in 1907. S^'.^" ™ **^ ^ ^^\^\ **^^ °' ^*^^ 'f'^^'^^x}?
. di Cosimo, by F. Knapp (HaUe, 1899) ; Piero di Costmo, Louis d Orl&ms, to whom the domain was given by Charles VI.,
rrfeld (Breslau, 1901). and finished early in the 15th century. It was subsequently
; the capital of South Dakota, U.S.A., and the hcW by the Burgundians, the English and the adherents of the
t of Hughes county, situated on the east bank of the League, from whom it passed to Henry IV. It was dismantled
river, opposite the mouth of the Bad river, about "» 1622. The ruins, bought by Napoleon I., were restored, by
.W. of Yankton. Pop. (1905) 2794; (1910) 3656. order of Napoleon UI., from 1858 to 1895, under the direction,
erved by the Chicago & North- Western railway; the first of Viollet-le-Duc and afterwards of E. Boeswillwald.
{ navigable here, but river traffic has been practically PIERREPONT, WILLIAM (c. 1607-1678), English politician,
. Among the principal buildings are the state was the second son of Robert Pierrcpont, 1st cari of Kingston.
09) and the post office building. Pierre has a public Returned to the Long Parliament in 1640 as member for Great
d is the seat of the Pierre Industrial School (co-educa- Wenlock, he threw his influence on the side of peace and took
med in 1890), a government boarding school (non- part for the parliament in the negotiations with Charles I. at
i) for Indian children. The city has a large trade in Oxford in 1643. Pierrepont was a member of the committee
md is a centre for the mining districts of the Black of both kingdoms, and represented the parliamentary party
or a grain-growing country. Natural gas is used for during the deliberations at Uxbridge in 1645; but from that
leating and power. A fur-trading post. Fort La time, according to Qarendon, he forsook his moderate attitude,
, was built in 1817 by a French fur-trader (from and "contracted more bitterness and sourness than formerly."
00k its name) at the mouth of the Teton or Little This statement, however, is perhaps somewhat exaggerated,
iver (now called the Bad River), on or near the site of as Pierrepont favoured the resumption of negotiations with the
t village of Fort Pierre (pop. in 1910, 792). In 1822 *t»ng in 1647, and in the following year his efforts on behalf of
nseh was built about 2 m. up-stream by the Columbia Pcace at Newport, where again he represented the pariiament-
iny, which turned it over ini827 to the American Fur arians, brought upon him some slight censure from Cromwell.
The washing away of the river bank caused the For his services at Newport he was thanked by parliament; but
rnt of this post and the erection about a mile farther he retired from active political life soon afterwards, as he
and a short distance west of the river, of Fort Pierre disliked the " purging " of the House of Commons by Colonel
later called Fort Pierre), occupied in 1832, and named Pnde and the proceedings against the king. In spite of his
of Pierre Chouteau, jun. (1789-1865).' For twenty Compny. Chouteau buflt (in 1830-1831) the "Yellowstone."
houteau in 1804 succeeded his father, one of the founders whicn went up the river to the present site of Pierre in 1831, and
. in the Missouri Fur Coni[>any: and about 1834 Pratt, was the first steamboat to navigate the upper waters of the Mt>-
: Company, of which he was the leadini; member, bought souri. Chouteau lived for some years in New York City, and while
irestem department of the American Fur Company, and livinf; in St Louis was a member of the convention (1820) which
irganiicd under the name of Pierre Chouteau, jun., & drafted the first constitution of Missouri.
592
PIERROT— PIETERSBURG
moderate xn'ews Picrrcpont enjoyed the personal friendship of
Cromwell; but, although elected, he would not sit in the parlia-
ment of 1656, nor would he take the place offered to him in the
Protector's House of Lords. When Richard Cromwell suc-
ceeded his father, Pierrcpont was an unobtrusive but powerful
influence in directing the policy of the government, and after a
short period of retirement on Richard's fall he was chosen,
early in 1660, a member of the council of state. He represented
Nottinghamshire in the Convention Parliament of 1660, and
probably was instrumental in saving the lives of some of the
parliamentary leaders. At the general election of 1661 he was
defeated, and, spending the remainder of his life in retirement,
he died in 1678. Pierrepont married Elizabeth, daughter of
Sir Thomas Harris, Bart., of Tong Castle, Shropshire, by whom
he had five sons and five daughters. His eldest son, Robert
(d. 1666), was the father of Robert, 3rd earl, William, 4th earl,
and Evelyn, ist duke of Kingston; and his third son, Gervase
(164Q-1715), was created in 17 14 baron Pierrepont of Hanslope,
a title which became extinct on his death.
PIERROT (Ital. Pedrolino)^ the name given to the leading
character in the French pantomime plays since the i8th century;
transferred from the Italian stage, and revived especially in
recent times. He is always in white, both face and costume,
with a loose and daintily clownish garb, and is represented as of
a freakish disposition. Modern picrrot plays have converted
the picrrot into a romantic and even pathetic figure.
PIERSON, HENRY HUGO [properly Henry Hugh Pearson],
(1815-1873), English composer, was the son of the Rev. Dr
Pearson of St John's College, Oxford, where he was born in
1815; his father afterwards became dean of Salisbury. Pierson
was educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, and
was at first intended for the career of medicine. His musical
powers were too strong to be repressed, and after receiving
instruction from Attwood and A. T. Corfe he went in 1830 to
Germany to study under C. H. Rink, Tomaschek and Reissiger.
He was elected Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh in 1844,
but, owing to a disagreement with the authorities, he resigned
in the following year, and definitely adopted Germany as his
country about the same time, making the change in his names
noted above. His two operas, Leila (Hamburg, 1848) and
CoHtarini (Hamburg, 1872), have not retained their hold upon
the German public as his music to Faust has done, a work which
until quite recently was frequently associated with Goethe's
drama. He was never recognized in England as he was in
Germany, for most of his career fell in the period of the Mendels-
sohn fashion. His most important work was the oratorio
Jerusalem, produced at the Norwich Festival of 1852, and
subsequently given in London (Sacred Harmonic Society, 1853)
and Wiirzburg (1862). For the Norwich Festival (at one of
the meetings a selection from his Faust music was given with
success) he began an oratorio, Hezekiah, in 1869; it was not
finished, but was given in a fragmentary condition at the festival
of that year. These two large works and a number of Pierson's
songs, as well as the three overtures played at the Crystal
Palace, reveal undeniable originality and a wealth of melodic
ideas. He was weak in contrapuntal skill, and his music was
wanting in outline and coherence; but in more fortunate con-
ditions his great gifts might have been turned to better account.
He (lied at Leipzig on the 28th of January 1873, and was buried
at Sonning, Berks., of which parish his brother. Canon Pearson,
was rector.
PIETAS, in Roman mythology, the personification of the sense
of duty towards God and man and the fatherland. According
to a well-known story, a young woman in humble circumstances,
whose father (or mother) was lying in prison under sentence
of death, without food, managed to gain admittance, and
fed her parent with milk from her breast. To commemorate
her filial afTection a temple was dedicated (181 n.c.) by
Manius .Acilius Glabrio to Pietas in the Forum Holitorium
at Rome, on the spot where the young woman had formerly
lived. The temple was probably originally vowed by the
clfJcr Glabrio out of gratitude for the pietas shown during
the engagement by his son, who may have saved his life, as the
elder Africanus that of his father at the battle of Tidnus (Livy
xxi. 46); the legend of the young woman (borrowed from the
Greek stozy of Mycon and Pero, Val. Max. v. 4, ezt. i) was then
connected with the temple by the identification of its site with
that of the prison. There was another temple of Pietas near the
Circus Flaminlus, which Is connected by Amatucd {Ritistc di
sloria antica, 1903) with the story of the pietas of C. Flaminius
(Val. Max. v. 4, 5), and regarded by him as the real seat of the
cult of the goddess, the Pietas of the sanctuary dedicated by
Glabrio being a Greek goddess. Pietas is represented on coins
as a matron throwing Incense on an altar, her attribute being s
stork. Typical examples of " piety " are Aeneas and Antoniiius
Pius, who founded games called Eusebcia at PuteoU in honour of
Hadrian.
See Val. Max. v. 4, 7; Pliny, NaL kisL vii. 121: Ltvy xL 51;
Festus. 5.9.; G. Wissowa, . iiefif «m und KuUus der Romer (1902::
F. Kuntzc, " Die Lcgcnde von der ^ten Tochter," in Jakrbiickv
fur das Uassisehe Allertum (1904), xiii. 280.
PIETERMARITZBURG, the capital of Natal, situated ia
39'' 46' S., 30** 13' £., 45 m. in a direct line (71 by rail) W^'.W.
of Durban. It Ues, 2200 ft. above the sea, north of the nvn
Umsunduzi, and is surrounded by wooded hills. Of these ibe
Town Hill, flat-topped, rises 1600 ft. above the town. Fop.
(1904), 31,119, of whom 15,087 were whites, 10,752 Kaffirs, and
5280 Indians. The town Is laid out on the usual Dutch Souib
African plan — in rectangular blocks with a central market squire.
The public buildings include the legisbtive council cha3:bm
and the legislative assembly buildings, government house, tbe
government offices, college, post office and market buildiris.
The town-hall, a fine building in a modified Renaissance y.}\t
(characteristic of the majority of the other public buildiop^.
has a lofty tower. It was completed in 1901, and replaces i
building destroyed by fire in 1898. St Saviour's is the cjtbeu.nl
church of the Anglican community. The headquarters ot :be
Dutch Reformed Church are also in the town. There ant
monuments of Queen Victoria and Sir Theophilus ShepstcM.
and various war memorials — one commemorating those vbo
fell in Zululand in 1879, and another those who lost their lives
in the Boer War 1899-1902. A large park and botanical gardeu
add to the attractions of the town. A favourite mode of coin
veyance is by rickshaw. The climate is healthy and agreeable,
the mean annual temperature being 65* F. (55* in June, 7x'ic
February). The rainfall is about 38 in. a year, chiefly iz tbe
summer months (Oct.-Mar.), when the heit is tempered bj
violent thunderstorms.
Pietermaritzburg was founded early in 1839 by the ntviy'
arrived Dutch settlers in Natal, and Its name commemon:cs
two of their leaders — Piet Relief and Gerrit Maritz. From tk
time of its establishment it was the seat of the Volksraadof tbe
Natal Boers, and on the submission of the Boers to the Brjisk
in 1842 Maritzburg (as it is usually called) became the car->ial
of the country. It was given a municipal board in 1848. a:d ti
1854 was incorporated as a borough. Railway connexion vrl
Durban was made in 1880, and in 1895 the line was exteo^
to Johannesburg. The borough covers 44 sq. m. and icclt-ies
numerous attractive suburbs. The rateable value is ihczi
£4,000,000. Various industries are carried on, including bnd-
making, tanning, brewing, and cart and wagon building.
See J. F. Ingram, The Story of a» Afrieau City (Mariubi:^
1898).
PIETERSBURG, a town of the Transvaal, capital of :^
Zoutpansberg district, and 177 m. N.N.E. of Pretoria by nL
Pop. (1904), 3276, of whom 1620 were whites. The tovs is
pleasantly utuated, at an elevation of 4200 ft., on a small tribu-
tary of the Zand river affluent of the Limpopo, and is the r^ace
of most importance in the province north of Pretoria. Frsr: it
roads run to Klein Lelaba and other gold-mining centres in th^
neighbourhood, and through it i>asses the old route to Muhc«a-
land, which crosses the Limpopo at Rhodes Drift. TfaeZr-.::-
pansberg district contains a comparatively dense Kaffir popula-
tion, and a native newspaper is published at Pietenburg.
I
Middle WTute Boar.
Large Black Sow.
English Breeds o( Pig, from photographs of F. B9.\ib&%^
Small White Boar.
Tam worth Boar.
ih Breeds ol ?\£, Itom v^^Ao^a^ti^ o( P. Babbag&
PIETISM
593
■• a movement in the Lutheran Church, which arose
:he end of the xyth and continued during the first half
flowing century. The name of Pietists was given to
rents of the movement by its enemies as a term of
ike that of " Methodists " somewhat later in England,
leran Church had, in continuing Mclanchthon's attempt
net the evangelical faith as a doctrinal system, by
century become a creed-bound theological and sacra-
1 institution, which orthodox theologians like Johann
of Jena (d. 1637) ruled with almost the absolutism of
cy. Christian faith had been dismissed from its seat
art, where Luther had placed it, to the cold regions of
:ct. The dogmatic formularies of the Lutheran Church
3ed the position which Luther himself had assigned to
alone, and as a consequence only they were studied
:hed, while the Bible was neglected in the family, the
c pulpit and the university. Instead of advocating
hood of all believers, the Lutheran pastors had made
;s a despotic hierarchy, while they neglected their
pastoral work. In the Reformed Church, on the other
influence of Calvin had made less for doctrine than the
formation of Christian L'fe. The prcsbytcrian constitu-
the people a share in church life which the Lutherans
ut it involved a dogmatic legalism which imperilled
freedom and fostered self-righteousness,
rrunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, not a few
ind powerful voices had been heard bewaiUng the
ings of the Church and advocating a revival of practical
ut Christianity. Amongst them were Jakob Boehme
), the theosophic mystic; Johann Arndt, wh<»e work
Christianity became widely known and appreciated;
MUller, who described the font, the pulpit, the con-
and the altar as the four dumb idols of the Lutheran
the theologian, Johann Valentin Andrea, the court
of the landgrave of Hesse; Schuppius, who sought to
3 the Bible its place in the pulpit; and Theophilus
auer (d. 1661) of Rostock, who from his pulpit and by
igs raised '* the alarm cry of a watchman in Sion."
t originator of the movement was Philip Jacob Spener,
bined the Lutheran emphasis on Biblical doctrine with
rmed tendency to vigorous Christian life. Bom at
wciler, in Alsace on the 13th of, January 1635, trained
»ut godmother, who used books of devotion like Arndt 's
iitianity, accustomed to hear the sermons of a pastor
ched the Bible more than the Lutheran creeds, Spener
r convinced of the necessity of a moral and religious
on of the German Church. He studied theolog>', with
0 the Christian ministry, at Strassburg. where the
5 at the time (and especially Sebastian Schmidt) were
Jincd to practical Christianity than to theological
on. He afterwards spent a year in Geneva, and was
y influenced by the strict moral life and rigid ccclesias-
iplinc prevalent there, and also by the preaching and
- of the Waldcnsian professor, Antoine Leger, and the
1 Jesuit preacher, Jean de Labadie.^ During a stay in
1 he read Grossgcbaucr's Alarm Cry^ and in 1666 he
ipon his first pastoral charge at Frankfort-on-the-Main,
ly impressed with a sense of the danger of the Christian
; sacrificed to zeal for rigid orthodoxy. Pietism, as a
novement in the German Church, was then originated
•r by religious meetings at his house (collegia pietatis),
he repeated his sermons, expounded passages of the
tament, and induced those present to join in conversa-
-eligious questions that arose. They gave rise to the
'ieiists." In 1675 Spener published his Pia desidcria,
st Desires for a kef or m of the True Evangelical Church.
ublication he made six proposals as the best means of
the life of the Church: (i) the earnest and thorough
the Bible in private meetings, ccclesiolae in ecclesia;
lie had formed the ascetic and mystic sect of "The
ti " in the Church of Holbnd (c. 1660}, and then in other
he Reformed Church.
10
(2) the Christian priesthood being nniversal, the laity should
share in the ^iritual government of the Church; (3) a knowledge
of Christianity must be attended by the practice of it as its
indispensable sign and supplement ; (4) instead of merely didactic,
and often bitter, attacks on the heterodox and unbelievers, a
sympathetic and kindly treatment of them; (5) a reorganization
of the theological traim'ng of the universities, giving more
prominence to the devotional life; and (6) a different style of
preaching, namely, in the place of pleasing rhetoric, the implant-
ing of Christianity in the inner or new mfln, the soul of which is
faith, and its effects the fruits of life. This work produced a
great impression throughout Germany, and although large
numbers of the orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors
were deeply offended by Spener's book, its complaints and its
demands were both too well justified to admit of their being
point-blank denied. A large number of pastors at once practi-
cally adopted Spener's proposals. In Paul Gerhardt the move-
ment found a singer whose hymns are geniune folk poetry. In
1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy
at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult
sphere of labour. In Leipzig a society of young theologians
was formed under his influence for the learned study and devout
application of the Bible. Three magistri belonging to that
society, one of whom was August Hermann Francke, subse-
quently the founder of the famous orphanage at Halle (1695),
commenced courses of expository lectures on the Scriptures of a
practical and devotional character, and in the German language,
which were zealously frequented by both students and townsmen.
The lectures aroused, however, the ill-will of the other theo-
logians and pastors of Leipzig, and Francke and his friends left
the city, and with the aid of Christian Thomasitis and Spener
founded the new university of Halle. The theological chairs
in the new university were filled in complete conformity with
Spener's proposals. The main difference between the new
Pietistic school and the orthodox Lutherans arose from the
conception of Christianity as chiefly consisting in a change of
heart and consequent holiness of life, while the orthodox
Lutherans of the time made it to consist mainly in correctness
of doctrine.
Spener died in 1705; but the movement, guided by Francke,
fertilized from Halle the whole of Middle and North Germany.
Among its greatest achievements, apart from the philanthropic
institutions founded at Halle, were the organization of the
Moravian Church in 1727 by Count von Zinzendorf, Spener's
godson and a pupil in the Halle Orphanage, and the estab-
lishment of the great Protestant missions, Ziegcnbalg and
others being the pioneers of an enterprise which until this time
Protestantism had strangely neglected.
Pietism, of course, had its weaknesses. The very earnestness
with which Spener had insisted on the necessity of a new birth,
and on a separation of Christians from the world, led to exaggera^
tion and fanaticism among followers less distinguished than
himself for wisdom and moderation. Many Pietists soon main-
tained that the new birth must always be preceded by agonies
of repentance, and that only a regenerated theologian could
teach theology, while the whole school shunned all common
worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public
games. There thus arose a new form of justification by works.
Its ccclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning
of church organization. Through these extravagances a reac-
tionary movement arose at the beginning of the i8th century,
one of the most distinguished leaders of which was Loescher,
superintendent at Dresden.
As a distinct movement Pietism had run its course before the
middle of the xSth century; by its very individualism it had
helped to prepare the way for another great movement, the
Illumination (AufklSrung), which was now to lead the world
into new paths. Yet Pietism could claim to have contributed
largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany, and to have
made religion once more an affair of the heart and the life, and
not merely of the intellect. It likewise vindicated afresh the
rights of the Christian laity in regard Vo vVvtvi a«Tw>a^^\% ^^'^
594- PIETRO DELLA VIGNA— PIG
ihc wock ol ihe CbuKb.igdnU IheisunipilDiu uit
of an amtsnt cktsy. " It ws>." »yi RudoU Sohrr
gnat imge of Ihe w»vn o( the «cltii»>iic»l movtr
by the Reformitkin-, it wa the compleiion «nd Ihc 6iul fo™ »noihertreiliic, " On'CoruoUtion," in iheitylto(Bo«Udii«,ni
of the PtoIHlanliim ccealed by the ReFoinuIion. Then ame ilio attributed to hiin.
a lime when anolber intellectual power loolt poweuion of Ihe See Huniud'Br<ha1ln, Viittamtipeiiiaiiait PimbUTim
mindsofnen." (P'rii. 1S64): Pmti. Pitr JtOi Vinu (Milan, leso); Ciumu4
Some writers on Ihe botoiy of Ketim-e.,. Heppe «nd UnelU.P«r WIr I'j(««:a«.. i8Si)|.!»FuiD«.i«lir
RilKhl— have intluded under it neatly all reli^oui tendtnciei PtO (a word ol obiaire origin, connected with the Low Gc
oI a more seriout cultivation of personal piety than that preva- given ID the dointaticated nine of agricultural me. (F«lW
Pietism as a retrograde movement ol Christian U(e towards Brilith breeds of pi|9 ate daiailicd as black, white aid nt
Catholicism. Some historians abo speak of a later or modern In tome place), notably Wales and Cloucester, a imaaslili
Pietism, characteridng thereby a party in the German Church spotted breed lingers; and a large propottion o( csnina f^
which was probably al first influenced by some temaini of often parti-coloured, are montrrli. The while bnedi ait labir
Spcner's Piclism in Westphalia, on the Rhine, in Wurllemberg. to sun-acahl, and black pigs (Like black men) are much boll
and at Halle and Berlin- The party was chiefly distinguished adapted than white to exposure in strong sunbgbl, uBiliaaat
by its opposilion to an independent scientific study ol theology, to the nde that animals in the tropics have black skins,
its principal theological lader being Bengstenbetg, and its The Lvfe If jttUi may have in the skiti a f ew blue ipou wlil
chiij lilenty organ Ihe Entngiimke Kirikenuiltati. Tie party grow while hair. The head is long, li^t in the jowl, aidiik
orlginaled at the close of the wars nith Naiwleonl. between the eyes, with long thin ears inclined tUghily lemri
Anunif ind fringed with bng fine hair. The neck ii loag, hu M
IjMcntc coarse, the ribs are deep, the loin wide and level, Ike tsS M
KHd dri high, and the te^ straight and set wdl outside Ihe catoic. Tk
CeiikicU whole body, iodudmg the back of (he neck, is covmd ^
^'' Q^ of Ihi) breed arc very prolific, and they ma/ be t>i>*a ■>
}h-pa.'t enormous weight!— over it cwt. alive.
Xi'ite ( The VirUIe WkOu are built on a smaller scale than tk lap
{■«l'n"» Whites. They are (hotter in (be beada and legs, and hlaal
5^!^J' Ihe jowl, thicker and more compact in Ihe body. The *m«t
5,-],„l„„ quite as prolific as those of the Large White breed, and, ai iWr
and Carl pmduce matures earlier, tbey are much in demand lor 1iri4v
tyitspaiii porkers.
PIETRO DELIA VIORA, or Piei delle Viche (Petids de The 5>w>U ICitile pigs are beautifully proponioned. TleW
ViNCAS or DK V1NE13] (c. 1190-1149], chancellor and secrrtaiy and legs ate very short, and the body ihort. (hick ami sifc;
la the emperor Frederick U., was bom at Capua in humble the jowl is heavy, the eais pricked, and the thin skis ladd sU
ciicumslancea. He studied law at Padua, and through hii tang silky, wavy, but not cully, hair, whikl the tail b my '■''
classical education, bis ability to tpeak Latin and his poetic Adcfidency ofleanineat isacommonchuutnisticol thebMd.
gifts, be gained the tavour of Frederick II.. who made him whichisalmost eatioct.
his secretaiy. and aftcrwiidl juia mapuit cutiat, councillor. The above three breed* were designated Vorkshiit WHifc
governor of Apulia, prolhonotary and chancellor. Tie emperor, and are still so named at times. The Middle While, facacJ If
'* of whose b^nt he held the keys," as Dante says, sent bim to crossing the large and the small breeds, b not so lymmf*^
Rome in 13j> and tjj; to negotiate with the pope, to Padua as the parent sttArks, and ihe type is not uniform,
in USO to induce the citizens 10 accept imperial protection, to The Lincoirtikirt Curly Coated or BosJon pig is a bolbiv'
England in iij4-ii]5 to arrange a marriage between Frederick ol great siuand apacilyfor producing pork. It isTCTytiA
abundance of long curly hair, » short face and a straighli*
and the cars, not too long and heavy, fall over the lace, h
crosses well with [he Large White, the Large Black arf f
Berkshire.
ThefarftB/actbreed, which vies with the Large WhitthW*
for sue, and is probably its superior as a ha<m pig. b<s 0^
sini» it)oa leceived national show-yard recognition; bslIkBk
ample evidence that, with its characteristic whole black oM
with a mealy hue, lenglh, fine bair and lop ear, the Laigc Ibit
' existed in the south of England for generationa. It hat la
continuously and carefully bred in Cornwall. Devn. iaam
SuBolk, and from these centres ii has iipidly ^ircad (T milt
' country. Large Blacks are exceedingly doc^, and ibi et
banging well forward over the eyes, coouibute materiaij tal
quietness of habit which Tenders them peodiaiiy ada|W W
Geld grazing. On account of their bardineH and iftyf*^** I*
early maturity they have proved valuable lor cnaahit pKpi»'
The Latge Black Pig Society was incoiporaied in 1S99.
I The Btrkikirt is ■ black pig with a pinkiih skin, aad ■ kik
science and the fine arts, and conlribuled much to Ihe welfare white on the nose, forehead, pasterns, and tip to the tail BlB
of Italy by wise legislative reforms. He was the author of tome a moderately shotl bead with heavy fowl, a deep, a^t
wide, low and well-dev^opcd hi , ,
heavy hams. The skin carries an abundance of fine b^. '^ ]
Berkshire is an early-maturity breed whic&hubecBi^rriit !
trustwonhy dipbma
defended the
pcror against his tradu
cers and against Ihe pope's menaces.
al the Council of Lyo
s, which had been sumn
oned by Pope
occnt IV., Pietio dclU
Vigna entrusted the
defence of his
ler lo the celebrated
juriai Taddeo of Sues.
IB, who failed
n. Frederick, whose
uspidons had
n awakened by the slanders ol the envious
had hiji im-
ioned and blinded with
out giving him a Chan
e lo rebul his
users. Unable to bear his disgrace, be com
milted suicide
is prison at Pisa in jj
9. The exact dale, pla
e and manner
it death arc, however
subiecl lo controversy
ai.dnaminio
Burgo states thai it occurred in ihc church of S. Andrea, al
1, in 1356. TTie Ira^
fate of Ihii man gave
rise to many
nds. The Cuelphic tr
adillon accuses I^etro
ella Vigna, as
aslhccmpetotandlli
c court, ol heresy; it w
IS even staled.
bably without any fo
ndalion, that (hey we
■e Ihc aulhors
he famous work, De
I'ibul imtoiUribui, w
hereb Moses.
bl and Mahomet are blasphemed.
icttodcllaVlgnawas
man of ^ea. culture;
he encouraged
PIGALLE— PIGEON
md i) not ao budy and piotiGc u mist breeds. The thmt (imci i day ud uppticd whli eo
vu weU wllh common slock. It merits the most eredil ™ '^*'- Of Ilw_ laiKd live wniM o
g tbe quilily of Iriih pigj. In Americs il is in the front pron^' to j ?j i
r aiunbcn and quality u a laid-faoE. There it oflcn live wnght ina ]
pb«a largerandfinetanimal thinitisio England. alarm. Corcti
■meO Blaii or Blatt Su^oli was produced (rom the old P" *™ ".""'.l
ig by creasing wilh the Ncipolilan. It resemblej tbe o"ridni™iK f r*
fbitc, except that the ikin is coal-blacL in colour, and ol mangoldi or 4
of hair is not uauaUy profuse. The Small Black, more- LiTKaATUBH,-
nther longer, and stands wmewhat higher, wbilsl il ^S"^' f^'J
are lean meat than the Small Whitt It matures early InduS™); J. Li
'ttwrw^lk is one of the lAdaX breeds of pigs. It a hatdy^ Britain (4tli rd.,
ad proLfic, and nearly related to the wild boar. The J>*^ sJri?"'
be head, body and legs
iginally a local breed In Ine ois
m fnin which it takes its ni
d highly valued as a bacon pig. (W. Fa. ; R. W.) "ventn cnua ot a carpenter, Althou
aerica nearly aU the breeds may be classified aa lard- f ""^ ''™' ""' ? ""•" """SWe be
)»,n.pig, fed o. Ind^ com^degenerat. into lard- ^^^^^^ ±^1 '^^^lH^J^^r'^V
a down in Kit and become too small in the l>one
,._.-_ .."'^ . „ . but hil nude statue of Voltaire, dated
ig 8j %_i>^ butcher's
78s), French jculpiot,
Child with Cage " (model at Sivra) ar
-' Sandals" (Berlin, and lead cast i
:^.ss^.T.sj^^v= -S'Jijs^^rs'tr^l-stK-ii':
Il has short lop-ean, a . . .,
mpact body, and more white niarkings. It is s breed
1 blood, and is believed to have originated from the
lended with Ir
ii Bay&eldi, u weU a* with Berkshices. In Iowa
. 1764) (Nntre Dame) and ol
Marshal Saie, completed in 1777 CLutheran diurch. Strauburg),
"e good (prcimeni ol French sculpture in the iStb century.
t died on the jSlh of Atigust 178s.
I.. ^ J .1. ■. .V. _L. 1.. -.: ■ V 1. i. J at Calais (be usaid to have traced his pedigree on the mothers
100 lb In eight months. It has gained rapidly in i™'.'!' ™ •!''™^-. "< """ '^™'^ "^ >"
- '■ I I _ __ --_-
lerchant nbose office Pigault had entered, died almost
immediately after her elopement; the second. Mile de Salens,
he married. He became a soldier in the Queen's Guards, then
a very unsuccessful actor, and a teacher of French. At the
breaking out of the great war he re-enlisted and fought at
Valmy, He wrote more than twenty plays, and a large number
of novel), the £>tt of wbich appeared in 17S7. In his old age
he took to graver work, and executed an abridgement of French
,™ m n. vermoa. otaiion ina iiToavs IJ-lofy i" «ght volumn. besides some other work. His ffimru
/^f n-,1 r'™"'" =""?"' ■" ' i'L,"^. camtUla were published in twenty volumes between iSis and
^ ^ fk VTJ^, ^ ^^i , T '8'4, but much of hi, work is subsequent to this collection.
^S^i^ulJd ™ »^ f-^ ' ""■' ''« Hediedonlheuthotjuly.aji. "^stylc of Pigaulf, novels
is insignificant, and their morality very far from severe. As
The broirf 10- ihoiiH be .engthv and of a pn^ific ,]n,ojt the lather of a kind of literature which later devetopcd
.r!:'-..",:.™!."..!^ .™^.l.-™ 'L??h'''i!o'°j,^ enormously, Pigault-Lebfun deserves a certain place in literary
'days, and history. Ajnong the most celebrated ol his noveb may be
■■ — '■— --led L'EnfoM in Camatal I1791I and Angfiq^ 1 Jemnt-
place Mauhal (1795). His Cilalcar (3 vols., 1803). a
» to the Liocolnshire curly-coal
■ere most probably of Lincoln c
irecdet and good mother, weighinl
lo lb— the boar averaging 600 lb,
, enough, ;.,
wiant comes in heat a^in in Three weeks. Breeding
ak and female, run most of their time al pasture and
liberal allowance of green food or raw roots. ' The period «ii„.,:.„," r «,..,-.,;«„. ,«■...• r^t. ■ ,-
ion is siaieen weelu. Sbi to eight pig. are reared if the ""Kt'™ "T quoutionj agauat Chnsli
r. and ten 10 t«lve allerwariG. Many brood »w. in «nd yet several times reprinted.
to greatest profit alter the lecond or ihbil litter. Two PIOBOH (Fr. f'i™', Ilal- pkcieiu and pipiimc, Lat. fipie,
1 1 ,. „_ ™, ™ .- ii«ially w«n=d at two i;,craUy a neatllng-bird that pipes or cries out. a " piper "—
'""■'" the very name now in use among some pigeon-fa '
e usual I
term). Tli
e name pigeon,
doubtless of Norman Inlr
as a poUte
bear much the same relati
on to dot
■e, the word
1 of Anglo-Saxon
origin, that mutton has t<
, sheep, I
«f 10 01, ■
Kal to call, and
pork 10 bacon; no sharp
loological distinctio]
1 can be drawn
(see Dove) between dove a
»d pigeon
, and the collective membm
ot the group Ctliimhat ai
,byom
ilboIogisD .
urdinarily called
be Kiven raw rooli and •"»'■""'■ ■•■"■-►" ■"= u.=.-^~-.. sj-^.q w which the Utter
il>ed with pulped rooti name is exclusively given in common speech' il tbe wild pigeoD
and a iprinkUna of sa^t ' It may be observed that the " rock.pigeoos " of Anglo-lodiaoa
teguminous sevcu makes are Sand-grouse (f.f.), and tbe " Ca^e gitjHX^" vH vlAhc^^v^ia^
Fattening pigs are led (^.f.).
596
PIGEON-FLYING
or passenger pigeon of North America, Ectcpistes mip'orius,
which is -still found in many parts of Canada and the United
States, though now almost extinct and never appearing in the
countless numbers that it did of old, when a flock seen by A.
Wilson was estimated to a>nsist of more than 2230 milh'ons.
The often-quoted descriptions given by him and J. J. Audubon
of pigeon-haunts in the then " backwoods " of Kentucky, Ohio
and Indiana need not here be reproduced. That of the latter
was declared by C. Waterton to be a gross exaggeration; but
the critic would certainly have changed his tone had he known
that, some hundred and fifty years earUer, passenger-pigeons so
swarmed and ravaged the colonists' crops near Montreal that
a bishop of his own church was constrained to exorcise them
with holy water, as if they had been demons.* The passenger-
pigeon is about the size of a common turtle-dove, but with a
long, wedge-shaped tail. Ti.c male is of a dark slate-colour
above, and purplish-bay beneath, the sides of the neck being
enlivened by violet, green and gold. The female is drab-
coloured above and dull white beneath, with only a slight trace
of the brilliant neck-markings.* (Sec plate illustration under
Dove.)
Among the multitudinous forms of pigeons very few can here
be notic^. A species which might possibly repay the trouble
of domestication is the wonga-wonga or white-fleshed pigeon
of Australia, Leucosarcia picaia, a bird larger than the ring-dove,
of a slaty-blue colour above and white beneath, streaked on
the flanks with black. It is known to breed, though not very
freely, in captivity, and is said to be excellent for the table.
As regards flavour, the fruit-pigeons of the genus Treron (or
Vinago of some authors) and its allies surpass all birds. These
inhabit tropical .\frica, India, and especially the Malay Archi-
pelago; but the probability of domesticating any of them is
very remote. Hardly less esteemed are the pigeons of the genus
Ptilopus and its kindred forms, which have their headquarters
in the Pacific Islands, though some occur far to the westward and
also in Australia. There may be mentioned the strange Nicobar
pigeon, Caloenas (see plate illustration under Dove), an inhabi-
tant of the Indian Archipelago, not less remarkable for the long
lustrous hackles with which its neck is clothed than for the
structure of its gizzard, which has been described by Sir W. H.
Flower (Proc. Zool. Soc., i860, p. 330), though this peculiarity
is matched or even surpassed by that of the same organ in the
Pkaenorrhina goliath of New Caledonia (Rev. de toologie^ 1862,
p. 138) and in the Carpophaga lalrans of Fiji. In this last the
surface of the epithelial lining is beset by horny conical processes,
adapted, it is believed, for crushing the very hard fruits of
Onocarpus vUknsis on which the. bird feeds \Proc. Zool. Soc.,
1878, p. 102). The modem giants of the group^ consisting of
about half a dozen species of the genus Coura and known as
crowned pigeons (see plate illustration under Dove), belong to
New Guinea and the neighbouring islands, and are conspicuous
by their large size, beautiful filmy fan-shaped crest, and the
reticulated instead of scutcltated covering of their " tarsi."
A very distinct type of pigeon is that represented by Diduti'
cuius slrigirostris, the " Manu-mea " of Samoa, still believed by
some to be the next of kin to the Dodo (q.v.), but really presenting
only a superficial, resemblance in the shape of its bill to that
extinct form, from which it differs osteologically quite- as
much as do other pigeons (PJiil. Trans., 1S69, p. 349). It
remains to be seen whether the Papuan genus Otidiphaps, of
which several species are now known, may not belong rather
to the Didunculidae than to the true Columbidae.
Pigeons are now regarded as belonging to the Charadriiform
or pluver-like birds (see Biros) and are placed in the sub-order
t Voyages du Baron de la Hontan dans VAmfrique septenlrionale,
»• 93. 94 (2nd cd., Amsterdam, 1705). In the first edition, published
at the Hague in 1703, the passage, less explicit in details but to
the same effect, is at p. 80. The author's letter, describing the cir-
cumstance, is dated Niay 1687.
'There are several records of the occurrence in Britain of this
pigeon, but in most caMrs the birds noticed cannot be suppo^ to
nave found their own w.iy hither. One, which was shot m Fife in
iSJSt may, however, have cruuavd the Atlantic unasdsied by man.
Columbae, near the sand-grouse (q.v.). They are (fivided bto
three families, Dididae, which includes the Dodo (fi.) ud
Soliiaire, the Columbidae, which includes the doves and pigeons,
and the Didunculidae, of which the curious tooth*bflled pigeon,
of Samoa is the only example. The body is always ampul,
and the bill has a soft skin or cere covering the nostrils. Tlie
pigeons are chiefly vegetable feeders and have a hard pzsvd,
and all drink much water; they perch, and have a note of the
nature of a " coo." The nest is a rough platform or is in hob
on the ground or in rocks. The eggs are two or three ud
white, and the young, which are helpless when batched, ire
fed by a secretion from the crop of the parents. (A. N.)
PIOBON-FLYINO, the sport of radng boming-pigeoos bred
and trained for the purpose. It is of very recent date. altboa||i
the use of birds as a means of carrying messages (see Piceor
Post) is of great antiquity. Belgium may be considered »
par excdlence the home of the sport, the first binls flovn there
probably coming from Holland. Long-distance flying begui
in 1818, with a match of 100 m., while in 1820 tl^re vu 1
race from Paris to Li6ge, and three years bter the first race
from London to Belgium. The sport is now a favourite one ia
Great Britain, the United States, France, and, to a less degree,
in some other countries, although nowhere attaining the general
popularity which it enjoys in Belgium, where neari/ everj
village has its SocUti colomhopkile, millions of {Ngcons beiof
sent over the French border to be raced back. The anmial
Belgian concours nationd, a race of about 500 m. from Toukme
to Brussels, was inaugurated in 1881, in which year the fint
regular races in Great Britain, from Exeter, Plymouth ud
Penzance to London, took pbce. The velocity attained it
that time was about 1250 yds. per minute, but this wis looa
surpassed in the races of the London Columbarian Society, <M
of the winners in which attained a speed of 1836 ydb. per
minute.
The sport was introduced into the United States about (he
year 1875, although regular racing did not begin untfl 1S7&
Since then it has gained widespread popularity, the Ameiiai
record for old birds at 300 m. being 1848 yds. per motfe
and for young birds (yearlings) 1665 yds., while the distutt
record is 1004 m. The American '* blue ribbon " chanpioB-
ships are held at 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600 m. Ihe
speed of homing-pigeons depends very greatly upon the suie
of the atmosphere. In the race from Montargis to Braasdsii
1876 in bright and clear weather, all the prize-winners made the
distance of 270 m. within three and one-quarter hours, «hle
in the same race in 1877, on a thick and stormy day, thirty ho«B
passed before the first bird arrived.
Training. — The loft should be on a commanding site. It fabat
made in the shape of a brge room, suitably subdivided, protccM
from vermin, and provided with drinking troughs, rock sth an
crushed mortar for the birds' use. It sliould be fitted vi^
sufficient number of nests about 2 ft. long, 20 in. in breadth tfi
height. Arrangements should be made for aliowing the pif«">
to fly out daily for exerci^; and they should be trained to itiui*
the loft through boltinff wires, which open inwards only, istoa
small chamber, to which an electric arrangeraent may be fitted 10
as to sound a bell and warn the owner of the arriv^ of a bod. The
food of birds in training conusts of vetch, beans, maixe, peas, hnte
rice and millet, in various proportions, according to the coaatfy>
climate and season of the year, the daily allowance for each 1m
being about 40 grammes weight. Young birds may be fed oa no
in the husk and oread. They are called squeakn " for a week *
two after birth, and then " squeakers " until about 'three aoMhi
old. Each brood consists of two eggs, on which both pareots M
in turn, the cock only for a few hours in the middle oi the^T-
When the young are being brought up, only one ol the pareai birai
is taken out at a time. One meal per day, given before the bk»
~ :. Tra
are let out in the morm'ng, is sufficient. Training ahouM
in warm weather, when the bird b about four nmnibs oU, and k
consists in taking it out in a closed wicker. ba^bet and Ubcnuof <f
" tossing " it at gradually increasing distances from its Udt, vttk
several days interval of rest between the flights. The u»inl P**"
limin.iry distances are i, 2, 5, 10 and 15 or 20 m. These toMts
should nil be made on the sante line between the Wi aod. ay<
some neighbouring city, in order that a bird may always have 10
fly in the same general direction during the scAson. AUtut 100 ••
may be expected of birds the first season: they reach their fw
distances only about the fifth year. It is oooaidered bener to
PIGEON POST— PIGMENTS 597
in^homcra alone, 80 that they nuyh«»inc independent arrangement of springs and cog-wheeb in the "puller," and
liSSij« ^£ju"."o°nS''i'"j:cL'£;'"^4''ffi'?aiS^. '"• '•» »»« ?' 1^ '"^'« ■» i-nP^ible «» "»«• Wo^ha^I
vide their birds into two classes, one (or breeding and which trap will be released. At a nxed distance from the centre
r racing, though the latter are allowed to breed within of the traps is a boundary within which the birds hit must fall
%, Some fanciers always choose birds with chicks in if they arc to count to the shooter. This line varies in distance
J°^V°,^a',!j;Sl'*4 i^'^'d'Sr.'h^TwiS'i '" ">« vanou, club,; th. National Gu. Club bo«»daty being
ped over the foot of the pigeon when only a few days ^S yds., that of the Monaco Qub being only ao yds. The
,ng its racing career the longer wing-feathers are stamped charge of shot allowed must not exceed i\ oz. The best type
d's records. At the start of a race the competing birds of pigeon is the blue rock. From the start of the Huriingham
familiar landmark on the horiron, it wUlfly straight there; it was, however, stopped in 1906. The principal pigcon-
towards it. As the birds enter their home-lofts the shooting centre in England is now at the National Gun Club
n by the owner. A bird^is not considered to have got grounds at Hendon. Tlie great international competitions and
m It has actuaUy passed through the door of its loft, sweepstakes take place at Monaco. An artificial bird of clay,
POST. The use of homing pigeons to carry messages now more usually of a composition of pitch, is often substituted
Solomon, and the ancient Greeks, to whom the art for the live pigeon. These clay birds are also sprung from
he birds came probably from the Persians, conveyed traps. This qx>rt originated in the United States, where, under
of Olympic victors to their various cities by this the name of *' trap-shooting," or inanimate bird shooting, it is
fore the electric telegraph this method of communi- extremely popular. At first the traps invented threw the birds
a considerable vogue amongst stockbrokers and with too great regularity of curve; now the traps throw the
The Dutch government established a civil and birds at different and unknown angles, and the skill required
:eon system in Java and Sumatra early in the XQth is great. In day-bird shooting the traps usually pumber
e birds being obtained from Bagdad. Details of fifteen, and are out of sight of the shooter. The Inanimate
nent of pigeons during the siege of Paris in 1870-71 Bird Shooting Association in England was started in 1893.
id in the article Post and Postal Service: France. PIGMENTS (Lat. pigmenlumf from pingere, to paint). It is
a revival in the training of pigeons for military convenient to distinguish between pigments and paints, the
Numerous private societies were established for latter being prepared from the former by the addition of a
K>nsof this class in all important European countries; vehicle or medium. Nor are pigments and dyes identical,
e, various governments established systems of com- although there are cases in which the same colouring matter
for military purposes by pigeon post. When the which yields a dyt or stain may give rise to a pigment. A
>f using the birds between military fortresses had pigment is, in fact, a substance which is insoluble In the vehicle
ighly tested attention was turned to their use for with which it is mixed to make a paint, while a dye is soluble.
yses, to send messages between coast stations and Pigments exhibit various degrees of transparency and opacity,
. They are also found of great use by news agencies and ought to possess such qualities as these: ease in working,
individuals. Governments have in several countries chemical indifference to each other and, generally, to the vehicles
lofts of their own. Laws have been passed making employed, also stability under exposure to light and air. As a
Lion of such pigeons a serious offence; premiums to rule, it is desirable that pigments should not be seriously affected
fidency have been offered to private societies, and in hue by the vehicle; at all events, whatever change does occur
en for destruction of birds of prey. Pigeons have ought to admit of calculation. In the case of oD colours it
y newspapers to report yacht races, and some yachts should be remembered that a thorough drying of the paint is
ly been fitted with lofts. It has also been found of preferable to the formation of a surface-skin, and that a few
tance to establish registration of all birds. In order pigments, notably white lead, possess properties conducing
he efficiency of the systems of foreign countries, to this desirable result. It is scarcely necessary to add to
lave been placed in the way of the importation of these general observations concerning pigments that thdr
for training, and in a few cases falcons have been artistic value depends primarily upon the nature and amount
aincd to interrupt the service in war-time, the of the optical sensation which they are competent to produce,
iving set the example by employing hawks against Although the number of available pigments is great, the
;>igeons in 1870-71. No satisfactory method of number of chemical elements which enter Into their composition
he weaker birds seems to have been evolved, though is not large. Very many richly-coloured compounds -^
formerly provided their pigeons with whistles and cannot be employed because they lack the properties
; away birds of prey. of insolubility, inertness and stability. Pigments are drawn
[ the development of wireless telegraphy the modem from various sources. Some are natural, some artificial; some
to consider fortress warfare as the only sphere in are inorganic, some organic, some are elements, some mixtures,
ig pigeons can be expected to render really valuable some compounds. It b not unusual to arrange them into two
onsequently, the British Admiralty has discontinued gcoups, substantive and adjective. Amongst the members of
;rvice, which had attained a high standard of effici- the former group such a pigment as vermilion, where each
other powers will no doubt follow the example, partide is homogeneous, may be dted as an example. Amongst
s, large numbers of birds are, and will presumably the adjective pigments rose-madder may be named, for each
be, kept at the great inland fortresses of France, partide consists of a colourless base on which a colouring matter
id Russia. (alizarin) has been thrown. Most of the inorganic pigments,.
Puy de Podio, Die Brief taube in der Kriegskunst (Leipzig, whether natural or artificial, belong to the substantive group;
rkmeicr, Anzuckt, Pfiege, und Dressur der Brief tautfen white there are many organic pigments, notably those of artificial
^')* origin, which are of adjective character. The following table
SHOOTING, a form of sport consisting of shooting presents a summary dassification of pigments according to
:ons released from traps. The number of traps, their source or origin: —
ix-sided boxes, falling flat open at the release of a Mineral pigments J Natural; as terre verte.
isually five; these are arranged 5 yds. apart on "^^ / Artificial ; as aureolin.
drcle of which the shooter forms the centre. The n««-v ^ - ( Animal ; as carmine.
.aximum) U 3. yds- handicapping being deter- Oijanic pigment. i^^^^.-^'^"^^^
;hortening the distance. The five traps arc each ^ • * *
ly wires with a case (" ihe puller ") ; a single string A variety of processes are in use in order to fit n&tux^ tftVss«^
man stationed at the side of the shooter works an substances for employ mtxiX. «k \t\^;cD«DX:t. t!^^ %xix ^^^^ >&«
598
in nuny cu«9, to idcct. or "[rfck over," the nw outerial, Kcogniwd in ululicnia] irr vent by the iddita
njeciing whiievrr iinpuntit* nuy wetktn or injure liic chac- hydnxhlotic add, vbich datroys the coloui dl Uw .
{^Sl" meoMiy to treil the finely-ground Hibitince wilh tiled hydrogen Moreover, nothing a euiei tbu the tta^
water by the method of elutriition or wuhing-over; lion ol indigo in vine or clutcoal-biAck, for the dry povdif,
the iruh-wBtexi wiU tben deposit, on ttanding, various grides healed in a giau tube, gives oB purple vapounol iiidigv,*Uh
ol the coloured body rrquini]. With nirc eicepiions native condense in thecoolcrpart of theiubeinloabUckiihiaUiBitt'
pigments need uteful giinding, either by mesni o( a muUer on A vord must be said here as to the adulunlton <l ^cU
■ sbb or by edge rollers, or horiiontsl miL-tianes, ot ipeciil letd, and the eum'nation oI this mosl iinpMI4M piptal
machines. The tubsiacce is usually ground in spiiiia ol lurpen- The besi variety ol Hhite lead or flake nhiie eopuin m
tine, or alcohid, or water; oil-painii ate ol course finally ground molecules o( lead carbonate lo one ol lead hydrale. udia*bdli
In a drying-oil, such as linseed oil or poppy oil, waiet-coloura soluble In dilute nitric *dd. while barium sulphate, iis dM
lequire gum-waier, or gum-water and glycerin if they are to be frequent adulieranl, b wholly insoluble. Cliina<hy aid iai
" moist " paints. In the case of all pigments, wheiher miiKral lulphaie will also remain updiuolvcd; bni whiieniag or da&
or organic, whcLhcr natural or artificial. It is of the highest cannot be delected in this way — indeed, the IhoctMi^ exaKi»
importance to make sure that they are free from saline mailers lion of white lead, not only lor tophisticatkHis bU ibo Ik
soluble In water. Such salts are removed by thorough washing correspondence wiUi the best type in compoaiiion.taaew h
with distilled water. A tivatmeni of this lund is essential in carried out save by a skilled chemist.
the case of a large numlxr of pigments formed l>y cliemical Pigments may be classified on two *yitems: (i) bud oi
reactions in the "wet way."' Characteristic eiamples an the chemical composition^ (i) based on the ttHiat, Oa ik
furnished by Prussian blue, viridian and lakes. Sometimes fiiit system pigments fail into nine groups, seven _ ^
it is necessaty to remove dangerous impurities by solvents of which are fairly well defined, but the eighth and ^i^
other than waler, auch as carbon hisulpfiide, which is used to ninth have a somewhat miscellaneous character
' ' ' " ■■■ -- < . '^p groups of elements, oxides, sulphides, hydrates, csitc^
. alc9 aod silicates present ttiis characleiislic, namely, Ihil ai
member ol any one group is without action upon the lahl
membeitof the group; any iwoot more may therefore he aial
together without fear of mutual injury The same lUiai^
miy be made with reference to the various inoiganic afciiC
Croup VIII. and to the organic compounds of CfOV K.
although in tbia large final group there are two pifBCBU c*
laining copper (verdigris and enHrald green) which ■■■ h
regarded with suspicion. The inertness ol the nemben d
the same group towards each other may bt *tJ*'***< la Ik
majority of cases by the following consideration An oifc
does not act upon an oxide, nor doea a sulphide aSecl a wtl/Uk.
because all the pigment oxides have taken up iheir hdl oaffc'
similar oxides; so also wiih sulphur in the sutphides. A le(
details regarding the several members of the nine gro^a m
received an admixture oi something cheaper, and now offered;—
jj„ that an inferior grade of a genuine pigment has had Ghoup I EfesKaXr^UI the black nsmeniB in uiiliBan ^~
its hue eialled or enhanced by some unlawjul or rvoiy b1ack| lamp bla^k, charnsl blacOSi" int. and gr^Mi
dangerous addition. In fact, these two kinds of tophislicalioa )«• cimecfly temiRl black-lead and plumban—coniut of « c«M
are often associated. Thus vermilion is adulterated with red carbon, an element not liabkt to change^Jxhe metalfc fi^aw
sulphate, and then the hue of the minute is rest
proper pitch by the introduction of the poweriul I
ma/ta'namerhe™;™ the Xio°n ol chrol^^lS^w Z™ |™^";SSS^''^^^!^?^^^I
chromalel to vellow ochre, of men ultramarine to teire vene, ^ ^^a incTu^^nc white. >■ ■■■- ■
be m
ide of
nother kind of prep>
talive treatment which is
adopted with
some pigments: they
lie subjected to the action
of hea
—mod
na in others. Thus, a few
aubst
nces, such as ivory black and yellow ochre, which in
otdini
ty arc.
beloie
they a
re ground in oil may
with advantage be gently
dried
perature not al>ove lb
I of boiling waler. Again,
there
are pigments, such as Prussian
brown, light red and tniml
which
rocess of actual caldnalion.
■e being thus made (ni
m Prussian blue, the second
from
ellow ochre, and the third Iran:
rawiienna. The pigments
nt carmine and burnt
madder are prepared at a
DUch
owerl
to be described as roasted
rathe
than as
Til
substit
lion of one pigment fo
another is tardy pracliicd.
but i
so unusual lo find tl
lal a cosily substance has
id of indigo to ivoiy black; this last mixture being a sululitule (a miitun of iron and manganeie oidde). cobalt ireen ICa0.aZA
r vine-black, the naluraf blue-black. The deteclion of the cobalt blue (CoO,*AliO,). coeruleum (CoOjiSnth). Vewdo "t
"TS'1 "'"•«"«•"• ." i' ™ "-" T" T," '" art".s"iS3;K!"'^ '■"■*-"'""""""
le hands of persons unacquainted with chemical manipulation, ( Ihiiinepi*
quired. If we are dealing with an oil-colour, the first step admiom 1^
to remove the oil by means of a solvent, such, for example, Sonito-^Ip
L ether. The residual pigment is then allowed to dry, and the ,_ T^ ckiiK
ry powder submitted lo the appropriate physical and chemical tvahk is •■••
3IS. Thus a suspected vermihon, having been freed from oil. ■ rft^-ffS
heated in a small hard glass bulb-lube: it should prove "IbeSSiS
(aciically volatile, leaving a mere trace o( re^due. In this ml, viAiai
aHotds evid
nee of
adul
eralion w
h a
organic colouring
. Th
en. again,.
/detect
the presence
in yellow och
mate by po
uring
sulphuretted
let and
dilul
hydtochio
one portion
ol the dry
and
boiling an<
I her
with dilute
sulphuric ac
ul and
some
alcohol: i
the
forme
experiment
lloccu
inth
e tatter the
liqui
parto
waiMCqairt
<reeniili tin
Soaliogitea
PIGMENTS 599
]• tke yrilav and bmrn pjnioitt, then b « nuniifi- the Hnportuit dus ol pifnenti obtuned fnmi arti&ciaL alLarin.
n pinixnt La thb group, Icnovn u emcnid oiue <rf ud fmn Itt confeiKfi Bud dcnvicives. Of tlw. alixarid [q.w.]
virldiMA. The blue copper pnparatton which foet itieU, in ite pureet Male bdcI MiodiitKl with uluniina aad ■ liiile
■e of Mm lumitrt and nuMinuin blue, ■ very unuble liine, yiekli tboae pigueatu wUch poueu a pink or may hue. When
» enenlially a hydrate, thou^ by no mean pun. p4irpunn and iti iutterm, anilinpurpurui aad flavopurpurin, mje
LaEcd that all Ibe earthy or native hydratee bekmEi*V preaeat, the red hue ii morr prDnouncrd, and may even lend
conUin water in two ttatn, namely, hygroacoPK or toward* a goldea rolour, or. when nnie copper or iron or nuAAnne
^ and CDAiiilullonal. Before grinding then ui oil, it intioduced, may become deddedlv brown. Many of the aGaiin
in the aniounl o( Ihe hygroKopic moulure by nvani crinuon idd u punta are not made Inm aliiarin itaelf. bul from
( dry air or a geAIle warmth often improve* ibe hu; [be lulpbcmk aodi of alizarin. Tint lake* preeent a wide range
uality ol thne pigineAt*. of hub. Another derivative of ali^rin, known at ^Ditn^^liiarin,
Carbonaitir — There i* but one really important yfelda a tkb waive lake, to which euch name* a* pure oranfe,
■ fioup. namely, the old and typical vanety of wbiie temnjce m«dder amTmarivold have been appUed.
, PbHA). Likegieen veiditer (iCuCO,. CuHiO,), ., _., _ .- , v , ■ in. , ■
terlCuClXCuHA). it itabaM carbonate. PuriStd 5(aWriy.— Some notion ol the reUuve WabOity of pigmenti
ntai (fjCO^belongi heie alio. will have beta derived from the temariu already made undH
Silitolti.— Tene verte. which b a natural pwn " Ctaiaification." But ai permaneace i» o( no leu importance
att'mjli an aSci5''Bl^""on^niIlt*I!^'iSierf '''*" chromatic quality in Ihe case ot pigmenti u»ed in the hne
lanium, consriiute thii imall eroup. However, lOAie art of painting, to which the present article ii mainly devoted,
u* earths contain hiicaiei of iron, nui^aneae and further particulan conccimnK certain selected pigmenti may
, well M hydraiei <J the two (ormer meiali, and ao profitably be given here. Beginning with white pigmenti, these
"ci/oMK"^^^™ Kdw'aw rich in oryten When ''"" "'•'' be named ai useful; white lead, Freeman'i white, anc
i »ine ol tlie more alterable organic pigmenti belong- while. Ai an oQ-cdour, while lead of Ihe old type ii generally
IX. the chromatea may low oiygen, acquiring a the beat lo uie, bul alnong valei-colouta ill place must be
cnith or greyiih hue, owing lo the lormaiion oT tte \tken by rine irhite in Lhe condensed form known as Chinese
("mJSr Tbf ^ur*chro™.«,"'!wcj'™nu^ ""^W- ^'"^ '■'^'«. '"^ "Pi" <^ "« 'P^'^ "f^"* "commend
c and lead, are reprexnted t^ the general lormula its uw in on, namely, tlie fact of its being not only unaffected
ime red ii basic, and it PbrCrOi. by sulphur, hut odourleu and non-ptnsonous, lacks toughnesi
'* *^?1""'^ '■!•"(""" ^C'^" ^"'"' " '"'7"'^ as an oil-paint, and hai a tendency to scale. Freeman'i white,
rin oi'viriou'f ciawi oi'mIi '"■nS-™'3''oiK coUIti- "'"'* toniisu enentially of lead sulphite, is lhe beal lubiUtuW
0 <KiCo(NCl,)i, auociatedwiihoneormoremoleculei for white lead yet deviud. The small perccnlagcB ol line white
led sometimes cobalt yellow; one antimonaie. that and baryta white which it contains are not lo be regarded as
ue Naples yellow; one lungsiaie, that ol chromium adulleationt, for they greatly increase its iody, and though of
■''rI^mc*^™NUmle™ w mfn^in™ Si?™'Jv^l 1^ ip^^c gravity than lead sulphate, actually raise the weight
compounds containing arunatefl and phoiphaEei of pCT cubic foot <^ the dry pigment. Out of a dozen or more
nd lepccsented by cooali violet and Thinard'a blue, familiar yellow painti. a selection may be made of these lii:
' '■''?D^"'^ ';'™t,\!° ">?')■■ '^'y'* while (BaSO.) yillow ochre, rawiienna,maisorange,cadmiumyellow,aureolin
'.^Siviourt'hif ^ ihe^embei/'S'Vm^U^™! »nd <»fyt» ye"™- Concerning two of Ihcae, cadmium yellow
jments no geiieial characierisiics can be predicated, and aureoUn, the following observations may be aet down.
stated that the two lulphales. the tungitate and the Cadmium sulphide, CdS, ciilU in two forms, which in some
"^^1 ''w'^y '""I *""* ''™'.«''°''- j''''^!'"' measure coneipond to the two modifications of mercuric and
d ol .ulphiAi'"T^™£l'fni?ri"e wreolin'on^ antimonioui sulphides. One of these forms is yellow and the
td with some of iho organic pigments belonging to olber reddish grange. What sulphuretted hydrogen is sent
ait group. into a weak, cold, and neulnl solution of cadmium salt, the
OrranU Comfmiidf.—Motl ol the memben ol this .uiphide which lepanlei ii pale and yellow— the orange variely
;S ,!."s.'a.°!iJ:'.-s"iKS','&lsss: s " ^•^^ '-^ ■ ••"» '". "-■ r* »;"«"■ "■ f;
li light, moiiture and air. Such oiidalion is acceler- vanely is more prone lo change than the duker onci hut as oil
ction of aome highly oiidiied pigments belonging to colours bolh forms an sufiidenlly stable for use, provided they
luch ai the chromatei of Group VII. and aureolin ^^ pu„ T],g ^^^ „[ ju[oi[in „ , pigment depends much
W.SSS.&i.'ElS iJiS tk™ .iS: ;p» lu »..i.^ E"i»»'i"-- * "r -^tt •[ w." >■■""
isting of copper salts in this group. They are veid^ris hue was descnbed by Adieand Wood in 1900. and uteptaenled
ue-green and the gnen varieties being basic copper by the formula KtNaCotNOi)i, H1O. Of red {Hginents, sii cUim
the pigment known in England a> emerald-green. ,^j1 mention. Tlese are vehnilion. light red, VenellJin red,
;!St .SI^v^^^Thi' attack Ziul^KT-SsTdi" I-xii" «d, red ochre, and the red lakes derived from madder
•aleiy or aliiarin. Vermilion is stable ii
t with paint i> prone lo change, under exposure to strong light, ii
e black modifiotion of neicuric sulphide.
Miuni aod\ii« green, named above, whether natural or artificial, an qmte permanent,
an blue, bitum >d the but so much cannot be said of the various middcr.paints. They
irieiy ol Vand menti an ol fsr greater stability under exposure lo light than any olher
il variety ol lal ounng ^ organic [ripnents, and are absolutely necessary to the artist.
fVcol™rl™ "&» '' ""^ ^ ""t*^ '*"■' '''"' niadder and aliiarin lakes which
ji hydrate, stai climes contain an element of yellow and brown are less stable than
a containing mium. those of a crimson Jiue. Five green pigments may be recom-
j™" "^ i"'™' tSit "'""^' n»n>dy, viridian, or Ihe entered oxide of chromium,
lenamtd lodii Jation "" ofdinaiy green oxide, cobalt green, green ultramarine, and
eitatn lien by mine. teiTe verte. Except for minor decorative work, where pernm-
lurije lake. Irom the colourlog malKr obtained from nence is of secondary moment, one is obliged to exclude from the
iuKTi. ,<^«'"' ^f^'J^iL"!!'' v^'ill ''',hr'"™t'^of P*''"* emerald green, green verdiler, verdigris, up-peen, and
Mdd""pbm RKiPiTii™™!?!- l^IdyelW lakes from 'he numerous preparations which owe Ihrir colour lo miitures
, and red H
I usuaUy c
the brge number o("a"6iiartat^'-h!?h''oi^ Similarly, amoniii blue pigmenti, ulw»i<*rM., oSoiU. '^>«
EBl-iar deiivaiives. with the single euepiinn of and cotruleum nu,y be RUintA.n^&E wuiA,, 'aii^il!^ w^ ■^
6oo PIGOT— PIKE, Z. M.
copper blues should Ix rejected. Prussian blue, or the mixture ^y^'^ ? mutiny in September 1797 while in commud o( tk
ol this pigment with a white base which is usually called Antwerp v[fSJ"i2IlI^«.*.*. « •, . . , ^^ ^^t
blue, can scarcely be spared, but care should be taken to choose ^ PIM"CKINO. or Hoc-Huntisc, the chase of the «ild
a sample containing no potassium compounds. Coeruleuro, ^^' *» » *P<»^' °n horseback with the spw. The cbie os
which may be described as cobalt stannate presenU the peculiar- ^^^ J^" ^^^^n among anacnt peoples, and m ccnlrsl Euicpe
ityof appearing a greenish blue in artificial light, not a purplish ?" ^^ ^<> /^^ P'««n^ ^^y* although, on account of tk
blue like that of ordinary cobalt blue. Cobalt violet is a sound introduction of fire-arms, the spear has gradually bccoioe is
pigment, while manganese metaphosphate or NUmbcrg violet a"«»»anr weapon^ used to give the coup d€ grdu to a voimded
U said not to be safe in oiL Mars violet, an artificially prepared *"»"^- TJf modcni sport » the dujcct descadantolbm-
ferric oxide, is duU in hue but permanent. Passing on to brown sP^anng which was popular m Bengal until the beguuusg of
pigments, it is matter for regret that there arc no permanent ^^^J^^> century, when the bean had become so scarce tlot
colours possessing the artUUc capacities of asphalt, madder T*"*. J"*^ ''^T *"*»*»'"^ f* the quarry T}**^^!^ «^
brown, and the old bituminous Vandyke brown. Cappagh ^. ^.^« Bfn«alese was a short, heavy, braad-Uaded ^veb.
brown, burnt sienna, and raw and burnt umber may be employed ^"^»^ ofTicere mtroduced the spear or lance and this has bccoM
safely. Little need be said as to the selection of black pigments, ^^"^ recognized method of hunting wiM pigs in Indis. Tk
foraU are permanent. The soot from bummg acetylene, sc^n for hunt mg m northern India. theprM«thead<^^
which has recently been introduced, forms a black pigment of ^^ ^^« ^P^"^' » ^~°» l^^™i2 ^V"^^' , ^^ *^ "***^*^
remarkable intensity. ^ ^"»* ^^ "<» ^ ^j» »>«• Two kinds of weapon a« used. Tk
£75«.-Hitherto pigments have been considered chiefly in *°"«' °F 1!?^"*'^'^' "P!?!: ^^^% from two to tbeepoi^
relation to the requirements of the painter of pictures. In has a light tough bamboo shaft, from seven to eight f^
many merely decorative aru, such as the manufacture of waU- "JJ^ ^J^V* *?*?*^*^ ^.J°f r;'>^ *^ Th»ip«.
papers and the painting of woodwork and of iron, the pigments ^"^^ "? ^^^ ^l^ *!^"^iT***''**i^*t *^*?*° u ^"^ *^ ^
available are in one direction, that of cost, more restricted, but. "^ the knuckles turned down and the thumb ak»g the djfc.
on the other hand, many alterable or weak pigments are com- ^he short, or jobbing spear » Jrom «x to six and a hsK fcrt
monly employed. In paints intended for the protecUon of ^^"^•^^ ^"T t.}"^^^ .^^x} ^^'^ T^^Jl. ^•"
iron-work, the nature of the pigment introduced is a matter of f^P*^^,"^ .?*.**""• ^^ the thumb up. Althou|^ »«
great moment, for red lead, zinc white and white lead are found [^^ ^^^"f. ") the jungle, it permits the nearer woach cf tk
fo exert a strong protective influence, which is not observed in boar and is therefore more dangerous to man and mounL
the case of the i^t majority of pigments. There are a number Haymg arrived at the bush^wn or "^ndiland haiat <f
of other uses besides those just named for which special pigments, J**^ P'«»' ^V* ^"*r"Lf. "^*'*'*^i. *^' f^ of tfs cojcr.
or, more precisely, special paints, are employed. Amongst ^Y a long Ime of beaten, usually under the oommsiid of s
such preparations may be named luminous paints, anU-fouIing "?<»^^«* **\*f : Sometimes dogs ud guns loadeg^wuhaJ
paints, liietalUc paints, damp-proof paints, wd asbestos and »»^^' *« used tomduce an animal to break cover '^^^^
other fire-oroof paints sportsmen, placed on the edge of the cover, attack the pif as
^ soon as it appears, the honour of " first spear," or ** spear «f
f™rr"S"(dLil?1Slli„''ri{"c">»^f^ honour" U. the '.hmt tha. fi™t *«. blo«l, bd„ ^
Cennino Cennini, 77k* Book of the Art, tianslatcd by Mrs coveted. As a startled or angry wild boar u a fast nmner od
Herringham (London, 1899); Sir A. H. Church, Chemistry of Paints a desperate fighter the pig-sticker must possess a good eye. s
and Paintint (London. 1901): G. H. Hurst. Painters* Colours, Oils steady hand, a firm seat, a cool head and a courageous kat
and Varntshes (London, 1901); S. Mierzinski, Handbuch der p«- »!.-»-«.-/»«. #i,« «%:i:»«.^ «„»k-«..^»;— .^.w^..™ •!»*€««■•
Farben-Fabrikaiion (Vienna. 1898); Riffault (and others). Fabrtcant ^?! these reasons the mihtary authonties encourage the gwrt,
de couleurs (Paris, 1884). (A. H. C.) which is for the most part carried on by the tent chibs d tk
PIGOT, OEORGB. Baron (171^1777), English governor of ^^^ Indian staUons. _, ..p u- , w-
Kr^<ir^. \m.^^ k«™ «« ♦!,- -fk «* TUf-V/k ,-,^.«^ t-*-..^^ .k* T^ following technical terms are used. "Frank," a oetf
Madras, was bom on the 4th of March 1719 and entered the enclowire. " Jfiow," the tamarisk, a common cow (or bean.
service of the East India Company m 1736; alter nmeteen years " Jink " (of the boar), to turn sharply to one side. ** Ndhh."
he became governor and commander-in-chief of liadras in r75S. a dry water-course. '* To pig." to hunt the boar ** Psf ." *»
Having defended this place against the French in i7S8-S9 and ^l • lo?!.P""t. " Puj^fj"?'" tracking the boM-. , '* RWeto k*
. J D J. . J u V ir r *L L • J I.- to hunt the boar. Rootmgs, marks of the pig s snoot m m
occupied Pondicherry on behalf of the compan^r, he resigned his ^u„d. " Sanglier " (or " sTnguIar '•). a boar tCft has sefwait4
oflice m November 1763 and returned to Enghmd, being made a from the " sounder." " Sounder,'*^ a family of wiM
baronet in 1764. In the following year he obtained a seat in "Squeaker." a pig under three >'ear». "Tusker," a fuO-|rB«
parliament, and this he retained until his death: in 1766 he was °oar. _._,,. ,, „ ,. ■__ •> e e « j n ,j
Seated an Irish peer as Baron Pigot. Returning to India in oJ^onTd^) ' "^ "og^^^^tng, by R. S S Bade«.Pa«l
1775 to occupy his former pc«ition at Madm,Pigot>^^^ PIKB,' ZEBULON MONTOOMBRY (177^1813). Amend.
Meanwhile the conduct of Pigot was censured by the court of u--^,^^ ,„ •„».„,» t..T .^^n/i iL.f»««.«t^ ;« .-*^ -«j i^ Bm.
... • r» 1 J J .u J « !.• » »• became an ensign (or second lieutenant] m 1790 and first aei*
directors in England and the order for his restoration was ,^„,«» :„ .k-> --«,-.,.«-, rk« *k» ^*k ^r a. « ..a^. v..i.h«J
... J. ... , . ^A, t \,' II in.- 1- J tenant in the same year. Un the 9tn of August 1805 be sttnn
followed immediately by another for his recall. This happened ..t, ,^^„«„ „^„ r™ c» t«..;- ♦« .*.«i^»r«k^ k^-j m>^i^d
u * _-- .1. f.^-u'- J >*i.u.ur 4U i-jLj ^*^tn twenty men from bt Louis to explore the nead-wat«H«
about a month after h« death but before the news had reached ^^^ Mississippi- At Prairie du Chien he met some Chirpt«
England. In 1779 the matter was discussed in paHiament ^^^^^ ^^^ Y^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^j,^ whisky-traders ino-l
and four of those who were r^ponsiblc for h.s arrest were tried ^^^^ ^„j ^^ „^^^ ^.^ ^^ Sioux; at the Falb of St
and were fined £1000 each. Pigot. who left several illcg.l.mate ^^^^ ^^^ ^ he bought a tract 9 m. square at the n«aik
chddrcn was never married and his barony became extinct. ^^ ^^^ ^ '^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^"^^^^ ^^ Littte FaS (in the middkol
Two of the governor 8 brothers were men of repute. Sir Robert Oz-tftK^r^ k* Knilt a ^tnr]r»At>. whi>ri> ti» Uft c#^>mi mMi He
PicoT (1720-1796), who succeeded to the baronei^cy. commanded his October) he built a stockade, where he left seven men. W
regiment (the 38th) at the battles of Uxington and Bunker Hill reached Leech Lake (" Lake La Sang Sue *0. which be csW
during the War of American Indcnendence. He became a lieutenant- "the main source of the Mississippi." on the ist of FeblwiT
general in 1787 The other brother. Hugh Pigot (c. 1721-1792) ,806; wcnt-30 m. farther to Cass Lake (" Red Cedar^; snd,
was a sailor After some years of servnce he became an admiral .*.._ «,„.k:„„ -„,:„«♦ nr:»;ek •t.A.i«n^<i« •».<«.. •k. Im«Ui«^
and commander-in-chief in the West Indies in 1782. One of his after working against British influences among the Indo*.
sons was General Sir Henry Pigot (1750-1840). and another was turned back, and went down the Mississippi from Dean Ot*
//c/ciy/^(;orC/7^'797)« a captain in the navy, who was murdered to St Louis, arriving on the 30th of April. In 1806 be vil
a Kslote to Ibeir bomet so Out"' R(l«nii
United Suta got
Uk couDtiy. He iiuted on the ijth ol Julyi *nd oeiit oonh
along tlic UisKuri ud tbe Ouge inio ihc pment >t>te of
CuHi and probably to the Republitu nver is the louih ol
the iKE*eDt Nebiuka, nhere on the iglh ol September he held >
tnsd coundl of the Piwoeea. Then (euly in October), tutning
AeuI/iouthphenuTched tolheArkanus livet, whichbeTvacbed
«B the 14th ol October, ud up which (sltci tbe iSth •ilh only
It mea) he went to the Royal Gorge (Dec. 7), having Gnt
Ken tbe mouatain called in his honour Pile's Peak on the
>3rd ol November; and then went north-west, probably up Oil
Cieek fram CaOon City. Id Haiching lor the Ked rivn he came
U tbe South Platte, marched through South Park, left il by Trout
Creek pasa, itruck over to tbe Arkaiuaa, which he Ihougbt was
nilh'Wcal, came lo the Rio Grande del None (about where
AlumHi Conejos county, Colorado, ii now] on the 30th of
Jiauaiy iSo;. There on the 36th oi February he and a email
nnuber of hia men were taken priaonera by Spanish authorities,
■ho lent him £rst to Santa fi. then lo Chihuahua to Ceoenl
Salcedo, and by a roundabout way to the American ftoolier,
•here he wju inleased on the ist ofjuly L807. He was promoted
explain (August 1S06], major (May iSoS), lieutenant-colonel
(Dec iSog] and colonel (July lEii). In iSoS he tried in vain lo
■as military agent in New Orleans in iSoj-iKio, was deputy
nasler-gcneral in April- July iBi>, and waa In active
iniheWarol iBii as adjutanl and inspector-general in
I, and in tbe
PIKE
by the by a >i
if the ti
»7th of April iJ
a killed by a pice
tA
Vqcfci
ich feU
o the magazine.
nkm in iSii-iSrj, The nandard edition nth me
> by Elliott Coues wai published in three volumes in
1895. Some ol Pike'a jHpers taken from him in Mr
Ai SauK/i at llu Uiuiirippi end
lauuMi . . . and a Tenr ikio.tl'
1 WMM published al Philadelphia
n the Mexican arcbfm (Seccior
■^^^^■"t** cava jgtf-iSra), and the more important werr pub-
Ued by H. E. Bolton in the Atniriati Hiilcrial Rnira.
(10117-1908), nil. 798-817. See the ikelch by Heniy Whiting in
wL v.. teriea J, of Jarrf Sparki'i LOimry 0/ AmrriaiH Biapapkj.
PIKK, fiesb-watei fishes generally disliibuled over Ihe rivers
Bid lakes of Europe, northern Asia, and Noith Ameriia, and
fanning a small family (EiDciJiie) of jofi-rayed fishes. They are
Radily recogoijed by their elongjle compressed body covered
■jth small scales, a long bead, long and apatubte sn
laite mouth aimed witb strong and long leeth in
brnd bands of smaller leeih on tbe palate and
teeth point backwards or tan be depressed so a
obllrucliaa to any object entering the gape, bu
urilbdrawal in the opposite direction. The dor
(ins are [daced far back on the lail. Ihus gically i
impelling power ol tbe Gsh, and, alihou^ pike a
he' jaws and
crceUed by no other Ircsb.w.
le ttroke of the tail, they dash upon their prey 01 dart
ach oF danger. In Ibe Old World one species only ii
Esox tucins), which prefers lakes and slugtfsh readies
to slrong currents or agitated waters. Its eastward
:o Lapland in
the north
andinU
cen
ral IbJy and
the vicinity ol
Constanti-
nople in 1
but
IS absent in 1
e Iberian Pern
nsula. The
pedes
also in North America, and
ntheeas
Ohio. But
North Am
ted by other
species of pik
besides, of
which the
largest lathe
Lakes (&
imiWrW);!
commonly al
jinitothelarg
e site which
r May
[chlbyologists. The European pike, like its brelbr
at voracious of fresh-water hshes; it probably eicei
, to which it has been compared by many writers,
id dims
iich, with its collateral forms " [Hck " and
" peak," has as its basic meaning that of anything pointed or
tapering to a point. The ultimate etymology is much disputed,
and the intcritlalion ol the collaterals is very confused. In
Old English there are two forms ((>ic|, one with a long and th«
respectively. The first form gave in the isth century the
variant " peak," Grti with refcicnce lo the peaked shoes then
faahionable, pekyd ithont. In Romanic languages are found
Fr. pic.. Span, pite, Ital. fiaare, 10 pierce, trc. There are also
similar words in Welsh, Cornish and Breton. The Scandinavian
forms, r-g- Swed. and Nor- ptkr are probably taken from Engbsb.
While some authorities take the Celtic as the original, others
look lo Latin for the source. Here the woodpecker, #)(iij, is
and itina, prickle (English spike, spine). The cuireni dlHeftn-
arly ma,l
lacbed to pike, \
f, though ta dialects they
vith sharply pointed hi
may vary. (1) i-ib:
e hsh (see above),
nm its sharp, pwnlcd
a long haf ted weapon
d North
ildier till tbe inlioduction of the bayonet (sec Spear
t), and for a hill with a pointed summit, appearing
e names of such hills in Cumberland, Weilmorland
West Lancashire, II may be noticed that
appears
nally
as " pbin as a pack-ttafF," Ihc fiat plain sided stafi
pedlar carried and rested bis pack- The use ol " |Hke " for a
highway, a loU-gate, tic, is merely short for " turnpike." ())
Pict: As a substantive this form is chiefly used ol the common
tool of the nawy and Ihc miner, consisting of a curved double-
ended head set at right angles to (he handle, one end being '
squared with a chisel edge, the olbcr pdnted, and used for
loosening and breaking hard masses of eartb, coal, tic. (see
TiXiLs). Tbe other name for Ibis tool, " pickaie," is a comip-
lion of the earlier ^ayi, Fr. piuis, M. Lat. ^'ciuiua, formed
from Fr. fU, Ibe termination being adapted to the familiar
English " aie." The sense-devclopment of the verb " lo pick "
■ the probable
anyihinj
melhing
I bird with its beak, in order t
9 gather, pluck, hence 10 select
uses are for the from of a. u
i^ t^n. \crt >^t v*^ *^ ^ ^^
6o2
PIKE-PERCH— PILATE
bold where it narrows towards the bows, the fore>peak, or
towards the stem, the after-peak, for the top comer of a sail
extended by a gaff, or for the projecting end of the gaff itself,
and for a pointed or conical top of a hill or mountain. The
name of the high table-land district in Derbyshire b not to be
connected with this word, but probably retains the name of an
old English demon, Peac (see Peak, TBe).
PIKE-PBRCH {iMciopena), fresh-water fishes closely allied
to the perch, but with strong canine teeth standing between
the smaller teeth of the jaws and palate. They resemble the pike
in their elongate body and head, and they are also most danger-
ous enemies to other fresh-water fishes, though they compensate
for their destmctiveness by the excellent flavour of their flesh.
In Europe two ^)edes occur, the more celebrated being the
''Zander" of North Germany or " Schiel " of the Danube
{Lucioperca sandra); strange to say, it is absent in the system
of the Rhine. It prefers the quiet waters of large rivers
and clear deep lakes, in which it reaches a weight of 35 ft
or 30 fb. The second {Lucioperca wolgenHs) is limited to rivers
in southern Russia and Hungary. In North America several
pike-perches have been described, but in the most recent works
only two are distinguished, viz. Lucioperca americanat which
grows to a weight of ao ft, and the much smaller Lucioperca
canadensis; both are abundant in the Canadian lakes and
upper Mississippi, and the latter also in the Ohio.
PIKE'S PEAK, a famous peak of the Rampart range of the
Rocky Mountains in £1 Paso county, Colorado, U.S.A., about
6 m. W. of Colorado Springs. Though surpafocd in altitude
(14,108 ft.) by many summits in the state, no other is so well
known. The commanding appearance of the peak is very
fine. To the south are Cameron Cone (10,685 ^^X ^^^ Sachett,
Mt Bald (13.974), Mt Rosa (11,427), and Mt Cheyenne (9407).
From the summit the magnificent Sangre de Cristo range is in
the foreground, while on a clear day not only its southernmost
summit, Blanca Peak (14,390 ft.) is visible, but also the Spanish
Peaks (12,708 and 13,623 ft.) 100 m. to the south, and Long's
Peak 100 m. to the north, and between them Mt Lincoln, Gray's
Peak and other giants. At the base of the mountain are
Manitou and Colorado Springs, whence tourists can make the
ascent of the peak (in summer safe and relatively simple) on
horseback or by a cog-railway, 8-75 m. long (opened in 1891),
which makes a total ascent of 8100 ft. (ouudmum gradient
I in 4) to the summit. In 1905 a powerful searchlight was
erected on the summit.
Pike's Peak was discovered in November 1806 by Lieut.
Zebulon M. Pike. He attempted to scale it, but took the wrong
path dnd found himself at the summit of Cheyenne Mountain.
He pronounced the mountain unclimbable. In 18 19 it was
successfully climbed by the exploring party of Major S. H.
Long.
PILASTER (Fr. pUastrCt med. Lat. pilastrum, from pUa, a
pillar), in architecture, an engaged pier projecting slightly from
the wall, and employed to divide up and decorate a wall surface
or to serve as respond to a column. One of the earliest examples
{c. 100 B.C.) exists in the propylaea at Priene in Asia Minor,
where it tapers towards the top. Pilasters have bases
and capitals and are frequently fluted like columnsi. The
Romans would seem to have preferred semi-detached columns,
but for their amphitheatres sometimes pUasters arc employed,
as in the upper story of the Colosseum. In the revival ojf
Classic architecture, and especially in Italy, architects seem
to have considered that no building was complete without a
network of pilasters on every storey, and France and England
followed their example; and not x)nly externally but inside the
great cathedrab and churches the pilaster is adopted as the
simplest and best way of dividing the bays.
PILATE, PONTIUS, the Roman governor of Judaea under
whom Jesus Christ suffered crucifixion. Of equestrian rank,
his name Pontius suggests a Samnite origin, and his cognomen
in the gospels, pUeatus (if derived from the pHeus or cap of
liberty), descent from a freedman. In any case he came in
AJ>. 26 from the household of Tiberius, through the influence
of Sejanus, to be procurator over part of the imperial pnviacc
of Syria, viz. Judaea, Samaria and Idumea. He ruled tea jeui,
quarrelled almost continuously with the Jews — iriMB S^uMi
divergmg from the Caesar tradition, is said to have diAed-
and in a J>. 36 was recalled. Before he arrived TSbcriui &d, iid
Pilate disappears from history. Eusebius rdates {EiA. nd.
iL 7) — but three centuries later and on the authority of csifier
writers unnamed — that he was exiled to Gaul and comoBtttd
suicide at Vienne.
Pilate kept the Roman peace in Palestine but with littk
understanding of the people. Sometimes he had to yield; ss
when he had sent the standards, by night, into the Hdy City,
and was besieged for five days by suppliants who had nabed to
Caesarea (Jos. Ant, 31; jB. /. iL ix. 3, 3); and agiin vbcs
he hung up inscribed shields in Jerusalem, and was ordered bjr
Tiberius to remove them to the other dty (Pkih ad Gaitm 38).
Sometimes he stmck more promptly; as when the mob protested
against his u^ng the temple treasure to build an aqncdTia
for Jerusalem, and he disguised his soldiers to dispcne thai
with dubs (Jos. Ant. xviii 3, 3); or when he " min^ tk
blood" of some unknown Galileans "with their saadfices"
(Luke xiiL i); or slew the Samaritans who came to lit
Gerizim to dig up sacred vessels hidden by Moses there (Jos
Ant. xviii. 4, i) — an inddent which led to his recall Wh,
who tells how any suggestion of appeal by the Jews to Tiberis
enraged him, sums up their view of Pilate in Agrippa's wonil^
as a man " inflexible, merciless, obstinate."
A more discriminating light is thrown upon him by the Net
Testament narratives of the trial of Jesus. They iUiBtitfe
the right of review or recognUio which the Romans retaiaei
at least in capital causes; the charge brouf^t in this cutd
acting adversus majestatem populi romani; the daim made I9
Jesus to be a king; and the result that his judge htam
convinced that the claimant was exposed ndther to the pabfc
peace nor to the dvil supremacy of Rome. The rendt ii
explained only by the dialogue, recorded ezdusivdy in Jota^
which shows the accused and the Roman meeting 00 the h^M
levels of the thought and consdence of the time. " I am oofc
to bear witness unto the tmth . . . Pilate answered, Whtt
is tmth?" Estimates of Pilate's attitude at this point !•«
varied infinitely, from Tertullian's, that he was " 9httdj ia
conviction a Christian "—jam pro sua conscientia CkrvUmtr^
to Bacon's " jesting Pilate," who would not stay for a n|4f>
We know only that to his perdstent attempts thereafter to fi
his proposed verdict accepted by the people, came their bill
answer, " Thou art not Caesar's friend," and that at hat ht
unwillingly ascended the hema (in this case a portable judgBa^
seat, brought for the day outside the Practorium), and in sach
words as Ibis ad crucem " delivered Him to be crudfied."
Pilate's place in the Christian tragedy, and perhaps aho ■
the Creed, stimulated legend about him in two directioos,eqai^F
unhistorical, The Gospel of NicodemuSt written by a Ouistila
(po^bly as early, Tischendorf thought, as the middle of tk
2nd century), repeats the trial in a dull and diluted way; iM
adds not only alleged evidence of the Resurrectwn, hot the
splendid vision of the descensus ad inferos — thewh<^|aofein|
to be recorded in the A eta Pilati or ofl^cial records of the gotvcnar.
The Epistola Pilati gives Pilate's supposed account to Tibeffli
of. the Resurrection; and the Paradosis Pilati rdates W«
Hberius condemned him and his wife Proda or Procda, bolk
Christian converts. All this culminates in Pilate being caaoa-
ized in the Abyssinian Church Qune 25), and his wife in tk
Greek (Oct. 37). On the other hand the Mors Pilati tcDs k«
when condemned by the emperor he committed suicide: aal
his body, thrown first into the Tiber and then the Rhoae.
distarbed both waters, and was driven north into ** Losuxt^
where it was plunged in the gulf near Lucerne and bekw lit
Pilatus (originally no doubt Pileatus or cloud-capped), ron
whence it is raised every Good Friday to sit and wash un<vailiiiC
hands.
Bibliography. — For legends see TischendorTt Esamgdia ^ac*
rypha (1863) and Apocryphal Gospels. Ante-Nioene Ubw (ina)-
PILATUS— PILGRIM
603
e Milier Pilate literature, to the extent of no treatises, chiefly
the 17th and i8th centuries, is enumerated in G. A. MQlIer a
Mmu Pilatus der/Qn/te Prokurator ton Judda (Stuttgart, 1888).
: w loco in the following Enelish or translated histories of the
or time of Jesus, Theodor Keim, E. SchQrer, A. Edersheim,
P. Lange, Bemhard Weiss and F. W. Farrar; Expositor (1884)
to? and (iQOo) p. 59: also H Peter," Pontius Pilatus, der r5mische
in Jud&a," in Neue Jahrb. f. i. U AUertum (i9o;r).
James Fitzjames Stephen, in his Liberty, Equality and Fraternity
73)« P- 87, starts the question, " Was Pilate ri^ht in crucifying
rist:' his somewhat paradoxical answer is criticised in The Trial
Jesus Christ, a legal monograph^ by A. Taylor Innes (1899).
(A. T. I.)
RLATUS. LEO, or Leonttos [LEONno Pilato] (d. 1366),
e of the earliest promoters of Greek studies in western
rope, was a native of Thessalonica. According to Petrarch, he
sa Calabrian, who posed as a Greek in Italy and as an Italian
nad. In 1360 he went to Florence at the invitation of
ccaccto, by whose influence he was appointed to a lectureship
Greek at the Studio, the first appointment of the kind in the
tt. After three years he accompanied Boccacdo to Venice
a visit to Petrarch, whom he had already met at Padua,
torch, disgusted with his manners and habits, despatched
D to Constantinople to purchase MSS. of classical authors,
atus soon tired of his mission and, although Petrarch refused
receive him again, set sail for Venice. Just outside the
riatic Gulf he was struck dead by lightning. His chief
portance lies in his connexion with Petrarch and Boccaccio,
made a bald and almost word for word translation of Homer
» Latin prose for Boccaccio, subsequently sent to Petrarch,
oowed his introduction to the poet to Pilatus and was anxious
obtain a complete translation. Pilatus also furnished
xacdo with the material for his genealogy of the gods,
rhkh he made an ostentatious display of Greek learning.
ce Gibbon. Decline and Fall, ch. 66; G. Voigt. Die Wiederbelebung
ctassischen AUerthums (189O: H. Hody, De Craecis illustribus
p); G. Tiraboschi, Storia deOa letteratura tlo/iana, v. 691.
IIAJJ9 a favourite Eastern dish, consisting essentially of
; boiled with mutton or other meat, fowl or fish, and flavoured
i ^ices, raisins, &c. The word appears in Persian, Turkish
Urdu, and has been adopted in European languages. The
n pikifff showing the Turkish pronunciation, is also common.
ILCHARD (in earlier i6th century forms pylchoTf pilchar;
inknown origin; the Fr. pilscir is adapted from Eng.), Clupea
karduSt & ^sh of the herring family {Clupeidae), abundant
Jie Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Europe,
Lh to the English Channel. Sardine Ls another name for the
e fish, which on the coast of Britanny and Normandy is also
ad c^n or ciliren. It is readily distinguished from the
!r> European species of Clupea. The operculum is sculptured
1 rulges radiating and descending towards the suboperculum;
leaks are large, about thirty along the lateral line, deciduous;
ventral fins are inserted below, or nearly below, the middle
he base of the dorsal fin; the dorsal hn has seventeen or
teen, the anal from nineteen to twenty-one rays. A small
kish spot in the scapulary region is very constant, and
etiroes succeeded by other similar marks. There are no
h on the palate; pyloric appendages exist in great' numbers;
vertebrae number fifty-three. The pilchard is one of the
t important fishes of the English Channel. It spawns at
stance from the shore, and its eggs are buoyant, like those
nany othler marine fishes and unlike those of the herring,
•h are adhesive and demersal, i.e. develop under water.
egg of the pilchard is very easily distinguished from other
gic eggs by the unusually large space separating the vitelline
ibrane from the contained ovum. Spawning takes place
immer, the season extending from June to October. When
mendng their migrsitions towards the land the shoals
bt of countless numbers, but they break up into smaller
panies near the shore. Pilchards feed on minute crustaceans
other pelagic animals and require two or three years before
attain their full size, which is about 10 in. in length,
sardines of the west coast of France, which are tinned in oil
zpoit, are immature fish of the same stock as those taken
on the coasts of Cornwall; they are 5 to 7) in. in length, and
though such fish occur also on the Cornish coast it is only in
small numbers and for brief periods. In the Mediterranean
the sardine does not exceed ^\ in. in length when mature.
On the Pacific coast of America, in New Zealand and in Japan
a pilchard occurs {Clupea sagax) which in its characters and habits
is so similar to the European pilchard that its general utilization
is deserving of attention. Immense shoals are reported to visit
the east coast of Otago every year in February and March.
Clupea scombrina is the " oil sardine " of the east coast of India.
a. T. C.)
PILB» an homonymous word, of which the main branches
are (i) a heap, through Fr. from pUa, pillar; (3) a heavy beam
used in making foundations, literally a pointed stake, an adapta-
tion of Lat. pilum, javelin; (3) the nap on doth, Lat. pilus,
hair. In the first branch the Lat. pila (for pigla, from root of
pangeref to fasten) meant also a pier or mole of stone, hence any
mass of masonry, as in Fr. pile. In English usage the word
chiefly means a " heap " or " mass " of objects laid one on the
top of the other, such as the heap of faggots or other combustible
material on which a dead body is cremated, " funeral pile,"
or on which a living person is burnt as a punishment. It also is
applied to a krge and lofty building, and specifically, to a stand
of arms, " piled " in military fashion, and to the series of plates,
" galvanic " or " voltaic piles," in an electric battery. The
modem " head and tail " of a coin was formerly " cross and pile,"
Fr. croix et pUe, in modem Ft. face et pile. In the older apparatus
for minting the die for the reverse was placed on a small upright
pillar, pile, the other on a puncheon known as a " trussell "
(Fr. trousseau). The common name of the disease of haemor-
rhoids iq.v.) or " piles " is probably an extension of this word,
in the sense of mass, swelling, but may be referred to the Lat.
pilOt ball. The name of the pilum, or heavy javelin (lit.
pounder, pestle, from pihsere, pisere, to beat), the chief weapon
of the ancient Roman infantry, was adopted into many Teutom'c
languages in the sense of dart or arrow, cf . Germ. Pfeil; in English
it was chiefly used of a heavy stake with one end sharpened,
and driven into swampy ground or in the bed of a river to form
the first fotwdations for a building; the primitive lake-dwellings
built on " piles " are also known as " pile-dwellings." For the
use of piles in building see Foundations and Bridges. In
heraldry a charge represented by two lines meeting in the form
of an arrow head is known as a " pile," a direct adaptation pro-
bably of the Lat. pilum. The division of this intricate word,
followed here, is that adopted by the New English Dictionary;
other et}rmologists (e.g. Skeat, Eiym. Diet., 1898) arrange the
words and their Latin originals somewhat differently.
PIIXIRIII, a wanderer, travdler, particularly to a holy place
(see Pilgrimage). The earliest English forms are pilcgrim or
pelegrim, through Fr. pilerin (the original O. Fr. pelegrin is
not found), from Lat. peregrinus, a stranger, foreigner, particu-
larly a resident alien in Rome (see Praetor, and Roman Law).
The Lat. pereger, from which peregrinus is formed, meant " from
abroad," " travelled through many lands " (per, through,
and ager, country).
It was customary for pilgrims to bring back as proof of their
pilgrimage to a particular shrine or holy place a badge, usually
made of lead or pewter, bearing some figure or device identifying
it with the name or place. These " pilgrim signs " are frequently
alluded to in literature — notably in the Canterbury Tales and in
Piers Plowman. The Briti^ Museum and the Mus6e Cluny in
Paris have fine collections of them, mainly dredged from the
Thames and the Seine. The badges were generally worn
fastened to the pilgrim's hat or cape. Among the best known
are those of the cockle or scallop shell of St. James of Compostdla
in Spain; the "vemide," a represenUtion of the miraculous
head of Christ; the vera icon, true image, on St Veronica's
handkerchief, at Rome, or of the Abgar portrait at Genoa, of
" a vemide hadde he sowed on his cappe " (Cant. Tales, " Prol."
685); the Amiens badge of the head of John the Baptist on th&
charger, the cathedijJ claimvtv^ \X» oaa\sA>f ^V >^v^ vS^k. ^'^'^^
iao6 (fig. 1); and Viit paJmi \itwiOQ» «i cxwa ^\ v^sa.'^^^*^^*"
i
6o4
bulge of tbc " Palmcn " pOgrimife lo tbc Holy Ltad. The
DiMt common of the English pilgrims' ligra ire (hose of ihe
ihrint of Thomos Bcekrt it Cinlcibury, the giM— -
of pUgrimaee in England. Tboe Uke & varitty
PILGRIMAGE
Fio. I
I — Pilpriai'. SiEo, from Flo. 2.— Pilgrimi Sign. from
— calhcilial at Amiciu. Cinlcitjuty.
umdimct a »inptc T, umetirnes ibcU mitkcd ciiM^ntt Tk^mr,
the Canteibury bell, ini»( oficn a figure of the«unt,som(linics
Kiied, someiiitw* riding on ■ horse, and carrying bis episcopal
ciora, and with hand itplilled in benediction (fig. i), Some-
limcj the badges look Ibe shape of imall ampullar, oi vases,
u in the case of the badges of the shrine ol Our Lady ol
Walsinghtm, which were marked wiih a W and cmwn.
Sh W. Andrem. Omrtli Trraary (189S). article " Pilirims'
5n;ns," bv Rev. G. S. Tyack: and Cuiic b Uiimal Room, Briiiik
Tie Ea^ish " Pilpimi' Way."
ihire, to Canlerbuiy, in Kent, r
Mill be traced, now on the present made roads, now as a lane,
bridle path, or cart track, itow only by a line at ancicni yews,
hollies or oaki which once bordered it. To this old track the
name ol " pilgrims' way " has been given, tor along il passed
the stream of pilgTimsioming through Winchester Irora the joulh
and west of England and from the continent of Europe by way ol
Southampton 10 Canterbury Cathedral 10 view the place of the
martyrdom o( Thomas Beckcl, in the north transept, 10 the relici
in the crypt where he was firsl buried after his murder, in 1 1 jo,
and the shrine in the Trinity Chapel which cose above his tomb
after the transbtion of the body In iiio. There were two
fetlivali for the pilgrimage, on the >glh of December, tbe day
of the martyrdom, and on Iho 7th of July, the day oi (he liansls-
(icMi. Tbe summer pilgrimage oalucally beamc the most
popular. In tjjS the shrine was dcUroyed and (he rcHcs of
(he saint scattered, but the great days of the pilgrimage had
then passed. Erasmus gives a vivid picture of the glories of
the shrine and ol all that was dtown to the pilgrims on his visit
with Colet to Canterbury in 1514.
The principal villages, (owns and places near or through which
the way passed arc as follow: WinchcsLci, Alravord, Ropley,
Alton, Farnham (here the way follows the present main road),
Scale, I>utlcnham,by the ruined chapel of St Catherine, outside
Guildlord, near where (he road crosst's the Wey above Shallord.'
and by (he chapel of St Martha, pro[>etly ol " the martyr," now
restoccd and used asa church. Albury. Shetc, Comshall, Docking
{near here the Mole is crossed), along the soulhernslopeofDoxhlQ
1 Rcigate, (hen through Gallon l^irk. Mi ' - • ■
Wrot
e Medway w
i, pasi
's Coty House, and the
Boilcy Ablicy, the oltlcst after Wavcrlcy Abbey ol Cistercian
houM.'S in England, and famous for its miraculous image o( the
inlani sain( Kumbold, and Ihe still more famous winking rood
oc cTucifii, The road passes next by Ilollingboucne, Lenham
and Charing. At Oilocd, Wcotham and Charing were manor-
houses or ralhcr palaces of ihe archbishops ol (^nlcrbury: at
IloUingbourne was a manor ol the priors ol Christchucch. After
■ Shnlfnrd Fair, the chapel) on (he two hills and the Surrey hilli
mre itrobably Ihe 'nvae of Dirnyan's PUfrim's Prp^rra, see E.
Kiaouanl Jame>, Nsia <m Ol Filpim'i Wtf in ffni Sarrr, (1871).
Hollingboume come Wesiwea, EastweQ,
Codmcrsham, Chilhim Castle, and then at .
are the remains of the Hospice of 5t Nicholas, the n^ ju
Walling Streel, by which catoc the main atrcan tl bMbi
from London, the Noclh and the Midlands.
This road, although ils name of the filgTJms' Wiy bi Is
long confined il to the road by which the pilgrinu ant v>
Winchester, follows a far older track. Bj^
back in
(his point the ol
(he only ponion of Ibis Ihe olde
is a small portion thai still bcai
ho^ry, old} road. 1( was in 1
rood from Wincheilec to which
meice from the Conllneni and
England was diverted ,
The " pilgrimi' way '■ has beeo (raced
■.r and tbe Conii ,
oulbem chalk ilope of the Noctk Don
n by the Hog's Back to Fanhua. Ai
ack went across Salisbury Flaia tosink
(o Cornwall. From Famhan wtBiul
(team ol travd and cos-
south and south-*rS d
ly in Mn Ady'i beet
UHilaiPeBillt^-iVi.'aii'^Vrj^r' '"^ "1 tl" '■Jl="*s»>
Tie Ameritan " PUpim FaJ&fn."—lri Amecittn hutncy ik
name " Pilgrims " is applied lo the earliest seitlenol the cdaj
of Plymouih, Massachusetts, and more ^ledficilly (s tbc fal
company ol emigranls, who sailed in (he " htayOowcc " in it»
They were from the beginning Separatists from the Cbmcli*
England; (hey had eslaUished Independent (CongiepliiBil]
churches al Scroohy and Cainsborougb early in the 17th tataj.
aitd some of them hid fled to Amsterdam in itog to itil
persecution, and had removed to Leiden in the lo)loni«yiM.
They sailed IromDelfithaven late in July ifiie, ftem Soa(h>i^
ton on the sth of August, Irom Plymouth on tbe Mb rf
September, and late in December t6io founded the cole^tf
~1ymouIh, Massachuselis. See MASSACUUiETn: Pinom
nd MnVFLOwEi.
PILORIMAQE (Fr, pHtriKatf. Lat. fitepimilu). a jlpaiKf
nderlakcn, from religious motives, to aome [Jace rqiiUda
icred. These journeys play an important t41e la bm( pt-
hristian and e.lra-ChrisLian tebgions: in tbc Cathdic Ctaili
leir acceptance dales from the 3rd and 4th cenlurio.
L Til PUirimate in ^w-Cfcii/um amd Mtm-Ciriaiai JUifim
-To the GermaDic religions (he pilgrimage is unkruvi Cb
u other hand, it is an indigenous dement, not only ia ik
creeds of Asia, hut in tbose of (he ancient scali ol dvihaiki
the Mediterranean. The fundamental conception is alaiji
(hat (he Dei(y raidea— or exercises a pnuliarty poaohi
in some dcfinKe tocaliiy; and (o this locality ik
lirieiihecinRVeienceof (hcicgod, or in qntstrfla
indbounty. Thus,a3thecu1t <^i particulardiTiiiir
spreads lanhcr and lacther, so tbe dtde npands from wkkl Dt
dcawn those who visit his sanctuary.
~ le of the rMttt homes of tbe pilgrimage i* India. "Hn
army of devotees tends more especially to the Cup*-
lallowed river ol Hindu bdiel. On (he Ganges lies Beaun
loly cily ol Bnhminism: and (o took on Benam. (OTi«
mplet, and to be washed dean in the purifying tivo-. it w
yearning of every pious Indian. Eves Buddhism— grigiail;
destitute of ceremonial— has adopted the pilgrimage; aad it<
secondary tradition makes Buddha himself determine its full
(he place where he was bom, where be fini preached, »tar
(he highcs( insight dawned on him, and where be sank ian
aya, Benares and Kusinagira.
In Syria, (he temple of Aiargaib in HienpoUs was « in-
memorial resort of pilgrims. In Phoenicia, a similar signibiwt
was enjoyed by the shrine of Astane, on (he riibly-niftnl
source of the rivet Adonis, till, as late as Ihe 4th century ilio
Christ, il was destroyed l^ Cons(an(ine tbc Great. Is Egjin.
Ihc great annual and monthly festival* of (he ' ~
PILGRIMAGE
'605
rise to all manner of religious expeditions. Even among
tha Israelites, the visitation of certain cult-centres prevailed
rxom remote antiquity; but, when the restriction of Yahweh-
■vorship to Jerusalem had doomed the old shrines, the Jewish
pilgrimages were directed solely to the sanctuary on Mt Moria.
Among the Greeks the habit was no less deeply rooted. Just
■s the inhabitants of each town honoured their tutelar deity
by solemn processions to his temple, so, at the period of the
(Hympic games, the temple of Zeus at Olympia formed the
foal of multitudes from every Hellenic country. No less power-
ful was the attraction exercised by the shrines of the oracular
divinities, though the influx of pilgrims was not limited to certain
days, but, year in and year out, a stream of private persons,
or embassies from the dty-states, came flowing to the temple
of Zeus in Dodona or the shrine of Apollo at Delphi.
The unification of the peoples of antiquity in the Roman
Empire, and the resultant amalgam of religions, gave a powerful
impetus to the custom. For, as East and West still met at the
old sanctuaries of Greece, so — and yet more — Greece and Rome
lepatred to the temples of the southern and eastern deities. In
Uie shrine of Isis at Philae, Europeans set up votive inscriptions
OD behalf of their kindred far away at home, and it may be
nrmised that even among the festival crowds at Jerusalem a
few Greeks found place (Jol^n xii. 20).
The pilgrimage, however, attained its zenith under Islam.
For Maihomet proclaimed it the duty of every Mussulman, once
at least in his life, to visit Mecca; the result being that the birth-
place of the Prophet is now the religious centre of the whole
Mahommedan world (see Mahomueoan Reucion; Caravan;
Mecx:a).
II. The Pilgrimage under Christianity. — The pilgrimages
of Christianity presuppose the existence of those of paganism ;
but it would be an error to maintain that the former
were a direct development of the bller. For primitive
Christianity was devoid of any point by which these journeys of
devotion might naturally have been suggested. It was a religion
without temples, without sanctuaries, and without ceremonial.
The saying of the Johannine Gosp>el — that God is to be adored
■either in Jerusalem nor on Gerlzim, but that His true worshipper
must worship Him in spirit and in truth — is in complete harmony
with the old Christian piety. And, accordingly, in the ancient
Christian literature, we find no trace of a conception that the
bdiever should visit a definite place in order to pay homage to
his Master. The evolution of the Christian pilgrimage moved
OD other lines.
Gccro finely observes that, in Athens, the glorious architecture
caused him less pleasure than did the thought of the great men
whose work was done in its midst — " how here one had lived,
and there fallen asleep; how here another had disputed, and
there by buried " {De Legg. ii. 2). This feeling was not weakened
by the advent of Christianity, in fact, we may say that it was
appreciably strengthened. Cicero had already compared the
Btes consecrated by the memory of some illustrious name with
those hallowed by recollections of a loved one. But with the
Christian, when his Redeemer was in question, both motives
coincided: for there the greatest was also the dearest.
In this devotion to the memory of Jesus, we find the key
to the origin of the Christian pilgrimage: the faithful repaired to
those places which were invested with memories of their Lord's
earthly life. And these journeys must certainly date from the
and century. For Origen (d. 254) mentions that in Bethlehem
the cave was shown where Christ was bom, and in it the manger
in which Mary made the bed of her child. The site must have
been much visited long before this, since Origen remarks that
it was common knowledge, even among the infidels, that there
was the birthplace of that Jesus whom the Christians worshipped
{Contr. Ccls. i. 51). But those who visited Bethlehem must
certainly have visited Jerusalem and the places there, so rich in
memorials of their Master. And the sympathy of Christendom
•oon led them beyond this immediate circle. The anonymous
author of the Cokorlatio ad Graecos, a work of the 2nd century,
visited the remnants of those cells, in which — so legend related —
the seventy interpreters laboured on their version of the Old
Testament: nor, when he came to Cumae in Campania, did he
fail to have shown him the old shrine of the Sibyl (Coh. ad Cr.
13 and 37). Soon we begin to hear the names of the pilgrims.
In the course of the 3rd century, as Jerome relates, Firmilian,
bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, travelled to Palestine to
view the sacred places {De Vir. ill. 54); while, according to
Eusebius, a second bishop from Cappadocia, Alexander by name,
visited Jerusalem in order to pray and acquaint himself with
the holy sites, and was there invited by the community to
remain with them and assume the episcopate of the aged
Narcissus {Hist. eccl. vi. 11). With regard to his own times—
the early years of the 4th century — the same authority recounts
that believers kept streaming to Palestine from all regions,
there to offer their prayers at a* cavern shown on the Mount
of Olives {Demonstr. cvang. vi. 18).
This statement, that the Christians of the 3rd and 4th centuries
were in the habit of visiting Jerusalem for prayer, proves that
the non-Christian conception of the religious pilgrimage had
already entered the sphere of Christian thought. That men
travelled for purposes of prayer implies acceptance of the heathen
theory of sanctuaries which it is an act of piety to visit. We
may regret the fact, for it sullied the purity of primitive
Christian thought. Nevertheless, it is clear that the develop-
ment was inevitable. As soon as the non-Christian ideas of
priests, sacrifices, houses of the god, and so forth, were naturalized
in the Christianity of the 3rd century, it was but a short step
to the belief in holy places.
III. The Pilgrimage in the Ancient Church. — ^In the passages
cited above, Bethlehem and the Mount of Olives figure as the
main goal of the pilgrim: and on the Mount of
Olives the mind must naturally turn to the Garden
of Gethsemane and the scene of the Ascension. It may seem
surprising that there is no mention of Golgotha and the Sepulchre.
But the visitation of these sites was rendered impossible to the
Christians by the destruction of Jerusalem and the erection
of the town of Aelia Capitolina. They had not forgotten them;
but the grave was concealed under a mound of earth and stones
— a profanation probably dating from the siege of the dty and
Titus's attack on the second wall. On the summit of this
mound there stood, in the days of Eusebius, a sanctuary of
Venus (Eus. VU. Const, ill. 26, 30). The Sepulchre and the
Hill of the Crucifixion were lost to the Christian pilgrim; and,
consequently, before the era of Constantine, the one holy site
in the town of Jerusalem was the so-called Coenaculum, which
received its name in later years. It lay south of the dty, near the
outer wall, and, if Epiphanius is to be believed, was already in
existence when Hadrian (130-131) visited Jerusalem {De mens.
14). It was regarded as the house, in which — according to the
Acts of the Apostles (xii. 12 sqq.) — Mary, the mother of John
Mark, lived; and the belief was that there the Lord hdd the
Last Supper, and that there the eleven assembled after the
Ascension. It was there, also, that the scene of the Pentecostal
eilusion of the Spirit was laid (cf. Cyriil. Hierus. Cat. xvi. 4).
The pilgrimage to Palestine received a powerful impetus
from the erection of the memorial churches on the holy sites,
under Constantine the Great, as described by Eusebius in his
biography of the emperor (iii. 25 sqq.). At the order of Con-
stantine, the shrine of Venus above mentioned was destroyed,
and the accumulated rubbish removed, till the andent rock-
foundation was reached. There the cave was discovered in
which Joseph of Arimathea had laid the body of Jesus; and
above this cave and the Hill of the Crucifixion the imposing
church of the Holy Sepulchre was built (a.d. 326-336). The
churches in Bethlehem and on the Mount of Olives were erected
by Helena, the mother of Constantine, who herself undertook
the pilgrimage to the Holy Land. These churches were then
endowed with new sanctuaries of miraculous powers; and relics
of Christ were found in the shape of the Cross and the nails.
Eusebius, the contemporary of Constantine, is silent on this
point. To his continuators, on the other hand, it is an established
fact that Helena brought all three crosses to light, and ascertained
i
6o6
PILGRIMAGE
the genuine Cross by the instnimentality of a miracle,
in addition to discovering the nails of the Crudfizion (Rufin.
i. 7; Socr. i.17; Sozomen. ii. x; Theod. i. 17). It is impossible
to fix the date at which the supposititious relics were introduced
into the church of the Sepulchre: it is certain, however, that
in the 5th century the Cross was there preserved with scru-
pulous reverence, and accounted the highest treasure of the
sanctuary.
After the 4th century, monks and nuns begin to form no
inconsiderable part of the pilgrimages — a fact which is especially
manifest from the numerous notices to be found in Jerome,
and the narratives of Theodoret in the Historia religiosa. In
fact, many were inclined to regard a journey to Jerusalem as
the bounden duty of every monk — an exaggerated view which
led to energetic protests, especially from Gregory of Nyssa,
who composed a monograph on the pilgrimages (De iis qui
adeutU Hierosd.). Jerome, like Gregory, insists on the point
that residence in Jerusalem has in itself no religious value:
it is not locality, but character, that avails, and the gates of
Heaven are as open in Britain as in Jerusalem {Ep. 58, 3).
These utterances, however, must not be misinterpreted. They
are not directed against the pilgrimage in itself, nor even against
the belief that prayer possesses special efficacy on sacred
ground, but solely against the exaggerated developments of
the system.
The theologians of the 4th and 5th centuries were at one
with the masses in recognizing the religious uses of the pilgrim-
ages. Jerome in particular considered it an act of faith for a
man to offer his prayers where the feet of the Lord had stood,
and the traces of the Birth, of the Cross, and of the Passion were
still to be seen {Ep. 47, 2).
We may gain some impression of the mood in which the
pilgrims completed their journey, when we read how Paula,
the friend of Jerome, expresses herself on her visit to the church
of the Sepulchre: " As oft as we enter its precincts we see the
Saviour laid in the shroud, and the angel seated at the feet of
the deadl" (Hieron. Ep. 46, 2). She assured Jerome that,
in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, she beheld, with
the eye of faith, the Christ-child wrapped in swaddling clothes
{Ep. 108, 10). But with these thoughts, others of an entirely
different stamp were frequently blended. Pilgrimages were
conceived as means to ensure an answer to particular prayers.
So, for example, Eudocia, the wife of Theodosius II., vowed
to undertake a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, if she should see her
daughter married. (Socr. Hist. ecd. vii. 47). And, closely
as this approaches to pagan ideas, the distinction between
paganism and Christianity is completely obliterated when we
find the hermit Julian and his companions travelling to Sinai
in order to worship the Deity there resident (Theod. Hist,
rel. 2).
With the number of the pilgrims the number of pilgrim-resorts
also increased. Of Jerusalem alone Jerome relates that the
places of prayer were so numerous that it was impossible to
visit them aU in one day {Ep. 46, 9). In the Holy Land the
list was still longer: the natives were ready to show everything
for which the foreigners inquired, and the pilgrim was eager to
credit everything. In her expedition to the East, the Paula
mentioned above visited, among other places, Sarepta and
Caesarea. In the first-named place she was shown the tower
of Elijah; in the second, the house of Cornelius, that of Philip,
and finally the grave of the four virgins. At Bethlehem she
saw, in addition to the church of the Nativity, the grave of
Rachel; at Hebron the hut of Sarah, in which the swaddling
clothes of Isaac and the remains of Abraham's oak were on
view (Hieron. Ep. 108). A similar picture is given in the
Travels of the so-called Silvia Aquitana, who seems, in reality,
to have been a Spanish nun, named Etheria or Eucheria. She
went as a pilgrim to Jerusalem {c. 380), and from there traversed
the whole of Palestine, in order to visit every site which was
consecrated by memories of the Lord's earthly life. Nor did
she neglect the scenes of patriarchal history. Of greater
antiquity is the concise account of his travels by an anonymous
pilgrim, who, in aj>. 133, imdatook the lourncj faMiBorian
to Palestine. The JUturary of the Af rioui Tlmdoni «ko
visited the East between aj>. 520 and aj>. 530 is of hta diU
(P. Geyer, Itin. kierosol, saec. iv^-viiL).
While pilgrim-resorts were thus filling the East, thdrcomtei-
parts began to emerge in the West. And here the stutaf*
point b to be found in the veneration of inar^n.|^^||^
Care for the tombs of nurtyrs was sanctioofed by
immemorial custom of the Church; but, in tbb coe
also, a later age failed to preserve the primitive coaeeptios ii
its purity; and Augustine himself was (^>Uged to de^endtlie
usage of the Church from the imputation that it implied s
transference of heathen ceremonial to the sphexe of Chiistlaiitf
{Contr. Faust, zz. 21). The martyrs were the local herea d
particular communities; but there were men whose life and dotk
were of significance for the whole of Christendom— the apoitki
Of these Peter and Paul had suffered nuutyrdom in Rose^
and it was inevitable, from the nature of the case, that ^
graves should soon become a resort, not only of Romans boo,
but of strangers also. True, the presbyter Caius (c. soo) vht
first mentions the situation of the apostolic tombs on the Vaticn
and the road to Ostia, and refers to the roemoxials there creded.
has nothing to say of foreign Christians jouzseying to RoK
in order to visit them. And though Origen travelled to Roh^
it was not to view the graves of dead men, but to cstabU
relations with the living flock (Euseb. Hist. €cd. u. aSt 7; ^
14, 10); still, it is certain that the Roman cemeteries voe
visited by numerous pilgrims even in the 3rd century: for tk
earliest grafiti in the papal crypt of the' Coemetezium CiW
must date from thb period (De Rossi, Rama «tfcr. L SSS
sqq ; Kraus, Ram. Sott. 148 sqq.). And if the tombs of the pops
were thus visited, so much more must this hold of the toaki
of the apostles. After these, the most fiequcnted resort it
Rome in the 4th century was the grave of H^ipotytns. Hk
poet Prudentius describes how, on the day of the naitji^
death, an innumerable multitude of pilgrims flocked nmid tk
site. Even on ordinary days arrivals and depaitures
almost incessant — ^foreigners being everywhere sea
with the native Latins. They poured balsam 00 the ,
of the saint, washed it with their tears, and covered it with thor
kisses, in the belief that they were thus assuring thuuidvei d
his intercession or testifying their gratitude for his stsitrMiit.
Prudentius says of himself, that whei^ver he was skk in wi
or body, and prayed there, he found help and retuxaed ii
cheerfulness: for C«od had vouchsafed His saint the povcrti
answer all entreaties {Pcrist. xL 175 sqq.). Paulinas of VUk
(d. 431) concurs — ^his custom being to visit Ostia each jtK,
and Rome on the apostolic anniversaries {Ep. 30, 2; 4$^ iX
Next to Rome the most popular religious resort was the toaik
of Felix of Nola (August. Ep. 78, 3); while in Gaul the giiverf
St Martin at Tours drew pilgrims from all quarters (ft^
Nol. Ep. 17, 4). Africa possessed no sanctuary to ooofMli
with these; but we learn from Sulpidus Severus (c. 400) tkl
the tomb of Cyprian seems to have been visited even by a Gal
{Dial: i. 3).
The motive that drew the pilgrims to the graves of the anU
is to be found in the conviction, expressed by Prodentins. ttat
there divine succour was certain; and hence came theb^ii
a never-ending series of miracles there performed (cf., «!•
Ennod. Ticin. Lib. pro syn. p. 3x5). Doubt was mkoom
St Augustine observes that, though Africa was full of mutyn^
tombs, no miracle had been wrought at them so for as lii
knowledge extended. This, however, did not lead him to doalt
the truth of those reported by others — a fact that is sumwhst
surprising when we reflect that the phenomenon caused hia
much disquiet and perplexity. Who, he asks, can fathom thi
design of God in ordaining that this should happen at one pbce
and not at another? And eventually he acquiesces in the
conclusion that God, who gives every man his individail |^
at pleasure, has not willed that the same powers should have
efficacy at every sepulchre of the saints {Ep. 78, 3).
IV. The Pilgrimage in the MidMe Ages.— Tht medieval OorIi
PILGRIMAGE
607
d the custom of the pilgrimage from the ancient Church.
»ung Germanic and Romance nations did precisely as the
Greek and Romans had done before them, and the
motives of these devotional journeys — now much
more difficult of execution in the general decay of
rett world-system of commerce — remained much the
They were undertaken to the honour of God {Pipp.
54'755> c. 4), for purposes of prayer {Ann. Hild. 992),
tiest of assistance, especially health {Vila GaUi,)i.n\ Vita
iii. 10). But the old causes were reinforced by others of
t equal potency. The medieval Church was even more
idly convinced than its predecessor that the miraculous
Df Deity attached to the bodies of saints and their relics.
le younger nations — French, English and German —
aintily endowed with saints; while, on the other hand,
lief obtained that the home-countries of Christianity,
lly Rome and Jerusalem, possessed an inexhaustible
of these sanctified bodies. Pilgrimages were consequently
iken with the intention of securing relics. At first it
>ugh to acquire some object which had enjoyed at least
ate connexion with the hallowed corpse. Gregory of
d. S94) mentions one of his deacons who made a pilgrim-
> the East, in order to collect relics of the Oriental saints;
1 his return, visited the grave of the bishop Nicetius
QCt*, d. 573) in Lyons, where he still further increased
-e. His testimony showed how relics came to be distri-
&mong the populace: one enthusiast took a little wax
1 from the taper; another, a portion of the dust which lay
grave; a third, a thread from the cloth covering the sar-
us; and he himself plucked the flowers which visitors
tnted above the tomb. Such were the memorials with
le returned; but the universal belief was that something
miraculous virtue of the saint had passed into these
{VU. pair. 8, 6). Before long, however, these humble
s failed to content the pilgrims, and they began to devote
forts to acquiring the actual bodies, or portions of them
ently by honest means, still oftener by trickery. One of
Kt attractive works of early medievalism — Einhard's little
Translalio Marcellini el Petri — gives a vivid description
methods by which the bodies of the two saints were
d and transported from Rome to Seligenstadt on the
norc important consequences, however, resulted from the
it the medieval mind associated the pilgrimage with the
ness of sins. This conception of the pilgrimage, as a
of expiation or a source of pardon for wrong, was foreign
ancient Church. It is quite in accordance with the
consciousness of sin, which prevailed in the middle ages,
.e expiatory pilgrimage took its place side by side with
^mage to the glory of God. The pilgrimage became an
obedience; and, in the books of penance {Poenitenlialia)
jate from the early middle ages, it is enjoined — whether
efinite period (e.g. Poen. Valicell. i. c. 19; Theod. Cant.
i) or for life (Poen. Cummeani, vii. 12, Casin. 24) — ^as
(iation for many of the more serious sins, especially
or the less venial forms of unchastity. The place to
ted was not specified; but the pilgrim, who was bound
>pen letter of his bishop to disclose himself as a pentitent,
der the obligation, wherever he went, to repair to the
cs and — more especially — the tombs of the saints, and
>f!er his prayers. On occasion, a chain or ring was
d about his body, that his condition might be obvious
and soon all manner of fables gained currency: how,
there, the iron had sprung apart by a miracle, in token
le sinner was thereby absolved by God. For instance,
(a Liudgeri recounts the history of a fratricide who was
med to this form of pilgrimage by Jonas, bishop of
s (d. 843); he wore three iron rings round his body and
ind travelled bare-footed, fasting, and devoid of linen,
mrch to church till he found pardon, the first ring breaking
tomb of St Gertrude at Nivclles, the second in the crypt
eter, and the third by the grave of Liudger. The pilgrim-
age with a predetermined goal was not recognized by the books
of penance; but, in 1059, Peter Damiani imposed a pilgrimage
to Rome or Tours on the clerics of Milan, whom he had absolved
{Ada nudiol. patrol, lai. 145, p. 98).
As the system of indulgences developed, a new motive came
to the fore which rapidly overshadowed all others: pilgrimages
were now undertaken to some sacred spot, simply in order to
obtain the indulgence which was vested in the respective church
or chapel. In the nth century the indulgence consisted in a
remission of part of the penance imposed in the confessional,
in return for the discharge of some obligation voluntarily
assumed by the penitent. Among these obligations, a visit
to a particular church, and the bestowal of pious gifts upon it.
held a prominent place. The earUest instance of the indulgenttal
privilege conferred on {. church is that granted in ici6 by Pontius,
archbishop of Aries, to the Benedictine abbey of Montmajour
(Mons Major) in Prov«;nce (d'Achery, Spicil. iii. $S,i seq.) But
these dispensations, which at first lay chiefly in the gift of the
bishops, then almost exclusively in that of the popes, soon
increased in an incessant stream, tJH.at the close of the middle
ages there were thousands of churches in every western country,
by visiting which it was possible to obtain an almost indefinite
number of indulgences. But, at the same time, the character
of the indulgence was modified. From a renussion of penance
it was extended, in the 13th century, to a release from the
temporal punishment exacted by God, whether in this life or
in purgatory, from the repentant sinner. And, from an absolu-
tion from the consequences of guilt, it became, in the 14th and
15th centuries, a negation or the guilt itself; while simultaneously
the opportunity was offered of acquiring an indulgence for the
souls of those already in purgatory. Consequently, during
the whole period of medievalism, the number of pilgrims was
perpetually on the increase.
So long as the number of pilgrims remained comparatively
small, and the difficulties in their path proportionately great,
they obtained open letters of recommendation from ^^
their bishops to the clergy and laity, which ensured JJJ^S;"'
them lodging in convents and charitable founda\ions,
in addition to the protection of public officiab. An instance
is preserved in Markulf's formulary (ii.. 49). To receive the
pilgrim and supply him with alms was always considered the
duty of every Christian: Charlemagne, indeed, made it a legal
obligation to withhold neither roof, hearth, nor fire from them
(.Admon. genl. 789, c. 75; Cap. Miss. 802, c. 27).
The most important places of resort both for voluntary and
involuntary pilgrimages, were still Palestine and Rome. On
the analogy of the old Itinerariat the abbot Adamnan of lona
(d. 704) now composed his monograph De locis Sanctis, which
served as the basis of a similar book by the Venerable Bcde
(d. 735) — both works being edited in the Itin. hierosol. His
authority was a Frankish bishop named Arculf, who resided for
nine months as a pilgrim in Jerusalem, and visited the remaining
holy sites of Palestine in addition to Alexandria and Constanti-
nople. Of the later itineraries the Dcscriptio terrae sanctae,
by the Dominican Burchardusde Monte Sion, enjoyed the widest
vogue. This was written between the years 1285 and 1295;
but books of travel in the modem tongues had already begun to
make their appearance. The initiative was taken by the French
in the X2th and 13th centuri'cs, and the Germans followed in the
14th and isth ; while the Book of Wayes to Jerusalem of John de
Maundevilie (c. 1336) attained extreme popularity, and was
translated into almost all the vernacular languages. Mosi
pilgrims, probably, contented themsel'/es with the brief guide-
books which seem to have originated in the catalogues of indul-
gences. In later periods, that of Romberch a Kyrspe, printed at
Venice (i 519), stood high in favour.
A long list might be compiled of men of distinction who per-
formed the pilgrimage to Palestine. In the 8th century one
of the most famous is the Anglo-Saxon Willibald, who died
in 781 as bishop of the Frankish diocese of Eichst&tt. He
left his home in the spring of 720, accompanied by his father and
brother. The pilgrims traversed France wvd IV^Vj ^ nI>&\>:\sv^
i
6o8
PILGRIMAGE
every religious resort; in Lucca the father died, and the brother
remained behind in Rome. Early in 732 WilUbald began his
expedition to the Holy Land alone, except for the presence of
two companions. He travelled past Naples to Syracuse, then
on shipboard by Cos and Saroos to Ephesus, and thence through
Asia Minor to Damascus and Jerusalem. On St Martin's
day, in 724, he arrived in the Holy City. After a prolonged
stay in the town and its environs, Willibald proceeded (727)
to Constantinople, and in 729 returned to Italy. Such is the
account given by the nun of Heidenheim in her biography of
Willibald; and her version is probably based on notes by the
pilgrim himself (Afon. Germ. hist. scr. xv. 80 sqq.). In the
Qth century the French monk Bernard visited Palestine with
two companions, and afterwards wrote a simple and trust-
worthy account of his journey (Patrol, lat. 121, 569 sqq.). In
the loth century Conrad, bishop of Constance (934-976), per-
formed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem three times {Vila Chuonr. 7);
and to the same period belong the first women-pilgrims to
Jerusalem of whom we have any cognisance — Hidda, mother
of Gcro, archbishop of Cologne (Thietm. Chron. ii. i6), and the
countess Hademod of Ebersbcrg {Chron. ehersh.). The leaders,
moreover, of the monkish reform movement in the loth and
nth centuries, Richard of St Vannc in Verdun and Poppo,
abbot of Stavelot (978-1048), had seen the Holy Land with
their own eyes {Vita Rich. 17; Vita Popp. 3). In the year 1028
Archbishop Poppo of Trier (d. 1047) undertook a pilgrimage
which led him past Jerusalem to the banks of the Euphrates,
his return taking place in 1030 {Gesta Trcvir. Conl. i. 4 seq.).
But the most celebrated devotional expedition before the Crusades
was that of the four bishops— Sigfrid of Mainz, Gunther of
Bamberg, William of Utrecht, and Otto of Regensburg. They
set out in 1064, with a company whose numbers exceeded
seven thousand. The major portion, however, fell in battle
against the Mahommedans, or succumbed to the privations of
the journey, and only some two thousand saw their homes
again(/i««fl/. Allah., Lamb., Disib., Marian. Scot. Sic). Among
the followers of the bishops were two clerics of Bamberg, Ezzo
and Willc, who composed on the way the beautiful song on the
miracles of Christ — one of the oldest hymns in the German
language. The text was due to Ezzo, the tune to Wille (MUllen-
hoff and Schercr, DenkmUler, i. p. 78, No. 31). A few years later
Count Dietrich of Trier began a pilgrimage to Jerusalem with
113 companions, in atonement for the murder of Archbishop
Kuno. The ship, however, which conveyed them went down
with all hands in a storm (Berth. Ann. 1073).
As a result of this steady increase in the number of pilgrims,
the old arrangements for their acc«»mmodation were found
deficient. Consequently hospices arose which were designed
exclusively for the pilgrim. Those on the Alpine passes are
common knowledge. The oldest, that on the Septimer pass,
dates from the Carolingian period, though it was restored in
1 1 20 by the bishop Wido of Chur: that on the Great St Bernard
was founded in the loth century, and reorganized in the 13th.
To this century may albO be assigned the hospice on the Simplon;
to the 14th those on the St Gothard and the Lukmanier.
Similarly, the Mediterranean towns, and Jerusalem in particular,
had their pilgrirn-rcfugcs. Service in the hospices was regularly
performed by the hospital-fraternities — that is to say, by lay
associations working under the authorization of the Church.
The most imjwrtant of these was the fraternity of the Hospilale
hirrosolymitnntim, founded between 1065 and 1075; for hence
arose the order of St John, the earliest of the orders of
knighthood. In addition to the hospital of Jerusalem, numerous
others were under its charge in Acre, Cyprus, Rhodes, Malta,
&c. Associations were formed to assist pilgrims bound for the
East ; one being the Cottfririr dcs pilrrins de Ttrrc-Sainte in
Paris, foundctl in 1325 by I^uis de Bourbon, count of Clermont
(afterwards first duke of Bourbon) Its church was in the rue
dcs Cordeliers. Similar institutions existed also in .Amsterdam,
Utrecht, Antwerp and elsewhere in the Netherlands.
But since, in the middle ages, the Holy Land was no longer
held by a Cht'o-llLn Power, the protection of the pilgrims was
no less necessary than their sustenance. Tliis fact* after
close of the xitb century, led to the Crusades (9.?.), iriiidav ^
many respects are to be regarded as armed pilgrimages. For tA$
old dream of the pilgrim, to view the country where God hatf
walked as man, h'ved on in the Crusades — a fact which b demcv. ,
strated by the letters of Bernard of Clairvaux, with the soBfiof
Walthcr von dcr Vogeli^eide and other Crusaders. And, mat
the strongest motive in the pilgrimage ▼'as the arqtiiMlica of
indulgences, unniaabered thousands were moved to sssuoe
the Cross, when, in 1095, Urban II. promised them pkoaij
indulgence {Cone. Claram. c. a). The conquest of Jemsakm,
and the erection of a Christian empire in Palestine, natonSy
welled the influx of pilgrims. And though in x 187 the Bdf
City again fell into the hands of the infidel, while in 1 291 the
loss of Acre eliminated the la.st Christian possession in Palestine,
the pilgrimages still proceeded. True, after the fall of the dly
and the loss of Acre, they were forbidden by the Church; bat the
veto was impracticable. In the 12th century these reKgioai
expeditions were still so common that, every Sunday, pnyen
were offered in church for the pilgrims (Honor. Aug. Spec ted.
p. 828). In the i3lh century the annual number of those vi»
visited Palestine amounted to many thousands: in the i4tk aad i
15th it had hardly shrunk. In fact, between the yean 1300 aad
1600, no fewer than 1400 men of distinction can be enumetatd
from Germany alone who travelled to the Holy Laod
(ROhricht and Meissner, Deutsche Pilgerreisen, pp. 465-546)-
It was not till the Reformation, the wars of the x6th centnxy,
and the loss of Rhodes, Candia and Cyprus to the Turks, thst
any apprcdable alteration was effected. When Ignatius de
Loyola {g.v.) sea sail in 1523 from Venice to Palestine, osi*
some thirteen souls could be mustered on the pilgrim-ship, wUe
eight or nine others sailed with the Venetian state-vessd ashru
Cyprus. A considerable number had abandoned their pflcriS'
age and returned home o 1 the news of the fall of Rhodes (Dec
25, 1522: sec Ada sand. Jul. vii. 642 seq.).
For pilgrimage overseas, as it was styled, the permissioB of
the Church was still requisite. The pilgrims made their jonney
in grey cowls fastened by a broad belt. On the cowl they ««e
a red cross; and a broad-brimmed hat, a staff, sack and gourd
completed their equipment. During their travels the beard «»
allowed to grow, and they prepared for departure by confeaioo
and communion. Of their hymns many are yet extant (" Jen-
salem mirabilis," " In gottes namcn farcn wir," Lc). The
embarcation took place either in France or Italy. In Fraoee,
Marseilles was the main harbour for the pilgrims. FnHn there
ships belonging to the knights of St John and the khi^f
templars conducted the commerce with Palestine, and cuiien
annually some 6000 passengers. In the Italian ports the nomber
of shipments was still greater — espcdally in Venice, whcace ibe
regular passagiiim started twice a year. The Venetian pilgrin
ships, moreover, carried as many as 1500 souls. The ptl^ims
formed themselves into unions, elected a " master " and con-
cluded theip agreements, as to the outward voyage and return,
in common. After Venice, Genoa end Pisa occupi^ the raost
prominent position. The voyage lasted from six to eight wecb,
the stay in Jerusalem averaging ten days. The visitation of the
holy places was conducted in processions hbaded by the Fran-
ciscans of the Convent of Zion.
The expenses of the journey to Palestine were no light mattcf.
In the 1 2th century they may be estimated at 100 marks of
silver (£200) for the ordinary pilgrim. This was the amount
raised in 1147 by one (}oswin von Randerath to defny the
expenses of his pilgrimage (Niederrhein. Urk. Buch. i. Na j6i).
Later the cost was put at 280-300 ducats (£i4»-£i5o). In the
13th century a knight with two squires, one groom, and the reqai-
site horses, had to disburse 8] marks of silver for hb passage;
while for a single pilgrim the rate was rather less than i mark.
In the i6th century Ignatius de Loyola calculated the cost of
the voyage from Venice to Jaffa at some 6 or 7 gold florins (£3^
I'he expenses of the princes and lords were, of course, much
heavier. Duke William of Saxony, who was in Jerosalem in
1461, spent no less than £10,000 on his journey (tee Prvix,
PILGRIMAGE
609
kle der KreuaUge, pp. 106 sqq.; RShricht, Z7eti<xcA«
?. 42).
ras the number of pilgrims oversea, it was yet
by that of the visitants to the ** threshold of
" i.e. Rome. As was the case with Jerusalem,
to the city of the apostle were now composed.
; the Notitia ecdesiarum urbis RonuUf which was
ipiled under Honocius I. (625-638). The mono-
is s. martyrum is of somewhat later date. Both
md in De Rossi, Roma soUerranea, i. 138 sqq.)-
um einsidlense (ed. G. Hand, Archiv. f. Philologie,
igs to the second half of the 8th century. Its
ild seem to have been a disciple of Walahfrid; for
ire not confined to the churches, their reliquaries,
csiastical ceremonial of saint-daj's, but he takes
\ transcribing ancient inscriptions. William of
again, when relating the crusade of Count Robert
' (1096), transfers into his Cesta regum anglorum
1 old description of Rome, originally intended for
jrims. This may have dated from the 7th century,
nagcs to Rome received their greatest impetus
nauguration of the so-called Year of Jubilee {q.v.).
of February 1300 the bull of Boniface VIII.,
tabd fidcm, promised plenary indulgence to every
hould visit the churches of the apostles Peter and
f days during the year, and to every foreigner who
n the same act on fifteen days. At the close of the
lispensation was extended to all who had expired
3 Rome. This placed the pilgrimage to Rome on
he crusades — the only mode of obtaining a plenary
The success of the papal bull was indescribable,
xi that, in the Year of Jubilee, on an average,
igers were present in the city during the day.
number of the pilgrims came from southern France,
ding comparatively few on that occasion (see
Gesch. d. Stadt Rom. v. 546 sqq.). The Jubilee
according to the edict of Boniface VIII. was to be
1 century; but this period was greatly abridged by
)pcs (see Jubilee, Year of), so that in the years
423, 1450, 1475, isoo, the troops of pilgrims again
ng into Rome to obtain the cherished dispensation,
r pilgrim-resorts, we shall only emphasize the most
Priority of mention is due to St James of 0)mpo-
go, in the Spanish province of Galicia). Here the
r the pilgrim was the supposed possession of the
» the son of 2^bedce. The apostle was executed
command of Herod Agrippa (Acts xii. i); and at
{ of the medieval period it was believed that his
id in Palestine ( Vow «/. Fortun.carm.v. 144, viii.3).
icxion of the apostle with Spain is to be traced in
oris b. Mar. ct xii. a post, dedic., which is ascribed to
709) and contains a story of his preaching in that
e earliest account of the transference of his relics to
. is found in Notker Balbulus (d. 912, Martyrol. in
)ut in Sp>ain belief in this cherished possession was
d, step by step, the theory won credence through-
i. In 1059, Archbishop Wido of Milan journeyed
IDamiani, Acta mcdiol. p. 98); and a little bter we
ds of pilgrims from Germany and France. In
ccd, the shrine of St James of Compostella became
e most favoured devotional resort; and in the i2lh
isltation had attained such popularity that a pil-
•ler was ranked on a level with one to Rome or
[onor. August. Spec. eccl. p. 828). In Paris, after
•xisted a special hospice for the " fraternity of St
hich from 60 to 80 pilgrims were received each day,
enled with a quarter of a denarius (Dulaure, Ilist.
2), i. 531). Even in the period of the Reformation
' St James " was sung in Germany (Wackernagel,
ii. No. 1246); and in.1478 pilgrimages to that shrine
ty Sixtus IV, on official equality with those to Rome
m (Extrav. comm. c. 5; Dc pocnit. v. 9).
In France St Martin remained the^hief goal of the pilgrim;
while Notre Dame dc Sous-Terrc in Chartres (with a portrait
of the " black Virgin "), Lc Puy^n-Velay (dep. Haute Loire),
and others, also enjoyed considerable celebrity. In England
pilgrimages were made to the tomb of the murdered archbishop,
Thomas Becket, in Canterbury Cathedral The setting of
Chaucer's Canterbury Talcs gives a vivid idea of the motley
company of pilgrims; but it seems probable that Germany also
sent a contingent (Gcrvas. Cantuar. ckr. ann. 11 84; Ralph dc
Diceto, Ymag. kisL ann. 1184). In addition, Walsingham,
Peterborough, St Davids, Holywell, and St Andrews in Scotland
were much frequented. In lower Germany, Cologne and Aix-la-
Chapelle, in Switzerland Einsiedeln, were the principal resorts.
In Italy the church of the Archangel on Mt Gargano was one
of the most ancient centresof the pilgrimage, being visited even by
the monk Bernard (vide supra). Later the Portiuncula church
at Assist displaced all other religious resorts, with the exception
of Rome; but in the 15th century it was overshadowed in turn
by the " Holy House " at Loretto on the Adriatic. According
to an extravagant legend, the house of Joseph and Mary in
Nazareth was transported by angels, on the night of the Qth-ioth
of May 1 291 to Dalmatia, then brought to the Italian coast
opposite (Dec. 10, 1294), till, on the 7th of September 1295 it
found rest on its present site. The pilgrimage thither must have
attained great importance as early as the 15th century; for the
po[>es of the Renaissance found themselves constrained to erect
an imposing pilgrim church above the " Holy House."
The significance of the pilgrimage for the religious life of latei
medievalism cannot be adequately estimated. The possession
of an extraordinary relic, a bloody Host, or the like, was every-
where considered a sufTident claim for the privileges of indul-
gences; and wherever this privilege existed, there the pilgrims
were gathered together. All these pilgrimages, great and small,
were approved and encouraged by the Church. And yet,
during the whole of the middle ages, the voice of suspidon in
their regard was never entirdy stilled. Earnest men could not
disguise from themselves the moral dangers almost inevitably
consequent upon them; they recognized, moreover, that many
pilgrims were actuated by eztremdy dubious motives; and they
distrusted the exaggerated value set on outward works. The
Roman papacy had no more zealous adherent than Boniface;
yet he absolutely rejected the idea that Englishwomen should
make the journey to Rome, and would willingly have seen the
princes and bishops veto these pilgrimages altogether (Ep. 78).
The theologians who surrounded Chariemagne held similar
views. When the abbess Ethelburga of Fladbury (Worcester-
shire) found her projected pilgrimage impracticable, Alcuin wrote
to her, saying that it was no great loss, and that God had better
designs for her: " Expend the sum thou hast gathered for the
journey on the support of the poor; and if thou givest as thou
canst, thou shalt reap as thou wilt **(Ep. 300). Bishop Theodulf
of Orleans (d. 821) made an energetic protest against the delu-
sion that to go to Rome availed more than to Uve an upright life
{Carm. 67). To the same e£fect, the synod of Chalon-sur-Sa6ne
(813) reprobated the superstition which was wedded to the
pilgrimage (c. 13); and it would be easy to collect similar judg-
ments, delivered in every centre of medievalism. But, funda-
mentally, pilgrimages in themselves were rejected by a mere
handful: the protest was not against the thing, but against its
excrescences. Thus Fridank, for instance, in spite of his emphatic
declaration that most pilgrims returned worse than they went,
himself participated in the crusade of Frederick II.
V. The Modern Pilgrimage. — The Reformation eradicated the
belief in the religious value of visits to a particular locality. It
is only pious memory that draws the Protestant to the sites
consecrated by ecclesiastical history. On the other hand,
while in the Eastern Church things have undergone little ch«tnge,
—the pilgrims, in addition to the Holy Land, visiting Mt
Athos and Kiev — the developments in the Roman Church show
important divergences. The Year of Jubilee, in 1525, was
unprecedented in its scant attendance, but the jubilees of t.^'\«k
' and 1600 again saw great artmes ol ^\\wi\tcv"5k TKax^vwiV.^'^wBR..
6io
PILIBHIT— PILLORY
Fresh pilgrim resorts now began to spring up, and medieval
shrines, which had fallen on evil days, to emerge from, their
obscurity. In the i6th century we must mention the pilgrimages to
the " Holy Mount " at G5rz on the Austrian coast, and to Mont-
serrat in the Spanish province of Barcelona: in the 17th century,
those to Luxemburg, Kevelaer (Gelderland), Notre Dame dc
Fourvidre in Lyons, Heiligenbeig in Bohemia, Rocrmond in
the Netheriands, &c. The i8th century, which witnessed the
religious Aufkldrung, was not favourable to the pilgrimage.
Enlightened bbhops and princes prohibited it altogether:
so, for instance, Joseph II. of Austria. Archbishop Clement
Wenceslaus of Trier forbade, in 1777, the much-frequented,
medieval " leaping-procession " of EU:htcmach (duchy of Luxem-
burg). The progressive theologians and clergy, moreover,
assumed a hostile attitude, and, in 1800, even the Curia omitted
the Year of Jubilee. The igtb century, on the other hand, led
to an extraordinary revival of the pilgrimage. Not only did
new resorts spring into existence — e.g. La Salette in Dauphin6
(1B46), and more particularly Lourdes (1858) in the department
of Hautes Pyr£n£cs — but the numbers once more attained a
height which enables them to compete with the medieval figures.
It is computed that 60,000 pilgrims were present in La Salette on
the 29th of September 1847, the first anniversary of the appear-
ance of Mary which gave rise to the shrine. The dedication of
the khurch of Lourdes, in 1876, took place in the presence of 30
bishops, 3000 priests and ico,ooo pilgrims. In 1877 the number
rose to 250,000; and similar statistics are given of the German and
Austrian devotional resorts. The sanctuaries of Aix-la-Chapelle
are said to have been visited by 65,000 pilgrims on the xsth of
July i860; and on the following Sunday by 52,000. From
35,000 to 30,000 persons take part each year in the resuscitated
" leaping-procession " at Elchtemach; and the annual visitants
to the " Holy Mount " at Gorz are estimated at 50.000. No new
motives for the pilgrimage emerged in the 19th century, unless
the ever-increasing cultus of the Virgin Mary n|ay be classed
as such, all of the new devotional ates being, dedicated to'
the Virgin. For the rest, the desire of acquiring indiilgences
maintains its influence: but doubting voices are no more heard
within the pale of the Roman Catholic Church. ,
Bibliography. — Itinera hierosolymilana sou. IV.~VIII., rec.
P. Geyer (Vienna, 1808): I tin. kterosol. et descr. terrae sanciae,
cd. T. Toller and A. Motinier (Geneva. 1879-1885); H. Michclant
and G. Raynaud, Itiniraires a Jerusalem ridtgis en franfais au
XI; XII; XIII' sUxUs (Geneva, 1882) ; R. RShricht and H. Meisncr,
Deutsche PUgerreisen nock dem heiligen Land (Berlin, 1883, new ed.,
Innsbruck, 1900); L. Conradi, Vier rheinische Paldstina-Pilger-
schriften des XI V., X V., X VI. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden, 1883) ; G. B.
de Rossi, Roma solterranea, i. 128 sqq. (Rome, 1864); J. Marx,
Das WaUfahrten in der katholischen Kirche (Trier. 1842): W. E.
Scudamore, Diet, of Ovist. Antiquities, vol. ii. (London, 1880).
(A. H.»)
PIUBHIT, a town and district of British India, in the Bareilly
divi^on of the United Provinces. The town — pop. (1901),
33,490 — contains the mosque of Hafiz Rahmat Khan, the
Rohilla chieftain, built in the second half of the i8th century.
Trade is mainly in agricultural produce, and in the products of
the neighbouring Himalayan territory and Nepal.
Th^ District of Pilibhit has an area of 1350 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 470,339, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade.
Though so near the Himalayas it is entirely a plain. In its
midst is the Mala swamp. The east is forest-dad, poor and
unhealthy; on the other side of the Mala the land becomes more
fertile. The chief river is the Sarda, and the Gumti rises in the
east. The principal crops are rice, pulses, wheat and sugar-cane.
Sugar-refining is carried on, and sugar, wheat, rice and hemp
are exported. The Lucknow-Barcilly section of the Oudh &
RohiikUand railway runs through the district, a portion of which
is watered by the Rohilkhand canals.
PILLAR (O. Fr. pUer, Mod. pilier. Late Lat. pUare, from pUa,
column), an isolated upright structure, of narrow width in
relation to its height, which is either employed as a support for a
superincumbent load of some sort or is set up for commemorative
or ornamental purposes. In the first sense the word has many
common applications, as to columns supporting the girders of a
warehouse floor or the deckbeams of a ship, to the ri
support or pedestal of a table, nuichine-tool, &c., andti
of coal which the miner leaves in certain methods
as supports to the roof (sec Coal); it is also used fif
persons in such phrases as a " pillar of the state.'
tecture it has strictly the second sense. The odli)
in honour of Diocletian at Alexandria is known a
pillar, and the so-called columns of Trajan and Ai
in reality pillars, performing no structural function I
of carrying a statue. In India the only exampk
pillar at Delhi, which is an extraordinary speamen
worker's art considering the remote date at which i
Up to the middle of the 19th century the term **
employed to designate the masses of masonry in a ci
carry the arcades, but now the term " pier" is invarii
in preference.
PILLAU, a seaport and watering-place of Germ
Prussian province of East Prussia, on the spit of san
which separates the Frische Haff from the Baltic, c
of the entrance channel, and 29 m. by rail from
Pop. (1905), 7374. It is fortified and has a harbour,
as the outer port of Kdnigsberg, and to some extent a
and Braunsberg. A new navigable channel was ii
constructed across the Frische Haff from Pillau to
Pillau has a school of navigation, and is a well-
station. Shii>-building, sail-making, fishing and 1
of amber are carried on.
Pillau is memorable as the place where Gustavus
Sweden landed in 1626. It did not obtain civic pri
1725, but was fortified shortly after that date. In li
a stout resistance to the French. By a treaty of
February 181 2 it was ceded to Napoleon, but oe
February in the following year it was restored t
PILLION, a light saddle without pommel or boi
a pad fastened to the back of an ordinary saddle, -.
another person, generally a woman. Pillions were
support baggage. They were in common use from
the i8th centuries. The word appears to have b
into English from the Irish piUin^ cu^ion, forme
PeUis, skin. In the sense of a hat worn by a priest
divinity, " piUon " or " pylion " occurs in the 15
centuries. This is probably from Lat. pHeus^ a coi
or cap, Gr. riXos.
PILLNITZ, a village in the kingdom of Saxony,
the right bank of the Elbe, 5 m. above Dresden.
770. The new palace of the king of Saxony was 1
on the site of a building which was destroyed by fire
became a residence of the electors of Saxony about i
different parts of the palace were erected at various
the i8th century. By the convention of PiUnitz in
the emperor Leopold II. and Frederick William
Prussia, agreed to take common action against any i
part of France; this compact may be regarded as
the first coalition against that country.
See A. von Minchwitx, Cesckichte von Piilnits (Drcsc
PILLORY (O. Fr. pilori, Prov. tspiOori, from '.
torium^ a place of observation or " [>eep-hole "), ai
of punbhment which consisted of a wooden post an«
on a platform raised several feet from the ground, 1
the culprit stood, his head and his hands being tb
holes in the frame (as are the feet in the stocks) so
fast, exposed in front of it. This frame in the more
forms of the instrument consisted of a perforate!
which secured the heads and hands of several person;
time, but it was commonly capable of holding oc
In the statutes of Edward I. it is enacted that ev
'' stretch-neck " should be made of convenient stn
execution might be done on offenders without 1
bodies. It was customary to shave the heads whoD;
and the beards of men, and to cut off the hair and ev
cases to shave the heads of female culprits. Some ol
punished in England by the pillory will be found e
PILLOW— PILOT
6ii
« Uttate of Heniy III. (i 266). By this " Statute of the Pillory "
il was ordered as the penalty for " forestallers and regrators,
Men of deceitful weights, perjurers and forgers." Stow, describ-
lag Cornhill pillory, says: *' On the top of the cage (a strong
fRiMO of limber) was placed a pillory for the punishment of
bates offending in the assize of bread, for millers stealing corn
at the mill, for bawds, scolds and other offenders." Until 1637
the pillory was reserved for such offenders. In that year an
tttadc was made on the Press, and the pillory became the recog-
aiied punishment of those who published books without a
Bcence or libelled the government. Alexander Leighton, John
Lflbun, Prynne and Daniel Defoe were among those who
laiered. These were popular favourites, and their exposures In
the pillory were converted into public triumphs. Titus Oates,
hovmr, was put in the pillory in 1685 and nearly killed. In
1S16 the pillory was abolished except for perjury and suboma-
tioo, and the perjurer Peter James Bossy was the last to stand
k the pillory at the Old Bailey for one hour on the 32nd of June
iSja It was finally abolished in 1837 at the end of William
IV.'s reign. In France the pillory, called carcan^ was employed
to 1832. In Germany it was known as pranger. The pillory
US itted in the American colonies, and provisions as to its
iiffictioa existed in the United States statute hooks until 1839;
ftnirvived in the state of Delaware until 1905.
Finger-pillories were at one time in common use as instru-
■nts of domestic pum'shment. Two stout pieces of oak, the
lop being hinged to the bottom or fixed piece, formed when
doKd a number of holes sufficiently deep to admit the finger to
\ Ihe second joint, holding the hknd imprisoned. A finger-
fOory is preserved in the parish church of Ashby-de-la-Zouch,
Lacctter^ire, and there is one, still in its original situation
Ififast the wall, at Uttlecote Hall, Wilts.
IILLOW (O. Eng. pylu; Lat. pulvinus, a cushion), a support for
Ihe head daring sleep or rest. The pillow of Western nations is
•cohiMi of linen or other material, stuffed with feathers, down,
kir or wool. In the East it is a framework made of bamboo
•nttan with a depression in the top to receive the neck; similarly
bio^of wood with a concave-shaped top are used by the natives
ll other countries. The word is found in various technical uses
for a block or support, as for a brass bearing for the journal of a
Aift, and the like. In architecture the term " pillowed," or
"pohdnated," is given to the frieze of an order which bulges out
b the centre and is convex in section. It is found in friezes of
■Be of the later works of the Roman school and is common in
kifiao practice.
nLOCARPIlIB, CiiHitNA, an alkaloid found, together with
hopiloairptne and other related compounds, in the leaves of
Jlbonndi (Pilocarpus pennali/olim). It was first isolated by E.
ihidyini875(£er.,8, p. 1594), and is a crystalline, very hygro-
Mopk solid. It is a strong poison. It has the properUes of a
■onadd base and contains the methylamino group, 'NCHj.
Whn heated with hydrochloric acid it gives isopilocarpine.
bipik>car(nne was isolated in 1900 by H. A. D. Jowett (Journ.
Ckm. See. 77, p. 473), and is a colourless oil which boils at 261*
C (10 mm.). It is a monacld base which is readily soluble
: hi solutions of the caustic alkalis. Jowett is of the opinion
tttt pilocarpine and isopilocarpine are stereo-isomers of the
Jinictuie.— >^HNCH,C,H»CHCOv
\CH : C— CH,— CHCH,/
RLOftA, a town of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo;
^.ktween the right bank of the river PiloAa, a left-hand tributary
^«f the Sella, and the Sierra de Abes (3268 ft). Pop. (1900).
^11,298. Though officially classed as a town, PiloJia is rather a
meiy populated mining and agricultural district. It is served
f;lgr the railway from Infiesto, on the river PiloAa, to Oviedo and
nun, the name appUed either to a particular officer serving
I board a ship during the course of a voyage and having the
cfeufe of the helm and the ship's route, or to a person taken on
koBxd at a particular |dace for the purpose of conducting a ship
«%nMigb a river, road or channel, or from or into a port. . The
latter kind is the only one to which the term is now applied
either in British or foreign countries. The word " pilot " is
not the early name for the man who guides or steers a ship.
In Old English the name is Udman^ i.e. the man who leads the
way. " Pilot " does not appear in English till the i6th century.
The origin of the word has been much debated. Many etymolo-
gists find it in the Dutch pijloot (Hexham's Dictionary, 1658).
This has been identified with pciUood^ peU4olh, sounding lead, cf.
German peileitf to sound; the last part of these words is the same
as English "lead," the metal; the first ptLXifpeiUn/isioT pegcUHf
to mark with pegs or points for measuring, cf. Pegel, gauge. The
New English Dictionary, on the other hand, finds that the Dutch
piloot, the earUer form, is taken from the French. The source is,
therefore, to be looked for in Romance languages. Du Cange
(Gloss. Med. ei Inf. La/.) gives Pedottaef defined as quorum est
scire intrare et exire portus^ a gloss on pedotle e timonieri in F.
Ubaldini's edition, 1640, of / documenti d^amore by Francesco
da Barbcrino (i 264-1348). It is therefore conjectured that the
Italian pilota Is a popular conception of pedotta, and a possible
source may be found in the Greek infiov, oar.
In England, formerly, pilots were subject to the jurisdiction
of the lord high admiral; and in the i6th century there are many
instances of the admiralty court dealing with pilots disciplinarily
as well as dviUy, holding them h'able in damages to owners of
ships lost or damaged by their negligence. For some consider-
able time throughout the United Kingdom the appointment
and control of pilots have been in the hands of numerous societies
or corporations established at the various ports by charter or
act of Parliament, such as the Trinity Houses of Deptford
Strond (London), Kingston-upon-HuU, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and
Lcith, and the Society of Cinque Ports Pilots and Court of
Lodemanage (now extinct). These societies had jurisdiction
over the pilots exercising their employment within ^^^^^^^
the limits of such ports, and m many cases made it
compulsory for ships resorting thither to employ them. By
degrees the London Trinity House acquired a leading position,
which was confirmed and extended by the general Pilotage Acts
passed in the iSth and 19th centuries, with the object of intro-
ducing a uniform system throughout the realm. At the present
day the United Kingdom is divided into districts for the purpose
of pilotage jurisdiction. The (London) Trinity House has
jurisdiction over the London district, which extends from
Orfordncss to Dungeness, and comprises the Thames and Med-
way up to London and Rochester bridges; the Ejiglish Channel
district, comprising the sea between Dungeness and the Isle uf
Wight; and the Trinity outport districts, which include any
pilotage districts for the appointment of pilots within which no
particular provision is made by act of Parliament or charter,
and the number of which is 40, all English and Welsh. There are
66 other districts, within which other pilotage authorities have
jurisdiction.
The present general pilotage law is contained in the Merchant
Shipping Acts 1894 to 1906. Pilotage authorities are defined
as bodies or persons authorized to appoint or license pilots, or
to fix and alter rates of pilotage or to exercise any jurisdiction
in respect of pilotage. They are subject to the control of the
Board of Trade as the supreme mercantile marine authority.
Those bodies, however, which existed at the time of the passing
of the act retain their powers and jurisdiction, so far as is
consistent with it. The board has power to appoint ^^^
a new pilotage authority in any area where there b
none, and to include a new area where there is none within
an already existing one (but in either case pilotage cannot be
made compulsory), or to transfer pilotage jurisdiction over
a port other than that where the pilotage authority . for
that port resides, from that pilotage authority to the
harbour or other local authority for that port, or to the
Trinity House, or to a new authority; and the board has all
powers necessary to effectuate such transfer and constitute
the new authority. The board may also, by provisional order
(which requires parliamentary confirmation), provide for the
representation of pilots or shipowuets oxi V^di^ v^^:)*^^:^ vq&^^x>x^
6l2
PILOT
of any district, and the exemption of ships from compulsory
pilotage in any district. Where pilotage is not compulsory,
and the power of obtaining pilotage licences unrestricted, the
board can in the same way give the pilotage authority powers
with respect to licences, amount of pilotage rates, and the like.
Pilotage authorities may, by by-laws under the act (which
require confirmation by order in council), exeAipt wholly or
partly any ships or classes of ships from compulsory pilotage,
and regulate the means of obtaining Ucences, and the amount
of pilotage rates, subject to a maximum limit. They must
make yearly returns to the Board of Trade of their by-laws, the
names, ages and services of their h'censed pilots, the rates of
pilotage, the amounts received for pilotage and their receipts
and expenditure; and if they fail to do so, the board may
suspend their authority, which is then exercised by the Trinity
House.
The statutes also provide generally for the qualifications of pilots.
A " qualified " pilot is one duly licensed by a pilotage authority
to conduct ships to which he does not belong.
On his appointment he receives a licence, which is re-
gistered with the chief officer of customs at the nearest
place to the pilot's residence, and must be delivered up by the
pilot whenever required by the licensing pilotage authority. On
his death this licence must be returned to that authority. By an
act of 1906 no pilotage certificate shall be granted to the master
or mate of a British ship unless he is a British subject; this
does not, however, refer to the renewal of a certificate granted
before 1906 to one not a British subject. Pilotage dues are
recoverable sunmiarily from the owner, master, or consign'ees of
the ship, after a written demand for them has been made. A
pilot may not be taken beyond the h'mitsof his district without his
consent, and if so taken he is entitled to a fixed daily sum in
addition to the dues; if he cannot board the ship, and leads her
from his boat, he is entitled to the same dues as if he were on
board; and he must be truly informed of the ship's draught of
water. An unqualified pilot may in any pilotage dbtrict take
charge of a ship without subjecting himself or his employer to any
penalty, where no qualified pilot has offered himself, or where a
ship is in distress, or in circumstances where the master must take
the best assistance he can, or for the purpose of changing the
moorings of any ship in port on docking or undocking her; but
after a qualified pilot has offered himself any unqualified pilot
continuing in charge, or any master continuing him in charge of
the ship, is liable to a penalty. A qualified pilot may not be
directly or indirectly interested in licensed premises or in the
selling of dutiable goods, or in the unnecessary supply of gear
or stores to a ship for his personal gain or for the gain of any other
person. He can be punished for quitting a ship before the com-
pletion of his duty without the consent of the master, refusing or
delaying to perform his duty without reasonable cause when
required by lawful authority, lending his licence, acting as pilot
when suspended or when intoxicated, and any pilot who through
wilful breach of or neglect of duty, or by reason of his drunken-
ness, endangers ship, life or limb, is guilty of a misdemeanour
and liable to suspension or dismissal; but the pilot has an appeal
in cases of fines over £2, of suspension or dismissal, suspension or
revocation of his licence, or the application of a pilotage fund to
which he has contributed. This appeal lies in England to a
county court judge havini? jurisdiction over the port where he is
licensed, or a metropolitan police magistrate or stipendiary magis-
trat* with the like power; in Scotland, to a sheriff; in Ireland,
to a county court judge, chairman of quarter sessions, recorder,
or magistrate. Pilotage certificates may also be granted by
pilotage authorities, available within their districts, to masters
and mates of ships; and the holder of such a certificate may pilot
any ship in respect of which it is available without incurring any
penalty for not employing a qualified pilot.
» The statute further makes special regulation for Trinity House
pilots. Every such pilot, on his apiwintmcnl, must execute a
bond for £100 conditioned for due observance of the Trinity
House regulations and by-laws, and thereupon he is not liable
for neglect or want of skill to anybody beyond the penalty of the
bond and the amount payable to him for pilotage m
on which he was engaged at the time of his so bees
The licence may be revoked or suspended by the Tt
when it thinks fit; it only continues in force for a y*
Trinity House has absolute discretion whether it shal
or not.
A pilot boat is approved and licensed by the dist
authority who appoints or removes the nuster thercc
to be easily recognized, she has printed on herstec
in legible white letters the name of her owner an
her port, and on her bows the number of her licena
the remainder of the boat is usually black. The pOol
and white horizontal flag of a comparatively laxfe
flown from a conspicuous position. When the flag t
a merchant vessel, it indicates that a licensed pilot
or that the master or mate holds a certificate enti
pilot the ship. By order in council of 1900, on and
day of January 1901 the signals for a pilot displayec
separately are: In daytime, there is (i) hoisted at
pilot jack (Um'on Jack having round it a white ban
of the breadth of the flag); (2) the international c
signal indicated by P.T.; (3) the international codef
with small blue square centre), with or without thecc
(4) the distant signal consisting of a cone point upw
above it two balls or shapes resembling balls. By n
pyrotechnic light commonly known as a blue light,
seconds; (2) a bright white light, flashed or shown
frequent intervals just above the bulwarks, for abc
at a time.
Pilotage in British waters nuy be either compo!
for all or certain classes of ships. From parh'ament
returns, it appears that it is compulsory in aboi
64 districts of the United Kingdom (of which tw<
thirds are the Trinity House districts), free in 32, fn
and compulsory in 8, while in 3 cases (Berwick, I
Coleraine) no particulars are given. British war-shi
waters are not compelled to empby a pilot, the navii
becoming the pilot under the direction of the ca
pilot be employed, the captain and navigating
not relieved from responsibility. They supervis
and should, if necessary, remove him from the &
majority of foreign ports British war-ships are exc
employing pilots, but the Suez Canal and the por
are exceptions. The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 c
compulsory employment of pilots in all districts y
already comi)ulsory, and also the already existing
and there is no power in any pilotage authority or
Trade to increase the area of compulsory pilotage,
is to diminish it. Compulsion is enforced by a pre
act, that within a district where compulsory pilota
master of an uncxemptcd ship who pilots her hin
holding the necessary certificate, after a qualified pit
or signalled to take charge of the ship, shall be li
offence to a fine of double the amount of the i
demandable for the conduct of the ship. The exei
compulsory pilotage still existing in British tern
are as follows: Ships or vessels with British regi
to Norway or the Cattegat or the Baltic (cxccj
voyages between any port in Sweden or Norway an
London), or round the North Cape, or into the >
their inward or outward voyages, whether coming u]
South Channels; any constant British traders inwar
between Boulogne inclusive and the Baltic coming
Channel, and any British ships or vessels trad
between the same limits on their outward passag
coming up by the South Channels; Irish traders u*
gat ion of the Thames and Med way; ships engaged
coasting trade of the kingdom; ships or vessels who
stone produced in the Channel Islands and Isle of Ma
thence; ships or vessels not exceeding 60 tons, w^
or belonging to a foreign country specified by ord
ships within the limits of the port or place to which tl
PILOT
613
it a place particularly provided for by act of Parliament
if as regards the appointment of pilots; ships passing
the limits of any pilotage district in their voyages from
to another port, and not being bound to any port or
hin such limits or anchoring therein, but not including
ding or discharging at any place situate within the
>r at any place situate above the district on the same
s tributaries. Ships whose masters or mates arc owners
wners of them, and living at Dover, Deal, or the Isle of
nay be piloted by them from any of these places up and
Thames or Medway, or into or out of any place or port
10 jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports. Tlie following
the London district and Trinity outport districts are
npt when not carrying passengers, namely: Ships
[ in the coasting trade of the United Kingdom; ships of
than 60 tons burden; ships trading to or from any port
Britain within the above districts to or from the port
in France, and any port in Europe (which does not
be Um'ted Kingdom) north and east of Brest, or to the
Islands or Isle of Man; and ships navigating within the
the port to which they belong. The port to or from
e ship must be " trading " in this provbion has been
id by the decisions to mean the port where the cargo
itially discharged or loaded respectively; and the word
" similarly has been held to apply only to a vessel
to one port of the United Kingdom a cargo which has
en in at another. Every ship carrying passengers
any place in the British Islands and any other place so
lust carry a compulsory pilot, unless her master or mate
lotage certificate. The effect in law of the ship (British
1) being in charge of a compulsory pilot under the act
;r owner and master are not answerable to any person
for any loss or damage occasioned by the fault or
y of any qualified pilot acting in charge of such ship
ty district where the employment of such pilot is com-
>y law. In order to take advantage of this privilege,
wner must show (i) that a properly qualified pilot was
charge of the ship; there are, however, various kinds of
pilots — the qualified pilot who is always capable of acting,
qualified pilot who is liable to be superseded if a better
>tained; (2) that that charge was compulsory; the pilot,
need not be compulsorily employed at the place where
ent happened, so long as he is compulsorily employed
le district where it happens; (3) that it was solely the
ult or incapacity which caused the damage. Similarly,
; Harbours. Piers and Docks Clauses Act, the owner of a
not liable for damage done thereby to docks or piers
: is in charge of a duly licensed pilot,
latutory exemption of a ship in charge of a compulsory
m any liability for her negligent navigation by that
mly declaratory of the common law of England, and is
the principle that the pilot is a state official put in
' a ship, and is not the servant of the shipowner so as to
Q liable for his negligence; and a British court gives the
t;t to any foreign or colonial law which makes it com-
tn shipowners to put a pilot in charge of their ship when
iieir jurisdiction. Most foreign codes, however, while
with English law in making the presence of a pilot on
mpulsory, differ from it in not putting him in charge of
; and in this case the defence of compulsory pilotage
be pleaded successfully in British courts. Judicial
have established that French, Suez Canal, Danube and
lots are not compulsory pilots in the British sense of the
ling only advisers of the master, or " living charts."
le pilot is put in charge by .the foreign or colonial law,
that law expressly provides that in spite of the owner
ring the charge of the ship to him the owner shall still
iable, a British court will hold the owner free from
on the ground that to make any person liable for a tort
;d abroad, the act complained of must be wrongful not
ording to the foreign law, but also by English law.
sequence which English law attaches to the employment
of a compulsory pilot has been much criticized in recent times,
and it would seem that the foreign view is much more satisfactory
in regarding the pilot merely as the adviser and not the superior
of the master. Moreover, the adoption of the foreign law on this
point would restore the old general maritime law. The policy
of the law was at one time inclined to extend this principle of
compulsory pilotage, on the ground that it was for the benefit of
commerce and the safety of seamen's lives, but it now restricts
it within as narrow limits as possible, e.g. the presence of a
compulsory pilot on board a tow who is ditecting the navigation
of a tug does not protect the tug-owner from liability for negligent
navigation. As already pointed out, pilotage authorities have
no power to extend its scope.
A pilot who is compulsorily in charge of a ship under English
law has supreme control over her navigation, superseding the
master for the time being; and if she is a tow he has also control of
the navigation of her tug. The judicial decisions establish that
it is within his province to decide whether the ship shall get under
way, t he proper time and place for her to anchor, the way of carrying
her anchor, the proper orders for the helm, her rate of speed, and
whether the statutory rules of navigation shall be complied with;
and the master and crew must not interfere with his control, and
only remain liable for the proper execution of the pilot's orders
and the trim and general efficiency as to look-out, &c., of the ship.
The master, however, is bound to supersede the pilot in case of
his intoxication or manifest incapacity, and to interfere if there
is a clear and plain prospect of danger to the ship in following the
pilot's directions, e.g. getting under way in a thick fog. The
pilot is entitled to receive from the master assistance in having his
attention called to anything which a competent mariner would
see that he ought to know. A pilot taken voluntarily, and not by
compukion of law, is considered as the servant of the shipowner,
and as such renders him liable for his acts of negligence towards
third parties. He does not, it seems, supersede the master in
the control of the ship, but only advises him. The Admiralty
and the Board of Trade and the Trinity House all take the view
that the captain or master is bound to keep a vigilant eye on the
navigation of the vessel by the pilot, and insist on all proper
precautions being taken. For the purposes of a policy of marine
insurance a ship is not seaworthy without a pilot in compulsory
pilotage waters; and where there is no legal compulsion to have
one, but the locality requires navigation by a person having local
knowledge, it has been said that a ship must take a pilot, certainly
when leaving a port, and probably on entering a port if a pilot is
available.
A pilot can sue for his pilotage fee at common law or in
Admiralty (q.v.), in the latter case provided that the contract
was made and the work done not within the body of a county;
but he has a summary remedy by statute which is of easier
application. He cannot be sued in Admiralty for damage done
by a collision caused by his negligence (e.g. on the Admiralty side
of a county court having Admiralty jurisdiction); but he can be
made liable at common law or in the Admiralty Division of the
High Court, although in the case of a Trinity House pilot his
liability is limited to the amount of his bond and pilotage fee
then being earned (see above); but the court has refused to join
him as a defendant to an action in rem brought against the ship
of which he had the charge. A pilotage authority ^annot be
made liable for the negligent navigation of a ship by a pilot which
it has licensed, for he is not its servant, though it has been held
liable for the negligence of a person not licensed by it as a pilot,
but employed by it for wages to pilot ships into a harbour u^der
its jurisdiction, itself taking the pilotage dues and applying them
for harbour purposes. A pilot is not in common employment
with the master and crew of a ship, and can recover for any
injury done him by their negligence. He may be entitled to
claim salvage from a ship of which he has charge, if the services
he renders are beyond the scope of his pilotage contract, either
from the outset or owing to suf)crvening circumstances, but not
otherwise, whether he is on board her or leading her from his
boat. (See Salvage.)
I In the Unii^ SlaUs pilotage laws a^t^ T«^B>3^^^'^^'i >Sc<ft.'x^?i^Ks!uc«%
6i+
PILOT-FISH— PIMENTO
ttates. ir the waters are tfie« boundary between two states a
duly licensed' pilot of either state may be emi^yed, but no dis>
crimination can be made in the rates of pilotage between vessels
of different states. In the German Empire the pilotage laws
are very complicated. In the majority of the maritime states
each one has its own regulations and laws. In Prussia there are
government pilots who enter the service as apprentices, and are
placed under a department of state. Jn France the general organi-
zation of pilots is regulated by the Statute on Pilots of the 12th
of December 1806, and the pilotage regulations for each port are
made by the minister of marine at the request of his local repre-
sentative and the Chamber of Commerce. French pilots are
exempt from military service.
See Abbott, Skipping (London, iQOi); Maude and Pollock,
Shipping (London, 1881) ; Marsden. CoUisions at Sea (London, 1910) ;
Select Pleas of the Admiralty (Selden Society, London, 1892 and
1897): Temperley, Merchant Shipping Acts (1907): Twiss, Black
Book of AdmiraUy (London, 1871). (G. G. P.* ; J. W. D.)
PILOT-FISH (NaucraUs ductor), a pelagic fish of the family
of horse-mackerels or Cafangtdae^ well known to sailors from its
peculiar habit of keeping company with ships and large fishes,
especially sharks. It occurs in all tropical and sub-tropical
seas, and is common in the Mediterranean, but becomes scarcer
in higher latitudes. In summer pilots will acoimpany ships
as far north as the south coast of England into port. This
habit was known to the andents, who describe the PompUus as
Pilot-fish.
a fish which points out the way to dubious or embarrassed
sailors, and by its sudden disappearance indicates to them the
vicinity of land; the ancient seamen of the Mediterranean re-
garded it, therefore, as a sacred fish. That the pilot accompanies
sharks is an observation ^hich first appears in works of travel
of the 17th century, the writers asserting that it is of great use
to its big companion in conducting it and showing it the way to
its food. It is, however, extremely doubtful whether the pilot's
connexion with a shark serves a more special purpose than its
temporary attachment to a ship. It accompanies both on account
of the supply of food which it derives from them. The pilot,
therefore, stands to both in the relation of a so-called " com-
mensal," like the Echeneis or sucking-fish. All observers,
however, agree that neither the pilot nor the sucker is ever
attacked by the shark. The pilot attains to a length of about
12 in. In the shape of its body it resembles a mackerel,
but is rather shorter, especially in the head, and covered with
small scales. A sharp keel runs along the middle of each side of
the tail. The first dorsal fin consists of a few short spines not
connected by a membrane; the second dorsal and the anal are
composed of numerous rays. The teeth, which occupy the jaws,
vomer and palatine bones, are all small, in villiform bands.
The coloration of the pilot renders it conspicuous at a distance;
on a bluish ground-colour from five to seven dark-blue or violet
cross-bands traverse the body from the back to the belly. The
pilot-fish spawns in the open sea, and its fry is constantly caught
in the tow-net. 9ut young pilot-fish differ considerably from
the adult, having the spines of the first dorsal connected by a
membrane, and some bones of the head armed with projecting
spines. These little fishes were therefore long considered to be a
distinct genus, Nauclcrns.
PILOTY, KARL VON (1826-1886), German painter, was bom
at Munich, on the ist of October 1826. His father, Ferdinand
Piloty (d. 1 844), enjoyed a great reputation as a lithographer.
In 1840 he was admitted as a student of the Munich Academy,
under the artists Schom and Schnorr. After a journey to
Belgium, France and England, he commenced work as a pointer
of genre pictures, and in 1853 produced a work. Die Amme
(" The Wet Nurse "), which, on account of its originality of style.
ca^ised a considerate sensation in Germany at the tia&. Bvi
he aoon forsook this branch of painting in Cavour of kisuxicil
subjects, and produced in 1854 for King Biazimilian tL **Tk
Adhesion of Maximilian L to the Catholic League in xdof."
It was succeeded by " Seni at the Dead Body of WaDcBstdn*
(1855), which gained for the young painter the memtMnhipflf
the Munich Academy, where he succeeded SduMn (his bntber-i^
law) as professor. Among other well-known works by TSolj
are the " BatUe of the White Mountain near Prague,"" Ka»
Dancing upon -the Ruins of Rome " (i86x), " Godfrey <k Bodbi
on a Pilgrimage to the Holy Land " (1861), " GalOeo in Prim '
(1864), and " The Death of Alexander the Great " (onfindied),
his last great work. He also executed a number of gnnnl piM-
ings for the royal palace in Munich. For Baion voo Sduidi k
painted the justly celebrated *' Discovery of America." hk 1874
he was appointed keeper of the Munich Academy, beiog ifto^
wards eimobled by the king of Bavaria. Piloty was the foR-
most representative of the realistic schocA in Gomany. He«M
a most successful teacher, and among his more famoni mdi
may be mentioned Makart, Lenbach, Dcfregger, Max laf
Grtitzner. He died at Mum'ch on the 21st of July iSM.
PILSBN (Czech, PluH), a town of Bohemia, Aostxia, tt a.
W.S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900), 68,292, of wfakh 9«%
are Czech. It is the second town <rf Bohemia, and lies al dit
confluence of the Radbusa and the Mies. It consists of tk
town proper, which b regulariy built and surrooaded vih
promenades on the site of the old ramparts, and of three solmti
The most prominent buildings are the Gothic cfaurdi «f 81
Bartholomew, said to date from 1292, whose tower {^2$ ^ ^
the hifl^est in Bohemia, and the fine Renatsaaoe tova M
dating from the x6th century. The staple article of ■■»■■■>*« 1^
and commerce is beer, which is exported to all parts of tbeworiL
Other industrial products are machinery, enamelled liBM%
leather, alum, paper, earthenware, stoves and ^Mxits, irtii t
tolerably brisk trade is carried on in wool, feathen, cattle mi
horses. In the neighbourhood are several coal-pits, irahvall
and glass-works, as weU as large deposits <tf kaolin.
Pilsen first appears in history in 976, as the scene of a bMdi
in the war between Prince Boleslam and the empcrDT Out lU
and it became a town in 1272. During the Hussite was it «■
the centre of Cathdic resistance to the Hussites; it was dni
times imsuccessfully besieged by Prokop the Greai, and k Mk
part in the league of the Romanist lords against King Gcoqpit
Podebrad. During the Thirty Years' War the town was tibi
by Mansfield in 1618 and not recaptured by the Imprriitlif **
1621. Wallenstein made it his winter-quarters in 16^, ui k
was in the great hall of the Rathaus that his genoab took tk
oath of fidelity to him (January 1634). The town was iii—iif*
fully besieged by the Swedes in 1637 and 1648. Ittiit
Bohemian printing press was established here in 1468.
PIMA, a tribe and stock of North American Indians. Ikk
range was southern Arizona and northern Mexicn. Ike naii
Pima village, known to the Spanish as Casa Grande 00 theaiik
bank of the Gila, b an example of their eariy dvflizatioD aaddkS
in building. Driven out of their homa by nei^boarinc Cita
they lived a more or less nomadic life. Tlicy werealwa|i|Hi ,
farmers, showing much skill in irrigation. At first
to the Spaniards, they revolted in 1751, destroying al At
missions. The war lasted two 3rears, but since then the ~^
Indians have been friendly with the settlers. As a lace tky M ■
brave, honest and hard woriung. They number some 5000*
two reservations in Arizona. The Piman stodi indndts wA
tribes as the Papago, Huichd, Opata, Tanunari, and
upwards of a hundred thousand.
PIMENTO, also called Allspicb (bom a sopposed
of various flavours) and Jamaica Peppei, the dried
fruit of Eugenia pimenta or Pimenia qfictMaUSi an cimgimtMi
about 30 ft. high, belonging to the natural oidcr Mjilftipii
It b indigenous in the West India. Islands, gnywing as GbcMMB
hiUs near the sea, and b e^xdally grown in Jamaica. The^iBi
derives its name from the Portuguese pimemta, Spanish fimk^ |
pepper, which was given to it from ita icKabbaoe to !
PIN— PINA, RUY DE 615
1» T1iebei™i»reg»llwr»dinJu]yandAuguil,when tli* Iwiudlul luwrnUfc mmdiliiHy bir whfcli pint in k
ud dried in lh» lun ind »it for »me d»y>, when Ibe dtiiibGig ■ BBchin for uki^ pioiwith , r-
removed ud the t>em« ue ready for paclung. These in one entin piece." By Ihii euchiae ■ eaiubk bnflk el m
ironulJc piopeniei 10 u esuDliaJ oil preienl 10 the vu cut off wid held in a die till a (lobular bcKl wu ronnKl an «
i 10 41% ind nmiUtinn larnely ol euienol or mUyl tpd by omt"™. "id^he o«li« eod ™ peipled by, [I
Jn7>-unii^ l^u ^A E^ t '"«■""' "' y^'' iion aramd it ol a luifheiKd ued wheel. Thb machine
iO(CI{iO]CJ{|'CiH(. The chief lue oF pimento is as tpptai to have come lato UKi but is 1814 Wright piti
The oil. Ihi actioa of which RMnbla that of cloves, pia-maldai apfiarBtu above lefened to ai the pannt la
aUy used io medidne. nod i> also employed in perfum- macbinen; bow employed. A facwy eq ' — ' -=-•- ■-"
•n."L ^ ^ 't J .-I.!!'!- r^-,— vaa eetablbbed in Loddon **"' **»• "'»**
The bay rum "used ua loilel artideii 1 ijnciure "" 1™ riitiil ^le^i^
ith the <Ht of the leavei of sn allied ipeda, Pimtnia Tiy|„ si Birmi^hanb ■
nody known as the bayberry tree- patent for five years froir
oublet with " pen " from Lai. pifiJm. feather, pinnacle, on the pndaciBn of "il^. __
laid to contain ihe ume root as rim nine tree i**™*** baMfc In a luoden pia'Dubof m
cly lo mean a sharp point oc end), a noall peg or bolt KJ'JK^SImlhienfiw^iBi or Mudt'iel in' ■ lanie. wnen a pin
rwDO<t, not necessarily pointed, employed as a fasten- length has entered it u uiight by launl jaws, beyond which enoufh
sect together diHetenl pans of an article, as » stop lo of the end projedi 10 forni a pln-hmd. Anjui this end a iteel
wUon o[ some movina piece in a machine, as a sipport P!'.™,."?^?^*',*™,. ^P'S" J". "^ JV. '.^k. ananiemeM
a inuU wheel ...
J spike, used for fulening portions of fabric? together,
_. _ The pin lengtli "U immediately cl_ -
le headed piece diopa into a dil (uthdcntly wide 10 paa th
wire (hroufh b
; end pointed and at the other a bulbed head, or lome auepended By the head whUe their pniintiiig exlrenitles are i
K doth or other material wilh which 11 is employed. , „,j,^ p„ j^ ^^^ jt
m or another pins of this last kind ate of the highest omienis of the pwi are n
the earliest form doubtless being a natural ihom. of "'?'t^'*'n"?°' f^
ml*, and bronxe brooches in which the pin a the essen- wk^^Hi™'thern tfadTBt
^ The ordinary domestic pin had became in the 1 jih mixed with dry bnn or fin
liniWied pi
WJThyM.
^ Itnikbrd by im
coniidenne v
bent and twist
made by iutoi .
oolice,asini48]lheimporutionofiMiai-«t..uM.u..™ ™ltinK'n>
t Iif IJ40 Qiinn Catherine received pins from |i„i^ \y
id again in 1543 an act was passed providing that " ~~
11 put (0 sale any pinnd but only such as shall be doul
ad have the heads voldervd fast to the shank of t
dl smoothed, the shank wdl «hapen. the points well p™,'°u^''i^';;,'i'ol!SJiiBl
I filed, canted and sharpened." At that time pini piha. HOY DB li<40-isii), POrtugueae dironicler, wu 1
jality were made ol brass; but a brge proportion of native of Guarda, He acted as semtary o( the embassy MDt
mt which the legislative enactment was dirwled were by King John II. to Caitile in the firing ol I4£i, and in the
on wire blanched and passed as brass pins. To a large following September relumed there as scde envoy. He «a*
supply ol pins in England was received from France p„aent at the ncculion of the duke of Bragaiua at Evora Id
ifiifi. in which year the manufacture was introduced ,^3^ „a in ,^ „„, m Ronie as secretary of an embassy (o
oteishire by John Tiliby. His business flourished so pope Innocent VII. On his return, the king charged him lo
le soon gave employmenl lo 1500 persons, and Stroud ^rile a hiilory of his reign and gave him a pension lot his
ned a high reputation. In 1636 the pinmakers of „pport. Following the arrival of Columbus from hb first
.micd a corporation, and the manufacture was subse- voyage in 141)3, Pina was one of the commissaries despatched to
4aUished at Briilol and Birmingham, Ihe laller town Barcelona by John II. 10 negotiate with the Catholic sovereigns
becoming the principal centre of the industry. So respecting the limits of their respective jurisdictions. In
rrs tbe atieniion ol the enterprising colonists in Caro- September i49i he attested the will of John II. in his capacity as
tawn 10 the manufacture by the Tsr ol priies for the , notary public, and on the istb ol Oclober of the same year he
■e-made pins and needles. At a later date several »„ present at hii master's death al Alvor and opened and read
g machines were invented in the United Slates, hbtestaroent, KingManoelconfirmedhispcnsionandappoinled
e warol 1811, when the price ol pins rose enormously, him in I4g7 chronider of the kingdom, keeper of the archives
acture was actually started, but the industry was not and royal librarian, with a suitable salary. By 1504 Pina had
essful till aboul Ihe year 18)6 when the Howe Manu- completed hb chronicles of Alphonso V. and John U. King
Company was formed at Birmingham. Connecticul. John HI. charged him with a history of his father, tUaooel, and
0 this an American, Lcmud W. Wri^I, had in 1S14 at his death Pinahadcarriedil down lo the capluieol Aamor.as
England a piicnt lor a machine lo make solid-headed „( ^now from DamUUt de Goes, who used il in preparing his own
h established the industry on its present basis. ^ chronicle of that monarch.
b probable that the chronides ol the early kings of Portugal
Saacho 1. to Alphonso IV. which were published under
'1 name in the 18th century were written by Femlo Lopes
and edited by Pina, while that of King Duarte seems to have
been the joint production of Lopes and Azurara. with Pina again
as the editor only. Pina was » favourite of fortune during his
life, for. apart from royal bendactions. he received presents from
public men who wished to Agure well in his books, and after his
eeiied on tHAdai^Snith u^ik of Pisa's chronirle of Kini Alidionio IV. wai fim poblithed in
DB of the advaptaceeDf Ihe divisiDA Lwhon in 18^3; thoae of King Duarte and Kuw KVOniAAeiN. >
*vL i. al the CHInai dc Vmn tiuitln la tniww Yttacfi
6i6 PINACOTHECA— PINCKNEY, C. C.
le St»l« Convenl
loi iScfuu™ ioouni of I'in.'. lift. (E. p>.) ^ °"J!;" ,„,„,°„, . „_:l.;'""!^;.!
iRii;8gI0i;<».> inenilMr oMheHBteHoiBeEll
PIHACOTBBCi, 1 piclun-giUery (Cr. nwoAtn;, rrom Tint,
ipuki ot thi picluro " which time had not eHaced, ■ ■luch ^,^ ^^^^ „j ^tribuled larady lo Ihe lucceu of
«ni.top™ntW.|™K»p«mtag,lbe(«.th.lU.«tll.wlra« M™n in the praidcnliol .l«ii™ ol iSoc B, J,
of any pirpsntioo lor itucco on (he inJli rather thorn Ih»l the 1_^:_, , v. „., . ; _;.;.,., .. c—;. •_
p.,n.in^^e«d picture. CJ.C.Fr«er,i'.«.™-,iJ„.n> X °?n " U^al™ ™S^ .T. « f^C ^
.,« <^Cr«« ,M. a. ,S'). IV Roman, adopted the tern i^'ini^^^U^Hir^^g it S^in.^^™^
for Ihe rooin in « private house conlaining picture), iiatuts, [equeit his recall He »u elecUd lo [he uale Hns i
and olhei works of art. It i. u«d (or a public gaUery on the „„,,i:vni In iKnt w» iinin mvi-nmr M Snuih rmJ
conliiieDlotEutope.asat Bologna and Turin. A i Munich there X« lo j^ in isi"i8M >™s om morTa roanh
are two gdleries known a» the Old and New Pinakothek, ,,_^^ HoUMol ReDrCMnlalivc. in which he delendsl 1
PIBAR DEL BIO. capital of Pinar del Rio Province, Cuba, Madi«n'. war policy, and from iS.g lo <S» was . .
about .07 m. S.W. hy raJway f™n. Havana. Pop. (i<^7). ,(,, National Hou« of Representative., in which k
10,634. ITie city urn the lemle valley of .he Guama- It..ihe ,1,, „i^„rf Compmrnise in a brilliant speech. B,
centre of the tobacco industry ol .he Vurf.a Abjjo region. lu charla.on, South Carolina, on the ,<,th ol Oclobei 1
port u Lb Coloma, on the Kiuthem toast. The pueblo wa. Hi»<nn Hi-vbv IjTi»rN';Pi»riKrvfnn.-TM.l «
.,«.d ^,., ,,„, b., ,h. ji.„„ .. ,h. „,„.,»., ,,.. wk jss,5rH;s »rpSs,r™r,.',S!,':
leth ol Oc.otwr T7J7 at Char!
-I784),firsl piHCKHET, CHARLES COTESWORTH (i746.i«tj
"'"" ' "" can .talesman, wa. bom in Chailejlon, South Cu«lio
95lfa of February 1746, the ua of Charle. Piockoey (
■ ' * ■ wife, the celebrated girl plant.
prerfdcnt of the Erst South Carolina Provincial Congres
to June 177s), and a cousin of CharlcsColMwonhrincline;
^th,"nd L"''.m"™ ei^rilo'Jte L^lh^'tiXa'noil^e'rf ;^,'r,"h?n,'*'to lI^'e^laTJi' '"s^o^h'^ouii^m ^"it^
Beprtsetiialive^ He waa captured by Ihe British at Ihe fall ^^^ o,,^;^ ^^^ ^^„ ^^^ ,^ ,^ ^ and for • I
0 Charlealon (.j8o), and remained a prisoner until the cl«e „udicdinFrance.ltheRoynl WililaryCollege.lCieo.
of hojlditiej. He was elected a delegate lo the CongreHollhe ■ , ;j„„ica in 1760, C. C. IMncLnev beno Ibei
Conledention In .784, .78s,.nd .7B6. and in 17S6 he n>oved ht « Ch"'l"s^" ar^jton li^.™^^^^^
; aflaira ol the nation," advocating in this t
gemenl of Ihe powers of Congres.. The C(
lee which prepared a plan lor amending Ihearltctesofconfedeta- ^■^^ ,^ ji„ ^,,
convendon'fnd^n™ "sat-'S"-" '"'— ^ — " "" ''^-°' <^'«"'""
Randolph (f.f.) pretcnied
He was a member of Ihe lint Soutb
"1 1771, served a. colonel in t
776-1777. was chosen preado
Ina Senate In 1779, look part in the Georg
until 1782, when he was exchanged. In :
^ a brevet brigadier-gencraJ in th<
1787. advocating the counli.ig of al
ntalion and oppoung the abolition
oscda." impracticable " thFclKtloi
tular vole, and aUo opposed ti
illy PincLncy bore a prominent pan Insecuringtl
FInckncy's plan leems to have been much drawn upon.
Furlhermorc, Pinckney appears to have made valuable sugget
lions regarding phra^ng and mallcrt of detail. C>n ihc iSth ol
August he introduced a series of resolutions, and to him should . ^^,,^, ,„,^.„i ™,,. . .,„,.„„.. .,^-^u,.
probably be accredited the authorship ol Ihe substance of some tion'of'thV Federal «nH^lu'iion'in t'he'^ui'h'caiol'iia^
Ihirly^ine or thiny-lwoprovisionsol theconslilution.' Pinck- „||td fotihaipurpcaein ■788andinIramingthcSooil
' The " Rnrkney Plan " hai been ih* subiwl of coniidnible Stale Constilulion in Ihe convention of i;»o.
?h''"S??il (r!he™viSlfon\«"i^Si.^a''nTd™vE;^t"hS> organiaaiion ol the Fedtral govcmmeni,Pre«dcniK
.he l-inckney plan was miHing, he wrote 10 Pinckney for a copv. oHeredhimaldiffcrcntlimesappoinlmniKasassociat.
and I^nckney Kni him what he asencd was either a copy of hin the Supreme Court (1701I, secretary of war (i;osliul
original dufl or a copy ol a draft which diffeied from the oiwinal Ihe docuinenl icni by Pinckney 10 Adami in iSi« a
InihFdiaftiTparttdliylhetomnilllceofdctail.MadiHniandolhM. 'Chailo Pinckney, the fjthei. wa> kmg pnnninnl
Ifeainl it a. qiurious. and for yean PiiickiKv rceeived little credit Iheuscmblyin i7i6-i73Sand in 1740. chief just ire cfU
fnr hit work in the canvention, Lalcr hiitonani. however, notably in I73a-I7M, and agent for South Carolina in Englam
J. Franklin Jameion and Andrew C. McLaughlin, have accredited 1758. Hcwa. Ihe uncle of Charln Pinekney (i;ji'i7i
to him the wagmion of a number of provisioni ol Ihe conMilution ireal-uiKleo< Chirks Pinckney 11757-1814). Eliu Lua
a. a result Dftheir efforts lo reconUrucl hi. original plan chiefly <c. I7ai'l7»] wa. Ihc daughter of Lieut .-Colonel O
from his speeches or alleged merches. and from certain paper, of the Britisn.anny. who about I73S removed Iron
Sm'j. ^1"mrton. '"siudSs in"c™lillory of the Frfl^l &o^- look Ihc'MnaBemenI of the planlai'mn.' with c^ipicu.
venlion of 1787." in the Annual RrBorl nf the Ameriran Hiitoriral She i> laid lo have been the finl lo inlmduce into Sou
Anncijlian for 1401. vol. [.: A. C. McLaughlin, "Outline of Pinck- (and into cnnlinenlal Noilh America) the cullivalkia
ney'i Plan for a Conflilution," in Tkr Naliim. April 18, I404; an faclure of indigo, ami she also ioipofled nlkwonia—i
article entiihd " Skelcb of Pinckncy't Ptan lor a Cunuitulinn." presented to the piinceu ol W.i1n a dm made ol b
in tlir Anuruan HiilfrUil Knitw for lulv IV4; and C, C. Noll, planlationt. She wa. married 10 Charle. Pinrlcney in
Tie J<rji»yi//*cftVK*iif»0™iilWmew York. iqoei.anallempl Hirriotl II. Ravenel, FJiza Pintkn^j (New Ywk. I(
by a former ehirl-jutlke ol the UTS. Court ol Claitm to vrave ttiii " WntMo o( Colonial and Kevoluimnary Tunct " Ktiea
PINCKNEY, T,— PINDAR
617
, cnch of which he declined; but in 1796 he sue-
Monroe as minister to France. The Directory
ve him, and he retired to Hplland, but in the next
Gerry and John Marshall having been appointed
1, he again repaired to Paris, where he is said to
; famous reply to a veiled demand for a " loan **
a gift), " Millions for defence, but not one cent
•another version is, " No, not a sixpence." The
plishcd nothing, and Pinckney and Marshall left
St, Gerry (g.v.) remaining. When the correspon-
rommissioncrs was sent to the United States
rtters " X," " Y " and " Z," were inserted in
imes of the French agents with whom the com-
l — hence the " X Y Z Correspondence," famous
story. In 1800 he was the Federalist candidate
nt, and in 1804 and again in 1808 for president,
lectoral voles in the former and 47 in the latter
B05 until his death, on the i6th of August 1825,
»t-gcncral of the Society of the Cincinnati.
THOMAS (1750-1828), American statesman and
born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 23rd
50, a younger brother of Charles Cotesworth
. Educated in England, he returned to Charles-
id was admitted to the bar in 1774. During the
rndence his early training at the French military
enabled him to render effective service to General
oln in 1778-1779, to Count d'Estaing (1779), to
n in the defence of Charleston and afterwards
ratio Gates. In the battle of Camden he was
1 and captured, remaining a prisoner for more
Subsequently he was governor of South Carolina
presided over the state convention which ratified
nstitution in 178S; was a member of the state
1791; and was United States minister to Great
-1796. During part of this time (1794-1795) he
extraordinary to Spain, and in this capacity nego-
he important Treaty of San Lorenzo el Real; by
boundary between the United States and East and
md between the United Stales and " Louisiana "
ain relinquishing all claims east of the Mississippi
at.), and the United States secured the freedom
>f the Mississippi to its mouth with the right of
r Orleans for three years, after which the United
lave the same right cither at New Orleans or at
ce on the Mississippi to be designated by Spain,
ey w^as the Federalist candidate for vice-president,
01 he was a Federalist representative in Congress,
ir of 1812 he was a major-general. In 1835 he
)rothcr as president-general of the Society of the
e died in Charleston on the 2nd of November
.'y, like many other South Carolina revolutionary
aristocratic birth and politics, closely connected
)y ties of blood, education and business relations,
lie more remarkable their attitude in the War
:c, for which they made great sacrifices. Men
ypc were not in sympathy with the progressive
it of America, and they began to withdraw from
bout iSoo.
ickncy, Life of General Thomas Pinckney (Boston.
r. Jlivdapm, c. 522-443 Bc), the great lyric
Greece, was born at Cynosccphalae, in Boeotia,
the Pythian games (/r. 175, Bergk*, 193),' which
tickh to be 522 B.C. He would thus be some
rs younger than Simonidcs of Ceos. He was the
iius and Cleodicc (or Cleidice). The traditions
ivc left their impress on his poetry, and are not
ance for a correct estimate of his relation to his
The clan of the Acgidae — tracing their line
Aegeus— belonged to the " Cadmean " element
es arc to the ctlitlon of Pindar bv C A. M Fcnncll
J the fourth edition of Bcrgk's Poetae lyrui graect.
of Thebes, i.e. to the cider nobility whose supposed date went
hack to the days of the founder Cadmus. A branch of the
Theban Aegidae had been settled in Achaean times at Amyclae
in the valley of the Eurotas (Pind. Isthm. vi. 14), and after
the Dorian conquest of the Peloponnesus had apparently been
adopted by the Spartans into one of the three Dorian tribes.
The Spartan Acgidae helped to colonize the bland of Thera
(Pyth. V. 68-70). Another branch of the race was settled at
Cyrene in Africa; and Pindar tells how his Aegid dansmen at
Thebes " showed honour " to Cyrene as often as they kept the
festival of the Carnea {Pylh. v. 75). Pindar is to be conceived,
then, as standing within the circle of those families for whom the
heroic myths were domestic records. He had a personal link
with the memories which everywhere were most cherished by
Dorians, no less than with those which appealed to men of
" Cadmean " or of Achaean stock. And the wide ramifications
of the Aegidae throughout Hellas rendered it peculiarly fitting
that a member of that illustrious clan should celebrate the glories
of many cities in verse which was truly Panhellenic.
Pindar is said to have received lessons in flute-playing from
one Scopelinus at Thebes, and afterwards to have studied at
Athens under the musicians Apollodorus (or Agathocles) and
Lasus of Hermione. In his youth, as the story went, he was
defeated in a poetical contest by the Theban Corinna — who,
in reference to his profuse employment of Theban mythology,
is said to have advised him " to sow with the hand, not with the
sack." There is an extant fragment in which Corinna reproves
another Theban poetess, Myrtb, " for that she, a woman,
contended with Pindar " (ort ^ovd ^our' I0a IXtyMpoto iror' (fyw)
— a sentiment which hardly fits the story of Corinna's own
victory. The facts that stand out from these meagre traditions
are that Pindar was precocious and laborious. Preparatory
labour of a somewhat severe and complex kind was, indeed,
indispensable for the Greek lyric poet of that age. Lyric com-
position demanded studies not only in metre but in music, and
in the adaptation of both to the intricate movements of the
choral dance (^pxijcrrixif). Several passages in Pindar's extant
odes glance at the long technical development of Greek lyric
poetry before his time, and at the various elements of art which
the lyrist was required to temper into a harmonious whole
(sec, e.g. 01. iii. 8, vi. 91, xiii. 18, xiv. 15; Pyth. xii 23, &c.).
The earliest ode which can be dated {Pyth. x.) belongs to the
twentieth year of Pindar's age (502 B.c ); the latest (Olymp. v )
to the seventieth (452 B.C.)." He visited the court of Hiero at
Syracuse; Theron, the despot of Acragas, also entertained him;
and his travels perhaps included Cyrene. Tradition notices
the special closeness of his relations with Delphi: " He was
greatly honoured by all the Greeks, because he was so beloved
of Apollo that he even received a share of the offerings, and at
the sacrifices the priest would cry aloud that Pindar come in
to the feast of the god."* His wife's name was Megadeia
(another account says Timoxena, but this may have been a
second wife), and he had a son named Daiphantus and two
daughters, Eumetis and Protomache. He is said to have died
at Argos, at the age of seventy-nine, in 443 B.C.
Among the Greeks of his own and later times Pindar was
pre-eminently distinguished for his piety towards the gods.
He tells us that, " near to the vestibule " of his house {Pyth. iii.
78), choruses of maidens used to dance and sing by night in
praise of the Mother of the Gods (Cybele) and Pan — deities
peculiarly associated with the Phrygian music of the flute, in
which other members of Pindar's family besides the poet himself
are said to have excelled. A statue and shrine of Cybele, which
he dedicated at Thebes, were the work of the Theban artists,
Aristomedes and Socrates. He also dedicated at Thebes a
statue to Hermes Agoraios, and another, by Cabmis, to Zeus
Ammon. The latter god claimed his especial veneration because
Cyrene, one of the homes of his Aegid ancestry, stood " where
Zeus Ammon hath his seat," i.e. near the oasis and temple
' AccordinK to others, his latest poem is the eighth Pythian
ode. 450 or 44^1.
' Ilit^douv y^w, in ed. Aid.
(Pyili, W, i6]. The 2uIhoi of am of ihe Cnck livct of Pindar
«iiyi Ihii, ■' mhcii PaiiSiiniAj the king of the LacetUemoniani
wu Duming Thebes, 9on» one wrolc on Pindar's house, ' Bum
nol ihe house of Pindar the poet '-, and thus it nbnc escaped
destruction." This incident, of which the occauoo is ngl tunher
defined, bu been regarded as i later invention.' Bellet
■Iicsled, >l teasl, is the siniPar clemency of Alciander the Gieit,
when he satked Thebes one hundred and eight years after Ihe
(raditisnal date of Pindar's death (J35 B.C.). He spared only
(i) the Cadmeii, or citadel, of Thebes (thenceforth 10 be occupied
by a Macedonian garrison); (f) the temples and holy places; and
(j) Puidac's house. Wbile Ihe inhabitants were sold into
slavery, emption was made only ol (1) ptietu and priestesses ;
(1) persons who had been connected by private fwla with
Philip or Aleiandei, or by public (tria urith the Macedonians;
(3) Pindar's descendants. It is probable enough, as Qio Chry-
J (ii- li). that Akiander nas partly moved by
Men
.nalgi
oho had CI
But he 1
It have been also, or
" ' n the eyes of all
Dly as that of a
J] who had stood
chielly, influenced by the :
Helknes surrounded Pindar's mcmor
great national poet, but also as that
in a specially clou rebtlon to the gods, and, above all. to the
Delphian ApoUo.' Upwards of lii hundred years after Kndar's
dcilh the traveller Pausanias saw on iron chair which was
preserved among the most precious treasures of the temple in
ibe sanctuary at Delphi. It was Ihe chair, he was lold, " in
which Pindar used to sit, whenever he came 10 Delphi, and to
chant those of hb songs which pertain to Apollo " (i. 14, j).
During the second hall ol Pindai's life, Athens was li^ng
lasting than hei political primacy. Pindar did not Lve to see
thP Parthenon, or to witness Ihe mature triumphs of Sophocles;
but he knew the sculpture of Calamia, and he may have known
Lhe masterpieces of Aeschylus.
It Thcbi
ybeiwe
. Jwardslbe Athens ol which
es was so often the bitterest foe, but with which he himself
10 large a measure ol spiritual kinship. A lew words remain
a diihyiamb in which be paid a glowing tribute (o those
IS ol Athens " who " laid (he shining foundations ol frce-
" |iaU« 'Aftuviui tpititurrt ^ovrdr tpi(irii' JXciAplai,
5, Bergk', ;?), whik Athens itself is thus invoked:
'. Xmipoj (ol tonrl^n ml Aol&pai, 'EXXJfoi I^ifio, iliATal
m, iiuiitnor rtiMtS(iBr (Jr. S4. Bergk", 76). Isocrales,
- ■" - " "the phrase ■EXJuUoi "
y ol Helt
eatly gi
tified ll
appoiniea mm nonoraty consul, as It were— lor Athens at Thebes),
besides presenting him with a large sum of money (AnlidBiii,
166), One of Ihe letters of the pseudo-Aeschines {Ep. iv.) gives
an imptobaUc turn 10 the story by saying thai ibe Thcbans
had fined Pindar for his praise of Athens, and that Ihe Athenians
repaid him twice lhe sum." The BOli™ preserved by Isocrates
—less than one hundred years after Pindar's death— Is good
honours from Athens. Pausanias saw a statue of Pindar at
just mentioned, several passages in Pindar'a e-tanl odes bespeak
1 some epilhet of pr
It battles of the Pen
enians (Pytk. i. jS). '
A.Schorer, I>fim>il*.
marked thar history requir
ThehoineolPiBdaru!
. In alluding to the
he gives the glory of
of Salamis to the
yf*. vii.) theFythiia
s to modify the stale-
leror bade ftp^n
Hdhilohiur
in ibeguna W
.«t"»«lili'
I Aiior-ui
Kfeflonsuik
iokingif bnt
UtS
e«b*mm««lj
BaIk^llf4#
ss
iriai pDAkU
1; (1) Oilwte
I in Ik F]lli«
PINDAR
619
«f Corinth, in honour of Poseidon, once in two years, the first
•ad third of each Olympiad. The Greek way of citing an ode
ii by the nomin. ^ur. followed by the numeral, t.g. *' the ninth
01ymi»an " is 'OXv^nrioyuccu ff. The chronological range of
the collection (so far as ascertainable) is from 502 b c {Pyih. z.)
to 45a B.C. {(H. v.). With respect to the native places of
the vktors, the geographical distribution is as follows: for the
■waiwlanrl of Grcece propcT, 13 odes; for Aegina, 11; for Sicily,
15; for the Epizephyrian Locrians (southern Italy), a; for
Cyvene (Africa), 3.
The general characteristics of the odes may be briefly con-
sidered under the following heads: (i) language; (2) treatment
of theme; (3) sentiment — religious, moral and political; (4)
xelation to contemporary art.
I. The diction of Pindar is distinct in character from that of
every other Greek poet, being almost everywhere marked by the
greatest imaginative boldness. Thus (a) metaphor is used
even for the expression of common ideas, or the translation of
ffywinur phrases, as when a cloak is called {01. iz. 97) '* a warm
lemedy for winds." (6) Images for the highest excellence are
drawn from the farthest limits of travel or navigation, or from
the fairest of natural objects; as when the superlative hospitality
of a man who kept open house all the year round b described
1^ saying, " far as to Phaais was his voyage in summer days,
and in winter to the shores of Nile " (Isthm. ii. 41); or when
CNymfHa, the " crown " or " flower " of festivals, is said to be
excellent as water, bright as gold, brilliant as the noonday sun
iOt. L ad init.). This trait might be called the Pindaric imagery
if tkm tuperUUvK. (c) Poetical inversion of ordinary phrase is
frequent; as, instead of, " he struck fear into the beasts," " he
^ve the beasU to fear " {Pylh. v 56) {d) The efforts of the
poet** genius arc represented under an extraordinary number of
similitudes, borrowed from javelin-throwing, chariot-driving,
leaping, rowing, sailing, ploughing, building, shooting with the
bow, sharpening a knife on a whetstone, mixing wine in a bowl,
and many more. («) Homely images, from common life, are
s; as from account-keeping, usury, sending merchandise
the o-Kvr&Xi} or secret dispatch, &c. And we have
such homely proverbs as, " he hath his foot in this shoe," i.e.
stands in this case {01. vi. 8). (/) The natural order of words in
a sentence is often boldly deranged, while, on the other hand,
the syntax is seldom difficult. {^ Words not found except in
BSndar are numerous, many of these being compounds which
(like hapltifipoToSt xara^XXopoctr, &c.) suited the dactylic
metres in their Pindaric combinations. Horace was right in
^Making of Pindar's " nova verba," though they were not
5fflftfiyM^ to the " audaces dithyramb!."
s. The actual victory which gave occasion for the ode is
addom treated at length or in detail — which, indeed, only
eiccpCional incidents could justify. Pindar's method is to take
acMnc heroic mjrth, or group of myths, connected with the
victor's city or family, and, after a brief prelude, to enter on
Ihis, returning at the dose, as a rule, to the subject of the victor's
merit or good fortune, and interspersing the whole with moral
comment. Thus the fourth Pythian is for Arcesilaus, king of
Cyrene, which was said to have been founded by men of Thera,
dacendants of one of Jason's comrades. Using this link,
ffndar introduces his splendid narrative of the Argonauts
Itfany odes, again, contain shorter mythical episodes — ^as the
tairth of lamus {Oi vi.), or the vision of Bellerophon {01 xiii )
- — which form small pictures of masterly finish and beauty
JParticular notice is due to the skill with which Pindar often
Hianages the return from a mythical digression to his immediate
tbeme. It is bold and swift, yet is not felt as harshly abrupt-
Justifying his own phrase at one such turn — col rtva cltiov laafu
fi^ax^ iPyf^' iv 247). It has been thought that, in the
l^arenthesis about the Amazons' shields {quibus Mos unde
^4ductu$ . guaerere distuli, Odis, iv. 4, 18), Horace was
imitating a Pindaric transition; if so, he has illustrated his own
Observation as to the peril of imitating the Thcban poet
3. a. The religious feeling of Pindar is strongly marked in
** From the gods are all means of human excellence."
He will not believe that the gods, when they dined with Tantalus,
ate his son Pelops; rather Poseidon carried off the youth to
Olympus. That is, his reason for rejecting a scandalous story
about the gods is purely religious, as distinct from moral; it
shocks his conception of the divine dignity. With regard to
oracles, he Inculcates precisely such a view as would have been
most acceptable to the Delphic priesthood, viz. that the gods
do illumine their prophets, but that human wit can foresee
nothing which the gods do not choose to reveal. A mystical
doctrine of the soul's destiny after death appears in some
passages (as 0/. ii. 66 sq.). Pindar was familiar with the idea
of metempsychosis (cf. ibid. 68), but the attempt to trace Pytha-
goreanism in some phrases {Pyth. ii. 34, iii. 74) appears unsafe.
The belief in a fully conscious existence for the soul in a future
state, determined by the character of the earthly life, entered
into the teaching of the Eleusinian and other mysteries. Com-
paring the fragment of the Gp^vos (114, Bergk*, 137), we may
probably regard the mystic or esoteric element in Pindar's
theology as due to such a source.
b. The moral sentiment pervading Pindar's odes rests on a
constant recognition of the limits imposed by the divine will on
human effort, combined with strenuous exhortation that each
man should strive to reach the limit allowed in his own case.
Native temperament {4>vit) is the grand source of all human
excellence (Aperi)), while such excellences as can be acquired by
study {h^baxrai iiptnd, 01. ix. xoo) are of relatively small
scope — the sentiment, we may remark, of one whose thoughts
were habitually conversant with the native qualities of a poet
on the one hand and of an athlete on the other. The elements
of irfUa dX^os — " sane happiness," such as has least reason to
dread the jealousy of the gods — are substance sufficing for daily
wants and good repute (cvXoYla). He who has these should
not "seek to be a god." " Wealth set with virtues " (irXoGros
dpcrais Mou&xX/iCKot), as gold with precious gems, is the most
fortunate lot, because it affords the amplest opportunities for
honourable activity. Pindar does not rise above the ethical
standard of an age which said, " love thy friend and hate thy
foe " (cf. Pyth. ii. 83; Isthm. iii. 65). But in one sense he has
a moral elevation which is distinctively his own; he is the
glowing prophet of generous emulation and of reverent self-
control.
c. The political sentiments of the Thcban poet are suggested
by Pyth. xi. 52; " In polities I find the middle state crowned
with more enduring good; therefore praise I not the despot's
portion; those virtues move my zeal which serve the folk"
If in Pyth. ii. 87, a democracy is described as b )i&0poi
CTparbt, " the raging crowd, " it is to be noted that the ode is
for Hiero of Syracuse, and that the phrase clearly refers to the
violence of those democratic revolutions which, in the early
part of the 5th century B.C., more than once convulsed Sicilian
cities. At Thebes, after the Persian wars, a " constitutional
oligarchy " (6Xi7apxfa labvoiios, Thuc. iii. 62) had replaced
the narrower and less temperate oligarchy of former days
{bvvaarda ob /icrd pbiJtay); and in this we may probably
recognize the phase of Greek poUtical life most congenial to
Pindar He speaks of a king's lot as unique in its opportunities
{Oi t 113), he sketches the character of an ideal king {Pyth
iii. 71); but nothing in his poetry implies liking for the Tvpawh
as a form of government. Towards the Greek princes of Sicil>
and Gyrene his tone is ever one of manly independence; he
speaks as a Greek citizen whose lineage places him on a level
with the proudest of the Dorian race, and whose office invests
him with an almost sacred dignity. In regard to the politics
of Hellas at large, Pindar makes us feel the new sense of leisure
for quiet pursuits and civihzing arts which came after the
Persian wars. He honours " Tranquillity, the friend of cities "
CAavxUi ^X6roXir, 01. iv 16). The epic poet sang of wars;
Pindar celebrates the " rivalries of peace."
4. Pindar's gem'us was boldly original; at the same time he
was an exquisite artist. " Mine be it to invent new strains,
mine the skill to hold my course in the chariot of the Muses,
and may courage go with me, and F>owcr of ample ^ras.^ " <^^
620 PINDARICS
li. So). Here we Ke ihe nulling unsc o( inborn itrenglh, Ihe Kcond penod, vhich iika iu lue in (be kdk of HdMc
in many other places m perceive ihe leeling of eontcioiu ut unity crealed by Ihe Peniu wan, the lyric poet uUitua J
— u in the phrast iaiiiUtir, to ipl tor his method of inlaying Greece Pindar and Simonidrj ire [he gnu reptnenljlini
anode with mylhiea! subjects, or when be compares the opening of ihia second penod, lo which Bacehyhdes, the ncpbii gl
of ■ song la Ihe front of a itatcly building (Of. vi. j). Pindar's Simonides, also belong These, with a lew miiior jneu, ui
sympathy itilh external nature wa« deeper and keener than it classed by German »riten as dit tumaialtH Uilliir. Tb
often disctmibte in the poetry of his age. ll appeatt, tor Creeks usually spoke, not of " lyric," but of " Bdic ' pceiij
eiamplc, in his welcome of the season when " Ihe chamber of (i c meant 10 be sung, and not, like the ejnc, rieitei)); ml
the houra ii opened, and deUcate pbnts perceive the Iragranl " univcraal mdic " is lyric poetry addressed to all Gieect. Bu
spring" (/> 5j, Bergk', 7s), in the passage where Jason invokes Pinilar is moie than the chief eilant lyrisL Epit, lyric ud
"the rushing strength of waves and winds, and Ihenighls.and dramatic poetry tuciccded each other in Creek lilcnturebii
the paths of Ihe deep" IPyl^. iv. igj), in the lines on the natural development. Each of them ms the qKunama
eclipse of the sun (/r S4, Bcrgk,' ie;)i and in the picture of utterance of the age which brought it fonh. In Fiiilir«ai
the eruption, when Etna. " pillar of the sky, nurse of keen snow see that phase of the Greek mind which produced Huatiic
all the year." tends forth " pure ^nngt of lire unapproachable " epos passing over into the phase which prodiHcd AiloiiB
lP}lk. i. >o). The poet's feeling for colour is often noticeable drama. His spirit is often thoroughly dramatic— wiloes imk
—as in the beautiful story of the birth o( lamut— when Evadrc scenes as the interview between Jason and Pelias (fylL n\
lays aside her lilver pitcher and her girdle of scarlet web, the the meeting of ApaHo and Chiron [Pylk. Ii.), the qiiadt gf
babe b found, " its delicate body steeped in the golden and deep Culor and Polydcuccs {Ntm. i,), the entenainmeol of Ilenda
purple rays of pansies " (Ot. vi 5s) by TcUmon {Iilhn. v.). Epic narrative alont was no iHVi
The spiril of art, in every lorm, is represented for Kndar enough forlhe menwbohadknowolhatgreal liitogyofoatiml
by ^iptt—" the source of all delights lo mortals " [01. L ys)~ life, the Persian invasions, they longed lo see the hemes mnf
01 by the pciionilicd Charltcs (GiacEt) Tbe Cbarilcs were and to hear them speaking. TIk poei of Olympia, atcsuad
often represented as young maidens, dltking ihemselvet with to see beautiful forms in vivid action or vivid art, sa nl
early llowera— the rose, in panicufar, being sacred to them as hlted to be Ibe tync interpreter of (he new dnuialic in^alic.
well as to Aphrodite. In Pindar's mind, as in the old Greek Pindar has more of the Homeric spirit than any Gnel htc
conception from which the worship of the Charitcs sprang, the poci hnown 10 us. On the other side, he has a genuine, il Ii>
instinct of beautiful art was inseparable from the sense of natural evidenl, kinship with Aeschylus and Sophocles. Piadar'mL
^_^^^ beauty. The period from joo to 460 BC, to which like Olympia iltcif, illustrates ihespiiitual unity of Greek IR.
in ihe developmenl of Grvcli sculpture. The tchoob of Argot, MSS. ol Pindar make it pmhiblF that thne MSS-aitdcnvidlH
Sicyon and Aegina were cfTtcting a transition from archaic a common iin:hFiy[K. Now the older Kholia oa Piaibr, itil
types to the art which wat aflerwardt matured in the JPPor 10 have b«n compiled mainly (mm the coaaMUAid
,1 of rheidi.^ Olympia formt the central Unk between „^„l^"'S','Vhe'U;iLS^r'iriSSrK:elXr'fi^
.. —J ,- — L — 1- c- 1.... .< j^ii l^j The anrhelypc o( our MSS., then, e»BBO« taw bm
older than the end si the and «nluiy. Our MSS. lall ivi V
general chuct. (1) the otdrr, nptneniini a len which, ikiat
often eoinipl. it eDmHrativrly free Iron inlerpolaiku; {1] v
words, ol lawleii eanjcciunt. down to tbe 14th or ijih atlay
To the Gm elau bcfang Pariunui 7, breakine oil is ^ 1 :
Aiobroiiaaui 1 which liag only a. L-4ii.i ^edieeoi t; ud
Valicanui a — the two bti.iumed being of the hisheft nl*
ThecdilmpnnccpxtlheAldinF (Venice, IJij). A mndenatrJ
Pindar may be almou aid 10 kive bnun with C C. »rm^
eilition {1771I llcmuion did much to advance Kndarie otawi
by ^L Uiben, 11 justly regarded as (he foundered a irinniic ixa''
ment of the pocl. The c<lition ol Theodor Beigk (/■«•> (^
fratct. new ed- by O- SchKukr. 1900J it marked by miajmjg
. i.ldnes ol caniec(UR. a> thai of Tyeho Maanucn (iaWh>
™m.n«>m(ed at Olympia by Ihe joint work ■- " ""-^^tS
nam and Calamis. (0 die Cieantomachia, •?;■ JVft.rlLSr
Pin
lat't poetry
nd Greek
sculp
ure. From ab
out 560 BC.
aids sculpture had bee
appli
les, chiefly at OlympU. In
a sinking passage <Wtiii. v.
ed
-I/.) Pindat
recognizes
sculpt
ra and poetry
IS sister arts
employed in the
ation
f the athlete, a
nd contrasts
Ihe
merely local dfeci of t
e with the wid
diflusion of
ihc
poem. "No
sculptor I
lofas
hion images Ih
1 shall lUnd
idly
on one pedestal for ay
go ibDu fonh
Iteigha-d ship, on eac
light bark "
ypanicular
uhjccls Kl
mon lo Pindar
and contem-
ry sculpture.
Thus (1
theic
Iplures on (he east pediment
scEuctd^
(4)theweddingo(Hi;raclesandHebc,{j) thewnrof thcCt
with the Lapithae, and {«) a conlcsl between Heracles ond 'm ed.. iia^
Apollo, an; instances of mythical material Ireaicd alike by Ihe denta. The "Pj*
poet and by tculptors of his day. Tbe contemporary improve- to^TX ^ W
mentt in lown architecture, inlroduting spaciout and will- Jjuii (1910). T**
paved streets, such as the (rmi/vr^ cUn at Cyjenc {_Pytb v The ira^Atiifl ^
R;l. suRRCStt his frequent comfMrison of Ihc [lalhs of song 10 j) is eitelkoj; «■
bmid and stately causeways (iXnr.rm itpAmJoL-imTi^irifci. "f^'^illSw
^X,i*K. N,M. vL 47i htk^. li. »). A'sonT.s likened to '. ^:^Ji
cunmng work which blends gold, ivory and coral (Htm. vii. 78) n manecnp" '^
I'indai's leeling thai poetry, though csscnliilly a divine gill. G. Labbcrt li»^
has a technical side (<Fo*ia), and thai on this side it hat had "^K^frTS
an hislonral devetapmenl like (hal of olher arts, is forcibly grarfik^'''^' '^
illustrated by his reference 10 Ihe inventions {so^dijiaTa} for .nftlmi
upmenl
of Ihe dilhyraml.
(1) ccria
n imp
oi'cm
g and driving of
ones, and [3) Ih
add
to temples (01 >il
>i)
Ibe devehipment of Gree
lytic poet
ly disl
iguiihiil. riurini;
the first.
c.lyr
nbal-as
Icneus
for Lcslii3BS, iljcman and S
esichorusf
tDori!
OS
(nun (isai); m ain L. Borncmami. in Bu^a'< yiM<4<L
(CKVi. 1904)^ with special reference to chmnokigical que^ioatv^
■ - ■■- iii Swrfne consderablc IraciQcni
by II. P. Grcnfciran.1
'Pyikia~'i7'Kiri. "'SooK'c<»Hikra'Ue"'in™i«i i^^'
w.™ di«:ovcrcd in I9"6 by U. '■ " ■ "^ ■ • " ■■
Oiyrftymliiii papm, pt. v, m.
found in Cltiiiiid Raien, Feb. iquqia. iu notbma*i.
^ (R.C.].;W
PIHDARICS, the name by which was known a das (f >«
and irregular oda grcally in fashion in EngUn) dniioj thidw
PINDARIS— PINE
621
r the 17th and the beginning of the i8th century. The inven-
oa is due to Abraham Cowley, who, probably in Paris — " a
ace where he had no other books to direct him " — and perhaps
1650, foun4 a text of Pindar and determined to imitate the
reek poetry in English, without having comprehended the
stem upon which Pindar's prosody was built up. Cowley
iblished, however, in 1656, fifteen Pindarique Odes, which
canoe the model on which countless imitators founded their
ndarics. The erroneous form of these poems, which were
aolutely without discipline of structure, was first exposed by
MigTCve, exactly half a century later, he very justly describing
em as " bundles of rambling incoherent thoughts, expressed
a like parcel of irregular stanzas, which also consist of such
other complication of disproportioned, uncertain and per-
exed verses and rhymes." This is harsh, but it describes a
adaric with absolute justice. Cowley had not been aware
at " there is nothing more regular than the Odes of Pindar,"
A that his poems were constructed in harmony with rigid
osodicaJ laws in strophe, antistrophe and epode; " the liberty
sich Pindar took in his numbers, which has been so much
isunderstood and misappUed by his pretended imitatoQ. was
Jy in varying the stanzas in different odes, but in each par-
ular ode they are ever correspondent one to another In their
ms, and according to the order of the ode." These excellent
itical remarks were made by Congrcve in his Discourse on the
mdarupu Ode of 1706, and from that date forward the use of
odarics ceased to be so lax and frantic as it had been during
e previous fifty yean. The time had now passed in which
cb a critic as Sprat could praise " this loose and unconfined
easure " as having " all the grace and harmony of the most
nfined." It began to be felt that the English pindaric was a
under founded upon a misconception. If we examine Cowley's
Resurrection," which was considered in the 17th century to
• a model of the style, and " truly pindarical," we find it to be
sllapdess poem of 64 Unes, arbitrarily divided, not into
rophes, but into four stanzas of unequal volume and structure;
e limes which form these stanzas are of lengths var>'ing from
lee feet to seven feet, with rhymes repeated in wilful disorder,
e whole forming a mere vague caricature of Pindar's brilliant
[es. The very laxity of these pindarics attracted the poets
the unlyrical dose of the 17th century, and they served the
irpose not only of Dryden and Pope, but of a score of lesser
»ets. among whom Oldham, Mrs Bciin, Otway, Sprat, Flat man
id many others were prominent. The pindaric became the
most necessary form in which to indite a poem of compliment
I a birth, a wedding or a funeral. Although the yogue of these
rms hardly survived the age of Anne, something of the vicious
iditton of them still remained, and even in the odes of
'ordsworth, Shelley and Coleridge the broken versification of
)wley's pindarics occasionally survives. Tennyson's Ode on
t Death of Ike Duke of Wellington (1852) is the latest important
ecimen of a pindaric in English literature. (E G.)
PIHDARIS* a word of uncertain origin, applied to the irregular
memen who accompanied the Mahratta armies in India
iring the i8th century when the Mughal Empire was breaking
>; loosely organized under sclf-choscn leaders, each band was
iually attached to one or other of the great Mahratta chieftains.
beir ^>ecial characteristic was that they received no pay,
it rather purchased the privilege of plundering on their own
count. The majority of them seem to have been Mahom-
edans: when the regular forces of the Mahrattas had been
td^en up in the campaigns conducted by Sir Arthur Wellesley
id Lord Lake in 1802-04, the Pindaris made their headquarters
Malwa, under the tacit protection of Sindhia and Holkar.
bey were accustomed to assemble every year at the beginning
November, and sally forth into British territory in search
' plunder. In one such raid upon the Masulipatam coast they
undcred 339 villages, killing or wounding 682 persons, torturing
ioo and carrying off property worth a quarter of a million
I 1808-09 they plundered Gujarat, and in 181 2 Mirzapur In
$14 they were reckoned at 25,000 to 30,000 horsemen, half of
lem well armed. At la&t the cvU became iniolcrabic, and in
1817 the marquess of Hastings obtained the consent of the East
India Company to the organized campaign, known as the Pindari
War. The Pindaris were surrounded on all sides by a great
army, consisting of 120,000 men and 300 guns, which converged
upon them from Bengal, the Dcccan and Gujarat under the
supreme command of Lord Hastings in person. Sindhia was
overawed and forced to sign the treaty of Gwalior, consent mg
to aid in the extirpation of the Pindaris, whom he had hitherto
protected. The Peshwa at Poona, the Bhonsla raja at Nagpur
and the army of the infant Holkar each took up arms, but were
separately defeated. The Pindaris themselves offered little
opposition. Amir Khan, by far their most powerful leader,
accepted the conditions offered to him; and his descendant is
now Nawab of the state of Tonk in Rajputana. The rest
surrendered or were hunted down, the fate of Chitu, one of the
most notorious, being to perish in a tiger's den. These military
operations were followed by the pacification of Central India
under the administration of Sir John Malcolm.
See J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (1826): and Major
Ross of Bladensburg, Marquess of Hastings (Rulers of India
Scries) {1893).
FIND DADAN KHAN, a town of BritUh India, in the Jhelum
district of the Punjab, situated near the right bank of the river
Jhelum, on the Sind-Sagar branch of the North-Westcm railway.
Pop. (1901), 13,770. It is an important centre of trade, and
its manufactures include boats, brass-ware, pottery, embroidered
scarves and riding-whips.
PINDUS. the ancient name of the rugged group of mountains
which separates Thessaly from Epirus, and branches south in
various directions. The geographical name is sometimes
extended over all these branches, and so reaches from Aetolia
to the Gulf of Lamia. The northern part of the ridge was known
as Lacmon. There is no modem name covering the whole
range, but its different parts have separate names. Several of
them attain a height of 7000 ft. or more.
PINE (I^t. Pinus, Gr. irirvt), a name given by the andcnts
to some of the resinous cone-bearing trees to which it is now
applied, and, as limited by modem botanists, the designation
of a large genus of true conifers, differing from the firs in their
hard woody core-scales being thickened at the apex, and in
their slender needle-shaped leaves growing from a membranous
sheath, cither in pairs or from three to five together — each tuft
representing an abortive branch, springing from the axil of a
partially deciduous scale-leaf, the base of which remains closely
adherent to the stem. The numerous male catkins are generally
arranged in dense whorls around the bases of the young shoots;
the anther-scales, surmounted by a crest-like appendage, shed
their abundant pollen by longitudinal slits; the two ovules at
the base of the inner side of each fertile cone-scale develop into
a pair of winged seeds, which drop from the opening scales when
mature — as in the allied genera.
The pines arc widely distributed over the north temperate
zone, in the southern portions chiefly confined to the mountains,
along which, in Central America, a few arc found within the
tropic; in more noTthem regions they frequently form extensive
forests, sometimes hardly mingled with other trees. Their
soft, straight-grained, resinous and often durable wood gives
to many kinds a high economic value, and some arc among the
most esteemed of timber trees.
Of the two-leaved species, P. sylveslris, the pine of northern
Europe, may be taken as a type. When growing in perfection
it is one of the finest of the group, and perhaps the most pictur-
esque of forest trees; attaining a height of from 70 to 120 ft.,
it b of conical growth when young, but in maturity acquires a
spreading cedar or mushroom-like top, with a straight trunk
of from 2 to 4 ft. in diameter at the base, and gnarled twisted
boughs, densely clothed at the extremities with glaucous green
foliage, which contrasts strongly with the fiery red-brown bark.
The leaves are rather short, curved, and often twisted; the male
catkins, in dense cylindrical whorls, fill the air of the forest
with their sulphur-like pollen in May or June, and fectmdate
the purple female flowers, which, at first sessile aud q.\^^\.^ nTcvkw
bvcome recurved on h IcnEtbcnir
tile length of Ihc leiveA> da not r
of the folkrving yeu, tnd the &
the IhJfd spring; the cotie-scol
Kcucved point, ncU macked in the green itite uid fn wme
VJUieticA in the mature cone, but in othen icarcriy projecting.
P. lylKilrii a lounti, in iiatrr or las abundance, fmm the hOb
iofBothn:i to Ihemounlairaof Spain
it-ilopes of Etna, while in longitude its
»tc3 of the Noith Sea to Kunchatk*.
than In the Scandinavian peniniuli,
.r, /ura) of the old Norsemen, and Hill
botaniciU)' now daucd u a pine. It gmm vigoioutly in Lap-
land on Ihe lower ground, and ii found even at an dcvalioo ol
700 ft., while In south Norway it occun up to jooo ft., though
is the true f
derived
iivdy It
o[ ll
n dales; in Ihe tiighest sii
buih. It fumlshs the yellow deal of Ihe Baltic ai
In Germany, both on the mounlainB and Ibe sa
wood* ol '" liieler " are frequeni and widely spread,
loresLsin Russia and Potand are chiefly composed of thisq^edcA^
in many northern hatritats it is associated with the spruce and
birch. In Alii it abounds in Siberia and on Ihe mountains of
the Amur region; on Ihe Eurt^xan Alps it occun »i a height of
56oof1.,andon the Pyrenws it is found at still higfier elevations;
■solEIna
In Biitnin naturd
found in the lUgt
of Scotch Gr o
the nortbem oounlis of EngLaod *tIeM its ibBBdaDce Ibi
prehistoric timei; and Id the remoter poat-Gl*cial fpoA b
nge was pnbably vastly more eitended. The tree is hk M
proent indigenous in southern BHiaiu, but when lianled ■
'Je ground mullipliei rapidly by the w
d during the last ifty ytaa.
ft>tch Rr is a very varial>le
'ed a higher reputation for the qualities of Ibdl tiato
others, among those mou priied by foresten is them
(allid the Biaemai pine, the remaining irigmenli of Ihi ptf
wood in the Bracnui district being chiefly oonpcMdolIliittU
it is mainly distinguished by its sbortcf and viOTe glMCflV
leaves and ovoid cones with blunt recurved ^uncs, ud cvtolr
by the early borizonul growth ol Its ullimaldy iioi^
boughs, of alt vaiietiis ihis is the most iHcturesqiie. Oath
Europeu conLinenl the Hagenau pine of Westphalia it atSHl
lor the ■Inugbtncss and good quality of its timber. The ka^
wood of [he finer kinds of Scotch b is of a deep Iminiiiihrt
colour, abounding in the resin to which its dunbtlity b pnM^
due. For all indoor and matt outdoor purposes it iin iMaf
as oak; and for ship [banking is pcsh^H little inlcriiir; IrM Ii
lightness and dastidty it is well "'•p"^ for the uimlmlia
of yacfals and other tinal] last-saOiiig craft, and iastidMlxIb
best of all wood lot masts and targe spcn; its weight wksta
JO to do lb the cvbic foot. Tlw sap-mod is mac paiMfei
but it is useful for foices, casks snd a variety of other pB>T<W
soaking in lime-water renders k more lasting; great analiad
young piiua are aoouslly cul lot railway tleepB*. nfadii tiiba
and numerous agricultural appUcatiooa; lai^ qovUkict t
(snsumed loi wood-psveruent. The quaHty ol the lU*
633
ud the timlMr ii ilwiya IndrSemii; it ii imtlly Ltrge quintitici of turpenliac art otnctcd Icora thii [nnc
Im wood a bat [a the cold diciutcoEita more oortbctn in Swcdca and Russia by nnujvinf a strip ol bark, Lenniiutiii^
111 a trunk (4 ft, in diameter) KiuirD on lie (indt of bctOH in a deep Dolch cut io the flood, Into which the turpentine
heart-wood quite equal to any produced in Glenmore luns, and from which il ii scooped as it accumulates; but the
lOTthus. The rapidity of growth is still nuve van- product Is not equal to that of the silver hr and other ipecio.
itain full nialurily is attained in from seventy to one Tar is prepared largely from P. lysulru; it is chiefly obtamed
: slowly; SchUbeler stales Ibat a tree felled in the conical or lunnel-shaped hollow made on the steep side of a hill
[cl (about 70° lal.), meosuriiiil i ft. 10 in. in diameter or bank; after filUug up, the whole is covered with (urf and lircd
; bark, showed four hundred cdrcls of annual growth, at the top, when the tar eludes slowly and runs into an iron
the fee, Btnwinf in dense foresls, is generally of but vessel placed below, from the spout of which it is conveyed
inh, and probably this pine nowhere reaches I greater into barrels. Meet of the so-called Stockholm tar is thus
11 the Scottish woods; a plank from Glenmon forest prepared, chiefly b the province of Bothnia.
learly jt it. across, and from 3 to 4I It- u not an closely allied to the Scotch pine, and perhaps 10 be r^arded as
uneter for a British pine tree. a mere alpine form of that species, is ihe dwarf A montana (or
nbers of Scotch fin are raited in nuraeriea (or artifidal P- P">to), ihe " kmrnmhoU " o. " knidioh " d the Cermans-a
lie seed is «owo in the spring, being just covered with 1!™'°'^,'™™!*^^^!^''' "t JL "E, "^ iLS? hS/^KI
the «eedUngs transplanted in the second year into ,^p„„ th™gi™nd. Wf^iaie muJh lesemble. ihM clSi
inher culture, or taken direct from Ihe seed-bed for Scotch fii, but is ihoner, denser ud more rigid; Ibe cones ue
:ng; sometimes the seed is sown where Ihe trees are smaller but limilai in fonn. Abounding on the hijher ikipei nt Ihe
igrow. A planUtion of Scotch fir requires frequent ,^'T^^(J|'l7^j .Fti^^ - ,™^'^*^J[2^J'^'°(!'"=
I thinning u Ihe young trees increase in siie; but ,^[,^ Krumroholi oil. valued ^'CmZiy aiu'olitward appiiS
ould be avoided as much as posuble, excepting for tian in ihiumatiun and for bruiiu and ipnins. is diailled (ron
1 of dead wood. PianUlions in England are generally the young bmnchea, and a fragrant whin min tliat exudes in
nal cutting in from sixty la seventy years, and many JS^^^„',3ir™ S™^ Hn ' 'luli«n'^T^^rfd^"he
at a much e«lier ttnge of growth. P. tyltalrii in ,q„^ J Gcimany, being ptobably ohuincd from lhe''ca™ihiana.
liable to many insect depredations; the pine-chafer. called tniin the
Hnipada, is destructive in some places, Ihe tarva ol mhic site, some-
feeding on the young succulent shoots, especially ^S^^^iS
lanlalions; Hyhbiui abirlh, the £r-weevil. eals away about"^? ilSS
nd numerous lepidoptetous larvas. devour the leaves; ood iDonE and
wfly is also injurious in some seasons; the removal of ough much em-
■ancho from the trees and from the gtouBd beneath ininks^™i in
■«™,.|j.d » .»! a ih=. l«a. U, M. ^ -1; li.'^-a
decaying bark ud dead leaves. In common with Newfoundland,
%, P, syltcjtHi is subject to the attacks of varioui orthem parti of
siwtei radiciperda atl«la the roots and penelratci "'iF™!! Sj?""''
n, causing roiling of the wood; the disease is difficult dS^ne .oint
e, aa the mycelium of the fungus trmveb from root Id i- ii ^ the most
toiL Rotting of the wood at the base of the trunk northerly it in uciitaiiw nf (be genus in America, and is chiefly
sed by A[ariau ukUou, which spreads fro " " '''*"* '" " ■■ ^ "- ' --•"■ •' ■"
e soQ by means ol its long purple-black,
nnds known as A&tzAH^pAd. Much damsL ..
species ol /■(riUnTminit, which of ten invade the corlei group, growing 10 a height _.
, ng ■ nvj^jnaj head: the slender Invts. oi a
nal formation of turpentine
, . . Lii. long ; Ihe cones, either in pbra or seven] Inoelher, praiect
slops the upward pauage of water; this horiaonially. and >ie of a light brown eotour. This pine abounds
parts above the diteaaed area lo perish. In England in Corsica, and is found in more or leas abflndaoce in ^ia.
1 largely employed a* a "nurse" foi oal trees, il» ■ouihem Frana, Greece, and many Mediterraneancoantriea! It
^Twhen young admirably adapting it for .his ^/^"^"^ £if :;;,5;n'^'',iSriuci:^„.rin"s^tK;
3 dense ioUage renders it valuable as a ineltei tree dockyards, and very durable, though less strong than that of
uig land from the wind; il stands the aea gales belter P. lyfceilru; the hean-wwd is of a browniih-tinl. In Kxilhcni
.... France ilhf-' 1— ^ -:.i. 1. j_-.. ...j. .. .1-
Bayol Biso
wiU not flourish on the shore like some Fesira 'J.5^„l™_^*ij:^ ^ ^_ __^ _^^^ ^ „ .ne .«-
In England it grows well in sheltered
iportant tree in ihe economy of the notthern
■_ ...._.._.._-j ^jiij Ryjjjj bouse* are
1 log'huts are made of Ihe
with the bark. The inner -j-^:^ VmhJe amct' to"the~tr« "The Tigh'l-^
thai of the spruce, is kiln figrinntal cone* are generallr in uin. but nRiei)
^ In Scandinavia and Russia boust* are The black pine, P. nilruci. gencfally now legarded as a
d of iu timbei; and log-huts are made of Ihe of P. Lmiw, derives iu name Irom the e«r™r depth of iti
,d lined and rotrfed with the bark. The inner !'.?.^rr^j«_r!'J?J '?«_"?'..'!™. ■""" '**■ ~ "* " ''"'' ""
and Sweden. Tl is prepared by 1
in England giowi well nn Hndy loilL The timber li valued in
.■:i ',s:t. ,;™.^' jbTVis, ;\tSS'SLS°SESi"iETrs
; „u.^ and renders its separation easy; through the Mediierranean legion to Asia Minor, northern ftrsia
loc»arse wool, and is spun and woven and Afghanistan. The leaves are long and of a light brigblgiieii:
I used in Spanish doclcyards. hi
^..aKinn*- «n H<*ni;iT /.;i r.'h^tir.fti hu timber is used in Spanish doclcyards. but opmioni vary as to its
cusluons. an essential oU. Ob ainMl^ ^^ In pkntaiKositsbright foliage. -itStheocaureconesand
r Ihe leaves, ha. medianal virtues j^„ j„oUi render it an omamenlat liee. hanly m mitheo.
Biitam. P. trwia, the Calabrian pine, is leguded am Uk »wk
624. I'l^'E
. P. k&^nuil. UHIhR Medil«nn«n forni, It valurf far rnrn linl. tprlnrint fram lone wliltc itinthi. bcinR chca 1 1
Iiuiik,liirni>ba the m
wuTcHiui'; uivi «nj vfiivi iiVC, nmcully on llie duns i4 Ihc Bay
of Bucny. GioirinB to > bdeht ol hom 40 to to (1., [he dcmly-
lurroonT trvnk «c^>U>n<iUy huh» a dieter a[ j fi. or mm
tt Ihc buF, vbnc, lik£ pwat unaA Irc«» k luuaHv curv« upwird
rradiially, m (orm ihdl enAbls the lone tip-roou to withAand
bnin the Btrain of the tea lale; vhen onn oteblishcd. the tpn
■• nnly Dvcnhrowa even on the tocwu ■and. The hnnchet
euTve upvirdt Uke the Mem. whb Iheir thick covenna oE Iohb dork
ifcon LeAvn, giving t mvvv* munded outlhiF lo ibe tm; the
0V1IC unei are rram 4 ta 6 in. long, of ■ liiht khinlng brown hue,
wiA Ihirk seals termiiuting 111 a pyramidal apetc; they jrcorranKed
emu lid the bianrhei in the radial log cluftleri that give name 10
Itir Mediterranean from ^oin to the Levant- On the drlft-vanifl
of FraiKe. especially in the Ginmde. {oivta have been formed
niainly of IhU pirte: the teedi, »wn ml finR under ^pitiper shelter junmn mucn nievooo ol gooa quiiny-
vegetate rapidly in the lea-iand, and the lieei Ihiu ratKd have, belong* 10 thii tertinn; it it ■ fine timber Inc lIllHailiff I
by iheir •ind-drilted lecd. niveied much of the fomer deicn from the mrenKdeniity of iuvood, which banlyADUiiiii
of ihc Landca with an e\-ergiecn wood- Thcfe forcsta of pinaster.
opart frotn the prodLiciJcn of timber In a once trcekv dittricl.
Largely obtained from the IrceH by n prnccia anjJn^Dui to Ih4t
employed in ila collecliun from F^ tytvettriti the ruHn U yii-lded
(mm May to the end d SL-ptembcr, the cuti being renewed a> the
■unply laili. umil the tree ia rahauned; the imnEi are then felled
and in«l in the m-inufacture of charcoal and lamp black; much
lar and pitch H al*> otKaincd from thcte pinuter forenta. In
England the cluntcr-pine hot been largely planted on nndy diMricta
near the leat and tiai become naturalind in Purbcck and _othcr
■oft rrant wood, (hou^ iiernhaUu in the natuial alale, hai been
bHid for railway ^cepL-n after latuiation tvjih creosote or pre-
P- FiMfo ia the none fnne of Itily; itt tprcjiding rounded canopy
of Light green Eoliaget aupported on a tall and often branchteu
rctidibh-bnnvn ^lining conea, roundly ovate in nhape. with pyrami- a nonh-weat Himalayan apeeieap it a medium-died live ai
dil icjli; anirca. have been pciied from the ancient dayt ol Rome r— - -■ -^ -■ ■ -■ ■ -■ • -■
Eur their edible nul-like aceiK aUch are uill u>mI aa an anirle iif I
food rir dtaxrt. They do not ripen until the fourth fear, and are 1
«nr!H. T1.. trrr haa been naturaKicd in many warm counirica. which formaforrataonihemngntaiiiaqfGRiodCanJryandTtartilt.
England ilac" ■
even in China; in Eingland it Kblom attain any large tue. ai the growing at an elevation of Gono fi.. alas betongi to thii gmup. TM
deficient HmmH heat prevenra the wood Irom matunnv; but tnxa Fcavei are long, lax, and of a bright green tint: the cDne-Kalv in
orciir nccuionally in plantationa loor lott. in bcighi: the vood. without tuina; the trunk attain a Urge lize. and vicldi goal >■<
though »fl and deficirtu in the redn that givn durabiliiy la the duiaUc timber. The Imutiful Monterey nine. /. insirau. Or
timber of lome ifiecici. ii valued by the HMlhem tarpenlur and tinguiahcd by the tarilUant colour of ila loliuc, hu the Vktib
cjliinclmaker for ha llghtMia, ill fiaenna of grain, and the raie lufia of three or four; the lower cooe-acalei hive ncuritd puiBi
with whirh it i> workriT Thia fine pine haa been |)Unted in (be Kulh-wm of EtglanJ, W
America, b rathrr allied lo the thrce-k'ered uctkin. but the leave* The pinea with live kavea in each tuft have generally dnJiJM
■re nwMly in paira. It la a tree of large un. often attaUilng a theatha. The mnn important econanic aiiKiia i> the wcB-bna
liright of 70 ft- and Bpwaid*. Ihongh rarrly iihitb thnn t ft. in white pine. P, Slrebia^ from Ita large growth arid abundant*. ■
riiamelcrat the rooti the kiwer hranrbcs qwrod berinintally. the well ai the aoft even grahi of i» white wood, one cithcmuiivalt^
upper, converging toward* the trnnh, give the trtr inrnewhnt the nl North Amerkan timber trcvt. The tree abaaada fraia Cjradi
aspect of a «pnice, hence it ia railed in male db^ricti the " frpnwe- to Gcorsia. but in the eaatcm uats haa been in long aeuglt f*
pInL'-" The Icavea are long, almdcr, and vt a Mui'ii-Kmn hue; by the lambner that mm of tb* old tnet han laof diiiiipaR^
■he pendant cones arc about 1 \ In. long. «ith a ilcnder pnnt in and large whit* pine timber ii now only Eomd la qoanlinr ia ih
each <cale. The yclln* cnne la me of the nvm Iminrtanl timber Canadian Domimim. Formerly Maine and Vetmont were ofelnM
ltce< of the Knuil the lieatt-weod Ivlng very durable k Liriieir for Ihc liie of their pinea, hut few «f tboe tiHI ti« imn*
cmfiloyed in Aip-huil'ling nnJ fvr hunw umber, biing nearly c(|ual in New England. On a ileep i^h aoil P. SIrttml Mute a bn|k
III ihal of P. i^.tilrit! lanK quantitin are nponed to llrilain of 150 ft., and Irunki without a branch wc imM^Ha (•■■'£
nn^ the name of " New York yellow pine "; the Ba[iwLiod is ' ^ L in the earlier itagci of growth k htt ft nnaadd
prri'halile- cladca the lower boughi oflen wiiH^ tfc pt^
The thn.i.-leas-Hl i~wp valuable tree. it acquires a wide almoH eedar.Jikc to*. IbW
thick tuits, ram ratline a -illy riu^lcred vhile
e<mea. the iiealeA r>f ubirl nirved >pinca- n9 nd; t1
aicoblaiiinl from thii. specica. Hie tnc u one of the few that will
n,Hiri<4i in ull-marJici.
P. p-ilnilrii (or P. aajlmlii) la the " Contgiii pitch |>iDp," or
ycliow fniK- of the touthcru flatef ; it alwnda iin the mnily *ihU
that n->'iT CO much iif GcmEia, the Camlinis. and Fhirliln, nnd <»i
tho^ dry landa attains it' hlf^e*! (HTfecti-ni. though tjCtoHiffl.illy
failure of Ihc tree it iu long tufted fuliage— Ihc leavti. uf a bright 1
li, t-'otip, sec<l and needles.
Cedar of Lebanon (Cednis Libani). Deod&r (Ctdrus Deodara).
C, Cone, foliage and seed. /*«« tt a*
PINE-APPLE— PINERO
6a5
■ritabk F« h. pretaUy litmi the wul d imaaa
IB hardly be ncnnnneDifcd lor Britiih pUntiaf DCber-
iiMfhLm ihii u p. tictUa. th* Bhoun iBiw, which
I droopini glaucoui loliige. Il
Bhotan piD? JB quite bardy iq »mhem EnKland, ind
aiui. the |[iant pine cr tusar pine oE CaLifDniit. is (he
^nut, niinff to the hei^t of 200 ft., with j IrnnlE
n Ei^h, and. it ii aid. occaHonalLy aliainuig much
iont. The head i* of a pyrani!da] form, ihe lower
•pin; like Ihoie of a Norway ipruce, iti loluge n at
t green cobur. The pendent coon are very larjce.
ip. lonf and 4 in- in diameter, wilh 1ar«c nut-like
pDUndcd and baked, are eaten by the Indiant. The
b the itone ^e of Siberia and central Europe. It
■iiif Knd al an altitude of 4000 to 600a (I ll ii
wlnf tree, with EiTy bark and whorit of horiiontal
Bf * cylindro-conicaL outline; (he leaves are ehort.
miu; (he conca, oblong and nther pointinfr upwarda.
or food and in lampi. but, like that of the
i> landd. The ETOwth of P. Ctmbn a
remarkably even grain, and ii em^oycil
1 in preference to any other. The Cemlira
ia found on the high moufliajmof^nta Denning
rich. ^ ffixbrnifn. prodiiceacdilficieedstaaDiher.
ia a valuable limber tree. P. AyaiaiMlt. the
Ine of Mexico, •preadi Kuthworila oa to (he
le leniE(h of their leaves: (he former it said to at)
{C. P. J.
LE. The f^nt-apph so tallol coniisls in real
«occ of the pLin(, (he otiginalty scpaiale flower
** 'le biacu (Upportlng them, becoi
The s^
r the ptDCi^ of (enllizalion, and it
the lichly perfumed succulent nuaa is an aid in the
af seed by aEording food to cet(ajn animals. Id
evelopcd cultivaicd pines, however, it Frequently
t the seeds do not ripen ptopetly. The pine,
ui, is a member of the natural ordct Btomelioeeae.
merican origin, where it is widely spread; and it is
led in (he tropical regions of (he Old World,
bis Diary menlions lasting a pine-apptc from
(be table ol Charles 11.. and this is wc believe
tion of the fruit in English Ulcralure. A picture,
py may be te«n at the rooms of (he Royal Honicul-
of London, rcpr«sents the royal gardener. Mr Rose,
I bended knee the Gist pine-apple grown in Britain,
■mised that this may have been grown from ihe
the fruit above alluded 10 by Evelyn, though it i«
lidned ihai the pine was not cultivated in England
; to the f
-applc!
ieal of Jefferson coi
e of about »o f ( it
DMRKh, aiuf about 41 m. S. by E. of Little Rock Pop (igio),
15,101. It bai an active river trade with St Louia, Uempbii
tuid New Orleans, and five railway outlets— the Uiaaouri Pacific
and its branch, the Pine BluB ft Weslem, and the St Louu
Southwestern tuid ila two branches, the Pine Blufi t Alblf
Bu River and tbe Altheimer. Tbc city has many scbooli, lod a
businos college, the state normal school for negroet. aad
Merrill inslitute, endowed by Joseph Merrill of Pine BluS with
tioo,ooo. Large quantities of cotton and lumbet are ihipped
from the city. Among the muufactum are cot(an-Mtd oil,
lumber and staves, and furniture. Pine Bluff has ihopt of the
Louis Soulh-Westem railway. The city's factory producu
lJ.o89,>«
le BluO w.
1 190s, »
Pine-apple {Ananai saJmu) much reduced.
PIHBL. PHILIPPE (i;4s-iSib), French physician, was bom
at the chAtriau of Rascas, Saint-Andrf, in the department of
Tarn, France, on the loth of April 1745. He studied al Lavaui
and afterwards at the university of Toulouse, where he took his
doctor's degree in 1773. From Montpolliee he removed in 1778
10 Paris, engaging there chiefly in literary work eooDected with
his pmlcssion- His first pubUcaiion was a French ttaoslation
of WilUam Cullen's Ncsslosy (17SS); ii was followed by ao
edi(ion of (he works of C. Baglivi (i 788}, and in [ ;qi he published
a TVoiM mcdke-tkUolephiqm it VaUfHoliinl mnlali. In 1791
he became head physician of the BicCtre, and (wo years after-
wards he received (he corresponding appointmen( at the Salpt-
triure, where he began to deliver a course of clinical Icclures;
these fonncd the kisis ol hit NoiografkU fkilesophiquc (1798;
6lta cd., 1S18), which was further developed in La UUaint
dtniqia (iSoi). Pinel was made a member ol the Inslilule in
180J, and soon aftcnvaids waa appointed professor of pathology
in the £cdIc de Medecine. His fame rests enlicely upon the
fact lha( he was among ihe fiisi (o iniroducc [he humane [rea(.
ment of the insane. He died >t Farii on ihc ibi\x of October
1816.
PIHERO, SIR ARTHUR WIHO {iSs;- ), English dtunatlK.
was bom in London on the i4lh ol May iSjj, the son of John
Daniel I1nera,a Jewish solicitor, whose family was of rortuguese
origin, king established in London. A. W. Pincro was engaged
in 1874 as an actor at the Theatre Royal, Edinburgh, and came
to London in 1S76, to pby al the Globe Theatre. Later In the
year he joined the Lyceum company, of which ti« nnA^iix& 1-
member for five yean. Tbe&mftcixci^uaMawKt^KVQW^i^^
PINEROLO— PINK
*u £iM) a yw, pUytd in Octob« iS;; at the Globe Theatre
tor the beoefii at Mr F. H. MacUin. The fint play to make
1 hit was Thi Umtj Spiana (Theatre Royal, Mancheilei,
Nov iSSo), but in The Sipatt (SI Jamcs'i Thealte. Dec 1881)
he attempted lerious drama, and gave promue ol the qualitio
of hi> later work. In iSSj and 18S4 rinero produced seven
pieces, but the most important of hjs works at this period were
the lucccssiul faicei produced at the Court Theilrc. The Uaga-
tnle (March iS8j), which nn for more than a year; The Sckonl-
■ufrui (March iSe«),aiiii{yi)ia Uan.iS8;), revivedinFebm-
ary i»oo: Tkt Cabtiul Uinuler (April 1890), and Tin A<itaarnt
(March iSoj). Two comedies of Maliment, Svctt Ijatnda
(Terry'i, March i8S») and rfairtato 5m (Theaue Royal, Man-
chtUer, Sept. |S33), met with success, and Smri Lmrmda has
enjoyed numtrous revivals. With Tin Profiitalt (Garrick,
April 1889) he returned to ibe icrious drama which he had
already touched 00 in Tht Squirt. Out ot deference to the
wishts of John Hare the pby was fitted with the conventional
" happy ending." but ibe original denouement was restored,
tvith great advantage to the unity of the ptay, in the printed
venion. Tkt Sca«d iln Taif ueray (St James's, May 17, li-n)
dealt with the converse of the question propounded in The
of living dtamatlsls (kc Dmha: Rant Entl'ih)- It was
iranslaied into French, Cerniao and Italian, and the part ol
Paula Tanqueriy. cn:a<n] in the first place by Mrs Falrick
Campbell, atitacted many acttesjes, among oihira Eleonon
Duse. His later plays were Tkt Untaiima Un Ettimilk
(Gturlck, March rj, 1S115}, Tlu Brmfit af Ihc Doubl (Comedy,
Oct. l»os). r*e Priacta and Ike BnUcrfy (St James's, April ;,
.ggj), Ttdavncf nf Ikt WdU (Court, Jan. 30, igpS). The Cay
^«nf QiiH (Globe, April 3, iSoq), Jr/i (Ganick, Sept. 31, i»oi).
UUy (Duke ol York's, Oct, S, looj), A Wife Wilhovl a Smile
(Wyndham's, Oct. 9. i»o>), Hu House in Order (Si James's.
Feb. 1, 1006), Tk' Tku«dcrh>ll (St James's. May 9, 1908) and
Uid-Chaimel (St James's, Sept. i, 1909). Fineto was knighted
Linicsl Itrm tor Bowen whicb ocn b m
forms, one of whiUithowBiluUignuiattheDunithottkanlL
as in Ibe primrae, the term is contrasted vilh tfarmMirtd.
niia>FONa, or TABtx-TEmns, a miniaune vuiely tf Ins
tennis played on a table, which may be of anysiseiut katha
si rt.lonEby3lt. broad. Various attempts were made te idi^
tawn-teimis to tbe house, but the real popularity ol the |uia
began when, near tbe dose of the iQtb century, cellulct] bdi
were introduced, and tbe game was called [Hng-pong Enn &
sound of tbe baUs ** they were struck by the racket or itbosBiy
from the table. In 1900 the ball was improved aid aidi
heavier, and for the nut two yean ping-pong enjoyed a |i8pjH
iiy never before attained by t, game in so short a time, not Mtr
in Great Britain but in France, the British Colonia and Aonja.
Two leagues were formed, the " Table-Tenui Asudatia " ail
the " Ping-Pong Assodalion," whose lavs were pnciic^r
idcnticaL The regular Foumament table is 9 ft. long tv 5 fL
broad, and tbe net is a Uttle less than ; in. higL Th 14
which are of hollow ceUultud, are about J in. in diaieetB. Hi
racket has a blade, shaped tike a lawn.tcnnis racket, ahostftk
long and a handle long eruugh to grasp comfortably, all is SB
piece. Rackets arc made either wholly of wood covoed nA
■ paper or rubber, or of light frames morf
with V
out in courts, but is now plain. It shouklbemftiM
ned. In Krving, a player must stand dinctly Miri
of the table and use an undeiband inoIioB o^. Hi
It dear the net and strike Ibe table any^unadl
le. The game is then continued until the bd mm
e or fails to pass over the net- Only one «nki t
except in case of a lei. Tbe scoring ij tbe Hoe ■ ■
*iitt-Ptnf, by Arnold Parker (London, igoa] , TaUr TiV^
inclair (Ujadon, 1903J.
PIKK. in botany, the Co
iTcqioadingUi
Hi. Phyi (tt
Mi:.
- 'JV-'i
0 have prefaces by M. C. Salami
*. If. Finer
PIKBROLO (PicNEaotl, a city and episcopal tee of Redmoni
Italy, In the province ol Turin. Pop. (1901), Ii,6oS (town]
l8,ojQ (commune). It is built on a hUl-sidc just above th
valleys of the Chisone and the Letnina, at a height of I3j4 fi
above the sea, 14 m. by rail S.VV. of Turin. The railway got
to Peru
., and to Cavi
1 i6o« it
fortified with a citadel on Santa Brigidi
and city walls consltucted by Thomas I. of Savoy. It has a
cathednl (Si Donatus), Ihe palace of the princes of Aoia and
other buildings of some interest. Cotton, silk, wool and hemp
■re among the local manulactuici
Pinerolo was bestowed on the bishops of Turin by Olto ELL in
QQlS; but in 1078 the countess Adelaide made it over to the
Benedictine abbey of Santa Maria, in whose possession it
remained till 11 59. Thomas I. of Savoy captured the castle
in i[88, and in 1246 Ihc cotnmunc fonnally recognised the
supremacy of Savoy. Passing in iJOS into the h&nds of Philip,
if Tbom
I III.. :
ider Amadeus VIII. of Ss' .
Francis I. of France obtained possession of tbe town in his
descent into Italy, but Emmanuel PhiUbcrt received it back
occurred under Cardinal Richelieu; the French language was
imposed on the people, great fortifications were constructed, and
the fortress (Plgnecol) was used as a state prison for such men as
Fouquct. Dc Caumont and the Man with the lion Mask (see
IiON Mask). Victor Amadeus bombarded the place in i6«],
and ultimately compelled Louis XIV. to relinquish his hold
on it; but before the withdrawal ot the French troops tbe
rJcfences were demolished. In 174$ tbe town was made a
bishop 's sec.
ol Coryopkyllaau, the Diaulit
by the presence of simple leaves bome in pain at the thidi^
nodes, floweis teiminating Ihe oiis and having a lub^ aip
surrounded by a number of overlapping bracts, a dnifey onh
of five free long4talked petals^ ten stamens procecdiBS, Updtf
with Ihe petals, from a short stalk supporting tbe0WT,lUA
latter has two styles and ripens into a cylindric or ohiaogH'
like one-chambered [nany4eeded capsule which o^csa it di
apei by four cults or valves. The specie* ut laiLaiM
percnniida of low stature, ollen with very abowy flowoL IW
are natives chiefly of southern Europe and Ibe MLdiUJJWitf
region, a few being found in temperate Asia and Sooti AIn
Four (pedes are wild in Britain. Of these, Z>. oraml, Dq<M
pink and D. dcUoida, maiden [rink, arc generally JimiMrt
D. eaeiiuj, Cheddar pink, occurs only OQ the liimtwe Mik
at CHieddar. Two others, D. plumuM and D. uajsftM
are more or less naturalized, and are inteicatlng IS hdig ^
originals of tbe piidts and of the camatioaa and picoustf
English gardens. Garden pinks are derivatives fieo Ditl^
^umariiu, a native of central Europe, with leava nw^ K d*
edges, and with rtne-coloured or purplish flowers, neat* '
" pink " for a colour is taken from the name of th jtrf
It has been in cultivation in England snce 1610. u^ktg^ '
favourite with Oorists, those varietii
• Tbe etymrtogy o( " pink " is
with " to pink (appanotly a
Jlopori
PINKERTON, A.— PINKNEY
627
iMv tbe margin of the petals entire, and which are well marked
a tk centre with bri^t crimson or dark purple. Its grassy
«t ^SQCoos f<rfiage is much like that of the carnation, but the
tole |dant is smaller and more tufted. Pinks require a free
Mqr soil deeply trenched, and well enriched with cow-dung.
hqr are readily increased by cuttings (pipings), by layers and
rased. Cuttings and layers should be taken as early in July
practirahlf. The former should be rooted in a cold frame or
a ihady q>ot out of doors. When rooted, which wiU be about
(goat, they should be planted 4 in. apart in a nursery bed,
oe they may remain till the latter part of September or the
fy part of October. The chief attention required during
Iter is to press them down firmly should they become lifted
frosts, and in ^nring the ground should be frequently stirred
I kq>t free from weeds. The pink is raised from seeds, not
f to obtain new varieties, but to keep up a race of vigorous-
wing sorts. The seeds may be sown in March or April in
s in a warm frame, and the young plants may be pricked off
> bcnes and sheltered in a cold frame. They should be planted
in the early part of the summer in nursery beds, in which,
hty h&ve space, they may remain to flower, or the alternate
• may be transplanted to a blooming bed in September or
euly part of October; in cither case they will bloom the
nring summer These will grow in any good garden soil,
the richer it is the better
"he border varieties are useful for forcing during the early
nS months. These are propagated from early pipings and
ra in nursery beds, being taken up in October, potted in a
lonmy compost, and wintered in a cold pit till required for
fofcing house.
hm following varieties are among the best. For borders and
bv: Ascot, Camea, Delicata, Derby I^y, Her Majesty,
nies, Anne Boleyn, Lady Blanche, Mrs Sinkins, Mrs James
ih« Pilrig Park, Rubens. Snowden, Tom Wel^. Florists'
r and laced varieties: Attraction, Beauty of Bath, Clara,
erion. Ensign, Gabpin, Harry Hooper, J<^ Ball, Malcolm
m, Mrs D. Gray, Reliance, William Paul.
ht Carnation (q.v.) and Picotee are modifications of Diantkus
mPkyttus, tbe Clove Pirik. This is a native of Europe, growmg
Dcks in the south, but in the north usually found on old walls.
oocitrrence in England on some of the okl Norman castles,
t Rochester, is supposed by Canon Ellacombe to indicate its
t&actkm by the Normans: in any case the plant grows in
lar situations in Normandy. The carnation includes those
■• which are streaked or striped lengthwise — the picotees
boae VI which the petals have a narrow band of colour along the
, tlie remainder 01 the petal being free from stripes or bbtches.
« by the okl writers were called " gillyflowers." The Sweet
Imd of nrdens is a product from Diantkus barbatus,
ic Sea- rink, or Thrift, Slatice Armeria (Armeria vulraris), is a
ibcr of the natural order Plumbagiiuae; it is a widely distributed
t found on rocky and stony sea-shores and on lofty moun-
k There are many improved varieties of it now in cultivation,
with almost pure white flowers.
OnORTON, ALLAN (1819-1884), American detective, was
t In Glasgow, Scotland, on the 25th of August 18 19. His
er, a sergeant of the Glasgow municipal police, died in 1828
ijiiries received from a prisoner in his custody. In 1842
D emigrated to Chicago, Illinois. In 1843 he removed to
dee, Kane county, Illinois, where he established a cooper-
Inidness. Here he ran down a gang of counterfeiters,
he was ai^x>intcd a deputy-sheriff of Kane county in X846
iniinediately afterwards of Cook county, with headquarters
There he organized a force of detectives to capture
who were stealing railway property, and this organization
loped in 1852 into Pinkerton's National Detective Agency,
bidb he took sole charge in 1853. He was especially success-
II capturing thieves who stole large amounts from express
wnlesi. In 1866 his agency captured the prindpals in the
. of $700,000 from Adams Express Company safes on a train
e New York, New Haven & Hartford railway, and recovered
nt about $12,000 of the stolen money In February x86i
erton found evidence of a plot to assassinate President-elect
sin upon his arrival in Baltimore on his way to Washington;
lesolt, Lincoln passed through Baltimore at an early hour
e morning without stopping. In April 1861 Pinkerton, on
the suggestion of General George B. McClellan, organized a
system of obtaining military information in the Southern states.
From this system he developed the Federal secret service, of
which he was in charge throughout the war, under the assimied
name of Major E. J. Allen. One of his detectives, James
McParlan, in 1873-1876 lived among the Molly Maguires (q.v.)
in Pennsylvania and secured evidence which led to the breaking
up of the organization. In 1869 Pinkerton suffered a partiid
stroke of paralysis, and thereafter the management of the
detective agency devolved chiefly upon his sons, William Allan
(b. 1846) and Robert (1848-1907). He died in Chicago on the
ist of July 1884. He published The Molly Maguires and the
Detectives (:877), The Spy of the Rebellion (1883), in which he
gave his version of President-elect Lincoln's journey to Washing-
ton; and Thirty Years a Detective (1884).
PINKERTON, JOHN (1758-1826), Scottish archaeologist,
numismatist and author, was bom at Edinburgh on the 17th
of February 1758. He was articled as a law clerk in Edinburgh,
and his Elegy on Craigmillar Castle (1776) was printed during
his clerkship. In 178 1 he removed to London to devote himself
to literary work, publishing in the same year a volume of Rinus
of no great merit, and Scottish Tragic Ballads. These were
followed in 1782 by Two Dithyrambic Odes on EnUiusiasm and
Laugh!erf and by a series of Tales in Verse. Under the title of
Select Scottish Ballads he reprinted in 1783 his tragic ballads,
with a supplement comprising Ballads of the Comic Kind.
Ritson pointed out in 1784 that the so-called ancient ballads
were some of them of modem date, and Pinkerton confessed that
he was the author of the second part of Hardy Kanute and part-
author of some others. He published an Essay on Medals in
1784, and in 1785, under the pseudonym of " Robert Heron," his
bold but eccentric Letters of Literature depreciating the Hi^^ical
authors of Greece and Rome. In 1 786 he edited A ncient Scottish
Poems from the MS. collections of Sir Richard Maitland of Leth-
ington — a genuine reproduction. It was succeeded in 1787 by a
compilation, tmder the new pseudonym of " H. Bennet," entitled
The Treasury of Wit, and by his first important historical work,
the Dissertation on the Origin and Prog^ress of the Scythians or
Goths, to which Gibbon acknowledged himself indebted. Pinkerton
next collected and printed in x 789 certain Vitae sanctorum
scoUae, and, a littie later, published his Enquiry into the History
of Scotland preceding the Reign of Malcolm III. His assertion
that the Celtic race was incapable of assimilating the highest
forms of civilization excited " violent disgust," but the Enquiry
was twice reprinted, in 1794 and 18 14, and is still of value for
the docimients embodied in it. His edition of Barbour's Bruce
and a MedaUic History of England to the Revolution appeared in
1790; a collection of Scottish Poems reprinted from scaru
Editions in 1792; and a series of biographical sketches, the
Iconographia scotica, in the years 1795-1797. In 1797 he
publi^ed a History of Scotland from the Accession of the
House of Stuart to that of Mary, containing much valuable
material A new biographical collection, the Gallery of Eminent
Persons of Scotland (1799), was succeeded after a short interval
by a Modem Geography digested on a New Plan (1802;
enlarged, X807). About this time he left London for Paris, where
he made his headquarters until his death on the loth of March
1826. His remaining publications were the Recollections of Paris
in the years 1802-^4-5 (1806); a very useful General Collection
of Voyages and Travels (1808-1814); a New Modem Atlas (1808-
1819); and his Petrology (181 1).
PINKNET, WILLIAM (1764-1822), American lawyer and
statesman, was bora in Annapolis, Maryland, on the 17th of
March 1764. He was admitted to the bar in 1786, and in 1788-
1792 practised in Harford county. In 1788 he was a member
of the state convention which ratified the Federal constitution
for Maryland, in 1788-1792 and in 1 795 of tbe House of Delegates
(where in 1788 and X789 he defended the right of slave-owners
to manimiit their slaves), and in 1 792-1795 of the state executive
council. In 1 796-1 804 he was a commissioner under article
7 of Jay's Treaty of 1794 to determine the c!laxts\& cA ^ccGkKx«3k^
merchanu for damage iVitoaf^ '' \II«^;o^ax oi *^&Af^ cs.\x>xn%
\
628 PINNACE— PINOCHLE
Of condcmrULtloai," and durlD^ this tfme uljuited on bcluU of small pynmldil ■(nio. In ill these *^ttfn|Mft the uveobnc
Maryland a daim of the slate to Block in the Baok of EDgland. KnudrcuUr-bcaded wiodom.
In May 1806, witb jBma Monnie, then rainislet at London, he FIHHOCK, WILUAN (i;Bi-iS43), Ensliih publohn id
waa commlaijoiied 10 treat with the Brilish government con- educational writer, vai born at Alton, Himpslnrc, on l^ |rd
ceming the clLptiu« of neutral ships in time of war; in i3o7-i£ii, of Febru^ 1 78 J, and wu at £rat a schooinuster, then thnb
after Monroe's ittnm 10 America, he waa resident minister in seller. In iSi? he went to London and, in paitnenk^ tiU
London. He vros elfrcled to the Maryland senate in September Samuel Mander, began to publish cheap edocatioul wcfta
1811, and (rom December iBii to Januaiy 1814 was ' .— ^ . ^ . _ . ..
general of the United Stales. In August 1814 he was
at Bladenlbuig. He served in the National House of Kcprc- tfae form ol question and answer, of thi
BentativcsiaJaBuary-ApiiliSi6,and ini8i6-igiS was minister of knowledge. They were Idlowcd by abridged uStioB d
plenipatcntiaty to Kusiia and special minister to Naples, where Goldsmith's histories of England, Greece and Rome, andaiciia
he attempted to secure indemnity for the tosses to American of county hislorica which were no less profitable. Kiiuck Im
nicctbants by seiiure and confiscation during the rule of Murat. oeaily all his money in out£de speculation, and died'ia Lcodia
in iSog. From igjo until his death, at Washington, on the 15th on the sist of October i8u. His son, William Keniy Piaaed
of February iSii, he was a member of the United States Senate. (1813-TMj), 1, cltrjyman, was the editor and aulboc ct itrali
He was a metober ol the conference committee on the bill for elementary textbooks and scriptural mniiiin1«_ uid vt upbb
tbe adnuuion of Maine and Missouri, which in its final form wolks Ob ecclesiastical law and usage.
embodied what is known as the Missouri Compromise. Pinkney PIHOCHLE, or Penuoile (Gei. PimHlid or «iaarM <<
wu 1 remarkably able lawyer and an orator of the old school. unCEitain etymology), a game of cards probalily invnud ty
5eenirZ.</'i!fiyiil>iinPiii»Hy|\ewVDrk.iBu)byhI<ncpliew, Cennuu in the United States about the middle d the i^
WiULam i;inkiiry_(t8io-i8Sj), who wa. rniti^uiii Episcopal ttntuty. It bean >. general toemblance to Btiiqia (fjj,
S'SS^^y^'SiSiVi^i^^^i"'/ W^-iX^ "'' ^ -^^ t!""'^ ""i5^/'!lf^ of Ot. oldes g^h
rtj9). ■■'""' ' '■ - Amctit*. Pinochle may be played by two, three « to
PIHHACB, the name of two typM of veisel w boat, one a light P^'reooJ- Two packs, from which all cards below the mnaln
■aihng vessel with two icbooncr-riKgid most), the other 3 beavy been deleted, arc ibuffled together, forming one paii d 4
eighl.oarcd man-of-war's boat. The ward ii usually tifetted ^"ds. The object of the game is to make looo psiata. lit
to Lat. ^ui. pine, but this derivation is at variance with the cards rank u (oUowt: ace 11, ten 10, king 4, queen j, kaait t.
eadicr form '* spinace." The nine counts nothing unles it be turned for inunpa, vlat
PIHHACLB {from Lat. piMoiuium, a little feather, finna; scores 10. The laji trick acoies 10. The term "u oM'
the Gr, mpbyai. diminutive of wri/ji-t, wing, is also used in (Ger. mddai, lo announce), as used m pinochle, mas '•
this sense), an aichilecttual oraamcnt originally forming the declare." "Melds" an combinations which an ikcM
cap 01 crown of a butltos or small turret, but afterwards used during the play of tbe banda. They are ol three claaa: (il
onparapctsalthecomeraof towenand iomanyothersituations. "miniagcs" and " lequi^nces." (i) " pinochls," and (il
Some writers have auted that there were bo pinnacles in the " foun." The " melds " of the firat dasa aeon as lil^
RomanciqLcstyles, but conical caps to circular bullrcsses, with " mirringe " (king and queen of any ptaia suit). 10; "n^
Gnial terminations, ate not uncommon in France at very early marriage" (king and queen ol trumps), 40; "sequence" (At
periods. Viullct-Ie-Duc gives esamples from St Getmer and St five highest trumps), 150. In the second class the "anl*'
RemI, and there is one of similar form at the west front of are " pinochle " (queen of spades and knave of dianuiihl.W
Rochester Cathedral. In the uth-century Romanesque twoei- "double pinochle" (both queens ol spades and knam rf
amplcshavebeencited, one from Bredon in Worcestershire, and diamond)), 300; "grand jMnochle " (king and queen c< V''
the other Irom Cleeve in GhiuccsteTshire. In these the buiinaes "id kiave of diamonds), 80; this " meld " is not dieapM*
nin up, lorming a son o( square turret, and crowned with a in America, Of the third class the " mehis " are: (oar and
pyramidal cap, very much Ukc those ol the next period, the diflertBI luiu, ino; four kings ol different suits. Soi four 9<«
Early En^sh. In this and the following styles tbe pinnacle of diflercnl mill, 60; lour knaves of different suits, tr.'f
Ktna generally to have had its appropriate uses. It was a aces. 1000; eight kings, too; eight queens. 6ooi dght kiMt
weight to counteract the thrust of the vaults, particularly where 4°^
there were fljing buttresses; it slopped the tendency to slip ol In
the (lone copinp ol the gaMes, and counterpoised the thrust "idi
of spites; il formed a pier 10 steady Ihe elegant perforated pw"TT.m ITno *'iiS^i?o'^iihet to uke follow nil or DSW
parapets of Uter periods; and in France especially served lo tbe winnerol [hetricVfoidsagabi.lirlore which, homv«r.b«W
COUDterbahncc the weight of overhanging corbel ubieg, huge "meld" any one combination he holdi. After he h» 'adlii
gargoyles, Ic. In the Eariy English period the small buttresses or refused tp,do ao. be drawa a card from the too of the "I*"'
freauenlly finished with gableis, and the more important with ""• " "u*"' hand without showuiE it, h« advctan ta*
1n.4uc1.11j uiuainu -.... B-M-t.^, .,,.>. ,u5 "Wit .u,,,ui,u.ii -iiu mn, „ ^^,J, 5JJ], player coBtmnea to hoM twelve carda FhiM
pinnacles supported with clustered shafts. At this period the announcing, and dnwii^i then go oa until the Hack is t^alS
pinnaclea were often supported on tbese sbafli alone, and were All combiiutioas " melded " aati be laid (ace upward oa iht iM
oiicn beh)*; and in larger work in this and the subsequent hut iilll belong to the pUyrr'i hand, though they nuy not b««4"
p.ri«is they frequently form niches and contain «atue. About S^r^^.lS'sjVyBTex'SLl'Ml^rrbVS.rTK
Ihe Transition and during the Decorated penod, the dilferent Li« l«lve trick, are tlien ^ayid. binTow both phtm ^
faces above the angle shafts often fmish with galdets. Those loHow wit and muu win the trick if powlilc. either with ai^
al Ihe last-named period arc mucb richer, and are generally card or a trump. A failure to do thb is ■ "revoke'irf*
decoraled with crockets and finials, and sometimes with ball- KS'h^„^''(a'j£ {^^^^[["^Sjj^ lllh? littStal
(lowers. Very fine groups are round at Beverley Minster and played? an:,c<HiniAl (or the'iia^yer h^lih^'h™.' AeicBl
at the rise ol the spire of St Marys, Oitord. Pcipendicubr points, tin 10. king 4. queen ], and knave j. whiirnrttti*
pinnacles differ but little Irom Decorated, eiccpl that the "that J40points(or'^cards"an!dividcdb«weeathei»o»W»
croikets and finials are of later character. They are also 7™'° P»"!" "I,"" ?"j:!*l2''.'!rf ?f ^P ' T*^"?*
often set angle-ways, particularly on parapets, and'the shafts ifTeld"."-^ ru'^£ri,:?{3!;£r?i'S;^ir±',.'S:S^^
are panelled. In France pinnacles, like spires, seem (0 have to win the ganie. namely 1000 poiata. he " calk out ~ or haocba
been in use earlier than in England. There are small [rin- the table, and proceeds to apam his cards. II be lals u iM
nacles al the angles of the lower in the abbey ol Saintcs. Al """K"" '<•."'"■ '" .'?™ ''? P"^ " "'''*' (f**^ '«'*■■
Roulht fftere are pinnacles in a similar position, each com- frrpl^TaiSto^lSTSoSlV^mS^h^i.''- -"?.!-:'-:^
puA'u'uf /our small shafts, with caps and baxisunniiuiitsd—-'- • - ~
PINSK— PINTO 629
b ikiH-hindBl ptMidilc the "uMt" tirmtmi brim ■ Tfaa vinrav ippotntcd him unbuMdor lo the Lini of Bubb
X'iS^t A-^^i'.'lCi.^irrt^'.lS » owrKEri " '^" " si" the nii-ion .n officer ..uiding. .nd on .h. .8U1
•Uuiijii may be tcarrd by the other playm. Four-huded "^ ^P"' fat set uil with the ptovincul. Father Belduor Nunc*.
McUe a pliytd cither vitb putKn or eich pUytr Inr hinueU. Owing to bed weether end contmy windi. however, the mit-
hm, ■ town of Rusii*. in the gDvemmenc of Mind:, "j™^ ^ "l ""^ Jm" unlil JuJ)- >SS6, but the iuxe« of
tWeocfluenceoftheStnimenwid Km riven, .96 m. S.W. the niaton retmaecled m no«^ Kvice to the auie oi Chrb-
nil of Mintk. Pt^., s7,9jS, two-thirdi being Je»«. The tiaiuty «nd dvili«iloii. On the 14th of November iss« Father
• carriti oa cooaidereble inde, due to the mvi^ble liver Beldilor«ndMeDdi»Pintobegin their return voyije«ndre«ched
•, which oiaMCtiLl with the fertile regEon. in the b«ino( the 0«™Uie .Tthof Febnurj- issT. During hi. .tay of* twelve-
kper, ud, by tneaiu of the Dnieper-and-Bug camj, with "'""' '"*"' ™ "■" ™ "' company, heug diipenied fmn
ud and Ptuitii, while the Ogin^y canal conned* it with '■'• '™* '"' """ "' ™™l'on at hia own requeit, though .■
buin of the Niemen. Pottery, leather, oQ, »ap and beer moifam authority Itata that he w»i eipelled becauie he w*»
the thief producU ol the local induitriej. The draining of '™«' " l" » "orrsM, tj. to poaecs Jewiah blood. He finally
manhcs around Pinjk wai begun by the government in returned to Porlugaloa the undol September issS.and letlleil
r.«iidb¥i«g7 8,000,000 acrejhad been drained at anaverage •' P««»l nt" AJmada, when he married and wrote hi» famog*
of 3*. per acre, Pinik (Pinok) is first mentioned in ioqj as booh, the PtntriniUum; the MS., in fulfilment ot hit wiahes,
ma belonging 10 Svi.topolk. prince of Kiev. In iiJJ it *" preaeoted by hii daughter to the Caaa Pi» for penitent
cd part ol the Minrt principality. After the Mongol ™" ^!:^i^? it wa. pubhihed by tbe adm.nistraton
Am 0/ Ui9-t' it became the chief town of a aepamte '» '*"4. When Phibp U. of Spam came to PorlugaJ a* ill
;&iBlily. and continued 10 be 10 until the end of the ijlh »"«■ " hitened with pleaaure to the account o{ Mendc*
wy. Id uw it was anaeied to Lithuania; and in 156*, Kn">'i traveh, and by letter of the ijth of January ISS3
the union of Lithuania with Poland, it was chief town of B»™ "im a penaoo for hi! services in the Indies. But
pnrviDCe of Brest. During the rebellion of the CoBuch ""f ™"' "™ "" '»''■ '« "« S™' livelier died on the
,B.,dwiChmielBicU(i64Q}, thePcJeslookitbyisiault, "^ ■« J^f" , . .. . ,. ^ .^ ^ . „ ,
m 14,000 persona and burning sooo houses. Eight years '= "e li^l of our present-day knowledge of the East, Pinto
the town wis burned by the Russians. Charles XII took ^ regarded as having been on the vhota a careful observer aJld
1706, and burned the town with its suburb^ Pinsk was truthful narrator, but Ihii was not alwayilhe case. Some witty
ml to Russia in 179J. countryman of hu own parodied his name into /'owaa, ■mifcj/
mm, CIRO (iSis-iSSg), Anglo-ltalian composer, was ^''^' (" Ferdinand, do you lie? I dol" ); and tbe English
at Sitna, and was educated in music, for a career as a a^ontut Congreve only eipressed the general opmion ol the
rt, partly in London and partly at Bologna, where he waa unlearned -hen he wrote in Uk j« Lok " Mendes Rnto waa
d ol BossinL From 1848 he made his home in England, ">"! • '^P* ™ tbee. thou Uar of the first magnitude. It muU
The became a teacher of singing, and in i8j6 he wu diade t* remembeted that Pmto wrote the Paipinalum long aub-
ifcBor al the Atademy of Music in London. He became •eq""" to the events he reoiids. and thb fact and a cerlahi
known u a composer of numerous favourite songs and («ttihty of tmiguialion tuffiaently
MMfs. as well as ol Ihre* opera, brought out in Italy, and Furthermore, -■ "- •— >■ '■
br the former that he is ItiU remembered. *- "~" '-''
r (derived probably through Spanish, fnim Lat. fiiicfc., bjs most marvdlous stoHa are eipressly givei
■ ■ ■ ed ves«l), a liquid measure of capacity. " wntera belongiag to the eountncs he dt! ., „
Hon. Tbe Imperial British p!nt--j7 of tells from hearsay, and Oriental inlormanls are prone to es-
^j,™.-^^.. The United State, .tandird i»nt--47 »gjetalion. But if he somewhat adorned the truth, he did not
Utre, .81 cub, in. The word appears in French as pinlt "iKully misrepresent it. The book itself givB the impnssioo
-■ ■ - , „ „,|y „ ih, ,j,h century. « "ncinly, and the editora of the first edition bear witness to
(i8j5->8«4). ChQean pnaidenl, was bom at Ibe probity, good faith and truthMnes. of Mendes Pinto a. a
liquid measure as early at the ijth
1S76
,,__,^ ^ Herrera Maldon,
'oT»d"inln!Ji™tlon"ai"i>itoiioifa 'be Pftrvalien (ifim) by a lengthy anil erudite apology to
„ „ „ jf office as president argumenla by modem testimonies. In the narrative portiom
i to 1881) Pinto had to deal first wilh a severe financial "' l"" ""rk Pinto's .tyle is simple, dear and natural, hit diction
and then to conduct the struggle with Pern and Bolivia, ""■ P»rii™lariy in sea terms, and approprUte to hit varying
ikh be displayed great coolness ol judgment and devotion •ubjeets. There is an entire absence of artifice about the book.
jy which must always rank as a claMic, and it might fairly be argued
RD, FERHXo MEHDEI (isofl-ijSi), Portuguae adven- f"' Mendes Pinto did for the prose of Portugal what Camoem
, Mat bom at Montem6r-o-Velho, of poor and humble did for its poetry: this i. the more remarkable, becaute it does
M. and entered the service of a noble lady in Lisbon, being >"« «PP«i that he ever receiv^ any education m the ottUnary
nrds for two years page to the duLe ol AveLro in Sctubal. «"«■ He »totc the book for his children to leam to read by,
hi« to try hi. (onuue in the East, he embarked lot India "nd modally e.cujed its literary delects by alleging his mdeness
IT in a fleet commanded by the »n of Vsko da Cama, and *"a lack of talent. Tradition has it that the MS. was enlraiied
weoly-one yean IraveUtd, fought and traded in China. "> 'he chronicler Fr«.osco de Andrade lor the purpose of being
*y. Pegu and the neighbouring countries, sailing in every pobshed in style and made ready for presi, but that all he dri
e Bist Europeans o wasto divide it inlochapli
t , Ti.«...i. k. -.. The Fmpiiutiat has go
Set. Though he waa j^ ^j^^ ^ »ij ^^^ .^^*^.
neslold Into slavery, tn™*, daijiia' p^Mtmaa -
If and dsuntlcw spirit brought him through every mis- Pinto't life and writings Venriom exiit in Cennan (1
I*. Me waa Kildiet and tailor, merchant and doclor. French (1 edition.!. SptmA (4 ediiioni). and >n_ English
— ■■ ■ — '— ^ >old Into alaveiy, tn™*, daiiica ptHufOa wtih an inlereaiing noricr of Mendn
M. He waa Hildiec and tailor,
merchant and doclor.
le lent the apostle of the
1 the money with which to buUd
the first Jesuit esiahlish-
tn Jap*n- In January ijs* Me
ndes Pinto was in Goa,
« (or a rfiip to take him to Portug.
il. when he look a sudden
(1 edilionii, Spanish (4 ediiioni). and in EnglisFi by Heniy
Condon (1M3. 1641 and— abridgrd and illuKTated. with
by Arpiinlui Vambfry — iSqt)- Cogan omits t^"
days of, 5l Fiancii Xavier. presumably ai
Catholic prriudice.
~ Chriitovto Ayret Fonia UtuJii I
Ofital he bad accumulated to the evangeliiation ol Japan. (Coimbn. igosl-
'ailu Pi'au ( a Jaliati (Lliban. iqofiV. •>» SiihiAiUn . . .
-' ' FtrWb Undu Pinto V| \in«ko Ok ^tMu
630
PIlSfTO— PINTURICCHIO
PimO. The remark&bk brown, black and blue spots of
discoloration of the whole body met with ei\demically in Mexico,
Panama, Colombia and Venezuela, and known under the
name of " pinto" or " mal de ios pintos," were fint claimed by
Gastambide (Presse med. Belge^ 1881, Nos. 33-41) as due to
the pre^nce of a vegetable parasite, whose spores and even
mycelial filaments may be detected among the deeper rows of
cells of the rete mucosum. The disease appears to be one
of the many forms of morbus miseriae; but it is contagious, and
is sometimes seen in the well-to-do. . In some villages of the
western districts of Tabasco (Mexico) it has been estimated
that 9% of the inhabitants suffer from the pinto; M'Clellan
says that in 1826 in the City of Mexico he saw a whole regiment
of " pintados."
PINTURICCHIO (1454-1513). Italian painter, whose fuU name
w'as Bernasdino di Betti, the son of a citizen of Perugia,
Benedetto or Betto di Biagio, was one of a very important group
who inherited the artistic traditions and developed the style of
the older Pcrugian painters, such as Bonfigll and Fiorenzo di
Lorenzo. According to Vasari he 'was a pupil of Perugino; and
so in one sense no doubt he was, but rather as a paid assistant
than as an apprentice. The strong similarity both in design
and methods of execution which nms throuj^ the works of this
later Perugian school is very striking; paintings by Perugino,
Pinturicchio, Lo Spagna and Raphael (in his first manner) may
often be mistaken one for the other. In most cases, especially
in the execution of large frescoes, pupils and assistants had a
large share in the work, cither in enlarging the master's sketch
to the full-sized cartoon, in transferring the cartoon to the wall,
or in painting backgrounds, drapery and other accessories.
After assisting Perugino in the execution of his frescoes in the
Sistinc Chapel, Pinturicchio was employed by various members
of the Delia Rovere family and others to decorate a whole series
of chapels in the church of S. Maria del Popolo in Rome, where
he appears to have worked from 1484, or earlier, to 1492 with
little interruption. The earliest of these is an altarpiece of the
*' Adoration of the Shepherds," in the first chapel (from the west)
on the south, built by Cardinal Domenico della Rovere; a portrait
of the cardinal is introduced as the foremost of the kneeling
shepherds. In the lunettes under the vault Pinturicchio painted
small, scenes from the life of St Jerome. The frescoes which he
painted in the next chapel, that built by Cardinal Innocenzo Cibo,
were destroyed in 1700, when the chapel was rebuilt by Cardinal
Alderano Cibo. The third chapel on the south is that of Giov.
della Rovere, duke of Sora, nephew of Sixtus IV., and brother
of Giuliano, who was afterwards Pope Julius II. This contains
a fine altarpiece of the " Madonna enthroned between Four
Saints," and on the east side a very nobly composed fresco of
the " Assumption of the Virgin." The vault and its lunettes
are richly decorated with small pictures of the life of the Virgin,
surrounded by graceful arabesques; and the dado is covered
with monochrome paintings of scenes from the lives of saints,
medallions with prophets, and very graceful and powerfully
drawn female figures in full length in which the influence
of Signorelli may be traced. In the fourth chapel Pintu-
ricchio painted the Four Latin Doctors in the lunettes of the
vault. Most of these frescoes are considerably injured by
damp, but happily have suffered little from restoration; the
heads are painted with much minuteness of finish, and the whole
of the pictures depend very largely for their effect on the final
touchings a sccco. The last paintings completed by Pinturicchio
in this church were the frescos on the vault over the retro-choir,
a very rich and well-designed piece of decorative work, with
main lines arranged to suit their surroundings in a very skilful
way. In the centre is an octagonal panel of the coronation of
the Virgin, and round it medallions of the Four Evangelists — the
spaces between them being filled up by reclining figures of the
Four Sibyls. On each pendcntive is a figure of one of the Four
Doctors enthroned under a niched canopy. The bands which
separate these pictures have elaborate arabesques on a gold
ground, and the whole is painted with broad and effective
touches, very telling when seen (as is necesa&n\y ibe caa«) from
a considerable distance bdow. No finer ipecknen of the deeo»
tion of a simple quadripartite vault can anywhere be seen.
In 1492 Pinturicchio was summoned to Orvieto, where he
painted two Prophets and two of the Doaors in the dim&o. b
the following year he returned to Rome, and was emplosred If
Pope Ale^nder VI. (Borgia) to decorate a suite of six
in the Vatican, which Aldcander had just built,
called after their founder the Appartamenti Bcrgia, now km
part of the Vatican library, and five of them still retain the !■
series of frescoes with which they were so skilfully decontel
by Pinturicchio. The upper part of the walls and vauks, iH
only covered with painting, but further enriched with
stucco work in relief, are a masterpiece of decorative
applied according to the truest principles of mural
much better model for imiution in that respect than the maic
celebrated Stanze of Raphael immediatdy over the Boqp
rooms. The main subjects are: (x) the Annundatiaa, Ai
Nativity, the Magi, and the Resurrection; (2) Scenes froalk
lives of St Catherine, St Antony and other saints; (3) alkfoikri
figures of music, arithmetic and the like; (4) four figures ii hi
length, with rich arabesques; (5) figures of the pbarts, Ik
occupations of the various months, and other subjects. Hi
sixth room was repainted by Perino del Vaga.'
Though not without interruption, Pinturicchw, miitcilf
his pupils, worked in these rooms from 1492 till i49S.«hei Av
were completed. His other chief frescoes in Rome, ttiB enit^
in a very genuine state, are those in the C^^xUa Bufs&nMill
south-west of S Maria in Ara Codi, probably executed fHi
1497 to 1500. These are well-designed compositiou,
conception, and finished with much care and
the altar wall is a grand painting of St Bernardino d
between two other saints, crowned by angels; in the
is a figure of Christ in a vesica-giory, surrounded by 1
musicians; on the left wall is a krge fresco of the rairadesi
by the corpse of St Bernardino, very rich in colour, and Mrf
very carefully painted heads, some being portraits of
of the Bufalini family, for whom these frescoes were
One group of three females, the central figure with a dtM i
breast, is of especial beauty, recalling the grace of RifilAj
second manner. The composition of the main groop
saint's corpse appears to have been suggested by Gwtto*k
ing of St Francis on his bier in S. Croce at Florence. On ill -
vault are four noble figures of the Evangelists, usually attnbMi j
to Luca Signorelli; but certainly, like the rest of the ffcsoBsli'
this chapel, by the hand of Pinturicchio. On the vull if Ai ;
sacristy of S. Cecilia in Trastevere, Pinturicchio puBttdlbl^
Alnughty surrounded by the Evangelists. During a viA Ii :
Orvieto in X496 Pinturicchio painted two more fignici d At]
Latin Doctors in the choir of the duomo — now, Uke thi Mt';
his work at Orvieto, almost destroyed. For these be lUiiNi ]
fifty gold ducats.
Among his panel pictures the following are the
An altarpiece for S Maria de' Fossi at Perugia, piktilk]
X 496- 1 498, now moved to the picture gallery, is a 1"
enthroned among Saints, graceful and sweet in 1 niiiMW irfi
very minutely painted; the wings of the retaUe have
figures of St Augustine and St Jerome; and the frtMilMJ
paintings in miniature of* the Annunciation and the Evi
Another fine altarpiece, similar in delicacy of detail, and|.
painted about the same time, is that in the cathedral d M
Severino — the Madonna enthroned looks down tovaiil ''I
kneeling donor. The angels at the sides in beauty of licf ■'j
expression recall the manner of Lorenzo di Credi or Da l^taij
The Vatican picture gallery has the largest of Pinti
panels — the Coronation of the Virgin, with the apoitks
other saints bdow. Several weQ-executed portraits occur
the kneeling saints. The Virgin, who kneels at Christ's fntl
receive her crown, is a figure of great tenderness and bctotj,
the lower group is composed with great skill and grace in inai
ment. Other important panel paintings by PintiukdM) c^|^
>See Guattani, Quadri nOT apparL B^rgk (ItoaKk iM
PINWELL— PINZON 631
fa tbe odicdnl of SpeOo, iD (he Sleu (ilkiy, it FIorocc, >t utd [com Ihil time hit woik wu in conMint dciniDd. There
nnisia, ami in olbcr coUectioiu. in nupy dI hit compoulbiu in Ctad Wcrii. Tie Sunday
Id 1501 PinturicduD painted levenl Bne Irocoeiin S, Miiia Uaimiie, Tie Quixr lod LetidenSecuiy.hinhinaattimponinc
"'gl*™* "■ Spelio — *U very decorative ind lull ol cUbonte production* nude Cor (he Oiliiel broihen were illutlralioni ol
■icUtcctiml icccuoHes. Oat of them, the Annundiiion, is Goldimith, ol Jein Ingelow'spoemi, Robert Bucbaoui'i AifloJi
rfpwd " BeriuTdiavi Piptviicbivt Pervsmvi." The raoit itriUng 0/ lie AJalicni, and the Artbian NitUs.
ti mil Pinturicchio's frocoo, both [or brilliince of colour ud Of Pinwell'i pictuiet in colour, which in diitinguished by a
ttdr wonderful atile oi praervatioii, ice ihoM in the athedril rettiiikible. jewcl-liLe quality md mirked by fail ilrong love
~ -. . .... ^y Cardinal of pun, bright coloui >nd opalescent effect, the ehiel an the
In 1503 the two scenet from the Fitd Piftr of Hamdin, Cilirri i Baiil'i
the whole TrM, Oal nf Tum or Tie Old Crast, A Stat in SI Jamei'i Part,
mJIi.len tad Tie Elixir nf Life.
ius II., the In i3;4 Piawell lell seriously ill and went to Africa Coi (he
■ ' ^- He painted sevcTal remaikable pictures it Tingier,
Ittepgth graduilly broke don and he returned to die in
's aims on the Sih of September 1875. Pinwell wag an
[ at the Dudley gillety, and in 1S60 was elected usodatt
I the Royal Wiler-Co^our Society and full member in 1870;
> (fats gallery he csnlributed lifly-nini vorb. A posthutDOUI
thitHtion of his works wu held in 1S76 in Bond Street.
J!,'* See Lifi ol Cteiie J. PinweU, by Ctoirc C. Williin«n, quarto,
^' '»°°- (C.CV)
, by PDIZOR, a family of wiillby Spanish navigiton, of Palos
EiDg in Andalusia, three membenof which— Minin Alonio, Francisco
^ and Vicente Yafia, bnilben— were associated with Columbus
o„ io the discovery of America.
'opi MuTiN Alonio PiNiou, bom about the middle of the ijth
'ope century, gave materiil assistance to Columbui in cinying out
'^ his project. " li Colon wis the held, Pinion wis tbe right arm "
•Ide (^KBsio). Intheeipedilionaf HQibecDinmindcdtbe" Pinli,"
the on "fa'Cb fail brother Francisco wis pilot; another brother,
iro- Vicente Yifiei, commanded the " Nina." On the 6th of
"" October Martin Alonio auggeated 10 Columbui (when already
Kafoa. ,,!.,, in Ibe longitude of the Bermudas) to chlnge the courae of tbe
;h» punted SBOthet pane of the Madonna eapediiion from due west to south-wat; on the ,th ol October
inlslorthechimbottheMinonConvattuli this suggestion-aireagihened by the observation of a flight
■t SpdlD. It la now owr the nltai m the sacnaty. On his o, birds to the souLh-west-was adopted, brin»ng the Heel, four
aetata to Siena he painled a whole lenei of frescoes on the walls jays later, to the landfiU at Guwuhani (San Salvador, Walling
It the Palaao PetiucQ, now all destroyed eicept me scene of i^nj, ,„ n,c Bihamis (Oct. .1, MflO. On the jiit of Novem-
In letuin o( Ulysses 10 Penelope (or possibly Collatinus and ber 1491, ncir the east end ol the north coast of Cuba, Mirtin
Lwactia), which a now in the Nalionil Gallery of London, Alonio left Columbus, making eastward in leirch of the
nnafaTed to canvas. One of his last works, painted in ijij, gold-land of which they had beard the natives speak. (Jn (he
ta year ol fail death, 11 a very beiutdul and highly finished ^j, o( j„uary .493 he rejoined the admiral, who accepted bis
MPn with Christ bearing His Cross, now in the Pilaiio Bor- „™ea. But on the return journey he igiin left his leader,
aaeo m HJan. Pintuncchio mimed Crania di Niccoto and „d ^ttn Columbui arrived at Falos on the 15th of March .493
ad by her two sou and four diugbtera; there is probably no be learned that Alonio hid ilnady linded at Bayoni in Galicia.
IWlhintlKatoryof hiibdngst»rved by his wife during hislast ubij object was to foresliU Columbus and po« as discoverer o(
~ the New World, bewas foUed ; audience was nfuted himbyFerdi-
iSka ''*°'' ""^ Isabella: and soon alter he died, pethapi of chagrin.
worth as a fainter has beer
kirdiy'
ta thaUitoryal
M* (Perugia. .It
partly owing to .he verv Knog preiudice and di^ika "^^ "^ "tTJ"' "?" "™ "'" ""^ '""'■ ^"1? " ."f^^,"' .
ViiarL'i bi^raphy of hin. Even Crowe and Caval. Viciwra YaftEE PlNZON, who conimanded the " Nioa" in
f did him justice. A fairer estimate ol hit jKwtion 1491-1493, also gave Columbus niaterial help, and remained
IT ol an ii DVen by Veimialioli, Utmer^ di PiiMme- loyal to his leader throughout. In after yeira he/nsde Important
*^,n^Piu„riPMamSinia (Siiiiigaci. igBa1,.nd "I't^ '""' 'o"' caravels across the Atlantic to the south.weM,
Ken (Stuttgart. 188)). both well illusinttd tiy and on the 7th of February 1500 he slnick the South A
>y. (J' H' M') continent a.1 Cape S. Agostinho, near its most essleriy projection
fiEOHOB JORH (1841-1875), British water-colour (called by him Cape Santa Marii de la Consolacion) almost thne
hAtfcI, was bora at Wycombe, and educated at Keatherley'a months bcfon tbe Portuguese nivigalor Cabral reached Brizil.
Aodeajr. He is one of the most interesting personilities in the discovery ol which is generally attributed to him. Proceed-
IkcEttle group olBaler-colouipainleis which included Frederick ing southwards a short distance, be then turned north, followed
■arivcd from the practice of drawing upon wood for bcwk and went at least as far as whulis now Costa Kica. Alter touch-
■atntion. He was one of the most delightful book illustnilOTS ing at Haiti, and losing two of his vessels among the Bahamas,
M kit day, poetic in imagination, with conuderable inventive Vicente relumed 10 Pilos in (he end of September 1500.
Pycr and an admirable sense ol colour. As he died young his Although concessions wen tnide (0 him, and he wis created
Nark* an few. but their promiw wu 10 greet that had he lived governor of the newly discovered lands by Ferdinand and
W would probably have atiained a very high position. His Isabella, he does not stem to have ever taken possession. In
Wily life was one of couidrrable privation. In 1S61 he entered 1 507 we End Vicente sailing with Juan Diaa dc Solts along tbe
K Meatherley'i studio and there obtained hit an education, east coast of Central America, In 1509, igiin with De Soils,
itk earliest dnwinp appeared in liUipnl Utle. He did a little he coasted the Albntic side of South America u far ai the La
>^wk for FuH and executed several deugns lor the silversmiths, Plata estuary, hoping to find in m^cuin^ iR9X^i^L^\cwlaA%Na
la 186} Ms first drawing appeared in Once a Wtti, the Spice IiUiuU. Accm:^i^wneiKn,>tC4iiiLn:^nt&>ff^.'.
632 PIO DI SAVOIA— PIOZZI
puling the Uk Plua without tecognizlng il, and turninE back important cunom-housn in Ruida, and tltf "^f^ ti4 i
■bout the mouth of the Rio Ntgm, but this is probably an ntimaled at £11,000,000.
eraggefition. Alter 1513 all trace, of Vicente are lost. PIOTRKOW, a town of Ruiiian Polnod, capital ol the (ok
r. See N'vaneic.Colfftion dr eiajti; Wuliinpon Irving^ Cci/bwJw, nicnt ol the same name, and lonncrly the leal of the hifh cs
1ib.V,VcJip. .7: lib. vli., «j». 1 ardq (Madrid. 1730): Oviedo. ««' oflheforaerand sni.*«totlhenverPibca. Pop. (igt
Will. piKTo/ Jc (oj Jurfiflj, W niiL cap. I (Midiid. iSsJ): O. J'.'JJ- Itua -- -
PrKh^. Gaiiiiiu Jir BrdtuiuU. pp. 130, lis, 1^ CMiinitli. 1^5); floiu-milli. sai
• '■.;:i.SJ2.&!s."-,= -i»
. 1865); flour-m
Ccforeo Fcmandu Duro. Cpltn e Fvatn.
lioned by good authorities in the nth ceMury. Ftom the house .^„'f ™ "".S'?;' ^'" "^ ' '"'"'"""T ' "^"y? *"
of Este (Vi) they received .he lord^p of Zpi. ^d later they ^ilT.WPo -/hC^r;? ,h^.. ro";:!:! "f? "" ""
icquired the fiefs ol Meldola, Susuolo. dc. Many members of »,(St h™b v^?u ( a 1 r T^_a
the family were di,linffuiri«d as <«.io,M. diplomats »id , !^^;5f"? ,» "^ ' '^^Tc* '' .^fl'"^ T^'
ecclesiastic*. Alberto Re obtained from the house of Savoy f^ "u iT< r ' v .l ■'u^*",'!'ti
in ,«so the privilege o( adding " di Savoi." to hi. n«ne ^ ^ Z't,bM "ca^l^Jhi™' ^^e^'^.^^t^a
reward for his mlliiity services. Another Alberto Pio (1475- b Z- o , T, ' ^';™™"^'"- «," '"»^™1 '^,*
.530, who was French ambossidor i» Rome, won fame as » m« ^^ I'iT^T ^ h -' "'"™^'^ my^Ang (or tarn.
of learning, and Cardinal RodoKo Pio (15-6-1564) ™ a trusted ^' '",'i!?,".i?",*"''i'* "^'^ ""' l"" ''""^'n"^. ^
adviser to Ku, III. and helped to es sblish he Inquisition at ^' ""^ '"'f '" ^f ",''■ '"^ '-T"^' ^ ^iT*-
Milan. AsomioPiofd. i649)«s»dra-naticpoelrf»me merit. ^J?" ""''"S' "'.'.'' ^T" ?"■" "^ D»r«> C.^ *
Spain TOnftrred the title of prince on the family, and one branch "«'™ » »oi[a eaucaiion, tor ant wai acquainted wiiiLi*
of il is to this day established in Spain. " ''^" " S"" ^'ir\ '"^'^l ^^ Spamsh^ In I7«l*e -
See P Litla Li Famigit (tUM ilaliant (MiLml- G. Camoori """"^ 10 Henry Thrale, a nch Southwart brevn, whea koM
i/c-iof«'i/pr«*id>Mar(oPi.><i>Sa™w(Modena.i8;5);A.Cer^ was at Slreathioi on the souih^ut comer o( Tootiit fc
and G. Puna. " 11 Roiola enistoirara del principi Pio di Savois." in Common. There kis veiy little sympathy between the lh<|
[he -(«*i™ ii««o ((nihiJii. ler. 11. m, XI. laBi 1. ter. III. an. gill and Thtide, who was thirteen yean her senior, but pi4*
VIII. 9fi. and KT. 111.111. XIX. 4SJ- she drew round her a distinguished drcle of ftiends. Stow
PIOHBINO, a seaport of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of inlroduced to Samuel Johnson in i;ej by Arthur UuTptr.iti
Pisa, 8 m. by rail W.S.W. of Campiglis Mariltima (which is S3 m. wu an old friend of her husband's. In 1766 Johnson i»Mila|
S.S.E. of Pisa), bi fl. above sea- level, at the uuthem citrcmity viul toStreatham, and from that time was more orlciidHi'
of the peninsula of Ihe Monte Massoncello, Pt^. <i9oi), 5079 catcd with the Thrales. In time it became his custom le ^
(town): ;;o] (rommune). It is surrounded by old walls, and the middle of the week at Siteatham, devoting the ttmb
contains some interesting Renaissance works by a master of days 10 hit own hclerogeneous "family." He was gnd
about 145S under Ihe influence ol Alberli. It is the port of n'lached to his hosiess. and ihoroughly appiedalcd ihclp .
to the south-west, and originally belonged to I^sa. It give* his cccentricilics, and they certainly n
the title of prince to Ihc Buoncompagni Ludovisi family, who, IravcUed wilh (hem in Wales in 1774, a
however, no longer own il. Dr Bumey give lessons 10 one of the Mis* Thiatei, and i> inl
PIONEBR, properly a foot-soldier (Med. Lat. pfio, ptdonii, he brought his daughter Fanny to Strealhan "'
through O. Fr. ptoanitr, piomkr, cf. " pawn ") 'who with spade, warm friend of Mrs Thrale, and ha* left ai
ueand other implements, precedes an army « smaller mililaty Slrealham household In her diary. This friendship wis b^a
body, and clears or makes a road, digs inlrenchments, prepares means always unclouded. Fanny Bumey
■ cam{»ng ground. Inc. The word is thus applied to all who, and sometimes thought that Mis Thrale 1
actually or figuratively, are firsl in eiploring or working an palronige. Mtinwhile, in i;;i, Thrale's bi .
undiscoveredorundevetopedcountry or field of inquiry. injured, and he was threatened with bankruptcy. TheBiBflv
PIOTKKOW |Gcr.Felriit<iu). a government oC Russian Poland, was saved by his wife's efforts, and in the nen y ~ '
bounded by the government of Warsaw on Ihe N., Radom and travelled, leaving her in charge ol his affair*. He
KlelceonlhcE., Kalisi on Ihe W. and Prussian Silesia on the S. relumed lot the borough of Souihwark, chiefly il
Area, 4)jqsii,m.;pop.(i9o6,esiimiie), 1,675,100. Geologically elforts. In 1581 Mr Thrale died, and Dr Johnson
il represenls a continuation of Upper Silesia, and is built up of widow wilh her business arrangements, advising her 10 btir*
Upper Carbonilcrous deposils, containing near Bendiin a bed the brewery, until she "cured his honest heart of its iac ""
ol coal 165 sq. m. in eilent, Permian and Jurassic deposils. passion lor trade, by letting him into some, and ontyH
conlainingiincoces. as also lignite and limonile iron ores, overlie lis mysteries." The brewery was finally nid l«r £i)IiO
Ihe Carboniferous. The surface consists ol a series of heights, Mrs Thrale had met Gabriele Piaui, an Ita]»nmuiitiai.iir|la
looo to 1600 ft. above sea-level, intersected by ravines, and Johnson was now infailingheallh,andsac.nbejpu toftd Birf
stretching from south-west to north-east. The govern nient is slighted. His suqiicions were definitely aroused win ri(M
drained by the Warta and the Pilica, and was formerly covered aside het mourning for Thrale in 17S1, and theSlreatha»ta'
with thick forests- It was coloniied by Maiun and Poles was sold. In 1783 her engagement to Pioaii was *■■■■
IVeliko-Polyans and Malo-Polyans). The goi-cmmenl, which The objeclion* of her daughter* and her friend* indacrfh
is the most densely peopled in the Russian Em^re, is divided to l)reak it oH for a lime, but H was soon resumed, Hd is lA
into eight districts, of which the chief towns are Kolrkow, they were married. Johnson laid Miss Bumey that hi <M
fienditn,Brzeiiny,Cienslochow3, Lask,Lodi. Nowo-Radom and the memory of Mrs Thrale from his mind, burning en>yM>
Rawa. Agriculture and cattle-breeding are etiensivcly carriedon; ol bets on which be could lay his hand. TTie PioBil rR>4
and coal and iron ace mined, Tcilile industries developed wilh lell England to travel in Italy. At Florence Ihcy Id ii ^
extraordinary ta[ridily during Ihe closing years of Ihe 19th and Robert Merry and ihe other " Delia Cnjscan" wiiiert jidit^
the opening yeara of the >oth centuries, the towns of Lodi, by William Ciflord in his ilaniai and Batu4. ami stcr*
Pabiinlce. Zgen and Bcndiin all being important centres. Iribuied some verses to Iheit Flamct Uiiailawj in t;H ^
Other branchesof productive industry are distilleries, breweries. 1786 she published jl iKcdgfei cf lit hli SamnlJiittHm. i^
Bour-mllli, bricliyardi, sugar, cement, ^ass and candle factories, tkt lail Iwenty ytari bJ kit liji, which wa* iCTnely criniid^
Grviica and Souiowke, in thi* govemmcnl, ue \wo ol t.\ic tonu. Boiwell. She wu ridiculed by " Pets PiBdat " fat Btaj m
PIPE
633
or the Briiish Biographers, A Town Eclogue (1786).
ugfa Miss Burney and some others held aloof, the Piozzis
tenty of friends when they returned to London in 1787.
lied at Brynbella, a villa he had built on his wife's
ooshire estate in 1809, and Mrs Piozzi gave up her
roperty to her husband's son, and spent most of the rest
e at Bath and Clifton. When long past seventy she took
to William Augustus Conway, the actor. She retained
xity to the last, celebrating her 80th birthday by a ball
r seven hundred people at Bath. She died at Clifton
tod of May 1821.
1776 to 1809 she kept a note-book which she called
ina." Her well-known poem of the " Three Warnings "
found in many popular collections. Letters to and from the
uel Johnson appeared in 1788; Observations and Reflections
the course of a Journey, through France, Italy and Germany,
and in 1801 she published Retrospection; or a review of the
Iking and important events, characters, and situations . . .
t last eighteen hundred years have presented to the view of
(1801).
aters and Literary Remains of Mrs Piotxi (ThraleX, edited
ts and an Introductory Account of her Life and Writings
ayward (1861); Pioaiana; or RecMections of the late Mrs
f a Friend (1833), the anonymous friend being Edward
(1 772-1 852); L. B. Secley, Mrs Thrale, afterwards Mrs
. (1891), and G. Birkbeck Hill, Johnsonian Miscellatties
Also works noted in bibliography to Johnson, Samuel
a term used of a musical wind-instrument of tubular
id hence of any cylindrical hollow tube. The original
ioD of the term is to the musical instrument (see Pipe
toa below), and the source is to be found in Lat. pipare,
, of a bird. The general meaning of " pipe," in the sense
i for such purposes as carrying water, gas, sewage, &c., is
cinder Tube. Among specific uses of the word are those
lollow stem of clay, wood or other material with a bowl at
in which tobacco is smoked (see below); for the metal or
sound tubes in an organ (q.v.) -^ and for various forms of
:al veins, hollows, channels, &c., in mining and geology,
eat Roll of the Exchequer was known as the "Pipe
this contained the various *' pipes" or enrolled accounts
leriffs, &c., which were so called either from being sent
lindrical case or as resembling a pipe in shape when
ee Records).
CO Pipe. — The smoking of tobacco in pipes is a custom
Tcvailed in America for a period of unknown duration
I to the discovery of that continent by Columbus. The
icient pipes of which remains exist have been found in
or tumuli called pipe mounds, principally in Ohio,
, Illinois and Iowa. These mound pipes, which are
n porphyry and other hard stones, are very uniform in
rhe pipe, cut out of a single piece of stone, consists of a
convex platform or base, generally from 3 to 4 in. in
ind about an inch broad, with the bowl on the centre. A
fine hole is pierced from one
end of the platform to the
bottom of the bowl, the
opposite end being obviously
for holding in the hand while
the pipe is being smoked.
In the commonest forms the
. I.—" Monitor " Pipe.
bowl is a simple cylinder or
;. i), but in many cases remarkable artistic skill has
flayed in carving the bowls into miniature figures of
unmals,rcptilcs and
beads, often gro-
und fantastic, but
igorously expressed
These mound or
1 pipes with carved
indanimal formsare
)f the highest ethno-
interest and im-
e, being among the
laracteristic remains of the ancient inhabitants of the
[^ valley. The wide area over which they, as well as
Fig. 2..— Heron Pipe.
remains of baked day pipes, are found throughout the American
continent testifies to the universal prevalence of smoking in the
pre-Columbian era. Many of the andent clay pipes found in
Mexico, &C., are elaboratdy moulded and ornamented, while
others show considerable similarity to the early clay pipes of
Europe. Among the North-American Indian tribes the tobacco
pipe occupies a position of peculiar symbolic significance in
connexion with the superstitious rites and usages of the race.
The calumet, peace pipe or medicine pii>e, is an object of the
most profound veneration, entrusted to the care of a highly
honoured official, and produced and smoked with much ceremony
only on occasions of great importance and solemnity. It is
remarkable 'that, whilst the most andent American pipes had
no separate stem, it is the stem only of the medicine pipe which
is the object of veneration among the Indians, the bowl .used
being a matter of indifference. The favourite material for
Indian pipe bowls is the famous red pipe stone (catlinite), a
fine-grained easily-worked stone of a rich red colour of the
C6teau dcs Prairies, west of the Big Stone Lake in S. Dakota.
The quanies were formerly neutral ground among the warring
Indian tribes, many sacred traditions b^ing associated with the
locality and its produa.
It is diluted whether pipes for smoking were at all known
in Europe previous to the discovery of America. That tobacco-
smoking was unknown is certain; but pipes of iron, bronze and
clay have been so frequently fotmd associated with Roman
remains and other antiquities as to lead many authorities to
maintain that such pipes must have been andently used for
burning incense or for smoking aromatic herbs or hemp. Through-
out Great Britain and Ireland small clay pipes are frequently
dug up, in some instances assodated with Roman relics. These
are known amongst the people as elfin, fairy or Cdtic pipes, and
in some districts supernatural agendes have been eddied in to
account for their existence. The elfin pipes have commonly
flat broad heels in place of the sharp spur now found on clay
pipes, and on that flat space the mark or initials of the maker
is occasionally found. There is no reason to believe that these
pipes are older than the 17th century. The introduction of the
tobacco pipe into Europe is generally ascribed to Ralph Lane,
first governor of Virginia, who in 1586 brought an Indian pipe
to Sir Walter Raldgh, and taught that courtier how to use the
implement. The pipe-makers of London became an incorporated
body in X619, and from England the other nations of Europe
learned the art of making day pipes.
The habit of smoking with pipes spread with incredible
rapidity; and among the various peoples the pipe assumed special
characteristics, and its modifications became the medium of
conveying social, political and personal allusions, in many cases
with no httle artistic skill and humour. The pii>e also became
the object of much inventive ingenuity, and it varied as greatly
in material as in form — wood, horn, bone, ivory, stone, precious
and other metals, amber, glass, porcelain and, above all, clay
being the materials employed in various forms. By degrees
pipes of special form and material came to be assodated with
particular people, e.g. the elongated ptainted porcelain bowls
and pendulous stem of the German peasantry, the red clay bowl
and long cherry wood stem of the Turk, and the very small
metallic bowl and cane stem of the Japanese, &c. Among other
kinds of pipe which have been popular at various times are the
" corn-cob," where the bowl is made of the cob of maize or
Indian com, and the " calabash " with the bowl of a small gourd.
The " churchwarden " is a clay pipe with a slender stem, some
16 or 20 in. long. The most luxurious and elaborate form of
pipe is the Persian kalyiin, hookah or water tobacco pipe. This
consists of three pieces, the head or bowl, the water bottle or
base, and the snake or long flexible tube ending in the mouthpiece.
The tobacco, which must be previously prepared by sleeping
in water, is placed in the head and lighted with live charcoal, a
wooden stem passes from its bottom down into the water which
fills the base, and the tube is fitted to a stem which ends in the
bottle above the water. Thus the smoke is cooled and washed
before it reaches the smoker by passing through, ibst -w.V-^x \u
63+ PIPE AND TABOR— PIPER
the bottk, ind bjr being dnwo Ihmugh Lhe coQ of tube fie- nurow and uiul] numtli wUch opoa npmidi tnl k
quently umc yiidi in lenglh. The bottles aic in rainy cua The body ind tut iLie long uid thin, make-like, oca
oiadc of carved and otherwise oniaincnted coco-nut sheUa, iDtcgumcnlswhicharedividedinlo repiUilyaiTanged
whence the apparalm a caJLed yiirtlla, tiom nirtll, » coco- This dennal skeleton ihowi levenl UaBitiKliiial lids
nut. Silvei, gold, damascened stcd and predout Hones are a vertical section ttirough the body npretait* an aogi
freely used in the making and detvntion ol these pipes for not nund oi oval as in the nujoiily of otbet Sibei.
wealthy amokera. fin is always piKeot, »ad t> the principal
Pi/t J(onn/a«ur(.— The imilar pipe-making induairiu divide (in some species, the only} organ of
inion«nybn«he^ofwh!rht^nKireimporian^^i^ypiph locomotion. The venltal fins are u
RiDuidinE is a very dmpiD operalion in pottery, and the work is gill-r^>enings are eittemely small and
performed -iib «ioni.h.ng celerity. A nvrnj"^ ™*'TJ^' P""^ ■«" '^ "PP" !»«' '
.^.p^l^^^SjiS^^g^gi"?^?^,^ "filiL^'afm^e
■lightly bnul lo as to keep Iheni •ail and porous; and so chniiOy fluviatile. Pipe-fishf
made are they that llieaminoMr kinds can be reuiled at a profit .ud, ,0,^ ,j the tropical and temnwaie
nubliiW>incethccarlypanoithci;thc«itiuy.andaiAni«bury 1° these deicnceless ciettucet. They
M«™haijmpipe.(ietMeaaKHAUii)«ethel™ryDfll«Eu(Dpean through the WWer by means of the rapid
:r!r!;V hTlf..r"5^ !rS,?v''^*D^rhe^rS S t>:^ --"^"^ ■»«=,«„: ol the dor-al ll
Detc tad, even when provided
Molt of the pipe~
o( the Maiemroa and taken tlicnce ti . . _ .. _... _ .. ..
• ""J*"'*' '""',^?^ '"'" ■H'"'* '"^ l^' !^° '^S!f'"K and not prehensile ai„,_^u.«.ui
imuifc
Jstance from land, having been
' resistlHsIy carried by currents inio the
' open oceans one spedei, Synitoikui
' fidazicia, has an eitraordioafily wide
ropical seas, and is one
PIPE AKD TABOR (Fr. ,^o,M: Ocr. S^gd or Sia^ r^e ™™nTl^ ^libUS,^ X
|.«?/njf), a popul^ medieval combinalnm (J annall pipe or vegetation of the Sargasso Sea. The
flageolet, and a snull drum^ The pipe =™sU of . ^UndncaJ ^^ ^( ^^ 6,(,a often changes with
lube ol ™™w bore pierced wi,h three hota.twp in front ud ^^ ^.^^ ^^^^ „hich l^may be
one at the back, all very neir the end of lhe pipe; and of « [^^^j ^^i,,^ f„ * 1,^,^ lo «een or
"outhpied of the kind known as whistle, fipple or beak common g^en brick-red. In pipe-fish« the male
. ihr enir.t i Irr ai riiatdrr famMw. The comnaK nl this . .. . ■ ■, , pauch— inso' ^ ^^
to the files i lu or runda
' on the abdomen, in others on the lotret
The fundamental note. oJ the open pip. and o .he three hol« ^,\^^,^i "^^ ^nx>M ^:eu" i^ ^
cannot be praduced^ the scale consuls therefore, entirely of j^,. ^ devekped from each side of the tr«nk o< i
h|i,tnomcs, "he .nd, 3rd and 4 h d he «™a being ewJy „^„ „j j^^i^ij ,,^ ^^ ^^ j^ ^
obtained, and, by half stopp.r« the holes, also the Km.lones ,h„„ghoLl the period during which the eggs are bde
which are «qu,red .0 complete "« =h»™t^ «ale Tie when the young are hatched the t^d. s^e. Im
labor being laslened to the perlormer-s lelt elboy/. the hands ^, ^ y^ ^^ gradually escape when qn
remained free, the nght bea .ng the httte dtnm wi.h » stick 0 ,^; ^ „, ^..^veT N«rly a'^hund^Bl diSoS
mark the rhythm, whi^o the left held and fingered the pipe with ^pe.f^„ ^re known, ot which Sipl«m,a«m, tyftU,^
"■M^^^to^taSerfulvirtuo^., John Pri«. -ho could «« '"« ,^^ S?'*!^,"^ "" ■" ^ 'S,)'^
ri<e to the lwerly.K.«,nd on the Ealoube;. Ptacioriu. mentions O'jwrou (Ocean Pipe-fish), Nntfka efkUitK (SU
and ligum Ihm >Iki of the SiameniMnplrifl. the liMc so in. Pipe-fish), and Nir!>fhii hmtricifontu (little Fit
long, liic tenor 26 in, and lhe baa 30, lhe last biing t4ay(d by Biiliih spedes. The last three aie desliluleol «£»»
means of a crook about 13 .a. long. A ipccimcn of the bau Arijvicw ol iheciIenBueUleralure on ihe hnediae h
'" "" jj,""^ rf Ihe.BniwU ConKrvntoire ha. for «• lo»e« Sy»™i*kjM iiEis-en by E. W. Gudccr. "-nK bSSU
note middle C . The pipe and tabor arc iiid to be of Pmveral ^e ScBracnlatioo o( the E^ ot the ftpeSsli." Pr^ V3
PIPE-FISHBS lSynt«c:kina), small fishes, which with the Sea- !""? " 1'"^,°'" °" Tr '^^■'^ ^li" '^*V "' '
....'•■ .. !. ' • lonhnh ranch ill foreign ofiice after completiog his aoidimical comie
I J, Male, with sub-taudal pouch,
thrived from the peculiar form of their
D a more or leu long tube, ending in a
IS appointed secretary to the board of tndc and esi
«4 he was made one of the secrctancs of Mate, and (
commended him on his deathbed (o his m and
larles XII. Piper became the most confidentiil i
vercign's ministers. In i6g7 he was made ■ ICBSI
-er domestic affairs while still retaining his sute^cc
I 1698 he was created a count, in 1)01 ^^pointed
Upsila University, and during the GisI half of
PIPER AZIN— PIPPIN 635
MfM. He bdmced to tlie tcbod of BaidicI Oiautjerrii ud liibui Oufentiiu wu founded. uUng iu ume from tfae river
wu tberefore in mvowed idvocalc of i pidfii^ policy. He Outcni (mod. UEIcnlc) ia Itic tcrrilory ol [>rivcnium. Liltle
[mteiud in vun icuDst oriily ail Ibe miliury vFniuro of is known ol it suterquFnll)'. Tlie mcdievtl town his 1 pic-
Cbaiia Xn,, c,(. tbe Wu of Dcpdtilion agiiiist Augustus of turoquc piizu, wilh 1 Gothic c&llicilral (iiSj), wbicb pre-
Suooy and Poland, the tnvuian of Suony, Ibe nid into tbc teiva ft fine poreli. thougb Ibe inlerior was nodctnued
Ubaine.rAgun and Bgain he insisteil Ibat the pedlic overtures in i;8ii a Gothic palauo pubblico; and othei Gothic
of Peter the Great should at least be lairly considered, but Ul diurchs eilst in tbe town. Folygonal terrace walls of the
Dkaster was always immovable. Piper's mrrcr came to an end Roman «* prc-RomPn peciod ttist At various places in the
U Pohava (i;og), where he was among the piisoners. The last vicinity (G. B. Giavenale and L. Hariani in NMuit dtfJi Semi,
jtan ol his life wen spent in exile in Russia. He died at igM,S»). (T.As.)
ScfalOadbuii on tbe i^tb of May 1716. PtPKROIIAL (belioliopine, prolocalecbuic aldehyde methylene
SeeW.L.Svcdelius.Ci>nlCWP>p(>(StockhoIm.lSfc). etber), (^H/h, an aromatic aldehyde. It is prepared by
_-__.,._ I . J i ,. . '''■''■°.' oiidiiing [Mperic add wilh potassium permanginale (R. Fittig,
FIPIKAZIH. a substance formed by the action of wdium An7Ts6o ,S7. p js)" by mndensing methylene iodide wiS
tfynl on Mhylene-diamine hydtwhloride. consilting ol uaall p„n„,«huic aldehyde (R. Weescbcider, M»«aU.. iSm. >*
•IkabDC delique*«t,t oystali w,Ih J sabne taste ud soluble p, jgg) , or by oodiiing isosafrol with chromic add. It forms long
to ntei. It WM onffMlly introduced into medione as a eoloutlesi cryjiala which melt it 3J° C. and boil at »6}" C. It
■dvcnt lOT uric aad. When tJien mio the body the drug is j^ ^ agreeable smell, resembling that ol heliotrope, and it
.nri ™r,lv ,l,r,m..«l unchanged. Outside „u^ „^ -^ perfumery. It is only slightly soluble In coW
3wer ol dissolviog unc ^^^ ^ut is readUy soluble in alcohol and in ether. When
, - „ tin clinical eapenence ^^^^ ^j^^, jjlm^ hydrochloric add to ido" C. h yields proto-
fe ha. not proved equxUy succesriul. Lycttirf, ly«dme and „iB±uic aldehyde, C,H.O„ lUid cubon. It readily combines
«do^arebodM.ba«ng»miU»racUM. ^ , ^ ^. , with sodium bisulphite and with vuious ba>c< Ummonia.
HPtBIHB, C„H„NO,, an alkaloid found in the fnuts of ^^^ meibyLiBdBr&c )
Pi^ir Kipi^ and P hmium. It forms white prisms, wUch „f^ (cognate wiib the Lat. Pipic; see Pigeon), the name
■?..," -"^"l"^ ■ i' >* •J™'.'™1"I'I« ■" ™". I™' """^X ap[riied by ornithologists to a group ol birds having a great
■Dbible in alcohol and ether. It is a veiy weak base, salts being ,«,„blaiice both in habits and appearance to the larks {»...).
only formal with muiHal acds, and these are du»°altd by ^h,^ ^„ however from l=rks in several important characters,
■Uer. AlcohoUe potajh decomposesitiotopipendine, CJ„N „j |„,^ ^^ j„, „p^,^ ,„ f^^ ite genua A<ata.
■Bd pipenc aod, C„1I,A- The conslitotioi. of pipenc acid ^^^ ^„ ^b„ l^n „ujh broken up, are now geneially asio-
»« ehiddated by R.FitLie and hi! pupils (Jim., vols. isa,ts9, 0,,^^ with the wagtails (o,»,) in the Passerine family if WooUiAw.
IM, J16, J>J) and shown to be (i). Pipenne consequently pipiu, oj which over fifty spcdes have been described, occur la
* C4- a^moat all parts of the world, but in North America are repre-
sented by only two (pedes — Nanoryi ifrapiii, the prairie-lark
of Ibe nonh-wewem plains, and Anlhm ludiniiiaritii, tbe
-OoH <■} American titlark, which last is veiy nearly allied to the totalled
waler-[Hpit of Europe, A. tpipoleUa. To most English ceadeci
tbe best known species of pipit is the titlark or ncadon-pipit,
H:CH.CH:CH-CO-N{CH,). (2J -l.^atoBiJ.'ihirdtoocommontoneeddQcription.andabundaM
00 pastures, moon, and uncultivated districts generally; but
some authors, takes its place, and where it doci 10 It uluaOy
attracts attention by Its loud song, which b Dot unlike that
of a canary, but delivered (as appears to be the habit of all the
pipits) on the wing andduringa short drcuiious night. Another
Ipedes, the rock-lark, A, tbscvna, scarcely ever leaves the sea-
toast and is found almost all round the British Islands. Tho
South.AIrican genus Uainnyx, remarkable lor the eitreme
length ol its hind claw, is generally placed among the pipits,
but diflcrs from all the rest in its brighter cokitation, which
has a cuiims resemblance to the American genus Sinnitlla
(see IciEBUs), though the bird is certainly not allied thereto.
(A. N.)
lingian family.
Pippin I. (d. £40), incorrectly called Pippin ot Landen, was
11^, 61 m. S.E. ol Rome by tail. Pop. (iqoi). 67j6. The aoiaire II. hid placed over the kingdom ol Au^trasia. He was
—ill I si town was founded in the loth century (?) on a hill disgraced when Dagoben became sole king in 6ig, and bad to
4g0 [I. above sea-level, by refugees from the Roman town ol seek rcluge in Aquitaine. Returning at Dagobert's death (6jg),
ytlrcnigin. h>wer down (118 It. above sea-level) on Ihehighroad, he governed Auslrasia in Sigeberl's name, but died in tbe
tk Vokcian mountains to the viDey of the Sacto, Here are PlPPIH II, (d. In), incorrectly called Pippin of Herstll,
-— "■— ol an arch OOBsing tbe road and other ruins (mostly was son ol Adalgisclus (son of Arnulf, bishop ol Meti) by a
feBried) of Ibe Roman period; but the remains above ground daughtecof I^ppinl.,calledinlaierdocumcntsBegga. Towards
«K lugely medieval. It is improbable, however, that the 6;8 he placed himself at the head ol the great nobles In Austtasia
^Bcknt Volscian town should have occuped to easily accessible to combat Ebroln, the mayor of the pahce, and Neuslria, Alter
« (Ue; it ii Mt unlikdy that it stood on the site occupied by some reversa he gained a great victory aficr Ebroln's deatb
t]K medieval and liiodem town, but there it no proof ol this, at the battle of Teitry, not lar from St (Jucntin. This victory
^jnrnwn *u a Vobdan town, and took up arms sgainst made Pippin almost entire master ot Gaul, He appr^nled
Vone «ftet the Inundation of a Latin colony at Setia in 381 B.C. one of his sons mayor ol the palace ol Neustria, reserving for
Xt waa fiaally captured in jig s.c, and eleven years later tbe another of his sons tbe mayoralty of AustnsL Qeha^'vu
<t)<.
636
PIPRAWA
on the Frisians and defeated their duke Radbod; and part of
this people became converts to Christianity, lie also defeated
Wiliari, the duke of the Alamanni, and subdued his country.
The Bavarians, too, recognized the Prankish suzerainty. The
plans he had formed for reforming the church and convoking
councils were interrupted by his death, which took place on
the i6th of December 714.
Pippin III. (d. 768), the Short,* was son of Charles Martel.
Before his death in 741 Charles Martel had divided the Prankish
kingdom between bis two sons, Carloman and Pippin, giving
Carloman the eastern i>art and Pippin the western. Since 737
there had been no king in the Prankish realm; in the diplomas
the two brothers bear the title of majores palaiii, while the
chroniclers call them simply principes. In 743, however, the
mayors decided to appoint a king in the person of Childeric III.,
who was apparently connected with the Merovingian family.
But Childeric was a mere figure-head, and had no power.
The two brothers presided over the tribunak, convoked
the councils at which the Prankish Church was reformed,
assembled the host and made war, jointly defeating and subdu-
ing Duke Hunald of Aquitaine. In 747 Carloman unexpectedly
abdicated, became a monk, and retired to a monastery near
Rome, subsequently founding on Mt Soracte the monastery
of St Silvester.. Prom the time of the abdication Pippin
was sole master; and in 751, after consulting Pope Zacharias,
he took the title of king and removed the feeble Childeric
to a monastery. He then got himself crowned by St Boniface,
a ceremony which was new to Prance and which gave the
sovereign immense prestige; henceforth the king of the Pranks
called himself Gratia Dei rex Frattcorum. Pippin's reign is
marked by many important events. He received in Prance a
personal visit from Pope Stephen II., who conferred on him the
title of Patrician of the Romans and recrowned him. In return
for these honours Pippin, at the appeal of the pope, made two
expeditions into ItaJy, in 754 and 756; and he became the
veritable creator of the papal slate by conferring on the pope
the exarchate of Ravenna, which he had wrested from Aistulf,
the king of the Lombards. Pippin took Scptimania from the
Arabs, and after a stubborn war of nearly eight years' duration
(760-68) succeeded in taking Aquitaine from its duke, Waifer.
He also intervened in Germany, where he forced the duke of
Bavaria, Tassilo, to become his vassal. In 763, however,
Tassilo abandoned Pippin during an expedition against Aqui-
taine. Pippin made several expeditions against the Saxons,
but failed to subdue them. He entered into relations with the
Eastern Empire, exchanging ambassadors with the emperor
Constantine Copronymus. During Pippin's reign Prankish
institutions underwent some modification. The Prankish
assemblies, previously held in the month of March {champs de
mars)t but under Pippin deferred to May (cJiamps df mai),
came to be more numerous, and servefl the king of the Pranks
as a means of receiving the gifts of his subjects and of promul-
gating his capitularies. At the head of the administration was
placed the archchaplain, and an ecclesiastical chancellor was
substituted for the ancient rcfercndarius. Ecclesiastical reform
was continued under Pippin, Bishop Chrodegans of Metz
uniting the clergy of Metz in a common life and creating
canons (see Canon). Pippin died on the 24th of September
768 at St Denis, leaving two sons, Charles (Charlemagne) and
Carloman.
Sec H. RonncII. Die Anfdnge des kardinRixchen Hauses (Berlin,
1866); H. H.ihn, Jahrlnirhcr des frankischcn Reichrs 74I-7S2 (Bi.-rlin,
1863); L. CH-Uner, Jahrbiicher des frankisrhen Reiches unler Konij^
Pippin (Leipzig, 1871); I. p. Bdhmcr and E. Miihlbachcr, Rtgestrn
des Kaisrrrtichs unter den Karolingern (2nd «!., 1899); and E.
Muhlhachcr, Deutsche Geschichte unter den Karolin^ern (SiuttKart,
|89(>). (C. Pk.)
PIPRAWA, a village on the Birdpur estate in the Basti district,
United Provinces, India. It lies on the Uska-Ncpal road at
mile i9"7S; and about half a mile south of the boundary pillar
numbered 44 on the frontier line between British and Ncpalcsc
* A Mimnmp Riven to Pippin III. on rhc strength of a legendary
anecdote rvtatcd by the monk of St Gall.
territory. The village is celebrated as the site o£ the fblknrim
discovery: —
In 1896 interest having been aroused by the discovery, kkAj
twelve miles away, of the Buddha's birthplace (see LrubiM),
William Pepp6, then resident manager of the Birdpur estate,
opened a ruined tope or burial mound situate at Piprj«-a, but
nothing of importance was found. In January 1897 be carried
the work of excavation farther. A well, 10 ft. sq., was du|
down the centre of the mound. After digging through 18 it.
of solid brickwork set in clay a massive stone coffer ira> foaad
lying due magnetic north and south. Its dimensions vere,
4 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 84 in. and 2 ft. 2^ in. high. The atoaelid
of the coffer was split into four pieces; but the coffer remzjoed
perfectly closed, so accurately was the lid fitted into flacges
on the sides of the box. The pieces were thus firmly bdd ia
their place, and the contents of the coffer were found inlict.
These consisted of five vessels, two vases, a bowl and a casket
being made of steatite, and the fifth, also a bowl, of crystiL
All these vessels are beautifully worked, the crystal bod
especially, with its fish-shaped cover handle, being as a vork of
art of high merit.' The coffer is of fine bard sandsloiie d
superior quality, and has been hollowed out, at the cost of nst
labour and expense, from a solid block of rock. Pqipf cal-
culates its weight, lid included, at 1537 lb. It is only the gntt
solidity of this coffer which has prcscr\'ed the contents. A
cover of one of the vases was found dislodged and lying 00 tbc
bottom of the stone coffer. As this cover fits very well it siit
have required a quite violent shock to remove it. This w
almost certaihly the shock of an earthquake, and the same sbod
probably caused the split in the stone lid of the coffer itscU.
The vessels contained a dark dust, apparently disictegn^
ashes, small pieces of bone, and a number of small pieces rf
jewelry in gold, silver, white and red cornelian, ameth)-st. topn;
garnet, coral and crystal. Most of these are perforated fv
mounting on threads or wires, and had been, no doubt, oripail^
connected together to form one or more of the elaborate girdkik
necklaces and breast ornaments then worn by the v^BCt.*
On the bottom of the stone box there was similar dust, piecs
of bone and jewelry, and also remains of frhat had been vcsadi
of wooil. The knob forming the handle of one of these woods
receptacles was still distinguishable. The total quantity 4
scraps of bone may have amounted to a wincglassfuL
An inscription ran round one of the steatite vases jurt bdcf
the lid.^ The words mean: This shrine for ashes of the Btd^
the Exalted One, is the pious vork of the Sakiyas, his trdhra,
associated with their sisters, and their children, and their vA
The thirteen words, in a local dialect of Pali, are wriiteo la my
ancient characters, and are the oldest Inscription as yet ^
covered in India. Twelve out of the thirteen are wdl-kfio"i
words, the interpretation of which is not open to doubt, te
word, rendered above by " pious work," has not been found de
where, and its derivation is open to discus^on. The explaoatia
here adopted as most probable was put forward by ProfeB*
Pischel of Berlin.' The phrase " pious work " probably hid 1
precise technical connotation like the English " bcnefactioc"
The monument must have been of imposing appcannce. The
diameter (on the ground level) of the dome is 116 ft. ForSh'
from the summit of the ruin it was not possible to trace i^
outline. At that point the outer wall, if one may so C££ <^
of the solid dome could be traced, and had a diameter of t3 Ft.
The dome, therefore, sloped inwards i ft. for every 3 ft. in \c^
in other words, it was, like all the most ancient of these aitifioi'
burial domes in India, a shallow dome, and cannot hive btf
more than about 35 ft. high exclusive of the ornament or "itt
on the summit. We have in bas-reliefs of the 3rd crottfy
representations of what these ornaments vexe like— tf*
'An illustration from a photograph b given in Rhys UttH
Buddhist India, p. 131. _^
» Por fiKures of the jewelry found «« the plate in Mr PW"
article, reproduced in Khys Davids* Buddhist IniiOt P- ^ ''
the jewrity cf tlie tim^ ibid., pp. 90, 91.
ST a ■ » ■ ^miTi ■ wur^nidudiuhem CudbAaJL hi -iff
PIQUA— PIQUET
637
>|Bua erectkHU, like > iliriBe or nuH Implt,
b; ■ anopy oUed [rom iti ataipc i T. They weK
Ou ■ third of the height of the dome iliell. The
tl Uu Sakiya IDpe will tbenlan hive bMD ap
lliltle undei 50 ft. II wu probably luiTOUDded I
■codea niiing. but tiiis hu long uncc disappeared,
AH audi mOQumenti hitherlu discovered in Int
•p in brawtu of some religioua teacher, not in nem
penoDB, teneroui beoefactois, poEiticaru, or soldier
pexfOUt howcvei diatinguiihed. And we need hav
m the [u
U>a, or mcnioiial t
Ur Ptppt present
Ihe iemlry to the i
H< alio gave ipedim
»1 pyit of Colama the Bi
1 cremation of the Buddh.
stales that one-eighth' poi
he Slkiyi dan, and that
s of the trinJcets to the Aaiati
Peppt's oriEinal ulicle Is in the Jtumal <^ On }
SKiOy tor I«oa. pp. s;} iqq. Cornioenls upon il, o
(kem iccptical. are in Ibe ame loumal 1198, pp. s;
tU: i8w, p. Hji itni, p. 398; 1905. p. «9; "}"«.
Sec a1*> A. Bartli, CmMii rnuJui dt faaidrmii in
(■«««). Dvi.. 14;, SM: ^ivjin Levy. Jztnuit itI «
tn. Uk Hq. ; and R- pischcL and Hlthya Davids aa q
(T.
nttOA. a dty oE Hiami-amnty, Ohio, U.S.A., 01
SivB and the Miami & Erie Canal, 71 m. W. hy N, c
Fop. (189a). 9090; (19001, 11,171, of wbom 901 were
ud 487 were negroes; (1910 census), ijjSS.
tqr the Pittsburg, Cincinnati. Chicago & St Lol
Gndonati, HimdtDn & Daytoa 'railways, and by
ckctric lines to Lima, Dayton and Covington, ll
A public libniy and a public hospital. There arc
Uoe limestone in the vicinity. The city hu vH
bctares, the [acioiy product! being valued in 190; ai
Tbe municipality owns and operates its walenvo
BCU the tile of Fiqul was one of the prindpal vi
ChiUkiithe division of the Shaimce tiibr; the viU
aUed ChilliCDihe. It wu destroyed by George E
WlsluDstan, and Ihe present name, that ol anol
•f the Shawnee tribe, was substiluled in tin-
chaiteted as a dty in 1846. DLiing the French
War, in 1)63. a battle was fought in this vidaiLy chii
4e Uiunis, Wyuidols, Oltawas and olhci Indian
Kench, and the Debwares, Shawnces, Cherokee:
■od other Indian allies of the English, the English i
■o onsucceHlul allempl to diive the French allie
igttified position. Fort Piqua.
See Heary Howe,
PninET, a game at cards, probably a devi
B ^me mentioned by Bemi in 1576; tn r
SabelaisV Ust. c. ijjo) may be regarded k
The potot at piqu
ti>/Oiio(CDk
•a played in England under the name of irni, or n
■ early as tj;o (contempomoeoully with the
Huy to Philip of Spain). About Ihe middle of the
tduRly afler the mairiage of Charles I. to licnrie
Fl»iice) the name cent was dropped in England, an
•qvlvilent. piquet, adopted. It is played by 1
-■ilh ■ pack of thirty-two cards— the siies, fives.
IS the 1
idded for Ihe game. If, boverer, the kaa kHi to make ■
lundred in lii hands, the number of poiau iion li the sum of
:he two scora, with a hundred tot the game. Piquet played
a this way is called iiiiUun Piipiit.
The dealer dealt twelve card* to hi" adversary and twelve to
^t u'ndtslt
■^^"SlS
X "slock," |j^ down
^ble, the top five beint for
the ekjer hand (non-dealerl to uke
iss.'TJ-j
rSr£
own. The players now look at iheit
later) having been dfdared. il there
iriSbEla"
'ing iheml inch cards 1
islhey deem
IrfeTto ilUprove
their hand!, and lake
from theatock.
Each pUyet niuH diKwd at lean
^'1^ If
Ihe elder hand diicvds l«i than the fin
Ihe is entitled
he have*. He la entitled to k»k at
:he tarda he
OB the top of
the uock. The younier haiif
I then makei ihe eichi
lie elder hand kaves ai
■iy'of™Iop
ivt, the youniec may exchann ai manr ai remain
in the KociC
jii^in/ ac
:tiii, he anii
'o,!2™ ai^^m\
ErH'sh^ELS
'.,^s-^
be leaver 11
heto^ailhcm
beeklerhand.
alter the eld<
T has named Ih<
l"ijri'ta'luri^"'£i';
. or faai led a
aid.
If the your
iger hand elects i
lottokokatthearda
bit the elder
_ i. The younger hand must mi ...._.
own difcard at any time during Ihe haiod; but be mual keep il
RHrale from bis other catda.
The dder hand next makes a dcdantion c^ what be has in hit
The " point " must be called fint or ihe right to call It it toit.
si pipt on esch. Thus if ihe^ elder haiii't best auil it ace. king,
has no suit of hve cards, he Eiys " good." The elder hand then
face upwards. If the younRer hand has a suit of more than ^
cards, he tayt " not eood. If the younger hand hat alto five
cards, he tayt "(«^ual or "what do they make? " when the elder
rxUs ■• fotly-dght ■■ '- ' "- " -"— "- ■— - -—
The order of the cards is aa follows; ace (hlghesl), king, qu
knave, ten, lune, eight, seven (lowert). A acquence of three c
it called a " llera ; of four, a " ((uart "j of five, • " aulne "
sia. a " liaiime "i of seven, a " teptiAme "j of eight, a " huitiAF
A tierce of ace, king, queen it called a "lierce_ major"; a tierc
other miermediale tequeaces according to the cdrd which hi
player whose sequence is good 1
m""lflheeidcrhai
11. a quan to a queen is good aga
alicaf sequences can be equal.
higher aeqiiencet. _Thusaltcree
good, he names uie suit, or ^wt
the tequciKe first
me). I
iot '■ are the nest calli ",Q"««™ " ■"
i™c: "'t^-°S_S^ii an"o( th^* A
1 Rhys Dav[di' B<-iiiia
calling he leails a card. Befote
638 PIRAM— PIRATE AND PIRACY
(ilil^Dc to tlik card, the y«iB(er bud rcIohu all that he hai ekler hand vboi be kada hb Eni aid deca aM pm— lii Hta|
■ood, ttuinff of what car^ hia daima are compoKd. or ahowinr Rptqucd, bocauH acofvi made m haod have p"'if'i'» of K^
the cvdi cUumcd (or. The elder hand kadi any card he p)ea>e>: made ic pl^. TlM eUsr kwb hii fint card and cniau lg> ■
the youDter obyt to it. The younger hand matt Mlow mit il before the youafer rcchnia. ninptr aa a coaveont wty of iadi|
able; uberwbe he may play any card he thiolu Bi. [t ii not that be baa mhinf In baod iibicb a tnid. Aisia. oy A kua
coinpuliofy m wn Ihe tcick. The leader eounta one for each raid quint (rood). ■ liera. and a quatone (toad}. He nn (lirty^H
led. whether it wini the Irick or not, II the naind player wina in haij alsoi; but, il Ui point ii hk pxid. he doea aoi (liai
an iddidonal one lor the laic caid. The tricln ore kit lace upuniila IxlaR the aequeiacSB and quaune. Carit Uamiii, lakiM (ifr
in IronE of the player who wint them. They may be examined cedence of all ather acora, mvta piqua and lapiqua! It ala
by either player. count* towarda piqaea and recaquea. A apet d« not ceiM
If each player wina da Iriclia the aida an " divided,'- and there toward, a pinue, u Ibe afH a cat Bade la p>>y- 1< > aAM
it no further icDn:. Hone player wina more than aialneki he win alter ihe P&y ol Ibe hand fa over. A player who reckuaa aoUai
"the cardi," zfA addi ten to hia Koie. If one player wiu every that hand ai a penalty ia not piqued or Tejaqued il be hoUair
trick, he win» a capof, and scora forty for the cardt, iutcad of carda which, but lor the penat^,
advcnarv reached thiriy.
a player 11 entitled la be InFormKl See "tavendiih," Til lam af Piaml cat tf XaWaa ftpA
ildi which he has reeltsned a) good, aicfud hi at PcrOani Cbib, nilk a Tnaliti m llu Ctrnt (iM;
ai to any canlt hia adverury holdi which he hu reckoned aa good, aiopttd kf Oh .
or haa declared 10 be equal. A i>la)'er may require hit adveraary " Caveoduh," Guidt tt Piquti {i^ft).
s* i"; :as?d?£i !.-i iis.rS'Sirt £; sifhi'E "«¥■■■' ■?«■;■""": ""k.°"" ISS"- '^
left, he nvd only reply " Two." P"* ™ Ahmadabad diitnct. Bombay. FonnBlr antinaB
Durint the proxieas of the hand ra& plays repeat! aloud the ai tte itKHigbDid o( 1 pinie chieltalD, it hai atuiatd far
aRwunl ol hii acoie (or the time bein^ Al the ewl of cho hand amoog palaionlologiau (or the Uiji quaalily ol lead ROMi
diHe™VTiI?wri™i!^™ anla™^^S^Uida'ml2od''ii ^1*™'="' l"™ i" 'Sj'. "i™!" to the beller^nowB Sad
deeniKl to be the cofTKt one. ' (auna.
ExampU.—A (elder hand| haa dratt him ace, Una, knave of PIRANBII, QIOVAXHI B&TTUTA. Italian tngnntoludM
•t»leai ace. queen, hnave yiKhi of h«rt.j Imave. Mfit, ieven of „,^tectutal mbjectl. »H bora in the earlier hall of ll* tU
c uu; and nine, eisbt of diamoodi. He difcarda Inng of ipadei; ,.^_,„„ ^„j «f,,^;^ h:. art •' d..»..- 1%.- _.,., -
eiiht, «ven of cluE.1 and nine, eight of diunondrile tafeTin ™'"^; "'! ""°™. ^^ "^ ?' '«™ T« F^ """f
nme, dahi of qBdca; king nf hearta; nine of duba; and Idog oi 'Dil at/ hmdlcd hia entbuuaam and dimandcd pmqal
diamonda. Hia haod faithfully iitiitated the actual remairtt nt a bUc;
B fyMuger hand) haa len, aeven ■]* fl»dea; ten, "j^^'tj^ ^ hit invenlion, catching the deaigo of the orifinal trchte
H^u'lrrainquw" ipa'd^^'^c"b.;and'"im^dian»nda. o( vaaef, altarj, tombi; and hij bread and adtntiSc ili«i*id»
The hand then proccedi Ihui. A (calling hia puiat) " Eve caida." of light and thade a>ni[^IBd the picture, and IbreaaaiUl
^ ?1?.'" '^™}-" " " 1!''"*.'!° '''?'' '!!*'?'„ . „ efle« o™f ■!« "hole. One engtivinj after another mteHari
A lorty^n.n*. or_ maWng nine B ' jood., with much brilliancy- and aa Ihe work net on. the ^ d
A (count og hia point) " five '■ and, countini hu «equeB£e, which ""^ "l"™ 7™~i^. " 1 . . . . .
i* good) -a quart iSjoi, nine. Three knavt^" B^notgood." the aitiU only WKed rtronger. In coune of lime iln li^
A (kwb ace of heana and layi) " ten." B " four tena. louruen, neceoaiy to cul in the aid 01 all hia chOdren ud d Hn
»ndihieequeen».irveni™n"(play»checeoofhiarta). pupita. He did not, la fact, ilacktn in hia ennigBitllfe
npeaiiog hia icore eayil " K^vntten." ^^ pl*'" of KraneiL In wfaic
Al^nowfivFiricka.andinonlcr towinthemrdaahould lead any laraely tupplcvenced by the freer
"llltcen.'-'B l^n. wiih ace and'iay.) " eighteen"'^d then laSa "«e publiihei^wthrmimbH o( about ~mo,~ia.a9 ^i^ULOik
Ihe winning duba. aying) " nioeteen. cvcocy, twenty.<>iie, tmnty- i8]J'iS37)-
two." , ,^ . . ^- , PIRAliO,aaeaportofAu.tria,inIaui», j»in.S.W.iifW*
"fi^eS^f'B'n'J^^^ot'iSdc.'^dll^^MwJSy^SIL.''™ by rail Fop. (1900). IJ.330. =™dy IlaJiun laaiUtel
A(wina with ace and uyi) '^ncen " land leadr knave. laying) viticulture and the Cultivation of the olive, ilapeindpiliIMm
" ei|(!iieen " {and adding ten (or the candi) " tnnty.eiBhl.'| are ihip-biiildiiig and fiahing. In Ibe nei^baiuhaod Mt Ii
TT.'rce^.^omiJled'ill^rt^r i^Hm''Dlifv\'he d^nJSS'rf™ aea.water, which produce about so.ooo lou of uk tm^
"^) "JTyitTo J^mcn."^.^. '^ * deacnptmn o( ^.^^ .^ „leb™ted for the victocy of the Vexetiua «m ik
Carle filawHc,— If either player haa no ting, queen or knave in fleel of the emperor Frederick Barbaiwa in 1171. It pMl
ft", ™™^ '"'fh^iTl^'^^iry ''do^'bt u^nf "a^M ™"<a"« b>''co*rU«lol ^A^rin, l^^wii L other poM>i>ri
Wa«tr." The advene diwatd is ihen made (ai eaplained under Venice in the Iilnan PeniuiuU, 10 1813.
discardingl, after which the tarU UanciW ia ihown by dealing the PIRATB Aim PIRACT. Sic Edwuil Coke [/wliL 5. Iltf
nicds. fece upwardi on the table; they at Ihcn taken back into dacribei a pitace (Lit. fuf. fro™ Gr. noirft, i^J^
PijM.— II the elder hand aroiea. in hand and play, thirW or attempt or attack).
and play, thirty or aiccmpi 01 ^iitt^}, u «/»u ,.»w~> is-dm, aoa b a 1— -
ing in th^t drat, he iipoDlheiea. Sic J. Filijamei Stephen in hia Zfcrrf^Oiad
' bdeliDed piracy B3 foliowa: " Taking a ahipoDtlieUi^Si<
within the jucisdictioo of the Lord High Admin] brndi
xciihlrtv- Line defined piracy aa foUowa: " Taking a ahip on the Ui^ Si<
J!l!li'IE^dl^"™ve"ifei«lSu^ pooeaaion oc conltol of thoM who a« lawfully alitld « I
r. Equal:
nay the iblp itiell or any of it
Therefore i(. nacwithslandiiS tbu cq^lity. a player maloiT thirty, apparel or lutniture under cicrumitancea which aoidi _
in hand and play, or in hand, by Kocei whicbciiVon in order amounted to robbery if the act had been done within (hcMf
hefcm anyUdng hia adveraty can count, be gnu«i a p«iue or a ^ ^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^ „ ^^^ ^ ^^^ H„,.JtH« v. KwO^S*
The irder in which the scorn accrue il of iniponance. For the .873, L.R. j F.C. ijq). Piracy, betaj* trime BOIJ^
'];= vounger bcgin^' fhc icmw, however, whejhcr made by the [„ the competent court of any country where the oBemfcrW
^n.Jr ^n^"^) ^nt'Ti) Kq«n4/"(j)''qMl'*MMnnd"irio.i be found or into which he may be carried Bui. wU* *
(;> pantimadein play; (6) the card.. Thi. will often affect a practice of naUona gives to ei-ccy one the njht to ptw »■
hand, a; the one. be reckm. in j*iy when he leadi hi; lirrt cani ^r,^aus holding no commission or dekgited authority In-W
cuunti hefote poinu luhwquenlly nude in play by the younger „„„,„' ,„,,,i 1, ;, .., .ii.-^ ,„ vai ,i-_ -iihwt^
hand. The younuiT. thcn.-l.Ki:. cinnut make thirty in hind and "vereign or Mate). II u not aJlowM to kdl them wiaoaii^
pby before the elder tcorei one. Bui the one reckoned by the except in battle. TboM who lumiidet or an lata fn""
PIRATE AND PIRACY
639
be brought before the proper tribunal and dealt with
icoordingtolaw.
Piracy has been dcaJt with in a large number of Engb'sh
atittttes, from 1536 down to the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction
Aa 1878 (41 & 43 Vict. c. 73), which provided for the mainten-
ance of the existing jurisdiction fpr the trial of " any act of
piracy as defined by the law of nations."
During the Spanuh-American War the Spanish government
ii8aed(i898)a decree declaring that ''captains,masters and officers
of vessels, which, as well as two-thirds of their crew, are not
American, captured while committing acts of war against Spain,
even if they are provided with letters of marque issued by the
United States" would be regarded and judged as pirates. This was
sot in accordance with the international practice on the subject.
A pubUc ship or one which is entitled to fly the flagof abeUigerent
and navigates under the cover of state papers, by the very sense
of the term, is not a pirate. Again, during the Russo-Japanese
War, the word " piracy " was freely applied in British news-
papers to the seizure of the " Malacca " and other vessels held
«p by the " Peterburg " and " Smolensk," two cruisers belonging
to the Russian Black Sea volunteer fleet, which in July 1904
passed as merchantmen through the Bosporus and Dardanelles
and were transformed to their real character on the open sea.
The application of the term in this case was equally inaccurate.
The conversion of merchant into war ships was one of the
nbjects dealt with by the second Hague Conference (1907),
but it was agreed that " the question of the place where such
conversion is effected remains outside the scope "of the
•greement.
Piracy is essentially a crime under international law, and
•khottgh any state may apply its penalties to its own subjects
bj analogy, as was done by Great Britain and the United States
ia connexion with the repression of the slave trade, they cannot
be lawfully applied to subjects of other states. (T. Ba.)
Historical Sketch. — It has at all times been more difl^cult to
enforce good order on the sea than on the land; or perhaps we
tm^t to say that the establishment of law and order on the sea
has in all ages of the world's history followed, but has not
accompanied, and has still less preceded, the creation of a good
police on the land. The sea robber, or pirate, cannot make a
profit from any part of his booty except the food which he
oonsomea, or the vessels which he may use, unless he can find
a market. But so long as he is sure that he will somewhere meet
A pnrchaser for the goods he has taken by violence, he has every
encouragement to pursue his trade. Therefore from the times
described in the Odyssey, do^-n to the days when Sir Henry
Kqspel sailed in H.M.S. " Dido " to suppress the pirates of
Bwnco, and when Rajah Brooke of Sarawak co-operated with
him on land, we find that the prevalence of piracy and the
Mvpfcssion of it have been closely dependent on the efforts
to rout it out from its lurking-placea on the coast, and the
of success achieved.
Very different types of men have been named pirates. They
bave in fact been so unUke that to class them all together would
be in the last degree imjust. The Greek in the youth of the
world, and th«* Malay of Borneo in the xgth century, knew of
■o rule of moials which should restrain them from treating all
«4io lay outside the limits of their dty or their tribe as enemies,
to be traded with when strong and plundered when weak. They
■D^t be patriotic, and law-abiding men towards the only
tnthority they recognized. Their piracy was a form of war,
Mt without dose moral analogies to the seizure of Silesia by
Frederick the Great, the attempted seizure of Spain by
Kapoleon. Indeed the story of this latter venture, with its
deceitful preliminary success and its final disaster, may fairly
becompared with the fall of Ulysses and his companions on the
CIcones, as told in the ninth book of the Odyssey, Yet it would
be highly uncritical to class Ulysses or Napoleon with Captain
Avery, or Captain Kidd, or Bartholomew Roberts. We are not
ben concerned with the legal aspects of piracy, but with the
tfoe character of the persons to whom the name pirate has been
wpp&ed at various times. The term was applied by the Romans
to the adventurers against whom Pompey was commissioned to
act by the Gabinian Law, by the Engli^ of the 9th and loth
centuries to the Vikings, and by the Spaniards to the English,*
French and Dutch who were found sailing beyond the line.
Sufferers by naval commerce-destroyers caU it " a piratical
form of warfare." But the pirates of the Roman Republic
were no mere " gang of robbers." They were the victims
of a time of conquest and " general overture " — " the ruined
men of all nations, the hunted refugees of all vanquished parties,
everyone that was wretched and daring — and where was there
not misery and violence in this unhappy age? It was no longer
a gang of robbers who had flocked together, but a compact
soldier state, in which the freemasonry of exile and of crime took
the place of nationality, and within which crime redeemed
itself, as it so often docs in its own eyes, by displaying the most
generous public spirit." Such men are akin to the fuorusciti
of Italian history or the Dutch Beggars of the Sea, the victims
of party strife in the cities, who took to the sword because they
had no other resource. Mutatis mutandis we may say as much
for the intruders beyond the h'ne, whom history calls the " Buc-
caneers." {q.v.). The " Vikings " (q.v.) were a portion of the
Barbarian invasions. The " Barbary Pirates " iq,v.) stand
apart. As for the piratical character of the commerce-destroyer,
or privateer — why arc we to brand Captain Fortunatus Wright,
the Englishman who captures a French merchant ship, or
Captain Robert Surcouf , the Frenchman who captures a British
East Indiaman, as piratical, and not make the same reproach
against Admiral Lord Howe, or Admiral Don Luis de C6rdoba,
who with a fleet captures whole convoys?
The pirate pure and simple is that member of an orderly
community who dects to live on the sea. by violence and robbery,
making no distinction between his own dty or tribe and any
other. The old adage that " war makes thieves and peace
hangs them " has ever been peculiarly true of the sea. War
has always been conducted there by the capture of an enemy's
property, and by division of the spoil. A portion of the naval
forces of all nations has been composed of privateers, letters of
marque or corsairs, who plundered with a licence. They
have ever found a difficulty in drawing the line between enemy
and neutral; when peace returned some of them found it hard
to be content with honest wages earned by dull industry. Nelson
declared that all privateers were no better than pirates. He
was borne out by the experience of Great Britain, which at the
beginning of the Seven Years' War had to take strong measures
to repress the excesses of its privateers, and to hang a good few
of them as mere pirates. The pirates suppressed by Pompey did
not all submit to remain in the settlements he made. Some
continued to rob at sea. If we can trust the Pastoral of Longus,
and the other Greek romances, the pirate was a known type
even under the Roman peace, but it is highly probable that he
was more of a stock literary figure than a reality. Before the
Roman peace, and during long centuries after it had been
shattered, piracy was common. It grew out of a state of war.
In modem times — even down to 181 5 — a recrudescence of piracy
has followed regular hostilities. But there are other conditions
which have a material influence, such as the need for a lurking-
place and for a receiver of the plundered goods. An archipelago
provides the best lurking-places, and next to it a coast of many
inlets. Therefore the Greek Islands, the British Isles, the
Antilles, the Indian Ocean, the coast of Cilida in Asia Minor,
of Dabnatia, of Malabar and of Norway, have all at one time
or other, and some Of them for centuries, been haunts of pirates.
The convenience of the place had to be completed by the con-
venience of the market. In the ancient world, and the middle
ages, the market never failed. One city or tribe had little care
for the sufferings of another. The men of the Cinque Ports
who plundered the men of Yarmouth knew that thdr own
townsmen would never call them to account, and therefore they
had a safe refuge. Even when the medieval anarchy had come
to an end on land, the sea was lawless. When peace was made
with Spain after the death of Queen Elizabeth there were many
who could not settle down to a life of industry. Some took. th«
640
PIRATE AND PIRACY
plain coune of betaking themselves to Algiers or Salec. But
there were many who prowled nearer home. Sir William
Monson, in his Naval Tracts, tells how he was sent in X605 to hunt
pirates out of the Shetlands and the Hebrides. He found none
at SM near Scotland, but some unemployed, whom be shipped
and used as guides and informers, on the coast of Ireland. At
Broad Haven he discovered an Irish gentleman of the name of
Cormat (presumably Cormac) living in some dignity. His
house was " the well-head of all pirates," and their captains
were the lovers of his daughters. Monson found agents of
merchants of London and of Galway, who came to buy the goods
which the pirates had to sell at a bargain. He put that inter-
esting family under the gallows, and frightened them into
turning king's evidence. It was his boast that he .had cleared
the Irish coast of pirates, but we know that they were common
late in the reign of Charics I., and that under the name of " sea
Tories " they abounded during the CivU War both in Ireland
and in the Sdlly Isles. Their existence was prolonged by the
weakness of the government, which when piracy became very
rampant took the disastrous course of offering pardon to all
who would come in by a certain date. As a matter of course
many did, and when their booty was spent returned to their
piratical trade. Monson says that the pirates be caused to be
executed had already tasted of the king's mercy. While there
were friendly harbours to anchor in, purchasers to be met and a
very fair prospect of a free pardon, piracy was not likely to
cease.
As the 17th century drew on the law and the police became
too strong for such persons as Mr Cormat at Broad Haven,
and his pirate friends. But the pirate class did not cease.
It was only driven to a wider field of operations — to a field
which in fact stretched from the Red Sea to New. England.
On this wide portion of the earth's surface everything combined
to favour the pirate. In the West Indies there was a " well-
head " of immense capacity. Spain was forced bte and reluc-
tantly to recognize the legitimacy of any foreign settlement.
She would rather put up with the lawless adventurers known
as the " Brothers of the Coast " and the " Buccaneers " than
co-operate with foreign governments to suppress them. Even
when she renounced her full pretensions, several of the islands
remained unoccupied except by the lingering remnants of the
native races. Swine and cattle had been let loose on many of
them, and had multiplied. The turtle was abundant and
succident. There was no want of food. A population with
predatory instincts had been formed in the early days of hostile
settlement and buccaneering. Jamaica was full of the so-called
*' private men-of-war " whose doings are prominent in the
correspondence of the early governors, who were not uncom-
monly their associates. Add to this that the commercial
policy of Spain denied to her colonists the right of trading
with foreigners^ and yet that she could not supply their needs
herself. Hence arose a smuggling trade which had affinities with
piracy. The lawless trader was not liable to be asked awkward
questions, as to the origin of his cargo, by the Spanish American
who purchased it on the sly for money or by barter. Nor were
any questions asked him when he brought his cargo to Jamaica,
Sai) Domingo, the Carolinas, New England or even Europe.
In the decay of Spain her navy w.is not to be feared. But it
was not the commercial policy of Spain alone which helped the
pirate. Great Britain, and France also, insisted that their
colonists should trade exclusively with or through them. The
colonists were always ready to buy " good cheap " from the
smuggler, and never ask him whether the East Indian produce
— tea, silk, spices ard so forth — he offered for sale were pur-
chased or pl.mdcrcd in the Red Sea or on the coast of Malabar
or of Coromandcl. Add to all this that the police and patrol
work of regular navies was but superficially done even in peace,
and hardly at all in war, and thai in the British colonics there
was no judicial machinery for tr>'ing pirates till the nth and
12th years of William III. (1700, 1701), and it will be seen
that all the conditions favoured the pirate. In the East the
decadence oi the Mogul Eaipire was plunging India into anarfhy.
and it had no navy. Yet a Urge native trade existed, condncted
by " Moors," as they were called, and Madagascar, a grett
"no-man's-land," afforded ample anchorage and food. To
get possession of a ship, to sail to the East, to plunder the
" Moors," to sell the booty in New England or the Carolinis,
to spend the produce in riotous living, and go to sea on the same
errand again, was the round of life of the large class of knotn
pirates, who formed a recognized element of the populatxu d
Massachusetts and New York at the end of the x 7th century.
These are the men we know best, for they were encouraged bj
the tolerance shown them to come into the light. Others aie
buried in, or only dimly visible in, obscurity. Some trace of
these latter may be found in the Letter Books of the OU
Providence Company, a puritan society formed in the reign of
' Charies I., of which Pym and the earl of Warwick, aftemnb
the Pariiamentary admiral of the Civil War. were governors. It
was founded to colonize Old Providence on the coast of Hondoru,
a place not to be confused with another pirate haunt. New
Providence in the Bahamas. It took to plain piracy and w
suppressed by the Spaniards in 1638. W^ar^ick made a regdir
business and large profits by fitting out *' privateers," wfaiA
were in fact pirates on the " Spanish main," not the icas ol
America, as some have thought, but the coast of the mainland
The lives of the later and better known pirates may be iUia-
trated by the career of Captain Avery, or Every (alias Bxid^
man), whose renown was great at the end of the 17th centoiy,
and who has the credit of having inspired Defoe's li/e, AdiO'
tures and Piracies of Captain Singleton. Avety was nati
of a Bristol ship hired by the Spaniards in 1694 to serve » a
coastguard vessel in South America. She was caDed tie
" Charles II.," commanded by one Captain Gibson, and mooBted
40 guns. While the " Charles II. " was I>'ing at Corunna, is
company with another vessel also hired by the Spaniank
waiting for the payment of wages which was delayedt Avof
persuaded part of the two crews to seize her and sail with ha
on a piratical voyage to the East. The enterprise was cairiei
out without bloodshed or, api>arently, coercion of those who wot
unwilling to go. Avery and his crew sailed to Madagascar
a regular haunt of the pirates. Many of them ended by naait
ing for life among the natives. The adventurers in the ** Chaxks
II.," who had already made some small prizes, Ea^isb asd
Danish, were joined at the island by others of the same chaiacts
who had come from the West Indies. From Madagascar they
went to the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, to lie in wait for tk
trade from India. Several prizes were taken, and finaUy a hifc
and valuable ship, belonging " to the Great Mogul and Ui
subjects," was captured about ten miles from Surat. Arej
and his crew now hastened to New England to sell their boaij.
The " Charles II." was disposed of as a privateer at Providence,
and the pirates bought a sloop in which they sailed along the
coast of the English colonies, selling their spoil, with the ooBiest
of the colonists and the connivance of the officials, who voe
bribed. In an evil hour for themselves they decided lo ccni
to England. The Indian governments, exasperated by tke
piracy practised at the expense of their subjects, mxre threataiig
reprisals on the East India Company. The Company nude
complaints to the government at home, and energetic mcasoifs
of repression were taken. Avery himself escaped aptsKi
but several of his men were brought to trial, condemned vA
executed. It is to be noted that when first tried, on the 19A
of October 1696, they were acquitted. They were. howiBi
re-tried on other counts, on the 31st of October. The du9
of Lord Chief Justice Holt to the jury, and the address of Si
Charles Hedges, the admiralty judge, shows that they tt
both the importance and the uncertainty of securing a verdicL
The cruise of Avery is not only a typical example of a piratiol
venture, but it is an important date in the history of the polioBl
of the sea. The English govenmient was roused to a sense ci
the necessity for strong measures to repxvss piracy. AB tke
steps taken were not according to knowledige. The eztr>
ordinary private venture of Lord Bellamont and his asMoa'S
who sent put Captain Xidd (^.v.), a man of piratical antecedents,
PIRKE ABOTH 6+1
^pra* pinta to Iht Eulcrn KU, brought deserved discredit by whicb Eunpciiii have been the tuSeren, the crime hoi
tbem. Tlie decision lakeo on llie advice ol Burctaelt, geoerallx been pcrpclialeil by men who ihipped as passeoeen
xieuiy of the admiially, to oiler a pardon to ail who would or »> crew, and who surpriied the verael. The iHrale has been
lulei by a given date — (or all piracies committed before the u useful 10 the author o[ modern tales and poems u (o Ihe
oI Apiil lo Ibe easlvf Ihe Cape a! Good Hope, and the joth wriicrs of ibe Grtek romances. When he is seen in autheniic
in, but it also gave all pirates the hope that they would rogue. His gains were but imaU. A share of £joo was wealth
e luture be provided with similar means of escape. The lo a mera sailor, and one of £1000 wealth beyond the dRMOl ol
Uihrnent of adrnirally courtiin LheEastlndiesAod America avarice. He rarely fought a warship if he could help it, and
the despatch of warships were mare effectual methods, indeed nothing is more surprising than his readiness to surreodet
L waslongbeforepiracy was thoroughly checked; indeed the when Ihe fate before him was the gallows.
a form of crime. The privaleers who swarmed in the West dcati with in Momrnvn ■ Hillary of liome. For the modern (Mrale,
1 and, ai long as the war lasted, used, in the phrase of the " J"^ *^ i^"he ediiion S Ihe'Niyy'R^SS'socicty (1901).
to ;om Ihe squadrons of war-ships on the plundering But (IicImi iccounu are 10 be found in iSe Sun Trialt. vols, aiil.,
int," could not settle down to dull industry. They leagued >iv.. xv (London. iBii), Captain Charle* Johnson's Ctnmt
■ ■ ■ Mislsrj of Ike Pyrala (London, 1714) mm! be u<cd wlih caullaiL
n the Bahamas. In 171S a special force had K
; now for having taken Alciuuider Selkirk from the island Uiilcry of ihe SlaU of JVoo Yart (Albany, 1856-1858) contain many
vke on the coast of Madagascar. Piracy did not. however, Binrw laivra tv. 1.: .. 1 • _< ik. f-_^i. _._
•n.. «-■- ._ .. 1 T .TrvTr,; ;.„_ r- . ii^..i. . WHKB ABOTH. The penullimale tract ol Ihe loorUi pan
The Asienlo (f.r.) Treaty having given Great Bnlain a ^ j^ Mishnah is the booLlet ol proverta in five chaplen called
poIyofIhedavetradewilhSpani^Amenca,the monopol- ^a.^clulh AboO, ((,«to« folum). belter kno™ with a
,.« the South Sea Company and Royal Atncan Company, ^ah ch,pt« ,i Pi,lu AbaTuopil^ f^m). For Pirk.
of course subject lo the .""P"";™ of mlerlopei^ ^ ^^^ .^ ^ y^ „ ^.^ AMo'i^ Cofly J'.oyo- B«k of Ihi
opers were the nslural fnends of Ihe pirates, who divided ^^ ^ j^ canpYjo/i™ ./ Ike BrilUk Empire, with a new
• clivily between the AnliUea and Ihe westcoasl of Alnca, ._ .... 1. . .u n* c c t^. .;_ ,v . .1
, . , ^. J II' J j: ,' . -.1. . translation by the Rev. S. Singer. The sue chapters are there
lenitg m the second, selling and re-&ilmg, not without .ppoim^j ,0 f^ ^^ „„, on „th Sabbiih afternoon between
ec plunder, in ine nisi. '™ ™«t notonoHs o] "J™""*- Pasjover and New Year. Formerly ihey were read, lii place*
" ™„'"",''™'"P* Z . . 1 !!!:"i ™ >' '««. on the sii Sabbaths between Passover and Peniecoat
Hi'.o ^e nif r of ™m^n e «?e t^ouT^v^^ ""l^" The sub«:Iions of the chapters are hereinaller numbered
, of generosity. He was killed in acUon with
« Ogle, of H.M.S. " Swallow," on the coast of
in Ihe Authorised Prayer Book.
the Americsn colonies grew more
selllcd piracy became
table to Ihcm. Ycl it lingered on the coast of North
m, where the pirates could either
itanls, or were encouraged by di;
ihonesi olfieials. Here
Jied the grotesque brute known a
s Blackbcard. Edward
,, liU he was run down and sla
in by Lieut. MUvaia
iS. It was noted Ihal several of
those who helped to
CIS him afterwards " went a-pirai
ting" themselves. So
[ was the piratical tradition of Ibe
New World thai even
ijoc " or Captain Stede
rt, who was condemned and ci
ecuted at Charleston,
Carolina, as a pirate, in 171S, wa
rty in Barbadoes, who first veni
ured^ ™"n a "hip
pirate's life. The last great csplosioa of piracy in the
Indies followed the peace of iSi;. Here again we
the old conditions— privateers and other unsettled men,
tale lurking-piace and the receiver. The refuge and the
et were supplied by Ihe Spanish colonies, which were
led into anarchy by Iheir revolt against Spain, The
ei were aUe 10 masquerade as " pairiot " navies. The
and comiplion of Spanish capialns-general of Cuba were
s favourable to the pirates. The south coast of the
1 became a haunt of these villains till Ibe Briiish and
rican governments were driven 10 combine for their sup- Pirke Abtik serves as ■ primer to the student
ion. When they had been foUjwcd into their hiding-phcet Judaism. For the most part in simple Hebrew, it
Iheit vessels sunk, they look to brigandage on land, and sayings in Aramaic (i. tj-ii.. 7.v. 1$. 16) and some adi
gaitoltcd by the Spanish authorities in self-defence. The words, as forocfcle (iv, tjjPhilo). He who would be j
y of the Creek islands went on 10 later years, and the fulfil the dicu of Abotb (Baba Kam. joa). It givi
■ys were not tamed till nearly 1850. On the coast and the aphorisms of leading Jewish leachcra who flouri
s ol China piracy was and is endemic, but the sailing junk before the eatlicsl Chrbiian centuries, and supi^ies j
10 chance with the modern steamer. When cases of piracy some interesting illustraliora of the New Teslar
occurred in the SliaiU of Malacca or in the China seas, heterogeneous to be tcpieieu«l bj Skieii n\.Taeu,>!
642
PIRMASENS— PIROT
must be read through to be appreciated. Among the sayings
of Hillel wc miss the best known one. What is kateful to Uue
do not, &c. (7. F. p. 142), with which we may now compare
Ecclus. xxxi. 15 Heb., " Know (?) thy neighbour is as thyself,
and consider what thou hatest." Of the precept, " Make a
fence to the Torah " (i.i; cf. iii. 17) it may be said that "every-
thing b therein." As a doctrine of development and as an
ethical principle it is reflected in Clement of Alexandria's view
of philosophy as a ^pafyM of the vineyard (Strom, i. 20), and
Polycarp's saying, " He that has love is far from all sin." The
use of Aboth in the synagogue stamps it as authoritative, and,
with its intrinsic excellence, has led to its being " the most
popular of all rabbinical writings." For midrashic comments
upon it see the Aboth of Rabbi Nathan (ed. S. Scbechter,
Vienna, 1887), or the rendering of it (new ed.. New York, xqoo)
in M. L. Rodkinson's translation of the Babylonian Talmud
into English. (See also Apocryphal Literature, ( Old
Testament, II. d.)
Bibliography. — Aboth is included in editions of the Mtshnah
and the Talmud Babli, and in ni<iny prayer*boolcs. For separate
editions from about 1484-1485, k'c Montz Stcinschncidcr's Bodleian
CaUiloius, col. 228-239, 2785, and other works cited in Herra.
L. Strack's very useful njan 'pTo, Die Spnlcke der Vnter (ed. 3,
1901). See also C. Taylor's Saytnus of Ike Jewish Fathers (ed. 2,
1 897, referred to above asJ.F.)a. separate A ppendix (1900) dexribes
or enumerates manuscripts of Aboth — and Jeunsh Encyclopedia,
art. " Abot.'
(C. T.*)
PIRMASENS, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian Palatinate,
40 m. W. by S. of Spires, on the railway from Biebermtihlc.
Pop. (1Q05), 34,002. The only noteworthy buildings are the
town-hall and the principal Evangelical church, which contains a
fine monument to Louis IX. (d. 1790), landgrave of Hesse-
Darmstadt, who made the town his residence. The staple
industry is the production of boots and shoes; but musical
instruments, leather and machines are also manufactured.
Pirmasens owes its name to a St Pirmin, who is said to have
preached Christianity here in the 8th century. It originally
belonged to the count of Hanau-Lich ten berg, but passed to
Hesse-Darmstadt in 1736. In September 1793 the Prussians
gained a victory here over a body of French troops.
Sec T. Weiss, Pirmasens in der FramoscnzeU (Pirmasens, 1905).
PIRMEZ, OCTAVE (183 2- 1883), Belgian author, was bom at
Ch&telineau in 1832. He belonged to a well-known Belgian
family, and his cousin, £douard Pirmez, was distinguished for
his works on literary and political subjects. He lived an un-
eventful life at bis ch&teau of Acoz, in Hainaut, where he died in
May 1883. Pirroc2 was an ardent admirer of the French
romanticists. His works include Les FeuilUes : pensfes ei maximes
(1862); Victor Hugo (1863); Jours de solitude (1869); Rimo;
Souvenirs d*unjrbre (1880); H cures de philosophie (1881); and the
posthumous Ixtlres d Josi (1884). These books form a history
of his emotional life, and reveal an extreme melancholy.
See Vie et correspondance d^Octave Pirmet (1888), by Adolphe
Sirct and Jos6 de Coppin.
PIRKA, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of
the Elbe, 1 1 m. above Dresden, and on the railway to Bodenbach
and Prague. Pop. (1905), 19,220. The town is regularly built,
with promenades covering the site of the old fortifications;
the most notable edifices are the fine Gothic parish church, built
in the i6th century and restored in 1890, and the old town-hall.
Excellent sandstone is found on both banks of the Elbe. There
are manufactures of glass, machinery, dgars, pottery and enam-
elled goods; and there is a trade in grain, fruit and timber, mainly
carried on by river, and a little shipbuilding. Pima, originally
a Slavonic settlement, was for many years in the alternate
possession of Bohemia and Meissen, but it became permanently
united with the latter, and thus with Saxony, in 1405. The
Sonnenstein, a fortress on a commanding eminence above the
town, was erected in the i6th century on the site of an older
castle by the elector of Saxony, Augustus I. It was once con-
sidered the most important fortress on the Elbe, and successfully
withstood the Swedes in 1639, but it was captured and dis-
mantled by the Prussians in 1758, and in 1813 was occupied by
l&e Freacb.
See R. Hofmann. Zur CesekuhU der Stadt Pirmm ffirv. 1891):
E. KanseU FHkrer durck Pima (Pima. 1889): the Urkmdmimk
der Stddte Dresden und Pirna, edited by C. F. won Potera-Klett
(Leipzig, 1875); and the pubFications 01 the Vemm fir C^hrr¥r
der Sladt Ptma (Pirna, 1897 seq.).
PIROGUE, or Piragua (the French and Spanish forms respec-
tively of a Caribbean word for this type of vosel; tc has at various
times taken many corrupt forms, e.g. periaima, pettusugna, pdtj-
oagar), originally the native name of a vessel made by boOonoc
out the trunk of a tree, a *' dug-out "; hence applied (0 nuy
different developments of this type of vessel usied in the West
Indies and along the American ooast. An early improvenieot
was to split the " dug-out " into two sectbns and inseit a flat
bottom of planking to widen it; another form had a leeboaid, vss
decked in at either end, and had two masts.
PIRON, ALEXIS (16S9-1773), French epigrammatist and
dramatist, was bora at Dijon on the 9th of July 1689. His
father, Aim£ Piron, was an apothecary, who wrote verse ia the
Burgundian patois. Alexis began life as clerk and secretary ta
a banker, and then studied law. In 17 19, when nearly tUrty
years old, he went to seek his fortune lit Parts. An accideat
brought him money and notoriety. The jealousy of the regulir
actors produced an edict restricting the Th6itre de la Foire, or
Ucensed booths at fair times, to a single character on the stsft
None of the ordinary writers for this theatre would attenqit a
monologue-drama for the purpose, and Piron made a grot
success with a piece called Arlcquin Deucalion, lepresentini
Deucalion immediately after the Deluge, amusing himself vitk
recreating in succession the different types of man. In 1728 k
produced Les Pils ingrats (known bter as L*£cole des pha) it
the Comidie Franqalse. He attempted tragedy in CdlisMm
(1730), Gustave Vasa (1733) and Fernand Cortis (1744), but mk
of these succeeded, and Piron returned to comedy with I« JfAw*
manie (1738), in which the hero, Damis, suffers from tbevcni
mania. His most intimate associates at this time were Mle
Quinault, the actress, and her friend Marie Th^rbe Qma-
audon, known as Bille de Bar. This Ixdy was slightly okkr tkM
Piron and not beautiful, but after twenty years' acquaiiiUas
he married her in 174 1. He died on the 21st of January i77Ji
in his eighty-fourth year. He waselected in 1 753 to the AcadnVi
but his enemies raked up a certain Ode d Priape, dating fnaUi
early days, and induced Louis XV. to inteipose his veto. Pina
however was pensioned, and during the last balf-centuxy of Us
life was never in any wont. His best title to remembrsJice Eo
in his epigrams. The burlesque epitaph on himself, in idkkk k
ridicules the Academy —
" Ci-gft Piron, qui nc fut rien.
Pas mteie acad^micien " —
is well-known, while many others are as brilltanL Grima aU
him a "machine i saillies."
Piron published his own theatrical works in 1758. and after kii
death his friend and literary executor, Rigoley de Juvigiiy. fd^
lishcd his CEuvres completes. M. Bonhomme produced a cvSkd
edition in 1859, completed by Palsies choisies et pikes oJMoii
1879.
PIROT (Turkish Shehr-Koey), a Servian town, iiim. fnatk
Bulgarian frontier at Tsaribrod, on the railway line betw
Nish and Sofia. Pop. (1900), 10,428. Pirot is the seat of Ae
prefecture for the department of the same name, with a tiibaBiL
several schools and a custom-house. It b ihe only puf/i
industrial town in Scrvia, having numerous small factoMifv
the manufacture of thin cloth {shayak), woollen braid (|ijii>k
and especially carpets. Its carpets have a great rqrataiioa is
the Balkan Peninsula for their quaint designs, durabfltty sfli
freshness of colour. Pirot has a medieval fortress, believed It
have been built on the site of the Ronuui fortress Qmimein^^
the military road leading from Old Najssus to PhiIippo|Mis.
The town is of great strategical importance, for whkh letsoi
the Russian plenipotentiaries at the Berlin congress (iSTfl
stubbornly tried to include it within the Bulgarian froBtiRi
while Austria and some other Powers insisted that it sboold k
given to Servia. In the war between Servia and Bu^aiia ^
1885 the Bulgarians occupied and held it until the ooiid«BOi«"
peace.
PISA 643
PISA, a towD, aiduepiscopa] see and capital of a province of (ii88-iaoo). who in«le the gpot peculiarly •acred by bniisiiig
tlje «une name. -H^cany. Italy, on the Anio 7 m. from the sea » ^l^li^Tn tttta'nIlSRc' i^ fcn^t^nd 1^,^^
and 49 m- west of Florence by rail. Pop. (1881). 42.779; (iQOo), vanni Pi«ano. U of special interest chicEy for iu famous fnacoes.
61.379. It still retains its ancient walls, 6} m. in circuit, and is
defended by a citadel on the south-west. The principal streets There are numerous industries, the most important being the
nm alon^de the river, and are lined with fine buildings. Besides manufacture of cottons. In the vicinity are the royal stud-farm
tlie cathedral, the baptistery and the famous leam'ng tower, the (horses and dromedaries) of Cascine di San Rossore, and the
dty pooesses several notable churches, as the Renaissance mineral baths of San Giullano, alkaline-ferruginous, with tempera-
church of the Tuscan order of St Stephen, built in 1562 from ture 91 -4* to los-S* Fahr. At the mouth of the Amo. joined
plans by Vasari ; San Niccolo, with a four-storeyed tower ( 1 230) , to the dty by a steam tramway, is the seaside resort of Marina di
boat by Niccola Pisano, and the tomb of John of Swabia, the P»*» ^ known as Bocca d'Amo. a well-known centre for land-
parricide; Santa Caterina (1262); Santa Maria dcUa Spina, in »cape painters.
the Italo-Gothic style, built in 1230 and restored in 1872; San The old town occupied the site of the ancient Pisae on the
Sepolchro, erected in 11 50 by Diotisalvi; San Francesco, with "ght bank of the Amo. The foundation of Pisae is by tradition
frescoes by Taddeo Gaddi ; and the basUica of San Michele (1018). ascribed to a very remote period, and it was often (possibly only
Amongst the secular buildings may be mentioned the royal owing to the simUarily of name) believed to have been founded
palace; the archiepiscopal palace; the palace of the order of St f">m Pisae in EUs. It is first mentioned in history as the place
Stephen, built by Niccola Pisano and reconstructed by Vasari; at which a Roman army from Sardinia landed in 225 B.C.. its
the Upeainghi (formcriy Lanfreducci) palace, built of Carrara harbour being at the mouth of the south branch of the Amo.
marble in 1590; the Lanfranchi, Agostini and other palaces; "orlh of Livomo. Being situated on the coast road (Via
the university (1472); a large hospital (1258); and fine market Aemilia) it was important as a frontier fortress against Liguria,
halls. There are statues to Cosimo I. (by Francavilla), Arch- to which, and not to Etruria, it really belonged, perhaps, up to
duke Leopold, and Ferdinand I. The city possesses also an ^hc time of Sulla, the actual boundary lying between it and Vada
academy of the fine arts, with a gallery of paintings; and the Volaterrana (mod. Vada). It became a colony in 180 B.C., and
university a h*brary of 120,000 volumes, a natural history was important for the fertUity of its territory, for its quarries,
museum, botanical garden and agricultural schools. The univer- and for the limber it yielded for ship-building. Augustus gave
iity. founded in 1338, has faculties of law, medicine, mathematics »t the name of Colom'a JuUa Pisana. his grandsons Gaius and
and philosophy and literature, and is to this day one of the most Lucius were patrons of the colony, and after their death monu-
famous in Italy. ments were erected in their honour, as is recorded in two long
... B u J «• fj inscriptions still extant. Greek vases have been found within
i-P*i.*?^*^"il!L^J„ p.^- il JT? ^^^r^'?**"™* >•: the city itself, seeming to point to the presence of Etruscan
both Italians, probably Pisans. It is in plan a Latin cross, with . . ^^ r^,. ■• • • .r V^> « ,• o • o \ l .
aa internal length of 311* ft. and a br«uith of 252 ft. The nave. »<>"*» (G- Ghirardmi in Nottste def^h Scan, 1892. 147); but no
100 ft. high, has double vaulted aisles and the transepts dncle remains now exist except of the Roman period— some scanty
aiiKs: and at the intersection of nave and transepts there is a cupola, ruins of baths and of a temple, while the Piazza dei Cavalieri
m^A^^^u^ f^^J*? prnJominent type, but the infli^nce of f^Uo^ the outhne of the ancient theatre.
the domed churches of Consuntinople and the mosques of t*alcrmo -_ _, _ r^ ^ . 1 . • / aoa\
b also apparent. The pillars which support the nave arc of marble =*« «^" Borraann, Corp. tnscr lal. xi. 272 (l88«).
fromEIbaandGiglio; those of the side aisles are the spoils of ancient Little is known of the history of Pisa during the barbarian
^Il'*l? ^^^^i^'^^^i"^ **S"^**'- ^'Ji.**'!!^" '^"'^ K^*??" invasions, but it is an ascertained fact that it was one of the first
ally the finest part of the building is the west front, in which the . . • •. • ^ j *t ^ >l n
■ote struck by the range of arches running round the base U repeated ^.o*^"* ^^ ^^^^^^ "» mdependence. Under the Byzantine
bv four open arcades. Of the four doors three are by lohn of domimon Pisa, like many other of the mantime cities of Italy,
fiologna, who was greatly helped by Francavilla, Tacca and others: profited by the weakness of the government at Constantinople
!^.L'ii^!l!2"*]'if****' ^ "^*lu ^ *^**:i " ^!^^y .•"PP<*~ to reassert its strength. And even during the first years of the
to be the work of Bonanno. Of the interior decorations it is enough u _i. » u j _ i *u j -j^.l *
to mention the altars of the nave, said to be after designs by Michel- T^f^h Lombard rule the need recognized by these oppressors of
angek>, and the mosaics in the dome and the apse, which were among defending the Italian coast from the attacks of the Byzantmes
the latest designs of Cimabue. The baptistery was completed was favourable to the development of the Pisan navy. Few
^^ »". ?*7J. and marred in the 4th century b/ the introduction particulars are extant concerning the real condition of the town;
of Gothic details. The building is a arcle 100 ft. m diameter, T . n £ j n* .• j 1 « <i. l :.
and is covered with a cone-surmSunted dome 190 ft. high on which *>"^ ^^ occasionally find Pisa mentioned, almost as though it
•Unds a statue of St Raniero. The lowest range of semicircular were an mdependent aty, at moments when Italy was over-
arches consists of twenty columns and the second of sixty; and whelmed by the greatest calamities. According to Amari's
above thb b a row of eighteen *-indows in the same style separated happy expression, " it was already independent by sea, while
by as many pdasters. In the interior, which is supported by four .,;ii l[„ei,«.^ /*« Ur>A »» it. ,>.,^L,^t» »r^»«Ki» aL\Iw>^ .ffr
pOascers and eight columns, the most striking folturw are the **"* enslaved on land. Its prosperity notably decUned after
octagonal font and the hexagonal pulpii, erected in 1260 by Niccola the establishment of the Lombard rule and under the Franks.
Pisano. The campanile or " leaning tower of Pisa " u a round It again began to flourish under the marquises of Tuscany, who
tower, the noblest, according to Freeman, of the southern Ronuin- governed it in the name of the emperor.
caque. Though the walls at the base are 13 ft. thick, and at the " »„ ,,^, ^^ i;„ . «»^.^. ^t . ««, k^»««.,. !>.•«• .«/i T..,sr^
tap about half as much, they are constructetf^throughout of marble. J." »~3 we find records of a war betwwrn Pisa and Lucca,
Tbe basement is surrounded by a range of semicircubr arches sup- which, according to Muraton. was the first waged between
ported by fifteen columns, and above this rise six arcades with thirty Italian cities in the middle ages. But the military development
cohimnseach. The eighth storey, which contains.thc bells, is of much and real imporUnce of Pisa in the nth century must be attri-
snauer diameter than the rest of the tower, and has only twelve v„.,^ ,^ ,u- .^.•:....^... -»j j^.w.».»^ <.»».».il :• ...:..*»:«<»i
columns. The height of the tower is 179 ft., but the iscent is *>"^f<* to the continuous and desperate struggle it maintained
cny by a stair in the wall, and the visitor hardly perceives the agamst the tide of Saracenic invasion from Sicily. And, although
inclination till he reaches the top and from the lower edge of the the numerous legends and fables of the old chroniclers disguise
fiUlery looks "down ' along the shaft receding to its base. The the true history of this struggle, they serve to attest the im-
aSlS^l'^ISJ^VS 527jtft"ou'j J?fh?J^S port*""?' Pj»» those day. In .004 the Won. for«d the
when measured in 1829. and 16* ft. m 1910. There is 00 reason gates and sacked a quarter of the town; and m ion they re-
10 suppose that the architects, Bonanno and ^^^lliam of Innsbruck, newed the attack. But the Pisans repulsed them and assumed
jittended that the campanile should be built in an oblique podrion; the offensive in Calabria. Sidly, and even in Africa. Still more
U^ •IKYoJSda'S^r r m^ILt rdl^nd't'L? "r^;""' «v '>« T?""" •"^""^ ""i^r^? "l^ ^
dnrumference only that of the tower. The Campo Santo, lying united forces of Pisa and Genoa against Mogahid, better known
to the north of the cathedral, owes its origin to Archbishop Utnldo in the Italian chronicles as Mugeto. This Moslem chief had
> In Strabo's time it was only 2 m. away, but the increase of «?.«*« ^^«»«K "«*« of Sardinia, and was driven thence by the
Ihe delta at the mouth of the nver has rince then pushed forward alhed fleeU m 10x5. Again invadmg the island, he vaa «>^v&
}h» coMC-liaa. attacked and defcHed b^ XVie nmit aAN«naf«»^ >R»?ra!^ "i
64+
PISA
brother and son, or, as some authorities aver, a wife and son,
prisoners in their hands. Sardinia continued to be governed
by native " judges " who were like petty sovereigns, but were
now subject to the sway of Pisa. This was the primary cause
of the jealousy of the Genoese, and of the wars afterwards
made by them upon Pisa and carried on until its power
was crushed. Meanwhile the Pisans flourished more and
more, and continued hostilities against the Saracens. In 1063
their ships returned from Palermo laden with spoil. Thus
it is not surprising that Pisa should already have had its own
code of laws {Consueludini di mart), which in 1075 were
approved by Gregory VII., and in 1081 confirmed by a patent
from the emperor Henry IV., a document which mentions for
the first time the existence of a magistrate analogous to the
consuls of the republic, although the latter, according to some
writers, already existed in Pisa as early as the year 1080, the
point, however, is doubtful, and other writers place the first
authentic mention of the consuls in the year 1094.* The oldest
of Pisan statutes still extant is the Breve dei consdi di mare of
1 162.
In 1099 the Pisans joined in the second crusade, proved their
valour at the capture of Jerusalem, and derived many commercial
advantages from it; for within a short time they had banks,
consuls, warehouses and privileges of all kinds in every Eastern
port. Thus, while the commune of Pisa was still under the rule
of the marquises of Tuscany, all negotiations with it were
carried on as with an independent state officially represented
by the archbishop and consuls. The aristocrats were the
dominant party, and filled the highest offices of the republic,
which, in the 12th century, rose to great power, both on sea and
land, by its wars with the Lucchese, Genoese and Moslems. In
1 1 10 Pisa made peace with Lucca after six years of continuous
hostilities. And in the years 11 13 and 11 15 it acliieved a still
greater enterprise. The Pisan fleet of three hundred sail, com-
manded by the archbishop Pietro Moriconi, attacked the
Balearic Isles, where as many as 20,000 Christians were said to
be held captive by the Moslems, and returned loaded with spoil
and with a multitude of Christian and Moslem prisoners. The
former were set at liberty or ransomed, and among the latter
was the last descendant of the reigning dynasty. The chief
eunuch who had governed Majorca perished in the siege: Im-
mediately afterwards the fourteen years' war with Genoa broke
out. The two republics contested the dominion of the sea, and
both claimed supreme power over the islands of Corsica and
Sardinia. A papal edict awarding the supremacy of Corsica
to the Pisan church proved sufficient cause for the war, which
went on from 1118 to 1132. Then Innocent II. transferred the
supremacy over part of Corsica to the Genoese church, and
compensated Pisa by grants in Sardinia and elsewhere. Accord-
ingly, to gratify the pope and the emperor Lothair II., the Pisans
entered the Neapolitan territory to combat the Normans. They
aided in the vigorous defence of the city of Naples, and twice
attacked and pillaged Amalfi, in 1135 and 1137, with sucR effect
that the town never regained its prosperity. It has been said
that the copy of the Pandects then taken by the Pisans from
Amalfi was the first known to them, but in fact they were already
acquainted with those laws. The war with Genoa never came
to a real end. Even after the retaking of Jerusalem by the
Moslems (1187) the Pisans and Genoese again met in conflict
in the Elast, and performed many deeds of valour. They were
always ready to come to blows, and gave still more signal proofs
of their enmity during the Sicilian War in behalf of the emperor
Henry VI. From that moment it was plain that there could
be no lasting peace between these rival powers until the one or
the other should be crushed. The greatness and wealth of the
Pisans at this period of their history is proved by the erection of
the noble buildings by which their city is adorned. The founda-
* It must be remembered that the Pisans and Florentines dated
the bct;inninK of the year ab incarnationc, i.e. from the 25th of March.
But the Horcntines dated it from the 25th follow'ing and the Pisans
from the 25th of March prcccdinR the commencement of the common
l^r. The new or common style was adopted throughout Tuscany
to the year ijso-
tions of the cathedral were laid in 1063, and Itt oonsettatioa
took place in 11 18; the baptistery was begun in 1152, and tbe
campanile (the famous leaning tower) in 11 74. And all three
magnificent structures were mainly the work of Pisan artsts,
who gave new life to Italian architecture, as th^ afterwards
renewed the art of sculpture.
It is asserted by some writers, especially by Trend, that in the
1 2th century Pisa adopted a more democratic form of go\ien*
ment. But in fact the chief authority was still vested io tbe
nobles, who, both in Pisa and in Sardinia, exercised almotf
sovereign power. They formed the real strength of the lepublic,
and kept it faithful to the empire and the Ghibelline put;.
The Guelph and popular element which constituted the force
and prosperity of Florence was hostile to Pisa, and led to its
downfall. The independence of the former city was of mucb
later origin, only dating from the death of Countess ^htilda
(11x5), but it rapidly rose to an ever-increasing power, and to
inevitable rivalry with Pisa. Owing to the political and com*
mercial interests binding Florence to the Roman court, the Goelpk
element naturally prevailed there, while tl^ growth of its trade
and commerce necessarily compelled that state to encroadi on
waters subject to Pisan rule. And, although Pisa bad hilhrrta
been able to oppose a glorious resistance to Genoa and Lucca, it
was not so easy to continue the struggle when its enemies veit
backed by the arms and political wisdom of the FlorentiDes, vfao
were skilled in obtaining powerful allies. The chrooidas
ascribe the first war with Florence, which broke oat in un,
to a most ridiculous motive. The ambassadors of the rival stata
in Rome are said to have quarrelled about a bpdog. TUi
merely shows that there were already so many genml and
permanent reasons for war that no special cause was needed t»
provoke it. In 1228 the Pisans met and defeated the united
forces of Florence and Lucca near Barga in the Gariagnana, and
at the same time they despatched fifty-two g3lle>'S to assirt
Frederick II. in his expedition to the East. Shortly after tUi
they renewed hostilities with the Genoese on account of SanfiuL
The judges who governed the island were always at strife, asd,
as some of them applied to Pisa and some to Genoa for assistaBCe
against one another, the Italian seas were once more stained vilh
blood, and the war burst out again and again, dovn to 1250^
when it terminated in the decisive victory of the Pisans and tk
consolidation of their supremacy in Sardinia. But meanwUe
Florence had made alliahcc with Genoa, Lucca and all tbe
Guelph cities of Tuscany against its Ghibelh'ne rival The po|« •
had excommunicated Frederick II. and all his adherents. And,
as a crowning disaster, the death of Frederick in 1250 proved a
mortal blow to the Italian Ghibelline cause. Nevertheka. tk
Pisans were undaunted. Summoning Siena, Pistoia and tk
Florentine exiles to their aid, they boldly faced their foe, bvt
were defeated in 1 254. Soon after this date we find tbe <iU
aristocratic government of Pisa replaced by a more popilat
form. Instead of the consuls there were now twelve <4den
{(inzxani)\ besides thepodestil, there was a captain of the people;
and there was a general council as well as a senate c^ fotty
members. The rout of the Tuscan Guelphs on the field of Mofiti-
pcrto (1260) restored the fortunes of Pisa. But the battle of
Benevento (1266), where Manfred fell, and the rout of Ta^
cozzo (126S), scaling the ruin of the house of Hohenstaafcn in
Italy and the triumph of that of Anjou, were fatal to Pisa. For
the republic had always sided with the empire and faxtwicd
Conradin, whose cruel end struck terror into the Chibeto
faction. The pope hurled an edict against the Pisans and
tried to deprive them of Sardinia, while their merchants ««
driven from Sicily by the Angevins. The internal condition of
the city was affected by these events. Owing totheincreaaEf
influence of the Guelph and popular side, to which the nwR
ambitious nobles began to adhere for the furtherance of peis»J
aims, the aristocratic Ghibelline party was rapidly losing gnwnd.
The first man to step to the front at this moment was Court
Ugolino della Gherardcsca of the powerful house of that Bane-
He had become the virtual head of the republic, and. m order
to preserve its independence and his own sway, iodined to the
PISA
645
Guelphs and the popular party, in spite of the Ghlbelline tradi-
tions of his race. He was supported by his kinsman Giovanni
Visconti, judge of Oallura; but almost aU the other great families
vowed eternal hatred against him, and proclaimed him a
traitor to his party, his country and his kin. So in 1274 he and
Vlsconti were driven into exile. Both then joined the Florentines,
took part in the war against their native city, and laid waste its
iorroiinding territories. In 1276 the Pisans were compelled to
agree to very grievous terms — to exempt Florentine merchandise
from all harbour dues, to yield certain strongholds to Lucca, and
to permit the return of Count Ugolino, whose houses they had
burnt, and whose lands they had confiscated. Thus the count
again became a powerful leader in Pisa. Visconti, however, was
dead.
This was the moment chosen by Genoa for a desperate and
decisive struggle with her perpetual rivaL For some years the
hostile fleets continued to harass each other and engage in petty
ikirmiahes, as if to measure their strength and prepare for a final
effort. On the 6th of August 1284 the great battle of Meloria
took place. Here seventy-two Pisan galleys engaged eighty-
ei^t Genoese, and half the Pisan fleet was destroyed. The
chroniclers speak of 5000 killed and 11,000 prisoners; and,
although these figures must be exaggerated, so great was the
number of captives taken by the Genoese as to give rise to the
saying — "To see Pisa, you must now go to Genoa." This
defeat crushed the power of Pisa. She had lost her dominion
over the sea, and the Tuscan Guelphs again joined in attacking
her by land. Coimt Ugolino had taken part in the battle of
Mck>ria and was accused of treachery. At the height of his
oountiy's disasters he sought to confirm his own power by making
terms with the Florentines, by yielding certain castles to Lucca,
and by neglecting to conclude negotiations with the Genoese for
the release of the prisoners, lest these should all prove more or
less bostOe to himself. This excited a storm of opposition against
him. The archbishop Ruggicri, having put himself at the head
of the nobles, was elected podestil by the Lanfranchi, Sisroondi
and Gualandi, and a section of the popular party. The city was
plunged into dvil war. The great bell of the commune called
together the adherents of the archbishop; the bell of the people
summoned the partisans of the count. After a day's fighting
CJuly X, 1288) the count, his two sons and his two grandsons
were captured in the palazzo del popolo (or town hall), and cast
into A tower belonging to the Gualandi and known as the
** Tower of the Seven Streets." Here they were all left to die of
banger. Their tragic end was afterwards immortalized in the
Ditina cotnnudia. The sympathies of Dante Alighicri, the
Florentine patriot and foe of Rome, were naturally in favour of
the victims of an aristocratic prelate, opposed to all reconciliation
with Florence.
The Florentines were now allied with Lucca and Genoa, and
S few of their vessels succeeded in forcing an entry into the Pisan
port, blocked it with sunken boats, and seized its towers. Their
own internal dissensions of 1293 put a stop to the campaign,
but not before they had concluded an advantageous peace.
They and all the members of the Guclph league were freed from
all imposts in Pisa and its port. In addition to these privileges
the Genoese also held Corsica and part of Sardinia; and through-
out the island of Elba they were exempted from every tax.
They likewise received a ransom of 160,000 Ure for their Pisan
prisoners. These were no longer numerous, many having suc-
cumbed to the hardships and sufferings of all kinds to which
they had been exposed.
In 1312 the arrival of the emf>cror Henry VII. gladdened the
hearts of the Pisans, but his sudden death in 13 13 again over-
threw their hopes. He was interred at Pisa, and Uguccione dclla
Faggiuola remained as imperial lieutenant, was elected podcstd
and captain of the people, and thus became virtual lord of the
dty. As a Ghibelline chief of valour and renown he was able
to restore the military prestige of the Pisans, who under his com-
mand captured Lucca and defeated the Florentines at Montecatini
on the 39th of August 131 5. So tyrannical, however, was his
ndfi that in X3r6 be was expelled by the popular fury. But
Pisa*s freedom was for ever lost. He was succeeded by other
lords or tyrants, of whom the most renowned was Castruccio
Castracane, a political and military adventurer of much the same
stamp as Uguccione himself. With the help of Louis the Bavar-
ian, Castruccio became lord of Lucca and Pisa, and was victorious
over the Florentines; but his premature death In 13^8 again left
the city a prey tft the conflicts of opposing factions. New lords,
or petty tyrants, rose to power in turn during this period of civil
discord, but the ffiilitary valour of the Pisans was not yet
extinguished. By sea they were almost impotent — Corsica and
Sardinia were lost to them for ever; but they were still formidable
by land. In 134 1 they besieged Lucca in order to prevent the
entry of the Florentines, to whom the city had been sold for
250,000 florins by the powerful Mastino della Scala. Aided by
their Milanese, Mantuan and Paduan allies, they gave battle to
their rivals, put them to rout at Altopasdo (Oct. a), and
then again excluded them from their port. Thereupon the
Florentincsobtained Porto Talamone from Siena and established
a navy of their own. By this means they were enabled to capture
the island of Giglio, and, attacking the Pisan harbour, carried off
its chains, bore them in triumph to Florence, and suspended them
in front of the baptistery, where they remained until 1848.
Then, in pledge of the brotherhood of all Italian cities, they were
given back to Pisa, and placed in the Campo Santo.
The war was now carried on by the free companies with varying
fortune, but always more or less to the hurt of the Pisans. In
1369 Lucca was taken from them by the emperor Charles IV.;
and afterwards Giovan Galeazzo Visconti, known as the count of
Virtii, determined to forward his ambitious designs upon the
whole of Italy by wresting Pisa from the Gambacorti. For at
this time the conflicts of the Raspanti faction, headed by the
Ghcrardesca, with the Bergolini led by the Gambacorti, had left
the latter family masters of the city. At Visconti's instigation
Piero Gambacorti, the ruler of the moment, was treacherously
assassinated by Jacopo d'Appiano, who succeeded him as tyrant
of Pisa, and bequeathed the state to his son Gherardo. The latter,
a man of inferior ability and daring, sold Pisa to the count of
Virtii, receiving in exchange 200,000 florins, Piombino, and the
islands of Elba, Pianosa and Monte Cristo. Thus in 1399
Visconti took possession of Pisa, and left it to his natural son
Gabriele Maria Visconti, who was afterwards expelled from its
gates. But even during this century of disaster the Pisans
continued to cherish not only commerce, but also the fine arts.
In the year 1278 they had entrusted the erection of their fine
Campo Santo to Niccola and Giovanni Pisano, by whom the
architectural part of it was completed towards the end of the
century. In the following year the first artists of Italy were
engaged in its decoration, and the celebrated frescoes attributed
to Orcagna {q.v.) were painted on its walls. Others were after-
wards supplied by Benozzo Gozzoli and men of lesser note, and
the labour of ornamentation was only discontinued in 1464.
Meanwhile, in 1406, the Florentines made another attack upon
Pisa, besieging it simultaneously by sea and land. Owing to
the starving condition of its defenders, and aided by the treachery
of Giovanni Gambacorti, they entered the city in triumph on
the Qth of October, and sought to " crush every germ of rebellion
and drive out its citizens by measures of the utmost harshness
and cruelty." Such were the orders sent by the Ten of War to
the representatives of the Florentine government in Pisa, and
such was then the established policy of every Italian state.
Consequently for a long time there was a continual stream of
emigration from Pisa. The Medici pursued a humaner course.
In 1472 Lorenzo the Magnificent tried to restore the ancient
renown of the Pisan university. To that end he filled it with
celebrated scholars, and, leaving only a few chairs of letters and
philosophy in Florence, compelled the Florentines to resort to
Pisa for the prosecution of their studies. But nothing could
now allay the inextinguishable hatred of the conquered people.
When Charles VIII. made his descent into Italy in 1494, and came
to Sarzana on his way to Tuscany, he waswelcomed by the Pisans
with the greatest demonstrations of joy. And, although that
monarch was ostenubly the friend of Florence^ the^ 4id. -osaN.
646 PISA, COUNCIL OF— PISACA LANGUAGES
hnilKC, evto in his praencc. In ual Ilieir own independence, uinHDoned m onind], the fanner 10 Cividile <in FrfdRi ik
and, casting the FJonntine entign, the Minocra, into Ilie lillerlo Fecpignu.io thcdiitidenl cardiniliicDlcalus^iltl
Aino, midii inil&nt prepanltODS for war. BelwMO 1409 letlen inviting Chnitendom to useinble at Pin od tbt ipk
and IS05 Ihey faCKiiCBUy withiload three licgn and rqiidied o( Murcfa 1409. Their appeal met with a nspaoie in t (nt
three ■lUcliIng irmia. But their advcrsarin aJwayi relumed pan oS Italy, Fiance. Navane, Psriugi] and Engbni, udk
10 the tuault, and, what was wane, yearly laid waste their Gemunyin the ttateiiubject to Wenceslaskingof IbcHmn^
territorHS and destroyed all their crops. Soderini, who was the electon of Cologne and Maim, the margrave el Bnnki-
perpetual gonfalonier of FloreDce. and Arlachiavellf, the secretary burg, Ac. For a time the number of the fatbcn fTtrrilri bt
at the Tea. urged on the war. In ijog Florence encamped her bundrcd.
forces on three sides of tbe distteaied ciiy, which at last, reduced The day after the opening of the council, pnccediDp «i
to eiltemily by famine, was compelled to luiTender on the itarled against the two popes, who, it was agreed, wne t*ti
Slh of June tsoo. Thenceforth the Florentines remained lords eliminated. An act of accusation, containing in j? ulkki Ite
of Pita. But now, mainly owing 10 the eflorts of Soderini and chief romplainti against Ihcm. was read out to the peewit; M
Machiavelli. the contiuerors showed great magnanimity. They only their policy, but their onhodoiy was attacked, and iks
brought with Ihem hirge stores of provisions, which were freely was even an insinuation of aorcecy. The reason is, thalingriH
diitribuled to all; they tried lo succour the aufleting populace in to depose them with some show of legality, it was oetBianr.a>a
eveiy way, and gave other asaislonce to the wealthier cluiea. preliminaiy. to convict them of heresy, and it began to bc«a
Nevertheless, emigration continued even on a larger scale than that their lenadly of power, and the rutei by which tbqrtnU
in 1406, and the real history of Pisa may be said to have ended, the necessity ol abdicating, however hatiaful nii^ be tkjr
InNaples.inPalccmo, in all parts of Italy, Swilicrland and the oonsequencea, did Dot in Ibemsclveg constilule a darlT-U*4
south of France, we still find the names of Pisan families who heresy. On the 5th of June 1409 was read the definitinvMeB:
quitted their beloved home at that lime. The FtorfntiDS that as heretics, and therefore tepuated from tbe Chunl, Fuln
immediately built a new citadel, and this was a great bitterness dc Luna (Benedict XIII.] and Angela Conario (Gngorir XEI
to the Pisaus. The Medici, however, remained well disposed were ipso facie deposed from any office; they nmn ■■ It
towards the city. Leo X. was an active patron of the university, obeyed, nor assisted, nor hartoured. In the coune of Ik
hut it again declined after his death> The grand duke Cosmo I., rejoicinp which followed this sentence among tbe pofnlsfled
a genuine statesman, not only restored the university, but Pisa, occurred the somewhat scandalous event (tf tbe btfuf
instituted the " uffiiio del fo$si." or diainige ofhce for the of two images crowned with parchment mitio, ii|iii»iirn
ledamalioa of nutth lands, and founded the knighthood of Gregoty XII. and Benedict )QIL It was in nto iIbi Ik
Si Stephen. This order played a noble pan in the piotection of ambauadots of Benedict XIII. presented tbcnuelvea at Ha.
Tuscan commerce, by hghting the Barbery pirates and establish- The crowd greeted their sjrival with mockery and dernoi, id
ing the prestige of the grand-duod navy (see MEnia). Under being treated as the envoyi of heretics Ibqr escaped with*
the succeeding Medici, Piu's fonune* steadily declined, having obtained a heating.
Ferdinand I. initiated a few public works there, and above all la order to complete Ihcir task the caidinab |iii»iii at f»,
restored the cathedral, which had been panly deatroyed by fire auihotiied by delegatioo ol tbe cauncQ. shut tbemMhn gp is
in 1S95. Those dreary times, however, are brightened by one conclave, and elected one ol (heir number, Peter fUiqn
glorious name — that of Galileo Galilei. cardinal of Milan, as the new pope, wbo ■«*nwi*H the nusetf
The population of Pisa within the walls bad been reduced AknndcrV. They hid hoped [0 save tbe Church, but unloRB-
in 1S5I 10 Bs74 souls, and by ijas it had only risen to the at ely the result of their eOorts, generous as Ibey were, was tkt
numberof 11.4015. Under tbe house ol Lorraine, or more correctly the achism incieased in bitterness, and that instead <( Iheastr
during the reign ol that enlightened reformer the grand duke for wlJch the Church craved, Ihrc« popes continued to kmA.
Peter Lec^xJd (1765-1700), Pisa shared in the general proqierity Both the deposed ponlifls pmlestcd against the legality << >k
of Tuscany, and its population conitanlly increased. By iSio council of Pisa; each had numemus panisans, and the thin
it contained 11,670 souls, exclusive of the suburbs and outlying constructed rather to meet the exigencies of the case, wkkk
districts. atliibuled to a synod assembled by tbe cardinals the t^ d
AuiHDii TIES.— Paolo Trooci, Anmli 4i Pim, edited by E. V. constituting itself judgeofasoveidgn pontiff, wisfarlraabdig
Montaiio (i ™li„ Lucca. ie4J-l»43). which comes down Id 1S401 established.
^fuThiSJS g^:Se'^.i"nt'!MS^'pSi^''ii'thVS!a;^ Originally the council of Pi» .., J" *"" "T'^iii*!! t
ilnrUa ilo/ians, vol. vi., pt. I ; " Cntiacbe Puane," in the laitie ""y "'h cSecting the union, but alia wita ibe tefota a ■■
^■'kiru, vol. vi., pt. 1; lor the early eoutltution ol the city, ice Church, As a matter of fact, it confined itsdf to tqauii'
Volpe'i SMii «a. ulKuiMt cflHwifi' dt Piu (PiB, iw), cenain daidaala in a " libeUus suppUcatorius " whidi it
le new pope. Aleiander V. only paniaUy tatM
and It
(j vols., noren«. msl. eic.l, ine roantuoe ana eommerrui r"r~ "■ J ' ' . .■ .
hutofv of the republic >> deal, with in A. 5chiul>e'. Oai XMintiU *<• 'hes* demands, many ol which cc
ifri Uant in Fisa (Lelpi|g> ™<nts on the prerogative of the Holy See; be then dcdarcd Ik
piikicku ill Koninlau in c wock pf itfora nispcndcd, and dissolved the council (Aagaa t>
Monona, eua aimiraa u 5^^ Jacques Lenfint, HuUin d* ititciU U Pin (UtniAt. iro):
fklirui, Cmdl., xivii.; F. Sluhr. Dii OrHiuolua amiGaii^
trinuMi it, Pisaw mid KimUaiur Xmuili (Sdiweria. i))il: .■!
Valoift. Z^ France et U fraud uHnm ^otxidemJ, iv. ^107. 171 114
(Paris. 19D»). (N.V.)
PIUCA LAMOnAOES. the name wbicb bat been [iva ts >
famDy of languages spoken immediately to tbe vulh vl (k
Hindu Xush. and north of the fiontier of British India. Tk
famnjjmfTTi,<i^l*i^pTOiprtf glfirl*nji.*j***p#it*wfii gafinJ^
Khowar, spoken in the Chitnl country, and the gnnp d SUit
languages, which includes the Sblnl of GQgit. KehislUI, w*'*
in the Kohiilans of the Indus and Swat riven, and Eashad
Of all these Kashmiri is the only one whid has itoind at
literary cultivation, and al which the nunbet ol ipeakm h
known. The Piilca language* an Aiyan by origin, kit vt
neither Iranian nor iDdo-Aiyan. (Sec iMMvAltax Laxccmo
and KAsauiu.) (C.A.Ai
z;rs=,i;srf;~.."
S:=s-&.T.
(Piia, 187J). Among lhe_
BoiKEl'Nelli^Erid^n.i
1907). and T,B.Supi»-sP
PISA. COUHOt OF (,409).
The great schism of the vest
had already lasted thiny yean
and the efforts which had been
resignation of the two rival pom
Si had been In vain, when in the
spring of 1408, the state oi allal
s being desperate, the idea anise
of asscnibllnga council la cflecl
union wiihoul the co-operation
e from those cardinals who had
one niter the other seceded
ilhei from Gregory XII. or
Benedict Xlll. They were fori
stalled by the popes, who each
PISACANE— PISANO, A. 647
m, CAKbO, dnlu of San Ciovuni (iSiS-iSs;). di la faix (1411-1413). but altn ihe disuttrs Hi (he campaign
nralutianuy, wu bom at Naples, and cnicred the o[ Agincourt ihe retired ro a convent- We have no mate of bcr
ui army in i£^g; bol having become imbued wjtb work until 1419, vhcD ibe broke her ulena to write t aon(
D ideas he emigialed in 1S47, and ailec ■ ihoit May in honour ot Joan of Aic Of the ciicumilancei of her de4th
J containi many inlereiling contemporary
Lirri iet heii ttrlai contains details ^
idsoulorthe wiicammiuimiinlbedelcnceal tbecily. domatic life in Ihe Fiance of the early I5tb century not
capture by the French be again went into exile, firit to
md then to Genoa, mainLaining himself by teaching.
a. When Mauini, undeterred by the failure ot the
Milan rising an the 6Ih ol February iSjj. delennined to
an eipediiion to provoke a rising in the NnpoUlan
Pisacane olFcrcd himself (01 ihe task, and sailed from
ith a few folloneis (including Giovanni Nitoteta) on
: " Cagliiri '■ on the ijih o[ June iSs7- They landed
land of Ponza, where the guards were overpowered
i hundreds of prisoners hberated, and on the 38th
. Eapri in Calabria and altempled to reach the Cilenlo.
Lnvadeii were quickly overpowered, Pisacane bimsell
PISAHI, VFTTOB (d. 13S0), Venetian Hdniinl,»as in command
of the Venetian fleet in i]7g during the war against the Genoese,
whom he defeated off Capo d'Anric; subsequently be recaptured
Cattaro, Sehenico and Aibe, which had beep leiied by Iha
s V. At fifteen Christine married Etienne du Caslel Hungarians, the allies of the Genoese. But Ihe Genoese Beet
me Charles's notary and seirelaiy After the king's completely defeatHlPisiniatPoIainMayi379,»ndonhisrtlurn
jSoherlalhciloslhlsappointmenl anddicdsoonaJlet; to Venice h« was thrown into prison. The enemy now pressed
I Christine's husband died in ijgg she found herself home their victory, and besieged and captured Chioggia, whereby
PTQl«tor, and «ith Ihice children depending on her, ^""f" ''"i" ■" '." danger. The people thereupon demanded
. Her first baUads were written to the memory of her fidence. The government gave way and appointed the aged
and as love poems were Ihe fashion she continued to commander admiral of the fleet once more Through his able
-n—laU. ri-dait, mbJmbi and jtuz i i™(r<— though "rategy and danng he recaptured Chioggio, defeated the GenoeK
he precaution 10 assure her readers {Citl baladct. No. '"d threatened Genoa itself until that republic agreed (o peace
hey w,e merely cierciscs. In ijw »•>« hegan to study '"™*- '"i™" "ii™ '" '38= "nue on hil way to Uonfredonia
poets, and bilwcen that lime and 1405, as she herself ""' » squadron to ship provisions.
she composed some filLeen important works, chieHy p,^ ^i'^ JV^areiiii^i;^™ l'^ '""'a.Tfe*)* ^*"°'
he occasion of the marriage of Richard II. with Isabella PISANO, AKDRKA, also knowa as AxPKEA DA PotITtI>EKA
(1396), took her elder son. Jean du Castel [b. t]8«), f'- ■J70-"3*8), Italian sculptor, was bom about 1J70, and iint
d him as his owni the boy. after Salisbury's death learned the trade of a goldsmith. He became a pupil of Giovanni
ing received by Philip o( Burgundy, at whose desire
i4oj|, valuable as a first-hand picture of Charles V.
ouit. Her MuMion de farlUTU, in which she finds
. frcal deal of history and philosophy, was presented 10
patron on New Year's Day, 1404. It possesses an
an of great autof»ographical interest. In La Vision
Iclls her own history, by way ol defence against those
lilion from Galcazio Visconli, tyrant of Milan. She
however, to remain in France, where she enjoyed the
hemsclvcs by vow to defend the honour of women,
-.1 dim d'dMourUym) isa defence of women against
[can de Mcun. and initiated a prolonged dispute with
lolars of hci time. Jean de Monlreuil (d. 1415) and
I, who undertook the defence of the RsmaH de la
ine WTc»tc about 1407 two hooks for women. La
ri and Ic Livrt rfri irais talus, or It Trlar dc la
lis. She was dcvolcd (o her adoplod eountiy. I^rt of the Km Bror
ivn wars she wrote a Lamcnljlim (1410) and a Litre ^
. Felilot, CoUcelion cmipUli drs mfmoins rdaliji i
648 PISANO, G.— PISANO, N.
tliiithiscbiefvoAiiKKticcntcd.andtlMfarmitlonDlhiamilun church of S. Domenico in 1104, but Utile ol the orifliw] Mnctn
ttyle wu due rilfacT to Ciotto Ihan I0 his earlier mutei. 01 Ihc remains. Thcnonh IniuepI, however, itillcanuinlBiIiti^
three world-famed btonze doots of the Florentine bapditlry, ful tomb of Benedict XI., with ■ jlceping figure ol the pepE,
the earliest one— tbit on Ibe south Eide—wu the woik of Andrea^ guarded by sngelt who dnur aiide the curtun. Oneof Gianufi
betfientmany yeanonil; and it «o»finaJlyKt upin I3jfi.' It molt bcauLiful architectural wotlu was Ibe Utile dapd (4
coiuisuof a number of small quatietoil panels — the lower eight S. Maria deila Spina (now rebuilt. " reitored "),ontbcbukid
containing unglc figures oF the Virtues, anil the rest scenes from the Amo in Pisa; the actual execution of thia dupcl. inl ibt
the life of the Baptist. Andrea f^sano, white living in Florence, sculpture with which it ii adorned, was mostly (be wgrk ot )k
also produced many important works of maihle sculpture, all pupils.' The influence of his father Niccola i« iccn MR>>i|l; ii
of which show strongly Giotto's influence. In some cases allGiovanni'sworks, but especially in the pulpil of S.Aadjeiu
probably (hey weie actually deugned by that artist, as, for in- Tistoia, eieculed about ijoo. Another pul[nt, daifned oa tb
stance, the double band of beautiful panel-rclich which Andrea aame lioes, was made by him for the nave of Fin CathidBl
eieculed for the great campanile. The subjects of these arc the between ijio and 131 1. The last part of (Somad't Ucm
Four Great Prophets, the Seven Virtues, the Seven Sacraments, spent at Prato, near Florence, where with naiiy pupOsk mU
the Seven Works of Mercy and the Seven Planets. The duomo at the cathedral till his death about ijjo-
coniains the chief of Andrea's other Florentine works in marble. See M. Saoerlandt, Vher die BiUKtrh da Ciiminmi Km. fc
In IJ47 he waa appointed architect to the duomo of Orvieto, (iwj); A. Bnch, t/icalti tuid CunsmB Piiint taid <■ fU^Ht
which had already been designed and begun by Lorenzo Maluni. XI V. JiAiiiaiaU » Sifa (>9<H)-
~ own, but it must have been PISAMO, mCCOLA (<:. 1106-1178), Italian iculplKtrianli-
tect. Though he called himself PaiOM, from K», wbcK ol*
., .-._ and Tommaio-bolh, etpecf. of hislifewasspent,he waanot a Pisanby birth. Tbensiens
.■slTdsS'.S'Ssk'S.h's.'rai "?'»« "■"■"• •' >; >•"?•■!■■ i<«i. ?.;™i --» «-
feelinE and loft lovdiitea— • perfect embodiment of enstmg documents. According 10 one of these ha ■ Bid U
c iikaT of ihc I>iviiK Mothet. Aodrea's chief papil was have been the son of " Petrus, a notary of Siena;" bn ttt
tionc lictiM known aiOragna In.). BaWuccB di statement is very doubtful, opedally as the word " SleM " «
^;,r,he'"^^urS,2«'of°'rEErr^«'ftS^- -d. Sems- appears ,0 be a conjectural .dditio,.Aa«to
- ' ' iipiurcd figures and reUcfs. document among the archives of the Sienese Caibcilnl oa
- - " -. . - Hm son of " Felrui de Apulia." Most modem writers aiH((
PISAKO, OIOVAMHt (f. rjjo-ijjo), Italian architect and , , j ; ,- v
sculptor, was the son of Siccola Ksano. Together with Amolfo ™ ""^ statement and believe that
del Cambio and other pupils, he developed "*"" """"°" "* *""''" ™ ""'*""
DIhet pans of Italy the renaissance of scul|
Apulia in southern Italy, but also Ibi) hi
c"'hlch'^"(be V'"^ there Us early instruction in the arts of sculpiun ipd
hadspentthe '';5!!''"'!;"- '"7*'" "'
St part of bis life at home as a pui«I and fellow worker of f"'*" ™"''' P"'" "> f^P* "» ''™>. <"' !;"i™l»'« "»•
being Tuscan, suppose tbat he waa a native of a small ten
called Apulia near Lucca.
Except through bis works, but Little ii known of the biSnT
ol Niccola's lif e- As early as 1111 he is said to have bcennm-
moned to Naples by Frederick II., to do work in the new Cutd
del I'Uovo. This fact supports the theory ot his soulbrmarifn,
though not perhaps very strongly, as, lonie yean before, tie
Pisan Bonannus had been cho&cn by the Norman tiing u ibf
sculptor (0 cast one of the bronze doors fat Monreale Caibednl.
which can be attributed to Kiccola is a beautiful rdlel ef tk
Deposition from the Cross in (he tympanum of the arch oil idi
door at San Klariino at Lucca; it is remarkable for its gncdil
composition and delicate finish ol eiecution. The dale is itusi
1137. In ii6d, asan incised inscrifition records, he fiiuihHlihi
marble pulpit for the Pisan baptistery; thb is on the wboli ik
the mtirc magniliceiit pulpit at Sien
if all his works (finished which lultcn snatly from want of
■' : owing to it! bcint; uverkadcd wit]
■culpluce both ia relief and in Ihc rour
this refpect It is pipcnBr Is
one ol Ninula'i later wb
ilofArciio— a magnificent marble ™ng to its bcinn overloaded with idieb and naiiKttti. Fnt
- - - 01 (nc flidcft of (he main octaeon have panels «ith eul^^^-™*
Nativity, (he AdoiatioD ol (he Maei. the Presentation in the Tan^
the Crucifiaiofl and the Doom- IIkk are all. esf«cia1ly ifat n
hitih ahar and rcrudos, adorned both in front and M the back „.„„„ „„,,„,„„„„„,„„„ , .„ ....„,_.„ „
wiih countless figures and reliefs— mostly illuiiniivcofthclives JhTciucifci!™ and' lEs^iilmr-'Tn™ m
ol St CreRory and St Donaio, whose bones arc enshrined there, (hne. works ol (he hiibest beauty, and • wondrrful ai*-
The actual cutcution of this was probaMy wholly the work o( his anything j^ ihc sort that had been produced by Kkci]l
ipilrnl at Siicna. in which txf^cr- Iv vac- -..._i.. i.-^...-. _i .i_ it-jTIT- r_..,jjrl,,'.V_ .._-..
>(io " o[ Ihc new cathedral at Siena, in which office he su ^ ^ „ ,.., „._,!„._ ^.,„.., „..„,, „ „.,_
<A Lorenzo Maitani, who went 10 Orvieto to build the lesa ^nel with (he Adomion of the Magi is perbps the m - —
lagnlficcnl duomo which had just been ^'."°'"'" f^y^ ''? »"•'«« /> """..'Pf™" '*• '*'^' ^\
ilcly beauty ol (I
,ded(he.e. The derfgn Of (he gorgeous facade Of that duomo J^l^ '^gi'S?R=™riM'io-'^h^'hS5 "iSSiirStori"!
bcyn atlr.(,ultd to him. but it is more probable that he only „i^, '.^ ,^j, ^ Valcan: while the youthful beauty ol »• Ap*
\to out Af ailatu s design- At Perugia, Giovanni built the and the nu(ure dignity of a Jupiter arc ««gesud by the nadui
Vrfjtcon Ihc door, 1330, refers lo the original waiite^ri. ■ See Schulti, Doitnilcr dcr XaJUl u falvAltiM. ii- S-
PISANO, V._PISCICULTURE 649
; EfiiRt ot the MuL Ctrtiln Geum in etlisi a[ the lUiuiia*a ■'■ Ilaly: A. Unch. Tficala oiuf Ciesoioii />>«» nil
>kH deeply iiDbued viih ckuical [ediog. iiiFlailikdv XIV, Johrliiaultrtt inSkm (Slnuburg. 1904).
unportuHworkorNiccQiaindiKiitheArcadiSaa PISANO, VmORB [c. 1380-1456), commonly called Pba-
in the church al Bologna coniemted to thai laiat, nello, llaliaa medallist, was a nalive of San Vi^o >ul Lago in
till. Only the main pan, the actual wrcophagu) [ho tenitory of Verona. Spedmeiu of his work as a palmer are
li Kulptured reliefs of SI Dominic's life, is the work jiiU eilant in Rome, Veoice, Verooa izid Fistoia, and entitle
nd his pupils. The sculptured base and curved roof him to a place of some dittioclion in Ihe hitlory of thai art.
oful ornaments are later additions. This " Area " The National Gallery in London poiuiui a veiy fine spedmcn
of Pbanello's work — a panel painted with miniature-like delicacy.
During the latter portion of his life he lived in Rome, where he
PISAURUM (mod. Pesani, q.r.), an ancient town of Umbria on
the Via Fkminja, 16 m. from Aiiminum and S from Fanum
fortunae. A Roman colony wu loUDdcd hen io the teniioiy
o[ the Galli Scnones in 1S4 B.C., at the maulh of Ihe rivet Pisiunu
(mod. Foglia; the aea has since then recoled about half a mile).
Whetliei it took the place of an earlier town or not, is not known:
an important Gaulish cemetery has been discovered near the
viUa^of Novilfljm between Pisaurvm and Fanum, but to which oC
IhtM ceotio (if eitb«) it belonged is uncatiin (E. Brido in
UanumtHli itiLinca [iS^siv.Sstm)- In i^B-c. weheat that
the censon built a temple of Jupiter here and paved a road.
T. Acdus, the counsel who opposed Cicero in the case when be
defended Quenllui in a still eiiani speech, nas a native of Pisan-
rum. Catullus refers 10 the town as decadent or unhealthy, but
this may be merely malldous, artd does not seem to be home out
ihe Ijy facts: for it is not infrequently mentioned by classical authors*
FiBo Bapiiiicry, by Nictoia b-isano. j, ,^ occupipi fay Caewr in 49 ■c. and was made a colony
hen St Dominic was canonized, and his bones Irons- under the second Iiiumviiate. Hence it bears the name Colaoi*
1 finished in 1 167, not by Niccola himself, but by his Julia Felii. We hear lilde ol it under the empire. It was
r most magnificent, though not the mosC beautiful, destroyed by the Goths in sj^, and restored by Belisarius in 545.
worka is the great pulpit in Siena cathedral (116S). From the inscriptions, nearly 100 in number, an idea of the im-
aigcr than lh;it at Fisa, though somewhat similar in portance of the town may he gained. Among them are a group
;n, being aci ocUgon on cusped arches and columns- of cippi found on the site ol a sacred grove of the matrons of
nd a brae landing at the lop, with carved balusters Pisaunm. bearinz dedications to various deities, and belonzini
mi^lassiol foliage, are an addition of ;
'oaded with sculpture, i
ie dignified simplicity manufacture of bricks and pottery, though the factories cannot
ble. alwavs be nreciselv localised.
lomy, the twelfth sign of the
> fishes tied togelher by their
LpLured tails and denoted by the symbol X- It is also a constellation,
^t the mentionedby£udoius(4lhcentvryB,c.)andAnitui (jrdcentuiy
i pupil B.C.); and catalogued by Ptolemy (38 stars), Tycho Btahc (36)
and Hevelius (35). In Greek legend Aphrodite and Eros, while
Hsano was not only pre-eminent as a sculptor, hut on the banks of the Euphrates, were surprised by Typhon, and
greatest Italian architect cl his century; he designed sought safely by jumping into the water, where they nerc
)f very important buildings, though not all which changed into two fishes. This fahle, however, as in many other
ed to him by Vasiri. Among those now existing similar tases, is probably nothing more than an adaptation of an
ahe main part ol the cathedral at Pistoia, the church older Egyptian talc, a PiidBiK, is a finedoublcElatof magnitude
I of Sta Margherita at Cortona. and Sta Triniti at 3 and 4; 35 Piscium, is another double star, the components
rhe church ol SanI' Antonio at Padua has also been being a white star of the 6lh magnitude and a purplish star of
0 him, but without reason. UnToitunately his acchl- the Slh magnitude,
kshavcinmoslcasesbcenmuchallcredandmodern- pi,^, tailmlii the logthem Bih is a conitellatioo of the
)La wasalsoa skilled engineer, and was compelled „utheni beini.pScre. mentioned by E.^>ui and Araius. and cata-
1 overshadowed the baptistery at Florence, and had Bar i. ^iicii aiul^ii oc Fomalhaui, a «ar of the Km magnitude,
n the scene ot violent confficts between the Guelphs J"-^ ^•"■. "« Jlyng fi*, 1. a new conBellat™i .nlnxJucal
ines. He managed skilfully so that it should fall by John Bay«- m 1603-
uring the baptistery. Niccda Pisano died at Pisa PISCICULTURE (from Lat. pisih, fiih). The species ot
117S, leaving his son Giovanni a worthy successor to fish which can be kept successfully in caplivily throughout thdr
ents both as an architect and sculptor. lives from egg to adult is exceedingly limited in number. The
is importance as a rrvii'er of the old traditions of various breeds of goldfish are familiar examples, but the carp
«^Shir^o"rw,!h'-"^"CpSst°fc'aTihic;.'Ln Various other food-fishes, both marine and fresh-water, ^nb*
llowing his death, was so fertile in countless works ol ^'P^ I" Ponds for longer or shorter periods, but refuse to breed,
rivalled beauty. 'Both Niecoki and his nn had many while in other cases the fry obtained from captive breeders wiU
at artinic power, and ihe« carried the influence ol the Qot develop. Consequently there are two main types of pisd-
5j^iT;'S;iJra"i^r^;'beBi5'tohit'eo^^ """^ ^ ^ distinguished: (0 the tearing in confinemepi
S^m5ide«S!^.nT!othi.ol^2^«ay of young fishes lo an edible stage, and (i) the stocking of
luai. and geoHal hluories of Italian art; Symonds. utunl waters witb eggs or fry from captured bce^bn-
650
PISCICULTURE
Pish-rtaring. — Of the first type of pisciculture there are few tender, is still an unsolved problem, aItbou|^ reoot voA,
examples of commercial importance. The pond-culture of carried out at the Plymouth laboratory of the llaiiiK Y»-
carp is an important industry in China and Germany, and has logical Association, is at least promising. It has been fdoid
been introduced with some success in the United States, but possible to grow pure cultures of various diatoms, and by feeifiBg
in England it has long fallen out of use, and is not likely to be these to delicate larvae k^t in sterilized sea-water, giett sac-
revived so long as fresh fish can be obtained and distributed so cesses have been attained. In fresh-water culture little advan*
readily as is now the case. Other examples arc to be found in tage, if any, has been found to result from artificial katduDf,
the cultivation of the lagoons of the Adriatic, and of the salt- unless this is followed by a successful period of rearing. Tins
marshes of various parts of France. Here, as in ancient Greece the Howictown Fisheiy Company recommend their custoaom
and Rome, it is the practice to admit yoimg fish from the sea to stock their streams eUher with unhatcbed ova «r with tkrn-
by sluices, into artificial enclosures or " viviers," and to keep month-old fry. Their experience is " that there is no hsU^vay
them there until they are large enough to be used. An in- house between ova sown in redds and three-month-old fry.
teresting modification of this method of cultivation has been Younger fry may do, but only where ova would do as well, and
introduced into Denmark. The entrances to the inner lagoons at half the cost." In marine hatcheries, on the other load,
of the Limf jord arc naturally blocked against the immigration it is the invariable practice to hatch the eggs, ahhoa^ the
of flatfish by dense growths of sea-grass {ZosUra)^ although fry have to be put into the sea at the most critical period of
the outer lagoons arc annually ihvaded by large numbers of their lives. If it is a risky matter to plant out the robot
small plaice from the North Sea. The fishermen of the dis- young fry of trout under an age of three months, it would ttm
trict consequently combined to defray the expenses of trans- to be an infinitely more ^)eai]ative proceeding to plant otf
planting large numbers of small- plaice from the outer waters the deUcate week-old larvae of sca-fishcs in an environneDi
to the inner lagoons, where they were foimd to thrive far better which teems with predaceous enemies,
than in their natural habitat. The explanation has been shown Objects and UlilUy of Fish-htUckeries. — The earlier advoota
by Dr Petersen to be due to the abundance of food, coupled of artificial propagation and fish-hatching seem to have bea
with the lack of overcrowding of the small fish. This trans- under the impression that the thousands of fry resnltini fnn
plantation of plaice in Denmark has been annually repeated a single act of artificial proi>agation meant a corretpoadai
for several years with the most successful results, and a suitable increase in the numbers of edible fish when once they had bea
subvention to the cost is now an annual charge upon the govern- deposited in suitable waters; and also that artificial fertilizatioi
ment funds. • ensured a greater proportion of fertilized eggs than the natnl
As a result of the international North Sea fishery investimtions, process. For the second of these propositions there ii noeti-
it has been proposed to extend the same principle for the develop- dence, while the first proposition is now everywhere discreditci
ment of the deep sea fishery in the neighbourhood of the Dogger It is recognized that the great fertility of fishes is natne^
Bank. Experiments wth labelled plaice, carried out in 1904 by provision to meet a high mortaUty— greater in sea-&bcs«iA
the Manne Biological Association, showed that small plaice trans- F'y''"""" iw ui^i. • ui|^ um^^^xj—^^^ii^ «u a<»-ia««»
planted to the Dogger Bank in spring grew three times as rapidly nunute pelagic eggs than m fresh-water fishes with larger-yolUI
as those on the inshore grounds, and the same result, with in- eggs, partly because of the greater risks of marine pelagic Be,
significant variations, has been obtained by similar experiments and partly because of the greater delicacy of marine hmr
te' SSr^S^asTCanlJ^ 'S\^J^^onr.Z^t^SS. -)^ '^e time of hatching. Artificially propa^ted eggs »d £
from the shores. It has consequently been proposed that the small a^ter plantmg must submit to the same mortahty as the otkr
plaice should be transplanted in millions to the Bank by well vessels eggs and fry around them. Consequently it is useless to pw
every spring. It is claimed, as a further result of the experiments, ©ut eggs or fry unless in numbers sufficiently great to appw*
that from May to October the young fish would be practically free j ^y jncrc ise the stock of eggs and fry already existing,
on the shallow part of the Bank from the nsk of premature capture *" ■'. *.. ^"^»^*^"- y* '^ns* •"'f *' J ^^^^-Tt.^ ^
by trawlers, and that the increased value of the fish, consequent ^ ^ ^^^^ combmed always with the suiUbdity of the ei-
upon their phenomenal growth-rate, would greatly exceed the cost temal conditions, which accounts for the success of the bcA
01 transplantation. known experiments of American pisciculturists. The aiti-
ThemwhodsofoN^ter-andmusscl^^^^ ^^ propagated eggs of the shad from the easteni rirasof
to those just described. A breeding stock is mamuined to supply Jr^iT •. j o. 7 1 » j • ^l T>^\T^ • j .k.
the ground, or the " collectors." with spat, and the latter, when *hc United States were planted m those of California and tti
sufficiently grown, is then transpbnted to the most favourable Mississippi, where the speaes did not naturally occur. Ik
feeding-grounds, care being taken to avoid the local over-crowding conditions were suitable, and the species became at once acdS-
SllJditii5i«r* ^^^^^^y observed among sheU-fish under natural matized. Similarly reservoirs and streams can be stocW
with various kinds of fish not previously present. Bat in the
Fish-hatching. — The second, and more familiar, type of case of indigenous species the breeding stock must be voy
pisciculture is that known as fish-hatching, with which must seriously reduced before the addition of the eggs or fry of >
be associated the various methods of artificial propagation. few score or hundreds of fish can appreciably increase the ktal
The fertilization of the spawn is very easily effected. The stock,
eggs are collected either by " stripping " them from the mature In the case of sea-fishes (t is becoming increasing Rca|'
adult immediately after capture, or by keeping the adults nizcd that the millions of cod fry which are annually toned c«t
alive until they are ready to spawn, and then stripping them of the American, Newfoundland and Norwegian hatchakl
or by keeping them in reservoirs of sea-water and allowing are but an insignificant fraction of the billions of fiy iritid «t
them to spawn of their own accord. In the two former cases naturally produced. A single female cod liberates, accorfiiC
a little milt is allowed to fall from a male fish into a vessel con- to its size, from one to five million eggs in a single seasoa. Ttf
taining a small quantity of water — fresh or salt as required — the annual output of fry from each of these hatcheries nrif
and the eggs are pressed from the female fish into the same exceeds 300 millions, i.e. the natural product of a few hnadni
vessel. In fresh-water culture the eggs thus fertilized may be cod at most. In Britain marine hatcheries have been c9Ub>
at once distributed to the waters to be stocked, or they may be Ushed by the Fishery Board for Scotland in the bay <rf MK
kept in special receptacles provided with a suitable stream of near Aberdeen, by the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Committee it
water until the fry are hatched, and then distributed, or again Peel, and by the government of the Isle of Man at Pcfft Eoi-
they may be reared in the hatchery for several months imtH These establishments have been principally devoted to the
the fry are active and hardy. hatching of the eggs of plaice. But again the maximun c^
The hatching of eggs, whether of fresh-water or salt-water put of fry from any one of these establishments has not ooecded
fishes, presents no serious difficulties, if suitable apparatus is 40 millions in any single year. As a singk female ^nc
employed; but the rearing of fry to an advanced stage, without produces about 200,000 eggs per annum, this output docs v*-
serious losses, is less easy, and in the case of sea-fishes with exceed the natural produce of a few hundred fidi. Under that
pelagic eggs, the larvae of which are exceedingly small and circtunstances the probable utility of the ^rptntfrf** cmU be
PISCINA— PISIDIA
651
only if the try were sedentary and could be planted
in suitable localities where young fish were naturally scarce.
But the fry drift with the currents as helplessly as the eggs,
lad the a priori objections to the utility of the operations have
■ no case been met by evidence of tangible results. The
ilaice fry hatched in the Scottish establishment have been dis-
ributed for many^ years in the waters of Loch Fyne. Yet in
his area, according to the investigations of Mr Williamson
Rgport of the Scottish Fishery Board for 1898), nearly 500
oiUions of plaice eggs are naturally produced in one spawning
esaon. Evidence is still lacking as to whether the 20 to 30
BiQion fry annually added from the hatchery have s^^re-
iably increased the quantities of young plaice on the surround-
Qg shores. Silpposing this could be established, the question
vould still remain whether the same result could not be obtained
It far less expense by dispensing with the hatching operations
md distributing the eggs directly after fertilization.
In the United States the utility of the cod-hatching opera-
dons has been constantly asserted by representatives of the
Bureau of Fisheries, but practically the only evidence adduced
ii the occasional appearance of unusual numbers of cod in the
oei^bcnirfaood. It has not been established that the fluctua-
tions in the local cod fisheries bear any fixed relation to the ex-
tent of the hatching operations, while the earlier reports of the
Commissionera of Fisheries contain evidence that similar fluctu-
adkms occurred before the hatching of "fish commission
-cod " had begim.
The situation. may be summed up in the words of Mr Fryer,
KM. Superintending Inspector of Fisheries, who critically
esunined the evidence bearing upon the operations of the
Newfoundland Hatchery at Dildo (Reports x.-xiL of the
hiq>ectors of Sea Fisheries, E. & W.): "Where the estab-
firiunent of a hatchery, even on the smallest scale, is followed
by- an increased take of fish, there is a tendency to connect
the two as cause and effect on insufficient evidence, and
without any regard to the many conditions which have aJways
led to fluctuations in the case of any particular kind of fish."
The most exact investigations bearing upon this problem are
those which have been recently undertaken in Norway in con-
aexion with the cod-hatching of>erations at Arendal under
Captain Dannevig. Four fjords were selected in the south
coast of Norway in proximity tp the hatchery, and the usual
number of fry (10-30 millions) were planted in the spring in
alternate fjords, leaving the intermoliate fjords unsupplied.
The rebtive number of young cod in the various fjords was
then carefully investigated throughout the succeeding summer
and autumn months. It was foimd that there was no relation
between the abundance of yoimg fish and the presence or ab-
tenoe of " artificial " fry. In 1904, 33 million fry were planted
in Sondelefjord and young fish were exceptionally abundant
in the following autumn (three times as abundant as in 1903
when no fry were planted). But their abundance was equally
striking in other fjords in which no fry had been planted,
while in 1905 all the fjords were deficient in young cod whether
they had been planted with fry from the hatchery or not.
For a summary of these investigations see papers on " Artificial
F|sh-hatching' in Norway," by Captain Dannevig and Mr Dahl,
ia the Retort of the Lancashire Sea Fisheries Laboratory for 1906
(Liverpool, 1907).
It would thus seem clear that the attempts hitherto made to
increase the supply of sea-fish by artificial hatching have been
snsttccessful. The experience gained has doubtless not been
wasted, but the direction to be taken by future work is plain.
The energy and money devoted to hatching of>erations should
be diverted to the serious attempt to discover a means of rearing
00 a large scale the just-hatched fry of the more sedentary
ipedcs to a sturdy adolescence. When that has been done (it
has been achieved by the present writer in the case of the sea
fish CoUus with demersal eggs,) it would be possible to deposit
the young fish in suitable localities on a large scale, with a
leaaonable pro^)ect of influencing the local abundance of the
of fish in question.
For further details, see J. T. Cunningham, Natural History of
the Marketable Marine Fishes of the British Islands (London, 1896):
A Manual of Fish^CuUure (Washington, 1897); Roch6, La Culture
des mers (niris, 1808); W. Garstang, Exfmments on the Trans-
Uantation of Marked Plaice (First Report of the North Sea Fisheries
Investigation Committee, 1905). (W. Ga.)
PISCINA, a Latin word first applied to a fish-pond, and later
used for any pool of water for bathing, &c., either natural or
artificial, and also for a tank or reservoir. In ecclesiastical
usage the term was given to a shallow stone basin (the French
cuvette) placed near the altar in a church, with drains to take
away the water used in the ablutions at the mass. " Piscinae "
seem at first to have been mere cups or small basins, supported
on perforated stems, placed close to the wall, and afterwards to
have been recessed therein and covered with niche heads, which
often contained shelves to serve as aumbries. They are rare
in England till the 13th century, after which there is scarcely an
altar without one. They frequently take the form of a double
niche, with a shaft between the arched heads, which are often
filled with elaborate tracing.
PI8EK, a town of Bohemia, 55 m. S. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 13,608, mostly Czech. It lies on the right bank of the
Wottawa, which is here crossed by an interesting stone bridge
of great antiquity. The most prominent buildings are the
church of the Nativity, the town-hall, and a castle dating from
the 15th century. The industries are iron and brass founding,
brewing, and the manufacture of shoes, paper, cement ai^
Turkish fezes. Feldspar, quartz and granite are quarried in
the environs. The name of Pisek, which is. the Czech for sand, is
said to be derived from the gold-washing formerly carried on
in the bed of the Wottawa (1571-1621).
In 1 619 it was captured by the imperialist general, Karl
Bonaventura de Longueval, Graf von Buquoy, and suffered so
severely that the citizens opened their gates to his opponent,
Ernst von Mansfeld. This was punished in October of the
following year, when Duke Maximilian of Bavaria sacked the
town and put nearly all the inhabitants to the sword. Pisek
was one of the chief centres of the Hussites. It was occupied
by the French in 1741.
PISIDIA, in ancient geography, th^ name given to a country
in the south of Asia Minor, immediately north of Pamphylia
by which it was separated from the Mediterranean, while it
was bounded on the N. by Phrygia, on the E. by Lycaonia,
Isauria and Cilida, and on the W. and S.W. by Lyda
and a part of Phrygia. It was a rugged and mountainous dis-
trict, comprising some of the loftiest portions of the great range
of Mt Taurus, together with the offshoots of the same chain
towards the central table-land of Phrygia. Such a region was
naturally occupied from a very early period by wild and lawless
races of mountaineers, who were veiy imperfectly reduced to
subjection by the powers that successively established their
dominion in Asia Minor. The Pisidians are not mentioned by
Herodotus, either among the nations that were subdued by
Croesus, or among those that furnished contingents to the army
of Xerxes, and the first mention of them in history occurs in
the Anabasis of Xenophon, when they furnished a pretext to the
younger Cyrus for levying the army with which he designed to
subvert his brother's throne, while he pretended only to put
down the Pisidians who were continually harassing the neigh-
bouring nations by their lawless fora)rs {A nab. i. 1, ix; ii. i, 4,
&c.). They are afterwards mentioned frequently by later
writers among the inland nations of Asia Minor, and assume a
more prominent part in the history of Alexander the Great, to
whose march through their country they opposed a deter-
mined re^tance. In Strabo's time they had passed under
the Roman dominion, though still governed by their own petty
chiefs and retaining to a considerable extent theur predatory
habits (giving rise to such wars as that carried on by (^uirinius,
about 8-6 B.C.).
The boundaries of Pisidia, like those of most of the
inland provinces or regions of Asia Minor, were not dearly
defined, and appear to have fluctuated at different timea. Th^&
was e^>edaily the case on the vv^ oVV)6a^'«\i«te^^'«Q;^^asA
652
PISO— PISSARRO
district of Milyas was sometimes included in Pisidia, at other
times assigned to Lycia. Some writers, indeed, considered the
Pisidians as the same people with the Milyans, while others
regarded them as descendants of the Solymi, but Strabo speaks
of the language of the Pisidians as distinct from that of the
Solymi, as well as from that of the Lydians. The whole of
Pisidia is an elevated region of table-lands or upland valleys in
the midst of the ranges of Mt Taurus which descends abruptly
on the side of Pamphylia. It contains several small lakes, and
two of large size, Bey-Shcher Lake, the ancient Karalis, and
the double lake now caiUed the Egerdir Geul, of which the ancient
name was Limnai. The latter is a fresh-water lake of about
30 m. in length, situated in the north of Pisidia on the frontier
of Phrygia, at an elevation of 3007 ft. Karalis is a larger
body, also of fresh water, and at a distinctly higher level above
the sea. The only rivers of importance are the Cestrus and
the Eurymedon, both of which take their rise in the highest
ranges of Mt Taurus, and flow down through deep and narrow
valleys to the plain of Pamphylia, which they traverse on their
way to the sea.
Notwithstanding its rugged and mountainous character,
Pisidia contained in ancient times several considerable towns,
the ruins of which have been brought to light by the re-
searches of recent travellers (Arundcll, Hamilton, Danicll, G.
Hirschfeld, Radet, Stcrrctt, Lanckoronski, Ramsay, &c.), and
show them to have attained under the Roman Empire to a degree
of opulence and prosperity far beyond what we should have
looked for in a country of predatory mountaineers. The most
important of them are Termcssus, near the frontier of Lycia, a
strong fortress in a position of great natural strength and
commanding one of the principal passes into Pamphylia;
Cremna, another moimtain fortress, north of the preceding,
impending over the valley of the Cestrus; Sagalassus, a little
farther north, a large town in a strong position, the ruins of
which are among the most remarkable in Asia Minor; Selge, on
the right bank of the Eurymedon, surrounded by rugged moun-
tains, notwithstanding which it was in Strabo's time a large and
opulent city; and Antioch, known for distinction's sake as
Antioch of Pisidia, and celebrated for the visit of St Paul. This
was situated in the extreme north-east of the district imme-
diately on the frontier of Phrygia, between Lake Egerdir and
the range of the Sultan Dagh and was reckoned in the Greek
and earlier Roman period, e.g. by Strabo, as a city of Phrygia.
' Besides these there were situated in the rugged mountain
tract west of the Cestrus Cretopolis, Olbasa, Pogla, Isinda,
Etenna and Comama. Pednelissus was in the upper valley
of the Eurymedon above Selgc. The only place in the district
at the present day deserving to be called a town. is Isbarta, the
residence of a pasha; it stands at the northern foot of the
main mass of Mt Taurus, looking over a wide and fertile plain
which extends up to the northern chain of Taurus. North of
this and immediately on the borders of Phrygia stood Apollonia,
called also Mordiacum. Large estates in Pisidia and the
adjoining parts of Phrygia belonged to the Roman emperors;
and their administration has been investigated by Ramsay and
others.
We have no due to the ethnic character and relations of
the Pisidians, except that wc learn from Strabo that they were
distinct from the neighbouring Solymi, who were probably a
Semitic race, but we find mention at an early period in these
mountain districts of various other tribes, as the Cabali,Milyans,
&:c., of all which, as well as the neighbouring Isaurians and
Lycaonians, the origin is wholly unknown, and the absence of
monuments of their languages must remain so. A few short
Pisidian inscriptions have been published by Ramsay in Revue
dcs Hudes ancicnncs (1895, pp. 353-36^). No inscriptions in these
other languages are known. (VV. M. Ra.)
PISO, the name of a distinguished Roman plebeian family
of the Calpumian gens which continued in existence till the end
of the 2nd century a.d. Nearly fifty of its members were
prominent in Roman history, but the following deserve particular
mention.
I. Lucius Calpusnius Piso Caesokinus, Roman irmftmM.
was the father-in-law of Juhus Caesar. In 58B.C., whencoosol, be
and his colleague Aulus Gabinius entered into a conqMict inlh
P. Clodius, with the object of getting Cicero obt of the vay.
Psio's reward was the province of Macedonia, which be admino-
tered from 57 to the beginning of 55, when be was recalkd,
perhaps in consequence of the violent attack made npoa him '
by Cicero in the senate in his speech De prcvinciis constlar^.
On his return Piso addressed the senate in his defence, ud
Cicero replied with the coarse and exaggerated invective koon
as In Pisonem, Piso issued a [>amphlet by way of rejoinder,
and there the matter dropped, Cicero being afraid to bring Uie
father-in-law of Caesar to triaL At the outbreak of the ciril
war Piso offered his services as mediator, but when Caoir
marched upon Rome he left the city by way of protest. He 6A
not, however, definitely declare for Pompcy, but remasKd
neutral, without forfeiting the re^>ect of Caesar. After the
murder of the dictator he insisted on the provisions of his liB
being strictly carried out, and for a time oi^Kued Antoej.
Subsequently, however, he became one of hb supporters, sod
is mentioned as taking part in an embassy to Antony's amp it
Mutina with the object of bringing about a reconciliation.
a. Luaus CALPtTSNius Piso, suxnamed Fntgi (the woithj),
Roman statesman and historian, was tribune in m9 i^
He is known cUefly for his lex Calpumia repdhadenm,
which brought about the system of quaestioius ferpeiuse and t
new phase of criminal procedure. As praetor (136) and coofll
(133) Piso fought against the slaves in Sicily. He eoerseticallf
opposed Gains Gracchus, especially in connexion with ha com lt«.
See Annalists; C. Cichorius in Pauly-Wismwa's Rtal eacydh
Pddie (1897). vol. ill., pt. I; H. Peter, Hutcricorvm nmamnm
reliquiae (1870), vol. i.; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Romau LiL (Ea^
trans.), { 132, 4. On the lex Calpumia, Corpus inscr. latinanm,u
No. 198, with Mommsen's commentary; A* H. J. Groeaidge. Hi±
of Rome, 133-104 B.C. (1904).
3. Gnaeus Calpusnius Piso, Roman statesman, was ooosd
in 7 B.C., and subsequently governor of Spain and procoosd d
Africa. In a.d. 17 Tiberius appointed him governor of ^yriHi
with secret instructions to thwart Germanicus, to whom the
eastern provinces had been assigned. The indignation of the
people at the death of Germanicus, and the su^don that Fa>
had poisoned him, forced Tiberius to order an invcsrigatio^
Piso committed suicide, though it was rumoured that Tiberiaik
fearing incriminating disclosures, had put him to dcathi
See H. Schiller, CexkiekU der rdmiscken KaiseruU (1883). «oL L
4. Gaius Calpurnius Piso, Roman statesman, oiator lad
p>atron of literature in the ist century a J>., is known diiefy ior
his share in the conspiracy of aj>. 6$ against Nero (9.*.). HeiM
one of the most popular men in Rome, partly for his skill ii
poetry and music, partly for his love of luxury and genooaiy.
It is probablv the bst-named who is referred to by Calporaia
Siculus under tnc name of Meliboeus, and be is the subject of the
pan^yric De laude Pisonis.
PISSARRO, CAMILLE (1831-1903), French painter, «■
born at St Thomas in the Danish Antilles, of Jewish piralf
of Spanish extraction. He went to Paris at the age of ttmti,
and, as a pupil of Corot, came into close touch with the Barbboa
masters. Though at first he devoted himsdf to subjects d
the kind which will ever be associated with the name of MiBet,
his interest was entirely absorbed by the landscape, and not bf
the figures. He subsequently fell under the spell of the riaf
impressionist movement and threw in his lot with Monet and
his friends, who were at that time the butt of public cidioda
Like Monet, he made sunlight, and the effect of sunli^t 00 tk
objects of nature, the chief subjects of his paintings, whether ii
the country or on the Paris boulevards. About 18S5 he toik ,
up the laboriously scientific method of the pointillists, but afttf
a few years of these experiments he returned to a broader aad
more attractive manner. Indeed, in the closing years of ks
life he produced some of his finest paintings, in whidi he act
down with admirable truth the peculiar atmosphere and oobtf
and teeming life of the boulevands, streets and bridges of Puis
and Rouen. He died in Paris in 1903.
PISTACHIO NUT— PISTOIA, SYNOD OF
653
-- is represented in the Caillebotte room at the Luxem-
DoufiB>» ^nd in almost every collection of impressionist paintings.
A number of his finest works are in the collection of M. Durand-
Ruel in Paris.
PISTACHIO NUT, the fruit of Pistacia vera (natural order
Anacardiaceae), a small tree which is a native of Syria and
generally cultivated in the Mediterranean region. Although a
delicious nut and much prized by the Greeks and other Eastern
nations, it is not well known in Britain It is not so large as a
fiazel nut, but is rather longer and much thinner, and the shell
is covered with a somewhat wrinkled skin. The pistachio
nut is the species named in Gen. xliii. 1 1 (Heb. 19^ Ar. ho\m) as
forming part of the present which Joseph's brethren took with
ibem from Canaan, and in Egypt it is still often placed along
with sweetmeats and the like in presents of courtesy. The
small nut of Pistacia LenttscuSt not larger than a cherry stone,
also comes from Smyrna, Constantinople and Greece. P,
LetUiscus is the mastic tree, a native of the Mediterranean
region, forming a shrub or small tree with evergreen pinnately-
compound leaves with a winged stalk. " Mastic " (from
wuisticare, to chew) is an aromatic resinous exudation obtained
by making incisions in the bark. It is chiefly produced in Asia
Uinor and is used by the Turks as a chewing gum. It is also
vatd as a varnish for pictures. P. Tercbinlhus, the Cyprus
turpentine tree, a native of southern Europe, Asia Minor and
North Africa, yields turpentine from incisions in the trunk. A
fdl is produced on this tree, which is used in dyeing and tanning.
PISTIL* a term in botany for the female or seed-bearing
oigan of a flower {q.v.). The Lat. pistUlum (diminutive from
pinsere^ pistum, to pound), a pestle, a club-headed instrument
ued for crushing or braying substances in a mortar (q.v.), was
taken as the name for this organ from its similarity in shape,
and tbence adapted in Fr. pislU about the middle of the i8th
century. In its complete form a pistil consists of three parts —
ovary, at the base, containing the bodies which become seeds,
style (Or. arvXos, pillar), and stigma (Gr. criyna, mark, ct'^uv,
to brand), the part which in impregnation receives the pollen.
PISTOIA* or PiSTOjA (anc. Pistonae), a town and episcopal
ice of Tuscany, Italy, in the province of Florence, from which it
ii 31 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1Q06), 27,127 (town); 68,131
(commune). It is situated on a slight eminence (210 ft.) near
the Ombrone, one of the tributaries of the Arno. It is on the
lite of the Roman Pisloriae, which is hardly mentioned in ancient
times, except for the destruction of Catiline's forces and the
daughter of their leader near it in 62 b c, and as a station on
the road between Florcntia and Luca, and earlier still by
Plautus, but only with jesting allusion to the similarity of the
name to the word pistor (baker). Hardly any inscriptions of
the ancient town have been found; but excavations in 1Q02 (see
C. Pellegrini in Notizie degli Scavi, 1904, p. 241) in the Piazzo del
Duomo led to the discovery of a large private house, which
bdonged to the end of the ist century B.C. Some mosaic
pavements were found, belonging perhaps to the 3rd century
AJK, while the house appears to have fallen into ruin at the
beginning of the 5th. Remains of four subsequent periods
were discovered above it. It was found that the tradition that
the cathedral occupied the site of a temple of Mars was ground-
less; for the house appears to have extended under it. Ammi-
tans Marcellinus (5th century) mentions Pistoriae as a city of
T^nda Annonaria. During the middle ages Pistoia was at
tisies a dangerous enemy to Florence, and the scene of constant
oooflicts between the Guelphs and Ghibcllincs, it was there
that the great party struggle took place which resulted in the
creation of the Bianchi and Neri factions (see Dante, Inferno,
xdv. 121 to end). In 1302-06 it was besieged and eventually
taken by the armies of Florence and Lucca, and in 1325 it
became subject to Castruccio of Lucca. In 13 51 it was obliged
to surrender to Florence, and thenceforth shared its fate.
ITie city is still surrounded by walls, dating from shortly after
the siege of 1302-06; while two inner lines of streets represent
two earlier and inner lines of wall. In the early development
of architecture and sculpture Pistoia played a very important
part; these aru, as they ensted in Tuscany before the time of
Niccola Pisano, can perhaps be better studied in Pistoia than
anywhere else, nor is the city less rich in the later works produced
by the school of sculptors founded by Niccola. In the 14th
century Pistoia possessed a number of the most skilful artists
in silver-work, a wonderful specimen of whose powers exists now
in the cathedral— the great silver altar and frontal of St James,
originally made for the high altar, but now placed in a chapel
on the south side. The cathedral is partly of the 12th century,
with a porch and fagade with small arcades— in black and white
marble, as is the case with several other churches of Pistoia —
but was remodelled in the 13th century, and modernized inside
in the worst taste. Besides the silver altar it contains many
fine works of sculpture; the chief are the monument of Cino da
Pistoia, lawyer and poet, Dante's contemporary (1337), by
Cellino di Nesc, surrounded by his scholars, and Verrocchio's
finest work in marble, the monument to Cardinal Forteguerra
(1474), with a large figure of Christ, surrounded by angels, in
high relief. The clay model for it is in the South Kensington
Museum. The monument has unfortunately been altered.
The octagonal baptistery is by Cellino di Ncse (1339). Among
the earlier churches the principal is Sant' Andrea, enriched with
sculpture, and probably designed by Gruamons and his brother
Adeodatus in 1136; in the nave is Giovanni Pisano's magnificent
pulpit, imitated from his father's pulpit at Pisa. Other churches
of almost equal interest are S. Giovanni Fuorcivitus (so called
because it was outside the line of the earliest, pentagonal,
enceinte of the middle ages), with one of the long sides elabor-
atcly adorned with small arcades in the Pisan style, in black, and
white marble, also with sculpture by Gruamons (1162) on the
fagade. Within is a beautiful group of the Visitation by Luca
della Robbia. There is also a fine pulpit by Fra Guglielmo
dcir AgncUo of Pisa (1270). S. Bartolomco in Pantano is an
interesting basilica of 1167. San Francesco al Prato is a fine
church of the end of the 13th century with interesting frescoes
of the school of Giotto. San Domcnico, a noble church, begun
in 1294, contains the beautiful tomb of Filippo Lazari by
Bernardo and Antonio Rossellino (1462-1468). In addition to its
fine churches, Pistoia contains many noble palaces and public
buildings. The Pdazzo del Commune and the Palazzo Pretorio,
once the residence of the podesti, are both fine specimens of
14th-century domestic architecture, in good prescr\'ation. The
quadrangle of the latter contains many well-painted armorial
bearings of the podestds. The Ospedale del Ceppo, built
originally in the 13th century, but remodelled in the 15th, is
remarkable for the reliefs in enamelled and coloured terra-cotta
with which its exterior is richly decorated. Besides various
medallions, there is a frieze of figures in high relief extending
along the whole front, over its open arcade. The reliefs consist
of a series of groups representing the Seven Works of Mercy and
other figures; these were executed by Giovanni Delia Robbia
between 15 14 and 1525. and, though not equal to the best work
of Luca and Andrea, are yet very fine in conception tind model-
ling, and extremely rich in their general decorative effect. The
last on the right was added in 1 585 by Paladini.
The industries of Pistoia include iron and steel works, especi-
ally manufactures of glass, silk, macaroni, woollens, olive oil,
ropes, paper, vehicles and fire-arms. The word "pistol" is
derived (apparently through pistolcse, a dagger — dagger and
pistol being both small arms) from Pistoia, where that weapon
was largely manufactured in the middle ages.
PISTOIA, SYNOD OF. a diocesan synod held in 1786 under
the presidency of Scipione dc' Ricci (1741-1810), bishop of
Pistoia, and the patronage of Leopold, g^and-duke of Tuscany,
with a view to preparing the ground for a national council and
a reform of the Tuscan Church. On the 26th of January the
grand-duke issued a circular letter to the Tuscan bishops
suggesting certain reforms, especially in the matter of the
restoration of the authority of diocesan synods, the purging of
the missals and breviaries of legends, the assertion of episcopal
as against papal authority, the curtailing of the privileges of
the monastic orders, and the beiicr cducaVvow q( vJwt ^cc^
654 PISTOL
Id ip[tc~Dt Iht boitQc Utiluik o( (he iK*t nMj'orily o( tfae HiUtry. — Piitoti are lu
biihopi, Bisfagp de' Ricci iisued on the jiii of July ■ lunnnona £nt lime d Piitoui in luly, wbu
to a diocesan synod, which vru ulcnmly opened on iJie iStb of Cuninelleo ViEtlli, who fiouiiihcd
Scplembu. It wu attended by 233 beneficed lelulai and ij inventoc. The £nt piitols, in the i6tli ootuiy, h>
lepdai pricati, and decided wilb pnctical unanimity on a bairek and heavy butu, neariy at right MO^a to Ihc b«ml
•Clio of decieca which, bad il been possibk to carry tbem lolo Sboitly ailerraids the pattern changed, the butu bdcf lHi|Ib-
rffed, would bave iovolvfd a drutic refom of Ihi Church on ened out almost in a line with the bamii. Thoe ally
the lines advocated by " FebrDmiu"(>eeI^asEDHLuiim), [hsIoIs' were usually fitted wilb the whecj-lock [lec Cti).
The Ant decne (DkWiii dt jiit a kcIuu] declared that the Short, heavy piiloli, called " dagff," were in comraoo Be
Cailialic Church has no right a> introduce new dofmai. but only about the middle of the 17th century, wiib bulla o< ivay. boPE,
to fjeaerve in in Dri(ina1 purity the faith once .delivered by ChriH ii,n| „ood or metaL A chiiellal Italian da«i ti 16^ iK
t^«^^\^o ."n-dhill^rth? tiS-Si; 'ili^Ta pa«l!; e^npl^.^ a dighlly bel]-no«^ barrel of about I in. in k>^
ipniua] body and hai no aulborily in thingt KuUr. Olber and 14 bore. Tbe German wheel-Iocli mtbtary pMok mi
decices denounced the abiue ol induljencts, of fenivah of saints, by the Rettets, and those made for nobles and (Enllemea. ■«
'r* iosi'''°°f^'" '"^sIh^^ '^' "'"^"'he^Jii'^ proluiely and beautifully ornamented. Pislol* with Md
recommended 'lie niSilUn of"?! n.^'J^ri'' orden'IJiS^ ihii'of beautiful specimens ol which, siiver-ttminted, were nude il
5c Benedict, Ibe rules ol which were to be brought into harmony Edinburgb and used by Higblandera. Duelling, wben ia vcvs^
with iDodem ideas; nuns were to be forbidden 10 lake the vows timed ^e production of spodaDy aecutate and weD-BWb
rfa^Sl^ ™^*^ proposed the convoation jingit-bamlled pistols, rtUable at Iweoly paces. The psunl
,^ , , - . ..of this pistol seldom varied, its accuracy at abort nttiie cqbs&M
,..?'™,1^° ™T ■»"'"' "B"""' ■'"> » P"">™1 I*'"' of that ol more modem ones, the principle of a heavy bJrt ol
B^hopde'Ricci, and were waialy approved by the grand-duke, 1,^^^ ^^.^ „( ^^^ y^,^^ employed. The iisl (farffc-
at whose inslante a national synod ol the Tuscan bisbo[B met \am\ieA piilola were very bully weapons made Kitk ik
al Florence on the 23rd ol April 17B7. TJe temper oHba barrels laid alongside one another, necauutiog 1«> locts srf
assembly w«, however, wholly different. The bishops refused [„ iu„n„„. There was also the "over and under" pW*
to allow a voice to any not of th.ir own ordM, and in the end tbe „„ ^^ ^^ ^y ^^ the other. This was a more pocUtt
decrees of I^loia were supported by a nimorityoon^y three. ^ _ ^^ requiring one lock and hammer, the second iBsd
They were finsl^y condemned at Rome by the buU ^«(™ being mmed round by band, alter the 6nrt bad beo. fari, «.
fdi, of Ihe 2aih of August I7W. De' Ricci, deprived ol the „ „ .lieraitive, the flash-hole being adjusted la the s«i<
personJsuppotloflhegrand^lukelnowlheemperorLeopoldl.) barrel bji a key. These pistols were first made with 4inl isi
eiposed to preuute Irom Rome, and threatened mlh mob „^ ,(^^ ^j subsequently (or percussion capi. DhU
violent* •* » suspected destroyer of holy rehcs, resigned his see „ ^^ „j „„j„ .. pi^^ij ^^ j„ ^^^^ ^^ , U^
in i;jl, and lived in Florence as a private gentkman until his jncchanism thai served to discharge both bands in (on.
death b iSio. In May iSoj, on tbe reluni of Pope Pius VII. „, , , -jv,,j-^
from Paris, be had signed an act of submission to the panal ''7'-l~\ "™'™^ " » ''"*'.'"'*T""t^ ^
decision of ijoi revolving breech coolauung several chambers for the ca
.. „ ■ ,■ r - - j-o- ■ thus entiblingBuccessive shots to be rapidly fired from theii»t
iiP,,,^U,^^^!^'^pJfit^M,^t^J'A^'ai\^,^ weapon without reloading. The otdinao' pistol is no " "
in 3 voli in 1865. BMiiff. thii his letters lo AntoiOo Marini were been for many years past, superseded by tbe terol
put on the Indo.. See alB De Potiet Vie iL Sf.giM ifC fSVro „hole of the 'barrels, sii, seven or eight, reralving in
L-li^Sr.i!; H :,",'..f -SuiSiri;; -• ™ '™ - ''•■^s^-'^r ■; "HSk Ei
in ZiU SW-10 tnil. tfiHa riKOM. v3i. ii. and iii. (FlorenM. 1B56). k. the hsmnier was laised and the barrels removed by Us ^
The Bclsof Iheiynodof Pinola werepublished in Italian and Latin ol the trigger. This weapon was cumbrou ' ~ "
ai Pavia in 17SS. - aim could be taken with il owing chieSy tt
PISTOL a smaU fire-arm designed for quick work and personal resistance of (he mainspring and the com ^
protection al dose quartets, and for use in one hand. It was required on the trigger. Tbe principle of a revolving bRHl >
originally made as a single and also doubte-barrelled smooth one barrel, which superseded the " pepper-box," is aa dd Mi
bore muule-loadec, involving no depatluie in ptiDcif^e Irom Ibe in Ibe history of &te.anns, dating from the i6(h cEOUiy. Al
.— Dagg (Etoyal United Serviu Institution).
ordinary fire-arms of Ihe day. With the introduction of
vera and breech-loading pistols and (he application ol '" ri
in the early half of ihe igth ce
tomusket ljarrels,cameaiao,inineearlyliauoiu»ei9tncentuiy, 1 por ihc use ol long heavy (utols by cwn
Uk rising ol piital-himiL I iTih ccniuries. see AkHV ; Ifstfsry; aad CavjkL
PISTOL
655
of London, but this was subsequently improved by
"odudng geared mechanism, by which the pull of the trigger
Ibe cocking of the hammer, or both, do the work. There
its a pistol of the time of Charles I. which is rotated auto-
tkally as the hammer is raised.
rapidly fired, if necessary, I>y the trigger action alone. Many
revolvera on the Colt principle were in use during the Crimean
War and the Indian Mutiny, and proved of valuable service to
British officers.
As rim-fire, pin-fire and central-fire cartridges, were succes-
Fic. 2. — Wheel-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution).
n 1814 a self-acting revolver mechanism of a crude pattern
I produced in England. Four years later Collier used a
arate spring to rotate the chamber. In 1835, an American,
auel Colt, produced and patented the first practical revolving
joA, the idea of which was obtained by him, it is stated, from
indent " revolving " weapon in the Tower of London. The
mbers of the first Colt revolver were loaded with powder and
lets from the muzzle end, and each chamber had a nipple
t required to be capped. It was the invention of the copper
that made the Colt revolver possible Under the old
sively introduced, breech-loading revolvers were constructed
to use them. Messrs Smith & Wesson, of Springfield. U.S^,
produced the first metal cartridges for revolvers. Pin-fire
cartridges, paper and metallic, were used on the continent of
Europe for Lefaucheux and other revolvers, and these and rim-
fire cartridges are still used for revolvers of small calibre. But
since the central-fire cartridge has proved its superiority for
guns, its principle has been generally applied to pistol cartridges,
at first to the larger bores.
The alteration of the muzzle-loading to the breech-loading
MiNCNfS
Fig 3. — Wheel-lock pistol (Royal United Service Institution).
ning system with exposed powder in a pan the difiiculty
leparate and effective ignition with the revolving cylinder
almost insuperable
he first American revolver makers caused the cocking of
hammer to revolve the cylinder, while the English makers
ned this by the pull of the trigger. In 1855, Adams of
don, and also Tranter of Birmingham, brought out the
ble-action revolver, in which the revolution of the cylinder
Id be effected by both these methods. When the revolver
ockcd and fired by pressing the trigger, greater rapidity of
chamber in the revolver involved no decided change of type.
The original Colt, as a breech-loader, remained practicadly
the same weapon as before, with a changed chamber. A
hinged flap uncovered the breech-chamber on the right, and as
each chamber reached that point the empty cartridge case was
ejected by means of an ejecting-rod carried in a tube attached
to the under side of the barrel and kept in place by a spiral
spring, and the chamber reloaded. The next improvement
was greater ease and rapidity of extraction, obtained first by
Thomas's invention of making the barrel and chamber slide
Fig. 4. — Flint-lock pistol (Royal United Service InsUtution).
s obtained than when the hamra|^s cocked with the thumb,
accuracy is impaired, as the tri||K requires a long pull and
iderable force in order to compriKss the mainspring and
Ive the cylinder. The double action revolver was, there-
a great advance on the single action, enabling the first and
following shots, if desired, to be accurately fired by a
rrate pres.*«ure of the trigger after the hammer had been
e4 by the thumb; or, alternatively, the revolver could be
forward on the frame of the pistol. The extractor, being fast to
the pivot, retained the cartridges until the chamber was pushed
clear of them. Then the chamber was made to swing on one
side, as in the Colt pistol illustrated, enabling all the cartridges
to be simultaneously extracted. Finally, self-extracting revol-
vers with jointed frames were introduced, in which the dropping
of the barrel forces out the extractor as in an ordinary double
gun, the extractor acting simultaneously in all the cK«xcvV)KX^ ^V
6s6
the pjstfJ. A qniog retonu the citnctor to iu plitc whco the
cmply cutridge cut* have bua tjccted, (nd brinci tbe birrcl
la ui u^e ot ibout 45*, for cxinv«U«ic« in iMding, The
SHindneu uid rigidity of the weapon depend upon the cfGdency
of the conneoan between the hirreli ind the lumdinf bneth.
And a lop Bcup bolt hu proved the itrongat and bajudim with
thepialol, aa with the ihot-gun.
lAia type of levolver oiigiulcd with Metsn Smith t
WoaoD, but they and other gunmalieTa have gieally improved
upaa the ori^nal modet. Between the Americaa pattern and
the En^ish. aa made hy Mcun F. Weblcy & Son, the chief
diflerence ii that in the Smiita & Weuon the hoJding-dowa
bolt or atcb i> upon tbe banel, and it engage) with tbe top of
■mmvT and triQ
of tbe cylindrr a;
wslh a ratchet (y 1
loading. TTi?SiH I
left Bde <if lhe,tr« |
One gitai diudvantage of rcvidven t* the ei
the opening between tbe breech of tbe bairel u
In Ihe Ni_
this disadvantage has b
the itanding breech ; Kbereis in the Webley the boll ii upon the ■' ploying a long eariridge case which eii
standing breech and gripi the eitrimily of tbe hinged banel, of the bullet and bridges the gap betwe
Neither mechanism is as strong aa could be wished if heavy as the cyUndcr ii iTK»'ed forward. A " r
charges of amohdcss nilro-compounds are to be used. Thb ! also been conslrucled by the Bnendlin
' ' id type ol revolver is most convenient for use on horacback. the " pepper-boi " principle, with Sied
IS the pistol ca
w cartridges ei
S19 (flB.
g. will fall and Krike the ranndge. A uojeciion
f the trigRer» workinD in a dot in the frame.
' fpjm making more than one-aixlh of a revolu-
taring one of the rtoovci nearest tbe rear end
e cylindcT. When the cylinder i> swung out
ns are arranged to prevent the cockirg of the
ler bolt is pivoted on the trigger pin. and its
e ejlind
!.,M'-«'
le <:ylind
i is attached by its pivot 10 the iriggrr. and,
Lwings on its pin when ihe hammer is being cocked.
ipont the hand aoring in rear The spring ensuiei
qiecial striking mccbaic
Diver, bat a
>l the shod
fourbarreb
Figs. ? and 8,— Colt double-action rerohn
were drilled the lull leafth out of one block o( 1
barrel) were slid forward by an under lever to ka
firing was effected by a revolving bead to tbe hammc
ol cocking the pistol,
nooul iSrS Meuis Lancasi
banelled hsmmerleM piilols,
worked by the pull ol ihe ti
r intrednced both tw
I which an iotenul I
ner. In all tbr tbi
657
d, citnclini uid Rioting were dow pnxHss, I
m uosuiled for use on honcbick. I
n pocket pblol
ITS 1 chiTic ol i) drains <i( powdtr wiihoul unplmam
The diKUing (huoI, u nuide by Gaitinne Renctie of
leiR ipherical buUet ind about ii gn. a( powder. Thii
—Although ibe
il is Cmdy giipped
olver has for many :
I wtapoa il br lupcrior i
. piiiDJj, duiinbcted lo
with a barrel of from
■k fono euellenl lil
KT.— The Webley.Foibciy aulomalic' revolver
pan m a oulinclly new deiign. id which for the fint time
idple of uliliaing the recoil of each ihot lo opnalc Ihe
iim b applied to the revolver. In appearance the KUpon
'cd type of pistol, and it a anticipated by experts Lb^
rill ultimately supeisede the nvolver. They are made
It barrel and a magazine, en the principle of the repealing
lus doing away with the escape of gu that takn place id
pistol, reload the cham
lis are slill made— Ihe small pocket piMol. for
xcasioaally the heavy double-batielled horse
lime these latter were much used, of -^yj bott,
ell-known short, large-bore pistol known as the
lly of -41 calibre. The double horn pistol Is
de for a »-boce cartridge and spherical buUel,
Jt 3I lb. It is a dumsy, but effective we
1. TteaOJon
u^ijandl 'AstH^Bt^an^
658
> <■«) p.11
:hc Uill-lc
luu"Eebii>d^he
PISTOL
■pnnt (4I. and ■ Brint pin Idck Ir) Thit bun ii pivnd .
ttr MicTiii the lop of itie (Gdc. ukI when dcpnanl, brti 111
The nMraliii* of ihe piiujl
line (M> ii inieflcd. ihe ■!
the iKitdii
H. Theretea
nz o( the triner brine Ihe «r fit)]
"IK-S
^,
Tua™
sKa . ..*. K.,„ ...K
aa alu be
he pip o( the piitol .nd » lonn .
B, 4»<in,. It T. dgh.«l Iro,n JO to
•houlder-ito.
2'3
k [0
long-n
<itn si Ids. 11) conuiii of lotii
j^e^Wff tEn,|lhe^H^_(S>. ind
E'S
tine. Afie
SSS
S" '' V^TilS^" Th'''' '"'
aeuiiie [rom the catch, when it
handle [« re^harginc In front
placed in tbi
pan
of Ihe r
ao,e 4]w s;^4JSv.!;7io -nU^n"
onui
.ached by two ehori iinka, 1
r\ <liihtl); d(
ed by a pliie (b) fafteoed
ch it euided tneicon in il
: rear pan el Ihe illde iocms the bolt o
ch, pauing through the nde^ at the eliile and through ihc
:h block (Kl, a
>) which en
e key laieiallr.
rcl are provided
Jc hrmly togelhfr when in th
opmott canridce ■> u
jinkl (I. a), and Ihui the locVing hK (i) di
'" ° ilide arTS'" ■ '"' " '''■"™^ '"
■ligbl pidl
ler gaK*<
A iligbl pidl on llie iritger tt) now ler
powder gaie* driving Ihe bullel (nun 1)1
II.. 4|^mt Ihe b^l. am), oveicomio]
together. After moving
[lom the lUde and iiope the barrel
' rdcoiet tk hm
m^'
again cocking ll
'%en"k ejected Iron
forward movenwnt of the ilide. cauied by the remctor ^^
the cartridge n driven into the barrel, and the alideand tanriai
interlockedT Ihut making the piitol leady for amiha- ibol. llH
opeiaiiona mav be continued n long as there aie canridn ii di
magaeine. fach discharge rnuiring only ihc tlight pdJ ca ih
IrigBcr. The piitol ia provided with a Hfely devin (a) «lil
makei it impoHiUe to lekaie ihe hammFr unkH ll« Meat
barrel are in ihtir Urn forward pHition and intrffockrd.
In the Borchardt-LeugeT piiirri (fig. 1 1 ) the ball a nlicDy Hppni
at the momenl of Bring by a toggle ioial. The barrd (I N*l
body (I B)^dt>nihefrabc(rr). lLebolI(»d>de.»ikWr
and iaitcia up to tlie breech by the toalejcanljawl^aBdih^
sand 7,whlcii9ccurethelinktof thelocglelolheliedy. Ttei^
vfpin (6)it below thoae of the othci^aD thai the jiteo^
Iwnd at the moment of firing. On the learliak t4)ih«ii>^
(')) which a connected to the recoil epiinc (10) ib Ike grip. >■
pistol ii fired by a ipring Mriker, like a riHe. inalead (d bv a la***'
The iirikec i> within the boll ; it ■• cocked in the natiifiKdHM
jcciior (8A)on°ihe.ide'D("?rBribJ^. The^SSne (i *Qi
inthegop. The action ii as (ollowi: the bM canridge ■ W"
from Ihe magaiine by pulling back the toggle joint. Ai ■* "
(he toggle Jciini 19 relca^?d the recoil Hwiw act< and (etn* ■■
boll home, with ihecaniiilBe la from of 11. On pnninc lie nif^
lie burel and body lecoil a link. TbcK tb* uia>< )■* ■**
PISTOLE— PITCAIRN
659
wiaat carved nunps 00 the tides of the non'recoiling frame and
focced up, to that thereafter the bolt alone recoib (the eicctor is
nikur in principle to that of a rifle). The recoil spring tnen acts
before on reloading.
Other varieties of the automatic pistol are the " Mannlicher,'*
i ** Mars." the " Bergmann " and the " Webley." The last.
iotf simple in construction, small and light, weight 18 oz. and
igtB over all only 6) in., may be classed as a pocket pistoL
Qualities of Automatic Pistols. — In reference to the general
ftlities of automatic pistols, while these weapons have the
vantage over revolvers of longer range and greater rapidity
fire and recharging, on the other hand they are necessarily
Nte complicated in their mechanism, which has to do the work
extraction, reloading and cocking that in the revolver is done
hand. A stoppage may occur through a cartridge missing
$, or continuous uncontrolled fire may take place through
» trigger spring breaking until the magazine is exhausted.
eir action is also to some extent uncertain, as it depends on
i recoQ of the discharge, which may be affected by variables
the cartridge; also the effective automatic working of- the
fving parts depends upon their cleanliness and lubrication. As
lomatic pistols, like revolvers, are intended for personal
ence at short range and for sudden use in emergencies,
iplidty of mechanism and certainty of action are in their case
paranioant importance. There is usually no time to rectify
toppage or jam, however slight. From a military point of
w. thmfore, before the revolver is altogether superseded by
: automatic pistol, it is most desirable that the latter should be
certain in its action under service conditions as the former
ne automatic pistols, as already stated, are sighted up to
10 yards, and provid^l.with attachable butts. The practical
oe of these improvements is open to question, as the sighting
E pistol differs materially when used with and without a butt,
1 under no circumstances can the accuracy of shooting of a
tol, even with a butt, equal that of a carbine.
rbe tendency in automatic pistols has been to reduce the bore to
in.» aod increase the muzzle velocity, on the lines of modern
all-bore rifles. These, again, would appear to be advantages
waMU)r importance in a weapon intended for use at short range
the fiekJ. where a heavy bullet of fairly large diameter, with a
derate muzzle velocity, has a more immediate and paralysing
!Ct, and is therefore, from this point of view, and fxirticularly
savage warfare, preferable to a small projectile of nigh muzzle
odty. (H* S.-K.)
nSTOLB. the French name given to a Spanish gold coin in
i from 1537; it was a double escudo, the gold unit, and was
fth i6s. ii^d. sterling. The name was also given to the
as d'or of Louis XIII. of France, and to other European gold
1m of about the value of the Spanish coin.
nSION (through Fr from Ital. pistonc or pestone, a great
stle, from Late Lat. pistcre, to pound, a frequentative form of
issical Lat. pinsere), in the steam engine, a disk or partition
iced inside the cylinder, from end to end of which it moves
emately under the pressure of the steam. By means of the
)iston-rod " attached to it this forward and backward
>tion is communicated to the machinery which the engine
employed to drive, and is in mos't cases converted into rotary
>tion by a " connecting-rod," one end of which is jointed to
t ** cross-head *' carried at the end of the piston-rod, while
e other turns the crank on the crank-shaft. The piston in
t, oil and air engines has a similar function, but in a pump,
itead of imparting motion, it has motion imparted to it by
•ne prime-mover. In every case the piston must fit the
linder so accurately that as little as possible of the working
kl, whether it be steam, gas or water, can escape past it.
dung of various forms being commonly placed round its
iphery in order to secure this fit. In music, the valves which
ccrtaio wind instruments, such as the cornet, enable the
yer to increase the length of the air-column and thus lower
note produced, are known as pistons. (See Valves.)
IT (O. E. pyU, cognate with Du. put, Ger. Pfutzc, &c.. all
mately adaptations of Lat. putcus, well, formed from root
, to cleanse, whence purus, clean, pure), a term of wide
lication for a hole, cavity or excavation in the earth or other
surface; thus it is applied to the excavations made in the ground
for the purpose of extracting minerals, e.g. chalk, gravel or sand,
or for carrying on some industry, e.g. tan-pit, saw-pit, or to the
group of shafts which form a coal-mine. Roots and other
vegetables can be stored in the winter in a pit, and the term is
thus transformed to a heap of such vegetables covered with
earth or straw. The word is also used of any hollow or depression
in a surface, as in the body, the arm-pit, the pit of the stomach,
or on the skin, as the scars left by small-pox or chicken-pox.
As applied to a portion of a building or construction, the word
first appears for an enclosure, often sunk in the ground, in which
cock-fighting was carried on, a " cock-pit." It would seem a
transference of this usage that gave the conunon name to that
part of the auditorium of a theatre which is on the floor, the
French parterre. In the United States a special usage is that
of its application to that part of the floor space in an exchange
where a particular branch of business is transacted; thus in
the Chicago Board of Trade, transactions in the grain trade are
carried on in what is known as the " Wheat Pit."
In Scottish legal history there was a baronial privilege which
in Latin is termed furca el fossa, "fork {i.e. gallows) and pit ";
here the term has usually bmn taken to refer to the drowning-pit,
in which women criminals were put to death ; others take it to refer
to an ordeal pit. There is a parallel phrase in M. Dutch, puUe
ends galghen ; here putte b the pit in which women were buried alive
as a penalty.
PITCAIRN* an island in the mid-eastern Pacific Ocean, in
25* 3' S., 130® 6' W., belonging to Great Britain. It lies south
of the Paumotu archipelago, 100 m. from the nearest member of
this group. Unlike the majority of the islands in this region, it
is without coral reefs, but rises abruptly with steep and rugged
dilTs of dark basaltic lava. The extreme elevation is ovei
2000 ft., and the area 3 sq. m. The soil in the valleys is volcanic
and fertile, but the gradual utilization of natural timber increases
the liabiUty to drought, as there arc no streams. The climate
is variable and rainy. Stone axes, remains of carved stone
pillars similar to those of Easter Island, and skeletons with a
pearl-mussel beneath the head have been found in the island,
though it was uninhabited when discovered by Philip Carteret
in 1767. Pitcaim was the name of the midshipman who first
observed it.
The island was destined to become the scene of a curious
social experiment. On the 28th of April 1789 a mutiny broke
out on board the " Bounty," then employed by the British
government in conveying young bread-fruit trees from Tahiti
to the West Indies. The commander, Lieutenant William
Bligh, was set adrift in the launch with part of the crew, but
managed to make his way to Timor in the Malay Archipelago.
The twenty-five mutineers at first all returned to Tahiti. Some
remained, and six of these were ultimately court-martiallcd in
England, three being executed in 1793. Meanwhile in 1790
a party consisting of Fletcher Christian, the leader of the
mutiny, eight Englishmen, six Polynesian men and twelve
Polynesian Women had taken possession of Pitcairn Island and
burned the " Bounty." Treachery and debauchery filled the
first years of the annals of the beautiful island. By 1800 all
the men were dead except Alexander Smith, afterwards known
as John Adams, who rose to a sense of his responsibility and
successfully trained up the youthful generation left in his charge.
An American vessel, the " Topaze," discovered the strange
colony in 1808; again, by accident, it was visited by the
" Briton," Captain Sir F. Staines, and the " Tagus," Captain
Pipon, in 1817; and by the exploring ship " Blossom " in 1835.
On the death of John Adams on the 39th of March 1829 George
Hunn Nobbs, who had settled at Pitcairn in 1828, was appointed
pastor and chief magistrate. Through fear of drought the
islanders removed to Tahiti in 1830, but disapproved of both the
climate and the morals of this island, and returned to Pitcairn
in 1831. Shortly after this an adventurer named Joshua Hill
apF>eared, and, claiming government authority, tyrannized
over the islanders till his removal by a British man-of-war in
1838. In 1856 the whole of the islanders — 60 mattlRA '^vaw>&
and 134 young men, Yiomtii Mvd OaMx<iu-— n»«^ X^xAr^ «^
66o
PITCAIRNE, A.— PITCH, MUSICAL
Norfolk Island, but in 1858 two families chose to return, and
their example was afterwards followed by a few others. Visited
in 1873 and 1878 the colony was found in excellent order, but
by the «nd of the century it was stated that intermarriage was
bringing a deterioration of intellect, morals and energy, and
that the islanders would probably drift into imbecility. Later
accounts made it appear that this was an exaggeration, although
the standard of morality was unquestionably low on the
whole.
In religion the islanders are Seventh Day Adventists. " They
have adopted an extraordinary patois, derived from the language
of the Tahitian women who accompanied the mutineers of the
" Bounty " to Pitcaim Island, although most of the adults
can speak the English language fairly well " (R. T. Simons,
Report, 1Q05). The island is a British colony by settlement,
and is within the jurisdiction of the High Commissioner for the
Western Pacific (since 1898). There is a governing body chosen
from among the islanders, the constitution of which has been
altered more than once owing to internal jealousies, &c. The
island produces sweet potatoes, yams, melons, bananas and other
fruits, arrowroot and coffee. Goats and chickens run wild.
Some trade is carried on wiih Mangareva in a vessel owned by
the islanders. The population is about 170.
BiBLiOGKAPHY.— J. ShilUbecr, The " Briton's '* Voyage to Pit-
cairn's Island (London, 1818); F. W. Bcechcy, Voyage to the Pacific
(London, 1831 ) ; Sir I. barrow, History of the Mutiny of the " Bounty "
(London, 1831); W. Brodie, Piicatm's Island . . . in 1850
(London. 1851): C. E. Mcinicke, Die Insel Pitcaim (Prenzlau,
Island," in Joum. Anthropoi. Instit. (1900), xxx.; R. A. Hermann,
" Die Bcvdikerung der Insel Pitcaim." in Petermanns Mitteilungen
(1901). xlvii.; ParUamentary Papers C. 9148, and Cd. 754 (London,
1899. 1901); Cd. 3397 (ibid., ISK>5; Mr R. T. Simon's report).
PITCAIRNE, ARCHIBALD (1652-1713), Scottish physician,
was bom at Edinburgh on the 25th of December 1652. After
bbtaining some classical education at the school of Dalkeith,
Pitcairne entered Edinburgh University in 1668, and took his
degree of M.A. in 1671. Having been sent to France for the
benefit of his health, he was induced at Paris to begin the study
of medicine, and after courses at Edinburgh and Paris he
obtained in 1680 the degree of M.D. at Rheims. He began
practice at Edinburgh, and in a short time acquired so great a
reputation that in 1692 he was appointed professor of medicine
at Leiden. Among his pupils were Richard Mead and H.
Boerhaave, and both of them attributed much of their skill
to what they had learned from Pitcairne. In 1693 Pitcairne
returned to Scotland to marry a daughter of Sir Archibald
Stevenson, an eminent physician in Edinburgh. The family
objected to her going abroad, so he did not return to Leiden,
but settled once more in Edinburgh. He rose to be the first
physician in Scotland, and was frequently called into consulta-
tion both in England and Holland. Soon after his return to Edin-
burgh, feeling the great want of the means of anatomical study,
he importuned the town council to permit himself and certain
M his medical friends to treat without fee the sick paupers in
" Paul's Work," on condition of being allowed to dissect such
of the bodies as were unclaimed by their relatives, and therefore
had to be buried at the town's expense. Strangely enough
this proposal was strongly opposed by the chief surgeons of the
place, but ultimately the town council had the good sense to
comply with Pitcairnc's request, and in this way he may be said
to have the credit of laying the foundation of the great Edinburgh
school of medicine.
Pitcairnc's medical opinions are chiefly contained in a volume
of Disscrtationes medicae which he published in 1701 (2nd ed.
1 7 13). In these he discusses the application of geometry to
physic, the circulation of the blood in the smaller vessels, the
difference in the quantity of the blood contained in the lungs
of animals in the womb and of the same animals after birth,
the motions by which food becomes fit to supply the blood, the
question as to inventors in medicine (in which he repels the idea
of certain medical discoveries of modern limes having been
known to the ancients, espedally vindicating for Hairey tk
discovery of the circulation of the blood, and refuting the view
that it was known to Hippocrates), the cuxe of fevers by evacu-
ting medicines, and the effects of acids and alkaUs in nedidiie.
Pitcairne was a good classical scholar, and wrote Latin vents,
occasionally with something more than mere imitative devexiMS
and skilL He was supposed to be the author of a concdy,
The Assembly, or Scotch Reforwuitum, and of a satixical poos
BaM, containing witty sketches of prominent Predtytcriu
divines of the time, whom, as a loudly avowed JacoUte, k
strongly disliked. He was prone to irreverent and ribtld jcsU,
and thus gained the reputation of being an unbeliever aaid ai
atheist, though he was a professed deist. The stories about bb
over-indulgence in drink are probably exaggerated. He vn
repeatedly involved in violent quarrels with his medical bretlnci
and others, and once or twice got into scrapes with the fovcn-
ment on account of his indiscreet pditical utterances,
his friends, however, he was evidently well liked, and be is
to have acted with great kindness and generosity to dcsefvi^{
men who needed his help. Thomas Ruddiman, the Scottiik
schoUr, for example, was rescued from a life of obscurity by
his encouragement and assistance, and by no one was Ilk
memory more gratefully cherished. Mead, too, appears
to have forgotten what he owed to his old teacbt^ at
A son of Pitcaime's had gone out in the rebdlion ol 1715,
having been condemned to death, was saved by the
interposition of Mead with Sir Robot Walpok. He pleaded
very artfully, that if Walpole's health had been bettered Iqr Ml
skill, or if members of the royal family were preserved if Ml
care, it was owing to the instruction he had received fna Or
Pitcairne. Pitcairne died in Edinburgh on the aoth oC Odokr
1713. He had been a great collector of books, and Ui Hmjt
which is said to have been of con^deraUe value, was, tko^^b
the influence of Ruddiman, di^xtsed of to Peter the Gnat sf
Russia.
PITCH, (i) (O. Eng. pk, an adapUtion of Lat pis, pkk,
Gr. rlaaa, virra, allied with Cr. xfrvt, pine-tree, LaL piaa^
the name of various substances of dark colour and of
viscid and tenacious consistency when subjected to
Strictly the term is applied to the reunous substance
as a solid residuum by the distillation of wood-tar (see Ta4^
or the non-resinous substance similarly produced from Coshff
(q.v.). The name is also applied to the natural mincrd tdb>
stances, i.e. asphalt or bitumen igq.v.), (2) A nonn of varies
meanings which are somewhat diflficult to ccmnect with tk
verb from which they apparently must be derived. "Tl
pitch " means primarily to thrust in or fix a stake cr oikf
pointed object into the ground, hence to place in a fad
position, set in order, cast or throw, hence to incline cr dopa
The etymology is obscure, but it appears in Korthera <fiskctt
as " pick," of which it may be a variant; there is some difEoiV
in connecting this form with " pick," variant of " pike " (fa^
PITCH, MUSICAL. The pitch of a musical sound b aaid^
defined by its absolute position in the scale and by its rdslivi
position with regard to other musical sounds. It is pnaif
defined by a vibration number recording the frequency cf tk
pulsations of a tense string, a column of air, or other vikittit
in a second of time. In Great Britain and America the coofkH
vibration to and fro (swing both ways of a pendulum) b tskcsM
the unit ; elsewhere the vibration in one directim oa)y (i
one way of the pendulum). The only offida] standard ■ ik
French, dating from 1859, preserved by a tuning-fork vibntbl
870-9 (double vib. 435*45) al a temperature of ij* CaAJptik
(59** Fahr.) in a second. The vibration number stated ia tk
edict establishing the Diapason Normal is 870 (435), whi^ ftf
comparison will be here adhered to. The natural hasb for a
standard musical pitch is the v<Hce, pguticulariy the nb
voice, which has been of greater importance hbtorically. Tka ,
is no reason to suppose the hunuin voice has varied, dwiac tk
period of which we have evidence, more than other phyacal
attributes. The only difference to be reckoned with miy k
in recent tendencies of solo vocalists to sing for effect, and io k
PITCH, MUSICAL
66 1
the oompaas of the voice upwards. Otherwiae we may
no dirturbtiig altcimtioa haa taken place for more than
yeuB in its position and extent. Vibrationa increase in
npadUy as a note risea and decrease as it faUs. Any note may
be a pitch note; for orchestras custom has settled upon o^ in
the ti^>]e def , for organs and pianos in Great Britain ^, and for
aodem brass instruments b flat*.
We are not without a due to the pitch usual in the dassic
Gieek and Alexandrian ages: the vocal octave to which the lyre
IBS adapted was noted as from e to «*. As in choruses baritone
and low tenor singers always prevail, ^-<r, at Frrach or at
medium pitch, would really be the Greek singing octave; we
■ay therefore r^ard it as a tone lower than that to which we
«e accustomed. But to sing the lower Greek modes in or near
the vocal octave it was necessary to transpose Oicra/3oXi^) a
fovrth upwards, which is effected in modem notation by a flat
pkoed upon the h line of the staff; thus modulating from our
■ajor key of C to that of F. This transposition has had, as we
riball see, much to do with the history of our subject, ultimatdy
iaiiiendng the ecdesiastical chant and lasting until the 17th
ontofy of our era. It does not appear from any evidence that
the keyboards — when there were more than one— of the early
Ofsans were arranged for transposition, but it is certain that the
Ffeniish harpsichords to 1650 were made with double keyboards
to accommodate it (see Hipkins' History of the Pianoforte^ 1897).
Bat a positive identity of pitch cannot be claimed for any period
of time, and certainly not for the early organs; the foot-rule of
the Mgan-builder, which had to do with the lengths of the
p^peSt and which varied in every country and province» could
«ad|y cause a difference of a semitone. Scale and wind-pressure
m also important factors. But with all these often opposed
CDoditfons, we find less variation than might be e]q>ected, the
■aiB and really important divergence being due to the necessity
of tnaq)osition, which added a very high pitch to the primarily
convenient k>w one.
The first to attempt to define pitch would seem to have been
Anold Schlick {Musica ausgeteulsckt und ausgtxogen^ Heidelberg,
ISti)t who gives a measure, a line of 4} Rhenish inches, which,
le lays, multiplied sixteen times, should .be the lowest F of a
■mU ofgan. He gives no diameter or wind-pressure. Dr A. J.
BBs used this indication to have an organ pipe made which
vith ooeHUzteenth diameter and a wind-pressure of 3} in., at
fw>fo«rth Schlick's length, gave/* 301 '6, from which be derived
■ jort major third of a* 377, which would compare very well with
•a M Greek a*. Schlick goes on to say the organ b to be suited
to the choir and properly tuned for singing, that the singer
■ay not be forced to sing too high or too low and the organist
kvre to play chromatics, which is not handy for every one.
fftether, he says pitch cannot be exactly defined, because
voices vary; he nevertheless gives the measure above men-
tioned for the low F, but if a larger organ is built to include the
ttiU lower C, then this C must be of the same measurement, the
MMon being that a greater part of church music ends in " gram-
Wb," a word understood by Schlick's editor to mean the trans-
Cftion of a fourth. The larger high-pitch organ will therdore
at o* 502-6. The Halberstadt organ, about which so much
Im been written, was, according to Praetorius (Syntagma
tmtit MW. Wdlffenbattel, x6i8), buUt in 1361. and repaired or
nbuiit 1495. He gives the longest pipe of this organ, B natural,
•i ji Brunswick feet, and the circumference 3} ft. He further
tdb us ihtt pitch was a tone, nearly a tone and a half, higher
An a suitable church pitch {Chorion), for which he gives a
dhgram. Dr Ellis had pipes (now preserved in the Royal
fartitution, London) made to rq>roduce both these pitches at
3i in. wind-pressure. The Halberstadt pitch was found td be
^ PS'Sf ^^ Chorion, 424*2. EUis used mean-tone tempera-
. Mot in calculating this lower pitch; but as he used just intona-
tin for the Halberstadt, it seems preferable to substitute it for
dK OurUm, thus redudng it to a* 422-8. Praetorius's Cammer-
tm, or chamber pitch, formulated in his diagrams for voices
mA instruments, is, he says, a whole tone higher; equivalent,
to a* 475*65. Nearly all the German organs in his
time were tuned to this higher pitch. Ellis offered the suggestion
of a much higher pitch for this Cammerton in his lecture *' On
the History of Musical Pitch," read before the Sodety of Arts,
London (Joum. Soc. Arts, March 5, x88o), but the present writer
is unable to accept it. The fower vibration number is justified
by due consideration of the three divisions of the male voice,
bass, tenor and alto, as given by Praetoriiu, whose Cammerton
very dosdy correqwnds with Bernhardt Schmidt's Durham
organ, x663>x668, the original pitch of which haa been proved by
Professor Armes to have been a^ 474*1. The Halberstadt pitch
is nearly a semitone higher, which again agrees with the state-
ment of Praetorius, and also Schlick's high C organ. Yet it
would seem there had been a still higher pitch us^ in the old
ecclesiastical music Upon this mteresting question Praetorius
is confused and difficult to understand, but he never wavers
about the tran^)Ositkm of a fourth. In one passage he distinctly
says the old organ high pitch had been a whole tone above hUi
Ci^mmerion, with which we shall find his tertia minore combines
to make Uie required interval The term tertia minore, or
inferiore, is used by Praetorius to describe a low pitch, often
prderred in England and the Netherlands, in Italy and in some
parts of G|pnany. An organist, instead of transposing a whole
tone down from the Cammerton, would for the tertia minore
have to transpose a minor third. A corroboration of this pitch
is found in A. Silbermann's great organ in Strasburg minsttf
(X713-Z7Z6), the pitch of whkh, taken in x88o and leduced to
59** Fahr. (as are all. pitches in this artide), is a* 393*2. An old
organ at Versailles (1789) was very near this example, a^ 395-8.
Sir Frederick Gore Ousdey {yide Ellis's lecture) regarded the
French ton de chapeUe as being about a minor third below the
Diapason Normal, a^ 435, and said that most of the untouched
organs in the French cathedrals were at this low pitch. Stras-
burg was French territory in X713, but Silbermann's organ is
itot quite a whole tone bek>w. Ellis quotes an organ at Lille,
a* 374*2, but no other instance of the very low Schlick pitch is
recorded, althou^ trial of the French cathedral organs might
perhaps result in the finding of examples. EUis gives Dom
Bfdos {L'Art du fadure d*orgues, Paris, 1766) as authority for a
mean tone a^ 376*6. To return to the tertia minore, Dr R.
Smith, of Cambrulge, in 1759, had the organ of Trinity College,
built by Bernhardt Schmidt, lowered a whole tone, to reduce it
to certain Roman pitch pipes made about 1720. His deter-
minations of pitch by a weighted wire are not trustworthy;
Ellis thinks they are not safe within four or five vibrations per
second, but gives a mean pitch for this organ, when altered, of
o^ 395' 2* St Michad's diurch at Hamburg, built as late as
1762 and unaltered in z88o, had a Z7th-century pitch, a* 407 9.
liiis is about a semitone below the Diapason Nornial, and a
just minor third lower than the St Jacobi organ in the same
city (1688), measured by Herr Schmahl, a* 489-2. What was
remarkable in this organ was that it had one stop which was an
equal minor third lower, a* 4x1 '4^ The difference of a minor
third, or, as we shaU see later, a whole tone, had replaced the
earlier fourth. Sir Frederick Gore Ouseley's comparison of the
church and chamber pitches of Orlando Gibbons (vide Ellis's
lecture) dearly shows the minor third in Great Britain in the first
half of the 17th century. But the narrowing continued. Bern-
hardt Schmidt, better known in England as Father Smith, was
invited about x66o to build the organ for the Chapd Royal,
Whitehall; two years later he built the organ in Durham
Cathedral a' 474* z, difference a whole tone, and practically agree-
ing with the Cammerton of Praetorius. The Hampton Court
organ of X690 shows that Schmidt had further lowered his pitch
a semitone, to o* 44x*7. What happened at Durham was that
at some subsequent date the pipes were shifted up a semitone
to bring the organ into conformity with this lower pitch, with
which it is probable Schmidt's organs in St Paul's and the
Temple, and also Trinity College, Cambridge, agreed. This
lowering tendency towards the low diurch pitch, and the final
adoption of the latter as a general mean pitch throughout the
1 8th century, was no doubt influenced by the introduction of
the violin, which would not bear the hi^ \.«b«s»^ Va "vXa^ >^ife
662 PITCH, MUSICAL
luts and vMi had beta iiriioHl. Hupiicbonb hid loag been There muld Lfaen have bees leu dbtofbuKe owtai ta th
prefcned at Ihe Uriia mmar§. The CImUn of Pnetorius, ol the pUjren ud heu ol the Iheslrei or concen-no
a' 4»'8, is practically the laide pilch u that of the fork the would be B (icat advantafc to get this higher (nik g
pouesion ol wtiidi has been ailiibutHl to Handel, a' 411'S. adopted. It wai pnpoied to the StiDUD-OxLteRni at
IL ii a veiy lair mean beiweca G. Silbcrnmu'i i8lh-c«niury in iSSj, hut not canied. Table III., ihowint oicbettal piuka
DiesdcD pitch, a' 415, and the orgau ol Renaiiu Harrii, a' ohiained in itgij, (oi the meaniRioeBta of nhkb the wi'
478-7, Stein timed Mozart^a piano to a fork a' 411-6, and the responsible, prove how chimerical it la to hope for fmUr
Bmadwood pianos used BI the London Philhatmonic Society accuracy than is found between 43; and 440 vibraiiaos 1
in its^rst concerts (iSij) *e[e tuned to a fork ^ so6'8, which for a', ioatmuch as temperature must always be nckou
According to Schiniller {Nudtrrktiniidu IHmiZciHat, TiiUt I.
iSSSi Nds. S and 9) and the report of the French Commission,
1859, (he rise in pitch began at the Congress of Vienna [n 1S16,
Ihe military bands being the cause. With Ihe improvcmenti
in wind instnimenis this canlinued, a* a more brilliant eSecl
was gained. In i8ij Weber's EuryaMla is recorded as having
been played in Vienna al a' 43)s. and m iBj4 Kieutier'i
Nac/Ulat" at a' 440. The measurements are doubtful, but (he
upward tendency is dear. Scheibler, by his simple and accurate
lonsnteter, has recorded pilches in Vienna abtntt iSjt fiam 0*
earlier, Kr Ceorge Smut eilabUshed a Fork for the PhjUiarawnlc yuNi II.
Society, a' 431-3. Forks Intended for this vibration number,
stamped ■'Philharmonic," were sold ss late as 1S4G. But about
that year the performing pilch of the Society bad reached
tS'S- Sir Michael Coata was Ihe coDductoii846-iBs4, and flora
his acceptance of that high pitch Ihe fork became known as
Costa's, and its Inception was attrifauled to him, though on
InsuRicient grounds. In 1874 a further rise in the fork to I* 4S4
waa iiuiigaied t^ Sir Charles KalK. The British anny Is bouDd
by His Majesly's Rules and ReguUtloni to play at the Philhar-
aa Ihe standard for the MiUlary Training School al Knellei Hall.
But the Philharnionic Society adopted the Diapason Noroul in
l8i>&, and the mililary bands have not gone with it. In point
of fact, they are giadually going higher, and the brasa bands,
which are so important in Ihe North of England and in Wales.
It waa the iirepiu^ble upward tendency that caused the
French government in iSjg, acting with the advice of Hal(vy,
by law the Diapatan Ntrmal, Other countHei have gradually
Ihe Diapason Normal may be said to prevail throughout the
mu^cal world. Great Britain has been the last to fall in, but
Ihe predominance of the low pilch, intioduced at Covent Garden
Opera unce i83o, is assured. The pioptielon of Qutea'i Hall,
London, did much lor it when they undertook the alteration, at
great eipense, ol their large concert organ, which had only jiut
been erected. In 1S96 the Philharmonic Society decided upon a
performing pitch, ostensibly at «8° Fahr., of a' 439; and in iSgg
Messis Broadwood made a successful effort to get thb vibratioa
number accepted by theii competilors in Great Bfiuda. The
high pilch (eoiaios only where there are brge concert organs
not yet lowered, and with Ihe military and brass bands.
The consideration of temperature as alTecling the use of a
standard pitch was not altendcd to when Ihe French government
issued its ordonnance. The ij" Centigrade attached to the
dcrinilion and verilicaiion of the iork only. The allention of
the fork due to heat is scarcely peKepIible, but wind instruments,
and particularly the organ, rise almost proportionately to the
increase in temperature of the surroimding air, because sound
travels at an enhanced rate as the temperature rises. The
coefficient of this rise is equivalent to half a ttbralion (o's)
per degree Fahr. per second. D, J, Blaikley <£sjay im Muiical
PiUk, Catalogue of the Royal Military Eihibition, Chctsca.
1800), and Victor Mahillon (CaioIojiK disaiplij a analyiiqm ia
PITCHBLENDE— PITCHER PLANTS
663
n Piurhurendi.^-
Authority.
•...SJ-F
iHdium . .1850
L.5c»U. , - 1856
. London ia4fr-i8s4
1890
'■saw.*;;'*
ud. ' Imperial' '*"
LoKl™. open _^
EU». . . .
EI1i<kndHi;>k[n>
EIU<!I^Hipk[ni
SijS: :
+<8-v
imiRirh. law.
Authority.
V.WM-F-
fnd Baymiih)' ! 1
BJathner . .
Becker .
4J0-0
.™ Csrdn. opera !
KIpkini . . .
Enrd
lUniadi in Si
e. Ceylon, hut alio
On ihe oilier hand, tbeminenl
a which I Ik nf>» nlphhlriula !•
I impure by admixtun
which the na„ ^
tr occura aa crytla]t» but ,
-- — ^admixtureof other piineralti
:icke!. cobalt, bimiuth, 4c., at_JahannB«vvFnit:idl, Mnricnbcrg eiid
chrieeberg in Saiony, Joachimstha! and Prxibram in Bohemia,
(eibinya in Bihar Moiintaiiu in Hungary. Gilpin -- '-
Often
KT-fe'iriliii
phoiu., (uin-Iilie mineral called
™ wi ama ^un^'j
PITGHER. (i) A liige voael for bolding liquida, derived
through Fr. fioiii Med. Lat. ticarium; the Lat. variinl bUarium,
Gr. ^lot, hu given the Ger B«*er, Eng. beaker (f.>.). (i) One
who " jHtchei," tj. throvrit casta, file; the name ol the i^yer
in the gama of baae-ball who pUchei or dcliveia the ball 10 the
PITCHER PLAMTl, in botany, the name given to pUnIs in
which the leavea bear pitcbcr-lilie alructurei 01 are pilchet-like
in form. The plant generally undenlood by Ihil name i>
NepeHtiKS, a genui containing nearly liity SfKCia. native* of
tropical Asa, north Australia and (one ariy) of Madagascar.
Nmh Borneo ii e^iecially rich in apecies. They are ihriibby
plants climbing over suitounding vegetation by means of tendril-
like proloDgations of the midrib of the leaf beyond the leaf-tip.
conchoida
cl-black colour and pitchy luslie. Crystals
Y have the form of regular oclahedia or less
I. The hardness is si. »'«' 'he streak is blown
h tinge. The mineral has been known to occur
al in Bohemia since 1717, and it was early called
appean
jniicdu
M H
KUprol
■sanalyai)
In the.
>f Ihei
Analyses
ipositio
ddiiion
uum 0:
des, there
andlai
%. Ca
ium, imn.
Be, silic
, Ar.,
ire also
ntsof
and uranic okides
, UO,,
) also
onsidcr
inyl. Ie<
es, whilst in altered
tide is
u> e5Ua>. In
the closely allied
rianile.
thorium
(ThO,.
76; ua,
the din
aides of
thori
artificially as
ubic ciysiaK
it seem
Flc. I.— Pitcher oC NipnAa iiUiUtUnia
A, Honey'gland from attractive C, Tninsvcrw
lurfaee of lid. aatnc.
B. Dixeitive gland fioni inierior
prmion of epiJcrrnjB, opening
. When pitchblende a i
!on; terrestrial helium wi
The iHlcher
neite " and " firftiierCii
" and " brOi^riie ") occur in thenegmalite
y. being nccduanally foand in the feUpar
oal nnd other places. Ciyilali arc found
at Middlelown and BianchviDe in Connect;-
ui("nivenile"). Mitchell CDunly in North
>nthe
development at the end of the tendril. It U
■ial goblet-shaped
un>er suspended pitchers r
primtuve more or less tubular form; in a lew species a inira
form— funnel- or comucopia-shaped iHtchers — occun in the
upper part. In the lerrcslrial type a pair of wcll-devetoped
wings traverse the length ol the pitcher; in the tubular or funnd-
shaped form ihc wings are narrow or ridge-like. Tlie mouth of
the pitcher haa a corrugated rim (peiiitonie) formed by in-
curving of the margin, the convci surface of which is firm and
ihioiag. It b tnvencd by moi '
664.
PITCHER PLANTS
Id. Tbc imoolbwillimbovc tbcBqnidalfltdKi
d they are drowned; their bodiei ut difttudullk
I oi digHIion ate ultimately absorbed fay tbt ^uka
hcr-nalL Thus IfcptHlka secures ■ npiilT of BU>-
ridges, which are usually prol«[iged u teeth beyand the in-
folded nat^n. Above the mouth is the lid (operculum), wtuch :
varies in site from a small narrow process to a large heart-
shaped expansion. A study of the dcvelopmeat of the pitcher,
especially in the young pitchers ol seedling plants, shows that l
the inflated portion is a dcvclopmenl ol the midrib of the kal, similar lo that adopted by the British liuutev, tnillenvl,
white the wings, which are especially well [cptesented in the and other insectivoroua plaou.
leiteslrial type of pitcher, repiCMnt (he Dn>cr portion of Thetide-uddl<pUni,5drriimia,iutivea( tbeetiteinDiild
the leaf-blade which has become tepataied from the lower Slates, is aba known as a pitcher-plant. There an tbaat Mm
portion by the tendril; (he lid is regarded » lepreseming species, herbs niih clusters of radical leaves tome oc *I] e( vUA
iwo leafleu which have become fused. The short straight or arc more or less trumpet- or pitcher-shaped. The kal h
curved process from the back of the pitcher behind the hd broadly sheathing base succeeded by a short stalk hcarifl| tte
represents the organic apex of Ihe leaf (A in fig. i). pitcher, which reprcaenta a much enlarged midrib with a n^
The siie of the pitcher varies widely in the diSerent ipccics, like bmina. Above the rim of the pitcher ii a brow] BmOimI
([Oman inch loa fool or more <n depth. The colour alto varies lid, which is also a laminar development. The surface of dt
con^denbly, even in diScrent pitchen of Ihe same Individual, leaf, especially the bminar wing, bears glands which in ifot
ihich o(
■G. 3. — aphaJolujMIieaJaria, ibowing ordinary leaves j
the right hand one cut open to show ioieraal it
liics from yellow-green to deep criraun in diileltst ^«i"
id in individuals according 10 eiposure to sooli^ uditkr
the ccUi are produced
- y striated Brfaa (it .,tt
■dueling surface (B) of glassy epiderwl A
iward-directed points, which fadfilM '*'
Hie the ascent of an insect. Theatn
(C), which Is formed ol smooth pdM
merous glands that secrete Ihe IhiidMM"
d finally the dcientive surface ID), d*
lo h>ng and itioDg bristle* Btpdi**
ir less spotted, blotched ot suffused with
imes, as in N. mntuiRca or N. Eivards-
ilso on the leaf fiom the base of the leaf-st.
xrbtome. Embedded in Ihe incurved margin oi the rim
ihich aQords a very insecure foothold lo insects, are a number
if btge glands cicreting a iweet juice. The cavity of the
Htcher is in some species lined throughout with a smooth
(listening surface over which glands OR unifoTmly distributed;
hcse glands secrete a liquid which is found in the pitcher even
n the young state while it is still hcrmclically closed by the lid.
n other species the glands are conlined to the lower portion of
he cavity surface, while the upper pari bear a smooth waiy
fcrellon on which it Is impos»ble. or at any rale eitremely
lifficult, (or insects to secure a foothold. This area is Litmcd
he " conducting " area, »» distinguished from Ihc lower or
■ deteniive " gland-bearing area. It has been proved that
he secretion contains a digcsiive ferment capable of rendering
iroleid matter soluble. Insects, especially running insects,
ifhich have followed the track ol honey glands upwards from
he stem along the leal, reach the mouth of the pitcher, and in
itir tUont 10 sip the attiactivc maiginal gluids fa
A.Ordiiu
—Morphology ol Itldun.
of Ccfluilolia.
e. Ordinary jrila!^ rf&JilhSotuSl
a. Apex of leal,
wards and meet in the centre nf the dimiushiof i
render escape impossible. The aecrelioo veil 1
raindly, but, so far as it known, 1 to be ca
.ute c^ digestive power— indeed, raibci to a
1, and must tlni aboM
a vh^ they die. Hote>m ■■
PITCHSTONE— PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS
66s
ut » I&iiely shared by unbidden guests. Not to speak of
sects which feed upon the pitcher itself, some drop their eggs
to the putrescent mass, where their larvae find abundant
mrishinent, while birds often slit open the pitchers with their
saks and devour the maggots in their turn.
Ctpkcdotus foUkulariSf a native of south-west Australia,
snail herbaceous plant, bears
dinary leaves dose to the
mmd as well as pitchers.
be latter somewhat resem-
ie in general form those of
tpentkts. The lid is especially
tractive to insects from its bright colour and honey secretion;
tree wings lead up to the mouth of the pitcher, on the
side of which a row of sharp spines points downwards,
id below this a circular ridge (r, fig. 3) armed with papillae
rves as a conducting area. A number of glands on the in-
rior of the pitcher secrete a plentiful fluid which has digestive
operties. Comparison with monstrous forms shows that the
tdier of Cephalotus arises by a calceolate pouching from the
iper surface of the ordinary spathulate leaves, the lid here
ising from the proximal side of the pitcher-orifice.
P1TCH8T0NB (German Pechstein, from its resemblance to
tch), in petrology, a glassy igneous rock having a resinous
itre -and breaking with a hollow or conchoidal fracture. It
lers from obsidian principally in its rather dull lustre, for
iidijui is bright and vitreous in appearance; all pitchstones
o contain a considerable quantity of water in combination
Kwnttng to from $ to 10% of their weight or 10 to
% of their volume. The majority of the rocks of this
sa occur as intrusive dikes or veins; they are glassy forms
quartz porphyry and other dike rocks. Their dull lustre
ly be connected with the great abundance of minute crystal-
is and microlites they nearly always contain. These are
iUe only in microscopic sections, and their varied shapes make
chstones very interesting to the microscopist. Although
jcbstones are known which are of Devonian age {e.g. the
isay dacite of the Tay Bridge in Fife, Scotland, and the
dcsite-pitchstoncs of the Cheviot Hills), most of them are
irtiary or recent, as like all natural glasses they tend to crys-
Qixe or become devitrified in course of time. In some of the
icr pitchstones the greater part of the mass is changed to
dull felsitic substance, while only nodules or kernels of
laltercd glass remain.
Some pitchstones are very acid rocks, containing 70 to 75 % of silica,
kI have close chemical affinities to granites and rhyohtes. Others
ntain more alkalis and less silica, t^ing apparently vitreous ty|3cs
trachyte or kcratophyrc; others have the composition of dacite
id andcsitc, but the black basaltic glasses are not usually classified
noog the pitchstones. Very well known rocks of this group
3cur at Chemnitz and Meissen in Saxony. They arc brown or dark
»en, very often pcriitic (sec Petrology, Plate I., fig. 5), and show
itwrecsive dcvitnfication starting from cracks and joints and spread*
jB mwards through the mass. For a long time the pitchstone dikes
Arran in Scotbnd have been famous among geologists for the
*at beauty and variety of skeleton crystals they contain. These
'tchstoncs are dull green in hand specimens. Some of them con*
in phenocrysts of felspar, au^ite, &c. ; others do not. but in all there
great abundance of oranchmg feathery crvstalline growths in the
tMind mass: they resemble the branches 01 fir trees or the fronds
• ferns, minute crystalline rods being built together in aggregates
kicfa often recall the frost patterns on a window-pane. It is sup-
chemical oomposition this rock resembles the trachytes rather than
the rhyolites. In Eigg and Skye there are many dikes of pitchstone,
mostly of intermediate rather than of acid character, all connected
with the ^reat eruptive activity which characterized that region in
eariy Tertiary times.
The following analyses give the chemical composition of a few
well-known pitchstones: —
SiOi
Al/>,
FeiO,
MgO
CaO
Na,0
ICO
HiO
I. Mdssen. Saxony . . .
11. Corriegills, Arran . .
HI. Scuir of Eigg, Scotland
72*42
72*07
65*81
11*26
11*26
14*01
0-75
324
4-43
0*28
tr.
0*89
1-35
1-53
2*01
2*86
o*6i
415
3-8o
5*6i
608
764
5-45
2*70
that the mineral they consist of is hornblende.^ In addition
> these larger growths there are many small microlites scattered
ktou^ the glass, also hair-like trichitcs, and fine rounded globulitcs.
^hen phenocrysts are present the small crystals are planted on their
irfaoes like grass growing from a turf-covered wall. These pitch-
ones are believed to prooied from the great eruptive centres which
6re active in wesfcrn Scotland in early Tertiary times. Another
tdistone of the same period forms a great craggy ridge or scuir
the island of Eigg (Scotland). At one time regarded as a {ava
^r occupying an old stream channel it has recently been described
an intrusive sheet. It is from 200 to 300 ft. thick. The rock is
dark, neariy black, pitchstone-porphyry, with glancing idiomor-
JC crystals of felspar in a vitreous base. It contains no quartz;
ft fdspars are anorthoclase, and with them there are numerous
rstals of green augite. The ground mass contains small crystallites
fdbpar, and is of a rich brown colour in thin section with well
todoped periitic stmaure (see Pistsqloqv, Plate II.. fig. i)- In
The first two of these contain much water for rocks the ingredients
of which are but little^ decomposed. They are of acid or rhy otitic
character, while the third b richer in alkalis and contains less silica ;
it belongs more naturally to the intermediate rocks (or trachytes.)
(J. S. F.)
PITESCL {PiUsli), also written Pitesti and Pitest, the
capital of the department of Argesh, Rumania; situated among
the outlying hills of the Carpathians, on the river Argesh, which
is here joined by several smaller streams. Pop. (1900), 15,57a
The surrounding uplands produce good wine, fruit and grain,
besides being rich in petroleum and salt; and, as the main
Walachian railway is met at Pitesci by lines from C&mpulung
and Hermannstadt in Transylvania, the town has a consider-
able trade. It has manufactures of bcquer and varnish.
PITH (O.E. pitka, cognate with Du. pU, kernel of a nut),
properly the meduUa, the central column of spongy cellular
tissue, in the stems of dicotyledonous plants (see Plants:
Anatomy). The word is thence applied to the spinal cord or
marrow in animals, to the medullary end of a hair, and to
that which forms the central part or core of any object or
substance; hence, figuratively, vigour, energy, concentrated
force. Very light hats or helmets are made of the dried pith
of the Indian spongewood or hat plant {Asschynomene aspera,
the native name being Solak). These pith hats arc worn by
Europeans in India and the East. The Chinese Ricepaper-tree
(Aralia or Fatsia papyri/era), from the pith of which the deli-
cate white film known as " rice-paper " is made, is also known
as the pith-plant.
PITHECANTHROPUS ERECTUS (Erect Ape-Man), the
name given by Dr Eugene Dubois, of the Dutch army medical
service, to the imaginary creature which he constructed from
fossilized remains found by him in Java. These fragments
consisted of a thigh-bone, two teeth, and the upper part of a
skull, and were unearthed in 1891-1892 on the left bank of the
Bengawan River near Trinil. The skull appears to have been
low and depressed with strong supraciliary ridges; the teeth
are very large, and the femur is quite human. The teeth and
skull were found together, the femur a few yards away a year
afterwards. The discoverer, however, stated it as his belief
that the fragments were portions of the same skeleton and
belonged to a creature half-way between man and the higher
apes and of the Pleistocene age. Much discussion followed the
" find," and many authorities have given an opinion adverse to
Dr Dubois's theory. The prevailing opinion is that the bones
are human. They are not held to represent what has been
called '* the missing link," bridging over the gulf between man
and the apes, but almost all authorities are agreed that they
constitute a further link in the chain, bringing man nearer
his Simian prototype. L. Manouvrier concludes that Homo
javanensis walked erect, was of about medium height, and was
a true precursor, possibly a direct ancestor, of man. He calls
attention to the fact that the cranial capacity decreases in
proportion to the antiquity of the human skulls found, and
that the pithecanthropus skull has a capacity of from 900 to
1000 cc. — that is, " stands at the level of the smallest which have
been occasionally found amongst the reputedly lowest savage
peoples."
See Dubois. Pithecanthropus erectus (Rata via, 189^); a later paper
read by Dr Dubois before the Berlin Anthropolcvical Society was
translated in the Smithsonian Report for 1808. Also a ^v<^<c w».^
by Dr D. I. Cunningham before U\e ^ov^V uvte\\tvSatvtVj»\^'w^^^
23. 1895 (reported In Nature, ?^\y(u%r| *A, \Vji^\0. Q^>K^x^^
666 PITHIVIERS— PITMAN
Amtria* Jain, if Scitatt (Iuh Il96)i " Lc HtlKc*ntliniwii n Csrpu >fii «■»£■ (it«7). Hb IMvifl A T^lw fl«r
I'aiirine dc I'bomrM," in BtS. iklt nt. famlmp. ii Farii 11S96), [ism) i> ■cprinud in hu Oftira bets jirtfica tii aru 11111111
pp. 460-67; L. MaiuHivricr. " DiKiwion du piihcaiiihiDpui crciiu ceBala {160^. In ctiukil liteniun he wu ibe &11 ntn wdt Ik
ih the ntfci ai Phaednu (1M6J; Ik
'' ' * tX and nriiiii 1
„ _._. , .. _ _ !'<k«it '. ,
M^liol. (1896). xiii. I ■«).; Virchonf. "ChErdtn Klbmnlhroput '''JJf' '("J' '" n?""^'™' witfi hii tirin bnnhtf NiCOl.
(>^j)- PP> IJ--!? '■■d 116-110: L. MasouvriR. Butt. jk. finllmp, Ihe fimtidira Ktnrii (I]t7), and Juv .,
<iM6). P. 4rD>qii.;" The TrinU pEidui conuaHcd wiltatht Ftmon Thm of Pilhou'i brothen ncquind ihitiaciiaii a> iunli'. Itu
-■ -'-■•>--• — ■■ ■- Jnnul n! Anal, and (isii-i6oi},tiitliv pi Traill ii filut a dmif-imriitmnt JaAfA
and Rmiini ol the ancicnl lamparts ate ol inicrcst. Slalim
have been eiwled of ibo maihcn
1 of the phyucLan and agri
Zaluk^ilJ. Eltiuilatte (1B9S). PV- J36. 4)S, 648. 1S9«). of /■j(KiUi« tf » noriaK ikrilirn-. ind FaAi.(a» (lUl-italJ.
PITHIVISBS. a town ot north central Fmnce, capita] of an '^jlS:iTZl!^J'J'^%"ui^""'
arroodinemcnt in the department of Loiret, iS m. N.N.E. of piTiaUANO, a town in Italy piovince til Cnmeta. ha
century cathedral and a church ol tbe llth-isib cemiris,
Piligliana wal oriitilullv 1 liei of ihe counlihip ol SnaiL
V ■ .>-.■■ '".'^.e?'!"""^ ",'"™5' " ""I" whiTh In .,« cam* by ti-atUge into the pa^«a« .1 the
ceau (d. „ai), niU-vea ol Pithiv™ The to-n.a an agn- q^^ 1„ ,"o Sovan. *.. Uk^ by the Sien^nTb^bnte
cultural niarkei. ™d an impcrtant cent « for i^ «ff™ <rf •!« ie™,of a peace concluded in .4,, th, Or«pi retained PiiiJL-.
region ol Ciluiam the cultivation ol wWch, origiiBUy Intro- Gentile Orsini (amusinatcd uul auumin. the liileol ™!urf
duced by the Jews ol Avignon in the nth centuiy wa> louercd w JXim. The mow lamoiB ol thT^M <rf raunu u \toi
'".'^'"^'^c TlK.hrine of St Solomon in the olhcentu^ III. (,44.-.S.o), a cdebrated c™(^(«re. Under his «^«.
and ^at o( S Gre^ry an A™n«n buhop. .'" ^ ■"!•. Pi,igii,no became .he icene of ce»«le» fanuly tc«d. cdxi^
formed the nuclei ol the town; and the donjon buiil at the end ,■ , : -,„„r„,ii™, 1- ,.1,, •■,• Mxiir;..) FV_« uirf
ol tl« .oth century lor HSUi... Udy of P.,hivie«, -as one ol ^n%u™3X l^tlZi^^^l ^^^
„,-™u '*,""?" .. ■■ ,. .J, I 1. 1580. The Orrini stronghold nil! rtandi in the lowiL
PITHOM. one ol the " tr«.ure cit|B " staled to have been *p|,ux:HRY. a vPliS^ Perthshire. ScMland. A\ m. N.W.
^"l^l?l^rh\^^l^t^'^J.\^al^'^l^TZ of Perth by the Highland rall-ay. Pop. {.«..) .„,. I. fa.
lion {Eiod. I. ti). We have here the Hebraiied lotm ol the ^^ ,|^ l^j^ ^^^ ^ jj^ Tummd a little below the anhcKt
Egyptian Pciam " House ol (the sun-god) ElSin," in Cretl., , ,,^ , ^ ^ ,u, c^ ' ,, .y^„ ,t, __ „ j, ,
PaiOmos, capital of Ilic 8th nome of Uwct Egypt and situated fjvJ,",Ue™a^rei«t^\oSst cAlre aW th 'm-
in the WadiTumilat™ the canal from the Nile 10 the Red hea. ^^ attractions are the pus ol KilliecranLie. the laDi d
Succoth {Egyptian Thukcl) ™ 'd,---'!'"! "it " « was in 11. Tummel, .he exquisite prospe^alled " Que«.-a -' " '
mimediae neighbourhood. The site, now Teli el Maskhuta. ^,j„ q„„„ ^i^toria) andLoch TumnilT! n.
has yieWcd sevcra ipipottanl monument^ ncludin* ihe b«^ q^ ^^ S j. , j^ .^^ ^ ^ g, ^^ 5 ^j ^
prcKcved of the trJingual siolae of Dariu, which commem™ted ^ „ ,„^^ ^^ ,^, ^j^, P™
his work on ine cona^^^ineearucst name yet louna u inalot pjtmah. SIR ISAAC (iSij-iSd;), English ph«
snhinxl. and the city was evidently very ancient. Severn] ol ■■, rlcrk in a doth lactorv but in i3 hr 1 tatfa
fn>m Pithom have been removed to Ismailia ^^^^ ^^j^^ ^ ,j,^ British "and Forci^i School Sndetyii
^K iJ?!- W M f ifcTrk raSTr K "oo'-dil^ Barlon-on-H umber and WolIon-under-Edge, but he -is &
ib'hs"' W- Col^ni«;ln:Tf,' " SiHc'de* Dariui'" in Br^il it Irmmi missed by the authorities when he became a Swedenbn|iu,
relalifi i la ^iMoiie il raiciuMotir fuflicniui It aiitrirn<ui,\m. and Itom iSjg to 184J he conducted a private school ol hntr
99, aodihcinicli^KAUESEs. (F. U. C.) at Bath. In iSjq hitook up Samuel Taylor's syiteip olita
PITHOD, PIERRB (iS34-ii96), French lawyer and acholu, hand, and Irom that time he became an enthusiaM in dnrkfii
was born at Truycson the istol November tjjq. Hit taste lor the art of phonography In t$n be drew up a miaial 1
lilcraiuic was early seen, and his lather Pierre (1496-IJS6) Taylor's system and offered it 10 Samuel Bagsler (iiTi-iSS>
cultivated it 10 the utmost. He was called to the Pans The publisher did not accept the work, but suggested lb
in 1567, I'ithou, who was a CalvinisI, withdrew ID Sedan own. The result was his Siitupapliic SanwJIiawi |tSj:'
and afterwards to Basel, whence he returned to France Dagstet's Iriendship and active help had been sKurid by Tt
on the publication of the edict ol pacification. Soon after- man's underiahing to verily the half-million rcftrtms in it
wards he accompanied the due dv Montmorency on his ComfrchtHsiw Bible, and he published the inveator's bdc4
embassy to Engl.uid. returning shortly before the massacre of at a cheap rate, thus helping to bring the system vitbia H
Si Birihulumcw. in which he narrowly escajied with his life, reach o( all. Pitman devoted himsill to perfecting (An
Neil year he followed the example of Henry ol Navarre by graphy and prD[>agating its use. and established it Bi'A
abjuring the Protestant faith, Henty, shortly alter his own Phonetic Inslilule and a Pkinrlit Jotvnal lor this puiv:
accession 10 the throne of Fiance, tecogniied Piiliou's talents he printed in shorthand a number ol standard woiki. ud tr
and services by bestowing upon hiio various legal apptrinlmcnts. book with the title P&antpiipky (1840) went ihiau|h nu]
The moi. important work ol hit life was hit co-operalion in the editions. He was an emhusiaslic spelling reformer, and aitafto
production ol .be Sufi're Mimppic (1593). which did so much a phonetic tystem whiih he tried to bring iniogeaenl w
to damage the cause ol the Lrague; the harangue of the SieuT Pitman was twice married, his lint wile dying in iS;7, aidlii
d'Aubiay is usually alliibulcd 10 his pen. lie died at Nogent- second, whom be married in 1S61. surviving him. In lEot k
sur-Seine on the 1st of November ijv6. Hb valuable library, was knighted, and on the iind ol January iS«; he ditd at llri-
specially rich in MSS., was lor the most part ttantlcrred to Sic Isaac Pitman pofiulaiiied shorthand at a time nhniife
what is now the DibliothiqiK Nattopak in Paris. advance of the newspaper press and nwdem buiinrs oetWi
P.thou wrote a great number of leial and Uktnrical books. bnJdes "etc miking it a matter ol great commercial impottann. Hi
prriaiing ei1iiian> ol nrvrral anrienl aulbnn. Hi] carilnl publlca- tystem adapted lt»lf readily to the needs ol journjliun, 'K
tinn wasjlAwiuiwBiii niW/wrimii;*. //. (ijfis). Perhaps his in use revolutioniied the worts ol reporting. He vni i ■>'
rribu";io?to^l>»!l^l"iS^r.ii:1JSL,TSeh" SK^^ *"^'' ■ "=8^™". •>«' «dvoc.ledt™pfrance pri.dpks
ol CliarlrmigtK. Lmri-, Ihr Pi^., ami Charles the ItaM in IjStand His Life was written by Affpfd Biker flfloS) and (iju) bj
he ilto luiiloi bii brother Fiantois in urcpuint; an edition ol the woibir. ^tan Pitnuo (isii-igi li-
on the Suet Canal.
See Ed. Naville. TTie Slan
PITONI— PITT, WILLIAM
667
PnONI, GIUSEPPE OTTAVIO (1657-1743). Italian musical
con^Mser, was bom at Rieti on the i8th of March 1657. He
Gunc to Rome as a boy and sang in the choir of SS Apostoli.
Foggia gave him instructions in counterpoint, and he became
maestro di CappcUa, first at Terra di Rotondo and later (1673)
at Assisi. In 14S76 he went to Rieti, and in 1677 to JRome,
vfaeie he held various appointments, dying on the ist of .JFeb-
niary 1743 as maestro di Cappella at St Marco, where he was
buried. Pitoni appears to have devoted himself exclusively
to church music, and although he did not disdain the modem
ttyle with instmmental accompaniment, he b best known by
hb Masses and other works in the manner of Palestrina.
Several volumes of his autograft composition are in the Santini
Library at Mflnster.
FITT» THOMAS (1653-1726), British East India merchant and
politician, usually called " Diamond Pitt," was bora at Bland-
ford, Dorset, on the 5th of July 1653. In early life he went
to India, and from his headquarters at fialasore he made trading
journeys into Persia and soon became prominent among those
«Ik> were carrying on business in opposition to the East India
Company. Twice he was arrested by order of the company,
the second time being when he reached London in 1683, but
after litigation had detained him for some years in England he
letumed to India and to his former career. Unable to check
him the East India Company took him into its service in 1695,
tnd in 1697 he became president of Fort St George, or Madras.
Pitt was now very zealous in defending the interests of his em-
ployers against the new East India Company, and in protecting
their settlements from the attacks of the natives; in directing
the commercial undertakings of the company he also appears
to have been very successful. Soon, however, he had a serious
quarrel with William Eraser, a member of his council, and con-
sequently he was relieved of his office in 1709, although he was
afterwards consulted by the company on matters of impor-
tance. During his residence in India Pitt bought for about
£2o/xx> the fine diamond which was named after him; in 171 7
he sold this to the regent of France, Philip duke of Orleans,
kr £80,000 or. according to another account, for £135,000.
It is now the property of the French government. During
hit former stay in England Pitt had bought a good deal of
property, including the manor of Old Sarum, and for a short
time he had represented this borough in parliament. After his
fisal return from India in 17 10 he added to his properties and
agun became member of parliament for Old Sarum. He died at
Svallowfiekl near Reading on the 28th of April 1726. His
ddest son, Robert, was the father of William Pitt, earl of
Chatham iq-v.)', and of Thomas Pitt (d.1761), whose son became
the first Lord Camelford", his second son, Thomas Pitt (c. 1688"
1739), having married Frances (d. 1772), daughter of Robert
Udgeway, 4th earl of Londonderry (d. 17 14), was himself
cicated earl of Londonderry in 1726.
PITT, iflLLIAM (i 759-1806), English statesman, the
second son of William Pitt, earl of Chatham, and of Lady
fi^er Grenville, daughter of Hester, Countess Temple,
•as bom at Hayes, near Bromley, Kent, on the 28th of
May 1759. The child inherited a name which, at the time
af his birth, was the most illustrious in the civilized world,
and was pronounced by every Englishman with pride, and
by every enemy of England with mingled admiration and
tmof. During the first year of his life every month had
its illuminations and bonfires, and every wind brought some
aMmoiger charged with joyful tidings and hostile standards.
la Westphalia the English infantry won a great battle which
aircsted the armies of Louis XV. in the midst of a career of
Cttnqoest; Boscawen defeated one French fleet on the coast of
iVMtugal; Hawke put to flight another in the Bay of Biscay i
lolmson took Niagara; Amherst took Ticondcroga; Wolfe died
V)r the most enviable of deaths under the walls of Quebec i
C^ve destroyed a Dutch armament in the Hugli, and established
^ English supremacy in Bengal; Coote routed Lally at Wande-
*«sb, and established the English supremacy in the Carnatic.
ttie oatioD, while loudly applauding the successful warriors,
considered them all, on sea and on land, in Europe, in America,
and in Asia, merely as instmments which received their direc-
tion from one superior mind. It was the great William Pitt
who had vanquished the French marshals in Germany and
French admirals on the Atlantic — who had conquered for his
country one great empire on the frozen shores of Ontario
and another under the tropical sun near the mouths of the
Ganges. It was not in the nature of things that popularity
such as he at this time enjoyed should be permanent. That
popularity had lost its gloss before his children were old enough
to understand that the earl of Chatham was a great man. The
energy and decision which had eminently fitted him for the
direction of war were not needed in time of peace. The lofty
and spirit-stirring eloquence which had made him supreme in
the House of Commons often fell dead on the House of Lords.
Chatham was only the ruin of Pitt, but an awful and majestic
ruin, not to be contemplated by any man of sense and feeling
without emotions resembling those which are excited by the
remains of the Parthenon and of the Colosseum. In one re-
spect the old statesman was emincnXly happy. Whatever
might be the vicissitudes of his public life, he never failed
to find peace and love by his own hearth. He loved all his
children, and was loved by them, and of all his children the
one of whom he was fondest and proudest was his second son.
The child's genius and ambition displayed themselves with a
rare and almost unnatural precocity. At seven the interest
which he took in ghive subjects, the ardour with pmMfi^n^
which he pursued his studies, and the sense and
vivacity of his remarks on books and on events amazed
his parents and instructors. One of his sayings of this
date was reported to his mother by his tutor. In August
1766, when the world was agitated by the news that
Mr Pitt had become earl of Chatham, little William ex>
claimed, "I am glad that I am not the eldest son. I want
to speak in the House of Commons like papa." At fourteen
the lad was in intellect a man. Hayley, who met him
at Lyme in the summer of 1773, was astonished, delighted,
and somewhat overawed, by hearing wit and wisdom from so
young a mouth. The boy himself had already written a tragedy,
bad, of course, but not worse than the tragedies of his friend.
This piece (still preserved) is in some respects highly curious.
There is no love. The whole plot is political; and it is remark-
able that the interest, such as it is, turns on a contest about a
regency. On one side is a faithful servant of the Crown, on
the other an ambitious and unprincipled conspirator. At
length the king, who had been missing, reappears, resumes his
power, and rewards the fathful defender of his rights. A reader
who should judge only by internal evidence would have no
hesitation in pronouncing that the play was written by some
Pittite poetaster at the time of the rejoicings for the recovery
of George III. m 1789.
The pleasure with which William's parents observed the
rapid development of his intellectual powers was alloyed by
apprehensions about his health. He shot up alarmingly fast;
he was often ill, and always weak; and it was feared that it
would be impossible to rear a stripling so tall, so slender, and
so feeble. Port wine was prescribed by his medical advisers;
and it is said that he was, at fourteen, accustomed to
take this agreeable physic in quantities which would, in our
more abstemious age, be thought -much more than sufficient
for any full-grown man. It was probably on account of the
delicacy of his frame that he was not educated like other boys
of the same rank. Almost all the eminent English statesmen
and orators to whom he was afterwards opposed or allied —
North, Fox, Shelbume, Windham, Grey, Wellesley, Grenville,
Sheridan, Canning — went through the training of great public
schools. Lord Chatham had himself been a distinguished
Etonian; and it is seldom that a distinguished Etonian forgets
his obligations to Eton. But William's infirmities required
a vigilance and tenderness such as could be found only at home
He was therefore- bred under the paternal roof. His studies
were superintended by a clergyman iiBjai«(i^S!ancv\ vcA>\«a^
668
PITT, WILLIAM
Studies, though often interrupted by illness, were prosecuted
with extraordinary success. He was sent, towards the close
of the year 1773, to Pembroke Hall, in the university of Cam-
bridge. The governor to whom the direction of William's
academical life was confided was a bachelor of arts named
Pretyman,^ who had been senior wrangler in the preceding
year, and, who though not a man of prepossessing appearance
or brilliant parts, was eminently acute and laborious, a sound
scholar, and an excellent geometrician. A close and lasting
friendship sprang up between tlie pair. The disciple was able,
before he completed his twenty-eighth year, to make his pre-
ceptor bishop of Lincoln and dean of St Paul's ^ and the preceptor
showed his gratitude by writing a life of the disciple, which
enjoys the distinction of being the worst biographical work of
its size in the world. Pitt, till he graduated, had scarcely one
acquaintance, attended chapel regularly morning and evening,
dined every day in hall, and never went to a single evening
party. At seventeen he was admitted, after the fashion of those
times, by right of birth, without any examination, to the degree
of master of arts. But he continued during some years to
reside at college, and to apply himself vigorously, under
Pretyman's direction, to the studies of the place, while mixing
freely in the best academic society.
The stock of learm'ng which Pitt laid in during this part of
his life was certainly very extraordinary. The work in which
he took the greatest delight was Newton's Principia. His
liking for mathematics, indeed, amounted to a passion, which,
in the opinion of his instructors, themselves distingubhed mathe-
maticians, required to be checked rather than encouraged.
Nor was the youth's proficiency in classical learning less remark-
able. In one respect, indeed, he appeared to disadvantage
when compared with even second-rate and third-rate men from
public schools. He had never, while under Wilson's care, been
in the habit of composing in the ancient languages; and he
therefore never acquired the knack of versification. It would
have been utterly out of his power to produce such charming
elegiac lines as those in which Wcllcslcy bade farewell to Eton,
or such Virgilian hexameters as those in which Cannmg described
the pilgrimage to Mecca. But it may be doubted whether any
scholar has ever, at twenty, had a more solid and profound
knowledge of the two great tongues of the old civilized world.
He had set his heart on being intimately acquainted with all the
extant poetry of Greece, and was not satisfied till he had
mastered Lycophron's Cassandra,
To modern literature Pitt paid comparatively little attention.
He knew no living language except French; and French he
knew very imperfectly. With a few of the best English writers
he was intimate, particularly with Shakespeare and Milton.
The debate in Pandemonium was, as it well deserved to be, one
of his favourite passages; and his early friends used to talk, long
after his death, of the just emphasis and the melodious cadence
with which they had heard him recite the incomparable speech
of Belial. He had indeed been carefully trained from infancy in
the art of managing his voice, a voice naturally clear and deepn
toned. At a later period the wits of Brookes's, irritated by
observing, night after night, how powerfully Pitt's sonorous
elocution fascinated the rows of country gentlemen, reproached
him with having been " taught by his dad on a stool "
His education, indeed, was well adapted to form a great
parliamentary speaker. The classical studies of Pitt had the
effect of enriching his English vocabulary, and of making him
wonderfully expert in the art of constructing correct English
sentences. His practice was to look over a page or two of a
Greek or Latin author, to make himself master of the meaning,
and then to read the passage straight forward into his own
language. This practice, begun under his first teacher Wilson,
P George Prctyman (1750-1827) was senior wrangler in 1772. In
1803. on railing heir to a large estate, he assumed the name of Tom-
line. From Lincoln, to which see he had been elevated in 1787,
he was translated to Winchester in 1820. Tomline, to whom
Pitt when dyine had bequeathed his papers, published his Memoirs
^tkeLiJe of Wtlliam PiU (down to the close of 1792) in 1821 (3 vols.
8vo).J
was continued under Pretyman. Of all the remains of antiqnty,
the orations were those on which he bestowed the nost minate
examination. His favourite employment was to oompiR
harangues on opposite sides of the same question, to analyse
them, and to observe which of the arguments of the first speaker
were refuted by the second, which were evaded, and which vat
left untouched. Nor was' it only in books that he at tlus tine
studied the art of parliamentary fencing. When he vas at
home he had frequent opportunities of hearing impoitaat
debates at Westminster; and he heard them, not only «iA
interest and enjoyment, but with close scientific attestioa.
On one of these occasions Pitt, a youth whose abilitia ime
as yet known only to hb own family and to a small kaol of
college friends, was introduced on the steps of the throne in tbe
House of Lords to Fox, his sauor by deven years, who vis
already the greatest debater, and one of the greatest oraton,thM
had appeared in England. Fox used afterwards to relate that.
as the discussion proceeded, Pitt repeatedly turned to him, aid
said, " But surely, Mr Fox, that mi^t be met thus,** or'TcK
but he lays himsdf open to this retort." What the partkviir
criticisms were Fox had forgotten; but he said that he wasondi
struck at the time by the precocity <rf a lad who, tluoofh tke
whole sitting, seemed to be thinking cmly how all the ^pecdbesai
both sides could be answered.
He had not quite completed his nineteenth year when, at
the 7th of April 1778, he attended his father to Westnusitct
A great debate was expected. It was known that Fraace kil
recognized the independence cH the United ^ates. The (hhe
of Richmond was about to declare his opinion that all tki|N
of subjugating those states ought to be relinquished. Cka'JMi
had always maintained that the resistance of the coloiiicslodie
mother country was justifiable. But he conceived, very mm'
ously, that on the day on which their independence sboidd kc
acknowledged the greatness of En^^nd would be at as cri.
Though sinking under the weight of years and infinnftiOi ke
determined, in spite of the entreaties of his family, to be ia Hi
place. His son supported him to a seat. The aoMuA
and exertion were too much for fhe dd man. In the vcqr ad
of addressing the peers, he fell back in convulaioos. A fe*
weeks later his corpse was borne, with gloomy pomp, fsm tke
Painted Chamber to the Abbey. The favourite chUd and vat'
sake of the deceased statesman followed the coffin as ckirf
mourner, and saw it deposited in the transept where his «•>
was destined to lie. His elder brother, now eail of QathMi
had means sufficient, and barely sufficient, to sappQit die
dignity of the peerage. The other members oil the family ««
poorly provided for. William had little more than £300 a jcK
It was necessary for him to follow a profession. He \d
already begun to " eat his terms." In the spring of 1780 he case
of age. He then quitted Cambridge, was called to the ki^
took chambers in Lincoln's Inn, and joined the western drnsL
In the autumn of that year a general election took phce;
and he offered himself as a candidate for the universitx; bii kc
was at the bottom of the poll. He was, however, at the reqoest d
an hereditary friend, the duke of Rutland, brought into pufiuKit
by Sir James Lowther for the borough of Appleby.
The dangers of the country were at that time such as sb||I
well have disturbed even a constant mind. Army after aoqr
had been sent in vain against the rebellious colonists
of North America. Meanwhile the house of Bourbon,
humbled to the dust a few years before by the genitis
and vigour of Chatham, had seized the opportunity of
France and Spain had united against England, and had recent^
been joined by Holland. The command of the McditenaaHi
had been for a time lost. The British flag had been vaah
able to maintain itself in the British Channd. The northen
powers professed neutrality; but their neutrality had a neBidil
aspect. In the East, Hyder Ali had descended on the CsnatiCi
had destroyed the little army of Baillie, and had spieid tcnfli
even to the ramparts of Fort St George. The diiooBtentsd
Ireland threatened nothing less than civil war. la Ei^M
the authority of Lord North's covemmcnt had sunk to the
PITT, WILLIAM
669
toint. The king and the House of Commons were
wpular. The cry for parliamentary reform was scarcely
and vehement than afterwards in 1830.
pposition consisted of two parties which had once been
0 each other, but at this conjuncture seemed to act
with cordiality. The larger of these parties consisted
eat body of the Whig aristocracy, headed by Charles,
i of Rockingham. In the House of Commons the adhe-
Rockingham were led by Fox, whose dissipated habits
ed fortunes were the talk of the whole town, but whose
ling genius, and whose sweet, generous and affectionate
}n, extorted the admiration and love of those who
lented the errors of his private life. Burke, superior
n largeness of comprehension, in extent of knowledge,
>lendour of imagination, but less skilled in that kind of
1 in that kind of rhetoric which convince and persuade
emblies, was willing to be the lieutenant of a young chief
ht have been his son. A smaller section of the Opposi-
composcd of the old followers of Chatham. At their
s William, earl of Shelbume, distinguished both as a
n and as a lover of science and letters. With him were
!x>rd Camden, who had formerly held the Great Seal, and
itegrity, ability and constitutional knowledge com-
the public respect; Ban-6, an eloquent and acrimonious
r; and Dunning, who had long held the first place at
ish bar. It was to this party that Pitt was naturally
I.
e 26th of February 1781 he made his first speech in
{ Burke's plan of economical reform. Fox stood up
ime moment, but instantly gave way. The lofty yet
1 deportment of the young member, his perfect self-
n, the readiness with which he replied to the orators
preceded him, the silver tones of his voice, the perfect
: of his unpremeditated sentences, astonished and
I his hearers. Burke, moved even to tears, exclaimed,
ot a chip of the old block; it is the old block itself."
II be one of the first men in parliament," said a member
pposition to Fox. " He is so already," answered Fox,
: nature envy had no place. Soon after this debate
me was put up by Fox at Brookes's Club. On two
nt occasions during that session Pitt addressed the
nd on both fully sustained the reputation which he
lired on his first appearance. In the summer, after the
ion, he again went the western circuit, held several
id acquitted himself in such a manner that he was highly
cnted by Buller from the bench, and by Dunning at
: 27th of November the parliament reassembled. Only
ht hours before had arrived tidings of the surrender of
lis and his army. In the debate on the report of the
Pitt spoke with even more energy and brilliancy than
inner occasion. He was warmly applauded by his allies ;
as remarked that no person on his own side of the
s so loud in eulogy as Henry Dundas, the lord advocate
nd, who spoke from the ministerial ranks. From that
tcs his connexion with Pitt, a connexion which soon
I close intimacy, and which lasted till it was dissolved
. About a fortnight later Pitt spoke in the committee
' on the army estimates. Symptoms of dissension had
appear on the treasury bench. Lord George Germaine,
tary of state who was especially charged with the direc-
he war in America, had held language not easily to be
d with declarations made by the first lord of the treasury.
Iced the discrepancy with much force and keenness,
orge and Lord North began to whisper together; and
Ellis, an ancient placeman who had been drawing
most every quarter since the days of Henry Pelham,
m between them to put in a word. Such interruptions
cs discompose veteran speakers. Pitt stopped, and.
It the group, said with admirable readiness, " I shall
Nestor has composed the dispute between Agamemnon
illes." After several defeats, or victories hardly to be
distinguished from defeats, the ministry resigned. The king,
reluctantly and ungraciously, consented to accept Rockingham
as first minister. Fox and Shelbume became secretaries of
state. Lord John Cavendish, one of the most upright and
honourable of men, was made chancellor of the exchequer.
Thurlow, whose abilities and force of character had made him
the dictator of the House of Lords, continued to hold the Great
ScaL To Pitt was offered, through Shelbume, the vice-trcasurer-
ship of Ireland, one of the easiest and most highly paid places
in the gift of the Crown; but the offer was without hesitation
declined. The young statesman had resolved to accept no post
which did not entitle him to a scat in the cabinet, and a few
days later (March 1782) he announced that resolution in the
House of Commons.
Pitt gave a general support to the administration of Rocking-
ham, but omitted, in the meantime, no opportunity of courting
that ultra- Whig party which the persecution of Wilkes and the
Middlesex election had called into existence, and which the
disastrous events of the war, and the triumph of republican
principles in America, had made formidable both in numbers
and in temper. He supported a motion for shortening the
duration of parliaments. He made a motion for a committee
to examine into the state of the representation, and, in the ^eech
(May 7, 1782) by which that motion was introduced, avowed
himself the enemy of the dose boroughs, the strongholds of
that cormption to which he attributed all the calamities of
the nation, and which, as he phrased it in one of those exact and
sonorous sentences of which he had a botmdiess command, had
grown with the growth of England and strengthened with her
strength, but had not diminished with her diminution or decayed
with her decay. On this occasion he was supported by Fox.
The motion was lost by only twenty votes in a house of more
than three hundred members. The Reformers never again had
so good a divison till the year 183 1.
The new administration was strong in abilities, and was more
popular than any administration which had held ofiice since
the first year of George III., but was hated by the
king, hesiutingly supported by the parliament,
and torn by intemal dissensions. It was all that
Rockingham could do to keep the peace in his cabinet; and
before the cabinet had existed three months Rockingham
died. In an instant all was confusion. The adherents of
the deceased statesman looked on the duke of Portland as
their chief. The king placed Shelbume at the head of the
treasury. Fox, Lord John Cavendish, and Burke immediately
resigned their offices; and the new prime minister was left to
constitute a government out of very defective materials. It
was necessary to find some member of the House of Com-
mons who could confront the great orators of the Opposition;
and Pitt alone had the eloquence and the courage which were
required. He was offered the great place of chancellor of the
exchequer and he accepted it (July 1782). He had scarcely
completed his twenty-third year.
The parliament was speedily prorogued. During the recess
a negotiation for peace which had been commenced under
Rockingham was brought to a successful termination. England
acknowledged the independence of her revolted colonies; and
she ceded to her European enemies some places in the Mediter-
ranean and in the Gulf of Mexico. But the terms which she
obtained were quite as advantageous and honourable as the
events of the war entitled her to expect, or as she was likely
to obtain by persevering in a contest against immense odds.
There is not the slightest reason to believe that Fox, if he had
remained in office, would have hesitated one moment about
concluding a treaty on such conditions. Unhappily Fox was,'
at this crisis, hurried by his passions into an error which made
his genius and his virtues, during a long course of years, almost
useless to his coimtry. He saw that the great body of the House
of Commons was divided into three parties — his own, that of
North, and that of Shelbume; that none of those three parties
was large enough to stand alone; that, therefore, unless two of
them united there must be a miserably feeble adminifitca.tiA^
17V.
670
PITT, WILLIAM
or, more probably, a rapid succession of miserably feeble
administrations, and this at a time when a strong government
was essential to the prosperity and respectability of the nation.
It was then necessary and right that there should be a coalition.
To every possible coalition there were objections. But of all
possible coalitions that to which there were the fewest objections
was undoubtedly a coalition between Shelbume and Fox. It
would have been generally applauded by the followers of both.
It might have been made without any sacrifice of public prindple
on the part of either. Unhappily, recent bickerings had left
in the mind of Fox a profound dislike and distrust of Shelbume.
Pitt attempted to mediate, and was authorized to invite Fox
to return to the service of the Crown. " Is Lord Shelbume,"
said Fox, " to remain prime minister ? " Pitt answered in
the affirmative. " It is impossible that I can act under him,"
said Fox. " Then negotiation is at an end," said Pitt; " for
I cannot betray him." Thus the two statesmen parted. They
were never again in a private room together. As Fox and his
friends would not treat with Shelbume, nothing remained to
them but to treat with North. That fatal coalition which is
emphatically called " The Coalition" was formed. Not three-
quarters of a year had elapsed since Fox and Burke had threat*
ened North with impeachment, and had described him night
after m'ght as the most arbitrary, the most cormpt,and the most
incapable of ministers. They now allied themselves with him
for the purpose of driving from office a statesman with whom
they cannot be said to have differed as to any important question.
Nor bad they even the prudence and the patience to wait for
some occasion on which they might, without inconsistency,
have combined with their old enemies in opposition to the
government. That nothing might be wanting to the scandal,
the great orators who had, during seven years, thundered against
the war determined to join with the authors of that war in
passing a vote of censure on the peace.
The parliament met before Christmas 178a. But it was not
till January 17S3 that the preliminary treaties were signed.
On the X7th of February they were taken into consideration by
the House of Commons. There had been, during some days,
floating mmours that Fox and North had coalesced; and the
debate indicated but too clearly that those rumours were not
unfounded. Pitt was suffering from indisposition — he did not
rise till his own strength and that of his hearers were exhausted;
and he was consequently less successful than on any former
occasion. His admirers owned that his speech was feeble and
petulant. He so far forgot himself as to advise Sheridan to
confine himself to amusing theatrical audiences. This ignoble
sarcasm gave Sheridan an opportunity of retorting with great
felicity. " After what I have seen and heard to-night," he
said, " I really feel strongly templed lo venture on a competition
with so great an artist as Ben Jonson, and to bring on the stage
a second Angry Boy. " On a division, the address proposed
by the supporters of the government was rejected by a majority
of sixteen. But Pitt was not a man to be disheartened by a
single failure, or lo be put down by the most lively repartee.
When, a few days later, the Opposition proposed a resolution
directly censuring the treaties, he spoke with an eloquence,
energy and dignity which raised his fame and popularity higher
than ever. To the coalition of Fox and North he alluded in
language which drew forth tumultuous applause from his
followers. " If," he said, " this ill-omened and unnatural
marriage be not yet consummated, I know of a just and lawful
impediment; and, in the name of the public weal, I forbid the
banns." The ministers were again left in a minority, and
Shelbume consequently tendered his resignation (March 31,
1783). It was accepted; but the king stmgglcd long and hard
before he submitted lo the terms dictated by Fox, whose faults
he detested, and whose high spirit and powerful intellect he
detested still more. The first place at the board of treasury
was repeatedly offered to Pitt; but the offer, though tempting,
was steadfastly declined. The king, bitterly complaining of
Pitt's faintheartedness, tried to break the coalition. Every
art of seduction was practised on North, but in vain. During
several weeks the country remained without a govenunedL
It was not till all devices had failed, and till the aspea of tbe
House of Commons became threatening, that the king pve
way. The duke of Portland was declared first k>ni of tbe
treasury. Thurk>w was dismissed. Fox and North beome
secretaries of state, with power ostensibly equal But Foi
was the real prime minister. The year was far advanced bekxe
the new arrangements were completed; and nothing voy
important was done during the remainder of the session. Fiit,
now seated on the, Opposition Bench, brought the questioQof
parliamentary reform a second time (May 7, 1783) under tie
consideration of the Commons. He prc^Msed to add to tbe
house at once a hundred county membien and several menben
for metropohtan districts, and to enact that every borough of
which an election committee should report that the majoriir
of voters appeared to be corrapt should lose the frandiise. The
nK>tion was rejected by 293 votes to 149.
After the prorogation Pitt visited the Ck>ntinent for tbe fint
and last time. His travelling companion was one of his laoft
intimate, friends, William Wilberforce. That was the time of
Anglomam'a in France; and at Paris the son of the great Chatium
was absolutely hunted by men of letters and women of fishioo^
and forced, much against his will, into political dispoutioiL
One remarkable saying which dropped from him during thii
tour has' been preserved. A French gentleman expressed sobk
surprise at the immense influence which Fox, a man of pkasoie,
mined by the dice-box and the turf, exercised over the English
nation. " You have not/' said Pitt, '* been under the mud of
the magician."
In November 1783 the parliament met again. Tbe govcn-
ment had irresistible strength in the House of Conmou, ud
seemed to be scarcely less strong in the House of Lords, bit
was, in tmth, surrounded on every side by dangers. The kof
was impatiently waiting for the moment at which he coaU
emancipate himself from a yoke which galled him so severely
that he had more than once seriously thought of retiring ta
Hanover; and the king was scarcely more eager for a dtuge
than the nation. Fox and North had committed a hual enor.
They ought to have known that coalitions between piitis
which have long been hostile can succeed only when the wA
for coalition pervades the lower ranks of both. At the begiulBg
of 1783 North had been the recognized head of the oM Toijr
party, which, though for a moment prostrated by the dsastnwi
issue of the American war, was still a great power in the tUit.
Fox had, on the other hand, been the idol of the Whigs, tod of
the whole body of Protestant dissenters. The coalition at oaoe
alienated the most zealous Tories from North and the noit
zealous Whigs from Fox. Two great multitudes were at oooe
left without any head, and both at once turned their eyes 00 FitL
One party saw in him the only man who could rescue the kiag;
the other saw in him the only man who could purify the padis*
ment. He was supported on one side by Archbislx^ Afirtham,
the preacher of divine right, and by Jenkinson, the caipim of
the praetorian band of the king's friends; on the other side bf
Jcbb and Priestley, Sawbridge and Cartwzight, Jack Wilkes aod
Home Tooke. On the benches of the House of Cbmnoai,
however, the ranks of the minist«ial majority were unbrokco;
and that any statesman would venture to brave such a maiority
was thought impossible. . No prince of the Hano\TriaB fiae
had ever, under any provocation, ventured to iq^peal from the
representative body to the constituent body. The ministcfSi
therefore, notwithstanding the sullen looks and muttered voids
of displeasure with which their suggestions were lecci^'ed ia
the closet, notwithstanding the roar of obloquy which w
rising louder and louder every day from every conier of the island,
thought themselves secure. Such was their confidence in their
strength that, as soon as the parliament had met, they bno^
forward a singularly bold and original plan for the govcnunetf
of the British territories in India. What was proposed in Fox's
India bill was that the whole authority which till that time had
been exerdsed over those territories by tbe East India Company
should be transferred to 'seven commiasionerst vbo were to be
PITT, WILLIAM
671
id by parliament, and were not to be reniovable at the
4ire of the Crown. Earl Fitzwilliam, the most intimate
>Dal friend of Fox, was to be chairman of this board, and the
t son oi North was to be one of the members,
soon as the outlines of the scheme were known all the
d which the coalition had excited burst forth with an
astounding explosion. Burke, who, whether right
or wrong in the conclusions to which he came, had
at least the merit of looking at the subject in the
punt of view, vainly reminded his hearers of that
ty population whose daily rice might depend on a
of the British parliament. He spoke with even more
ha wonted power of thought and language, about the
ation of Rohilcund, about the spoliation of Benares, about
vil policy which had suffered the tanks of the Camatic to go
in; but he could scarcely obtain a hearing. The contending
es, to their shame it must be said, would listen to none but
oh topics. Out of doors the cry against the ministry was
St universal. Town and country were united. Corpora-
exclaimed against the violation of the charter of the
est corporation in the realm. Tories and democrats
d in pronouncing the proposed board an unconstitutional
. It was to consist of Fox's nominees. The effect of his
'as to give, not to the Crown, but to him personally, whether
Bee or in opposition, an enormous power, a patronage
ient to counterbalance the patronage of the treasury and
s admiralty, and to decide the elections for fifty boroughs,
new, it was said, that he was hateful alike to king and
!e; and he had devised a plan which would make him
lendent of both. Some nicknamed him Cromwell, and
Carlo Khan. Wilberforce, with his usual felidty of
ssion, and with very unusual bitterness of feeling, described
cheme as the genuine offspring of the coalition, as marked
the features of both its parents, the corruption of one and
iolence of the other. In spite of all opposition, however,
till was supported in every stage by great majorities, was
ly passed, and was sent up to the Lords. To the general
ishment, when the second reading was moved in the
r house, the Opposition proposed an adjournment, and
)d it by eighty-seven votes to seventy-nine. The cause of
strange turn of fortune was soon known. Pitt's cousin
Temple, had been in the royal closet, and had there been
)rized to let it be known that his majesty would consider
bo voted for the bill as his enemies. The ignominious
lission was performed, and instantly a troop of lords of
ledchambcr, of bishops who wished to be translated, and
of Scotch peers who wished to be re-elected, made
''^ haste to change sides. On a later day the Lords
rejected the bill. Fox and North were immediately
ted to send their scab to the palace by their under-secre-
(; and Pitt was appointed first lord of the treasury and
3ellor of the exchequer (December 1783).
e general opinion was that there would be an immediate
lution. But Pitt wisely determined to give the public
g time to gather strength. On this point he differed from
insman Temple. The consequence was that Temple, who
seen appointed one of the secretaries of state, resigned his
forty-eight hours after he had accepted it, and thus relieved
£W government from a great load of unpopularity; for all
of sense and honour, however strong might be their dislike
e India Bill, disapproved of the manner in which that bill
t>een thrown out. The fame of the young prime minister
rved its whiteness. He could declare with perfect truth
if unconstitutional machinations had been employed, he
)een no party to them.
; was, however, surrounded by difficulties and dangers,
e House of Lords, indeed, he had a majority; nor could any
r of the Opposition in that assembly be considered as a
h for Thurlow.who was now again chancellor, or for Camden,
cordially supported the son of his old friend Chatham.
in the other house there was not a single eminent speaker
ig the official men who sat round Pitt. His most useful
assistant was Dundas, who, though he had not eloquence, had
sense, knowledge, readiness and boldness. On the opposite
benches was a powerful majority, led by Fox, who was supported
by Burke, North and Sheridan. The heart of the young minis-
ter, stout as it was, almost died within him. But, whatever
his internal emotions migbt be, his knguage and deportment
indicated nothing but imconquerable firmness and haughty
confidence in his own powers. His contest against the House
of Commons lasted from the xyth of December 1783 to the 8th
of March 1784. In sixteen divisions the Opposition triumphed.
Again and again the king was requested to dismiss his ministers;
but he was determined to go to Germany rather than yield.
Pitt's resolution never wavered. The cry of the nation in his
favour became vehement and almost furious. Addresses
assuring him of public support came up daily from every part of
the kingdom. The freedom of the dty of London was presented
to him in a gold box. He was sumptuously feasted in Grocers'
Hall; and the shopkeepers of the Strand and Reet Street
illuminated their houses in his honour. These things could not
but produce an effect within the walls of parliament. The
ranks of the majority began to waver; a few passed over to the
enemy; some skulked away; many were for capitulating while
it was still possible to capitulate with the honours of war.
Negotiations were opened with the view of forming an adminis-
tration on a wide basis, but they had scarcely been opened when
they were closed. The Opposition demanded, as a preliminary
article of the treaty, that Pitt should resign the treasury; and
with this demand Pitt steadfastly refused to comply. While
the contest was raging, the clerkship of the Pells, a sinecure place
for life, worth three thousand a year, and tenable with a seat
in the House of Commons, became vacant. The appointment
was with the chancellor of the exchequer; nobody doubted that
he would appoint himself, and nobody could have blamed him
if he had done so; for such sinecure offices had always been
defended on the ground that they enabled a few men of eminent
abilities and small incomes to live without any profession, and
to devote themselves to the service of the state. Pitt, in spite
of the remonstrances of his friends, gave the Pells to his father's
old adherent, Colonel Barr£, a man distinguished by talent and
eloquence, but poor and afi9icted with blindness. By this
arrangement a pension which the Rockingham administration
had granted to Barr6 was saved to the public. Pitt had his
reward. No minister was ever more rancorously libelled; but
even when he was known to be overwhelmed with debt, when
millions were passing through his hands, when the wealthiest
magnates of the realm were soliciting him for marquisates and
garters, his bitterest enemies did not dare to accuse him of
touching unlawful gain.
At length the hard-fought fight ended. A final remon-
strance, drawn up by Burke with admirable skill, was carried
on the 8th of March by a single vote in a full house. The
suppUes had been voted; the Mutiny Bill had been passed;
and the parliament was dissolved. The popular constituent
bodies all over the country were in general enthusiastic on the
side of the new government. A hundred and sixty of the
supporters of the coalition lost their seats. The first lord of the
treasury himself came in at the head of the poll for the university
of Cambridge. Wilberiorce was elected knight of the great
shire of York, in opposition to the whole influence of the Fitz-
williams, Cavendishes, Dundases and Saviles. In the midst
of such triumphs Pitt completed his twenty-fifth year. He
was now the greatest subject that England had seen during
many generations. He domineered absolutely over the cabinet,
and was the favourite at once of the sovereign, of the parliament
and of the nation. His father had never been so powerful, nor
Walpole, nor Marlborough.
Pitt's first administration (1784-1801) lasted seventeen years.
That long period is divided by a strongly marked line into
two almost exactly equal parts. The first part put** Fkwt
ended and the second began in the autumn of 1792. AdmiatMf^
Throughout both parts Pitt displayed in the highest *«'*»^;
degree the talents of a parliamentary leader. During the first.
672
PITT, WILLIAM
part he was fortunate and in many respects a skilful adminis-
trator. With the difficulties which he had to encounter during
the second part he was < altogether incapable of contending;
but his eloquence and his perfect mastery of the tactics of the
House of Commons concealed his incapacity from the multitude.
The eight years which followed the general election of 1784
were as tranquil and prosperous as any eight years in the whole
history of En^and. Her trade increased. Her manufactures
flouri^ed. Her exchequer was full to overflowing. Very idle
apprehensions were generally entertained that the public debt,
though much less than a third of the debt which we now bear
with ease, would be found too heavy for the strength of the
nation. But Pitt succeeded in persuading first himself and then
the whole nation, his opponents included, that a new sinking
fund, which^ so far as it differed from former sinking funds,
differed for the worse, would, by virtue of some mysterious
power of propagation belonging to money, put into the pocket
of the public creditor great sums not taken out of the pocket
of the tax-payer. The minister was almost universally extolled
as the greatest of financiers. Meanwhile both the branches
of the house of Bourbon found that England was as formidable
an antagonist as she had ever been. France had formed a plan
for reducing Holland to vassalage. But England interposed,
and France receded. Spain interrupted by violence the trade
of the English merchants with the regions near the Oregon.
But England armed, and Spain receded. Within the island
there was profound tranquillity. The king was, for the first
time, popular. From the day on which Pitt was placed at the
head of affairs there was an end of secret influence. Any
attempt to undermine him at court, any mutinous movement
among his followers in the House of Commons, was certain to
be at once put down. He had only to tender his resignation
and he could dictate his own terms. For he, and he alone,
stood between the king and the coalition. The nation loudly
applauded the king for having the wisdom to repose entire
confidence in so excellent a minister. His people heartily
prayed that he might long reign over them; and they pray^
the more heartily because his virtues were set off to the best
advantage by the vices and follies of the prince of Wales, who
lived in close intimacy with the chiefs of the Opposition.
How strong this feeling was in the public mind appeared
signally on one great occasion. In the autumn of 1788 the king
The became insane. The Opposition, eager for office,
R0g»aQr, committed the great indiscretion of asserting that
I78B. (he heir apparent had, by the fundamental laws of
England, a right to be regent with the full powers of royalty.
Pitt, on the other hand, maintained it to be the constitutional
doctrine that when a sovereign is, by reason of infancy, disease
or absence, incapable of exercising the regal fundons, it belongs
to the estates of the realm to determine who shall be the vice-
gerent, and with what portion of the executive authority such
vicegerent shall be entrusted. A long and violent contest
followed, in which Pitt was supported by the great body of the
people with as much enthusiasm as during the first months
of his administration. Tories with one voice applauded him
for defending the sick-bed of a virtuous and unhappy sovereign
against a disloyal faction and an undutiful son. Not a few
Whigs applauded him for asserting the authority of parliaments
and the prindplcs of the Revolution, in opposition to a doctrine
which seemed to have too much affinity with the servile theory
of indefeasible hereditary right. The middle dass, always
zealous on the side of decency and the domestic virtues, looked
forward with dismay to a reign resembling that of Charles II.
That the prince of Wales must be regent nobody ventured to
deny. But he and his friends were so unpopular that Pitt could,
with general approbation, propose to limit the powers of the
regent by restrictions to which it would have been impossible
to subject a prince beloved and trusted by the country. Some
interested men, fully expecting a change of administration,
went over to the Opposition. But the majority, purified by
these desertions, closed its ranks, and presented a more firm
array than ever to the enemy. In every division Pitt was
victorious. When at length, after a stormy intentgnuH d
three months, it was announced, on the very eve of the inaqpn^
tion of the regent, that the king was himself again, the utioi
was wild with delight. Pitt with difficulty escaped from thi
tumultuous kindness of an innumerable multitude which indttcd
on drawing his coach from St Paul's Churchyard to Dovoiii
Street. This was the moment at which his fame and fortnae
may be said to have reached the zenith. His m^iny^ in tke
doset was as great as that of Carr or Villiers had been. Hii
dominion over the parliament was more abs(rfute than that of
Walpde or Pelham had been. He was at the same time is
high in the favour of the populace as ever It^lkes or Sadievotl
had been. But now the tide was on the turn. Only ten di|s
after the triimiphant procession to St Paul's, the stst»
general of France, after an mterval of a hundred and sevcotj-
f our years, met at Versailles.
The nature of the great Revolution whidi followed was hit
very imperfectly understood in En^and. BuriLe saw oak
further than any of his contemporaries; but vriiat-
ever his sagadty descried was refracted and dis-|
coloured by his passions and his imagination. More
than three years elapsed before the principles of the Ea^^
administration underwent any material diange. NocbiaK
could as yet be milder or more strictly oonstltutiuDal than tit
minister's domestic policy. Not a tin^e act indicatiai *•
arbitrary temper or a jealousy of the people could be imputed is
him. In office, Pitt had redeemed the pledges which he hadL
at his entrance into public Ufe, given to thesupportenof piriii-
mentary reform. He had, in 1785, Jiirougfat forward a ju&iM
plan for the representative system, and had prevailed eo tk
king not only to refrain from talking against that plan, bit is
recommend it to the houses in a speech from the throne.^ IVi
attempt failed; but there can be little doubt that, if the TtaA
Revolution had not produced a violent reaction of public kdmg,
Pitt would have performed, with little difl&oilty and no du|s;
that great work which, at a later period. Lord Grey could acam-
plish only by means which for a time loosened the very fomit-
tions of the conunonwealth. When the atrodties of the skvc
trade were first brought under the consideration of pariiamrtt
no abolitionist was more zealous than Pitt. A Inunaoe Ul,
which mitigated the horrors of the middle passage, was,ia tjUt
carried by the doquence and determined spirit of Pitt, in vi*
of the opposition of some of his own coUeagucs. In xn^i hi
cordially concurred with Fox in maintaining the sound coattin>
tional doctrine that an impeachment is not tominated bj t
dissolution. In the course of the same year the two giat
rivals contended side by side in a far more imrK>rtant caac:
They are fairly entitled to divide the high honour of hsviflC
added to the statute-book the inestimable law whidi pUos
the liberty of the i>ress under the protection of juries. On <■<
occasion, and one alone, Pitt, during the first half of his kac
administration, acted in a manner unworthy of an enli|)iteDed
Whig. In the debate on the Test Act he stooped to grstiff
the master whom he served, the university which he repcesHrfeJ
and the great body of dergymcn and country gentlemeo ca
whose support he rested, by talking, with little beartiimi
indeed, and with no asperity, the language of a Tory. VA
this single exception, his conduct from the end of 1783 to tk
middle of 1792 was that of an honest friend of dvil and re&giiai
liberty.
Nor did anything, during that period, indicate that he hmd
war, or harboured any malevolent feeling against any neigbboo*
ing nation. Those French writers who have represented Vm
as a Hannibal sworn in childhood by his father to bear etcraal
hatred to France, as having, by mysterious intrigues and lavisb
bribes, instigated the leading Jacobins to commit those excesses
which dishonoured the Revolution, as having been the real
^ The speech with which the king opened the sesnoa of IT^S
conduded with an assurance that his majesty would heartily c-kr-
cur in every measure which could tend to secure the true phDcipk)
of the constitution. These words were at the time undciatoaa 10
refer to Pitt's Heform BilL
PITT, WILLIAM
673
first coalition, know nothing of Jiis character or
So far was he from being a d^dly enemy to France
ible attempts to bring about a closer connexion
intry by means of a vrifie and liberal treaty of
light on him the severe censure of the Opposition.
I the House of Commons that he was a degenerate
his partiality for the hereditary foes of ova island
0 make his great father's bones stir under the
lie Abbey.
in, whose name, if he had been so fortunate as to
'ould have been associated with peace, with free-
lanthropy, with temperate reform, with mild and
administration, lived to associate his name with
nmment, with harsh laws harshly executed, with
th gagging bills, With suspensions of the Habeas
rith cruel punishments inflicted on some political
h unjustifiable prosecutions instigated against
th the most costly and most sanguinary wars of
He lived to be held up to obloquy as the stem
Ingland and the indefatigable disturber of Europe,
ting his earlier with his later years, likened 1dm
the apostle who kissed in order to betray, and
the evil angels who kept not their first estate.
1 press and the French tribune every crime that
every calamity that afflicted France was ascribed
r Pitt and his guineas. While the Jacobins were
ras he who had corrupted the Gironde, who had
and Bordeaux against the Convention, who had
s to assassinate Lepelletier, and Cecilia Regnault
Robespierre. When the Thermidorian reaction
itrocitics of the Reign of Terror were imputed, to
D'Herbois and Fouquier Tinville had been his
t was he who had hired the murderers of September,
ted the pamphlets of Marat and the carmagnoles
> had paid Lebon to deluge Arras with blood and
ke the Loire with corpses. The truth is that he
war nor arbitrary government. He was a lover
reedom, driven, by a stress against which it was
e for any will or any intellect to struggle, out of
which his inclinations pointed, and for which his
icquiren^ents fitted him, and forced into a policy
is feelings and unsuited to his talents.
; spring of 1789 and the dose of 1792 the public
ind underwent a great change. If the change of •
nts attracted peculiar notice, it was not because
lore than his neighbours, for in fact he changed
t of them, but b^use his position was far more
lanjtheirs, because he was, till Bonaparte appeared,
who filled the greatest space in the eyes of the
: the civilized world. During a short time the
itt as one of the nation, looked with interest and
n the French Revolution. But soon vast confisca-
»lent sweeping away of ancient institutions, the
[ clubs, the barbarities of mobs maddened by
tred, produced a reaction. The court, the nobility,
tie clergy, the manufacturers, the merchants, in
-twentieths of those who had good roofs over their
td coats on their backs, became eager intolerant
This feeling was at least as strong among the
^ersaries as among his supporters. Fox in vain
restrain his followers. All his genius, all his vast
nee, could not prevent them from rising up against
al mutiny. Burke set the example of revolt;
IS in no long time joined by Portland, Spencer,
»ughborough, Carlisle, Malmesbury, Windham,
e House of Commons the followers of the great
an and orator diminished from about a hundred
fifty. In the House of Lords he had but ten or
nts left. There can be np doubt that there would
timilar mutiny on the ministerial benches if Pitt
ly resisted the general wish. Pressed at once by
id by his colleagues, by old friends aud by old
opponents, he abandoned^ slowly and reluctantly, the policy
which was dear to his heart. He laboured hard to avert the
European war. When the European war broke out he still
flattered himself that it would not be necessary for this country
to take cither aide. In the spring of 1792 he congratulated
the parliament on the prospect of long and profound peace, and
proved his sincerity by proposing large remissions of taxation.
Down to the end of that year he continued to cherish the hope
that England might be able to preserve neutrality. But the
passions which raged on both sides of the Channel were not to
be restrained. The republicans who ruled France were inflamed
by a fanaticism resembling that of the Mussulmans, who, with
the Koran in one hand and the sword in the other, went forth
conquering and converting, eastward to the Bay of Bengal, and
westward to the Pillars of Herctiles. The higher and middle
classes of England were animated by zeal not less fiery than that
of the crusaders who raised the cry of Deus vult at Qermont.
The impulse which drove the two nations to a collision was not
to be arrested by the abilities or by the authority of any single
man. As Pitt was in front of his fellows, and towered high
above them, he seemed to lead them. But in fact he was
violently pushed on by them, and, had he held back but a
little more than he did, would have been thrust out of their
way or trampled under their feet.
He yielded to the current; and from that day his misfortunes
began. The truth is that there were only two consistent coursei
before him. Since he did not choose to oppose -^
himself, side by side with Fox, to the public feeling, jj^ajr. ^
he shoidd have taken the advice of Burke, and should
have availed himself of that feeling to the full extent. If it
was impossible to preserve peace, he should have adopted the
only policy which should lead to victory. He should have
proclaimed' a holy war for religion, morality, property, order,
public law, and diould have thus opposed to the Jacobins an
energy equal to their own. Unhappily h^ tried to find a middle
path; and he found one which united all that was worst in both
extremes. He went to war; but he could not understand the
peculiar character of that war. He was obstinately blind to the
plain fact that he was contending against a state which was also
a sect, and that a new quarrel between England and France
was of quite a different kind from the old quarrels about colonies
in America and fortresses in the Netherlands. It was pitiable
to hear him, year after year, proving to an admiring audience
that the wicked republic was exhausted, that she could not hold
out, that her credit was gone, that her assignats were not worth
more than the paper of which they were made — as if credit was
necessary to a government of which the principle was rapine,
as if Alboin could not t\(m Italy into a desert till he had
negotiated a loan at 5%, as if the exchequer bills of Attila
had been at par. It was imposuble that a man who so com-
pletely mistook the nature of a contest could carry on that
contest successfully. Great as Pitt's abilities were, his military
administration was that of a driveller. In such an emergency,
and with such means, such a statesman as Richelieu, as Louvois,
as Chatham, as Wellesley, would have created in a few months
one of the finest armies in the world, and would soon have
discovered and brought forward generals worthy to command
such an army. Germany might have been saved by another
Blenheim; Flanders recovered by another Ramillics; another
Poitiers might have delivered the Royalist and Catholic pro-
vinces of France from a yoke which they abhorred, and might
have spread terror even to the barriers of Paris. But the fact
is that, after eight years of war, after a vast destruction of life,
after an expenditure of wealth far exceeding the expenditure
of the American War, of the Seven Years' War, of the War of
the Austrian Succession and of the War of the Spanish Succes-
sion united, the English army under Pitt was the laughing-stock
of all Europe. It could not boast of one single brilliant exploit.
It had never shown itself on the Continent but to be beaten,
chased, forced to re-embark or forced to* capitulate. To take
some sugar island in the West Indies, to scatter some mob of
half-naked Irish peasants— such were the most s^UtkdviNi\c\.^^«&
67+
PITT, WILLIAM
won by the British troops under Pitt's auspices. The English
navy no mismanagement could ruin. But during a long period
whatever mismanagement could do was done. The earl of
Chatham, without a single qualification for high public trust,
was made, by fraternal partiality, first lord of the admiralty,
and was kept in that great post during two years of a war in
which the very existence of the state depended on the efficiency
of the fleet. Fortunately he was succeeded by George, Earl
Spencer, one of those chiefs of the Whig party who, in the great
schism caused by the French Revolution, had followed Burke.
Lord Spencer, though inferior to many of his colleagues as an
orator, was decidedly the best administrator among them.
To him it was owing that, a long and gloomy succession of
days of fasting, and most emphatically of humiliation, was inter-
rupted, twice in the short space of eleven months, by days of
thanksgiving for great victories.
It may seem paradoxical to say that the incapacity which Pitt
showed in all that related to the conduct of the war is, in some
sense, the most decisive proof that he was a man of very extra-
ordinary abilities. Yet this is the simple truth. While his
schemes were confounded, while his predictions were falsified,
while the coalitions which he had laboured to form were falling
to pieces, while the expeditions which he had sent, forth at
enormous cost were ending in rout and disgrace, while the enemy
against whom he was feebly contending was subjugating
Flanders and Brabant, the electorate of Mainz and the
electorate of Trdves, Holland, Piedmont, Liguria, Lombardy,
his authority over the House of Commons was constantly
becoming more and more absolute. There was his empire.
There wore his victories — his Lodi and his Areola, his Rivoli
and his Marengo. Of the great party which had contended
against, him during the first eight years of his administration
more than one-half now marched under his standard, with his
old competitor the duke of Portland at their head; and the
rest had, after many vain struggles, quitted the field in despair>
Session followed session with scarcely a single division. In the
eventful year 1 799 the largest minority that could be mustered
against the government was twenty-five.
In Pitt's domestic policy there was at this time assuredly no
want of vigour. While he offered to French Jacobinism a
resistance so feeble that it only encouraged the
evil which he wished to suppress, he put down English
Jacobinism with a strong hand. The Habeas
Corpus Act was repeatedly suspended. Public meetings were
placed under severe restraints. The government obtained
from parliament power to send out of the country aliens who
were suspected of evil designs; and that power was not suffered
to be idle. Writers who propounded doctrines adverse to
monarchy and aristocracy were proscribed and punished with-
out mercy. The old laws of Scotland against sedition, laws
which were considered by Englishmen as barbarous, and which
a succession of governments had suffered to rust, were now
furbished up and sharpened anew. Men of cultivated minds
and polished manners were, for offences which at Westminster
would have been treated as mere misdemeanours, sent to herd
with felons at Botany Bay. Some reformers, whose opim'ons
were extravagant, and whose language was intemperate, but
who had never dreamed of subverting the govempient by
physical force, were indicted for high treason, and were saved
from the gallows only by the righteous verdicts of juries.
One part only of Pitt's conduct during the last eight years of
the 1 8th century deserves high praise. He was the first English
minister who formed great designs for the benefit of
Ireland. Had he been able to do all that he wished,
it is probable that a wise and liberal policy would
have averted the rebellion of 1798. But the difficulties which
he encountered were great, perhaps insurmountable; and the
Roman Catholics were, rather by his misfortune than by his
fault, thrown into the hands of Jacobins. There was a third
great rising of the Irishry against the Englishry, a rising not less
formidable than the risings c' 1641 and 1680. The Englishry
remained victorious; and it was necessary for Pitt, as it had been
DomesUe
PioUty,
MsH
PoUty.
necessary for (Miver Cromwell and William of Omnge befoit hia,
to consider how the Viaory should be used. He detcfBiiiicd ta
make Ireland one kingdom with Eng^d, and, at the tame time,
to relieve the Roman Catholic laity from dvil di«hilitift, ai4
to grant a public maintenance to the Roman CathoGc da|f.
Had he been able to carry these noble designs into effect tk
union would have been a union indeed. But Pitt could esecott
only one-half of what he had projected. He succeeded in obtii»>
ing the consent of the parliaments of both ^'ng^^rnnt to tk
union; but that reconciliation of races and sects withoot i4itk
the union could exist only in name wu not f^'^^iiif'iiVdi
The king imagined • that his coronation oath bound hm tt
refuse his assent to any bill for relieving Roman Cathofics fina
civil disabilities. Dundas tried to explain the matter, hot m
told to keep his Scotch metaphysics to himsdf . Pitt aad tUt
ablest colleagues resigned their offices (March 14, x8oi).
It was necessary that the king should make a new amnftBOt
But by this time his anger and distress had brou||it back ik^
mabdy which had, many years before, incapacitated hm for
the discharge of his functions. He actually *«*— 'M** Ui
family, read the coronation oath to them, and told thm ihi^
if he broke it, the crown would immediately pass to the
of Savoy. It was. not imtil after an interregnum of
weeks that he regained the full use of his small faculties, tad titf
a ministry after his own heart was at length formed. la ■
age pre-eminently fruitful of pariiamentary talents, a
was formed containing hardly a single man who in
talents could be considered as even of the second rste.
Addington was at the head of the treasury. He had
early, indeed an hereditary friend of Pitt, and had
by Pitt's influence been placed, while still a young
man, in the chair of the House of Commons. He
was universally admitted to have been the bat
that had. sat in that chair since the retirement of
But nature had not t^towed on him very vigorous
and the highly respectable situation which he loaf
with honour had rather unfitted than fitted him for the 1
charge of his new duties. Nevertheless, during maiqr
his power seemed to stand firm. The nation was pat iii
high good humour by a peace with France. The catlnBiM
with which the upper and middle classes had rushed iMo At
war had spent itself. Jacobiiusm was no longer foraidiftkL
Everywhere there was a strong reaction against whit iM
called the atheistical and anarchical philosophy of the lik
century. Bonaparte, now first consul, was busied in umImO*
ing out of the ruins of old institutions a new luli liKinl
establishment and a new order of knighthood. The tsaltfji
Amiens was therefore hailed by the great body of the
people with extravagant joy. The popularity of the ■
was for the moment immense. His want of
ability was, as yet, of little consequence; for he had
any adversary to encounter. The old Opposition, defightt' If
the peace, regarded him with favour. A new Oppostioatf
indeed been formed by some of the late minister^ uA ^
led by Grennlle in the House of Lords and by Windham is i^
House of Commons. . But the new Opposition could loi^
muster ten votes, and was regarded with no favov tf ^
country.
On Pitt the ministers relied as on their firmest
He had not, like some of his colleagues, retired in
had expressed the greatest respect for the consdentiossi
which had taken p>ossession of the royal mind; aad k V
promised his successors all the help in hb power. But | ^
hardly possible that this union shoxild be disable, f^
consdous of superior powers, imagined that the place «U(kJj
had quitted was now occupied by a mere puppet which kW
set up, which he was to govern while he suffered it to leaii^
and which he was to fling aside as soon as he wished to n*'
his old position. Nor was it long before he began to piM k 1
the power which he had relinquished. Addington, *^'
other hand, was by no means inclined to descend froB hit liP
position. He took his elevation quite seriously, sttnbeScd I
PITT, WILLIAM
67s
to Ut own merit, uid considered himself as one of the great
triomvirate of English statesmen, as worthy to make a third
with Pitt and Fox. Meanwhile Pitt's most intimate friends
exerted themselves to effect a change of ministry. His favoiirite
^Kiple, George Canning, was indefatigable. He spoke; he
imte; he intrigued; he tried to induce a large number of the
nppofters of the government to sign a round robin desiring a
dumse; he made game of Addington and of Addington's rela-
tiofis in a succession of lively pasquinades. The minister's
iwtisanit retorted with equal acrimony, if not with equal vivacity.
ntt could keep out of the affray only by keeping out of politics
ihofetber; and this it soon became impossible for him to do.
The treaty of Amiens had scarcely been signed when the restless
anbttion and the insupportable insolence of the First Consul
CKnnmced the great body of the English people that the peac6
W> tatitAy welcomed was only a precarious armistice. As it
tecame dearer and clearer that a war for the dignity, the inde-
Mndenoe, the very existence of the nation was at hand, men
boked with incruuing uneasiness on the weak and lajiguid
Oliinet which would have to contend against an enemy who
■ited* m<»e than the power of Louis the Great to more than
tie feoius of Frederick the Great. They imagined that Pitt was
lis only statesman who could cope with BonM>arte. This
fMftig was nowhere stronger than among Addington's own
aDeagues. The pressure put on him was so strong that he
Coald not help yielding to it. His first proposition was that
HBe insignificant nobleman should be first lord of the treasury
ad nominal head of the administration, and that the real power
Arndd be divided between Pitt and himself, who were to be
of staCe^ Pitt, as might have been expected, refused
to discuss such a scheme, and talked of it with bitter mirth.
*WUdi secretaryship was offered to you?" his friend WUber-
ktBB asked. ** Really," said Pitt, '' I had not the curiosity
li laqiiize." Addington was frightened into bidding higher.
to resign the treasury to Pitt on condition that there
be no extensive change in the government. But Pitt
listen to no such terms. Then came a dispute such as
after negotiations orally conducted, even when the
are men of strict honour. Pitt gave one account
;ff viMt had passed; Addington gave another; and, though
^ili dbcrepandes were not such as necessarily implied any
violation of truth on either side, both were greatly
Meanwhile the quarrel with the First Consul had to come to
[itciUs. On the x6th of May 1803 the king sent a message
.^flKng on the House of Commons to support him in withstanding
\M$ ambitious and encroaching policy of France; and on the
the house took the message into consideration.
Pitt had now been living many months in retirement. There
beien a general election since he had spoken in parliament,
there were two hundred members who had never beard him.
known that on this occasion he would be in his place, and
ity was wound up to the highest point. Unfortunately,
shorthand writers were, in consequence of some mistake,
out (m that day from the gallery, so that the newspapers
only a very meagre report of the proceedings. But
accounts of what paued are extant; and of those accounts
interesting is contained in an unpublished letter
by a very young member, John WiUiam Ward, aftcr-
esri of Dudley. When Pitt rose he was received with
cbeering. At every pause in his speech there was a burst
■pptause. The peroration is said to have been one of the
animated and magnificent ever heard in parliament.
' Pitt's speech," Fox wrote a few days later, " was admired
much, and very justly. I think it was the best he
made in that style." The debate was adjourned; and
the second night Fox replied to it in an oration which,
the most zealous Pittites were forced to acknowledge,
the pahn of eloquence doubtful. Addington made a
lible appearance between the two great rivals; and it
I observed that Pitt, while exhorting the Commons to stand
^lotdy by ^ executive government against France, said
not a word indicating esteem or friendship for the prime
minister.
War was speedily declared. The First Consid threatened to
invade England at the head of the conquerors of Belgium and
Italy, and formed a great camp near the Straits of Dover. On
the other side of those straits the whole British population
was ready to rise up as one man in defence of the soil. In the
spring of 1804 it became evident that the weakest of ministries
would have to defend itself against the strongest of Oppositions,
an Opposition made up of three Oppositions, each of which would,
separately, have been formidable from ability, and which,
when united, were also formidable from number. It was
necessary to give way; the ministry was dissolved, and the
task of performing a government was entrusted (May 1804)
to Pitt. Pitt was of opinion that there was now an opportunity,
such as had never before offered itself, and such as might never
offer itself again, of uniting in the public service, on honourable
terms, all the eminent talents of the kingdom, p^^
The treasury he reserved for himself; and to Fox secoa^
he proposed to assign a share of power little inferior MtfnteMnK
to his own. The plan was excellent; but the king """*
would not hear of it. Dull, obstinate, unforgiving, and at that
time half mad, he positively refused to adroit Fox into his
service. In an evil hour Pitt yielded. All that was left was
to construct a government out of the wreck of Addington's
feeble administration. The small circle of Pitt's personal
retainers furnished him with a very few useful assistants,
particulariy Dundas (who had been created Viscount Melville),
Lord Harrowby and Canning.
Such was the inauspicious manner in which Pitt entered on
his second administration (May 12, 1804). The whole history
of that administration was of a piece with the commencement.
Almost every month brought some new disaster or disgrace.
To the war with France was soon added a war with Spain.
The opponents of the ministry were numerous, able and active.
His most useful coadjutors he soon lost. Sickness deprived
him of the help of Lord Harrowby. It was discovered that
Lord Melville had been gxiilty of highly culpable laxity in trans-
actions rdating to public money. He was censured by the
House of Conunons, driven from office, ejected from the privy
council and impeached o^ high crimes and misdemeanours.
The blow fell heavy on Pitt. His difficulties compelled }dm
to resort to various expedients. At one time Addington was
persuaded to accept office with a peerage; but he brought no
additional strength to the government. While he remained
in place he was jealous and punctilious; and he soon retired
again. At another time Pitt renewed his efforts to overcome
his master's aversion to Fox; and it was rumoured that the
king's obstinacy was gradually giving way. But, meanwhile,
it was impossible for the minister to conceal from the public
eye the decay of his health and the constant anxiety which
gnawed at his heart. All who passed him in the park, all
who had interviews with him in Downing Street, saw misery
written in his face. The peculiar look which he wore during
the last months of his life was often pathetically described by
Wilberforce, who used to call it the Austerlitz look.
Still the vigour of Pitt's intellectual faculties and the intrepid
haughtiness of bis spirit remained unaltered. He had staked
everything on a great venture. He had succeeded in forming
another mighty coalition against the French ascendancy. The
united forces of Austria, Russia and England might, he hoped,
oppose an insurmountable barrier to the ambition of the common
enemy. Bui the genius and energy of Napoleon prevailed.
While the English troops were preparing to embark for Germany,
while the Russian troops were slowly coming up from Poland,
he, with rapidity unprecedented in modem war, moved a hundred
thousand men from the shores of the ocean to the Black Forest,
and compelled a great Austrian army to surrender at Ulm. To
the first faint rumours of this calamity Pitt would give no
credit. He was irritated by the alarms of those around him.
" Do not believe a word of it" he said; " it is all a fiction."
The next day he received a Dutch newspaper CQataini&% \!&!t
676
PITT, WILLIAM
capitulation. He knew no Dutch. It was Sunday, and the
public offices were shut. He carried the paper to Lord Mahnes-
bury, who had been mmister in Holland; and Lord Mahnesbury
translated it. Pitt tried to bear up, but the shock was too
great; and he went away with death in his face.
The news of the battle of Trafalgar arrived four days later,
and seemed for a moment to 'revive him. Forty-eight hours
after that most glorious and most mournful of victories had
been announced to the country came the Lord Mayor's Day;
and Pitt dined at Guildhall. His popularity had declined.
But on this occasion the multitude, greatly excited by the
recent tidings, welcomed him enthtisiastically, took off his
horses in Cheapside, and drew his carriage up King Street.
When his health was drunk, he returned thanks in two or three
of those stately sentences of which he had a boundless command.
Several of those who heard him laid up his words in their hearts;
for they were the last words that he ever uttered in public:
" Let us hope that England, having saved herself by her energy,
may save Europe by her example."
This was but a momentary rally. Austerlita soon completed
what Ulm had begun. Early in December Pitt had retired to
Bath, in the hope that he might there gather strength for the
approaching session. While he was languishing there on his
sofa arrived the news that a decisive battle heA been fought
and lost in Moravia, that the coalition was dissolved, that the
Continent was at the feet of France. He sank down imder the
blow. Ten days later he was so emadated that his most
intimate friends hardly knew him. He came up from Bath by
slow journeys, and on the nth of January 1806 reached his
villa at Putney. Parliament was to meet on the 21st. On
the 20th was to be the parliamentary dinner at the house of the
first- lord of the treasury in Downing Street; and the cards were
already issued. But the days of the great minister were num-
bered. On the day on which he was carried into his bedroom
at Putney, the Marquess Wellcsley, whom he had long loved,
whom he had sent to govern India, and whose administration
had been eminently able, energetic and successful, arrived in
London after an absence of eight years. The friends saw each
other once more. There was an affectionate meeting and a
last parting. That it was a last parting Pitt did not seem to
be aware. He fancied himself to be recovering, talked on various
subjects cheerfully and with an unclouded mind, and pronounced
a warm and discerning eulogium on the marquis's brother
Arthur. " I never," he said, " met with any mih'tary man
with whom it was so satisfactory to converse." The excitement
and exertion of this interview were too much for the sick man.
He fainted away; and Lord Wellesley left the house convinced
that the close was fast approaching.
And now members of parliament were fast coming up to
London. The chiefs of the Opposition met for the purpose of
considering the course to be taken on the first day of the session.
It was easy to guess what would be the language of the king's
speech, and of the address which would be moved in answer to
that speech. An amendment condemning the policy of the
government had been prepared, and was to have been proposed
in the House of Commons by Lord Henry Petty (afterwards
3rd marquess of Lansdowne). He was unwilling, however,
to come forward as the accuser of one who was incapable of
defending himself. Lord Grenville, who had been informed
-^ of Pitt's state by Lord Wellesley, and had been
deeply affected by it, earnestly recommended
forbearance; and Fox, with characteristic generosity and good
nature, gave his voice against attacking his now helpless rival.
** Sunt lacrymae rerum," he said, ** et mentem mortalia tang-
gunt." On the Brst day, therefore, there was no debate. It was
rumoured that evening that Pitt was better. But on the follow-
ing morning bb physicians pronounced that there were no hopes.
It was asserted in many after-dinner speeches, Grub Street
elegies and academic prize poems and prize declamations that
the great minister died exclaiming, " Oh my countryl " This
is a fable, but it is true that the last words which he uttered,
while be knew what he said, were broken ezdamations about
Che alarming state of pubBc affairs. He. ceased to bctathe m
the morning of the 23rd of January x8o6, the twentfiftk
anniversary of the day on which he fint took hm seat ia
parliament.
It was moved in the House of Commons that Pitt should be
honoured with a public funeral and a noonument. Tlie motki
was opposed by Fox in a speech which deserves to be stn^
as a OQodel of good taste and good feeling. The Uak wm
the most invidious that ever an orator undotook; but it «■
performed with a humanity and delicacy whkh were wtmlf
acknowledged by the mourning friends of him iriw was goob
The motion was carried by 288 votes to 89. The sand of Fdk>
ruary was fixed for the f uneraL The corpse, having faoB ii
state during two days in the Painted Chamber, was home «l&
great pomp to the northern transept of the Abbey. A spkdU
train of princes, nobles, bishops and privy oouncfllors foDmnd.
The grave of Pitt had been made near to the ^Mt where his peat
father lay, near also to the qx>t where his great rival was ttm
to lie. Wilberforce, who carried the banner before the hean^
described the awful ceremony with deep feeUng. As the coil
descended into the earth, he said, the ea^ face of Ckathia
from above seemed to look down with consternation iate thi
dark house which was receiving all that remained of ao maA
power and glory.
Pitt was emphatically the man of parixamentaiy guiuip^i
the type of his class, the minion, the child, the qwiled dM,
of the House of Commons. He was a distingnisbed
member of the House of Commons at twenty-one.
The ability which he had displayed in the House of
made him the most powerful subject in Europe befoie ht wm
twenty-five. It was when the House of Commons was ta It
convinced and persuaded that he put forth aU Jns ptm^
Of those powers we must form our estimate dnd|f t^
tradition; for, of all the eminent qieakcfs of that age, Htt Im
suffered most from the reporters. Even while he wasttlfMIr
critics remarked that his doquence could not be piijuiti Art
he must be heard to be i^)preciated. Tbey more thai flM
applied to him the sentence in whidi Tadtus deacribei thelii
of a senator whose rhetoric was admired in the AugBtaaipe
" Haterii canorum illud et. profluens cum ipm> aimnl csstiacltf
est." There is, however, abundant evidence that Htaie U
bestowed on Pitt the talents of a great orator; and those IriMi
had been developed in a very peculiar manner, first bytktitBt
tion, and secondly by the hig^ oflkial position to lAickbiMi
early, and in which he paaed the greater part ef Uij '"
life.
At his first appearance in parliament he shaf«ed
superior to all his contemporaries in command of
Hf could pour forth a long succession of round aad
periods, without premeditation, without ever pausing forai
without ever repeating a word, in a voice of sflvcr
and with a pronunciation so articulate that not a kdtf ^
slurred over. He had less amplitude of mind and less bAi
of imagination than Burke, less ingenuity than WindhaH,IO^
than Sheridan, less perfect mastoy of dialectical fenee ■'^
of that highest sort of eloquence which ocmsists of mesa m
passion fused together than Fox. Yet the almost
judgment of those who were in the habit of listemag I* ^ ;
remarkable race of men placed Pitt, as a speakm, ahove T
above Windham, above Sheridan and not befev f<K
declamation was copious, polished and ^Jendid. b I
of sarcasm he was probably not surpassed by aaj
ancient or UKxlem; and of thu fmmldable weapoa k
merdless use. In two parts of the oratorical art wbichM*|
the highest value to a minister of state he wa
No man knew better how to be luminous or bow to be<
When he wished to be understood, he never failed la
himself understood. Nothing was out of place;
forgotten; minute details, dates, sums of money, « .
fully preserved in his memory. On the other hand, *^||
did not wish to be explicit — and no roan who is at the hss^^ |
affairs always wishes to be explicit— he had a
677
C notbina ia hncuigc «hkb left on bii audknet the lodlcatina that he ihoold Dot be pnpiKd at > man eanvRjent
<ai ibat be haduid t, greal deal. ■oun to bring the quation fontiid ■ fourth lime. The tout
iBtct of onlory will alwiya ta a great titenl depend ol Pntotant ucenducy wu drunk on Pitl'i birthdiy by ■ hi
JunctcT ol ihe omor. There perhap) never mere Iho ofPiltilei who could not but beiwire that Fiit bad roigoed bii
> whose eloquenn had more of what may be called Ihc olfice bccauK he could not carry Catholic emancipation. The
■re of the Savoui imparled by moral qualitis, Ihaa Foi deiendcnol theTetlAct called thenuelvn Pillitei, Ibou^ they
:. Tbe ipcecbei of Foi owe a gnat pan of their chatm could not be ignotant that Pitt had laid before George III.
wamth and aoftncs of bean, that sympathy niih unanswerable leaHni for abolishing the Tat Act. Tbe enemies
auHrring, that admiration lor evciylbing great and of free trade called tbemselves Pittites, though Pilt was far
J, and that hatred of cruelty and injustice, which imerfst more deeply imbued vritb tbe doctrines of Adam Smith than
ght ui even in the most defective reports. No petwn, either Foi 01 Grey, Tbe very negro-drivers invoked the name
ilher hand, could hear Pilt without perceiving bim to be of Pitt, whose ebqutnce was never more consiucuously dis-
if hi^, intrepid and commanding spirit, proudly con- played than wbea be (poke of the wrongs of the negro. This
:hisown rectitude and olhisown intellectual superiority, mythical Pitt, who resembles the genuine Pitt as tittle ■> tbe
le ol the low vices of fear and envy, but too prone lo Charlemagne of Ariosto resembles the Cba[lemagDe of Eginhard,
I to show ditdaia. Pride, indeed, pervaded ibe whole has had his day. History will vindicate the real man from
IS written in ihe banh, rigid lines of hii face, was marked calumny disfiuiscd imdcr die semblance of adulation, and will
way in which he walked, in which he sat. ia which he eibibit birn a> what he waa— a minister ol great talents, honest
od above all, in which he bowed. Such pride, of course, iatenlioos and liberal opinions, pre-eminently qualified,
many wounds. But his pride, though i( made hini intellectually and morally, for tbe part of a parliamentary
disliked by individuals, inspired tbe great body of his leader, and capable of administering with prudence and modcra-
s in parliament and throughout the country with respect tion (he government of a prospetous and tranquil country, but
bdence. It was thai of the raagnanimous man so finely unequal 10 suiprising and terrible emergencies, and liable in
d by Aristotle in the £fAici, of the man who thinl^ (ucb emeigendei to err grievously, both on the side of weaknen
worthy of great thin^, being in truth worthy. It was
cupidity. There was something noble in the cynical
with which the mighty minister scattered riches and
right and left among those who valued them, while he
Ihemoulof his way. Poor himself, he wal surrounded
ids on whom be had bestowed three thousand, sii
d, ten thousand a year. Plaui Mister himself, be had
lore lords than any three ministers ihal had preceded
Tie giitei, for which the first dukes in the kingdom were
log, was repeatedly offered to bim, and offered in vain.
orrectneu bf hij private Lfe added much to Ihe dignity . . _ .
ublic character. In Ibe relations of ton, brotber, uncie, of a genus, and since adopted by English omithtdogisu as Ibe
friend, bis conduct was exemplary. In tbe small general name for a group of birds, called by the French Brhet,
I bis iniimate associates be was amiable, affectionate, and lemaikable lor (heir great beauty.' For a long wbilo tbe
ayful. He indulged, indeed, somewhat too freely in
hicb he had early been diiected lo lake >a a medicine,
ch use had made a necessary of life (0 bim. But it waa
Idom that any intlicaiion of undue excess cnuld be
T gestures; and, in truth, two bottles
re little more
to bim than two dishes of
tea. Heh«l,
was hist inti
oducedinlolheclubsofStJ
ames's Street.
strong sense
lor play; but he bad tbe pru
dence and tbe
fore this taste had acquired tbe strenglb
)>as9{on which generally eier
al dominion ■
jver the young he possessed
an immunity.
probably lo
be ascribed partly lo his tem
ipeiamentand
o his situati.
)n. His constilution was f
eeble, he was
of his moral)
1 tuch buffo
Dns as Peler Pindar and C.
aptain Morris
. veiy delicate
)ul the great
body o( the middle class .
rf Englithmen
joke. They warmly praisi
■.d the young
in tor commi
inding his passions, and toi
, if he had Ir .
atly, often unjustly; but it has suffered much leu [lom
t^ttas were commonly tupposed ti
3 which confound all ordinary distinctions, be was ihruiho " and " aut-th rushes," though there was no <
ally and tempoially connected, but to whom, on almost of their having aquatic habits or predilections, or of theii
t question! of principle, he was diamelrically opposed, especially upon ants; but the fact that they farmed a
:ers of pariiamcnlaiy reform called themselves Pittites, ' In omitholosy the won! ii first found ai part of ili
ratary reform, and that, though he thought that si ' " " " '"' " '"" " ■ - — ■
a coidd no) safely be made while the passions excited ',
le " maniiis " lo Ray'i Synefiii (p. IM). on the Bulhonly of
uckley (ve OBHirHOLOCY). Thii bird ii the Fioa btnplmh of
■odeni omithoIwiMi. and is Hid by Jerdon (fiintl e^ fa£a,L.<fi^
678
PITTACUS— PITTSBURG
family was gradually admitted. Their position was partly
determined by A. H. Garrod, who, having obtained examples
for dissection, in a' communication to the Zoological Society of
London, printed in its Proceedings for 1876, proved (pp. 512, 513)
that the Pittidac belonged to that section of Passerine birds
which he named Mesomyodi. since their syrinx, like that of the
Tyrannidae (sec King-Bird), has its muscles attached to the
middle of its half-rings, instead of to their extremities as in the
higher Passerines or Acromyodi. They are now placed as a
separate family Pittidac of the Clamatores division of the
Anisomyodinc Passcrcs. There arc about fifty species, divided
into a number of genera, confined to the Old World, and ranging
from India and North China to Australia, New Guinea and New
Britain, with one species in West Africa, the greatest number
being found in Borneo and Sumatra. Few birds can vie with
the pittas in brightly-contrasted coloration. Deep velvety
black, pure white and intensely vivid scariet, turquoisc-blue
and beryl-green — mostly occupying a considerable extent of
surface — are found in a great many of the species — to say
nothing of other composite or intermediate hues; and, though in
some a modification of these tints is observable, there is scarcely
a trace of any blending of shade, each patch of colour standing
out distinctly. This is perhaps the more remarkable as the
feathers have hardly any lustre to heighten the effect produced,
and in some species the brightest colours are exhibited by the
plumage of the lower parts of the body. Pittas vary in size
from that of a jay to that of a lark, and generally have a strong
bill, a thick-set form, which is mounted on rather high legs with
scutellated " tarsi," and a very short tail. In many of the forms
there is little or no external difference between the sexes.
Placed originally among the Pittidac, but now created to form an
allied family Philcpittidac, is the genus Philepitta, consisting of two
species peculiar to Madagascar. The two species which compose it
have little outward resemblance to the pittas, not having the same
style of coloration and b(;ine apparently of more arboreal habits.
Tne sexes differ greatly in plumaee, and the males have the skin
round the eyes bare of feathers and carunculalcd. (A. N.)
PITTACUS, of Mytilene in Lesbos {c. 650-570 B.C.), one of the
Seven Sages of Greece. About 611, with the assistance of the
brothers of the ix)et Alcaeus, he overthrew Melanchrus, tyrant
of Lesbos. In a war (606) between the Mytilcnaeans and
Athenians for the possession of Sigcum on the Hellespont he
slew the Athenian commander Phrynon in single combat. In
589 his fellow citizens entrusted Pittacus with despotic power
(with the title of Acsymnetcs) for the purpose of protecting them
against the exiled nobles, at the head of whom were Alcaeus and
his brother Antimenides. lie resigned the government after
holding it for ten years, and died ten years later. According to
Diogenes Laifrtius, who credits him with an undoubtedly spurious
letter to Crocstis (with whom his connexion was probably
legendary), Pittacus was a writer of elegiac poems, from which
he quotes five lines. His favourite sayings were: " It is hard
to be good," and " Know when to act."
See Herodotus v. 27. 94; Diog. Lai-rt. i. 4; Lucian, Macrohii^ 18;
Strabo xiii. 600, 617-618; Aristotle, Politics, ii. 12, iil. 14; T. Beigk,
Poetae lyrici graeci.
PITTANCE (through O. Fr. pilance, from Lat. pietas, lovtng-
kindncss), properly a gift to the members of a religious house for
masses, consisting usually of an extra allowance of food or wine
on occasions sucli as the anniversary of the donor's death,
festivals and the like. The word was early transferred to a
charitable donation and to any small gift of food or money.
PITT-RIVERS, AUGUSTUS HENRY LANE-FOX (1827-1900),
English soldier and archaeologist, son of W. A. Lane-Fox, was
born on the 14th of April 1827. It was not till 18S0 that he
assumed the name of Pitt-Rivers, on inheriting the Dorsetshire
and Wiltshire estates of his great-uncle, the second Lord Rivers.
Educated at Sandhurst, he received a commission in the
Grenadier Guards in 1845, being captain 1850, lieutenant-
colonel 1857, colonel 1S67, major-general 1877 and lieutenant-
general 1882. He served in the Crimean War. and was at
the Alma and the siege of Scbaslopol. His taleat for
experimental research was utilized in investigpition into
improvements of the anny rifle, and he was laigdy respomibh
for starting the Hythe School of Musketry. It is doc, hem-
ever, for his militaxy career, but for his wotk as an aathio-
pologist and archaeologist, that General Pitt-Riven «1
be remembered. His interest in the evolulioD of the rile
early extended itself to other weapons and instruments m tk
history of man, and he became a collector of articles iOustntioi
the development of human invention. His collection becuK
famous, and, after being exhibited in 1874-1875 at the Bethnd
Green Museum, was presented in 18S3 to the univnsitjr d
Oxford. When, in 1880, General Pitt-Rivers obtained poMciaai
of his great-uncle's estates — practically untouched by tk
excavator since they had been the battleground of the Wot
Saxons, the Romans and the Britons — he devoted hhnfdf It
exploring them. His excavations round Rtishmore resulted is
valuable " finds"; he founded a local museum and pub&skd
several illustrated volumes. As a scientific archaedogist he
attained high rank. Oxford gave him the D.C.L. in 1886; k
was president of the Anthropolo^cal Institute, and F.R.S. He
married, in 1853, Alice Margaret, daujghtcr of the second Lori
Stanley of Alderley, and had a numerous family; his teaai
daughter became in 1884 the wife of Sir John Lubbod (Uid
Avebury). General Pitt-Rivers died at Rushmore on tk ilh
of May 190a
PITTSBURG, a city of Crawford county, Kansts, UiA,
about 130 m. S. of Kansas City. Pop. (1S80), 624; (iSqoI,
6697; (1900) 10,112, of whom 860 were foreign-bora; (t9»
census), X4i755* ^^ ^ situated at the intersection of foargieM
railway systems — the Atchison T(^ka & Santa F^ tk Si
Louis & San Francisco, the Kansas City Southern (iriddi nil-
tains shopa here), and the Missouri Pacific, and is send bf
inter-urban electric railways. The city is the scat of tk SWf
Manual Training Normal School (1903) and of the Piitsbav
Business College. Pittsburg is sitiuted near the lead sod n
region of south-east Kansas and south-west Missouri, ii is ik
midst of a large and rich bituminous coalfield, and Ses sev
natural gas and oil fields. Among the manufactures aie wt
spelter — there are large smelters here — clay products (cUti^
vitrified brick, sewer pipe and tile; the clay being obtained 6aa
a great underlying b«i of shale), blasting powder, psckii^
house products and planing-mill products. The total vahe tf
the city's factory products in 1905 was $1,824,929. FiltsbBI
was settled about 1879, was chartered as a dty in 1880^ od
became a city of the first class in 1908.
PITTSBURG, or Pxttsburch,^ the second largest dty rf
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Allegheny oootj;
on the Allegheny, Monongahela and Ohio rivers, 440 m. bf n^
W. by S. of New York City, 360 m. W. by N. of Philade4*i^
368 m. N.W. of Washington and 468 m. E. by S. of Qkm-
Pop. (1890), 238,617;* (1900), 321,616, of whom 84,875 ««
foreign-born, 17,040 were negroes and 154 were Clune9e;(if*
census, after the annexation of Allegheny), 535,905. Of tk
84,878 foreign-bom in 1900, 21,222 were natives of GcmVi
18,620 of Ireland, 8902 of England, 6243 of Russian Foh>i
5709 of Italy, 4107 of Russia, 3553 of Austria, 3515 of Gcntf
Poland, 3539 of Wales, 2264 of Scotland, 2124 of Huapi^
1072 of Sweden and 1023 of Austrian Poland. Area (indoAl
Allegheny, annexed in 1906), 40-67 sq. m. Pittsburg b ib^
by the Pennsylvania (several divisions), the Baltimore kC^
the Pittsburg & Lake Erie (controlled by the New York Ceilfll
System), the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Loub fcootnli'
by the Pennsylvania Company), the Pittsburg, ChaiticB I
Youghiogheny (controlled jointly by the two preceding ndojC
21 m. of track), the Buffalo, Rodiester & Pittsbu^ and tk
Wabash-Pittsburg Terminal (60 m. to Pittsbtug Jmcd^
Ohio; controlled by the Wabash railway), and the FittAai
Terminal (also controlled by the Wabash and opentiBC tk
> " Pittsburgh " is the ofRcial spelling of the chaiter and
but " Pittsburg " b the spelling adopted by the U.S. Geo|a
Board and is in more general use.
- In previous census years the population was ai fonon: (iSok.
156s: (1820). 7248; (1840), 3I.1 15; (i860), 49,211 ; (l8to), 136. 3*»-
PITTSBURG
679
West Side Belt».from Pittsburg to Clairton, 21 m.) railways, and
by river boats od the Ohio, Monongahela and Allegheny.
Picturesque rolling plateaus, the three rivers and narrow
valleys, from which rise high hills or precipitous bluffs, are the
principal natural features of the district over which the city
extends. Retail houses, wholesale houses, banks, tall office
buildings, hotels, theatres and railway terminals are crowded
into the angle, or "The Point," formed at the confluence of the
Allesheny and Monongahela rivers, with Fifth Avenue as the
principal thoroughfare, especially for the retail houses, and
Fourth Avenue as the great banking thoroughfare. Factories
extend for miles along the banks of all three rivers into the
tributary valleys, and are the cause of Pittsburg's nickname,
" The Smoky City." The more attractive residential districts
are on the plateau in the eastern portion of the district between
the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers and on the hills over-
looking the Allegheny river from the north. Overlooking the
MonongaheU river is Schenley Park (about 422 acres), the first
city park, of which about 400 acres were given to the city in 1890
by Mrs. Mary £. Schenley. About 2 m. to the north, overlooking
the Allegheny river, is Highland Park (about 366 acres), which
eontains the city reservoirs and a picturesque lake. Adjacent
to Schenley Park are Home wood and Calvary cemeteries; and
adjacent to Highland Park is Allegheny cemetery. Across the
Allegheny river, in the Allegheny district, are the beautiful
Riverview Park (240 acres), in which is the Allegheny Obscrva-
tocy, and West Park (about 100 acres). A number of bridges
the rivers.
The city has some fine public buildings, office buildings and
churches. The Allegheny county court-house (1884-1888) is
one of H. H. Richardson's masterpieces. The Nixon theatre
if also notable architecturally. The high Frick Office building
has exterior walls of white granite; in its main hall is a stained-
window by John La Farge representing Fortune and her
beeL A large government building of polished granite con-
tains the post office and the customs offices. St Paul's (Cathedral
(Roman Catholic, 1903-1906) is largely of Indiana limestone.
The city is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Protestant Episco-
pal bishop. In Schenley Park is the Carnegie Institute (estab-
Kriied by a gift of $10,000,000 from Andrew Carnegie, who made
further contributions of $9,000,000 for its maintenance), with
m main building containing a library, a department of fine arts,
a museum (see Museums of Science) and a music hall, and
■evetal separate buildings for the technical schools, which had
3I03 students in 190^. The main building, dedicated in April
1907, is 660 ft. long and 400 ft. wide; in its great entrance hall
is a series of mural decorations by John White Alexander, a
native of the city. The library, in which the institution had
its beginning in 1895, contains about 306,000 volumes. The
I>hipps Conservatory was presented to the city in 1893 by Henry
Plupps (b. 1839), a steel manufacturer associated with Andrew
Carnegie. It is the largest in America, and, with its Hall of
Botany, which is utilized in instructing school children in botany,
fe situated in Schenley Park. The conservatory is maintained
by municipal appropriations. There is a zoological garden in
Highland Park. In December 1907 it was decided that the
several departments of the Western Universit]^ of Pennsylvania,
then in different parts of the city, should be brought together
on a new campus of 43 acres near the Carnegie Institute. In
July 1908 the name was changed to " The University of Pitts-
burg.*' The university embraces a college and engineering
■chool, the Western Pennsylvania School of Mines and Mining
Engineering, a graduate department, an evening school of
economics, accounts and finances, a summer school, evening
ciaises, Saturday dasess, and departments of astronomy (the
Allegheny Observatory, in the Allegheny district), law (the Pitts-
burg Law School), medicine (the Western Pennsylvania Medical
College), pharmacy (the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy) and
fkntistry (the Pittsburgh Dental College). The institution had
its beginning in the Pittsburgh Academy, which was opened about
1770 and was incorporated in 1787. It was incorporated
m» the Western UniveiTiUy of Pennsylvania in 1819,
but was only a college from that date imtil 1892, when
the Western Pennsylvania Medical College became its depart-
ment of medicine. In 1895 the department of law was added,
the Pittsburgh College of Pharmacy was united to the university,
and women were for the first time admitted. In 1896 the
department of dentistry was established. In 1909 the university
had X5X instructors and 1243 students. In the east end is
the Pennsylvania College for Women (Presbyterian; chartered
in 1869), with preparatory, collegiate and musical depart-
ments. In the Allegheny district are the Allegheny Theological
Seminary (United Presbyterian, 1825), the Western Theological
Seminary (Presbyterian, opened 1827), and the Reformed
Presbyterian Theological Seminary (1856). Although Alle-
gheny is now a part of Pittsburg, the two public school systems
remain independent. The Pittsburg High School (five buildings
in 1910) has a normal course; and there are various private
schools and academies.
The Pittsburg CculU-Times is probably the oldest news-
paper west of the Alleghany Mountains; the CazdU was foimded
in 1786 and in 1906 was consolidated with the Times (1879).
Other prominent newspapers of the city are the Dispatch
(1846), the Chronicle Telegraph (184 1), the Post (1792; daily,
1842), which is one of the few influential Democratic newspapers
in Pennsylvania, the Leader (Sunday, 1864; daily, 1870) and
the Press (1883). Two German dailies, one Sbvonic daily, one
Slavonic weekly, two Italian weeklies, and iron, building, coal
and glass trade journals arc published in the city. In Pittsburg
is the publishing house of the United Presbyterian Church, and
The Christian Advocate (weekly, Methodist Episcopal, 1834) is
publbhed here under the auspices of the general conference.
The oldest hospital is the Reineman (private; 1803) for
maternity cases; the municipal hospital (1878) is for contagious
diseases; the Sisters of Charity, the Sisters of Mercy, the Institu-
tion of Protestant Deaconesses, the Presbyterian Church and
the United Presbyterian Woman's Association each have charge
of a hospital; and there is also an eye, car and throat hospital
(1895). The Western Pennsylvania Inslilutfon for the instruc-
tion of the deaf and dumb (1876), in Edgewood Park, is in part
maintained by the state. And the state assists the Home for
Aged and Infirm Colored Women (1882), and the Home for
C>>lored Children (1881). Among other ch;^ritable institutions
arc the Curtis Home (1894) for destitute women and girls, the
Bethesda Home (1890) for homeless girls and their children,
the Florence Crittenton Home (1893) for homeless and unfor-
tunate women, the Roselia Foundling Asylum and Maternity
Hospital (1891), the Protestant Home for Incurables (1883), the
Pittsburg Newsboys' Home (1894), the Children's Aid Society
of Western Pennsylvania, the Pittsburg Association for the
Improvement of the Poor and the Western Pennsylvania
Humane Society.
Pittsburg is in the midst of the most productive coalfields
in the country; the region is also rich in petroleum and natural
gas. The dty is on one of the main lines of communication
between the east and the west, is the centre of a vast railway
system, and has freight yards with a total capacity for more
than 60,000 cars. Its harbour has a total length on the three
rivers of 27*2 m., and an average width of about 1000 ft., and
has been deepened by the construction (in.; 87 7- 1885) of the
Davis Island dam, by dredging, under a federal project of
1899. Slack water navigation has been secured on the Alle-
gheny by locks and dams (1890 and 1896 sqq.) at an expense
up to July 1909 of $1,658,804; and up to that time $263,625
had been spent for open-channel work. The Monongahela
from Pittsburg to the West Virginia state line (91*5 m.) was
improved in 1836 sqq. by a private company which built seven
locks and dams; this property was condemned and bought
for $3,761,615 by the United States government in 1897, and,
under the project of 1899 for rebuilding three of the locks and
enlarging another, and that of IQ07 for a new lock and dam
and for other improvements, $2,675,692 was spent up to July
1909. Coal is brought to the city from the c»a\&t\A&\si \«»^'Sk
on the Allegheny and MonoTig;)LYvdaL^><cn9& "vi^ v& Vi "cvi^x ^^^
68o
PITTSBURG
great fleets of barges carry coal and other heavy freight, such
as steel rails, cotton tics, sheet iron, wire and nails, down the
Ohio in the winter and spring. A ship canal to provide water
communication between Pittsburg and Lake Erie has been
projected. The railways have a heavy tonnage of coal, coke and
iron and steel products, and a large portion of the iron ore that
b produced in the Lake Superior region is brought to Pittsburg.
In 1908 the river traffic amounted to 9,090,146 tons, most of
which was carried on barges down the Ohio. Pittsburg is also
a port of entry; in 1907 the value of its imports amounted to
$2,416,367, and in 1909 to $2,062,162.
The value of the factory products in 1905 was $165,428,881,
and to this may be added $45,830,272 for those of the city of
Allegheny, making a total of $21 1,259,153. In the manufacture
of iron and steel products Pittsburg ranks first among the cities
of the United States, the value of these products amounting
In 1905 to $88,250,805 or 53*3 % of the total for all manufactures;
if the manufactures of Allegheny be added they amounted to
$92,939,860 or 43-7%. Several neighbouring cities and towns
are also extensively engaged in the same industry, and in 1902
Allegheny county produced about 24% of the pig-iron, nearly
34% of the Bessemer steel, more than 44% of the open-hearth
steel, more than 53 % of the crucible steel, more then 24% of the
steel rails, and more than 59% of the structural shapes that were,
made in that year in the United States. In 1905 the value of
Pittsburg's foundry and machine shop-products was $9,631,514;
of the product of steam railway repair shops, $3,726,990
(being 424-8% more than in 1900); of malt liquors, $3,166,829;
of slaughtering and meat-packing products, $2,732,027;
of cigars and cigarettes, $2,297,228; of glass, $2,130,540;
and of tin and terne plate, $1,645,570. Electrical machinery,
apparatus and supplies were manufactured largely in the city
(value in 1905, $1,796,557), and there was another large plant
for their manufacture immediately outside of the city lirhits.
Coke, cut cork, rolled brass and copper were other important
products in 1905. In 1900, and for a long period preceding,
Pittsburg ranked first among American cities in the manufacture
of glass, but in 1905 it was outranked in this industry by Muncie,
Indiana, Millville, New Jersey, and Washington, Pennsylvania;
but in the district outside of the city limits of Pittsburg much
glass is manufactured, so that the Pittsburg glass district is the
greatest in the country, and there are large glass factories
at Washington (18 m. south-west), Charlcroi (20 m. south) and
Tarcntum (15 m. north-cast). In Pittsburg or the immediate
vicinity arc the more imp>ortant plants of the United States Steel
Corporation, including that of the Carnegie Company. Here,
too, are the plants of the Westinghouse Company for the
manufacture of electrical apparatus, of air brakes invented by
George Westinghouse (born 1846), and of devices for railway
signals which he also invented. In the Allegheny district the
H. J. Heinz Company has its main pickle pkint, the largest
establishment of the kind in the country.
The Pittsburg charter of 1816 vested the more important
powers of the city government in a common council of 15
members and a select council of 9 menibcrs, and until 1834 the
mayor was appointed annually by these city councils from their
own number. By the Wallace Act of the state legislature in
1874 a form of government was provided for cities of three
classes, and Pittsburg became a city of the second class (popula-
tion between 100,000 and 300,000); under the act of 1895 a new
classification was made, under which Pittsburg remains in the
second class. An act of 1887 had amended the provisions of
the Wallace Act in regard to second class cities by changing the
terms of select council men from two to four years and of common
councilmcn from one to two years. In 1901 a new act was
passed for the government of cities of the second class. It
provided that the executive be a " city recorder "; this provision
was repealed in 1903, when the title of mayor again came into
use. The mayor holds oflice for three years, has the powers
and jurisdiclion of a justice of the peace, appoints the heads of
departments (public safety, public works, collector of delinquent
Uxes, sLssesaon, city treasurer, law, diariUca and contcV\OEi«
and unking fond commisnon), and may remove aaj of ^
officers he has appointed, by a written order, showing cam,
to the select counciL The city controller is eleOed by popdtr
vote. The legislative bodies are the select and commoo coudl,
elected under the law of 1887; by a three-fift& vote it miy pm
resolutions or ordinances over the mayor*s veto. The depot*
ment of public safety controb the bureaus of police, dctccJvo^
fire, health, electricity and building inspection; the depsitaoK
of public works controls bureaus of surveys, constradiai,
highways and sewers, dty property, water, assessment of vas
rents, parks, deed registry, bridges and light. In 1909 Ik
taxable valuation was $100,771,321, and the tax rate wn iH
mills for city property, 9*2 mills on rural propoty id
6*9 mills on agricultural property. The tax rate for t^att
indebtedness varied from 6 mills in All^faeny to i&i lA
In the 43rd ward. The water-supply of Pittsburg is tikn
from the Allegheny river and pumped into rcsenrain» tki
highest of which, in Highland Park, is 367 ft. above tk riwr,
and there Is a slow sand filtration plant for the fikratioaef tki
entire supply.
Pittsburg owed Its origin to the strategic value of its lite ii
the struggle between the English and the French for the poHO*
sion of the North American continent. A few Flint fcfi
attempted to establish a settlement here in 1731, bat wmwm
driven away by the Indians. In 1753, after the French kd
laid formal claim to this region and the Ohio IsadCnmfKV
had been formed with a view to establishing a settkmenl lAlii
it, Robert Dinwiddle, governor of Virginia and a shardoUff
in the Ohio Company, sent George Washington with a kttr
to " the commandant of the French forces on the Gtio " (As
stationed at Fort Le Bceuf , near the present Walerfdrd, ttatl
115 m. north of the head-waters of that river) asking ISm M
account for his invasion of territory claimed by the
This was Washington's firsf important public
reached the present site of Pittsburg on the a4th of Noveakf
i753t and subsequently reported^ that what is now aU
" The Point," i.e. the tongue of land formed 1^ the omflsesct
of the Monongahela and AUegheny rivers, was a nuch wm
favotuablc situation for a fort and trading post than tbe <sc
about two miles up the Monongahela (near the present wu4
McKees Rocks) which had been tentatively selected by tk
Ohio Company. Accordingly, on the X7th of Febmaiy i75(»
a detachment of about 40 soldiers, under the oomuDd d
Captain William Trent,* reached " The Point," and befu ti
build a fortification (under the auspices of the Gtno Coaiptqrlf
which it seems to have been the intention to call Fort Tnslf
and which was the beginning of the permanent settknesi bat
by whites. On the 1 7th of the following Aprfl, however, Esiip
Edward Ward, commanding the soldiers, in the absence «i
Captain Trent, was forced to evacuate the unfinished (brtificatin
by a party of about 1000 French and Indians, under C^Avs
Contrecoeur, who immediately occupied the works, «bidi k
enlarged and completed, and named Fort Duquesne, in hosoHi
of Duquesne de MenneviUe, governor of New France m liP"
1755. In the following summer Washington attempted t«
recover this fort, in a campaign which included tbe skiraiA
' His /(tmnuz/. published in 1754, gives a concise and lucid acoHit
of this expedition.
' William Trent (c. 1 715-1 778) was a native of Lancaster taat]f|
Pennsylvania, became a captain in the state militia in 174^ J^
served against the French and Indians, was for many ytsf^ >^
1*749, a justice of the court of common pleas and general inaioMa
tne peace for Cumberland county, Pennsylvania, and in ITSP"*?
was the partner of George Crogan in an extensive trade yltb y
Indians. According to one account, he visited the site of Piitikq>
and examined its availability for fortification, in August 1753^
before the arrival of Washington. In 1755 he became a neakf
of the council of Lieut.-Go\-cmor Robert H. Morris. «"d •
1758 he accompanied General Forbes's expedition a^nst Fort
Duquesne. He acted many times as Indian agent; hts HiotfM
trade with the Indians, conducted from a tradiiw bouse nrar F<«t
Pitt, was ruined during Pontiac's conspiracy. At the bcsjnnil
of the War of Independence he was given a major's eomnitficii to
raise troops in Western Pennsylvania. See /Mvaaf tfCtf*'**
^ Wittiamrr<ii/(CincuuiaU.ObiOki87i),edttedby AtticdT.iMw
PITTSBURG
68 1
«<
(oommonly considered the beginxung of the French and Indian-
Seven Years' — War) on the aSlh of May 1 754, at Great Meadows
On what is now Wharton township, Fayette county, Pennsyl-
vania, about so ni. south-east of Pittsburg), between a deuch-
ment under his command and a scouting party under N. Coulon
de Jumonville, in which Jumonville and several of his men were
kHicd; the building, at Great Meadows, by Washington, of Fort
Necessity, and its capitulation (July 3); and the retreat of
Washington to Virginia. Another expedition, led by Major-
Gcneral Edward Braddock, resulted in the engagement known
Braddock's Defeat " (July 9f i755)> fought within the
borough of Braddock (about 8 m. east of Fort Duquesne),
in which Braddock's force was practically annihilated, and
Bnddock was mortally wounded, dying four days later. The
fort was finally recaptured by the English in 1758, as the result
of an elaborate expedition (involving about 7000 troofSs)
giUimed by Brigadier-General John Forbes (17 10-1759), and
praaecuted, with the assistance of Colonel George Washington
aad Colonel Henry Bouquet, in the face of great difficulties.
General Forbes himself was so ill that he had to be carried in a
Kttcr throughout the campaign. The troops having rendez-
voused during the summer (of 1 758) at Ray's Town (now Bedford,
Fmnsylvania), and at Loyalhanna creek (now in Westmoreland
county), about 50 m. to the north-west (where Fort Ligonier
was built), Colonel Bouquet, commanding the division at the
Intter place, despatched Major James Grant (17 20-1806) at the
haul dT about 850 men to reconnoitre the fort. Grant advanced
to n hill (still known by his name, and upon the crest of which
the court-house now stands) within about a quarter of a mile
of the fori. Here he rashly divided his force, and in a sortie
of French and Indians, on the morning of the 14th of September,
one of his divisions was surrounded, and a general rout ensued
in which about 270 of Grant's men were killed, about 40 were
wounded, and others (including Grant) were taken prisoners.
Foffbes's army advanced to within about is m. of the fort on
the 24th of November, whereupon the French blew up part of
tiie works, set fire to the buildings and retreated down the Ohio
in boats. The English occupied the place on the next day and
Gcneial Forbes ordered the immediate erection of a stockade
fort near the site of the old one. In reporting to Lieut.-Governor
William Denny (Nov. 26) the success of the expedition he dated
his letter from Fort Duquesne "or now Pitts- Bourgb," and this
nnme, with its subsequent modification " Pittsburgh," was
thereafter more commonly used than that of Fort Pitt, which,
as designating the fortification proper appears to have been
first applied by General John Stanwix to the enlarged fort built
(at a cost, it was estimatcxl, of £60,000) chiefly under his direction
dnring 1759-1760.
The fiist considerable settlement around the fort sprang up
In 1760; it was composed of two groups of houses and cabins,
the " lower town," near the fort's ramparts; and the " upper
town," built chiefly along the banks of the Monongahela, and
cstefluding as far as the present Market Street. In April 1761,
aoocHxiing to a census of the settlement, outside of the fort, taken
for Colonel Bouquet, there were 332 inhabitants and 104 houses.
Fort Pitt was one of the important objective points of Pontiac's
conspiracy (1763), and as soon as the intentions of the Indians
hecnme evident. Captain Simeon Ecuyer, the Swiss officer in
oomxnand of the garrison (which then numbered about 330),
had the houses outside the ramparts levelled and prepared for
n siege. The Indians attacked the fort on the 22nd of June
(1763), and kept up a continuous, though ineffective, fire upon
it from the 27th of July until the ist of August, when they drew
off nnd advanced to meet the relieving party under Colonel
Bouquet. They were defeated at Bushy Run, and Colonel
Bouquet relieved the fort on the loth of Augxist (see Pontiac).
In 1764 Colonel Bouquet added to the fort a redoubt, the " Block
House," which still stands, the sole remaining trace of Fort Pitt,
— MJ is owned and cared for by the Daughters of the American
Itevolutton.
A second town, laid out in 1 764, by Colonel John Campbell (with
the permission of the commandant at Fort Pitt), is bounded in
the present city by Water Street, Market Street, Second Avenue
and Ferry Street, and comprises four blocks. In November
1768, at a general council of the Six Nations with Sir William
Johnson and representatives of Pennsylvania and Virginia
held at Fort Stanwix, on the site of the present Rome, New York
iq.v.)t at which was signed a treaty establishing the boundary
line between the English possessions and the territory claimed
by the Six Nations, the Indians sold for $10,000 to Thomas
Penn (1702-1775) and Richard Penn(i7o6-i77i), respectively,
the second and third sons of William Penn — the founder of
Pennsylvania — by his second wife, the remaining land in the
province of Pennsylvania to which they claimed title, namely
the tract lying south of the west branch of the Susquehanna
river and of a straight line from the north-west corner of what
is now Cambria county to the present Kittanning (in Armstrong
county), and all of the territory east of the Allegheny river below
Kittanning and south of the Ohio river. To this transaction
the commissioner from Virginia seems to have made no objection,
though the tract included the Fort Pitt region and other territory
then claimed by Virginia. In January-March 1769 the Pcnns
caused to be surveyed the " Manor of Pittsburgh," a tract of
about 5700 acres, including much of the original city, intending
to reserve it for their private use; but in the following April they
offered at public sale the lands in the remainder of their purchase
of the preceding year.* At this time the settlement about Fort
Pitt consisted of about twenty houses, occupied chiefly by Indian
traders. By order of General Thomas Gage the fort was
abandoned as a military post in October 1772, and was partly
dismantled. In January 1774 it was occupied by an armed force
under Dr John Connolly, a partisan of Lord Dunmore, governor
of Virginia, and by him was named Fort Dunmore (which name,
however, was never formally recognized), this being one of
Dunmore's overt acts ostensibly in support of his contention
that the Fort Pitt region was included in Augusta county,
Virginia. In the following April Connolly took forcible posses-
sion of the court-house at Hanna's Town (near the present
Greensburg), the county-seat of Westmoreland county (which
then included the Fort Pitt region), a few da}rs afterwards arrested
the three justices who lived in Pittsburg, and for the remainder
of the year terrorized the settlement. Lord Dunmore himself
issued a proclamation dated " Fort Dunmore," 17th September
(1774), in which he called upon the inhabitants to ignore the
authority of Pennsylvania, and to recognize only that of Virginia.
A year afterwards Fort Pitt was occupied by a company of
Virginia soldiers by order of the Virginia Provincial Convention
(assembled at WiUiamsburg in August 1775), but this move
apparently was more for the defence of the frontier in the coming
war than an expression on the Pennsylvania- Virginia boundary
dispute; and, in November, Connolly was arrested at Fredericks-
burg, Maryland, on the charge of furthering Dunmore's plans
for invading the western frontier. The boundary itself was in
controversy until 1780, and the marking of the boundary lines
was not completed until 1 785. During the War of Independence
the fort was maintained as a frontier Indian post, and as a pro-
tection against the British at Detroit. Soon after the close of
the war it was neglected, and by 1791 it was in bad repair; there-
fore at the time of the Indian hostilities of 1792 another stockade
fort was built near the bank of the Allegheny river and about
a quarter of a mile above the site of Fort Pitt, this new fort being
named Fort Lafayette, or, as it was more commonly called. Fort
Fayette. After General Anthony Wayne's defeat of the Indians,
at Fallen Timbers, Ohio (Aug. 20, i794)f Pittsburg lost its
importance as a frontier post.
In January 1784 the sale of the land included in the " Manor
of Pittsburgh " was b^un by the grandsons of William Penn,
John Penn (1729-1795), the second son of Richard Penn and
lieutenant-governor of Pennsylvania in 1763-1771 and in 1773*
1776; and John Penn (176^1834), the fourth son of Thomas
Penn; and in the following June a new series of town lots was
laid out in which was incorporated Colonel Campbell's survey
Thereafter, settlers, chiefly Scotch and Irish, came rapidly.
* This tract was confiscated by Pennsylvania in xiW-
PITTSFIELD— PITTSTON
PilUbnrguiilIti vidnily wItBaMdrBurhof Ihe dl»nler, tnd lOialralid HiaUry cf At Cummjtmaltli of Pnuu^mia (SuiMmt.
Mmc al Ibe violtnce >gunit p«»a ud propnty, inodenl lo S°^?l,f^Si''iii'l<SlIi^
•>•( Whiiky Imumttion of 1791-94- DcltgBlra (rom Alle- ^ „/ ,i, «3j|, sb«i (Ntw
__.. iir_^ i__j .,.__i.i — , nd FayWle Eoimtin mcl ufk and Alirilumy t* ik O^
, tad paued tMoluliom hulori^ of lh» vxtinn foRm
levBteiy aeooimnng loe eiase ui; ud > limilirly mi«lilul«l 5o t^^lTilS^BS
gathtring, on the 54lh ol Auguit i;9S, volcd 10 pnacribi! >U Wttibuu. P. U. KriksMJ.
penons who uuilcd in the cnlonxment of lam taiing the rk, 1910 iqq.). pccpircJiiito
paid the eidie Ux, or had isaUtrd in coUecIing it. were Iitrcd PnTEFlELO, t dly ud the county-mit of Bcrkihire cgnilf,
ind falhered or had their hoiua or bama burnKL General MuiacfauKlta, U.S.A., in the wisteni part of the uiteiBai
John Neviile (ijji-iBoj), having accepted the oQice of chief the Berkshire Hilli, ud about 150 m. W. of Balon. h^
exdie inapecLoi for Western Fennfiylvanla. hia fine country (lAgo). 17, afti; (1900), iijM.of whom 4^44 wcfcfonHgn-hsi;
residence, about 7 m. aoulh-west of ^Itsfaurg, was nllicked by (igio cmsus). ji.iii. Am, about 41 iq m. It ii mrd
a mob of about joo men on the lAlb *nd ijth □( July 1704. by the Mew Vork, New Itavcii & Hartford aiul the Boasal
The delcndcn ol the piopcity (who included a iquad of toldien Albany (New York Ceatnl & Hudson River) railways, lad br
from the garrison at Pittsburg) killed two and wounded several two inter-urliu electric lino. FiitsSeld is a popular sudbb
of the attacking party, but they were finally forced to aurrender, lesoni it lies in a plain about looo (t. above sea-leiel, a »«■
and General Neville's man^on and other buildings were burned rounded by the picturesque BerlLshire Hillg. and is ntoitsl ■
to the ground. A mass meeting of about 5000 dliiens of tbe a region of numerous lakes, one of the largest — Lake PoetenK
above-mentioned counties (muy of them amicd militiamen), —being a summer pleasure resort. On either aide of the 017
at Bnuldock's Field, on the ist and ind o( August 1794, threat- flow the east and wot branchciof the Housstonic rivs. Suad-
ened to take possenioo ol Fort Lalayeite and to bum rittsburg, ing in the public pten, in the centre ol the dly, a the cri(iial
bulcoideicounselprevailed.andiftervDtingtoproscribeseveral statue (by Launt Thompson) ol the " tlaiaacbuKtl* CdK
penons.andmarcbing innbody through Ihealrectaol thetown. Bearer," which has been rqnixluced on the battlefidi ri
the crowd dispersed without doing uy damage. Upon tbe Gettysburg, Fennsylvuia. The prindpal institutions an lb
arrivaJ ui the following November of the troops Mat by President House ol Mercy Hospital, with which is connected the H™j
Washington, a military court of inquiry, held at Pittsburg. W. Bbhop Memorial Tiainiug School for nurwt, the Bertdn
delphia for trial,, where some of them were iound guilty and the public library, the Crane Art Museum ud a youig Mnl
Mnlcnced (0 terms of imprisonment, but the leDteacei were Christian Association, Prominent buHdlnts are St Jcaqi)
not enforced. Cathedral and the buildings ol the Berkshire life ImailMT
ThctownwasmadethecouDty-seatinirgi.ilwasIncorporated Company, the Agricultural National Bank and the Bulltaf
B3 1 borough in 1794, the charter was revived in 1804, and the County Savings Bank. In the soulh-weslcm part ol TiaMi
borough «nu chattered as a city in 1S16. As early as the year on the boundary between it and Hancock, it Shako Vibp;
of its incorporation as a borough Philadelphia and Baltimore settled about 1790 by Shakers. Pittsfield baa wuer-povif ud
merchants had established an important trade with it. Their importAnt manufacturing industries- In 1905 its fscti^
goods were carried in Conestoga wagons to Shippensburg and products were valued at (8,577,358, or 4g-i% more tkiak
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and Hagcistown, Maryland, taken iqoo. Fully half ol the manufactures consist of Icitae F<^
from there to Pittsburg on pack horses, and cichanged (or The first settlement in what i* now Pittsfield wu ndta
Orieans, where they were eicbuged for sugar, molasses, &c., In 1749 the settlement was revived, but the settlers did b«
and these were carried through the gulf and along the coast bring their lamihes to the frontier until 1751. The scHloA
to Baltimore and Philadelphia. Boat-building was begun in was fiisl called " Boston Plaotation," or " Poontoiauck,' M
buili by the government, was launched here in 170E, and the changed to Pittsfield, in honour of the ddrr Williin FiiL b
" Senator Ross," completed in the same year, was launched in iSqi Pittsfield waa chartered as a city. It was hen. is lt>
■ 109. In 1797 glassworks which were the first to use coal as Applclon (or Flunkelt) House, known as " Ehn KhJ,' at
■ fuel in making glass were built here; later Pittsburg profiled built by Thomas Cold, fother-in-law ol Nathan Appktm. IW
giutly by the use o( its great store of natural gai in the manu- in 1S45 Henry W. Longfellow (who married .Vatban AppMa^
lacture of glass. In |go6 the manufacture of iroa w»a well begun, daughter) wrote his poem " The Old Clock on the Stairs' f*
and by 1815 this had become the leading industry. On the 10th thirty years (1841-1871) Pittsfield was the home of ike Rb.
of April 1S45 a considerable portion ol the dty was swept by John Todd (1800-1873), the author of numerous books, el vbt
fire, and in July 1S77. during the great railway strike ol that Lnliaa la CkUdrta (iS}4i ind scries, iSs8) and Tkr S^dett
year, a large amount of properly vas destroyed by a mob. The Manaia (1835) were once widely isid. From 1H07 ts iM
commerdal importance of ihe city was increased by the canal F.lkanah Waisoo (1758-1841), a prominent famcT acd menfiA
from Pittsburg to Fhiladdphia. built by the stale In 1634 at a lived at what is now the Country Oub, ud while tbeit iBl»
cost of tio,ooo,ooo. The first petroleum [Hpc ibhc reached duced the merino sheep into Berkshire county and vpsbri
Pittsburg in 187;. A movement to consolidate the cities of the Berkshire Agricultuial Sodely; he is remembcird iorB
Pittsburg and Allegheny, together with some adjacent boroughs, advocacy of the building of a canal csnnccling the Giat Uis
was begun in 1K5J-1354. It failed entirely in that year but with the Atlantic Ocean, and as the author of ifowiri: Jin
in 1867 Lawtenccvilk. Peebles, Collins. Ubctly, Pilt and Oak- and Tima tj Ae JtnvJidJn (1855), edited by bis son, V.C
land, all lying bctvieen the two rivers, were annexed to Pittsburg; Watson.
in 187] there was a further inneiation of a district embradng PITISTON, a dly of Luieme county, Pennsylvania, ITS-1>
)) sq. m. south of the Monongahela river; in 1906 Allegheny on the Susquehanna river juit bebw the mouth of Ihe Udt-
(ft), although a large majority of those voting on Ihe question wanna, about 11 m, S.W. of Scranton and about 4 n. NX.'
in that city were opposed 10 it, was anncied, and in November Wilkcs-Birr*- Pop. (1890), lo.joi; (190c), 11,55*, oi wb"
11)07 the Supreme Court of the United Stales declared valid 3394 were foreign-bom; (1910 census), i(i,ifi7. It k Kn<'
theactollheslalelegislatureunderwhich thevotewastaken. by the Erie, the Lehigh Valley, the Delaware, Lackiwif
Soe N. B, Crai,. TV ff.Wy ^ PiaA^O- (Pitl*unt. "SSi); S ?'"'*"'/'^ ^"'J*" '^ '*rJ""^- 1^n°*T^
£o-l,;/,.«r,»flS,fcr,P„,,,/,Saa,,Jjlt'fr,;,.bya(j;.ileS,an Hudson, and Ihe Lackawanna h Wyoming Valley railnTI.
ol the bar—}. D. Hupp (PlLubiug. 1S48); William H- Egle, there is in electric railway from I^tuton to Soutiia, udi
PITYRIASIS— PIUS (POPES)
683
bdt-lioe electric railway connects Pittston with Avoca, Nanti-
ooke, nymouthand Wilke»-Barre. Two bridges connect the
dty with the borou^ of West Pittston (pop., 1910. 6848}.
Pfttston is in the midst of the richest anthxadte coal region of
the state, and fire-clay also abounds in the vidnity. In 1905
\ht value of the factory products was $1,474,928 (47*8% more
tlian in 1900). Pittston, named in honour of WUliam Pitt,
BBil of Chatham, was one of the five original towns founded in
the Wyoming Valley by the Susquehanna Company of Con-
aectlcut; it was first settled about 1770 and was incorporated
m M. borough in 1803. It was chartered as a dty in 1894.
PITTRIASIS VBRSICOU)R (Gr. TirvpUuru, scurf, from
>, bran), a skin disease, consisting of patches of brownish
ions of various sizes and shapes, mostly on the front
rf the body, and often attended with itching, especially after
heating ezerdse. The pigmentation seems to radiate from the
avifices of hair-f ollides. The epidermis is in a scaly condition
yver the patch, and among the d^iris of the epidermic cdl there
Boay be seen minute oval spores due to a vegetable parasite,
the Mierospcron furfur. The disease is mostly one of adult age,
Eoand all over the world, and not associated in any special way
■rith poor general health. The treatment consists of rubbing
in an ointment of potassium sulphide or one of the mercurial
aintments, or using sulpbur-soap habitually.
FIURA. the northernmost maritime department of Peru,
liovnded north by the Gulf of Guayaquil, N E. by Eoiador, S
by^be departments of Cajamarca and Lambayeque, and W. by
the Pacific Area, 14,849 sq. m.; pop. (1906, estimate), 154,080 —
lioth totals ezdusive of the province of Tumbes. or Tumbcz
(jirea, about 1980 sq m ; pop., in 1906. about 8000), which
baa been administratively sepacatcd from the department for
nilitary reasons. The department belongs partly to the arid
ipatrt*' plain that extends from the Gulf of Guayaquil southward
■early to Valparaiso, and partly to a broken mountainous region
belonging to the Western Cordilleras. The coastal zone is
tmvecsed by the Tumbes, Chira and Piura rivers, which have
their sources in the melting snows of the higher Andes and flow
westward across the desert to the coast. The valleys of the
Chira and Piura are irrigated and maintain large populations.
Bough cotton, called " vegetable wool." and tobacco are the
IHincipaJ products, and are also produced in the valley of the
C^ombes and in some of the elevated mountain districts. On
te ui^and pastures cattle have long been raised, and goat-
twreK*«"g has been added in modem times. Mules also are reared.
PletToIeum is an important product, and there are wells at a
Hunbcr of places along the coast, from Tumbes to Sechura, the
Boat productive bdng those of Talara and Zorritos. There are
■dpbur deposits in the Sechura desert, and salt is manufactured
It some places on the southern coast. The making of Panama
lata from the fibre of the " toquilla " palm is a household
adnstry. The capital is Piura (est. pop. 9100 in 1906), on the
Pfaira river, about 35 m. (direct) E.S.E. of Paita, and 164 ft.
sea-leveL It was founded by Pizarro in 1531 under the
of San Migud, at a place called Tangarara, nearer Paita,
the present site was afterwards adopted. A railway (60 m.
«ng) by way of Sullana connects with the port of Paita. and
an extension of 6 m. runs S.S.E. to Catacaos. Other towns of
Jie dqwrtment, with their estimated populations in 1906, are:
tbmbes, or Tumbez (3300), the most northern port of Peru, on
Jie Guffi of Guayaquil, celebrated as the place where Pizarro
in 1531; Paita; Sechura (6450), on Sechura Bay in the
port of the department, with exports of salt and sulphur,
^iPmwa (5300), an inland town with railway connexions in the
Svtile Chira valley; Morropon (3800) on the upper Piura; Huan-
aibamba, the centre of a tobacco district in the mountains,
UhI Tambo Grande (6100) and Chulucanas (4600), both in the
Piura valley above the capitaL
fills* the name of ten popes.
Pius I., pope from about 141 to 154. He was the brother of
ermas, author of the Shepherd
Pius II. (Enea Silvio de' Piccolomini, known in literature as
Silvius), pope from 1458 to 1464, was bom on the i8th
of October 1405, at Corsignano (afterward called Pienza after
him), near Siena. His family, though poor, was noble, and
claimed to trace descent from Romulus. The ddest of dghteen
children, he had to work on the farm with his father, until a
priest taught him the rudiments of letters, which enabled him,
at the age of eighteen, to go as a poor student to Siena, dividing
his time between severe humanistic studies and a life of sensual
pleasure. He was attracted to Fl<Kence by the teaching of
Filelfo. His father urged him to become a lawyer, but he
accepted the position of secretary to Domenico Capranica,
bishop of Fermo,and went with him to the council of Basd,
where he stayed several years (X43X-1435), changing masters
whenever he could improve his position. As secretary of the
bishop of Novara he became engaged in a conspiracy against
Pope Eugenius IV.; his master was caught and imprisoned, and
Aeneas only saved himself by a hasty flight. He was next
(1435) employed as secreury of Cardinal Nicholas Albergati
(d. X443) at the congress of Arras, where peace was made between
France and Burgundy. From here he took a long journey to
Scotland and England, on a secret diplomatic mission; he had
numerous adventures, in one of which be nearly lost his life-
In 1436 he was back at Basd, and, although a layman, obtained
a seat in the council and exercised considerable infiuence. In
order to control it better Eugenius tried to get the council to
move to Florence; a minority agreed and seceded; the majority,
however, stayed where they were and took vigorous measures
against the pope, culminating in his deposition on the 25th of
June X438. Aeneas took an active part in the coundl; and
though he still declined to take orders, he was given a position
on the conciliar conclave which elected Amadeus of Savoy as
pope under the title of Fdix V. In return for his services Felii
made Aeneas papal secretary.
A new period of his career opened in 2443, when he was sent
by the council to take part in the diet of Frankfort-on-Main.
Here he met Frederick HI. of Germany, who made him poet
laureate and his private secretary. He ingratiated himself
with the chancellor, Kaspar Schlick, at Vienna, one of whose
adventures he celebrated in Lucretia and EurialuSt a novel in
the style of Boccacdo. At this period he also wrote his witty
but immoral play, Chrisis. In 1446 he took orders as subdeacon,
and wrote that he meant to reform, " forsaking Venus for
Bacchus," chiefly on the ground of satiety, and also, as he
frankly wrote, because the clerical profession offered him more
advantages than he could secure outside it.
Aeneas was useful to Frederick as a diplomatist, and managed
to give all parties the impression that he was the devoted
advocate of each. During the struggle between pope and
council he induced Frederick to be neutral for a while. He took
an important part in the diet of Nuremberg (1444), and being
sent on an embassy to Eugenius in the following year he made
his peace with the pope. At the diet of Frankfort (Sept. 1446)
Aeneas was instnmiental in changing the majority of the dcctors
from their hostile position towards pop>e and emperor into a
friendly one. He brought the good news to Eugenius shortly
before his death (Feb. 7, 1447), and made friends with the new
pope, Nicholas V., by whom he was made bishop of Siena. He
was an agent of Frederick in making the cdebrated concordat
of Vienna (also called concordat of Aschaffenburg) in February
1448. His services to pope and emperor brought him the titles
of prince of the empire and cardinal, positions which he used
rather unscrupulously to get as many lucrative benefices into
his hands as possible. Those in Germany brought him two
thousand ducats a year.
The death of Calixtus III. (who succeeded Nicholas V.)
occtirred on the 5th of Augxist 1458. After a hot fight in the
conclave, in which it seemed that the wealthy French cardinal,
Guillaume d'EstouteviUe, archbishop of Rouen and bishop of
Ostia, would be elected, the intrigues of Aeneas and of his friend
Rodrigo Borgia O&ter the notorious Alexander VI.) gave the
victory to the cardinal of Siena, who took the title Pius II.. with
a reminiscence of Virgil's " pius Aeneas." The huma.Tvv&v^
hailed his election with ioy, &ud{Lock<t^axQMtA\A <afcc?»^%'^fiDafln
\
684 PIUS (POPES)
of the good things, but they were bitterly di>appointcd, as Pius ^. See Henog-Hauck. JtestoiqrUoMiM (1904). voL xr.. «hm a fd
did not prove Wm^ the hberal and undiscrixninating patron S^^iJS^^lJlSSJr^ialkV
they hoped. The faU of Constantinople in I4S3 had "made a the pipes from tht clou ef the MuUU Agu (Eng.inu*^, i896.wLb.7j
deep impression upon Pius, and he never ceased to preach the Voigt, Ptus II. (1856-1863). The CommeTttariet of Piw vere p»
crusade against the Turk. In September 1459 he opened a lished in 1^84, under the name of Gobdinus Penona. Hboikr
congre^at Mantua for the pu,po« of co«id.ring what could J^'^M^^J.'S^Sf?^^}.'^?' """ ^"^ 'IkS^
be done m this direcUon. His proposals for the raising of troops __ _, ^ .. .Zri ...•*. 1 . if^^
and money met with general opposition. The French were angry , PnJS m (Fiwcesco Nanm.Todejchmi.Rca>kHnmi^ p^
because Pius had crowned the Spanish claimant, Ferdinand. [~°» the 22nd of Septembw to the i8th of Octoberisoj, Wi
king of Naples, and thus disposed of the pretensions of Ren6 ^™ ^t Siena on the gth of May 1439. After atudjrmg h«il
of Anjou. The Germans also objected to Pius's plans, but finally ^f^«^ '»* ^ °**J« archbishop of Siena and caxdmaMeiai
agreed to furnish some troops and money, promises which they did <>» ?^ ^"**Jr "*! ^°^ ?°*^ twenty-two years of afe, by ka
not carry out. Pius felt how much the position of the papacy had "f «^5 ^^ "- ^J"? P«"°*"«* *^.^o *f "»« the name and «
fallen in importance since the days of Urban and Innocent III., ^^ the Plccolommi. He was employed by subsequent pops k
and. believing that the change was due to the general councUs several important legations, as by Paul U. at the diet el
which had asserted power over the popes, he changed his Re««isburg and by Sixtus IV. to secure the Rston&niC
posiUon, which before his election to the papal throne had «^c«**ti<al authonty m Umbna. He bravdy oppoial Ob
been that of a warm advocate of the conciliar daims, and issued I^*M^ ^^ Alexander VI., and was elected pope, amid the A-
Oan. 1460) the bull Extcrahilis et in pristinis tcmporibus in- turbances consequent upon the death of the latter, tkwa^
auditus, in which he condemned as heretical the doctrine that i"^. interested mfluence of Cardinal deUa Roym, afteroidi
the councils were superior to the popes, and proclaimed the J^^ "•' ^^ was crowned on the 8th of October 1503- »
anathema against any one who should dare to appeal to one. permitted Ct»arc Borgia to return to R^me. bat praap^
He issued another buU at the same time, promising forgiveness [9^* ,"^ ™° ^"^ reform of the curia. Pius was a pm <
of sins to those who would take part in the crusade, and then Wamelcss We, and would doubll«s have acoomphsfacd nA
dissolved the congress. hadhehved. His successor was Juhus XL
While Pius was at Mantua war broke out between the French flJSoA%8) •^'c?l/htSir''fi2toS ^^VajT
and Spanish in southern Italy, and a rising of the barons devas- Jo„, i^i\)i>.'Cre«oroviu^"J2J!?w 2c MtM^Jlits, Jd.*!
tatcd the Campagna. Hurrying back to Rome Pius succeeded trans, by Mrs C. W. Hamilton (London. iqoo>1902): PkcobaUL
in quelling the disorders, and sent his nephew Antonio Todes- "IlPontificatodiPioIII.,"in>4«At»w*tor.iia/.,vol.v.CFuea«,iffltfi
chini to the aid of Ferdinand, who made him duke of Amalfi Pius IV. (Giovanni Angelo Medici, or " Medi^mio "). pi|>
and gave him his natural daughter Maria in marriage. This from 1559 to 1565, was bom at Milan on the 31st of Blaid 14M
measure still further alienated the pope from the French, with of an obscure family, not related to the Media of FlonKe (i
whom he was at that time negotiating for the abrogation of the claim to such relationship was advanced after GiovandS Aiftb
Pragmatic Sanction. When Louis XI. came to the throne had attained to prominence). The fortune of the fam^ «■
(Nov. 1461), he sent to Pius saying that he had abolished the established by an elder brother, Gian Giacomo, who foniibt ki
Pragmatic Sanction, hoping in return to get the kingdom of way to the marquisate of Marignano and distoigaished li»
Naples for his countryman Ren6 of Anjou. When Pius refused self in the service of the emperor. Giovanni Angdo lUfSd
to do anything to the prejudice of Ferdinand, Louis changed in Bologna and Pavia, and for some time followed the lot.
his attitude, and allowed the protests of the university of Paris Entering the service of the Church, he found favour with PuHU,
and the parlements to persuade him to restore the andent who entrusted him with the governorship of several infrntal
liberties of the Galilean Church. At the same time a serious towns, and in 1549 made him a cardinaL Julius IlL tad kiB
quarrel with the Germans prevented anything being done upon missions to Germany and Hungary. With Paul IV. It
towards a crusade. George Podiebrad, king of Bohemia, was was out of favour, because not in sympathy with his poficy.ai
plotting to depose the emperor Frederick III., who was sup- accordingly retired to Milan. In the protracted and muuii^l
ported by Pius. Diether, archbishop of Mainz, took the side conclave that followed the death of Paul the electjoo of Ha
of Podiebrad, and replied to Pius's measures by appealing to a (Dec. 25, 1559) was due to a compromise between the SpmA
general council. He was declared deposed by the pope, but and French factions.
kept his seat, and in 1464 compelled the pope to recognize him In temperament and habit Pius was the antitheril flf tt
again. The quarrd with Podiebrad, who was accused of predecessor: affable, vivacious, convivial. He was. Banoia»
supporting, the Utraquist heresy, continued with increasing astute, diplomatic and experienced In affairs. He aUoved di
bitterness, but without any decisive result, until the death of reform movement free course, but tried to repair ocrtaia 1^
Pius. In the meantime the pope did what he could to further justices of Paul IV* (for example, releasing and reiaitital
the cause of the crusade. The discovery of alum mines at Tolfa Morone, who had been imprisoned on a charge of beresf), a'
gave him an unexpected pecuniary resource, and to stimulate mitigated some of his extreme decrees. But to the nqifamil
the zeal of Christendom, Pius took the cross on the iSth of June Paul he showed no mercy: they were charged with variooscriaa
1464. He set out for Venice, where he intended to sail for the condenmed, upon testimony of suspidous validity, and enotti
East, but he was attacked with a fever, and on the 14th of on the 5th of March 1561. The Colonnesi, who had bees actiw
August 1464 he died. in the prosecution, recovered Paliano. But midcr Pis V.
Pius II. was a voluminous author. Besides poems, a novd judgment was reversed, the memory of the Carafla rehabiBtttii
and a play, he wrote a number of orations, which were con- and restitution made to the family. Pius IV. himsdf w ^
sidercd models of doquence in their day. His most valuable guiltless of nepotism; but the bestowment of the cardiBihli
work, however, is his Commentaries, a history of his own Ufe and the archbishopric of Milan upon his nephew, the pvc td
and times, told in an interesting and rational manner. He is upright Carlo Borromeo, redoimded to the honour of lui "
very frank about himself, and most of the adverse judgments cate and the welfare of the church.
which have been pronounced on his character have been based With England lost to the papacy, Germany
on his own confessions. He was an opportunist, sailing along Protestant, and France on the verge of dvfl war. Pins lol*'
with any favourable breeze, and not quite enough in earnest how fatuous was the anti-Spanish policy of his
about anything to pursue the same tack steadily for long. We He therefore recognized Ferdinand as emperor, and coocfEtfi'
must give him the credit, however, of advocating a statesman- Philip II. with extensive ecclesiastical privileges. Bal n^
like policy in the interests of the whole of Europe in trying sequently. antagonized by Philip's arrogance, he incfaed t»
to get the powers to unite agamst the Turks, who threatened to wards France, and gave tnx^ and money for the war '"^
overwbdm tbcm all. the Huguenots.
PIUS (POPES)
68 s
pension of ten yan the OHindl o[ Trail tecunvened
of January 156a. Among ihe dcmandi proented
UI nations were, the reto)[nition of the equality of
e, cominunian tn both kinds, dcjicAl marria^, and
: vemacidarln Church lervico. It cequiiKl all the
the powen on the other. Hiuilis to Morone and
owever. be achieved bii end. Hie council was
nEcmed by the pope (Jan. 16, 1^64), who reserved
ic sole right of mteiprelalion. The decrees were
acccplcd by most of the Catholic stales; only
:vcr, and with retervalion by Franco and Spain.
iUres were taken [or carrying the detrea into effect ;
L striclly enjoined; plurality of benefices prohibited;
Pius v.); a new edition of Ihe Index published
Ihe "Trideniine ated" promulgaled (Nov. ij,
.crmination of the councQ Pius indulged his desire
id punished (is6;). Pius fortified Rome, and con-
hurch of Sia Maria dcgii Angeli in the Bathi of
'K Porla Pia; Ihe Villa Pii in the Vatican Gardens;
«e of Ihe Conservitori. He died on the 9th of
nd »M succeeded by Ru» V.
"of ""urf " cSconiui. vuit H «i"(i'^'''''»>™"-'
(Rome ieoi-l«D]; al» contemporary) ; T. MUller,
/■••! IV. ICoiha. 1S39; nioie comnrebcntive Ihanthe
; Rantc. Popri (Eng. Iran.., Auilin). i. iii mm iiH
1504. n
a Domi
e MiUne:
56610 isji, waibon
he was appoinlcd inquisitor in Com
d such opposition as to compel his recall (1550).
uisitor, Caraffa, convinced of his value, straightway
>n a mission 10 Lombatdy, and in ij;i appointed
sary-general of the Holy Office. When CaralTa
■, Gbbiieri was made bishop of Nepi and Suiri,
;;), and finally grand inquisilor, which offite he
a manner to make the nanw of " Fm Micbeic ddl'
>m, however, he repelled by hia eincessive severity,
led by his censoriousness and obstinacy. But the
iih which he was so fully identified was irreiistibk;
: dealh of Pius IV., the rigorisia, led by Borromeo.
illy in making him pope (Jan. 7, 1566).
ipe. Rus did not cease to be a monk: hit aicetic
applied himself 10 the work of reform. Decree*
es were issued with astonishing nj»dity: the papal
1 of everything unieemly, and became a model of
cc; severe penalties wore atlachBl to Sunday dese-
anity and animal balling; cleirical residence was
ivenluals were compelled to live hi sirlct seclusion
was restricted, and Ihe peoitin
ny of nepotism. One nephew
of fiefs that sbotdd revert lo the Holy See, and bound the
catdinalt by oath lo observe it. In March is6g Pius ordered
the eipuliion of the Jews from the stales of the Church. For
commerdaj reasona Ibey were allowed to remain in Rome and
Ancona, hut only upon humiliating conditions. In February
1J71, the Umiliaii, a degenerate monaalic order of Milan, was
suppressed on account of its complicity in as allempl upon the
life of the archbishop. Carlo Bonomeo,
The election of Pius lo Ihe papacy wa* the enthlDnement of
ambition, and the possession of power only intensified his passion.
The rules governing the Holy Office were sharpened; old charges,
long suspended, were revived; rank offered no protection, but
rather exposed its possessor 10 fiercer attack; none were pursued
more relenlieaaly than the cultured, among whom many of the
Protestant doctttnes bad found acceptance; princes and alalei
withdrew their prolectkin, and courted the favour of Ibe Holy
See by surrendering distinguished offenders, Cosmo dc' Medici
handed over Pieiro Camesecchi (and two years blcr received in
reward the title ol grand duke, Sept. isig); Venice delivered
Cuido Zanelti; PhiUp II., Banolomt de Canania. Ihe arch-
bishop of Toledo. In Match 1571 the Congregation ol Ihe
Index was established and greater thomughnesi introduced into
the pursuil of heretical literature. The result waa the Sight of
hundreds of prinlcrs lo Switierland and Germany. Thus heresy
was hunted out of Italy; Ihe only regret ol Pius was Ihat he
had aomelimes been loo lenient. In ij6; Pius condemned Ihe
doctrines of Michael Baius, a professor of Louvain, who taught
justification by faith, asserted the suRiciency ol the Scriptures,
and disparaged outwird forms. Baius submilled; bul his
doctrines were afterwards taken up by Ihe Jansenistt.
The polilical activities ol Pius were controlled by one principle,
war upon the heretic and inlidcl. He spurred Philip II. on in the
Netherlands, and approved the bloody work of Alva. He
iceUallle ■■-■■..
proven that he was privy
Banitolomew, still his violent counsels
mi).
of the Calhoh'i
of Froteiianiism, and all but wished fala
hands of the Turks. He urged a general coalitiOD
the Protestanii; and yel published.
11 In
dses), *
tegaidedby tbe*every itj , __ _
One of his cherished schemes waa the invasion of England and
declared a usurper (Feb. 15, 1570); bul he was obliged lo content
himself wilh abetting plots and fomenting rebellions. He did,
however, etfcct an alliance with Spain and Venice against Ibe
Turks, and contributed to tbe victory of Lepanto (Oct. 6.
lS7iJ.
Thus yved and wrought Pius,
presenting " a strange union
lily, austerity and profound
relenllesi haired and Uoody
» Ihe ist of May 1571; and
was canoniad by Clement XI. in
,^..'=^~-r'"-""j^^..
"Tn^t^f^Jl:^,^^:
Prut VI. (Giovanni Aogelo Braschi), pope from 1775 to 1799.
WIS bora at Ce«ena,oii the I7tb of Decemlxr 171;. After taking
the degree of doctor of Uws he went 10 Ferrara and became
the private aecrctary of Cardbwl Rufib, in whose bishopric of
ONta tnd Vdklil be bdd Uw pou, ot wdiUtt >ȣ<& vt^iv "^^^
686
PIUS (POPES)
skiU in the conduct of a mission to the court of Naples won him
the esteem of Benedict XIV., who appointed him one of his
secretaries and canon of St Peter's. In 1758 he was raised to the
prelature, and in 1766 to the treasurership of the apostolic
chamber by Clement XIII. Those who chafed under his
conscientious economies cunningly induced Clement XIV. to
create him cardinal-priest of San Onofrio on the a6th of April
I773> ft promotion which rendered him for the time innocuous.
In the four months' conclave which followed the death of
Clement XIV., Spain, France and Portugal at length dropped their
objection to Braschi, who was after all one of the more moderate
opponents of the anti- Jesuit policy of the previous pope, and he
was elected to the vacant see on the 15th of February 1775.
Ills earlier acts gave fair promise of liberal rule and reform in
the defective administration of the papal states. He showed
discrimination in his benevolences, reprimanded Potenziani, the
governor of Rome, for unsuppresscd disorders, appointed a
council of cardinals to remedy the state of the finances and
relieve the pressure of imposts, called to account Nicolo Bischi
for the expenditure of moneys intended for the purchase of grain,
reduced the annual disbursements by the suppression of several
pensions, and adopted a system of bounties for the encourage-
ment of agriculture. The circumstances of his election, however,
involved him in difficulties from the outset of his pontificate.
He had received the support of the ministers of the Crowns and
the anti-Jesuit party upon a tacit understanding that he would
continue the action of Clement, by whose brief Dominus ac
redemptor (1773) the dissolution of the Society of Jesus had been
pronounced. On the other hand the zclanti, who believed him
secretly inclined towards Jesuitism, expected from him some
reparation for the alleged wrongs of the previous reign. As a
result of these complications Pius was led into a series of half
measures which gave little satisfaction to either party: although
it is perhaps largely due to him that the order was able to escape
shipwreck in White Russia and Silesia; at but one juncture did
he even seriously consider its universal re-establishment, namely
in I7Q2, as a bulwark against revolutionary ideas. Besides
facing dissatisfaction with this temporizing policy, Pius met with
practical protests tending to the limitation of papal authority.
To be sure " Febronius," the chief German literary exponent of
the old Gallican ideas, was himself led (not without scandal) to
retract; but his positions were adopted in Austria. Here the
social and ecclesiastical reforms undertaken by Joseph II. and
his minister Kaunitz touched the supremacy of Rome so nearly
that in the hope of staying them Pius adopted the excep-
tional course of visiting Vienna in person. He left Rome on
the 77th of February 17S2, and, though magnificently received
by the emperor, his mission proved a fiasco; he was, however,
able a few years later to curb those German archbishops
who, in 1786 at the Congress at Ems, had shown a tendency
towards independence. In Naples difficulties necessitating
certain concessions in respect of feudal homage were raised by
the minister Tannucci, and more serious disagreements arose
with Leopold I. and Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia and
Prato, upon the questions of reform in Tuscany; but Pius did
not think fit to condemn the offensive decrees of thr synod of
Pistoia (1786) till nearly eight years had elapsed. At the out-
break of the French Revolution Pius was compelled to see the
old Gallican Church suppressed, the pontifical and ecdcuastical
possessions in France confiscated and an effigy of himself burnt by
the populace at the Palais Royal. The murder of the republican
agent, Hugo Basseville, in the streets of Rome (January 17Q3)
gave new ground of offence; the papal court was charged with
complicity by the French Convention; and Pius threw in his
lot with the league against France. In 1706 Napoleon invaded
Italy, defeated the papal troops and occupied Ancona and
Lorcto. Pius sued for peace, which was granted at Tolentino
on the 19th of February 1707; but on the iSth of December of
that year, in a riot created by some Italian and French revolu-
tionists, General Duphot of the French embassy was killed and a
new pretext furnished for invasion. General Berthicr marched
to Rome, catered it unopposed on the X3th of February 1798,
and, proclaiming a republic, demanded of the pope the muKii*
tion of his temporal authority. Upon his refusal he was taka
prisoner, and on the 20th of February was escorted froa tkc
Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence. Tk
French declaration of war against Tuscany led to his removil
by way of Parma, Piacenza, Turin and Grenoble to the ciudd
of Valence, where he died six weeks bter, on the 29th of Ai^
1799. Pius VII. succeeded him.
The name of Pius VI. is associated with many aad oftei
unpopular attempts to revive the splendour of Leo X ii ike
promotion of art and public works — the words " Munificaha
Pii VI. P. M." graven in all parts of the city, giving rise aanipt
his impoverished subjects to such satire as the insenioo d 1
minute loaf in the hands of Pasquin with that iiiscripui
beneath it. He is best remembered in connexion with the csub*
lishment of the museum of the Vatican, begun at his soa^^
by his predecessor, and with an unpractical and caqnwe
attempt to drain the Pontine marshes.
Authorities.— Zdpffel and Benrath, " P!u» VI.,** ia Hena^
Hauck, RtaUncyklopddu, 3rd ed., vol. xv. pp. X4 1-451 (Lnpofr i9(Hi
with elaborate biblioKraphv) *. F. Niclsfn, History of OiiFept^
in the 19th Century, vol. i. chap. vii. (London. 1906} ; J. Cettlrv. Pm
VI. sa vie, son pontificat, d^aprks Us archives watuanes et 4e uAfM
documents inidtU (2 vols., Paris, 1907). (W.-W. K.*)
Pius VII. (Luigi Bamaba ChiaramontQ, pope from ita M
1823, the son of Count Scipione Chiaramonti andthedecplf
religious Countess Ghini, was bom at Ccsena on the i4tk ef
August 1740 (not 1743). After studying at Ravenna, at lhei|i
of sixteen he entered the Benedictine monastery of Si Uaiy ■
his native town: here he was known as Gregoria
immediately he was sent by his superiors to Padua and to]
for a further course of studies in theology. He then hdd^
teaching appointments in the colleges of hia order at
at Rome. He was created an abbot of his order by his Ifklivc
Pius VI., who also appointed him bishop of Tivoli on the liih
of December 178a, and on the 14th of February 178$, becaoe
of excellent conduct of office, raised him to the cardinaliicai
the see of Imola. At the death of Pius VI. the conclave bmI H
Venice on the 30th of November 1 799, with the lonlt that
Chiaramonti, the candidate of the French nrdinil irrliWnf
Maury, who was most skilfully supported by the seoctary «f
the conclave Ercole Consalvi, was elected pope on the I4tk rf
March 1800. He was crowned on the 21st of that mik;
in the following July he entered Rome, on the nth of AafiK
appointed Consalvi cardinal-deacon and secretary of slate, ■!
busied himself with administrative reforms.
His attention was at once directed to the ecclesiastical aoudf
of France, where, apart from the broad schism on the qoesua
of submission to the civil constitution of the clergy, disdpte
had been so far neglected that a large proportion of the chnrdtf
were closed, dioceses existed without bishops or with mocc ibii
one, Jansenism and clerical marriage were on the incieue, wA
indifference or hostility widely prevailed amongst thepeopfc-
Encouraged by Napoleon's desire for the re-establishment cf ihi
Roman Catholic religion in France, Pius negotiated tbecckhaul
concordat, which was signed at Paris on the i5thof Jdjo'
ratified by Pius on the 14th of August 1801 (see Cosecowii
The importance of this agreement was, however, considenMf
lessened by the "articles organiques " appended to it by d*
French government on the 8th of April tSoj. In 1804 Xi|«kii
opened negotiations to secure at the pope's hands his ional
consecration as emperor. Aft er some hesitat ion Pius was w&sA
to perform the ceremony at Notre Dame and to extend his iM
to Paris for four months; but in return for these favours be i^
able to obtain from Napoleon merely one or two minor C80C»
sions. Pius, who arrived in Rome on the i6th of May iScs. P*
to the college of cardinals a rose-coloured report of his exprriescBi
but disillusionment was rapid. Napoleon soon began to disrep'^
the Italian concordat of 1803, and himself decreed the disiohti*
of the marriage of his brother Jerome with Miss Patters* ■
Baltimore. Tlie irritation between France and the Valii*
increased so rapidly that on the 2nd of February iSoS Rome •*>
PIUS (POPES) 687
«iKnl Miollii: > nwnlh Itlcr the pravinca of Piin VIII. (Fnnn*co Xavicro Cutigliorii}, pope from 1S19
■u, Fcrmo and Urbino wcrcuniI«lCaibekiii|doD] 10 iSjo, who cuneof 1 nouble StmHy tX Ciagdi nor Ancooi,
iplonutk rdationt between Nipoleoo uiA Rome wu bom on the toth of November 176!' He Hudied duiod liw
ET; hntUy, by 4 decree iuucd from SchSnbnuia at Rome, bounc vicar-gencnl at Ana^ and later al Fano. and
lay IfioQp the emperor united Ihc papal itala to in 1800 was appoLnted buhop of Montalto. Because he refuted
ctalialedby abuUexcDmmunicatLogtbcLnvaden; the oath of allesiance lo tbe Napoleonic king of ItaJy be wia
oleon allcrwarda luaertedi or by order of the rewarded by ha befng created cardinaJ-prieit of Sta Maria in
Ed General Radet to take possession of the pope's Trutcven; and Ihii same yeu be was Cnntlaled from the aee
labce on ihe Quirinal wu broken open during of Montalto 10 that of Cesena. In i4ii he was made cardlnaj-
liy jlh, and, on the peisisient nfusitl of Piui to bishop of Fnuoii, al*o grand peolieDliaiyi and later he bccanie
of nconununicntionuidlDienouncEhis temporal prefect of Ihe Congregalion of Ihe InrJoL In the conclave
laa carried ofl, fiisl lo GteDOble, Ihence after an which followed the death of Leo XII., CaltisUoni, the candidate
ona on tbe Culf of Genoa. Here he itcadfasl)y of France, was elected pope on the jiit of Much iSig. Me
ol in^IitutLon 10 the bishops nominnled by avoided nepotism, abandoned the system of espionage employed
when it wu discovered that he was maintaining by his predecessor, and published an encyclical condemninf
wndencc, he was deprived of all books, even of fiibis sodelies and secret associations. He rejoiced over
At length, his nerves shaltered by insomnia and Catholic emandpalion in England, rcfognlaed Louis Philif^ M
filling to give satisfactory onJ assiuancefl u to king of the French, and cxhibiled a pacific sjuriC In dealing with
of Ihe French bishops. the problem of mbed marriagca in Germany. Worn out Willi
Napoleon, on (he pretot that the English might work, he died on tbe morning of the tsl of December tgja Hii
X If he were Idl at Savona. caused the aged and successor was Gregory XVI.
wlnnsporledloFnntalnebleau; the journey was AuiHO>tTtES.--ZflpfTe1 and Beneath. " FiM VIH.," in Heme.
Mount Cenij Piui tEcrivtd Ihc vialiciim. Arriv HaiicV,««JoB]-ttofdJiiav. 458 m, (Leipzig, 1904, with biWi*
ficence lo await the return of the emperor from „aicliaii (Reiembuij. 1971). (W. W. R.-)
™ Napoleon arrived, he entered inlo personal pjua ix. (Giovanni Maria Mastal.Ferretli), pope from rS4S
lib the pope, who on the 15th of January 1813 lo 1818, was bom on the I3lh of M»y 1791 al Sinlgaglia, tba
oneoidit so degrading that his conscience found fourth son of Count Jerome and Countea Calheriae Vollazi; tba
mh o( March, when, on the advice of the cardinal |,n,i|y gf MasUl was of ancient descent, and the title of count
silvi, he abrogated it; and on the 9th of May he ^^^ to It in the tjth century, while later the elder hnach,
:fy ihcempcror by declaring invalid all the oflkial ,i||ed by Duniige with the Ferrettl family, look thai name in
. French blihops. In consequence of the bailie addition. He tpent some lime al the College of PiarisU in
Ihc cntryoflheaiiiedforccsinio France, Napoleon Volatena, and then proceeded to Rome with the inlention of
ury i8i4lhal thepopcbereiumedtoSavonafor eniering the pontifical guard as an officer. la spite of hU
utsoon the coiirMofevenls forced him to liberate good conneaions, be was disappoinied in this aim as it became
ive back the Suit* of the Church. On the rslh known Ihat he suffered from epilepsy. The malady, however,
4th of May'. While Consalvi al the Congress of ministering for some time in his native town, he accompanied
rcurind Ihe restitution of nearly all the papal Cardinal Mum lo Chile (181)). On his return he was entrusled
lion had full swing al Rome; the JesuiU were by Leo XIL with Iho directkm of the Roman bosintal of San
"tench legisbtion, much of which was of great Michele: in iBjo he received the archbishopric of Spoleto, in
as repealed; the Index and Ihe Inqiusilion were ,5^, ^^ bishopric of Imola, and in rSjo Gregory XVI. crealed
is rtlura Consalvi conducted ■ more enlightened Uni t cardinal, wilh Ihe lille Sanli Pietro e MarecelUno.
niraliied adminislraiion. based largely on the Qb Ihe death of Gregory XVI. Uune i, 1B46) the College
npritot iSi6;nevcrthclcsB the finances were in a of Cardinals met in conclave on the nth of June. Bui their
diiion. Discontent centred perhaps In the deliberations were destined lo lasl but »ihon while; lor, on the
ih:ral secret sodely tondemned by the pope in iMhol June, Cardinal Mistai Ferreiii had already obnined Ihe
tf triumphs of Consalvi were the negotiation of a requisite two-thirds majorily, and ascended ihe papal chair
1e concordats with all the Roman Catholic powera und„ n^ tjUe of Pius IX. In his various capacities he had
In the lalltr years of Pius's life royalty often gained much popularity: he had shown himself 10 be of a kindly
; the pope was very gracious to eiilcd kings and disposition and a lealous churchman, and his reputation tor
e magnanimity toward Ihe family of Napoleon, piety and tad Hood high;hepossejscd,loo,«winningperBonalily
ed many artists lo the city, including ihe greatest ,nd a handsome presence.
! lime, one of whom, the PtotestanlThorwaldsen, The reign ol Pius IX. began at an enltemely critical lime. The
imh in which repoM the remains of the genlle »nd pioblem of the government of ihe Papal Slates, transmit led lo
itiff, who passed inlo lot on the aolb of August |,ini by hit predecessor, slood in uigenl need of solution, for
essor was Leo XII, the actual condiiions were attogelher intolerable. The irriuiion
of the popubce had risen to such a pitch that il found veni in
revolts which could only be quelled by the intervention of foreign
3 of Europe. The proclamation of a
m the people; an
of theadminiUr
:h of political lil
Papacy '~'~; '
688
PIUS (POPES)
Italian poUcy. The problem of giving the people a due share
iu the government was one of peculiar difficulty in the papal
slates. It was not simply a question of adjxisting the claims
of monarch and subject : it was necessary, at the same time, to
oust the dcrgy — who, till then, had held all the more important
offices in their own hands — from their dominant position, or at
least to limit their privileges. That the clerical character of the
administration could not be indefinitely retained was. plain
enough, it would seem, to any dear-thinking statesman: for,
since the restoration of the papal state in 1814, the pernicious
effects of this confusion of the spiritual and the secular power
could no longer be denied. But Pius IX. lacked the courage
and perspicadty to draw the inevitable conclusions from these
premises; and the higher clergy at Rome were naturally opposed
to a policy which, by laicizing the administration, would have de-
prived them of the power and privileges they had so long enjoyed.
In these circumstances it. is not surprising that the pope, while
making concessions to his people, did so with reservations which,
so far from restoring peace, served only to aggravate the turmoil.
By a motu propria of the 2nd of October 1847 the government
of the city of Rome was reorganized and vested in a coundl of
100 members, not more than four of whom were to be clerics.
But the pope reserved to himself the right of nominating the
first members, and the new senate was only later to have the right
of filling up vacancies by co-optation. The institution of a
state council (consulia) was announced on the 19th of April 1847;
and on the 14th of October it was called into existence by a
motu propria. It consisted of 24 coundUors, who were to be
selected by the pope from a list of candidates to be submitted
by the provincial assemblies. A cardinal and one other prelate
were to be at its head. The consulta was to be divided into
four sections, dealing with (i) legislation, (2) finance, (3) internal
administration, (4) the army and public works. Matters of
importance were, however, to be submitted to the College of
Cardinals, after being debated in the consulta. A motu propria of
the 29th of December altered the constitution of the ministerial
council. Nine mutually independent ministries were formed,
and the principle of the responsibih'ty of the ministers was
established: but all the positions were filled by clerics.
The agitation for constitutional government was urgent in the
demand for further concessions; but they came too late. On the
12th of February a proclamation of the pope transferred three
portfolios to the laity; but the impression producfed by the news
of the revolution in Paris nuIUfied the effect. At the formation of
the Antonclk* ministry (March 11), only the three departments
of foreign affairs, finance and education, were reserved by the
clergy; while the remaining six were entrusted to laymen. On
the 14th of March 1848 Pius took the last step, and published a
constitution {Fundamental Statute for the Scctdar Government of
the States of the Church). Two chambers were to be formed.
The first {alto consiglio) consisted of members hominated for
life by the pope; the second, of a hundred elected deputies.
The laws adopted by these two chambers had first to undergo
the scrutiny of the College of Cardinals, before being submitted
to the pope for his assent or rejection. Ecclesiastical, or
ecclesiastico-political, affairs were exempted from the jurisdiction
of the parliament ; which was further required to abstain from the
enactment of laws conflicting with the discipline of the Church,
and from criticism of the diplomatic and religious relations of
the Holy See with foreign powers.
The utility of this constitution was never tested; for the demand
for an extension of popular rights was now ecUpscd by a still
more passionate aspiration towards the national unity of Italy.
This nationalist movement at once took head against Austria.
On the i8ih of March the revolution broke out in Milan, and King
Albert of Sardinia undertook the conduct of the war against the
emi>cror. When news of the events at Milan reached Rome
the populace was swept away in a whirlwind of enthusiasm:
the Austrian embassy was mobbed; the imp>erial arms, surmount-
ing the main gale of the palace, were torn down; and great troops
of volunteers chmourcd to be led against Austria. Pius was
carried away at Urst on the flood-lide of excilcmem,a»d«(«mcd.
after his proclamation of the 3olh of March, oa the point «l
conferring his blessing upon the war against Austria. Bot tie
course of political events during the next few weeks danqxd Us
ardour. When, on the 29th of April, in his aUocatkn to tk
cardinals, he proclaimed the papal neutrality, the Romw
received his vadllation as a sign of treachery; and the Aon^
preduded from discharging its fuiy on Austria, hnkc omhb
hea<{. When the ministry in power resigned office on the ist«l
May, the Manuani administration was fomned, only one deric
being included. Mamiani himself, whose writings wen oa Ik
Index, had little sympathy with the pope, and did aD that
possible to complete the secularization of government a ik
States of the Church. He recdved his dismissal on the at d
August, and was followed by Count Fabbri, then by Omui 4
Rossi, who made the last attempt to restore order by a 1
h'beral policy. On the 15th of November, as he was thM It
open the Chambers, he was assassinated on the staircase]
to the hall of session. A state of anarchy ensued. Andi
bands gathered before the Qu1rinal,and attempted to stonilL
To avoid further bloodshed the pope was compelled toj
the formation of a radically democratic ministry under Gaktti
The Swiss, who composed the ftapal guard, were disbanded; 1
the protection of the pontiff was transferred to the dvil bS
in other words, Pius IX. was a prisoner. On the evadogoftk
24th of November he contrived by the aid of the French
Bavarian ambassadors — the due d'Harcourt and Count
to leave the palace unobserved, in the dress of a commoo {
and to reach Gaeta in the kingdom of Naples. FromthisRh|r
he issued a breve on the 27th of November, protesting
the sacrilege practised on himself, declaring all actioos fcnl
upon him null and void, and appointing a commissiaB Voaof
on the government in hii absence. Since the Chamber dedtael
to recognize this step, and the pope was equally icMhteli
refusing to hold any intercourse with the deputatioo vfcidi i
despatched to him, a supreme Giunta was provisiooaily 1
by the Chamber on the nth of December to discharge al ik
functions assigned to the executive power by the cxmstltBiaa
On the 17th of the same month Pius made a pabfic pmdl;
and, as soon as the elections for a national assembly wne »
nounced, he forbade any participation in them, menadnfAi
disobedient with the penalties of the Church (Jan. i, 1S19I.
The elections, however, were held ; aiui on the 9th of FebravT At
constituent assembly decreed, by 142 votes to 23, the crediB
of a Roman republic. Pius answered by a protest dated Ik 14A
of February. All the ecclesiastical property of the Romu 1
was now declared to be vested in the republic; con^
religious edifices were requisitioned for seculai purposes; I
volent institutions were withdrawn from clerical
church establishments were deprived of the right to resfiKtUf
possessions. In the beginning of December Pius had afacadbfl^
pealed to the European powers for assistance; and 00 tk 71! if
February 1849 it was resolved in the Consistory to inM*^
offidally France, Austria, Spain and Naples, with a viev V
their armed intervention. The French republic, onder ill
presidency of Louis Napoleon, was the first state to throw tiM|i
into Italy. On the 24th of April General Oudinot sppB*'
before Civita Vecchia; only to be defeated at first by CjiffaW
But, after receiving reinforcements, he prosecuted tk *
successfully, and made his entry into Rome on the 3rd of ^
while, in .the early part of May an Austrian army advanced ki
the north of the papal states. On the i4lh of July Oodkl
proclaimed the restoration of the pontifical dominion: fli
three days later, Pius IX. issued a manifesto entrustiaf dt
government to a commission appointed by himself.
On the 1 2th of April 1850 Pius returned to Rome, sappoM
by foreign arms, embittered, and hostile henceforward to c«i9
form of political liberalism or national sentiment. In GacUb
had mentally cut himself loose from all ideas of progress, and Irf
thrown himself into the arms of the Jesuits. His sukeqitf
policy was stamped by reaction. Whether it m^i have btf
possible to avoid the catastrophe of 1870 is a difficult gucstiia
But there can be no question whatever that the policy «kB
PIUS (POPES)
689
in now inAugurated, of restoring the old pre-revolutionary
Dditions, sealed the fate of the temporal dominion of the
p«cy. He made no attempt to regain the estranged affections
the pqpulace, and took no measures to liberate himself and his
Il(jecu from the incubus of the last few years. He even sought
eacmct vengeance for the events of that period: the state
icuJSy who had compromised themselves, lost their offices;
d all grants in aid were forfeited if the recipients were dis-
rcrcd by the secret commissions (consigti di censura) to have
ccn part in the revolutionary movement. The tribunals
sorted declarations on the part of witnesses by flogging,
Mrivation of food, and like methods of torture. In many cases
i death sentence was executed at their instance, though the
It oC the accused was never established. The system of
cautioDAry arrest, as it was termed, rendered it possible for
f man to be thrown into prison, without trial and without
^dict, simply on the ground that he lay under suspicion of
ttisg against the government. The priests, who usurped
; judicial function, displayed such cruelty on several occasions
It officers of the Austrian army were compelled to record a
(test. The consequence of these methods was that every
lim — innocent or guilty — ranked as a martyr in the estimation
his fellow-citizens. A subsidiary result was the revival of
yanda^, which found a suspicious degree of support among
I people. Corruption was rampant among the officials; the
ice were accused of illicit bargaining with criminals; and
Jsing but contempt was entertained for the papal army, which
i recruited from the dregs of humanity. To this was added a
tatrous financial administration, under which the efficiency
1 credit of the country sank to appalling depths. The system
taxation was calculated with a view to relieving the Church
1 the clergy, and imposing the main burden upon the laity.
this department the family of Cardinal Antonclli seems to have
.jed a fatal part. The secretary of state was bom in humble
cumstances: when he died he left a fortune of more than
)yOOO,ooo lire, to which a daughter succeeded in establishing
r claum. His brother Felippo was president of the Roman
ok, and his brother Luigi the head of the Annona — an office
Mtcd to regiilate the import of grain. The pope himself had
ither the will nor the power to institute searching financial
orms; possibly, also, he was ignorant of the facts.
The mismanagement which obtained in the papal dominions
■Id f>ot escape the observation of the other powers. As early
the Congress of Paris in 1856 the English ambassador, Lord'
Biendon, had directed an annihilating criticbm against the
vernment of the pontiff; and a convincing proof of the justice
his verdict was given by Pius himself, in his treatment of the
BDUS Mortara case. A Jewish boy of this name had been torn
MB his parents in Rome and the rite of baptism performed
him without their knowledge or consent. The pope flatly
fused to restore the ** Christian " to his Jewish parents, and
ned a deaf ear both to the protest of public opinion and the
plomatic representations of France and England. The sequel
this mode of government was that the growing cmbitterment
the subjects of the Church came to be sympathized with outside
i bounds of Italy, and the question whether the secular
thority of the papacy could be allowed to continue became a
■ch-debated problem. Even the expression of the doubt was
■|>tomatic. In 1859 appeared an anonymous brochure, Le
%P€ €i U contrh, composed by Laguerronni^re, the friend of
ipoleon III., in which it was proposed to ensure the pope
10 revenu considerable " and the city of Rome, but to relieve
B of a political task to which he was not competent. In 1861
other anonymous pamphlet, Pro causa italica ad episcopos
^ktiicos, was published in Florence, advocating the ecdesiastico-
Btical programme of Cavour; and the pope was horrified when
discovered that it came from the pen of Passaglia, the professor
dogmatic theology. In spite of all, the national idea gained
VBgth in Italy, and the movement towards unity found power-
t champions in King Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia and his
g^l statesman Cavour. Free scope was given when the under-
lading between the two powers protecting the papal sUte—
ss
France and Austria— broke down. So soon as Napoleon and
Cavour had come to an agreement war ensued, France and
Sardinia being ranged against Austria (1859). The result was
that Austria lost the greater part of her Italian possessions, while
the pope also forfeited two-thirds of his dominions. By the war of
1866, in which Italy fought on the Prussian side, Victor Emmanud
gained Venice in addition; so that the Sutes of the Church now
formed the last remaining obstacle to complete national unity.
In September 1864, France— who had been the protectress of
these states since 1849 — had concluded a treaty with Victor
Emmanuel, undertaking to withdraw her garrison from Rome in
two years time; while, on his part, the king agreed to abstain
from any attack on the papal dominions, and to guarantee the
safety of the pope and the patnmmium Petri. The emperor
Napoleon had, in point of fact, recalled his troops in 1866; but
in 1867, when Garibaldi crossed the frontiers of the papal state
at the head of his volunteers, he declared the treaty violated and
again threw his regiments into Rome. Three years later the
time came when he could employ his arms more advantageously
elsewhere, and after the outbreak of the war with Germany Rome
was evacuated. The news that the French Empire had fallen
produced an electrical effect in Italy: the Italian parliament
called on the king to occupy Rome; on the 8th of September
Victor Emmanud crossed the borders; and on the soth of
September the green-white-and-red of the tricolour floated over
the Capitol. The protesU of Pius IX. remained unheeded, and
his attempts to secure another foreign intervention met with
no success. On the and of October Victor Emmanuel instituted
a ^biscUe in Rome and the possessions of the Church to decide
the question of annexation. The result of the suffrage was
that 153,681 votes were given in favour of union with Italy,
and 1507 against the proposed incorporation: that is to say
only the direct dependants of the Vatican were opposed to the
change. The papal state was now merged in the kingdom of
Italy, which proceeded to define its diplomatic relations with
the Holy See by the law of the 13th of May 187 1 (see ItaIy:
History).
In his capacity as head of the Church, Pius IX. adhered to
the principles of the Ultramontanist party, and contributed
materially to the victory of that cause, llie political reaction
which followed the revolutionary era in most quarters of Europe
offered a favourite soil for his efforts; and in several countries
he found it possible to regulate the relations between Church
and state from the standpoint of the curia. In 185 1 he con-
cluded a concordat with Queen Isabella II. of Spain, proclaiming
Roman Catholicism the sole religion of the Spanbh people, to
the exclusion of every other creed (art. x); and we find the
same provision in another concordat with the South American
republic of Ecuador (1862). A third concordat, negotiated
with the emperor Francis Joseph I. of Austria (1855), entrusted
the supervision of schools and the censorship of literature to
the clergy, recognized the canon law, and repealed all secular
legislation conflicting with it. France came into line with the
wishes of the pope in every respect, as Napoleon needed clerical
support in his political designs. Even in Germany he found no
resistance; on the contrary, he was able to secure advantageous
compacts from individual states (Hesse, 1854; Wtirttemberg,
1857). In fact, the growing tendency to romanize Catholicism —
to bring it, that is to say, into close connexion with Rome, and
to a state of dependency on the guidance and instructions of the
curia — made special progress in Germany.
Among the most important acts of Pius IX. must be counted
his proclamation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception
of the Virgin Mary, by the bull Jnefabilis Deus, on the 8th of
December 1854. In this bull the preservation of Mary from every
stain of hereditary sin, in the first moment of her conception,
was declared to be a divinely revealed truth, which consequently
demanded universal acceptance (see Immaculate Conception).
By this means a view, which till then had been no more than a
pious belief, was elevated into a dogma to be held dejide\ though
grave doubts on the subject had always been entertained, even
in the midst of the Church itself. Fot V\x<t vdari \&!& t^ >^Da^
vo.
690
Church Ihli Kiluliaii of tlw cOBtTDVenj wu at gitit ligniGcucr
•nd created 1 desire tor Further dognulic decisioiu on the Vir^i
MiTy— her reflurrection and ascension. But tht procedure c
Pius IX, proved ol l>i-rcacbing importance [rem anolhcr pair
of view. Ttue, he had UUieo the opinion o[ the bishops on tli
Ihe less, the veidiFt his pronounced hy himscll alone, not hy a
ecumenical council. Thiu, by irrognting the junction (ormerl,
eierciscd by the ccumeaicil louncil. he virtually laid claim to the
infallibllily which had always lieen regarded ai inherent
in the doctrinal pronounccDienu o[ tuch a councils in
wocd>, he availed himself ol a privilege Dot accotded to him till
the 18th of July 1870.
Though Ihe Marian dogma of 1854 received, irilh very [tw
eaceptioDS, an enlhuaiaslic welcome in Roman Catholic circlet*
■noibu measure of Ihe pope, ten years later, eicited a painful
•ensaiion even among Ihe oithottoi memben of the Church. As
leigning sovereign ol the papal slates Pius IX. had passed
through a "liberal period ":aaheadol Ihe Church, he had neve
been liable to attacks ol liberalism. Neveilhele!u,hisretura frei
eiUe fell its mark on his spiritual administration. For Irom thi
period onurards he ddiberalely and St ubboridy set his Uceagaina
the influence of modernism on ecclesiastical life; showed hil
displeasure it and dbtrust ol Ihe scientific theology and phiLo'
■ophy which marked a moderate advince (CUnlher, Frohs-
chamner and DoUingei); and, entrenched in Ihe stronghold of
medieval ideals, combiled the Itansformalions of the new order
of society, and the changes in [he relationship belween Church
and Mile, which obtained in most counliies of Europe (ince
■be French Revolution, After long and careful consultation. Ihe
adverse criticisms which he had eipressed on virioiu occa '
were published on the Sih of December 1864. together with the
encyclical Quimlt cura, under the title Syllabui cempltcliKi
piaicipuei noslrat acUiij irrprii (see Svllabus). In (his Pius
claimed lor the Church the conliol of all culture and all science.
and of the whole educational system. He rejected the liberty
ol faith, conscience and worship enjoyed by other creeds; and
bade an easy farewell to the idea ol tolerance. He claimed the
complete independence ol the Church from state control; upheld
the necessity of a continuance of the temporal power of ''
Roman See^ and Snally, in the last clause, declared that "
pontiff neither can be nor ought to be reconciled with progress.
liberalism and modern civiliiaiion." The publication ol th'
ayllabus created a protound impression: for it dccbltcd »ac 0
modem society, and committed the papacy to the principles c
Ultramontanism (f.i.). But, as any attempt 10 translate it
(listing regime as established by law, Roman Catholic circU
have [requenlly shown a tendency to belittle Ihe significance t
the maoilesio and 10 deny that its rules ate absolutely bindin)
But these well-meant eiplanations, however comprehensibli
are refuted by Ihe unequivocal pronouncements ol Pius IX
Leo XIII., and many retogniied ecclesiastical authorities— r.l
Cardinal Manning, archbishop of Westminster, who described Ihe
syllabus as an emanation from Ihe highest doctrinal authority
The lenith of Pius's pontificate was attained on the iSlh ol
July 1070 when theValicancouncil proclaimed the infallibili
thepopeand the universality of his episcopate, thus elevatinl
10 a pinnacle which none ol his predecessors had reached ai
Ihe same lime fulfillini; his dearest wish. That, personally, he
laid great stress on the acceptance ollhedogma, was a fact ■ ' ' *
he did not attempt to conceal during the long preliminary del
slions oi Ihe council; and his altitude was a not inconsiderable
factor in determining its final resolutions. But the loss ol i
papal slates, Immediately altcrwards, was a blow from nhich
never recovered. Whenever he brought himsell to speakol the
subject — and It was not rarely — he repeated his protest in tl
bitterest terms, and, to Ihe end of his days, refused 10 be recoi
ciled with the " tacrilcgioul " king ol Italy. When, in German'
the situation created by the Vatican council led 10 the outbrei
ol Ibe Kulturtunpl, Pius IX. failed 10 display the tact peculii
PIZZICATO— PLACENTA
69.
la dt Ojnli. by whom
the unJoriuDBic Hitlcm
d Balboa [»hom he all'
e wu enlimtwl wiih
It at Saa Sebastian,
wards helped lo briii(
[ific; and undn Pedra
nibs with
Tiong themaelvea (he opuleat
ilonUDm nere then undetuken
lerica, in wbidh Pizairo, Ibough
in lolkiwen on a imaU island
I (ill he had coasted as f ai 13
act accounu of the Peruvian
ma showing little disposition to
ro resolved lo apply lo ibewve-
I this object uiled (mm Panama
raching Seville in early summer,
on the ,6lh ot July ts><, was
:afiliUadm, by which Piiano
t governor and capiaiD-generat
lor ihe distance oi ?oo ieaguea
d prenigal ives ol a viceroy, hil assodalci being lelt
ondaiy posilioni. One of Ihc coaditions of the giant
bin sii monthi Pizatra should raise a sufGcienlly
[ce ol IWD hundred and liliy men, a( whom one
;hl be diawn Irom the colonieti as
. make up his due complemeot he
stincly fcom San Lucar in January q
u allemards loincd by his brother
ih the remaining vesaeb, and when
m lelt Panama in January ol the
i( New
of part* of > town bdng kooirn u
Place, c-t. Ely Place in London, (ormerly the site oi the towa
residence of the bishops o( Ely. A " place of arms " (Fr. plai4
iTarmti), in (oiliScalion, means the wide qiace* (suitable for
the assembly o[ troops Im a soitte) made 1^ the ulieoti and
te-entranti ot the covered way. The phrase is alio used In
■ stnlegic sense (a cipicss an entrenched camp at foitrcM In
which a large aimy can be collected under covet previous lo
taking the field.
PUCENTA <Lat. for a cake), in anatomy, the organ by which
tbe embiyo is nourished within the womb of its mother. When
it to battle: Almagro was d<
eiecuted; but his suK
^d assassinated Piiarro □
I ([rem tial. piaieaie, to pi
ram repiwnting a very young human ovui
e into ilie dtcidua. and whilu the place of its <
iul^^
)c1obcT 1815. Thepeopler
i,Sj the town was '
l(,Slhcenl,F..plar<
r pasted or ail
It the purpose ol
I, police or oihi
g I he Gull of bant
,:i), 9171. It has a
;i-kingal Naples, was shot o
■ gage in tunny- and coia
detiroyed by an earil
1 the same cause in 100;
Ti flaqairr; mod. pia^iui
iroughFr.lromUi. f(o
DUiion in space, whel
1 1 ion or locality; also poiii
Special applicai
ip <k buildings, ro
■ly one in the seivke of 1
iniculailayer Ihc name u
1 from the surface o( Ihe •
im of Ihe dccidua ba»lii
le enlarged f««t*™Bl Hn.
ind capsularia ar>d push
" "abd'omioal. nalli"
veiKis fM whkh push tbdr way into the maienul bhu
Evenluilly the orifinal walls at Ibne ainiriei. togelher
ihe'rartalNooi^S^t'lhe delicate walliof ihe (oeulvesael
by »me niKlealtd luncelhilar tissue, known as lyncyftiio
from ihechorionkepilhelium, so that the embryo is ablet
supply of oiygen and maienali (oc growth liom Ihe bic
moiher and to give up carbonic acid and nciiiory rralu
the iiadual *nlaigem*nr of ihe chorionic villi in the decidi
tofetber with Ihe ini
692
PLAGIARISM— PLAGIOCLASE
Vol i
bri™.lt.>l
si «lyalk.'aail tli* Tcaa^i Inn ■ 1
MMcn ihc nuTi^tbe Hk acu
Amung ibe FucenuUa lit
vcli^ than in nun, and tbc m
19 known a* a " difTute placenta," and it mn with in ibc piat^
piE, hippopotaniii. canri, dicvmtain, hone, ihinocnxn. t^ixr ti4
ohale. Wti«itlHviUianaillcctedincoanutnbnnlniiindii[ugi
cotyledoniiUiirmovt nininant^lhe tvpeiallnl<FnaJul"ni(Jh-
d<>nou• placenta," and an inUnnnliate Race between ihu ud Ik
latt it tound in the ginSe.
In (he Cirnivora. elephul. pncaini (Hyrai) and ui4 ivt
(Oryeteropui). then it a " aonary'plannta " which form a p^A
round the eiabryo. In ilHhi and leoiun the iilacenu ii iat
ahaped. while in ndenta. iiuecEivorea and batt, it b m mcerf
diik Df cl«elv applied pair of ditln. thut diflerinf In* «r
donal disk of the anl^aler, armadillo and hifher Fri«f^
which la known a* a " neladlKoidal placenla?* Ii iraiita
be Kcn Ihal the (una of Ihc placeau ii not an (inttrta
trBitvorthy indicaUon of tlie tyneiBic poHtion of iii vm-
In Ihc difliiie and cotykdonoui plaeenlae the vOi Aim
peaeitaie very deeply iaio the decldua, and at binh ue liadt
withdrawn. Ihi deeldua bein( lelt behind in the ylcw. » ■!■
theie placentae are ipoken of ai non-deciduale w^ dte
kind* irTdeeiduate.
ForlunherdetantiecS. WW. Turner, Uau,<nlitC»
ttraliptAnaumyrefllitPlaaiUa(E6inbuiii\. 1876): A-Hotua.
'' Mammalian 0>a and the Fomiaiion oTihe Plxniii." Jm
Anal, lud Pkys. (1004) Hxviii.. 186. jij. For Utnim*
to 1906. R. Wiedcnhciin'i Comptmki Amalnty tj fffOWn,
tianilatcd and adapted by W. N. Parker (London. 140;).
PLAOIABISKi an ippraptiaiion or capjnni fun it
work ot siwther, in litnature or an, and the (aaof '
o( the umc as original or without aiiiuwledcninit ei iN
teal aulhonhip or toune. The Lai. tlapaimi wan >
kidnapper, ilcalet or abductor oi a sbve or child, tbo^ t
a alio used in the modern «enK of a, liteniy pilfcti ■
purloincr by Marlial (I. sj, 9). The •ord flapn b ■<
in the Digest oi the alienee of kidnapping M abdidiift
and Ihc ultimate uurte is probaUy to be ioumt in fV-
The idea of plagiarism as a wrong is cvmparaUvd]i Miitm:
ii o[ til
with III
. (SeeCoPilK
T)
PUGIOCLASE. an i
■ing' the^reStioni of" he Torlil villi to the placent
.11 of the amnion with the inner Hirlace t>[ the ch
um at Salpa. a placenta !■ formed, and the embryo is
in the body of its parent. In kric ol ihe viviparo
the blue ihark (Carchariit). the volk-iac hai cidees
rriilt between the n»
nouriihed in the hollow ovary, which developt vilK Bccrcting
itivc nuicrial. Amont the Amphibia the aliatie talamandcr
iMunrlni sire) njurithei iti youmi In its oviducts until ibegillcd
! o[ development it past, while In the ReptUia the young ol a
ut Hiard ISrpi ctoIrUri)
handTand the walls ofihe oviduct on the other. In tint way both
Tbt mammalt are divided into Pliccmalis and Aplaccnujia:
or soda-lclspar and anorlhjte, or Itme-fdtpar. U*"
mediate members are Ibu) soda-limc-leli;an, tUA '»
their cryslallogiapl cal, optical and 01 her ph)?*^] chifsf
vary progressively with the cbemii.al compooitioa tvti^
Ihc two extremes albite (NuAISiiO.} and aaviM
(CaAlfiA). This vuiation is continuous in tk MA
but spccihc namCt are apf^icd to members laUiBf brl^
''■ certain arbitrary limits, via.; Albite. Ab {-Ka-USAI-,
h' Oligoclaie, Ab,An, to AbiAn,; Andeiine, Atk\» *
AbiAni; Labradoritc, AbiAni la AbaAni; ijv^^
Ab.Ani la Ab.An.^ Anocthite, An ( - CaAI,SiA).
Ali ibe memberi oS the leris ciystalUie in the n«*
(IriclinicJ system. They possess a perfett deavi^e (^J
(0: the tiisal pinacoid P (ooi) and a samewhat les ^ubM*
cleavage paralk'l tu the pinacoid U (oto). The angle bcti^
these two cleavages varies from 86° 34' in albite to tfjl*
inorlhilc. It was on account ot the oblique angtr ba^
(he cleavages that A. Breithaupt in 1847 gave the lumc ^^
clase (Gr. rXd7i«t, oMique. and lUli, to cleave) lo tbev M^
to disLinguish them from the orlhocLaie fcbgar in ■bkkl"
corresponding deavage angle is a right an^. It •'■^^JJ'
noted that Ihe potuh—and polash-soda felipart, aJngW
(f.t.) an anorthoclase, though ■!» anorthic, ait nM incM*
in the plifioclaM Kiiei ol loda.liiiw-fctapan. CiJVib «
PLAGUE
693
ID habit, puiUcI (o Ibe jiiOe if, u
B ipedfic Infectio
buboes (gUndulai
pinllel to F, this being I dum^teriitic habit of the peridiDc a ' '
nrieiy of aJbitej microlilic crystals fortoing the giound-maBa ~
vt Tvtcanic roeka are usually elongated in tlie direction of the not leu celebrated
(dee between P and U, Auitlli
fever, one vattety being chincterited by
wtllingi) and carbuncles, lliia definition.
c celcbtited pestilences recorded in histocy
plague of Athens, docribed by Thucydidea; that
J which occurred in tJie reign of Marcus
:r nearly the whole o[ the Roman world
> referred to, though not fully desciibed,
by the contemporaiy pen of Galen; and that of the 3rd century
(about isi), the symptoms of which are known from the allusions
"■"■"■ ■lalitaU). There"
bla»
belwe
I all li
t they w
t froc
ental plague. "Plague" was formerly divided ii
chief vaiieties: (i) mild plague, ftilii miimr, Urval plague
(RadcliSe), fait /mile, in which the special tympioma an
accompanied by liftle fever or general disEurbance; and (a)
ordinary epidemic or severe plague, pistis majors in which tlie
general dtslurbance is very severe. Cases which ate rapidly
fatal from the general disturbance withouL marked local symp-
toms have been distinguished as lulminant plague {peslUndxrom,
pale jmtdrtyanle).
Hiilory up la 1880. — The fust historial notice of Ihc plague
It of the physician Rufus of Ephcsus,
of Trajan, preservi
OrihuJtu.' Rufus speaks of the I
Egypt al
Cmulmili c/ Flapixlait Fdipari.
li probably in the 3rd 0
le CMal
3 called pestilential as
und chiefly in Libya,
Compod-
SiO»
AlrfJt
»^.
CO.
Sp.gf.
Mclting-
Gcavage
RhSmbfc
,««•.
Oplicil Extinct ioa. 1
On p.-
On if.*
In Kctions
An
s
i
36-7
87
ili
1. 614
iS
2.7S»
raw;
.S3J*
86- 1*'
85' so'
+ 17'
+ 3.\
IS
UK
-if;io'
i
The optical chaiai
Che edge PK.
described IhesI
their time. Whatever the precise date of these physicians
may have been, this passage shows the antiquity of the plague
in northern Africa, which for centuries was considered aa its
home. The great plague referred to by Livy (U. Epilomt)
and more fully by Orosius IHislor. iv. it) was probably the
same, though the symptoms are not recorded. It is reported
to have destroyed a million of petsons in Africa, but is not stated
to have passed into Europe.
It is not till the iSlh century of our era, in the reign of Justiuian,
that we find bubonic plague in £urox>e, as a part of the great
cycle of pestilence, accompanied by extraordinary natural
phenomena, which lasted fifty years, and i^ described with a
singular misunderstanding of medical terms by Gibbon in hit
forty'third chapter. The descriptions of the contemporary
writers Procopius, Evagritu and Gregory of Toura aie quite
unmistakable.* The pbgue of Justinian began at Pelusium in
Egypt in A.D. j4j; it ^Head over Egypt, and in the same or the
persons in one day, with all the symptoms of bubonic plague.
It appeared in Gaul in 54(1, where it b described by Gregory of
a (froi
the
nt seat of buboes
mortality in 54J, b
which so depopulate,
o the Lombards. I
nn. Marcell. nUi. 7:
n the groin). In Italy the
t the most notable epidemi
the country as to leave it
«e H«ket. Di pale -(»(«.««
an easy
Liguria,
(Berlin,
beis"(Pari£
17-ffi
Sji), ii
Kdd.
iv. 19
Oribc«. td. Bussenu
Pncopiua, D4 idie
ket and
fBiia.
6<n
PLAGUE
4nd in j^ ■ gnat r^Hcleinic it Rome ii eonnecltt] arilti tbe plafue epidunici, even b tlw blot, Ihal in Ron b ilT^itn,
poDti&ale of Gregory ihe Gml. But it iprciid in fact ovtv the and, mofeovrr. according to Lbc Utol accouiti. ar not aacdil
whole Roman vorid, beginning in Diariiime towns and ndinlmg (ntuic of Indian pLague. Accoidin
inland. In another diieclion it atended [mm Egypt along the Frvidt [TraiH. E^idtm. Sk. y. jgS) _ . .. _
north cosit of Africa. Whether the Dumeroiu pHtilfnna ordiiiAiy accoiopiiiinient " o( Inc^n plague, thonthwhesioi
recorded in the 71b century were the plague cannot no* bcuidi it ii in the form ol baemoptysii. It seems, Ihcnfoie. iDpi«iU(
but it is posubie the peslilenca in England chronicled by Bede lo make 1, qirdal variety of Indian plague, or [o k&i Uk bbd
in.the yean 664, 6;i. 679 and liSj may have been of thiadiieaic, death to any aucfa spcdal lomu Gabnd de Mnaa danibti
especially as m Aqo falii iKiuaiariii is again nxoided in Rome, it even ia the East, before iu anival in Euiape, u 1 babeiic
For the epidemio ol the luccceding centuries ve mutt reCet to diseaie.
more detailed wort).' The mortality of tbe black
It it imposuble, however, Co past over Ihe gnat cycle of enoimoua. It it etlimated in t
epidemics in the 14th ceniury known at the Black Death, thirds or three-fourths of
-^-1^ Whether in all the pestilences known by this name in England even liighe[;'Dui »ome o
2™"* the di«a« was really the tame may admit of douht, aeverely aflecled. Hecka calculates
but it it clear that in »me at least it wat the bubonic population of Europe,
plague. Coatempoiaiy obtervers agree that Ibe disuse was whole of tbe epideinict.
introduced from the East; and one eyewiineis, Gabriel de
Mussis. an llaliAn lawyer, traced, or indeed accompanied, the
march of the plague from the Crimea (whither it wat said to have
been introduced from Tartaiy) to Genoa, where with a handful
of survivors o[ a Genoese expedition he landed probably at Jbe
selves escaped the pest trantmilted the contagion to all they
met.< Other accounts, especially old Russian chronicles, place
the oii^n of the disease still fattbei cast, in Cathay (or China),
where, at is confirmed to some extent by Chinese records,
pestilence and destructive inundations are said to have destroyed
passed by way of Armenia into kaja Afinor and thence to Egypt
and northern Africa. Nearly tbe whole of Europe wag gradually
overrun by the pestilence. It reached Sicily in 1346, Constanti-
nople, Greece end palls of Italy early in 1347, and towards the
end (d that year Marseilles. In 1348 it attacked Spain, northern
Italy and Rome, eastern Germany, many parts of France
including Paris, snd England; from England il is said lo have
been conveyed lo the Scandinavian countries. In England Ihe
western counties were first invaded early in the year, and London
subsequent years, at least till 1357, it prevailed in parts of the
country, or gcnetilly, especially in the towns. In ijsiOiford
lost two-thirds of her academical population. The outbreaks of
t]6l and 136S, known as the second and third plagues of the
reign of Edward III., were doubtless of the same disease, though
by some historians not called the bbck death. Scotland and
Ireland, though later aScctcd, did not escape.
The nature o! this pestilence has been a matter o( much
controversy, and some have doubted iis being truly the plague.
Bui when the symptoms arc fully described they teem to justify
this conclusion, one character only being thought to make a
distinction between this and Oriental plague, via. the special
implication o[ the lungs as shown by spitting of bhiod and other
symptoms- Guy de Chauliac notes this feature in the earlier
epidemic at Avignon, not in the inter. Moreover, at this com-
plication was a marked feature ui certain e^ndemics of plague
in India, tbe hypothecs has been framed by Hirsch that a special
variety ol plague, palii indica, sliU found in India, is that which P'^'ue m ^■''"'P'-.r ^ ... ,„. „„«,„ j ^ ,.u
......»■/» ,1.1 ..^jj :„ ,1... . .,u ......,..*,. Tj..* ,t. -,*- - ™..s. _ ^" *"f *™* hall 01 the 17th century pugne was iM pw«p»
overran the wortdm the Mlhcenluiy. Gut the same symptoms ;„ Eun^, though oonuderably le- » IK in tbe ■«. s^
(haemoptysis) have been seen, though leas notably, in many In the accond hall a Kilt greater decline k olwrnbk, sadly*
Set Noah V.'cbstcr'i Ilitliriy 0} EpuUmil Diirani, 8vo (» vols,, thJnl guafter the diseaM had dinpiiMfed ™;wm cBiiifi|MfN^^lg
London, 1800) la work t:hi(S makes no iweleniioji to mcdic^i » frrai part of wotem Fume. The epkleni
karning, but enhil^ts tbe history of epidemia in connexion with be most conveiuenfly conudered m ddc vrica
phyaic.tl disasters — a* earthquakes, famines, &.); Lersch, KUine ■
always accurate): "Athanasii Kircheri Chronokaia PeHium"
(In A.D. i6s6), in Scnlmiam ftilit {Rome. 1658; Leipiig. 1671.
ato); Biscomc. Iliilen et Etidtmic Paliltnca (London, iSsi.Bvo).
The most complete medical history ol epidemics U HUer'i
CiufiKhle ttr ipidimliclini Knnkliillti, (3rd ed., Jena, 18B1).
Forming the lliird volume ol his //lilor/irf Afnfin'nr.
' '5ce the original account reprinted with other documents in
HlKT, rp. cil.i also Hecker, Efidtmia ef Iht UiMb A^a. trans,
by DaUngton, Sydenham Sac. (London, 1844): Vidkikranikiiltit
Jri llfiltdS4m, ed, Hinch (BcrUn, 1865)1 R' Moeeiger, Da tckaant
ra/ «• l^aOa/tKl (Balia, 1SS3).
PLAGUE 69S
?V!^L^'^..'H*"'l!'!i"°'"*"^1''"' ■!?""''')' "'™^ According lo lomt »ut!iori[iej, opecUHy Hodgci, ilic pbcut
tJ^;. ^MlT'rBh" Ti."" tI:,':S^"S jI-TTK ™ ^ P°""l i?'? I^ff l* ^? "f mcTcb.ndi« («» HolUnd.
160J vu nuiiLEd by ■ viry dMifUftive plague which klllnl 3».oo<i "I"™ ""' onginiUy from tbe LtvMli iicording to olhen il
in London. In (bis and iubM?qiwnc yean (he diMiaic ivu vubf\y was uilroduccd by Du(ch priiooers of war; bul Bo^utsl
dilfnwl in Enjijnd-4or in«an«. Oxlord, Dcrbvibiit, Newraiilt. regarded il u of locaJ origin. Il ii in favour of the theory Ihal
^£^.'^yt r.'heTo;.L%''"''t„'t r.X." ."^1) ii -p™^ ">'-"?' t"j '"-" «'^'"' ""' i^^' had b.ea .«
one m&n petKin. are laid lo have illid oi pbpie ia Egypl. Thii l™' eitmct m London for tome aevenleen years, and prevafled
ptafue il laid to have lasted eight yean in London. At all i^vrnEi in Holland in 166J-16A4. Gut from 111 past history and local
ta 1*09 irc haw the KTond grEai pUaue yMT, wilh a morlality o( conditions, London might well be deemed apahle of producing
:iS'-be^'n",^p^ ta"JSrh1^''E"™f^"i,;Si;ii"y''Ge?!;i*;^ ""f " 'P'O™'^- I" I" billa of mortalil, since tfoj *ert «e
and Holland, which wai at that time rava^ By war. In 161; "oly three year* when no deaths from plague m* recorded.
(tlieycarol theiiegeof Srrda in Holland] i> ihe ihud gieit London The uncleanliness of Ibe dly was a>mparafale to thsl oC oiieDtal
plague with 3s^i? daths— (houKh the y«r 1^4 w^i rrniirlahly cilia at Ihe present day, and, aceordmg to contemporary
Srsr -jSSJViui-. Jr 'S° XS ^JS E?ES; ;."»r" ro-"-=!", A.„i^M:»... 1..J.., .JO, p. til.
■ppwTOtly piaiuc. wai in Derbyihire. 1636 il Ihe fourth great '""<' "npiovcd since Erasmus wrote his wclLknown dcaaiplloii.
plague year in London with a mortality of 10,400, and even in tbe The spread of the disease only partially supported the doctrine
■rat year yiBa ptnons died of the tame ditoie. The same yrat ol contagion, as BoghurU lays; "Ttc disease spread not
7000 out of 20.000 inhabitants of Newcaatle died of pbguc; m 1613 „i»„«,i,«, i... ».»., Jl» ,• *;_/. ».,. u_ 1 . i
WioM al Hull About tbe ionie (i<«. t6M-l6,7. ^pie was p£ allogttllcr by "ntigion at fir«, nor began only at one place
vaknt in Holbitd. and the midemic of Nijmwcgen a celebiated «M spread further and further ai an eating sore doth all over
m havinf been deacribed by Diemerbroeck. whose work [Trortolns the body, bul feU upon several places of dly and suburbs like
jlifr«»,alo i6^i-i66s)hoiieo(lheoM>stimportantonthenbiee.l. „i,u" In fart dissemination seems to have taken place, u
aaW" .12 ™;^™ a'S^'iE.i^"''^. «1a™ ,'l^'df:h -sual, by the conversion of one house aller another intS a f™
MidemE in London. The army diuiei'of Ihe Civil Wan were o" disease, a process favoured by the fatal custom of shutting
»» them « M Wallinjrfoid Caslle rtVillHL. " Of Fiave™ ■■ .hnoH equivalent Lo 1 (enlence of death on all therein, bul
S^vg^^^V^^'^'IIJ^&jKJ^^ ^ ™'^o?Zr^nTsuSfl,:l ilTh r^'crJ^'X
laat tunc in t6yt.' legend " God have mercy upon us I" was no new thing: it ia
ihsr. Six 'X-£i,:r'„Vis ,TEJ,feH '"•f ;«<'/"■' ," "~'»;inE; ^S. "SS5°SS
Eh much len^l. nuking 14,000 victmTonly— a rcnih add- '" ■'"' fulihly and injunous ellects of these reguUtions. Tbe
h» Cardinal &raldi, who* work a iplendid (olio, wrillrn on adminisLiative measures, but looked lo the clcanlineu ol Ibe
SirSSU^TeSri.*^hin=^ne'^f'fSf°n,^'t^;l;':t --^ r-* '^* "^^ »■ •'■c.Poor, » that .here was Lule ^rno
■a Iheaubjecl of quarantine, &c. Genoa lost eo.ooo inhabitinli aclual wanl; and the burial arrangcmenls appear to have been
fnm ihe aaiae diieaic, but Tuscany remained uolouched. The well attended ID. Tbe college of physicians, by royal command,
mpanlMy limited spreadof (hia frightful epidemic in Italvai pm forlh such advice and pnacriplions as wete Ibought best for
Zl (ki^ny. ai5a liide'EIS' to Hollandi'when; niedical ttealmenl had any effect in checking Ibe disease. Early
Aaatenlani in 1M3-1U4 waiagain ravaiied with a mortality given in November with colder weather it began 10 decline; and ia
•a 50.000. also ' Rotterdam and Haaj" -■ ■ ™ . .
Xm*«Tlam m lA
had left the city " crowded hack as thick as ihey fled." As hoi
Tht Citat Ftaiue of IjHitni. — The preceding enumeration will often been observed in other pbguc cpidcmicfi, sound people
biTC prepared the reader to view the greal pbgue of 1664-1665 could enter infecled housM and even sleep in tbe beds of ihoM
Aim in iu true r^blion lo othett, and not aa an isolated who had died of the plaice " bcfoie they were even told «
l^aia^ phenomenon. The preceding years had been unusu- cleansed from the (tench o( Ihe diseased " (Hodges]. The
•■•■*■■ illy free [rgm plague; and il nal not mentioned in symptoms of the disease being such as have been generally
the bilb o( mortality till in the autumn of 1A64 (Nov, i) a few observed need not be here considered. The disease was, u
inUtcd cases were obaerved in the parishes of St Giles and always, moat deslruclive in squalid, dirty neighhouthoods and
St Martin's, Westminster, and a few occurred in the following among the poor, so as Lo be called ihe " poor^s pbgue." Those
winter, which was very severe. About May 1665 the disease who lived in the town in barges or ships did not take tbe disease;
Afiia became noticeable, and spread, bul fomcwfaat slowly, and the houses on London Bridge were but lilLic affected. Of
Bofbont, a contemporary dortor, noLicei that it crept down those doctors wbo remained in Lhe dLy some eight or nine died,
Holbom and took six months to travel from the western auburbs not a brge proportion. Some had the tare courage to investigate
{St (Hies) to the eastern (Stepney) through the dty. The the mysterious disease by dissecting the bodies of the dead.
■ntiUty raj^ly rose from 4} in May to j«o in June, 6137 in Hodges implies that he did to, though he left no full account of
JdIt, 17,0]^ in August, Ji.ijq in September, after whicb it his observations. Dr George Thomson, a chemist and a disciple
bc|^ lo decline. The total number ol deaths from plague iif Van Helmonl, followed tbe example, and nearly lost his life
ia thttt year, acci>rding to the bills of mortality, waa 68,596, in t>y an attack which immediaLely followed,'
• popoluion estimated at 460,000." out of whom two-thirda The plague of 166] waa widely spread over Engbnd, and waa
•R Mppowd to have fled 10 escape the contagion. This number . On tbe plague of iMj ice Nilh. llodgei, LuimtlKti'' i™ f"'"
b likely to be rather too low than too high, lince of the 64J2 au^rroc a^ri fipalum ImJinntitm imrniu (London, 1671} Svo — In
dcUb Irom motted fever many were probably really from English by Quincy(U»i>m,ij»o),(tbechief auihmty):i«in»»ta
IjT!-^ .l , k . j 1 ■ . -J . ■ (I . -_- .. T a* Eipmntmlal RilUien sf At tail Phtm I* On CUy if Ltntan,
pllgue, Ibough not decUred » to avoid pamful reslnctions. by William Boghurst,apotbe3iyinStGile;'s.in-the-Fie&."Lo*Jon
Ib December there was a sudden fall in the monaUty which r66S),— a MS. in Brillili MuKum (Sloane ufl). containing im.
aDatinned through the winter; hut in 1666 nearly iodo deaths ponani details; Ceorie Thomson. AOIUOTOUIA, nr tti Ptit
t^ plague are record«i. J-^tli-J!^ '^^^°rii*^ii^''jfe " ^"'^' "'"'"'""'
<Jeaephu>Ripamontiu<,Z>i*c]ttgii>iiri4jo (Milan, 1640,410. 1B44): CMitliim zf Scam Pints on Hi Plai<u in rtii (L
•For Ihii period lee Indei to Krmrmtratuia in Ankivri nj Cilf 17>0. Bvo; Deloe's fascinating Jliunial 1^ a CMsm which
ttiiiBii is79-i66i (London. 1878); Richirdion, Plapu and Prsli- t« read and admired ai a Rctioo, but accepted with caul
«iiiff.rI*«^E»iiii«((Nn«a.lle. iBsi). l- .._ . ,. ■-_ . , .. . .., - „. ..__■.,
•Craunt, O&fnalim » tlu Billt of Usrlalil,
!) Otd ed., London, in iii'Ciiy,
i6e;-i6M." Oprra. ed. Gne
1 fascinating /onraai o? o
_ — , --.-..;ed aa a fklion. but accec. — — — ..
; J, Vinccnl (miniiter of the goipel). G«f t ToriUi V
696 PLAGUE
(OKntlv nsirdcd u bavioE been tnoimittcd Inn London, u it two-third> of i
if^wared moKly lalcr ihan in the mctropolii. Hnd in many catem the over Provence» t
Emponation by a particular p«VHi cculd be traced. Placa near Ihatn a( confciK
London were earlteit aRecled, aa Brrntfonl, Greenwicli, Deptford; in the citclmivc
but in Juty or August 1665 it wai already in Stmthamplon, Sunder- tunitie*. The d
land, Sewcaitle, Ac. A wider dlAtribution txxurrcd in the neat In all Bjfi^ pcj
year. OaTcTd entirely evaped. ihouEh Ihe Riidenec of tbe court nearly iso.doa.*
part ol England, thouoh iporadic caaeA appear in bilTa of mortality
ofplaBUC in England mtiH be regard«j aa epontaneoui.
But this was no isolated fact- A timiEar cenation of pbtguc vai
noted H»n after in the grcale/ part oi western Europe- In 1666 4
K^-erc pl^e raged in Cologne and on Ihe Rhine, which wat pro>
longed till 1670 in the diitrict. In the Nethcrlanda Ihcie wa»
plague in i«67-i6te, but there atE no deOnile aoticci of il after
167J. France uw the laii plague epidemic in 1660, til] it reappeared
in 17JO. In the yeara 1675-1684 a new plague epidemic appeared
in ^fa^h Africa. Turkey, Poland; Hiingan>. Ttuuna and G^^ny.
piTignving generally northward. Malta loH 11.000 pei»ni in
167s. The plague of Vienna in 1^9 waa very KKerl. eau.ing
pli^°'D^en ™°iffec«d fn l6SoT'Mayebutg and ^™e in
the tame lime; but in i68j the plague diiappeaied from Germany
tili the epidemic of 1707- In Sruin it ccaaed alxiut 16A] ; in llafy
certain citien were Ittacked till the end of the century, but hoc
later (HicKh).
Plaint in lilt itlk Cnltiry. — At the htjinnine of thii period
plague wai very prevalent in Constantinople and aEmg the Danube.
began to ipread Ibrough P^nd, aiH] Eater to Sileaia, Lithuania.
Pniuia and a great part of Genmny and Scandinavia. In IVuiaia
and IJIhiiania lSj,000 pemne pcmhcd; Dinttig, Hiailiurt a
other northern cifln (ullered Kvetely. Carenhagcn waa atlid
in 1710. In SlocUioTin there waa a mnrtaKly of 40,000. Cert
K - ,.. ..., ol the (liitKr),
ffi'\litmlc•. and cholera wai armted at the Kunc not in later year) In anolher direetion the plwue unead orcr Utile Roaiin ITn
iiaer). and duolaled Kiefl, while ib the neM >'car il brolie out in Uwn
At the same time the plague spread wcHtwaid from the Danube and produced one of the mon dcilruclive epidefnici of nodm
flohemia, cauiing great mortality m Vjenna. Thence it pa»ed to tion, wen carried oif!*
IVngue and RaiiiJHMi^to the former, pouibly to the btler, almost The remaimnE Europeaa plague-epidcmica of Ihe I^ eesnar
certainly conveyed by human intercourw. Thin city (11* E.) wa< weir inconuderable. but on that vocy actounl aotevoflhy. Tps-
the wcsiem limit reached in thia year. Hisr >tales that Ihe aylvania wu again affected in 17SJ. Slavonia and Lrvtiu (1
plague dirappe.ired eveo-where in Eumpc alter the great hurricane cfiitiicl of eastern Calicia) in tn^rnb (ij' E.), VolhyouJ
of the a7tb of Febmaiy 1714. 179S. Tie disease, while nappearinc id the seau of the m*«
In 1717 plague raged severely in Constantinople: and In 17T9 earlier eiwlcmics, was more lindHd in its range and el ihinf
it made a Ircdi pm«re*i wcHward into Transylvania, Hungary, duration-' An epidemic ui Dalmaiia in 17111-1764 b noin^tli
Calicia and Poland, but km farther falmut ia° E.). It Ibui in cunneaon witA Uter outbreaks in the same rrjioD. Ip •>" 1^
limit, and that the grad'jal narrowing ol (he range of plague, which and Egypt, where it aflccted the French and afterwards the E«M
This prorcss tuHcred a'lemporary inlerniption by the outbreak k^.m ih lAe iglk Cenfiiry.— Plame appealed tt CoiBIiifr
attribute by wmie 10 coiilaKion thnugh Ihe ihSp of a Captain and in itol in Bagdad. Il had prevailed since 1M> »
Chataucl which arrived on ihr loih of May 1730. from Syria, where Georgia and the Caucjsui. and in iSo]-iSo6 began 10 «™i
plaGiie ai thai time prrvailed. though not epidemically when („„, ,|„ „„], „( ,he Caucasus into Ruuia. (ill in iWiira
bu."he''di,*L'ias^^^l °no.''« 1^ X^1:l^ ii^fc established a. ot near A...al.han, and in ito, reaehcJ Z--*
S^urrlS. ll^^"on lh?^ir»ril M Se^nd if jSii aL ™ m. hiKhet np the Volga. These localities are iatenti*
porters unloading the carifo- Kencc. aciivdlaj[ to believers in aa being near (hose where plague appeared in [S7:-ia.>
contagion, the disease paued (o families in the "old (own." the [t [j a|^ ^j iq have entered the government of Sanm.
nT^i^fSli^'''-!;''lffiS"™™.'?A™'S!!iK'^^^ tut probably no (rtoai dislance.* TTh plague itminBl i
^oth7^h;™gSJ?^i irhSS^afllZlSSl «;»^?l;Sd r^ Ihe Cauoisus and Gco-eia till tSi, .( lca,t. In iKig-iij. J
ccnlly discovered data show (hat «»|»eloui cnv:! of contagious was in Armenia, and again in iS4a-iS4J, >ilK« wUch Uor a
dimi* occurred in ihe town before the arrival nf Chataud'i ship.' l,„ not been heard 0! in that country.
Kla-I^l "i'h'^ue'h th; 'h3i™rs"1n "^Sn"aMl'"iS;Sr!SK!I 'D'Antrechaui. IMUit- it la feOt it r™J« « m'J^
^nXlfie \!fc^ri in nuMc^i^lon The Se^ wa^TwLHl '7-"!": G. Lambert. lUU-irt it la fttll it ToyUm n, I7« tT»**-
severe Tboiiunds of unburiod cwiisw SII11I (he sirecli. and In '«•')• 1"«ed by Hiitcr. Cnck. itr tpHtm. KrtaH. .
all 40000 to tioooo persons were carried off In Decemiier Ijai 'Adam Chenot. AbhanHnni te» itr Ptit (Dresden, 177*1: »■
grejt mortalitv. but in Touhm not tiO nit, when it deatrt^ Vl^'m p}^"Jfn,,{l^Mn r'-^ -- ' '— ' '"
'erf in ofStnli (Her
K O .-ol^, Pcsili, I
'krlahm Uilori^i ii^^^ftili it UarsnTIi (Cah«ne, ITU. fli.ViiKH. 1^ » <'ol<', Pcuh, iftoi).
iriii, i;i3. Sc.);<?hico>-rttau.Ven>y. Se., OijrnoKffliielrfJInmiJ •from the annals of the MoravUn community rf inr"'!
. it la ptM (Marseilles 1721); Oiicoyncau, 7>BiM it la palt, the Volga, CiuUiHr in Briitr-Gimrimdi Svtflt. by A On^
rm 1741): Littnf, article " Peste," in DiilioniuiH it mUuint. (Sarepta and Berlin. iB6J)i also Thakaaa. EfiAiain ^ fMi"
'- fftria, IS4I>. Caamie (Paris. Ii79)- '
PLAGUE
697
In 1808 plague was at Constantinople, in 1809 at Smyrna.
In 181 2 was a more general epidemic affecting these places and
also Egypt. An outbreak at Odessa is supposed to have been
brought from Constantinople, and thence to have passed to
Transylvania. In 18 13 a severe plague at Bucharest is sup-
posed to have been brought froni- Constantinople. About the
same time plague prevailed in Bosnia, and is supposed to have
passed thence to Dalmatia in 1S15. In 18 14-18 15 it again
appeared in Egypt, and once more invaded the continent of
Europe in Albania and Bosnia. Two insular outbreaks, Malta
in 1813 and Corfu in 1815, attracted much attention as being
both thought to be cases of importation by sea-traffic,^ and
there seems good reason for this opinion.
A panic spread through Europe in 181 5 in consequence of an
outbreak in Noja on the eastern coast of Italy. According to
one view it was imported from the opposite coast of Dalmatia,
though no definite history of contagion was established; accord-
ing to others, it originated endemicaliy in that place. It
remained, however, strictly confined to a small district, perhaps
in consequence of the extraordinarily rigorous measures of
isolation adopted by the Italian government. In 1828 an
isolated epidemic appeared in Greece in the Morea, supposed to
have been brought by troops from Egypt.' In 1824-1825 an
outbreak took place at Tutchkof! in Bessarabia; the town was
strictly isolated by a military cordon and the disease did not
tpna.d.* Cronstadt in Transylvania was the scene of a small
outbreak in 1828, which was said to be isolated by similar
measures (Lorinser). A far more serious epidemic was connected
with the campaign of the Russian army against Turkey in
1838-1829. Moldavia, Wallarhia and Bessarabia were widely
affected; the disease broke out also in Odessa and the Crimea,
and isolated cases occurred in Transylvania. The most
northerly points reached by the plague were near Czernowitz
<m the frontier of Bessarabia and Bukowina, and its limitation
was as before attributed to the Russian and Austrian military
cordons.
In 1831 another epidemic occurred in Constantinople and
Roumelia; in 1837 again in Roumelia and in Odessa— its last
appearance in these regions, and the last ''on the European
continent except an isolated outbreak in Dalmatia iu 1840, and
one in Constantinople in 1841.^
The plague-epidemics in Egypt between 1833 and 1845 ^^
very important in the history of plague, since the disease was
almost for the first time scientifically studied in its home by
skilled European physicians, chiefly French. The disease was
found to be less contagious than reported to be by popular
tradition, and most of the French school went so far as to deny the
contagiousness of the disease altogether. The epidemic of 1834-
1S35 was not less destructive than many of those notorious
in history; but in 1844-1845 the disease disappeared.
In 1853 plague appeared in a district of western Arabia, the
AsXr country in North Yemen, and it is known to have occurred
in the same district in 1815, as it did afterwards in 1874 and
1879. In 1874 the disease extended within four days' march of
Mecca. From the scantiness of population the mortality was
not great, but it became clear that this is one of the endemic
seats of plague.*
In June 1858 intelligence was received in Constantinople of an
outbreak of disease at the small town Benghazi, in the district
of Barca, province of TripoU, North Africa, which though at
first misunderstood was clearly bubonic plague. From later
researches there is reason to believe that it began in 1856 or in
1855. The disease did not spread, and ceased in the autumn, to
* Faulkner, On the Plague in Malta Cl-ondon, 1820), 8vo; J. D.
Tully, History of the Plague in Malta, Gozo. Corfu end Cephalonia
G'Ondon. 1821), 8vo; White, Treatise on the Plague (at Corfu) (London
1847); Calvert. "On the Plague in Malta, 1813," Med.-Chi. Trans-
anions, vi. I.
* L. A. Gossc, Relation de la peste en Crhe, 1827-1828 (Paris,
1838).
* Lorinser, rest aes orients, p. 319.
* For the authorities, see H&ser. Op. cit.
> j. N. RadcUffe, Report of Local Government Board 187^1880,
■ipi^., p. 42.
return with less violence in i8s9» when it died out. In the
autumn of 1873 i^ returned, but came again to a spontaneous
termination.*
After the epidemic of Benghazi in 1856-1859, plague was next
heard of in the district of Maku, in the extreme north-west of
Persia in November 1863. It occurred in a scattered population,
and the mortality was not absolutely large.'
In 1867 an outbreak of pbgue was reported in Mesopotamia
(Irak), among the marshes of Hindich bordering on the lower
Euphrates. The epidemic began in December 1866 (or probably
earlier) and ceased in June 1867. But numerous cases of non-
fatal mild bubonic disease (mild plague or pestis minor) occurred
both before and after the epidemic, and according to Tholozan
similar cases had been observed nearly every year from 1856 to
1865.*
The next severe epidemic of plague in Irak began in December
1873. But facts collected by Tholozan show that pestis minor,
or sporadic cases of true plague, had appeared in 1868 and
subsequent years. The outbreak of 1873-1874 began about 60 m.
from the origin of that of 1867. It caused a much greater
mortality and extended over a much wider area than that of
1867, including the towns of Kerbela and Hilleh. After a short
interval it reappeared at Divanieh in December 1874, and spread
over a much wider area than in the previous epidemics. This
epidemic was carefully studied by Surgeon-Major Colvill.*: JIc^
estimated the Aiortality at 4000. The epidemic ceased in July,
but broke out again early in 1876, and in tills year extended
northwards to Bagdad and beyond. The whole area now
affected extended 350 m. from north-west to south-east, and
the total number of deaths was believed to be 20,000. In
1877 plague also occurred at Shuster in south-west Persia,
probably conveyed by pilgrims returning from Irak, and caused
great mortality.
After its customary cessation in the autumn the epidemip
began again in October 1876, though sporadic cases occurred
all the summer. The disease appeared in 1877 ^ other parts of
Mesopotamia also with less severity than in 1876, but over a
wider area, being now announced at Samara, a town 70 m. above
Bagdad on the Tigris. The existence of plague in Bagdad or
Mesopotamia was not again announced till the year 1884, when
accounts again appeared in the.newspapers, and in that July tlbe
usual official statement was made that the plague had been
stamped out.
In 1870-187X it appeared in a district of Mukri in Persian
Kurdistan to the south of Lake Urumiah (far removed from the
outbreak of 1863). The epidemic appears, however, to have
died out in 187 1, and no further accounts of plague there were
received. The district had suffered in the great epidemic of plague
in Persia in 1829-1835. In the winter 187(^1877 a disease which
appears to have been plague appeared in two villages in the
extreme north of the province of KhorSs^, about 25 leagues
from the south-east angle of the (^pian Sea. In March 1877
plague broke out in Resbt, a town of 2o,oco inhabitants, in the
province of Ghilan, near the Caspian Sea at its south-west angle,
from which there is a certain amount of trade with Astrakhan.
In 1832 a very destructive plague had carried off half the
inhabitants. In 1877 the plague was very fatal. From March
to September 4000 persons were calculated to have died. The
disease continued till the spring of 1878. In 1877 there was a
doubtful report of the same disease at Astrabad, and also in some
parts near the Perso-Afghan frontier. In 1878 plague again
occurred in Kurdistan in the dbtrict of So-uj-Bulak, said by Dr
Tholozan to be the same as in the district of Mukri where it
occurred in 1870-1871. These scattered outbreaks of plague in
Persian territory are the more remarkable because that country
* Tholozan, La Peste en Turquie dans les temps modemes (Paris.
1880).
» J. Nctten Radcliffe, Report of the Medical Officir of % Privy
Council, Sec. (1875); also in Papers on Levantine Plague, presented,
to fMrliament (1879), p. 7.
* Tholozan, La Peste en Turquie, p. 86.
* See bis report cited by Radcliffe. Papers on LevanHnt Plague
(1879).
698
PLAGUE
lud been generally noted for its freedom from pla{^ (as com- It reappeared early next year, in the same locality, when it
pared with Asiatic Turkey and the Levant). extended to Sind as far as Hyderabad, and in another directioa
A few cases of plague occurred in January 1877 at Baku on south-east as far as Ahmcdabad and Dhollerah. But it dtsap-
the west shore of the Caspian, in Russian territory.^ peared from these parts in 1820 or early in xSsx, and was aoc
An outbreak of plague «n European soil in 1878-187Q on the heard of again till July 1836, when a disease bioke out isto
banks of the Volga caused a panic throughout Europe.' In violence at the town of Pali in Marwar in Rajputana. It
the summer of 1877 a disease prevailed in several villages in spread from Pali to the province of Meywar, but diedoutqioB*
the neighbourhood of Astrakhan and in the city itself, which was taneously in the hot season of 1837. The origin of these tm
clearly a mild form of plague {pestis minor). It caused no epidemics was obscure. No iniportatk>n from other amntnti
deaths (or only one due to a complication) and died out appar- could be traced.
ently spontaneously. An official physician, Dr Kastorsky, who In 1823 (though not officially known till later) an epidemic
investigated the matter for the government, declared the disease broke out at Kedornath in Gurwhal, a sub-district of Kumm
to be identical with that prevailing in the same year at Resht on the south-west of the Himalayas, on a high situation. Ii
in Persia; another physician, Dr janizky, even gave it the name 1S34 and 1836 other epidemics occurred, which at last attndd
of pcstis nostras. In October 1878 some cases appeared in the the attention of government. In 1849-1850, and again in i8$2,
stanitM or Cossack military settlement of Vetlanka, 130 m. the disease raged very severely and ^read southward. In tlsj
from Astrakhan on the right bank of the Volga, which seem to Dr Francis and Dr Pearson were appointed a commissiofl to w
have puzzled the physicians who first observed them, but on quire into the malady. In 1876-1877 another outbreak occwni
the 30th of November were recognized as being but the same The symptoms of this disease, called maka murret or wuksmm
mild plague as had been observed the year before near Astrakhan by the natives, were precisely those of oriental plague. Ik
by Dr Ddppncr, chief medical officer of the Cossacks of Astra- feature of blood-spitting, to which much importance had bcti
khan His report on the epidemic is the only original ^>ne we attached, appeared to be not a common one. A very temadsUe
have. At the end of November' the disease became suddenly circumstance was the death of animals (rats, and more nid]r
more severe, and most of those attacked died; and from the 21st snakes) at the outbreak of an epidemic. The rats brooi^ if
of December it became still more malignant, death occurring in blood, and the body of one exaniined after death by Dr Fmdi
some cases in a few hours, and without any buboes being formed, showed an affection of the lungs.*
No case of recovery was known in this period. At the* end of Oriental plague was observed in the Chinese provinte if
the year it rapidly declined, and in the first weeks of January Yunnan from 1871, and also at Pakhoi, a port in the Tonfkiai
still more so. The last death was on the 24th of January. In Gulf, in 1882 — being said to have prevailed there at least fiftcci
the second half of December, when the disease had already lasted years. In both places the s>'mptoms were the aaffle, 4.
two months, cases of plague occurred in several neighbouring undoubted bubonic plague. At Pakhoi it recurs Dcazl|jr nay
villages, all of an extremely malignant type, so that in some year.'
places all who were attacked died. In most of these cases the In 1880 therefore plague existed or had existed witbia tei
disease began with persons who had been at Vetlanka, though years, in the following parts of the world: (i) Ben^iaxi, Africs;
this was not universally established. The inhabitants of these (2) Persian Kurdistan; (3) Irak, on the Tigris and Eiqifanta;
villages, terrified at the accounts from Vetlanka, strictly isolated (4) the Asir country, western Arabia; (5) on the lower Vo^
the sick, and thus probably checked the spread of the disease. Russia; (6) northern Persia and the shores of the Ca^iai:
But it evidently suffered a spontaneous decline. By the end of (7) Kumaon and Gurhwal, India; (8) Yunnan and PddNl
January there were no cases left in the district except at one China.
vUlage (SeUtrennoye), where the last occurred on the gth of Literature.— Sec the foltewing works, besides tbott aktdbf
February. The total number of cases in Vetlanka, out of a quoted: Kamintus, Regimen contra epidimiam rac ptikm, 4>i^
population of about 1700, was 417, of whom 362 died. In the c. 1404 (many editions); Jacobus Soldus. Opui nuifiie it pm,
410 (Bologna, 1478): Alex. Bcnedictus. D* ofcscnwiimew,^'"'''^^'""
. _ . Surgeon's Idate^ foUo (Loadcm, 1630).
soil, most European governments sent special commissions to Hclmont, Tumulus pestts, 8vo (Coloene, 1644. Ac.); JIibsmb.
the spot. The British commissioners were Surgeon-Major ^''^'^ ^. «f7"^ '^ ^^''j. ^l2r2?* ''**'/,^**l-"*^
A^ I Ml J 1^ T c T> I. VI II .u / •__ .• ^n Account of Lazarettoes tn Europe, &c., 4to (Loodoo, i;i»i.
ColviU and Dr J. F. Payne who bke all the foreign comnus- p^^rick Russell. A Treatise of thTpicgut, Jto (LoSoI mO:
sioncrs, reached the spot when the epidemic was over. With Thomas Hancock, Researches into the Laws of PtstJewa, h»
respect to the origin of this epidemic, the possibility of its having (London, 1821) ; Foder6, Lemons sur Us (pidimies, Ac, 4 ^f^ ••
originated on the spot, as in Resht and on the Euphrates in ^''»'?*' J.^"-At',tV' ^Za "f^^BUS: '^^^'^i ''^fSX^J^
^ . ., .»••• ...vj'j A .. » iur la Peste (1837): Bulard, La pesit ortentase, 8vo {Fun. nBH
very similar situations, is not to be demed. An attempt was criesinger. Die tnfectionskrankkaten (2nd ed.. 8vo. EHm»,
made to show that the contagion was brought home by Cossacks 1864). Q. F. r)
returning from the Turkish War, but on absolutely no evidence. History since iSSo.—The most striking feature of the eoiy
In the opinion of Dr Payne the real beginning of the disease was history of plague summarized above is the gradual tttxoceam
in the year 1877, in the vicinity of Astrakhan, and the sudden ^f plague from the west, after a series of exceedingly destractiw
development of the malignant out of a mUd form of the disease outbreaks extending over several centuries, and its tveasai
was no more than had been observed in other places. The Astra- disappearance from Europe. It appears to have come to •
khan disease may have been imported from Resht or Baku, or ^^^^cn end in one country after another, and to have beea «•
may have been caused concurrently with the epidemics of these ^^ere no more. Those lying most to the we* were the to
places by some cause affecting the basin of the Caspian generally. ->-,,.. • !?••»» e-^-j c t^u
n/ • 7 J- T» J . u u ij • »u . 1 *0n Indian pbeue, see Franas. Trans. Epiaem. Ste. w»
Plague tn Ifuitc.- li used to be held as a maxim that plague j^ 407-408; John Murray, ibid., vol. iv. part iTTN. Raddfe
never appeared east of the Indus; nevertheless it was observed Reports of Local Government Board (1875, 1876, 1877 and for ii;r
during the 19th century in more than one distinct centre in 1880); Parliamentary Papers (1879); Frederick Forbec, Om Pta^
India. So long ago as 1815 the disease appeared in Guzerat, «> ^ortk-West Provinces of India (Edinburgh, i8*oi (Dis«r»
Kattywar and Cutch, "after three years of severe famine." r°^).^fe-'\.?^."'^rc±^^^^
»J- Ncttcn RadclifTe, Reports; Tholozan, Histoire de la peste krankheiUn des MittelaJters {BerMn, t8(>s)» p. loi ; Webb, /*«d*n»
bubonique en Perse (Paris, 1874). indica (2nd ed.. Calcutta, 1848).
•Sec RadclifTe. Reports (1879-1880); Hirsch and Sommcrbrodt, » See J. N. Radcliffe's Report for 1879-1880, p. ^; Maa«*«
Pest-Epidemie 1878-1879 in Astrachan (Berlin. 1880); Zubcr. Reports of Imperial Chinese Customs, specxaA werinl^o. t.UttmSr
La Peste d'Astrakhan en 1878-1879 (Paris. 1880) ; Colvill and Payne, year ended the 31st of March 1878. 15th issue (Shans^iai): Lo«^'
Report to the Lord President of the Council (1879). ^' Notes on Epidemic Disease at Pakhoi " (1883). ibid.. 2^ "^
' Th^ dates are all reduced to new style. p. 31.
PLAGUE
699
> be freed from its presence, namely, England, Portugal and
pain. From all these it finally disappeared about 1680, at the
ue of a period of pandemic prevalence. Northern and central
iirope became free about 17x4, and the south of France in
jai. The last outbreak in northern Russia occurred in 1770.
fter this plague only appeared in the south-east of Europe,
here in turn li gradually died away during the first half of the
)th centtiry. In 184 1 its long reign on this continent came to
1 end with an isolated outbreak in Turkey. From that time
atH quite recently it remained extinct, except in the East,
he province of Astrakhan, where a very small and limited out*
retk occurred in 1878, is politically in Europe, but geographi-
lOy it belongs rather to Asia. And even in the East plague
■s confined to more or less dearly localized epidemics; it showed
> power of pandemic diffusion. In short, if we regard the his-
cjr ci this disease as a whole, it appears to have lost such
iwer from the time of the Great Plague of London in 1665,
hidi was part of a pandemic wave, until the present day.
here was not merely a gradual withdrawal eastwards lasting
svly two hundred years, but the outbreaks which occurred
iting that period, violent as some of them were, showed a
nstantly diminishing power of diffusion and an increasing
adency to localization. The sudden reversal of that long
locess is therefore a very remarkable occurrence. Emerging
om the remote endemic centres to which it had retreated,
lague has once more taken its place among the zymotic diseases
ith which Western communities have to reckon, and that
hich has for more than a century been little more than a name
id a tradition has become the familiar object of investigation,
irried on with all the ardour and all the resources of modem
ieoce. In what follows an attempt will be made to summarize
le facts and indicate the conclusions to be drawn from recent
cperience.
Diffusion. — At the outset it is characteristic of this subtle
isorder that the present pandemic diffusion cannot be traced
ith certainty to a definite time or place of origin. Herein it
Men notably from other exotic diseases liable to similar
iffusion. For instance, the last visitation of cholera could be
seed clearly and definitely to a point of origin in northern
idia in the spring of 1892, and could be followed thence step
f#step in its march westward (see Cholera). Similarly,
loog^ not with equal precision, the last wave of influenza was
lown to have started from central Asia in the spring of 1889,
» have travelled through Europe from east to west, to have
■en carried thence across the sea to America and the Antipodes,
itil it eventually invaded every inhabited part of the globe
ee Intluenza). In both cases no doubt remains that the
1-important means of dissemination is human intercourse.
he movements of plague cannot be followed in the same way.
Ith regard to origin, several endemic centres are now recog-
ixed in Asia and Africa, namely, (i) the district of Assyr in
rabia, on the eastern shore of the Red Sea; (2) parts of Meso-
)Camia and Persia; (3) the district of Garwhal and Kumaon
, the North- West Provinces of India; (4) Yunnan in China;
i) East and Central Africa. The last was recently discovered
f Dr Koch. It includes the district of Kisiba in German
■St Africa, and extends into Uganda. In applying the term
endemic centres " to these localities, no very precise meaning
in be attached to the word. They are for the most part so
mote, and the information about them so scanty, that our
sowledge is largely guesswork. What we mean is that there
evidence to show that under various names a disease identical
ith plague has been more or less continuously prevalent for a
unber of years, but how long and how continuously is not
sown. Whether any of them are {>ennanent homes of plague
le evidence does not enable us to say. They seem, at any
te, to have harboured it since its disappearance from Europe,
id probably further investigation would disclose a still wider
^valence. For instance, there are good reasons for believing
lat the island of Reunion has been subject, since 1840 or there-
xnits, to outbreaks under the name of " lympkangite infec-
tuse" an elegant euphemism characteristically French. In
all the countries named league appears to behave very much as
it used to do in Europe from the time of the Black Death on-
wards. That is to say, there are periods of quiescence, with
epidemic outbreaks which attraa notice at irregular intervals.
Taking up the story at the point where the earlier historical
summary leaves off, we get the following list of countries in
which plague is known to have been present in each year (see
Local Government Board's Reports): x88o, Mesopotamia;
1881, Mesopotamia, Persia and China; 1882, Persia and China;
1883, China; 1884, China and India (as makamart); 1885, Persia;
1886, 1887, x888, India (as ffiakamari); 1889, Arabia, Persia and
China; 1890, Arabia, Persia and China; 1891, Arabia, China
and India (as makamari); 1892, Mesopotamia, Persia, China,
Russia (in central Asia); 1893, Arabia, China, Russia and
India (as makamari); 1894, Arabia, China and India (as
makamari); 1895, Arabia and China; 1896, Arabia, Asia
Minor, China, Japan, Russia and India (Bombay) ; 1897, Arabia,
China, Japan, India, Russia and East Africa; 1898, Arabia,
Persia, China, Japan, Russia, East Africa, Madagascar and
Vienna; 1899, Arabia, Persia, China, Japan, Mesopotamia,
East Africa, West Africa, Philippine Islands, Straits Settlements,
Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion, Egypt, European Russia,
Portu^, Sandwich Islands, New Caledonia, Paraguay, Argcn-
tine, Brazil: 1900, to the foregoing should be added Turkey,
Australia, California, Mexico and Glasgow; in 1901, Soulh
Africa and in 1902 Russia chiefly at Odessa.
This list is probably by no means exhaustive, but it sufficiently
indicates in a summary fashion the extent of that wave of diffu-
sion which set in during the closing years of the 19th century.
It did not fully gather way till 1896, when plague appeared in
Bombay, but our modem knowledge of the disease dates from
1894, when it attacked Hong Kong and first presented itself to
accurate observation. From this point a more detailed account
may be given. Plague was recognized at Hong Kong in May
1894, and there can be little doubt that it was imported from
Canton, where a violent outbreak — said to have caused 100,000
deaths—was in progress a few months earlier, being part of an
extensive wave of infection which is believed to have come
originally out of the province of Yunnan, one of the recognized
endemic centres, and to have invaded a large number of places
in that part of China, including Pakhoi and other seaports.
Hong Kong was severely affected, and has never since been
entirely free from plague. In two intermediate years — 1895
and 1897 — very few cases were recorded, but more recently the
epidemic has gathered force again. The following table gives
the cases and deaths in each of the six years 1894-1899: —
Year.
Cases.
Deaths.
Case Mortality.
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
Total . .
2833
45
1204
21
1320
i486
2550
ro78
18
"75
1415
%
go
80
89
95
6909
6272
907
The excessively high rate of mortality is probably due in
part to under-statement of the number of cases. Concealment
is practised by the Chinese, who are chiefly attacked, and it is
easier to conceal sickness than death. Plague appears to have
been equally persistent and destructive on the mainland in
southern China during the period indicated, but no accurate
details are available. In 1897 the Portuguese settlements of
Lappa and Macao were invaded. In addition to the provinces
of Yunnan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung in southern China,
plague is reported to have been present for several years in a
district in Mongolia to the north of Peking, and distant about
" twelve days' ride." More recently several localities in Mon*
golia and Manchuria have been affected. Formosa was attacked
in 1896, and suffered considerably in subsequent years; in i&qi^
the Japanese government offi.cuidl^ ttvoitVA^ a^^^-^ cuh^, ^«c^
700
PLAGUE
1974 deaths. Japan itself has had a certain amount of imported
plague, but not on a large scale. Speaking generally, the disease
has persisted and spread in the Far East since 1894, but precise
information is lacking, except with regard to Hong Kong.
W. J. Simpson in his Report on the Causes of the Plagzie in
Hong Kong (1903) reports the endemidty of the plague in that
colony to be maintained by (a) infection among rats often
connected with infectious material in rat runs or in houses, the
virus of which has not been destroyed, (6) retention of infection
in houses which are rat-ridden, and (c) infected clothing of people
who have been ill or died of plague. He considers the outbreaks
are favoured by the seasonal heat and moisture of the spring
and early summer, and the movement from place to place of
infected rats or persons. He also believes that human beings
may infect rats. In 310 cases oi plague examined by Simpson
56% were bubonic, 40% septic and 4% pneumonic
In 1896 plague appeared in the dty of Bombay. It was
certainly present in August, but was not recognized until the
23rd of September, and the diagnosis was not bacteriologically
confirmed until the 13th of October. This fact should be
remembered when failure to recognize the disease on its first
appearance occurs elsewhere. The origin of the Bombay inva-
sion is shrouded in obscurity. It is not even known when or
in what part of the dty it began (Condon, The Bombay Plague).
Several theories have been put forward, and importation by
sea from China is the theory which has met with most acceptance.
The native form of plague, known as mafuimari, is confined to
the southern slopes of the Himalaya. It is described above,
but that account may be supplemented by seme earlier references
unearthed by the Bombay Gasettecr (vol. iv.). Ibn Batesta
notices two destructive pestilences in the 14th century, and
Ferishta one in 1443, which he rails to'ttn, and describes as very
unusual in India. At the end of the i6tJi century there was a
pestilence following a prolonged famine, and in the X7th century
two violent epidemics are recorded under the names ta'un and
Vfdba. In the second of these, which occurred in the Ahmedabad
district of the Bombay Presidency in 1683-89, buboes aie
distinctly described. In the i8th century several pestilences
are recorded without description. It is at least probable from
these notes that even before the undoubted outbreak, which
began in Cutch in 1812, India was no stranger to epidemic
plague. To return to Bombay and 1896: the infection spread
gradually and slowly at first, but during the first three months
of 1897 not only was the town of Bombay severely affected, but
district after district in the presidency was attacked, notably
Poona, Karachi, Cutch Mandvi, Bhiwandi and Daman. The
number of cases and deaths reported in the presidency, exclusive
of the city, in each year down to the end of 1899, was as follows: —
Year.
Cases.
Deaths.
Case Mortality.
1896
>897
1898
1899
Total . .
367
49.125
90.506
131.794
273
36.797
68.061
101.485
%
743
74-7
75-2
770
271.792
206.616
758
The corresponding figures for Bombay city are: —
Year.
Cases,
Deaths.
Case Mortality.
1896
1897
1898
1899
Total
2.530
11.963
19.863
19.484
1,801
10.232
18,160
15.830
%
857
912
81-3
53.840
46.023
854
The total for the presidency, including the city, in four years
was 325,632 cases with 252,549 deaths in a population of
26.960,421 (census of 1891). The population of the city is
821,764, hui during the earlier plague period large numbers
Bedt so that the foregoing figures do not give the true plague
incidence according to populaticm. Moreover, rooceahneot
was extensively practised. The most striking fact brought out
by the tables just given is the large and steady increase year
by year in the presidency, in spite of all efforts to arrest the
spread of infection. It has gone on since 1899, and it has doc
been confined to Bombay, but has extended over the whole of
India. In 1S97 it had already penetrated to Rajputana, the
Punjab, the North West Provinces and the Central Provioces.
In the following year Bengal, Madras, Haidarabad and liyvm
were invaded. Not all these provinces suffered alike, but (m the
whole plague steadily strengthened its hold on India geoenllx,
and hardly relaxed it in any part. The most notevonhjr
details available are as follows, taken from the plague manikf
returns published June 1908.. In the Punjab from 179 deaths
in 1897 the mortality reached a maximum of 334,897 ia 190$,
in Agra and Oudh they rose from 72 in 1897 to 383.802 in 1905,
and in Madras Presidency from 1658 in 1899 to 20,125 i° i904-
The most striking figures, however, are those for Bombay and
Bengal which are given below, as wdl as the total mOTtaliiy ia
India.
Year.
Bengal Presidency
(including Calcutta).
Bombay Presidency
(including Bombay City).
ADIttfia.
Illllllllll
219
3.264
38412
78.629
32.967
65.680
l26!o84
59.619
a.219
47.710
86.191
96.592
33.196
128,259
184.752
381.269
223.957
71.363
51.525
3.219
47W
89.265
1«J69
7M76
236433
S^
938.0">
940.^1
30OJS5
Outside China and India plague has caused no great mortality
in any of the countries in which it has appeared, with the
exception perhaps of Arabia, about which very little is koovB.
But some of the outbreaks are interesting for other reasooii
and require notice. The first case is the singular occunoce ef
three deaths at Vienna in October 1S98. The earliest victla
was an attendant named Barisch, empl(^*ed in the pathokgica!
laboratory of the Vienna General Hospital, and t(M o&loVxk
after the animals and bacteriological apparatus devoted to the
investigation of plague, cultures of which had been hnn^
from India by the medical commissioners sent by the Royal
Academy of Science in 1897. Barisch was drunk and oat al
m'ght on the 8ih of October; on the 14th of October he feD S.
Plague was suspected, but Dr Miiller, who attended the manaad
had studied the disease in India, would not admit the diapooi
on clinical grounds, nor was it bacteriologically cstabbhed
until the 19th of October Barisch died on the 18th of October.
On the 20th one of the nurses, and on tl^ 21st Dr MiiDer. feO iL
Both died of pneumonic plague, from which also Barisch hai
undoubtedly suffered. A second nurse and a sister of meity
had feverish attacks, but no further case occurred. Barivi
was shown to have been careless in the performance of his dotics»
and to have disregarded instructions; and the infemce is that
he conveyed the infection to his mouth, and so to the IvBp,
from the bacteriological specimens or inoculated animals. The
melancholy incident illustrates several points of interest: (i) the
correctness of the bacterial theory of causation, and the idcont)
of the bacillus pcsiis as the cause; (2) the infectious diarAfier
of the pneumonic type of disease; (3) its high fatality; (4) ^
difficulty of diagnosis.
The next occurrence of special interest is the appetraace •
plague in Portugal in 1899, ^fter an absence of more than 100
years. Its origin is shrouded in obscurity. Oporto, the s«*
■of the outbreak, had no connexion by sea with any place ki*^
to be infected, and all attempts to trace introduction ended ■
speculation or assumption. The most probable theory ^« 1^
soldiers returning home from infected Portuguese pofise»*
in the East brought it with them, but thb does not explain the
selection of Oporto and the escape of other places. The cariio^
PLAGUE
7oi
cases, according to retrospective inquiry, occurred in June 1899;
su^icions were aroused in July, but the diagnosis was not
established until August. The conclusion reached, after careful
investigation by Dr Jorge, the medical officer of health, that the
commencement really dated from June, is confirmed by the fact
that about that time the riverside labourers, who were first
affected, began to notice an illness among themselves sufficiently
novel to attract their attention and that of an English ship-
owner, who from their description suspected plague. Through
him the suspicion was conveyed to the Medical Times and
GaMetUf in which the suggestion of plague at Oporto was made
before any public mention of it in the town itself. The outbreak
never assumed large proportions. It gained ground by degrees
ontil October, after which it declined, and eventually ceased in
February 1900. No recrudescence has been officially announced.
The number of cases recorded in a population of 150,000 was 3x0,
with X14 deaths, representing a case mortality of 36-7%. They
were widely scattered about the town and outlying suburbs;
but no further extension occurred, except some isolated cases at
Braga, a town 35 m. distant, and one at Lisbon, in the person
of the distinguished bacteriologist, Professor Camara Pestana,
who contracted the disease in making a post-mortem at Oporto,
and died in Lisbon.
The only other appearance of plague in Europe in 1899 was
cm the Volga. Three places were affected, namely, Kolobovka,
and Krasnoyarsk, in the province of Astrakhan, and Samara,
higher up the river. All three outbreaks were small and limited,
and no further extension took place. A commission appointed
by the Russian government pronounced the disease to be
undoubtedly plague, and it appears to have been very fataL The
origin was not ascertained.
The most interesting extensions of plague in 1900 were those
in Australia and Glasgow. The following towns were affected
in Australia: Sydney, in New South Wales; Adelaide, in South
Australia; Melbourne, in Victoria; Brisbane, Rockhampton,
Townsville, Cairns and Ipswich, in Queenslaind; Freemantic,
Perth and Coolgardie, in West Australia. In none of these,
-with the exception of Sydney, did plague obtain a serious hold.
The total number of cases reported in Queensland was only 123,
with 53 deaths. In Sydney there was 303 cases, with 103
deaths, a case mortality of 34%. The infection is supposed to
have been brought from Noumea, in New Caledonia, where it
was present at the end of 1S99; and the medical authorities
believe that the first case, which occurred on the 19th of January,
was recognized. The outbreak, which hardly reached epidemic
proportions, lasted about six months. That in Glasgow was on
• still smaller scale. It began, so far as could be ascertained,
in August 1900, and during the two months it lasted there were
34 cases and 15 deaths. Once more the disease was not at first
recognized, and its origin could not be traced. In 1901 plague
invaded South Africa, and obtained a distinct footing both at
Cape Town and Fort Elizabeth. The total number of cases
down to July was 760, with 362 deaths; the number of Europeans
attacked was 196, with 68 deaths, the rest being natives, Malays,
Indians, Chinese and negroes. With regard to Great Britain, a
few ship-borne cases have been dealt with at different ports from
time to time since 1896, but except at Glasgow the disease has
nowhere obtained a footing on land.
Causation. — Plague is a specific infectious fever, caused by
the bacillus festiSy which was identified in 1894 by Kitasato,
and subsequently, but independently, by Yersin (see Pakasitic
DlSEAS£s). It is found in the buboes in ordinary cases, in the
blood in the so-called " septicacmic " cases, and in the sputum
of pneumonic cases. It may also be present in the urine. Post
mortem it is found in great abundance in the spleen and liver.
Nothing is known of its natural history outside the body, but
on cultivation it is apt to undergo numerous involution forms.
Its presence in a patient is regarded as positive diagnostic proof
of plague; but failure to find or to identify it does not p)0ssess
an equal negative value, and should not be too readily accepted,
fpr many instances are recorded in which expert observers have
ody succeeded in demonstrating its presence after repeated
attempts. It is dear, from the extreme variationt in the severity
of the illness, that th^ resisting power of individuals varies
greatly. According to the Plague Research Committee of
Bombay, the predisposing causes are " those leading to a lower
state of vitality," of which insufficient food is probably the most
important. There is no evidence that age, sex or race exercises
a distinct prediqx}sing influence. The largest incidence in
Bombay was on young adults; but then they are more numerous
and more exposed to infection, because they go about more
than the younger and the older. Similarly, the comparative
immunity of Europeans in the East may be explained by their
different conditions of life. It is doubtful whether the distinc-
tion drawn between pestis minor and pestis major has a real
aetiological basis. Very mild cases occurring in the course of
an outbreak of typical plague may be explained by greater power
of resistance in individuals, but the epidemic prevalence of a
mild illness preceding the appearance of undoubted plague
suggesu some difference or modification of the exciting cause.
" It is impossible," writes Sir Richard Thome (Local Government
Board Report, X89&-Z899), " to read the medical history of this
disease in almMt every part of the world without being impressed
with the frequency with which recognized plague has been pre*
ceded by ailments of such slight severity, involving some bubonic
enlargement of glands and some rise in body-temperature, as
to mask the real nature of the malady." Considering the greAt
importance of arresting the spread of infection at the outset,
and the implicit reliance placed upon bacteriological criteria,
the aetiology of such antecedent ailments deserves more atten-
tion than has hitherto been paid to it. Of course plague does
not stand alone in this respect. Epidemic outbreaks of other
discases-^for instance, cholera, diphtheria and typhoid fever —
are often preceded and followed by the prevalence of mild illness
of an allied type; and the true significance of this fact is one of
the most important problems in epidemiology. In plague,
however, it is of special importance, on account of the peculiarly
insidious manner in which this disease fastens itself upon •
locality.
The path by which the bacillus enters the body varies. In
pneumonic cases it is presumed to enter by the air-passaged,
and in bubonic cases by the skin. The Bombay Plague Research
Committee, whose experience is unequalled, say: " In a number
of instances points of inoculation were found on the extremities
of patients, from which plague cultures were obtained, and
in these cases buboes were found above the point of inoculation.
In the majority of instances, however, no local indication could
be found marking the point at which the microbe was implan-
ted." From the fact that bacilli are hardly ever found in the
blood of bubonic cases it may be inferred that they are arrested
by the lymphatic glands next above the seat of inocidation, and
that the fight — which is the iUness — takes place largely in the
bubo; in non-bubonic cases they are not so arrested, and the
fight takes place in the general circulatory system, or in the
lungs. As might be expected from these considerations, the
bubonic type is very little infectious, while pneumonic cases
are highly so, the patients no doubt charging the surrounding
atmosphere by coughing. Whether infection can be introduced
through the digestive tract by infected food is doubtful. The
bacillus is non-resistant and easily killed by heat and germicide
substances, particularly acids. Little is known of its toxic
action; only a weak toxin has been obtained from cultures.
Of the lower animals, mice, rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, squirrels
and monkeys are susceptible to the bacillus; horses, cattle,
sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and cats are more or less resistant, but
cats and dogs have been known to die of plague (Oporto, Daman,
Cutch and Poona). In the Great Plague of London they were
believed to carry the infection, and were killed in vast numbers.
The bacillus has been demonstrated in the bodies of fleas, flies,
bugs and ants.
Clinical Characters. — One of the results of recent observation
is the classification of plague cases under three heads, which
have already been mentioned several times: (i) bubonic,
(2) pneumonic, (3) septicaemic. (The word " v^*^^^*^"^^^^ ^
702
PLAGUE
alao used instead of " septi-caemic/' and though etymologically
objectionable, it is otherwise better, as '* septicaemic " already
has a specific and quite different meaning.) It should be under-
stood that this classification is a clinical one, and that the
second and third varieties are just as much plague as the first.
It is necessary to say this, because a misleading use of the word
*' bubonic " has given rise to the erroneous idea that true plague
is necessarily bubonic, and that non-bubonic types are a different
disease altogether. The word " plague " — or " pest," which is
the name used in other languages — had originally a general
meaning, and may have required qualifications when applied to
this particular fever; but it has now become a specific label,
and the prefix "bubonic" should be dropped.
The iUness varies within the widest limits, and exhibits all
gradations of severity, from a mere indisposition, which may pass
almost unnoticed, to an extreme violence, only equalled by the
most violent forms of cholera. The mild cases are always
bubonic; the other varieties are invariably severe, and almost
always fatal. Incubation is generally from four to six days,
but it has been observed as short as thirty-six hours and as
long as ten days (Bombay Research Committee). Incubation,
however, is so difficult a thing to determine that it is unwiso to
lay down any positive limit. As a rule the onset is sudden and
well marked. The symptoms may be described under the
headings given above, (i) Bubonic cases usually constitute
three-fourths of the whole, and the symptoms may therefore
be called typical. In a well-marked case there is usually an
initial rigor — in children convulsions — followed by a rise of
temperature, with vomiting, headache, giddiness, intolerance to
light; pain in epigastrium, back and limbs; sleeplessness, apathy
or delirium. The' headache is described as splitting; delirium
is of the busy type, like delirium tremens. The temperature
varies greatly; it is not usually high on the first day — from loi"
to 103^ — ^and may even be normal, but sometimes it rises rapidly
to 104** or 105** or even 107° F.; a fall of two or three degrees
on the second or third day has frequently been observed. The
eyes are red and injected; the tongue is somewhat swollen, and
at first covered with a thin white fur, except at the tip and
edges, but later it is dry, and the fur yellow or brownish. Pros-
tration is marked. Constipation is the rule at first , but diarrhoea
may be present, and is a bad sign. A characteristic symptom
in severe cases is that the patient appears dazed and stupid, is
thick in speech, and staggers. The condition has often been
mistaken for intoxication. There is nothing, however, in all
these symptoms positively distinctive of plague, unless it is
already prevalent. The really pathognomonic sign is the appear-
ance of buboes or inflamed glands, which happens early in the
illness, usually on the second day; sometimes they are present
from the outset, sometimes they cannot be detected before the
third day, or even later. The commonest seat is the groin, and
next to thai the axilla; the cervical, submaxillary and femoral
glands are less frequently affected. Sometimes the buboes are
multiple and on both sides, but more commonly they are
unilateral. The pain is described as lancinating. If left, they
usually suppurate and open outwards by sloughing of the skin,
but they may subside spontaneously, or remain hard and
indurated. Petechiae occur over buboes or on the abdomen,
but they are not very common, except in fatal cases, when they
appear shortly before death. Boils and carbuncles are rare.
(2) Pneumonic plague was observed and described in many of
the old epidemics, and particularly by two medical men, Dr
Gilder and Dr Whyte, in the outbreak in Kathiawar in 1816;
but its precise significance was first recognized by Childe in
Bombay. He demonstrated the presence of the bacilli in the
sputa, and showed that the inflammation in the lungs was set up
by primary plague infection. The pneumonia is usually
lobular, the onset marked by rigors, with difficult and hurried
breathing, cough and expectoration. The prostration is great
and the course of the illness rapid. The breathing becomes very
hurried — forty to sixty respirations in the minute — and the face
dusky. The expectoration soon becomes watery and profuse,
with little wMtiah specks, which contain great quantities of
bacilli. The* temperature is high and irregular. Thtt physkil
signs are those of broncho-pneumonia; oedema <A the lungi
soon supervenes, and death occurs in three or four days. (3) la
septicaemic cases the symptoms are those of the bubonic type,
but more severe and without buboes. Prostration and ccrrtinl
symptoms are particularly marked; the teroperatore risa
rapidly and very high. The patient may die comatose vitUa
twenty-four hours, but more commonly death occurs 00 tlie
second or third day. Recovery is very rare.
There is no reason for doubting that the disease described
above is identical with the European plagues of the 14th tid
subsequent centuries. It does not differ from them in its cKakil
features more than epidemics of other diseases are apt to vujr
at different times, or more than can be accounted for by diffcitate
of handling. The sweUings and discolorations of the skin vUdi
play so large a part in old descriptions would probably be eqoilf
striking now but for the surgical treatment of buboes. Sirafluljr,
the comparatively small destructiveness of modem plagoe, evct
in India, may be explained by the improved sanitary coadfewii
and energetic measures dictated by modem knowledge. Ik
case mortality still remains exceedingly high. The lovot
recorded is 34% in Sydney, and the highest 95% at HoogKoac
in 1899. During the first few weeks in Bombay it was cakalstcd
by Dr Viegas to be as high as 99^^ It is very mudi hj^
among Orientals than among Europeans. In the Bonbsf
hospitals it was about 70% among the former, and betveea ]0
and 40% among the latter, which was much the saise a it
Oporto, Sydney and Cape Town. It appears, therefore, tkil
plague is less fatal to Europeans than cholera. The aveoft
duration of fatal cases is five or six days; in the House of Cork*
lion at Byculla, where the exact period could be well obaemd,
it was five and a half days. Patients who survive the teolk «
twelfth day have a good chance of recovery. Convalcsoeitt
is usually prolonged. Second attacks are rare, but have bea
known to occur.
Diagnosis. — When plague is prevalent in a locality, the
diagnosis is easy in fairly well-marked cases of the XfAak
type, but less so in the other varieties. When it b not pcevikrt
the diagnosis is never easy, and in pneumonic and sepdcMflic
cases it is impossible without bacteriological asustanoe. Tk
earliest cases have hardly ever been even suqaected at the tiB
in any outbreak in a fre^ locality. It may be taken at fiat te
almost any fever, particulariy typhoid, or for veocfcal dime
or lymphangitis. In plague countries the diseases whh vhkkl
is most liable to be confounded are malaria, relapsing fever oi
typhus, or broncho-pneumonia in pneumonic cases.
Treatment. — The treatment of plague is still symptuMiHr
The points requiring most attention are the cerebial sfmU'^
— headache, sleeplessness, delirium, &c. — and the state ef tki
heart. Alcohol and cardiac stimulants may be icqanti M
prevent heart failure. Speaking generally, it b impoitatf M
preserve strength and guard against collapte. Extadsil
supra-renal gland have been found usefuL Buboes dwald k
treated on ordinary surgical principles. An antttonc sevfl
has been prepared from horses by the Institut Pasteur in Fnia;
but has not met with success. The results in India obtnri
by British and various foreign observers were uniform^ wkr
vourable, and the verdict of the Research Committee (i9b4
was that the serum had " failed to influence favoonbtf Ai
mortality among those attacked." Success was soacvki
noisily claimed for an improved method tried in Opoito, bat Ai
evidence is of little or no value. Of 14a cases treated, n dU:
while of 72 cases not treated, 46 died; 4>ut the former vcfeil
hospital patients, and included several cmivalescents aad aaf
cases of extreme mildness, whereas the non-serum cases «fli
treated at home or not at all, some being only discovered iki
death had made further concealment impossible. Later <kfr
vations have, however, established that the Yeran-RoiB sen*
is of undoubted benefit when used early in the case, k ^
during the first twenty-four hours. Very large doses, 9
much as rso cc. may be injected subcutancously or piifcnHP
intravenously, and it is stated to modify tbe wkuckt covsi '
PLAGUE
703
the disease. Another senim has been prepared by Lustig and
Galeotti
Morbid Anatomy. — (i) Bubonic cases. A bubo is found to
omaist of a chain of enlarged glands, surrounded by a mass of
engorged connective tissue, coagulated blood and serum.
Ncariy all the lymphatic glands in the body are a little swollen,
bat the lymphatic vessels show little or no change. The spleen
and liver are always enlarged, the former to sometimes twice or
timce its natural size. T^ lungs are engorged and oedematous,
and often show haemorrhages. The kidneys are enlarged and
congested. The serous membranes show petechiae and hae-
Biorrhages. The right side of the heart is frequently dilated,
vith clots in the cavities. The heart muscle is normal, or soft
and friable. The substance of the brain, spinal cord and nerve-
tnmka is normal, but the membranes are engorged. (2) Pneu-.
■oak cases. The lymphatic glands are hardly affected. There
ii general engorgement and oedema of the lungs, with pneumonic
patches varying in size and irregularly distributed. (3) Septi-
caemic cases. Nearly all the lymphatic glands in the body are
involved, and have a characteristic appearance. They are
enlarged to the size of an almond, rounded, firm and pink; there
ii tome engorgement and oedema on section; the substance is
lather soft, and can be scraped off with a knife. The surrounding
tissue is not engorged or oedematous. The description of the
other organs given under (i) applies also to (3) and (3).
Dissemination. — Given the bacillus, the questions arise. How
is it disseminated? and What are the conditions that favour its
propagation? That it is conveyed from person to person is
an undoubted fact, proved by innumerable cases, and tacitly
inqdied by the word *' infectious," which is universally allowed.
Tbie sick are a source of danger and one means of dissemination,
and, since the illness may be so slight as to pass unrecognized,
obviously insidious one. The ambulatory plague patient
far to explain the spread of the disease without leaving any
track. But there is evidence that persons may carry the intec-
tioa and give it to others without being ill at all themselves.
One such case occurred at Glasgow, and another at Oporto.
jbi tlw Glasgow case the wife of a laundryman employed in
kandling plague linen contracted the disease. She was brought
into connexion with it in no other way, and there can be no
doubt that she took it from her husband, though he was not ill
•t all himself. The Oporto instance is still more conclusive.
Two little girls had plague at Argoncilhe, a suburb some miles
from Oporto, and were the only cases which occurred in
tliat place. Their father was a riverside labourer, who
lodged during the week in Oporto, but went home for
Sunday. He was not ill, but several cases of plague occurred
to the house in which he lodged. How the poison passes from
one person to another is less clear. In pneumonic cases patients
DO doubt spread it around them by coughing, and others may
take it up through the air-passages or the skin; but even then
tile range of infection is small, and such cases are comparatively
lire. In the vast majority of cases the bacilli are in the lym-
piiatic or the circulatory system, and aerial convection, even
lor a short distance, seems highly improbable. This view is
borne out by the experience in hospitals and with " contacts,"
vbich goes to show that with reasonable care and under fair
eooditions the risk of infection from ordinary plague patients
It very small. When persons live crowded together in close
contact, and when they are careless with regard to discharges
of aO kinds from patients, the risk is obviously much increased.
Discharges — vomited matters, sputa, urine and faeces — are
pofsible media by which plague is spread from person to person.
they also contaminate clothing, which thus becomes another
Means of dissemination capable of acting at a distance. This
Ii tlie most probable explanation of the two cases of indirect
infection related above. Failure to catch or induce plague
Erom dothing that has been worn by plague patients proves
iotbing. Such clothing is not necessarily infectious; indeed,
tbe probability is that it is not, unless contaminated by
iiidiarges. There is no evidence that merchandise and food-
itnfis are means of dissemination, but a great deal of evidence
against such a theory. Then we come to the lower animals.
Attention has been concentrated on rats, and some observers
seem disposed to lay upon them the whole blame for the propa-
gation and spread of plague, which is held to be essentially a
rat-borne disease. The susceptibility of rats has been noted
from remote times and in many countries, particularly in China,
but it has never attracted so much attention as during the recent
prevalence of plague. From one place after another a great
mortality among rats was reported, and the broad fact that they
do die of plague is incontestable. It is therefore easily intelligible
that they may play an important part in multiplying and fixing
the poison on a locality. As to how they convey it from man
to man the greatest probability is in favour of the flea as an
intermediary. Mortality among rats is said to precede the
appearance of human plague, but the evidence of thb is always
retrospective and of a very loose character. At Sydney a
careful investigation was made; and the conclusion reached by
Dr Tidswell was that " there was no groimd for even a suspicion
that our epidemic was being maintained by any process of direct
contagion between man and man," but that rats were the
carriers. In Glasgow the experience was just the contrary.
Personal connexion was traced in every case, and rats excluded;
there was no mortality among them, and of 300 caught and
examined none had plague (Chalmers). Similarly, at Oporto,
personal connexion was traced in all the earlier cases; there was
no mortality among rats, and no evidence to connect them
with the outbreak Oors^)* Again, a comparison between rat-
infested and rat-free districts in Bombay showed a much higher
incidence of plague in the latter. A campaign against rats in
Bombay, by which 50,000 or 60,000 were killed in a short time,
had no effect in checking the disease. Plague-rats have rarely
been found in ships sailing from infected ports; and though
millions of these animals must have been carried backwards and
forwards from quay to quay bet ween Hong-Kong, Bombay and the
great European ports, they have not brought the disease ashore.
By far the most important communication on the r61e of rats
in the spread of plague is formed by the " Report on the Plague
Investigations in India " {Journal of Hygiene^ vol. vi. No. 4;
vol. vii. No. 3, 1907). The chief conclusions arrived at in the
report as the result of experiments are the following: —
I. Healthy rats contracted plague from infected rats when the
only apparent means of communication between the two was the
rat flea (puUx cheopis).
7. In 31 experiments out of 38, 55% of healthy rats living in
flea-proof cages have contracted plague after receiving fleas collected
from rats either dead or dying of septicacmic plague; consequently
it is proved the rat flea can transmit plague from rat to rat.
3. Close and continuous contact of plague-tnfccted animals with
healthy ones does not infect the latter if fleas are excluded.
4. Should fleas be present an epizootic at once starts and spreads
in porportion to the number of fleas present.
5. Guinea-pigs set free in plague-infected houses become infected
with the rat flea and develop plague in a certain percentage.
6. Fleas caught on plague-infected rats arc able to infect rats
placed in flea-proof cages.
7. Guinea-pigs placed in plague-infected houses do not contract
plague if they are protectee! from fleas : those placed in cages pro-
tected by a border of sticky paper at least six inches in radius,
which the fleas cannot jump over, do not contract pbguc; the others
not similarly protected, do-
8. Chronic plague may prevail in rats.
On this report it may, therefore, be taken that aerial infection,
except, perhaps, in pneumonic cases, may be excluded, and that
the chief source of infection is the flea. It was also shown that
animals may become infected through the faeces of a flea which
has been fed on plague-infected rats.- This may serve to explain
the manner in which plague-infected linen and clothing may
convey the disease. The report also considers it proved that
the bacillus pcstis multiplies in the stomach of a flea and may
remain a considerable time within its host.
Browning Smith says the following facts are admitted as known,
(i) Plague can be carried by fleas from an unhealthy rat. (2) A
flea can retain the plague bacilli alive for seven or ei^ht days.
{%) Man is. in the majority of cases, infected through the skin, though
the puncture may not be seen. (4) The rat flea, whca ^t^Avw^'Wi
nts, will attack man and \l "nxW aVio awaJcVoxV^x %.tCvma\%.
V«7 little light fau bMn IhrowD on Ihc condiliom which cue within tmtve dtyi; (3) in&ctcd, thiac m whid jifacB ha
favour the previlcnce of plague. We do not know why i[ hu occuired sithin twelve dtyt. Creit Britain relia on nKdial
developed a dlfiuiive activity of laic yean, nor why ii hai iiupcction, removal at aide 01 ttispectcd caao. asd npoviiiia
atiackcd some places and contislenlly puud hy othcn, luch ol the healthy arriving on an infecled ship: iolectcd dcOan
asSingapoit. Thewordi"din " and " inianitaiy condiiioiu " is bunit and ioiecled ihips are diiinfeclcd. The prnxdnit it ik
are much used, but such general tenni explain nothing. Singa^ same as (or cholera, but it hai bHn equally aucceiafuL SH^
pore, wheie plague has several limn been introduced, but pissing through the Suci Canal an subject to limilar impMin;
never taken hold, is probably quite as dirty and insanitaiy as sick pcrwHu are landed at Moses Wells, and aiupKIid am
Hong-Kong, and it is pertinently remarked by the Bombay detained. The risk of importing plague from India hat btfl
Research Commillee that Ellh ^ n hai hut Utile influence, materially lessened hy medical iuspection of ouliEanl-hoiil<
inasmuch as " there occurred in Ihe House ol Correction at ships at the principal porta This has been vny thonngl^
Byculla. where cleanliness i> brought as near to perfection ai is carried out at Bombay with good results. In iSq? r-'r'"T'
attainable, an outbreak which exceeded in severity that in any of from India to the Hedjaa were prohibited. By the Vdia
the Gllhy (haa^i and tenements around." Again, in Oporto convenlion a number of articles of merchandise are dwd
there is an area which combines every possible sanitary as susceptible and liable to be refused admiiuon, but tht i^
defect — dense overcrowding, great poverty, no light, no air. ones which there is any reaion to consider dangcnus an
no drainage, no scavenging, water brought in buckets. Plague clothing and ragi. A watch should be kept on rau at
band, it appeared in other and vastly superior parts of the When jdague is present in a place, Ihe measulis to he
town. Yet in St Itait one esse neither the patient nor Ihe " con- are the usual ones for dealing with infeclioui disease, vilh
tacis " were removed, but were all shut up in one room with additions. The sick and suspected should be removed bi
a tenlry at the door and anoLher in the street. The seasonal ambulances to an iidaliaa hospital, iheii soiled lisa
variations hive been well marked and extremely regular in should be burnt, and the piemiscs disinfected. Ccc
the beginning of winter, and reaches ili bright in February or phuric acid, i in ajo, is efficient and chewier. Suspntdl
MaKh, dying down in the summer. Baldwin Latham made an should be bestowed in a ^Kcial isolated building uJ tk
ebbotale eiimtDilion of the mcitarological conditions, and diagnosis is fully deiermincd. " Conlacia " should be I9
more particularly of the vapour tension, from which he draws under observation. Rais should be extenninaied as tit a
the conclusion that the seasonal variatioDS are due locihatation possible, especially by means of the Danyai virus. whkhi|taik
from the ground. His observations ire original and worth a disease amongst rats which cannot be communicaicd Id aia
attention. A simpler eipianalion is that the people live more The greatest care should be taken in dealing with the bnful
indoors, and ire so more eiposed to infection during the linen and discharges from patients. Hospital stafls ihwM br
ptaguc season. The curve shows two tises, one at the begin- kept apart. Inoculation with Haffkinc's profdiylaciic U
ning of winter, and the other at the commencement of the should be oHered to all persons willing to avail tbciosdnid
monsoon, and at both these limes the people are driven indoois. it. It is especially desirable for hospital and ambulann Eift
A broad survey of the epidcmicdogical facts suggests same to be inoculated with a vaccine prepared from sietiliieil n'
general condudoni. The outbreaks fall into two wcU-delined of plague bacillus. Inoculation is hamilni, and (he 1
groups: (i) those in which the disease Is desltuctive and pet- obtained in India justify a favourable opinion ol iu pnXHUw
■iiicnl, (3) those in which its eSccis are alight and Itansient. efficacy.' At HuUi, where neariy the whole populaiia n
In the former the poison clearly fastens on the k>cality. and inoculated between the nth of May and Ihe 17th of Septeak
gradually increaiei its hokl. The place Is infected, not merely ^
the people in.il; lor it they evacuate it. the disease soon ceases f^^'^^^™"^'^, '**'"' '''^' "''''' ' ""'^ ""^
among them, and if they rciurn in a short time, they are again (,„of Haffkine ^y''in i«97™hj'
attacked. Now the poison 11 contained, as we have already tubjecled 10 a learchint inquiry by il
seen, in the discharges from patients, and In such infected wlw pronounced its employmeni to
WatiifM >!.. ...n^.w ™n^iiin.K Knrf ihr hibiti of the people wii u«d On a Urge Kalein varwui po
mises. TTie floors. 2„Siunw"hi, fl^id .uT^IIg^
combme to retain the discharges on Ihc premises. ITie floon, minuficiurinB this I
mostly of mud covered with dung, are fouled with spittle, ln«iiuie on Eis owi
er.^
"'& h-
a gradual accumulation o( poison, lo which infected c^ls and ?>' ''u,.''"'''*!^
the concealment of illness contribute. These are just the con- ^ava,, of arbolk: add^hfch™ a
ditions which prevailed in Europe in Ihe old plague days. They oiiginal fluid as a further precauiion
do not prevail now in those " white countries " which have been "'^''. Jj!'^!^ waiejagar procns. eon
and little loss. It may be concluded, with some confidence, ihe 30th of Ocio'licf'in ibe viHjctoi'
from experience and theory alike, that localities where Ihcy do (labelled S3-n) of the new fluid wei
not prevail may fail to keep plague out, hul have vi^ty little 10 tetanus, and all of them subiequeni
lear from il, except the disturbance of trade caused by the ''T~fJ^^',if'*u^J'rMiU^\
iradiiional terror, that still cling to the name. ir"i^C..'di«'o?!y','K PaS^JS'ln;
PratBiiitH.—T\\t principles are the same as those which \rg ihe goi'emmcni of India to inq
cordons " and Ihe like are obsolele. Intcnuilonal procedure |"[3" '^ ^^>' was opened at MilWai. and ih^ihi
is supposed to be reguUted by Ihc Venice convention ol i8,j E^.^UlSi. i'tS"ite i!ZSlm^i^ SSfc IE
(see QuAKiNiiNE), but thai instrunwnl contains an optional flask having been porforaied with dchciive pnram__ . ,
clause, which allows countries to do as they pteaM with Iheir '■» ciprtacd the opinion thai carbolic acid wu a iihubk V*
own frontiers. Except Great Britain and Germany they all '" renrainiM letanus growth when added, to plafiic (»t*h!httt
™,in ™.,rn,.;— in , ™-,r. „, 1™ ..,i-™. (™ . ™« irtd they, iberefwe. ihought ihsl its omiwiion «ai a F"« ■«*
retain quarantine in a more or Iras stringent form at seaponi. E.perimenta uadeftakea li In^a by two Independeni mrMt'
It IS generally used as a system oi hica] extortion imposed upon appeared 10 CMfrm ihailcw.and their eoncluMont. Hjnhn ™
Itavelleis and shipping. According lo the Venice convenlion. ihedaii on which ihey •mbaied. weresubmiiied wild**"!""
ships are divided into (i) heillhy, (i) suspected, (j) infected. "? 'he ™mmi«Bn [or ™ra™t.ion and further e.---= *■
to Hcillby are (hose free from plague throughout ihe voyage; M^ito^ ™V"JsiioS^in,tit!ne"iiSrr.to^
O) ituptcled, (hose in which plague hu occuncd, but. oa liesh the comparative cHicacy of ihc iiandud and i
loioocuUtcd yi%.
Yor.
C.« MorUlily- 1
Vninoculatcd.
1900 ivtrage . . .
!?s: ;: : : :
■9"3
60W
50S9
651=
J6M
36-50
35-07
.3-9
a ot« piophyliciic from the dried organi ol
I agjiiHt jiUgue: (a) 0
onlammatan; and (3I
PLAICE— PLAIN SONG 705
tnocubted was i-]%: PUICB IPIainmata ftalata), * apedo ol flal-fiib, commoD
nan Ifae mortality n5-^ m Ihe coalU ol nortbem Europe fiom Iceland to the Bay of
ind Kallercd over the body. The eyes are on the right side, md
906), gives an analysis :hc teeth in the jaws eomprcsaed and truncate. Th« aeales *re
ilions si [allows: — ninuie and imooth. Plaice, like other flat-fisha, pnler ■
landy fiat bottom to a locky ground, and occur in suitable
ocalltiei in great abundance; they ipawn eariy in spring, aod
ite in finest condition in the month ol Hay. Individual* of
(even or eight pounds weight are considered fish of large lize,
but specimtaa of double that weight have been caught.
See tike riwnoaraph by F. J, Cole and I, jDhniEoTie (Liverpool.
I9ai);and W. Cantang'' " Keparlion the Nutunl Kiitory cf the
Plaice" {FabparU ct prxia-vtrbaits dt amiril inUmalionel pour
rcxplenliim it la mrr. 1905 icq.).
PUID (Gael, fiaide, It. flsid, usually Uten to be derived from
Gael, tcall, sheepskin, Lai. fcUii, ikin), an outer ganncnl,
consisting of an oblong piece of woollen doth, which has formed
Ihe principal outer part ol the costume of the Highlanders ol
Scotland. The wearer wrapped himself in the plaid, the lower
Kilh- portion, reaching 10 the knees and belled, forming Ihe kilt,
those Later the lower portion w»s separated, being called the phUi-
iainst bef, the plaid being used as a covering for the shoulders and
olecl. upper part o! the body. The plaids were usually of a checked
but it or tartan pattern. The word is thus used of any duth made
with such a pattern. " Shepherd's plaid " is a cloth with a
Iri (he chequer of black on a *hite ground-
Sec PIAIK (O. Fr. ^niii, Irom Lai. ^amioi), alevel surface; hence
u . In physical geography a tract ol country generally quite flat or
' comparatively so (see CEOCRAPHy). The adjective " plain "
e liability of uch signifies " level," and thence smooth, clear, limple, ordinary. &c.
origin 9' "=i^' PLAIHFIELD, a city ol Union county. New Jeney, U.S.A.,
"tE^Imiu^; about j4 m.W. by S.0I New York City. Pop-dBioU.S.census),
10,550. It is served by the Central Railroad ol New Jersey and
by electric lines connecting with nnghboudng towns. It Is
situated for the most part on a plain; north-cast are heights
occupied by the suburb of Netherwood, and north in Somerset
county, on the slope of the first Watchung Mountain, is the
borough of North Plainfield (pop. 1910 U.S. census, 6117).
which forms with FlaJnIield virtually a single residential and
residential suburbs of New York. The city has an eicellent
■ public librsty, with an art gallery
"^India^arufeSwhei
e Muhlt
1905, or 466%. Plainfield
17,434 In 1001
ictoiy
WcslAeld lomuhipin i34), and in
olh of J kjly there appeared a 1
Ronald Ross, R. T. Hewfclt, A. S. Crunbaum, W. I iL,:„^ ,„
n. R. F. C. Lelth, W- R. Smiih, G. Simi Woodhcad. E «"_f™ ^
" '^' i -^ .- . Stewart, pointing out that tbi
It Mr Halfkine's Ikboralocy wa'
lONO, or Plain Chint {Crtturian Musk; Lat. eantta
laL ca.Ua tr't"™"- Ft- t'"'" (*"■"), » style of
music, easily rccogniiable by certain strongly marked
i'i'?fcar°to"fho«
lid have had notning lo ox
ok place wEicn the botlk w;
^"omEaf
LD (he al
led bv.
■denee tfiowrd that ii
'o*n ihli v£.i?1n*No
lUlr Haffkine again to
ic'th. Iromaremt
■riologka T(^ theor
ecclesiastical
■e been I
e JcM
;hicb were used in opening the bottle
were dropped on the ground "; aiu
quacy of the inquiricB oiade by thi
led lor Mr Hafhrine'i eioneiallon
had been much too readily belkvei
itorrd the fluid before the bottle wa:
in Church.
i as to the origin of this solemn form ol
innumerable. The most widely qiread
opinion ts that the older portion of it originated with the Psalmi
themselves, or at least sprang from the later synagogue music.
Another theory traces the originol phin song to the early Creeks;
and the supporters of this view lay much stress on the (act
that the scales in which its melodies are composed ace named
alter the old Creek " modes." But, beyond the name, no
connexion whatever ensti between the two tonalities. Less
reasonablehypotheseiattribute the origin of the plain song 10 the
Phoenicians, to the Egyptians, to the eailv CtavVJan, es
'Che miWie M
•job
PLAINTIFF
Towards the close of the 4th century Ambrose of Milan, Theoldcst version of this melody now extant is midoubCcdly tot
fearing the loss or corruption of the venerable melodies which certain extent impure; but tradition imputes to it a voybigh
had been preserved by means of oral tradition only, endeavoured antiquity, and even our doubts as to the authenticity of the now
to restore them to their primitive purity, and to teach the clergy generally accepted reading extend only to <me «»ngU note. A
to sing them with greater precision. A still more extensive widely accepted tradition points out this melody as the tnc
work of the same nature was imdertaken, two centuries later, sung to In exitu Israel^ as part of the Great Halld (see Psaub),
by Pope Gregory the Great. And thus arose two schools of which is generally G>ut hardly rightly) identified with thehjH
ecclesiastical music, still known as the " Ambrosian " and the sung by Christ and His apostles immediatdy after the LhI
" Gregorian chant " — the first of which is practised only in the Supper.
diocese of Milan, while the latter is univeisally accepted as the One very powerful aigument in favour of the Jewish 01^ d
authorized " Roman use." In order to explain the essential the psalm-tones lies in the peculiarity of their coostndjia
dilTerences between these two schools, we must describe in detail It is impossible to ignore the p^ect adaptation of these Tc&nUe
some of the peculiar characteristics of plain song. melodies to the laws of Hebrew poetry, as exposed to those vUtft
The melodies which form the repertoire of plain chant are not governed Greek and Latin verse. The divi^n of the tae
written in modem major and minor scales, but in certain into two distinct strains, exactly balancing each other, poitii
tonalities bearing names analogous to those of the early Greek assuredly to the intention of singing it to the two rtmtna^
"modes," though constructed on very different principles, phrases which, inseparable from the oonstitutkm (tf a Bcks*
Of these " modes," fourteen exist in theory, though twelve only verse, find no place in any later form of poetry. And it hmj
arc in practical use. The intervals of each " mode " are derived remarkable that this constructional peculiarity was acm
from a fundamental sound, called its " final." *■ The compass of imitated, either in the earliest hymns or antipb«is we poaa
each mode comprises eight sounds — that of the first, thiid, fifth, or in those of the middle ages — evidently because it was fooDd
seventh, ninth, eleventh and thirteenth " modes " extending im'possible to adapt it to any medieval form of verse ewa is
to the octave above the " final," and that of the second, fourth, the Te Deum, which, though a manifest reproduction cl tk
sixth, eighth, tenth, twelfth and fourteenth extending from the Hebrew psalm, was adapted by Ambrose to a melody cl loy
fourth note below the final to the fifth note above it. Con- different formation, and naturally so since so many of its phtaas
sequently, the " finals " of the first series, called the " authentic consist of a single clause only, balanced in the following fcae.
modes," occupy the lowest place in each system of sounds, and This peculiarity now passes for the most part unnoticed; and tk
those of the second series, called the " plagal modes," the middle Te Deum is constantly sung to a psalm-tone, vciy modi to tk
place — the same " final " being common to one " authentic " detriment of both. But in the middle ages this ab«e ns
and one " plagal mode." The following table exhibits the entire unknown; and so it came to pass that, tmtil the *' School of tk
system, expressed in the alphabetical notation peculiar to modem Restoration " gave birth, in England, to the sin^ dtei,
English music — the " final " being indicated in each case by an avowedly built upon the lines of its Gregorian predeoesnr,aBda
asterisk, and the position of the semitones, from which each mode somewhat later period to the double one, so constracted a to
derives its distinctive character, by brackets. weld two verses of the psalm into one, often with utter disRiari
Amkemik M»d*$. ptofd Uaia. to the sense of the words, the venerable psalm-tones stood ^
I. Doflu. • D. O. G. A, O, D. a. Brpodoilao. A, O. •D. 0. 0. A. alone— the only melodies in existence to which the pohns onM
5. Phiygiia. •O. 0. A. bT^, d. E. 4. Hypopimi«n.i;?.D. •O.G.A.B. be chanted. And so ultimate is the adaptation of these pii»
s. Lydi«.»F.G.A.^.D.O. «. Hypoiyditt.c, D.O'.C. A, ^ chant melodies to the rfjythmasweUasto the senseof the samd
,. MMydkn.'KJ. A. O. D. O. O. 8. Hypa«Mydi«.D.C>.*G.A.Q.D. ^«^' «^«^ ^^^ »^ translation into more modon lumM*
9. Aeoiun. -A. O. D. O. G. A. lo. Hypo-oBan. O G. •A O. D. E. Strongly do they swmg With thc onc and emphasoe the oik^
,«. i««.i«. •/Q. D.O.q^A,2L zz.E,pciocria».P.G.A,-O.D.^P. that it is diffic^tto believe that the composition of the 1
\, . ... . . . J r . •! . . Next manUqmty to the psalm-tones are the -.«,«— -
• .^**i,'I.*"**k" *" V*" "^f" *? rejected, for technical reasons ^^ ^^e antiphons, the offertoria, the graduab and the is
into which we have not space to enter; they are practically useless.' vuc «iii*f"w*«», «« «u«w.*^ mi«; ^lautMua auu uk w
Of these modes Ambrose used four only-the first four sung at High Mass. Tho«e proper to the Qnfi»iriMia«
"authentic modes," now numbered i, 3. S and 7. Gregory probably of later date. T^belongmgtohymnsandseqntt
acknowledged, and is said by some historians of credit to have f^eofaUages. Among the latest we possessr-perhaps the lay
invented, the first four " plagal modes "-Nos. 2, 4, 6 and 8. ^^«^ ^^ f^^ «^^ miportancc-is that of Lauda Stm^K^
The use of the remaining " modes," except perhaps the ninth, ^^ one, m modes 7 and 8, adapted to the cdebiatcd aeqaMi
was not formally authorized untU the reign of Charlemagne, ^'en by Thomas Aqumas about 1261. ^ . ..j«
who pubb-shcd an official decision upon the subject. In one or ^o the mdodi« adapted to tht Lama^tonesu^^M
other of the twelve " modes " recognized by this decision every ^ ^""« "» the Church of Rome dunng Holy Week, it b^
plain<hant melody is composed. The number of such melodies »^t<^»y impossible to assign any date at all. ,^^ knows*^
preserved to us. the genuineness of which is undoubted, is very '^«y ^^ "^«°^« ^4?^h^' ^*^. ^^"^ ^7°^ *" t*2
large; and the coUection is divided into several distinct classes, ^>°»- P« melody of ExuUet is, indeed, very frequent^ M
the most important of which are the melodies proper to the **i.*»« ^^ !ff P*^!^P^ *"?? "* ^^f ' ,_ _m
Psalm-Tones and Antiphons-, the Ordinatium Missae, the To assert that mek>dies so old as these hajwbeab^
Jntroits, Graduds and Ofcrtoria-, the Praefationes, Versiculi down to us m th«r origmal punty woxdd be absurd, ^tj
and Responsoria; the Hymns and Sequences; and the Lamenta- Pr««?ceof corruption rar^pass« undetected by the mM^
Hones, ExuUet and other music used te Holy Week. f^^ ^«?~5* ^^^f J^* ^^« ^ "™^« ^"t ^i!Jj^!lSlSS
Of these classes the most interestmg by far is that which therecavc^ t«t by refwencetotheold^andn^
includes the psalm-tones, or psalm-tuncs, called by modem ^^^S. attainable. Such an effort iw« b«jun on a %Tiy^«^
English histori^. the " Grego^ tones." The oldest of these ^« ^Y ^5. ".Congregation of ^}^.^^ ^^^P^
are tones i. 3. 5 and 7, as sung by Ambrose. The antiquity of ^f ^^^ J^., m the year 1^8; and the laboun of that taoj
tones 2. 4. 6 and 8 is less firmly ^tablished, though there is no ^y^ *?8cth« with those of the monks of SokfflM a«l dj
doubt that Gregory the Great sanctioned their Sse on strong r^'fi;'' u^ u*" f^.'"''? ^"^^^ ^^^!^^Tt/^ fZtS.
traditional evidence. In addition to these, a peculiarly beautiful ^o the high«t sta e of pu^y P««ble. In E^nd the »
melody in mode 9. known as the Tonus piregrinus, has been Song and Medievd Music Soaety. founded m 1888. hwaj^^
sung from time immemorial only to the psalm In exitu Israel. """^^^llTJi ^^ ''' publications. 5^:^£L
^ Analogous to the tonic or key-note of the modem scale. ./^'^^Z T K ^"^ ^"^ % ^* ^ \^ ^
»For fuller information on the subject see the article " Modes," P^angere, beat the breast, himent), the name, m law, « W
in Crove'B Dictionary of Music. party who brings an action against anoiber, who s GBlied w
PLAIT— PLANARIANS
707
* defendant." In suits for divorce the party bringing the suit
li styled the "petitioner/' the party against whom it is
bfooght the *^ respondent."
PLAIT (through O. Fr. pleU, from Ut. flicUum, folded,
fUcare, to fold), properly a fold, especially a fold of doth, now
anally in the collateral form " pleat." " Plait " is now princi-
pally applied to entwined strands of ribbon, hair, straw or fibre.
PltAN (from Lat. planus^ fiat), a diagram on a fiat surface;
hence by analogy any deliberate scheme or design. In archi-
tecture, a " plan " is a horizontal geometrical section of the
ViOs of a building, or indications, on a horizontal plane, of the
idative positions of the walls and partitions, with the various
cpenings, such as windows and doors, recesses and projections,
ddmneys and chimney-breasts, columns, pilasters, &c. This
term is sometimes incorrectly used in the sense of design {q.v.).
■ PUUf ARIANS, a well-defined group of animals, characterized
atemaUy by their ovoid or vermiform shape, their gliding
Bovement and their soft, unsegmented, ciliated bodies: inter-
BiOy by that combination of low somatic type of structure and
oniqdex gonidial organization which is characteristic of the
Platydmia {q.v.). "Hieir low type of bodily structure may be
fgfiwpKfiAH by the facts that the mouth is the only means of
ingrets to and egress from the blind alimentary sac, and that no
VMCuIar system is differentiated. Most Planarians are aquatic
■nd the ^ia that cover the body produce by their beating a
•lining of the water. Hence the class is generally known by the
Banae Turbellaria.
Planarians form one of the basal groups of the animal kingdom.
They are the simplest of multicellular creeping things. In them
the gliding movement has become habitual. The lowest
Planarians are still largely free-swimming animalcule and we
(IB trace within the limits of the group the development of the
oeq>ing habit and the consequences that fiow from it. It has
fed to the differentiation of anterior and posterior extremities;
10 the formation of bilateral symmetry; and to the development
of a mudlage protecting the body against friction. It entails
fte concentration of the scattered nervous system on the ventral
■rface and at the anterior end, and it has induced the segregation
of the diffused sense-organs in the head. The Planarians occupy
I position midway between the simple planula larva of Coelen-
toatet and the segmented Annelids. They have probably
fimng either from an early Coelomate stock, or represent an
ivlepcndent class descended from a two-layered parentage
flrt^BCt from that of the Coelenterates; a view which is adopted
is the present article.
Occurrence. — Most Turbellaria are aquatic They aboimd on
dbe seashore and in fresh water, amongst weeds or under cover
tf stones, riiells and sand. Few of them are pelagic or deep-
sster forms, and only some-half-dozen Planarians are known to
M parasitic. A large number of land Planarians are known,
jliefly from tropical and south temperate countries.
The majority of marine Planarians are nocturnal or cryptozoic,
liding away during the period of low tide to avoid desiccation
if their soft sticky bodies and coming out at night or during high
ide to feed. They are mostly carnivorous, and their movements
«• correlated largely with the nature of their food. The smaller,
•oce active species occur in companies amongst the finer sea-
pseds over which they creep or swim in pursuit of their food.
rhe hrger marine species occur singly or in pairs on Asddians,
iall^x>res or Polyzoa, from whence as the tide rises they issue
0 feed. By the time the next low tide exposes them, these
Ysnarians have so completely digested their meal that we know
«iy little of its nature. The common fresh-water Planarians
ocm either little companies of a dozen or more, usually of a
bi||e species, huddled together under a stone or in some cranny
oee Ptearl [8]0, or sodeties of several spedes that inhabit
^pkapium and other fresh-water vegetation. This fresh-water
iHr*><«»« fauna is of two kinds, the fauna of permanent and that
f temporary sheets of water and both show a certain adaptation
» their environment. The latter, being subject to greater
■tremes of temperature than the lacustrine Planarians, produce
'These references are to the literature at the end of this article. I
thick-shelled eggs only. The devdopment of these eggs is rapid
in warm water, slow in cold: so that a pool after a few days of
eariy spring sunshine is soon populated and provision is made for
the continuance of the race should a cold snap follow. The
lacustrine Planarians exhibit a different form of adaptation.
The eggs laid by many of these animals are either thin-shelled
and rapidly hatched or thick-shelled and slowly hatched. The
lake-water, however, is in spring, even after sunshine, of a much
lower temperature than that of pool-water, but the masses of
Sphagnum and other weeds that border lakes and marshes are
often warmer than the open water and may be as much as 13* or
15^ C. higher in temperature. Here the Planarians assemble to
benefit by the warmth, and imder such favourable conditions
lay thin-shelled eggs which rapidly devek>p; whilst in colder
surroundings or at the onset of winter thick-shelled resting
eggs are laid. In this manner we can understand the abun-
dance of Planarian life in cold meres and transitoxy pools in
Great Britain, Scandinavia, Finland, Denmark and North
America.
In contrast to the general habit among Turbellaria of haunting
dim or dark places, the station chosen by a few species is exposed
and strongly illuminated. The marine Cornoluta and Poly-
chaerus and the fresh-water Vortex viridis may be taken as
examples. Convoluta paradosa occurs among brown weeds which
receive much light during neap tides and strong direct sun
or light every fortnight. Polychaerus creeps about the New
England shore without resorting habitually to cover, and is also
strongly insolated. Vortex resembles the green Hydra of our
ponds in choosing the lightest side of its surroundings; and
finally, Cornoluta roscoffensis paints the beach green in Brittany,
part of Normandy and Natal. In every such case the Planarian
is coloured brown or green by the presence of photosynthetically
active cells and the singular heliotropic habit of these Turbellaria
is associated with the illumination necessary for the activity of
their coloured cells.
Only one branch of the Planarians has become terrestrial, but
this has spre4.d over almost all the whole globe. One spedes
{FUtynckodemus lerrestriSf fig. x, e) is fairly common in Great
Britain under stones, logs and occasionally on fungi, but the
Holarctic countries (North America, Europe and North Africa,
North Asia) are extremely poor in terrestrial spedes. In coun-
tries lying in the centre and in the south of the great continents
and in the south temperate continental islands and archipelagoes
these land Planarians become more abundant and varied; and
bdng frequently transported with earth or plants they are often
found in hothouses and botanical gardens far from thdr native
country. Their distribution offers some points of special
interest showing a dose relationship between the South American
fauna and that of Australia and New Zealand: between the land
Planarians of Madagascar, of Ceylon and of Indo- Malaya: and
a marked contrast between Japan and the rest of the Palacarctic
region (see Von Graff [i], 1899).
External Characters. — Planarians range from the minute forms
no larger than Infusoria to ovate, marine ^>edes, 6 in. in
diameter and to ribbon-like land forms 8 in. in length. The
majority are small, somewhat cylindrical organisms with a
flat creeping surface. Others, comprising the common fresh-
water and marine forms, are flattened and leaf-like, often
provided with a pair of tentades near the front end of the
body, and in some cases the whole dorsal surface is beiet with
papillae. The land forms are dongate and smooth, and thdr
anterior extremity is often modified into the arcuate shape
of a cheese-cutter. Their movements are usually of a gliding
character. The minuter forms perform short excursions into
the water round their station, and in so doing recall Infusoria.
The larger forms, in addition to gliding like pellicles, fold the
expanded anterior part of thdr body into a couple of fins,
with which they swim after the fashion of a skate. The
folded margins of other forms clasp the weeds on which they
live. Adhesion is effected by the mucous investment of the
body and frequently by some specially devdovcdVxa!k.t»3x9ccs&
of slime, or by a wickei. B^ Omm xoeiaA^ viAk^ ^^ ^^u^
7o8
PLANARIANS
■Igel-fnqueatiaj ind oyptic hiUu, tbe Tutbclluia, lliaugh
■oft-bodied, ire able to wilhiUnd the violence of tbe waves.
The utciioi end in ill TuibcUaria is tbe ^te ol tbe chief
fornu (Probosddi) becomes
•ble piobosdi of highly tactile
nituie. Such lonna lead
nitunlly to Ibe Nemntin&
CoAwofiflB.— The coloration
of Pbnuians b of inlCRaL
The Sitiened muioe forms
ue often brilliaatl]' coloured
on the dorial lurfice, either
uniformly or with
bands of contrastinc tinta or
a mottled ippeacaoce. The
^gni&cince of thcw colours is
not fully undemood, but in
some cases of sympathetic
cotoration the derivative
lunctioD ol the pigments is
probably to aid cryptic ic-
icmblance. Tie tenestrial
Plinarians exhibit the most
... itriking patterns in loogitu-
"aniS£!' onw^iv '""' "Hping and cioss-ban
, h.Schmi*).
(, Ji*VK*l>l(llIHI
MUller (alt
/, BifoliMm a
MoKlcy).
I. Pityalii lerniOa, O. Sch.,
lacbtdbyiliephiri™i(Mi"'- «..!.. u...
dead worm (alter JohiiMn). relation t
«^tl«figurnofDa;u«l«K.and h(a,-but;
J-ni
;c;:fs
. Una.' (after
The fresh-water
re colouiless or duskyi
irk-biown. poi«bly in
viewed fi
1 the d
and /a.
I fiesh-w.
Thisp
minute alga which multiplies i
aflcct the habits and even tb
pbnarian so aflected acquire
gicgaciaus and in eilieme casi
ConTolala roicoSmis ihe Ereei
They fun
sporadically tn olhen.
i infection of the Flanaiian by ■
the tissues and may profoundly
ceases to ingest solid food. In
cells have become indispensable,
tive and eicreiory organs of the
riamnan, and the young animal cannot develop until it is
infected and has acquired a supply of these green cells which
become incoiporatcd into its tissues (Gamble and Keeble [;)).
Blown algal cells (Zooianlhellae) are Lnown in other species of
F»oi.— The food of Turbellarians consists, in the imaltcr
(pedes, of diatoms, unicellular algae, microscopic animals and
other Turbellarians; in the larger ones, ol worms, mollusca and
insects. The fine feeders capture their food chiefly at night by
gulping down the minute Diganisms that settle or swim in their
neighbourhood. The c
A gimip d iPolydad Turbdluia. il
poulioiii in which the mouth of Plaoanani may i
concomitant change! in otbtf orgaoi.
A, AKmyumi firilis: mouth centni. male iTnital apotMU
multiple and bindial.
B, Pmilluitomu lifkiaumiMt: mouth anteiiar. ife j^im
prolruded through it.
C, Ctaupbam: mouth poturior (m); cf.-mak: t, leMk ^d
=. u_:.. ™- V,, . . „^T^
jSTroiuiini
bnin! CC, eya
enecLaily nhtc
: ire, Koaach:
. Tkka
lis and of an aUmeauiy lac, cylindliolwhiiKM
1 in thi
expansible mouth or Lo perforate it by their trumpet-like pharynx.
The mouth is remarkably variable in position (fig. i). In many
flattened Planatians it is placed centrally on the ventral surface
somenhat as in a jelly-Gsh. In the majority it is nearer the
■ ' ' a few remarkably elongate forms it occupl
Fic. 3.--T0 show tbe Kructuit ol the liavleN ToWlvi.
The ligute lepteKnti the left half ol ■ iiasiven tcc^» V
Ibe body ol the AcDelouiplanarianifaaMiiEmt. T^ Bguit (■]
11 plugged up with a digcKive potynuctcu maia el cytcfUB ■•
the uinsiiiorH from thit to the neUate icaiiEied eenml (•>•'
araia from the latter to a firmcf- pcriptciu a*
Tht ouietmost lajei (^U ■ ciTEoJe(*to^
(PC) ore ihc
a position ne
forms (Rhah.
if the
ttruclun of
io the higher invertebtatts.
PLANARIANS
Inttr^mtul. — The c^tnnii i« cl
duB&atiao of the Fluu
Ihc lUaUauiiiia with M
Pcifdtidiila witb triF^e u
n k bud oa them.
Thui n biva
(Dd^ and the
pt: lE^ AcocU
TW epidermis (£) nmtiiti ol nllt d
mw. Ihe laiicr lontaining rhal.
Ihicimwd iboui tlir middle ol Ihei
H Ihe buement-menibraoe (Sif), >
oll(>niitiidiiul<iiiH(L). Below thi
IlKTurt^b^
'pchymatDui EUods (K"") ur produdni rk
imlndi
_Theiri
oa tbe luriAce, but chitinotd hoolu, HMoe4 and ipi
firquently an the luiing meitibrone of (he male hi
Below the epidermii i« a firm baKment metnbnne I
tbr jubiareot muaclet are iiisened. They are divided
torm by difl^Qiul hbrea, and in the mc^ tr-n- -
highly differen
"wST'lhTpl
with pcrfontion U) ll
AInutlary Sot.— Tlie alimeotacy i
phvynx opening outwirdB through tl
■ iDpIiin digettive ormn which (luy h
Fio. 6.— Mun tninla o( Piitv.)
the Encretorv Syttetn at Fio. 7.— FUme-celHrDm th
UuilLmt tkri^ti'. P- Ejunetory SyBem.
throigh^the moulh; M, t. " lU™ "id. bianchemor
with a umple ByncTtla] gut not iharply lepanted [:
ing mFHnchyiiu ; the Rhabdociiela, with a holloi
'Zit^'.'S^^
« Polydadi be
■beath. and Irom the '
liii there ipringi a mui- P^l*'
ily directed tube or fold, fr, -,«^
xoda and Tridadida the 1 ~
an elangaie proiniftible
in the Folydadi it may _ . _
eneely di»en»ble mA mt-
organ, the loldi of which have indeptn- W^
At the bue of the pharyiu lie tbe
qpetiinga oE talivary glaixlt. In (be |
Potyrladida the Rction a( tbe alimen-
Ibe inleninal bniKbn radiate. The
with diienive ilandi. The fonchei , ''"'• "i^',-"' ?'^,°'
poueu an independent mucubture Sx«lem of a Simple Plai
l»«r^hibit aeiiyTperiKalw,. The In- ^'^^^^"'"'"' """^ '
digeition appear* to bo largely intra- B, the brain which givi
ceflular and not cavitary. °B a dorsal (DJV) an
Uimthynu. — The meacnchym* ■ ventral (VN) pleii
of ■ NH Sf ™n?hlS ™golalri ™ll" U-m. 'xhe'^th'Jl
imbedded in which lie gland-celli. pig- and the "orvK (01
It envelopi the genital or^m, which i> ventral, the lain
the gul and ihe man of the meieiKhyma. The m
glind-telli are of different kinds. fi) Single c
Otma. Atunjmiu e^u and Sljieclitpiinu lorrfn). _
ch perfarsfes the soft
""""" l)"sioiifff
PLANABIANS
fluid. From wtwt ii knnn al tb
r U-cdlular nc caauinuiB 1 akutoi
Ini the lummer by t™n «nJ Jiaif it* 'J'y,^
paniilly Hibdivi^ lnb> two, (he pDHBiar b^ Rl
repcAU tlic procca until tl
PLANARIANS
Alio™- FlO-14.-Pl»no(.Tn
Lidid.
l"'"- f„ An«rior. .nd i^ ...p.^d p*
(trior bnntbei <A ux
aJ. Ovdun.
>^. Vu d^Ercia.
cKgiD. OUMil«Icn»
Ofigll.
Fio. iS.-Pluiol.Polyd«IM.
. ollcn of tnat oiinplciuty. vliicb
™. Bnio.. rt. Stomicli.
■LS;
., InicKiul bruchs. I. TmiwuIht lotbde.
.-,, ADitrior upj-urcd intettiul ., Uie™.
rcctpiion li Ibe icRUtHd ea P^
-iou. to
l£
IdSS
(jl. Phvyiu. bt(of» it. lbs tya Mre
s
SSSS>jS."?ffS;;SiK>r£3':,riiS:
^i
ffis^.,js^-5-sasi =ia,f;«afi!
e fertiliKiii iiiul depoiiird in a muc
pnr. P=rt«P« «el"Ydy B In tht (ormet («>«. The opniof
thou Id
mile Dina mto tbe nuuth o( PntkynAia it powibly apUioBl
wi.h".ither theV™-"!"" « the
by Ihii
iiii— Pg^whimi— this From ihe AlloBineia n put mdity to the Trvrl
lent vhich iDfcfhadowi of ih«e RToupi the repn»ductive or^tni ire ba^ on i
ghcr lormt. In Poly- bul is Tiklitli the Kpiraiion dI ovjtun ind vitelL
cliamtKr and arr here of the pnud it teta perfectly cfFectrd- Tbe oviduct
' a «tenle pan o1 the ecgi from the anierHxiy ^act<t ovin', and rrceivn
va which open cvcntu. Ibeca li de^^pcd, but a cocoon u fonncd in ■ ipcc
712
indfwndcfilly (ungle ir Uttripona, p
Lutlv, itie Polrcluli oStr cc
Tlie DViriH IR rolLicuUr, wy
Ihcir own yAli (fi(. 15). The oi
PLANARIANS
iliiitm). I
iBiddilio
sr.e
ired <rA>Mii«^t
wenly pors oc
nienorly pba
morphiHu; but in Tkyiantiutl) and
Yyniia ttifi vmbryo develop* eiftit
uronnly ciliated lobei tvhicK form k
cinunmnl bind ol lirr^ pransra.
firdlE of TrocbmpbFnt Lirvac and
plalM jn Ctenopborei, Fioni t)ie
nclion of gcrm-laycn. and Ihr
r™n- The'ov
k-cellj are ab«nt. Gtoufw of «._.. .„.. .__
Ii» are laid in a telaliitoiii epvelope. Each ovum wmentt into
wo-byered emkjryo Lomposed ol e cilialcd outer uyer and »
tral syncytium- No trace of a distinct enteron.or gut i* vLiiUe,
as the embryo grow* the syncytium become diflereniialed
> a more fluid central portion and a firmer peripteral »nc. The
ner» toecthcr with the ivapderinE phaaocyte4» corre^pondi
ctionally to the wparate gut of other Rhabdocaellda. Pelatie
aeirith I coal of long ciUa hive been identified by Uljanin u
"he ilti-elopment of the Tricladida offer) other peculiaritiit.
■m lour lo iwenly or morr ova are .unoun^led hy «v*ral hundred
Jtboid yolk-cdl. in each cocoon. Each eEgtell dividei; but.
lappens in the capillar ova of certain MolluKa and Olieochaela.
jn-focinjiion are tiiil imperfeelly understood,
lie eiiK> of the Polycladsare laid umewhal like IhoKof t he Acoelt
a EL-Litirh>ui envelope, each ovum beinif provided «iih yotk
I an efM-^hell which may be operculalc. The miiority of
riL-s an (hroiwh a direct devdopment. The Kitmentation of tho
in ViiUKthi and Lrtlaplniia has Been worked out by Lang
An resufli rc-inlerpmed by. WUbo .ud othcn (Hubncht .
Hully ■epaiale. the b^
widely difiributcd; mne e^bi
....„ i'KS
PoraiilfH I. Wirtit (Giai, imil; JJJ*
udlav (Polydada) IB Znokaai Ri^
by Dr wilry, fetanleyG*i*«er •*
Iniv. P™^ and Frer. ttJ. Sk. It^
Tbie (CTtm CTlli of Ctmrtlwim}, (M
1907): W E- R- Peu) [fli jh I*
(g) Kliilinas (Hypoikrnric lnM>^
1B90), iv. 161: (10} Hew fb-^ '
ri. ZeU., vtJTlii. 11897): (III Co* ■
dcr Thme" (isaji: (11} A. A » i
ictr. /. Nmnrwisi (Jma. looU; "S
RhibdococU). Zriliik,. I. »^;^ :
und in Cambridrt Vo(»»ll fiidn ^
> (Black), Iv. 1-41. and ibc t*smM I
ixlaOiTvMXatia.
I cla» ol PlatjTtniii P^J '
wTlhlh^T
PLANCEER— PLANCK, G. J.
B«rftlied««l«rfmb™li(dupbtoain*i™Mv™(rii.™| dundby AUnddc Vigny toFnnp^ Buloi,be be|ui to write
S^SrfJlTX^^i^i^n;?; ^ i!r«™'!ft!^-'°tiiS '«■ "« *™ <'" ■''« ■«'«'"■ '"^ ™.mu«i lo do » u»(u
iHtM Iflfuoria, Rotilnand Dutoim. Man of tbc ipKin ckx^ >Bao, He rouined bis conneiion witb Ihc jounul in 1S4A ud
' ' -water cnvfith and ciabi in Chile, MadifuciT. Ihe Malay contribulcd 10 it unlilhisdnlb in Piiiioii the iSthoI September
ifo ud Auttralim. Two Braiilian loniu arc kiuvn. igj,, Custjve Pknche WIS bd aliogeihci honeit critic and
ESS ll;j'Sr,7»Sr'"th1 ^.S^KSTt^-S "!'?^ "■■"!■ ■ >'^" '"- !«■.>*»" 1". ;- "" •■ "-p"-
i> bH *k* r^inrr^M mMtEnnwi Tiv iw/^ »tben, Oufcrffifa &!«) ■"■^■■^K nn IrRdom, H? WIS ID caily Liic a lervcDt adraiier 01
I. _ GeorXE Sand, (od be livisbcd pniie on De Vigny. But be had
ional ttnicture. It i> nothing but icom (or Victor Hugo, nhose earlier dramas he
!^;!!'?L*i'i^S!L^. cbaracteriied ai ode), those foUo-ing it Koi i-amuu ai anti-
cba and developed . [h™, .nd ihe later ona u nothing but .^(KM/f. Hi. critical
pipeti were collected under Ihetiilei: Pcrlrtili lUUnirci {1^36-
iS4g>i Heunaxi ptrlrtiti lilUrairti (1S54); and art critkiuns,
ilvdellurl'IcolefraiifiiiiiUSii].
See Emctt Monlttut. in the Saw ifii inii rumia (Tune iSjt):
Haltleld and Meimiet. lit CrititMu liutrairi, in XIX- nWt
li»9i).
PLANChI JUm ROBDnON {i7«6-i»go). English dra-
maiist and antiquaiy, wa* bom in Londnn nn the 3}Ih ai
February I7»6, the un o( a watchmaker of Huguenot descent.
In iSio he was articled to a bookseller. In 1S1S his lint dra-
matic p^rce, a burlesque enlilled .Inoreig, Kiii(g/LtUJefir(liiii,
nai produced at Drury Lane theatre. From this lime onward!
he made play-wriiing his principal work. In iSio-igji he wrote
ten pieces for the Adelphi thealir. In 1833 he designed the
dresses lor Charles Kemble's revival of Kinf Ji^ at Covent
Garden, and superintended its production. This was the first
time that an historical drama bad been " dressed " in the
costume of the period. In 1818 be began writing regularly lor
Covent Garden ifatatrc, and in iSjowas manager of the Adelphr.
On Mme Vestris laking Ibe Olympic Ihealre in rSji, Plancbt
entered into an agreement with her to write \ aeries of playa.
The bnl of these. Otympit Bctilt, a burlesque, was given on the
opening night of the theatre, the perlotmancc being given in
correct clusical coslume. In 1S4J bis Pair One wilh Uu CMai
.. _. /-xlj was produced by Websler at the Haymarket. 101847
'"'- Mme Veatris became managereu of the Lyceum ihea1it,and
cells. Plsntbt was engaged as her leading aulhoi and designer, his
principal success being the /j/ond af Jtatis (1849), Subse-
dramatic piece being JCin( CiriilMJi (iSji), but he iLo wrote
the songs (or Babil and Bijcu at CovenI Garden (1871). In
H VeiKulaieminaliL addition to his dramatic work Planchi enjoyed a con«derable
reputation as an antiquary and heraldic student. He was a
□iemd by the necks of iubdeimil Fellow of the Society of Aniiquariei. and aided in Ihe (oundltioa
n-ei, nill retain the Turbellarian of the British Archaeoloffcul Aasocialion in i84J. In 1834 be
1 ird lorm ihiclcly^tw™! uacii. published The Hiitoty a/ Brilish CoslumA. In i8j4hewas
, *" ^"^ e". ' "ii^^ven appointed Rouge Croix pursuivant of arms at the Heralds'
ii pecnliii, Beiides The ordinary College, and in 1866 Somencl herald. In 1869, at the request of
leubied cell>' may form the com. the War ORice. he arruigcd the collection of armour at Ibe
" "fbe""o 0^1^^ elnm«'"w'^'''ir'" "S* "■'ow" ol London in chrODolotfcul order. He died at Chelsea on
ETinri" "~~" ■ doiiilly'a'i tbe'levc'STti"inout* «'in cenaPn **" J""! "' "»'' '**'-
- fkvuoda. Each lac ii the pioducl of a iiiiKle cell, and Ii said Planch^'s RtaUtiliant and Jiejltdwai were pubUshed in 1871.
— ■- -veiaj^brin^^l^' 11^^ MlTrttatTwO^l'n PLAHCK. GOTTUBB JAKOB (.751-183]), German Piotejlanl
^ b'>^l%^^£'r''n?l^™L't,T;!hrt^,'B "'■'" ^^ fslh""""'' ^'ary. on the isth of November 1751.
^C. "pliSS lllS^^^iT ^ '"""™' Educated for the Protestant ministry at fllaubeuren. Beben-
rr rniiucepiUiTiiHi.— Plaiyetnia In which the haustn and Tubingen, he became rtpnlail at Tubingen in 1774,
d inio anierior or anteikx and laleral preacher at Stuttgart in 178a, and projessot of Iheology Bl
ames a vcolral MKljcr The epidermi. Cettingen in 1784- Al Tubingen he wrote fluJ rDjetMi* cIum
.CO. ram., . ^ Tein'n^ce5IIh£Ue ■ 4-Tj Mi^ t ^ "tit EJo^iaiius. In i;8i bepublishedanonymowlyiheenl
F^'iiay'ir'I'jitinodactywSdae. Lateral tentacular pro^ volume ol his GtsckichU del preUilaiilitclien LiirhipiSs- Ihe
-taiwell. Uaday Itimnrial Vclume {lt93)! Plate, £ilt- {,, sii'vdumes in iSoo. It wis followed by an eitentive
Ikai. Wu!. Bain, {i«»4). p. J37. <F. W. G».) GiukuUe da ckriiliick-tircMUlun Gadlickajlnxrfaisuiie in five
pLANcmEB (0, Fr. planiUr, or tlnHckiir, volumes {iSoj-iSoo), Both are works of cocuderable impot-
eas~B •olEt. but more correctly applied to the soffil ol the the jitl of August iSj], His son Hcinrich Ludwig Planck
■^Kfi* in ■ cornice. (t78j-iSjil, also professor of iheology a< GiSttingen, published
FUKCBB, JEAH BAPHSTB OUSTAVB (iSaS-iS57), French Btmakmim abtr in trslni Briif on deo Timalluui (iSoS) and
■Willh. ■■■! ill riii llii ifilbof February i8og. Intro- Abriis d. tkilat. Rtlititnticlri {iSti).
n pliaryr
PLANCK, K. C— PLANET
PUXCR. KIBL CRBtlTIAII (i8i»-ia8o), Ccnnu philo-
■ophcr. wu born il Slultglit on tbE i;lh ol January igig,. Hi
iludicd It Tubingen, wheir he bmine ilofior of philouphy in
iS40 ind /■rintdfocTil in 1848. During this penod Ifac
inSuencr a[ ReifF led him to oppou the daminint Hegeliiniin
of Ibe lime. In 1^50-1851 he publiihed hii gieal book, Dii
WtllBlUt, in which he developed a complete original
ought .1
ire to the highest I
ipiritual life. Not only did Pliuidc oppose the idealism ol his
coti/rtTii; his views were, in another aspect, directly anlaggnistic
10 the Darwinian theory of descent, which he specifically atiacLed
in Wahluil und FloiUicil da Darmnismui (Ndrdlingen, 1871).
The natural consequence of this individuality ol opinion was
that hb books were practically disregarded, and Planck was
deeply incensed. The iU success of DU tViUalUr nerved him to
new efforts, and he repeated his views in Kaiechismus da Rakts
CiSsi), Gru<idlinin tina Wiaaadafi ia Nelur (1M4). Siik
■-■-'-• , other books, which, howevi
with no t
et fat<
ne finally to the seminaiy oi Maulbrono. He
died on the yih oi June iBSo in an asylum alter a short period
cd nervous prostration. After his death > summary of his work
came into the hands of K. KOsllin (author of AcHkaki, 1S64).
who published it in iSSi undertheliUeTeikmiriiJeiuiZtnificitfli,
PhUnsupkU diT NnluT Kiul in UeJUikhiH. Planck's views were
elaborately developed, but his method of eipoution told heavily
ajiaiosl their acceptance. He regarded himself as the Messiah
of the GernuQ people.
Beiide the vorlu above quoted, he wrote Sjittm ia rtitm
Umlilmia (iSjt); ^iii*rDpoto(i« umd Pijitotofii on/
Uawt lad
BUmarci: Smil-
.._ _ ^--.-): and L^iudui
ijhI niMrliclu Zwakmdiiiit€il (1874).
- ■ - ■ ■ Wirk, HndWirktn (Tabir
See Umfrid. Karl Planch, iaun H^b nuiWuka (Tabiiwen
18S1): and Schmidt. " Das Lebeniideal Kail ChriKiaa Plancb.'
in Ike Vtrtrdzt do pkilssiipkiidm Cestihchall [Berlin. 1896).
PUNS. I. Id botany, the common name ol a handsome tm
^
Plane {Plabau KritHlala).
i.Leaf, Inat. >iio.
4. Mak.Vp'^^^"™'"":
le of tl
oollifa
icceislul trees in London ai
uiily washe
the periodical peeling of the bark also set
purities. It is a bige tree with widely spreading branches and
alternate, palmately five-lobed leaves, resembling those of the
The bud in the leaf siil is protected during its development by
the hollow base of the leal-stalk, which lifts o9 like an eiiin-
guiMber wbea the leaf falls in autumn. The minute, unisexual
flowtn are home In dense pcnduloDs heads, which cDUaia liihr
male or female floweta; the small one-seeded fruits an deud/
crowded in a ball, from which they gradually separate ia diyi^
and are readily carried by the wind. The wood, which is bud
and heavy, though not strong, is used in Persia and other coo-
tries of western Aua for house construction and luraitiue. A
variety ol forms lie known in cultivation, the connioDcst t>ni|
the maple-leaved (wiri/iiJia). the London plane, which hat uiuJIr
Ihree-lobed leavesi var. ItuUima has very deeply much divuM
leaves, and var. Mni{af<i, variegated foliage. JVoMiu kf
iitUalii. an allied species, is a native of the United Sulct. Ini|
traduced into England early in the 17th cenlut>. and i
irgenl i.Silte »J Norlk AmaUa) refen to it as the dkhI i
not the uUesl, deciduous-leaved tree of the North Ai
upon the celestial sphere. As thus defined the planeiiK
sun, the moon. Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupitci and Satimi. Ii
modem astronomy since Copernicus, the term is applied la
opaque body n»ving around the sun. Taken in its wideU a
planili. Eaeh ol these
itself, which it sccompa:
A plinet not levdving
The primary planets a
revolution rooad the m.
ilher is leracd a fnarj
solar system, under wiuch head their atrj^
jor planets from the Bun. With respect U '
r orbits relative to the earth, the other pic
lasin/iriDrandmfm'Ar. The lo«lel,oril'
the earth and II
The I
relhwrt
than its actual li:
Dmpletc periods
lied he
. ir pUneii
u eanb. The synodic r
hfch it perfonns
land the sun. T
, Tht phases or
d upon its con6|
d therefore go I
tlutioTL At sope — .
the planet is presented IB da
the earth, or the angle lun-eanb u
ihich the phase depends, CODllnnally make i gt
ingie. At [he time of greatesl eloogatiOD this asglr ii ge*.
ir last quarter. Then, as it approaches irJerior coopnKtiiA
fisible portion ol the disk assumes Ibc crescent {arm, lad ■
ind thinner until, near inferior coajUDCtioa. the pisact i
onget visible. After conjunction the phases occur ia tk ■>
irder. The brilliancy of the planet, aa meannd by (k( Mi
imount ol light we receive from it, goes (biou^ a iflBJ)*
if change. The point of greatest brilliancy ks bctn
ihasc occurs about three orfoui weeks bi
plane
>oCV(Mli
® -;r:
& A s. k
I
mym-- -+ +- -
>—
■1
e^EXDl e—l. 1.— h-' •■
-h
-mg=:iJ
■ ta tkc Gfmn given abour m
"ttfueu. tlw urbiu of Man, the Evth, Vcniu anil Mcniinr (%. i)
3 Mat drawn lo > icalc i«niy Huh thai «( ihc chiihod™— Ntptune.
"iSf^' ""' ■'"'"."* ''^- »)-. .TbepoMiioiuol iht plaiuuu
■■■ laitbcst dinul nOEth aod •duUloI lIm eclipbc, vv aJw ^vciL
jfi(. 4). Finally ioIf diaKnim> o( Ihc dittanco of the srbiu of
Ihe •atellii»y>[Rni of Satum, Unain. Jupiter (ad NepluiM are
riven (Bg.;r
7i6
PLANET
The phases of a superior planet are less stroo^y ' maiked,
because the lines from the planet to the earth and sun never
increase to a right angle. The result is that although the appar-
ent disk of Mars is sometimes gibbous in a very marked degree, it
is always more than half illuminated. In the case of the other
superior planets, from Jupiter outward, no variation in phase is
perceptible even to telescopic vision. The entire disk always
seems fully illuminated.
The most favourable time for viewing an inferior planet is near
that of greatest brilliancy. As it recedes further from the earth,
although a continually increasing proportion of its disk is illu-
minated by the sun, this advantage is neutralized by the diminu-
tion in its size produced by the increasing distance. When a
superior planet is in opposition to the sun it rises at sunset and is
visible all night. This is also the time when nearest the earth,
and therefore when the circumstances are most favourable for
ol»ervation.
The greater the distance of a planet from the stin the less is
the speed with which it moves in its orbit. The orbit being
larger, the time of its revolution is greater in a yet larger degree.
An approximation to the general laws of speed in different
planets is that the linear speed is Inversely proportional to the
square root of the mean distance. From this follows Kepler's
third law, that the squares of the times of revolution are pro-
portional to the cubes of the mean distances.
Notfs on the Plate showing Planetary Spectra.
Only those linos and bands are mentioned which are peculiar to
the planets; the Fraunhofer lines arc therefore omitted.
Wave
length.
Remarks.
4600
4800
5090
5190*
5370
5430
5570=*-
5700*
5980
6090
619U
6400
6500 =k
6560
6670*
(6780
6820
7020
(7140
7260
7500
F hydrogen, H^ strong.
Broad.
Broad, unsymmctrical,
strong.
Brixid, unsymmctrical,
strong.
Strung.
Very strong.
Broad (?).
C hy Ir<igen, Ho.
Broad band.
Bright reRion due to ab-
sence fjf selective ab-
sorption which is strong
lx)th above and below.
Strong, narrow, near
above B.
Strong, broad.
Briqht . unabsorbtd region
similar to that at 67&0.
Stnmnc^t l)and presi*nt.
B.ind (?).
Neptune.
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn (f)
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune. Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.
Neptune, Uranus (?).
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn (?)
Jupiter (?;.
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus, Jupiter,
Saturn (?).
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.
Neptune, Uranus.
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.
Neptune, Uranus, Saturn,
Jupiter.
Neptune. Uranus.
Saturn, Jupiter.
Siiturn.
It was once supiwsed that the planets were surrounded by
comparatively dense atmospheres. The question whether such
Spectrajuid^'* the case, an<l, if so, what is the physic.il constitu-
Atmo' tion of the atmospheres, is a difl'icult one, on which
*'*^*"' little light is thrown except by the spectroscope.
■ If any of these bodies is surrounded by a transparent
atmosphere like lh.1t of the earth, the light which reaches us
from it will have passed twice through this atmosphere. If
the latter wore malerially different in its constitution from
that of the earth, that fact would be made known by the
spectrum showing absorption lines or bands different from
those found in the solar spectrum as we observe it. If, how-
ever, the planetary atmosphere had the same composition as
ours we shouM see only an intensi6cation of the atmospheric
lines, which might be imperceptible were the atmosphere rare.
Actual observatioa has thus far abown no well raaritcd devia*
tion in the q>ectra of any of the innergroup of planets, Mercur%'.
Venus and lilars, from the solar q)ectniin as we see it. 1:
follows that any atmospheres these planets may have ir.ust.
if transparent, be rare. The evidence in the cases of Venus and
Mars is given in the articles on these planets. Taking the outer
group of planets, it is foimd that the spectrum of Jupiter shews
one or more very faint shaded bands not found in that of the
sun. In Saturn these bands become more marked, and fa
Urantis and Neptune many more are seen. The spectra in
question have bcvn observed both optically and pliotograi^allT
by several observers, among whom Huggins, Vogd and Lovtfl
have been most successful. It may be said, in a general way,
that seven or eight well marked dark bands, as veil as lonc
fainter ones are observable in the spectra of the two ouur
planets. The general condu^on from this is that these plusu
ore surrounded by deep and dense atmo^hercs, semi-trass-
parent, of a constitution which is probably very different from
that of the earth's atmosphere. But it has not, up to the present
time, been found practicable to determine the chemical consiits-
tion of these appendages, except that hydrogen seems to be
an important constituent. (See Pbte.)
Intimately associated with this subject is the qjuestion of the
conditions necessary to the permanence of an atmosphere raoad
a planet. Dr Johnstone Stoney investigated these
conditions, taking as the basis of his vork the
kinetic theory of gases (Trans. Roy. DuU. Soc. vi.
305). On this theory every molecule of a gaseous
mass is completely disconnected from every other and is in
rapid motion, its velocity, which may amount to one or
more thousand feet per second, depending on the tempctalcR
and on the atomic weight of the gas. At any temperature the
velocities of individual molecules may now and then incrose
without any well-defined limit. If at the boundary o£ an atn»
sphere the velocity should exceed a certain limit fixed by the bjsi
and force of graN-ity d the planet, molecules might fly a«aT
through space as independent bodies. The absence of h>'drDgeH
from the atmosphere of the earth, and of an atmosphere fros
the moon, may be thus explained. If the fundamental k^TC"
theses of Dr Stoney's investigations are correct andcompkie.i:
would follow that neither the satellites and minor planets of the
solar system nor Mercury can have any atmosphcfc If the
separate molecules thtis flying away moved according to the hn
which would govern an ordinary body, the>' would, after kvriai
their respective planets, mov*e round the sun in indeprndeet
orbits. The possibility is thus suggested that the matter
producing the zodiacal light may be an agglomeration of gueoa
molecules moving round the sun; but several questions respcctin;
the intimate constitution of matter will have to he settled be:\A
any definite conclusions on this point can be reached. It is ooi
to be assumed that a molecule would move through the eihcr
without resistance as the minutest known body does, and ikw
is probably a radical difference between the zniniitat pMliifc
of meteoric matter and the mdecule of a gas. The idiliHi^
identity or difference between such finely-divided oatltf ■
smoke and atmospheric haze and a true gas have yet to btM
established, and until this is done a definite and lalirfKtoiT
theory of the subject docs not seem possible.
Since the radiation of heat by a planet is, with
instruments, scarcely capable oi detectioa and
the temperature of these bodies can be
only from general phyucai laws. The U«»
ing the radiation of heat have been 10 devdopcd'
during recent years that it is now possible to MM
the general principle on which a ooDdusioa « lo
perature of a planet may be reached. At the
knowledge of the conditions which pccvaB tm
is so limited, cspedally as regards their atuMMphe
more or less probable estimates of the tempsatutt of lh^
surfaces can even now be made. Summarily stated. Mat d
the physical principles are these: —
X. A neutrally cokHired body — undentandiDg bgr that tern
Planetary Spectra, photographed at Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff. Arizona,
By V. M. Slipher,
640a 6800
PLANETS, MINOR
M whkh itaaota Ukhow fnclkn of Ow thermit n
lUiAC upon it vtutever the wave Icoeth of IhiA radJ
fioaed U) the lun's rmdiilirni in void spue tends lo
definite tempentuit, caUed the normi] lempcialu
grec of which dtptnds upon the distance o( ibe txx!
B mn. This ii i ihuIi of KiichhoR's laws of radiation,
a. An atmosphere luiiounding suih a body, il at n
|. It tbe Umoqihere 13 kept in
LOse between iti higbei and 1
rards mdisbuie cquililiriuRi
icibWi.
.n hy a.
1 lurrounded by «i atmospheri
1 cspcMcd to Ibe auB't ladiaiion, ibe uiuol rate of diminutioi
tcinperatore with bcigbt
h the condilions. Tbc
riiitjon inwhich the tempi
usher than the tiornial, i
nospher* rests i> determined partly by the
d partly by the temperature of Ibe air. Whit «c :
ncTally cipeei in the abtcnce of any Hleclive absorpti
e air ii thai the tempeciiurc of the lover air vould be higher
an that of the nuwrial suilacc on which it resis. But this
ndilion might be reversed by the eflect of luch absorption
rl on which the
luJd
meut. Something of lhi< lort has been itupectcd in the cate
o[ Jupiter, which has several points of resemblance to the sun.
The pbnets UnnuB and Neptuoe which, but for their atmo-
spheres, would appioiimaic to the absolute lero in temperature,
may be prevcntEd from doing to by the dense atmotpltere
■ ■ ■ ■ .round them.
>o(it
a plant
J. H. Poynting, Pliil. Tram. (vol. w)t, tjoi).
ToUii 0/ PlanHary EIrmnli axJ Cnttai
Table I. gives the ekmcnii dcicrmining the m
major planet, and Table II. certain numbcn pe
phytical condition. For nplanaiion of lerau us
rhe element* arc oven for Ibe epoch i^hjo. Jan,
leby
it espcciill,
Jinical tables
- - Ic C. W. Hm has computed
ic pmbablu dL'nuiy of the pbaci that it it
™, In the .ab«e Wa.«,me the
he deniily of each pUnei
thii auin It derived the intensity ol i
il alio ImiixMitly unccnain. Finally
that which a btack or neutrally colourm ooay woun ataume wnen
every ^ft of it it equally eapeini to the tun't rays by a rapid
revoluiioA. At hat already been iniimainl. theactuliempenture
may al4 depend upon the inierior beat of the planelp whirh ii an
IE would follow froi
■apeiior planeti dimin
ud must therefore b<
Ther
:mblanc<
10 that of the su
U the body. The icmperatun
be determined by KirchhoR's I
ui being cntitely liquid or gasc'
turnninded by liquid matter i
ANETS. HIHOB. The ir
rlcrsidi or ptantloidi. Ion
■tary bodies, of which all
r bctwwn the orbits of M
were all supposed to be ■
outside the orbit of Jup
kablc group of small
'niually be found thete
7i8
end of the iSlh onlury (heconvi
was u strong ihil in assockli
to sesTcfa ior it. The fint disc
wu not, however, mide.by any
by Giuseppe Piiiii o( Palmno.
he noted a amalJ sLar in Tiun
changed its place, thus showing i
PLANETS, MINOR
HI that ladi a planet
ry ef the looknl-for
which, ti
oljan.
The or
untU n.
was tiled up. The plinct received Ihe n
On the iSlh of Much iSoi H. W. 1
discovered a second planet, •
d the name ol PaUiJ. The
me was eipected led Olbers
pUnels o[ the group were discovered, n
December 1S4S > Gfih, Ajiiea, was disa
HJ by K. L. Hencke
search with the telescope and the eye. Amoni the most success-
ful discovetcra were Johann Palisa ol Vienna. C. H. F, Peters
(iSij-iSoo) of Clinton, New York, and James Ciaig Watson
(iSiS-iB»o) of Ann Arbor, Michigan. In recent limes the dis-
coveries are made almost enlitcly by photography. When a
picture ol the stars is taken with a lelescopc moved by clock-
work, so as to follow the stellar sphere in its apparent diurnal
if Ihe image ol a planet is imprinted on (he plate It wUI
generally appear as a short Une, owing to its motion relative 10
the stars. Any such body can therefore be detected on the
pbte hy carcfd examination much more expeditiously than by
Ihe old method of visual search. The number now known is so
iturilly have, in the general average. I
T. Appearing only as poinls ol light, <
ul telescopes. TMIhing like a measure of t
I un only he inferred from their appa
e group be observed.
question whether the tol
planets may Dot euced 1
that can be made 10 this
members of (he group aj
a band is occasiotially visible to
nothing can positively be said <
hand, the faint " G^enschein'
Tegacded as an intensification
due to the increased reflection
back perpendicularly (see Zodi
poution. though it may b
with all the (acts. All thai
I hit the light leSecled fi
can be such as to produce an
le subject. On the etto
is supposed band of kfll,
'dl fou
AS scarcely possible that tki
I of tl
isiically. Ihe b
jf the orbits may tie gaioni Bj tw-
in the celestial ^bae. Tk
Ihe celestul sphae. Ma
pole oi each oibit it defined at 1h
pcndicidar to the plane intersectj
the poles are marked as points on rois ^>nde it is nuna 1^
they tend (0 group Iheniselves around a certain positw*, iM
farlrom the pole oi the invuiible plane of the planeuty sroi^
which again is very near that of the orbit of Jupiter. TUl
statistical result of observation is also inferred from tkniT,
which sbowt that the pole of each orbit revolves around > i>>a
near the pole of the invariable plane with an angular muca
varying with the mean distance of the body. This vouM nsdi
In a tendency toward an equal scattering of the poles uocol
that of Jupiter, the latter being the centre of pOKliee of i^
whole group. From this it would follow that, if we rrlfii^
the planes ol the orbit to that of Jupiter, the nodes upon ita
orbit of that planet should also be uniformly scattered. £1-
arly oj
reoi the system,
uniilar bv hoMi t
is difficult to regard Ibis as anythiv
because as the nodes move alug H
YentuaUy scatier, and not but
Id other word) it docs bm sm
le of the eccentriciiiet aod die paHiti.
nc may notn oe ocnoed by (he position of ihe ceoire ei tM f*^
tn orbit, theEeomelry ol iheelbpie thows (hat thecniiR4lde
lit il situated at the djiunee at froni the un. in Ike dincna d
aphelion ol the body. When the eenlrei of the niUu an M
tfn on a dianam il » tound Ihal they are not icaRBed e^^Sf
...jundihctunliularounda point lying %
n Ihe direetion of (he eenlre ol the *. *
>rbi( ol JupKer, The Hatinkal la. ] ^^^T^ \
Sovcmino iheie may be seen Itdcd ^--.a \
IB. 1. Here S represents Ihe powiion ^"v^\»
rfihe Hin. and j that of (he centre ol ^^
the
JS produced
ot ]upiler.,»
Theory (Hen
S3
PLANK
719
Cromping of the Planetoids. — A curious feature of these bodies
if that when they are classified according to their distances from
the sun a tendency is seen to cluster into groups. Since the
mean distance and mean motion of each planet are connected
by Kepler's third law, it follows that this grouping may also be
described as a tendency toward certain times of revolution or
certain values of the mean motion around the sun. This feature
was first noticed by D. Kirk wood in 1870, but at that time the
number of planetoids known was not sufficient to bring out its
true nature. The seeming fact pointed out by Kirkwood was
that, when these bodies are arranged in the order of their
mean motions, there are found to be gaps in the series at
those points where the mean motion is commensurable with
that of Jupiter; that is to say, there seem to be no mean daily
motions near the values 598', 748' and 898', which are respec-
tively 2, i\ and 3 times that of Jupiter. Such mean motions
are neaiiy commensurable with that of Jupiter, and it is shown
in celestial mechanics that when they exist the perturbations
ai the planet by Jupiter will be very large. It was therefore
supposed that If the commensurability should be exact the orbit
of the planet would be unstable. But it is now known that such
is not the case, and that the only effect of even an exact com-
mensurability ^would be a libration of long period in the mean
notion of the planetoid. The gaps cannot therefore be ac-
counted for on what seemed to be the plausible supposition that
the bodies required to fill these gaps originally existed but were
thrown out of their orbits by the action of Jupiter. The fact
can now be more precisely stated by saying that we have not
10 much a broken series as a tendency to an accumulation of
orbits between the points of commensurability. The law in
question can be most readily shown in a graphical form. In
Ig. 3 the horizontal line represents distances from the sun,
limits of the groups shown in the figure. Eros is so near the
sun, and its orbit is so eccentric, that at perihelion it is only
about 0'i6 outside the orbit of the earth. On those rare occasions
when the earth is passing the perihelion point of the orbit at
nearly the same time with Eros itself, the parallax of the latter
will be nearly six times that of the sun. Measurements of parallax
made at these times will therefore afford a more precise value
of the solar parallax than can be obtained by any other purely
geometrical measurement. An approach almost as close as
the nearest geometrically possible one occurred during the winter
of 1893-1894. Unfortunately the existence of the planet was
then unknown, but after the actual discovery it was found that
during this opposition its image imprinted itself a number of
times upon the photographs of the heavens made by the Harvard
Observatory. The positions thus discovered have been ex-
tremely useful in determining the elements of the orbit. The
next near approach occurred in the winter of 1900-190X, when
the planet approached within 0-32 of the earth. A combined
effort was made by a number of observatories at this time to
determine the parallax, both by micrometric measures and by
photography. Owing to the great number of stars with which
the planet had to be compeared, and the labour of determining
their positions and reducing the observations, only some frag-
mentary results of this work are now available. These are
mentioned in the article Paraluul So far as can yet be seen,
no other approach so near as this will take place until January
1931-
A few of the minor planets are of such special interest that
some pains will doubtless be taken to determine their orbits
and continue observations upon them at every available opposi*
tion. To this class belong those of which the orbits are so
eccentric thatjhey cither pass near that of Jupiter or approach
■•-••«
• • • •
» *
• • • • • ' •
••••••••
• ■ « • • • ■
•••■•• •
» • • •
• • •
• • • "
•
• •
• • •
•
•
• • •
• •
• • • ■
• • • • •
• • • • • •
• ••••••••
• ••■*•■••
■••• ■•• ••
■•••••••■ •
••••••■••••
•
99
as
FlO. 2.
Z1
t-a
as
9«
as
3 9
••
34
aa
aa
31
3o
t-1
ao
locreasing toward the left, of which certain equidistant numerical
values are given below the line. Points on the line corresponding
to each o-oi of the distances are then taken, and at each point
a perpendicular line of dots is drawn, of which the number is
eq^ to that of the planetoids having this mean distance, no
account being taken of fractions less than o-oi. The accumula-
tions between the points of close commensurability with the
mean motion of Jupiter may be seen by inspection. For
example, at the point 2-59 the mean motion is three times that
of Jupiter; at the point 281 twice the mean motion is equal to
five times that of Jupiter; at 3*24 the mean motion is twice that
of Jupiter. It will be seen that there is a strong tendency toward
grouping near the values 2*75, and a lesser tendency toward 31
and 2*4. It is probable that the grouping had its origin in the
original formation of these bodies and may be plausibly attributed
to the formation of three or more separate rings which were
broken up to form the group.
Continuing the question beyond these large collections, it
will be seen that between the values 3-22 and 3*33 there are no
orlnts at all. Then between 3-3 and 35 there are nine orbits.
The space between 35 and 3-9 is thus far a complete blank;
then there are three orbits between 3-90 and 3-95, not shown
hi the diagram.
A group of great interest, of which only three members are
yet known, was discovered during the years 1906-1907. The
n distance of each member of this group, and therefore its
of revolution, is so near that of Jupiter that the relations
cf the respective orbits are yet unknown. The case thus offered
for study is quite unique in the solar system, but its exact nature
csanot be determined until several more years of observation
available.
Several planetoids of much interest are situated without the
near that of the earth. With most of the others little more can
be done than to compute their elements with a view of subse-
quently identifying the object when desired. Unless followed
up at several oppositions after discovery, the planet is liable to
be quite lost. Of those discovered before 1890 about fifteen
have not again been found, so that if discovered, as they doubt-
less will be, identification will be diflficult.
The system of nomenclature of these bodies is not free from
difficulty. When discoveries began to go on at a rapid rate,
the system was introduced of assigning to each a number, in
the order of its discovery, and using as its symbol its number
enclosed in a circle. Thus Ceres was designated by the symbolCD;
Pallas by @, &c., in regular order. This system has been con-
tinued to the present time. When photography was applied
to the search it was frequently doubtful whether the planet of
which the image was detected on the plates was or was not
previously known< This led to the use of capital letters in
alphabetical order as a temporary designation. When the
alphabet was exhausted a second letter was added. Thus there
are planetoids temporarily designated as A, B, &c., and AB,
AC, &c. The practice of applying a name to be selected by
the discoverer has also been continued to the present time.
Originally the names were selected from those of the gods or
goddesses of classical mythology, but these have been so far
exhausted that the name is now left to the discretion of the
person selecting it. At present it is customary to use both the
number and the name, the former being necessary to the ready
finding of the planetoid in a list, while the name serves for more
certain identification. (S. N.)
PLANK, a flat piece of timber, sawn and planed; it is techni-
cally distinguished from a " board " by its greater thickness, and
should measure from 2 to 4 in. in thickness and from lo t.Q \\ v^..
7JO PLANKTON
in width. Tbc word coma tlmuch tbe Ft. pltmeii (ffom pod- or In the itvcne diRCtioo, hu ■ meu unml '— t— i'-
Augusttn, Lit. flania, * niwliied ■diptition probably of Gr. tomewhere belvecD 84° uid yi° F., kxing or |uiiiii( bcU em i
*Uf, soraclhing Oil, cipecully ■ BU itone. The use of the my. In the cue af ourow 01 " clotcil " hu, aiiil neu hi
•Old "pUnk " la the KDK oF an utide m a politick piogranimc maasei, sea-water does not ekfaiblc that wuforniityelcviiipostia
is of American ori^ and ia due to the lue of " platform " for which characterizes the open oceaai but even io mcb tata tfe
the programme itacU. tempcratuie la largely influenced by adjacent currenU, tfd
PUHICTON, a name Is vented by PnfcsBor Victor HenMit though Icis obviously than in the open ocean, aeena to bt in]
for the drilting population of the ki. Thia it a coDvauent Impoclant agent In distribuiim.
heading under which 10 discuss not only flanklan proper, but The fauna o[ the sea il divisible into the /laiitUm, the im
the bnMuis, or crawling population of the sea-bottom. Scientific miogor drifliog fauna which nevei lests on the bottom ((oialll
invacigation of tbae aubjects dates from the reporta of the taken now to include E. Haeckel's KiUeii,Ibeitnn(swimBa
" Challenger " expedition, which, despite its many successors, such as £ih and cepbaiopodi), and the btnliai, wUch i> iad
ItlU standi out as the most impoclint of the oceanogiipblc to or crawls upon the bottom. Thete gmupa iHpuR a holkl
erpeditions, alilie by the woik achieved, the distance traversed, subdivisioc according to depth — the more necestarily sii«e, m
the time occupied, and the money devoted to the publication some loologisls, any water over looiatbonub" deep "o( no
of the results. It laid the foundatioc of our knowledge of the " abyitaL" It il ilmideit to begin with the benthos. Ah
physics and chemistry of ocean water, of oceanic and atmospheric
cuircDts, of the contour of the sea-bottom, and of the main
featurei of distribution of deep-sea life. Later work has con-
firmed and expanded, but not revoked, tbe inclusions tbyi
attained. But, in spite of thia and of seveiil subsequent
expeditions, it cannot be pretended that we are in a position
10 fonnulale general canons of marine distribution other than
of the most tentative character. Two fallacies underlie many
the one, thai such areas can be made to bear some relation to
existing geogfaplucal or even naiional divi^ons^ the other, that
what is true for one group of Ibe animal kingdom mutt bold
good equally for mother. It is necessary at the outset to divest
oneself of these enora, oceanic conditions depend only very
indirectly upon the distribution of the land, and strongly swim,
ming or freely floating animals are not to'be confined by tbe
range is governed
l^by 1 variety of c
ircumstance
As Wyviile Th
It long .go.
but one
ocean. This sur
rounds the soulbe
mhalf of Ihe globe.
and has
two laige gulfs, generally called the
Atlantic an.
i Pacific
Oceans,
which meet throii
igh narrow chinn.
lis in the sm
all Arcli
c Ocean,
and a haU gull.
the Indian Ocean
. The Alb
1 Pacific
eihibit 1 strikln
£ homology of a
imospbccic
pressure
and of
prevalent wind and current; Ihe Indian, t
resembles tbe sout bem ball of a larger one, buk mi
is modified by the neighbourhood of vast land
prevalent winds, dependent on the fairly constan
of atmospheric pressure over the great oceans,
ocean the icmperalute, salinity and chemical ci
the wiLcr are mainly determined by the current!
the condition at the place whence tlie water came-
egaid must be bad not merely to tbe superficial currents
[atcdinfig. i.bul also to tbe movements of the deeper layer,
neltmgai the poles, together with poUit precipitation of hail.
wiaturc; this water rinks under the wirmet
lUy catlrd Gulf Stream (Notlh FlA
r drifted from lower latitudes, and. creeiung
ouLh from the poles, covers the bottom of lU
Iwd (South Pacific Drift].
t/. Dencuela Cutieni.
ans al very uniformly low tempetaluies (in
IS JO- F.l. Between surface and bottom the
6-. Peru^Curreni.
illy decreases (ciccpt where aHectcd by local
d in the middle layers Ihe existence of slow
7. Aniaitiic Ciccumpolar Drill, f. its nonherlv bnncbna
Ibe we.1 lidesoTAfrka and Wh America.
cd- The cold Ijottom water wells up to the
areas, leplacing the surface water drained
the lidal lone, between b.gb and low water -mark. issuhdinU
notably to the weslwaid ol the great land
by ils launa and Bora. There generally lollows on this 1 »]
ater is remarkably uniform as regards its
gentle slope to tbe deplb of about loo talhoms. locaDr "^
I gases, and it does not seem likely that we
divisible into many lesser unci. It has been termed tbe i*
10 eiplain the facts ol distribution. In its
tioental shelf or bitoral sone, not very appropriately. oM il
occurs round many oceanic Istandl. and even away froo m
»ater of the ocean is very cold, and tbe mid-
land. In Ibis lone. if near land, fall to the boiiom Ihe itm
materials produced by land wasle and river dninagi. Tb
s it bu drifted from tbe equator polewards
diScRDCs ol tDndition between epIbentlH uhI maobnillioi n
> bliiude and Ibe tht pn«un cS Iht mia; il > depUi oI joo Ulhomi Lhu ii,
IDC [out IDiA we acepa zona. EveryvhcR, rouf^y ipakinf, hilE ■ toa 10 tbe Kiuuc inch. It b very
e epibenlhic fAuni u eipoaed lo certAia dc&nite doublEul whether thu enormoui pRuure mikM \hc fllighloiL
aJ CDodkiani. &3 compared with a deeper fauna: diflerence to marLne inveitebntei, the tiuuea oF which Arc
{h or fairly iiigh lemperature (eicept near the poles); uniformly pemea led by fluids, ao that thepresaure u uniform in
i light, with ita hnporlaDt consequence, a vegetable every direction; but anLmala with free gases naturally requite
I supply; lide and cuncnt to diattibute Ihe larvae time lo adjuit the gu-pmiuie when altering their levek. At
: habitat, which Ihe vaiied nature ol Ihe bollom legirdi the penttniioQ of light, uumihilive nyi useful to plant
'^ ' ' ' ' ' "^ ' '' ards, we find hfe probably do not reach beyond 150 fathoms. Photographic
L- 11. J ^^ have been detected as low as 3Jo fathoms, and if any light
penellste beyond this deplh, it will consist only of blue, violet
and ullni-violtt tays: it bu been luggesled that the red cokmr
prevalent in many deep^ea animili may be a screen from ihoe
hurtful rayi. Below the joo-fatfaara line Ihe ocean bottom
eihibits almost uniform conditions everywhere, varied only by
the character of the bottom deposit and the amount of food
supply. In thb tone, which extends from about 500 fathoms to
the grealeM depths (which may in some cases eiceed jooo
fathoms, or more than jl m.), the temperature at any given
point is uniform tliroughout the year, and is always very low:
the mean at ik» fathoms is 35-3° F,; at grcitft deptha and in
special circumstances Ins than 30° F. has been recorded. The
dulcnen It probably abwlute; for food the animals are dependent
upon each other and upon the incesunt nln of dead plankton
from higher levels; tbe pressure may be anything between
lives Ln these remarkable circumstances the name kypobenikot
'■£1 '
m land; (his n
ilnur ■■ lUpo't oa ■' Oceanic CirculaiUm.-) On P="<t •«'l "PP'l' "" ^nd, partly to the (act that populatioa
anir»uth..«t lide. ihey are deflected pol^wjml. ''Th^"^!^,,™"™ te"iiIibditfdrf1nto «''Sif ito"'*^ T^
int lile. may be lecmedihe cpi^nUmi. TKis &I^U
lut the shallower part, and with it pl^inoa is of » recent 1 growih that lu lUiiiiict, luch at we
t are no hingcr felt. To Ihe latter tave of Ihe benihm. an available. It is now generally adoUiled
eat part of the food lupply, which thai the nMo^ok™ ennuis .to_ the lowot "It^i" "^^
abundant fauna: 1 great quantity y^J^ 'r^^dly afiet'ioo falhSni, a"nd below" ™ latK«"
down by rivet action, produced by lirile >■ capiured. The condition, of Hjlii. temperamn. p™u".
yey materials of land waste, settles »• regards Itw food, however, ihe mnopbnlnon can only depenj
.r ni-nrih. inn.I.ilinm mninur ihiin ™ iMercepIing dead oiganiimj which an (ailing from higlier
.'";.. J ™'°'"' '""■ boiiions. or on capturing ihe icaniv pny ol itj own looe. ft ii
richest leeding-ground in tbe ocean pouible that the plankiDn Immediaiely over the bottofn may
is the real upper limit of this sone; prove id be luffioenily dinincl 10 be separately cUsaed a*
loofatboms.bulmaybeginslslolo iy^pinnW™.
hrths, or be pushed down 10 joo The main nibdiviiiDnt of the marine fauna having thus been
re Wioiig. The fauna ol this lone biiefly sketched, it is advisable to consider them in somewhat
calkct; it is not so abundant, nor so more detail. The tpittHlIm a obviously that launa. _ ^
le epibenthos, and yet is aufliciently to which, except in polar regions, lighl and wannlh
rate a proviuonal name. Another are neeesaaiy; and the absence of these at gioter deoUa i&
732
pcobftbly the duef bafritt to
tupply B suffidcDlly pknlilul
a dean bird lubslan
nio. Ib nlillon lo lempm
icmcd nryliicrmai, the IL
tema ut useful lo record t,
)[«], llfluUniHj (1
— Diairani showir
al of Eail AtLintic
award) Eilcuion of the F
3 of EpEbcnlhic Giitropodt ai
6, Soulh Afric.
7. [iufc-Pacifk
tji.
by >i
psof vihicii
u been studied fo
e ef^benthc
b MoUusca, tt
nd jfnsJuU
iminiibRl Ii
c, an.*. ATu,, i/ii(. vol. "MoUuso." ch. lu.),
influence upon tbcm of Ibe great turrenla. Taking Ihe Allanlic
Ocean, we lind ihc Arctic species, templed southwards by the
cold Labrador Curtent. lepcllcd northwards by (he varm
North Atlantic Drill. The Boreal or lub-Aiclic species, many
Lb sides of the ocean {i and j', fig. 3).
IS. Gcnenllylermed Palai
or Mapllanic for purtj;
bcDtbic foTiDt. but in
for every species. SimiUily,
have been classed as inrsfbatkic
creased depth praclicslly means
arc probably merely eipresikin.
fonn. That an Arctic shallow-water spccjes snould kii;^
to considerable depths is not surprising, but it is reeu.'ttlie
lo find such locms as. for example, Venu wiofenM on 1 Nf>
Zealand beach Bt ss°F.Bndin 1000 fathoms al j;*F.oSTa:a
d'AcunbB. The provinces of toologital disiributica, Ski Ik
muil be taken nadf la
npentBie, itoi
from
uch latt
The
n the 1
irm-oater molluscs of Weii
f the east side (;) by the cold
larciic Drilt. which Impinges '
1(6). On the South Ameri
Bst, owing to the warm BnuU .
kbycDidupwellingandHun
, on the Wmi Pacific only K
41° ti., being repelled by Ibe J
currents of the south
there
ic fad
I of a
I habitinti to that area.
QDudcriDg llie eflect of tcmperalun (and llui if!^
kton as well as to benthos down to leo fathoms). aitBiia
e directed not only lo the question of general vantb tf
I elpressed by the mean annual tectper^lnre, bat ifa*
tonge between the annua] extremes: (hew nnfnll
apped by Sir J. Uurrar rtiil
dealh-rate than (h
i« of heal' and c
is I.Uiicl>stbitH) 1
! iliid. Ii
is tbesu
.34)-
n bay, others tc
a botb', fail ic
cold Antarctic Drift, and is t
of the constant warring of then
nnge of sudden tempenlute n
in distribution is i.^[«M
; Current, >iih 1 Bdk-
lonb-eau bruch 0! ttt
PLANKTON
723
ts mainly of only such species from neighbouring provinces
1 endure high sudden variations; and the district is practi-
impassable. For example, nineteen q;>ecies of Echinoids
lown from the Cape district. Of these twelve are peculiar
r Indo-Pacific province, which stretches from East Africa
Sandwich Islands and from Japan to Australia; two ^)edes
mthern Ocean forms, all but confined to south of 40** S.;
;)ecies are pecuh'ar to the Atlantic Ocean: of these eighteen
16 gets past the Cape into the next province; the nine-
is practically a cosmopolitan (A. Agassiz, *' ChaUen%fr "
'^: *' Echinoidea"; compare also C. Chun, Aus den Tie/en
dtmeeres, pp. 157, 158).
3ng the barriers to the horizontal extension of epibenthos
3e mentioned a wide deep ocean. The Indo-Pacific fauna
from Elast Africa to about loS** W., stepping from island
nd over the Pacific; but this continuity is then broken by
rees of longitude and more than 2000 fathoms of water, and
essile species as are most Mollusca (cf. fig. 3) are unable
ch the American coast. This is presumably due to the
lat the planktonic larvae of epibenthic adults must settle
4iitable bottom within a certain period or die. In spite
direct set of the currents from Florida to the British Isles,
ibenthos of the two is absolutely dissimilar; the similarity
two Boreal provinces (2 and 2', fig. 3) is to be assigned to
ler continuity by way of Greenland, Iceland and Faeroe;
ar continuity, still unbroken, is exhibited by the Aleutian
ce on both sides of the Pacific. Though larvae cannot
vide oceans, adults may no doubt traverse great stretches
>nally on floating timber, &c.
( barrier by distance may be instanced in another way.
Arctic regions land masses are continuous or contiguous,
here are many circumpolar species, as, for example,
honella psiUacea; towards the South Pole the southern
ent is almost ice-bound, and the available land consists
f the tips of the continents and of the few oceanic islands.
few if any littoral species arc circumpolar. For example,
single littoral Ophiurid surrounds the South Pole, but
six species arc circumpolar in the northern hemisphere.
ing next the mcsobenthos and hypobenlhos, living at depths
temperature is constant and current practically negligible,
there appears theoretically to be no reason why an
fg organism which can thrive at 500 fathoms should
not have a world-wide range over the bottom of all
^ oceans. Yet this is not often, although occasionally,
I to be the case; and although perhaps, speaking generally,
enthic species have wider ranges than epibenthic, still
Jso seem to be limited. It must, however, be remembered
he ocean is large, deep hauls of trawl or dredge few, and
iuals at great depths scattered, so that too much stress
lot be laid on this point. The " Challenger " results seem
>w of at least one generalization — the deeper the fauna, the
its range. This is shown by the following table of the
lenger " benthos: the first column gives the number of
y& species captured at depths indicated in fathoms by the
I column; the percentage of these species which is known
^e been captured between the tropics, as well as south
»rth of the tropics, is shown in the third columns—
Number of
Specimens.
Horizon.
S. T. N.
4248
I8d7
616
493
394
247
153
O-IOO
100-500
500-1000
1000-1500
1500-2000
2000-2500
over 2500
0'6
2
4
7
7
9
9
n only guess at the causes of the apparently limited range
ly deep-sea types, (a) One of these is probably the limited
.tipply: presumably, as with a land fauna, there are as
mouths in a given area as it will support, and an equi-
Q of species b maintained which will at least hinder the
ion of any one. For food the bulk of the deep-water fauna
is dependent upon the rain of dead organisms falling from higher
levels, these, slowly disintegrating (probably under chemical,
not bacterial, action), seem to form with the bottom deposit
a kind of nitrogenous ooze, through which many deep-sea organ-
isms slowly swallow their way, as an earthworm goes through
earth extracting nutriment, {b) Another hindrance to the
extension of many deep-sea species is that they are holobetUkic,
that is, do not pass through a free-swimming larval stage; the
means of dispersal is therefore regulated by the animal's own
power of locomotion. Generally speaking, as might be expected,
the freely-moving hypobenthos, fish and Crustacea, have the
widest ranges, and even these are not helped by currents, as
are epibenthic or planktonic forms. The larval history of deep-
water forms is, however, unfortunately obscure, (c) Lastly,
extension of area of a species being at best difficult in deep water
for non-swimmers, the place and date of their first migration
must be taken into account; forms which have comparatively
recently adopted deepnwater life cannot be expected to have
spread far from their original centre. As regards this point,
in the first place, it is with migration, not with local evolution,
that we have to deal: no classes and orders, only a few families
and genera, rarely sub-orders, are peculiar to the hypobenthos;
the deep members of each group consist for the most part of
widely separated genera, the species do not grade into each other,
as is so often the case in the epibenthos; and evolution could
hardly have produced these species and genera under the
uniformity of their present environment. This migration down-
wards from the mud-line has no doubt occurred all over the
world, notably in the Southern Ocean, if we may judge by the
richness of the deep-water fauna there to-day; probably also
largely in Arctic and sub-Arctic regions, less so in tropical and
temperate zones* As to the date of migration, the following
fact seems to show that it is of comparatively recent origin, and
is indeed still in progress: taking the " Challenger " species from
the epibenthos, from the mesobenthos, and then from zones
of 500 fathoms down to 2500, each zone shares a larger per-
centage of species with the zone above it than with that
below it (except in one case where they are nearly equal). But
i( is not to be supposed that all our present-day deep-water
forms began their migration simultaneously, and we can say
with fair certainty that migration to deep water did not begin
before the close of the Mesozoic epoch. Had it begun earlier,
we should find typical Mesozoic and even older forms, or their
congeners, at great depths: so far is this from being the case
that the most venerable animals of to-day — Lingula,Ampkioxus,
Limulus, 75% of Crinoids, 90% of Brachiopoda, &c. — are
epibenthic or mesobenthic. On the other hand, it is extremely
likely that the Cretaceous epoch marked the commencement
of migration. The hexactinellidan sponges are known to have
lived in quite shallow water at the date of deposition of the
Inferior Oolite; to-day none occtir at a less depth than 95 fathoms;
and as only two genera are known from the shallow Tertiary
deposits, it would seem that the migration began about Creta-
ceous times {''Challenger'* Reports: " Hexactinellida," F. E.
Schulze). In 1881 (A. Agassiz, " Challenger " Reports: " Echin-
oidea ") 105 living genera of Echinoidea were admitted; of these
23 % were known from Cretaceous but not from Tertiary deposits,
35% from Tertiary but not Cretaceous, and 40% as Recent
only The species of Cretaceous genera constituted only 29% of
the epibenthic Echinoids, 44% of the mesobenthic, and no less
than 55% of the hypobenthic. These species of Cretaceous
genera were distributed fairly evenly over all three zones, but
72% of the species of Tertiary genera and 55% of the Recent
forms were confined to the epibenthos. As out of the twenty-five
living genera known from the Cretaceous only seven arc known
also from Jurassic deposits, it is obvious that the close relation-
ship is between Cretaceous and hypobenthos, rather than
between any other geological and bathymetric horizons. Other
instances, such as that of the Eryonldae, seem to point to similar
conclusions.
Excepting the essential air-breathers, practically every phylum
and class and most orders are Tept«ainx\«4 vd >i2Dft\MSL>2fim»- *^^^
7«4
PLANKTON
epibenthos of warm seas appears ta be especially wealthy in
sucl) forms as secrete heavy calcareous skeletons; but in colder
water, among the epibenthos of polar or sub-polar regions, and
the hypobenthos everywhere in open oceans, the predominant
forms are those which exhibit little or no calcareous secretion:
even the apparent exceptions, Madreporaria and Echinoderma
from great depths, tend to develop slighter skeletons than their
warm-water congeners. The following table will serve to
illustrate this point, and to give an idea of the composition of
the epibenthos of cold and warm seas and of the hypobenthos:
the figures are the percentages of total species captured in each
locality by H.M.S. " Challenger," the balance being made up
by few specimens in scattered groups: —
Kerguclcn
Area — ovei
1260 fm.
Kcrguelen
Area— 0 to
150 fm.
Cape York—
0 to 12 fm.
Madreporaria . .
Alcvonaria
Shelled MolluKa .
[>ecapoda .
Echinodermata . .
Actiniaria ., . >
Hydrozoa .- ,. )
Annelida . '. .
Crustacea . . i
except Decapoda ^
Tunicata . , ■ .
08
1-2
80
3-6
33-6
6-8
68
165
4-4
00
10
19.7
08
11-7
4-6
8*0
250
6-8
3-3 1
3-3
7-9 -
17
0*9
76
Calcareous Calcareous
skeleton skeleton
Uffht well
oraosent. developed.
81-7
77-6
91-2 1
While the Madreporaria represent only 3*3% of the species at the
tropical station, it must be remembered that they probably made
up 80% or more of the weight.
The epiplankton is dependent either directly or proximately
upon light, warmth and the presence of plant life. The wealth
Bph of minute organbms near the surface is inconceivable
fimaktoa, to those who have not seen the working of a two-net:
it may be gauged by the fact that a single species is sometimes
present in such quantities as to colour the sea over an appreciable
area, and by the estimate that the skeletons of epiplankton from
a square mile of tropical ocean a hundred fathoms deep would
yield 16 tons of lime. In the tropics the wealth of species, and
towards the poles the number of individuals of comparatively
few species, are characteristic of the latitudes. In temperate
and tropical regions there is a great difference between the
epiplankton near land and that far out at sea: the former is
termed neritic; it extends, roughly speaking, at least as far out
as the mud-line, and is characterized by the predominance of
what may be termed hcmibenthic forms, that is, benthic forms
with a planktonic larval stage {Decapoda, Polyc/tacta, &c.), or
with a planktonic phase (metagenctic INIedusae). The horizontal
barriers to the neritic plankton are practically those mentioned
as governing the epibenthos; indeed, it would seem that the
distribution of hemibenthic adults is determined by that of their
more delicate larvae. Special conditions of wind and current
may of course carry into the neritic zone forms which are
characteristic of the open sea, and vice versa. In the neritic
epiplankton of polar waters the larvae of hemibenthic forms are
almost absent; indeed, the development of cold-water benthos,
whether shallow or abyssal, appears to be in most cases direct,
this is, without a larval metamorphosis. The epiplankton of
the open sea is described as oceanic; it consists almost entirely
of hohplankUmic forms and their larvae. The chief barrier to
horizontal distribution, here as elsewhere, b doubtless tempera-
ture. For example, through the reports of the " National " cruise
(German Plankton Expedition) runs the same story; one fauna
characterized their course from Shetland to Greenland and
Newfoundland, another the traverse of the Gulf Stream, Sargasso
Sea and the Equatorial Currents. The influence of temperattire
may be gauged in another way: where hot and cold currents
meet, occur *' frontier " districts, in which the respective
organisms are intermingled, and can only exist till their maxima
or minima are reached. Well-marked examples of such districts
occur off New Jetscy (Gulf Stream and Labrador Current), in
the China Sea (warm currents of the south-west bobkoii tod
Kamchatka Current), in the Faeroe Channel, soath of the Cape
(recurving of the Agulhas Current): in some of tlwae the laqp
of variation amounts tp as much as 50* F. in the year, with tk
result of a colossal death-rate of the plankton, and its coidbiy,
a rich bottom fauna, f6r which food is thus amply luppliei
The majority of the oceanic epiplankton appears to be fUot*
thermal; for example, few components of tlie wdl-dianctcriied
fauna of the Gulf Stream and Sargasso Sea ever icadi the Bridik
shores alive, although, if current and salinity were the detcnBli*
ing factors and not temperature, this fauna should reach tt
Shetland, and even to Lofoten. It will only be possible to ute
satisfactory distributional areas for these oceanic forms bjavh
systematic traverses as that of the " National "; at prenti
would seem that adjacent species have such different bibh
and minima that every ^>edes must be mapped septat^F
(compare the distribution-maps of the " National " PbakM
Expedition). Some members of the epiplankton are, hncvo,
extraordinarily eurythermal and eurybathic; for en^pk,
Cahnus finmarckicus ranges from 76^ N. to 52* S. (aapOH
perhaps for 10^ each side of the equator), and is apgua^
indifferent to depth.
In the first hundred fathoms at sea the fall of tempertfocii
gradual and slight, and forms practically no hindrance to tk
diurnal osciUation of the oceanic epiplankton — the allesed vat
and fall of almost the entire fauna. Roughly speak ji^, ik
greatest number of am'mals is nearest the surface at mii^
but different species sink and rise at different times, and to a
from different depths. Apart from this diurnal osdBitiHii
unfavourable conditions at the surface send or keep the bmk
down in a remarkable way: for example, in the Bay of Vaaf
few organisms are to be found in the first fathom in bcii^ M>
light, but on a still, hot day the next few fathoms teem vitkBe;
yet after a few minutes' wind or rain these upper layers «lk
found almost deserted. This leads to the consideration of ik
hydrostatics of the plankton: apart from strong swimnn,lk
majority contests the tc;ndency to sink either by some memd
diminishing specific' gravity (increasing floating power) or bj
increased frictional resistance. The former is gencnlly attaiied
(a) by increase of bulk through development of a flukl secRtias
of low specific gravity (vacuoles of Foraminifera, RaiioUria, fe);
(6) or of a gelatinous secretion of low specific gravity (UdaM,
Chaetopod and Echinoderm larvae, Ckadagmatka, TUmcm:
the characteristic transparence of so many oceanic fooB ii
probably attributable to this); (c) by secretion or retcstioBil
air or other gas {Pkysaiia, Minyas, Evadne); (4) by devckpwst
of oil globules {CopepodOf Clodocera, fish ova). Inaiird
frictionaJ resistance is obtained by flattening out of the bod^
{Pkyllosoma, Sappkirinc), or by its expansion into htcsal |i»-
cesses {TomopteriSt Claucus), or by the devdopmeat of !■!
deUcate spines or hairs {pelagic Poraminifera, many RaUd^
many Chaetopod and Decapod larvae). In many cases t«oc
more of these are combined in the same organism. Not«i^
standing the above adaptatibns, some of which are sdjaia^
it is difficult to understand the mechanics of the
rapid oscillations of the epiplankton, of whkh both
methods are still obscure.
It will be seen from the distributi<Mi of the
Pteropoda — a purely oceanic group— how difficult it wiD pw*
to draw distributional areas for classes <^ epiplanktaa. P-
Pelseneer recognizes in all ten sudi provinces (**CUInf *
Reports: " ZooL," xix., xxiii.) and 43 good spedes: of the faatff
I is confined to the Arctic, 4 to the Antarctic province, te ff
the remaining 37 q>ecies and of^t i»ovinccs 30% occcr ■
all eight, 16 % in seven, and only 35 % have as yet been capnad
in a single province only.
The mesoplankton has only received serioos atteatkia dinf
the last few years. In the " Challenger," open nets to«ed M
various depths seemed to show the existence of a -^
deep-water plankton, but thb method gives no
certain information as to the horixoh of capture,
the nets being open in their passacc down and op. C
PLANQUETTE— PLANTAGENET
725
COBitnicted the first efficient net which could be opened
mod shut at known depths, using a propeller mechanism
{BM: ZooL vol. L); and he improved his original pattern
for the " National " and " Valdivia " expeditions. The present
writer has devised a net, of which the opening and closing
are effected from the deck by heavy weights; this has been
OMd successfully on the " Siboga " expedition and in cruises of
the " Research " {Proc. Zool. Soc^ 1898). W. Garstang has con-
itructed an ingenious net which is useful in comparatively
•hallow water, but is open to criticism as being too light for depths
beyond 100 fathoms; and several other types are in use. The
existence of a mesoplankton, that is, of a plankton living between
xoo fathoms from the surface and the bottom, has been generally
considered as definitely proved by these nets. On the other
hand, A. Agassiz, u^g the Tanner tow-nets, contends that while
a mixture of surface and bottom species may occur in a closed
sea near land, there is no intermediate fauna in the open ocean
between about 200 fathoms from the surface and the bottom;
bis conclusions, based on negative evidence, have not met with
general acceptance. Animals captured below the first hundred
fathoms in the open sea (the Mediterranean, for special physical
ieax»ns, is on a special footing) are divisible into at least three
cat^ories: (i) those which are eurythermal and eurybathic,
c.f . Calamu finmarchkus', (3) those which, so far as we know,
are purely mesoplanktonic and never come to the surface, for
example, the Radiolarian family Tuscaroridae; (3) those which,
Bke «ome Sckizopoda, spend a larval period in the epiplankton,
and seek deeper water when adult, rising to the surface, if at
all, oaiy at night. But imtil the publication of the results of
expeditions provided with efficient mesoplankton nets, generali-
sations about this fatma had better be stated with all reserve.
There is, however, a certain amount of evidence to show that
the mesoplankton includes different organisms in different
latitudes; that surface animals of the north and south, unable
to spread into the warmer surface water of lower latitudes, there
rink into the cooler waters of the mesoplankton; the distribu-
tional area of such an organism will be in three dimensions
bounded by isotherms (isobathytherms) and isothermobaths.
As with the hypobcnthos, there seems to be no theoretical reason
against the universal distribution of the mesoplankton.
When a more systematic investigation of the various horizons
bss been carried out, many of the present cases of supposed
iueontinuous distribuiicn will doubtless disappear. There are,
however, undoubted cases of discontinuity where physical
barriers have cut across a distributional area, an example of
which may be cited here. The Isthmus of Panama was appar-
ently only upraised about Miocene time, having been previously
an archipelago through which a great drcumequatorial current
ccmld pass; consequently the benthos of the Panama region
shows marked alliance with the Caribbean, with which it was
formerly continuous, but practically none with the Indo-Padfic.
To the same cause is doubtless attributable the distribution of
the five Decapoda which are characteristic of the Sargasso Sea,
which are drcumequatorial oceanic types, only occasionally
Ettoral: three of these are known only from the Atlantic, one
eccors in the Atlantic and Padfic, one in the Atlantic, Padfic
and Indian Oceans. The damming of a great drcumequatorial
current by the Isthmus of Panama is probably also responsible
lor that dislocation of currents which resulted in the present
vdations of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift to the
Labrador Current, and cut the Atlantic Boreal fauna hito two
Atoontinuous districts (2 and 2', fig. 3).
Under the head of discontinuous distribution, the alleged
phenomenon known as bipolarity must be mentioned. In
nmmarizing the work of the " Challenger," Sir John Murray
maintained on the basis of the reports that numerous species
occurred in both polar and sub-polar areas which were absent
from the tropic. He regarded them as the hardy survivors of
a universal fauna which had withstood that polar cooling which
act in towards the close of the Mcsozoic period (Murray, Trans.
Rey. Soc. Edin. vol. xxxviii., 1896; G. Pfeffer, Verh. deutsck. Zool.
OudUch. ix. 1899). This view and the facts on which it was
based have been acutely contested, and the question is stOl far
from settlement (for lisu of the literature see A. £. Ortmann,
Am. Nal. xxxiii. 583; and Misa E. M. Pratt, Mem. Manchester
Soc. vol xlv., 1901). As regards the purdy epibenthic and sesaile
fauna, there are a few undoubted instances of actual spedfic
identity; in some classes, however, such as the Echinoderms, this
does not appear to hold {Hamburger Magalkaenscke Sammelreise;
and F. Rdmer and F. Schaudinn's Fauna arctica); but even
in these the general composition of the fauna and the presence
of certain identical and peculiar genera seem to point to some-
thing more than a mere " convergence " due to similar environ-
ment. As regards the plankton of the two polar regions and
such epibenthic forms as extend also into deep water, the
suggestion has been nuuie that the Arctic and Antarctic benthos
and plankton are really continuous by way of deep water in the
nudn oceans, where the organisms can find a suitably low tem-
perature. As an instance of this, C. Chun {Baieh. zwiscken dem
arki. und aniarkL PlankUm, 1897) dtes Krohnia hamata, a
characteristic Arctic and aub-Arcllc constituent of the epi-
plankton and mesoplankton, known only from the mesoplankton
in the tropica, but rising to 38 fathoms at 40^ S. 26** E. More
exact information, such as may be expected from the various
Antarctic expeditions, ia required to settle this interesting
question with its far-reaching corollaries. (G. H. Fo.)
See also Zoological Distribution: § Marine,
PLANQUETTE, ROBERT (1850- ), French musical com-
poser, was bom in Paris on the 31st of July 1850, and educated
at the Conservatoire. As a boy he wrote songs and operettas
for caf6 concerts, and sprang into fame as the composer of
Les Cloches de ComeviUe (Paris, 1877; London, 1878). In this
work he showed a fertile vein of mdody, which won instant
recognition. There is in his music a touch of pathos and
romantic feeling, which, had he cared to cultivate it, would have
placed him far above contemporary writers of opira houfe.
Unfortunately, he did little but repeat the formula which
originally brought him reputation. Le Chevalier Gaston was
produced in 1879 with little success. In 1880 came Les VoUi'
geurs du 32"*' which had a long run in London in 1887 as The
Old Guard, and La Caniiniire, which was translated into English
as Nectarine, though never produced. In 1882 Rip van Winkle
was produced in London, being subsequently given in Paris as
Rip, in both cases with remarkable success. The libretto, an
adaptation by H. B. Famie of Washington Irving's famous tale,
brought out what was best in Planquette's talent. In 1884 the
phenomenon of an opera by a French composer being produced
in London previously to being heard in Paris was repeated in
Nell Gwynne, which was tolerably successful, but failed com*
pletely when produced in Paris as La Princesse Colombine.
It was followed by La Crinuxillire (Paris, 1885), SurcouJ (Paris,
1887; London, as Paul Jones, 1889), Captain Thirise (London,
1887), La Cocarde tricolore (Paris, 1892), Le Talisman (Paris,
1892), Panurge (Paris, 1895) and Mam'telle Quat'sous (Paris,
X897).
PLANTAGENET, a surname conveniently, but unhistori-
cally, applied to the royal line descended from the union of
Geoffrey, count of Anjou, with the empress Maud, who are now
styled by historians the Angevin house. It was, historically,
only a personal nickname of Geoffrey, as was " Beauderc " of
his father-in-law (Henry I.) and " Curtmantel " of his son
(Henry U.), and was derived from his wearing in his cap a sprig
of the broom (genet) plant, " which in early summer makes the
open country of Anjou and Maine a blaze of living gold." When
the fashion of personal nicknames passed away, the members
of the royal house were usually named from thdr birthplace,
as Thomas " of Brotherton," Thomas "of Woodstock," Edmund
" of Woodstock," Edmund " of Langley," Liond " of Antwerp,"
and so forth. But Edward I. and his younger brother, the
founder of the house of Lancaster, had still nicknames respec-
tively, as " Longshanks " and " Crouchback." In the later
days of the dynasty the surname of Beaufort was adopted by
the legitimated issue of John of Gaunt by Katherine Swynfocd«
but that of Plantagenet was beitowtA Q!Gl Ka^'OK, ^oaSuw^ vn^.
726
PLANTAIN— PLANTATION
of Edward IV., who was created Viscooiit Lisle. It appears,
however, to have been adopted as a surname by Richard duke
of York (father of Edward IV.) some twelve years before hisdcath.
At the death of Geoffrey's grandson, Richard I.,the succession
was in doubt, John's elder brother Geoffrey having left, by the
heiress of Brittany, a son and a daughter. But at that epoch
the law of inheritance was in such a case unsettled, and their
right was not clear. Arthur's fate is well known, and Eleanor,
the daughter, was kept captive till her death in 1241. John's
younger son Richard, king of the Romans, left a son Edmund,
earl of Cornwall, with whom his line ended; his elder son Henry
III. left two sons, of whom the younger was created earl of
Lancaster and was grandfather of Henry, earl of Lancaster,
whose heiress married John of Gaunt (».«. Ghent). Edward I.,
the elder son, was grandfather of Edward lU., the marriages
of whose numerous children greatly affected English history.
Edward his heir, the "Black Prince," left an only son, who
succeeded his grandfather as Richard II., on whose death (1399)
this line became extinct. Lionel, the next surviving brother
of the Black Prince, left an only child Philippa, who married
the earl of March, in whose heirs .was the right to the succes-
sion. But John of Gaunt, the next brother, who had married
the heiress of Lancaster and had been created duke of Lancaster
in consequence, rcfounded the Lancastrian line, which obtained
the throne in the person of his only son by her, Henry IV., on
the deposition of Richard II., to the exclusion of the infant
earl of March. His next brother, Edmund of Langley,who was
created duke of York (1385), founded the Yorkist line, and was
father, by a daughter and co-heiress of Pedro the Cruel, king
of Castile, of two sons, Edward, second duke, who was slain at
Agincourt, and Richard, earl of Cambridge, who by marrying
the granddaughter and eventual heiress of Lionel's daughter
Philippa, brought the right to the succession into the house
of York.
Between their son and Henry VI. (grandson of Henry IV.)
and Edward and Henry, sons and heirs of these rivals, was
fought out the dynastic struggle known as " the Wars of the
Roses," which proved fatal to several members of both houses.
Richard, the son of Richard and Anne Mortimer, became third
duke of York (1425), and was made protector of the realm
1454-1455, being finally declared heir to the throne on the
triumph of his side in 1460; but he was slain at the battle of
Wakefield (Dec. 31, 1460). Of his four sons, Edward, the eldest,
became king as Edward IV. within three months of his death;
Edmund, the second, was slain with his father at Wakefield;
George, the third, duke of Clarence, was put to death in 1478;
and Richard, the fourth, duke of Gloucester, became king as
Richard III. in 1483 and was sbin on Bosworth Field in 1485.
King Edward IV.'s two surviving sons, Edward and Richard
(the princes in the Tower), had been mysteriously put to death
in 1483, so that the only male descendant of the house of York,
and indeed of the whole Plantagenet race, was the duke of
Clarence's son Edward, earl of Warwick (grandson of "the
Kingmaker "J, who was imprisoned by Richard III. (his father's
younger brother) in 1483, and finally executed on Tower Hill,
under Henry VII., in 1499.
Of the house of Lancaster, the only son of Henry VI. was
slain after the battle of Tewkesbury (147 1), while Edmund
(Beaufort) duke of Somerset, a grandson of John of Gaunt,
was slain at the first battle of St Albans (1455), and all his
three sons were slain or beheaded. On the death of Henry VI.
and his son in 147 1, so complete was the extinction of their line
that its representation vested in the heirs of the two daughters
of John of Gaunt by the heiress of Lancaster, viz. Philippa
queen of Portugal and Elizabeth countess of Huntingdon.
But by his second wife, the heiress of Castile, John had left an
only daughter, wife of Henry III., king of Castile and Leon,
who also left descendants, and from his third but ambiguous
union sprang the house of Beaufort, whose doubtful claims to
his heirship passed with his great-granddaughter Margaret, by
her husband Edmund Tudor, to their son Henry VII. Although
Henry was careful to claim the ciown in hift otm rig^t (1485),
he soon fortified that claim by marrying Fliiabfth, dddt
daughter of Edward IV. and rightful heiren to the throoc
The marriage of their eldest daughter Margaret to James IV.
of Scotland in 1503 resulted in the accession of James VL of
Scotland, a century later, as next heir to the throoe (see
Stewast).
Although no other dynasty has reigned so IcMig o^er EngjUad
since the Norman Conquest, the whole legitimate male issue
of Count Geoffrey Plantagenet is clearly proved to have becone
extinct in 1499. Of its ille^timate descendants the house
of Cornwall was founded by Richard, a natural aoo of Richard,
king of the Romans and eari of Cornwall, who was ancestor of
Lord Comewall of Fanhope, temp. Henry VI., of the Comevalhi
" barons of Buriord," and other families; but the priodpdl
house is that which was founded, at a later date, by Sir Chules
Somerset, natural son oi Henry (Qeaufort) duke of Somerset
(beheaded 1464)^ who was created earl of Worcester in 1513,
and whose descendant Henry, marquess and earl of Worcester,
obtained the dukedom of Beaufort in 1682. From him desoead
the ducal house, who bear the andeat arms ol France lad
England, quarterly, within a bordure. (J. H. R.)
PLANTAIN (Lat. phntago), a name given to certain pUsts
with broad leaves. This is the case with certain species of
Planiago, Alisma and Musa, to all of which the term is popahriy
applied. The ^>ecies of Planiago are mostly weeds with a dcsie
tuft of radical leaves and scapes bearing terminal ^ikcs of small
flowers; the long spikes of P. major, when in seed, are used for
feeding cage-birds; P. lanctdata, so called from its narrov
lanceolate 3-6-ribbed leaves, is p<^ulariy known as ribvott;
Alisma P. is the water-plantain, so called from the resemblaace
of its broad ribbed aerial leaves to those of P, m^er. Tk
tropical fruit known as plantain belongs to the genus Mua
(see Banana).
PLANTATION (Lat. plantare, to plant), literally the pladsi
of plants in the ground, hence a place planted or a orflectioa of
growing things, &c., particularly used of ground {Wanted with
young trees. The term was early applied, in a figurative sense, to
the settlement of people, and particulariy to the cok»isatioo of
North America in the early part of the 17th century and to the
settlement of Scotch and English in the forfeited lands in Irdiid
(see below). The practice of sending convicted crimioab to
serve on the plantations in the colonies became common ia
the 17th century (see Deportation). These plantations imt
chiefly in the cotton, sugar and tobacco growing cokmio, sad
the term " plantation " is thus particularly applied to estates
in tropical or semi-tropical countries; the proprietos of sixk
estates are specifically styled " planters."
The negroes on the plantations of the Southern States of
North America sang their songs and hymns and danced to
tunes which were traditional, and are frequently
known as *' Plantation Songs." It has been claimed
for some of them that they represent the folk scmgs
brought by the first slaves from Africa; but the more geocnQf
accepted view is that they were those European hynm tad
song tunes which the negroes picked up from the rerivifiH
preachers or from the Europeans around them, and adapted
to their own strongly marked rhythms, which are certaiidy of
African origin. The earliest song, which beoune familiar ti
those outside the Southern States was " Jim Crow," suaf hy
Dan Rice, and introduced to En^and about 1836. Vit
"Jubilee Singers," a troupe from Fisk University, Nadi%'3k»
Tennessee, toured the United States and Europe in 1871; bit
the great popularity of the negro songs and dances, aiid the
traditional instruments, the bones and tambotmne (the bsig*
was not originally used by the genuine negro), was doe ti
the so-called " negro minstrel " troupes, of which the bctf
known in England were Christy's, whence the generic name of
Christy Minstrels, and later of the Moore and Burgess troifc
at St James's Hall, London, started in 1863 and finaOy <^
solved in 1904.
The best collection of genuine " fdantatkm aoofs ** and ^
words is SUm Soni* «/ <*« VwUtd States (New Yoik. ifji); i«aki
PLANTIN
727
C L. EdwautU, BaMama Sonts and Stories (Boston, 1895); J. B. T.
Manh, The Story of the Jubuu Singers (Boston, 1895); and articks
by G. W. Cable on " The Creole Slave Dance " and " Creole Slave
Songs," in the Century, February and April 1886.
Plantation of Ulster. — The Irish rebellion, which had dis-
turbed Ulster during the closing years of Elizabeth's reign,
was followed under James I. by further trouble, due partly to
the inabib'ty of the English government to understand the
system of land ownership prevalent in Ireland. At this time
the chief offenders against the authority of England were the
cark of Tyrconnell and Tyrone, but in September 1607 these
once powerful nobles fled from the country. The English
Uwyers declared that the extensive estates which they held,
not in their personal capacity, but as the heads respectively
of the tribes of O'Neill and O'Donnell, had become the property
of the English crown; and the problem which now confronted
James I. and his advisers was what to do with the land, which
was much too large to be cultivated properly by the scanty
population living thereon. The idea of a plantation or coloniza-
tion of Ulster, which was put forward as an answer to this
question, is due mainly to Sir Arthur Chichester, the Irish lord
deputy; its object was to secure the better cultivation of the
land and to strengthen the English influence in Ulster by granting
estates to English and Scottish settlers. Chichester proposed
that the native inhabitants should be allowed to occupy as much
land as they could cultivate, for he said, " that many of the
natives in each county claim freehold in the lands they possess,
and albeit these demands are not justifiable by law, yet it is
liard and abnost impossible to displant them." Even if this
advice were carried out on a generous scale, the deputy con-
sidered that there would be abundance of land to offer to
colonists, and also to reward the class of men known as servitors,
those who had served the English king in Ireland. He submitted
his ideas to Sir James Ley and Sir John Davies, two of the minis-
ters of James I.; they reported to the English privy council,
which signified its approval, and after the question had been
Qluniinated by Bacon's great intellect, a committee was ap-
pointed to make the necessary arrangements. But those
responsible for the plantation made one cardinal mistake, a
mistake which was to cost the country much in the future.
rhey rejected Chichester's idea of allotting land to the natives
on a liberal scale, preferring to turn them out and to parcel
out the whole of the forfeited district anew.
The forfeited lands lay in six counties, Tyrone, Donegal,
Armagh, Fermanagh, Cavan and Coleraine (Londonderry),
&nd the scheme for the plantation having been drawn up, the
necessary survey began in May 1609. This was very inaccurate,
tmt it served its purpose. The land was divided into three
lections. One block was set apart for English and Scottish
lettlers, who were not to be allowed to have any Irish tenants;
mother was allotted to the servitors, who might have either
English or Irish tenants; and a third was reserved for the Irish.
\ppIications were then entertained from those willing to take
ip the land, and imder Chichester's direction the settlement
iras proceeded with. The land was divided into portions of
:ooo, 1500 and 2000 acres, each colonist undertaking in return
CMT his grant to build a castle or a walled enclosure, and to keep,
rain and arm sufficient men for its defence. Moreover he must
ake the oath of supremacy to James, and must not alienate his
state to an Irishman. He was given two years in which to do
he necessary building; during this period he was freed from
laying rent, but afterwards he must pay a quit-rent to the
Zxovra.. A scale of rents was drawn up, the native Irish paying
it a higher rate than the English and Scottish settlers. Out
if the forfeited lands provision was made for the maintenance
4 churches and schools, which were to be erected in conformity
rith the scheme.
The work progressed very slowly and much of the building
ras not even begun within the required time. Then in 161 1
'amcs t., who had from the first taken a lively interest in the
4antation, sent Lord Carew to report on it. Carew's inspection
\ad not reveal a very favourable condition of affairs, and in
16x5 Sir Josiah Bodley was sent to make a farther report about
the progress of the worii. A third report and survey was made
three years later by Nicholas Pynnar, who found in the six
counties 1974 Britbh families, with 6215 men capable of bearing
arms. He said that even on the lands occupied by the colonists
the cultivation of the soil was still very much neglected The
words spoken by Bacon in 161 7 with reference to the plantation
had come true. '* Take it from me," he said, " that the bane
of a plantation is when the undertakers or planters make such
haste to a little mechanical present profit, as disturbeth the
whole frame and nobleness of the work for times to come."
Another survey took place in 1622, when various changes were
suggested, but no serious alterations were made. On the whole
the plantation had been a failure. . Very few of the settlers
had carried out their undertaking. In many cases the Irish had
remained on the land allotted to the colonists, living under
exactly the same conditions as they had done before the planta-
tion, and holding on " whether the legal landlords liked it or
not." As actually carried out the plantation dealt with 5x1,465
acres. Two-fifths of this was assigned to British colonists,
being divided about equally between Englishmen and Scotchmen.
Rather more than one-fifth went to the Church and about the
same amount to the servitors and the natives. The best settlers
were the Scots, although their tendency to marry with the
Irish was noted and condemned during the early years of the
settlement.
An important part of the plantation was the settlement of
the county of 0)leraine by the corporation of the dty of London.
Receiving a grant of practically the whole of the county the
corporation undertook to spend £20,000, and within two years
to build 200 houses in Derry and 100 in Coleraine. This was
the most successful part of the settlement, and to it Londonderry
owes its present name.
The expulsion of the Irish from the land in which by law and
custom they had a certain proprietary and hereditary right,
although not carried out on the scale originally contemplated,
naturally aroused great indignation among them. Attacks
on the settlers were followed by reprisals, and the plantation may
fairly be regarded as one of the causes which led to the terrible
massacre in Ulster in X641. During Elizabeth's reign a scheme
for the plantation of Munster was considered, and under Charles
I. there was a suggestion for the plantation of Connaught, but
eventually both were abandoned.
The '* Orders and Conditions of Plantation ** are printed in
Walter Harris's Hibemica (Dublin, 1770}; and in George Hill's
Historical Account of the Plantation in Ulster, z6o8-z62o{Be\l3LsUt677).
Sec also S. R. Gardiner, History of England (1899), vol. i.; and
R. Bagwell, Irdand under the Stuarts (1909), vol. L
PLANTIN, CHRISTOPHB (1514-X589), French printer, was
bom in a village near Tours (probably Saint-Avertin). He
learned bookbinding and bookselling at Caen, and, having
married in that town, settled in 1549 as bookbinder in Antwerp,
where he was soon known as the first in his profession. A
bad wound in the arm seems to have been the cause that first
led him (about 1555) to apply himself to typography. The
first known book printed in his office was La Institutione di una
fanciuUa nata nohUmente, by J. M. Bruto, with a French transla-
tion, and this was soon followed by many other works in French
and Latin, which in point of execution rivalled the best printing of
his time, while the masters in the art of engraving then flourish-
ing in the Netherlands illustrated many of his editions. In X562,
Plantin himself being absent in Paris, his workmen printed
an heretical pamphlet, which caused his movables to be seized
and sold. It seems, however, that he recovered a great deal
of the money, and in X563 he associated himself with some
friends to carry on his business on a larger scale. Among
them were two grand-nephews of Dan. Bomberg, who furnished
him with the fine Hebrew types of that renowned Venetian
printer. His editions of the Bible in Hebrew, Latin and
Dutch, his Corpus Juris, Latin and Greek classics, and many
other works produced at this period are reno^innfid icst. >^«ct
beautiful execution and atomcv. ^ tKMOa. ^\a\.« «sX«r^T>sR.
728
PLANTS
CryptDgUm
(CLASSinCAnOH
ic.-iniplxing i hidden mcUxid dl Rpnidiiaica
tic obvious method RprasUed bj the flovtf
.; vith the lid ol l good miaoKOfic it k,
hoBcvei, cuiu la follow Uie prozB of feftHiaiioD in DBiy
Ciyptogun) than hi the Sowcring pUnti. Thoc tm pal
divEiioDi uc moRovet of uneqiul nlue, la Ihe CilT*V
compciK Hvenl groupi diEeilDg [cDm each other bjr ■■'"-"—
" ' Kpuate tome ol them Inn Ibc
iwing piHipi or iiib-kiiifdiiiB n
iru plumed b^ him in tboM ytta — (he publication of » fiiU
polyfioUa, wbidi should £i the orifpul lut ol Old and Ni
TatuneotB on a adentific baiis. la spite of clerical opposition of the Pbaci
be was supported by PhiUp II. king of Spain, "bo sent bim the honevei. e*a
learned Benediclua Arias Montsnus to take the leading put in
the work of cditoiahip, Wilh his aealous help the vork was
finished io five yean (is69-ii73. 8 vols, folio). Planlin earned
Utile profit, but received the pcivilcge of printing all Utuivcal
booksfoi thestalesof King Philip, and theofilceoCpniiniypo- Phanerogams. The _ _
graphus re^us." TbouBh oulwaidly a faithful aon of the thoM wlucb an non generally recogniied^
diuTch, be was till bil death the partisan of a mystical sect of
heretics i and it i> now proved that many ol their books published
without the name of a printer came from hia presses (ogetber
with the missals, bnviaries, &c, foi.tlie Roman Citbolit
Boida the polyglot Bible, Plantia published In tboee yean
many other works of note, such as editiont of St Augustine and
St Jerome, Ihe botanical works ol .Dodonaeus, Ousiut and
Lobelius, the description of Ihe Netherlandi by GuicdardinI,
&c. In iJ7j bis prioting-ofiice reckoned more than twenty
ptessea and sevenly-three workmen, besides a Kmilar number
that worked for Ihe office at home. But in November rj76
the town was plundered and tn part burnt by the Spaniards,
aruf Planlin had to pay an exorbitant ransom. He established
Holli
Boughia
Tipher
>t Ldden, he left his rnuch reduced
ons.h.-Uw John Moereniotf [Monius) and I
nghen (Raphelengius), and settled there.
Antwerp was taken by the prince of Parma s
settled, he left the office in Leide
cwly erected u
L Antwerp to bis
udi van Ravel-
When in ijSs
Ld affaira became
to Raphelengius
■elisously le
PUnliniana," but from the aecond
the house began to decline, It o
possession of the Moretua family, w
tfiing in the ofiice untouched, and '
Antwerp acquired the old buildings wilh all their conlenla,
(the Musfe Planlin, opened August i«, 18)7).
Sec Mai RooHh Ckriilnflit Planlin inprinflir anfruli (Ant-
. iBjB).
1865);
{P. A
r.)
i is for
>r sapUng
ig of Lat. plania (for plam ,
iiu,£ai,cf.Gr.TXiir£ii, broad i /Jaiila thus meant a
It or sucker). Olher mcaniogi of " plaot " are det
verb " to pUnf " (Lit. flanlarc, to fii in position
IS used of the Siluies, machinery, apparatus
ildustry 01
'anged plot or
Cryptcsama
m
being used generally as opposed to
which ar
show the actual relationships of plants, is given in the article
higher or flowering plants {Phaiiera[ams), tharacteriied by the
lorinalion of a seed, and Ihe htvei or BowBiIes) plants (Cryffs-
by meani of uiakellulu bodict Itnncd iponi. Tta term
e or kfl leaf-like thaaus. k
^ms in which Ihe plant ><"-
g reraaritably ample Irat
re ic purely cefli^ arm
PLANTS
729
AHATOity OF Puim
Tin Icrm " Aialomy,"
rigiMUy employed
in biolagial
■dcnce lo denote > itocriplion of the Iicli ot stn,
ctuie reveilcd
on cullinc up in orguiui,
whether with oi «
ihout the lid
o[ kBH* for Ihe purpoa of
mipiifiaLion. ii r=
Irictedinthe
procDt »nicle, in icconUno
e with ■ common modem toe. to
those iicu of Inlenul uniclu
tion at I he individuil uJf,
he Knttlunl unit
of which the
pUBltotOOipPKl.
An ucDunt of (be stni
lure of ptinii Mturally begins
with the ceL which b the p
The.eeU i> euenti^y u 1
dividiuliied mt»
But tU cclb which »ie pcnnaneol liauc-elemenL
ot tbe pUnt.
body pouesi. in iddiiioo, > ni
™ or Im rigid limi
or aa-waU. cotuiuinc prim
■rily of oUuloee o
I tome ilUed
uibtUiKx. It b the cell-<rilb which connect the
diHetent celli
of 1 liBue <iee below}, ind iL
a upon Iheir chnnc
en (Ihickneu,
Kulptule »nd conilitution)
that the qualiliei
tacgtly depeod. in nuay c,
us, indeed, .ilet
^^^'
^ . ^ H. f .
I.— Eiampln of the diRcre
11. t,..
chlotoplui: I.W..
B. Pliat at the
ovoid, and coot.
u« the"cfii^pliB Im.).
s|si'sS
C, Biv
'bin"
)i hii icH chiorophrn thi
the olhen, indii
Algifl^Hta. The
lutaUKt nl the
rond >■ rude up by 1 ungle
n branches ««4. mil.
fesi^^S
Kra^tiie neduUi and
■cal bniKhtt, wh
ht tightly together. [otTnioE the coniinuou
•"^r^iTtE^'^h
the «.rfi« tiMiie
of the Brown All! Cwferia
m,Jl^J^ >howii.g th
wriacf liver 0
feWer of the«, Ibc «n<r.l cell, boini' a
CSectlan .bowing 1
ick-wilM celli of the totWi in 1 Brown Alzi
fS.-S'i.fSfc'"
(p.)™iblecon
ucuon to tike plice mdny
H. Two idjacent ce
I. (leptoid.) of
lood-ewiducting Mnnd in
f«L, (. Bm« m>w
Kd), The «U
''n^v:^^^^^^:^.
SS^Z'^Xt
(hick lignified will penetrii
ol (he cell-will (which is Kcreled by the living cell-body} the
proloplum dia, ind a liuue in which this has occurred coniiitt
tolely of the deid framework of cellwallt, enclosing m the
civltiet, originilly occupied by the protoplism, limply wiier
or ill. In luch cue* the chinclen of the idnll tiuue clearly
depend solely upon tbe cbiricters of tbe cell-willi, and it a
usiul in plant-anatomy lo speak of tbe mil irSb 'e:k •nSdw^
PLANTS
tAMAinn
if tbe hitler pluiu. TV una famckywia i> ippHal lo
ID icconiiDce [iBua wbaw celk ut iiodiunetnc or cyliudiicil io ilaiit,
1 wu ippUcd preltndiyma liuuca MDiiUiDI of looc outow ctUi, willi pontal
m ibe uulogy cndi.
I to muD the We nvy now proceed to ■ lystenutic Account of the uutnr
rotoplum, vhich, of ihc diHFnni groups ol pluu, beginning with ihe mikt,
ane, priniitively ind puiing to ihe niore complicated lormi.
ic body of tvery Tiaiiofliyla.—Tbe liinplol oieinben of both the Algu i^
" " "■ le Fungi (j.t,) (the l»o divimnt of tbe TluUapkyta.riait
lOiuiatM toe loHeUoI tbe [ourgmtgiDupiiiiio ohidi tbe plut-Linidoa
tyiimplnt li divided) bave tbcii bodies each compoKd of > iiB|1e at
n of these ceUi, In tbe Algae luch a cell coniiM* eaBcnlially of* (i)
'" '-■-'— ' T pioloplaim piovidcd with (i) ■ nudeua and (j) an a;
, apparatus consislliig ol a ulouied prolaplasmic body, caSiili
, dtromaOrfikort, Ibe pigment of which in tbe pi.
B, depending chlotDphyll, and which may then be called a ,
t cells and partly whole of tbne living lUucIuics are covered extcnully by Lk
iLy Tor Caddiicliail of focd HjbvtaiKTi. tbe bupcrficiaj cehtjll'
Khe> iheniKlvei are packed with chromalopboM asd ***
chief asdinitatlng tisiiic of Ihc pUni. In Ibe bulbr h™
a period colouflew branchee frequeocly grow ool fnns n -
from in ^^' ^'^^^ pv"blng among the alieady-fonHd tt
y , tudinal direction, terve to tlrengthen tbe thallo
\ here to otiginal thread* together- Tlie cells bdorqEing to *-, ,.
cf Ij/pcs of cell-form which chuacteriie liuuei may be [tcogniiEd ai an early ata(e <d growth, becw
«K«TOuvi PLANTS
b connaUd with ha Dd^hboun brtDn^nt to iKe aAme thnAil by
inff Iht pjit f4 the Iwo odjDininiE «!!■ is pirirnl by Rram^ of
protDpLuiiL ThF wholt trniaure, coouiins of the two pin %oA
crUa not belanging to the Hmt Branch, art, bouevtr, rormed at a
Many of the lawn- iormi of Brown Seaweeds (Phoe:}phyceaeJ haw
^ tEe
■ pitch at dabwatiD
oiid%i'i!^'
the RhodophyKae. In a Fc
t). and in the hiiher ftmL.
oT very lane tiae, llic plant-body it
-ruumolic (cdL-dividiiic)
(lbo<«h (Key havi
ve iHii, appllb ftlva (o the Erecn
m packed with chromatopborei
I.F). In theae browD typca with
biaceul (a the niperftcial anmiEilinf layer
learly colourCeA, parenchymaloii ceria, which
iuue (hi. 1, C), and umundiaceiitnl HadiiUB
ng cdk The latter are often mollen at the
laa-waU tepafatinE two auccesvve oeUi haa a
t the celh were t* gnifonii width along iheir
• connnian wJEb Elbe hyphae of Firnn), and in
73"
liar phnl. Ttila la eipcclatly tlie caae in
■janiama cDmpoied of a fungal mycelium
nvolvee the IcalLiatioA of the abaoniiive
of atHOfplion (which in ihc iimpJer forma
lie of the vp^ative paft of the myecUuin
Dnaed in a Liquid eobvralum) ia lubicrvcd
byphae of the lurface-layer of that region
(W of ibe Algae Uving on toil. teKmble
et planli. The vilrnul liina of Ihe body
, particalarry the elongi
cfie Agar' -
;ne Agarics, ct
. wh^Tno dou]
tOttdarimi} ~ milli-iulwi." teeallitH Ihe
ny vmcular iilanta, are found.) TheK
^queatty ihkk-walled. and in xune ouei
ich nuy Krvc lo reaiBt lornitgdlnal pulling
riy piarked in ccnain ticnenB of inrubby
e pngna of form and liuae-difleienti-
, me find thai, ilaning from Ibe limpleU
u> extenuJ differenliation of the body.
le in compleiity of organiiation every-
le principles of the division of physio-
adaplalion of Ihe organiiin to the necdi
Ibe fini place tbere b a diSerenlblioti
in forms living on a soft nutrieni lub-
d become absorbing organs. Secondly.
d froi
n of supporting a
I from
where assimilalion is slronely lotaliic
re highly specialized for the litter fun
1 1, slomge and a mechanically-strengi
or septate, coenocytii
mode of growth,
tubes {Sipbopeoe
cHEa, atrengtbenin
inch, Is almost universal in the group.
: with ainwft entirely among the higher
ich it found parenchyma produced by
ipical cell of the whole jhooi, or hy cell
"otaaiH^"'
[y tbidi-walled. and may strikLOgly n
, In ngcneral way this greater complei-
( (i) in the restriction ol regular absoip'
iris of the plant-body embedded in the
ion of water from the parts eiposed to
But these two principles do not find
It Bryophyies wiicc i» Mill ahrorbed,
but alia largely from rain, dew. Sc,
riace of the aubaerial body (IhiUus),
Jated forms through the leaves. The
nely simple vegetative structure.
in the large Red aj
d by the cutting oS of segments
^^l FLA
A Hifficint dncriplion o( Iht Iballiu <t Itw Inworu will be
lound in Ih* Hfticle BivorHVTi. Wt IMV now tht uoivdnl
occurrtncc on iKt lowtr lurfm e/ tlw tluUiu rf fciinB
t?I^ »«i nbwAing rhiioidi in jumrdincc witli Ibc ttmnrij
■*" lilr on loU ft). (Mixtaditan nmani Ihe Cnm Algitl.
The MtrduntacfM (« .rticic BhvophyiaJ •!"" coniidmbl.
edit, conAuiing o1 bnnchnl cell threadi packed wjih chfontpUni
and ariiini from ihc bual ctllt of laige caviiia in ike uppei pan
ol ibe tluiUiia, That civiiia m cooipleHly rosltd by a layer of
celli; in Ihe centre of the roof ia a pon URinuided by a rmg of
■pecia] cella. Tbe whole amngement luv a atroiw retemblBDCfl
and Irantpiring {waccr-evapontin^ a()pantua in tbc^ Uftt of
no luch diffcnniiaijon of an auinidaclnE (iiaue, Ibouflb the upper
celli of Ihe ihallui unially have nwie chkmpkyU lEan tbe reM.
In ihiee [cncn— dljUIia. Sympkymma and Hymimttliytiim —
(here are one or more Hranda or buiwea conwting of loqE thick-
walled fibre-like (profenchymaiovii) cdb. pointed at the mb and
ninnini longitudinallv through the thick midrib. Tht walla of
ihcae ollt are ttrongly iignined (i-r- coniiat of woody atibttance)
arid are imcvlarty but thkVly ttudded with limple pita (leo
Thw cell* are nor iivinfr in the adult uaie. ibouih ihey lonKEimn
contain the diaorganiacd rcmaina of proloptaim. They aerve to
.__^.._ "-ouBh the thaltui, rhe aaaimilatini parti of which
,.,_... ^... ^, _.,...™Siieli
they lorm kyirom. The
rd above the Bit and arc comp
taring (water-ahaorbing) regio
el the very long cylindrical c
■onium larwly independent c
supply of cUbcdiled
T"
■poTDEonium were proToi^ied downwania into Ae loil to ^>riii
■ Ajrinp and abvipiivc root, (he whole alructuie would becoBV a
phyiiologically independent plant, exhibidng in many though by
no miani all teipcai tbe leading Icslurea of the itBrtflijb or
ordinary vcEetative and tpare.beaTing individual in PteHdniAytn and
Pbanerogama. ThcK fBcti. anwng oihen, have led (o die iheoiy,
"■ " ■ (hia fporophyle 1^
n» dcpenden( upon the
. and the facta give ui
lology <Lr. mori^ological identity)
LCa of an Anthoci^tean aponxoniuin
hi|[her plan(L OppoartTta the
producing leaves and le
gameiophyte for itt wj
Bryophy(ea (he jparacnuvai never becom
^:^^
Hai. a»milaii
in or !«■ flunKaied cylindncal cellL Thebaaeof
numerDuiccll-lilaincnta (rhiioidi) which hx the plane
'body (Kametophyte) T< alwayi leparable
hfrpordng and conducting axia fitem)
- -. the plant and obaurbin'j warcr tton iDii. (For the
liitology o( the comparatively nmple but 10 many respect!
iberranl Bog-mauei ISphagnueH). (CO BaiOFDVIa.) The l(enu
i (he other moi9es rcicmblc one anoLhcr in Ihcir main hinolDgical
caiureL In a few casq there ii a special surface or epidermal
aycT. but usually all the outer layers of Ihe atetn are composed of
injwn. thick-walled, lignilied, prxMcnchymatotn, Abr^ike celli'
■ — _ -^rjp|^„[ iifreem (nurhanical or tupporlinf tiuuc)
(he «HftT ierSex. Thia paaiB gradually into the
iiving on mil is occupied by a
whiclt diner from IhcHC i' '
unli^nihed. and very leldor
In (he iUlk of th
hole luifacc al die plant Ibioiha ms. p»
wo cuea and during rain id the Ian. (he hydiHi
ich leduced or aL(ogMh«r aboeat. la acco^
a] principle airewly indicaft it is only wWi*
Ed (lA iriwrc the plant live* oa loil liv« which
and ends blindly — the kwer ei _._
band-ifaaped or star-shaped ao as to p
PLANTS 733
' ilZi'* * ^"iT '■"■^'^o''^ Within the limjti al tbe iponphytc gcnsmtioo the
Ibe hydroidi of the cniuiL c»|inAT o( the mirUl lum uc mixed "o pouMung ipecul Mumiliuw tnd Innipmng orpini, the
whjtlilBtlui^ihcrhLioiDeinoihjrPolylikhitiie. the gimetophyte of imny liverwort! and of aU the mowi.
lepUHn. lornunE ■ Danlle RHind the hydrom, and bounded ci- Alike in nnl, Mem mod leaf, we cm true ■ Uim-fiU iitiiiam
tenuUy by 1 mm or Inawrtl-diltneniUird esdodernib, ebuninc »/luii«iyj(emi»d;™ioo of which there ' "
flAan uiHularly cytindrical lacun: the latter «eparaleB (be central ,k»i„.
plant*, and vhich I* the e
' ■ bulky ■
„ ..». . - m and an Inner ttarcliy parfochyma- enlLated plant-hody. From Ihe primitive UDiform ^^t^
Fnq»ently.al».aco«ide«bfcdiHe™i!ialiDno( vegeuiivelimir mau of undiSerenlialed aaaimilating cella, which
)M bekw the capwjle al the lop ci( the aela. with a richly lacunar though auch an undiiferen Hated body ii only actually realiBd
cbkoAjphylloui parenchyma and etnaiata like thoie oT tlw wall dT in the thalluaof the lower Algae, there ia, li) on the one hand,
■he czpHile in (he Anihocerotean livBTWotta. Thu> tbe hiito- , ipecialiaation of a inrface layer reiiiLitini the immfiliatft
to BippoK that ihe« tinin have any homoJogy jphyk-eneiic •uhme.ged Aigs and m lubmersed planta of every group thu
eommuniiy of ixirs) with the ainiilai one* met with m tbeliiiber u Ihe aburptive and the main auimiiative byer, and may alio
ifcnm. by the production of mucilage be of uae in the protection of
The featmei of histological ilmctnre teen in Ihe Biyophytic the body in varioua wayi. In Ihe lerrcalrial planta it diSert IB
Kriia are luch ai we ihould eipect to be developed In re^ionae Ihe luhlemnein and lubKrial parti, being in the former pre-
to the ezigendea of increaaing adaptatioo to lerreatrial life on eminently aburptive, and in the lallel protective — proviiion
■oil, and of increaaing liu of the plant-hody. In the liverworti at the lame lime being made for Ihe gueouj interchange <rf
wc &i»i fixation of the thallua by water-abaoTbing rhixoidai in oiygen and carbon dioudc neceiaajy for rtapiraliDn and feeding
CETIain forma with a Localiacd region of water-aburption the This surface layer in the Typically nihacrial " aboot " of the
development of a primitive hydiom or water-conducting lyilem ; ipotophyte in Fleridophytei and PhaDerogam* ii known a* the
and in othen with rather a mauive type of thallui ihe d^crestia- tpidtrmii, though the name is reatiicted by some writs*, ob
tloa of a Ipecial aiaimilative and transiting system. In Ihe account of developmental difference*, la the surface Uycr of
Bort highly developed aeries, the mosaes, Ibis last division theshoot of Anglotperms, and by otheraeileaded to theurface
o( Uboui lakes the form of the diflcrtntUtion of ^Kcial assimila- layer of the whole plant In bglh thnc groups. On the other
live organs, the leaves, commonly with a midrib containing hand, ve have (i) an Internal diSerentiation of cgndncliHf Mum,
elongated cell* tor tbe ready removal of the products of aasimila- the main features of which as seen in the gametophyte of Bryo-
tioo;andln the typical forms with a localixed ibtorptive region, phytes have already been fully described. In Ihe Vascular Planta
a irdl-developed hydrom In the axis of the plant, as wcQ as this tissue is collectively kiiown at the vaicular lyiUm. The
nndUr hydrom strands in the leaf-midribi, are constantly met renuining tissue of the plant-body, a listue thai we must regard
with- In higher form* the conducting stranda of the leaves phylogenclically as the remnant of the undilTerentiatcd tisane
•re continued downwards into the stem, and eventually come of the piimilive tballus, but which often undergoes further
Into connexion with the central hydrom cylinder, forming a diSerentialion of its own, Ihe better to fulhl its characteristically
complete cylindrical investment apparently distinct from the vitalfunctlonsfor the whole plant, it known, from Its peripheni
htter, and eihihiling a differentiation into hydrom, leptom position in relation to the primitively central conducting tissue,
and amylom which almost completely paralleb thai found as (j) the cerla. Besides abooiplion, asslmilatiOD, conduction
among the true vascular plants. Similar ilifferentistioQ, and protection there is another very important function for
diOeridg in some details, lakes place independently in the other which provision has to be made in any plant-body of considerable
tedtratlon, the sporogonium. The siereom of the moss I* sixe, especially when raited ban the air, thai of nfporl. Spedal
found mainly in Ihe outer cortex of the stem and in the midrib tissue* (jUtuh) may be developed for this purpose in the cortex,
of the leaf. or in immediate connexion with the conducting syilem, according
Vaialar PCmUi. — In the Vascular Plant* (Fteridophytes, to Ihe varying needs of the particular type ol plant-body.
Lt. ferns, horse-tails, club Dosses, JK., and Phanerogams or The important fuocllon of oeroffni, by whldi the inner living
Flowering Planta) Ihe main plant-body, that which we v>eak of tissues of Ihe bulky plant-body obtain the oiygen necessary lor
In onllnary language a* *'thc plant,'* is called tbe tfotofMylt their re^lration. Is secured by the development of an extensive
because it bean the asexual reproductive cells oe iptra. system of HUemHular sfaca communicating with the external
T1>c gametophyte, which bears the sexual organa, it either air.
a ftec-Uving Ihallut carresponding In degree of dlHerentiation
hiwec liverworts, or ll is a mass of cells which In rebtkia to its tharacterfatic fuocdoa al protection, the epi-
qnropfayte. TbeK lecve not only to protect the plant ataiiut •liBhl
Tbe body of Ihe sponiphyte m the great majonly of the niechanical Iniuiy from without -' ----- -'- --
vaKular idant* show* a considerable increase in complexity paraiile*, such as fungi and bs
over that found in Ihe gametophyte of Btyophyte^ The P^^I'^Jil^rSrSTl^S
pefrnpal new featuH, In the external conformation of Ihe body ^.^^ ^SS t Ae ^^ .,
la the acquirement of " true " rrwCr, the nearesl approach to noma is ■urminded by a pair of peculiarly modifinl
vhid> In the lower forms we saw in Ihe " chliome " of Poly- epidermal ceMaealled/iiafJ-ailti (fig- 1. T). which aien and
•^""^ ■^'^TT't^p'^^r"™:^"^"'^ ^^'^^t.'nSS.^^'SSlSiSSrpS.'S^flSSSSS;
the prunary ans of the pUnt. From this, as well as from ,j, ^„ „ ^j of iCttoiat* on the s^omgnnlui. ol the tn^
varioo* parts of the shoot system, other roots may otigmate. , ' j.i-i^ «_.. i.T__.; (-__ -i ■
Tbe root diflets from the ihool in the character* of its surface i
Vmutt, in tbe absence of ihe green assimilative pigment chloro- \
phyU, in tbe arrangemenl of its vascular system and in Ihe OHMle
of growth al the apex, all features ' ■' "
to ita Dormally subterranean life aj
iji during cert
cpidermji. Kbov
» doubt detivB
encJofed by [uai
ei Ibe hydaihcxl
epiphylic plants i
Sonit''hyd«lMdM
bflrB produced i
ordinarily iuitoii|
ddSS'^*^
■t it it piuhed be
IN1« 735
Ibe una lor ■ DurpbefafiBlh' dcCnnl dHM wMcm. Jj. Ike Itpcoa
found in Ptcridcpayut ud Phucroniu vitb iti undAtcd cdl^
■od ■ eolinly piinlld with the nylcni. The Mve-iuba difer,
bowrvTT, fnm (^ tmclwidB in bciiw knoHdialdy uiDdHttd,
AppuNtlx coiuUnll)', ncK vith OAJUy parepchyoH^ but Wilb
l»iTiii:liyiiuiDu> ccUi, caaBinidt puikDlul)> ibuDdul pmdd
conicnia, which letin lo hivt 1 (uaaiDB intiduuiy connected *Ich
the ccMiductinE funccina of the Hevfrlube^ uta wKich wc amy
cnll firatrid-tdU- In Uie Aniioapfliiu thai ar' '' -:—
cdU of ■icvflube •ctmoiu ud an alkd
£^
Dt of vuculir Itwie i> ollel rtHal, ^"-^
of all rcQU (fill, jj ud lo). The cylinder i> H
e of one or more byen Qi pARDdiymilDUa cd
ir>niu»nFnlly lewnt
(coRV^BDdiu irith
nod noocycK toiet
When the protovyfcmft heve an intcrmnliaie pcAilion the irek ia
maarck (muy Ptcridophyi™ And nmc of the more primitive
Phanerorami), In ininy cuei cuicfnal prtupUatm, uninlly con-
lining ol nniTOW ueve-lubei often with iwoilen niJIi, cnn be
diitinpiiihtd from iwlapMiini.
Aft the primitive fttele at a Pleridophyte i« traced tipvardi
from the primuy itnt into the item, the phloem bfcomee con-
tinuoui mind the lylem. At the nme time the ^^^ ,|,fMi
ing in number ifig. 4), Soon n bundle goct ofi to %S^i^
the fits leif. Thb conditi oI • (iw nylcm elementv ^tll,
z BCgment of phtoen, perkyde/ nnd mually an arc et ^.^^
endodermii, which claea round the bundle u it dcuchen ""^
ilKlf from Ibe Bek. Ai the «ele ii traced furthtr upwatdi It
becoRiea bulkier, u da the ucceeiive leaf>biindln wliich leave it.
In many Pteridopbym the tolid haphmcle it maintained throuph-
out the axiL lo olhen a central parcochyou oi triiitfBi piui—
a new R«ion of the primitive uclar conjunctive— appan hi
Ibe nnlie of the lylem. In nwat Tcma iUenul pklanm nppeui
Lnalcnd ot a parepchyiaatQua pith tfig. sJ. SovetiiDca thii condition.
736
thud at amfUpU^ *a^I«Wt, <■ nuli
PLANTS
, Umarimn the
. ^iohty of fan, it ■ hi^Kt levd,
(RtUy in diunEicc, ■ luiNdltd
Tha tnK
KfandDf d
(Urthy iTfnu-piimfl^na. whkh, when IhF Tylem it bolky, uitialy
■ppur unoiH tlie Inrhrida, Ihe phloem ifu oCtca beug pine-
tnltdby BmiUr bands of ^Uorm-barffTKjhyma.)
Ja tbe other ^niupa of Fteridophyiei intcrTut pMoFra [■ ADC
fojod mad xn iniBnal endoderrms but rutly. The ctntrr of Ih«
^'^' togwhn bcini cluanl u (nmitl fum. To ihij type of
nt)chavinea"gn>und-iiwicnih,"iAitdierwiilioroithaiiii.iitTn>1
phloem, it riven the name liffomjjBit to dininguishil from the Kilid
KpiBiUU characienilic of the root, ibe finrt-loniied ponion of the
' ^ iriMslc fl( rtie
lofioil vduF. Knd it it better to caU
being caJlcd ■ didycilM. The ipU
Uf TeT!^' l" »me facni other miilpi^niM WJ*
tilt vucuui tube pUdnj th* iiith sdiI cma ia tiBBinir"*'
caJIcd ■ ilctyaililiL The ipUtliBE of of thit' ■mli'' ^
J. . .J J wboih' 11^ the «t«i«
utATOMYi PLANTS 737
In MliertaHtlw laf-fipt ue very bread UHlloDf. (he awniHl« u ■ Kris al mcIh amn^ed b ■ tiade file (IS):, ii]. In the
nsntioc tbem bring irdimd ts eampentiVEly ilender ilnndi. creeplnE Mem of one ipeciei (5. Lyalia) a polycydic lokDaaule
vhib there upment in each cap ■ oetmrk of fide vaiciilarlliRadt. is found eiuclly parallct wjib thai a[ the rhiwnie of fernL The
ictwecD iheae *' leaf 'trace " maoda and also wuh the mam cauLne « at in the fcrni. Tin
Such a ttnictDn may be h bapkntele. The dele
whoae relaikuii an not
dictjroatcLic oiiei additiooal darch collateral bundle*.
of JUdpiuUa obich
_ -ipkntele. TJ "-
wboae refailoni a
faaodaf itniiidB aie pmeot which do not form pan of the pnmajy ^em of each la
- - vaacidar tube. They uiiially run freely in the pith and right and a Left ponion
''^^'^- join the pumaiy tube m tbe neighbourhood of the 111 the metaxylemi joia
of^ps. Sometlmea a (smi^eie uternal vatcular cylinder, t. Tie whole Hele may
laving the uine H/ueture at the primary one. and CDncenlfic with mdodermitj aoroetimct
t, occurs in the pith, acid olhtrm may appear, internal to tbe fint i, aepuating the bundle*
'MoJo'Ha, Svcoi^ma). Junciioni of the hnt interval cylmdcr ndle poaieHci a leparaie
_ _.j. _. ... [l,^ nnmary (exlemal) cylinder at the leaf- Ici iLe lelation of the
of the •Kond miernal cylinc-. ._ ._
eloped (Marauiaceae} [ig. n- eparaled from
xy]eia bi
Ion are to be regarded ai peculiar typce of elaboratioa of
i, and probnbly act as revervon tor water-etonge which
dravD upon when tbe water wpply from the root ia
Kiltie bundle AiltJed'lor each 'leaf'ia - --"'"'---■
-gaphyllLiui " icrmg, on the other hand, (Fen
rrlativtly to the aem, the departure ot the I
Jr«d^ defciibed. In the hapl«teiic'fcmj the ieaf-tracE appean
a a iingie fliand with a tendency to aHume the ihape of a horae<
, — r- - -. , ,-- iphery of th*
crota-Kction. and thii type ii alio found in the more priRii- atde; is) ratiafT fmm mcurchy toeiuUcchy of theaehundleacor'
ivv *oieoo<tclic type*. In the more highly developed tornu, related wHh a great iocreas in lecondajy thickening of the lUle,
aalrrady indicated, (he leaf-trace b split up mtoa number of itnuida The teavei of the more primitive memben of this leriei were entirely
ftuch lenve (he bate and side* of (he kai-gip independently In fem-likeand poHeued a ferp-like vascular etrand; while in tbe later
be petiole these srraiHls may increase [n number bv branching, memben, including (he modem Cycads. (he leaf bundles, lemoiiung
od ibougli nanaUy reducible lo tbe outline of the primitive " bone- unaflecied by secondary thickening, are meurch. while those ol tba
boc," more or bsa elaborated, they may in some of tbe complex Kem-itele have become endarch. Beiidei the lypra forming tbia
olycylk dlctyoateUc typet (Maratiiaccae) be arranged In several series, there are a number of others (Medultoseae and allied lotma]
osKVatric circles, thus imitating the arranaement of strands which show numerous, often very compiek, types of stelar strvctuR,
jsued En tbe stem. Tbe evolution of the vascular structure of the in some cases polystelicwfwse origin sikI relationship with the stmplsr
HMe In the hi^ier ferns is strikingly parallel with that of the and better known types is frequenily obscure. Among the existiitg
TliBC ia good mson to believe that'lhe baplostele is primitive with tlut of the other eiiiting Ked -plants, pecul is ( Rnictures are
- - . those Pteridopbj^es which we have other reasons for eiliaKelar concentric bundles, 'Anomalous" secondary thicken-
z^^JZ cDAsideriag as primitive types, and essentially the same ing) which recall these complex types ol stdar structure in the
^^^^ type is found, as we have seen, in the independently fo«l Cycadolilices.
" developed primitive conducting system of tbe moss- The typical structure of the ^vscuUr cylincfer of (he adult
^**^'* stem. This type of ■icm_ is therefore often spoken primary s(cm in (he Cymrwspcmis and Dicotyledons is. like
iiphiphkK hnolDitele or pmtortcEe succeeded the sim^je (ecto- cular tinue encloling a centrsil parenchymaioui pith- jasSftista
1 the soienesUie, which was aeain succeeded by the dvtyeiltir. temal phloem (except as a special development in J"srs
idj^ycly was derivrd indepenoenily from monocycly in loleno- certain families) and no internalendodcrmis- The irylem and phloeiii
elic and in dictyostelic forms- In the formation of the stem of also, rarely form perfectly continuous layers as they do in a ipttno-
ly fern characterized in the adult condition by one of the more stetic fern The vascular tissue is trpicalty separable into distinct
IvaiKtd types of vascular siniciure atl stages of increase in com- F which is utuallywedge-
bicb HE are 1r! lo suppose, from the ev^ence obtained by a panted from one another
* in cf tbe adult fomit. muK have taken plan in (be prtmary midullvy rayr,
of the la"- T1.... » „.. .....p. ^.^L.',.,. ...» \^ rk* nl«',i- ohl* wl^lilt Wivn t^
_l) aid pf. ._,_..
/ groups of aiunu...
Tbe stde of most Lyccmoda Is a more or
the genus Lyapwmm a peculiar ar
r^^ a aimplE protostele, exarch-polyarch In one species s of It, patticulu-ly (he
^ fAusnsd). exari^-diarch in several (fig. lo) In other species, how- :imea alto theendocydb
w, > peculiar type of pdyMj la naet srlth, in sihkb the original are typically convened into ihick-walled hard (sderenchymaloas)
■ich Biele glws rise to so^alled dorsal and ventral stelar " cordi " tissue usually of the prosenchymalous (fibrous} type, which Is
lieh at bn lie on tbe sorfanoftbenimarystek, but eventually, imponani in strengthening (he stem, jwticularly in enablingu
B higher level separate from It and form distinct " irTDndary to resist bnJini ifrsini. The retalivety periplient position in
A^• rmmbllng tbe primary one. Similar cords may be fonned the stem of the pericycle Is important in this connexion. Vanoua
^ uhI may tsjwue Inm, these iBoiKlarT stales, thua giving rise winHlar; Hirulinu (seep- 741) also arise in theeileraalcan\wisun.
738 PLANTS
MoK of Iha eollkten] buddtca of ihu ■pcnuopfaytic lyfK of In ibe i
lipbonotHle an Ic^-lnce bundlrt, t*. they can be Inccd upwirdi of the vai
(roid any ^veo point till tbey an louod to put out o( the cytindfr, very after
Iravd tlrouiK the cattu ol the atcni and entci ■ kaf. The CDinpact i
remaJning buridln {etmpauatim humUriJ which cq la nnlcc up the bundle* n
' ' oQ Imm the leaf-tracer aod of vylem
'oilela o( ferns are nre in Ibe Sowerir
of ia?c> lituated at a hiibu level on the ueni. Purely
' ' 'ctten>)uchi>arefound
r Bowerini ptanli. The
of a ainile bundle only
(mi/iucif >>lv) : the number of bundlea of any ^ven loce » aloayi
oddi they Duiy eitbec be litiialed alt tocether befoie tbey leave
the Mete or ibey nuy be diitribuled al inletvali round the itele.
Tile median bundJea of tlie trace are ty^ally the tunati and at
any ^ven level of the (ten the bundlee deitincd for ihe neit leaf
aba^ are at a wbote larger Iban the oltiers ithich are dotincd
phloem of each b I
rvvi io the inicrvali between the adjacent bundle*. In other caiea the reduction Eoaniiicb (urtbee. tid the evSddni '
In Kmecaio Ihii individualiiation it carried further. Ibe cortex eveniJaLy comet lo uirrDund noihii« but u Intocdhilu ikud
and pith becoming continuout bttn-een the bundlet which appear formed in t^acr of the ttdu- Ititiie.
^*^^ bedded in a general thin plate of auiimiatmg liuue — the vskuIu lyiteia Dbi lU
Jj^^ inveumecl of tinue iteieom. form a hind of fiame»Drk ithich ii of fint jj^
external conjunctive, and novr chiefly, they provide a number d c'hanodi, peH- **
called pendtsm- The bundlet tome- traiing every pan of the leaf, along wb^h watec adi ^sahid
in .a ring corre^onding with the metophyll cellt. The bundle-oynem it at
tide, though the conlinuoui c^iin- cnune contijiuoui with that of the petiole
der no longer eiiitt Itpeciei of and item. The leaf-tHjndl» an alwayt
luiDtrn ai ajjEcfy. tn ioine aelelic waidt and the vylem upnrdi], even in
atcrat fNymphaeaceae) the number Femt, where the pedolar ttrandt are con-
of bundZea it greatly locreaied aiHl cenrric, and they have (be ordinary' meao-
they are icattcrerl throughout the detm and peiideim at the R^laieral
ground tisHie. A " polyttelic " eon- bundle. Tbe litter it often icleriied.
bundkii round common centre!. A item. Ai a bundle it traced iowardt iia
timilar phenomenon ii teen in two blind teimimitiDn in the metophyll the
widely teparaled cencra of flouer^ peridennic Kereom inn dtuppeart, Ihe
ing pUntt: Fnmijfi | XaruWa and tieve-tubee of ibe phloem are replaced by
^■■■■rpQ (Halorageae). narrow elongated parenchyma eejti. whicb
The monocatyredoni. one of the toon die out, and the bundle endl with a
primary divliiont oI anBlolperma. itrand of (racheidt covered by the pbbeo-
». 'som.SSirp^hTBu. cw= layer, 01 diBppenriiw altogether
takV^nt. KidiT^wimJij- IBg. 3). The matt irf conjunciive
it ofleo Sbrout (fig. l6). It i> poiBblc to uippoie that Ihia con-
dition it derived from Ihe naielic condition already referred lo.
bui the evidence on the whole leadt to the conclution that it hu
aiuen by an increate in Ihe number of the bundlet wilhln the ttele.
739
n ud inull de«^Dp-
udmil* oF ft decuiofi
— - _ 1 (PsMver-
ic.j nwm elf ctUi with lala-liVt conlcnn
1b Kpaniiof the individiul ceEU do not brvtk
lb* body <■( * visctilitr pluil Is developed io the Gnl place
iff repeated diviiioa of the leniliied ca ind Ibe growth of
^frtt^. the product) of division. The body ihus lormcd
^itm^mt ft called tbe embryo, and this develops into the adult
^**— g^ plant, not by continued growth of all ils pans as
**'^*' in an animal, but by kKallzalion of the regions of
^ll-clivai<Hi and growth, such a localized region being called a
pWiMf-^m'sl. This localiiation takes place Ant at the two
tbe prinury Toot, and the aKending the primary shoot. Later,
tlic Mta bisDches by the forjniLion ol new growing-points, and
io thii way the complex (ystem of aiei forming the body
al Ibe oTdiury vascular plant is built up. In the flowering
grants the embryo, alter developing up to a certain point, itopi
powins ind rests, eoclosed within the icei, ll b only on
" germin'tion "ofthelBtlerlhji the development ol the embryo
othel
M plant ii begun.
■m the eg
hand, ilevelopnienl
The inple diviiion of tiuuei ii
r^ry cvly period of development-
»cfare (he testing nage i> teache.
Kiwc leaf Is formed very early, ai
id bases of the leilln
_. ,»im.itiveB.r ■ - ■
9 the pruDary n
dophyles.
y PiendDphyies th<
ous wilh the cylindti
Hirface byer of the root soon be
-^ riving IWK. In nine Pleridop
led Is wed(e-iha[«d, in others prismatic^ in
' -— .."■ iS frnn the em] of the prism tu
Ibc diBeiatbtfaM cl taf -bmidk*, wUck
w nff gftk* lu
dwlbel Tbi
dcnkped. Wk«~a~iu|»^cd pM~ii
btcomc* ob^oiH very cuiy, lad *- — — -
Kfiuala iaitiili litutsl bdov th ,,-
It the ipo, tUt H mlly Uw Tggwp^TuK dnnictioa MHattt
Mhr (Bd csRicil imliili, il 11 ovu, bdof- *■ i> n dtca Ik OK
impanilili to inaka out. Tlit voutu tiinn <t the lUlu nilafc.
te (tecM ol tW nndieed BphDoauP^ chu<»n^tk^ Iteifnt^
cloBtittd cdk ■ <USiRiiix ptoduudl
lad Iht bcTMad ,bcquEiiC)r si Iob|
mepn JmU^. The pntoKylcfB Mai
m few ecib ma the Imier ud «itv
■BfBoita of endocvde mi
bat the tm tima Bmr nit la die
■tut •tsB iluifMher, aad ■ Ins of
(the DMDdnJbktl beixo thtni o
the ccfltral cdb hq^ pKe by ihcii
dlfferanialiaa ol tliiue « eadi Mt.
the primuy bundle puan iti^iht
■ccoodiry omK by e cuabium, and i
tbg two procan The diflnoiliatioi
ufuaUy taka tho Iwm cf a fcloived
to Uk oidocyck and saTti ri the «;■, tiha slaa ia wot on
later tlun ibc lomiaiHa OS the prioaiy vaacuar itnad. la ne
very frnuenlcua where the bundlabaveonddl " —^—
j(y, the bbnxu " pericyeUe " ap very dearly baa
oulernuin la thecaJyHnHH. whicbinariHtotliena-aKM'il
DKon4edou u the pUilenw kytr aa w^ The tumS: "*
«U ihU at Ibe apei. modiKa the conn, B which the pItoM
layer beloafi u Monocxinledooa; and the Jfariar, wlkh B HA
alwayi ibaraly lepaated (nun Ibe paiblem. (iva (iie to tt( OB^
cyGader la alew cUB the bniadaria ol the diBDOl Iqa
an KM tncablt The protonleou and the phtoeai waaA *
devdoped ilitiutdy. juU wnhis (be cum Baiit si wja^
cylisder. The iMerenlialUH o( aecaxylcB toHowi mni% ■
the type tt rool-Bele. aad, fiiiaDy, any ntnoa tiMC bbt he ■
develop^. DilFerenitatioali very much aoce npd—u. Ae HM
ue cDmpkiely tornicd DiKh Barer to the apea. tliBB it tbt (■■ ■
The Bem. Thii ii owiai lo the ekmutiM kbob 0> "hkh poo
- priXophloem aloae are (ffllcrtnt
cricyde. i
aacfflve . ., ^i__
a bnrAva throoab the cortex of the ■lo*"'
. inio the •SlThe coueuoDt d lu Mk^
uU « made .crn. the pericyde .< ite lq«
ii coniwuon with the raitn e( Ob (■'^JJ
pcricyele. but lomeiiBin (ram mhtr |«tirf*
In Rial of Ih* Kdtlln J Pieridophytea, in tbe MobuuMjW*!
and in anniu] pluU unong the DicolyMoo, itaR h «
further growth of much Mnirlural impottaoc* in the
tluoa ifm diHerentiation tana the prini(r]p ncri-
tlemi. But in nearly all pertnnUl Dicotyledan,
, in all dicDtyledononi and tynnoapenDaiB liea and
^
AtUTDinq PLANTS 74 1
ud in (twil PleridophylQ belorginc to tH Ihc graZ groupi, '• Jamaica h ""fihiJ? T")?*' """nSh? ?* 'T''™' ''f""^'' '"
■oislcmitic Uyta tit tailed latmdary maiiUmt. There »re «oe» « <ii9eniitiatioo. put being dtvel^ied ■• imyteni. mn u
J^<iW«c^nd.ryinen.,e™. he ««*,«- «d the ;*j;/o^ ^r.^l^lt p^^^fi^'ofrS^^pMo^™ J^f™fJ«
Ibe (ormiliDO of KconiUiy tmues a chinclecunc o( met „( ^ phloein-p«f.ncK)™i. bul oevupy tia lop .nd boium iell.
toody pUnti, lo whatever clan the)' belong, Eveiy gn*1 niwi of the medulUry ny^ Ilie middW com cDnsuini o( Drdiiury
phyluni of vucuUt plunll, whtn it hu beoiinc dom;- itMrchy ctlU. Tlie lop ind bottom row. of the lykMn nvi .te often
lie «eKet»tion of the wMld, h»s produad memben nilh S^lf'^"„'^^diJ'l"'i|^d^n'^t^^^ .^ „^™iSw
by the formation of i thick woody Inmk, ^,5 ihT^inTry trmSi^tS'tl.^^^litr^^mXy l^'^b^'^'Jid
'^J" iJSi TSd '
of eambiiL acIivKv. ind at lainai laytr of celLi
■dr< allenuttljr ooplhbutinf to the Kvlern and to the phioem. A
fauc KKNlicr-ceU o( the lylcm may. in the moii idvannd typei
]) ■ lylm-fibR : or (4) ■ venial file of lyfem-pirEnchviii* eelli.'
a tbm \aM OK ihc motbcf-ccU divldn by » number of Aoriieaul
(Bmcnt a('t^«^be irilh in arnipafumiaUw nNti ™a phtoeia
JbR; i3) a tingle phloem^parenchynu (camluforTD) cell, or a vertical
fc ai thon paRKhyna eelia. At certain points the cambiun
hnea HM give riae to nylem and phloem elenieniB. but cut* oA celli
iaxm of paniichyma celk u fo^ined itretching in one plane Ihrouch
he sykn and phloem. Such a eell-plaie ia called a mtdnUcry ny.
t la fiHenlially a livinf tiatue. and aervca lo place all the living
-"* ' -■- aeeondary ' ■ — ■-- '
luU o( Hardh <
y» Hmple. cannAing menly of tracheae j
ated with amylom- A cbaractcriktic pt
annedcd with one anoilwr. the bte uimmcr wood' ia compoied of radially narrow Ihkh-walled
have very ihicW walla and tracheida, the wood til the tucceeding ipring bring wide-celled and
iniral rather than aa water- thin-walled, n that the limii of the yeari jiTowih i* very well
' conluied centre of the trunk fiequenlly undergoei marked change* in chanc
hyoaAIou* *)neen; btit their pita are alway* bordered, though in become hardened, owiiu to the depoiit in ihem of &p«ial lubttancea.
M BMreme mw they are redoced to men ilita In the wall. The Wood thui altered Is lEnown aa heart-wood, or iiiramtn, a* di*-
ew-tube* of the fKoridary phloetn uiually.have very oblique tinguithed from the young Mp-wood. or af^nuiw. which, Eorming
■dial lide-walli. function* of the lyleiii. particularly
imcnti juB deacribed are found only In the mm hrait-wood ceaae* to be of any uie to the tree except aa a Mppon,
aeeondary vaicular tiiauea of eenain Dicotyledona, but owing to it* dryneaa and hardnei "' ' ' ' ■---'-
.1. — 1...:.. : .._:... — u. ,1 ! :-. :.-■ -itfaTTiota. The great hardn. .. — „ ... „ „
coiairWable evolution in complevity can be traced in patting induitriarpurpotet. The great hardnoa of teak it due lo the till
poa the ainplete form of xylem and uiloem found in the primary depoaited in the heart-wood, and the aiieeial colouring mattert
MOitar tittue* both among i^eridophytet and PKanengann varioui wooda. luch aa tatinwood. ebony, Ac. an confined to t
!*■ nerely tracheae and aieve-iubei. reapcrtivelir ataociated arith ally hanj, remaini toft and eaiily rota, to that the trunk of the ti
UHchyma. which in the former caie la uiually amylcan. i.(. contlili frequenily becomes hollow, at it commonly the caie in the willo
iHchyma. which u the former caie la uiually amylom. i.r. contlit
acveB<oataining ceila. and in the latter of proteid cella, Thi
ne la found in nearly all Pteridophytet and. ao tU a* it known, in of a tree, according to the ipteii
IjKBilofilieea. both m primacy and aeeondary tliaoe. Hie nemn ycara in the oak. forty yc*r> in die
ilJiytetarrf, ti/fiiia* u_known. in id a tree, ajrording to the^ ipeeiea e^ after GInen to t
742 PLANTS iMiATOiiY
In nuny annual pUnli IW Clmbium i> foniwd at ad, and IhE Hcnu oTdww liaoM. SsnlMillin ■!« oririnl cuabal IBf ■
nme d truv of mofl perennial HicriilDphyioi and Moncxxtiylnloni, broken iauiev«n] aiciiCAchol whkb k coniplet«d iflu aa iidepH-
f^ ikim ^^''■('Ji (he voicubr ti£iuc of inch pbnlt ii arranocd deiiLdrcle. eo that Kvcnl indepeDdeflt ■cofubry Yucuhrciliwn
r*7~™ in Kparalc bundle! Iboe are nlit to be cleiti. The are lonned. The fannatioii of kMiiuhuI cuibul cyluditi «
Imsamt. t,„„j(^ g[ p|a„„ ^j,^,, [on„ cambium an. on Ibe bindt occuniB Ibe nm vsrioiB bmllia of DiconiokBaida
conlmry. called epn. In tlcnu wiih open liunellei Ibe (onulion tonw GymKHpctin*. Thvy my ariie in ihe inicyTk m «il«>di
dI cambiuin and tecondiiy <i*«ie ruy be confined to Ihew, when it of the itde, in dieoHUicif ibencin. or in tlw pairnchyoa ol ibc
■I HJd to Ix entirely ftitkul^r. In that caw dther very liiile leiondaty lyfcm or phloem. Tlie Kiivity << ihe neo cjnihua
Kcondary tjtuue it fonned* u in the gonrd^* aomc EUnuncuWeae, a often atwciated wiih the iroppajfe of Ib« Dn^ina] one- Sook-
Ac-, or a ntmideraMe amoant may bepncluced (flcnutn. barberry, limes (be activity of the lucceHive cambiuma nmply rculuiaik
ivy). In (be latter event ihle cfLIa oi the primary rayaare either fonnattonof concepiricrintiorarcaof aecondaty a^-lcmindplikvn-
■nerTlyKrcIchcdradiailypOriheydividelokHppaccwiuilhefrowth ' ' ate aTTancement of tccoiHUr>' ima
of the bundlea. [f Ihb diviiian occun by meant of a locqlixvd touiblc to
Hconclnry neriilen connecting the cambaal layrn of adi>«nt Iven folloi
bunJIn. an in/frfotciatlor n formed in addition to the faricicular lepaiateii
cambium. The intetfaKicular csmbium may form noihina but ruoAingin
parenchymatoua tinuc. piodudng merely continuaiknu o< Ihe tly ever («
nrim.irv rayi. SuEh nyaai* usually broader and mofe conspicuoui Kcondary
e KCondary rayi formed wiinin the wtdm of wood oppnite Ff riv CKte
imary iHimlles* and arc dialincuiAbed as priMnpat rays wtrandary
fciher. Where Ihe Himaty bundles are laitbcrnEiart, lo that the Thea
riain radial band* oi the primary ny. and between the«e, *«ipea forms n
■ecpfidary xylcm and phloem: or, finally, secoridary aylcm primary,
cicular alilu, interrupted only by it Is con
- - _-a: aOtnd by the bii
_.- - -..ondary xyien, the bays ar pushed qqiaaidt 4S
nowih pTocvds. and the wavy line Decomea a cirtit Opp^
Ihe primary ayleinii the ambiuin either (a) forma pueadiva ea
both lidei. oukinf a broad, •econdary (principal) ray. kIkI iiv-
.1 liar rin« and is divided ■< iU inner eatieniiT by Ik
'■ylemjor Ifl) forms icniiidaryaylem and pU«B
lay. completiiig the vaieiibr riw. In either tab
ary rays are forcncd at intervals, jisi as in lie tfA
n old thickened stem, and so far as ihe vatcutarlhu
InguiahedfRmr the latter by thi_-
maiy lylema. Thf tanbion of tbr
■rilh that of the prii
ean often only be disEinguiahed fnmr the latter by the
orientation of the pnnuty aylema. The ambimn of ibr pnBi7
Ruti logelber with the tiiiuea which it (oims, it always <lina4
uently associated
he acliviiy of the original
iriHKly dicDiyl«fon
nirt in varioui famiUn of
moiig Ihe woody cUmberi,
nthesimpl»tca»
the cambium produ
CCS lylcm more freely along
Mhp, other*, so iKal Ihe
and Ircomcs <1 iotical or
oWd 'iTIIcI™?^
dl t^Kn'M^ham
others the wnindary phloem it pradimd mon
lundanily in than
-.t^i;afs.t,s
condaiy aylen Is deficient,
:ion..lhepia«mo«upyin|
K l^ys l°efi in thi
lyk'mmasa. Somet
ctJve round Ibeeebl
ra and joini acrois Ihe out-
dTol the bay, wf
mal activity, thus holatlBt
phloem strand. or
asitissoqietiinBC
ltd,arJU<>r<<iitfa>>d^indK
n«t« of the xylem.
Theiipnificanreoll
«.7J-Jil'-
tea*,, it not fully unS^
jprimaryslel.
in rools follow Ihe same lines » (hose of the :
In nearly all i^nts which pmduce tecmdary vanhr tiaiB
by means of a camtnum Ihere is anal her layer of tecondaiyMnn^
arising externally to. but In quite the same fashioa as. j^^^
the canbium. and producing liia Ibe latter an external ^^^
and an internal wondaiy luwe. This is the f*^^ fH^m,
the corten. or in the pericycle. Its most usual tnt of origin •<>■
stem is the eHemariai-er of the csnea immcdiaidy bdea J;
epidermis. In the root. Ihe pericycle. All the tiuuetQicfHl leoe
corli are can off by the planl. The eitent of develoiviM ■
the phcllodcrm it dependent upon whether the phdloial'si
superlicial DC a deep-seated origin. In Ihe former ease ite ItfW
of phelloderm is inyial in amount ; in the laiier. {oosideisWi. •■
this tissue has lo njdace the caat-ofl conex, as a metsboki^
particularly a storage tissue. ,
tissues and thaektemal air after the lonnaitfn of cwi. 1^ t^^
velopment of ffit'V'fr. These are special organs s.hirh i^^
interrupt the continuity of the impenmble ia}^ of ^^
ordinary corli<cIla. A knticel it lonned by the pbelhipaB)
given spot dividing very actively and giving rue to a loesriBBt*
rounded cells whict soon Lose their contenu. and bettieen MA ti
canpisslDtheIi»uesbelow|fig.ijK AlenIicelappear<n><h>aiM
eye as a rounded or elongated scar, often farming a disiiact piw*'
enceoathesurfaceofiheoigan. 'Pielenticelsof ihestcnarto^
T,*ait4»—j.'v
F of Ibe iinici
^^.JXabmUi Grew aod lb
tsneously published UJustrH
they dociibcil, foe the most
«Filb tbe neo instrumeoll.
Sor newly « ctntufy Md » 1
of dusificilaiy botuiy un
«( tlic nature i
yoons plant liu
Contemporary Lii
«f the (»"« d1 Mnmure. Tl
PLANTS
daciibed tfci I
7+3
LTuciiire without altemptlo^
w of thtlr meaning. He
lo fit them into preconcci
produced a (olid body o( «
lormed the lecure groundwotk ol lubsequent advMce. Irom
Mohl down to the eighth decade of the century Ihe tludy oT
loaiomy viu enlirely in the handi ol a group ol Cennan involl-
galon, promtnenl among whom weie several oI the most eoiinent
founders of modem identiGc houny — such, lor instance, at
NlgeIi.Sania and De Bary. To the fim we owe the secure
vascular strands ol the higher plants (" Uebcr den Bau und die
AnordDung dcr GellssbUndd bti den Siamm und Wuridl der
Phanerogimen," ScUrati lur oiiicnstlujlliiitH Btlami, Kelt
i., Leipiig. iSj«); lo the second tbe establishment of the sound
lorpholc^cal doctrine ol the central cyli
the I
jrthea
I of the f
leral
1 of the UssiKS, and the first dear distinction between
primary and secondary tissues {Belanistke Zeilung, iStii and
iS6j]; to the last the putting together of the tacts of plant
anatomy known up to ihe middle ol the eighth decade of the
century in that great encyclopaedia of plant anatomy, the
Vai/tidandt Anaiomit icr Vtccloliaiuortaai bti ilcR Plianm-
(SHCH Kud FdrncH (Stuilgart. 1S76; Eng, trans., CompatBlat
Aiwlimy 0/ 1*1 V<{clBliK Ort'n) sj lie Fkannofamj and Font,
Oxford, 18S1). In 1870-1871 Van Tieghcm published hii
grut work, "Sur la Racine," Aan. sci. nal. .'<U. (Paris).
This wu not only in itscll an important conltibulion to |^nt
anatomy, but served as the starting-point o( a scries of researches
by Van Tieghem and hit pupils, which has constderahty
advanced our knowledge of the details ol hitlology. and a1»
culminated in tbe foundation of the doctrine of the stele (Van
Tieghem and Doullot, "Sut la polystiilie,'' Ana. id. nal. M.,
liSj; Van Tieghem. TraiU de teUHi^ui {md ed. Paris,
development in recen
In the progress of 1
of De Bary't great work, llveortii main lines o
ditlinguithed. First, the knowledge ol the details .m^^,^
of histology has of course advanced greatly in the PninMmml
numerous, mdnly German, workers, though no fundamen-
tally new types of tissue have been discovered. Secondly.'
the histology o( fossil plants, particularly woody planli
of the carboniferous period, has been placed on a tound batit,
imilated with genei ■'■■■■'-
iceplioj
If plant ,
t, founded by Coria,
lany. wat enormoutly
Coal Measures plants.
though again without revealing any
structure. This branch of tl
GQppert, Sienicl and others
advanced by Williamson's worl
recorded in the irugnilicent series 01 memoirs, "Kesearcnes
on Ihe Organizalfon ol Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures " (FM.
Tram. Ray. Set., vols, i.-iu., i8)l-iSgj). The work of Soliat
Lauhach in Germany, Renault and Bcrirand in France, and
in recent years, of Zeilltt in France, and Scott. Seward
and othen in Eingland. has advanced our knowledge of (he
anatomy of fossil plants in an important degree. While con-
vincing us that (he plants of past ages in the earth's history
were eiposcd lo very simihir conditions of life, and made very
much Ihe tame adaptive responses as their modem repretenta-
lives, one of the main results of this line of work hat been 10
reveal important data enabling lis lo fill various gaps in our
morphologicaL knowledge and (0 c^tain a more complete picture
a( the evolution of tissues in the vascular plants. One ol the
most striking inddenls in the progress has been the recognition
within the last few yean ol the caistcnce of an eilincl group of
plants lying on Ihe borderland between Filicalcs and Gymno-
specms, and known as the Cycadofilices, a group in which,
curiously enough, the reproductive organs remained undii-
Kivered lorsome time alter the anatomy ol the vegetative organs
was sufficiently well known to afford cleat evidence of (heir
Irue affinitio. Thirdly, we have to record very considerable
7+4
PLANTS
tPHVSIOlJOGT
progress in our knowledge of distinctively morphological
anaiomy, i.e. the study of tissues from the standpoint of
evolution. The Russian plant-anatomist, Russow, may be said
to have founded the consideration of plant tissues from the
point of view of descent ( Vergleichende Untersuchungen fiber die
LeilhUndclkryptogamen^ St Petersburg, 1872; and Betrachtungen
Uber Leithiindd und Crundgewebe, Dorpat, 1875). He was ably
followed by Strasburger {Uebcr den Bau und die Verrkhlungen
dcr Leilungsbahnen in den Pflanien^ Jena, iSqi), Haberlandt
and others. The explicit adoption of this point of view has
had the effect of clearing up and rendering definite the older
morphological doctrines, which for the most part had no fixed
criterion by which they could be tested.
Since about 1895 this branch has been most actively pursued in
England, where the work of Boodle and of Gwynne-Vaughan
especially on Ferns) has been the most important, leading to
a coherent theory of the evolution of the vascular system in
these plants (Tansley, Evdution of the Filicinean Vascular
System, Cambridge, 190S); and in America, where Jeffrey has
published important papers on the morphology of the vascular
tissues of the various groups of Ptcridophytes and Phanerogams
and has sought to express his conclusions in a general morpho-
logical theory with appropriate terminology. As a result of this
activity Van Ticghem's so-called " Stelar theory " has been
revised and modified In the light of more extended and detailed
anatomical and developmental knowledge. Schoute's Die
StelHr-Theorie (Grdningcn, 1902), gives an important critical
account of this subject.
Fourthly, attention must be called to the great development
of what is called " Systematic Anatomy," i.e. the study of the
anatomical features characteristic of the smaller groups of
flowering plants, i.e. the orders, families, genera and species.
Radlkofer (1883) was the first to call attention to the
great importance of this method in systematic botany, as
providing fresh characters on which to base a natural classifi-
cation. Soicredcr's great work, Systematiscke Anatomic der
Dicotylcdonen (Stuttgart, 1898-1908; Eng. trans., Systematic
Anatomy of Dicotyledons, Oxford, 1908), brings together so many
of the facts as are at present known in an orderly arrangement.
Theoretically this branch of the subject should connect with
and form the completion of *' morphological anatomy," but
the field has not yet been sufficiently explored to allow of the
necessary synthesis. The true relation of " systematic " to
" ecological " anatomy (see below) also awaits proper elucidation.
Fifthly, we have to record the foimdation of the modem
study of " physiological anatomy " (i.e. the study of the specific
functions of the various tissues) by Schwendener {Das mechan"
ische Princip im Bau der Monocotylen, 1874, and other works),
followed by numerous pupils and others, among whom Haber-
landt {Physiologische Pjlanzen- Anatomic, Leipzig, ist ed., 1884,
4th ed., 1909, and other works) is pre-eminent. The pursuit
of this study has not only thrown valuable light on the economy
of the plant as a whole, but forms an indispensable condition of
the advance of morphological anatomy. A great deal of work
still remains to be done in this department, which at the preset
time affords one of the most promising fields of anatomical
investigation.
Finally we may mention " ecological anatomy," i.e. the study
of anatomical features directly related to the habitat. A very
considerable body of knowledge relating to this subject already
exists, but further work on experimental lines is urgently
required to enable us to understand the actual economy of plants
growing under different conditions of life and the true relation
of the hereditary anatomical characters which form the subject
matter of " systematic anatomy " to those which vary accord-
ing to the conditions in which the individual plant is placed.
On these lines the future of anatomical study presents almost
inexhaustible possibilities. (A. G. T )
Physiology op Plants
The so-called vegetable physiology of a generation ago was in
irrcar of animal, and particularly of human, physiology, the
study of the Utter being foUowed by many more obienFca,
and from its relative degree of advancement bong the dor
capable of rapid development. It was IvSStf rccocuaed by
its followers that the dominating influence in the stractnc
and working of the body was the protoplasm, and the <fivisiai
of labour which it exhibited, with the accompanying or resok*
mg differentiation into various tissues, was the special subject of
investigation. Many who followed the study d nfet^
structure did not at that time give an equal prominence to ttai
view. The early histolo^cal researches of botanists led tka
to the recognition of the vegetable cell, and the kading viitm
in the middle of the 19th century pmnted out the pfobible
identity of Von Mohl's " protoplasm " with the ** saroode " d
zoologists. They hiid great stress on the nitroceooos mtflt
of protopUsm, and noted that it preceded the fonnalkn oC tte
cell-membrane. But by the ordinary student of thirty jtm
later their work was to some extent overlooked, and the offirf
assumed a prominence to which it was not entitled. Thestd^
of the dijfferentiation of prdtoplasm was at that time addM
undertaken, and no particular attention was paid cither 10
fixing it, to enable staining methods to be accurately appied 10
it, or to studying the action of chemical reagents upoo it It it
only comparatively recently that the methods d hitfnhgicil
investigation used by animal physiologists have been caic^
and systematically applied to the study of the vegetabk oi|»
isms. They have, however, been attended with voodoM
results, and have revolutionized the whole study cl ^ifrliHr
structure. They have emphasized the ttatemeats oC Vos
Mohl, Cohn, and other writers alluded to, that the pmufbam
is here also the dominant factor of the body, and that all ik
peculiarities of the cell-wall can only be interpreted in the E^
of the needs of the living substance.
The Nature of the Organisation of the Plants and Ike Rddim
of the Cdl-Membrane and the Protoplasm,— This view of ik
structure of the plant and this method of investigstioa ksd ■
to a greatly modified conception of iu organization, and sforf
more completely an explanation of the peculiarities of ioa
found in the vegetable kingdom.
The study of simple organisms, many of which cooast d
nothing but a little mass of protoplasm, exhibiting a WT
rudimentary degree of differentiation, so far as our melMi
enable us to determine any at all, shows that the duties d
existence can be discharged in the absence of any cefi-^al
Those organisms which possess the latter are a little ki|kr ■
the scale of life than those which remain unclothed by it, bit t
comparison of the behaviour of the two quickly en^)ks as H
say that the membrane is of but secondary importance, aai
that for those which possess it, it is nothing moce than a pattK-
tive coveririg for the living substance. Its physical pcofiertiH^
permeability by water, extensibility and dastidty, nai»
their interpretation in the needs of the latter. We ooai^
accordingly, to regard it as practically an ezoskeleton, sad k
functions as distinctly subordinate to those of the protofli^
which it clothes. If we pass a little higher up the acak d ft
we meet with forms consisting of two or more ceOs, taA i
which contains a similar minute mass of living snbstaaA A
study of them shows that each is practically indqxodcstof Al
others; in fact, the connexion between them is so slight ^
they can separate and each become free without the slightest 4^
advantage to another. So long as they are connected tacdk*
mechanically they have apparently the power of ii
one another in various ways, and of passing liquid or
materials from one to another. The conjoined orgsniaaik
in fact, a colony or association of the protoplasmic units, thi^
each unit retains its independence. When we pass, agsik
from these to examine more bulky, and consequently w0
complex, plants, we find that the differences which caa htdk
served between them and the simple lowly forms are o$i^
of being referred to the increased number of the protflfitfA
units and the consequent enbrged bulk of the mass or crivi
Every plant is thus found to be composed oi a number of ^
protoplasmic tmits, or, as they may preferably be tcnA
SIOUWVl
PLANTS
745
phstSf aO of which are at first exactly alike in appmance
n pnH>enies. This is evident in the case of such plants as
a body consisting of filaments or plates of cells, and is
less conspicuous in xhosc whose mass is but small, though
rUs are evidently capable of computation in three dimen-
. It does not at first appear to be the same with the
er i^nts, such as the ordinary green herbs, shrubs or trees,
i study of their earlier development indicates that they do
it the outset differ in any way from the simple undifferen-
1 forms. Each commences its existence as a simple naked
f)last, in the embroyo-sac or the archegonium, as the case
be. After the curious fusion with another similar proto-
, which constitutes what we call fertilization, the next
in complexity alreadv noted may be observed, the proto-
1 becoming dothed oy a cell-membrane. Very soon the
i cell gives rise to a duun of cells, and this in turn to a cell
, the individual units of which are at first quite uniform,
increase of number, however, and consequently enlarge-
td bulk in the colony, differentiation becomes compulsory,
requirements of the several protoplasts must be met by
lies from without, and, as many of them are deep seated,
ties oi need arise, so that various members of the colony
et apart for special duties, masses of them being devoted
e discharge of one function, others to that of another, and
1. Such limitations of the powers and properties of the
iduals have for their object the well-being of the community
lich those individuals are constituents.
ysiological and liorphological DifferentialioH. — ^The ficst
ation of this differentiation in the vegetative body of the
can be seen not only in the terrestrial green plants which
been particularly referred to, but also in the bulkier sea-
s. It is an extension of the first differentiation which was
vable in the simple protoplasts first discussed, the formation,
is, of a protective covering. Fu^ttf and its allies, which
conspicuous members of the larger Algae, have their
nal cells much smaller, more closely put together, and
ally much denser than the rest of their tissue. In the lowly
dl as the higher green plants we have evidence of spedal-
m of the external protoplasts for the same purpose, which
\ various' shapes and shows different degrees of complete-
culminating in the elaborate barks which clothe our forest
« second prominent differentiation which presents itself
\ the form of a provision to supply the living substance
water. This is a primal necessity of the protoplast, and
r cell gives evidence of its need by adopting one of the
us ways in which such need is supplied. What little
entiation can be found to exist in the protoplasm of the
le unicellular organism shows the importance of an adequate
r-supply, and indeed, the dependence of life upon it. The
d cells which have been alluded to live in water, and call
fore for no differentiation in coimexion with this necessity;
Jiose which are surrounded by a cell-wall always develop
n themselves a vacuole or cavity which occupies the greater
of their interior, and the hydrostatic pressure of whose
nts keeps the protoplasm in contact with the membrane,
ig up a condition of turgidity.
e need for a constant supply of water is partly based upon
constitution of protoplasm, so far as we know it. The
rently structureless substance is saturated with it; and if
a cell is completely dried, even at a low temperature, in the
nous majority of cases its life is gone and the restoration
Iter fails to enable it to recover. Besides this intimate
onship, however, we can point to other features of the
sity for a constantly renewed water supply. The proto-
1 derives its food from substances in solution in the water;
rarious waste products which are incident to its life are
ted into it, and so removed from the sphere of its activity,
raw materials from which the food is constructed are ab-
d from the exterior in solution in water, and the latter is
Dedium through which the gaseous constituents necessary
fe reach the protoplasm. Moreover, growth is essentially
dependent upon water-cupply. There is little wonder, then,
that in a colony of protoplasts such as constitute a large plant
a considerable degree of differentiation is evident, bearing upon
the question of water supply. Certain cells of the exterior are
set apart for absorption of water from the soil, this being the
source from which sui^lies are derived. Others are devoted
to the work of carrying it to the protoplasts situated in tht
interior and at the extremities of the plant, a conducing system
of considerable complexity being the result.
Other collections of cells are in many cases set apart for giving
rigidity and strength to the mass of the plant. It is evident
that as the latter increases in bulk, more and more attention
must be paid to the dangers of uprooting by winds and storms.
Various mechanbms have been adopted in different cases, some
connected with the subterranean and others with the sub-aerial
portions of the plant. Another kind of differentiation in such a
cell-mass as we are dealing with is the setting apart of particular
groups of cells for various metabolic purposes. We have
the formation of numerous mechanisms which have arisen in
connexion with the question of food supply, which may not
only involve partiailar cells, but also lead to differentiation
in the protoplasm of those cells, as m the development of the
chloroplastids of the leaves and other green parts.
Tlie inter-relations of the members of a la^e colony of proto-
plasts such as constitute a tree, demand much adjustment.
Relations with the exterior are continually changing, and the
needs of different regions of the interior are continually varying,
from time to time. Two features which are essentially proto-
plasmic assume a great importance when we consider these
relations. They are the power of receiving impressions or
stimuli from the exterior, and of commimicating with each
other, with the view of co-ordinating a siutable response. We
have nothing structural which corresponds to the former of
these. In this matter, differentiation has proceeded very
differently in animals and plants respectively, no nerves or sense
organs being structurally recognisable. Communication between
the various protoplasts of the colony is, however, carried on
by means of fine protoplasmic threads, which are continuous
through the cell-walls.
All the peculiarities of structure which we encounter conse-
quently support the view with which we started, that the proto-
plasm of the plant is the dominant factor in vegetable structure,
and that there need be but one subject of physiology, which
must embrace the behaviour of protoplasm wherever found.
There can be no doubt that there is no fundamental difference
between the living substance of animab and plants, for many
forms exist which cannot be referred with certainty to either
kingdom. Free-swimming organisms without cell-membranes
exist in both, and from them .series of forms can be traced in
both directions. Cellulose, the material of which vegetable
cell-walls are almost universally composed, at any rate in their
early condition, is known to occur, though only seldom, among
animal organisms. Such forms as Vdvox and the group of the
Myxomyceles have been continually referred to both kingdoms,
and their true systematic position is still a subject of controversy.
All physiology, consequently, must be based upon the identity
of the protoplasm of all living beings.
This method of study has to a large extent modified our ideas
of the relative importance of the parts of such an orgam'sm as
a large tree. The interest with which we regard the latter no
longer turns upon the details of the structure of its trunk, limbs
and roots, to which the living substance of the more superficial
parts was subordinated. Instead of regarding these as only
ministering to the construction of the bulky portions, the living
protoplasts take the first place as the essential portion of the
tree, and all the other features are important mainly as minister-
ing to their individual well-being and to their multiplication.
The latter feature is the growth of the tree, the well-being of the
protoplasts is its life and keaUh. The interest passes from the
bulky dense interior, with the elaborate features of its cell -walls,
to the superficial parts, where its life is in evidence. We see
herein the reason for the great subdivision o( Oift \yA^ ^^^2&.^^:k
746
PLANTS
IPRYSKXjOGY
finely cut twigs and thdr ultimate expansions, iht leaves, and
we recognize that this subdivision is only an expression of the
need to place the living substance in direct relationship with the
environment. The formation and gradually increasing thickness
of its bark are explained by the continually increasing need of
adequate protection to the living cortex, under the strain of the
increasing framework which the enormous multiplication of
its living protoplasts demands, and the development of which
leads to continual rupture of the exterior. The increasing
development of the wood as the tree grows older is largely due
to the demands for the conduction of water and mineral matters
dissolved in it, which are made by the increased number of leaves
which from year to year it bears, and which must each be put
into communication with the central mass by the formation
of new vascular bundles. Similar considerations apply to the
peculiar features of the root -system. All these points of struc-
ture can 6nly be correctly interpreted after a consideration
of the needs of the individual protoplasts, and of the large
colony of which they are members.
Caseous Interchanges and their Mechanism. — Another feature
of the construction of the plant has in recent years come into
greater prominence than was formerly the case. The organism
is largely dependent for its vital processes upon gaseous inter-
changes. It must receive a large constituent of what ultimately
becomes its food from the air which surrounds it, and it must also
take in ftom the same source the oxygen of its respiratory
processes. On the other hand, the aerial environment presents
considerable danger to the young and tender parts, where the
protoplasts are most exposed to extremes of heat, cold, wet, &c.
These must in some way be harmonized. No doubt the primary
object of the cell-wall of even the humblest protoplast is pro-
tection, and this too is the meaning of the coarser tegumentary
structures of a bulkier plant. These vary considerably in
completeness with its age; in its younger parts the outer cells
wall undergoes the change known as cuticularization, the material
being changed both in chemical composition and in physical
properties. The corky layers which take so prominent a share
in the formation of the bark arc similarly modified and subserve
the same purpose. But these protective layers are in the main
impermeable by gases and by either liquid or vapour, and prevent
the access of cither to the protoplasts which need them. Investi-
gations carried out by Blackman, and by Brown and Escombe,
have shown clearly that the view put forward by Boussingault,
that such absorption of gases takes place through the cuticular
covering of the younger parts of the plant, is erroneous and can
no longer be supported. The difficulty is solved by the provision
of a complete system of minute intercellular spaces which form
a continuous series of delicate canals between the cells, extending
throughout the whole substance of the plant. Every protoplast,
except in the very young regions, has part of its surface abutting
on these, so that its wall is accessible to the gases necessary
for its vital processes. There is no need for cuticularization
here, as the external dangerous influences do not reach the
interior, and the processes of absorption which Boussingault
attributed to the external cuticularizcd cells can take place
freely through the delicate cell-walls of the interior, saturated
as these are with water. This system of channels is in com-
munication with the outer atmosphere through numerous
small apertures, known as stomaia, which are abundant upon
the leaves and young twigs, and gaseous interchange between
the plant and the air is by their assistance rendered constant
and safe. This system of intercellular spaces, extending
throughout the plant, constitutes a reservoir, charged with an
atmosphere which differs somewhat in its composition from the
external air, its gaseous constituents varying from time to time
and from place to place, in consequence of the interchanges
between itself and the protoplasts. It constitutes practically
the exterior environment of the protoplasts, though it is ramify-
ing through the interior of the plant.
The importance of this provision in the caseofaquaticvascular
plants of sturdy bulk is even greater than in that of terrestrial
organisms, as their environment offers considerable obstacles
to the renewal of the air in thdr interior. Tbey are without
stomata on thdr submerged portions, and the entry of gua
can only take place by diffusion from the water througji thdr
external cells, which are not cutictilarized. Tliose wkkh are
only partially submerged bear stomata on their exposed portion,
so that their environment approxinuttes towards that of a
terrestrial plant, but the communicatran even in their case is mvA
leas easy and complete, so that tbey need a much larger rescrwxr
of air in their interior. This b secured by the devdopoat
of much larger intercellular spaces, amounting to kcuur or
passages of very considerable sixe, which are found nunfjnf
in different xrays in their interior.
Transpiraiion.-^\n the case of terrestrial plants, the coatiflnl
renewal of the water contained in the vacuoles of the protophia
demands a copious and continuous evaporation. This sent*
a double purpose, bringing up from the soil continually a sqipir
of the soluble mineral matters necessary for their nrtaboic
processes, which only enter the plant in solutions <rf eHROtt
dilution, and at the same time keeping the plant cool by tk
process of evaporation. The latter function has been fooid to
be of extreme importance in the case of plants exposed to the
direct access of the sun's rays, the beat of which would rapkfijr
cause the death of the protoplasts were it not empk}yed ia tk
evaporation of the water. Brown and Escombe have sjiown that
the amount of solar energy taken up by a green leaf may oftca
be fifty times as much as it can utilize in the constructive pio>
cesses of which it is the seat. If the heat were alk>wed to aca*
mulate in the leaf unchecked, they have computed thai its
temperature would rise during bright sunshine at the rale sf
more than la** C. per minute, with of course very rapidly fitri
results. What is not used in the constructive proccsMS ii
employed in the evaporation of the water, the leaf being tlM
kept cool. Whether the leaf it brightly or only roodoale^
illuminated, the same relative prc^wrt ions of the total caogy
absorbed are devoted to the purposes of composition and coa>
struction respectively. This large evaporation, which conatitiia
the so-called transfiralion of plants, takes place iK>t into tk
external air but into this same intercellular qnce systen, bcnii
possible only through the delicate cell-walls upon which it abtt^
as the external coating, whether bark, cork or cuticle. *
impermeable by watery vapour. The latter ultimately reacki
the external air by diffusion through the stomata, whose diaKa*
sions vary in proportion as the amount of wato" in the cpidenal
cells becomes greater or less.
Mechanism and Function of Stomata. — It is not quite encS
to speak of either the gaseous interchanges or the transpiratiai
as taking place through the stomata. The entry of gases iaia
and exit from, the cells, as well as the actual exhalatk>n of mtoy
v.ipour from the latter, take place in the intercdhilar ipte
system of which the stomata are the outlets. The openi^ ui
closing of the stomata is the result of variation in the turpdityif
their guard cells, which is immediately affected by tbecoaditiai
of turgidity of the cells of the epidermis contiguois to tk»
The amount of watery vapour in the air passing throofk a
stoma has no effect upon it, as the surfaces of the guard <A
abutting on the air chamber are strongly cuticularizcd, and that
fore impermeable. The only way in which their taigklityil
modified is by the entry of water into them from the iuutigW
cells of the general epidermis and its subsequent witbdaiil
through the same channel. This opening and cbsing d thi
stomata must be looked upon as having a direct beartBg «fr
on the emission of watery vapour. There is a distinct tdvaau^
in the regulation of this escape, and the mechanism b dinci^
connected with the greater or smaller quantity of water ia dc
plant, and especially in its epidermal cells. This povcrrf
varying the area of the apertures by which gases cater Al
internal reservoirs is not advantageous to the gaseous wtut"
changes — indeed it may be directly the reverse. It may hrf
to an incipient asphyxiation, as the supply of oxygen aayk
greatly interfered with and the escape of carbon dioxide mflf^
almost stopped. It may at other tiroes lead to great diCnlBl
in the supply of the gaseous constituents which are used iad*
pHYsioLocy] PLANTS 747
muidmcturc ol food. Tta imponuict of tnnfliliitioo, ii. ^<^ «" «» '»M up their mtimc wbfUiKr, or to mpply ihtm
pehphen] piotopluts of > tcce i> conHquently of ihe Bnt lompaundi Irom the uil. lofrilier witli water, it it dtor ihii if ihi>
alvoik. Then»tur»I»ouiceoltlww«erain»llCM«lbetoil, compauA.ubZ>b^in:i.thtu^tiil!eu,bcaa«Ho-i. Funjil
«Bd few plinu Donnilly abtiln uny from elMwhere. The water i nt al lucli lubitinm a>
«( the »il, which in weU-dndned »oil it mel with in ihe form ol rodueit ftoir the bodi™ of
daiote Ona luiroundinJI Ihe pmiclej of loUd miller, ii S'^^Mn.tJcliii".'' which
absorbed ioto the plant by the deUcate hiin borne by the youns i- vegetable mailer. Even
natl. Ihe eoliy being eSecled by a process of modified osmasij. the pnccnei of the abwrp-
Uultiiuilea of luch bain od the btanchej of the roolj came the hMbwn moM fglly iiudied.
lalry td great quanUliea of water, which hy a lubiequent limilai w''~o.EIS^?'"w£rnT'
;. — : i.._:..i. .-loftherooti. Tbeg— ■ ia.i mcoiii>ciea_. woen t
id this often utider a prcaurelai than tbe ordinary atmospheric the aeed, un _ _ _ _ _
I>ia4ure. Thii preuure of Ibe turpd cotten on the cenlnl fmn which it tpringi. U'hen the tuberof a'poutalinini "(o'ler.
■Ideii known as mot ^djure, and is of very conjiderable amount, minaie the thoou which ii.puii out deri™ ihcir loc3 Irom the
Thia prcBUR leads to the filling of the veaiels of the wood o( SJ"MliriJ( ih™obir "» w'^iw ibTml of «^i Jjln^f In
fcolh root and stem in Ihe earlypirtoltheyear, before the leaves . you ng tool or twie, we find that the celU in which the organie
luvc cap«nded, and gives rise to tbe eiudalion of fluid known as tubitance, theproIo^aun.oTlliepbni kibeingfnrmedaodincrcaMd.
Adrfinf when young stems are cut in early spring. are not nipplied wiili carbon dioxide and mineral matter, but -ilh
8001 pre«ure is one ol the forces OMpemling in the (oreing S^,!^^'J^ ^^^ " '"'" "^ •">»'"'™- " '"'™
«>f the water upwards. The evaporation which is associated with Jiniay tf Uu Feal ef Anlmeli and Plana.— U is evxlenity lo the
VruupintioD Is no doubt another, but by themselves they are actual eeaia of cooiumpiian ol food, and ol conKqueni nuiriiion
~ -.■-..- ^essol biting water lo the lops ol and increase of livingsubf ..... ~. .^-.u • m.
lie seed and iu devck
I the tree, two viewj being held. The older i> thai the by inquiring what an ihe maieriala which an deposited ii tbeited.
woody cell-walls ol the vascular bundle*, and which become eihauiled by coAiumBiionaigrowih and develop-
r.^ nf Ih. Inrrrt nf mnt nn™.iir. <ifiH Irani. 1""' pfOCWd. We find ibem lO COUbl ol lepreientalivei o( the
■.■ I?I . prasure ana iruis- , ^ foodMufli on which animal pnlEplaim is nourithed,
_cavitieaoftheve.iilscontainonlyair. The Snd who* presence lendcnKcdsBich valuSbkTniierial lot.nim.i
UDder Ihe act
and that thr
KatlMJr
■ - ■ t targe bubbles ol
vnico aie laije uuouics oi au^. yn inii »cw iiic "aici i«-j value air lew widely diJlributcd.
ve been held lo be. The general vegetable r
Wright. uli^'Sib«lnM°ol'tiii''JmS^mti
■lennaier and Godlewski put lorward the view that the b ving ,bt mode of Mipply ol nutritive material do euu. but they ate mainly
^:dlm of Uw medullary rays ol the wood, by 1 species ol osmosis, correlated with the stnictBre ol the organisins, which maket Ihe
^rt as a kind of pumping appamlus, by the aid of which the method ol abwrptioBdiffcninl. The ceU-walb ol plants render Ihe
Suubnrger showed that the action goes on in great lengths of ' m lo seek their food.
m»aa the cells ol which have been killed by poison or by the Ainc M anOnuiinf F«d.-The
Jetton of heal. More recently, Diion and Joly in Dublin and I^ni^ i!^ha''ni^ b "?>ch"C.y
~ They have shown that columns of water of very small ers which Ihey atooib. The iact
rter can so resist tensile strain thai they can be lifted bodily ier these mbnances food ; they are
Kcul of flowing along the channel They suggest th»t Ihe Mi'™''i^'bv « to bTraiwried
■CO c»u*ing Ihe movement are complea. and draw particular h prjiopl^m. both vegetable and
IcatioD ID the pull upwards in consequence of disturbances in ten, when dinuuing queslioni of
re have (i) the evaporation from the damp >d maierials of all livini orianisms
a Ihe intercellular spaces: (i( the imbibition l»?« Hibnance. ,n eMctly iSe «me
(Ucate cell-walls
J Ibe oeU-wi
)l water from Ihe vacuole; (j) osmotic action, ^rciable kingdom. A CMuideration
Ihe subsequent increased concentration ol the iiEfully the view with which we ki
. -t J _.i. ._ _i.r_i _>.... , fundamcnially the sane, though
and physiofoglcafly In many direc-
All is nouri«hed alike on maledali
originally prepared bv a mechanism attached lo ihe higher vegetable
organism, and capable <A being diuoclafed, in theory at kasi.
from iit own spectal means ol nuiriiion. if by Ibe taller term we
understand the approprialioo by Ihe prolopUim ol the materials
... . I _ J to cooKrucled.
""""'P*™"™"""".''"'' The ch1oio(*yll appmitus ol planli demands a cenun descrip-
it be Mid to be fully eslabbihed. tion. Il comius cueniially ol a number ol minute corpuscles or
Brrsf lie fowl p/^la«i.— The ncogniiion ol the fundamenial plaiiids, the protoplaimic Hibstanceol which is impregnated with a
ioD to the manner in which plan It aie nourished, and especially f^totlr, an found embedded in the ptolophin ol the cells ol the meso-
«a« naiuR ol iheir losd. The kka waiiill ncenlly currently pbyU ol loti^e leaves, of urtain of the cells of »me ol dKtiea><»<i
Kd, that aoyihiog which plaatt absorbed Irom nrltbout, and ibe1tower,andolibeGoruaolth«iouninni>uAveOi>^'a- XWi^^
7+8
Ibevnabi
ri£id]v tmbc
ptlFU dnrribrd nhovv n coucquFntlv iccii. Th
chloropliyll ID 1l|Iii has b«n iiudird by muiy
■olutiDiLMihepiftnieni it placed inllKpaihof abe
'a then allowed to fall on a prism, Ibe rewldne i
[ound to be modified. Intlead o[ pmcntim ibe
eonlinuout band in which all the colours are r
The abioTpiion of ihcie rayi impliei that the pibukdi abiorba
radiant ener^ from the Kin, and eivct u» tome eicpbnatAii of lU
power ol con«i'uc1in^ rhc arbohydratet which ha* bcm mentioned
u Ibe special work of iht apparatiu. The workiiif of it ift not at
it the paiiplB>¥d by ihepigmeni and what i« ihe rOlcof iheproto-
ptaun of the pluiid. Ii !• not ttnain either whether Ibe action
of I he chkxophyll apcaralui i> confined to Ibe manufacture of
carbohydratct or whtlher it if concerned, and if h how far, with
the contlmclion of proicidft alvK
At the action of the chlorophyll ipptuatna i* direftly dependent
upon light, and the immediale ihuIl of itt activity it the building
up ol cocnpleji (j^mpoundi, ii has become uauai id ipeak of the
t>roc«Hi ii Kli up under the name of pkousyttiktm.
P)ulaifillusii.—]ii Ihe pretence of l«ht and when the plani it
aubjected lo a tuitable temperalurc. photoBynlbciia commencet,
provided ihat Ihe plant bat acce«a to air containing in normal
luSily'
in I
appaEcnlly necnnry. but iheV Kcm ID take no part 10 ibe chemical
cbangn which lake place. The or^nal hypolheaU of Baeyer tuf-
mied that Ihe courte of event* Is the followinguhe carbon dioiide
i« dr^xinipoKd into carbon moooiride arid orygcn, while water it
■imulianeou^ly >plil up inlo hydrogen arid anygen; the hydrogen
tiacver'i hvpoihcAii wat enlcnained by botanittt partly became
i( cKplained ibc gii«eout inlerchanaet accompanyiiu phot04ynthe*ia.
These ihow ihai a definite inuGe of caitnn dioude it alwayi
■ccompanicd by en eiibalation of an equal volume of oxygen-
Recent invF^Tieationt have conhrnwd Baeyer'i view of Ibe forma-
lion of fnnnaldijnyde. bul a diflerent eiphnalion hat been rccenlly
advanced. The fini chemical change tuggetted it an interactioa
bclwcen carbon dioxide and water, uiider the influrnce af light actini
throirah chlorDphyll, which leads lo the simultaneous fonnatkin of
formaldehyde and hydrogen perpiide. The tlrrmahjehyde at oncC
Polymeriiation of the aldehyde wat alio a feature of Baeyer't
hypothetii, so thai this view fjoet not very materially difler Ifom
thow he advancedr More emphasis it, howeier. now laid on the
aciion of ibr pljiiid in polymeriaiion, while (he initial ttagei are
The tlept which lead from Ihe appearand c^ formlldehyrle ID
ibat of the first well-defined carbohydrale art again malteri of
tsi
£3
.5!2
PLANTS
be extornal or Ibc lower
Dce el Ihii nyeochiBl
•t unporUBt rwIudI
[Pit durjnE 111* ofaung
Pc^lan iKl Bwhn.
ig iHt ibeir chlofDphyll
ItiaUy. Each ueriei
two cH ihm difletenl
iiet all those pbni.
liuuei tl olW,|>b
e, which Atnirufn 1
GaflMomjtceia. Tlw
in regularity from the
epIantidlhcNHunl
Ikt ftHH which ted ■
"be inpoitane* tl Ike
riBf the nliUaiuklp ia
TDgen of the air. Lona
3URe of the coiBbiaed
c plaoc» waa cricicalLy
d later by La«ea ana
the Lnuiqinooae i
nitt. ^ae itwy
ai^ irheie and » I
e in uil which root
upfJiea of ihii elcD
, nave been [be aul
lo^conslmfra
of comidcnbie il»-
cehi. IhouBh Ihey di
\ype 'ii called nifcK
theefwlemiiiofthei
Red by man^ouerveiii
Europe, lacy appear
1 toinlect the L^uniin-
I of thete bain can be
and. ihe eDlningbody
f ■ ikliUte t^ which
CaieTid
«teaUy
[he lube
SKtBia,
■dSUU.
kfaiUae
"«MJtV
7SO PLANTS
Thu EKCuliar rdatloiuhip MBgali at once A lymUofiit the FuiHiii batttr fann not oolr cmiut flcidiB Ihe htts botfiH. but Uvym
niniiig iti nutricoent uinly or enlinly inm the nccn pUot, wnile v«ry injariauily aHctcd bjr the pnem of Ene «iBn«u. wWn
the lalKrin Bme way or oUrt U abb to utilin Ibtlne niingenol cultivated upoa ■ nitaUe niilru<>« mairru] in liie tihcntciiv,
Ibe air. The enact way in which Iba utUiiation or fialim el the the otnniani waa kilted by the [jmence at -015 % of itui (u. as'
nitioBO ia effected lemaiiu undecided. Two viewa are Hill ncdving •enouily inamveaieiiced 'by or— '■■-' ■■ = ■- -"^
anain luppoit, though the •ccond of iben appean the more prob- 1—— ' -'- • — -"--
ibe h^pciiraphjr. iTut it i» nutriment- They a
le green plant ia 10 lEimulalcd t^^the interefttinE peculiarity attachine to t
That the OiatiDn of the gai i><:anied out by Ibe fuofal ociiniini nitnftn, ind theirirowth tahn
either in <hc •nil or in the pljnt. and the nitnceKmi lubiLInce la abicnre of Kght. Tbey need a little catDnnale la the auinni
produced i> ibwrbed bv the ar|iniiin. whkh h in turn coniumed nuicnjl. and the •uum of ibc caibon which >i [ovad in Iheincieanl
by the green plint. Cenain evideocc whicb uppom (hit view buliiol ibc plant iipuily that and pvilythecarlieadkjiidct^ibe
Whichever opinion ii bcld on Ihli point, there Keni no room We bavt in Ibeie planU a powrr which appean ipetia] lo tfanL
for doubt tiiai Oiu lixation of the nitroRen is concerned only wiih the in tibe poHCHion of wme nKChiniun for the con*(rucii«i ti orppx
root, and ibai Ibe green kavn take 00 part in it. The nodutn, in lubatancc which diffen eueni^illy from ibt chlorofJiyll jppvi^ii
particular, a ol ircen [^nti. and yet brin£6 about eubBtiniially tinilai ichiIti.
•hall Ward I h (hif cartion dioicide is built up into a cvbdcubJ
wbidi beai . aiBmilated by Ibe protoplauii of ibe ccCi u
of conduciLi energy for Ibe porp«e appean to be upplicil br
roots. Thei the molecuki containing niirrven, to lui ii a
oiitaniim ar Rich oxidation takinjt puc& WimgrtdJiv Wi
the funooid point with ^gnot caie, and he boi nwv ta ite
■out 55 miUigiaintno of nilrrwea an
of carbon aHor^ed and fiaedl
- Aiifn* Unltn ■ ■
e tendency of n
prewucE of of the mode ot nutrition ofvrceuble and uiiul
niliale. or 1 wtcrial 00 which they feed ia ol ibe •ancdnin;'
■pherio nitnif;en- groups we find Ibe pretence of nuimivc mairria] in
The idea that (he atmoepberic nitrogen it BjaduaUr beiiu made uK apecially htled lor tntuport* the other for eloragc.
of by plants, although it la clearly not easily or cocnmonly utiliied, that in the plant the praceam of con«
has been growing iterulily- B«idea the phenomena of the lymbioeii manufacture failer than thoee of corw
Rnearrrhei which ha\-e been carried out tince isas by Berthelot. upon Ibe tcavca. and we bin c-m
Andric. Laurent and Schkiiing, and more recently by KoHowiucb, -d in the celli. Thiieiceu tb
aeem (0 eatablith the fact- though the detail* of the procev rernain plant life, and b ejdiilnied, ^4
ol aoil Bacteria and Fun^ including the Bacteriurn of the Legu- if the plant in varioui'waya; it may be tl>
Laurent and Schlsiina aJGrm that the free lutnjceo of the ai
number of humblegreen plants, prirKipally lowly green r purpoiea <
~K cxpmed freely lo.light and air during the , :he lurplut
n £nd ibe IB
Algae. They must be cxpmed freely lo.light and air during
proccn. or ihey tail to effect it. Frank baa italed Ibat Ptnicmi,... , , ,
ctadicsfcrmdti can flourish in a mediufn to which no nitrogen but other pvtt of the Hruclure, uiualiy near t^ rctpon ai vbacb iit
that of the almosphCEC hai accesa. Kouowjtcch clainit to have ultimate consumption will take pUce. We havi tbe depDHtioa d
proved that fixalionof niiroffcn takciplacc under the inAuenccof a aiarch, alcuroiv graint, aiporphosia proieids, lau, Ae., ia tfei ]
symbiosis of certain Algae and soil Bacteria, the process beina much neighbourhood of frowing points^ cambium rinn and pheficfni: t
facilitated by the presence of sugar. The Alne include Naiuc, also the more prolonged stoiage in tubers, seeth and otivr rr^s- 4
CyiloHcciH, CyluirfrM^miini and a few oibec fomu. In ibeiym- ductive bodies. Turning to Ibe animal, we meet with similirne'
bioiii tbe Alfoe are "wlied with nitrogen by the bacteria, and in yiiionsin the slorage of glycogen in the liver and other pons, cf bi
micnibes. This is supported tv the fact 'itut if the miied culture of food, so Ear at il is in ucess of immediait „
is placed in tbe lisht there it a greater fiution than when it is Irft conditions, Ibe one suitable for transport, the othrr
in dacknesa. If there it a plentitiil tupply of carbon diooide, more and we see continually Ibe transfomiatlan ot the one in
nitn^en it filled. The fonnaiion of the ttora^e form at Ihe eupcnse of tl
ttitrificatwH and Dtnitrifialion in lAs j<iil.— Ariolher aspect of the ilream is due lo the acliviiy of tome protoplavnic 1
nitrogen question has been the subiect ol much investigation and may be a plostid or Ihe genera] prvtoplasni of the cell — i
conlroverry drice 1^177. The round of chaises which nilroflcnous ecH of lecrelion. The converse proeess it one of a tn
or^nic Dutier underifoea in tbe soil, and how it is uliimatcly made which deserves the name no lees because it is intiao
seen that when nilroBcnous malicr is present in the conditinn ol alimentary canal of an animal in the case of the
humui, some plants can absorb it by their roots or by the aid of Ntptnllui, Droura and other ^milar plantt, and in the saprofwyv
are much more profound than these. It becomes in the soil the pray glycogen of the liver, the stored fals and proleida of oths (om W
of various microbes. Ammonia appean immediately as a product ibe animal body bcir^ Eille them intracellular,
ol ihedisrnpiioonf the niimscn^onioiningorEanic molecule. Later, £iie|nticr, — Tjie a^enis which effect the digestive cbaiss it pb0
nTlHAiinn procesicfl lake puce, and the ammonia ^v« rite to have been tludied with murh care. They Eiavv boenlDDad (ebt
vhicb are absorijed by plantt. These two proceseeago on mainly enrymea, which are in many ^ises idcni^l with iboar^
:ly lather than simultaneously, to that it It only towards aninul origin. A vast number of them have brcn discomed ^
1.1..J ■..: 1 .L : 1 i-.ji — :-_ ; :_._! — ' the majority Call foT a brief notice "^-" "-
necessary 10 dauify them, and '
imposition of the o^^anic matter that nitrification investigatn, and the majority call for a brief notice. Their bd
hich it formed it set up. In this process of ni— ' ■-• ' — ■ — -■ — '- ■ — -'■■ •■■ — --' — ' '-
littinguish two phases, first the formation of nilntet, ^roupsof them than tocxamineihem one by one. They
indly iheir oiidation to luliatcs. The lesnarcbea of Waring, clasiilied according to the materials on which they wo
'" [land and WinDgradslty on the Continent hay- -- - ■- ■ ■■ ..-■■.
n in Eiwland and WinDciadslcy on -the Continent have talis- may here notice etpeclally Eour prii
^torily shown that two distinct organisms an concerned in it, which take part in the digestion of re
d that probably ...._.. . ». . .
ibaUy more than one species of each eiusts. Oneofthem processes oE citernal digcslion- These decmnio^ lesfjectrish
Lhc^oera\iVrpr0mtfiiojaod\i;rewr«nir, hat the power carhohydntes, glucosides, proteidi and CaTs or 01I9. The tcdoaa
a"
r oiidation takes place. 1 Be ounation oi tne ultiiet into oecompotiiion.
B clEecied by another organism, much imallcr than the Among Ihote which act on caibobydraiea the m
e name f/ilnbacUr has been given to iMs gcnnt, molt of ihe tsn varieties oE duuuu, which eooMrt ilaie
Inlii. nl urhirh !• line In ihL' reiearehes of Winomdskv. mall sunc: inalsii, which Eormt (ructnw from
eane iuaar into llnoise (gnpe su|
tu, whKh pfvducet grape sugar fi
PHvsioiocvi PLANTS 751
KPi ftpt^AT 10 be concerned with di^eitlon n dlnttly u the othen u h^oI ciwr^
fn^die, which form* vegEUble jelly from pecticHibctaaccf occuttuie tiaL condiiion
ThFriuyniH which act upon g1uc«H5c»«viiuny; Ihfbert known ^rgy abiorbnj
■wcial ilucnidr o( cmain plinta ol the KoBCcae; and sinipiH. tuneited by
which hai a •Hdedl.ihbuiion.monB th»e o( ihe CnKifene. Otbcz, w urtn-vlolec
ol Ins frequenL occurRocc ore tryArotym. jkamnast and laui- e proCopUsm
"■ phyll. The™
er ID the crila
Ihe power at
EplooH And break* thfm down into the amino-acidi ol which we lir Of directly
ve tpoken btlore, Thii xroup a repmtntcd by the rrtpiin of danger whicL
th^ pancieu and othn organir A third cniyme. the Irypsin of Ihe needi lo be averted by traniiniaiiDn-
, Thi* itT however, iMher a mnittr ol ipccolation. Tlie
rapa nnoui ckctrica] phenomena of pbnta nlu are otocuie,
■evei them and Ihe aiuinal world, Thia ia ihe abwrption oi elabonilod
in il cofBpoiindt from their envinHimenl, by whoie deeompnaiiiaii the
but i poteAtial enersy expended in their conslruclion can be liberated.
Tl Such a •ovKC la commonly met with amDng Ibe Fuiifi, the Iniecll'
but i voroui ^ntt, aod luch oF the higher planti ai have a laprophytic
taai habit. Thi>iourceiinDt,hawever,aoyihinEi>ew.[oi theelaborated
of th planti through the mechanism which hai just been dcftcribed.
d^Eeition, They Kt up a proceu oi oaidation in the lubitancei as Ihe distribution of the food. The nuleriai and the encr^ pt
which they attack, and have coniequcDlly been named otidoHS^ lovether. the decompotilion of the one in the cell Betting free the
utr. lovether. the decompotilion of the one in the cell Betting free I
other, which la uied al once in the vital prvcesHS of the o
in Etuny case* ine aiAenion oi reserve rooa tnarenaii laenected being in fad largely employed in consrnicting protoplasm or storing
fay the direct actEon of the protopUsm, without the intervention of various products. The actual liberation In any cell is only ver^
eozytnes. This property ol living substance can be proved in the gradual, and gencnlly takes Ihe form of heat. The metabotic
case of the cflls of the mehcr plants, but it is espedally promineni changes in the cells, however, concern ot
of widespread occurrentx. the new foodl^eina Tncorpoialpd into it. The changes inv^ve a
oneol ihecondilionBOf lifeuihe maintenance of the process which rcspiraiion of the protoplum and the oiddalion of the su^anccs
B known as fti^aJian- It is marked by the constant and continu- it contains. The need of the protoplasm for orygen has already
ous absorption ol a cenainquantityof onygenandbytheeKhalation been spoken ot: in its absetKe ckath soon supervenes, lespirBtiiMi
of a certain volume ol carbon diokide and water vapour. There is being stopped, Re^tation, indeed, is the evpressioo ol the libera,
indirect connexionbetween the two, theoiygenisabsorbedalmaat tion ot the potential encg^r ol the proioptasm it»U. It is not
immediately by the proiaplann, and appears to enter into some kind certain how far subatances m the protoplasm are directly oxidiad
of chemical unioo with it. The pttrioplaam u in a condition of without entering Into Ihe composition itt the living substance.
giving rise to various substances ot different degrees ot complexity, is effected by ihepnitoplaHti acting as an oxygen carrier.
some of which areata built up by It intoitaosfn substances, and " The supply of oxygen 10 a plant is thus teen to be as directly
dinide and water aiv (be most prominent. These Tcspiistory pro- of food concerned in its nutrition. If the access ol orygcn to a
raasesareasaociatedwithlhellbcrationof energy by the proIoplaBm- pratoptast is interfered with its ncvmal respiration soon ceases,
energy which it applies to various purposes. The assimilation ot bul frequently other chanfea supervene. The partial asphyxiation
sbb^tance- ^>V1le^ever complea bodicB are built up Irom simple ones lion of energy just as do those ol the respiratory process. One ot
wv have an absorption ol energy in some lorn and its conversion the cor^slant features ot Rspiration — the exhalationof carbon dioxide
into pDleniiai ener^y^ wbenevtr decomposition of compiea bodies — <an stiil be observed. This comes in almosi all such cases from
Into simpler ones tjikes place we have the liberation of some or all Ihe clecompoaition of sugar, which is split up by the protoplasm
pf the energy that vras used in their construction. into alcohol aivj carbon dioxide. 5uc|i decoinpaiitions are now
^perid entirely upon Ihe vegetable one. The supply of ener^ to by the absence ot oxyeen- The liberated energy tal^ the form of
the several protoplasts whic^i make up Ihe body of a plant is as heal, which raises the temperature of Ihe fermenting wort. It has
he source of energy by the secretion ot an enryme, which has been termed synrou.
■ the radiant energy Di the rays Di ine sun. and lis alnorption Is other paas which have been kept for some time in the absence of
la shown by its absorption spectrum, rqcksoutof theordinarybeam ■
sf light a brge proportion of Its red arid blue rays, together with some
of the erven arid yellow. This energy is obtained especislly by the ^^ ...... .,^^,., „,.,.„ „..* , „
diloroplastids, and port of it is at once devoted to the canstniction ihe sun. f n such cells as are capable of at ^
dI carbohydrate material, being thus turned from the kinetic to the their chlorophyll apparatus. Ihe greater part of it is converted mio
StpCndenl partly upon theoxidationol the carbohydrates so formed, compounds constructed every part of the plant is put into possession
ana therefore upon anexpenditureof part olsuchener^.also mark of the ener^ il needs. The store of energy thus accumolaled
tte Blorage of energy in the patenlial form. Indeed, the conxInK' and diilributed has to subserve various purposes in iIa cvkfAnr4
klM ol frn'oi'l*'™ 'f " '>>^<°* >>^ ■">< *'>'ag. Tbusevaiia ol the plant. AcBftain pan<)(\t,tate>icAie&Vt>^<DunM«um«.
752
fabric of Ibc
corifirjojily ircrcninn akclflon; |
normal ttnijimlure of tlie pl*i1I, pi
purpoKi in tlw world
toflhenuli
l> u'Hw In that ioc
roxof thcb.
Gro«h, u u!UJ]ly
proccua. Th» fini
.■«ls,-i;:
clun of addii
[ncioK of luch acc»
loriH of UvinE
>u ttcU-bdnB. Tliw include cxIT
pnducu found in f
■SSL-^
KSsSS
SiSSS
■nd i% itMiKkd by > partial dcromp
Growth nilwayiEi
l-5,:!.':.t
l)«<*to.tr«.nuloi
nol. of ™™c. iSllow
biuchlmidnihis
ler. A], bow
nirly all CUB, iiundcd l»
of any eonikten!
t, amfln Ihtm it I
five condiiioni: (i) There muit be .
can lake plaa» and which ■upoly
(1) There nuit be a Hipply of MUr
certain hyditHtalic pninm In the
Btow- <3) The ntpply of water miut t
of ovnotK Hibitanc» In Ibe cell, or
(4) The cell muK have a certain ten
proioplaai u ooly pouible within cei
UK of dllTeiTnl ptanti. (5} There
IhcpcK«^na'Df1l<|vi%?fui»^ion].
Thi» i» evident irom the coiaideialii
i> ailended by the growth in HitTace £
is a aecretion from the prDtoplasm*
readily take place unlesa oxygen n at
When tbeie condition* arc prevent
cell appean Co be the following: Tl
cut on from ii» fellow, abiorbi water,
the' variou nuHitlve'iubMances w^
lion. Then u Kt up at once a cert]
the tunridity which eniites_upon tucb
dfpovlion of new nibnance upon
eilensit»lily is nached the cell wall
coniinualioii of (be latter of (he (wo
The rate of growth of a cell varie*^
It be^hn b1dw&. iDcreases to a mt^a
till ii uoca. iTie lime during which I
can bt ottened it genenlly iiBken b u
PLANTS
-' ' If we nnuder ihe bdiavic
aase to divide and a diffeie
IPHVSKMCV
[TDnng cigan ndi ai a nM.
;rand period of growth. Jan
ride agai n u tfxiD u tb^ have
icubrly w
nlaUiihm
ling the bulk of the I
in lenilli of IheiW
--:-.^^jg
pcnod. They (ken gradually loie Ihe power of ETOvtk. (he aUol
onet or thoae fartheM iroca (be ua parting with it fiiu, ant (tcy
paifl gradually over into (be condiliDii of the penDanent tbun-
■(em; but in this region it ii compticated by the omuiBKe cJ into
and uif eraodea, gmwifa in length bcioc confined to the lads, aaarif
which may be (nning lunuluneoinly. The region of groiRk ia Ik
Blcni Is. al a rule, much longer than that of the loot. The lionk
of the leal is al Sia ajnul, but ihii ii not very pnlonfed. and ite
lubeequcnt enlargement is due to an intctc^ary growing ngica
tucn as a leaf, the two sidB freq
of turgidity. and corucquently di
leaf of the conunon icm we Bm!
closely EoUcd up, the upper or vei
Ai it gets older it gradually ui
fonii. TWa te due to the fact tl
coniequent growdi are ■n(eT In the dona
it becoDca rolled up. As it develops the
growth cbaon to "^ '— — -"* --J —
expanded. Thciei
'"cyTiadriea] «
while young the iiugiifily aal
donafbde of the Inf. le tfeH
fdndaih
. Otmd
a (uigid than Ibe oppo«i(i
oppoute lidet The grvs4ng apex '
incline, fim to one side and then to . ,_
■Ion of maximum nulldity naa« gradually round the gnrriitiBt
The apei In (hia „"*--" '^=3-'- -=-■- ' >- - ^-^-I^ ^i.
elongating all (he
-.^ Til. conimuous cnann o. ,_
al in all growina e
a SysUm ef PlaiUt.—Se far we 1
plaol aliDoat eiduaively aa an individual organiiin, oiTflt
except in la f ai a> these lupply it with the malctiib in *
wcU-bcing. When we con^deri however, the gnat Yaiiitfr;
En those uirroundinga and Ihe cwiaequeot chajigei a fJant w^
eacoiinter, It appears obvious (hat inlerxction and adjnKB"
well balanced. Thai such ^juslment shall lake place pWihia
onlhepartof iheplant akiadof peiteptMiDor affntdatioattflli
Carduj e
which aSect il
ion soon ibowi an observer (hal
id that they an [allowed by ceitaia pB
'timet mechuiical, soon
fill <ihai]ges Id the plant,
chemical, the object being
some diSculiy. We my apeak, indeed, of the plant at piMlri
of a nidimenlaiy nervous system, by the aid of whkb IBxml
adjust menis are brought about. The nnst coaiianilyumiit
c other
iccptibilitie3,wt
wilh Ion ,
ividcDce (bat m
than
uiolher. Its apei slowly turns (n
mthevertkalinlii**
IS change ol posit-a^
illumi
Mled, a simiLu change of dim
oion of growth Mh\W
FHYSIOIjOCy]
PLANTS
753
in this case the organ grows away from the light. These move-
n^nts are spoken of as kdiotrofic and aphdiotropic curvatures.
The purpose of the movements bears out the contention that the
plant is trying to adjust itself to its environment. The stem, by
pointing directly to the light source, secures the best flluroination
possible for all of its leaves, the latter being distributed sym-
netrically around it. The root is made to press its way into the
darker cracks and crannies of the soil, so bringing its root-hairs
into better contact with the particles round which the hygroscopic
water hangs. Leaves respond in another way to the same influ-
ence, placing themselves across the path of the beam of light.
Similar sensitivenesses can be demonstrated in other cases.
When a root comes in contact at its tip with some hard body,
such as might impede its progress, a curvature of the growing
part is set up, which takes the young tip away from the stone, or
what-not, with which it is in contact. When a sensitive tendril
comes into contact with a foreign body, its growth becomes so
modified that it twines round it. Many instances might be
given of appreciation of and response to other changes in the
environment by the growing parts of plants; among them
we may mention the opening and closing of flowers during the
days of their expansion. One somewhat similar phenomenon,
differing in a few respects, marks the relation of the plant to the
attraction of gravity. Observation of germinating seedlings
makes it clear that somehow they have a perception of direction.
The young roots grow vertically downwards, the young stems
imticaUy upwards. Any attempt to interfere with these direc-
tkms, by placing the seedlings in abnormal positions, is frustrated
hf the seedlings themselves, which change their direction of
growth by bringing about curvatures of the different parts of
their axes, so that the root soon grows vertically downward
again and the stem in the opposite direction. Other and older
plants give evidence of the same perception, though they do not
RSpond all in the same way. Speaking generally, stems grow
upwards and roots downwards. But some stems grow parallel
to the surface of the soil, while the branches both of stems and
loots tend to grow at a definite angle to the main axis from which
they come. These movements are spoken of as different kinds
of ga^opic curvatures. This power of perception and response
ii not by any means confined to the growing organs, though in
thcM it is especially striking, and plays a very evident part in
the diqx>sition of the growing organs in advantageous positions.
It can, however, be seen in adult organs, though instances are
leas numerous.
When the pinnate leaf of a Mimosa pudka, the so-called
iRisiUve plant, is pinched or struck, the leaf droo[)s rapidly
and the leaflets become ^proximated together, so that their
upper surfaces arc in contact. The extent to which the disturb-
jmoe q>reads depends on the violence of the stimulation — it may
be confined to a few leaflets or it may extend to all the leaves of
the plant.
"Dk leaves and leaflets of many plants, e.g. the telegraph plant,
'pesmodium gyrans, behave in a similar way imder the stimulus of
apfnoaching darkness.
A peculiar sensitiveness is manifested by the leaves of the so-
caUcd insectivorous plants. In the case of Dionaea muscipula we
fyxl a two-lobed lamina, the two Jobes being connected by a
mkirib, which can play the part of a kind of hinge. Six sensitive
hairs ^ring from the upper surface of the lobes, three from
each; when one of these is touched the two lobes rapidly dose,
hfinging their upper surfaces into contact and imprisonmg sny-
flrfwg which for the moment is between them. The mechanism is
Applied to the capture of insects alighting on the leaf.
Drosera, another of this insectivorous group, has leaves which
furnished with long glandular tentacles. When these are
by the settling of an insect on the leaf they slowly bend
and imprison the intruder, Which is detained there .mean-
while by a sticky excretion poured out by the glands.
In both these cases the stimuhition is followed, not only by
Movement, but by the secretion of an add liquid containing a
Saeaidye juice, by virtue of which the insect is digested after
hringkilkd.
XXI 1}
The purposeful character of all these movements or changes of
position indicates that they are of nervous origin. We have in
them evidence of two factors, a perception of some features of the
environment and following this, after a longer or shorter interval,
a response calculated to secure some advantage to the responding
organ. Wc find on further investigation that these two con-
ditions are traceable to different parts of the organs concerned.
The perception of the changes, or, in other words, the reception
of the stimulus, is associated for example, with the tips of roots
and the apices of stems. The first recognition of a specially
receptive part was made by Charles Darwin, who identified the
perception of stimulation with the tip of the young growing
root. Amputation of this part involved the cessation of the
response, even when the conditions normally causing the stimu-
lation were maintained. Francis Darwin later demonstrated
that the tips of the plumules of grasses were sensitive parts.
The responding part is situated some little distance farther back,
being in fact the region where growth is active. This bending
part has been proved to be insensitive to the stimuli. There is
consequently a transmission of the stimulus from the sensitive
organ to a kind of motor mechanism situated some little way off.
We find thus three factors of a nervous mechanism present, a
receptive, a conducting, and a responding part. The differen-
tiation of the plant's substance so indicated is, however,
physiological only; there is no histological difference between
the cells of these regions that can be associated with the several
properties they possess. Even the root tip, which shows a certain
differentiation into root cap and root apex, camK)^be said to be a
definite sense organ in the same way as the sense organs of an
anima^. The root is continually growing and so the sensitive
part is continually changing its composition, cells bdng formed,
growing and becoming permanent tissue. The cdls of the tip
at any given moment may be sensitive, but in a few days the
power of recdving the stimulus has passed to other and younger
cells which then constitute the tip. The power of appreciating
the environment is therefore to be associated with the protoplasm
only at a particular stage of its development and is transitory in
its character.
What the nature of the stimulation is we are not able to say.
The protoplasm is sensitive to particular influences, perhaps of
vibration, or of contact or of chemical action. We can imagine
though perha[)s only vaguely, the way in which light, tempera-
ture, moisture, contact, &c., can affect it. The perception of
direction or the influence of gravity presents greater difficulty,
as we have no dear idea of the form which the force of gravity
takes. Recently some investigations by Haberlandt, Noll,
Darwin and others have suggested an explanation which has
much to recommend it. The sensitive cells must dearly be
influenced in some way by weight — not the weight of external
organs but of some weight within them. This may possibly be
the cell sap in their interior, which must exercise a slightly
different hydrostatic pressure on the basal and the lateral walls of
the cells. Or more probably it may be the weight of definite
particulate structures in their vacuoles. Many experiments
point to certain small grains of starch which are capable of dis-
placement as the position of the cell is altered. Such small
granules have been observed in the sensitive cells, and there is an
evident correlation between these and the power of receiving the
geotropic stimulus. It has been shown that if the organ con-
taining them is shaken for some time, so that the contact between
them and the protoplasm of the cells is emphasized, the stimulus
becomes more effident in producing movement. This reduces
the stimulus to one of contact, which is in harmony with the
observations made upon roots similarly stimulated from the
exterior. The stimulating partides, whether starch grains in
all cases, or other partides as well, have been termed statoliths.
We have spoken of the absence of structural differentiation
in the sense organs. There is a similar difficulty in tradng the
paths by which the impulses are transmitted to the growing and
curving regions. The conduction of such stimulation to parts
removed some distance from the sense organ suggeste paths of
transmission comparable to those which transmit nervous
75+
PLANTS
(PAimjOGY
impulses in animals. Again, tbe degree of diffexentiatkm is
very slight anatomically, but delicate protoplasmic threads have
been shown to extend tlurough all ccU-walls, connecting together
all the protoplasts of a pkmt. These may well serve as con-
ductors of nervous impulses. The nervous mechanism thus
formed is very rudimentary, but in an organism the conditions
of whose life render locomotion impossible great elaboration
would seem superfluous. There is, however, very great delicacy
of perception or appreciation on the part of the sense organ,
stimuli being responded to which are quite incapable of
impressing themselves upon the most highly differentiated
animal.
The power of response is seen most easily in the case of young
growing organs, and the parts which show the motor mechanism
are mainly the young growing cells. We do not find their
behaviour like that of the motor mechanism of an animal. The
active contraction of muscubr tissue has no counterpart in the
pbnt. The peculiarity of the protoplasm in almost every cell
is that it is especially active in the regulation of its permeability
by water. Under different conditions it can retain it more
strongly or allow it to escape more freely. This regubtion of
turgor is as characteristic of vegetable protopbsm as contraction
is of muscle. The response to the stimulus takes the form of
increasing the permeability of particxilar cells of the growing
structures, and so modifying the degree of the turgidity that is
the precursor of growth in them. The extent of the area affected
and of the variation in the turgor depends upon many circum-
stances, but we have no doubt that in the process of modifying
its own permeability by some molecular change we have the
counterpart of muscubr contractibility.
The response made by the adult parts of plants, to which
reference has been made, is brought about by a mechanism
simibr in nature though rather differently applied. If the leaf of
Mimosa or Desmodium be examined, it will be seen that at the
base of each leaflet and each leaf, just at the junction with the
respective axes, is a swelling known as a pulvinus. This has a
relatively brge development of succulent parenchyma on its
upper and lower sides. In the erect position of the leaf the lower
side has its cells extremely turgid, and the pulvinus thus forms
a cushion, holding up the petiole. On stimubtion these cells
part with their water, the lower side of the organ becomes flaccid
and the wci^t of the leaf causes it to falL The small pulvini
of the leaflets, by similar changes of the distribution of turgidity,
take up their respective positions after receiving the stimulus.
In some cases the two sides of the pulvini vary their turgidity in
turns; in others only the lower side becomes modified.
Simibr turgescence changes, taking pbce with simibr rapidity
in the midrib of the leaf of Dionaea, explain the closing of the
lobes upon their hinge. More slowly, but yet in the same way,
we may note the change in turgidity of certain cells of the
Droscra tentacles, as they close over the imprisoned insect.
Organic Rhythm. — It is a remarkable fact that during the
process of growth we meet with rhythmic variation of such
turgidity. The existence of rhythm of this kind has been ob-
served and studied with some completeness. It is the immedbte
cause of the phenomena of drcimmutation, each cell of the
drcumnutating organ showing a rhythmic enbrgement and
decrease of its dimensions, due to the admission of more and less
water into its interior. The restraint of the protoplasm changes
gradually and rhythmically. The sequence of the phases of the
rhythm of the various cells are co-ordinated to produce the
movement. Nor is it only in growing organs that the rhythm
can be observed, for many pbnts exhibit it during a much
longer period than that of growth. It is easy to realize how such
a rhythm can be modified by the reception of stimuli, and can
consequently serve as the basis for the movement of the stimu-
bted organ. This rhythnuc affection of vegetable protoplasm
can be observed in very many of its functions. What have been
described as " periodicities," such as the daily variations of
root -pressure, afford famiUar instances of it. It reminds us of a
similar property of animal protoplasm which finds its expression
in the rhythmic beat of the heart and other phenomena.
AuTBORiTies.— Sachs, Lectures m ike Physiahfy ef Hsatt. ta»
Uted by Marshall Ward ; Vines, Lecimres m Uu PhysSUnJ ^Pie»U:
Pfeffer, The Physiology of Plants, trans, by Ewart ; ReynoUi Gifca.
Introduction to VegetaMe Physiotogv; The SolmhU Ferments eni f^
mentation ; Detmer,^ Practual Plant Physiologyt tnm. by Moor;
Darwin and KcUm.PracUcal Physiolofy et Plants: DavcopocttCB.,
Experimental Morphologj^, vols. i. and ii. ; Verwoni. General Phymeko*
tfans. by Lee; BQtschltj InoeUiffition on Microscopic Forms onioo
Protoplasm^ trans, by Minchin.
a.R.CL)
Pathology or Plants
'* Phytopathology " or pbnt pathology (Gr. ^vr6r, pbni).
comprises our knowledge of the symptoms, course, cauMS SBd
remedies of the mabdies which threaten the life of plants, or
which result in abnormalities of structure that are icpnled,
whether directly injurious or not to life, as unsightly or undoih
able. In its systematized form, as a brandi of botaucd sti^fi
it is of recent date, and, as now understood, the subject fiat
received special attention about 1850, when the nature d
parasitism began to be intelligible; but many disjointed Rfc^
ences to diseased conditions of pbnts had am>eared bog bdon
this. The existence of blights and mildews of cereals had bta
observed and recorded in very ancient times, as witness the Bible,
where half a dozen references to such scourges occur in the Oid
Testament alone. The epidemic nature of wheat-rast vai
known to Aristotle about 350 B.C., and the Greeks and Rokisi
knew these epidemics well, their philosophers having shievd
specubtions as to causes, while the people held diaiacteiisic
superstitions regarding them, which found vent in the dedicniai
of special fcstivab and deities to the pests. Pliny knew ttat
flies emerge from gaUs. The few records during the middle i|B
are borne out by what is known of famines and pniiksff.
Shakespeare's reference in King Lear (Act m., sc iv.) nugr hi
quoted as evindng acquaintance with mildew in the 17th ccauaj,
as also the interesting Rouen bw of Loverdo (1660). MalpiiV
in x679: gave excellent figures and accounts c/L leaf-roQing oi
gall insects, and Grew in i68a equaUy good descriptions of a kifr
mining caterpillar. During the xSth century more waikak
treatment of the subject began to repbce the scattered OPM
Hales (i 727-1 733) discussed the rotting of wounds, cankcOi tb.
but much had to be done with the microecope before laj nil
progress was possible, and it is easily inteDigiUe that mtti di
theory of nutrition of the higher plants had been founded by di
work of Ingenhouss, Priestl^ and De Saussure, the way voiHt
even prepared for accurate knowledge of cryptogaauc psariM
and the diseases they induce. It was not till De Baxy (ili4
made known the true nature of parasitic Funp, baaed oi Mi
researches between 1853-1863, that the vast domain of qsdflie
diseases of pbnts was opened up to fruitful inveatigalioi^ ni
such modem treatises as those of Frank (x88o and x89s)i SonB
(1886), Kirchner O890), were gradually made poisiUe.
Plant pathology embraces several branches of study, sbIbV
be conveniently divided as follows: —
X. The observation and accurate descrtptioa of wfwifBm
{Diagnosis), ■
2. The study of causes or agendes inducing disease {AUJthgfi-
3. The practise of preventive and remedial measures (Am*
peutics).
In plants, however, the symptoms of disease are apt to cdik
themselver in a very general manner. Oiir perceptiott tfo^
tbte but imperfectly symptoms which are due to vciy ifilaat
causes and reactions, probably because the organiatioo cf dc
pbnt is so much less highly specialized than that of ki^
aninuUs. The yellowing and subsequent casting of kavo^ ^
instance, is a very general symptom of disease in plants, aid HF
be induced by drought, extremes of temperature,
excessive illumination, excess of water at the roots, the i
parasitic Fungi, insects, worms, &c., or of poisonous {
forth; and extreme caution is necessary in dealing with i
descriptions of such symptoms, especially when the
eye has taken no cognisance of, or has only vagudy uLftilwi^
numerous colbteral circumstances of the case.
The causes of disease may be provisionally *'i««^fi**» soMEi"
as follows, but it may be remarked at the outset that MMt'
OLocYi PLANTS 755
jnmm«lcMuef,ortgeiit»,ti«vet»lelyra|»™l)'«liiuiii «(«-. Ewry plut fc fCMtnlmd U cwiy oat ki Auetlow ol
' cuy Lo «i In attributing a dueucd condition to any of Oi''Ji*?iir°^re"'^^iiStefhSiS'dIf^m52*3
DsleiB tlif relative importaace of pnmary and subordinate ,k^^ r:«b. .^*..»J;«. i;»i. .- »^»^« ■ .* ..l^.^
ei ii diKovciable. Foi ioitiuice, a Fungui epidemic li
able unleH the dislatic condiliona ut lucti u to favour
tpentl and geniUDaluii) of the ipores; and when plants ue
oS owing to ttie auperuturation of the soil with wat«, It
o meaoa obviout whether the exccu of water and diaaolved
r the eiduijon of oiygen from the niot-hain,
mulation of foul pn
ie foiepound. In eveiy jprinp were not » often lonowed by froMi in May aal Jiioel
ereanchainaof causation conceinea,and the some factora The mdifect efiecta of tempeiatun an alio importanL Ttu^ id
difletenlly grouped in different caies. which tlw youni hudi are " nipiiad " by Imat, would freqiienlly
in. in mind theac orecautions. we may dudfv lh« «« ■"«« ™'™1 |n;"7. -m.rt BK.tta. di "■ -^
the wDrUni of the Uvinc michlnefy ■ at ita beat, aiid» other tUfl^a
being equal, any (icat depaitnn (nm Ihii may isdm patboloSleal
ludi auilat>le tcfnperatima — d.f. in gmnhouiH when fduta
rcqidriflg vcfv differeat optimum tempcntuna and iUumhiatlaB
an kept uaetW. Equally diuMisui an thoK climatic c* •eaKwal
_^ „ ...^ „.,. . _, chaniea wUch lavohne teopetaturei in Ibeiuelvc* not aaceaive
we Duy dudfy the
m hiah tempi
pluti rcquiie ftfJU, but in very diffcit
- ■- the United Kioidoi ' ' '^
such a daMiGcatioD rnay lerve its purpose aa a aort of
it muit be confetsed that the limits ol its usefufaesa an
ached. In the fint place, tlie so-called " iaietna] eiUMt "
uc is piobabty a mere phiaM cavering our ignorance ol the
. at work, and although a certain convenience attaches
dislinclioa between those cases where lender breeds ol
appvently exhibit internal predi^josilion to sufler more
' than others from paiasiles, low tempemures, ciceuive
I, ftc. — as is the case with some grafted plants, cultivated
%, ftc — the mystery involved In the phrase *' internal
" only exists until we find what action gf the Uving or non-
environment ol tbe essentia] mechanism of the plant has
U equilibrium.
■awni to the Rcogniied eitenut imitia, the phydeil
gn <4 the s«il i> a fiuiclul foum of ducaic. U loo eCnely
. the Knl piniclei present meckmical obtucin (a cmwthi
eteniive of moisture, the root-hnin luAer, aa already liintedi
Ipen or over-dralnnj, the pbnl lueeuinlM la draught. All
iR>pen«s ol soil kmwn u lulure, psroiity, depth, inclino-
tbe boriion. fie., are concerned here. Many maladies of
arv irvceable id the chemical composition ol aoQ>^^e.f.
icy of nutritive ulli, especially nitrates and phosphates;
the roots ol trees in towns) of coaf-gu snd bo forth- But
rorthy of special attention that _lbe mer? chemical com- most so little that fceUe plants only come up. In the ease ol m
. featuEC about them, papular opinion to the contrary foliage have far more aisimilatoTy surface than is immediately
■standing. Ordinary soils will almost always provide the necessary. aiKl if tbe iniuiy is confined id a single yru' it may be
TV chemical IngredEents if of pcDpcr physical texture, depth, a small event in the life of tbe tree, bat 11 Rpcaled ihc cambi
■ FuHaj and BacTHaroLocv). bud-stoiTS and fruiting may all suffer. " ■
«rdi vattr. ill dclicLcncy or excess Is a relative matter, and moths. Ac., bore jnio oarfc, and Injure
larvae ol beMles,
ijuVy, ihc intcrfcrcH* with
if dI pcDpcr physical teali
h msny of the minDT maladies of pot-planis in wi
cenhausei i^nlrolled by amateurs depend on its n
liooe is piDbubly never a prioiary cause ol disease, iis ine wounas air also lo oe ream in proportion to iik numners a
pply is, howevrr. a frequent cause of predisposition to the insects at work. Various local hypertrophies, including galls
of parasitic Fungi — t-g, the. damping off ol seedlJDgs — and mull from the increased grosrth ol young tissues irritatedby tin
rated schIs not only are the roots and rooi-hain killed by punctmesol insects, or by the presenceol eggsor larvae left benlad
iation, bvl Ihe whole course of soil fermcnlalLon Is altered. They may occur on all parts, buds, kavcs, stems or loots, as sbosn
ust the HDiious bodies be gradually washed out and the The lo^l damage ia small, but the general injury to asumUatlon
ts restored, but the balance of suitable bacterial and fungal absorprir>n and alber functions, may be important if Ihc numbcri
ootufpJhrrs is a cause of disease in Ihe neighbourhaDd _of fie., air sometimes ol imwutarHr as pests- The so-called eel
ses and poisons to the leaves and rools; but it is usual to the grains of cereals, and every one knows now predatory slug*
* with 11 the action of eicessive humidity which brings and_siM!ls are. {See EcomniicfeNTiHIOLOcv.)
— .- — ->ns Plants as agents of di ^ -.-
itlonand there- those larger forms which as weeds, e|
, jsastrous effects injury by dominating and shailing mi — — - -, . -. -,
itning. fie., urkder the heading gradually exhausting the snl. fte-. and Iruc parasites which actually
y by dominatini^ and shading more del
hich only shows once more how
» individu; "
Sradually exhausting the soil. se-. and Iruc parasiles which actually
ve on and in the tissues of the plants. It must be lemembered
,- Ihal phanerogams also include parasitic species— c-f- CmriiM,
<v •'■v m.,„—m^.-^ ^.^.-J atrnli. probably no (acton Lontisliliu, Vikmi, T^i'asi. JtMnuslKi, &c. — wiifa vanous capac-
responsible lor iU-bealth in plants than lin^robin and ilies (or Injury. Tliese enemies arc as i rule so canqHcuous that
7S6
ndonotlaokoi
llic " dampinc ofl '
a few hmir^ and
gradually invadn
■■ Wilclio' limaa
of twill in which I
tor Hcltiwciim), f
UayJii.oioBAe
taiu c4 nuncnnii
■My tell. Some V
dl mairormatiDn.
ehcyxt of Eupkort
(Kc Fundi}.
if. The iiiHU I
drifcrrnt A pbol
■II ill tlHU« >n
■omc Punguipm
The phmomou c
^nS K'ltit oidu*
'ATHOLOcYi PLANTS 757
i(«cia in vwy efficitnt in diiKmiiiiii™. Tt* EJ" P'»/«I "t lymplona, but for the purpmc* o( cluBficOion In m trtfcle o(
Sri»™Ci'^pcHH2srau(^F^jiiiB;S'Jpo^Vn™jS™i»! <tie "oit! obvious ligai of disMBe eihibitceL
H^ily put ilijoueh *ood ttuckcd trifh dry-rot. be riika inTect- itarLT io grHnX pillor, including all cm where ihv nomul buliby
DC it with the FunEUt; and limilarly in pruning, in propaEitinB frrea huF i« rrpUod by a tkl^ry ytlTotiih hue lodicaliflf tlut llie
ly cutlingv, Ac. _ ^ cKlor^phj^U >pHrBtLi> a de6cienc. It mjy be due to uuuflirieat
■onion* not FAtily atinuted. Am n^i^rdt money vilue Alone Ihe a viluation, -and a then accompanied by aolt tiwuet^ donnttts
oUowing fipire* niay lerve ui illu>lralion. In l88l the United of inlmiodt*, ieiive» iiiually rrduced in lize. *c. Tie layini o(
nert and other pefli. The wbeat-rui't coilI Aunala ll.OBO.Iioo low ■ tempenture, often K« HI young vheat in cold ipKngL
uiftfed fromgr^n-ruitt wu stiniaied at £ro»ooo.ooo tterlinE. ehlotophyll mun aba be ditfinsuiched. CUirrosu ii a form of
'■^- - — '^'- ' -= — ■ '-" —'—I- — litJM of farmera. pallor wher- *'■- -*»— fc-" : — :- -" — — -:-- ^- - -^--.
dlloitiphyll ETmairu in abeyance
„.. ._, — „- --„ ^ alio induce ■ . ,,„ „^ „ _
quack nKdidnea, although common ilgn of watet-logged rooli. and if accompanieil by iriltiiw
iiT'r.^ ^k..*' iZj«. ,.°» guy be due I" ■''^•■'t^ ru^^.^^.^:-^.: .™k.-:-L. _:-.„
iei, but even now the icarch id too often inBredinita may alio induce chlorotic condltionL Yellohi
... . f....^ ... the believer in quaqk medidiKat although common usn of irater.lDftged rooti ' " ' ' '
iLuraJ wrid Ii awakenina to the fact that before any may Ik due to drought- Over-
■■-■ -- ' Htulcan^ear " '" "'— "- '^-
< carnation S the diaeaie mutt be invcMigatci]. ' Eiperience with ing. In other cam the imcnce '^ iniccta. Fund « ,
pUenun. denriy Iwught in Che jwt. baa thown that one fruitful the roots may be looked for. Aibiiiijm, with mh\di vajiegaled
lithmo leading a quiet endemic l^e in the fieldi and foreita^ large obacure, and uvially it^ided aa internal, though apcrimenta
facta of iia ip^iaJ food. Bh)nc which il may ranee rampant without go to ihow that Hme vnnrMtioRa are inlectioua.
lieck to ita ' diiperaali nutrition aiKl reproduction. Nunieroui 2. Spotted Laati, frc— Discoloured opoTi or palcbea on leave*
•iki hypolheieia* to change* In the conttitulioo g( tbehotl-plant, and other herbaceoua (arts an^ cammon lymplomi ol diimie, and
Eadiag to luppoted vulnerability Hcviouily non-Aiiteni. would often fumith due* to ideniiftcation of causei» though it muit be
ruth been grasped that an epidemic reiulta when the external Ihepnndinff. By far the greater nninber ol wK.diicu« are due
aciDc* favour a paiaiiie »mewhat more than they do the heat, to Fungi, aa mdicaKd by the numeroui " leaf-didw* " docribed.
I may be that in particular cua pailicular nude* of cultivation but anch ia by no mean* alwiv* the caae. The iiiDt or patch i* an
iBfavDur the hut: or that Ihe uil. climate or aeaion* do *o! but area of injury: on for in) it tha cdl-conlenu areuSefing dntnic-
ivefwhdnilni evidence eiiiU to ihow that Ibe principal aiart of tion from thadiag, bleckmg of ilamau, ka* U aubatance or direct
pidemici inide in clrcumiu nee* which favour the ipread, nutrition mechanical injury, and lbej>lant auHen in propottlon to Ihe area
iDd tepniduction of Ihe peti. and the kmn to be learnt li thai ol leaf lurlace pul out of action. Il i> eomcwhai artificial to claaiiy
cernutiona againat the FTtabiishmcnt of luch favouring condition*
nuat tie aoughi. Nevcrthel^, epidemica occur, and practical
oeaaiim aie devised to meet the vatiou* case* and to check th^
avage* already begun. The procedure condsts in most caaca in
pnying the affected plants irith poisonau* folulion* or emutsioni,
irinduuing them with fungicidal or ui>ecticid^| powdcia, « apply-
mnc enough to injure the roata, Icsvei. &c., of Ihe hoat-p)nnt,
r allovred to act long enough to bring about such injury. Carv
dd intellifence are e^ecially needful with certain inwcticideB
ucfa aa poisoaoua gaaea, or the operator* may BufTcr. Il la woiae
han usel^Tu appTy dnilic n^mediea if ihe main facts of Ihe life-
iBlory of the pest are not known; e.f. the appllcatiofl of ordinary
dtise^ic powdeia to leave* in^e which a Fungus, such as a Urm
t Utiiliio, Il growing can only mull in faPure, andsmitarly il
i^'t*e, or the sleeping in hot water olthoroughlynpehJidgrjiiH
imed to catch tLe peat at a vulnerable atage ue intelligcnl and t.t. in gieenliouHa where Ihe sun'a rayi are conccniraled on
aofitable prophylactic measum, aa has been repeatedly shown, particular spots — and a certain class of obscure diseases, such a*
fumeroua apecial methods of preventing the spnnd of Fun^, or ' silver-kraf ' in plums, " foay leave* " in various plants, may alao
be niinatioiu of insects, or of trapping various animals: of leaving be placed here.
nfeated ground fallow, or of growing another crop uscles* to Ibe i- Woumd.— The prindpal phenomena ie*ulIinB from a umple
leai, 4c., arc also to be found in the practical treatise* More wound, and the rviponae ol the irriiaied ctlla in healing by cork
nsre vigoroui slacks, of raising special late or eariy varietieaby ckan cut, fracture or biu« which injures the camMum over ■
ranng or selection, and wa on. have also met srith success; but 1 same response. The injured cells die
t must be understood thai " restslaot " in such case* usually cells beneath grow out. and form cork,
acaa* that aome pcculiaricy of quick growth, early ripening or :s«ure bulge outwards and repeatedly
f. Amonf the most interesting modem mean* ct wa^ng war pitli, phloem, cartes, 8a:., may alta
piDst epidemic petts i* that of introducing other epidcmlci of regencrutive tissue, and if Ibe wcund
ipongthe pests themselvca^^.g, the infection of t*t* and mice "bark." the protniding lim ol callus
vftsof Ibe sua»ssful carrying out tif such measures are not wanting. ' of birk and cortex are torn oA, the
■tat the encouragement of uiaeclivorous biidi ha* been prolluble use the tissues have to creep over Ihe
1 well eitablithedi and it is equally well-known that theb' destmc-
ZKufia OH^ SymfUta. — lie lymptomi of plant disea»$ are,
* already *ild,''<pt tut, be vciy general in Iheir nature, and art tciies. Dreana^ ann aorauon* aue
nnelime* » vagudy.'tkaned that little can be teamed from id other climatic agenta. Cuts, break-
h™ aa totbe^^Sa'at work. We may often di«lngui.h T^^^S^^^J^Z^^T^-
Kcoodaiy or nitnrduuw lag ol biirii by sun and be, ftc., ud
758
Hundi dH to rdanu >1.ith «nlwln
which iniiiiia them may be very i
PLANTS [PAxinan
thcrviw mAmiany ThcyaRbrwichnui vtiichapenaaia] Fta^iatAfcUimm.ExaaKma^
Ac.) hai obuincd i hold. Thu Fuuui uimubui ike maii t>i|
lonnll in character, to (boot out noi* [wii> tlun uual: (he nyceliuin then nuii
ace due 10 hyper- each incipieBl twii and ulmulatn it (a a repnuica of Ikt pnam.
mloani alieraiioM and m in the ojurae of ytara lacie brooni-Ulic tulu Riall, s(tn
ibntt. The injury nurkcdly diRernil liom thesDnna].
firM place—* mere But undoubieijly the mou impcKiaoE of the VI
e oiinulE wound or on ircca are taniera. A canker n the rvuIl oI n
_... , ^._.. .-luhine over it, and tn thu ollua-
jIKrowthi ofteii of loTH tin and remarkabfe aooo forma, and if Tl
- -— ■■- -"---■tI fito IboK ■■ -'— - ' "
■hape. EacRKencci nuy be divided Cito Iboac occurriof op alter « few vean. Din
hcibaceoui linuci. of which CtOt ars well-known caampln. and luccukni eclla. and ofli
thoK found on tlie woody itenir branchca, Ac., and ihccnielvei t-t- AphidH — and may t
of which CtOi ai
Jy Item, branchca, Ac., and ihcmielv*
lIdoiue (he MRiplnl eianipln of the fonnerarclhe berwcen the cambium and callua, on ihc one hand, tryi^
ilound and armnsed that they (be new (iuun aa^ they arc foftbcd. reuili In irreiubr p<
m ttiickniflt llic t
weie lonj (aken (or Fun^i and placed In the" cenut&'afiiHH the if ill unlnjuied cambium area goeaoa ttiidiniflt iWfcnarh*
Crcidia or Kalla ariiiu by (he hypertntphy of the aubepiderndt the dead pana, of courie, remain unihicitcned, and the pdrtiaa ia
(elli of a leaf, cortex. Ac-, which haa been picrecd 1^ ihcDvinautor which (be Fun^iia ii at work may for the time Maa nvv imi*
of an inKct, aod in which (lie egg ia dep(Hi(cd. The {nitatlun aet rapcdly. Such cankcra often eommcoce in wm iucd papdair^
up by the batching egg and ■(> iciultlng larva appean to be tba Iroated budi, ciacki in (be eoctei, fte,, into which a fcnieitiii
uimulua to dcvclopmcnl, and not a poino or cniyma injected by ■Porc leode ila hypba. The acriouftcia t^ the ^mage dc« a
(be inaect. The ejKraonlinary forms, coloun and tcvtum of the i[luitTa(edby the ruvaeea of the laichdiieaio, apple canW,£c.
iruc DaUt have alwayi formed some of the moit intc^UHIg of 9- firnda/raju aad Kaltini.^'ryti outward wmptooi of may
hiolo^Ieal qucttiuiif, lor not only u there deAoile ci>4|ieraliDn discaica cunuvt in eaceuive <UkchargFa of momure, o((ea acniD-
bcIu«nogivenapecin<i(in>ectaDdati:daH(,aashDwabylhcfacli pnled by buruing of m-er-tumd cetli. and eventually by pnn-
that the aame insect may induce galli ot dUfercDt klnda on different (active changn. Condiinna of hypcr>(urgeupcv aiv waoaiii
planti or organsi whib different intccta induce diflerent galli on herbaceous plants in wn hcaaoni. or lAxn DveteTDw^ aad ia
ii^lf fumubei wcU adapted protection and abundant atocn of combaiwd wiih e(ioia(ion: what ii (enncd ranbnna it a puikolir
_ ... ._ ,., panjcuVar lanm, and ofico onpean to be borae caae. and if the facton concerned arc iroiovcd by draliuse,
la Ihe plaat. Thla kuier bet la » doubl due to inc out, free lranipira(iaa. Ac, t» pcrniancot harm nuy
tbc produc(Kio of an euL-ia of plastii; natcri^ over
•enie — technkally Ccc^io— an not alwayi due Id t,
ivxluln on the roots of ksamliiaui plant* an induird by the
\K(h"
n^ over and above With ivedlinea and tender plantg, however, matters are lErqunElf
It. Call! in the wide complicated 1iy the onibnahM ef Fun^— «.(. Pyftm. hw-
due lo tnnKta. The ifan, CumplrUria, VatMa, Buliylii. Ac. Thai wdi ovn-
im^UrH. I
I and grapei
u imlenlal'oo. SiJfmoirM Fu'Sp^iSS/'k^ ^
Nodules due lo " cel-wocm> " [Nematodes) aie producol on numer- nncTally. The loldnE of ifuionKa. roots, Ac. aho cuniau
ous ctoteci of pbnt». and frenuently nault in gmt louei— «.(. this catecory; but whiTe it is eatEemzly di^cult in aiv^ cam is
tomatoes, cucumbers. Ac; and (he only tuo well known PhyUpsia. eaplain (be courK of evenu in deuil. ceriain Fungi aad hKtcoi
Ki of Ptoimtdiolitan. a dangerously parasitic MyjiomycG(
J ....... „ ,.. Ics) are prodiiccf r
HmxyXw!— T^e^icky "nSiSn'of la^of ueei-e^.liiit-
termcd Mihilri—e-f. those due to.SjuciylrAiM.ntifiiiiijifci.ci'ilntal, tlie punctum of Aphides and CDCt4drae m dwwa to be npoHlk
many UilUaniKM<, Ac Thnc case* on not easily distbmiished for such ciudalioos, and at least one iostancc is kaowa whiei
■uperficiafly Inoq the pmtular outErawth of aetiol myectiA and Fungus — Oanrr^a-^uses it. But it also apnars that boecy^
•pons (sdonuta] af such Fangi ai MrfrH, i^iKrinJi, Ac The dew may be eicMed by onlinary proccnes ol ovnturirnnn
cylindrical ueB-WHllbiga doc (s Ctlyflntm*, EtiMK, tts., may ptetting (be llipuld through wa(cr-|>oret, as in the trapiaTCinsl-
alio be mentioned here, and Ibo tyn may casi^ confoond with fittia, CalliaiiJra, Ac. That the« exudations on katet should
moths. Then b a cbx of gall-liiw et puauilar ouiEiowiha tor —is not surjirisine, aad the leaves Climes an ofied bluk tikt
(herelore often aKiilml to iolemal caiitci of diiaasc. Such an FIta.—A common evro( in the cjudaiion of (urhil. (ralliii*
knowTai /■(■wtcrwrl?" Recent ' nunhes p^nl to dcfinile iKfion aMl vnn a'liXllic fecLientaiiim*'in these an I!bwi^
cmemal conditions of nuiniture, affecting ihe nrorcsvs of nspita- exphuBcd liy the cocxii^eoce of alliumlnaiiB and sacxiunne vanm
lion aad transpiration, Ac, an being n«piin^l4c for anme of these with fungi, ynistn and bacteria tn such fluxes. It i> dear iksl ■
The "' scab " of nofatoei is another cax in point. Frost bll^-tcra these coses the olwiovi symptom- 'the flux — is not the vi^aiT
arc pustubr swelliiu;s due to the up^groMh of callus-tissue tnio one. Some wound in the succulent tissues hat bcrone inbTin
^ 'ty the uprising of the suiicrficial cortci under the Ity Ihe orgaidmis rcfcrnd to. and Ih^i
: cold. healing- At on.iin teamns Ihc wound
Turning ROW to_outgcDwths of a woody nUon, the wcll-jinown iuns— some of which, by the l^ an n
wheel, insects— having started a nllua on which advc
1 forms— mull inly in Ihe nulii'ioii
m is, in foci, wry like chat
of foud-mateiial brlnj aceunulalrd at Ihc Injund plan, olber Apknpkllicra on heiWiirnui iilanu of
buds arise at the baic of is arnund Ihe bijnnil une. If mallrn run- Kci'iciii— alio come under 1hi> [H
ace propitious to tlur di-whiiiRient of Ihew Inidi, then a lult of somcmin-fluxcsan tracnliuihedranx
twij^i is torcned and no burr; imt if tlie indj4rnl twl^s arc also dc^ Vrut in Conifen, oihera, as wcIL ax err
BtToyed alao early stage, ivw bucL an again formed, ami In lacijer re still in need of captanatioB.
nuRibos than bcfon. and the continued reiMiliafl of thcwimcFwes of the plant disraici involving rot kavet
hods lo a sun ol congkininate woody mass rf fused bud-bases, ascrilied the action of baneiia. and in some aan— r.(, cibb
ccowdcd portion of woody material as It shmly Rrowi. Then arc thai an causally connicled with the disease, li b
many varieties of borr^ thiaiKh all woody oatgrowlhs of oM treci sufficient (o find bacteria in llic ratting tissues, however. » i
an not to be conlounded with them, t-r- the " knees " of 7'flira' to lie socccMful in infeainH the plant through an adiftcisJ avi
daii, Ac. Many typical bum might be dcsciilKil aa witches'- unk-st very special and rcitiral precaulioos an taken, anliaa
lirooma, with alTlhc twigs arreited la exuemcly short eutgniwths. of tho aUcgcd cases of baeteriosis the saptophyiic bicleiii ii
Witches -brooms an the tuftci] hunches of twigs found on silver liswes are to be rri;arded ax merely secondary agrnla
firs, birches and other trees, and often prcKnl rvH^mblanres lo ft. jVnrwii.— A number of diseases the obvious syniptcnr
bird^' nests or dumps of nii^Jetoc if only KCn fioin a distance, wliith ace lliu local drying up and death of tisauea, ia maayc
ECOLOGYl PLANTS
nlb<Kciiiiluyn9u1»(rac<r|9niarpiintof«Eiii<. DUrbcbmotli ■ ■
oiRlKr iiBdv thu hading. No ■harp Iiik cm be dnwn bclmc
kpmdi ea lit aurnal conditioni whFthfl' nccnni ii ■ dry-im
B Ihe miE I mploy the tenn hen, cr ■ wci-roi. when it vouli
oiM UBdtr the prendisE ausary. The "dyins tock"' of ih
win al lien and ihiutn it t frequent ciw. The corricil timie
VtaiaUf ilinnk and dry up. lurning brown and lilack in paiche
« ill over, and wlien it Icnph the <ambiuni and mrtulUryri'
uwc* dry up the whole iwia dro off. Thii may be due lo froH
metlal^iii ■• thin-barked ■'^liiei, and, orien occura in betthei
lw'*tr(«;*tlT" Ih^^rked ™ ^^'^omh^mrbeKh, In^&i.-
:», and similarly with
labliihed treei in park*. Ac,, apparently in ^ood gf
ilntapetala,
^na lueh aa praliferaiionH, vivipiry, the development of " Lammaa
»»m." adventitioui buds, epicormic bntnchca, and to thoee mal-
-mationi of Rowen knawn as pcrloria. pliylkidy, viteKCDce. Ac.
likf aaaured Ihai dcAnite, and in many'caK4 rccognliable, ravkla'
:ical diuurtances are at uork, we 6ndourKlvei«i Ihi borderlaiid
Ewccn pathological and phytioloocal variation, where each caie
IM be cianuned with due regard to all the ciicumtuncet. and
lenenlieation «ccmi pouible beyond what has been iketched.
lia i* eqiully true of the phcpomctia of apogamy and apoipory
the lieht of recent retearchet into the effects of external con-
Tlus lkel<i of an e nottnous subject shows us that the patholDRy
plants ifl a ^lecial department of the study of variations which
[calcn injuty lo the plant, and paaa impcnxplibly into ibc
760
Hibdivided pluit gcognphy ^Lo floiiuk pUnt gcognphy and [ncton of the hiblut ue very iapcriectly in
ecological plant gcogiaptay. The larwa is conceisBl with the due to a lack of piedie knowledge of the vuioui habitat bden
diviuon of the earth'i surface into major diAIricla chajacteriied and also of the nsponaa made by plants to Lbeae factofi, l^ll
by particular plants or taxonomic groups of plants, with the much more advance has been made by ecologtsts in the tnWt-
subdivision of these Soristic di^lricts, and with Ihc geogiaphical gation of tbe nature of bstnlat facton, and until the cHed c< 111
diitribulion (both post and picscnl) Of the various taionomic factor) on the plants hu been n»ie dosely inveslffatsl bj
units, such u )pecla, genera. Hnd families. On the othet hind, pbii^oloBiati, it will remain impossible to place ealogr ■
ecological plant g&igiapby seeks to ascertain the distribution a physiological basis: all (hat is possible at presdt is to frita
of plant commujiiLies, such as associations and formations, and phyiiologlcal bias to certain a^Kcts ol ecolocical thcu^
enquires into the nature of Ihe factors of the habitat which are Obviously no more Ihln this is possible until physkdogtU n
related to the distribution of plants— plant forms, species, and able 10 state much more predtely than at pnaent phal a Ik
cammumtics. In a general way, Soriiiic plant geography is ioBuenn of comcnon sail on the plants of tall-ouinba, e( ibt
concerned with species, ecologit^ plant geogr^hy with vege- action of calcium carbonate 00 |dants of caloueous loik, ud of
lation. The study of the distribution of species dates back to Ihe action of humous compounds on planla ol fens and pal
Ihc lime of the early systematists, the study of vegetation to the moors,
lime of the early botanical travellers. Humbaldl,' foceiample, Eulspfol C/aiMi. — Many altempls faave been madctofiik
defined his view of the scope of phut geography as follows: plants and plant communities into classes depending oa Isbiui
" C'est cette science qui (onsidiie la vi^taui sous Ics rapports facioii. Oae of Ihe best known ckssificuiaia on Ibac tian ii
de leur assodatJon locale dans ies diflfrcnts climats " (1B07; that by Warroing,' Warming recognised and de&xd Ibb
Tkt Habilal.—Tke term kahilal, in its widest sense, includes
all the factors of Ihe environment which aifcct a plant or aplant
community, though Ihe term i) frequently used lo signify only
' ' ' ■ 's irf the hihil
Catrapkitat Ftuloti. — CmETSphi
1, physical, and biological. Hatopiyu..— Theie .
X'eraAylU'— fheie are plants which live in
— Theic are plants living in silualiDin wbefe Ik ^
,..,^, .^ .««,,. „....^..^...^, Kv^..«». w»'.„Mu.v *.r_ linsohigh proportkaq otiodiuin chlondc.
This neither specially dry nor speeially wei nor specially salty.
Sucb lerms as hydrophytes, itrophytct. and haloFAytakd
been used by plant geographers before Wairning's lime t-t. t»
Schouw;' and the lerms evidently supply a want felt byholaaiU
inct(Iable ol-eiac( definition, and are only useful irimiBiditl
very general way. The aboire dassifiestion by Wi
although it was without doubt the best ecDlogical
cism. The criticisms were directed chiefly to 1h(
sand dune plants among halophyla, to the eidv
phytes from xerophyles, lo Ifae indusion of " bov
among hydiophyies, lo the indusioa of all
xerophytcfl and oi all deciduous ttee
the group of mesopbytes in generaL
Schimper' made a distinct advance when be
between physical and physiological dryness or welDcss el Ik
soil. A soil may be physically wet ; bul il Ihe plants abwh Ik
water only with diOiculty, as in a salt marsh, then the vbIb,'
■ regards [^ants, physiologically dry. All soils which are ^rj^
' cally dry are also physiologically dry; sjid hence uly Ik
physiological diyness oc welncas of toils need be conskkitd ii
Schimpet tued the term xtrtfkyUt to indude pbmts wUck Ew
in soils which are physiologically dry, and the term iyff^jla
those which live io soils which are physiologically wctordii^
Schimpcr recognized that the two classes are connected by uur
a slatislical basis. It is only in a general sense like SckJ^B^
that such ecological terms as lerophyles have any vabeiudt
■ which shall have a high scientific value, on » basis of Ihis loiBt
Whilst Schimper objected lo the conslilntioa «l a yeori
category, such as mesopbytes, to indude all plants whkfa Iff
- .„ „ ^K..„..,.s ..i neither pronounced letophyla nor pronounced hygn(l>lW
Ihe aclioo of Ibe vnrioui lacion: bul such a classification ii nol he recognised Ihenecesnlyofalbitddassin whEchtDIiiMtllB
poHible in Ibe praeni Hate of knowledge.
Eality and F*yjW»^.-Whilst our knowledge of the naiure ' Wanning P(aa(*«i;;.«f. KjObenhavn^S,!. S" &*•
«,d eifec. Of habitat . stiU ina v«y rudimen'Siry condition, ^^^^^, ^(E^r.ls^, ^^ilJ-^Sr,^; eS^^SSSJSS
much progress has been made in rcccnl yean in the study of 1901),
plant communities; but even here the questions involved in 'Schouo. Cmmfliut tQ m almitddit PlanUfiap^ (Ki><*
tetatinglhefictsof the distribution of plant communities to the fe"^- ''"'■ ?^"JI"|Vj"""a ^i^""*^"*" eioer ingii^
' HumWdt and Bnnoland. £iioi lai la [lipapiU ia j^ulei J^^u^^mtnti^pki
tray, or the
and partly m
uie of the a
difletsinvan
nUs.
BMcpua FWfori.— Tboe include Ihe
aninials Qd the habitat. Here again, no
be drawn. In one sense, ihc accumulate
a twA«ic>l laclor, a> it is related, to Ihe
is probably reLii'«r'w' definiir^phic
Ajain, Ibe well-known action ol eanhwoi
biolojical work; but the n^ulting aeration
poraal by the wind cannot be » resardcd. The
on plants and vcECtalion il also a biological Ij
quenlly ignored as such, and Healed as if 11 were
.o^*hkh°L
When the nature and effect ol ecological lac
ors h!ve b.^
anificial cL»iAcation of (aeon, and lo fraSe
sc with Ihe ab
ne depending
mboldt and Bonoland. Esiai lai la [lipapiU ia j^ulei ' '•''Sciiimn!!'"'^un(Bixnpiu"«!r •kyrsiMidbir GmM
J*?'- jr,. , ■, {Berlin.ia98):Eng, trans, by Fbher. -llaiildeomphy^k'
haull and Scbioter (gp. C1I.J. PhysioWiJ Bau " VMaii, IVU-loo^.
Kvi PLANTS 761
which, like dedduoui Uta wtd bulbaui iduti, ue hygro- vuioiu clans in
duriof one Muon oF the year uid lerophyla during nnk. From ibii [
r feaioD of tbe yur. Such plants, which comprise the be found the nuat eervicee^Le: —
aujor^y of the ipecLO of the central European flora, HyJropkyUi (•ubmer^ed aqutJc planii]. — Planii vhoH
termed Irtfapkyta. t"'i™ omni Un wholly in water; r^., mrnt Al™, tiuny 1
Iv. W.rTnii«' fiQonM.lM. uuit«1 hv VJJ. hu •«» " ''"^J*^" •??■. and hwrwom. (uch at /MfmMiiji.
PteridophyteA, auch a* ruuona tpp-. tMotUs «pp..
oily, WiTTDing' (1909:136), asiited by Vihl, hu
^ hii earlier clauihcation, aiui adopted the foUowinf:
that float free on water, ol the pJnuUa, or maccnphytn '*-J'T
Boil on or ire (uaptndcd in water, and of the knfjlm, or 'iJfSH
aerial- Warminf admiia there ia no aharp limit between
planti and bnd planli; and it Kemi tquilly obvioua thai
. no aharp limit between lome of hii helophytea and loni* of
Irophytci. For ciample. tbe diltereim bclnnii aiiiiBtic
■lib Hoiliiii leavei. aucli aa tbe yellow water-lily (jVnAtua
ind thoK with erect Icivei. nich h Typha onfaiiiMis, b
ly more infarenl than reiL Among belopiiytea. Warming
Hantaof the reed awamp. and inclodcaaiich irrea aa the alder
rolmmliMia). willowi tf-f., Stlix tlba. S.frataU. S. ii«ra,
he loll ia phyaiologicaily dry.
iy«^j««.— Theie plinii, aometimea apoken of u " boi
i compoundri, and include F^nla which grow on fena and
\jckropkyift. — Theie include the plania which grow on the
he iDil ia phyaically dry-
\lgac. licbeha. and Rioaiea are Lncludrd among ILlhophytet,
10 Sixifrtfa Aitoon, S. oppasitifalia. Stint aaniis, and
tamimophyttt. — Theae are ptanta which grow on aind and
■a. aie paammophytea, aa well aa plania (auch ai
) of dune heaiK dune " huahUnd " a
huthland " or acnib, and dune
Plttil CmmimUia.— The iludy of plant 1
i»r»#*j*H.— Here are placed terrain " lerophyilc perennial {Ffrmalimleirt or jyiiMofeiy) hu made _ _
which occur on " particular dry kinda o( toil, auch ai lime- recent yean. Even here, however, genenJ acteenunt has not
icka. uin clay, and so forth " (Warming, 1909 ; iBgl. been reached; and tbe quationi Involved In relating the facta
hj '^','l™f, " "'^ '•'''' '"^ "" Pfof*"'" "' "« "'' '" of the datribution of plant eommuniiia to the facioti of the
™^*Jtoi.— Under ihlt term, are placed plant, of deient hibilit are very imperfectly undenJood. Plant commimilitl
opea- may be dauified aa followi: —
|iifa«*,(«.— Here are placed pUntt lound in " aayannah- A ^axf a
'iUrepkytimtl ]ormalio»i, r.f-, farigliea, maquii. and fomtt
:mn oaka (Q- /fix, Q. BtSMa, Q. SlOrr). and of EMcalyplMi
ijljiphyiicallyorphyaiologicillydry- ^ _, ^ pe Uttt
favour the tievvlopt
1 commuiiily i
of definite noiiilic com-
cleriied by a tingle dominant ipeciet;
may he charac
teriicd by a number ol
which it ahund
an I here, another there,
ciKi™, anda
re well illualrated by a
'Una ndiarii
ia Ihe dominant plant.
Kialims. auch
u fens, where diSerent
e varying abu
ndance of chattclerislic
■<™c«, Pkraf
Kolala, and J
uKUs ibtyaifii^u!. The
biy related to
slight diSerenca in a
ntific Id regard Ihtma)
le majority of
cases, the cauiea of the
traled. A local aggre-
than the domi
inani one i. an uaocj-
tsociily; forei
ample, societiel of £rtu
,a /onwUimir. ..»., of Pi.u, lyfoHWi, /■i«a laiia are produced by Ihe
u,UHx .ibiria, L. i€cid<ui. plini, such at CltdUm Mc
^^t)t».— Warming dehiM meaophylea i>," planli that diSerent facia are posiib
1 HandlM water or containing a ;ieal abundant of .all. '■ j^e m diancc; stUI, in the
■ nd W^ """Phyte^ Warmng pbce. plant, occiimng different faciei have not
on of the Jtl™.'™ nHldowfc ?n fMarr m culii^led kU^ 8»,''on of a Ipecies olher t
■vergreen dicotyledonoua foietta. Tilraiix, of Siirput OHifiHans'/ot «o(wi
new syalcm ol Warming"., whilst probably loo involved "^■^. ff-^'-" ""/'««"■-, ^"^^'^ "»'. ™<" *-^-
come into general use, must beUkenu superseding his "•»«»■■<"> "^ C^'"*" WjorH The pbnt KKielCT are alw
.e;' and ptSapalhebest course open to bolani^. to <l™h'to dtje to digh varj.I»n. o ihe l«bjU^ _
ich lerms u appear to be helpful, aVid to use the selected , ^' ^* •w'ciat«>n it sometime, refened to in (ethnic J
I a rtencnl hind of way and without demanding any nie. '"P'**'* •'■< l"inin«lion •etaai is added to Ihe stem of the
uiit^ of tbem: il must also be borne in mind Ibat the g*"™ "™. "id the specific name is put in the genitive. Thus
,„, , , „, 'See Moia. "The FundamcnUl Units of Vegeution: hiatorieal
;SS",'l-'"°'' *; *"■'• develibment of the eoDOpta U the plant: uHKitilaa nd th* pbal
• lUd. (1^, <f. Of.). forma&D." SMuy 5ch«4 (OunbriSg*. igio). ^^
daciiniuitCiop. (l$0lj
=vi PLANTS 763
10 Rfard " cmlFeiDin fomri '* u a narural ccDbwical
^i much hither aliiludo, in ihe louth-WHI o[ Ihe Mcifiut-
etion, luRKi occur oE iht AiUniic «U[ iCl4na alltiaka). '
cur (ram about 4000 ll. (iii9in.)loalxM(7<x»IC. (iijjib.) I
ilu Maunialu. Some tcleraphylJoui (ofoli of Ihe eanern
■iad by miny dei^uoui Ireet, tuch u Frazinm cr^ '
Ulmui ampfUrii (luct. algOi Alma nnaiijiilia. SaUi
a, Pruntt BDiBM. &c.: and Ihut they hive lanie ckmcnu
ted war fhe ka or in moumainoui rcgioni. and (aa alrsdy
ire charafrcrized by wintrr rairu. In inland 1oca,tiliei4
le ninfaU u much iown. iUppti occiit. For cKample,
th Algeria, a legion ol ncppn i> liiuatcd an a flat plateau,
» fl- (914 melrea) high, bcturen Ihe southern «lopea of the
i> and Ihe nonhern tloixa ol Ihe Saharan Ailat, The
) (Sthinper, 1901 : 606). At Beni Ounit and Colomb
n Kiulh-oeiiem Algeria, [ wa< infornicd, in March 1910.
- '— ' ■■ ■- '-ir about ihrcc yoait. Hcte Ihe etavelly
imall ephemeral ipecin occur on the bjre around
L_ (^___ -"--m jnj eipttially in the wadis, Steppe
ol the conilc^n ol both tcmpnatc and of warm lempeiaie
4 pfobably a matter of phyiosenetic and not of ecoTogical
b fairly typical of Ihe wt« European district. In ihcte
>e find foreili ' or woods of oak (Qiurcu RalmT end Q.
t|. of birch {Batta (Dnnmud), of aiK (Fnuinui ixuiiiet),
ijlaeirrij; and. in Knith^vafrem Ei^laiuf, eaienaive planla-
. in the Medirerrannn rpKion. the degencraiwn of foreflt
L riie lo mftquia and garigun. so in weuem Europe, the
fwnXm
■ rrmptrali awl frfpif Dir/rirfl.— 1
.J). , Schimpet diitini^iho moir
(.«rf™. Plalyima lundra. and Sri'lVri "iMt*".'" Where
tc a moit rigoroui. nx* luiufra ocruia (p. 685).
peso! vegclalion (Iroptcal forestl. Bclerophyllaus forsl,
efarnli, lundra, &c.) IhusbrieflyowUned art groups of
's ■' climaiic locmations." Such groups ate inieresiing
ey aie vegetal ion uniii whose pbysiogtiomy [s, in 1 broad
Schimper, aiier describing [he scleiophylkius woodland
ledilerranean district and ol Ihe Cope disliict, says:
lib of West and South Australia in its ecological aspccl
I so compleleiy Ih* other sclerophyilous (ormationa tbai
only hai rtFetence la Ihe general aspect or physiognomy
jdation and lo the plant foims: Ihe lloriilic composition
various Klerophyltous — and other physiognomically
and indeed it is true that, just as the general physio-
plant assflciations b rtUltd lo climale, so their Hnrislic
:on Is reliied to geographical position. Hence, in any
iian ireatmenl of vegetalion. il is necessary to consider
IS of plant communities from the tiandpoint ol the
II geographical district in which they occur; and this
OB. Rankin, and Taniley, " British Woodlands." BdAmj
imbridge, 1910).
764 PLANTS Koi«c»
the onlingry hn of poDihation. ttoerophylly it ntlwr coniBwn plinii under lurk amditiou bfcoiu hiuUr and nun wcnkni.
■msni aqiulic plinti, ind ■> well (ccn in Kveral iquilic tfccin He ihowcd funhcr, t)ui ihe incnuc ol cwnmni hIi ta ili bI
of RaniiiifiiJiu, miny ipccin of PeltmilHf*. 5>tfIMna u|iUi- it conrlilcd wilh ■ rrduclion in the number isd HB ii( Ihc iHm
folia, Scirpni bcuUrii. Ciulalit (Nympima) alia, Hippiaii ml- pbitidi, and ihcrerore in Iheanuunl o< chloraphrlL OniWmki
'°?nKtIivon>umi^» occur anUni'viuticplinliiCj. Ulriadvn whihi othen Jit^ kUkd. Warminf* (1909: J») quiTciAa
•|)p., which are loally abundant in pealy waien. aic inKelivotDut. (1I9S), 10 llie efiect Ibal " ibc aBimibI«y actiniy i> ks ii dit
Arnipi)*!.— TIkk planli have dcvkn (a) lor procuring water, halophiiiic lorm than in the ordinary (arm ot Ibe luc qsdii.'
<4) or for uoring water. It) or (or lioiitinE tranipiralion! and tlieie Schinper had previously mainlained Ihat tht aniaa g| cokhm
adaptation! arc obviously relattd to the physicaliy or physio- lalt in the cell-iap n detrimental ai rctarda aBBiniUiioB. Uur
loflically dry habitali in which tiie plants hve. Plants of E^ysi- marine Algae appear to be able to recuuie Ibcir aamacic r^ftdij
cally dry habitats, such asdesenaano sand dunci. have freqnenily to the wrrounding medium; and T-C. Hill *luaBliowB that Ik nn-
ach down to a hain of SoikaritM potsesa this property. There baa. hoverti.
s able to uti™ peii'lneMal work """ ' " "*" " **
Thaps also from Bif XmpkyU
enlarged super- phyucally wet.b
>ted to the pro- to Ihc physiolor
long taj
hroots whii
supply. The tarn.
'."wKrficial root .,
'Stem in addition, at
tely the w.
iler from rain show
JCw.*!?
Vol kens' 1
liclal arc
fll^ "
1019 of plant), and <i
The SI
em'of'^om
t Kerophylci. r.f. Cat
Rtr^
"i^K
S«i.ij:r&
characteriied by sti
icculentij in other d.
succulen
IS are not
arc spin
MIS. " Switch phntc.- such as
(Cxii-r
>»/ur>u).
. have reduced kav,
tissue in
tbcVslems
landstomataoccuti
The 1
surface of wrophyi
Theordi
may be small. abKnt
&;;
the leaves i
against winds. T^c
incn'ase
tlSlIS."""
mT a "cushion ph
of the n.
nSali
rjT^TbJ^j^i-id'^
kiikdb,
•'iri'^
\A
Ol^cr*
. in which water liJnni4iydiophyl<
Tin. are specially pfants of init I'
:h aa Ihe^haia, It is sometimes
_..-. heropbytn afain aerophj
KiUma XdoM and ■- -■■- '■-
"lloovclwrihe'stcmf""' leneTof
es is fnic]ucni1y reduced, cipianal
abiTat' Ih
The lercphyiic
many mairsn pti
"VfC/«»»,toj.-
durmg the unfi
shed Aieir leavei
wi1h°£iklll:'wh!l
rveloped
'' JialBfi fit?. 'oVp\AnH which live In.ialine nik. have.urophyiic
little or no evideniT that luch'chararlen an transmitted. Britiili
salt manhei furnish few instancn of i]Hny plants, Ihough such
occur occaslDnally on the inland salt marvtcs of continental dit-
tricls. Saltolii kali n British, and a bcmi-halophyte at kasi;
and it is ntbcr snny. Warming stales that " the stomata of true,
succuknl, littoral halophytic herbs, in cases so far investigated,
are not sunfcen " (tfOf : 111). It b possible, however, that the
absence of sunken stomola, and the oceumnc* of some other
halophyiic featum, are related mereljr to the succulent habit and
not to nalophytism, for succuknt species often txeur on non-saline
soils, Similany, the small anwunt of culicular and of epidermal
reclion. and of lignification in succulent halophyin may also
related to the same circumstance. Forms or-'sione cells"
halophyicsandhemi^lophytqonsea'Ahoreaandalsoon mountains
11 piobably to be explained by the past dislribuiion of the species
' they have been ei
■ owi^ 10 Ihc eif--
-_ In Ihc west of It
and oihcr halo^j^es occur in quantity and side by side up"t'
"Threlfn:) orcommon ult on the metabolism ofplanti is not PoUnuUt'ma.
understood. Leiiire' has shown that the height of certain plinis Kl"c). Aiftnh
a decreased by cultivation in a saline soil, and that the kave. ol gant), in EngUi
^Wolkeni, fl.f flora der 4ij/«.x*jirBtii(ilni IViiue (Berlin, ""' " '''^'
loot-Kairt of o
(190B], voL viL
PLANTS 765
" ("C. jonuifc), fuU o[ lytoplum, old ctUi gentnUy eontun a laige vECuofc «
Stom ■Irilt"'" vicuolo, omtiining cdl-«»p, lod wilh ontj' > thin, iJmou
n on Kiinr i^nu 'nviiiblc layer el cytoplum aa Ihtir mils. CUomphyll gnini,
; on outen, ana lomFiims (lut it u me phyuoloiicAldry- chromtlophoret, ituch-graina And oi]-^abulrt, all of which cu
cskanmu »il> Elul i> ihc iniporuni facior. In irlatlDn he dislinguiihcd either by their ippearance or hy chemiol
m7t ™'^'du'X'"b« th" rI^'b?S!e™'Ih?li'n,'?w'h" K "»8™". "'•>' •!» ^ P"=nl- Very lillle is known of the finn
enilv pmenl in duncnnd ai weif a) to Ih* ptay»cal dryn™ >'™«"re of Ibe cyloplaam of a vegetible cell. It la aanuCmca
khL Funhcft no Iheory of cakiolom and cakifugoiji difTrreii(iB.ledintoadeareroutcrlayer,ofhyaloptaain, commonly
he nurded a» Bliilactoiy which laili lo^accoum lor oiled Ibe Ktoplaam, and an inner gnnulai endoplum. In
>t bolTi kird, or £bm, occur amonf, aquatK a> «ll ^ „„« mo it tbow^ when submitted to a careful euminalk>n
under the hlghett poweii ol the microscope, and especially when-
tcEaled wltb ncsgenls of various kinds, traces at a more or less
drfinite stnicluit in the fonn of a meshwoik consisting of a dear
honioguiHui aubilance containing numerous minute bodici
known as micriuinnu, the quces bebg filled by a more fluid
iround-subjtaMt- This structure, which is visible both in living
celli and in cell) treated by reii«cats, has been inteipreled
by many observers at a network of Ihieadi embedded in a
homogeneous ground4ubetance. BQiechll, on the other hand,
interprets it as a finely v&cuol&led foam-stiucture or emul-
sion, comparable to that which is observed when small diop«
of a mixture of finely powdered potash and oil are placed in
water, the vacuoles or alveoli bong spaces filled with liquid, the
more aolid portion representing the mesh-work in which the
microoomes are placed. Evidence is not wanting, however, (hat
the cytoplasm must be regarded as, fundamentally, a semifluid,
homogeneous substance in which by its own activity, granules,
vicuolea, fibrils, be, can be formed as gccondsry struclurei.
The cytopliim is largely concerned in the formaiioa of ipindle
fibres and centrosomes, uid such structures as the cell membrane,
cilia, or flagella, the coenocentrum, ntmaloplaits or vibrioidt and
pkyiodcs are also products of its activity.
Prolopiasmic Mmtmenls. — In the cells of many plants ibe
_ . . toplasm frequently exhibits movements of eiradatien or
, depends the ultimate rotalan. The cells of the staminal hairs of Ttaiiscantia nrginifa
1 01 au me imponani prooiems of nutrition and growth, contain a large sap-cavity across which run, in all directions,
?n and conduction of stimuli, heredity, vaiialion, sex and numerous prolopiasmic threads or bridges. In these, under
iction. favourable conditions, streaming movements of the cytoplssm in
rvjurtmrr.— Fori genenl and historical sccount of the cell various directions can be observed. InoIherformssuchas£(sdea,
•ee CvioLOOY. It ii nilicieni 10 note hent tbatcells were Hildla, Ckara, itc., where the cytoplasm is moinly reslricled
(Mi™™^ia}>^^WW^d G^'irtrtT^iStoTra^^ '" ''* P'^'P'^'^ "f *•" "P vacuole and lining the cell wall, the
■r indniiwiso/lhe ^pananceotcek jnihe buMing up stteaminj movement is eihihiled In one direction only. Id
:li»u«, but it waanotuntU the beglnolngor the I9Ih century some cases both the nucleus and the chromalophorca may be
_. .... .r.. — ■, .___'_j _r_..j Ih" cytoplasm in direct contact with the cell wall."
. ibably due to the secretion ol slime by the cells; the twann-
spores and Plasmodium of the Myiomycelei eihibit tnioelioid
movemenls; and the motile spores ol Fungi and Algae, the
prolongations, cilia or flagella of the protoplast.
Chromato^ores. — The chromalophores or plastida are proto-
dislinguishable from it by their colour or greater tefrlKtive powct.
They are spherical. Dval, fusiform, or rod-like, and are always
Found in the cytoplasm, never in Ihc cell-sap. They appear to
be permanent organs of Ihe cell, and are iransmiiied from one
cell to another by division. In young cells the chromalophores
are small, colourless, highly refractive bodies, principally located
around the nucleus. As the ccU grows they may become con-
verted inlo laiteflaiti (starch-fonneTs), Monplasis [cblorophyll-
ral Slradm aiirf Dijirailialim cf Ihe VttelMl Cdl.— bodies), or eteoHoptoO (colour-bodies). AndiU threestraclurca
nplesi cell (arm. are found in embryonic tissues, in repro- may be converted one into the other (Schimper). The chloro-
■ ceUi and in the parenchymalous cells, found in various plasts aie generally distinguished by their green colour, which it
{ Ibe plant. The epidermal, conducting and strengthen- due to Ihe presence of chlorophyll; but in many Algae this Is
nies show on Ihe other hwid considerable modifications muked by another colouring muttr—PiycBrrylli'ii in the
1 form and ttnicture. Florideae, Pkycefliatin in Ibe Phaeophyceae, and Pkycacyaiiin
protopbtm of a living cell consists of a semifluid granular , p*hki owf Wwi'obrr of Pmifthimit Sirrnm.
ice, called Ihe cyioplasm, one or more nuclei, and some- ,. ., p^,„ (CfoSTiW), giJ« .n eirellent^cSunt oUhe
«ncrasomea and [dastids. Cells from different pans ol a phenomena ol protopUsmic iireaming with a lull discussion of the
IJBer very much in Oielr ccll-contenls. Voung cells are probable cauea to which ii it due.
[ the ceU^ wall^ a> was Eormeriy supposed.
756
in lite Cyuophycoe. Thae lubsiinfs an, hoiievet, be Inncione.aiidaBbediHIsgiiiihaliiiillitutli-fniEBtbal irta
diiaolvcd out in wmtcr, And ihc green cotouiing mailer oF the proccBOl developmcat. Thesepuale Uycnol tbcBUnfa-gnin
chtorophut then btcoma viiibte. Tlie chloioplul mniuts o[ ire depoiited (a it by tlw toivlly at lie chioautapbcn. ml
tiro puu, t coloucleu ground tubtunce, and a green colouring iccording to Mey« the grain it ■Iviyinunnuidedbjra thin lija
tiI4tter, which ia contained either in the form of Gbrila^ or in more of the chromatopfaore which completefy acpftrUei it frum tbt
or 1ea> regular apbeiical maus, in the colourleu ground-mafls. cytoplaam. The \syen appear to he made up ol elcmentt thick
The chloroplaiu incieaie In number by division, which tilie) are amnged ladially. Theie are, acioidiiic to Uiys, aciculir
place in higher plants when they have attained a certain aiie, crystals, which be calls trickUa. The slaich gr3ia may thus be
Independent of the division of the cell. In Sfirogyra and allied regarded as ft crystaJline- structure of the naluie tA a ipheie-
forms the chloioplasi grows as the cell grows, and only divides cryslal, u has been suggested by many observen.
when this divides. The division in all cases takes place by con- Wbclbcr the foimalion of the slaich grj
ttriclion.orbyasimultaneiiusspUtting along an equBlorial plane, from tbe plialid (Meyer, liti) oi to ■ d
Chl<xoplas(s are very Knsitive to light and are capable in some theproieidof tbe {daslidCTunbcrlake, 1901} has notbeendebiiiiiy
plants ol chuwng Ilieir position in the cell undet <}ie Itimulus of a established.
variation in tl<e intensity of the Ughl rayi which I>U upon them. ^Inrm.— Aleurone ii a pnteid nbdanrr wludi eccun ii nb
lo the chromalopbota of many Algae «>d in the Uverwort SS^^J^^, ^ytf. "t t^J'^^X^'l^^
AnllmrTN there »ie present homogeneous, bighly refncUve, time. aawcUted with a more 0. fc« .phe«»l hody-ftoW-™-
crystal-like bodies, called pyrtnoidi or starch<entres, which are poied "' - — —!':»-*:'«. J -- «*--:- — 1_ .I1. _ j — u. j_
composed of pioleid substances and surrounded by an envelope P'^'j
^ -I .,.„^_mic strands to the central maas of cyto- the Fungi and Cymoo^yoeae at a food iwerve. llS
which suiToundi the nucleus, and according to some inie Rd-bron reaeiioa (riib iodine solution. Id t
.. >!..» i^rr^.. »ri...i.,e]y fay dlvlsioD. followed by a sccumulates and dliappears voy npidly ■ccotdina 11
rands. Those chromatoDhorB of nulrilioB and b™ietiii»«abt™&««a toSlI ttaali
Vlittins of the cytoplasmic strands. -IT™ cb,om.tophor« tJ^i:SS.1»S^1^w4S:^P^S^,«>y
which remain cdourless, and serve amply as sUrch-forme.s m I'^iiiocniriiothe.ytSplasiKv.riDSf^ftSirii.i.,—
pans of tbe plant not exposed to the light, are called leucoplasts phyctae. di^ioms, Ac. in tbe Fonn at ndnute gnnalowlidWn
or amyloplasts. They are composed of i homogeneous proleid » characleriKic reaction towards vethykne blue {Ue)ii). h
substance, and often ooniain albuminoid 01 proteid cryslab of the ^''P?";,'!^" "VI! "'J^^'^^^"!!^'^ ^ ■^™
«meki«l as those which fom, the pyrenoid. U eqiosed to light ^'° "^ "-r •-" ""b™"" ^ """« «™1 w-l- " -k—
they may become converted into chlort^asts. The formation of Numerous olhec lubilancrB aie also fouad ia the 1 1 1 ii|hw
starch may take place in any ptrt ol tbe leucoplast. When luch am tannin, fan and oil. leiins. mucilace. caouichine. pBr
formed inside it, the starch-grains eihibil a concentric atratifi- (»/'"■ aulphui and calcium oialate crynali. The «■ "R"
cation; when formed "t=™aiy in the outer layers the slr^iii. i(:;^^Sr^ni?^,'M'd ^"ri^Tin,;;;^? biITivSS
cttion IS eiceniric, and the hdum occurs on that side lailhest of flowers are due to colouring nutiencDctaioed in the npofilid
removed from the leucoplast. As the starch-gtaiiu grow, the '•» 'hief is anthocyiain.
leucoplasla gradually disappear. , Bel"e«t must al» be nude hm to ihe eaiymes or uof^
cKomopltuare'he ye^t^T orange or red ;:r,^"-.'^«"^',!i'^'iCJ!"^ '^"'^ 'I."J"^
in ume flDwerg and fruits. They arise eilhtr '"f' ^'P- " ™' '"' '"' '■<°t*>>olu: changea which lake plan ■ 1
rsEss
h, prateidf, n^ar.ct
large numbers, which are grouped together in vai
and give Ihe plattida iheir funform or uisogul
IrSSentltK^^ divided%toiiS™«'^yU™r*r«]jii;/£^„^JlU,'3
emuiSdtiSwhSin™! J- "■ ^'"'•- ^*' ^""f /ffi«iiu).
iini uin j.^ Afiicfciij.— The nucleus has been demonslnttd is J
snts with tbe eiceplion of the Cyanophyieaeand Baclftij,i»d
en here structures hive been observed which resemble nuda
controUing centre of cdl-acliviiy, upon which ihe gnmh m
developmeni of tbe cell in large measure depends, and n Ibt
generation to another is brought about. If it is absent. iWcd
losesitspowerofELuimilalion and growth, and soon dies. Hibtf^
landt has shown that in pUnI celts, when any new fonnaliog ■(
membrane is to take place in a given spot, the nucleus iifoudn
its immediate vicinity; and Klebs found that only that poilJEe
of the protoplasm ol a cell which contains the nucleus is ctpsbk
of forming a cell-wall; whilst Townsei»d has further shows [Ml
if 4he non-nucleated mass is connected by strands of pcoisflMB
to the nucleated mass, eilhci of the same cell or d a nei^itxiuit
cell, it retiJns the power of forming a cell-membrane.
Till Sttuclurt el tht Nudm.—Ia Ihe living condilioa tbr iS-
. ing nucleus appeara to consist of a homogeneous grouvl ^
stance containing a large number ol small chromatin gnoDlaSBd
one or more large spherical granules — nucleoli— the wbcit bol
surrounded by a limiting membrane which sepanlet it fMs it*
. cytoplaam. When fixed and stained this granular otM '*
roolved into a more or lesa distian granular network aUct
consists of a substance called LiniK, only ali^tly staiixd bj the
r ordinary nuclear stains, and, embedded in it, a more dicplT
eor less unnormiy irom tne ouisiae jayera slainable substance called CtromaiiH- Tbe nodeolDS apfnn ■•
I. The outermost, newly formed layer is form a part ol Ihe Limn network, but has usually alas t ttml
homogeneous, denser subsumce (ban the affinity for nuclear siaina. The itatning reactkmt of the mi^
in the
chlorophyll
bodies
n Ihe foVm
of minute gconiiles as Ihe
first VI
sible piodu
I of th
n of carbon dio.
nde. and it
inlafgequ
food material
n Ihe cells
olvan
ous parts
f plant
It is highly probable that starch is
only produced as
the res
U ol the a.
withe
chloroplailsor
Kists, in
he ma
orily of ca.
«, in the form
which
titled layer-
da nucleus
01 hi
m. The
stratification, whic
, may be CO
ric^ipean
to be due 10 a difference in den
iiy of the
cvToioovi PLANTS 767
puti of the aucleia dcpoid to »mc citcot upon Ihnr chemical II miy ibo Uke place vbcre n|rid pntlferatkiD c( ttw cell ii
^ ~ '1 pnclicoliy McnlicaL with going on^ as in tbx budding o( the Ycait pluit. I1 Ulu* place
Budein. Tbtt bill a Knmg (Unction foe buic aniline dyci, and in the intemadal cclli of Diancoeiin the old intenwdtl ce
can unully be diilipguiafacd from other patu of the cell which ace
■ion eaaily colotued by acid aniliDO. Bui the iiainiiig teaclioni
of nuclei may vary at different itagca of their development^
and it ia probable that tbcre ia no melbod of atalning which
difieroitiatca with certainty the varioua morphoioglca] coruti-
Oar knovkdce of the chemical conitiiutloi» ol the nucleui ia
adfliiiK and guanine, two pyrimtdlne ban cyto^nc
and abeaoae carbohydrate, the identity of vbich h
Tke SudtsiKs — In the majority of plant^nuclei, both in the
Diflber and lower plaola, there u found, in addition to the
cbiDDialln network, a deeply stained spherical or ilighlty
[negular body (toiEetima more than one) called the nucleolus
hiothercasealtii
a homogen
.eou* body with i
10 visible >lr
K differentiation.
The.¥«i
flhiiorganhul
KHUte o( control
my durin
g Ihe past
few
yean, and
BDCeruiniy Kill ei
It lorma a [
the lioia ot pt»ii
. ol the nui
:leiis
lanllliesoit
utin aTo^ed
Eie In the fomui
and other n
activities. The relatioQ of the nucleolus to the chnHDOSOmei 1*
dearly seen in Ihe reconstruction of the daughter nuclei after
jiviiion hi the cells of the root-apei ol Phaualui (£g. i, A to F).
rhe chronuBomca (fig. 1, A) unite to form an irregular mast
[fig. I. B) out of which ia evolved the nucleolus and nuclear act-
nck (figs. 1, E, F) by a luilon of Ihe chromowmes (lig. i, C, D).
punule found in the tyloplasm of some cells in the neighbour-
mod ol the riudeus. It a generally aurcounded by a gnnular
jf radiating cytoplasmic lubstance. In plant cells its pieaence
Ms been demonslnted in Ihe ThaUophytes and Gtyophyles.
In the higher plant! Ihe structures which have been ofleQ de- Tradescantia', and in various other cells wbicb have loal Ihelr
icribed u centrosomcs are too Indefinlle in their constitution power of division. It has been shown that, in cell* of Stirtcjra
B allaw of thi) interpretation being placed upon them, and many placed under apedat conditions, amitotic division can be induced,
>l tbem are probably nothing moR than granules of the frag- and ibai Dormal milosii is resumed when they are placed again
ocnted nucleolua. The centrowmes in pbnls do not appear under normal condition*. Amitosb is probably connected by n
o be permanent organ* of the cell. They are prominent during aeries of intermediate gradllian* with karyokineaii.
xU-division. but many disappear in the resLing stage. They are ^ifwii.— In indirect nuclear dlvi«on the nucleus undergod
nore easily seen, when the nucleus ia about to undergo mtlosis, n series ol compticated changes, which result in an equal diviaioQ
It Ilie ends of ihe spindle, where they farm the centres lowards of the chromalic lubUance between the two daughter nuclei,
■hlch the radialing fibres In Ihe cytoplasm converge (see fig. Four stage* can be recognized, (i) PrgpAoic— The nucleus
Jie dynamic centre ol ihc cell and a (pccitl oritaii of diviuon; thread taliea in pUce (fig. 9, B). The chroDiatin lubstince
nt it* absence in many groupt ol plant* doe* not lend su[^rt to increases in amoimt , the thread ilslns more deeply, and in noM
hi* view so lar as plant-cells are concerned. cases presents a homogeneous appeinnce. This 1* commonly
HacUnr Di«iu».—Thc lotmalion of new cell* is, in the case called Ihe splrem-figure. The chromatin thread neat become*
if uninucleate cells, preceded by or accompanied by Ihe division aborterand lhicker,the nucleoli be^n to disappear, and thelhread
il the nucleus. In multinucleate cells the division ol Ihe bscala up inlo a number ol segments-^cftrinoiiniiii— which
luclcu* it independent ol Ihc division ol the cell. Nuclear vary in number in diflerenl species, but are fairly constant in ihe
livision msy be indirect or clircct, Ihal is to say it may either be same specie* (lig. i, C. D). Coincident wiih these change* the
iccampanied by a series ol complicaled change* In the nudeac nuclear membpuie disappear* and a spindle-shaped or baml-
Amctures callnj nn'imii or karyokinaii (fig. i), ot it may take shaped group of threads make* ita appcaiince hi the midsi of the
jUce by simple dirHI division, omiloiii, ot fngmentailon. chromosomes, the longitudinal axitol which isat right angle* to
[>irect division i* a much less common phenomenon than wa* Ihe plane of the division (fi^. t, F). At each pole of this spindle
jonnerly supposed to be Ihe case. It occur* most frequently In figuie there often occur fibres radiating in all direction* into the
'See Mallibunon. SticKt PrBpm in On iM Cen/nry (1909). """• " ''*'
nL iv. pass to
768
PLANTS
•pindle-fibm in luch a. my Ihit they term t nitiiling slir- that it nuy be cOODCCted wilb llw budcnom of dw
^ped CfUH — Ailtr—vben mn Irom the pole o[ Ihe spindle, lubsliuicc to the nuclai Umid. The Kgmentl al each di
This it called the nuclear plate |£g, i,£, F.G.H). Aitheypau Mme ue imially Iviiled upon euh other and naj be
into Chis position they undergo a loagitudinil aplilting by which (vntorted {fig. i, €,!>}.*]'
the chromalin in eadt chroRUMome hecomea divided into equal tufgat k Kcond longiludi
(3) A
—The 1
3l thee
impleled hy Ihe time Ibi
poiilign in Ihe nuclear plate, and ihe halve) of the chroroosoiDe*
then begin to move along the ipindle-Ebre* tooppotilcpolesol
the spindle (hg. i, I, J). Many observers bold Iht vien thU
the chronioioRiei are pulled apart by the cOniraciion ol the
fibtu U> vhich they are attached. U) TdtpluiK.—V/bca they
reach the poles the chromosoirics group tbeniselves again in the
form of Stan — DiQiUr — with ipindle-fibics extending between
them (fig, 3. K), The cbminDSDmes Ihen fuse togclbet dgain
to form a single thread (fig. 3, L], a nucleolus appears, a nuclear
which po>st$s Ihe same structure and staining leiclions as the
endeavDuml to vfaDw ^1 it
can only ne lormea oy a ouai lorce, anabgoui lo that of magnelum.
the ipiddle-fibies being comparable to the Hncs ol force In a n^netK
Mdand posubiyductotleclricaldifFeRiiRtin thecel. The syndic
arim partly from Ihe cyloplaun. partly f nn the nuclnia, or it may
be derived entirely from the nucleus— intnnuclear sptndle — as
occurs in many oi the lower plinim (Fun^,. Ac). The (ormscioa o(
rhe apindle begins in the praphaKfl of divisim- A layer cS deTirate
filameniQui eytoplasiD — kinopbtm — may collect around '^ '"'-
or at its polcfl. out of which the spii>dle i> fomted.
re of thia cytoplasm b<
^_ and the tbroai
poles of Ihe nucleus, lo f
polar spindle. The wall o
plasmic spindle-libm beo
le cbromilin lo tbe
daughter cells is brought sbouti and if, as has been suggested,
Ihe chromatin consists of minute particles or units which are
Ihe carriers of the hereditary characteristics, the nuclear division
half ol each ol these units lo each daughter cell.
ScdiKiiaK Diuiimi (Meiosis).— The divisions which lake
place leading to the formation of the sceuaI cells show a reductioa
m the number of chromosomes to one-half. This Is a necessary
chromosomes are to be doubled at each generation. In the
vascular ciyptogams and phanerogams it takes place in the spore
mother ceUs and the reduced number it found in all the cells of ,
the gametophyte, the full number In those of the tporopbyte. Fio. a.—'
We know very lit lie of the dcuils of reduction in the lower plariis,
but il probably occurs at some stage in the life hlMory of all probably di
lion il brought about simply by Ihe segmenlation of tbe spi
thread inio half the number of segments instead of the noi
become associated in Ktmi
ariou< 5tae«
le Nucleir Diviiiaa of the Mm
of nuclear i
,n the d
IS of Ihe tpare mother cell in which Ihe
reduction takes place, follow each other very rajridly and are
known as Hairolypi and Hemelypi (Flemming), or according to
the terminology of Fanner and Moore (1005) as Ihe mtieftc pkast.
ludinaUy before the trgmenlalion occurs (fig. 1. B). and this
Is preceded by a pcculiai contiaclion ol Ihe thread around Ihe
nucleolus which has been tcmted lym^nr (fig. 1, A). A second
conlraclion may lake place later, ImiDCdialely preceding the
segmentation of Ihe thread. It has been suggested that synapsis
may be connected with Ihe early longiludinal splitting of the
tkrcad,or with the pairingof the chromosomes, but it is poa^ble
Mriher.i5l.' ii'LiUum.'
folding of Ihe segment by whii^ the imbdm
ir leu parallel 10 each olbei, and fbm nriwri;
greater or less regularity (6g. J, E). Ik
r become attached to the spJAdle-fibti* (i(.
1. F, C) and aa Ihc daughter Fhromosomes become palled mata
Ihey often appear more or lets V-shaped so that each pair trfastl
as a closed ring of irregular shape, the ends of ihe V's beist ii
contact thus-~<> (fig. >, H, I, J, K). Tho V has baa
variotuly intetpreled. Some ohserven consider Ihal it kf*'
tenlt a lontiiudiniU half of the original Mgment of the ^inae,
others that ft is a half of the segment prodnced by fr^m"
division by mtdns of which a true qualitative aqiajitJBSi cf tk
chromatin is brought about. The problem is a very diAcd
one and cannot be regarded as definitely settled, bat it is SSc^
lo understand why all this additional compleaily in Ibe diisM
of the nucleus should be necessary if the final tooll it <a^ •
fuanfila/fce separation of the chromatin. Il tctna lo be M
well established that in tbe meioiic phase ibmititiiMqaBalin
division broughl about by Ihc pairing of tlie iliiiaaiat"*
during synapsis, 1 ' ' '
YTOLOcYi PLANTS 769
iiDmoaomet 10 tbe (Uushter QDctd. Tlemcthodbywhicbthb Diitomi uid Dnmld*, icconliiii 10 icccDt raeucha, ibetliidt.
brought about u, however, Ihe lubJKt ol math conlioveii)'. enIiigB oa tht outer mill ol the ceQ* »fB doc to the pu«<i al
hen an two nuio theona: (1) that the chromoumra which protopluni Irom Ibc iDterior of the cdl 10 Ibe ouUide, Itaioii^
ulljF tepmte uc at hist paired liile by ude (Alien, Gifgoire, poti* which UE found perionUnf the will on ill lido.
Erghs, Sinsburgel aod others), and (i) thai they are joioed
Kcther or paired end to tdd (Fatmei' and Moore, Gregojy,
oitier and othcn). Good cytolagical rvidEDce hai b«ri ad-
iced [d favouc of bath theories, but further investigation b
the n^nal type eicepl that Ibc already split chromosomet at
XX separate to form the daughter nuclei without the inierveo-
CtU iHririwi.— With the eiception nf a few plants amoug
e ThaUophytcJ, which consist of a single multinucleate cdl,
lultr^a, VaucAcrid, lie, the division of the nucleus is [allowed
■ the division of the cell either at once, in uninucleate celli, ot
ter a certain number of nuclear divisions, in multloudeate
Us. This may take place in various wayi. In the higher
ants, alter the separation ol the daughter nucld, minute
anular nrelllngs appear, in the equatorial region, on the
lutecting fibres which still persist between the two nuclei, to PerlBaalitm. — The lonnalion uI the lygote or cg|-c(JI
tin what is called the cell-plate. These fuse together to form a takes place usually by the fusion of the conteDis ol two celb,
embrUK (fig. I, C, D) which splits into two layers between and alwaya includes, as
licb the Den cell-wall is laid down. In Ihe Thalloptiyles the an essential feature, the
toplaam may be segmented by constriction, due to the fusion of two gcim nuclei.
-growth of a new cell wall from the old one, as in Spirtty" !» many of Ihe tower
A dadiiftiira, or by the tormation.of cleavage lurrows in plants the fusing cells—
ilcb the new cell-wall Is secreted, as occurs in the formation of ganula — arc precisely
e glares in many Algae and Fungi. Cell budding takes place similar so [ar as lia and
ye«st and in the formation of the conidia ol Fungi. 1 ' "~" "
Id a few cases both among the higher and the lower ptanta, ol 1
lich the formation of spores iti the ascus is a typical example.
Jen grains, oospores oi Fungi, cells of Peridincae, &
itrifugal growth must apparently take place by the . .
protoplasm external lo the celL Tbe outer protective walU nucleus, cytoplasm and sometimes plaatids. In the Characeac,
the oospores of some Fungi are formed out ol protoplasm the Vascular Cryptogaini, in Zanua and Cycai. and in Cfnii*,
ItAiniog numerous nuclei, which ia al an early stage separ- tbe spermatoioids arc more or less highly modified cells vftb
•d &0111 Ihe piotoplaim of the oospore. In the Peridincae, two or more dlia, and icMmble in many respects, both in their
770
In Chin
ipennitoBouli of >.m(nAlf .
re of clongAlc spiuj Eonn,
lUjBndaimaUquinlilvoI
two cilia or flageUa. Id
the VuciiLar CTypLoguoi
ZomUi (fig. ,, AJ, Cyca
ud Cintgi IhFy coniU
ol large spherkal at ova
t Urge nudeiu which
DcarLyflllithecdl. They
ire carried by the poUen
byn
. o[ a poUcn
ube. la
tried Lo Ihe c
irCryploganu, ladin Ihoae ol Cycai, Zamia tad Gink(ii,
^de of the nucleus ol Ihe spenoitozoid molher-cell. This body
bu b«n callEd a Ucf AarsfJul, and in the Fieridophym, Cycidi
and GinAiB it giva me 10 Ihe apinl bind on which Ihe cilia ire
formed. BebjeB regards it u a true centnaome; but ihii ii
douhllul, for while in somecasa it ippun to be connecled with
the diviiion ol the cell, in othen it is independent of it. Thf egg-
ccU or oosphcre it 1 large cell containing a lingle laige nucleus,
it is luually a uninucleate c^ differentiated by separation of
Ihe nuclei from a multinucleate cell, but in Albusa tlili ii is
multinudeate, and in Stkatraplta it nuy contain more than
nudeui
le peneti
>igaD lakes place is indicated on tbe oosphere by 1
IB receptive spot lOaliiiaiiiiiM, Vam^trit. lit,), or b]
eptive papilla consisting d[ hyaline cytoplasm (renuia
le). Fetiiliiition is eHccied by the 1 '
e multinucleate 01
iTctuUy ii
in tbe oosphcics ol Sflaaafliii, which may
Ibao one nucleus, the egg nucleus is formed by the
e only of these with the ipermatoioid nucleus
In the higher Fungi nuclear fusloni take place in
N which involve ihe union of two (fig. j. A) nuclei,
e regarded oi physiologically equivalent to a lexual
union ol the gt
s, Gym.
NTS tCVTOUICT
with nuclear thread, ud nncleolta irith nuckalu*— w na-
pletely that iKe separate constituents of Ihe nuclei an But
visible. It was at one time thought thu the centiofom
played an important part in the lertiliutioo ol plaUl. bgl
recent reseucha teem to iadioite that itiii is bm ao. Em
in those casea where the cilia band, vhkh is the pnducl el the
cenlrosome-like body or blepharoidasl, eaten tlw ovum, as n
Zamia (c in fig. 4, B, C, D), it appears to lake no part in lb
fertilication phenomena, nor Id the ai^>Kqueat division of Iht
nudeua. During the process of fertiliaatioo in the Angaoapfnit
it lias been shown l>y the researches of Nawaichin aod Gu^aud
that is Lilinm and FrililliBia both generalive nuclei enter tie
enbtyo uc, one f utmg with the oo^beR nudeut, tbe oikt liit
the polar nuclei (Gg. 3, A,B ). A double ferliliiatiM thin likct
place. Both nuclei are elongated venniform atiuctures, iDdD
they enter the embryo sac present a twisted appeaiaoce likf >
SDcrmaloioid without cilia (hg-i, A, B). It hassincebeeniieii
thitdoubh fetliliiatioo eccan i> sui;
Angiospenns, both Dicotyledons and lloMColyUm »
that it is probably of general occiureace througbout Ihe gmp
(see Anciosfebms},
TIa N^cMi in Bitatim It Hererfily.— Tbere is a cctiit
amount ol cyiiAigicil evidence lo ibinv that the BtKln ii
brgely concerocd with ibe Iraasmisaioo of bereditary dianrtiA
Wbclhcr this is entirely conGlinl to Ibe nuclens ii, howevn, ■«
certain. The slrongest direct evidence lean lo be that ibi
nuclear substances are the only put! id tbe ceOt wlkh M
always equivalent in quantity, and that In the U|bcr jkM
and animals the male organ or ^xmutoaatd ii awvncd abM
eniinly of the nucleus, and that the male BBdesfianWIW
the female cell without a particle of cytoplasn.'
Siace, however, the aucleui of Ibe fcniak oB b dM|i
accompanied by a larger or smaller q|uaBtJl]F «I qrUpllH^ m
that in a Urge majority ol the powH planti and ■tnabltiaA
that the cytoplasm does not play iome part In llic w
iplei uiucture o< Iba M
uniti teprnented by the chror
taken through the comi^ipheai
an exact and equal division of the cbromoionei ilwl Ufceiin
emphasiies the importance of the nuclem m hendily. FnltB,
it is only in Ihe audeus and in itichromaaoiiici thai «c ban ul
visible evideiKe to account tor tlie Henddiui icgKailim d
characters ia hybrids which ut hiiowB 10 occm. Vail''
diHerencca in the chroDioiomei have even been ohscrxd.
especially in insects, which are due apparently to an naeqal
division by which an additional or accessory chnacaOK •
diSer in size from Ibe othen. Tliese dlffervnca infiait •
separation of diSerentelemenu in Ibe format im of the ckiw
iomes and have been dehnitdy asaociated wi
of tei, ll is posHble, however, that tbe segiTgaiii
ten in Ihe gametes may depend upon something fa:
'e than '
within the c
forward the view that the chromosoDtet are ekmenlur na
which maintain u organic continuity and indcpcndeul enuia
iDihe cell. Tbe cylological evidence for this appein lAbenidt
stronger for animal than for plant cells. From dioibm
investigations which have been made lo uace the chinuianiwi
through the various stages ol the nuclear ontogeny of plait cA
it appears that Ihe individuality aiul («niinuity el tbe chnat-
somes can only be conceived at possible if m assume the ra-
le chroi
purposes of division. Ruenbcrg (1909) adduces evident <■
' Stmburgcr (1909) ilalei very defiiulely thai he has otniw*
ihc entrance of the tuk MKlein Into Ibe egg withovt a tw* ■■
> luge DunibH ot pUnU
molvtd inlo m nudui nclwoik in wh
d CtU-Ualifiial-^l /gr Ihi Kaiflii
( tbe pbyiiology of movcincnt in plinl
cdl-»tnictuie h»ve bten observed wh
veloped (or the receptioA ol the »rir
[gc ol theic itfiKtura u due auinly u
I which mpfind te Ibe nechatdeal vtlir
uli by whicll Ih*
light ibaut. Our
Hitwduidt.
uiitiiu o[ plant here an
xsr.';
t cyloplum »Dd a
(lU^'diitrtniic ia-
TtC- 6. — A, Eye-tpoti of Eufhna tiridis. B, Anterior end of
. EurJnu ihnwlng ihc IigiUum wiih ill weUing jiut la tbe boUaw
of the eye-ipM.
I thown that in Ihe AKomycetet, Run Fun^, &c., Ihe lunc
' tiniclure obliiiu » fai u lU eueniid driaili ue Rncemed.
* The only groups of plants in vhich typical nuclei have not
. been fanind aie ihe Cyanophyceae, Bacteria and YeaU FungL
.lU of Ihe eiiidennal celli. I» wh^h ll« uimiilui rcHillIni
ientatkxi of ibe leaf i« brought about. Fig- S- A, ibowa the
A, Epidennal cclli of Saxitrota kirmtum,
B. oiTfuiiiccxIialliimitniiu:
■ncl of the lieht lo ■ bright ipol on the twial walli of Ihe
hIcelUof 5afi/ranihjrjH(Kiii andlig-S. B,thowtapbo<ograph
im life through tl» epidernial ceUi ol r™ j„,— #,- «.«.--«.
t not been widely occFtHm ami widc
■iolocical liat been brought forward -,— --
rerence ol in eyi-ipol in nuny motile unicelluUr Algae and
iy these arniUinH. la EaglrM
Ililty iludied in thil IH^ecl. Ihe A
. :ially by Schmili (lB;o)
be regarded aa true nuclei. The icxaivim ui mc
tare have shown thai the jtnielure ol Ibe nucleu!
phenomena of nucleai diviiion in thete lower lomu
I in all tsuntial details to those in Ibe hi^er planU.
the Basidiomycetes (fig. 7) "
Fork and nucleolus (6g. ^, B), and
fufllofl of Ihe two piv4»iti(H nt
■ng. O. Nuclar cavity with ch
the mindle. F. Separation of tbe cl
ptocoi tbe daughter di
(CrTOLOCY
tbe chlorophyU ud olher colounng mlttti logtlher with .nicuUlr. Tlieiion-anKuliKtiwMwhichocxuii ' " ' '■
1 — , 1 .i_j ophydn. Chromi-'- " " ' ....
Id the Cytnopbyceu (be conlenU ol the cdl an dlSsentlited '
b coDUined in the centnl put logclhet with graoula known u cquivileni tauii|liniuhiiiuclmcc*ll«,whiclinmifvlBindii
volutin, the function of which i. unknown. The central body JS'P^S,'™;,'..'!?..^?'; 1. .-i- t- .1 1
probfthly pliyi the put of a nudcui and Hm
that it hu the cbaraclen of a typical dl
diviiioD. But thii is v«y doubtlul. The 1
tocOD^st mmdy of aipoogy muiof ilighLly I
mote 01 leu impRgnatcd with chioiiutin.
^- , n in the veuai eabryo while BiB ia Ik
dry (ted ,(Sco«)i but tbe lata yeaela in pcaem of fgnnatieg ■>
crll-iuiion Ihs cdl-wnU iwdb diibtly and tbeo bedn* to fiw^
fiadiully a •HDf one point. The Dpeninf . which s at tnt mr
loull. increuH io lur. and before iliv cmt'Vatl haa wurK ^
Bppeaml the contenii oT the tvD celU become coaiiauotii Ixoo).
ThF nbiciption ol the €eU-wailiiake« i4ace very caily ia the nrwi*
Sim Tii&i.— The new Cuba conaiit ft fwiially XvmA loncf
cclli, the Iraiuwne at Lateral walla beinf periocaied by ^mtt
DpciuDKi. throuRh which the coineqta_o< ibe celU are noHrird rA
lie o( the CyaDDphyn
TBiypa)aitii*iM:{X\ Vouni. &) 01
C, OKOIaria Umm: tiantvcric microtonK lecti
and B. rs'MMitru la
the iqiinion ol the writer, to be inlEtpIeted is a Inic mitosii.
It b intcrciiing to note thai in many fpedes tbe formation of
Dew cell-walli b initiated before any indication of nuclear
The bacteria, in mait casei. have no definite Dudeit) or central
body. The chromaiin b diiitibuted throughout the cytoplaam
in Ihe foim of grsnuln whirh may be regarded ai.i distributed
nucleus coirapgnding to what Hectwig has designated, in thus placed hi open eommunication. ft this b conKI it m » <
ProtoEoa ckromidia tt that Ibe chane« whicli uke place may be uutiaud by tl
T,. ' . „'.. , '„^_.jL t oririnal ddicate prolopUafuic itranda which paia thmifh ika oi
In the yeast cell the nucleus is tepioented by a homogenous ^Jj. (For (unha information ieg»rdin« -"-^^--- -■^--■^-
granule, probably of a nucleolar nature, mngundcd »nd perhaps Aaalimy above.)
to some e«ent impregnated by chromatin and dowlyoinnecled Pttieplvmic Cm/imiify.— Eicept ii. .„ .
wilh a vacuole which often has chromaiin al lis periphoy, and ,he ceU b not an independent unit. Apart fi .
contains one or more volutin gt«nules which appear to eonsiil (i5n„ ;„ various ways upon neighbounng cdb, llie pnU
of nucleic aad in combination iiilh an unknown base. Some o( ,|| pi^nu are probably connected together by fiM •
obJerven consider that the yeast nucleus possesses a typical or protoplasm which pas through the ceU-wall {T*>l>- «"
nuclear structure, and eihihilt division by mitoab, but Ihe Gardiner, Kieniti-Gerloff and othera)
evidence tof Ihb b not very satisfactory. (fig. ,,. in pj^^ ihe presence of
riuiKi.— The component pacts ol Ihe tissues of which plants connecting threads has recently been ■•
are composed may consist of but slightly modified crilj wilh dtmonitialed throu^ut all Ihe
copious protoplasmic contents, or of cells which have been ia,„„ o( ,hj plant. Tliese proto-
modified m various ways to petfocm their several functions. In piajmic strands are, except in tike
aome the protoplasmic contents may persist, in others they (jjj ol »cve tubes, so delicate that
disappear. The formation of the conducting tubes or secretory ,p„ial method, have 10 be employed
sacs which occur in aU pans of Ihc higher planU b due either ,0 n^ke them visible. The baus of
to the elongation of single cells or to Lhe fusion of ceUs together ,he»e methods consbts in causing a.
in rows by the absoiption of the cell-walls aepataling them. „eiiing of the cell-wall by means of
Such cell-fusions may be partial or complete. Case! of complele sulphuric add or unc chloride,
fusion occur in Ihe formation of latidteroui veneb, and in the lubsequent staining with HoHmai....
spiral, annular and reticulate vessels of the lylem. Incomplete blue or other aniline dyes. The ' ^?^
fusion occurs in aieve tubes. Tubes formed by lhe elongation ,ouits so far obuined show that the "^^
of single cdb are found in bast fibro, mchddes, and etpeciiUy connecting threads may be cither
in liliciferous eeUs,
plant and occur in all jam o( the cool, aicm and leavn. A proio- threads" which are present in Ihe "pci^ "ci " liTimi
plaunic lining is lound oo Iheir walla wbich contains nuclii. The wall of the ccD (Gg. «, A). Both (B).
Is" which mvene the "^ '
nbrane of Ihe pits in the rie. ♦-Cowj^^J^
't. - D\ ^ "-.II proioplaiaialceflsct r^
ifig. Q, B), or wall- f„;;^„ (^j ^ (rf»
iu)cv) PLANTS 773
liuidwall-tliKHlsiiiayacciirin the umiccD.but more " CytoLwidw dhI nHcplioloflKbe Smdln ■■ Ihtim Inp7i'w JT.
thnad. .re limited lo ihe pitt. The pil-lhrad* »te 1?; ■ j£i™"-V"''"ii! ' —'""'-' '— " ' > -■
K«iayth»nihev,^.thre»d.. Tlrnhn.*!. /,*,i, (UI9S). &.,!.«. -n.e FonMiiB. olilw i
...u^u^.fnt plantv They ire very ihkk in ViKHm J^tJtiiiii Wvutn.L and 11." <*>».>/ £01.(1896-1891
id are irell Ken in Fhascolui mullifrirui and Lilmiit " Rneol W«k on the Rnulli of FcRilislian ic
, They »n pre$enl from the beginning 0I the develop- u^i,^-?f,i!^\y'ti^$^,f^^^-s^^': '[^"u^.li
y be continued u eonnccling threads fcndospertn of
mnunii), or part of them may be oveilaid by ceLlukoc
^endosperm oE Lilium Mariogon), or ihey may be !>■]
J in pollen molhet-tclli and poUen giaini of Hdldmni
The presence ol these threads between alJ the cells
jit shows that the plant body must be regarded as a
whole; the threads Ihemxlves piobably play an
part in the giowth of Ihe cell-wall, the cunductlan
id water, the proceu ol MC'cIioa and Uie Iraumiuion
rtliE.— The followini is a list of ■ few of the more im-
The term morfkolocy, which was Inltoducid into «cience by
Goethe (1S17), designates, in the first place, the «udy ot the
form and composilion ot the body and of the pans of which
the body may ccniist ; secondly, the relations of the parts of the
some body; Ihiidly, the comparison of Ihe bodies or parts of
the bodies of plants of dlRerent kinds; fourthly, (he study of
the development of the body and of its pans Imilogcny); fifthly,
tbe invesligalion of the historical origin and descent of the body
and lU parts {fliylotcny); and, Igst^, (he consideration of the
relation of the pans of the body (0 tbeif vtiioui funclions, a
stody Ihat is known as drtonaroAtr-
It is this lost department of morphohigy lha( wu the fin(
10 be pursued. The earliest scientific result of the study of
plinu wu the recognition of the fact that (he various parts of
Ihe body are associated with (be performance ol dilTcrenl kinds
of physiological work; that they arc. In fact, argant discharging
special functions. The origin of Ihe organography of the present
day may be traced back to Aristotle, who described the parts
of pilots ** " organs, though very umple ones." It was not
until many ceniuiies had passed that the parti began 10 be
regarded from the point of view of their essential nature and of
their mutual relations; (hat is, morphologically instead of
organographifially. Joachim Jung, in his Iragagt phyiaicopKa
(1678), recognised that the plant-body coniiits of certain definite
form and by their mutual relilions. This point of v
further developed in th
e foUowii
ngc.
uilury
by Caspar Friedrkh
Wolft [T-Aewifl (nura
?S9)
, whc
1 first
loUowed (he
Ihe
gmwi,
of the stem.
' append]
rorga
leaves, are developed in
< (he sun
ly, wh.
clhec th.
:y be foliage-
nda
italed
lusions thus:
" In Ihe entire plant, w
hosepao
being, at (he
dive
rse, I
finally
perceive and
lolhing beyond leaves and stem (lor the root may be
regarded. as a slem). Consequently all parts of tbe plant,
eiccp( the stem, are modified leaves." Simihir views were
arrived at by (kiethe, though by the deductive rather than Ihe
inductive method, and were propounded in his famous pamphle(,
Van^M dit UclamoTtkoa dc PjtaaiH tu trkUra (rTfo)',
from which the following is a quotitlon: " The underlying
relationship between the various eitcmal parts of (he plan(,
(he leaves, Ihe catyi, (he corolla, the stamens, which
(he o(het sr ■ '
II oTLiliuni," Ann. If Bui. iiv>9il. vol. nini.: FtiMiuliiiiirt has long been generally recognlud by lnves(iga(ors, and has
(Carnegie InMituiion, 1904); Njwaichiii. ■' Reiulure (ad been Specially studied; and the operation by whic'
U^"die Bo(rocKtuneiJf™inge' W elniRen DicMyl^ "x*" '""»«' UUamwptoiii of Planh"
Ba. i. itUtck, ia. CatU. I1900). voL i«i Romberg. fun Mcrpinleif.—nut it became appucnt (liat the
774
PLANTS
fMORIUOLOGY
and vafious organs of plants are, for the most part, different
forms of a small number of members of the body, which have
been distinguished as follows, without any reference to function.
The thallus (ihallome) is a plant-body which is not differentiated
into the members root, stem and leaf; it is the morphologically
simplest body, such as is of common occurrence in the lower
plants {e.g, Thallophyta). In a differentiated body the stem
(caulome) is an axis capable of bearing leaves and (directly or
indirectly) the proper reproductive organs. The leaj (phyllome)
is an appendicular member only borne by a stem, but differing
from it more or less obviously in form and development, though
co-ordinate with it in complexity of structure. The root is an
axis which never bears cither leaves or the proper reproductive
organs (whether sexual or asexual) of the plant. The hair
(trichome) is a superficial appendage of simple structure, which
may be borne by any of the other members. The emergence
is also an appendicular member of more complex structure
than the hair {e.g. the prickles of the rose). Further, it has
been found convenient to designate the leaf -bearing stem as a
whole by the term j/ioo/, so that the body may, as Sachs
suggested, be primarily analysed into shoot and root.
At the present time some objection is being taken to this
purely morphological conception of the body and its parts as
being too abstract. It is urged that the various parts are, as a
matter of fact, organs; and that it is therefore inadmissible to
ignore their functions, as is done in the foregoing definitions.
To this it may be replied that pure morphology and organo-
graphy are not alternatives, but are two complementary and
equally necessary modes of considering the composition of the
plant-body. Moreover, the abstract terms "stem," "leaf,"
" root," &c., are absolutely indispensable; and are continually
used in this sense by the most ardent organographers. It has
not yet been suggested that they should be replaced by organo-
gruphical terms; were this accomplished, descriptive botany
would become impossible.
It is also urged against these definitions that they are not of
universal applicability; that there are exceptional structures
which cannot be brought within the limits of any one of them.
But admitting the validity of this criticism, and even going so
far as to question the possibility of ever devising absolutely
inclusive and, at the same time, exclusive definitions, no sufficient
reason is adduced for giving up all attempt at morphological
analysis.
Homology. — All members belonging to the same morphological
category are said to be homologous, however diverse their
functions. Thus, in a phanerogam, the sepals, petals, stamens
and foliage-leaves all come under the category leaf, though some
are parts of the perianth, others arc sporc-bcaring organs
(sporophylls), and others carry on nutritive processes. The
homology of members was based, in the first instance, upon
similarity of development and upon similar relations to the
other parts of the body, that is, upon ontogeny. But since the
general adoption of the theory of evolution, similarity of descent,
that is of phytogeny, has come to form an essential part of this
conception; in other words, in order that their homology may
be established the parts compared must be proved to be homo-
genetic.
The introduction of the phylogenetic factor has very much
increased the difficulty of determining homologies; for the
data necessary for tracing phylogeny can only be obtained by the
study of a series of allied, presumably ancestral, forms. One
of the chief difficulties met with in this line of research, which is
one of the more striking developments of modern morphology,
is that of distinguishing between organs which are " reduced,"
and those which are really " primitive." The object of the
phylogenetic study of any organ is to trace it back to its primitive
form. But, as will be pointed out later, organs are often found
to have undergone " degeneration " or " reduction," and such
reduced or degenerate structures may easily be mistaken for
primitive structures, and so the investigator may be misled.
The effect of the phylogenetic factor in homology may be
illustrated in the following cases. The leaves of the true mosses
and those of the dub-mosses (Lyccpodimm, SelagituOa) brii^
somewhat alike in general appearance and in ontogeny, mi^
be, and Indeed have been, regarded as homologous on that
ground. However, they belong respectively to two differrBt
forms in the life-history of the plants; the leaves of the mosaes
are borne by the gametophyte, those of the dub-moises by tbe
sporophyte. In accordance with the prevalent antithetic view
of the alternation of generations in these plants (see Pukts,
Reproduction of), the forms distinguished as sporopliyte and
gametophyte are not homogenetic; consequently their liaves
arc not homologous, but are only functionally similar (booio-
plastic; see infra).
Another effect is that different degrees of homology have to
be recognized, just as there are different degrees of relatiraslup
or affinity between individual plants. When two organs cu
be traced along the same line of descent to one primitive fonn,
that is when they are found to be monophyletic, their homology
is compete; when, however, they are traceable to two priiiiiti\e
forms, though these forms belong to the same morpbokfifcil
series, they are pdyphyletic and therefore only inecmpldilj
homologous. For instance, all the leaves of the Biyopbyu
arc generally homologous inasmuch as they are all devefepmeati
of the gametophyte. But there is reason to believe that tky
have been differentiated quite independently in various groops.
such as the Marchantiaceae, the Jungennanniaceae, and the
mosses proper; consequently thdr phyl<^ny b not tbe saiw,
they are polyphyletic, and therefore tbey are not omplrtdlj
homologous, but are parallel developments.
Analogy. — Considering the parts of tbe body in rdation l§
their functions, that is as organs^ they are found to present pecu-
liarities of form and structure which are correlated with tk
functions that they have to discharge; in other words, tbe cupi
shows adaptation to its functions. AU organs peiibrming tk
same function and showing sinular adaptations are said to k
analogous or homoplastic^ whatever their nuMphologkal Bitue
may be; hence organs arc sometintes both homologous and iial»'
gous, sometimes only analogous. Tbe tendrils oC a vetch uA
of a cucumber are analogous, and also homologous becansetky
both belong to the category leaj\ but they are only «nalot»*s
to the tendrils of the vine and of the passion-flower, which bdosg
to the category stem.
Metamorphosis. — It has alrmdy been pointed out that esd
kind of member of the body nuy present a variety ol fonts.
For example, a stem may be a tree-trunk;^or a twining steB,ora
tendril, or a thorn, or a creeping rhizonie, <»- a tuber; a leafuof
be a green foliage-leaf, or a scale protecting a bud, or a tendd.
or a pitcher, or a floral leaf, either sepal, petal, stamen or caipd
(sporophyll) ; a root may be a fibrous root, or a swollen tap-not
like that of the beet or the turnip. All these various fbrns m
organs discharging some spedal function, and are eramplw of
what Wolff called " modification," and Goethe " meUBM^
phosis." It may be inquired what meaning is to be attacM
to these expressions, and what are the conditions and the natoi
of the changes assumed by them. The leal of the higher phots
will be taken as the illustrative case because it is tbe Botf
" plastic " of the meifibers, the one, that is, which presents tk
greatest variety of adaptations, and because it has been Botf
thoroughly studied.
In this, as in all morphological inquiries, two lines of investi-
gation have to be followed, the phylogenetic and the ontofeaelic
Beginning with its phylogeny, it appears^ so far as paaaH
knowledge goes, that the differentiation of the shoot of tk
sporophyte into stem and leaf first occurred in the Pteridophjti^
and, in accordance with the views of Bower (Ori^'n of a Led-
Flora), the primitive leaf was a reproductive leaf, a sponpfaTl
from which the foliage-leaf was derived by progressive stoSa*
tion. From the nature of the case, this view is not, and codd
not be, based upon actual observation, nor is it univezsi^
accepted; however, it seems to correspond more closdy thuai^
other to the facts of comparative morphology. It was foftDofy
assumed, and the view is still held, that the foliage-kaf was tk
primitive form from which all others were derived, maialljr M
■ORPH<XOGY1
PLANTS
775
the ground that, in ontogeny, the foliage-leaf generally precedes
the sporophyll. The phylogeny of the various floral leaves,
for instance, was generally traced as follows: foliage-leaf, bract,
Kpal, petal, stamen and carpel (sporophyUs) — ^in accordance
with what Goethe termed " ascending metamorphosis." Recent
loearches, however, more especially those of Celakovsky, tend
to prove that the periantii-leaves have been derived from the
rtamens («.«. from ^>orophylls) ; that b, they are the result of
" descending metamorphosis." Moreover there is the fact that
the flowers of nearly all the primitive phanerogams, such as the
Gymnosperms, consist solely of sporophylls, having no perianth.
There is thus a considerable body of evidence to support Bower's
new of the primitive nature of the sporophyll.
Accepting this view of the phylogeny of the leaf, the perianth-
leaves (septals and petals) and the foliage-leaves may be regarded
as " modified " or " metamorphosed " sporophylls; that is, as
leaves which are adapted to functions other than the bearing of
qpores. The scp>als are generally organs for the protection of
&s flower-bud; the petals, for attracting insects by their con-
fptcuous form and colour; the foliage-leaves, for the assimilation
Bf carbon dioxide and other associated functions. But this
phylogenetic differentiation of the organs was not what Wolff
ind Goethe had in mind; what they contemplated was an onto-
{enetic change, and there is abundant evidence that such
rhanges actually occur. Taking first the conversion of members
)f one morphological category into those of another, this has
been actually observed, though rarely. Gocbcl (Organography)
pves several instances of the conversion of the root into a shoot
in ferns, and a few in phanerogams (Listera ovata, NeoUia nidus-
ms, Anthurium longifolium). Much more common is the
sonversion of one form of a member into another form. The
moot varied changes of this kind have been described, and are
^erally familiar as " monstrosities "; the study of them
xmstitutes, under the name of teratology, a distinct department
a biology. A simple case is that of " double " flowers, in which
the number of the petals is increased by the " metamorphosis "
li. stamens; or again the conversion of floral leaves into green
eaves, a change known as *' chloranthy." These changes
may be brought about by external causes, such as the attacks
"A insects or of fungi, alterations in external conditions, &c., or
t>y some unexplained internal disturbance of the morphological
*quilibrium. They can also be effected experimentally. Goebel
lias shown that if the developing foliage-leaves of the fern
OnocUa stnUkiopteris be removed as they are formed, the
mbsequently developed sporophylls assume more or less com-
;>letely the habit of foliage-leaves, and may be sterile. Similarly
>ud -scales can be caused to develop into foliage-leaves, if the
^uds to which they belong are caused to grow out in the year of
Jieir formation by the removal of the existing foliagc-lcavcs.
Useful and suggestive as they often arc, teratological facts
)layed, at one time, too large a part in the framing of morpho-
ogical theories; for it was thought that the " monstrous " form
{ave a clue to the essential nature of the organ assuming it.
rhere is, however, no sufficient reason for regarding the mon-
strous form as necessarily primitive or ancestral, nor even as a
itage in the ontogeny of the organ. For when the older morpho-
ogists spoke of a stamen as a " metamorphosed " leaf, it was
replied that it originated as a foliage-leaf and subsequently
xcame a stamen. As a matter of fact, a stamen is a stamen
md nothing else, from the very beginning. The development
>f the organ is already determined at its first appearance upon
he growing-point; though, as already explained, the normal
xmrse of its ontogeny may be interfered with by some abnormal
sternal or internal condition. The word *' metamorphosis "
Annot, in fact, be used any longer in its original sense, for the
jiange which it implied docs not normally occur in ontogeny,
md in phylogeny the idea is more accurately expressed by the
erm " differentiation." However, it may still be useful in
{escribing " monstrosities," and perhaps also those cases in
vhich an organ serves first one purpose and then another, as
vhen a leafy shoot eventually becomes a thorn, or the base of a
bliage-lcaf becomes a bud-scale.
DifferentialioH. — Any account of the general morphology of
living organisms is incomplete if it does not include some attempt
at an explanation o( its causation; though such an attempt
cannot be carried far at the present time. A survey of the
vegetable kingdom indicates that evolution has proceeded, on
the whole, from the simple to the complex; at the same time, as
has been already mentioned, evidence of reduction or degenera-
tion in common. Thus in the series Bryophyta, Pteridophyta,
Phanerogamia, whilst the sporophytc presents prc^ressive
development, the gametophyte presents continuous reduction.
Evolution means the gradual development of " highly
organized " from ** lowly organized " forms; that is, of forms
in which the " physiological division of labour " is more com-
plete, from those in which it b less complete; of forms possessing
a variety of organs, from forms possessing but few. Differentia-
tion means the development and the specialization as organs
of various parts of the body. It presents itself in two aspects:
there b morphological differentiation, which can be traced in
the distinction of the members of the body, root, stem, leaf, &c.;
there b physiological differentiation, which can be traced in the
adaptation of these members to various functions. But, in
actual operation, these two processes are simultaneous; every
member is developed as an organ for the performance of some
special function.
Factors in Evolution. — Evolution in the race involves progres-
sive differentiation in the individual; hence the causes of evolu-
tion and of differentiation must be the same. The evolution of
higher from lower plants, it b generally assumed, has proceeded
by variation. With regard to the causation of variation Darwin
says (Origin of Species, ch. v.): " In all cases there are two
factors, the nature of the organism, which b much the most
important of the two, and the nature of the conditions. The
direct action of changed conditions leads to definite or indefinite
results. In the latter case the organization seems to become
plastic, and we have much fluctuating variability. In the former
case the nature of the organism is such that it yields readily,
when subjected to certain conditions, and all or nearly all the
individuals become modified in the same way."
In spite of the statement that the " nature of the organism "
b the most important factor in variation, the tendency amongst
evolutionists has been to take.much more account of the influence
of external conditions. Exceptions to this attitude are
Lamarck, who speaks with regard to animals (but not to plants!)
of " la composition croissanjLe de I'organisation " (PhUosophie
%oologique, t. i.), and NiigeU, who attributes variation to causes
inherent in the " idioplasm," and has elaborately worked out
the view in his Abstammungslehre.
The position assumed in this article is in agreement with
(he views of Lamarck and of N&geli. All but the lowest plants
visibly tend towards or actually achieve in various degrees the
differentiation of the body, whether sporophyte or gametophyte,
into stem, leaf, root, &c., that b, the differentiation of parts not
previously present. It is inconceivable that external conditions
can impart to an organism the capacity to develop something
that it docs not already possess: can impart to it, that b, the
capacity for variation in the direction of higher complexity.
The alternative, which is here accepted, is that differentiation
b essentially the expression of a developmental tendency inherent
in the protoplasm of plants. Just as every crystallizable
chemical substance assumes a definite and constant crystalline
form which cannot be accounted for otherwise than by regarding
it as one of the properties of the substance, so every living
organism assumes a characteristic form which is the outcome
of the properties of its protoplasm. But whereas the crystalline
form of a chemical substance is stable and fixed, the organized
form of a living organism is unstable and subject to change.
Influence of External Conditions. — ^This position does not,
however, exclude the influence of external conditions; that
influence is undeniable. Darwin's expression "the nature of
the organism " has been interpreted in the preceding paragraph
to mean an inherent tendency towards higher organization;
that interpretation may now be completed by adding that the
776
PLANTS
lUORPHOLOGY
organism is susceptible to, and caii respond to, the action of
external conditions. There is every reason to believe that
plants are as ** irritable " to varying external conditions as they
are to h'ght or to gravity. A change in its external conditions
may act as a " stimulus," evoking in the organism a response
of the nature of a change in its form. As Darwin has pointed
out, this response may be direct or indirect. In illustration
of the indirect response, the evolution of the Bryophyta and of
more highly organized plants may be briefly considered. It is
generally admitted that life originated in water, and that the
earliest plants were Algae. The study of existing Algae, that is
of plants that have continued to live in water, shows that under
these conditions no high degree of organization has been reached,
though some of them have attained gigantic dimensions. The
primitive water-plants were succeeded by land-plants, a land-
flora being gradually established. With the transition from
water to land came the progressive development of the sporo-
phyte which is the characteristic feature of the morphology of
the Bryophjrta and of all plants above them in the scale of life
(see Bower, Origin of a Land-Flora). This evolution of the
sporophyte is no doubt to be correlated with the great change
in the external conditions of life. There is no conclusive ground
for regarding the action of this change as having been direct, it
is more reasonable to regard it as indirect, having acted. as a
general stimulus to which the ever-increasing complexity of the
sporophyte was the response.
Adaptation. — ^The morphological and physiological differentia-
tion of the plant-body has, so far, been attributed to (i) " the
nature of the organism," that is to its inherent tendency towards
higher organization, and (2) to the " indefinite results " of the
external conditions acting as a stimulus which excites the
organism tb variation, but docs not direct the course of variation.
The " defim'te results " of the action of external conditions have
still to be considered.
It is a familiar observation that climatic and edaphic (nature
of soil) conditions exert an influence upon the form and structure
of plants (see Plants : Ecology oO« For instance, some xerophytes
are dry and hard in structure, whilst others are succulent
and fleshy. This so-called direct effect of external conditions
upon the form and structure of the body differs from the
indirect effect in that the resulting variations bear a relation, of
the nature of adaptation, to those conditions; the effect of the
conditions is not only to cause variation, but to cause variation
in a particular direction. Thus all existing hygrophytes
{excepting the Algae) are considered to have be£n derived from
land-plants which have adapted themselves to a watery habitat.
The effect can also be demonstrated experimentally: thus it
has been observed that a xerophyte grown in moist air will lose
its characteristic adaptive features, and may even assume those
of a hygrophyte.
Climatic and edaphic conditions arc not, however, the only
ones to affect the structure and composition of the body or its
parts; other conditions are of importance, particularly the
relations of the plant to animals and to other plants. For
instance, the " animal traps " of carnivorous plants (Drosera,
Nepenthes, &c.) did not, presumably, originate as such; they
began as organs of quite another kind which became adapted,
to their present function in Consequence of animals having been
accidentally caught. It is also probable that the various forms
of the angiospermous flower, with its many specialized mechan-
isms for pollination, may be the result of insect-visits, the
flowers becoming adapted to certain kinds of insects, and the
insects having undergone corresponding modification. Parasites,
again, were derived from normal autotrophic plants, which, as
the parasitic habit became more pronounced, acquired the
corresponding characteristics of form and structure; there is,
in fact, the group of hemi-parasites, plants which still retain
autotrophic characters though they are root-parasites.
Though adaptation to the environment seems sometimes to
be considered, especially by neo-Lamarckians, as equivalent to,
or at least as involving, the evolution of higher forms from
lower, there does not appear to be any evidence that this it the
case. The effect of external conditions is confined to the modi-
fication in various directions of members or organs already
existing, and one very common direction is that of redaction
or entire disappearance of parts: for instancr, the foliagrJeaves
of certain xerophytes {e.g. Cactaceae, Eupborbiaceae). of
parasites, and of saprophytes. Moreover, had the evolutioe
of plants proceeded along the line of adaptation, the vegetable
kingdom could not be subdivided, as it is, into the morphological
groups Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Phancrogamia,
but only into physiological groups, Xerophyta, Hygrophyta,
Tropophyta, &c
In endeavouring to trace the causation of adaptation, it it
obvious that it must be due quite as much to properties inbereat
in the plant as to the action of external conditions; the plant
must possess adaptive capacity. In other words, the plant
must be irritable to the stimulus exerted from without, and be
capable of responding to it by changes of form and strvctue:
Thus there is no essential difference between the " direct ** aod
the " indirect " action of external conditions, the differeaa is
one of degree only. In the one case the stimulus iodooes
indefinite variation, in the other definite; but no hankand-faat
line can be drawn between them.
Adaptive characters are often hereditary, for instance, the
seed of a parasite will produce a parasite, and the same b trae
of a carnivorous plant. On the other hand, adaptalkw;
especially those evoked by climatic or edaphic conditioos, nujr
only be shown by the seedling if grown under the appn^viate
external conditions; here what is hereditary is not the actod
adaptation, but the capacity for responding in a partkuhr
way to a certain set of external conditions.
Summary. — The general theory of differentiation propouded
in this article is an attempt at an analysis of the factofs termed
by Darwin " the nature of the organism " and ** the aalve
of the conditions." It is assumed, as an inevitaUe conchiaiDa
from the facts of evolution, that plant-protoplasm pooesKS
(i) an inherent tendency towards higher organicatioo, and (2)
that it is irritable to external conditions^ or to dunges in tbea,
and can respond to them by changes of form which may be eitbcr
indefinite or definite (adaptive). Thus it is that the variatioac
are produced upon which natural selection has to work.
Material Cause of Dijferentiaiion. — It may be inquired, ia
conclusion, if there are any facts which throw li^t upon the
internal mechanism of differentiation, whether spootaneoa «r
induced; if it is possible to refer it to any matoial caose. It
may be replied that there are such facts, and though they aic
but few as yet, they suffice to suggest an hypothesis that tuf
eventually prove to be a law. Sachs was the first to fonanlate
the theory that morphological differences are the gaptegioa of
differences in material composition. He considered, for instanoe^
that stems, leaves, roots and flowers differ as thgr do becaose
the plastic substances entering into their structure are divecK.
This view he subsequently modified to this — that a rdativdijr
small proportion of diverse substance in each of these parts
would suffice to account for their morphological diffcreaccs.
This modification is important, because it transfers the (waathre
influence from the plastic substances to4be protoplasm, suggest-
ing that the diverse constituent's are produced (whether ipon*
taneously or as the result of stimulation) as secretions by the
protoplasm. It is an obvious inference that if a small qnaatity
of a substance can affect the develc^ment of an entire 0^
it probably acts after the manner of an enzyme. Bcycnad
has,'in fact, gone so far as to speak of " formative enaymes."
It is not possible to go into ail the facts that might be addnced
in support of this view: one case, perhaps the most pfcgaa^
must suffice. Beyerinck was led to take up the decided poatiaa
just mentioned by his researches into the conditioos dctoniBiiC
the formation of plant-galls as the re»ilt of injury by ioKCts.
He found that the development of a gall b due to a tenpoiuy
modification of the part affected, not, as is generally thmfM*
in consequence of the deposition of an egg by the hoect,
but of the injection of a poisonous substance which has the cfct
of stimulating the protoplasm to develop a^dl imUad cf matwA
BimoNi PLANTS 777
. If this be 80, it may justifiably be inferred that both adaptations to every kind of climatic or physical condition:
ind abnormal morphological features may be due to they may be mere weeds like groundsels or ragworts, or climbers
nee of enzymatic substances secreted by the protoplasm masquerading like ivy, or succulent and alm<»t leafless, or they
•rmine the course of development. At any rate this may be shrubs and even trees. Yet throughout they agree
is suggests an explanation of many hitherto inexplicable in the essential structure of their floral organs. The cause of
or instance, it has been pointed out in the article on such agreement is, rxxrording to Grisebach, shrouded in the
iduction of plants that the effect of the fertilization of deepest obscurity, but it finds its obvious and complete explana>
le cell in the ovule of a phanerogam is not confined tion in the descent from a common ancestor which he would
male cell, but extends more or less widely outside it, unhesitatingly reject.
growth and tissue-change. The ovule develops into From this point of view it is not suffidcnt, in attempting 'to
; and the gynaeceum and even more remote parts of map out the earth's surface into " regions of vegetation, " to
:r, develop into the frOit. The facts are familiar, but have regard alone to adaptations to physical conditions. We
30 means of explaining them. In the light of Sachs's are compelled to take into account the actual affinity of the
le interpretation is this, that the act of fertilization plants inhabiting thenu Anything short of this is merely
te formation in the female cell of substances which are descriptive and empirical, and affords no rational basis for
:ed to adjacent structures and stimulate them to further inquiry into the mode in which the distribution of |4ant-life
lent. has been brought about. Our regions will not be " natural "
iTURE. — ^As the scope of this article limits it to the general unless they mark out real discontinuities both of origin and
of the mprpholoey of plants, comparatively few facta aflinity, and these we can only seek to explain by reference to
T^ti^l^h. a^!!.L on Sn°i^. ^.r>f!3ffi?.^«'2h P^ changes in the earth's history. We arrive thus at " the
e given m the articles on tnc various groups 01 plants, such "^ ^. , . . i..i«; ••••i ....
on the AJgac. Bryophyta, Ptcridophyta, Angiospcrms. essential ami of geographical boUny," which, as sUted by
erms, &c. The following works may also be consulted: Schimper, is "an inquiry into the causes of differences existing
, Ftant-Ceography (Clarendon Press, Oxford) ; Cocbel, among the various floras." To quote further: " Existing
'^\ii^^:^^/^^t^-'^-^yitr4Jt. *"» «l"l>i« only ^ momcnl in the hi,.o^ of the earth's
833). (S. H. V.*) vegetation. A transformation which is sometimes rapid, some-
_ -. times slow, but always continuous, is wrought by the reciprocal
DiSTMBunoM OP PLANTS ^jj^q ^f ^^^ i^^^^^ variabiUly of plants and of the variability
on experience shows that temperature Is the most of the external factors. This change is due partly to the migra-
t condition which controls the distribution of plants, tions of plants, but chiefly to a transformation of the plants
f warmer countries cannot be cultivated in British covering the earth." This transformation is due to new charac-
vithout protection from the rigours of winter; still less ters arising through variation. " If the new characters be useful,
able to hold their own unaided in an unfavourable they arc selected and perfected in the descendants, and consti-
Temperature, then, is the fundamental limit which tute the so-called ' adaptations ' in which the external factors
pposes to the indefinite extension of any one qpecies. acting on the plants are reflected." Tho study of the nature
smarkcd " that .the same temperature might have been of these adaptations, which are often extremely subtle and by
, all other circumstances being equal, to produce the do means merely superficial, is termed Ecology (see above),
ngs in different ports of the globe, both in the animal The remark may conveniently find its place here that plants
table kingdoms." Yet lawns in the United States are which have reached a high degree of adaptive specialization
of the common English daisy, the wild hyacinth of have come to the end of their tether: a too comph'cated adjust-
s of the United Kingdom is absent from Germany, and ment has deprived them of the elasticity which would enable
ove from Switzerland. We owe to Buffon the recogni- them to adapt themselves to any further change in their surround-
lie limitation of groups of species to regions separated ings, and they would pass away with conditions with which
another by " natural barriers." When by the aid of they are too inextricably bound up. Vast floras have doubtless
r surmount these, they often dominate with unexpected thus found their grave in geologic change. That wrought by
le native vegetation amongst which they arc colonists, man in destroying forests and cultivating the land will be no
loon and milk thistle, both European plants, cover less effective, and already specimens in our herbaria alone
country in South America with impenetrable tJiickets represent species no longer to be found in a living state. Extinc-
both man and beast may be hopelessly lost. The tion may come about indirectly and even more surely This
is blocks the rivers of New Zealand into which it has is easy to happen with plants dependent on insects for their
oduced from Europe. The problem, then, which plant- fertilization. Kronfcld has shown that aconites are dependent
ion presents is twofold: it has first to nuip out the for this on the visits of a Bombus and caimot exist outside the
ariace into " regions " or " areas, of vegetation," and area where it occurs.
to trace the causes which have brought them about The actual and past distribution of plants must obviously
0 their restriction and to their mutual relations. be controlled by the facts of physical geography. It is concerned
irliest attempts to deal with the first branch of the with the land-surface, and this is more symmetrically disposed
may be called physiognomicaL They endeavoured than would at first sight appear from a glance at a map of the
^ " aspects of vegetation " in which the " forms " world. Lyell points out that the eye of an observer placed
an obvious adaptation to their climatic surroundings, above a point between Pembroke and Wexford, lat. ss** N. and
been done with success and in great detail by Grisebach, long. 6" W., would behold at one view the greatest possible
tgelation dcr Erdc from this point of view is still unsur- quantity of land, while the opposite hemisphere would contain
With it may be studied with advantage the unique the greatest quantity of water. The continental area is on one
1 at Kew of pictures of plant-life in its broadest aspects, side of the sphere and the oceanic on the other. Love has shown
together by the industry and munificence of Miss (Nature, Aug. x, 1907, p. 338) that this is the result of physical
; North. (5risebach declined to see anything in such causes and that the existence of the Pacific Ocean " shows that
' but the production by nature of that which responds the centre of gmvity of the earth does not coincide with the centre
al conditions and can only exist as long as they remain of figure." One hsJf of the earth has therefore a greater density
-d. We may agree with Schimper that such a point of than the other. But " under the influence of the rotation the
>bsoIete without rejecting as valueless the admirable parts of greater density tend to recede further from the axis
tion of data of which it admittedly fails to give any than the parts of less density . . . the effect must be to produce
explanation. A single example will be sufficient to a sort of furrowed surface." The furrows are the great ocean
this. The genus Scnecio, with some xooo species, basins, and these would still persist even if the land suriace were
;:ally cosmopolitan. .In eztexnal habit, these exhibit enlarged to the 1400 fathoms contour. These considerations
778 PLANTS Bisrsminoii
preclude Uie posibilily ot aolviog diRicullica in geographical '"^ '["»**■
diiiribulion by the cgnslmclion of hypothelici! Und-miitn*. | Si«*S
■n apcdicnl which Darvin alwayi iloutly oppoHd (Liji and ide of ftrdliB-
Liarri, li. 74-;S). Hie furrowed suifuc of the euth givei the Mrtawtlisit
Uod-ifti I ilar-ihaped figure, which may from time to lime » **■ 'F^
hkve varied io aullioe, but in the msin hu been penauicnt. U vMr'^T
It ii eicentric u regards the pole aod nendj l»pering eiteslioDl ,^ '^„ m.^
lowatda the south. Sir George Darwin bidtk powihle eipluti- aconlB ■
lion of these in the screwing molioa trhich the earth would faUi^nih-
MSet io its plastic state. The polar regions travelled a little kSL„^r^
fron west to east relatively to the equatorial, which lagged r^a^EiirM
The great primary divisiODS of the eiilb's flora preicBt them- it. Oibi ■*
•elves at a glance. The tropics of Cancer and Capriloni cut ofl ^ arfirig
with Buiprising precision (the Ul ttr somewhat In so) the ItopioiJ SS'rtWta
fron the nonb aod south lemperate aoses. The nonh tern- .^k. L'|fB
perale region it more (harply Kpaiated from the other two ihu vim *■> '
the »outh tempenie rcgioti from the tropical. ' '"
I, NottH TtiifB«ATE Reoion (/lofarelie).— Tlis i> the lai(e« .
of all, drcumpoljf, and but for the bieak at Berini Siraiifc •mild j'"!'"'"—
worW». It i> chiiictenirf ' by its needlc-leowd Coniferai, its C" ^ *?
' [lI'louinTiiiiFeukTE REci^^This occupies widely separated -KiW V^
areas in South Africa. Australia, New Zealand and South America. he IrvagJ*
These are conneetfd by the pmence of peculiar type*, f*roieaccfle, ^jM'^—^
Hmewhal inlcjerani of a moiil dimate. liidividval spedes are out by iamu
eiiremrly numerous and often ncy micicUd in area. StaiK Aid
111, Taoncat. Kecion.— Thii is characiFcized by the ptescHx ' ikroBdiim
of gigantic MvnooKyledods, palms, Muuttae and bamboos, and of
evergreen pot>;pi-1alous trees and ligi. Hcrtuceous plants are rare ng fne Ewtf
and mostly epiphytic- hawotoiirf
A coniidciation of ihescre^oni makn it iiuiTnl that they aie nl h b T™ «1 M Lr.L,.. '^''^J'l'S
'th Drude tacroua) and Ihedrciduouicypms (rdinfrimi diintkwm)aiti9^
3. V are in Europe. Starlrie Gardner hat afgu^ %''nh much pbuHblky ihff
'^,£,\^ !*'7^JS^f!^
inant in or peculiar to •eparaicniriiMH. OfthcKapan nave Been ot iiocene age. Ihat ol t-nnnrllLamliHlat ei-uimw
austral aadte tropical. If we add to Ibe latter hguie ™ Conifers (including the living ipmr), poplan and wiIlimi,Brt
n which are widely diipencd. we lind that the tropics as would he found now J5 to the «uih, Yfie Horn d Din [di^
oralmoMeKactlylwo-thitdsadhelargcgraupsconipt^ m lat. 70* contained ,5«h>iii. plan
Id* vegeution. M. Casimir de CandoTle has made an ehnly agrees, with the. Kiwene k
SIS.- _ -.__
indepcndem investigaliofi, based on Hooker and Bcnthai
fidnUmw. The lewtl is unlonunately (loiol "■'■ '
uilurms thr preicni writer that the letult leads
elusion: "La vCgfution m an pMnomfne si
doni nnua IK voyons plus que itsta alTiiblis dam nun r^i
The vi'tieijtion of the Pdlacoioie era, till towoidi
churaciena?d by arlurcscenl vascular CryptoKtm aiid Gymncf Irmpei
ns of a type (Cordaliw) which have left no devxndants beyond Iheadi
It, In the milhern hemisphere the Palaiwoic flora appears uili' A nradual refngcration proceeded rhruuch the ninciH prill
nutety to have been pnifoundly modified by a lowering cd lempcra- Thiswasaceomniinki] in Europe by a drastic WHifing est c^ Mix"
lure nod the existence of (lictil conditions over a wide area. It wat types, ul"' — ■-'•■ ' — ■— ■■"- " ■- - - — — "
irplaccd by the Cbiwplenifioia which is assumed to have originated Thti. as
remain in South America. South Africa and Australia. serve* a more Miocene riciei. Itrrrja. now cmftnid a .vm
Theraaiiap»ri(florB£iBdu.illvspmd lolhe nnrthemhemis^iere America and Japin. still lingered, as did Orem. now im**")'
and intermingled with thebivr Habcoioic RaiawhKhttill ]ieru«ed developed in the litipici. but in norrh temprrale nyMS w;
iiihoughttohavebadilihiRhin ihe hypotbelical Gnndwana bnd. Minrene. wen- reduced to the eiiairri; Qurcui iUi. At ihrttod
and in which Gymnosperms played Ihc leading part formerly taken the Pliocene ihr European flora wai appirenily link diftiat im
by vascular Cryptogams, The abundance rt Cyndean idanls ii that now eieiuing. ihcuih lome •armer tjiifs sixh as the »■"■
. 1. . ..^1.,.. i_. They attained the hlghew degiw chestnut {Tnfia luAiai) hud a moie nonbem eiienii* Tie
Bennctliteac, wMch have been glacial period eRected in Eumpe a wbolnale entnnwaliM <<
-- -, — ..,,n, Cyi^eae are Mill widr^ rep. «. .,.,.-, .-„. ,.- -, — .,. „.-^, ..-
outhem hemi.phere by genera which. hDwever,have no eoonlerpart flora rounC rrfuge« in favmiied localities
n the NfesoToii: I'ra, AnionB>Et Conifi "" ' ' ^ ' ■ - ■ .,,.,.,.,
to fore^doH a floral mgaaiiatioo. Tluugh »
mounlaina. Durinz the milder intnglatia] nened M*
types, such as Ji Wndn^n f«Wir», iiiU heUttaeM
AnionBj<r Conifer* ihe archaic genera, GiHitfe
piriod Ihrouchout the world, Ihey are now dying out- the former
iirrpirsenirdby the solitary maiden.hair tree of China and janan; ._, ,
the latter tiy some ten spencn conhnrd 10 thesoutbem hemisplieie. The evidence which has thus been briefly nmma
the anonulnus .Srudapifv] of Japan, in Ihc northern hemisphmand under climatic condition
. So(arthcevolulionofthevegetablekingdomha.fTOxededw)th- ing to what would now be termed «ib-tmplcal. Ii oei
■ngsc()iien<T,ukenibeki^,aodintuniKivrnwayioathen. But the old and new nridt. The gmlual difleeimiaiiw t
luiioni PLANTS 779
brouf he about whtf by aiemaiatian thin qwcialiia
dittinclivc fuziH by ihe drvcktpoienl and mulltpliu..-.-, —,.,-... .
vjvini lypei defined eroup d fivc-icavcd i
tribuuMi of mmiQUin tumcn in Ihc Old and New World* bcd rrowinK ■idc by lidc ii
iof conUMt. In tbo rornicr Ihjy run from uu to w«t: have .he Wtiymouil. pine y -
iharply cut off and ajffordcd no mcniu at flicapc tot the i'. jlytudJlKtu in MnkiMt^
Urranean irgiDn (be Large mupt dE nalmii fip, inyn1« HimjIdyaL and two other ^xcie* in Jajsn- Anions bnad-
Js irc cnch only lepTCKnted by nnelc turvivmp >pccic*- kavod ircct Jutfant tat a liinilar HoUrrtK lansc. dtKcndinf to
. Iropicji family of the GcincraccH nas left behind a lew th« VVeK Indiev^ n has Aetudna, were it not IncldnE in Europe;
Ramonitta in the PyreDcci, Hahcrln in the Balluni, and it bceomet tropical in South Amcrici and Malaya. IT we turn to
n Thmaly; the FSrencts al» psHcu a nuoutc Daicsrca, heibiccoui pLmts. Hcmiley hai pointed out thai ot the thirteen
pean survivor of the yams of tlie Irojw^. Ecnera ol Ranuncnlaccae in Califoinia, eleven are BrjiiHh.
ih America there ii no such barrier: the Miocene Aora While the Iropiet prcHrve for ui what remains ol the pn-
l» Mich aa UainaJia. Lirutdtndron, Ligiiuicinbor. Totrejra, perale rrRion n ofien described ai the Mirvivdl of the Miocenc-
I and Stquai'i. While it hai ixen cuKomafy to deicnbc Enitler therefore calU it ArctO'Tcttiaty. We miiti, however, a[fee
■ne flora of Europe as of a North American type, it would with Starkie Gardner that it ai only Miocene as regards in preteni
iccorate to deicribc (he latter at having in great Duauin pMiiion, which was ongfnaNy farther dDrih, and that in actual
ilthiioceneeliaiacier, oritin was much earlier. Then has been in effect a succmjve
naint serve as barriers which arrest the miction of Ific shilling of aoncs oE vegetation southwards from the pole. Their
1 at their base, their upper levels and summits afford lines dislineiivc and adaptive eharaeteristics doubtless began to be
micatjon by whicb the Boras of colder regions in (lie established as soon as the phancroeiiDic flora was constituted,
hemisphere can obtain a southern ektension even across There is ik> reason to suppose that Oic peculiarities of the arctic
s. They doubtlessequallysupply'a path by irluch southern flora are more modem than thoecof any other, though there is no
•r t^-pes may have extended northwards. Thus ihe fossilevidencc to prove that il was not so-
nic ataemblaie of plaols to which Sir Joseph Hooker has The North Temperate region admilt of subdivision into several
I is the onlyoiK that is so " (Tnmi. X,tii|i. 5k. luiL isj). effected in this and other cases is staiiitical. Ai A. dc Candollc.
AUSemiUa. Saiifnifa. V^rritaa. Ccnliana and Barliia.
aiLons reproduce the phyncal oonditiods of high latitudes,
tnis vapour in the almospbere is transparent to luminous
le lo obscuR beat-rays. The latter are retained to warm
h>wer lei-els. while it remains cold at higher. It results
Ics a horirootal distribution of plants, there is also an
1: a fact of cardinal imponancd the first observation of
.lieen attributed to Tourncloit.
ig generally, all plants tend to exhaust particular consii-
ibe soil on which they crow. Nature therefore has pro-
ious contrivances by which their seeds are diaeminaicd
le actual position they occupy. In a laree number of eases
' provide for migration within aulficicni tujt
""" "" " ""'" n be'iM
.- ~^^^ « »...^-.« ™ .^. ... ^_- - physical
ome into play which may be briefly noticed. The first of
the case with fem^porei. The vcgetaliDn of Krakatoa
iletely eiterminated in ]£Sj f>y a thick coat of red-hot
Yet in iS86 Trcub found that it wot bcnnning to cover
n with pbnis, including eleven species of ferns; tnjt the
lunK of supply was lo m. distant. Seeds are carried with
ity when pmvidcd with plumes or wings. Trcub found on
four species of cooiposites and two grasses. Water is
Imous means of tiannort. The littoral vcrelation of
ids is derived from eea-Domc fniits. The 8e«s of West
ey are capable of germiBationi the species are only pre-
om eslabUshing themselves by en uncongenial climate,
■icked up a seed of Ed-j/ardiia in the Cfutham Islands.
ivers hring down the plants of the UKier leveb of their Thcanaly^sof larger areas iwUsresulla of the sane kind.
Ihe lower: thus species chaiacterisiic ol the chalk are the same region we may capcct lo And considerable dillen
the banks of the Thames near London. Birds ate even we pass from one meiidian to another. Assumlnt that in
itive than wind in iraniponin^ seeds to long distances, cumpcjar origin the Notlh Temperate flora was fairly homef
range. Fniit-pigeons are an eHeeiive means of transport ■ ......
ipics by the imoigested seeds which they v*nA ia tbeir
. Quadrvpeds also play their part by carrying seeds or
ngled in their coats. A'unMiaiK i^'uiiinii his sjtfcad from
in steppes to every <tocli-rai>ing country in the world. ■ Newfound-
ilion, already indicated, and tfi
jdinally the region subdivi
780 PLANTS iDisrwBUTKii
lilcd by Kib
bninded by Ihe arcdc drcEei Mature Mda uv tdi^y 1
of cold uia Have been Atom to be capable at iHtMAod
tcmpertlim even ol liquid ikydnfeii. Arctir ~' — ' ^
britl [itjwth aad flower it a tempentim little j
oppwilifatiOt which fonu a pnfuie ^tfpec» Aitd Dryat Kt
Such plants perhap* eitend to the moaC northeni bndi at
known. OnMayjoIh.lnWirdHunt'eliluid.lat.Il-l'.Kr
Nbrb found that " vcfetation waa fairly repcmntw aa
quantity in thepoppv.aaxilraEeaiidnnall EuTtaofcnaa." \
AJitKh BUciet at a beMit of 10.700 It. Ball (ound the temp
one inch below the iutlice to be S3*, and he collected " ovi
•pecks in flower." Takls| the whole arctic flea at Jta
Ilookir lound that fii6 occurred In amic Einope, and of th
ant Scandinavian. Beyond the aictic circle Bnie MO. or mo
a qiiajler. are confined to the nountaimof tbenottbenbeii
and o( " Bill more aautheni miona." Thk led Hooter
ttriking obiepratian already quoted. Tlie arctic fioca ,c
nn miiiiihat ii peculiar to It.andonljfionieBltyipeciBtha'
bjccted to terming the arctic Hon Sondinavlan.
- 'navia haab
EJcnKnl la preaent In eadi bendea the arctic The one ia in I
nsull ol femUar phyiical conditiona to sthat which haa pi
Ihc other. Thua Saiifia^ armia is lenidtd as an alpiae I
the lowland S, poaaioM. Compaiins the Alps with the P)
acmding to BaD, each hat about haBits floim common a th
" the Alps have 17J endemic specka and at kast 13 genen t
inf Hon wu replaced by an arctic on
at Salii palarii, S. ktrpaaa. S. rtliitd
though we may agree with Ball that they did not ncccoarilyl
exiincl at higher ones at long as any land^sitrfiiccrTraainedurH
by ice. At the close of the glacial period the alpioe floras re
to the mountains accompviicd 1^ an arctic contingent,
doubilest many spcdet of the latter, wch as Solixpilmt, fi
cUabliA themidves. Christ, while admitting an ancient e
elFmsnl, iuch a> CssiMnuia' eiciia in the arctic-alpine I
Europe, objects that a Scandinavian cokuiiiation could not
such charactcmtic pUntl at the larch and eilelweiia. He
the oririnal home of the bulk erf ruftting al|Ane plants Ion
At tlie close of (he glaciil epoch the north Asiatic flora sprea
wards into Europe and inlermingled with the surviving v«i
Someipecies, such ai A aimone alfnia, which are wanting in thi
a. The InlentttdiaU iMb-retion cDmpiiBes the vegetation
lar^ area occupied by the steppes of the Old Worlrl, the pa
the new and the lomt region of both. The fornKr >uppDrta<
herbaceous llrm. the characterislica of which In the Old an
Worlds have been already briefly summarized. In the form
of Europe and of Central Alia are continuoui. Ofapedeao
to the two. Maumowici finds that MarKhuria possesses 40
scarcely 9% that arc endemic Of a collection of about JOO
made in that country by Sat Henry James nearly a third ate
Tl is confirms the theory it Chriit that Europe was restocked
From Alia after the close of the glacial epoch, thesouthbcini
to it In the new wocid noiouthem barriers ciiitcdandit
difficult to draw the line between contiguous sub-regions.
The dominant characteriitica of the arboreoua vegetatl
more recent trihc of Abietineae— ^ino, silver-fin, bemlochs,
ipd larcbc*. o( which, unlike t&e oMtr typok no RpRM
ismisuTioNi PLANTS 781
(do lit known out al i imhiblc toul of not loa than li,<ao, Amnia or Miliyi. A peciiUu' [eatuR la wUek tnpial Africa
■1 gf line nun ihan hilfan Endemic. Tl» ninntcr of (pecin Kaiuli aloM b l&at at lait oiwfifih and ccobaUy nuR of thr
■ (Enui. i, it only hall ihai found in otltcr lii^ ami. Thii tfnaa an comnoB to both lidB of the caoliiiat and pnauBaUir
■Rcaiiui d[ gcHra and d[ Endemic >peci» ii characieristii: ot the Hrttch nilit aciH it. An IikUui cknmt dsivtd (ram the nmtb-
h> Hinata^ CUrin*
}( MwUEUcar. thovirh
unpfcaDdofin^^^^ ^
- -. , , „ ^n^Ty'mpiSi
ib- a. Tlie /ndf-J/aSyM n^FCCin incluSL thr tod^n and Malayan
'B t>cnln)ii1a(,Cachin.CliliuuidHiuilKrn China. ibeMalayananhiicU
IR ago. and PniUppine*. viih New Guinea and Palynnia, ruluding Ihc
(o Sandwich Ltlandt. FrobaUy in point o[ number of ipeciei ilw nrc-
>rn ponderant family {• Ordiideae. though, aa Hemitey renurVt. rhry
of do not " gi ire character to the KeaerVi orcooHitute the bulk of The
of vegetation-" In MaUya and cattward the fbrena an rkh in arbor-
.he eicept hga. laurcl>, myrika, niitmcga, oaki and bambooa. Diptero.
?n- carpcH and Nepenthaceae only catend with a few outLiera into the
tk AIncan tub-rwion. Screw pinra have a c1o*er connexion. Conv-
pourae are debcitnt. Amnngit palmt ARCtae and Calameae aR
iiv preponderant. Cycads arc repreienred by Ow itRlf* which ia
k-ei proper, wilh a diycr cljmale, panea and Legupwioiae take the Ind
:limale— the (ofmer being moiR and the la(fer in the number of tpeciee. But it haa few diitinctive botanical
idiatin^iahedbvaomeaoologiittaadiBtinct Hib- feaiuRa. in the nonh-wtn it mceti the MviiUr
in fact in lonie oegiee comparable to tub-rHiona and in the nonh-ean the CkinO'Joponfit aub-Rgioni
tForld. The abiencGof marked rutuial bound! tiea India and Ceylon have received a Malayan conlribuiion. oepgai
north and aoiiih bmitaiion difficult- But it haa haa no O^oj, oaki or nutmen. Apart from the occurrence of Cwdf,
CMrvation of the Taiodieae. a tribe of Conlleiae the Anatic character of the Polyneun Aoia ii illuHraltd by the
Taxaiiwm (with tingle apeciei in China and dinribution ol Mchiceae. C. de CandoDe lindi that with one eicep-
nied by [he dcaduoui cypma (r. iiilitkumi. tion the qieclei belonj to gEoeia repmentcd in one or other of ibe
1 Florida to Teiaa. The two ifcciei of .^iwia. Indian pCiiinHilaa.
" (5. praaUd) and the redwood f 5. KnprrHFeiii), ^. The Scittk Amtfitait n^Hfltn la perhapt richer In peculiar
ifomia. In the eutern loRat* the prevalence of and ditlinctive typea than either of Ibe prending. Aa La the Indo-
i[ CUAru and .RhtfJddiadrfli continues the alliance Malayan aub-repon, epiphytic onhidi aR probably moR numeroua
Florida derivet a trnpicaL element from tbe in point of qieciea. but the senern and even ttib-lnbea aR far moR
™ira. .K- rn™,.hiae are lepmented by 5iial ceatiicted in their range than in the Old World ; 4iub-trihta»ith ;«
Zamia anuagtt Cycada. Tbe fema of Vandeae aR eonlined to South America, though varying
Ti dry anaa have tbe okl.world leguniii ..._._.
>is (Metquit), but aR eipeciall)^ characterlied by the north- L^uminoeae and Euphorbiaceae aR proinineni; Hepta belonging
Extention of the new-world tropical Cactaceae, iiammiilaria, to the latter ii widely dinributed in varioua tpeciea in the Amaion
I and Opuntia, by aucculent Amarvllideae «uch aa .1{ape (of bailn, and ^Ida Para and other kind* of rubber. Amonnt Rubia-
the lo-called " American aloe " la a type), and by arbomcent ceae, Gnchoneae with aome oatlietm in the Old World have their
sae {YMtta). Amongit palms Wmkiittleitio. Bnlui and hcadquanen at cooler le%Tla. In Brazil the mytllei sr lepRRnted
n (all CoTvpheae) replace the eailcm genera. On the weK by " monkey-poti " (LecyOiide- ' ■■' — '- -■ -■ ■
CafruiKi f^waiom replace, the norOitrn Hayo pia-lm. Met* -'^ — -■- "
K Old World, have
ICIM tree of the Atlantic loreaie from Maine to Oregon, and by
an Aon la enliRly deBcient in the cbancleriitic fealuiei of
« of eaitetn North America. Nor, with pethapa tbe inlereninf
ecpdon of CaOaiupiii ikrjtMjUa, ibc iolitaiy repReentatlvc
the New WorM of an eaat Asaiicienui, which nngea from ORgoa
Calitoraia. haiit any altinin willi the Chino-Jannne Kil>-regHm.
II- Thi TuonCAL RICIOM.— Tbe pemunen« of continent) and
BM oceans wis first iniisted upon by J. D. Dana, but, as alreadv have two larn ende
sted. has latfr Rceived support on purely physical Eroundi. It Amongst Cycada, Zam
■dudes the explanation of any common features in the dinevned Conifers, ^roacnru, lir
■liDiis of the tropical area of vcfetalion by lateral communi- less antiquity; Piwui
higher groups, such as famLlLci and brge genera; tb
.01 palm, for example, is common to the Old and New Wt^
Kient broad-leaved Gymnospcrm Cnttim ha '
AfnuM n*«(nm,-Westem Anbia m
js bo added
tan continent, w
hich, with this e
ind pojsihly a
1 in tbe far we*
1. ha. h.
iSS
> almost insular
characlei
„.Linn.S«.n
u^4W!:."HeR..
of the globe, in
ienl'rmTtfw
y we see the .
IS of anc
D to their lait
:. J' i*
RmarkaUe th
upa of a^igher
cae, Ericaceae.
»nely kjcal aiKl
■liich in other parts the density of
. . ...al Dora. It has 00 Magnolia-
K Pomaceaf, or Vaceiniaceae, no RheMtndrtn |
G spread and developed
n iSe African '-• •
s'even ibor Brikbigjs" the absence of iith very few species, is represented by hundreds
rticular. which ImnTertiaty times has coraparalively amallarea in Sooth Africa." Tlwe
■en a Gonipicuous norioem type and in Malayan tropical coodirioni connexion with Europe thRHigh the so^alled Iccnan Hmm. wnw
IB develi^ others which ire widely diveijent. Pilnu are tham (^ni. n,Ur. linn. 5k,, lUg, p. 1$) pointsDut thai " tbewot-
riUnfly deficient: iheR aR only three out of 79 genera of Areceae, European species of Eria. Cennteae. Lebdia, dadulia, Ac-, an
■I the Corypheae aR entirely absent. But including ihr Mai- nme of them more nearly allied to coTTesponding Cape spedea thaa
n*ne Islands and Seychelles the Boraiseae aR ncludvely African, they are to each other: and many of the somewhat higher rwcea.
nidiM an poorly teprcssoted cmBparcd with tithec South groups of specks and gOMn, have evidently diveiied Imm stock*
PLANTS
and ^^bnf'niL
1. The ^iul>al>r» ni-Kiim ooniliu.of Aiatnlii, Tumiui,
N(« Calcdanii Slid New Zealand, and, Ibouih pully Jyinc wilhin
the impic i> nmB lulunlly inaled u ■ wlwtc. They *n linked
tcvellier by the pretence of Protn«ae jtod ol Epacridc"" —i*:'-!.
take the ^ace of the nody allied heat hi i- '^-—'- *'-—
. ---■- Au«raliai._L™.mino
Ksdyallkdhothiin
iith"£aii^p(ai.
with l|»(-htephynode.^b™i in Sew Zealand). Mvnan
MiltiUaia : bolh aiE atnenl (nun New Caledonia an
Sucfa ■ Bummaiy of the lalienl (wu tn the v , .
diilributioD of plants auffiaentljr tndictlet Ibc IU|)td btoE
of the wlh'a ruining doial covering. Tu oomploiijr kIku
Ibe conBponding inlricicy of geosraphjeal tai gnktri
evDiutton.
I( tbe Biufacc of the globe had beea tytamttiiaSj drriM
into Ma and land, and then had been dulribnled b baall
bounded by panUeli of lalilude, the channer of ntetitiot
would depend on tcmpenlun alone; and aa trgaid) it* I0n-
gaie maai, we should find it altauiing iu mii'i'nn*' it dt
equator and linking to in mioiamni at tbe poia. Utdir »1
einb'a vegetation would be vef? iMBaW
d the itudy of plant dinributiaa woM k ■
le earth's physical geography piciciiti chibi
i-hicb planli are adapted. But withic Ibm
greatest bcll diveisity of moistuir. elrvitiia iri
In only exist, u Darwin his ivd. "hot
, _. sie they can. New Zealand ww peEri;
TFsian;iucbfainillaigeaeraaiJilMaiHiiJai.£^ia&iaMand I'frdiiiM stocked with a weak florae the more robust and toniiimac
form mare than 9% of Ibe tintring planli. And it Is interuling ol the nonh Icmpctale region wit ready at any moiint H
to nme that whOe tbe tnfial formiot Qwotu failed to reach Aus- j^y^c •„ ^ut was held back by physical barriers *hich kMI
tralia from Malaya, the tenpcrate fatal ctepi In by a back door. ,jj l,. .1' ,„,lj..rf u .« ........ i"m«.. .mui ..—
Thrce^uanefIDfthellatIvGHlccle•aRende^1>c::lhev■eem, however. *"L™ ""^ cratMcd 11 to surpass.
tn be duile anable to ledR die Invaiiaa of new-conKn, and already Palacontological evidence conclusively proves that the mlKe
600 pbniaof fofelgn origin have Hiceeeded in eitablishLnglheniielves. of the earth has been successively occupied by vegetatiit lotM
a> already ei^ned. the path of communication between Ibe north- most hi^ly or^niadflowenng plant. We find the olli«u
ernandiouthembcmiiphereshaialwayibcenmaiearleiiapca.and ciplanation of this in the facts that all orgaoisms vaiy. ind !>■
IhclrmpvrateBoraofeaulhemAnKricadoeinatnhiliillhenolaiiDn their variations are inherited and, if usclul. pcipetuul'
churactcriwie ol the Kuthem rcijon of the OM Wortd. TaWng. Slructuial tompteiily is brought about by the luprtniiiriiK
endMictiemenl^Biil finds ThitTalfV "™ * "^ "' """ "-"="""■ "" "~™<!-- ""- f—- ■ -•"-«
Impti
3 perpetual adapla
ion to new tondilioD
J, and. ai *
adius
menl becomes more refined, the cocrespo
diagrfiTKluol
te elaborate. Inheii
ante pee«r«l
»h»l
lists, and this can
only be modified and a
ddedla fW
Astic
iadeae and Orchi
eae owe their en™
ordinary fcri
comp
eiity to adaptation
chBcly adapted to tbei
If the
le change, av we kn
ow they have tbangcd. the ocguiM
n prohibited by physical b
PLANUDES— PLASSEY
783
ver, have often protected them from the com-
more vigorous invading races. Fagus, starting
them hemisphere, has more than held its own in
Asia, but has all but died out in North America,
itions favourable for a fresh start in Australasia,
ypes of Gymnosperms are inelastic and dying
Pinus has found the task of crossing the tropics
story points to a general distribution of flower-
from the northern hemisphere southwards. It
general belief on geological grounds that this
of their development at the close of the Mesosoic
ertain that they originally existed under wanner
climate than now obuin, and that progressive
has supplied a powerful impulse to migration,
ventually became, what they are now, great areas
m. The Northern Temperate region was denuded
wealth, of which it only retains a comparatively
High mountain levels supplied paths of com-
for stocking the South Temperate region, the
h were enriched by adapted forms of tropical types,
d changes must necessarily have been accompanied
elimination; the migrating hosts were perpetually
illing out on the way. Further development was,
stopped, but in many cases stimulated by migra-
tlement in new homes. The northern Quercus,
he tropic in the new world, expanded in that of
lew and striking races. And it cannot be doubted
usion of Melastomaceae in South America was not
elsewhere, but the result of local evolution. There
>nce of a returning stream from the south, but as
\. de Candolle have pointed out, it is insignificant
with the outgoing one. Darwin attributes this
lat " the northern forms were the more powerful "
cies, 5th cd., p. 458).
of migration is that races of widely different origin
ve had to adapt themselves to similar conditions,
ight about superficial resemblance in the floras of
itries. At first sight a South African Euphorbia
Uakcn for a South American Cactus, ttn Aloe for
Senecio for ivy, or a New Zealand Veronica for a
licornia. A geographical botany based on such
is only in reality a study of aidaptations. The
of these may raise and solve interesting physio-
ms, but throw no light on the facts and genetic
which a rational explanation of distribution
we study a population and sort it into soldiers,
iastics, lawyers and artisans, we may obtain facts
I value but learn nothing as to its racial origin and
empt that has been made to map out the land
e earth, probable community of origin has been
naore than the possession of obvious characters,
ions framed on this principle should show inter-
some degree of overlapping is only what might
pected, and, in fact, confirms the validity of the
pted. It is interesting to observe that though
jsively from the study of flowering plants, they
itial agreement with those now generally adopted
, and may therefore be presumed to be on the
ral."
:s.— A. de Candolle, La Giotraphie botanique raisonnie,
rneva, 1855); A. Griiebach. La Vigitaiton du globe,
de Tchihatchef (Paris, 1875); Engler, Versuch einer
ischichte der Pflanzenwelt (Leipzig. 1879-1882); Oscar
/ de tiographie botanique, transl. by G. Poirault (Paris,
/. ScTiimper, Plant Geography, transl. bv W. R. Fisher,
. V'"' • 1 • * •'U')'
, MAXIMUS (c. 1260-1330), Byzantine grammarian
n, flourished during the reigns of Michael VIII.
:us II. Palaeologi. He was bom at Nicomedia
but the greater part of his life was spent in Con-
vhere as a monk he devoted himself to study
and teaching. On entering the monastery he changed his
original name Manuel to Maximus. Planudes possessed a
knowledge of Latin remarkable at a time when Rome and Italy
were regarded with hatred and contempt by the B3rzantines.
To this accomplishment he probably owed his selection as one
of the ambassadors sent by Andronicus II. in 1327 to remonstrate
with the Venetians for their attack upon the Genoese settlement
in Pera. A more important result was that Planudes, especially
by his translations, paved the way for the introduction of the
Greek language and literature into the West.
He was the author of numerous works; notably a Greek grammar
in the form of question and answer ,lilce the 'Epuriftmraol Moscnopulus,
with an appendix on the so-called " political verse; a treatise on
syntax; a biography of Aesop and a prose version of the fables;
scholia on certain Greek authors; two hexameter poems, one a eulogy
of Claudius Ptolemaeus, the other an account 01 the sudden chan^
of an ox into a mouse; a treatise on the method of calculating in
use amongst the Indians (ed. C. T. Gerhardt, Halle, 1865) ; and scholia
to the first two books of the Aritkwteiic of Diophantus. His numerous
translations from the Latin included Cicero's Somnium Sci^iemis
with the commentary of Macrobius: Caesar's Gallic War; Ovid's
Heroides and Metamorphoses; Boetius, De consolatione phihsophiae;
Au^stine, De Irinitate, These translations were very popular
during the middle ages as textbooks for the study of Greek, it is,
however, as the editor and compiler of the collection of minor poenns
known by his name fsee Anthology: Greeh) that he is chiefly
remembered .
See Fabricius, BiUiolkeca g^aeca, ed. Harles, xi. 682; theological
writings in Miene, Patrologta graeca, cxlvii; correspondence, ed.
M. Treu (1890;, with a valuable commentary; K. Krumbacher,
GeschichU der bytantiniuhen Litteratur (1897); J. E. Sandys, Hisi.
of Class. Schol. (1906), vol. i.
PLAQUE, a French term for a small flat plate or tablet,
applied particularly to rectangular or circular ornamental
plates or tablets of bronze, silver, lead or other metal, or of
porcelain or ivory. Small plaques, ptaqueUes^ in low relief in
bronze or lead, were produced in great perfection in Italy at
the end of the 15th and beginning of the i6th centuries, and
were usually copies of ancient engraved gems, earlier goldsmith
work and the like.
PLASBNCIA, a dty of Spain and an episcopal see, in the
north of the province of Caceres. Pop. (1900), 8208. Plasenda
is situated on the river Jerte, a subtributary of the Tagus,
and at the foot of the sierras of Bejar and Vera. The place
has some interest on account of its fine walls, built in 11 97 by
Alphonso Vm. of Castile, and its cathedral, begun in 1498, a
favourable specimen of the ornate Gothic of its period. "The
Hieronymite convent of Yuste, the scene of the last years of
the emperor Charles V. (i 500-1 558), is 24 m. east.
PLASSBT (Paldsi), a village 6f Bengal on the river Bhagi-
rathi, the scene of Clive's victory of the 23rd of June 1757,
over the forces of the nawab Suraj-ud-DowUh. The fall of
Calcutta and the " Black Hole " atrodty led to instant action
by the East India Company, and Clive, with as many troops as
could be spared, undertook a campaign against the nawab, and
soon reoccupied Calcutta. Long and intricate negotiations,
or rather intrigues, followed, and at the time of the battle the
loyalty of most of the nawab's generals had been effectually
undermined, though assistance, active or passive, could hardly
be counted on. With this doubtful advantage, Clive, with
1 100 European and 2100 native soldiers, and 10 field-pieces,
took the field against the nawab, who had 50,000 men, 53 heavy
guns, and some French artillery under M. de St Frais. Only
the river Bhagirathi separated Clive's little force from the
entrenched camp of the enemy, when the English leader, for
once undecided, called a coundl of war. Clive and the majority
were against fighting, Major Eyre Coote, of the 39th Foot, and
a few others for action. Cootc's soldierly advice powerfully
impressed Clive, and after deep consideration he altered his
mind and issued orders to cross the river. After a fatiguing
march, the force bivouacked in a grove near Plassey early on
the 23rd. The nawab's host came out of its lines and was
drawn up in a huge semicircle almost enclosing the little force
in the grove, and St Frais' gunners on the right wing opened
fire. Clive replied, and was soon subjected to the converging fire
of so heavy guns. For hours the unequal fight was maintaJnod,
784 PLASTER— PLASTER-WORK
until ■ niiutonn itoppfd it. Tlw Engliili covcml up their dI the bat quality ind lempettd ■ Iod( time Men it k
fuu, but IhF tntmy look no luch prcciution. Mix Mudin» lh« vinltd Tor uk. Thr Gmki, baidq maLiof (bcir utta
only loyil gcncnl of Ibe niwib'i tcmy, ibinking thu Clive'i work hud with thin coilt ol mirblCHluil plWn pcdiibtd witt
guni were u ubcIcu u hii own, n»dc > diiutroue uviJty chilk or muble, ciuied Uie plutcr when beinf nind 10 1*
chirge upoD them; he lott kii own liFe, uid hit colleaguei then bcilcn with wooden Uiva by 1 great number of no. Stat
had the fame in their bnndi. Mir J><u' pcnuidcd the peiwu culling sUbi of luch plutcr from ucieoi wilk la
Dtwib to retire into the entrenchnwnli. St FniiUood fut them for tablet (nd mimn." Phny the elder ttDi u llil
until one of Clive't oScen, Major Kilpilrick, lucccutuUy " no builder ihauld employ lime which had not been dakid it
drove him in. Clive followed up Ihii lucceu by cannooading leait three yean," and Ihil " the Crecki uied to grind tb(>
Ibe camp at cbse range. But the rank and £le of (he nalive lime very fine and beat it with petllci of wood." la Ea^ud
army, ignorant of the treachery of their leadert, made a furious the walla of targe houia and nuntioni were formoly (Jiaocd
lotlie. For a line Clive wu bard preued, but hii cool general- above ibe wainscoting and coloured, while the mil lid
•hip held ill own (gaiutlhe umliicipUned valour of the enemy, pluler ceilingl of the lime ol Henry VIIL, Biaahelh aid
and. noticing Mir Jagai'i division in his rear made no move Jama I., are still the idminlion of hiveia of the an. Stilt (alB
against him, he led hia troops straight against the worki. specimens of the plailenr's ikill are eilanC in the pugeudand
After a short resiitance, made chielly by St ftais, the whole ornamented fronts of half-limbered homes. With regard ts ito
camp fell into his hands. At a cost of 33 killed and 44 wounded smaller buildings, comprising small dwelling-bouia and inl-
thfs day's work decided the (ale ofBengaL The historic grove tages, the general ^iplicat ion of plaster itol compantinlf Iw
of mangoes, in which Clive encamped on the previous nighl, date; for wainKoted walls and boarded ceilings oe naked jtidi
has been entirely washed away by changes in the course of the alone are frequeoLly found in bouses of not mote tbaaaccslsij
river; but other relics of the day remain, and a monument hsa old 'both in England and on the Continent,
recently been erected. In the more common operations of plaste _.
PLUTBH, a miiture of lime, hair and sand, used to cover few tools and few materials are required, but the w
rough willing of lalhwork between timbers (see Plastu- eflident in all branches ol the craft will possess a very bv
wo»)i also a' fine while plaster of gypsum, generally known variety of implemenla. The materials of the werkaaB n
as "plaster of Paris." The word (also as " plaisler ") is used in laths, lath nails, lime, und, hair, plaster of parit. and avaricIT
medidne of adhesive mixtures employed eitemally for the of cements, together with various ingredienla to lonn celoBiv
protection of injured surfaces, tor support of weak muscular washes. &c.
or other »truclura,oriiscounte.-inilanli,»oolhingapplicationa Wood latlia (le nan™ Hripi, ot tome atnigbi-givBid vest
- - ■■ ■ "GViirx.^^ iEt7?j,\^^^'f«^*t:^Vwt:s'':L^^
wide, and are made in three (hiekneua; "linvle" ( 1 id A k. tlidd,
" lath and a hall " (| in. thick), and " double ~ (I to ) in. IbtJ.
The thicker laths should be used in ceilinrs. id aand ihcotn sn
or IfnrXaffTov in the medical sense, froi
PUtTBH or PARI! a variety of cal „^-- „ .. ^
sulphate) which forms a hard cement when Irtaled with water J!d° Ss^^^JlSS? ^ ^l'^"f^°b'i°l
(see CuiEiiT). The aubitance obtained in name in ouisequence where the taiier wiB be aulqieted to rough uia^ ii"Wl>M c^
ol being largely manufactured in the nrighix>urhaod of Paris. thicter laiha bminie necciaary. Ijtha are uiually iviled wtk
PLAtTKR-WORK. in buUding. Plajleting is one of the a ijace of about 1 in. bet»wn ibem to form a key firHr [li«
moil ancient of handicrafts employed in couieaion with building '^''" "" '°'™'*l' ■" ™* '^ '»™J' ^ htw nuaniRy^^mm
primitive mas were erected in a simple fa^ion with stickl and !SS, aad ■>
plastered with mud. Soon a more lasting and tightly material ilii.Kmid
was found and employed to lake the place ot mud 0. slime, and SJliit^
apptOBCbcd at a very remate period is made evident by the isa te met
(act that some of the earliest plastering which hsa remained r it <*««*.
undiilurbed excels in its icienlific composition that which we jj " "^■'
use at the present day. The pyramids in Egypt contain pluler- ^dioBBt
earlier) and yet eaistbog. hard and durable, ai the pteaent lime. tt ■■«■»
From recentdiscovericsiihubetnaMcitained that the principal o,n,p„u ,no inepmicnni betwn oe
loots of the plasterer of that lime were practically idenlical in Lathing o< mfiaTcitherV win or in ilv lorn d pntond
design, shape and purpose with those used to-day. .For their theeli.it now uienuvely uied on account of 11 t£Je-|HT«/ aad Itfi^
finest work the Egyptians used a plaster made from calcined naieriil ^^
gypsum just like the " plaster of Paris " of the pieseot time, '^^M *•"*
and their mclhodi of plastering on reeds resemble in everyway U-^Kd an*
our " Ulb, plaster, float and set " work. Halt was introduced
to ttrengthen the "itufl," and the whole (iniihed lomewhat ht ei ait-alm
under an inch thick. Very early in the hiilory ot Creek arcW- "^ pit«« r«*
lecture we find the UK of platter ot a fine while lime tlucco. !_ I, ,^ 1^^
Such hai been found at Mycenae. Hie art had reached perlKtins dlikaDmiH
in Greece more than five eenturiei before Chriit, and platter *kh an j^
was frequently used to cover temples eilemally and internally, [Taa. ari
in tome cases even where the building was ol marble. It foimcd '^ ^^S
a splendid ground for decorative painting, which at this period 0 "Uow'itiBk
ol Grecian history bad reached a very high degree of beauty. Jiewfaii fc* ■* *
The temple ot Apollo at Bassae, built ol yellow sandstone about weeto*«tld*»"
Jl«t";tiln"tkr;^o™S^nl^™c™™ni'^Jd*b ^SiSThS
Creek temples. The Roman architect Vilnivius. in his book on i**«nr, ^
architecture written about t6 B.C., gives detailed information JS'i.'iL am
concerning the methods of making plaster and the manner of iit be^S
PLASTER-WORK
785
hough it Is not 90 strong as ox-hair. The quantity used in good
rork is one pound of hair to two or three cubic fuct of coarite
tuff.
Manila hemp fibre has been used as a substitute for hair. As
I remit of experiments to ascertain its strength as compared with
that of other materiab, it was found that plaster
slabs made with Manila hemp fibre broke at 195 lb,
plaster mixed with Sisal hemp at 150 lb, jute at 145 lb,
ind goats* hair at 144I lb. Another test was made in the following
Banner. Two barreb of mortar were made up of ec^ual oropor-
ion of lime and sand, one containine the usual quantity 01 goats'
air, and the other Manila fibre, iuter remaining in a dry cellar
or nine months the barrels were opened. It was found that the
lur had been almost entirely eaten away by the action of the lime,
ad the mortar consequently broke up and crumbled quite easily.
rbe mortar containing the Manila hemp, on the other hand, showed
jrent cohesion, and required some effort to pull it apart, the hemp
ibre bring apparently quite uninjured. Sawdust has been used as
I substitute for hair and also instead of sand as an aggregate. It
rill enable mortar to stand the effects of frost and rough weather.
t is useful sometimes for heavy cornices and similar work, as it
enders the material light and strong. The sawdust should be
tsed dry.
Some remarks are made on the ordinary sands for building in^
be articles on Brickwork and Mortar. For fine {dastercr's
._ ^ work special sands, not hitherto referred to, arc used,
*"* such as alver sand, which is used when a light colour
ad fine texture are required. In England this fine white sand is
cocured chiefly from Leighton Buzzard.
For external work Portland cement is undoubtedly the best
mterial <» account of its strength, durability, and weather resisting
properties. The first coat or rendering is from i to
I in. thick, and b mixed in the proportions of from
one i>art of cement to two of sand to one part to five
f sand. The finishing or setting coat ts about A in. thick, and
I worbcd with a hand float on the surface of the rendering, which
mat first be well wetted.
Scucco is a term loosely applied to nearly all kinds of external
fatstqpng, whether compmed of lime or of cement. At the present
^ time it has fallen into disfavour, but in the eany part
*""*' of the 19th century a great deal of this work was done.
Ike principal varieties of stucco are common, rough, trowelled and
astard. Cement has largely superseded lime for this work,
louunon stucco for external work is usually composed of one part
ydraulic Ume and three parts sand. The wall should be suffi-
lently rough to form a key and well wetted to prevent the moisture
eins abaomd from the plaster.
Mouth sttuco b used to imitate stonework. It b worked with
hand float covered with rough felt, which forms a sand surface
D the plaster. Lines are ruled before the stuff is set to represent
se jmnts of stonework. TrowcUed stucco, the fintsliing coat of
ite -work, conrists of three parts sand to two parts, fine stuff. A
ery fine smooth surface is produced by means of the hand float.
OJlar J stucco b of similar composition, out less labour b expended
a it. It is laid on in two coats with a skimming float, scoured off
t once, and then trowelled. Coloured stucco: lime stucco may
e executed in colours, the desired tints being obtained by mixing
ith the Ume various oxides. Black and greys are obtained by
uttg forge ashes in varying proportions, erccns by green enamel,
ids by using litharge or red lead, and blues by mixing oxide or
irbonate of copper with the other materials.
Rotuh-casl or PebbU-dask plastering is a rough form of external
lastermg in much use for country houses. In Scotland it is
nmned harling." It b one of the oldest forms of external
lastering. In Tudor times it was employed to fill in between the
oodwoiK of half-timbered framing. When well executed with
30d material this kind of plastering b very durable. Rough*
isting b perforn}cd by first rendering the wall or laths with a coat
[ welT-liaued coarse stuff composed either of good hydraulic lime
r cl Portland cement. This layer is well scratched to give a key
IT the next coat, which is also composed of coarse stuff knocked
p to a smooth and uniform consistency. While this coat is still
dt, gravel, shingle or other small stones are evenly thrown on
ith a small scoop and then brushed over with thin lime mortar
> fpve a uniform surface. The shingle is often dipped in hot Jime
uM/t, well stirred up. and used as required.
Sgraffito (Italian for " scratched ") is scratched ornament in
laater. Scratched ornament is the oldest form of surface dccora-
00, and at the present day it is much used on the continent of
urope, especblly in Germany and Italy, in both external and
iternal situations. Properly treated, the work is durable, effective
sd inexpensive. The process is carried out in this way: A first
mt or rendering of Portland cement and sand, in the proportion
' one to three, is laid on about | in. thick ; then follows the colour
lat, sometimes put on in patches of different tints as required
r the finished design. When this coat is nearly dry, it is finished
ith a smooth-skimming, fr to | in. thick, of Parian, selenitic or
her fine cement or lime, only as much as can be finished in one
ly being laid on. Then by pouncing through the pricked cartoon,
le design b transferred to the plastered surface. Broad spaces
I 13*
of background are now exposed by removing the finishing coat,
thus revealing the ccluured plaster beneath, and following this the
outlines of the rest of the design are scratched with an iron knife
through the outer skimming to the underlying tinted surface.
Sometimes the coats are in three different colours, such as brown
for the first, red for the second, and white or grey for the final coat.
The pigments used for thb work include Indian red, Turkey red,
Antwerp blue, German blue, umber, ochre, purple brown, bone
black o( oxide of manganese for black. Combinations of these
colours are made to produce any deured tone.
Lime plastering is composed of lime, sand, hair and water in
proportions varying according to the nature of the work to be done.
In all cases good materials, well mixed and skilfully
applied, are essential to a perfect result. Plaster is trM^^
applied in successive coats or layers on walls or lathing, **^a'a>
and gains its name from the number of these coats. " One coat "
work b the coarsest and cheapest class of plastering, and b limited
to inferior buildings, such as outhouses, where merely a rough
coating is required to keep out the weather and draughts. This is
descriwd as render " on brickwork, and " lath and lay " or " lath
and plaster one coat " on studding. " Two coat " work b often
used for factories or warehouses and the less important rooms of
residences. The first coat is of coarse stuff finisned fair with the
darby float and scoured. A thin coat of setting stuff is t{ien laid on.
and trowelled and brushed smooth. " Two coat " work is described
as " render and set " on walls, and " bth, plaster and set," or
" lath, by and set *' on laths. " Three coat " work b usually
specified for all good work. It consists, as its name implies, cm
three layers of material, and is described as " render, float and
set " on walls and " bth, plaster, float and set," or " lath, lay,
float and set," on lathwork. This makes a strong, straight. sanitar\'
coating for walls and ceilings. The process for " three coat " work
b as follows: For the first coat a layer of well-haired coarse stuff,
about i in. thick, b put on with the laying trowel. Thb b tenned
" pricking up " in London, and in America " scratch coating." It
should be laid on diagonally, each trowelf ul overlapping the previous
one. When on bths the stuff should be pbstic enough to be
worked through the spaces between the laths to form a key, yet
so firm as not to drop off. The surface while still soft b scratched
with a lath to give a key for the next coat, which b known as the
second or " floating coat," and is J to I in. thick. In Scotbnd
this part of the process is termed " straightening " and in America
" browning^," and is performed when the first coat is dry, so as to
fonn a straight surface to receive the finishing coat* Four operations
are involved in bying the second coat, namely, forming the screeds;
filling in the spaces between the screeds; scoqrine the surface;
keying the face for finishing. Wall screeds are plurfwied and ceiling
screeds levelled. Screeds are narrow strips of plastering, carefully
plumbed and levelled, so as to form a guide upon which the floating
rule b run, thus securing a perfectly horizontal or vertical surface,
or, in the case of circular work, a uniform curve.
The " filling in," or " fUnking," consists of Uyinr the spaces
between the screeds with coarse stuff, which b brought flush with
the level of the screeds with the floating^ rule.
The " scouring " of the^ floating coat is of great importance, for
it consolidates the material, and, besides hardening it, prevents
it from cracking. It b done by the plasterer with a hand float
which he applies vigorously witn^ a rapid circular motion, at the
same <ime sprinkling the work with water from a stock brush in
the other hand. Any small holes or inequalities are filled up as
he pfxxeeds. The whole surface should be uniformly scoured two
or three times, with an interval between each operation of from
six to twenty-four hours. This process leaves the plaster with a
close-grained and fairly smooth surface, offering little or no key
to the coat which b to follow. To obtain proper cohesion, however,
a roughened face is necessary, and this is obtained by " keying
the surface with a wire brush or nail float, that is, a hand float with
the point of a nail sticking through and projecting about iin.;
sometimes a point- b put at each comer ot the float. After the
floating is finished to tne walls and ceiling, the next part of internal
plastering is the running of the cornice, followed by the finbhing of
the ceiling and walls.
The third and final coat is the. " setting coat," which should be
about I in. thick. In Scotbnd it is termed the " finishing," and in
America the " hard fjnish " or " putty coat." Considerable skill b
required at thb juncture to bring the work to a perfectly true finish,
uniform in colour and texture. Setting stuff should not be applied
until the floating is quite firm and nearly dry, but it must not be
too dry or the mobture will be drawn from the setting stuff.
The coarse stuff applied as the first coat is composed of sand and
lime, usually in proportions approximating to two to one, with
hair mixed into it In Quantities of about a pound to two or three
cubic feet of mortar, ft should be mixed with clean water to such
a consistency that a quantity picked up on the point of a trowel
holds well together and does not drop.
Floating stuff is of finer texture than that used for " prickine
up." and is used in a softer state, enabling it to be worked well
jnto the keying of the first coat. A smaller proportion of hair
is also used.
Fine stuff mixed with Mwd b used for the setting coat. Fine
la
786
PLATA, RIO DE LA
•tuff, or lime putty, b pure lime which hat been sUked and then
onixed with water to a acmi-fluid consistency, and allowed to stand
until it has developed into a soft paste. For uie in setting it is
mixed with fine washed sand in the ratio of one to three.
For cornices and for setting when the second coat is not allowed
time to dry properly, a special compound must be used. This is
often " gauged stuff, composed of three or four parts of lime
putty and one part of plaster of Parts, mixed up in small quantities
immediately before use. The plaster in the material causes it to set
rapidly, but if it b present in too large a proportion the work will
crack in setting.
The hard ccmentT used for plastering, such as Parian. Keene's,
and Martin's, are laid gencralfy in two coats, the first of cement
and sand ^o ^ in. in thickness, the second or setting coat of neat
cement about i m. thick. These and similar cements have gypsum as
a base, to which a certain 'proportion of another substance, such as
alum, borax or carbonate of soda, b added, and the whole baked or
cak:ined at a low temperature. The plaster they contain causes
them to set quickly with a veiv hard smooth surface, whkh may
be painted or papered within a lew hours of its being finbhed.
The by<laws made by the London County Councu under { 31 of
the London Council (General Powers) Act 1800 set forth the
description and quality of the substances of which plastering b
to be made for use in buildings erected under its jurisdiction.
Plain, or unenriched. mouldings are formed with a running
mould of zinc cut to the required profile. Enrichments mav be
^- added after the main outline moulding b set, ana are
meaiamn* cast in moulds made of gelatine or (faster of paris.
For a cornice moulding two running rules are usual, one on the wall,
the' other on the ceiling, upon whUin the mould b worked to and fro
by one workman, whue another man roughly lays on the plaster
to the shape of the moulding. The mitres at the angles are finished
off with joint rules made of sheet steel of various lengths, three or
four inches wide, and about one-eighth inch thick, with one end cut
to an angle of about ^o**. In some cases the steel plate b let into a
" stock or handle of hardwood.
Cracks in plasterine may be caused by settlement of the building,
and by the use of inferior materiab or by bad woricmanship. but
Cg^ghm apart from these causes, and taking the materials and
labour as being of the best, cracks may yet ensue by
the too fast drying of the work, caused through the faying of plaster
on dry waUs which suck from the composition the moisture required
to enable it to set. by the application of external heat or the heat
of the sun, by the laying of a coat upon one which has not properly
set. the cracking in thb case being caused by unequal contraction,
or by the use ol too small a proportion of sand.
: For partitions and ceilings, plaster slabs are now in very general
use when work has to be finbhed quickly. For ceilings they require
^f,l, simply to be nailed to the jobts, the joints being made
with plaster, and the whole finished with a thin setting
coat. In some cascs^ with fire-proof floors, for instance, the slabs
are hung up with wire hangers so as to allow a space of several
inches between the soffit of the concrete floor and tne ceiling. For
partitions the sbbs frequently have the edges tongued and grooved
to form a better connexion; often, too, they are holed through
vertically, so that, when grouted in with semi-fluid plaster, the whole
parti|.ion b bound together, as it were, with plaster dowels. Where
very great strens^th is required the work may be reinforced by
small iron rods through the slabs. Thb forms a very strong and
rigid partition which is at the same time fire-resisting and of light
weight, and when finished measures only from two to four inches
thick. The slabs may be obtained either with a keyed surface,
which requires finishing with a setting coat when the partition
or ceiling b in po&ition, or a smooth finished face, which may
be papered or painted immediately the joints have been carefully
made. Partitions are also formed with one or other of the forms
of metal lathing previously referred to, fixed to iron uprights and
plastered on both sides. So strong is the result that partitions
of this class only two or three inches thick were used for temporary
cells for prisoners at Newgate Gaol during the rebuilding of the
new sessions house in the Old Bailey, London.
Fibrous plaster is given by plasterers the suggestive name " stick
and rag," and this is a rough description of tne material, for it is
composed of pld!>tcr laid upon a backing of canvas
stretched on wood. It is mudi used for mouldings,
circular and enriched casings to columns and girders
and ornamental work, which, being worked in the shop and then
nailed or otherwise fixed in position, saves the delay often attendant
uix>n the working; of ornament in position.
Dcsachy, a French modeller, took out in 1856 a patent for
" producing architectural mouldings, ornaments and ottier works
of art, with surfaces of plaster," with the aid of plaster, glue, wood,
wire, and canvas or other woven fabric. The modem use of thb
material may be said to have started then, but the use of fibrous
plaster was known and practised by the Egyptbns lone before the
Christian era; for ancient coffins and mummies still preserved
prove that linen stiffened with plaster was used for decorating coffins
and making masks. Cennino Cennini, writing in 1437, says that
fine linen soaked in glue and plaster and laid on wood was used for
forming grounds for painting. Canvas and mortar were in general
FBtnuB
PlMMt*r,
use in Great Britain up to the mUdle of the Utt eeatmy. Thk
work^ b also much used for temporary work, aiidi as — ImM*;^
buildings.
The principal books of reference on the subject are: W. Millir.
PUuUnng, Platn and Decorattft; G. R. Bumdl. Lima, CmeMU.
Mortars and Mastics; Rivingtoa, NeUs on BuUdini CMSlracliNi.
Part III. " Buikiing Materiab "; the works on aicfaitcctuc of
Robert and James Adam. (J. BtO
PLATA, RIO DB LA, or Rivee Plate, a funnel-<hiped
estuaxy, on the east tide of South America, ezteodins WJ^.W.
from the sea about 170 m. The discovery of the Sooth Set
by Balboa, then governor of Caslilla dd Oto, of whkh Darien
formed a part, created a lively desire to Inm tomethiog of iti
coast -line, and the year following (in 15x4). the Spanbh monid
concluded a navigation contract with Juan Diaz de SoUs, tka
Piloto Mayor, to search for a strait connecting the AUt^
with the newly found ocean, explore the coasts of the latter aid
communicate with Pedrarias de Avila, the new govcnwr d
CastiUa del Oro; and, if it were found to be an tshnd, to RpoR
to the superior authorities of Cuba. De Soils set saH fion tk
port of Lepe on the 8th of October 15x5, readied the Bay «f
Rio de Janeiro on the ist of January 15x6, and oootiaaiBg
southward to lat. 35* entered the great estuaxy xiov koovs ■
the Plata, which, for a short period of tixne, was called the de
Solb and the Mar Dulce. Ascending it to the vidnity of tk
island of Martin Garcia, near the mouth of the Puani xhtr,
de Sob's was ambushed and killed in the eariy part of 1516 faf
Guarani Indians while attempting to c^ture some of thcsL
In the first months of xsao Magellan e^)lo(td the Rio de k
Plata, and afterwards, in the same year, dtscovcitd nd
navigated the straits which bear hh naxne. This discovoy kd
to the voyage of Sebastian Cabot, who fitted out an eipeditiaa ii
1526 to reach the Spice Islands by the Magellan route. Ovis^
however, to shortness of provisions and the insnbordiiiatioo rf
his men Cabot abandoned hb proposed voyage to the Molacai»
and, ascending the Mar Dulce, discovered the Paraci rinr
and reached a point on the Paraguay near the site of the presetf
dty of Asundon. Here he met many Guaraxu Indians weaiiH
silver ornaments, probably obtained in trade acroM the Got
Chaco, from the frontier of the Inca Empire. In exdunsr for
beads and trinkets Cabot acquired xnany of these onaracau
and sent them to Spain as evidence of the richness of the
coimtry in predous mctab and the great importance of bit
discoveries. The rccdpt of these silver baubles caused the saat
of Rio de la Plata to be applied to the third (perhaps the sksmO
greatest river of the Western Continent.
The extreme breadth of the river at its mouth is 158 b. h
narrows quickly to 57 m. at Montevideo, and at its head, vheic
it receives the united Paran& and Uruguay rivers, its nU
is about 25 m. Its northern or Uruguayan shme is sumeakt
elevated and rocky, while the southern or Buenos Airesn oic
is very low. The whole estuary b very shallow, and in no pboe
above Montevideo exceeds 36 ft. in depth when the river ii kv-
The bottom generally consbts . of enormous banks of Bai
covered with from 10 to 20 ft. of water, and there bacootkopM
and intricate channel, of about 22 ft. depth only, to within 14 ■■
of the port of Buenos Aires. The remaining distance hti «
depth of 18 ft. in the uncertain channel. The Rata it nap^
the estuarinc receptade of two mighty streams, the Urafuqr
and Parani, which drain the Plata basin. This has as iRS
of i,iq8,ooo sq. m., or over two and one-half times that of tk
Pacific slope of the Andes, and comprises the most fotfli.
healthiest and best part of Brazil, a large portion of the .
Republic, the whole of Paraguay and louth-easteu
most of Uruguay.
The Uruguay river has a length of about looo m. Mamr kmI
streams from the western slope of the Braxilian Sena oe Vbt
unite, in about 37* 4^ S., to form thb river, whicia then m,
flows W.N.W., serving as the bounduy Between the ^jg^
states of Santa Catharina and Rk> Grande do SuU 2Ii
as far as 52* W., near which it receives a conskierabic -
tributary from the north, called the Pepiri-gnasA.
Between 27* 58' and 33* 34' S. three important tributaries joij*
from the east— the Ipui-guasfi, the Ibicui and the Negra^ vt v
being its main affiuent.
6
PLATA, RIO DE LA 787
a(IbeFiU>.imBiin]alaB|llicircn«oc«i]gi, blf D.;put o(
riverlakeimlcHpaDi About Lood.fjcb, butAportkuiolit p(ui
Aot> fl, «>de, ud tlK depth in mid-nvn xo f(.
~ " 'a poinl IS m. above ibe mouth d the TM
UDobKracud luvlsMtiDD
rock only 70 ft, apbl. Above PudU Gor£, aia m., ii the
mndCi which hat a Lmnh ctf 15 m, of npidi. the Brealnt
U belni II [l., ■»! Ihe^lTenoa at level [or the eniin lenph
eiiisil, Theae CRM the river dlatonally. and durini &»d>
ptiotf alerjBihof i^ b. ol Ihem, are lubmergcd- Nine mik*
le Sallo Grande it cbe Salto Chio. whtcli ban uviEiiian
Ix moolht of the year^but in Oood'tiine may be paaed to
iwing J ft. ol water. The Uniiuay on be navigited al all
by voatli of *i ([. dnuiht u far up ai the £lto Chkn. into ttte ancieiit rampeao In.
4 It. up to Faynndfi (1 year. Fray The river Paraguay, i)k main aSucnt rf the Fuanl, rL-
uy be iradwd all the kJ that caii Matto GroaaO) in the vidniiy of the town of DiamaalitfO. all
heParjini. Abovrihe niilauDch it* a^' S. It K ' ' ............
oe navigation (or man; >n the main Maria, along the
time. The Urutaay hi
"llfloTra'Siiioirfo 1 roclry b^ branch of "lie river Maddra. TlvCuy^ri^udi U
time. The urutaay hi to the laiiu nuihwaida. non Rachca lb* sionta expamiDfi of Xaiayn, vMdi
fier boan. They begin i:aniiniie I0 ii Iravenea for about loo nL A fw niDca beknr Villa Buria k
er. allaininclbetrmaxli lod October. leceivet as affluent fmni the nortli-WHt, the Jurf, whidi hat tta
, . the Jaarf, whit
placet the river r Li» average tonm nearly in tonlacl vrith the bnd-waten of the
.rm.. _. — ,_ — 1^. u^ 1 1 -. .1.- J — u.jj_ Ti. .-.__... jj^jjj j, 1^^
e with the
G" bril'S
ncly fine compotilion. Except in flooili, il it a clear.wa(er hat lit tourcet m ti 45' S., almoat in roiu^ with tbote ^ the
•Dd eves at lU higheat level caniea compaiaiively Utile Tipejoa branch of the Amaaon. Above the town of Cuya' '
from iy>tD40oft. vidCiandmay benavintcd upitnambi
ttrahl [the " Mather o[ the Sea " in Guaiani) diaint a van lar ijo n.; but there are many lag^di. The (own may be nuucu
■Hthem BraiiL It It Formed by the union of tbe Rio Irom the Paragoav River, al lo* ntu by erall drawing 18 in.
Grande and f^ranihyba. and u about i^oo m. long AccordingtaCDeobtervKloBaofC]aum,Cuyabtitonly66i>CL above
from itt citmoc ■ounx in Goyai to iit junctiaa wiiE lea-leviL From the luDctkn of the Sio Lauren(<i (or Cuyabi) nth
theParaguay.and thence 600 more to the PlBtantuary. the river Paraguay, the latter, uv a great ttream, movei iluoptlily
In average width [or the latter length b from loulhwaidi, qmujing itt watert, in the rainy teaioB. lor hundmb
t la J m. lt> Rio Grande branch dncJndilrDn the of milea to the right and left, aa far toulhai 90*, turning vuttwamp*
Lhc Seria da Mantiqiidra, In the region where the orographic Into great lafcet In fact, lempsraiily teiloring the regioo, lor
t Braiil culmjniln near the peak of Itatiaia-aaUl, almoat in thoumndi of aqoare rnOet, to itt ancienl lacutlrine eondltion.
Rio de Janeiro. It it about 6S0 m. long, tiul only navigable Oa the wett tide of [he upper Paraguay, between about 17* fcf
trelcbei between tbe many red*, lalli and rapldi which and 19' S., arc teveral large, ihallow ;iiiaiui or lakei which receive
I itt regular flow. Among itt numerout altliienti the the drainage of the aotithem idopei ol the Chlquiloa ,
I one it tie Rio daa Monet, niiog in the Serra Maatiqiieiia. Hcrrat, but repreient mainly the louth-wert overflow ''P'*'
m. lomr, with two icctioDt, of a total of tso m-, which are of the vatt morttt of Xanyat. The prindLol of ibete - ^^^
e for lauKhet. The main branch of tbe Parent, the UlnunungthcmlromnorthtotDulh.arellieUberaba, '''''••^^
yin. ria in about i^y/S., on the louIlKm iIoFeaof the the Gaiba, HandiDre and the " Bahia " de Cacertt. The Uberaha
Mifut Ceraea, lying upoo (he immediate touthero water- to Brazil, hut the r-- -'- — --- -*--— — -l;_j_ _/ ■ ._
net of Slo Paulo and ParaniT Mot! put lurroun'ded by hiah iround and bllli, but itt KUlhem o
by rapidi. aie navigable for launchei !■ iwampy and flooded during the rainy tatoa. The wnl ihoi
wn a> the Acemby, and the Iguaiii. founded the " Puerto de 'k» Reyei/' with I'be idea thai il m
ng. riset in Ihe Scm Paranlpicnba becpme the |un lor Peru: and from LakeCaibaBeveialeipKlili
irid Ihe liapuri. 65 fl. Bolivia ^tid out a town in December 1900, in the forlorn hope iSat
. . -. - he forlorn hope
, .n. long, and ritet in a lamifiia. the " Fort " may Krve atan ouilei for ihat commerdally luHoc
K Serra Paranlpicaba which overlooki the Atlantic Ocean, couniry, there iicing no oiber equally good acceuble point
...I :. — li..„.u I, I. „„u„hii- For a dlilance of Bolivia on Ihe Paraguay River.
I Ihe SIo Lourcnco. the flrn river oF importaoce w
. Il l> navigabit
■o i^led the Rio Grande 1
CanpS, on the toutbem eil
..^ .-!«..-».«.. — ^ — — my bnnchea. dn.. k^b.„. ...... «-,-^ — . .
IFicenl Salto del tguata. ern Matlo Giohd. alio Itcnn into the I^rUay: and Mill Farther
Serra do Mar aE¥raiil7snd''Haw> nniriy weit. oF (he Matto Gioato taUe-iand. Soulli of Ihii ..
». along tbe tine of i«* S. Iti navigation it about so m. a lonnderaMe river, the Mondego,
a Paraguay and BraiiUan Maiu Ctow).
788
PLATA, RIO DE LA
t importance from iti kostli thin ffoot ""• ■• *""■—— -*— *-
- nuK tl aim™ I for the iiiMJ ilii
ut KU Sana Fi in 31' M' -^
■lic5ikdi>.iiidiiiiw(itCa|itiBl^
ilf t> uvigabte. bat tim buv dba
(he right channel beii^B the grcaur in volume- It i* probable
(o the river Piraguay, the upper portioiu of which have yet
JOD m- up from the Panguiy. Enumenting from nwih to loulh,
they (ic called the EHxnnB. the MonlelindD ■nd the Mici. Frcxii
iBo to 30a nu above i1a rnoulh the PLIcomayo hlien Ihnnif h a vut
■wamp about 100 m. in diameler, thTouBh which Ihcre la no principal
channel. Thii ■wamp. or perhapt ihdLlow lagwo. U probably fjarliy
drained by the river Confuio, which reachet the Paraguay between
the Pjlcomayo and Maci. A northern branch of the Pilcomayo,
the Fontana. the junction beinc at n' 56' S.. la probably aLn ■
drainase outlet of the same great awamp.
For the fim 100 m. below the lali ol Cuaiapcteodi the mcomayo
ifl Irom 600 (o'IDOO It. wide, but it w diilributea lit walen ihiDUEb
ita many bilurcaiion», and loan 10 mud] from InOllraliou and In
on either nde of i» coune, that iu channel ii sniilly contnited
jb fint reported the eidttence of the Hlctv
Jiirueif
at the F
^^l
te Aruiioy.
. iBDoet"--
M it! uviobilitr, ti
IB have Bided in diM
the l^ikoinayo, arid er
' The Bermejo river _
the Paraguay a few n^Mei
-- raTTariia
le Argentine city of jujuy- Ita mart northerly
rn UVing a (eneral inuth-iaBlciiy CI
1° 50' S. at a poini called the iunlia <
1 1. A. n — nejo finally, in 13
Iti numen
inland An<
■nd the A_._
he San Lorerkio, which
byaevenii
he'll™ n'l™
o the Berpiejo, The a
^Ihwatd:
. 1, froi_ -,
JO- S., and. ur
'ilSimhnnr^
Z'L^Z
Ida, and fiequci^tly tci
by PaliHo in 171I, it
Mpibuityr 'ifnpuir Page in iBu and 1859 lo
it impracticaUe toaiwid it over 135 m. in 11 , _. _
little 9leainerdrawinfE>J in- of water; but in flood-lime, in December
1871. he iiKxeeded, in & dayi. in nachinE a point 730 m. from iu
mouth, inthcileamer" Alpha,")] It. long and 30 iadrauiht. He
alterwardi penetrated anolhcr room, upitrcam. The round voyage
took a year, owing lo the awift currenla. ahoaU, quickaanda, anagi
TheSalado-abouI^som-aouth-wefCofand approximately parallel
lolhe Bcnncil>, ilthc only dTcat tributary which the Paianl recrivei
from the wmt below it* confluence with the f^raguay,
"f It« otreme head-watcra an in the Atgeniine province
lying between 14' and 3&' 30' »uth- The moat westerly HMrcet are
San Catli^ and foriD the rii-er Cuiehipai. Having received the
Ariaa. the Guichipm inni north-eaxwarda about so m.. and then it
rcachei the Chaco plnini at the baK of the foot-hilla of the Aiidn.
aUy Hbuacted f tea The lefriwy if
« equalt 6.40Q.00O cubic yardL'
k tlw river E^Bcuay. the Faiait
ria U a>iidMoaeblii#i for joaaa.
riii( hOla an about do - ^
JFdnn
_ K between hxaal
la It-, dcpeodinf upon the ni^
I Ibe melliiii oftbe Andeu •oee^
tbcParanl baaaiavrnv
-aliiwtdihb«lt>]ii.
ilda up or nrecpa ai
MoudiaiB i>S7,
Htnaiir. Thia inuit
ad. blaDd from in pTH« bred ■
la quantity of aUt whith the I^iaii
cnl. and Irooi the tribouiia itiit
led Ihia length of about no la. *i>>
upon a aaody bed of great drpik.
ilh- Tlirough tliii the liMr M
mlcta. targe and rmall, -^^
ipi rivei at New Otteana k t;}m
Bueaoa Aim ia U4«aa. the ma-
idore be Caiily aiiuiBcd thai w
xth AtDonn river ia not lefmar-
tineaaa far up aa the Slo !«»(•
[ water, an] la within a hw ■»
n be reacbcd wiik a draoglA b ti
1 of Ibe Plata baiin aaj be o*
Ihe railwn- firrt bma «^"^
f the world; and ia IMC n^ IM
■ateof aflairi at the cad <tf the ■)!>
xample, ibe focewn tndt fi^m '
IJ..70 ton.; ia i^ «'i*»?E
rhc caafting and river trade d St
H t«B in lije to 3AM -- -
.--It an the Arseanae pi
PLATAEA— PLATE
1 tie te tlw loath of the Plau. titn n> tor the lii ycu
HM^
IB uadc o( th« P
hiinr'tiid^
"■^6,15^^1
'i«s^
SSid'fS'n;™
l8 100.000 to
«i in i»o8-i8a.
Tlic AodB 01
1 the wot. the ii
thjralovm.
.indihcBiwIii
■clo vhkh conpi
10 iq. m. o( fcnil
n by 1 lingk e
(C,E.C.)'
789
il. 1-41 Hcndodn
. .- . . ii-Ji: Tliiicvdidn
u. r-Ifi, 71-78, BL Jtufc Jj-M; liiicnu>,Pl>bUm; G.B. Grundy.
TIm Ttpmpiy 1/ Itt BclUi ^ PUUa (Li^on. 1894) ■nd Crtai
FnzicM (PvAoadon. 1901], ^. iL; W. WoodhoUK in Jsunuf 0/
WJI™;, W.J.-. (jj^), pp. „^. h. B. WHihl, r*. Camfairm
Hixn, luui: R. W. Mian. HmiAfH. ni.-ii.
ippndii: W. M. Lnkc, TVomIi in NtrHrrt CtrBt.
'hmS, (/iu^
(M.O.B.C)
I90. pp. 4«-4;s: i»?i,,Pp. )9o-4os; t
■I, p. 194 (Oiford, IH7).
kHe undci Mt Cithicron, near Ihe puses leidio]
3onii«ui and Altica 10 Thebct, ind acpanlcd Iron
tity'i lerriloiy by the river A«opiu. Though on.
ulJcst Boeotuio lowns, il itgbbomly misled Ihi
I policy of Thebca. In ;i9 B.C. it lovoitHl Spirti'j
It its powcrCul Dciehbour. but wu referred by kinf
to Athens (for the dale, 1« Grote'i Hislory ej Greta
>. gi. note4)' HuAlhenianiKcurrdPIstua'siiide
%iiA thiu Ki:uted lis enduring friendship, la 49^
-■ - 'ull levy - ■ ■
PUTB. The word " plale " (connitled with Or. »)nirti, flal,
Late Lit. plata~liimimi, and Span. ploU, tilver). in the icnu
to which it [1 restricted ■□ the folloving oriiclc, ia vniployed to
denote woilu in silver or gold vbich bctong to any clut other
irathon
ig the i
olXen
«nal defence.
0 man several Athenian ihlpt, *nd lubBefpjenll)
wii town to bebuml by Xenet. In 4J9 Ibe)
it Ihe renisns under Mardomus in the decisivi
liears the name of Ihe cily. In this campaign thi
landcr, retiring from Auica before the combined
1 and Athenian levy, bad encamped in the Asopus
: Grecka under the SparUn regent Pausania
technical
other mil
leriak (<.(.
s, and has been Ir
. gk»). A ■■ pl.1.
t;^"j
d by analogy 10
for the ti
Jerial),
partly fro
m the men
rtlytro.
n an etymological
. with French flal. dish, LaLii
n>;allu.
I, flit. (Sceabo
> Puie; MiTAL-W.
Onacci
Dunt of Ih
e UM with which
goldca
n be worked Itid
the pun 1
ound, il
, is probable that
.he fitit m
elal used by man;
nnditi
B ccrUin that, in
ntrica at I
least, he attained
10 the
lion It a time whi
■.n the other ana aece in
a very eknenUir .
xndition. At an i
r of diis we may
Stonebcnge, and placed in tbe mus
of Ihh iword is tovcied with the m
gold mnuic. A simple drsign is foi
n of Cilh
thousand of these goU l<
silver appean to belong to
a widely spread n
Etal in almc
^od, probably bccaui
mrtd,
W hilly groi
it«j; for wl
d back their
When this wu' stormed the cm
nd Mardonius's army was almost ui
y was celebrated by annual sacrifice
n {EUulhfria) in every fourth year ^
is oO from " " usually lound In a less pure iiaie than gold, a
d in theii *"'" **''" '** '""^t and reliiie il. Though both these precious
cd by the ^'^^ ""» l^Fly ""d A.\MM,y used by prehistoric races, they
« against '"" (""etally employed as personal oroamcnli or dccoraliona
d » idghl '"■■ ""POBl- Eicept in Scandiuavian countries, bill lilile thst
emenl was "" '" called " plate " has been discovered in the early barrowt
ih> r>nin. °' U" prehistoric period in western Europe.
mitnl £n/f.— An enormous amount of the precious meiab
anngally brought as tribute to the Egyptian kings; accord-
.,.,: ^ ^ ., - j" ^j"?"™' "1" ''''<«= ','« »''"«![i'y <rf. Hecalaefs, Ihe
attack with admirable sleadincts, '■"Hy produ« of the royal gold and sdvei
the Pcloponnesians in the cen
at ion. the Spartans and Athenii
the plain at dayfaiesk. The Persii
ipon these isolated cnntingents, but the Spatti
dared in'
e Plata
lihilited. This
. Though this '
rUng o
>f this
jiing o( the Peloponncsian Wir («i) and lormilly
the reloponnesians (419-27). The garrison after
was put lodcath, and Ihe city rued by IheThebans.
ng Pklaeam received a qualibed franchise in Athens.
were scllled on the tcnilory of Scionc. Kipelled
r in J04 they relumed lo Athens, until In 3*7 Spam
\ again drslrayed by Thebes in 375, and the inhabi.
more became diitens of Athens. Plataea was
lilip and Alciander of Macedon, and during the rest
enjoyed a safe but obscure enistence. It continued
1 Byzantine and Frankish limes. The walls of the
al various periods occupied different portions of
sr tedge on which it stood, remain partly visible.
_ obably at
very great. The gold chiefly
:ame from the Nubian mines in the western desert in the WadI
All^i and tbe neighbouring valleys. A map o( these mines,
lating from the time of Ramcses II. dioo B.C.), has been pre-
icrved. Silver was not mined in Egypt itself, and came mostly
rom Asia Minor even at the earliest period. Then gold was
Mmparatively common, silver a great rarity. Later, gold
ippears to have been (datively more abundant than silver,
ind Ihe diflerence in value between Ihcm was very much less
In the language of the hieroglyphs silver ii called " white
told," and gold is the generic name for money— unlike most
anguagea, in which silver usually has Ihi) special meaning—
1 fad which points strongly to the priority of Ihe use of gold,
vhich archaeological discoveries hive rendered very probable.
the treasures ol the " loyal lombs " at Abydoi, dating
Dynasties, much gold was found, but no
o Ihe IM and Ilnd
.1 Englidi tbe
Ql been identified.
Is and
bie " was occuianally
Queen's' CoTlete. Oiford, where the
aiking at the buttery for 10 many
790 rLAiK
■ilvei. On the nib of one of tbe tombs at Bcnf Hamui then (rf whkb m gila >a idea tram tbe waIt-p«inltBgi 'witliwri
j> Mii fntcTotinH rcfiraeiitatioa ol a (old- and lUvcr-imilh's above, but fr« actual ^icdoicpa have uzvived. The L«nc
workihop, ibotting the varioua proccnct employnl — veighing, poaatiaa a Cm (old palen, 6| in. ICTOB, *ilb iicnra if Un
melting, or loldering irilh Ibe blow-pipe, lefining the metal, within a lotuiborder in n^gwil work; an uuoiptioiieB IfenB
and poliahing the almost finished bowE or vase. Owing to the showi it to have belonsed to Ihutii, an offioET of TetbDoai IIL
Egyptian practice of buiying with their dead pcnonal omajnenla {Utm- sk- oh'- ie Frtmu, xxiv. 1858). Tliulii'a bold k a
and jewdry, rather than olhei poucjiions ten Inlisatdy typiol Ipecifflen of the Egyptian pUteoI the XVIlIIh Djvui,
connected with the penon of the deccated, but few ipednens and its doign ii piwiady that of the huadieds oI bbe fkitd
of eitbo gold or lilvei plate have luivived to our timo, whooi faience bowli which were made at (he time, and e( liHA mt
the amount of gold jeweliy that haa been discovered ia very perfect spedmena and many fragTncnta (e^iedally fna Da
tatge, and ahowi the highest degree of skill in wotkuig the d-Bahri) are m oui museuma. These were imitated fnn aoil
precious metalt We can, however, form some notion of wfiat ori^nsts, just as most of the ctrly Cictan pottery veBfb atft
the large! works, such as pblcs and vaM* in gold and silver, A splendid bronze bowl, which ihowt ta what tooe if Ik
were like from the frequent reptcscntaiioos ol them in mural Gncr gold and silver plate was like, was found m the toifcd
sculpture and paintings. In many cases they were eztremdy Hetaal, a dignitary M the XVIllth Dynasty, at Tbchcsskv
daborate and fanciful in shape, formed with Ibe bodies oc heads years ago, and is now in the Cairo Museum (No. jsu b <■
of griffins, hones, and other animals real or imaginary. Othen Biasing's catalogue). The engraved decoration, repctMitiig
are simple and giscelul in outline, enriched with delicate surface bhds and animals in the papyius-manhea, i* rof tm iif
and guilloche pattenu, hieroglyphs, evidently of native Egyptian work. The sftv^ boi^ at Bofa,
T aacred onimalL Fig. i showa a said by dt Cesnola to have come frorzL Athienou in CypvM, ■
gold vase of the time of Telhmasis certainly of XVmth Dynasty date, but, tbou^ purely Egypdu
(Thothmcs) III. (Dynuty XVIII., b style, more probabjy of PboenidaD than t^^Ma nt-
~ ^, taken from a wall- maiuhip.
painting in one of the tombs at ><]i>riaH end PitonricJu Kile.— Theait d iMkiiidcUMd
Thebes. The figure on its side b the silver plate, whetha it originated In Egypt and passed (hocrtt
, hieroglyph for "gold." Others j^jpear Crete or not, was evident^ on its own ground in ^ypCaidk
lo have been very latge and massive, Minoon Crete. In Asia it was an eiolic art, intndnd hw
with human figures in silver or gold Egypt ibrough the Phoenicians. Id fact, it may be dialiid
supportmg a great bowl or crater of whcthci any of the bronze imitations of [dale found hi Atfr™
the same metaL Vases of this type are of Assyrian manufacture; they are probably Fbooldia
were, of couisc, manufactured in E^t imports. The British Museum possesses a fine coBciIka d
itself, but many of those reprcaenled In these bowls, mostly found in the palace at Nimrud, uid K Adif
' ' n the 91b and 8th ctnluria (reigns of A»ut-oaiii.pil is
ol Phoenician wotkn:
elhinosis III., when,
Phoenician dlies had already eiisted for cenli
ships of Arvad, of Byblos and ol Tyre well k
bouis of the DelU. and even bringing tribute
to the !'
le precious plate of gold and silver used by Ibe E^p- 1
Lionsattnis time and specifically described as foieign tribute was |
made in Egyptian or egypliiing style by Phoenician atliils. i
But plate of really foreign type as wdl as origin was also brought
to E^ypt a1 this lime by the Phoenician " Kefti ships " from
Kcfti, the ishind of Crete, where the " Minoan " culture of
Cnosvs and Piiaestus was now at its apogee. Ambassadors
from Keftj also brought gold and silver vases as presents for
the E^ptian king, and on the walls of the tomb of Senmut,
Queen Kalshepsul's architect, at Thebes, we see a Keftian
carrying a vase of gold and silver which is the duplicate of an
actual vase discovered at Cnossos by Dr Arthur Evans. Tlie
art of (he " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " goldsmiths eierdsed
contidenble influence upon that of the Egyptians; under the
XXth Dynasty, about 1150 B.C., we find depicted on (he tomb
ol Ramess III. golden stinup-vasis {BUtdkanimi) of the well-
known Mycenaean l)'pe, and in that of Imadua, an ofiicet of
of the cups of Vaphio. In fact, it is more than prohaUe that
the Egyptians and Phoenicians mar'jEactured plate of " Mbwan "
and '■ Mycenaean " (ypes long after the ancient culture of
Crete and the Aegean had come 10 on end. In the U"me of
Barneses III., about ijoo B.C., a dearly defined A^Iic influ-
ence appears in the decoration of some of the gold plate.
A gold baske( lepresentcd in the tomb of this king at Thebes,
has on its side a relief of the sacred tm between two beasts,
an Asiatic Idea.
The chief eiisling specimens of Egyptian pli(e an five silver
tliiaiai (bowls), found al the ancient Tbmub in the Delta,
and now in the Cairn Museum (Nos. 481-486 in (he catalogue).
These are muddled in the form of a lotus blossom, most graceful ,
jiship. Already Saigon). Tboughtbeyi
IS we know, the ornamented with a fci
ies, we find the production of artists wbc
own in the bar- metals, some of them bfact being
of foreign vases design with the silver phialac found
doubt ^piat Cyprus- Tbey are ornamented
r, partly by incised lines, and partly by tbe ff]
1, finally completed by chasing. Hieir designs t
enttal geometriial patlern, with one or bhr ooac
fi of Egypiioa aul A^iiaa it^
V.C I
ie splendid to
n of a (bousud yean before, (hc>c 1* a ttiange admiiturc oi Anyriaa and Eppdui •fh'
PLATE
791
Bulb, for instance, are usually represented as with a tingle
Biiglity horn, curving to the front (in the style of the ancient
Babylonian seals), rather than with both horns showing, in
Egyptian fashion. When figures of gods and men are shown,
the principal groups are purely Assyrian imitations of Assyrian
temple-reliefs, in fact— such as the sacred tree between the
two attendant beasts, or the king engaged in combat and van-
qttishing a lion single-handed; while mingled with these are
fibres and groups purely Egyptian in style, such as the hawk-
headed deity, or a king slaying a whole crowd of captives at
one blow. Occasionally one sees traces of the ancient Mycenaean
influence, or perhaps rather of the young Ionian art which had
DOW arisen out of the ashes of that of Mycenae. These Phoeni-
cian imiutive designs are still good imitations. But a century
or so later we meet with them again on the silver bowls and
dishes from Cyprus, in which the imitations have become bad.
The same mixture of subjects was still in vogue, but confusion
has been superadded to mixture, and we find kings in Assyrian
robes and Egyptian wigs slaying Syrian dragons with Egyptian
wings, and so on. Fig. 2 gives a silver dish from Curium con-
taining examples of the above-mentioned subjects. It is a
characteristic specimen of this mixed Phoenician art, of which
di Cesnola seems to have collected a remarkable number of
examples. In addition to the numerous silver phialae some were
found, with umilar decoration, made of pure gold. To the
lame period as these bowls from Cyprus belong the similar
ipedmens of Phoenician plate from Etruscan graves at Praeneste
utd Cervetri in Italy. Those from the Regulini-Galassi tomb
can hardly be earlier than the 6th century, so that this peculiar
iiischkuHst of the later, type may well be dated to the 7th-5th
renturies.
' REPEasNCES.— Von Bissing, " Metallscf&MC " Cairo Museum
Calahtue (1901): " Eine Bronzcschalc mykcnischer Zcit." Jahrb.
fmsi. (1898); L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus; Layard. Nineveh, &c.
(H. R. H.)
Prehistoric Greece: " Minoan " and " Mycenaean " Periods. —
[n the early history of the goldsmith's art no period is more
mportant than that of the Greek Bronze age, the period of
hit prehistoric civilization which we call " Minoan " and
' M3rcenaean," which antedated the classical civilization of
Sreece by many centuries, and was in fact contemporary and
irobably coeval with the ancient culture of Egypt. In Greece
luring this, her first, period of civilization, metal-work was
fxtensively used, perhaps more extensively than it ever was in
Jbe history of later Greek art. So generally was metal used for
^ases that even as early as the " Middle Minoan " period of
[Cretan art (some 2000 years b.c) the pottery forms are obvious
ipitations of metal-work. The art of the metal-worker domi-
lated and influenced that of the potter, a circumstance rarely
aoted in Egypt, where, in all probability, the toreutic art was
lever so much patronized as in Minoan Greece, although beautiful
pedmens of plate were produced by Egyptian and Phoenidan
utists. Also but few of these have come down to us, and we
ire forced to rely upon pictured representations for much of our
uiowledge of them. It is otherwise in early Greece. We
xwsess in our museums unrivalled treasures of anciont toreutic
irt in the precious metals from Greece, which date from about
t500 to 1400 B.C., and as far as mass and weight of gold are
oncemed are rivalled only by the Scythian finds. These are
be well-known results of the excavations of Schliemann at
[Voy and Mycenae and of others elsewhere. They do not by
iny means suffer in point of additional interest from the fact
hat they were made and used by the most ancient Greeks,
he men of the Heroic age, probably before the Greek Unguage
rms spoken in Greece.
The most ancient of these " treasures'' is that discovered
if Schliemann in 1873 buried, apparently in the remains of a
loz^ deep in the fortification wall of Hissarlik the ancient Troy,
t consists of vases and dishes of gold and silver, and of long
ongue-shaped ingots of silver. In consonance with the early
Late (perhaps about 2500 B.C.) to which they are probably to be
aligned (Schliemann ascribes them to the second Trojan dty)
bete objects are all of simple type, some of the vases bdng
unomamented jugs with tubular suspension-handles on the
sides. Here we have metal imitating stonework, as, later,
pottery imiutes metal. These are of silver. A unique form
in gold is a boat-shaped cup with handles at the sides (Plate I.,
fig. 23), at Berlin, which weighs 600 grammes. One vase is
of electrum (one part of silver to four of gold).
A treasure of much the same date (the second " Early Minoan "
period, about 2500 b.c or before) was discovered in May 1908
in graves on the island of Mochlos, off the coast of Crete,
by R. B. Scager. This is, however, of funerary character,
like part of the treasures discovered in the shaft-graves of
Mycenae, and, while including diadems, golden flowers, olive
branches, chains, and so forth, for the adornment of the
dead, does not include much gold used by the deceased during
life.
The much later Mycenaean treasures include both funerary
objects of thin gold and objects of plate that had actually been
used. Among the former should be especially noted the breast-
plates, diadems and masks which were placed on the bodies of
the chieftains whom Schliemann, great in faith as in works,
honestly believed to be Agamemnon and his court (and he may
not have been very far wrong). Among the latter we may
mention the small flat objects of gold plate, little sphinxes and
octopuses modelled in rdief, small temples with doves, roundels
with spiral designs, and so on, which were ornaments for dothing,
and the golden plate decorations of weapon-handles. The
great cast-silver bull's head with the gold rosette on its forehead
may perhaps have been regarded simply as a beautiful object
of price, and buried with its owner. Similar proiomae of bulls
(of gold or silver) were brought by Minoan ambassadors as
presents to the Egjrptian court in the reign of Thothmes III.
Gold and silver vases were found both in the shaft-graves, in
the treasure-pit close by, and in chamber tombs at Mycenae.
The most usual shape in the shaft-tombs is that well known to
us from the vases of Vaphio, described below; among other
types may be mentioned specially the iiras d^i^fnrcXW with
doves feeding above its handles (Plate I., fig. 21 ; from a restored
reproduction) — 6otal 6i wiku&btt d/i^2s hcojorow jcpbatiai
vtitkBovTO', the golden jug with spiral decoration from the
fourth grave; and the cup with lions of Egyptian appearance
chasing each other round its bowl, found in grave 5. The
fragment of a silver vase with a scene in high relief of slingers
and bowmen defending their town against besiegers from grave 4
(Plate I., fig. 22), is an object unrivalled in ancient art. On this,
as on the bull's head, we have gold overlaid on silver (with an
intermediate plating of copper) ; on a silver cup from the same
grave we find gold inlay, and on another silver cup, from a
chamber-tomb, enamel and gold inlaid. How the Minoan
goldsmith could combine silver with gold and the two with bronze
we see on the marvellous inlaid dagger-blades from Mycenae,
with their pictures in many-coloured metals of lion-hunts,
cats chasing birds, and so forth, which show that he was perhaps
the greatest master of all time in this art.
We speak of him as " Minoan," because most of the metal
objects found at Mycenae are, if not of actual Minoan workman-
ship and imported from Crete, at any rate designed in accord-
ance with the Minoan taste of the " Great Palace Period "
(Late Minoan i. and ii.) at Cnossus. They are only " Mycenaean "
in the sense that they were found at Mycenae. Of the art of
the gold vase maker in the Mycenaean period properly speaking
(Late Minoan iii.) we obtain an idea from the pictures of golden
BUgdkannen with incised designs of zigzags, &c., represented
on the wallf of the tomb of Rameses III. at Egyptian Thebes.
The objects from the Mycenaean shaft-graves are much older
than this, as are also those from the next treasure we shall
mention, that from Aegina, now in the British Museum. The
gold cu[)s and other objects of this treasure, with their fine but
simple decoration, are certainly to be ascribed to the best
Minoan period, although when first published Dr A. J. Evans
was inclined to assign them to so late a date as c, A.o. 800.
They are surely some seven hundred years older, having no
chancteristic df the decadent " sub-Mycenaean " period, as
Dr Evanl would doubllcu now ignt. Tlifse objects were lldkttic /Vofe,— The period ol " gea
probably laund in a iamb, loUowcd th« Myrcnacin xff mu one of di
Dr Evstu's CHivalioni al Cnossui, Ihoie of Ihe ItiUsnj perity tnd ulistie ikUL We pauw k
At PhasLos and Ka^ Triada and lh«e of the British &chaol wotk then pnxiuced in Ihe predous inetaJ ^ ,
at Palaikastro have not produced any very striLing eiminpin of placed on the bead of coxpaei mterred at Athens {^AttkidrpKk
the MinoaD eoldsiDilh's ait in hit own country, though splendid Zdtmt, 1SS4, pli. viii., ii.j d. AAmackt MiOlmbeitcm ~
bnmie bowb and vaais have been found, which give us a good ~~
idea of what the pbte must have been like, as do also the gilt
steatite imitations of plaie mentioned below. One of Ihe broue
vases from Cnossus eiaclly rcscmbla one of gold and silver
which W33 bnught 10 E^SA by the ambassadors in Queen
Ililihepsul'i time (fresco in the tomb of Senmul), But we
possess a fine silver cup (of the Middle Minoan period) from the
American eicavations at Goutiua, and two eumples of the
finest Minoan gold plate, which were diwovered outside Crete, In ^ ^ ^
the famous " Vaphio cups," with their embossed rcprcsertations pio. j.-Silver Canthuiu from Riiii»,"w... ,
of bull-netting, which hive been itluslrated 10 often as triumphs Po»iWy ihe fonn of the Homeric Urn trt-tirwiU^.
of ancient itl (Plate I., figs. 14, as)- Tha« "« of Cretan w -"-
mjin&hip, thou^ found in Loconia, and are no doubt coQi
norarv with the vases of bbck slcaliie with reliefs showii
! pwession, gladiatorial combat, and a Wng ^^^a (s«
d G. Perrot and C. Chipiei, BiOnii it Tt^ i*
I'aM^a'Ui, vii, 14;). The peiiod of Oriental isSnact
\ represented by the finds of gold mnamcnls made at Cunina
r bidding
which have been found by the ttnliai
ound Bt Camirus, apfuitatly a woii d Ik
iDiiawera, wnico nave Dccn louna oy inc luiuana at nagia eanie earlv date, A remarkable find i^ nid obiects
Triada in Crete. These were originally overlaid with ootd Iraf, -. .00 . ., , t ,. - d_ j—u — .1. ^\^>.i ,i—
«.d are undoubtedly imilatiomTn a d«,p material S^dm '" '^.t,M fi h r tr A.r^ ^^,V ™^s'^rf2
embossed vases of the Hmcstvie as those found at Vatihio. ™»goianso iiceiiKEEKnai,ng. io| wiin ommenisui™
.Vbt'h.ts.r;, bISmZS ."."iS; .^b.bi, p™i.,rf i. ... „ «. Bk4 ,s- „i.^
1, 1...J bj Ih, np«SU.n .1 lb, BdlU. M-™ U M™! ;^|^^ \^^ ,^ ,,..^ ,^„^ ,1,^ i.^^ ,. c™«
vnrus. w ic ner ans renrescn n sumew n ^ j^^ below), and eichanged for the amber of the BWic
in Cyprus, which perhaps represent a somewhat later phase of
and Tbeodonn ibe Si
] pbiale 0
as belonging to Ihc very late period
assigned. One rilver vase found al Enkomi is of the " Vaphio" Hn^j'^'^'f' e"°
sliape which fi.« w«r, in Cretan pottery as arlyja the ^he Britid, MUum posseses a tme ^>e.
D^^ty i"™^),Tnd evT;herbcltrb.^S^ R"?* "'"•■ '""d.^.W^^ i» ^-
of a metal original. Slightly modified, this ty
lale in use, as we find it represented among other golden vues
on Ihe walls of the tomb of Imisib or Imadua, an Egyptian
ofliiial of the lime of Rimcus IX, (f. iioo B,c) at Thebes.
The Egyptian representations of Minoan vases of gold and
silver in the tomb of Senmul at Thebes (c, 1500 B.C.) and of
later Mycenaean golden Biitdhannm in that of Ramesea III,
(r. iisoB.c.) have been mentioned already. During the age of
Mycenaean and sub-Mycenaean decadence the art of the Gieeli
gafdsmilh necessarily passed through a period of eclipse, to
arise again, with the other arts, in rich and luiurious Ionia
probably,
traditional
the Hemic
The
echo
age.
of Ihe glorious works of Ihe melal-workera of
Ena^'ooil Tb
Sl«i.!°iciii."i'9S-
i907), HagiaY
iiUa R. Auaim
Ba^ Hawcs. Gn
Troy and Mycenae
-MaBtl?"Sij['ii;^A
^a: ^^mni, Pe"
la <ln tmrri (Rome
■n>^ (Philadelphia.
b of Senmul,"
SehucShard
"i'^i-"oo6):
Sea ■■ (190s)
Gournii! Mrs
■' Tlie Keftiu^
(H, R, H.)
El,u,taH
Plat
,-The Etruscans w
erespedally
renowned for
■d at ft|ii|iila« aovaik
Bctioa Gdow. h ■• ) * ■
k. Largequantitiesofeniuisilegoldjewclryhavebeenfaund amphalu («iUi( f«aj|i4*)M) which Men* once to bx
Etruscan tombs, including, in addition to sm^lcr object], uined abrge jeweL Roundlbelniideof (bebowlaiesiifl
ittcs, wreaths of olive, and plales deconied with filigree- of oien refotail ia idid, and at one tide > ooceBI. fa
k and animal figures, which were used as petsanal ornaments by punched dots. A ddlcate twilled MOuldiBt Mnomt ik
!astptata, girdles, diadems, &c.). In the Mu»o Kirchcriano edge; the workmanship ol the wiwle a vcfy skflfol <Kc If. '
tome is a migiiiGcent specimen of ihclaU form of ornament; Ftiny (ti. H. miiL r54 aqqj give* a brief valmbkaa
s covered with nearly a hundred little statuettes of lions of Ihe art id silver chasng (»ci«liir<t, Cr. n^Brta^i.
inged in parallel rows; and the Vatican (Musco Grcgoriano) In the best limes of Greek art the chief weak* ia pM
y fine collect ioi
" Rcgulini-Galassi " tomb al Caere. Little, however, that can
be classed under the head of plate has yet been found.
eniaiim of ptivtic iuiiifeik
diiu work, ud ilituct of the lods were the cbid ofajccti
h the precioui meuU were lavishttL'
^d UKd by the Cmki probably cune itom Aim Miiui
it, vbile tbe mina ol Liucium, in the nKninuiiii irhkh
: piumontory ol Sunium in Alticm, luiqilied an ftbimdut
Aetording lo PUny,
ol UlytM* uid Diomcde* CBTiying oH Uu Plllidiun:
prica were given by wcalttiy Romuu for ancicDi iu>cr jiuie
made by diitinguiifaed Cnek utiiu; according to Flioy, the
lait-mcptitiDEd cop» which weighed J oi.» wu lold for 10,000
denarii (Jjio). It is worthy of note that a large nunbcr ol
the arti»ta named by PLiuy were nativei of Aiia Minor, aAd
irbo were celebrated for Ihia dau of work, but does not
ir dales. Thechief of these were MmtorimdMyi (both
th century B.C.), Aciagas, Boethut, the iculptars Mynm
n Rhodes and elsewhere. Among later worken
mentions Zopynis, who cudc two silver cups,
h the scene of ihe judgment of Orestes by the
lun,' and Fytbeas, who nude a bowl with reliefs
' imphalos at IMphI wne Double
1 by
SchreibcT.
The finest oitut "■■"p''* 1^ Greek [4ate an those found io
the tumuli of south Rusiil, e^xckUy in the Deighbauihood of
Kertch, the andeot Futiopaeum, Fig. j shows a silver vase
found lo lUi M Nfkopol in the tonb of a Dative Scyihisn
prince. The native hone-tamers of the steppes are represented
on Ihe shoulder with wonderful Daturslism, and the work is
beyond doubt that ol an Athenian aitlsl of Ihe 4lh ccnluiy B.C.
Splendid ciunplt* ol gnldwoik wen lound hi the tumulus of
Kulobt, about H kikimeuts liom Keitch, which wu acavalcd
in tSjo and found to be the burial-place ol a Scythian prini:e
and his wife. The jewelry and plate found in this lomb, which
were dearly of Gre^ ori^, comprised {amon^ oLber objects)
an cleclnun vase 13 cm. high, r^reseoting Scythians in theii
native costume, one ol whoa is eiiracting a ndghbour's tooth,
onolher binding up a wound, a third strinj^g a bow, beudcs
scvenj silver vass and two gold medallion* wilh reproducliona
g( tbe head of the Athena Paithenoe of Fheidias. In these
Crimean tombs are often found golden crowns in Ihe fotin ol
Enest eitant example of i gold wmth, however, is that diKovered
at Armenlo in south Italy and pnaerved in the Anticjuarlum at
Munich; it bears an inscription ol the 4th century B.C., showing
thai it WIS dedicated by a cerUin Kreithonios. In iSii Dr
Lee discovered at Ithaca a beautiful crater, j) in, high (see
fig, 6), and a [dilale or paten, gi In. across, both ol silver, n-
pfuiii and chased, with very rich and graceful partetns of leavei
and flowers picked out with ^ding,' These are probably not
later than the 5th century B.c^ Many silver mirror-cases, with
npBiail figuic-subjecu in high relief, have been found at vatioia
places; ss, lor iostaace, one with a beautiful scaled figure ol
Aphrodite found at Tarentum and now in Ibe BHijsh Museum.'
produce the dewgD ol Zo^rfrat,
79+
The Vktorik ind A
im conUlB* «n oqidiltc little
d in the tilths of ApoUo U Vicirello in
Ildy (li«. 7), enrichHl wilh ■
band ld low rdicf of stotka drvtmr-
ing icrpcDU (xeculfd oilb |em-
probably not later than (he 3rd
ceatuiT B^ TheBritithMuKum
ud alnwit eqiul beauty^ though
pcrhapi 1
pitieni, ud 13 puily gilt.
Grua-KDHUH Flalt. — During
the lul centuiy of Ihc Kepublic
the growing luxury and ostcD-
UtioB ol the -wallhy Ronisns
found CKpm^ori in the coUccIion
of elibornle ipecimcna of plale.
rki of the old Creek
en tht mmt bigUy
Paaitelea, alio attained
le o( up of voti
e (dep. El
crvEd in the Cabinet da MidiJUd, which belonged to
e ol Uucuriui CuietaaiieD^, ((} privue coUwiinna.
■hoie decoratioD recaS* that «( the An Tuk AofnCM
(lee ROHAH A>t), and a cyHi with a lealed figure tJ
Alhena in high relief, BlderBd od 10 ibc centre ol 111
bowl, which appears to be of Cmk worijnambip- Sud
detachable figiuei were tenned tmbltauia, in tl^ iaa
Reale treasure ii a cup with nch a bust, typifying the pnviu
of ripnuit work forming an oulei covrring lo ■ i^ootb dm
cup (cf, the Rothschild vises, Roiuh Aai). Safh *((b
commonly have LaLui inscnptions inciied on (be loot fiTBi
the wei^t o( the piece, the cup and eiaMfliu bong wd(lid
separately The artistic value ol Roman plate b danoid
Among Uiei ipedmeu of Roman [diie the nuu nmililk
is the gold patera, neirly 10 in, in diameter, found it RoiM
in t777, and now in the Paris Bibbothique— a wnk ol the soa
mirvellous delicacy and high finish — almost gem-like ii a
minuteness of detiuL Ihough not euiicT- than abonl no iLt-,
a slight clumsiness in the proportion of its embossed icvQ
is the only visible sign of decadence. The outer rim is vt vilk
siileen Sue gold coins— aarn of various mcmbeis of the AsUaiii
f irnQy from Hadrian to CelK. Ihe central naWow at iwddka
rrproentt the drinking (onwsl between Biethus ud BotiAk
and round this medsllion is 1 bind of rtfouui figmcs AosiiC
the triumphal procession of Bicchus afto* winrung the cetfiX
He sits uiumphant b his Inqtard^drawn at, wUk Hocds ■
led along, hdplenly [ntoikaled, sopperted by Uiukiak
A long ILiie oE Dymidis. fauns and satyrs complete ibc oM>
band.
I^te Roman plate Is also reprcscaled by a «nes ol tav
ulver dishes, to which the name iwiuiinH is olto, ibm|t
perhaps wnnigly, anilied. These were used for pmcBlitiM
by emperors (whose portraits they loiDetimes beat) and A»
guished oSdsls. lliree sre preseivnl in the CalnS te
MMaOle* of the BibUotUque Nationale at Paiv—tbe ' dMI
ol Sdl^o," found in the Rhone near Avignon, abCMt it is
in diatMler, with a rehef repr ... ._-—
10 Achilles,' the "shield of H
crCnter.
ij) hi. high. Eioin the Kildohdm fit
The most famous of these an
BerHn Museum, discovpred in 1S69, which has been thought
(without adequate reason) to have formed part of the
campaigning equipment of a Roman militaiy commander,
and the Bosco Kale treasure, found in iStjj in a villa near
Pompeii, whence its owner was endeavouring to remove it
when buried by the eruption of Vesuvius. Ihcse collections
contain pieces ol various dates. The Bemay treasure, in part
belonging 10 the ind centuiy a.o., contains sewchmi (ewtnl
with mythological lubJHIs in relief inspired by dauical Greek
models— the thelt of the Palladium was the subject ol a
famous cup of I^heas, mentioned by Pliny — which must
belong to the early imperial period. The Hildesheim treasure,
again, contains two barbaric vases, without lal ot handles,
together with such floe pieces as the crater figured [Gg. B),
Tib. 9.-^hleld o( Thcodouui.
its siie (it ii ^t cm), in diameter and wei^ is
and a third, decoraied with a gtoup ol Herculc* ud the NoM
lion.' Other well-known anmfik* ol this I<inB ' - — -^
IQ. S. Rebiach In Culli te la(WE4rli (itM).
■ a. E. BabtkM. in B^IOim it la HaM da m
'^^E.KM.'inC
1 Midiid (fig. q), vhicfa R^RHiti
- nua D«iK«i Vilentiouui IL Mid Aiodiu';
ji ValcDtiniuL" at Gawva'; tli«" ihield of Atptr "
' ; ud a fias dbh IouhI U Aquilu, salt at
r work, found on Ibc EtquUiue In 179] (d. Vnconli, illemilc with labjccU
Vile d'ar§eHlo, Rome, 1815; ihc objecu In pubUilwd f idd Romui mytbatODr,
d in 111 Dalliui'i Caialotki tf Uu Early Clnitian uch u (ba rape of
« Uu Bfitisk Utanm, pp, 61 iqq., plL idu.-^}. Guiymtdci but ill «ie
]iukab> oi iheic uc: (i.) 1 lilvn casket deoiciled treated alike irith much
with Ibe inicriptioD SECONOE £T PROJECTA oiigiiialily, and In a
4 CRISTO, doubtlcu a wedding gift to a couple highly dccontlve man-
naoiei g[ Sccundui and Piojecli, wboee ponnutl net, A fine eumple of
ledalUon on the renin d( the lid; (ii.) four Matuetiet Penian wwk of the oily
penonifed dtio— Rome, ConiUniinople, Anlioch i(iiliDentuiy(dat«1iSi7)
ria Id. P. Cordinet b /. H. S., iSSS, ii. 7; tctqO- i> the diculaf gotd diih,
: appean to belong in tbo main to the 5th centoiy richly enamelled, which
Ame minor piect* may be culis- li in the Victoria and
Albert MuKUni, < '
and bottle* wtn made (Sf »)■ Hmk wUdi «ni eaU dnw
a curioiB mlBgUBC of ani^ AiorlaD an with that of Kame
InlUdcdina. Rdklire-
pnaenting winged Uom,
or the lacxed tieebetween
k eencnl accouni will be Found la Soillb'i , n - .
^Uuultu. trd ed., 1... " Cidilura " (witkoul illiu- » ""I* COUeCUDa oi
r_ ,< L jt._.._..n. -■- ^u CMlirmilli, Oriental plate may be
(and kaffia't Diclim
' iound in^Mu&k'i
Uudied. Hera n
Hudied in K. Jm-Bl.ke'and E. Seller), Tit EUtr vrinklei of
(ri n IHi Hiiuh 0/ ^rl, pp. I «». Tbe Bndt made tiretycowred
tuMi were pubiuhed in the Anl^ialtt ■ ~ ■■ ....
r Petenburi, Hit): the Cumplti rtudi
lialt (Si PnenEKiig, 1859 (qq); ani
Fio. 10.— Senanlan CcJd Bottle, about
-'- '-'-'. In the Vnaa Muaeum.
>e Anliqialtt dm Baiptan
Warn Plale, £r£.— Some very curioui pleca of plate,
md in silver, have bem foimd in noilhem India in
y the goldamilh's art ii of great aoliquily/ Iheee
I of rulive workmanship, but Ibc subjects with
Ljc embossed, and the modelling ol the figuni,
ry nete produced under Inle Roman influence, or
po$&ibly even Greek influence in a highly degraded
ie gold ciukel (Buddhiit relic) said 10 dale from
worihy of note.* In ihe Di
enamelled flowen, Mogul work, 171b antiny; Sne Bumcw
gold work foond In *J). i^S^-uSs in ■ BuddhlU temple,
Rangoon; nmarkable gold omimenta of tba Burraoc
regalia; and a large elephant bowdah, from the Punjab, made
of fQver, pared gilt, the lop covered with silver platea of large
rcfBiHjt ioliage. llbclan cnflimeil worfc is lepreienled by
numsoui vaseU foi lacied aad domeMlc puipOKa, moaCly ol
metal, partially mounted In ailvet, wUch di«iUy tho tkilt of the
Tibetans in Ibe iijih century. Of Ibe tkiU o( the Hindu ai
goldsmilhs, abundant evidence i) aAorded by the Kamayana
and UoMdbkdraia, though very little of their andent gold and
silver work has survived. In India tba people of the Cash-
mere valley have bng been famoui for their naluraJ supciiorily
ai oafluiien, as wai Lucknow loi its utensils of gold and silver,
much of It richly envneUed b the iSth and tgth oenlniie*.
Chanda in the Ceottal Piovinca *a) once cdebialed fOt ill
akiUed goldsmilhs, and the pUte of Culcb and Gujutt in Ibe
Bomliay Presidency has enjoyed a well.deserved reputation.
The uncontaminated Indigenous designs of tlw Sind goldsmitha'
work (3II for special lutica. Indian plate, as [s quite naluial,
has oflen been kflucnced by European designs: lot instance,
the beautiful gold and silver work ol Cutch is Ihitch In origin,
while Ibe ornate Ihione of wood aneied with platea of gold,
early iQib reniury, used by Banjil Singh (at South Kmiagton}
also diqilays European Influence. Much of Ibe Slameoe decota-
tive i^te ol the iSth and 19th cenlurio ii of si1vn.gUi and
nielloed. In Ihe Rljka museum, Anulerdam, Is a collection of
dlsbcs, boia of gold and silver, jewelry, &c.. all of
' ip, from Lombok. African 'goldsmiths'
Q the British Museum by the gold oma-
Ashanli, where there are also some gold ornaments
in Ceclral America and Colombia. Ancient Abys-
n dish (jrd-4lh century a.o.)' and sn earlier one.
In Ibe gold chalice, gold crown of the Abuna of Abyssinia,
aoolhcr mors «nate crown of sHver-gill, a fine ibield with
sdver-gUl GUgra, and other objects.
y imsiive and richly decoialed gold vases, bowls.
The gold and »lver work of Rusda resembles hi style that of
u. it T'iioT lb i-tlreiM. pp. ISJ wa-. fig. «-
piece, of plate b the treasury ot the cathedral al Moscow (see
Wellmoon, £f Trtsor dc Uosam, 1861), though eiccvled at
Ibe end of the islb and >6tb century, are slmllal in dolgo to
Dytaotine work of the nth or nth century, and even lioce
Iwood, Mmlnol Art, ^ l„du, (iBSo).
rouaaJOuimtiit^ti.
pUce.
tbe caliphs of Bagdad, the sultans of Egypt, and other
796
which mi prabably dE cxtieme biautjr both fn dedgn and woifc-
nunihip. UtUe or nolliios ot lik iSaltra pbu now Rsuini.
uldil UoDlyiuuibLeto judge of lUiCyleud raignificcoce from
the fine iFoifci in bnu and olha leu viliuble mcUlslihich hivt
Tow«idi the end of the lOtli nntury Ihe Rhine viHey became
the centre of » ichool of goldimiihs, who produced ^4cndtd
eiamplea of their work — a mijEture of Byzantine ait witfi thrir
own ociginaJ ^*^'C"* The Lwok-coven, portable alton and other
ofa]ccI>, pnmved at Trier and Aii-li-ChipeUf
eiampla pniduced at that centn. The magnifiu
m Echlem«h, now
Early Uidiaai PlaU.—Tbe Gothic,
t(mI-bAibaiian peoples^ who in the 6th cei
auliih a
I othe:
jmilh by spending in
though oniy two examplM of their
vnseli have lurvived— U» gold chalii
metali, specially gold, ofti
not without umeikili inn
Tought in the ni<
of the goH-
ey on p^ie and jewelry,
TTal wealth in church
aod p^Len of Goutdon,
le north of the Frankiih
jnalc in Parii. Id iBj7
very maaive gold pUie were found
nuch of thii End wai unfortunately
and B DOW in the museum at Bucharest. These magnificent
Dbjecu ait all of wlid gold, and consist of large dishes, vasei,
ewen, baskets of open work, and personal
ornaments (fig. ii). Some of them show a
atcoog Roman influence in their design,
othen are -more purely baibaiic in style.
To the first of these daises belong a vciy
'" ie phlalc or patera, ic ' ' " '
Ihec
holding a cup, while all round, in
an standing figure) of vatiout
female deities, puitly Roman m iiyie.
Though the eieculion is somewhat duouy,
there is much reminiscence of claaucal grace
in the attitudes and drapery of these figurea-
A large basket and other pieces, made of
' gold arranged so as ' '
n pattern of stiff gi
letrical d.
with th<
which Romsn influence is apparent, and can
hardly be the work of the same school of
goIdSDiilhs.' ThedateoflhiiPetroasatreasure
it tupposed to be the 6Ih century. The
celebrated Gourdon gold cup end tray now
i preserved in Paris belong to about the
>. lame date. They are very rich aod migni-
' ficent, quite free from any survival of classic
^"*""" influence, and in style resemble the Merovin-
gian gold work which was [ouod in the tomb of Childeric 1.
The cup is 3 in. high, slupeil like a miniature two-handled
chalice; its companion oblong Iny or pbte has a large cross in
high relief in tbe centre. They arc clabontcly ornamented
with inlaid work of turquoises and guneti, and delicate
filigree patterns in gold, soldered on.
'n the 61h century Bytanlium was the chief centre for the
in the Petroa
There
if large and magnificer
with ei
iC churches of Byaantiu
n Ibe p
■ihofjuii
pieces of ecde^utical plate, but <
altars, with tall pilbred baldacchini over them, font:
cuidelabn. statues, and high screens, all mi<le of thi
metals. The wealth and artistic splendour with which
■ SodeD Smiih, Tramn »/ Pilraua (iMs).
IS Bibbot
the kmg list of treuuiea given by CooMaotine lo St hur*!
before he transferred hisseatcrfempiie toBy*3atinmC3yi),Dd
the scarcely less wonderful list of gold and rihti fltt* ptarStd
to the same baulica by Pope Symmachua (49^514).*
Some early Byuntine ptate of tbc filfa ceaiBi; b la tke Britiik
Museums an inscribed paten of tbe loth and iiticcataiakB
Halberstadt Cathedral in Gemany, and *" 1 ' fVr— *'^
veasela are in the Treasury ol St Uuk'a, Veakc
Early in the medieval period Fnoce aad otka Voltn
countries wtn bat little bdiind Italy anl Byaotboa !■ Ikit
production of m " '
pndout metal*.
in Germany, France
rich trcaiuiei of every kind in gold
jewels and enamel; bnt fe
the work of this early period. Hhc
magnc's regalia ' and other
preserved at St Peter's in Rome, and t^
eccleuastlcal ulensils which still eiisl in the catbedrd d Uiaa
near Milan— the gift of Queen Tbeoddinda in tbeeulypind
the 7th century.' Tbe treaaun of rau 1 IiTjIIh.imb
century), is in th
Vknna.
_ [amplesolmagnificsit early week bilbepKOH
metal) mostly belong to a aomewfaal later poiod. Tbe did
are the gold and silver altar In Sanl' Ambnwo U lUBa.<fai
Qth centuryi the " Pal* d'Oro," 01 gold rctable, in St Hvk^al
Venice, bi^un in the loth century; tbe aftvci tlt»4al ■
St Domenico's Church at Faleraw; the ihiine of silvcFi^ (nt
later additions) in the church of St Simeoo at Zan. Bakallil.
by Fmncesco di Antonio of Sesto near MikB, ijto; lid Ik
gold allat-iioDtal ^ven by the empenv Beoiy IL 1
Cunlgunde, at the be^r~' '.■-.. .1 .. . . _
at Basel. The last is about 4 ft. high by tt It- lo^ itfitul.
relief, with figures of Christ, tbe three sillmnili. ad '.
splendour, was that n
e f or tl
aby L
irddiBbop of SevBip
iXV. i
lyto-b"
as preserved, and is publbbcd t^DaSi^BaBi
mm, oth series, {^ liii.J. ReLquaries of great 4Ji>ti«
■ made ol the predous nKlals, otk of tbe n»K nouUc Mt
containing the skulU of the three kin^ in Cotogae fttttifrfJ
I shrine, which resembles in lorn a bulldinf of two tacjt,
wrought in the 1 ilh century. Tbe coven ol tbe ToIb
'" ^a and Albert Museum are hi^ily biylH^
amptes
•orfc; they a
-The skill in metil.woAing of tbe Cdiic pofk ■
the British Islands, espedally in Ireland, in Pa^n tat Oiat
times, is well koown, and need baidly be cmpbaaMl to.
While much hai perished, much happily remain in pndd W
eitraordiaary skill in working gold and dver, pailkd»l; ■
jewelry. The most remat^bk spedmen of Ibdr tedokll tf
and artistic perception i) the famous Ardi^ cbalicB of Ihi ^
10th century (in the museum al Dublin) (Plate II, i». Jil. '
which is compcaed chiefly oi silver, withenriduBenHolid'i^
gill bronie, and wilheiqviiite enamels. The JaieriaCTd uiw*
n a feature of Celtic work, and may further be UsdM ii tk
celebrated Tara brooch, with iti levenly-iii vittetks el MP
dence of Celtic skill is fori
red bells in Ireland, not to moitiDn o
■SRD'AgiDcourt,Hulnn^rari(iBii}.
> Bock, Du Klfluiin 4ti UL rtmiiOm A
Mnk. J«r, aiv. S.
•.lnliuaIi>IM,an. 144-M*-
n Ibe si
ThCK »rt ol grral brauty. and Ihe lilvcr ihrine
ot Si Paliick (ioot-1105} dispUyi ibe interlaced
mcnL in a linking dcgccc. With the inlcoductioD
It into Briiain ihe ipcdal chancttriilici oi Clinilian
n Iirltnd gcadually died out.
Jan.— Judged by Ihe taamplei of Angk)-Sa*on
e Angto-Siitni cnlumen brought Iheir
beot
Thou^
hmieo
ough hardly equal in me
A large
heir metil-work ii of bn
enriched
enw»er. Happily, ih
.ne price
™ 1 ^imen"*
f the goldunilh-i an 0
mcly, the
1I icnel of gold, now in
atO.(ord.«i
h a porlrail, believed to
Great, in
Ethel »u
( ring in th
Briiiih MiKeun. 71
doublleu or the precioui metalt, a
cripti, Ihe only piece oi
t known iith
e plain silver cup of Ihe
qth «n,
ry, found »i
h gold and lilvcr jcwdry
Trewhiddle in Comwa
There is
mponant eunple of m
llishedw
h .ilvrr plale
■—namely, Ibe porlable
lenalD
rham.
«luab1c
eicriplion of Ihe varloua nulhodloC
by Ihe monk Theophilus in hi> fiiKrianai arli
drie'» ed., 184;), He tninuldy dcKiibo tv
a that coutd be employed in making and 01
and rnade himielf ' thoroughly reaponstbte
iking conlrssi lo Ihe modem lubdiviHOn
nes 10 produce a show of nealnera without
nee of work, which b the cune of all iglh-
. and one ol the main leisoni why our
;e and elaborale vork in wild
ronl of ■ calhedrai. and decnr-
with figure* cast and chased in
linialuie'tike pictures embossed
□, though of great repuii
be distinguished names o[
HiiWry 1/ CirmMll. 1. ITS-
]onet,''TheAliarDfPi««a
' ni Jilli^tiary Qiiuary,
a, Pisa, Pist<
: uth-ce
lied by Jscopo Roselo da Bologna for
uds of Si Dominic and St Petronio in the church of St
10, Perugia, where Paoto Vanni, Roiceito and olhen
d in Ihe uLh and early 15th centuries, and Rome,
ing 10 ihe demoralifalion and increase of luxury wfiich.
in Italy with such st^irlling npidily during the nily yean
i6ih century, the weulth and aitiitic skill which in the
religious obiecu
rtirtedin
.nel, a I
part absorbed in the produclloi
vases, ewen. disliM, and Ihe like — of large u
In the most lavish way with the fanciful ai
■ ■ rdbytt
■clor
eadyd.
Ihe Renaissance. This demand created a new school of melal-
woikers, among whom Benvenuio Cellini (1500-1571) was per-
haps Ihe ablest and certainly the most prominent- His graphic
autobiography makel him one of the foremoit and most vivid
figures of the wonderful iGih century, in which often the most
bestial Ml f- indulgence was mingled with the keenest enthusiasm
for art. The large salt-cellar made (or Fnnds I., now at
Vienna, is thconly piece of plale which can be dclinitely assigned
to Cellini. The splendid Farnese caaket, with crystal pbquei
engraved by Ciovinni di Bernardi, in the Naples Museum, hoi
been wrongly atiributed to Cellini. Hit Influence on Ibe dnign
not only in Italy and France, but also
were produced la Italy, n'
grace and refinement of t
The i«pal treasure, c
g the i^ih century ^e piect
still retajning some of the
, __ almollenlitely depleted by Pius VI. 10 pay
the indemnity demanded by Napideoo. The tiara of Julius II.
by Caradorao, and the
splendid morK of Qemenl
VII. by Benvenuio Cellini,
coloured drawings of
which are proeived In
the Prim Room, British
Museum, are among the
objects then detlroyed.
IJ64, by Crauenbroch.
Ctrmany^ — From x
specially famed for
works in the prcci
mclali. mostly for ec
ceniuty a large quan
of secular plate was i
duced of bcaulilul de
modelled 1
"", "'r"5'"« aim tyha
leapple. beakers
irds, enriched with Colhlc cresting and foliage, ■
H of bosses something [J
798
unoni the moit imponint piecca ol plile. During [he i61h of the ijih century; the Cop livai by (he enpccocFieiienitni
cemury Augsburg and Nunmbeig, bng celttinled lor Ihcii tnd Uaihiu Corvinui lo Vitntu In i4«i. and the Hikndiil en
■ilver work, devFlopcd i Khool of cniumen whoie ipltndid of G«(lir, 14;;, lire imible ipednem of eiriy Cccmu mL
pnxluclions have olten been ascribed lo the great Cellini In England Ihe only public cdlcdiom o( Gennan plate mflkj
faimsf l[. In the lirst decide o! Ihe i«Ih cenluiy, Paul MDliner. d[ rulice are (he " Waddndon " in the Brilith Museua, and Ik
■ Nuremberg golduniih, (umithed Frederick the WiM viih Victona and Albert Museum. Pnoi 10 its ditpenal ana*
Kveral sjlvet-gilt lehquaria [or bis tsllHtion at WitlHibeii- hi*fivediugh(en.lhe)aie baron Carl von RothKbiU'ialknii*
Later in Ihe same century came the Jamnilat lamily of at FruVlorl-on-Main wa« Ihe moM eilensive private colkcin
Nuccmherg, chid among Ihem beipg Wenliel Jamnilier. in eaislence The Gutmann colleclkin, acquired by Mr J. Pif
one of whole maileipifcfi, an numtUed salvet cenlre-piece, pent Moifin. comaim inapy rare pieca. ai doet Ihii «( Ik
btlongl to the bannrs Jamei de Rolhichild of Paiil. baronetiei Atphonte and Salomon de Rothschild in Pats.
Mathieus WallhauRi ol Augsburg was another celebialed Many of ihe motl beauliful vcsaeli ol ci>ital. agale, k.
goltlsmilh ol the i6lh century His chief worki are lormerly itlribuled lo Italian aitiili, were (lived lod engianl
religious ornaments of ebony mounted in silver, and Ihe Ftm- and Ml inbeaulilulenamclledgoldandiilvet inoanli,lnKiiiikn
mtruia KunsluliraHi in the Kunttgewerbe Museum, Berlin Germany in Ihe i6lh and 17th cenluries. At Ihe eod of
Bat the chief German goldimith of Ihe i6[h century wai Anton the 17th and the beginning of the iSth centuries housdwld pbtt
Eiienhoil ' ol Warburg, who wroughl the line ctucilia (1589). and other ornamenis were frequently decorated with paialEd
the chalice and other eccletialliol vessels whii^ belong 10 ihe enamel*, mostly originating from Augiburg. Diagliafet if
Funlenberg family. Other notabte cnltamen ol this period Dresden and ha achool at about this time eietcised considenUe
weie Hans Fetiolt and Mclchioc Bayr, the tiller having made influence In the pioductioB of ornamenis in pearl and oiks
the silver altar (with scenes from the Life of Christ after Dilrer) materials, elaborately carved, mounted and enamelkd.
Several apedmens exiit of the models of cupa requiied d
candidates for Ihe Tank, of maatcr-craltsmen in the second hil
ol the i6th century. One of tt
Museum, is believed to have bf
of Nuremberg in i57»-iS73.*
Many of Ihe famoua ijlh and i6lb century arlisti— »dB
Martin SchOn, Israel von Mecken. Aldc^rtva, Alldoriir,
Bnnamer, Peter Fliiloer. theBehams, Hopfeiaitd HansHolbdi
the younger, supplied the silvenmiths with designs foe flue.
Several of Holbein's ori^nil deigni, including one for Ibt fU
cup probably wrought by his friend, John ol Antweip. for Qsa
Jane Seymout, ate in Ihe Print Room, British Museum, wkit
there is also an original design for a table fountain by theo^
brated artist, Albrecht DQrer. VirgU Solit of NurenbO]
{iSlt-Ij6i) wai e^Kcially fcnile in designing plate, and le
eiecuied a large aeriet oi etching ol designs for rases, npk
ewers, laau. IK.' Many of the German silver ewen and leih*
resembk those made m pewter at the end of the t6tb ceBtoy br
Francois Briot and Caspar EnderleiB, who nignud bia
Swiiieriand to Getmaoy.
Swlitrlati.—Tfiii country produced several nhmtaiila
whose work in the main followi that ol the Geimai idai
The three hiuoiical beakers in the national library at Zaidi
were made in that city from money sent out at vllt liM
England by the three English bi^bop^ Jewel ol Salbtbury. Hon
Fl6.1J--^VHCup,81in.high.
usually attributed to Jamnitier,
hospitality afforded Ihem during their eiDe at Zilrich. ja ik
^^.^^►cs%',Lt;;iJ'rui; bX^':- '.*iru^~^'o'^n':"iss'
reign of Queen Mary I.' Impoitant plale wai nomght a
Jfiuiia.— In no country is Ihe ecclesiastical and secular (JiK
lor the king of Poland, which is in the Sigiimund chipet in Cracow
of greater interest than in Ruaia. when » many difoirt
Cathedral." Jakob Mores, Iheetdei, ol Hamburg, was employed
influences have been at wort in its deaignt and deawatiw-
by the royal house ol Denmark. A large number of his original
Byianline. Oriental, Gothic, Renaiisance, 4c. Tlie " pAfca
designs lor plale are in the public art library al Berlin. Jakob
age " ol eccle^aiticid an waa undoubtedly the 17th ceslai;.
Mores, the younger, eiecuted the silver altar at F.edcriksbo.g
when the churches and monajlerie. were being enriched wik
in the I7(h century. In Germany the traditions of earlier
many priceless ornaments in the precious metalj. EnliDth^
Gothic an were lesi rapidly broken with, and many purely
great richness-which had been introduced there by Hui«>nM
Gothic lomii igrvived there tUl the end of the i6th century.
and Gothic decorative Icalures even later. In the Bnt half of
lion, Adrinking-cuporbowteiclusively RuoianiDloniid
the 17th century, though the technical skill ol the German silver-
character, known as brillna. waa largely made (see the hM M
tmitho reached a high standard of merit, there wag some falling
ofl in the eiecullon and in the purily of outline in theii designs.
collection at Vienna), as was a smaller bowi, cdkd curia, lilk
Germany is richer in secular plate than any other country.
a single handle- Another KCular vessel. pecuUariy Rassa.
is the teak, a p«ntHl or baal.>haped bowl with a king hudi
n, Gotha and Munich, ai well a> public m
any. including the Ireasure oILOncburg at Beriin, aRord influenced by that of westen
ent opportunities for the study oi the German goldsmith's PnJdnif.— Though not wit
he remarkable chalice. Iilh century, of St Colhan)') .
h, Hildesheim; the celebrated Kaiwinkirol Oanabrlick 1 sSS ""tV^M f^IiUii"
. Rimell (London. lUi),
•Keller. ■Thiw SUver Cu|
PLATE
799
!siastical plate of Poland ' came under the influence both
crmany and Hungary. Many of the sacred vessels of late
ieval times are decorated with enamels and niello. In the
century ecclesiastical vessels encrusted with corals are
with, such as those given by Michael Wisniowiecki, king of
nd, to the church of Czeustochowa. A magnificent X7th>
ury chalice of gold, beautifully enamelled, given by the
>p of Plock and Breslau, son of Sigismund III., is in Plock
edraL Many important pieces of plate still exist in churches
oland, though a Polish origin is not claimed for them; for
.nee, the 10th-century chalice* at Trzemeszno, where there
x> another chalice of about the same period. The cathedral
racow contains many priceless examples, such as the 14th-
jry gold cross given by Casimir the Great; the gold crucifix
[athias Corvinus, and the gold reliquary, x6lh century, of
Lanislas, bishop of Cracow.
once. — France, like England, has suffered grievous losses
s plate, though it can show a larger array of medieval
ch vessels than can England. The chief specimens of
ieval plate are the Qth-century casket and the seated
lettc of St Foy (loth century) in the treasure of Conques;
:ross of Laon (c. 1200) in the Louvre; the ciborium (early
century) in the treasury of Sens; the cross of the same
td in Amiens Cathedral; the caskets of St Taurin {c. 1250);
■eliquary of St Epine, given by St Louis; the virgin of the
y of Roncevaux (Navarre, 14th century); and the virgin
I by Queen Jeanne d'Evreux to St Denis in 1339. One of
most cherished possessions of the British Museum is the
irated gold and enamel cup of the kings of England, French
; of the 14th century. No doubt the visit to Paris of Cellini
rised a great influence in the goldsmith's art there, though,
rtunately, no examples have survived. The extravagances
luis XIV. and his court led to the destruction of all the royal
: of France, as did the Revolution of 1789 of vast quantities
)mestic plate. It was not until the early part of the i8th
iry that any signs of revival arc visible in the art of the
rsmith. Chief among the Paris goldsmiths of that time are
de Ballin the younger, Thomas Germain, and, later in the
iry, Francois Thomas Germain, who nmde the royal plate
irtugal and several pieces for the court of Russia.
t€ Low Countries. — Flemish silversmiths of the late medieval
<d were as skilful as they were in the Renaissance. So
Flemish plate remains that pictures of the Flemish school
ecommended as the chief sources of study of ecclesiastical
Is. A fine covered silver beaker, decorated with open
and translucent enamel in the South Kensington Museum,
another covered with figures and foliage in niello, in the
room of the British Museum, are notable examples of
i^ work of the islh century. A brge triptych, 13th
iry, is in the Rothschild bequest to the Louvre. Ornate
rater ewers and basins, which came in with the Renaissance,
as the important pair dated 1535 in the Louvre, were
; at Antwerp and other places.
e Utrecht silversmith, Paul van Vianen (early 1 7th century)
ght many fine pieces of plate, including the silver bas-reliefs
e Rijks Museum at Amsterdam, where there are five fine
eliefs in silver by the Belgian silversmith, Mathias Mclin.
other members of the same family, Adam and Christian
Vianen, were also prominent silversmiths of this time.
irlier Dutch silversmith, Christian van Vianen of Utrecht,
the vessels for the altar of St George's Chapel, Windsor,
enry VUI.
o important pieces of Dutch plate are the covered tazza-
i cup of William the Silent, date about 1573, belonging
, carl of Varborough,' and another large cup of the same
'1595). Icnown as the " Breda cup," in the possession of
ybexilohe /amily. Considerable quantities of plale were
"" at Amsterdam (where Johann Lutma the elder — d.
was a well-known silversmith), Haaricm, the Hague and
"^r places. The numerous 1 7lh-ccnlury Dutch pictures
'^'^fecireaod Rastawiccki, Po/ij* SiTwr Work (1853-1869).
* Arckaeologia, lix. 83.
of still-life and other subjects afford opportunities for the study
of tazze, beakers and other domestic vessels in ulver. Hcndrik
janssens, a Dutch engraver of about 1640, executed many designs
for goldsmiths and jewellers.
Spain and Par/u^o/.— Spanish plate was largely influenced
in the middle ages by that of France and Flanders and the art
of the Moors. But little medieval plate exists in Spain, most of
it having been destroyed at the time when a taste for more
elaborate ornaments sprang up as a result of the introduction of
fresh wealth from the colonies in the New World. The following
examples may be singled out: a cross of wood, covered with gold
filigree work, set with stones (aj>. 808), in Oviedo Cathedral,
where there is also a larger cross of wood and gold, dating from
later in the same century. A Moorish casket of wood covered
with thin silver plates is in Gerona Cathedral. The reliquary of
Alphonso III. and his queen (a.d. 866-896 covered with
embossed silver plates of the symbols of the evangelists; the t ith-
ccntury chalice at Silos; chalices of the 13th and eariy 14th
centuries in the cathedrals of Santiago and Toledo; and Don
Martin's great armchair, of wood covered with elaborate silver-
gilt plates, in Barcelona cathedral. The Spanish monstrances
of the isih century arc noticeable because of the Flemish
influence displayed, while those of the early part of the 16th
century, such as that by the celebrated silversmith, Enrique
Arfe, in the cathedral of Cordova, is remarkable for its ornate
character. The latter's grandson, Juan de Arfe y Villafane
(who wrote De varia conmensuracioH, 1585, on silverwork and
other arts) became a chief maker of these magnificent mon-
strances; for instance, the celebrated example in Seville cathedraL
He was associated with Pacheco in executing statues. About
the 15th century Barcelona became famed as a centre for the
silversmith's art, and the Libras de pasaniia^ or silversmiths'
examination books, still preserved in that city, contain a large
number of designs for jewel-work. Seville likewise had an
important gild of silversmiths, as did the following cities: Toledo,
Valladolid, Burgos, Cordova and Salamanca. The celebrated
family of Becerril wrought, fine plate at Cuenca in the x6th
century. Many chalices and some domestic plate of the i6th
and early 17th centuries are embellished with small enamdled
disks, some of which show Saracenic influence in details. The
Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a fine collection of
SpMinish goldsmith's work.
Portuguese plate displays in its Gothic features a very florid
style, in imitation of that adopted by architects in the reign of
Don Manuel (1495-1521). A t3rpical example of this extrava-
gance of Gothic motives may be seen in the monstrance of Belem,
which was made from gold brought from the East by Vasco da
Gama.
Austria and Hungary. — Austrian plate is, like that of Switxer-
land, largely based on German models. The ecclesiastical plate
of Hungary in the 15th and i6th centuries is celebrated for its
enamelled work of a flowered design enclosed in filigree wire-
introduced from Italy. This enamelled decoration was con-
tinued in the 17th century, but without the filigree wire, and it
is then described as " Transylvanian." Much of the secular
plate of the i6th and 1 7th centuries in north and east Hungary
is influenced by German plate, while that in Transylvania is
frequently inspired by Oriental designs.
English. — ^There is strong evidence of the importance attached
to English medieval plate by Continental peoples, as there was
to the magnificent English illuminated MSS., and, later, to the
embroidered vestments, opus anglicanum. But, unfortunately,
the ruthless destruction of plate during the Wars of the Roses,
the Reformation and the Great Rebellion has spared but few
medieval pieces to which we can point. Under the name of
Protestantism every ecclesiastical vessel with a device savouring
of " popish superstition " was instantly destroyed. The inven-
tories of the great cathedrals and religious houses plainly reveal
their marvellous wealth in gold and silver vessels.
Norfolk is richer than any other county in pre-Reformation
chalices and patens.' The well-known " Gloucester " candlestick,
* Norfolk Arch. xu. 85.
PLATE
li CoUcge, Oxford, by
at England at Ih
end of the 1)1
ncrly belonging lo Ramiey Abb*)-.'
Khglisb gold chalice has survived,
its loundei. Bishop Foie (Pl*te II.,
lictt eiample ■
luty. at Queen'
Ho«.il
1-
Ma2et bo>tls
made
ol wood
»l«r
even in
gold, a
the
inscrip.
lions
11., fig- .8). «
ic popular
rinlung
™clsin
En^an
Cvull
ny of these
ave
ved, the
specime
n bei
g one o
Edwatd 1
Ha
ho»pil
. They
ceased
lo be ma
de after the
reign
ol Eliubeth
C/tK*«af»(H, i
"<»)
Mpdiev
1 coco-nut
« in Engbin
d, ih
t known
e«™ptei being
nihe
p««i>ion
<,( the college, a
ford and
nbridge
lioncdbcCore.butfeweuniidesol' ..
ii a brief list ol ume of Ihc most notable piccn, other than those
previously enumerated: lhc"So1ibOTn" cup (c. ujo), and (he
■' Anathema " cup (n8i-i4»3)al Pembroke College. Cambridge;
the Leigh cup (1490) il Mercers' Hall; the ivoiy and silver cup
(151J-IS16) of the duke of Norfolk^ the pastoral slaH (c. 1 j6;) at
New College, Oifotd; the Richmond cup (t. 1510) at Airaoureti"
Hall; the "election cup" (r. i;io) at Winchester College; and
the Foundress' plate, consisting ofifine coveted cup (I4JS-1MO).
two ulll ((. is<»). a beaker and covet (1505-1508), and a salt
(1507-1508) at Christ's College. Cambridge. Of Elizabeth's reign,
the finest eiamples arc probably the salt ol the Vintners' Com-
■-■ le II„ fig. 71), ■ ■
nelied down by Ihe iaiea. little a( tU* period lliat caa
be called plate has been discovered In tbe British Islo — ulikc
** md other Scandinavian countries, where th£ ocavm-
ibs baa in many cases yielded rich roulti in the way
cupt, bowis, ladlet and bmis ol solid pild, BORly
decorated witli simple deiigiia of spirals, coDCcnlric dnjes, nr
' - ' — leiques. Otben ue ol silva, paicd-filt, aid
^re subject! in low tdkf <fig. ij). la liki
ig the Siion period, tbodgh sold aad sihir
wmmon, yet little plate appean to haTt btea
le eiception of' shrines, altai-fiDDUlt tod vewh
al use, of which every imponaat chucb ia
t have poueraed a magDificent aock. Vilh
lish secular plate, though but few caily aimfki
know Irom various reoidi, nich as wills ud
iiit the i4ih century wat one in which evirj
prided hinuelf on hi* fine and manin
lion ol silvi
played, not only
irranged with liei
pi, one above the other, lo as to dm
jilage tbe vreighty silver vues. Bagoni and dU»
it was loaded. The centnl objea oo every rii
! wia (he " nel '"—a large silver caiktt, usually (n
suggest*) in the lotm ol a ihip, and arrin^
the host's napkin, foblct, spoon and knife, ili
ent of spices and salt. No old Entfiih "nefl'
d elaborate ]
ine made for Iht daie il
ighed 3<8 narks of goli
The English sUvfti^ths ol this period were hij^;
skilled in their art, and produced objects of greaC hemtr
both in design aiul w«hnianahip. One of the Afiot
specimens of Edward IH.'s plate whic'
still eiisls is a silver cup belonging I
Lrno. lI<sgra«[ulandcb*lice-liLei
Fio. 16.-S
vei
Cup. with
Fio.
17— sa«.|»
innducenl en
Probably
Ihe 14th
a"^
laf. Ml ■>. h^
EnglLh work
"«
to New 0>li>P.
OrfSd
iBUM-
form, skilfuUy
cha!
*d, and decorated
way with coloured translucent
«ls(fig.
6) ol ladiaud
ygulhs, sever
1 w
h hawks on
their
Silver salt<ell«
were among the m
ost elaborate
piec.
solplal
produced iira4
ury
Several colleges
at Oiford and Camhridp
hcse
fig- '7);
vasakindof
,ou
.glass form n
chly
about 1480 and 1515.
_. (LateMinoani.l.
f:.'^- 'J— r;<jWen Cup from Trov (Early Win.ian lii.; 2500 B.C. or earlier).
■^'"■^V.J,- CioldCupsof Vap'hio (Ute Miniian i.).
Greek I'latc of the IJronzc Age (Prehistoric Period).
Salt a! llie ViDlncn-
piny (BiEibethan).
rU- iS.— llnukcnbiidtc U
PLATE
lut few ofatlDK iperimnu of En|dl>t< pt*t< >" oI'Ib' tlun
beoICi
! ytin igo (I he liller
I (Plalell.,
I ijiiil Sindwith tad Wymawold, respwiivcly; one (1515)
Corpui CbriMi CoUrge, Oxford, and the BodUn cup (ij^s)
Ihe CotpotitEon o( Poiuraouth. A very arty b«Ler (i«6)
laprivBlc coU«tion,ii [9 iluiuniU Tudor bowl dsij-isifi).
e c«riiat knovn cfaalica of lilvcr include the Gouidoo chalice
I palen, Ihc St Goilin chalice il Nancy (lolh cenlaiy); the
h-cenlury tptdmen in the abbey of Willen in Tirol
t il Lntcrmifls to note the varioue chao^e* of fotm Ihroush
ich the Kcleutlkal chalice patted '"-" "-''- '^--»- — -- — -
■ handlcK clau.
clefgy
a Utr^ hemlepherkal bo»l. t
uve been tbe cuiIoib foe the pneit 10 bold the chalm. ohile
connsuninni luclced (he vine through ■ nivet tube at " £» ula."
ic o£ the moat [iu[ni6ctnt cvly eicampke of thu form of chalice
c the bowl mounied in handi. kI with jewel*, and enriched
h nUnule hligree votk— a doiin which tjipan la have been
(D from those cup*, inch a> the tour nucniliceiil ennipln in
. =. ...J... ,. „__! Lj^ j^„ ,f^-^ (,„^l ^^, „m
ie> The fineit cumpin
in the Dublin Muieum.
Si BemJEiut, In Reinu
mott maenificeflt tped-
nd ikill 01 loth to nth
'1 ihe Illh and tjth
d patent it by W. H. St jc^c
— Eliubetban
Chalice. -^ ^^j-
re ccnforiet had been tlowly reduced in ila, owing; 10 the
dually introduced prvclice of refuurw Che wine to ine laily,
> tuddcnlv made nuKt capacioiia. aiHTihe form wu alrered to
thare ihown in fig. iB. in order that the Protettant " com-
niun cup " inilhl bear no reiemblance to the old Catholic " man-
chalice." Thii wat oideied to be ckine in lUn (wrc Ank.
Ensliih merntval chalicet , — ,... ._ _
pe and T. M. Falk>w, in ^nlanltt''- vol iVi
•ccular plate during the t^h and t6th centuriea was fr^
rntly similar in ityle Co that made in Gemuny, thnugh the
^h lilveiimitha of the latter century never quite equalled
skill or artiilic ttlenl of the great Nuremberg and Augibuig
ei-worken. lathe i;lti century, during the leigns of James L
1 Charles I., many Ene pieces of plate, e^iedally tall cups
1 tajikardt, were made of very graceful itma and decoration,
e greater part of this, and all earlier plate, e^KciaUy the fine
lections belonging to the universities, were melted dnwn
■tag the Civil War. la Charles II, 's reign returning prosperity
1 the increase nf luxury in Eogbiid caused the production
many tnagnificent pieces of plate, often on t large Kile, such
toilet services, wine-coolers, and even fire-dogs and other
Eldtuie. These are very florid in their ornament, mucb of U
' See De Fkury, L* ilriii li>uri., tSSi). Ac.
under Dutch Influence, and moUly have lost the beautiful farm
of the century before (lig. ig and Plate II., lig. ig). In the eariy
pan of [he laib ceDtury the deugni of English plate were to
some eileat influenced by the introduction of Frrnchomanienll
by the large band of French silversmiths hho sought refuge ia
England after the revocation of the edict ol N'jntes. Chid
among these Frenchmen (though probably not a refugee him-
Palace, St Peteriburg. Throujih the greater part of the reign
of George III. English plate is mote rematluble for its plaiit
solidity than for artistic merit. With Ihe advent, however, oI
Hie Soutl
> small, chough fine, collection of pUte, vuyini
lefroi
1770 t
being the " Shield of Ai
Thomu Etolhard, the painter, execute
smith's wotlt for Ruodell and Bridge.
Tin Asiay s/ GM and Siltcr PlaU.—Tix prit
testing the purity of the ~ ' '
on the touchstone, and co
ofthemaikwiththatinai:
of gold or silver of known degrees of purity.
Assay by cupellalion is now employed ft
melted with k
present. Tbe residue of pure silver is then
weighed, and by ita lew showi bow much
alloy it contained. Cold is now tested by
an elaborate chemical process by which the
the Adam style, llany of Flaii
L plate, among the most important
" Isor Castk.
thrown down in the form of pt«Ipit«e, Flo. so.— Silver
which aa be enmined by i c«ttful quan- •?«; " 'J- "'ij;
Illative analyri. (see Akayxnc). ^gS^K Si
The standard of punty required in the brothoi Adim.
time of Edward I. was, for gold, that it
should be o( Ihe "Paris touch," i.e. 19I carats out at 14.
Before then ii ontt wai tbe standard. Silver wu to be " of
the sterUng alloy," via. 11 01. 1 dwt. to the pound, Eicept for
1 lime during the lith century this standard of sQvec has been
kepi up. and is slOl required by law.
Haa-marii m SUitr.—la Ihe 13II1 century the En^lsh Gild
of Cold- and Silver-smiths had grown into'great importance, tad
had acquired monopolies and many special privileges. In order
to keep the standard up to the required purity the system of
requiring each article to be stamped with certain marks wu
mlroduced by royal commaad. The fint of these was tbt
8o2 PLATE
UiiC't mark — ■ Itopird'a or lioo'i bead crbwiied. Tlii wu
inlfoduftd in i]oo by Edwud I. (J9 Edw. I. lUI. 3. =- Jo)-
The Mcond, Ihc mofcr'i mart, wu iirttilulfd in 1363 (3) Edw.
III. c. 7). This might be Any bidge.or initiil chosen by the
nuur lilvenmilh hinuelf. The ihird wu the tnr UtUr or
aitaya'i mtrt; lhi> wu ui alphabet, one lellei being uied
[or a year, counling from the day of Ihe annual elecliou of Ibe
warden of the ColdiiniLhs' Company. Wheo one alphabet wa*
eihaiulcd snother with diHerenlly ibiped letlen wu begun.
The eailiesi eiisting piece of plate wbich bu (he three marlu ii
the chalice (wilh paten, l^^l)~l^lio), at ytttlecambe, SoDienel.
Other marks, subsequcnlly inlrqduced. were Ihe lion pauanl,
fintused in ij^j^thc lion's head Eiaied; and a full-length ligure
ofBrilannia,use
nlybe
ween .697
the portrait oil
to ia«o, when
■ddilion 10 thes.
,c
eigning sovereign
duly on gold an
neral hall-marks
proviiHJal town
£Ssz
3
•d lib
fijfifc
ireSS.'alld ai Enoli* provincial (ild^Ymk, Noiwicti. E.tlrr.
Chetler. Uncsln. NtwcaKle. BiiminBluin, ShelPeld and other
placet. E. AUrad Join's book. Old Eniliik CM FlaU (iftrr),
dIustmcB and describes gold plate only.
Uoiirn PltU in llu £ail.— Though liltle pble of real aditlic
merit is now made in Europe, in Ihe East among the Moslem
and Hindu races there slitl survive loiiie nil lasle in design and
■kill in eiecution. Delhi. Benaret, Lucknow. Culch and other
places in India and Kashmir s)il1 product a quantity of beauiiful
lalvers. colTee-patt and the like. These are of gracelul form,
covered with rich rcMtiut work, or more often wilh very dclicale
chased pallerns. Their slyle in the main ia Moslem, bul some
This data ol work is not a revival, bul has been practised and
change in style from Ihe i6ih century or even earlier.' The
lilverHnilht of Persia, Damascus and olhcr Easlcm placet are
ililt skilful, and renin some good iradition in their designs-
They are. tiowevcr, more occupied in the production of personal
ornamenli than in making larger wotki of silver or gold.
■I, TkUoIih
M KM Mo-S.
If ;' Dw^l.
H. tf "J *!->((
« 'H,^b™'n*i'
Kvn. 5*'<iir
0/ UMI «/ CM.
A> ' Patun a-d
CI
(18841: Bcmfiard CHie'n. Dt tjairnluaiiiki GiiUimtdn Uarlur Jra
tiiUn lar Aarll. iSoa iiat7).
IUilia<i.—L. Caglieri, Compendit iillt viU 4ti lamli oirfici id nrwii-
deii (1717); /( Saiiliuirio irili nliqiiit oiiia il Itnre ddia Wm
di orel^T(XIV.-XV. cent,).- Penmia; Jt.CmniiHigH Cuvjufe,
It aru t ii iadusUu iiht pmviniii MM/ru'iK (iSBi-lflai): Antonio
Pailni. II T»-»i> ii 5a« Uar,,. Vmnta (1 vols., lMs-(«M);
"Orlevrcj el I'orfevrerie en Savow." Chimbcry: 5«. laKininni
mlmtirti. x\\i. 319 (18861; A. Cuarncri. Eipciiiieni ii Palnmo.
Caialais ielia i<illrtimt di anliie mrhrrna ri arinUria (1891);
L. Fumi. /( Sanmaria ill SS. Corfvfole rul du««a di (Jmirtip (1896):
Ror™t(i^j);O.H.<;i(lii>li,/'if(i>Ja,KHfHi(BP(«d'ar«(I90jl; i,™ Comi-ki.— Van Loon. Hiunrr miUUiau ia Hf'"
CaJa/ejo pniralr delta maUra i'aiU aniica abnaau «i ai«i (Hague. 17J1-1737): SchaejAena, THim it Tart Hiin n I''—
(1905) ; E. Manceri. WoluKjiSiiifM. artfwH-jSB TooJliP. Pic- (i&j6): r*-(«»ur)(a.( .l-HcdoMdlluaraiions). (ig;?);!*
onllt. Qrcfittria mrdimlt afuilaaa: im oxrli -d VHUr-t and on Dutch plale, M Kcilrlaaduti Kmniliadt [iljol; Elf
AUttI Uuitum ii Liidra {190J): F. Ferran, LOrtJUma ■■ A^.tla raratpalitr i-tbjtu d'arl n tr H n a,,na. Am^triam i:
— — ■ ~ — — Roddai. i.'jfrlonrinlirfrt*tJimM*i»ofclKfw(iMihi«w
'Set Birdwood. iMiuurial AM, 0/ Mia (i«So). p. 144- Praaiiuut fiivtk CnHeuckap I19MJ; Caulagw ^ ir£i*>
8o3
8o4 PLATEAU— PLATEN-HALLERMUND
PUTEAU (k French Uiw, older fluid, for ■ Bil pin d
■rood, ttietal^ Ac, Erom fiat, flat], in phyiicaJ gcD(riphy. u
elevated npoa at level or (coily uodulitiog Uud-HuUa, Ik
crm beinf lynoDymoiu vjib " Uble-lud." The mou cktrir
lefined pUieaiu hive iteep Binki in cooliut vilh tkii kvd
mmmiu, but llie term does not nccesvily cnnnale a tteqi
ucent from Ibe iDrTaundlDg counliy. Indeed, il it tffSd to
luch divene formi u the high-lyint pUinl endrcJed b)> Ik
lighei elevilioiu of Ibe Aodej, ind 10 IhoM of the vtK of Nodi
America, which [be ulinosl imperceplihly fiom tbt ]ow ccDInI
jlaini. A pUteiu may hsvt iti origin eitbei in the nphcml
i[ sttili which piHcivc ihcirori^na] horizontal poiiiioadmi
Iheproccu.oi in the prolonged denudation of u oriEioill)' bnta
lurtlM. The two Torms ate distinguished mpcctively u Fktaa
if Dcpoailion and Platcaui of Erotion.
PUTRD WARE, articles chiefly intended lot tabit n
convsting of an inferior metal or alloy covered by ooe el Ik
Eirccioui metals, with tbe object of giving them the apficaruct
at gold or silver. Before the introduction of electrv-tiUli^ tk
method employed lor silver-plaliBg (the inveoiiDa of wtiih ■
1741 is associated with Ibe nune of Tbomaj BcIbtb, of
Sheffield) wai lo fuse or burn togeiher, by a flni of born. 1
thin sheet of silver on each side of an ingot of bast netal, ^■^.
illy copper, or German silver, which is an alloy of copper. Tk
lilver plitES were firmly wired to the ingM. which Wlltta
placed in a heated furnace and bronght nearly fo i3tt fobtf'
withdraw the ingot. When cold it wu rolled dom U >
sheet, and from such (heed " ailver-ptated " attkle* vtn Ruit
Articles like dish-coven were ori^nally ODly (ilver-plaud «
one side, and after being worked into shape were liutd amk
with pure tin. In Birmin^iam bar^oppcr was tha base Betif
Htcd: when bare of silver this showed blood-red. The ShdtU
manufacturer!, on. the other band, used kbot-capper Mucd *iil
brass (an alloy of copper and line) in the proponioo ol 4«< (•!.
Inthisway theygot ridof the redLcss of the copper and naden^
it harder, and iheir product is the " old SbeSM plalc " Ifl)
that has become famous all over the woiid. ThiaBethodri
plating rapidly declined with the inlrodvctioo ol the nciv
process of electro-plating {q-9-). by which it haa bees mpcncdsd.
articles of upholstery, and lor various parts of tacydo, ttcatf-
sbips, railway carriages, &c. Sleet theell are also ptaled lilt
nlckd for cooking purposes, fai iron it plited with ban.
FLATEN-HAIXEHMDKD, AOOOST, Cur voh {mt-
iSjs), German poet and dnmilist. wu bom on ibe uthfl
October 1 796 at Aosbath, the ton of the O^/orif wuIit ia ik
little principality of that name. The latter, logeibervitbeikf
Franconian piincipalilits, having shortly aftet lus binh bdvH
incotpontcd with Bavaria, he entered Ibe icbool of odiu
{KadcUenkouj) In Munich, where he showed miy proaiscd
poetical talent. In iSto he passed into the royal Khool of paps
ItSniiliiJu Pageric), and in iSrtwas appointed lieutenant ia ik
regiment of Bavarian Ule-guarda. With it be took pan ia tk
ihon tampaign in France of tSrs. being in bivouac for sennl
He saw no fighting, however, and returned home withkinii-
ment towards the close of the same year. PoBcsMd •( ta
intense desire for study, and finding garrison life distasteful ud
irksome, he obtained a long leave {^absence, and after a toviia
Switierland and the Bavarian Alps, entered the univenily d
WUrzhurgin iSiB asa student of philosophy and phiMigjr. Is
the lidlowing year he migrated to that of Etbngen. wheiT kc
sat at the feel of F. W. J. vop Schelling, and betuK CM el hi
most enthusiastic admirers. As a result of his OHentil sIiriiB
he published a tittle volume of poems — Ckazdnt (iftjij.tftl
of Rtlcken; LyriKkt BlUOrr (1811); 5/ie(d itt Haiii (ilti):
VermiiclUt StkriJUn (iSii): and JVewCioii/n <iS>j). Tkes
among them Ckclhe, both by reason of their contents. wiiA
breathe the qiirit of tbe East, and alao <4 the pwiiy aad ik^> 1
PLATERSPIEL-
at tlieir lonn and dictioo. Though he was at linl inHtKncnl
by the Kbool ol Ramanliciun. tnd pankularJy by Spanuh
Eriu«ell, Per ifiienu Pamlt}il. Dtr Setrttt da Siamtiiml.
Btraiv. Trtiu mm Tmt, Da Tvim mil lUbcn PJtrlKi. «bo<r«
devnn) of plot ud iipmsion lorcign to the Bomjntic Wyk.
His uidcanism to the liienture oi his diy becune more and
■nrc pranouDced. sod be i-enlcd his indlgnalion tl the winl
et wt ihowD by Ibc later Romantidstl, the inuiity of the
lyndiis, and the bad taste of the so-cilted fate tragedies
tSJtitliialslrtlldHn), in the witty " Aiiitophanic " comedies
DU wtrUntninoUe GaM (iSifi) and Ptr rtmantiulu OaUfui
(18 jS).
The want of intettst, amounting even to hostility, with wluch
PUlen's entbusiaam foe the puiiiy and dignity of poetry «as
received In many liteniy citclts in Germany increased the
poet's indignation and disgust. In 1816 hevisited Italy, which
tforth n
Ic his h
!, Lving SI
I rhapwdist." Dcr
cT enmity ofKail Ii
Ijlcraiy feud which 1
wiio delighted in
subj«1
Fi
Sec ]. Minckwil., Craf
P. Boon. Plain, «■£
ji««'(i90]);'aiHl'^IJnief
BUTCIFTEITE,
■PLATINUM
di Sama Uaria'
it the air-chaniber in w^cli ihe teed wai
unpftiied air forced into it throufb [he
aed slil respectively of the two intlrumc..
laterspid is found at Ihe eod o( the ijlh
nl Book of He — •- ■■- " — ■-
sllni allui'
■rtf.llw
805
ently
1 aftn an absence
herevised the first
Napta,
poet and painter, were written his l»il drama Dit Li(s so*
Camirai (iSjj) and the delightful epic fairy-tile Die AUaisidtn
(iSjo: 1834), besides numerous lyrical poems, odes ard ballads.
He also essayed htitarical worL in a fragment, CiicMicilai in
KiKipiitii Nitm (i8]S), without, howevi " '
marked success. la igji his father died, anil
of eight yean Platen relunicd 10 CcrTniny I
the winter of iSjfiRjj lived at Munich, when
complete edllkmol his poems, CafictledSj]). In the summer
of iSj* he returned to Italy, and, alter living In Florence and
Napks, proceeded in iSjj to Sicily. Diead of the cholera,
■bich was )t that time very prevalent, induced him to move
fiom place to place, and in November i>[ (hat year he was
tlien ill st Syracuse, where be died on Ihe SIh of December
tSst- Like lieinc himself, Platen failed in the drams, but his
(i8ji), (n which be Ipves vent to bis warm sympathy (or the
■nd Belre so artislIcsUy finished as to rank among the best
claBical poems of modem limes.
Platen's Ctammdli Wnti wen firn puUiilitd in one volume in
U S^t ivIiMd hu K. r.nnlrki- In Cotis'i BiUuiktt itr WMiuiaiui
:i796-iH)Sl, was publiibcd in Im
id L von ScheBler fl vob.. lawb-
' Flam ail tltnuk Had Diiiirr
pMfaf It Hatrait€ OS94):
(1901)1 A. Fries, FlaUn-
medieval simplified bsgpipe,
ion tune, a bladder and a chauntcr;
Kkct at Ihe top of the chaunler
he bladder. In the platerspiel we
I siso (or the bsgpipe. In Ibc earlier
™™" "' pCaterapiels
»De ?*"-known eiample 01 ine ijm century reptoaucea ny
aamnin Certeri Intn a MS. at St Blasius, the bladder is unusually
i^' "a the chnunler bss, instead oi a bell, the grotesque
~~ ™ «D ■nlDial with gaping Jaws. At first the chaunler
iu^JL."'^^' "nfcal tube terminating in a bell. »s in the
ao^Zr'.Jhe iaaler instnimerls have a pipe of larger calibre
sca» MB,^ ci"~fcti and bent back u in [he irtment. One of
^^ly /a Cite ijlh-cenlury Spanish US., kpown a* tbe .
&wt> (Brit. Mu>.
... . _ _... ptalenpiel occun ... _.,
Eight shepherds were playmg on various idilruments:
K hed one dnwe bagpipe, the neil hcd aat pipa maid
idir ami aj_ aat rttj, ibe thrid phtyil on aoe trump. Ac.."
:h il is evident that the platerspiel retained its individu-
did DOI become merged in the bagpipe. (K. S.)
ORN (Fr. flaU/ctmt, i.e. ground ptan), ■ word torn
confined to * raised Bit strucluie or stage, lemporary
sent, elected in a building or in the open ait, from which
addresses, lectures, &c., can be delivered at a public
meeting. Similar struclurea ol wood, brick or slone,
in rsilway stations at such a level atwvc the rails as 10
Lssengers to bsve easy access to the carriages; and in
on the word is used of the raised level surface on which
mounted. The earlier uses ol the vord, such aa (or a
jmetrical figure, tlie ground plan of a building, and
:ly. for a plan, design, scheme, tic, sre now obsolete,
[alive sense the term is applied to a common basis 00
cmben of a political party may agree, arul especially
nited States to the declsration made by a party at a
lUM [symbol Pt, atomic weight igjo (0-i6)1, a
JiemlCBl element. The name, derived from ^dfiiri, the
ore or native pUtinum, originally discovered in
jnerica, from the resemblsnce to silver. Russia
about gs'A of the world's annual supply of platinum.
platinum occurs usually in small metallic scales or
IS, sometimn in the form of irregular luggets, and
lly, though rarely, in small crystals belonging to the
[em. Cruna of platinum have been found embedded.
scrpenli
dfroT
LVing probably sepsnted out
It is said to occur also in veins in syenilic niid other
Isually, however, platinum is found in detrilal deposits,
' in auiiletiDUS sands, where il is inotiatcd with oaniii-
Dwn also IS itidosmine), chromiie, nugnetiie, corundum,
c. The platinum has a steel grey oisilver-whitecolooi
talliclustre;isoftenmagiKtic, sometimca withpotarity;
'dnesa ol about ^'5 and a specific gravity varying sdth
Dsilion from 14 lo 19. Native plalinum ususlly con-
re or less iron snd copper, often gold, and invariably a
ipoction oi some of the allied metals— iridium, osmium,
n, rhodium and pallsdium. From the associated
was named by J. F. L. Hausmann polyiene (Ct. nUi,
id f4roi, ■ guest), whilst from lis occurrence as a while
auriferous alluvia it is somciimes known to miners as
»ld."
I dd Pinia was the nsme by which native platinum
introduced into Europe from South America aboui
lie of the iSth century. Although it appears to hsve
wn locally much earlier. Ihe a ttentiOD of scientific men In
.as first directed to it by Antonio de Ulloa y Circia de
, a Spaniard wh<v joined a French scientific espcdilion
■n i;]5, and published in 1748 an account o[ his
in which he refers lo platinum, though not under that
occurring with gold in New Granada (now Colombia),
am Watson, an English physicist, had. however, in
rived some grains ol the mineral, probably from the
duced by J, F. KiaKo, in Sladia ^ Early Spaniik Miiit
eiimHc editrd by Dr Ccnrge Wimer, pi. uviil. fol. sr.
'. I. Fumivall. Capicin tax. *ii iiWi and ShIi, »
HilaiD'i LeUrra-P. 137s (l.ondan. 1B71), da-BH.
same locdity, (hough bnni|ht by tny el Juaajn; ud it m
he who fint dociibtd it in 17S0 u ■ new mcIiL
of Vcikhniy-lKlik, in ibe Urgb, bul it w» not until 1811 thai
it> true niiure wu recogniied. The chiei Ruuiin bcililitt
ite in the diiiricli o( Niiline T«^I»li ind GoiDbligodiijk, -r -— .- - ";;;il;"" "Ljj" "
where it ii found in «h»llow drill dep«i|]. conl.iniBB pebble* or im^ium'rilk^ in the"
■eipeniine. which lepment the original mairii. The ImI doutilt
■rd into 411 iii|M b^ R-fodtlDf ia a bine In
iriler'. /■^jte*. Am. t»Sf. 153. p. U; ito. 1-
61, iftj, p. »s). The pUtiNim ■> obuioed ■• no>
'otlaiton'B vet fiHthod the ore it dit«4ved in aqm
hu uqui
.n of the
inggrai
Although It
:. Mall hey (Clum. t
75) obtain pet
. TtKk
uneailhcd. The largest rccotded
fnni Niihne Tagilsk, and analher of 71I
blagodalsk disliict.
la 1831 platinum ore wai recogniied
ional liie luve been 1
ni are one o( jto 01.
t oz. from the Cora- \
Although :
corded U
It of Botr
near Fi&eld (near Condobclin), New ^ul
Zealand it occun in undi and gravels in
the Takaka River and the Gorge Rim
Bay. Many hxiblin in North America
generally in beach undt or in aciifeiDi
the gold-hearing
'cviotiaiy been regarded aa
a ai mo, kodoU (frag gold).
i> ol the iiland, ill occur-
inly in Tanah-Laut, In the
Ecal'Th*
I and rhodium u di
ium bitulphalei hila rhodium luTpliate. wfciA ii iki
enrauiiin with water, when a Rsduc id kmty StM
maim. The German firm of Herlw (La Husml
w tolution to dnaeaa. and heal the Te>due u ■>]' C
' ct of the reiiduc b then acidibed with l^<h»
in Aluka, I
!Ot«
ih Columbia, Ore{
,'iclded platinum,
;e. The metal ii
malleahle and
It! qxdfic grav
uyhydrogcs blowpipe.
I grtyiih-white metal •riiich
luclilci the addition of a ami
; and diminiiho [(a ductility vety
. . a. VioUe, Campia miiu, i»t;, Ij.
p. S4]); W. P. While (-t-KT. ./oara. Sci., IflOfl. tv. ig, p. }»)
the general formula S,-o-oji«S-t-3-4Xio~V. S, beb(
Ibe !
II 1*C. Ila u
elilerc
of New Vork
in Oniario, platinum has been diinn'crcd in the form ol an
anenidc (Pt At,) , which hu been called apcrrylile by H. L. Wells.
who anil>-ied it in iGSq, and named it alter F. L. Sperry, of
Sodbury. It belongi 10 the pyriiei group, and ii inieretling
•hieh platinum occun in
Niii
I alloy.
traloi
of the Rhii , .„
rived from Alpine rocka, have been found 10 contain plaii- Several fon
m in the proportion of 9>eoo4%. It hai also been found In obtained.
! tanda of the Ivalo Rivet in Lapland; It b recorded from plaiinochloi
ROros in Norway; and it wai delected by W. Mallei Id tome of gi jcjd joj
:ighbourl
having been obtained by diHetenl inveaiigaton (aec ], A.
Haikcr, Oum. A'ewi, i9os,9t,p. 16); C. FttyandC Cbterni.
Cfmpia rrnikt, tga>, i4S,p. 40i:>>)oC. W. WaidnerasdCH.
Burgcti, ibid., iqoq, 14S, p. 1177). Ita blent beat of fuBHit
17-iS calorin (Vtolle, Ik. til). The metal hta been obuiald
In the crystalline condilion by dislillalioninlhedectiicfaiaMti
or by decompoaing iU duoride at a red heat (H. UoHatl.
Platinum, like palladium, absorbs large quaalilks ol h;dnr>
and other gases, Ibe occluded gas iben becsmint noR'anin',
' ' ii used largdy u a catalytic faL
lie gold^ands of the 5
The table shows il
in Co. Wick
Year.
Amounl.
V..,.
Amount.
is
1.6.640
1934
l6i.9SO
■ 7J,7S«
if /••lf<
., 1908.)
lalinum is largely used for ihc
iratus, incandescent lamps, thermo-coupldi in Ibe manu-
urc of sulphuric acid by the contact proceat, in photdgnphy,
in jewelry. The price of the metal hoi riaen considenbly,
50 much on account of the restricted supply, bul chiefly
IUM the sources of supply have passed into the hands of a
average price ol platinum ingot pet once Troy: —
l8;4-ig9«; I s 1 10 a 1 o
jtlace of pure water (G. Btcdig, ZHi. ^yi, Chrm^ igBi, H,
pp. I. Jij). Platinum ii practically uniuddlaaUei il cnahiw
directly with phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, ailJcoo, bona, aid
fluorine, and with almost all other metals. It i> pnokdr
unatlacLcd by aU acids, dissolving only in aqua rcgia cr ii
miiiurei which generate chlorine. What fuied wiik afkalae
hydroiides in the presence of air it faima platioata. U h
readily attacked by fused niintta. and by potaMraa cyaBik
and ferrocyanide. All the platinum compounda wben teu^
atrongly decompose, and leave a residue at tb* BetaL 01
platinum stils, in the true sense of Ibe word, none akl; lia
is no carbonate, nitnte. aulphale, &c; halide salts, bowen.
ace known, but are oblained ia an indirect masaar.
by heaiini (h* Liiin»nad»<
rhich ia easily rvliicH lo di
3471)- The bydiaad tn-
doitaliiig the (fichbridt ut
nda 10 a boOiH teiaiiaB <f
Plalinum may be eitrjcled Irora its ore by both wet and dry
proceHcs. In tlie latter method, due 10 H. Sainte-Claire-Deville
and H. J. Dchray. the ore ii smelted in a furnac* conttiueted ol
two Uocki of lime, and the metallic button ao obtained it
8o7
1, K,Pl(CN)^CW.llM). U M
N),.CI,.ilM>. U cenibinM dincily wiih lodiiM.
Midr. BiI>i(CN)aHtO, k DHftad by Dm uium
c4 baryu Htcr dd the copper ulli by (9iiaiilvia( platinum in
fcarium cyanide under Ihe iafliience of an ahcmatina cumnti by
Ihe additKHi ol bariaiu cyanide (ajiiaLinuni bichlonoej or by the
limultancDui action of nydrocyanic and ulphiiroui acidi on a
miuuiB of baryu and cMorplatinic add (P. Bcrin, Ztil. ami.
Chtm., iSqg. ig, p. jig). It cryatalliiet in yelloir monadimc
priinu andii ulut:3e in hot water. It it cmcloycd ior tKt ntanu-
of comiMency before tbe age ot Gcoo, uid at an lukima tal
probably euly tine wai worked up into the lo-aUed E/itda
of Plato, now (U but umvenaliy diiciedited. Nor ia tkre
sufficient ground (or suppoaing, ai lome have done, that an
authentic tradition ia perceplible behind the myth.
The later yeara of the Pdoponn
bijrbioride.
corropoKli,
lien pl>u''nuni!'"The"'«°
~ ■- >"iow, iGe
1 iBiB by Maf niiK
leral formulae of
nxibsd of claial-
ficatfon being .hat due to Wernn
■
Telravalenl (plalinic) SallL
S=F"'|iSs5t
DUilmnine' "
11
X
at any lime unce ibe age of Oeittheiiea, the dty . . .
of hij own tribe or deme. Contenlioo in the law-
courts and rivalriea in the asembly had for manj men a meit
abiorbinginlercst Ihanqueaiioniof peut and war. HendAaiy
traditions had reLaied Ihcir hold, aiid political piiiKi|4(* tai
not yet (Dnnutatcd. Yet there wa* mt lea icape ga tW
(ccouat for pcnotial ambition, while the piogriB of demmncy,
Ihe neceuily of conciliating Ihcpeeple, and the atJfioniDBmeni of
public offices by lot had a diitracting and, to reflectii^ pervB,
often s diicoutapng eHccl. Foe Ihoie amoocii whom Hau m
brought up Ihii effect wil aggravated by the Mqad el tW
oligarchical nvolulion, while, on the other hand, (or bdibc yon
after the restoration of the democracy, a new atlmului had bed
imparted, which, though of abort duration, waa univaiaDy fdl.
diffuiion of ideaa. The unbitioui aeem to have wdcoued ika
u n meant ol inSuence, while those who tunud frua ji^bBc tk
were the more ttimulited to ipeculalive diiputatioa. Uosnir
the 4th century B.C. Ihe intellectual atmospbere wat ibaij
diarged with a new force, which altbou^ eaaenliaUy one bij be
differenily described, according to the node el its dereio
(]) rhetorical and (i) theoretical and " sophiitJcaL"
word indicates the channel Ihrou^ which the cumnl :
csted and of disinterested curiootly, had insensibly oea
e froi
nan, the great Athenian philosopher, was bom in 417 a.c.,
and lived to the age of eighty. His literary activity may be
roughly said to have extended over the first half oF the 4lh
century b.c His lather's name was Arision, said to have
been a descendsnC of Codrus; snd his mother's family, which
claimed descent from Solon, included Crilias, one of the thirty
tyrants, and other well-linown Athenians of the early 4th cen-
tury B.C. That throughout hia early manhood he was the
devoted friend of Socrates, that in middle life he taught those
who resorted to him in the grove named Academua, near the
Cephiius. and there founded the first great philosophical
school, that (with alleged intemiptions) be continued to pre-
side over the Academy until lus death, are matters of estab-
lished fact. It is said by Aristotle thai he was at one time
intimate with Cratylus the Heraclitean. Beyond this we have
no authentic record ol his outward life. That tiis name was at
first Aristodes, and was changed 10 Plato because of the breadth
of his shoulders or of his style or of his forehead, that he wrestled
well,' that he wrote poetry" which he burnt on hearing Socrates,
fought in three great battles," that he h4d > thin voice,
that (is is told of other Greek philosophers) be travelled to
Cyrene and conversed with priests in Egypt, ate ttalemenls
of Diogenes LaKilius, which test on more or lets untcttain ttadi-
(ion. The eipms asseilion — which this author itttibutes to
Kennodotus— that after the death ol Socnlei Plato and other
SocTBlics took tetuge with Euclidcs in Megaia, has a somewhat
sirongei claim lo authenticity. But the fact cannot be regarded
as certain, stilt less the elaborate inferences which have been
drawn from it. The romantic legend ol Plato's journeys to
Sicily, and of his relations there with the younger Dionysius and
Ihe princely but unfortunate Dion, had obtained some degree
bin been u Ddium.
'^M^t^Blt
lied to him.
supplement the defii
men for the requiren
they based their teachings 01
earlier time, when the ^lecul
or Parmenides had interested only a few "
great thoughts were now to he eipoundcd. » that ~em
cobblers might undenlanil."* The •df-appoieied tatiai
found a rich field and abundant harvest anwog the wcili^
youth, to the chagrin of tlie old-fashioned Athenun. wliD a^
with Aristophanes for the good old days when men knew ka sad
listened to iheir eiders and obeyed the customs of tbeir fadsi
And such distrust was not wholly unfounded. For, lai^
much that was graceful and inpniving. these novd qucstiwap
had an influence that, besides bring unsettling, was aimlesiad
unreal. A later critidsn may disceta in Ihem the iwoFiu
lendcnciea of naturalism and humaniim. But it may be doitud
if the sophist was himself aware ol the direction c< ha en
thoughts. For. although Prodicus or Hippias could deiau 1
thesis and moralise witb eSecl, they do not appear to hcvc beo
capable ol speculative reasoning. What passed for wth was I'us
either verbal quibbling or the pushing to an otRine d ^e
isolated abstract notion. That pnitnt (Mi Hiii which ■
iimidiam uitHllat had nol yet been put- And yet tbe hoar fa
putting it concerning human life was lully come. For thas
on which men were drifting wis profoundly troubled, and naU
not sink back into its former calm. ConKrvUive naitiOD ■»
not less hopeless than the dreams of theorisis were mischirvnal;
wild. In random talk, with gay, irresponsible cnerxy, ib
youth were debating problems which have cicraanl (real niBdi
in Europe through all after time.
Men's thoughts had begun to be thus distatbcdaad tttB^"
Socrates (;.>.) arose. To understand him is the most nereMV
pretiminaiy 10 the study of Plato. There b no itaiOB te d«H
• It had been the policy ol Pcrida Is tavke iB«»«">^ 1
foreigners to Athens. j
• n^BU; ito D. J
PLATO
809
the general truth of the assertion, which Plato attributes to
htm in the Apologia^ that he felt a divine vocation to examine
g^gffUfg, himxlf by questioning other men. He was really
doing for Athenians, whether they would or no,
what the sophist professed to do for his adherents, and what
such men as Protagoras and Prodicus had actually done in part.
One obvious difference was that he would take no fee. But
there was another and more deep-lying difference, which dis-
tinguished him not only from the contemporary sophists but
(rom the thinkers of the previous age. This was the Socratic
attitude of inquiry. The sceptical movement had confused
men's notions as to the value of ethical ideas.* If " right is
one thing in Athens and another in Sparta, why strive to follow
, right rather than expediency? The laws put restraint on nature,
which is prior to them. Then why submit to law? " And the
ingenuities of rhetoric had stirred much unmeaning -disputation.
Every case seemed capable of being argued in opposite ways.
Even on the great question of the ultimate constitution of things,
the conflicting theories of absolute immutability and eternal
change appeared to be equally irrefragable and equally
untenable. Men's minds had been confused by contradictory
voice*— one crying " All is motion," another " All is rest " ;
one '* The absolute is unattainable," another ** The relative
alone is real " ; some upholding a vague sentiment of traditional
right, while some declared for arbitrary convention and some for
the law " of nature." Some held that virtue was.spontaneous,
tome that it was due £0 training, and som^ paradoxically denied
that either vice or falsehood had any meaning. The faith of
Socrates, whether instinctive or in^ired, remained untroubled by
these jarring tones. He did not ask " Is virtue a reality? "
or " Is goodness a delusidn? " But, with perfect confidence
that there was an answer, he asked himself and others " What is
it?" (r( yri); or, more particularly, as Xenophon testifies,
"What is a state? What is a statesman? What is just?
What is unjust? What is government? What is it to be a
niJer of men ? " In this form of question, however simple, the
originality of Socrates is typified; and by means of it he laid
the first stone, not only of the fabric of ethical philosophy,
but of scientific method, at least in ethics, logic and psychology.
Socrates never doubted that if men once knew what was best,
they would also do it. They erred, he thought, from not seeing
the^ good, and not because they would not follow it if seen.
This is expressed in the Socratic dicta: " Vice is ignorance,"
Virtue is knowledge." This lifelong work of Socrates, in
which the germs of ethics, psychology and logic were contained,
was idealized, developed, dramatized— first embodied and then
*T!- h *** ^yond its original scope— in the writings of Plato,
wiijcli may be described as the literary outcome of the profound
^pressjon made by Socrates upon his greatest follower. These
«nl/"^*- pursuance of the importance given by Socrates to
^uti^ i^ *" ^^ "* ^^* '*>"° **^ imaginary dialogue.
tion th'^^ which are presumably the latest in order of compo-
p/WMon "^^^"^^'veform interferes but little with the direct
\oured vitf? tit P^*^o*0P^^^'> own thoughts. The many-
m thinner ^^' inseparable from the features is gradually
*Uto's ph/J *''*' ** ^^ becomes almost imperceptible.
ateUectual^^^^^^' as embodied in his dialogues, has at once
by
mystical aspect; and both are dominated
Sqj. .P^'"V'ading ethical motive. In obeying the
on/zed the 'J"^^'^* ^'* speculative genius absorbed and
>rary thou Y*^^^^^ conceptions which were present in con-
ving corrS •'*'^''^®"^ ^^°™ ^^^ ®' theirdogmatic isolation
snce of nT t^** ^^*^^ **°* another, and with the life and
advanta^ H'* poetical feeling and imagination,
ndcd hia ^^^'^ I'ythagorean and Orphic suggestions,
made the* ^"^^^^ reasonings with a halo of mythology
^^^*c intelT "^^""^ fascinating, but also more difficult for
'^^^'ons of 1^ ^*^ comprehend. Convinced through the
^ ^'^senaraM^*^^*^ ^^^^ *™'** ***** 80od exist and that
-nee Uponk '^^"^uaded of the unity of virtue and of its
°^W^^<i«e, he set forth upon a course of bquiry,
Oaird. Hegd, p. 168.
in which he could not rest until the discrepancies of ordinary
thinking were not only exposed but accounted for, and resolved
in relation to a comprehensive theory. In this "pathway
towards reality," from the consideration of particular virtues
he passed to the contemplation of virtue in general, and thence
to the nature of universals, and to the unity of knowledge and
being. Rising still higher on the road of generalisation, he dis-
cussed the problem of unity and diversity, the one and the many.
But in these lofty speculations the facts of human experience
were not lost to view. The one, the good, the true, is otherwise
regarded by him as the moral ideal, and this is examined as
realized both in the individual and in the state. Thus ethical
and political speculations are combined. And as the method
of inquiry is developed, the leading principles both of logic and of
psychology become progressively more distinct and clear.
Notwithstanding his high estimate of mathematical prindples,
to him the type of exactness and certitude, Plato contributed
little directly to physical science. Though he speaks with
sympathy and respect of Hippocrates, he had no vocation for
the patient inductive observation of natural processes, through
which the Coan physicians, though they obtained few lasting
results, yet founded a branch of science that was destined to be
beneficently fruitful. And he turned scornfully aside from the
Atomists, Leucippus and Democritus, whose first principle, the
basis of so much in modem physics, appeared to him to be tainted
with materialism. Yet his discursive thought, as in later yean
he held high intercourse with Archytas and other contemporary
minds, could not fail, unlike his master's, to include a theory
of the Cosmos in its purview. In this regard, however, the
poet-phUosopher brought imagination to the aid of reason, thus
creating a new mythology, Of which the Timofus is the most
conspicuous example.
Amidst great diversity, both of subject and of treatment,
Plato's dialogues are pervaded by two dominant motives, a
passion for human improvement and a persistent faith in the
power and supremacy of mind. What is commonly known as
his doctrine of Ideas is only one phase in a continuous progress
towards the realisation of a system of philosophy in which the
supreme factor is reason guiding will. But the objectivity,
which from the first was characteristic of all Greek thinking, and
his own power of poetic presentation, obscured for a time, even
for Plato himself, the essential spirituality of his conceptions, and
at one time even threatened to arrest them at a stage in which the
universal was divorced from the particular, the permanent from
the transient, being from becoming, and in which the first princi-
ples of reality were isoUted from one another as well as from the
actual world. Gradually the veil was h'fted, and the reUtion
between the senses and the intellect, phenomena and general
laws, the active and the contempUtive powers, came to be more
clearly conceived. The true nature of abstraction and general-
ization, and of predication and inference, began to be discerned,
and si>eculation was verified through experience. The ideas were
seen as categories, or forms of thought, under which the infinite
variety of natural processes might be comprised. And thus the
dialogues present, as in a series of dissolving views, a sort of
modd or compendium of the history of philosophy. Plato's
system is nowhere distinctly formulated, nor are the views put
forward in his dialogues always consistent with each other, but
much especially of his later thought is systematized, and as it
were crystallized in the treatises of Aristotle; by whom the point
of view which Plato had approached, but not finally attained,
was made the starting-point for more precise metaphysical
determinations and carried into concrete theories having the
stamp of a more rigid logical method. The departments bf ethics
and politics, of dialectic and of psychology, of physics and meta-
physics, thus came to be more clearly distinguished, but some-
thing was lost of the um'ty and intensity of spiritual insight
which had vitalized these various elements, and fused them in a
dynamic harmony.
The student of philosophy, whatever may be the modem
system to which he is most inclined, sensational, intuitional,
coQC^tional. transcendental, will find hia account in returning
8io
PLATO
to this well-ipring of European tiMught, in which all previous
movements are absorbed, and from wUch all subsequent lines
of reflection may be said to divergie. As was observed by Jowett
{St Fault 1855), " the germs of all ideas, even of most Christian
ones, are to be found in Plato."
Two great forces are persistent in Plato: the love of truth and
zeal for human improvement. In the period culminating with
tiiMiarteal the Republic, these two motives, the speculative and
imtkfaet the practical, are combined in one harmonious
9tPiMt0. ^i^rking. In the succeeding period, without ex«
duding one another, they operate with alternate intensity. In
the varied outcome of his long literary career, the metaphysical
" doctrine of ideas " which has been Hssoriated with Plato's
name underwent many important changes. But pervading all
these there is the same constant belief in the sui^emacy of
reason and the identity of truth and good. From that abiding
root spring forth a multitude of thoughts concerning the mind
and human things — turning chiefly on the principles of psycho-
logy, education and political reform — thoughts which, although
unverified, and often needing correction from experience, still
constitute Plato the most fruitful of philosophical writers. While
general ideas are powerful for good or ill, while abstractions are
necessary to science, while mankind are apt to crave after
perfection, and ideals, either in art or life, have an acknowledged
value, so long the renown of Plato will continue. " All philo-
sophic truth is Plato rightly divined; all philosophic error is Plato
misunderstood "—is the verdict of one of the keenest of modem
metaphysicians.*
Plato's followers, however, have seldom kept the proportions
of his teaching. The diverse elements of his doctrine have
survived the spirit that informed them. The pythagorizing
mysticism of the Timaeus has been more prized than the subtle
and clear thinking of the Theaetetus. Logical inquiries have been
hardened into a barren ontology. Semi-mythical statements have
been construed literally and mystit fancies perpetuated without
the genuine thought which underlay them.. A part (and not the
essential part) of his philosophy 1ms been treated as the whole.
But the influence of Plato has extended far beyond the limits of
the Platonic schools. The debt of Aristotle to his master has
never yet been fully estimated. Zeno, Chrysippus, Epicurus
borrowed from Plato more than they knew. The moral ideal of
Plutarch and that of the Roman Stoics, which have both so
deeply affected the modem world, could not have existed without
him. Neopythagoreanism was really a arude Neoplatonism.
And the Sceptics availed themselves of weapons either forged by
Plato or borrowed by him from the Sophists. A wholly distinct
line of infiltration is suggested by the mention of PhUo and the
Alexandrian school (cf. section in Arabian Philosophy, ii. 36bc,
Qth edition), and of Clement and Origen, while Gnostic heresies
and even Talmudic mysticism betray perversions of the same
influence. The effect of Hellenic thought on Christian theology
and on the life of Christendom is a subject for a volume, and has
been pointed out in part by E. Zeller and others (cf. Neo-
platonism). Yet when Plotinus in the 3rd century (after
hearing Ammonius), amidst the revival of religious paganism,
founded a new spiritualistic philosophy upon the study of Plato
and Aristotle combined, this retum to the fountain head had
all the effect of novelty. And for more than two centuries, from
Plotinus to Produs, the great effort to base life anew on the
Platonic wisdom was continued. But it was rather the ghost
than the spirit of Plato that was so " unsphered." Instead of
striving to reform the world, the Neoplatonist sought after a
retired and doistered virtue. Instead of vitalizing sdence with
fresh thought, he lost hold of all reality in the contemplation of
infinite unity. He had skill in dealing with abstractions, but laid
a feeble hold upon the actual world.
" Hermes Trismegistus " and " Dionysius Areopagita " are
names that mark the continuation of this influence into the
middle ages. The pseudo-Dionysius was translated by Erigena
in the 9th century.
Two more "Platonic" revivals have to be recorded — at
* Fcrricr, ImsHtuUs of Metaphysics, p. 169 ({ L prop. vL f 12).
Florence in. the tsth and at Cambddge in the iTtb eentmy.
Both were enthusiastic and both uncriticaL The translation
of the dialogues into Latin fay Marsilio Fidno was the most
lasting effect of the former movement, whidi was tinged with
the unsdentific ardour of the Renaissance. The preference still
accorded to the Timaeus is a fair indication of the tendency to
bring fumum ex fulgore which probably nuuned the HiTtwyiftiif
of the Florentine Academy concerning the " chief good." The
new humanism had also a sentimental cast, which was alien from
Plato. Yet the effect of this tpmi on art and literatnie was
very great, and may be deariy traced not only in Italian hot ia
English poetry.
The " Cambridge Platonists " have been described by Principal
T\dloch in his important work on Rational Theology m Emifoai
in the 17th century, and again by Professor J. A. Stewart la tk
conduding chapter of his volume on the Mytiu of Plato. Tbdr
views were mainly due to a reaction from the i^nlosoplqr ti
Hobbes, and were at first suggested as much by Plotinns as by
Plato. It is curious to fiiui that, just as Socxates and Amiwnias
(the teacher of Plotinus) left no writings, so Whidioote, tlie
founder of this school, worked chiefly through convcrsitioa
and preaching. His pupils exercised a considerable inflnrnrr for
good, espedaDy on En^^ish theology; and in asfnratkm if not is
thought they derived something from Plato, but they seem to
have been incapable of separating his meaning from that d bii
interpreters, and Cudworth, their most consistent writer, was at
once more systematic and less scientific than the Athtsiu
philosopher. The translations of Sydenham and Taykr is the
18th century and the beginning of the 19th are proofs of tbi
continued influence of Platonism in En^and.
The critical study of Plato begins from Sdileiermadicr, ite
did good work as an interpreter, and tried to arrange the diak(oci
in the order of composition. His attempt, which, ^ o«M
like many efforts of consUructtve criticism, went far Mkimh
beyond possibility, was vitiated by the gnnind-fallacy o( sq>>
posing that Plato had from the first a complete system ii Ui
mind which he partially and gradually revealed in writing. At
a considerably later time Karl Friedrkh Hermann, to nham iH
students of Plato are indebted, renewed the same endeavour oa
the far more plausible assumption that the dialogues faitkfaly
reflect the growth of Plato's mind. But he also was too sangioBe,
and exaggerated the possibility of tracing a conxtezioii bttveea
the outward events of Plato's life and the jmigress of his tboo^
This great question of the order of the dialogues) whidi hu beea
debated by numberless writers, is one which only admits of la
approximate solution. Much confusion, bown^cr, has bees
obviated by the hypothesis (first hinted at by Ueberweg. vd
since supported by Lewis Campbell and others) that the Sofhiskt
and Poliiicus, whose genuineness had been called in qocstioa hf
Joseph Socher, are really intermediate between the Repahlic uA
the Laws. The allocation of these dialogues, not only 00 grooods
of metaphysical criticism, but also on phflological aiMi otba
evidence of a more tangible kind, supplies a p(»nt of view froa
which it becomes possible to trace with confidence the genoal
outlines of Plato's literary and philosophical devck^>meat
Reflecting at first in various aspects the impressions recdnd
from Socrates, he b gradually touched with an inspiration vfaid
becomes his own, and which seeks utterance in half-poctial
forms. Then first the ethical and by and by the metaplqfsicil
interest becomes predominant. And for a ^iHiile this last is all
absorbing, as he confronts the central pcoblems which his ova
thoughts have raised. But, again, the hard-won acquisitioaa
of this dialectical movement must be fused anew with istafi'
nation and applied to life. And in a final effort to oat bii
intellectual wealth for the subvention of human need the grot
spirit passed away.
It may not be amiss to reca|ntulate the steps throoi^ lAoA
the above position re^)ecting the order of the diakfues bas
become established. Lovers of Hegel had observed
that the point reached in the SopHsles in defining
" not being " was dialectically in advance of the
Republic But Kantian interpretcn might obvioasty have aid
PLATO
8ii
tlie same of the Parmeniiui and Grote as a consistent utilitarian
lo6ked upon the Protagoras as the most mature production of
Plato's genius. It seemed desirable to find some criterion that
was not bound up with philosophical points of view. Dr
Thompson, the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, had
vindicated the genuineness of the Sopkistes against the objections
of Socher, but had not accounted for the peculiarities of language,
whkh that acute critic had perceived. By comparing those
peculiarities with the style of the £aw5, Plato's latest work, and
with that of the Timaeus and Critias, which presupposed the
Rtpublic, Lewis Campbell argued in 1867 that the SopkiUes and
P^UicuSf with the PhiMmSt were in chronological sequence
intermediate between the Republic and the Laws. Thus a
Further defence of their authenticity was at the same time
s long step towards the solution of the problem which Schleier-
macher had proposed. Many years afterwards the more
detailed stylistic investigations of W. Dittenbergcr, Constanlin
Ritter and others arrived independently at the same conclusion.
[t was vehemently supported by W. Lutoslawski in his work on
Plato's Logic, and has been frankly accepted with ample acknow-
ledgments by the high authority of Dr Theodor Gomperz (see
sspcdally the Notes to his Greek Thinkers, ilL 310, 3x5 of
English translation).
Tek Wosxs of Plato
The PUtonic dialogues are not merely the embodiment of the
nind of Socrates and of the reflections of PUto. They are the
portraiture of the highest intellectual life of Hellas in the time
>f Plato — a life but distantly related to military and political
svents, and scarcely interrupted by them. Athens appears as
the centre of the excitable Hellenic mind, profoundly stirred by
the arrival of great sophists, and keenly alive to the questions of
Socrates, although in the pages of Plato, even more than in
reality, he only " whispers with a few striplings in a comer."
For, in the Platonic grouping, the agora, which was the chief
icene of action for the real Socrates, retires into the background,
ind he is principally seen consorting with his chosen companions,
vho are also friends of Plato, and with the acquaintances whom
le makes through them. The scene is narrowed (for the Academy
vas remote from the bustle of resort, and Plato judged the Hellenic
irorld securely from the vantage-ground of partial retirement) —
>ut the figures are distinct ^md full of life. In reading the dia-
ogues we not only breathe the most refined intellectual atmo-
tpbere, but are also present witnesses of the urbanity, the freedom,
;be playfulness, the generous warmth of the " best society " in
Athens. For Plato has a numerous repertory of dramatis
^ersonae^ who stand in various relations to his chief character —
Jie impetuous Chaerephon, ApoUodorus the inseparable weak
>rDther, old Crito the true-hearted, Phaedo the beloved disciple,
rtmmias and Cebes, who have been with Philolaus, the graceful
tnd ingenuous Phaedrus, the petulant Philebus, Theaetetus of
he philosophic nature, who is cut off in his prime, and the
ncorrigible Aldbiades; then Plato's own kinsmen — Glaucon the
rrepressible in politics, in quarrel and in love; Adeimantus, solid
jid grave; Critias in his phase of amateur phil(Mopher, and not as
rhat he afterwards became; Charmides, not in fiery manhood,
tut in his first bk>pm of diffident youth; and many others who
ppear as mere acquaintances, but have an interest of their own
-the accomplished Agathon, the gay Aristophanes, Eryxi-
lachus the all-worthy physician; Meno, light of spirit; CaUias,
ntertainer of sophists; Callides the wilful man of the world;
ephalus the aged father of Lysias; and Nicias the honoured
»idier. ^ All these appear, not as some of them do on the page of
'story f in sanguinary contention or fierce rivalry, but as peaceful
thenians, in momentary contact with Socrates, whose electric
uch now benumbs and now exhilarates, and sometimes goads
frenzy o( love or anger. Still more distantly related to him,
it were slzndin^ in an outer circle, are the imposing forms of
TgiAs and Protagoras, surrounded with the lesser UghU of
^P**J^ '^'^"* *°^ Polus. Thrasymachus, Euthydemus,
>ny«Wfnis bang round like comic masks, adding piquancy
^- TTac adversaries Anytus and Me)etuf are allow^
to appear for a moment, but soon vanish.. The older philosophers,
though Socrates turned away from them,'also make their entrance
on the Platonic stage. Parmenides with his magnificent depth
is made to converse with the imaginary Socrates, who is still
quite young. A stranger from Elea pUys an important part in
some Utter dialogues, and Timaeus the Pythagorean is introduced
discoursing of the creation of the world. In these dialogues
Socrates is mostly silent; in the PkUebus he has lost himself in
Plato; and in the twelve books of the Laws, where an unnamed
Athenian is the chief speaker, even the Platonic Socrates finally
disappears.
Now, in evolving his philosophy from the Socratic basis,
Plato works along three main lines — the ethical and political,
the metaphysical or scientific, and the mysticaL All three are
often intimately blended, as in the close of Rep., bk. vi., and even
where one element is uppermost the others are not wholly
suppressed. But this distinction, h'ke that sometimes made in
modem philosophy between the good, the tme and the beautiful,
is one which, if not imduly pressed, may be usefully home in
mind.
Having noted this once for all, we pass to the more detailed
consideration of the several dialogues.
I. Lackes, Ckarmides, Lysis. — In this first group Socrates is
dealing tentatively with single ethical notions. The result in
each case is a confession of ignorance, but the subject has been so
handled as to point the way to more fruitful discussions in the
future. And suggestions are casually thrown out which antici-
pate some of the most far-reaching of Plato's subsequent
contemplations.
The Lackes is a vigorous sketch, hi which the characters of the
soldier, the aged citizen, and the prudent general are well
preserved; and Socrates is seen conversing with his . .
elders, although with reference to the treatment of
the young. The question raised is the definition of courage;
and the humour of the piece consists in showing that three men,
all of whom are imquestionably brave, are imable to give an
account of bravery, or to decide whether courage is an animal
instinct or a mental accomplishment.
Similarly, in the dialogue which bears his name, the temperate
Charmides, of whom all testify that (as Aristophanes has it),* he
" fills up the gracious mould of modesty," is hopelessly chMnMB
embarrassed when challenged by the Socratic method **
to put in words his conception of the modesty or temperance
which he possesses, and which, as Socrates assures him, is a
priceless g^t. The Ckarmides contains some hints of Platonic
notions, such as that of knowledge as self-consciousness, and of
virtue as "doing one's own business."
The graceful little dialogue which bears the name of Lysis
ends, like the two former, with a confession of failure. Socrates,
Lysis and Menexenus are all friends, and think -^^
highly of friendship, yet after many - efforts th^ m^t-^
are unable to tell " what friendship is." Yet some of the sug-
gestions which are here laid aside are afterwards allowed to
reappear. The notion that ** what is neither good nor evil loves
the good because of the presence of evil " is expanded and
emphasized in the Symposium, And the conception of an ideal
object of friendship, an atrrd 0fXor (though rejected as in the
criticism of Aristotle by the characteristic reductio ad infinitum),
is destined to have a wider scope in the history of Platonism.
II. Protagoras, lo, Meno. — The previous dialogues have
marked the distinction between unconscious and conscious
morality, and have also brought out the Socratic tendency lo
identify virtue with the knowledge of good. Now, the more
strongly it is felt that knowledge is inseparable from virtue the
more strange and doubtful appears such unconscious excellence
as that of Laches, Charmides or Lysis. Hence arises the
further paradox of Socrates: " Virtue is not taught, and that
which is commonly regarded as virtue springs up spontaneously
or is received unconsciously by a kind of inspiration."
Protagoras, in the dialogue named after him, is the professor
of popular, unscientific, self-complacent excellence; whil<
Socratn appon in bit Ufc-long michalicr the ideal kaowlcdtc ililrtmra fiiltii lo uacb thdr uu, and ihii ibc edncuioa ||ina
of tbc best. Thft two men are luluraUy at ctota pur^xnrt. by uphiita ii unaaluTying. (Tlie aapliista an ben ******^'*^
ProLagonu contends that virtue a taught by himseJf by Anylui, who is anEercd by Socntes'i inuucal prue of tboa.)
' ^ ' ....... " 1 the paiadoi is solteiwd in Iwo ways: (i) the abeeoced
nvlcdge does ool precJude inquiry, and (i) ibm^ viitic
supposed that he was contented to renuin in the attitude which have ttii ihai i1ie khiI u imnmul and that ifac hai pun] tknih
Hellenic education, be baa to some extent reconciled the con- gromcirical theorem.' About the middte of the proceia be ia»
ceptions which arc here dramatically opposed. lo Mcno and observes that the sbve
ascription of it '* ™^* becoming comciaus of iinoraoce- He then fradnal
L„»L» ( »w- f nan the man. by [cadins questions, the noaitive ptooi.
indiide many lik-like louchcs-such at the eagicnm o( Itw -,. TSiugii ;^^-i,-„i-iS"dSi^.'i. ™y fciimwl - b™-
young Alhfnian genitcman lo hear the sophist, though he would ihetlcally " that, it vinue ii knowlcdK. vinue an be oifiL
be athamcd to be thought a sophist himself^ the confusion into Add eupcrience leads in u admit iwo phaia of ----- -■-
which the house of Callias has been thrown by the cnwrd of mode of life bnied on KienlUSe ppncii^ -"''> i
strange™ and by the «;lf-importance of rival profeswc; the ^|'^' ,":fpS,^ru?1SSl£.Thilh ^t 1
graceful dignity of the man vrho has been ionyyeirsa teacher. fu[ lEiough demoosiraiion of ihc caui
the graphic description of the whole scene, the chaiacierislic were a vinoomm'- -*"™"" ■---'■ "i"
tpe«he» of Prodicus and Hippias {from which some critics have ■'tt^jJ^A'iJ,,
elicited a Ihcoiy of their doclrinei), and the continued irony with ,,„ KmrmylhicardeieKe of Ihe'wo™"
wh.ch Socrates beats them all in hand and wothei the great man |e<Ue is imiiiclt in the mind from binh.
after disconcening him. - „ l. h l. . g ^- "L Emkyfliro, A^'t-a.C'i^, Pliatdt.—Tt,mhMrml
(■)"prei'J^"iii ^S^nJi'Eiih hTs relative 'viST™ thi™ for supposing that these four diohjgues were writlen toBm-
(which Plata alwrwardi criiiciicd in Ihc rfaorbliii). daimi not lively, or thai they belong strictly lo the same period of PbisV
to teach men principln tut lo impnive them in [hcne virtuca which industry. But they are linlted together for the reatkr by iba
l^ovidenu has given In laiine niciaiin to an elviliiEd men. h) common reference to the (rial and death of Sooales; bo e«d
Socrai™ in postulating a icientiBc pnacipli:. which he eapKnly ,, .,. , , , ,„ . - ... ...,, ., . ' „ . ,_
le^rvci for luture eonuderalion. would haSTic tested by IhTpower "»™ '•" «" P™™" ,"* « "',"^e author's eariieS or lua
or ukulaling the aniount of pimure. Grote dwells with some rainnerj and they may therefore fitly end the lena ofdzalefnB
coiBplaceBcy on the " utilitarianism " of Socnies in the fV«iii(«rsi. in which the penooal ttaiu of the hiuotic Sociatei are mil
Amfit is true that a Pri«'f« of utili^.ben ajpjpn^ 10 con- apparent, and Plato's own peculiar doclrinei are u y« bK
rt? S? fSTthTIider a^Kl dSi^^nlmt"bIllwcen an aSu^ P^"t f"^^^ ,. .. v , » ^
and a scieniilic mndard. or between imprenian and conccprioni The litite dialogue knowD by the name oi £iii*y^k> nili
or ideu. And when Plaio (in the Gvt jai and PkHttiai endeavoun have been classed with Ihe Latkri, Ckarmidti aad Ljal, h
to define the an of meaiurenienl. which i> here anticipated, it il d,.tina incanrtuuvclv with a linile nnlinn Rat
not wonderful that diftMenccs here unlhought of shouUcomc into ..,1 j. i^ ji .T - i _ -. i ""■■i^>f
view, or that the pleaunt should be a^in contradistinguished »Hhoughslight and Icntativein form.il baaan undet-
Irom the good. In all three dialogues he is equally asserting the lone of deeper ligi
nipiemacy of rcaaon. occasion. Pblo in
het'wS^'r^anlH'ToS '™"' "'' '"^"'•*''^'"' i^wrto lo^ ^ li',^w^f/^Ll*^"'ib^^^'^,!^,^%^
IiSi^ius ^om alSI Euihyphro is a soolhiavet. wcU-di>po«d to Socrale*. b« ■
nunt ideal ever striven Ic *™ °^ hn pinicular friends. They meet at the deoe of Ibt bq
convinced of the reality of ^'^'"■S- ™"^ ?^,''*-'" been lurnmoned foe iIk -[n^
^lrI,M. Ri.r li> i< Inna ni nilion (l>4>(i»i| pTelimuuiy to hn Inil. Both neaiRUB'
in Ih^whVdo Mt" k™ i'"l*">' *'> '"*■"■ •!» haaSJvenenily eanfd the death J.ni
hn^^Tand risht ^> dice minai Ubourer. The prophet feelt the duly of purgiif ibeu
/v and itfine. II icpceieniod "' '^'"''^ !° '>' ""f. impemtive the nearer home. Soentia ■ ■«<
inoidccioaccounilorihcie ^ „- , , and detains Euihyphro at the eniiance of the toun, thai be M
SocratethasobKrved that rhapwdixi and even poctthaveno jum froni so clear an authority "what piety ii." a^abrla
definite knowledge of the tbingi whicb they 10 poweifully repre- lificd againx Meleius. He leads bis reapoadni fcm jhim •
«eat (cf. Afil. )l; Piatd,, uS A.; Rrf. iii. 39« A), point. .unlU the doubt U raised whetber Gort love, hd^ K
„. tj ... J.' I. ;. ,. .J„,,'.i,:, V-j ,' cauie It IS holy, or it n holy because loved by Cod. Den C*
He bnng) the ihapsode lo to admit this, and to will what i. rigiiieous. or is itat righicou. whS » wilW hy C^
eonclode Ihal he it the inspired medium of a magnetic influence. n„e Ihcy find themselves wandenng round and mind. Secnii
The Muse is the chief magnet, and ihe poet is the lint of a series piovn himiiell an innluntarv Ilaedalut who nukes ainioB hx
are^Cot^toior p^«r. a!!!d Ihi lost ri'n^"fa th^bt^or JiL^j'';'^'iirb'?°™^'TnJl'i«iri4""B«'^^
specEalor. ... ^cct the gods? " It phiairi them." A^ain we are Codad lob
re the Icianile ■> iioicdn).
PLATO
t> ArKKylu, Sopliailei and Pindar
, iTpMi ihc ipdi.' "^en' lunl
LttcDdin^ iipoa the fpdt,' When fgrtlvr iDtaraninJ by So- Fur
mtn u IS Ihc oatUR o( Mt ' attention to the godl,' he npliea that WCrl*
eiy i> ao affair ol buaincB. a Kience ol living and aikint and the neuU
IE. Somlta (Binli out ihe anthmpomorphnni of lbe« notiom. 1 lout
u[ when lit eipeci him (o la on and ihaw thai the true anvice " —
InPJiio's-Jpi'JdClhefalcofSociatoisno longet the lubjcct
: meie alluiioni, luch as Ibc lase of Anytiu (I Ihe end of ihe
. Uho, and Ihe Kene and occaiion of [he EMltypbt.
a countrymen who are condtmning him lo death.
What most aggraviitd his danger (after li(e-long trnpunity) h
iiu Hated by James Riddel), in Ihe inlrvdivriion to hi> edition
: the dialogue: "The Inanna" (clemency) "'of the rototed
»plc did nol hsl iDnJi, and nas nalurilly succeeded by a icnii-
ve and (initical teat for Ihcir revived political inttiiuliina.
iquiry into the foundaiions of civil locicty na* obvto'isl)'
itber perilous for the inquirer al such ■ time. Socralcs knew
■c fuU Client of his danger. But, according to Xenophon
Htm. iv. c 8, ) 14). he prepared no defence, alleging that hit
bole life had been a preparation for that hour "
The tone of the Platonic ApiJisy is in full accordance with thai
of what
was actual!)
d. Jowetl
wellc
th^l
of Tbucydii
t«.
in which h
."lld'l'oh
ehu
Itheg,
embodied hi)
is signlBi
;^t'tbal Pllto i.
ledefe
» is also sai
> have bcei
nt at the last
xneof
the'/'Aoeda. Someo
fthi
been actually
led by Socrates
.andlhereo
>llecl
'«y words may have
.ngint
heeano
fhisdi«aple:
The Pliconid Aptlan ii in
1) alter Tonviciion and before
int
S.?^.!
t) befoT* coBviclion,
isweT lo Melelus. as least important, it rwerved
lipeecb. He addresses himself Bnc to " other an
ni and the rest, who have prejudiced hie repute
itifying Idm with the physkvl plulo»ph^ a —
lul what then is the Mnngg punuit which haa givei
i^^iled"by the oiacle at Dtiph), and"wb!3i
^ — .. . ~.i-.^~.. niiHJon. The god aid
Mild Gnd none, though he foum
Ofn. And he inferred that the gf
(teal lias left him in great povcny; 'and tas made hi
'hrr are repceacnted by An^us, Melctiis and Lycnn.
unity is further embillered by the pleavire which y
ike in teeing pretence unmstkcd. and in imitatint- ihc p..„.i» »,
Mutation. Hence has arisen the lalK charie that Socrates is a
irrupter of youth,
t. Here he Ium< to Meletui. " If I conupt Ihe youlh, who don
lem good?" Ua. "The laws, the judges, the audience, the
ihcnSns generally'' {d. Prolajonu and iinm). "Strange, thai
^ghboura." UrI. "Socrates is an aih««. He believes (he lua
iBiaslone." " You are amusin. Aiunsgoras. I havesaWlhal
,^i^°il^ll£ii a^i diC^e^hings. ^ow^nTuieve U diviu
iinis (lauiina) and not in divine beings (laliBm) i and bow
. ,tRri-. h-!™,™ lt.™inmH.«hn.n-lhe;r.iilhOT>r
£S
»tiw
'■y^
t. That is a sufficient answer for his present accuser. He re- Qtjfa
ia deilb. as slander hat often been and again' viU be the death of
Vei if ifwed he will eonlinne the one course of lite, in spite d
K danger. As *( Potidaea and Delium he faced dmlh where (hi l» th*
Lttunians posted him, so now be will rewain at the post where h« _^_
8 14 PLATO
Ciita Iben Kvab till pUn let u aaat And Socrita uiatt L The mi] i> uaEooipagiidD), incorponal. iavIiAlE, ti
Lhe quotlDB in the oM UmilUr my. "Crilo't Kal ia emlknt, Core indiHaluble lod <mniiiuUe.
ind iiHM nea wouM think hit obfect nght. Bui ibc lev who u. The Kid axBoundh ihe body Krva; then<o« Ih
lUiUc ■Dundly hv ihit it i> wrDnc ta mum evil (oc evil. Tlie akin ta ihc dinnt.
lansfAilieudliniith thetiukornieiiUiedaintSocialalunn. lU. Vet even the body holda utRher loiw kfur deuh.
Bui odihl he Ibenfore to infriine (he law ) Mitht tut the liwi of banee are lU but indeMnictihlt
his country plead with him and fayr ' Yo^j owi The eoui. iS pure, depani to tht inviiibk world, tiat. i
and bnedins; and when frown up you voiunu a bilh the body, ihe Unfert hovtnof near i
u». For you mighl have gone elaewben. But irdi born into the likeneB of ■one lower fori
U VOL
wUlb<
be rejected by all
:m if you were dead. Think not of lilt aod childm
tm and o( juBlM a(._ _ . , ._ ., ,.
maybe juatlncd in the world below.'" "when tlielule ii broken"?
CritoadmilitheKariunienutabeuiiaiawerable. i. Cebet comparet the body lo a (inncnt which the «IIh(>
TfaeUnu relemd lo Iheimmotlililvandnre-eiiljlenceof the """'"B »'- ''"• S»™>™t '" which the weaver diea mtliHkiB.
■out ai ■ tradilional doctrine, and it waa there auodalcd wilh yet may perish and leave a body behind. Or even luppiHKhs
_ . Ihc pouibility of inquiry. In Ihe PluuJe Plain "> .have many livei, does even thia hypotbeaia atoft kef Ina
uiewbyn^mlf.i^elu'hmnof's^J^'^hois^r^lri ^S^Ib";^™ hi. friend, .(^uh loain, faith i. mv^.
death wai immedialely al hand. The argumenl lutni chiefly n— i- The loul it acknowledied to be pckir to the body. >■
on Ih. eternity of l^ledge, and i. far Iron, aaliriylng. For, "^^Tinl C'wtulTiinS SILIJ^J^^^^J^^L h
tnmas that cliroily of knowledge involves eternity of mind, ,i„„ harmony ol harmony I CI. Ftp. i. 609.
doa the clcniily of mind auuie continued bemt to Ihe iodivi- iil. AU h^ ii equally buI, but all hamaay in not <qi^ Iv-
dual?' Vet no unprejudiced leader of the Pkaalii can doubt msnioui.
Ihal Plato, at the lime of writing it, aincerely believed in a J>1." r"* ™' J™L!Ilf *ff^!^ cJ?" .tf'' "^_™ £
con>dou.i;ei»nale«i.lence after dTath! The wild, of Socialea, 'j;;^-.^"'- -•-• l™ -'««'>■ •'--^ -^ •" P-I-»»»
when he declares his hope ol going to be wilh other (riendt. aie v. The »ul i> not conditioned by the bodily il bai )i>
.b«btely unainbiguou., and hi. teply <o Crilo'. quealion, "« P^^-'i^i.^-fi'™. ._ _^, , ,._.^
lies— Kll ti.I.PtiIa?) had once been laHdoaied by aaimalptilenkT,
1 who am now reasoning and atdcnng ducourae. He imagines and Kad louithl to give a phyik^ account o( cveryihinc. lW
Socrates to be thai other, whom he will ue by and by, a corpK." hearing out ol Anaugoraa that mind waa the Hi^xiaeT of aM, fa lad
Thi» and jimilar touches not only stamp the i-kooia as a marvel '"'P^ "• ''"^L!°"i^«^i.S'S.'^ ^J!fe T^':^££
r - L . — T j^ _ . ki „ -j_ ^_ ^r ,L- ...^i„>. .._* ^A found Ana^wraa lafKkiiiftBi. own &« princiiiie aad ndUi^
of ait. but are indisputable evidence of the wnlei s profound raata withnodiiiana. C'Thc cauK why SaaSa^u ^*bM
belief. They may be invention., but they have nolhing " my- a cenain diipoihioa ol jointa and thiews, but that be ha. iba^la
Ihicil " about them, atiy more Ihan the charge of Socrates 10 his beat to undergo hi. ■BUnca ilii lb* jointa and iuen wmtl
friend., that the, wouM best fulfil hi. wishes by attending lo ^^^l^Jj^^ ^'J';!'?^ ^^Z£^^^SS^
thdt own Uvea. tot good, but eipeei. to Ind aanhsXla* n> Mauia^ioM
nioR Kiong and [avting dian the reaaoo of dw hH.
Socratethad turned fi ' -
wctly on tha unwaal iM.bitta
aa, for e^mple, the idea ot bcaDIy* Ihnnh pantfrg d
kuiiful thinge are beautifoL AaHindng the rriarrtf ^
-rT^™l\;„h^i^^n«ri™ J,.«™fvei;.V& "hich b<^uirii1 thing, an beautiluL Aaa^^dng lie 'eiiiBao^
:^n2TX,re,'S. '■n, phu'o^p'hS^" ffi"^ ^'Si "« if-J. •« fl! hb W f™j.byp«h«. to h^^g^bem.
from Dppoaitea, not oppotita thi
inai inc uwinit mic or COIWltionB Of One thing). Sn . _«^ _. .
Hiaieim ihun»uld '"^ I^ •■* iiHFpanblc vriucle. of heat and cold ze«Etiv*iT.
MonDW, eiHTi^ "^^ Kul il the ioKpaiable vehicle of life, and thsrien, by paritl
12^?^,!'^:,^'.'^^ impeniha^ . .
to'^rSr r 's'«i:.'^h;rk?oired« ^irl'VoiS.r' sSkSThl" '^. ^.r hiiS,i^«."w^.'brd™ l^ t
u Socratea. ^. Uear) iha^kn^l«^e^co™^rom^oi»c«o^ Medilertanean Sea are Ilka frog, at the bottoaBlaporf. iioe
Ire ™iid byih?lli5rhlS"hllJ.ap^xi. ^ " ^'j'^l!^^"^ "^ '""^ " ''™' '■'"' *"^'' *" "*
within." Socrate. add., ■ a, Milton, il fwjmiri, 8»-9»—
^^ ^ — ; ■_ — The .pirii of Plato. io"n'SS^
inly an evil being would wi.h to diteolve that which The immortal mind that haSfonaa
id happy " ITim. 41 AJ. llec maaKn ia Ihu Scahly OBok,"
PLATO , 815
and bb Mnidi ■ period o( " retnit," In wUch their cya an
tnnwd [rom cattUy ihingi lo dwell od the eteniiL The tbeoi}
of Meu here uiumea it* mosl InnuceadeoUl iqKct, ud it il
(rom ponioiu of this dielogue and of the Pkatdrut and riiiunu
tliat the popular concepIioD of PUtoniam hu beco prindpaJly
derived- fiul to uodenuad Plalo rightly it a not eDOUgh lo
Mudy isolated pUHge* which happen to charm the imagi-
■ulion; nor should UD^e eipieuioiu be interpreted without
ngard to the manser ia which he pitseats the truth elic-
wbere.
It hu alicidy been ihown (r] that Socralic inquiry Implied a
ataadard of truth ud good, undiscovered hut endleuly dis-
coverable, and to be (pproacbed inductively; and (1) that in
Flato this implicit araumplion benomes aplidl, in the idenlifi-
calioD of virtue with knowledge [Lach.^ Charm.) as an art of
meisunment (/VrKaj.), and in the vision (towards the end of th«
Ljsii) of an absolute object of desire. The Soctatic "self-
fcDowledgt " hu been developed (Cliam.) into a science of mind
or coniciousnas, apart from which no physical iludies can be
fruitfuL Q) Co-ordinate with Ihev Ibeoreljcal [endendcs (here
bu ^ipeared in Plato the determination not to break with
operieoa. In the Pkuda, a long step is made in the direction
of pure idEallini. The ordinary virtue, which in the PrMnjoroj
and ifeiu was quationcd but not condemned, is here rejecled as
luareal, and the task proposed 10 Ihe philosopher is less to under-
«aod the world than to escape from il. The univenal hu
■aumta] the form of ihe ideal, which is supposed, u elsewhere in
Plato, to include mathematical as well as moral notions. The
«dy function of perception ia to awaken inuasometemiDiifenfe
of this ideal. By foUowing the clue thus given, and hy searching
for dearti images of Inilh in the world of mind, we may hope 10
be emandpaled from lensalion, and 10 lay hold upon the sole
object of pure reason.
It ii obvious thai when he wrote (he Pkttda Ptato conceived
ofnnivenals as objective eni it iei rather than asformsof ihoughi
Tbe notion of " ideil coloura " (though occurring in the mylh) is
an indication of bis onlological mood. Yet even here the (tti|
«e not consistently hypostatiied. The notian of " what is
beat " hu a distinctly practical lide, and the " knowledge
tbroug;h reminiscence " is in one aspect a proct9sof reflection on
tbat object) " partake " ol the ideu, and some concrete natures
areregardedasembodimcouorvehidesof some of them. Still
if leguiled u a whole, notwithstanding the sdeati6c altitude of
Socniet, Ihe PMatdo is rather a meditation than an inquiry — a
Hudy of the soul u self-eiistent, and of the oiind and Ituih u
coelemal.
TV. Symfoi!iim, Piaidrut, CriUyfu.— Socrates is again
Imagined u in the fuUnns of life. Bui the real Socrata is be-
comine mote and more ineitricably blended with Platonic
tbought and fancy. Intbei^^c'fffy there is a distinct echo of the
mice of Socrates; the Pkatdo gives many pencmal traits of him;
but the dialogue* whicb are now 10 follow are replete with original
iaventioo, based in part, no doubt, on personal recollections.
The Sympoiium admira both of comparison And of conltast
wilh the Phaidii. Both dialogues are myslicxl, both are
bespiritualiLy ineitherisof adiflerent
is here immanent which was there
d takes the place of the good. The
particular object! ate hut in univeml lighi. Instead of flying
from Ihe region of growth and decay, the mind, through inlcr-
tbe life of contemplaiion ia slid the highest life, and philosophy
the truest jaoLvun^.
The leading conception of the Sjmptimm hu been inticipiled
bi the Lyiii, where it wu said that " the indifferent bvei Ihe good.
The banqueters lincliiding Socnln). who are met to cekbrafe
the tragic victory of Agathon, hap^n not id be diipmed for hard
drinking. They lend away the Rutr-girl and cnienain each olher
8i6 PLATO
otbbleTit ind he Is ev«r nyinf the wne thJnfi in iht lanw wdciIi^ desire pnvailiDf ■^■iim tnitb, ud then enHilatet aa tfac hinrfd
but one wild li(t> tlw mule and knki within vill lind ilul no oihcc tendeads ol love u u debied. Bat he bK»a aluncd u ka
word* luve Enranino." ALcilHadH ends by wuoinc hi* compaiUom own unwonted eloquauc.uHl iiaboal to emwvVp wlwa the" drriic
■gainst tiK wiles ofSocnln. token" wanu Itiin tbu he null 6nt redu » ** ulnsnle ^ b |nv
SoDie EwLlety foUowt, uid they are inwicd tiy tnotlitr bend of <ji Love. For no divine power cu be the aue d cW.
irvellen. who compel lliein to dnali Kiti more denily. Tbe lobeily i. Love <s nuulnoi: Iwt th« te > oobla oudiia*. ■aliitaa
incMncd (led by kr>iimnchu>) slink oH, snd Aiiitodeniiii. the by •oothMyen {allai p^rrm baa pMUmtii. Aad <i< Ik kMer
reporter oE tlie iceDF, only remembers further that when he awoke
It cock-crow Socntes was still canvenint with Ailtlua and TV
AristDphsnes, and sjiowini them that Iraftcdy oqd comedy were A^
nsentially ooE. He talked them both aikcp, and at diybreik went t. la
The pUIaHpheT of the SyiHpBsium ii in the world aiid yet not ^"
of [t, appajcnLly yielding but leaUy overcoming. In the ^^
Fkatdo the uul was eihorlsd to " live upon her KTvaot't kiss," s^
as in Sbakcspeatr'* most leligious tonnct^ this dialogue tells ol a "*■"
" soul within seoK " in the spirit of some more recent poelty. **!*
of becoming Wiwii) with being {clnlt). of the temporal with 0<
the eternal, is anlidpaled. But through the bright hau of rta
fancy and behind the mast of irony, Socrates still appem the ™
same strong, pure, upright and beneficent human being UID the ^^
Ap^oty.CriioiiAPkaidii. bei«
The impassioned conlemptation ol the beautiful is again l*"-
imagincd as the beginning of philosophy. But Ihe " limiikn ' "
f^,^„, ocean of beauty " is tepU«d by a world of Hipia- ad)
mundane forms, beheld by unemhodied souls, and m*
temetnbered here on earth through enthuMsm, proceeding by _. . „. . . '•^
dialectic from multiform impressiSM to one ntioiiil concefTion, ? ""Me form. The Mniggle of .the h«liee paaslaa '^ lV.k«
and distinguishing the " li;,« «,d veins " of truth. The i>W,n, S "the^t^ ."t^^Whe^'^hlSS; li^n'^JJVo^'Se'S
records Plato's highest " hour o[ uuighl," when he willed the is a philoMphic Iriendihip. at once tHssionste and abicJotilT pv.
various tasks hereafter lobe fulfilled. Init heioars to a pilch >.Zi"™i'''* "P»'i{[™.'! ^'*'?|^,jr" "" ^^™^ ™ "
^e.^-^i'eS'^I^™ 0™e^''™t'^ to £^^10.^7™'!™'^"* ^^M^t,:^^:^ Ss't ■?^';^So," ^T^ -
blind alleys and paths that lead aatray, laying down the main one concern. The real d'" ^ ' ' '' ' '
roads and duel branches, and taking note of the erroneous leachint on phikisi^vi
wanderings of othen. Reversing the vulgar adage, he £ies that *^ r^'LvSi^ihe
The Iranicendent aspinlion of the Phuio and the in
glow of the Sympoiiiitii are here combined with the notiot
scientific process. No longer asking, as in the Prolaiori
one and many, to be contemplated through dialectic — no b
abstraction, but a method of dassfication according to ni . ... — . . _ _ _
This method i» to be applied especially to psytbology. not SS«™ »";)' h? ™"^--i?" i^J'iS^ri!^ rf'SjS?Jta
meteIywiLh.«>eculative,butalsowith.pr«^icalaim. For the i^r.a,"h! H^ rulcfS L?.Sr^i;;SJ.«AS^^
"birth in beauty " of Ihe .SynpffnuHi is here developed into an Evenui. Tisiss. Cor^iat. Pdusaiul Prntaiiiras are taiik a^ iliaid.
Like all imaginative crilics, Plato falls to some t
(he influence of that which he criticizes. The art of rhetoric
which he so often travestied had a tasting effect upon his style.
Readers of his latest works nte often reminded of the mock
grandiloquence of the Fhiudrui. But in this dialogue the poetical
side of his genius Is at the height. Not only can he eipress or
imitate anything, and produce any effect at win. but I
standing behind his creation and disposing it with the
perfect maslety, preserving unity amidst profuse variety,
giving harmony lo a wildness bordering on the grotesque.
The person of Socrates is here deliberately modified.
DO longer (as in the S^mpmiam) leaches positive wisdom
the prclence ol repeating what he has heard, bul is himseU bettirVliin L'yiSaiVf'.,, ,. ^ ,
caught by an e.ceptional insjaration, which is accounted lor by The i>*safriu anticipates much thai PUto aflenvds ri>4
the unusual circumstance ol his finding himself in the counity eUboraled, and retains some things which be al hut ih^iiit
and alone with Phaedrus. He hasbeenhilhetto a stranger to the (,) jhe presence of movement or impulse in the U^oli^*
woods and fields, which would tempt him away from studying jj ^ .jpp., ^ inm, „i,ich reappears in the ^a^*ubs and tia
himself through intercourse with men. But by the promise ol later dialogues. It has been tbought sUange thai U mM k
discourse— especially ol talk with Phaedrus— he may be drawn [mmd so early as in the Pkat^nu. But does not thto Mrf
Phaedrus hai been charmed by a discoune of Lyuai. which alter look its dcpaituie from Ihe being of Pannenides t Is il ■■
E^TTi^gce B^ing be^jTon'ihe tl™ 'th™. * "" ' and that it was by a tendency from the first inherent tn "M*^
(, Di«in|jui>hint desire Irom true opinion, he defines love as that that doctrine was timdified in his final teachiag? (i) ■■■
PLATO 817
outlines of method whkfa are thrown out at white heat in the ■ccondaiy wonfo. Many primary wonb convey the notion ol
Pkaedrus are a prejwratioa for the more sober treatment of ESTu^* f ?** *^***^' "'^'"^ «h*« «J»e »««»>*«<>«•«■ 'J'wd'n*!*'
the .dea. in the d.alect,cal dUlogues. In the,^ however, the !fi**vl2;"oJ&ut'%»^^^^
conception of classification is somewhat altered through contact no false names. '* False languase." Cratylus argues. " is impouible."
with Elealicism. (3) The Pkaedrus amis, not merely at realixing Socrates shows that a true image may be inadequate, so that we
universals. but at graspmg them in and through particulars. f»^ » i«*»/ '<> T'*^i)^ *^,*'_?* ^^ word-maker. And the
TK.'a I. .n ./i*.i «f irV./> JLr4«« -^uinU ««.. " !«-# .. .JuT .. — ^« »» **^*» »ndicate an element of meaningless convention. Nor was the
This IS anideal of knowledge which was lost » toon as seen, original word-maker consUtently HeTacUtean. For some important
but one which in some of his latest dialogues, such as the Poltticus words point not to motion but to rest.
and PktlebuSt Plato again endeavoured to work out. (4) The But the questmn returns — Are we sure that the theory of nature
PhnedfHS contains the elements of that true psychology into t^^ & Z^^'T^ ****** ^^. ^^\ • '"'*'*• <»«ff»cuUy cannot
whjchtheontologicaltheoryoftheideasisgjaduallytmnsm^^^^^ S^SSr'llc^JJ.S^^bTtr;^ \^ l^^^V^ ^"SJ^:;^ .Z^.
in Plato s more advanced writings, when the diflkulues of his true good, whkh are immuuble. and if these are accessible to
ideal doctrine in its cruder forms have been clearly felt and under- knowledge, that world of truth can have nothing to do with flux
stood. (5) Plato here appears as a professor of education *«• change.^
preferring oral mtercoune to authorship. In this paradox he at V Corgias, RepMic—lsk the Symposium and Pkaedrus
once exalts the work of Socrates and avows his own vocation as a Pl^to largely redeems the promise implieid in the Phaedo, where
teacher. The passage throws an interesting hght upon the form Socrates tells his friends to look among themselves for a charmer
of di.-iIogue m which his works are cast But it is not to be sup- who may soothe away the fear of death. But he was pledged also
posed that he remained long tmconscious of the influence he was <o & sterner duty by the warning of Socrates to the Athenians,
destined to wield by writing. In executing a great task like the in the Apology, that after he was gone there would arise
Repubiu, he practically diverged from the untenable view others for their reproof more harsh than he had been. To this
asserted here; and in the Laws he recommends his longest and graver task, which he had but partuiUy fulfilled with the light
least dramatic work as a suitable basis for the education of the satire upon Lysias or the gentle message to Isocrates, the philo-
future (6) It must always appear strange, even to those most sopher now directs his powers, by holding up the mirror of what
familiar with the conditions of Hellenic life, that in portraying oujj^t to be against what is, the pnnnples of truth and right
the idealizing power of passionate love Plato should have taken against the practice of men. For the good has more than one
his departure from unnatural feeling. aspect. The beautiful or noble when realized in action becomes
On this subject he has sung his own " palinode " In the Lams, the just. And to the question. What b just? are closely
which he intended as his final legacy to mankind.* Not that he aUied those other questions of Socrates— What is a sute? What
ceased to exalt genius and originality above mere talent, or to is it to be a statesman?
demand for philosophy the service of the heart as well as the head« In the Gorgias Plato asserts the absolute supremacy of justice
nor yet that friendship was less valued by him in later years, through the dranuilic portraiture of Socrates in his opposition
All this remained unchanged. And in the Republic the passion to the world ; in the RepuUk he strives at greater length to define
of love is still disuntly referred to as the symbol of ideal aspira- the nature of justice through the imaginary creation of an ideal
tion. But a time came when he had learned to frown on the community.
aberration of feeling which in the Symposium and Pkaedrus he In the Corgias the Platonic Socrates appears in direct antagon-
appears to regard as the legitimate stimulus of intellectual ism with the Athenian world. The shadow of his fate is impend-
enthusiasm. And already in the Tkeaetetus not love but wonder ing. Chaerephon (who is still aUve) understands o^_|,^
b described as the only beginning of philosophy. h»n>f hut to the other interlocutors, Gorgias, Polus, ^^^
While calling attention to this change of sentiment, it is right Callides, he appears perversely paradoxical. Yet he effectively
to add that Platonic love in the " erotic " dialogues of Plato is dominates them alL And to the reader of the dialogue this
very different from what has often been so named, and that image of " Socrates contra mundum " is hardly less impressive
nothing even in the noble passage of the Laws above referred to than that other image of Socrates confronting death,
casts the slightest shadow of blame on the Socrates of the i. Corgias asserts that rhetoric is an art concerned with justice.
Symposium. Such changes are, amongst other things, a ground and that penuasion is the secret of power.
for caution in comparing the two steeds of the Pkaedrus with f Socrates, after suggesting some ironical doubts, declares hi»
tk* cnirlt m,H,fm\ »nA As^iw^ fU'.A,...tm\ «f «ii,» p«A»A/.v »^A oP<n»on that rhetorK is no art, but a knack of pleasing, or in other
the spirit (Jji6f) and desu;c {tw^v^) of the Republic and .^^rd, « ,he counterfeit of a subsection of statesmanship/' This
Ttmaeus. The Pkaedrus, in common with these dialogues, oracular definition rouses the interest of Corgias, and Socrate»
asserts the existence of higher and lower impulses in human proceeds with the following " generalization and division "-: —
nature, but there is no sufficient ground for supposing that when iivucemeai of
Plato wrote the Pkaedrus he would have defined them prcasely | I •
at they are defined in the Republic. SouL Body-
The Cratylus is full of curious interest as marking the highest \ * 1 | I 1
point reached by the " science of language " in antiquity, but, KnL PratmM RmL PRtemkd.
f^gfj^fff as this dialogue "hardly derives any light from m*jun»4. \ — ^— — | y— ' 1 r — '— -)
^■^"~ Plato's other writings,"* so neither does it reflect , 1 , . •'... _ •' . ^ • ^ .. j. . ^ • . ^•^^
much «ght on them. It deals sUghlly with the contrast betw^n I h Sophhtk. Rh«p. Cyauiudc M.didK. CbMp. c^
ffcraditeanism and Eleatidsm, the importance of dialectic, the [^^ pradem. 1 ■ » 1— .| — 1
diffictalty about the existence of falsehood, and ends with a brief * | '
allusion to the doctrine of ideas — but these topics are all more Fiuuqr.
fully discussed elsewhere. Flattery influetices men through pleasure without knowledn.
Ilirce persons maintain different views respecting the nature and And the rhetor is a kind of confectioner, who can with difficulty
orMpn of language be distinguished from the sophist
Hcrmogenes affirms that language is conventional, Cratylus fthe b Rhetonc. then, u not an art. And persuasion is not the
Herarlitean) that it is natural Socrates, mediating between these •««5 of power Here Socrates maintains against Polus the three
•ofl^istical extremes, declares that language, like other institutions, paradoxes* — ... . ....
b rational, and therefore (1) u based on nature, but (a) modified The tyrant does what he chooses but not what he wbhes;
by convention. • It is less evil to suffer wrong than to do wrong;
In his dialectical treatment of the subject, Socrates displays a It is better for the wrongdoer to be punished thad to escape
ebsue of mild etymologies in reliance on the " inspiration of punishment. , . , , , , , . . *.
Euthyphro. Presently a di^tinrtion appears between primary and T"* only use of rhetoric, therefore, is for self-accusation, and (if
— It 18 ever permissible to do harm) to prevent the punishment of
■ Laws viii. 836. ofie's enemy.
*Jowctt — who has. notwithstanding, thrown much light on the a Callicies here loses patience and breaks In. He propouiMls
Cratylus in his bnlliaot introduction. his theory, which is based on the opposition of nature and custom./
XXI 14 la
8i8
PLATO
" There is no natural right but the right of the stronger. And
natural nobility is to have strong passions and power to gratify
them. The lawful
is a word that cowards use,
Devised at first to keep the strong in awe.*'
Socrates entangles him in an argument in which it u proved that
pleasure ts different from good, and that there are good and bad
pleasures.
Now the question is whether the life of philosophv, or the life
which Calliclcs defends, is conducive to good. And it has been
shown that rhetoric is one of a class of pursuits which minister to
pleasure without discriminating what b good.
Callicles again becomes impatient. Did not Themistocks,
Cimon, Penclcs labour for their countiy's good? Socrates then
renews his demonstration, proving that if the just man is wronged
the evil lies with the wrongdoer, not with him, and that it is
worst for the wrongdoer if he escape. And for avoidance of this
greatest evil not rhetoric avails anything, nor any of the arts
which save life (seeing that life may be used well or ill}, nor even
such an art of politics as Themistoclcs, Cimon, or Pencles knew,
but another science of politics which Socrates alone of the Athenians
practises. The pursuit of it may well endanger him; but his
strength lies in having done no wrong. For in the world to come
he can present his soul faultless before her judge. Not the show
of justice but the reality will avail him there.
This truth is enforced by an impressive myth. ^ And Callicles is
invited to leave the life which relies on rhetoric and to follow
Socrates in practising the life of philosophic virtue.
The value of justice has been shown. But what is justide?
Is the life upheld by Socrates sufficiently definite for practical
BtpmbOe. g"'<**"ce? The views of CaUiclcs have been over-
borne; but have they been thoroughly examined?
Socrates claims to be the only politician. But how can that
deserve the name of policy which results in doing nothing?
These and cognate questions may well haVe haunted Plato when
he planned the Republic, the greatest of his works. For that
which lay deepest in him was not mere speculative interest or
poetic fervour, but the practical enthusiasm of a reformer.
The example of Socrates had fired him with an ideal of wisdom,
courage, temperance and righteousness, which under various
guises, both abstract and concrete, has appeared and reappeared
in the preceding dialogues. But the more vividly he conceived
of this ideal life, the more keenly he felt its isolation in the present
world— that of the restored Athenian democracy. For to a Greek
mind above all others life was nothing without the social environ-
ment, and justice, of all virtues, could least be realized apart from
a community. Hence it became necessary to imagine a form of
society in which the ideal man might find himself at home, a state
to which the philosopher might stand in harmonious relationship,
no longer as an alien sojourner, but as a native citizen, not
standing aloof in lonely contemplation, but acting with the
full consent of other men and ruling in the right of wisdom.
Plato did not regard his own republic as. a barren dream. He
believed that sooner or later in the course of time a state essen-
tially resembling his ideal commonwealth would come into being
Still more firmly was he convinced that until then mankind would
not attain their highest possible development. To ignore this
real aspect of his most serious work is to lose much of the
author's meaning. Yet it is hardly less erroneous to interpret a
great imaginative creation au pied de la lettre, as if examining a
piece of actual legislation. Even in his Laws, a far more prosaic
writing, Plato himself repeatedly protests against such criticism.
In his most aspiring flights he is well aware of the difference
between the imaginary and actual embodiment of an ideal,*
although as a literary artist he gives to his creations, whether in
anticipation or retrospect, an air of sober reality and matter-of-
fact. He is more in earnest about principles than about details,
and if questioned would probably be found more confident with
regard to moral than to political truth. He may have been
wholly unconscious of the inconsistencies of his scheme, but it
would not have greatly disconcerted him to have discovered
them, or to have been told that this or that arrangement would
not " work " He would have trusted the correction of his own
rough draft to the philosopher-kings of the future
"nie Republic falls naturally Into five portions, (t) Bk. I. Is
preliminary, raising the main question about justice, (a) Bks. ii..
* See especially Rep. v. 472 ; Lezg. v. 746.
iii., iv. contain the outlines of the perfect state, indndtt^ eke
education of the " guardians." and leading up to the dcfiniiKm of
justice {a) in the state, and (6) in the individual. (3) Bks. v^
vi., vii. (which to some critics present the appearance of an after-
thought or excrescence on the original design) contain the cardinal
provisions (i) of communism (for the guardians only), (3) that
philosophers shall be kings. (3) of higher education for thf ruins
(viz. tfie philosopher>kings). This third provision occupKs bkv
vi. and vii. (which have again, as some think, the appearioce of
an outgrowth from bk. v.). (4) Bks. viii. and ix., resuming the
general subject from bk. iv.. present the reverse of the medal bjr
showing the declension of the state and indtvidml through (our
stages, until in the life of tyranny is found the image of ideal
injustice, as that of justice was found In the life of the p«fect state.
(5) Bk. X. forms a concluding chapter, in which sweral of the
foregoing enactments are reviewed, and the work ends, like the
Corgioi, with a vision of judgment.
^ Thus the main outlines of the scheme are contained in bks. a.,
iii., iv., viii., ix. And yet bks. v., vi., vii. form the central portkio,
a sort of inner kernel, and are of the highest ngnificance.
In speculating about the composition of the Republic (is is
the fashion of some interpreters) it is important to bear inaiifli
the general character of Plato's writings.
" The conception of unity," says Jowett,* " really applin ia
very different degrees to different kinds of art — to a sutoe. for
example, far more than to any kind of literary composition, aad
to some species of literature far more than to others. Nor doesibe
dialogue appear to be a style of composition in which the requiit-
ment of unity is most stringent ; nor should the idea of unity derittd
from one sort of art be hastily transferred to another. . . . Pbio
subjects himself to no rule of this sort. Like every great ar^
he ^ves unity of form to the different and apparently distractinc
topics which he brings together. He works ircclyi. and a sot to
be supposed to have arranged every part of the diakigue brfot
he begins to write. He fastens or weaves toother the frame of
his discourse loosely and imperfectly, and which is the warp aad
which the woof cannot always be determined.'*
It should be added, that as Dialectic was still a " wwM »K
realized," and he was continually c<msdotis of tising imperfect
methods, he was not solicitous to bind himself to any one method,
or to watch carefully over the logical coherence o( hb «x)rt
" Sailing with the wind of his argument," he often tacks asd
veers, changing his method with his subject-matter, roach as a
poet might adopt a change of rhythm. Absorbed as be s is
each new phase of his subject, all that precedes is cancdkd for
the time. And much of what is to come is deliberately iepi
out of view, because ideas of high importance are reserved
for the place where their introduction win have roost e^
Another cause of apparent inconsequence in Plato is vhai he
himself would call the use of hypothesis. He works less dedac-
tively and more from masses of generalized experience thao
Platonists have been ready to admit. And in the Republic be
is as much engaged with the criticism <rf an actual as with the
projection of an ideal condition of society. If we knew more of
the working of Attic institutions as he observed them, we sboc^
often understand him better. .
These general considerations should be weighed igaisst
the inequalities which have led some critics to suppose tloi
the " first sketch of the state" in bks. ii.-iv. is much earher this
the more exalted views of bks. v.-vii.* If in these later boob sev
conditions for choosing the future rulers are allowed to eioerfe,
if in discussing the higher intellectual virtues the umple psycho-
logy of bk. iv. is lost sight of (it reappears in the Timaeus), it
ihe '" knowledge of the expedient " at first required falls iv
short of the conception of knowledge afterwards attained, sH
this is quite in keeping with Plato's manner elsewhere, and rut
be sufficiently accounted for by artistic and dialectical reMivt
It can hardly be an altogether fortuitous circumstance that t!bc
culminating crisis, the third and highest ** wave " of diificultr'
the declaration that philosophers must be kings and kLnp
pliilosophers — comes in precisely at the central point of t^
whole long work.
Thcgteal principle of the political supremacy of mind, thoc^
thus held back through half the dialogue, really dominates i^<c
whole It may be read between the lines all thriMxgh, evca io
the institution of gymnastic and the appraisement of the cardooJ
* Introd. to the Pkaednu.
* Krohn, Per piattmiscke Slaai (Halle. 1876).
PLATO 819
vinuet. It B > (toutoe developiMnt ot Socnlic tbouthl. f*iU«pKm ire fcfiiied"ii lovwi
And [I ii ihis more than iny other single lature which give* ihe n i!k ™nv i'ii'« w goodorbu^i'ilui
K/fiOlic ■ pnphrlic tignificance u " in tttempl toauds be objecii Mr knoJUdgc, the Iiiiet
•nlidpating the wotk o( luiure generatiom." ' b«M»n luiowltdge and ignomM.
ce «1 (be iua-r««em, opiniofi of
Olher atpecit of the great dialogiKp the Donin innwwn-k.
■o ioeviubic in the reaction from Ionian life, ilie iramm gf ; elabonlg Bateroent, inplyinE a
P.,ih>gnmn inKuniiv. Ihe Hilmaie of <>ll|aiThy and demeeiacy, , . . "^^ " caniemplation tt all time
a, and la brevity'! ukii ai a whoie." Ignaianu and npnentity haw now diiappea[«l|
omitted, tcnie to the bi^KU teach of abulute knowledn. And in the
develop- b>ebe« reiion there it again a gndaiion. titing to the lonn al good.
I The quettion debated by Ptocluj hai been raited beloreand nopliciiiian of thii leheme 10 Ihe ihcoij; of educallon in bk. vii.
■ince. Bhethcr the prnper tubject of the fti^Wit ii juiiiee or ihc there an niH funbir rcfineminia. The inychological anslytii
Hate. The doubt would be more jgggestive If put in a lomewbai bccamn nmie ubilc. and more nieu ii laid on Ihc connexion o(
diflereni Inrni: li Plato more intcreHi-d in the sate or the indi- idcai.
vidual? That he ii in eatnot abovt bath, and thai in hi> view i. The doclrine reveni to a cruder aipcct in bk. m., wbeir we
ol ihcm I hey are InKparable, 11 an obviout aniwer. And it \\ arc loidof an ideal bed, which iioneonly and Ehepattcniofalllhe
in the mind oJ a Creek- Yet if in nme pamgn the poliiiral d. A yet difTerent phatf of Idcaliim preaenii itwlf In bk. Ik.
iliemamxiueKionabU
X consciout that ike ii bk*. vi., vii.rai bring the ,
ould be more readily not untenable hypolSc^I. But Ihat Ftaia,
And thai
JIatt iia
hypolSc^I. But Ihat Ftaia, in prrparing the way
lad in contcnplaiitHi. aJwidd eonieni hini*clJ witli
a. The anatacy of (he indivir provisonal eapreiiioaa which be had himidf outtrown. or thai
rcquirementol political unity and hi a eaujal illuiiratioa (at iit bk. n-) he ahouk) to hick to a crude
Thii it alu 10 be referred, how or even childith Torm oT hit own theory, it equally concdvable and
of view from hhicli he could la nid'i conlcuedly wavert on thlt very point- And there are " itleat "
light of univcr»l principles. M o( the four cletnentain the ri'mnrmi.
liaooncarriedoU again Inioihcal VI. fn/iljirfejiiuJ, ParmnUa, ThtmUtlu, SfpUit, Slallimati,
"■''ik" bllf i^^riiardiv Um^ the .hole truth for he flic, and '■*''''"' t>*« diiltctical dialogue*).— Even ia ihe most advanced
"ikJ'at the same time andU in the air and on firm ground in nwlaphysic* of Ihe Ripublic there Is a liype[bolical, trata-
uKCrtfive in«am." O"*"'!- I"'"''* wheme of lommuni™ cendtnlal tendency, from which Plato ulLimatdy to some eilenl
had been luesestcd 10 him mrtly by Dorian initiiationsaiid pan^ worked himsell ftet. Bui It waa not in conversation with " dear
i^?I'y'[l^n d^Ta'miiyl'^The'lDwer obh^n^tHilK "gi^'My"" thai this partial emancipation could be efltctualty attained. We
ihc higher, the univcrial mutt overrule I have now to consider t Kria of dialogues, pi^ubly intended
3. Similarly it may be argued that, jot a natrowet citcle of icidett, in which Plafo grapples directly
(Buiic to '"".^'^P;;f/^"^'J"lli;;;j? with th* cemml difficuUio ot hU own theory ol knowing and
!nd (hVp^l'^ogorean, Kverilly, Plaio'i being, ll is not necessary to assume that all ol these are later
IKX-try and ail could hardly be olhei llan ihe Stpublu. llie position of the £Kl»ydeMHi and /■gr-
lion its pr™.-r funriion l'^"''"'''' J-*eoeWw haj polots ol affinity with Ihc /tefuWit. T1ie5i>M>i(.
^f^'iV aiS' phiWphy" had tecmJd 1 '■*"■'« »■"' «"'»■" "• '" • ""l" »y^- But. OB account of
tone, but ihit was only a fond antlci[> their cognate subject-matter, these sii dialogues may be coo-
levcrc endcavout, and. uniil (he iuprcn right place lor such a group is intermediate between the &^it
" 5 "?jrThi,'iSrii"ed,ISli"n'"of lhJ"™a''i ■'"' ">= ^™'-
The unity ol the object of definition, the identity of virtue
■nd knowledge, (he ciiKence of an absolute good, which would
be univenalty lotlowed if universally known, and of a Kandard
of ttu(h which is implied in the conlession of ignorance, were
poitula(e> underlying the Socraiic process, which in so fat made
no claim 10 be a "philosophy without assumptions." These
concemmg Ihe nature, Ihe object and the method ol knowledge.
Now, so fat la we have hilhcrlo followed him, hit tpeculation
projected in a poetical and Mmi-mytbical form- In (he Pkaedrnt
however, (be vision of ideas was cipittsty conjoined with an
outline lif psychology and a foreshadowing ol scientific method.
And, while the opposition of ideas lo phenomena and of know-
ledge to opinion has been repeatedly assumed, it has also been
implied that Iheie is a way between (hem, and that (he iruih
can only be appioached by man through inteirogation ol experi-
eixce. For it is nowhere supposed thai the human inquirer is
Irom the first in a position to deduce facts from ideas. Much
ra[hei, the light of the ideas is one which fitfully breaks in upon
tiperience as men sirugghs towards the universal.
But il is not less (rue lha( the meUphysical aipiiationt from
which Socrales had teemed lo recall men's thoughts had been
nawakened in consequence of (he impulse which Socrates
r.'bS^
oTvirj
LbledX'r'^nd'ip"^ ^^ . ^
priagin
llotoptiy 10 at to be in hnimony with reawR.
r.^n'^^
.»-quet'io>icd at 10 the uitrintic Calue of habii.
» induced a
■e«..-ative lor hit punlt againH lempla.ion
led, I do not pretend to nave removed all
he woukl ha%
>e repli
Jifficullic) In
.m tllel
r path- Enough of evil Kill turroimdi them
iirength 1 have but cleared the well.ipringi
I that have been fatal 10 to many, in order
that ihcy ma;
little to unlearn, and be espotcd only to luch
inevlti
able.-
*°Tri'"i"«ni[ula.
loA lor <y«.
Pteio'. 'that the definilian''of°)u«>ct here no
out- via. the right division of labour between
bboriouJy wi
™ughl
the three elat
Idual uul. it noB'here cite repeated or applied.
■acultio in Ih
.Ithough the
]tf
itiice il ol great importance 10 the argumenu
the RlpiMu, It ll Iroportinl 10 mark the
. been reached by Plalo'i doclrine of Ideat.
rSJ^iai^mca
he Rifiubiu on thli lubjccl are by no meant
everywhere en
l^^-ore
zz>
, the admiMion of luiury and the after-purili-
820 PLATO
hlmiell bad (ivcD. Fioin ukinc, Ii virluc OIK? da vinue ciunliutnB ol iti own fint principlei. Forlhii hifha oilkkB,
be uufhlP PUio ptuei on to uk, Whit ii unity? Whit dl which he UmuU alio stood in need, Plato loolu np Iraa
■re knowledge ud being? Fiom chiiciiing imperlcct qhx9ci o( the diiclplci to the nuKei Paimenida. The apfieil to im
teachini vinuc, he hai begun to ^xculaie iboul the light and i) put tcito the Dwulb of Soatia, ati vciy young nu, oho In
wrong uses of the Intellect, and irom dramalie portrait* of the fnmed (or binueU i Ibeoi)' of ideas, ind would glidly etc ik
individual Finlagotai or Gorgias goel on to the ideal delineation Zenonian proccii applied 10 the DOtionl ol "■~~-". diUcRlK,
oi the uphiiL He hat enteted upon the " longcc way," and ii likeneu, unlikeneia, unity and being.
DO tongei contented oilh mere " hypothem" With Ihia Pirnienidn, whom Plito treats with tender revercDce asl
demand for scientific prediion his conception of the idea* them- unmixed with irony, proposes to the yotith ■ seriea ol queitiau
lelvei it modified, and he strives anew to conceive of ihem in which leveal the cnidily ol the doctrine of ^. (i) Are ilee
relation to one another, to the mind, ud to the world. Ai the ideal of trivial Ibicgt?' (i) How do things ''putake" tl
balance ol ethical Inilh wu restored by admitting an uncon- them? [j) Must not idealiim proceed ■■ infixiiitmt U) II
tciout (or inspired) conformity u reason, lO now t (rtih altemtit Ideas in thoughts, do they ind their partidpints think > (i)
is made on the intellectual side to bridge the gull bctwecD leue It they are palienis, and thinp resemble them, must ihtn sol
and knowledge. be a pltlem of the resemblance, iitd to on u it^Mittm t (i) U
This endeavour involves, not only in eipiniion ol the method ibsolute, are they thinkable by man I
ol Socrates, hut an cxaminition of the earlier philosophies Irom These difficult iei are real, and yet to deny ideu is to doinr
which Socrates had turned away. Their influence on Flalo has philosophy. (A) the pindoiickl doubts In the PmUum do
been traceable in the preceding dialogues, though, eicept in the not shake the laith of Socnta in the existence of good. lOKiilxr
case ol Fythagoreaniim (Corf., F*aei., Kef.) it hat been mostly does Plato here intend lor a moment to demote Irom the bdd
Indirect and casual. But in these dialectical dialogues he mani- in the enslence of the One and the True.)
formed the chief hindramce to Inquiry wen deeply rooted In ™''£'li'L,"i(''X."'S-!^*^„'£E',i!!!i"",1?^-Ty ^'t^-'^'IfS
form, ol U»ught created by elS^.hinke,., S^ dl by ";S^'-^;Ztii^:.trrii^^^'i^:^!%:rJ::'J^
Heraditus and Parmcnides. To the eiclusiveneu of Ihcir Gnl w^ich may be drawn from the admiiijon o( an hypahw. bar
principles as held by their tollowett Plato itlrihuted the actwint must aUo be uken of the inlcimms which [oUew rm
bairennessa and impracticable unreality of many diicuauoni, "*^if5'l^t, „„„„,■ n™ k;. -m™-.™ k„ _ ■ - ■■ ,_., i.,
which put shadow-fiShting *nd controversy in the place ol real pri^l^rilf^^^tiSriuhT^™.^™"^ .^™"C^
each ol them to yield up his secret, and to acknowledge a supple- l^f,i^',^i^"o'S^'SM^ii^'^^*h,^!Tfi.,,j!y°°Tii
menial truth. To this eflort he may very probably have been rcull, ■■ in the PinUiarv. is pun;lf deunictive. ukI the dak^w
STiiDulated by the dialectical activity ol his Socratic friends at endtabruptly without aword of reply Irom Socntra.
Megara.whoselogicslIuteshaddiawnthemtowardsEleaticism. The second part of the ParmmUa may be rcgatdid uia
But, unUke them, while strengthening his metaphysical theory, eiperiraeol in which Plato " assays to go " in Ekatk ubdb.
he was lUo led to give to his political speculationt ■ mote Yet the strange web Is " ahot " with colours of oiigioal tho^L
practical turn. The mode of conceiving time and becoming, and the vitioa of
The EudiyitmHi is a treatise " De Sophlstlcis Elenchil " in nolhingneit towards the end, may be noted a* e^ptdiSr
the form of a faree, and may serve to introduce the five other Platonic. These passages may be regarded in the same ligbi a
r>fai*w«a dialogues, as the encounter with Thrasymachus the wise words of Protagoras or the sober truths which taa
inltoducct the serious part of the RifuUic. Under amidst the wild fancies of the Ctatytus. Tbty shouU not midail
the mask of mockery there It more of concentrated thought, and the inieipreterintoa search lor recondite nuiningt.
alumorealbitlenMU.ia this dialogue than in the iVMfwu or Tlie Zenonian method has been carried out to the atmcit ia
the Ceriiai. application to the highest subject, and has led the mini ieu •
A sample oleducalionat dialectic — in which Socrates draws out mate ol contradiction. It remiios to call in question j^^,—
ot young Cleinias the admissions (i) that a philosophy is needed, the method iiscll. and the notion ofabwlute identity ^"^
(j) that the highest philosophy is a science ol kingcrall, which and difference on which it hinges, and so to lay anew the Iqba-
remains for the present undefined— is contrasted with a series dition-stone of thought. Before this can be attempted, iar-
ol ridiculous sophisms, propounded by Dionysodonit ud hit ever, another set of difficulties have to be met, and anolhci k(
brother Euihydimut. in which absolute and relative nations, of philosofdiets examined. For the cumnt tetpticiun bd
whether affirmative or negative, object and subject, univeriat undermined theconceplionofknowledgeaswellaathilDlbniit
and piTlicutar, substance and attribute, action and modality, and the fame ol Henclitus was hardly second to that of Tv-
are capriciously contused. Crito, to whom Socrates narrates the menidei, PtotagDrai appeared in a lonner dialogue is ih(
scene, is moved to contempt. But Socrates warns him not on champion of ordinary m(^ity^ be b tww made the eijnvot
this account to despair ot phlkisaphy. In conclusion, Isoctates, of ordinary thinL.ing. His saying " Man the measure " is ihm
or some one else, who prematurely mites up philosophy with to rest on the unstable basis of the Ueracliiean i<a. By as
practical politics, is cautioned against spoiling two good things, eiabc^e criticism of both theories knowledge is at Issl tepuitof
Such puizlei IS— How can I learn either what I know or what fnm the retitiviiy of sense; hut the subsequent aiianpl u
I do not know?' How can things become what they are not? distinguish on abltracl grounds between true and (alst ofiiua.
Howiifalsehoodordcnialpoisible?— although treated jocularly and to define knowledge as true opinion with a msm Id
here, will be found returning allerwards to " trouble the mind's Male), proves Incllecluat, Plato still shows tncti ol Hctuiu
eye." influence. But the disjunctive method ol the PermaAi it
Plato appears in the same act to have become aware of bis not resumed. The indirect proofs ate so arranged as to ediibji
afiinity with Parmenides, and to have been led to reconsider the the skill ol Socrates in " bringing to the binh " the genra cJ
PvuHmUn foundations ol his own docitine. The one being thought in a richly endowed and "pregnant" young eviiii
" ot Parmcnides was a mote ibsiracl notion than Theaetetus is the embodiment of the pbiioiophie nimre if
justice, beauty ot the good. And the Zenonian method had cribcd in Sif. bk. vi., and has already been trained by ThtodcmB
more pretension to eiacineis than the Socratic. But it remained of Cyrenc in geometry and the other preparaloiy scieaca li
■■ ■■ ■■ " ' " iint M»y« " <Ct,fc*,a.397.
"■' '^'— '" "" 'Ct. the youngee Socnic* ol the PMiai. ir tM h
PLATO
821'
tp, bk. vii. It ift in conversation with Theodoras that Socrates <• m^de to mediate between idealism and materialitm. The result
ipressivcly contrasts the lives of the lawyer and the philosopher. iL'll!L!f '**r ?*r""!IT*'L^"* Jf.T"**? mL"*"* *^.*V*"** *' ^"^
£ TAeae^-. marks a great advance in <Lrne« of Jnltaph^cal Jjyt^ "^ ^*^* "** "^"^ ^^ "*""'^"' ^*"*^ " ^^*
id psychological expression. See for example the passage 3. This leads up to the main question: (a) arc different notions
84-186) in which the independent function of the mind is incommunicable, or (6) are all ideas indiscriminately commiinicable,
serted, and ideas arc shown to be the trath of experience. ?f (0> there communion of some kinds and not of others? The
. ., j'.'A L. _j •.•_f A 1!^. • ■ last view is akme tenable, and u confirmed by experience. And
here is also a distinct approach towards a cnticaland historical of the true combination and separation of kinds tVc phibsoph^
ethod in philosophy, while the perfection of style continues is judge.
limpaired, and the person of Socrates is as vivully represented 4- then it b asked (in order to " bind the soohist ") whether
i in any dialojnie ot\n% is predicable of not-being.
Kr . -.u . J- it • » f • j« L J .• Piv« chief lands (or categories) are now examined, via. being.
Notwithstanding the persistence of an indirect and negative ^, „K>tion, samen<^ diflSence. Rest and motion are mutualf);
ethod, the spirit of this dialogue also is the reverse of sceptical. incommunicahVe, but difference is no less universal than being itself.
Socrates must assume the reality of knowledge or deny himself " For everything is " other " than the rest, 1.*. is not. Thus positive
97 A). Perhaps in no meuphysical writing is the balance more and negative not onlva)exist but are coextensive.
I L ij I, r : ^ . .7. ^ a ^' 5" And, in spite of Parmenides, we have discovered the existence,
rmly held between experience, imagination and reflection. a„a also the niture, of not-bdng. It follows that the mere pursuit
lato would seem to have made a compact with himself to abstain of contradictions is childish and useless and wholly incompatible
gidly from snatching at the golden fruit that has so often eluded with a phikMophic spirit.
is grasp, and to content himself with laboriously " cutting Negation, falsity, contradiction, ate three notions which Plato
eps •• towards the summit that was still unsealed. from his height of abstraction does not hold apart. His position
With Plato, as with other mventive writera, a time seems to is the converse of the Spinoostic saying, " Omnis determinatio
ive arrived when he desired to connect successive works in a est negatio." According to him, every negative impUes an
saftM. **"^ *"*"• "* planning the Sopkistes he linked it to affirmative. And his main pomt is that true negation is cor-
■^ the Theaetelus (which had been written without aAy reUtivc to true affirmaUon, much as he has said in the Pkaedrus
ich intention), and projected a whole tetralogy of dialectical that the dialectician separates kinds according to the " lines and
ialogues, TheacUtus, Sopkistes, PolUicus, Pkilosopkus, of which veins of nature." The SopkisUs is a standing protest against
le last piece seems never to have been written. the error of marring the finely-graduated lineaments of truth,
After an interval, of which our only measure is a change of and so destroying the vitality of thought,
yle, the philosopher returns to the great central question of The idealists whom the Elealic stranger treats so gently have
nowledge and being. The obstacle in his path, on which he has been identified with the Megazians. But may not Plato be
Ften played with light satire, dramatic portraiture and indirect reflecting on a Megarian influence operating within the Academy?
lusion, is now to be made the object of a seriously planned Here, as partly already in the Parmenides and TkeaeUtus, the
Ltack. He has made his approaches, and the enemy's fortress ideas assume the nature of categories, and bdng is the sum of
to be forthwith sapped and overthrown. This hostile position positive attributes, while negation, as the shadow of affirmation,
not merely the " Sophislik " which, as some tcU us, is an ig likewise finally comprehended in the totality of being,
ivcntion of the Germans, and as Plato himself declares is only The remark made incidentally, but with intense emphasis,
le reflection or embodiment of the average mind,> but the that the universe lives and moves "according to God,"» is an
illacy of fallacies, the prime falsehood (irpwroF ^M^) of all indication of the reUgious tone which reappears increasingly in
>ntemporary thought. This is nothing else than the crade the PolUicus, PkOebus, Timaeus and Laws.
baoluteness of affirmation and negation which was ridiculed in in passing on to consider the statesman, true and false, the
le Eutkydemus, and has been elsewhere mentioned as the first Eleatic stranger does not forget the lesson which has just been
rinciple of the art of controversy.' For dramatic purposes learned. While continutog his method of dicho- pMikmt
iis general error is personified. And the word " sophist," tomies, he is careful to look on both sides of each istsua*
hich had somehow become the bfte noire of the Platonic school, alternative, and he no longer insists on dividing "**^
iius for the first time fixedly acquires the significance which has between this and not-this when another mode of classificatkm
nee clung to the name. That Plato himself would not adhere is more natural A rule not hitherto applied is now brought
edantically to the connotation here implied is shown by the forward, the rule of proportion or right measure (ri /i4rptor),
dmission, at the opening of the dialogue, that amongst other as distinguished from arbitrary limiutions. Nor is formal
isguises under which the philosopher walks the earth the sophist logical treatment any longer felt to be adequate to the subject
• one. in hand, but an elaborate myth is introduced. On the ethico-
In the Sopkistes, as in the Parmenides, a new method is intro- political side also a change has come over Plato. As he has
uced, and again by an Eleatic teacher. This method is repeated stripped his ideas of transcendental imagery, so in reconsidering
rith improvements in the PolUicus, and once more referred to his philosopher-king he turns away from the smiling optimism of
1 the PkiUbus. It beare a strong resemblance to the " syna- the RepuUk and looks for a scientific statesmanship that shall
oge " and " diaeresis " of the Pkaedrus, but is applied by the lay a strong grasp upon the actual worid. He also feels more
friend from Elea " with a degree of pedantry which Socrates bitterly towards the demagogues and other rulers of Hellas,
owhere betrays. And the two methods, although kindred, The author of the PolUicus must have had some great quarrel
ave probably come through different channels— the dassifi- with mankind. But so far as they will receive it he is still intent
ations of the Pkaedrus being Plato's own generalization of the on doing them gopd.
ocratic process, wWle the dichotomies of the Sopkistes and , ^^ ^ .^ ^^ j^^^^ ^ ^ herdsman of men. who as " slow
^oltticus are a caricature of Socrates cast m the Mcganan mould, bipeds " are distinguished from the pig and the ape. But the king
lato seems to have regarded this method as an implement which is not all in all to hb chatj^es, as the herdsman is. The above
light be used with advantage only when the cardinal principles definition confuses human with divine rule.
------- 2. Now the universe is like a top, which God first winds in one
direction and then leaves to spin the other way. In the former
or divine cycle all was spontaneous, and mankind who had all
things in common, were under the immediate care of gods. They
i definition implies the existence of the unreal, i.e. were hap^, if they used their leisure in interrogating nature. But
f not-beine. In our extremity it is necessary to " lay hands on in this reign of Zeus it is far otherwise. Men nave to order their
(ur father Parmenides.". own ways and try to imitate in some far-off n^nncr the ail-but
The contradictions attendant on the notion of "being," forgotten divine rule.
a which it turned had been fully criticized.
I. After various attempts to " catch the sophist," he b defined
s the maker of an unreal likeness of truth. Here the difficulty
eg ins — for the
a.
rhether as held by Parmenides or his opponents or b^ the " less 3. Therefore in our present definition the term " superintendent
•xact " thinkers who came after them, are then examined, and in must be substituted for" herdsman.**
in extremely subtle and suggestive passage (246-249) an attempt What special kind of superintendence is true statesmanship?
» Rep. vi. 493.
XXI. I44i
* iprCkBnruck'
*5o^26sD.
822
PLATO
4. By way of an example, the art of weaving is defined. The
example shows that kingcraft has first to be separated from other
kindred arts, both causal and co-operative. Nine categories are
adduced which exhaust social functions. Eight are eliminated,
and the ninth, the class of ministers, remains. Of these (a) slaves,
(6) hirelings, (c) traders, (d) officials, (e) priests are again parted oiT,
although the last are only with difi^culty separated from the king,
when (/) a strange medley of monstrous creatures come into view.
Some arc fierce like lions, some crafty like the fox. and some have
mixed natures like centaurs and satyrs. These are the actual rulers
of mankind, more sophistical and juggling than the sophist himself.
And they too must be separated from the true king.
5. The familiar tripartite distinction of monarchy, oligarchy,
democracy, is doubled by introducing into each the distinction
involved in the presence or absence of wealth, and in the observance
or non -observance of Law. But no one of the six carries in itself a
scientific principle.
The true government is the rule, not of many, but of one or of
a few. ** And they may govern, whether poor or rich, by free-will
or compulsion, and either with or without law, so long as they
govern scientifically."
6. The respondent, a youthful namesake of Socrates, is locked
at the remark that the true ruler may govern without law.
This leads to a discussion of the nature of law, which is compared
to the prescription left by a physician. If present, he might
dispense with his own rule. So the presence of a competent ruler
b Better than the sovereignty of law, which makes no allowance
for nature or circumstance, but tyrannically forces its own way.
Imagine medicine, navigation, &c., similarly conducted by time*
honoured jprescription, with penalties for innovation ; — what would
become ol civilization? Yet if law is disregarded by rulers who
are unscientific and warped by self-interest, this leads to far worse
evils. For the laws are based on some experience and wisdom.
Hence, in the continued absence of the true ruler, the best course,
though only second best, is the strict observance of law. And he
who so rules in humble imitation of the scientific governor may be
truly called a king, although if the divine lawgiver were to appear
his living will would supersede the law.
7. As it is, though cities survive many evils, yet many are ship<
wrecked because of the ignorance of those at the helm. The order
of badness in the actual states I
I,
E
Constitutional monarchy.
Constitutional oligarchy.
Law-abiding democracy.
Law-breaking democracy.
5. Law-defying oligarchy.
Z. Tyranny.
8. It remains to separate from the true ruler those who co-operate
with him as subordinates, the general, the judge, the orator. His
own peculiar function is an art of weaving strength (the warp) with
gentleness (the woof), when education has prepared them — and
this (i) by administration, (3) by marriage.
The four preceding dialogues have shown (i) the gradual
transformation of the Platonic ideas (while still objective) into
forms of thought, (2) the tendency to group them into series of
categories, (3) a corresponding advance in psychological classifi-
cation, (4) an increasing importance given to method, (5) the
inclination to inquire into processes (yeviceis) as well as into the
nature of being.
Meanwhile Plato's approach to the Eleatics, though in the
way of criticism, has brought into prominence the notions of
PbOebuM. ^^^y» b'^^'^St sameness, difference, and has left some-
what in abeyance the idea of good. To this " highest
of all studies " Plato now returns, equipped with his improved
instruments, and ready to forge new ones in the same laboratory,
or in some other, should occasion serve. His converse with
Parmcnides ended in his assertion of an element of difference
pervading all things — in other words, of an indeterminate element
underlying all determinations. This brings him again into
relation with the Pythagoreans, who had similarly asserted the
combination of finite and infinite in the universe. Taking
advantage of their help, he gains a more advanced (but still ideal)
conception of the concrete harmony of things, and approaches
the definition of that which in the Republic he but shadowed
forth. With this most serious inquiry there is combined (as in
the SophiiUs and Politkus) an ironical and controversial use of
dialectic, by which the juggler and false pretender (who is in this
case the goddess of pleasure), after claiming the highest olace, is
thrust down to the lowest.
It must be admitted that the style of the PhiUbus is far from
brillmnt, or even clear. In the eSoit of cotmecting abstractions
PIato*s movement is more laboured than in his first ^lad rctUzt*
tion of them.
Instead of attempting here to follow the windings <A the
dialogue, it must suffice to state the main result. Ndther
pleasure nor knowledge is the highest good, and the good eludes
definition, but the shrine, or habitation, of the good is a complex
life of which the elements are, in order of merit: (i) measure,
the cause of all right mixture, (3) (a) beauty, the effect, and (b)
reality, the inseparable condition; (3) intellect; (4) science, art
and right opinion; (5) pure pleasure unaccompanied with paia.
" Not all the animal kingdom shall induce us to put pieasore
first."
The PhUebus introduces us to the interior of the Academy ia
the lifetime of the master. More than any other of the dialogues
it recalls Aristotle's description of Plato's teaching. But, vhDe
his followers seem early to have fallen under the dominance of
the latest phase of his doctrine, Plato himself, even in the
PhiUbus, is still detached from any servitude to the creatioits
of his own mind. He manipulates them as the medium for
expressing his fresh thoughts, but they are not yet cxystallized
into a system.
" I will remind you," Socrates, " of what has been omitted."
says Protarchus at the conclusion of this dialogue. The last
(presumably) of Plato's metaphysical writings thus fitly esdi
with a coniession of incompleteness. But if, as Rerun says,
" the most fatal error is to believe that one serves one's country
by calumniating those who founded it," neither is it for ibe
interest of science to ignore these imperfect anticipations. By
methods elaborated in the course of centuries, and far more un
than any which Plato had at his command, mankind have gained
an extent of knowledge which he dreamt not of.* But the Gre^
metaphysician is none the less a pioneer of knowledge,' while
the special sciences of ethics and psychology had been carried
from infancy to adolescence in a single lifetime.
VII. Timaeus, Crilias [HermocraUs]. — As the ScpkisUs aod
Politicus were written in continuation of the TkeaeUtus, so, tt
some uncertain time^ Plato conceived the design <A writing a
great trilogy, for which the ideal state depicted in the Repi^fc
should be the point of departure. The grand outline there
sketched by Socrates was now to be filled up by Critias and
Hermocrates. The form set up by reasoning should be wait
alive, the " airy burghers " should be seen " making history."
As a prelude to this magpnificent celebration, Timaeus, the
Pythagorean philosopher, who is present at the Paiuthenaea,
is invited to discourse of the origin of all things, and to brief
down the glorious theme to the creation of man. What should
have followed this, but is only commenced in the fragment of
the Crilias, would have been the story, not of a fall, but of the
triumph of reason in humanity.
In the PhUebus (59 A, cf. 62 D) Plato speaks with a tood
of contempt of the life-long investigation of nature, as being
concerned only with this visible universe, and immersed in ibe
study of phenomena, whether past, present or to come, whid
admit of no stability and therefore of no certainty. "These
things have no absolute first principle, and can never be the
objects of reason and true science."
Yet even this lower knowledge is there admitted as an elemcBt
of that life which is the habitation of the good. And there aic
not wanting signs in his later dialogues that Plato's imaginaiua
had again been strongly drawn towards those physical studies
which, as the Phaedo shows, had fascinated him in youth. Thtt
nature and the world proceed " according to God and not
according to chance " is the belief of the Eleatic stranger, to
which he perceives that Theaetetus will be irresistibly drtwa as
he grows older {Soph. 265 D). In the midst of diakctial
abstractions, the processes of actual production (Tcyiccis) hsvc
been increasingly borne in mind. And the m>'th in the Wiif*
turns on cosmological conceptions which, although differii^
from those in the Timaeus, and more accordant with PUto'i
bitterest mood, yet throw a new light on the dcq)er cuntat of
» See, however. PelU. 27a C. D.
' See Jowett, Introd. to the Tmimeus.
bit thoughls. In the u
c pisip (ill C) there <x
The impulse in ihis new dinclion
manilntly rtinforced, ihiough dose
Pyihagotein sfhool. And ihc choite
Eorean as {hic[ sprat
PLATO 823
n tlie first ™'x>n >nd Gvi planni. end tl 1> t pUuiible uppoiitia* thM she Ii
■^- "ATiiftnr ot diy And nEfflil/' DV intcrpcHini bcr bulk to the
it> thauKht 'J , it cinnol be, a«Crote mppwd, a mMioncofi-
If in ihe <
ol the .
of tl
-om Ihe Alon
enliy ignored, this latt ought ptohsbly to be reft
early reacuon of Alomlc on Pythagorean doctrine,
■nt to observe, however, that not only the Tim,
unGniihed whole of which it forma the introducticn, it pro- 1
Eeuedly an imagiiutive cieition. For the legend of prehiitori
Atheni and of Atlantis, whereof Critias was to relate wha
belonged 10 inlernal policy and Hermocraies the conduct of (he
war, would have been no other than a prose poem, > " mytho-
logical lie," conceived in Ihe ipiijt of the Republic, and in the
■ '1, therefore, when Timi
only a
word, and i
if shadow
that all physical speculation
of ibis half-mythological c
although H'ocking in an un
speculative philosopher.
As Paimenides, after den
ending Itom the centre to the poles and eo
\. [mmonaULy i> in the riaufludependi
|. The phenomena cj visioa and hearing ai
nc that Milton's cosnn „
Galileo or Copetnicns — except
er, and that Plata's mi
ar region, ii BtQl that o
iling the nonentity of growth
s sn imperfect truth in the
susly set aside. )n eumii
IS alceady transgressed the 1
mide him
d by S
cisus of Ihc gap between the ideal a
lot test until he has done his utmost lo GU up the chasm—
ng in ihe help ol imaginalion where reason foils him. His
le best," as in ihe Phacdt, 01 " the ides ol good," as in the
nblic. Bui both his abstract idealism and his absolute
mism were by this lime considerably modified, and. although
confounding " causes with conditions," as he once a<
lagotaa of doing, he yet assigns more scope to " !
n. This partly comes of ripening experience and a dcej
e of the persistency of evil, and partly from the lee
'b seems lo have grown upon him in later life — of the di:
u. begin, by "
(i) that the univeneb
, and {:) that it. mysi
ig corporeal
o unlold— 1
Acdi " because Ihe
^arkaee auticipaiioo {Tim. «oc1.
'iEi'l'he'pSiIwd^th*D( Miural d^y.'*
|niud in the Timanu than elxwIieiE in Plato
;hillaiid°An<
Laaly.,"
thofogy of
jften eM^gerated and mi applied,
jeto crated together with the Hea
ukI b bdoee the other " godi within
in Ihe SopkiH and Pkilrbi.
of the
Kteic «nd
Pl-iUiui).
* place given to 1
iFobably not 10 '
1I his declining powers, in the evening of
lion of microscopic oh*m«.v3&VQ^
■1 Uvta>di«ai ft.-w»eIto»ss»»-
824
ehind InveUIng lu uid widt, shaald bring birk el Ilw tnrit o( theft
code obHivitjoiii lor Ui» coiuidention of the noctunul coutidl, mi
o( taws, conceived in ■ spiiit of coQcession, ind wch u he iiill ihit i power of conttiiuiioually imcnding ihe law* (bmld Ihiu
hoped that lome Hellenic lUte might unctioa. The motive be mdmitted Into the tuie, it nifficieotly lenurkible, whoi the
for thii great work nuy be gathered from the PtjiUiaa. The would-be finality ol ancient legiilation b coiuidcr«L Flm
phyaician in depsiting li to give a written pmcription, adapted even came* neu to the lefleiioo that " consciluttoni in IM
u lar ai pouible to the condition of those from whtmi he go« made, but grow " (iv. 705 A).
away. This ii the second-heat coune. in the absence of the Plato in the Lura detisti finally from impeitonatiog Sucraltt.
philosopher-king. And, as the Hellenic world will not listen But he il ta some ways oeirer la his master in spiiit than ohea
to Plato's heroic remedy, he accommodate! hia counsel to their he compoted the Pkatdna. The sympathy with cmnniM life.
f^^ preconteptions. Ele returns once more from abstract the acceptsnce ol Greek religion, the deepeniag hnmsnity, are
'■"^ discusuons to study the application of ideas to life, no leu euentially Socratic than the hive ol truth which bnaiba
and though, by the conditions ol the problem, his course is In every page. Atid some particular aspects d Socniiim
" neater earth and less in light," this long writing, which is said n>i^>ear, auch ai the question about counge* M>d that aaca-
to tiave been posthumous,' has a pcculisi interest- The ripeness ning the unity ol virtue.^
of accumulated eiperience and the mellowness of wise contem- Dtublfii! atid Spurim Works.— Gi the diakigiKl Itnuag
plation make up for the loss of prophetic invght and poetic part ol the " Plitonic canon," and not included m the |jrc«diii|
charm. ■ lutvey, Ihe £«ier Hiffiiu, Firil AlcibiaArs and Mnuiav he
The form of diah>gue It ttUl retained, and an aged Athenian the most Platonic, though probably not Plato's. Tbi OraUt
is imagined as discoursing of legislation with the Lacedaemonian Hiftiv and the Clilifiim are also admitted to have loai
Ucgillus and the Cretan Cleiniss, who has in view the foundation plausibility. The 5«md-^/cJtiaifri (on Piiyei). the Biffunlua
of a new colony, and it on hit way with bit two companion* (touching on Peisislrilus and Homer), JLTihm ("dc ^"1,
trom Cnossus to the temple and onde of Zeu*. Epimmit, Enulat, Tlitii[ii, are generally condemned, tha^
Plato noH aim* at moderating between Dorian and Ionian most of them are very early lorgeriet or academic cunisa.'
law, freely crilidung both, and refining on them from a higher And the AxiKltia {though tometimes priced lor its n^jrc,
point of view. " The praise ol i*edience, the authority assigned "the contempt of death "), the Di Jmia, Dt tirlaU, Dtmodxti,
toelders, thepiohibilionof dowries, theenforcementofniiiriage, Sisypkia, Biyiiai (a not-unintemting treatise on tb uie d
the common neals, the distribution and Inalienability of land,
the institution ol the Crypteia, the lieedom ol bequett to a
favourite son, the dislike ol city walls— all teficct the custom of
Sparta." . " The use ol the lot, the scrutiny o( magistntcs,
the monthly couracg of the council, the pardon of the forgiven
homicide, most of the leguUtions about testaments and the
guardianship of orphans, the degrees of consanguinity recognised
The philosopher's own thoughts come out most strongly in
the " preludes " to the laws.' snd In the regulations concerning
education, marriage and the punishment ol impiety ((.e. tst,
itheijm; ind, denial ol providence; 3rd and worst, immoral
wpeistilion). The difficulty which is met in the Peliliaa by
the abandonment ol the world for a time, and in the Timami
by the lieutenancy of lower gods, here leads to the hypoihesit
of an evil loul. The priority of mind (often before asserted)
and the iacreated importance attached lo numbers are the chief
indications of Plato's latest thought* about the intelligible
world. But il mutl be remembered that the higher education
(answering lo Rep. vi., vii.) is eiprettiy reserved.' Had Plato
written bis own Epinamit, the propociiont ol the whole work
(not then " acephalouj ") might have been vaiily changed.
The severity ol Ihe penalties attached lo Ihe three forms of
heresy, cspcci^ly to Ihe third and wont of them, has led to the
remark that Flilo. liter aserting " liberty of prophesying,"
bad become intolerant and bigoted in his old age (Grote). But
the idea of toleration in Ihe modem sense was never distmctly
present to the mind of any ancient philosopher. And, il in Ihe
Lawt the lines of thought have in one way hardened, there are
other ways in which eiperience has loftened Ihem. PUto'i
"second-beat" constitution contains a proviiion, which was
not admlttible in the " perfect stale," lor potsible changes and
readiplalions in Ihe luturc. The power ol self-reformation ts
hedged round indeed <^ilh ntremc precautions; and no young
or middle-aged citisen is ever to hear a word said in depreciation
of any jot or little ol the eiisling law. But that il should be
773 >"< . 777, 794. 9oi»^., 8li,'«
897 Btq,. 904 s™.
'Uu. lii. ^ E. (Ath) "I
vftich il the qucition coming to the aui^:* B^n." PrMof-, Phaeir,, Symf..Aptl., Ctiu, pttidii, Jlrf., Tim.
PLATO— PLATTSBURG 825
C. F. Hernu The fin □[ ■ long line of inTintiy wu u 1 rule conducted on the
n^S'A ""' P"'>'^Pl«- ^'^ ^'■'"^•"> "' 'i» f™"' li™ ""(toying
MBtO^r S plitoon fire, which iiofttn pfciuraqudy described »»» " rolling
Ceiaund'o pl»loon fire," or "rolling vollcyi." The word it obwlcte in
' ~'" ' iiiucdintheUniledSutei.and.invuioui
(1M3).
viluab
Windii
(onra,inIhe»raiieso[ Frai
PLAIT, TKOHAS COLUER (iSjj-igio), Ameriun politician,
wu born Id Owego, Tiogn county, New York, on the ijlhol July
tSj3. He studieil in 1849-1351 al Yile, Irom which he received
Ihthoiiomydegresol A.M.in i8;6. He cn»de monej' in lumber-
ing oul Wat, and returning to Owego becime * banker and
}„, {1903) nilway director. He helped to organize ill Republican parly in
ikrt (■■109) noga county, and in 1873-1877 was a represenlatiVE in Congreo.
™ w'l' b In iSj J he waa chairman ol ibe Hale Republican Convenlioo «l
Dicii^' Rochealer. On the iSlh ol Janua^ iSgi he wu elected United
iiiiai plain Slilej senator, but rejigned, wilh hil colleague, Roscoe Conlling,
Oh iJie t on the i6th ol May following, chiefly because Fmident Garfield,
MM plaliTK In ,pj(, of [i](ir protest, had «ppointtd u collector of the port
^^ '^^ o( New York, Judge William H. Robenion, a political opponent.
ifl b(?cn rei Wilbin ten yean he became the acknowledged Republican
«9S-i899) " bosi " ol the state, and he again served in the Unit
HATO. A,h„i.» ,0.1, „«, ,r ,i» Old CJ.A, ...H.hri ss'.'j; '£i°jr»i" ;is™iS6T.i'iis
4iS-}Si)B.c. According I0 Suldai, he was the author '^^
Slew York Ciiy on the 6th of Match
of thirty ct
Such were the Clathim and Hypabetia, directed against the
well-known demagogues, and the Symnuckia, referring to a
of Hypcrbolus by oilraciam, Hia later pbyi treat the vices
and failings of mankind in the spirit of hurlesoue and parody.
Such werTihc 5„pA«(«, akin to the CwTd Aristo^w; jV"" ,^ ".i "r^ieZf «™ ^'m" xr Pla't.e^
(he Ciiiius. an attack 01, a contemporary poet; the F"tt«/j *^° '" *"• "'"^ '^'™ "' '°-™ "*- "■ "" '^'"'* '
PUTTB (so named,
, from the Fi.
:nch. because ol its .hallo
eij), or Nebraska, i
. rivet 1
yltero
of Colorado. Wyoming a
lehraska, tributary
to the
M<»
nmediately north 0
h, Nebraska. 18 m. bel.
Imaha, in about 41"
j-N. li
icluding ihe Xonh Plalte
about 900 m. long from its headwalcra. with a drainage
isin for the entire ayjlem of 90,000 sq. m, "• "' "
.. formed by the Junction ol the North P.
■agance common on p,,,,^^ sometime* called the North and South Forks of the
Immediately below the city o[ North Plalte i "
ogical aubjects— .IdBiiij. Eutepe, It, ' ^^^^ ,„,„ ,^^ urmn l,ic ui
Ian legend of the change of ants into t^^^'y^'^f^^' ThTNorth" iPla"'te"and' So"Ih'' HaU* riw
-Tt. "'J'"" leiynan, wno was ,„pjci[veiy in North Park and South Park in Colorado. The
most important being the Loup, which empties immediately
M<
men); Piaan, the stoi.
presented by Aphrodite with a marvellous oln
which made womeo madly in lore wilb him.
See T. Kock. Cmumim ttUUtrBm traima
■■ ■ - miemuantmtnmirMmfiatmenailitSiJ. j
PLATOH. LEVSHIH (i;37-i8iO, Russian divine, was bom at
Chashnifcovo near Moscow, and educated in the academy of I909>-
that lily. In 1763 the empress Catherine II. invited him to PLiriKKR, KARl PRIEDRICH (1800-1858), CemMn
instruct her son Paul in theology, and he became one of the metallurgical chemist, was born at Klein waltersdorf, near
court chaplains. Three years afterwards Platan was appointed Freiberg in Saiony. on the ind of January. iSoo. His father,
archimandrite of Ihe monastery of the Trinity (Troilskaya though only a poor narking miner, found the means to have
Lavra) near Moscow, in 1770 archbishop of Tver, and in 1787 bim educated first at the Bcrgschule and then at the Berg-
archbishop of Moscow and metropolitan. He died in iSii, one akademie of Freiberg, and after he had completed his course*
of his last acts having been to write an encouraging teller to there in iSlo he obtained employment. chMy as assayer. in
Plaion was a brilliant and learned man, and the author o( several up thiideaof quanlitalive mouth-blowpipe assaying, which was
works which enjoyed a high reputation in their time, including ihen almost unknown— eiccpt that E. Uatkoil {1797-1835) in
.IJAorlHi'ileryn/McXiuiMnCAirci, which has been translated 18)7, while a student in Freiberg Academy, had worked out >
into English. blowpipe assay for silver — he succeeded in devising trustworthy
PLATONIC LOVE, a term commonly applied to an affectionate methods foe all the ordinary useful melals; in particular his
relation between a man and a woman into which the seiual modesof assaying fornickelandcobaltqivcUyfouodfavoucwiih
clement docs not enter. The term in English goes back as tar nietallurgista. He also devoted himself to (he iDiprovement
as Sir William Davenant's Plalonic Lean (1636). It Is derived of qualitative blowinpe analysis, and summed up hil eiperience
from the conception, in Plato's Sympssiam, of ihe love of the Id a treatise Die PmbiaiHiat mil dim Lflhnkr (1S35). which
idea of good which ties at the root of all virtue and truth, became a standard authority. In 1S40 he was made chief
>Bor^olimiciiswasused,(.i. byMarsilio Fidno (isih century), of the royal department of assaying. Two years later he wa»
which subsisted between Socrates and his pupils. Bergakadcmie ui place of W. A. Lampadius (1772-1841). whom'
FLATOOH (Fr. pdolan, from Fr. pdoU, a ball 01 pellet; d. he subsequently succeeded as professor. He died a( Freiberg
Get. Haii/e. heap), a small group of soldiers. In the early on the Jindol January 1858.
17th century it was a definite tactical unit of infantry, cotre- !„ addition to many niemmn on metallurgical subjecli he alio
-.^^j..^.- 4„ ,!._ _^j__ ___..■ — __ L_.» company. In the tSth published Die metaUurtiiclws Roilptoctut Ikeorttisch bttroikUt
its organiiation into \'^i<'\- and poathumouily Vixlauntn <ilf ellt"^'^ HiUlaktidt
..eight or ten platoons ("6">-
-' -..— — TBn _ _!... — . -' entry and the coimty-aeat of
k,, situated on the west shore
I of the Saonac dvei, 168 m.
the modem sci
century (h<
: battalion, in
wasloldolFoni
of equal St
length. "Plat
reguUted fi
re of platoon v
the other.
Hence a " pli
d26 PLATTSMOUTH— PLATYELMIA
(by rail) N.N.E. of A!b«ny. Pop, (iSjo), 7010; (1900), 8414. fhymiiveitlKtopcoiomphrMiiMtaittoMiM iuh«cn^^
ol who™ .OS, v,«. f-'ign-born, (.,,0 c™u^ .,.,33. It ^SviU^^'rhtSMS^StS^HS-iiLS^.^^ ^ ^
li strved by the DeUwire & Hudun railwiy, iitd bu sleinin tmerior by luit convoluial aatim which open u ihr uiiTia ol ibe
connniaiu with lake porti. Its slluation In Ihe region oF lakes body. Theie Hotonephndii ue the encniofy uiuii. The Dcmxa
■nd mountains and ill dcligfalful climate have tnadc it 1 sununei lynein. IlHiiithetrlnliiediIanEen(Ie(ihebady. ronuini diCuml
™o„. Among its insiiiulion, are the Samuel F. Vil«, Home ;;;:rtll^;udi:^'^'rdll'?J^Ji^^ '^ ^ISTSi? !^
(1S74), fot It
' The Plalyeimia are hennaphrodite
Ihe Platliburg Stale Normal and Training School, the D'You- by 6d.ia.tt canali viifa a prutmuh
ville Academy (or girls (founded in i860, chartered in tSjl), "««« l^t "J"!™ p"™l "nd ■
under Ihe direction ol Ihe Grey Nuns; the College St Piene auSw^tHditio'iroi^B^ii
(Roman Catholic, i«a3). and Ihe Champlain Valley Hospital, which iniy open >t i_» biK or pu
OiH Haven, i m. south, is the'seal of the CathoLc summer »'«' 'T'''^ j?'"'^''" .'"™<' ••
ichool. Pliilsburg has a fine harbour and i. Ihe port of entry K^Xllfcd (w hjI^^J I
ol the Chnmplain customs dijlticl; in 190* its eiports were adapied tor inKnioo inio the bun
valued at (15,169,501 and its impods at I8,!67,5i7. Among ate 00 leM ernnplen. They contist
the city's manufactures are lumber, wood pulp, paper, ihiits, ™y >r sngk, douWeormultijOe,
sewing-machines and automobiles. The total value of Ihe i,,. ffi™di'«f4lo«riin and vi«lU
factory products in 1905 "" 11,056,701. by the latter is conducted by one
Ftattsbuig WIS incorporated as a village in .795, and derived oviduct and the point of onion is
iu name from Zcphaniah Flail (1740-.807), who had led a • " ihill.gland " which secrwes »
colony o( "tilei, to Ihis place from Long Island; it be^e . SlX?.;™S^"TpIa™d ™ngle) which before opcninj
cily m 1901. About Valcour Island (5 m. loulh.easl o( Plans- cilerior eipandi to fonn a mutcular _protru«ble poucS-lSe
burg}, on iheiiih of October 1776. a British fleet under Capuun eopvlatiix. FnqDeiilr also from ihu Junction d ihc oiui
Thomas Fiinglc and an American flotilla under Benedict Arnold the «ienaiia a median tube is pvm oB which eiih« ofn.
Wat oliSii the village became Ihe beadquartersol the American
army on Ihe notlhera tionlier. On the nth of Seplember <>'
.814, in Platlshutg (or Cumberland) Bay, Caplain George K
Downic, commanding a British flolillE, was deleated by an ^
American Rotilla commanded by Commodore Thomas Mac- u
donough, losing his life in the engigemcnt (>ce CoAurLaiN, cl
L*«E). 1^
PLATTSHOimi, a city and Ihe counly-seal of Cass county, j„
Nebraska, U.S.A., utualed in the vaUey and on Ihe bluHs of Ci
Ibe Missouri river near Ihe moulh ol the Platte. Pop. (1900), wi
49*4 (979 forngn-bom); (19T0) 4187. Il b served by Ihe "
Chicago, Buriinglon & Quincy, and Ihe Missouri Pacific railway j,
systems. There are railway car-shops, and a considerable trade ih
is done in grain and cattle. A trading-poil licensed by the til
plaited in 1S54. Flatlsmouth was first incorporated as a dty
in 185J, being one ol ihe oldest scUlcmcnts and dties of the
PLATYELMIA, a phylum ot the animal kingdotn which
comprises three classes, Ihe Flanarians, Tremalodet (f.v.) and
Cestodes. Il i^ Ihe groupof animals in which Ihe act of creeping
has lirst become hablluat. In association with this movement
in a definite direction Ihe body has become vermiform and
biliLerally symmetrical. One end of the body, through contact,
during locomotion, wiih fresh tracts of medium and other forms
ol stimuli, has become more spccialiied Ihan the rest, and here
Ihe nervous system and sense-organs «re more densely aggngalid at
Ihan elsewhere, forming a means of controlling locomotion and
of correlating the activities of the inner organs wilb the varying
stimuli that impinge upon the body. The form and babils of
the group vary widely. The Flanarians are free-living animals,
Ceslodcs arc wholly endoparasilic. n>
mS!fiH ccllular'l'a^!" Wi'ihiiTihli mu«u1ar'luhe \m a^renth " E!»"*'j
niat'<usii»uc»hkhmay be uniform (CeitHletlordillcrenliaiedintoa Fla<V5^'
ecnrrnl or difEealive. and a peripheral nonion (tome TurbcllariaJ, or ''|]^"]
finally the central ponion ficcniaes tubular and tformi the digestive correspi ......
MC (Trematodei). while Ibe peripheral ponion li .epaniled from it '■ ? here drawn out 11.10 e.|rt.t pnif™»- ot,*"" bi ar
by a .pace lined in tome fbrmiby a Aliened epllhelium (mo« Iheirconlinuiiy beingeaprei-dby Ibedolted Lne.
P1;iiurians}. Il h characteHnic e( iV group that the mouth ihauld Ir. Bnin. mt, ScomadL
bciheonly meansof inDretslDandeKreufrom thedfgestivesacand ir, Glands. a. Nerve*.
thai rKilruepcriviKeraliipaceoreoelameiiittmiiitheKnie in which 'B- l^n■H^rm!K. al PKarvfu.
thear terms are used in higher Invtitcbrues. Tbe peripheral pu«-
»»dMiuiiDn>tolhewbcillirpa>
cUk. Their nnKiuniiuniibr to thai of Tnnuiodo.: „.
in tht qpinioD gf mm loglo^l [bey have been derived'
Affimilira, — Aa ihe Turbdlaria (Planuiaiu) are (he iihhc prinddve
diviMonuI ihe PLuyclmia. ibe ptaMea ol ihe alKniileiaf ihii Dhyluin
rewlvo luelf IdId Ihsi of ihe rebt iai»hl|» at ihe TurbeUiria. Wiih
recall to the otigia ol ihi* f Loh two divernnt viewi an nil] held.
On Ihe one hud the Tuibellaiia in coudend lo be in offthoot
of Ihe eicly Cockiniate Bock, on Ihi other Ihcy are held lo be
dncendaniB of a audpler cvi>4ayercd Kock. The iDrmer hyjBtbetu
wiih ill niianu may be called the Tnchoipbere-hyiiDlhetia. the
Utt« the Caiiraea-hypDtheui. The TrochoipheR-hvpoIhcvi (I),
S) li bucd chiefly on ifie occurrence in cenain Polyclad Tutbcllaria,
a larval lonii {MUller'i larva) whkh it comparable to a ceniiq
Ha^fpra-trochula) in the development of the Trochotphcre-larva.
Tbi> Trgchotpbcre i* ibe characteriKic larva of MoUiuca, Annelida
YPUS 8j7
view (held on Mhtr fitiandal that Ihe Potycladi >ie the mmt pritnl-
tivc of the Turbelliuia, i> uundly baicd. The sroundt lor itiii
view arc (he radial nmmetry of Kveral Kolyclodi and ihc tuppowd
origia of sonadi and ucTftory flame-cclh f rom the waUa ol gul, (he
oocurfence of nrmatocyiti in Ammym^, one of the mou radially
eonBtucied Polycladi. and laitly the prcicno: of Hlo ptculiar
■ninxali Cuiufilau and CmIccJuu. which lucicilia traniiilon Irom
Cienophora to PoIycLadt. Ai the pment trnie. however, none of
between Ihe ccU'lineoge ol Polyeladi and that of certain Molluaca
mbbno
The
Gastraea-hypctheui is founded on guile other consideraii
eneci (6) it tracntheTuTbcllaria to small Iwo-layered organ]
iiikiioB at an ouier ciliated epidcrmi* and a ' — '—' ——
niniitheevoiulionoItheTurbe
more ipecialLxed Rhabdooxlj
to Ihe friclidt and GnaUv lo i
the development of one Aeoek
hat ftrenguiened (hit hypotheb
or gt/x 11 at ^nt laid down, b
tract! htconw liientive Iractt, olht
lar. The ftiidy ol Rhibdococli (7) I
that the mdimcnt of the gonadi 1
lint oriau to appear, and that tl
pendently ol them. This wrcBatU
indepeodence of the InieHin^aoc k
n Ihe peculiar Truhoplai,
the
I4K
id that of Ibe pharynx a
11 the widely adopted
Cjaraea-hypoihcsii. 10 be cIcmIv allied to the progcnitort of the
Platyelmia. (The recent work by Knimbach Vo'^f- Ataiirrr
1907, luxi^ 4SO|. Hrvefl to ihow that Trichophx b the planula-
S. a ipecinieii ui>iIer^in(£iiion,
D,Ep, The dorial c^detmio.
G. Refrinpnt corp™le».
PC. PacHicbyBuiouacellt.
Irom life. The .pheric
PLATYPUS. The dudt-bOkd platypu [Ptatypai
was Ihe name assigned lo one of tbe most teinarkable 01 known
animals by George Shaw (i75i-iSij). mho had ihe good fortune
lo introduce it Lo Ihe notice of the scientific world in the
Naluralisl'i ifiuellany (vol, i., 17W)- In the lollowing year it
wa» indepcndenily described by Bliimenbach IVoitti Hagaiix,
ii. 105) under the name of Ormlkariymliia paradaui. Shaw's
generic name, nllbough having priority to that of Blumenbach,
could not be rtiaincd, i> it had been used ai 1 siiU earlier lime
(iJB.i) by Hetbst for a genus of Coleoplcra. OrnMurhynikui
(Cr iimt, tpriStn, bird, and firrxi^, bill) is Ihrrcfore now
univetillly adopted as the scientific designation, alLhough
platypus (Gt, »' ' " .....
Bnvenicnlly r
colonists it is called "water-i
rue moles Ire of the ilightcit
inly allies the echidnas, are »
appetlali
By t
It hs affinil
SI superficial descriplion.
h Ihe platypus, and it*
Irom all oihcc mammtls,
described in the uiide
:hBraclers o( the two eiisting represenlalivei ol tbe group. It
s Ihere slated that the early stages of tbe develofimenl of the
,'oung are not yel fully known. Sir R, Owen, and later E. B.
Poulion, showed that the ovum of the plalypti* was large
:omparcd with ihil of Mhet mammab, whilst W. H. Caldwell
.howed that i( was filled with yolli. and finally esublished the
Plolypus as n^ as Eihidna Is oviparous. Two eggs
in inch in
The plaiypus
iDd the souihcni or
g,l1eiiblc, while shelL
mrthsDf
y generally distribuled in litualio
c habits throughout the island of Tuauc
I eaiteni ponion* of Australia,
828 PLA
The length of the animal when full grown fs from
Icom the ulnmity of the beak lo the end ol the ti
being slitblly biger than the Umalc. The fur ii i
and rather soft to the touch, and compoHd of aj
beyond ihii, each ol which it very slender at thi
eipandcd, flallened >nd glossy lowardj Ihe free
oB from Ibe under
lurtace
There an
no true teeth in Ihe adult, Jlhough the
young poSKU
which are sh
d after being worn down by
nith
and land, the
r purposes being aftenrarc
lervcd
yhor
on each side of each jaw-
tho»in
Ihe ftonl n
arrow, Jongitud
nal, iharp^Hlged ridges, and
Ihou
broad, flattened a
Kirface
ollhelilera
edgaofthen
landible has also a number of
par^illel
ne ridgea, like
those on the biU of a duck.
In Ihe c
eeksa
elo
rablycapaciou
s pouches, which appear to be
mbs'a
c«n
ng and short.
jch with five well-developed
vided
vith
[rong dawt.
a the (ore (eet the web not
only hi
wrap
aces between Ihe Iocs, but eilends consider-
ablyW
ondU
■ingg
eend
of the long, b
road and somewhat flattened
ol nhen used for swimming.
though
cipab
^og folded !
jck on the palm when the
animal
or walking on
the land. On Ihe hind foot
Ihe nai
ong,
curved and pointed, end the wfb eiteod)
ontylo
hcirb.
On the heel of the male is a strong, curved
thiirply
d,'m
ovable homy
di, at
ached
by its f.pand
d base to the accessory bone
of the 1
This
spur, which a
ains the length of nearly an
»lbyai
nal, li
idinal slit near the poii
net of a large gbnd situated at the buck part of the thigh.
he whole apparatus is so exactly analogous in srructute to Ihe
miiar function, and There is now evidence that it employs this
rgan as on offcnave weapon.
PLAUTUS
High! u
small a
r. Ihe sar
1 1 avitjr. the floor of w
es, and in which, it is u
iroughl up. Their food a
wbict II
ind them. Thry ippnr
ai first 10 deposit whil they hat-e thus coUecicd io ifacir duck
pouches, and when these are filled they rise to the surface and
quietly triturate their meal with the homy tMlh txtote swallow-
ing iL Swimming is ellecied chiefly by the action of the bmd
fotepaws, the hind feet and tail taking little share in kcDsuitiDi
in the water. When asleep Ihey roll thsnselves into a bill, al
shown in the figure. In their native haunis they are eatenidy
llmid and wary, and very difbcuU to approach, being nrdjr
seen out of their burrows in the daytime. Mr A. B. Crowlhcr,
who supplemented Ihe alien quoted observations of Dr Gmlt
: ■' They
icaU, s
ming npidljr
whether
FUUBH, a
, for tkey de^ed Inm
mpty fist was oflered." (W. H. F.; H.SC1
■a of Cemany, in Ihe kingdom of Sauoy, ui
Lnc meissc Ejaier, 6d m. south of Leipzig, on the milwiy Ed Hc4
and Munich and at Ibe junaion ol lines lo Egcc and Ccii. Fop
[i«90), 47/>07; (1900), 73,801: (i»os),ios,)33. IlwasIonntHr
the capital of Vogltand, 01 Voigllaud, a territory govmal bjr
the imperial vogt, or baihfl, and this name still dings in populu
ipeecb to the hilly district in which Ihe town lies. 01 itsthnt
Evangelical churches the most prominent is Ibe fine Gothic
:huich of St John, arilh twin s|Hres, which was restored in iS!6.
ihher buildings of note are (he town hall, dating Iron ibool
iSJo; and the old castle of Hradschin, now used as> law com.
Plauen is now the chief place in Germany for the mU'jfactiirt
>Eembroidered whitegoodsof allltinds, for the finishing of ro^'n
^ttoQ fabrics, known as Plauengoods. andfor IhemakingdUA
Plauen was probably founded by the Slavs. Firs! mcnuoanl
n 1112, it passed under Ihe aulhoiiiy of Bohemia in 1327 tad
^ame lo Saxony in 1466, remaining permanently united willi ike
electorate since 1569, The manufaclute ol while goods «i
Dtroduced by Swabian, or Swiss, immigrants about is;o. Tbe
idvance in its material prosperity has been espedaily tajad liact
be incorporation of Saxony in the Genoan Zollvcrrin.
See Fiedler, Pie SliuU Plaum in VitfllaAHl (Plaun. IB;4>; ud
PLADTUS, TTTDS HACCIUS {on'^nally perhaps MuTd;
f, Ailtt. Prol. 11), the great comic dramatist ol andenl Rom!.
'ii bom at Sarsine in Umbria according lo tbe tesiimoot d
eslus. who calls him Umbo Satsinai. and Jerome. The due
f his death was 1S4 B.C. (Cicero, Smlu. tv, 60). The di:t
ro(Dei^«(
"■ 50) It
in old m
1 who lit
Tbe Utter pliy
Some doubl has been emested as to whether the t^ bi
.... Zooloeical Society of London, on the iTih of December i»«
Mr Oldlictd Thomas read a l«tiT from Mr G. Metealle. wiio In:
d many years in a region inhat^ted by time animals, tit Im
le special inquiries o( the autbontiet a the Sydney'. ]
tbane and Hobart muieums, and nibUshed guesii
... ./ipapcrs. bur no evidence has reached him thjt t
Qmilkorkyncui have ever been obtained except by the d
■ '^4
(he other side '
.'in. 463I. Frofe
Uoujla. Ogilbv (Cm
le hope " that funW in
PLAUTUS
829
produced in 191 B.C.; hence we get 254-251 B.C. as the approxi-
mate date of his birth. The only record that we possess as to
his life is that contained in Aulus Geliius iii. 3, 14 (based on
Varro), the historical character of which is doubted by Leo
(Plautinische Forschungen, p. 60, sqq.). According to this
statement he left his native town at an early age and settled at
Rome, where he got employment in a theatre, though it is not
clear in what capacity. The words of Geliius in operis artificum
scaenicorum, are interpreted by F. Marx as indicating that
Plautus was a member of the theatrical staff of Livius Andro-
nicus. At Rome he saved a h'tlle money, and embarked on
some mercantile enterprise, probably abroad. Having lost his
money he returned to Rome penniless, and was driven to support
himself by manual labour in a mill {cum . . .ad circutncgeridas
molas quae trusatiies appdlanlur optram pislori locasset) ; and in
this pistrittum he wrote three of his plays (the Saturio, the
Add ictus and another). The main body of his works belongs,
so far as can be ascertained from the scanty evidence which we
have, to the latter half of his life; 206 B.C. is the approximate
date of the Miles gloriosus; cf. line 211 seq., quoi bint custodes
. . . occubant (present tense), which alludes to the imprisonment
of Naevius, an event which cannot be proved to be earlier than
206 B.C. The defects of construction and the absence of " can-
tica " in the Miles also point to this as one of his early plays.
On the other hand it is hardly likely that all his comedies (which
greatly exceeded in number the extant twenty) were produced
during the last twenty years of his life. Radermacher assigns
the Asinaria to a date as early as 212 B.C. Of the extant plays
the CistcUaria and the Stithus must be associated with the
Miles as comparatively early works; for the former was clearly
produced before (though not long before) the conclusion of the
Second Punic War, sec 1. 201 seq.; and the Stichus is proved by
its didascalia to have been produced in 200 B.C. The Pseudolus
and the Truculentus fall within the last seven years of his life.
The dates of the rest of the extant plays, here given in alpha-
betical order, are quite uncertain, namely, AmphUruo^ Aulularia,
Bacchidcs, Capiivi, Casina, Curculio, Epidicus, Metiaeckmi,
Mercalor (probably later than the Rudens, as shown by F. Marx),
Mostellaria, Persa, Poenulus^ Rudens, Trinummus (later than
194 B.C.; cf. ncni aediles in 1. 990). Of the Vidularia we possess
only the fragments contained in the Codex Ambrosianus.
The plays of Plautus are all based on Greek originals.^ To
what extent he is dependent on these originals, and how far he
departed from them, we shall perhaps never know exactly. But
such evidence as we have points to a pretty close imitation on
the part of the Roman poet: there are passages in which he
does not hesitate to take over from his originab allusions which
can hardly have been intelligible to a Roman audience, e.g. the
reference to Stratonicus, a musician of the time of Alexander
the Great {Rudens, 932); and in the delineation of character
we have no reason to suppose that he improved on his models
(cf. Aul. Gcll. ii. 23). Even the prologues, which later
researches have shown to be in the main by the hand of Plautus
himself, though certain passages were clearly added at a later
date, e.g. Cas. prol. 5-20, may in most cases have formed part
of the Greek original. Plautus must therefore be regarded as
primarily a translator or adapter, so far as our present knowledge
goes. Where he varies his plot on lines of his own by amalga-
mating the plots of two distinct Greek comedies {e.g. in the MUes
and the Poenulus) the result is generally not happy; and the
romanization of the plays by way of allusions to towns in Italy,
to the streets, gates and markets of Rome, to Roman magistrates
and their duties, to Roman laws and the business of Roman
law-courts, banks, comitia and senate, &c., involves the poet
in all the difBculties of attempting to blend two different civiliza-
tions. The inconsistency of his attitude is shown by his use,
side by side, of the contemptuous expressions barbarus (applied
to the Romans) and pergraecari (applied to the Greeks). In
some passages the poet seems to take delight in casting dramatic
illusion to the ijvinds {e.g. Pseudolus, 720; Poenulus, 550).
*Sce further P. E. Lcgrand, Daos: tableau de la comidie grecque
fauUnt la piriode diU nouveUe (1910).
But as a translator Plautus is nothing less than masterly.
His command of the art is such that his plays read like original
works, and it nuy be at least said that some of his characters
stand out so vividly from his canvas that they have ever since
served as representatives of certain types of humanity, e.g. Euclio
in the A ulularia, the model of Moli^re's miser. Alliteration, asso-
nance, plays upon words and happy coinages of new terms, give
his plays a charm of their own. " To read Plautus is to be once
for all disabused of the impression that Latin is a dry and unin-
teresting language " (Skutsch, in Die CuUur der Cegemcart;
1905). It is a mistake to regard the Latin of Plautus as
" vulgar " Latin. It is essentially a literary idiom, based in
the main upon the language of intercourse of the cultivated
Roman society of the day (cf. Cic. Dc oratore, iii. 12, 45);
though from the lips of slaves and other low persons in the
plays we no doubt hear expressions which, while they are quite
in keeping with the characters to whom they are allotted, would
have shocked the ears of polite society in the 2nd century B.C.
The characters in his plays are the stock characters of the new
comedy of Athens, and they remind us also of the standing figures
of the Fabulae atellanae (Maccus, Bucco, Dossennus, &c.).
We may miss the finer insight into human nature and the delicate
touch in drawing character which Terence presents to us in his
reproductions of Menander, but there is wonderful life and vigour
and considerable variety in the Plautine embodiments of these
different types. And the careful reader will take note of
occasional touches of serious thought, as in the enumeration of'
the ten deadly political sins {Persa, 555 seq.) and allusions to
ethical philosophy {Pseud. 972 seq.; Slick, 124; Trin. 305 sqq.,
320 sqq., 363 seq., 447; Rud. 767, 1235-1248, &c.). Virtue is
often held up for admiration, and vice painted in revolting
colours or derided. The plots of Plautus also are more varied
than those of Terence. We have from him one mythological
burlesque, the Amphitnto, and several plays dealing with
domestic subjects like the Captivi, Cistdlaria, Rudens, Stichus
and Trinummus; but most of his plays depend for their main
interest on intrigue, such as the Pseudolus, Bacchides, Mostel-
laria. In the Menaeckmi and, as a subordinate incident, in the
Amphitruo we have a " comedy of errors."
In one respect Plautus must be regarded as distinctly original,
viz. in his development of the lyrical element in his plays. The
new comedy of Greece was probably limited for the most part
to scenes written in the metres of dialogue; it remained for
Plautus, as Leo has shown, to enliven his plays with ccmtica
modelled on the contemporary lyric verse of Greece or Magna
Graecia, which was in its turn a development of the dramatic
lyrics of Euripides. A new light has been thrown on the
rapojcKavaiBvpop of the Curculio (147-155) by the discovery of
the Alexandrian erotic fragment published by Grenfell and
Hunt (Oxford, 1896). The lyrical metres of Plautus are wonder-
fully varied, and the textual critic does well not to attempt to
limit the possibilities of original metrical combinations and
developments in the Roman comedian. Recent investigation
has considerably extended the list of his numeri innumeri.
Plautus was a general favourite in the dayar of republican
Rome, Cicero, though he found fault with the iambics of the
Latin comedians generally as abiccti, " prosaic " {Orator, Iv.
184), admired Plautus as eUgans, urbanus, ingeniosus, facetus
{De offic. L 29, i04)> To the fastidious critics of the Augustan
age, such as Horace, he seemed rude (cf. Ars Poetica, 370-274),
just as Addison declared Spenser to be no longer fitted to please
'* a cultivated age." In another passage {Epist. ii. x, 170-176)
Horace accuses him of clumsiness in the construction of his plays
and the drawing of his characters, and indifference to everything
excepting immediate success: gestU enim nummum in loculos
demittere, post koc securus cadat an redo stet fabula talo. That
there are many inconsistencies and signs of carelessness in his
work has been proved in detail by Langen. But that he found
many admirers, even in the Augustan age, Horace himself beazs
witness (ibid. 1. 58), where he says that Plautus was regarded as
a second Epicharmus: Plautus ad exemplar Siculi properare
Epickarmi — a passage which is important as sw;qis»Soa.^ ^Ctox
830
PLAYA— PLEADING 831
Tbr primiliw p1»y inBinct or phy impuLit in inan hu been irudi chemimty, which hid Blnn »t[i»ct«d him. Thii he did >(
S"d"'^°C™S)'^w'ih'Ti'^S^"n"''Srrm^tiL (ii Univcnily CoUege, London, mod sfurwudj undtr Licbig al
r."sull¥ro« ia.(ii», 19M, ar.;al«AniHEiics). S« ccnnaUr CiHien, where be wok hii doctor'* degree. Al Liebig'i requat.
Carl Crm. Tjif Pluj it Anirniii lltrfi) and Tki PIcy aj Uax Pliyfail lluulaled into English the Fsrmei's worli on Ihe
U90i):iaiBMmm'tViil.iifPiiUat,fl-j.i.w. CkcniiOry cf AtriiMllurt, tnd lepreKnted Liebig st a nceling
PUTA(iSpinishwordmeaniiig"ihore"),lh*n«(nB.pplied of ihe British AtsociiiLoB . I Clmgow, The outcome of hii
in Ameiiti to a level plain /ormtd of the deposiu of ■ liva studio wai hi. eogigemMit in iS^i u chemiol miniger of ihe
■hich hu no outlet to Ihe «3 01 > like. If It KUODi of high Primrose ptint-worlu »I CUlh«o»,i post which h* held (or rather
■»ter 1 river Boods <ny area and lempomrily corvens it into a '°°" ''■" ■ J™''- •" '*43 he »u elected hononry proIeiKw
bke. which sabjequeWly dries up in hot weather, the tract Ihui "t ehemiitty to the Royal Instilulion ol Manchester, and loon
left dry is tailed a pbyi. The barren Black Rock Desert in «Il«»«id> was appointed > member of the Koyal ComnOaJon
north-«-ejiero Nevada, about loom, in length by 15 in breadth, ^ "« Health ol Towns,* body whose invatigations may be
ia typical "^ ^^ have liid (he foundatiotis of modem uuuution. In
PLATFAIR, JOHH (1748-1819), Scottish oiathtmatidiB ud "8** •« "^ appointed chemist lo the geological aurvey, and
physicist, was bom it Benvie, Forfanhiti, wheit hb fither wu thenceforward was constantly employed by the puMic depart-
parish minister, on the lolh of March 1/48. He WM educated ""o" "■ nu"tn of lanilaiy and chemical inspection. The
■I home until the age of fourteen, when he Inttced the university oppotlunily of his hfe came with the iSji Eihibition. of which
of St Andrews, In i;66, when only eighteen, he was candidate he was one ol lie .pedal comnussimiers. For his services In Ihii
for the chair of mathematics in Maiiichil College, Aberdeen, "ntiefioii he was made C.B., and ha work had the addilional
■Dd. although he was unsuccesstid, his claims were admilled «dvantige of bringing him into close personal relations with
to be high. Six years later he made appUcation for the chair "he Prince Consort, who appointed him gentleman usher in hi*
of natural philosophy in his own university, but agalo without tiousehoid. From iSsfi to 1869 he was professor of chemistiy
■uccess, and in ijll be was oBered and accepted the living of " Edinburgh University. In 1868 he was elected to represent
the united patiihes ol LiH and Benvie, v«»nl by the death of '*>= umveratio of Edinburgh and St Andrews in parliament,
his father. He coolinued, however, 10 carry on hi* mathemalical »nd retained bi» seat tiU ■SSj. ftom which dale until iggi he
andphysicalstudies.andin i;Sjhercsignedhischargeinorder sal as member for Leeds. In 1813 hi
to become the tutor of Ferguson of Railh. By this arrangement general. ""1 m ihe lollowing year, ,
he was able 10 be frequently in Edinburgh, and to cullivate the parliament, wis applied to by the incoming Toiy government
literary and scieolific society lor which it was at that time '0 preside over a eommiision to inquire into the working of the
•pccially distinguished; and through Maskelyne. whose icquain- <^"l service. Its report esUblished a complclely new system,
Wncehehad6rslmideiothecouiseo[lhecelehratedSehiehaUion "^i^h has ever since been oll.cUlly tno.-a as the " Playfait
experiments in 1774, he also gained acres* 10 the seienli£c circles «cheme." The relum ol Mr Gladstone to power in igSoaSorded
n Dugald Stewart succeeded Ferguson opportunity for Pbyfair to resume his inteiruplcd pitliamenlaiy
I, and in the following year, after the di^luli
1 his
committees during a period when the obstmclive tactic* of the
iicry
Irish party were at their height. On his retirement from the
post he was made K.C.B- In i8qi he wn* created Baran Pbylair
due.
of St Andrew*, and a Ultle later waa appointed lord-in-wailing
(0 the queen. In 189J he was given the C.CB. In spite of
also
faUmg health the last years of his Ute were luU of activity, one
Diamond Jubilee 0! i8o7 should be commemorated by the
witii
completion of the South Kensington Museum. He died in
ished
London, after a short illness, on the jsth of May 1B98, and was
mds.
buried at St Andrew*. He was three timo married. He was
ilhe
the author ol a number of paper* on sdent.fic and sorial topics.
a selection Irom which he published in 1S89 under the title of
._ .,^'Ue"QwMitrc;," English law to the prep
le Lhhdki^cd Survey d Sehehanian." which either party to
in the Edinburgh chair of moial philosophy, Pbyfair succeednl '
tht former in Ihal ol mathemalirs. In iSoi he published hi
celebrated volume enlilled lUmlraiimi cj Ike HuUanai
ef tht Earlk. To its publicatinn the influence exerted h
Kutton on the progress ol geological knowledge is largely di
In iSo; he eichauged (he chair of n ' ■ ■ ■
natural philosophy in succe*uon to Dr J
he *ucceeded as general secretary to Ihe Royal Sodeiy of ;
Edinburgh. He look 1 prominent part, 00 " ' "
in the ecclesiastical controversy which arose i
Leslie's appointment to the post he had vacati
* satirical lefOr <i8o6) which was greatly ad mi
He was elected F.R.S. tn iSo;. He died in Edinburgh on 1
lolh or July 1819.
A tolktted Hlt»n of Playfair'. wwk.. with a neinoir by Janwt SabjuU of SbcoI IVd/art.
C. rtayldJT. appeared ai EUmbu^h in 4 V0I1. Svo. Hii wiiiints A memoir by ^ Wemyss Rcid was published in
imber ol eswy. contributed Jo the ^inl^^kJMrm ^ ptEADIHO (Fr. ptcidtr. plaidtyer). the
wbii Quantities."
_ _ y of SehehaBioB."
1 and in the TVauufini oC lihe'liayar SnkIv a( Ediabyrgh founds hto claim .- . i.,.^-™ ^ _v. ,.-,._ ^., ^--^
^ie*iii.i.mer^;™ Wl« th^"nlrfS i^^SS^'^'aJd'^V^ki '"'"''*'«' '" "« P'0«eding; and also to the document in which
Astrooomy," ar,d a "Dissertation on IheftEgresaol Mathematical 'hc« statemenll are embodied. The term " pleadings " ii used
and Physical Science since the Revival of Laming in Europe," in for the collected whole ol the tUtemenls of both parties', Ihe
Ihe Enifclspaidiii Briunnim (Supplement 10 fourth, filth and term "pleading" for each separate part of Ihe pleading*. The
rs'h™"i,"f„srs.;'sr?iSr'oarSSJS |.™-jt.-w«j...pi«d].i.^,.pp«tE„i..d,i>™,
FiUeuiph/ (I vols., tft j-igi6) con.itt of the proposition! and " '"« defence made by an accused person. To plead is to
formulae which were the baiia of hit class lectures. PlayfaJr's con. make a pleading or plea,"
triliationj "o.Pu" raathefnaiica were not coniidetable, his pQprr All Systems of law agree in making it necessary to bring the
■nd his Elrmnli rf Cnmrin, all already letened 10. being the definite and technical form,
molt imporiaiii. f^it lives of Matthew Stewan, Huiicxi, Robiion, Soman Syilim.— la Roman law the action pasted through three
his first education at St Andrews. Subsequently he studied ^'^i^'p^hf^^X^'^'^IP^^^ are still applied to'l
medicine at Glasgow and Edinburgh. A short visit to India „a| arframcnts of countel. andm ^lisb popular Hweh "
(in i8j7-i8j8) was followed by his return to Europe to study phad " has much the same lenae.
832 PLEADING
coiidiici d pamt who lud beat dlipudH. but vha mitltrti ibcir spcdal privilege to lavoured torn*. In both Romu ud Eaibk
quuni to be iMicutd {M.iM, A<uial Cm. ch. ».). Tb' uw et [^^ ficUotu, equily »nd legiilitioD c»me to mitigile Ibt rifooi
n^i's%%;SJ3,'r.r£Ss,"™ sssEffi •> •'. ■.•■ >■ ■=".-.' ■"■ "."■• ™ «» •"■™; " *
. .^. ;...i.l _~.ij i~. hi. «Mt ^Tkil ».*«» revTTRice fnnung of the action ol trcjpui on the cue uodci thi povcn
. In the c( the Ststute of Wcslmiiuler the Second (ti8j),uxlb>Ibc
■- -"■■"■■ of the Ktion of flmri-Anl to DOD-fcuuct Tbe
ceduiib;
^ fin-Klai. the iwie which
the >i^ decided w*
p by the
fiFUUr in «rilii>( from the
B.t^i.1. of the p.
Jtiei bell
:>nbini.
TJe^-uto™jj^^
■umtiuiy of the liat in diipulE in lechc
' wh.t™j5°'ii^ be cill^
in KKlntoc choM by the
[ tbc/on
Hula which cooluned the pluntifi'i
fbim wu all^Iht
iUfiio.
Any eqi
uiuUe defenn included [a
lhe/cn.^n.M 1
.pby.m.
nn.of M
1 a^flit. which -u dlher
the ri)h
1 of the
« di'latorv. den>n^ 1
=n1y 4.
^-'ii;
Ml cpuhJbe brought M the
et by ckbontjan of whit 11 known u"ipeciiJplcadiDg,'^ which
bccune an ut of the uunost nicety, depending on numctwa
' rules, some of Ihem highly technical (ice Coke ugwn Liiiletea,
' joj). TboH who made it (heir business to fmne pleidinp
le called tpedil plcaden. They were not neceuatily ictmben
tbe bar, but might be licensed to piacIiK under the bar. AI
- -■-.-- . . - uue time it wa» usod to piMtise for a time ai a ^ledii plesdef
ht w up^ l^fore call to the bar. Such licencta are now rarely Boghl.
uul» by ■ and the fjis Lili of 1006 contained only one name of 1 >pe<ul
but behind pleader who wu not a barrister. The art became neceuuy
iiiom Imaa JxavM of the absolute particularity with which cUims moM
o an action poueised by the courts. The result wn that tubsLaniive liv
that could was smothered b procedure, and the practical queslioas it iuue
[he fjrmtda ^/^rc of les* moment than the phraseology in which they *trt
iny*de^" to be stated. Ai an eilreme instance, a learned jud|p ta the
B of adiou 19th century challenged ■ pleading for putting the yax witbwd
y the judfe adding aj>.. on the ground that " luw amitai that i-C vafhl
Enflith Syii™. — The Enjlith system of pleading seems to Some of tbe diSmllies as to amendment were removed hy
have drawn largely from, if ii was not directly based upon, the the sUlutea of Jeofails ij'aiJaUli) beginning in 1340. Bu inil
Roman. Bracton (Imp. Henty 111.) uses many of the Roman the 14th century the courts of common law and equily wodcd
technical terms, Pleadirg was oral 11 Ulc as the reign of side by side in Westminster Hall, ■dministeiing eadt Iheit on
Henry VIII., bul in the reign of Edwanl III. pleadings began 10 system witboul due regard to the other; and even in » smple
be drawn up in writing, perhaps a1 firumore for the purpose ol a matter as the right of a defendant tosetoS against adiloiaB
entry on the court records than lor the instruction ol the court him 1 debt due to hioi froni the plainilB required itiiutciT
(tee 1 Reeves, Hiilory oj En^ish Law, p. jgS). The French provisIoD. Manyof thcdelectsudleduucaliiiesofthccBnuniiii
Iinguage was used until rjfl a, after which English was used tor Uw system were removed by tbe' Common L»w Procedure Ans
oral pleading, but Latin for enrolment, cicept for* short period and the general rulesof practice made thereutider. Widepovoi
during tbe Commonwcallh, Latin was the Unguige of written of amendment were given, and the parties were allowed 10 lue
pleldingsal common law until 1731. The period of the Roman and try claims which theretofore csuld have been dealt ailh
formula ha its analogue in the period of the original writ in only in courts of equity. In the court of chancery the pleadiigl
England.' The >mt was at first a formal commission from the used were hill (or in certain public matters an intormilisn by
Crown 10 a judicial officer to do justice between the parties, the the attorney-general), answer and replication.' Demuitiis «ie
claim being made by a count (caufc, mrradne). The issue of used, or " eiceptions " couW be taken to iLf bill or iMWr-
Ihe writ was part of the prerogative ol the Crown, unlimited They diBcrcd from the common law forms by being much more
until the Provisions of Oxford (iisS) forbade the issue of fresh diffuse, by pleading matters of evidence, and in that the iniief
writs eicept " Hrits of course " {it atria) without the consent was 00 oath. Beyond the replication chancery proctedinp did
of the council. Gtaduilty the writ came to absorb the count not go, the place of further pleadings being supplied by ameod-
and included the plaintid's claim and sometimes the nature of ment. Eiceplionsnughtbelaken to the hill or answer on via«a
his evidence. The defendant pleaded lo the writ. The writ grounds. Equity pleadings were signed by counseL On the
king's court, irrespective of the method of trial which CoUowcd, (and siiU are) as follows: petition (which must be rerihed bf
and probably grew fixed in form about the reign of Henry II. oath), answer (which is so verihed if it goes beyond a mere deniill
(see Bigelow, Hij(i»ye/J'r«(diire,ch. iv.). At alalerdate the and reply; and a special pleading called "act on pelitioo*
writ .igain tended to approach its earlier form and ID split Into (derived from tbe erdoiastical courts) with answer thetcte.
twoparts — thcwritofsummonsand thcdeclaralionorplainliS's generally used (or the determination of some prelinjuiy
claim. The writ of summons was addressed (o the defendant, question in tbe suil, <.{. the domicile of the husband. In the
and not, as the origiiinl writ, lo a judicial officer. The pleadings court of admiralty the pleadings used were petition. am«r.
became the act of the party, diHering in this from Roman law, reply and conclusion. In the pivbale court the commoo U<
in which they were a judicial act. The writs became precedents terms were used (decUntioo, plea and replication), bnl the
number. The plaintiff's declaration was aaubstantialrcperilion Under the old common law system* as modified in tbe iqlh
these aind the like distinctions rendered pro-
:e and complex, and made the conduct of an
sf considerable difficulty " (r Reeves, Hill, o]
47). Fines were levied for mistakes in pleading.
;'S'i?5''"Ss'£'i
liih Bin."
Mn Chancery the " Encliil
e Engltih bnguape. had ei . ._ _ _,
irlvas (he ininDlllenry V. {EarilMt Juraiulirt, i 3<IX
• BulkD and LMke. PrtuiiUi tJFlniat (V^ <d.- ■■**>
PLEADING 833
""•P™"* the denudd ii for a liquidiled mm ctruin, or lo Rcavcr Und
"1, Pin by I'h. dcfcncianiioiirc cDunU of Ok dcclnniiao. The '"" ' ""'" ™ "Pifl^B ol hii lerm or lit forfcilure fornon-
plncoTicipondiiDihcRLimiiirmpi'o.. ptyoicDt of nnl, Ihc iiaicnieni of ckim nuit be endoned en
plr*. tn iliii plmdini the ihe viit; ind in all orhcr cua no stitcmeni of claim beyond
pi iialcnienu in Che defence: ,i„, or, ilw writ may be delivered e.cept under order of ths
K The^' * ""P^" °' inistH M judge at chambers (Ord>. ,84 and jo), A itatemenl
e replkalion, aonvenng Co (>f defence mjiy no! be delivered except under order nude on tba
^ he njdpda, aumring lo ,fier the a^peuM^" l^e'defclldant ln'ai^w''e''t'tribe ^l),
irrejiHDder. °'" " "f^t* ■^''■oul ipecial leave. The reiult of the preieol
rbulier. ' prailice ii to »ub>tilute " paniculai»," i.e. ipedfic itatement
aiy. a> the panin uiually of the-delaili which the panis intend lo prove, for Ihe more
(il -ominoo law pleadcnl wai Bciide pteadinit, (here in certain culea
ni Kt any stage of the plead- •pRiall)' cliim, with relereiKe to the
ingt after (I), the party might inatcad of pleading to the precedina nature 01 may he included and the relief
document demur, u. admit the facli ai tlierein tuied and contend "hsh m s la ibe defence, proper, there
in taw to lound a claim or a defence a> the cue miiht be. De- unnecna linllff'i ilalemenli (O. 19. 10).
murren (q.v.) were general or (pcciat Mxotdini a> chey wenc to The dcfi off " agaiut the claim lum*
the ftiibttance al the cfum or pica or to a mere defect in the mode due to 'h raiie by way t>f countcr-daim
c4 itatemenl. When tlie plegdinp had reached a ttagc at which any rJEh ntifl or a third party, whether
the parlin were in Aat conindieiiaft on matteri of fact, they Don< ' HUndn ic catinler-elaim 11 in tubitance
f ludcd by joinder of iuue, upon which Ibe record «■■ made up a Obn^n dant Is plaintiff and the plaintiff
and the action wai ripe for irial. or third party affected may put in ■ defence toil. Eaetpl iniuch
Pleas fell into Ihe following claun: — s caie Ibe reply and subsequent pleadinp are now leldam pcmllted.
1. In abatement, also desrribcd as temporary oe dilalo^ {lerma ^ih the partiea and the court or a judie have larn powers of
of Roman law), directed either to the iuriidietion of Ibe couR amending the pleadinu both before and al the triaT Itniei an
or to the abatement or defeat of the oclioa for delects of form. m certain caa •etlkd by the court or a judge. Demurren am
1. In bar. also described u pcicmptoiy, which answered the ibohshed. and a larty it now entitled lo nisc by his ptiading
lllesed cause of action by dcnyini fiicts stated in ihe declantion any pmnl of law. Where decision of apoinl of Law would pul an
which werr material, or by confessing their truth, but slating new end 10 the action elepa may be tatccn lor obtaining such deeisloa
matter of fact which destroyed ,thdr k«aL effccl. so as to obviate the necessity of trying Ibe issues of fact raised
Some of these were by way of tuKilication or cicuk, >.(. by tettini on the pleadings. Formt of pleading an given in Appendices C,
up Ihe truth of matter nUc{ed 10 be defamatory, or kial warrant D and E to the SxprAiHtiiiirJ RaUi. In all actions such iround
for an arrest complained of as illegal; others were Dy way of of defence or reply as if ml nised would be likely to take the
dischaige. f-t- of an alleged debt by payment. opposite pony by furpciie. or would raise issues of fact not arising
Pleas in denial were irnown (o) as eeneral Iravenes or general out of the preceding pleadings, mutt be specially pleaded. Such
issues, when they denied in a gcneialand appropriate form one are compulsory pilotage, fraud, the Statute of Umilalioni. the
or mon of the facts alleged (e.g. " never indebted " to a claim in i Act. The Snprma Omrl
uiumpsit or " not guillv " to a claim for tort) ; (b) a> epecihe :n>wn suits or in Ihe Crown
Ira^tnci of teparale and material allegations in the dedaralion, In actions for damages by
KTiiingoucwithparticularity thelacliretledon. list as ■ gcnent rule hie a
It was permissible to plead alternatively, m. to set upi number ail cnnlaining delaili as u
of difTerent answers lo the facta .on which. the claim was Used. peed, tide, lightt, Ac. The
..... , .... . ... High Court system of plead-
All the above forms 01 pleading, eicepi in malrinKiniat cauicg, oucii of the counliei palatine
were abolished by Ihe Judicature Ada. and a new ayUen was of the " reosrd " ii tuppUed
let op by these acta and the culea of the Supieme Court. Under , _ . . . ^ ,„ ,r ibe uae of the judge and o(
,».,.,.» ■..,,..«.„ ,»p., .„-,,.,-,.„, .1 ciu.," ■t.-isrs.'y^.siKSiSi.'iiisl.'ia'i, . ««».
"defence, reply, and, if need be, " rejoinder." toUowed by an mftMrj or ilr/n.11 rumiiiMj. No " pleadings "an
When pleadings are allowed Ihey must contain, and conlaia necenary. but Ihe defendant is precluded from setting - ^
(art, on up certain special defeuxs such as set-oS or infamy, SZSf
— — lutory defences, without Ihe consenl of the •■™™-
If, unkss he hat given timely notice in writing of hit intention
r Up the special defence. This system is made workable by
a„u fi.:'; when necessary, be divided into paragraphs, numbered insisting an the insertion of adequate details or partlcuUrs of the
fisures and not in words. Signature of counsel is not neccssarv^ defence it not reqiuird considcnfile inconvenience is caused by
bui "here pleadings have been sciiled by counsel or a special ""i" ,0^ "the locafcivil coum'of rtcord which have survived
pleader ihey are 10 be ligned by him, and if not K Milled Ibey the creation of the county courts, the pleadings are iiill in ibe
■re 10 be signed by the solicitor or by the party if he »ue» or ferm rccognind by the Common Law I>ro«dure Acti, ..i^or
defends in person <0. .9, r. 4).' There has been a growing dis. Th,. ,. .h, «-. .n ,h, M,™. r™,,, r,t r^nrf™ in . .
position 10 dispense srilb formal pleadings in the limpler kinds
pteadingsif thewritofsummonsijendorsedinamannertuffideni The policy ol JheMord chanci^llor and the "'""y J"l '"[JJ?
he seeks (O. iBa), and coniainj a notice of his intention. In "l™t^°i^l^riral mu™'"tlK'^'ienientw'Tl»p^ies an
DO case is a statement oi claim other than that endorsed on the called, generally pfru. The statement of the niaintiff in civil
lily 10 be tlaled. In commercial cases a ttatement by n.oIec''i^'"pl'iIid 1 muMer^Wrion.'" tK Uu^conduded
irlies to Ibe points of law and fact which they propose to when Ihe parties nnounce any lurther allegation. There eiiiu
is subsliluted for ordinary pleadinp. In cases where in addition ainore abort and tummary mode ol pleading called
U proccduie the Indictment liniaiptia <
836 PLEONASM— PLESIOSAURUS
vHfa mld-tenrnlv
^. other than Iboie d
authoriiiei. (]. A. H.|
PLBOHUN (Gr. TXsmiriA, Sma ■>«*<{'<», (o abound «
be luperlluou), rXJc*, compuiiivE of roUi, many, sreai, brtiV
redunducy « auperfluiiy in ipealung ot nriiing. bcnce u
vrmecoeary work or phrase. The word, more osLully in tht
Latin form " pleonasmus," is used in pathology of an abboiaal
PUSIOSADRDS, an otinct marine nplile belongiiig la lk
Order Sauroptcrygia, which chanclcHzed the Meioaoic period
and bad an (hnoit world-wide distributkin (tec R£mus).
The ajumal is best known by nearly complete skeletons InD
the Lias of England and Germany. It was named Pltsicsanrmi
(Gr. nwre-liiaid) by W. D. Conybcarc in iSir, 10 indicilt 1^1
it was much more nearly ■ normal replUe than tbc ilrar.Ec
"~y3r*'s..r
j—w.d™
.h.k.,<u»«^a,l, ^
nuvMmi^
slender neck, a round body, a \Tiy short iiil. and two psin
of large, elongated paddle). The snout ij short, but tbc ppc
of (he mouth is wide, and the jam are provided with a loin
of
like those of Ibe lining gaviil
MagdaWnien f.™
the civei of
Madelaine, Peiig«d.
««rien from Mousiie.
Dordc^.*
M AchcuW.^?^n M-*
844 PLINY, THE YOUNGER
delivtKd ■ QHch (lubKqnnitly publitbcifl in pnaccDtkn tt
PublidU9 Cerlui, who hid been forcmoit in the dtuk ce
HcLvidiu* Piikiis <ii. ij). Eaily [n qS he wu piDmoltd Id ik
poitu)!! of pntSra of Ihc public tismuy ia the ttmplc d
Sltiun. Allei the iccauon i^ Tn;u in the auncyctT, niny
wu usodBtcd with Ticilis in Ihe impeachment ol Miriin
Prima (or bii milidminiiliilion ol ihe piDvince of Afria
(ii. ii)- The lri«l was held under the presidency o( the en^ienjt,
who had already nominalcd him enuiil nffclui lor [and
the year A.D. loo. The [orma] oration a[ tfaanlu for thii uou-
niUion, desctibed by Piiny himseii as bia patianm aOit {tL
13, 1 and iS, i]i 1> called in the MSS. the Pamrarkai Tr^am
The lollowing year wu marked by (be death of SiUiK Italini
And Martial, who are gracefully comiaenwnted in two of til
IJlUrs (iii. ^ and 31). It is probable that in 10^-104 he ns
promoled to a place in the college of Au^is, vaaled by ha
Iriend f-'ronliniu (iv. 8), and that in 105 be wu appoiatcJ
curator of the river Tiber (v. 14, 1). In the umc j-ear it
employed part of his leisure In inwludiig a \'olunie of boxicu-
lyllabic verjc (iv. 14. v. 10). He usually ipent the winler sL his
seaside vilU on the Latian coast near Laurentum, and Ibc
summer at one of his isutitry bouses, cither ajnoog the Tusna
hills, near Tifemum, or OD the lake ol Como, ot tt Tianduni,
Tibur or Fraenesle.
Ii wu probably in 104, and again in 106, that he was retained
lor the defence of a governor ol fiilhynia, thus becoming laauluj
with the aSain ol t province which nndcd > Iboraogh re-
organization. Accordingly, about 111, he was wkctcd if
Trajan as governor ol Bilh}!!!!, uoder Ihe special title of " Iciiu
propraetor with consular power." He iiuhed Bilhjsii ii
Seplembcr, held office lor fifteen months or moic, and pnibablj
died in iij.
His hcallli was far Iron robust. He speaks ol Ids dtbiU
frame (frocililuHKd); and he was apt to suffer from veakixBii
thetyo (vii. 11) and ol the throat or chat (ii. 11, ij). Fr\^
and abstemious in his diet (i. 15; iii. i and 11), studiom uA
methodical in his bibils (i. A, v. iS, ii. 36 and 40), he toil i
quiei delight in some of the gentler fonns of outdoor rtcruiiu
We arc startled to find him Lelling Tacitus ol his intoesT ia
hunting the wild boar, but he is careful to add that, vhile Ibe
beaten ime al work, he »I beside the neis and was bi^
taking notes, thus combining the cull of Mintiva with that d
Diana(i.6). He also tells Ihe historian that, when bisoiclekfl
he pteletred lo stay behind, making an abstract ol a book <f
Livy (vi. 10, 5).
Among bis frieods were Tadius and Suetonius, as wtO it
Frontinu), Martial and Silius Itilicus; and the Stmcs, Uuunha
and Helvidius Priscus. He was thrice mkiried: ob the iki^li
ius Mkr libcrarHm (k.D. 9S), and. belorc loj. he found sthiid
wife in the accomplished, and amiable Cdpuniia (iv. i«). He
w*> generous in his private and bis public bencfactiosi (i. it. i,
ii. 4, 1, vi. 31). At his Tuscan villa neat Tifemum Tibtriccna
(iv. 1, 4), the modem Gtia di CasleUo, be set up a temple U hii
own eipense and adorned it wilh statues ol Neiva ud Tnjia
(i. 8). In his lifetime he lounded and endomed m Ubraiy at kii
native place (i. 8, v. 7), and, besides promoting loc^ educalin
instruclion ol the sons and daughters ol free-bom pirtotj (vi.
18). By his will he left a large sum for the building and tbi
pcqKlual repair of public baths, and Ibe interest ol a -Jill Istjt!
sum for the benefil of one hundred Ireedinen of the tcsuta u<l,
ultimately, lor an annual banquet.
On a mubte slab that once adonKd the public balhs al Ceme,
his dislinclions were tnorded in a long inscription, which «
afterwards removed to Milan. It was there broken into a
square pieces, lour of which were buill into a lamb wiilia
the great church of Sant' Amblogio. Of these lour Ingstrti
only one survives, but with the *id ol ttanicripis ol the xtbr
three made'by Cyriacui «[ AocoiU in ■44>> tiK wMt «>
846
ow3nc« might be made for any one irho neaoted. There vm
10 the qucAton whether any one should be pjni»hcd dniply Ear
vine t™ niune of Chrisliaa or only U he wu found guUiy <iE
zrinm luouued with that name. Hitherto, in the cue el
OK who vete brouihl before him. be had asked tbem three dii-
LCI time* whether tncy were ChriMianA, aHl, if they jicrsincd id
er might be the rc;i1 chancter o( thdr jirofcnion, he held that
ch nbdiiiate peruBtence oi^it to be puQinbcd- There were
hcr» ao leu " demented," wno, being Roman citiEcna, would be
occcdint^. a variety of ca«s had come undc]
ime ot thi'm, who denied thai they nad c
ipcTDT. and 10 blaspheme Chris : ihe>e he hi
nuttnl that Ihey weie ChriHlani, but prcm
at they had ccaied to be Chriniani (or aom
1 br Vr. E. C
b«k rdated^
i, D-jfl'dqttil
ri, E. T. Xlinil
laHrdam. 17D9I:
iSSs).„Oi> Ike
eittd by SftUe
eier IfkO^tu.
diyUghi tc
robbery, and (lora adultery, peri ury and du -41S; AiiiIh™,
f«,™cT«', IherS^d osaard 10 do a) 100 b^. nM. Aim.
hcd a decree asa>n« allttia, in accordance
■" - ■ ■■■- ■- ■■■ he had abo p . , lat Hi. Iiljij,
.. , id ditcovered nothiiK pp. nj-iifj; andln Schani, Rim. LiL || M4-+^^
„, — .. r~'ivene and cxtnvaEant lupentition. He had accord- For recent Utcraturc on Pliny and the Chiuliani,
inily put ol! the lurmal tilal wHh a view to consulting the empemr. Sludin (Kanigibeci. 1887)1 Lieblfoot. AptOali
The DLiestion appeared to be worthy of uch a eoniulutlon, rt- (ed. iB*9); Neumann, Da rimiMkt '■— --' '--
pedally in vievf o( the number o( penont ol all acee and ranln. {1S90} vol. i-j Momnuen, 1 ■" ' ~
and ot both texei, who were imperilled. The contagion had ipread Til Ckurck in Ikt RtinM
tbroueh towni and viltagci and the opcD country, but ic might and E, C. Hardy, Cihilit
ftill DC stayed. Templet that had been wellnigh deserted were reprinted in SImift in Rf
already be^imin; to be frequented, rites long intermitted were litcratun quoted in theic 1
._ ... -jTificial victims 1
11 (his bow large a
mighi ik reclaimed, if only room were granted tor lepenuncc. PUOCEKB (rram Ihc Cc
tiajan in hit reply iEfp. 97) cirprmes approval of Fliny'i course geology, Ibe name given bj
of action in the caKrf the Christians brought betonbim.. It™ the MioMBe and b. '
impoHible (he adds) to lay down any uniform or definite rule, r,..^..-.!.-- ..«:...j,
ThiT^nons in question wcti not to be tunted out, but if they were °""''B''^r«^' = . ^. ,^ ^
tenoned and were found luUly, they were to be punl>hed. 1(. approaching 10 the confiEUitilioo which they eihibi
howevEr. any one domed tbat he was a Christian, and Riiified hii day. The marine Pliocer- ■> ■'• i:~:.-j .-
6miitke Stoat tud die aiitrwtiv
Ilia. ZfilKlirifl (IBw) : W. M. Ri
mpin (cd. tS9j), c(i. 10. pp. 19
Hiilory (1906), pp. 1-16J;
I and in Scbau, iUH. XiL
tn^
Xtior, morv, and cavdr, zrccnl), la
ir C. Lyell to the formatioDS ibint
rislDMne (S'ewer riioceae) Unu.
deposits ire limited lo conqniitii-dT
he beginning of tlw period, the ya
Anglia and pans of Ibe loulh cisit
" 'Igium and Holland aad jtrt
legodt.of Rome.hewaito receive pardm. [„ »,(„; [„ Europe,
rar:d"^Snt":„i°u^;V.5thT^rit'';f'&. "™'^ 7tVt^""'i^'
The view Ihal the Christians were puiushed for being member! Ilu^^'here'and'there on 1
i^;£;T/™i"MS,SJiC,.LS;r.i.rt " "--: « »■• ■■ -- »- — - - ■'• •* " "•
own statemcnl that the ChrisLiani had promptly obeyed the
emperor's decree against collitia <§ 7). Further reasons against
this view have been urged by Ramsay, who sums up flit main
results as follows: {1) There was no c:iprcss law or formal edict
against the Christian!, (i) They were not prosecuted or
<j) They were judged and condemned by Pliny (wilh Trajan's
full approval) by virtue of the impcrivn dclcgalcd lo him, and in
accordance with the inslrucl Ions issued [a governors ot provinces
to search out and punish sacrilegious persons. (4) They had
already been classed as outbns, and Ihc name of Christian in
principle of imperial policy, not established by the capricious
action of a single emperor. (6) While Trajan felt bound lo carry
out the established principle his peraonat view was to some
Client opposed to il. f 7) A definite form of procedure had been
established. (S) This procedure was foUowcd by Pliny (W. M.
Ramsay, The Chunk in Ok Roman Empire, p. J13).
It has been well observed by E. G. Hardy that the " double
aspect of Trajan', rescript, which, while i( iheorelically con-
demned the Christians, practically gave them a certain security,"
explains "the diijerent views which have since been talen of Cuadalquivir and formed smaU bays on several pcanls »f tl«
it; but by most of the church writers, and perhaps on the whole „„th(„ „„», „( prance; and up Ibe Rhone badn a conffiicni*
with justice, ,1 has been regarded as favourable and as rather |j ^^^^ ,, ,^j „ Lyona- Early in the period Ihr »
discouraging persecution Ihan Icgalmngit" {i>/«/. Corrr- „vered much of Italy and Sicily; but the eastward «t«.i»
.*,„,*,-,, u../* T-r,„„„,63,>,o-,i7). of the audenl Mediterraneu. in south-east Euiope. lh«t^
» '1-'iiT't^A™"Tm^"iI'' "" ^'""^ f'^"' "" *"'■ '""'' Caucasian and' Ci*J5
Avintiuj of Verona (lyi): and l;p'p*\-^o by^Ald'^s'Sianuiii- tegions, continued 10 suffer the process of convef "
(ijuSJ. Tbs original KlS. has vaoiibcd I but the "copy "supplied lagooDi and large takes which had begun in the t
GtmenQy tU over the voili
of Ibe elcvalioni lince' thi
The principal eictplion to ihe
Pliocene ol Ilily and Sicily, •
■ion pcrmulcd ibc accumuiatii
nijority of Pliocene Sor-
limi:ed ADd local nature
lion ol itie period bai
nacEJDiI marine dcposils.
PLIOCENE
oig) li am alu
three wages: an upper Sicili
a lower Plaisancian stage. Other w
leAstian
t grouping of the form
ioniiuadi (jrd cd., 190S)
mei Amian (upper). A
-e placed in the Miocene, This stage has been referred
called Mio-Pliocene intet-pcriod.
' The Pliocene rocks ol Britain now occupy but u small u
Norl
>t Esse
U (St Erlt
ol England
"•Jprar^on^lly p's«
Red
^^•'^l^,
on. Newbouia and Oakley.
lys v«v cleuly mufced 1
Goiiu Unaiiu, Onu iQ
b. Tte ForiH-Bed sroui
ihe boulder clay cliff, ol 1
8+7
idCno.
jE the period, were elevated
arc associated the Italian volcanoes; Etna certainly began Its
with marine beds, and possibly some ol the others had ■ similar
origin- At the same lime volcanic outbursts, some apparently
comparubte to that ol Martinique in recent times, were taking
place in central France, while far anny in southern Sumatra
thousands of feet of submarine tufts were being thrown out and
deposited, and great bva flows were being erupted in Aljstralaiia.
geologists as to the bwer limits ol the Pliocene lotmaiionsi
this B partly (0 be accounted for by the absence of widely'ipread
marine depo^U. and partly by liie companlively short time-
diHerences between one deposit and another, and hence the
similarity of tbe iauoat of contiguous strata-groups in local
vertical series of beds. Following A. de Lapparent (Train de
tMotit, sih ed., 1906), we shall regard the Plioci
lions; thus t. Knysec io his
lisiinguishes three sugea under
lian (middle) and Messinian
eof
1 outtying patches
Doisetahice (Dewlish] and llcol (Lenham), it is evident tuai
the Pliocene Sea covered a considerable part of southern England.
Moreover, these patches show by their picsiol aliiiude above
the sea that the Downs of Kent must have been elevated more
than 8 JO It., and the west coasl of Cornwall 400 It. since Pliocene
times. The Pliocene rocks rest with strong unconformity upon
the older strata in Britain. In the eastern counties the shelly.
general use for all the members ol the series, and it is frequently
employed as a synonym lor Pliocene.
~" ~ ■■ "1 Pliocene strata are cla»iBnl by the Geological Survey
id Wales as follow* :—
r YMia (Ltia) myalii I
I Wuyimiine ciag (and Chilleiford clay?).
^Chitlclordcraj' '
rd Scrsbicviatia craf.
«one» are rouoded pieces of brown earthy
Btue. in south-eastern burope a grrat senes 01 lanOs and 1
. witn lifoitei. lenoed Ihe Paludina beds, mis directly upoi
^ ' Pontian lormation. From their Ereal development in the Le
they have been given tbe rank 01 a " Levantine etage " by F
Hochsietter; they are fouad in Datmatla, Croatia. Slavonia, &
Rumania. Bulgaria, KMthen Ruda, the Cydaikt. and the Ca'
region. On the north coast of Afrlea marine aad brackish undi
marli occur in Moroceo, Algeria and Egyptj and the " rills " c
Red Sea and Sues have been anlgned b> this Dcriod.
In North America marina Pliocene !> found fiinpng the coai
Calilomia and the Cult of Mexico. In the latter repon m
marls, clays and limeetoncs are beiic developed in Florida and cj
the San Luis Obiiporef
be 1000 it. thick, be
S48
abk IhickneH. and
McHiiitaiD,an aui^ed 11
See C Reld, "The Pnocetie DepoAa a( BtiUui~ (IfnL (M.
Svtey, i69oU_KT. Ne>tD(i^",T^Venetniea_a( ilie Plwm
bMiSraf
189O Cb«h .
., , : C. Reid. Orifi* «/ lie
il Uteralure" IGeU. Stc U ._,^.
0-A.H.)
PLOCK, or Plotse, ■ gorenunait of Rmaian Poland, co tbc
right bank of the Vislula, having the Pniwui pnmiKB o<
d Eait Pniuia on the N. and Ibe Politfa (svenmaiu
ionllieE.andWanairoDtheS. lUunii^iteiq.ia.
lU Ba[ nulace, jjo lo joo [1. ibove (be teii-level, riiei pallf
towardi Che oorlh, where It merga into tbe Halite cout-ridir
of the Pruiaiui lake district. Only a few bilb rdch 6co ft. ab«tT
TABLE OP PLIOCENE FORMATIONS.
aagei
Eiftand.
hSund.
Rhone BailB.
Lancuedoc
Rou'-^on.
Italy.
fSS
Other Coiuuria
Skilian.
Cromer F«e>t
Bed.
Fluvln-iiMrlne
Stiiioik.
AmitelSnf'
M*Hi ol St
ChaJ^V'
ctzr
MiJton. "
Travtnloe of
'^th EfapkJ
Saiidf o( Val d'Amo.
mo and t^*i>h
S.sll^iiua.'
....
B«e o« Red
Scaldiilan
of iSonmellict
Sandt 0 ° R«lt-
'ilaittdtn
Marti ol Val dAcna
wiih Uiiledm
YdlDwundioT Aiti.
Plaiuolin, Monic
M aril and Tincuy
"culco^liri.
Middle
faedicTsuaum
L^sirbrfi
D^^lian
Canscrla bedi
orBalleoc.
Yellow aandiol
Blue madi of Pb-
and Valian. ^
LimTr
Li/( e/ lie PlixKU PerisJ.^Sii C. Lycll dehned the Pliocene nrala
Thii rale e«n no lonjsr be itridly appllFd lo the widely ■callered
tormalioni of lai^uilrinc anil fluvutilc orijin. On the vlu^ke the
then ii^en pncliiany no ipecilic dlffcnnce! Kvia, foJuU,
gS
(DnyiKiuio). .
I in the lacuitri
the aea, while the bmad valley of the Vistula faai an elcntkn
of only 13s lo ISO ft. In the wctt (district of Lipu) bnud
tcmcet, covered nilh fomls, small lakes and ponds, and veir
poor in vegetation, descend from the Baltic iake^iitiici lonrli
the plains ol Plock; and in the cenlial dislrid of >llain etteasn
manbel Gil the uppet basin of the Wkn. Tlie Viilnla borden
the govenunent on tbc soulh, nlmost all the way fnan Wamw
lo Thoni, receiving the Skcwa and Wkn. The Diwpa, er
Drevenx. flowi along the north-rest boundary, vbDe te\tni
■ough xl
ofCiec
'KSi!
bedv and finjlir aink: lolmi. lUih as B^teimm paniamluiaK,
TrKhopurii borratii. Mya frvKCo/a. Cyprino iUandica, ftc. appear
on the coani of Norlafk and Suffolk, and sonte of Ihe northern
species even crarhnl Ihe Mcdilnranean (^ily) ■! the eloie of Ihe
ptjiod- The flora eahibiii the lamc gradual chantc, the large palms
and camphor trees disppeand from Eurapc^ the labt' — '~ '--
gered in LangucdDCi and Chimtropi haniifii lived aboui
until the end I the icquoias and bamboos held on for kht
the aspect of the vegetation in mid-Pliocene timn was
that of Ponunl, Algeria and Japan of to-day. Not a
The flora of ihe CiDmn forest beds i> very lilii ' ■ ■
tricl at the presenl lime. The mammali of
Peat-bogs, used for fuel, and rnarshes amtajnisg
many deprcuions in the north, while the oat
I ol the jjains ace ctneced irith fertile dayv « »
Briliib Pliocene
e bc.ir. Hals, whain, dolphins, bisons, muik on. gaielle. the red
r and many others now evtincti the roebuck, pi^s and wild boar,
papDtamus,hlppacionandhocie(£}t>iii(oidU>iiand E. ileiuwisl.
'cral fPfcies of rhlnocecDl. tapir, hyrai. elephants (EJtphas
ridionidit and £. dKh^Uf). several maitodoni. njirrel. beaver.
all the dcpccaaions of the thick sheet t
Scandinavian erratic boulders, which eat
(he Tertiary unda and marls— Ihoe las
silicaled wood and lignite. Layeis of gy
lief to
Lipno, Mlawa, Prasnysz, Rypin anc
chief industry. The principal crops ai
tcd^fSnil iian"ha'8 beenlound ff the Plkeeoe;
; "-T* '^4^f
L type. Monkeii. Mac«cui an
w 01 EurMic. At this time th
'n forms travelled oucthvards.
rpc. Agritultuie it iV
sugar, espciially ca (k
em raaehinery il ojei
Gardening and bee-keepng an eitensively poictised, la ite
north the property is much divided, and the lasdboklen. n7
numerous in Ciechanow, are far from prosperous. The fcresi
have been lavishly cut, but Plock is still one of the best nsdol
govemments (30%) in Poland- Other occupations are pnnidni
by shipping on the Vistula, mining and various domestic inda-
and teilile industry. Tlie manufacluic* include fiaai-iaA
saw-mills, sugar factories, distllleriea, Uaneiie^ hstntin
PLOCK— PLOTINUS
8+9
agricultural implement works, match factories and ironworics.
There is some export trade, especially in the Lipno district;
but its development is hampered by lack of communications,
the best being those offered by the Vistula. The railway from
Warsaw to Danzig, via Cicchanow and Mlawa, serves the
eastern part of the government.
After the second dismemberment of Poland in 1793, what is
now the government of Plock became part of Prussia. It fell
under Russian dominion after the treaty of Vienna (181 5), and,
in the division of' that time into five provinces, extended over
the westcui part of the present government of Lomza, which was
created in 1864 from the Ostrolenka and Pultusk districts of
Plock, together with parts of the province of Augustowo.
PLOCK, or Plotsk, a town of Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, on the right bank of the Vistula, 67 m.
by the Vistula WJ»I.W. of Warsaw. Pop. 27,073. It has a
cathedral, dating from the 12th century, but restored in 1903,
which contains tombs of Polish dukes and of Kings Ladislaus
and Bolcslav (of the 1 1 th and 1 2th centuries). There is consider-
able navigation on the Vistula, grain, flour, wool and beetroot
being exported, while coal, petroleum, salt and fish are imported.
PLOEN. a town of Germany, in Schleswig-Holstein, beautifully
situated between two lakes, the large and the small Ploener-See,
30 m. S. fcom Kiel by tlie railway to Eutin and Lubeck. Pop.
(1905), 3735. It has a palace built about 1630 and now converted
into a cadet school, a gymnasium and a biological station.
Tobacco, soap, soda, beer and furniture are manufactured, and
there is a considerable trade in timber and grain. The lakes
afford good fishing, and are navigated in summer by steamboats.
Ploen is mentioned as early as the nth century as a Wendish
settlement, and a fortified place. It passed in 1559 to Duke
John the Younger, founder of the h'ne of Holstcin-Sonderburg,
on the extinction of which, in 1761, it fell to Denmark, and
in 1867, with Schleswig-Holstcin, to Prussia. The sons of the
emperor William IL received their early education here.
Sec H. EgRcrs. Schloss und Stadt Ploen (Kiel, 1877), and J. C.
Kinder, Urkundenbuch sur Chronik der Stadt Ploen (Pldn, 1890).
PLOENNIES, LUISE VON (1803-187 2), German poet, was born
at Hanau on the 7th of November 1803, the daughter of the
naturalist Philipp Achilles Lcislcr. In 1824 she married the
physician August von Plocnnics in Darmstadt. After his death
in 1847 she resided for some years in Belgium, then at Jugenheim
on the Bcrgstrassc, but finally at Darmstadt, where she died on
the 22nd of January 1872. Between 1844 and 1870 she published
several volumes of verse, being particularly happy in eclectic
love songs, patriotic poems and descriptions of scenery. She
also wrote two biblical dramas, Maria Magdakna (1870) and
Z?awi (1873).
As a translator from the English, Lulse von Ploenniet published
two collections of poems, Britannia (1843) and Englische Lyriker
des ipten Jahrhundcrts (1863, 3rd cd., 1867).
PLOfiRMEL, a town of western France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Morbihan, 36 m. N.N.E. of Vannes
by rail. Pop. (1906), town, 2492; commune, 5424, The Renais-
sance church of St Armel (16th century) is remarkable for the
delicate carving of the north facade and for fine stained glass.
It also possesses statues of John II. and John III., dukes of
Brittany, which were transferred to the church from their tomb
in an ancient Carmelite monastery founded in 1273 and destroyed
hy the Protestants in 1592 and again at the Revolution. The
lower ecclesiastical seminary has an apartment in which the
£statcs of Brittany held several meetings. Remains of ramparts
o( the zsth century and some houses of the i6th century are also
of interest. Farm-implements are manufactured, slate quarries
'^'^ i'^?^ ^^ "^ ^^^ neighbourhood, and there is trade in cattle,
wool, hemp, cloth. Sac. Ploermcl (Plou Armel, people of Armcl)
Zl^Jlf "a/ne^^ -Arxnel, a hermit who lived in the district in the
otn century,
Ivmania • ^"^"^-^"^'Oi the capital of the department of Prahova,
van fooiJiV/^^ .sota thern entrance of a valley among the Carpa-
nctioa of ^'J^
^h which flows the river Prahova; and at the
to Buzeu, Bucharest and Hermannstadt in
Tran^lvania. IV>p. (1900), 43,687. As the name Ploesd
{pluviena, rainy) implies, the climate is moist. The surrounding
hills are rich in petroleum, salt and lignite. There are cardboard
factories, roperies, tanneries and oil mills. Ploesci possesses
schools of commerce and of arts and crafts, several banks, and
many ^nagogues and churches, including the Orthodox church
of St Mar)^ built in 1740 by Matthew Bassarab.
PLOMBIERES, a town of eastern France, in the department
of Vofiges, on a branch line of the Eastern railway, 17 m. S. of
Epinal by road. Pop. (1906), 1882. The town is situated at
a height of 141 o ft. in a picturesque valley watered by the
Augronne. It is well known for its mineral springs, containing
sodium sulphate and silidc acid, varying from 66** to 166** F.
Plombi^res has a handsome modem church and a statue of the
painter Louis Fran^ais, bom in the town in 1814. The waters
were utilized by the Romans and during the middle ages. In
later times Montaigne, RicheUeu,. Stanislas, duke of Lorraine
and Voltaire were among the distinguished people who visited
the place. Napoleon III. built the most important of the bathing
establishments and made other improvements.
PLOT, ROBERT (1640-1696), English naturalist and aiUi-
quary, was bora at Borden in Kent in 1640. He was educated
at Wye, and at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where he graduated B.A.
in 1661, and proceeded to M.A. (1664) and D.C.L. (1671). He
was distinguished for his folio work The Natural History of
Oxfordshire (1677), in which various fossils, as well as other
objects of interest, were figured and described. It was regarded
as a model for numy subsequent works. In 1677 Plot was
elected F.R.S., and he was secretary for the Royal Society from
1683 to 1684. He was appointed in 1683 the first keeper of the
Ashmolcan Museum at Chiford, and in the same year he became
professor of chemistry. In 1686 he wrote The Natural History
of Staffordshire. Two years later he became historiographer'
royal. He died on the 30th of April 1696.
PLOT, a term originally meaning a space of ground used for a
specific purpose, especially as a building site, formerly in frequent
usage in the sense of a plan, a surveyed space of ground; hence
the literary sense of a plan or design. The word is of doubtful
origin; there is a collateral form "plat," which appears in the
1 6th century, according to the New English Dictionary ^ under
the influence of " plat, " fiat place, surface (Fr. plal^ Lute LaL
plattus, probably from Gr. rXar6(, broad). Skeat (Etym.
Diet.) rcfbrs " plot," in the sense of a space of ground, to the
O. Eng. plaec, Mid. Eng. plcck, later ^atch, patch. " Plot," in
the sense of plan, scheme, would then be identical with " plot,"
a conspiracy, which may be a shortened form of "complot,"
a French word, also of doubtful origin, meaning in the
1 2th century " a compact body of men "; in the 14th century
" conspiracy."
PLOTINUS (a.d. 204-270), the most important representative
of Neoplatonism, was bom of Roman parents at Lycopolis in
Egypt. At Alexandria he attended the lectures of Ammonius
Saccas (g.v.), the founder of the system, until 242, when he joined
the Persian expedition of Gordian lU., with the object of
studying Persian and Indian philosophy on the spot. After
the assassination of Gordian in 244, Plotinus was obliged to
take refuge in Antioch, whence he made his way to Rome and
set up as a teacher there. He soon attracted a large number of
pupils, the most distinguished of whom were Amclius, Eusto-
chius and Porphyry. The emperor Gallienus and his wife
Salonina were also his enthusiastic admirers, and favoured his
idea of founding a Platom'c Conmion wealth (Platonopolis) in
Campania (cf. Bishop Berkeley's scheme for the Bermuda
islands), but the opposition of Gallienus's counsellors and the
death of Plotinus prevented the plan from being carried out.
Plotinus's wide popularity was due partly to the lucidity of his
teaching, but perhaps even more to his strong personality.
Assent developed into veneration; he was considered to be
divinely inspired, and generally credited with miraculous
powers. In spite of ill-health, he continued to teach and write
until his death, which took place on the estate of one of hit
friends near Mintumae in Campania.
8so PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING
In Ammonius Plolinui became imbued witb Ibe Kleclic iron, the mould-boatd oF cut iron. The ifaam, wha mtdcd
o[ ihc Aleiandriin kEiooI. Having accepted the Platonic Ihr same material, requiied comlanl ahaipening; tha dhthit
ihysical doctrine, he applied to it the NeD-Pyihagotein vai removed liy ihe device, patented by Robert Ranxunc ig
|ilu and the Oriental doctrine ol Eminaiion (gr.). The itej, of chitling and lo haideniog the under-mrlace ol ibe itzu;
lot this inlrospective mysiicism were collected by him in ihe upper surface, which ia aoli, then wean amy more quickly
» of fifty-four (originally lony-aghi) irtaiises, arranged ihan the chilled part, '■hereby a ahaip edge ia '
luLboritalive
Nowadays Ihe mould-board i. of »ecl witb a chilled and poLsbrd
ia probably
surface 10 give greater wearing qualitiei and ts nduce frkliao.
1 Porphyry, to whose editorial care ihcy rte
In the latter part of Ihe iglh canlury then me munaOLa
waa also anothet aocienc edition by Eustoc
hiua, but all
iling MSS. are based on Poiphyty'. edition.
of the ordinary plough.
he Latin
The wo^ng pans of the plough an Ihe conllcr, Ibe dm,
and Ihe irtasi or tooM-boori. These are carried M the !«>.
(0 which are attached Ihe k„«dUs or liUi at the faul, ad the
a (1856),
hail or dnis and ifraKi»l-c*ai> at the front. TIk hihc ii
notched so that, by moving the draughl-chajn higher or Ion
-Jbibli<^
ground!' It^ may^ato be adju^l^ uT^" the hdght'tl the
S£
horses used. The bake moves laltrally on a quadrant and ii ii
Ihui possible 10 give the plough a tendency lo lift or right by
moving the hake in the reverse direction. A /raw is bolud
Bh2
to the beam and this carries the breast or mould-board to the
fore-end of which the share i* fitted. The luU^cp, a plate of
■°=--W^
_5lWi«..» M;,«..:aV JWfii., (1905). AJl .
™=~^&iw
fo"ad?^.'hfa''ni^eREO™«ON"J!'.'fr«rk.at)™'l??<^
^^^ v* - ■
m», III ' % •{ lid'' '1
.._../^'3B»^ \ LaEA^
PLOUGH AHD PLOUOHINO. To enable the soil to grow
good crops the upper layer must be pulverized and weathered.
Thij operation, performed in the garden by means of Ihc spade, , _ .
is carried on in the held on a larger scale by the plough,' which Newcaillt Plough.
breaks the soil and by inverting Ihe fnrrow-slice, ciposea fresh iron filed lo the land-side ol Ihe fram^ is intended to keep tie
aurfaces to Ihe disinlegraling inllucncc of air, rain and frost, edge ol the unplougbed soil vertical and prevent it from liHinf
The first recorded lorm ol plough is lound on the monuments into the luirow. A piece of iron called ihie iliii^ b belled la Ihc
of Egypt, where il consists simply of a wooden wedge lipped with bollom of Ibe frame, and this, running along the sole ef Ihe Iv-
iron and fastened lo a handle projecting backwards and a beam, row, acts as a base 10 the whole implement. The coullecfekhff
pulled by men or oicn, projecting forwards. Many references knife or disk) and sometimes a lUm-cauIUr (or jaiurr^ ait
(0 the plough are found in the Old Testament, notably thai in aliached adjustably to Ihe beam, so as lo act in the front if
I Sam. liii. 20: " All the Israelites went down to ihe Philisiinea the share.
(0 sharpen every man his lliatc and his ceaUtr." Descriptions The coulter is a knife or revolving disk whicb is hied V Ihil
of ploughs found in Hcsiod's Works and Dayt and in Virgil's its point clears the point of the share. The skini-cou!:a ii
Cmriics i. 169-17 J, show little dcvcli^menl in Ihe implement, shaped like a miniature plough, aubslituled foi ot fiied in Inm
The same may be said of Ihc Anglo-Saxon ploughs. These are of [he couller; il is used chiefly on lea land, to pore oS Ihc
shown wilh coulter and share and also with wheels, which had suriice ol the soil logelhet with Ihe vegelaiion thereoD. led lua
in earlier limes been filled to ploughs by the Creeks and also ii into the |
by the natives of Cis-Alpine Gaul (Pliny, Ilisl. ful. iS. iS). A fuirow sli<
mallockwiih which to break the clods is often found represented fitted to tl , . ,_
in Anglo-Saion drawings as subsidiary to the plough. All these and width ol Ibe furrow are regulated, whereas in the case i
types of plough are virtually hoes pulled through the ground, " nrinf " or tehtdUn ploughs these points depend chieEy od Jix
breaking but not inverting the soil. In the fitsi half of tbe iSih skill of the ploughman. In the wheeled plougb some d t^
century a plough with a shott convn mould-board of wood weight and downward pull due lo its action on the groc-'J s
improved at Rothcrham in Yorkshire, became known as the converted into a rolling friction, and the draught a comspi^i-
Rolherham plough and enjoyed considerable vogue. At this inf^y diminished.
period plDughs were made almost wholly of wood, Ihe mould. In operation the coulter makes a perpendicular cut scpan:!^
board being cased wilh plales of iron. Small, of Berwickshire, the funow.slice which is divided from the " sole " ot the Ilittei
brought out a plough in which beam and handle were ol wrought
<The O. Eng. form is pfo*. uhi'
of " ptoush-laTiil." a unit for Ihe
the crjular O. En^. Hard lor Ihc i
laniuaccs, cf, Du, Mccf, Gcr. P!l\
Slavonic lorms, ti.ch as Ku^s. or f
lulu. The ullimale oriein ol " pie
Wcioicr «/ Unt-att. C_a96) con
■hipi the same word would be a|
through the wave*, and to the In
Iheeirth. A Ccllie origin has bcci Crulcd Furrow. Recungular Furrow.
Til? ll^""fc " TO ?LjInIS°'ii *"' "" '''="* '""^ """ in™''^ ^ "» «fw "f '!« "w™" " •**
the iSih century, and is uiual in America. plough moi-cs forward. The process i* indicaled in tbe ^cci-
tioB of different type* ol Inmw. The form td a hen* ii
PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING
851
RSiilited by iliE itupe and *idtb of the ihare, woiklng tn coonttTact tlie Icndcticy (or tht loS to notk dom tlie tlope.
nunbiniliOD with m proper shaped breut A "croted" OQC-wty plough] alto l»ve the land level and dispense irith the
fumw IB ohtoined by the uie of a share, the wing ol *hidi is wide opcD funoin belnceii the Hdges iihich are left by (he
set at a higher altitude than the point, but this type ol lurro* oidinaiy plough. They an made dd diSerent prindpln. One
type coinprisea two separate ploughs, one right hand and oat
left, which revolve on the beam, one working, while the otiier
stands vertically above it- la another the mouid-boaid and
Wide BiDlien Furr
is less generally found than the "red
During The greater part of Lhe iQlh ce
was aitainHi by the use of
jular " form obtained
flat bottom.
niuiy the ideal of plough-
iibrolicn, and thi) object
-boards whicb turned the
ilica geally and gradually, laying thrm over again
■t an angle of js°, thus providing rftiinsge al ihc
(utTOw, and eiposng the gicaiest possible surfac
ences of the weather. Subsequently the digging
into vogue; lhe riiare being wider, a wider furro'
the slice is Inverted by a short concave mould
the s<
after
iccpt on
e, the I
the digging plough.
.\ ploughed firld is divided into lands or sertio
width separated by furrows. On light easy draining 1
S yd»., and In the latter cue the furrows mill act as
wbich the water flows from lhe intervening ridges.'
Certain important variations of the ordinary plough deman
consideration. The one-way plough lays the (uitows altei
balance
is lUled.
TO plough
being placed at righ
right-band plough IS at work the Idl-haod .
DmiUi-Siiniia or multiple plmt^ are a
or more ploughs arranged in echelon so as t<
ight of these implemeni
type i) made on
ith mould-boatdi
w that while the
evalcd above the
ig therr
owl wheel, enabling ihc plough u
side, or by a pair of wheels cranked so thai thi
a level when the plough is worUng- The
plough was know.
as early as the rjlh century, but, IDi Ibe
introduction ol lb
said to have been
The"iW*y" 0
latter device by Ransorae in 1B7J, cannot be
-*>, 'ff
riJini ptouik *is Utile known in tbe tTniled
^ujp «
Kingdom, but on
the larger orable tracts of other countries
tfSf^
ii essential and the character of the surface
s ^
permits, it is in g
neral use. In this lorm of plough the frame
ree wheels, one of which runs on the land.
and [he other two
in lhe furrow. The furrew wheels are placed
all slope in the same
on inclined ailes.
he plough beam being carried on swing links.
hill-sides where the
operated by a han
lever when it is necessary 10 raise the plough
, '^tS^ t /"^ '* seti.ng-out "■ of land to be ploughed together
^f/l-r^O — 3/ *:* M^ ^f olKer technical detaik relating to pkiuehing
'C^ in <rr^. vij. of W. J- Maiden's Wortnas'i Talakal
out of the furrow- The land wheel and lhe forward furrow wheel
are adjustable vertically with relereiice to the frame, for tb*
purpose of controlling the action of the ptou^-
In the disk [dougb, which is built both as a riding and a walkint
plough, the eMenlial feature is lhe suhuiiulion of a oHicam-
854
oniitaiD)
' aiuittiidur Sduaituntnttit, but tl
Borc lyBlcmatic ud poLiifavd nnderiog of I
1S47 be wu made proCtttor of phytic*
■t time his tcientiGc utiviiy took a am t.
. pubiished tn Pttt'^''S' ^ ""Wit
C1S47). vol, Luii,, conlains hi) gie»t dlscovtiy o( magnecryslallic
action. Then [oUowid a long ittitt of nseitcho, Di(4lly
published in the same journal, on Ih< piapriiitj ol magnetic
and diamagneiic bodies, eslabliihiog nsulu which are now pan
ind parcel oI our magnetic knowledge. In iSjE (Psu- 'inn.
vol. ciii.) be published Ilie Srsl of his classical researches on Ihe
action of the magnel on the electric discharge in rarehed gases.
PlUcker, £iit by himself and afterwards in conjunction with
J. W, Hillorl, made many important discoveries in the speclro^
(copy of gasefl. He was the first to use the vacuum tube with
the capillary part pow called a Geissler'a1ube,hy means of which
the luminous intensity of feeble electric discharges was raised
sufficiently to allow ol spectioscopic investigation. He antici-
pated R. W. y. BunsenandG. Kirchhofi in announcing that the
> of tl
speclrui
lecharac
of tl
sling tbc value of this
discovery in chemical analysis. According to Hjttotf be was
the £i3t who saw the three lines ol the hydrogen qxctrura,
■hich > lew months af t« hi« de»lh were recogniied in the spec-
trum of the solar protuberancei, and Ibui solved one of the
Hitlorf tells us that Plbcli
deal conceplioE
r never attained great n
He had always, however
■nd rendering Ihem enthusiastic in
Thu) he wu able ic
great electromagnet
ayner HUIle in ii*b the
nich UK in bis magnetic
js he attached 10 his service his former pupil the
■killul mechanic Fessel; and thus he discovered and lully availed
himself of the ability of the great glass-blower Geissler.
Induced by the encouragement ol his mathematical friends in
England, PlUcker in iM; returned to the beld in which he bnt
became famous, and adorned it by one more great achievement
-the invention of what is now called " line geometry." His
Gnt memoir on the uibjecl was publitbeit in the Pkiiaiupkicai
rraniocfunii of the Royil Society of London. ]l became the
source of a large literature in which the new sdence was de-
veloped. PlUcker himself wo^ed out the theory ol complexes
ollhefii
lefair
compk. .
FlOcfcec'
student ol the higher mathematics. He was engaged in bringing
out a large work embodying the results of his researches in line
geometry whtn he died on the imd of May iSlSS. The work was
able to complete and publish it (see Geouetkv, Like). Among
•cientific societies ol Europe was the Copley medal, awarded to
him by Ihe Royal Society two yean before his death.
^See R. F. A. OcbKh'sobltuarvnotice (.4M. i. kSn. Gu. i. Wiss. a
/byI^^]ei^. SHaJHCI.Gerhardl.'Ccicik^AlcdirVa/lc-oli!
H i^nbcUsiii. p. Ig], and PlOcker's hie by A. Dnmke (Bonn, 1S71).
PLDM, the English name both for certain kinds of tree and
also generally for their Irull. The plum tree behmgs to the
genus Primia. natural order Rosaceae. Cultivated plums are
supposed to bave originated Irom one or other of the spedes
P. damuiua (wild plum) or P. insilitia (bullace). The young
shoots of P. itameuira are glabiou*, and the fruit oblong; in
P. iinUilia the young shoots ate pubescent, and the fruit
more or leas gbbose. A third species, the common sloe or
blackthorn, P. ipiiuna, has stout ^lines; Its Soweii expand
which particulan
very tough to the tl
1 the tl
I prcMdisg. TlcM
PLUM
sidered to be the only i
the Caspian. In the
if Anatolia and the CaucAaus, and is 1
icnia. and akusg the sboics of
^-dwellings slona ol tbc /".
injuiiia as weu as 01 r. jfiJUja nave been found, but not those
of P, dmttiUt, Nevertbeless, the Romana cnltinlcd large
number] of pluma. The cultivated forms are eitremely nunei-
ous, some ol the groups, such as the greengages, the davswii
and the egg plumi being vety distinct, and somoimt* rT^sdw:-
ing themselves fram lecd. The colour of tbc fruit vaiiet Iron
green 10 deep purple, the siu Irom that of a small eheny to
that of a hen's egg^ tlie form is obtong acute or oblnse al both
ends, or gbhular; the stones or kernels vary in like manuf;and
the flavour, season of ripening and duration are all subject to
variation. From its hardihood the plum is one of the mat
valuable fruit trees, as it is not particular aa to soil, and the
crop is less likely to be destroyed by Bptiog frosts. Pmms
and French plums are merely plums dried in the sub- Thai
preparation b carried on on a large scale in Batoia and Saris,
M HcU as in Spain, Forlugal and southern France.
Plums art propagated chiefly by budding on nocks al (he
Mussel, Brussels, St Julicn and Pear pluma. The r1slii»M.
wine-sour and other variclies, planted as standards, iregeaeally
increased by sucken. For planting against walk, treei wUik
have been trained lor two years in the minery are prefsred,
but maiden trees can be very successfully inlrodoced, and by
hberal treatment may be speedily got to a fruiting stale. Aay
good well-drained loamy soil is suitable fat plums, that el
medium quality as to Lghtness being decidedly prrieiahtc.
Wall] with an east or west aspect are gettet^y aDowtd I*
them. The horliootal mode ol mining and the fan st haV-lai
forms are commonly followed^ where there is aoScieDt hdflt
probably the fan system is the beat. The sboota shoqU be Isid
in nearly or quite at full length. The fruit a piDduxd aa biI
spurs on branches at least two yean cdd, aod the saac ^ta
continue fruitful for several yeaia. Standard plum trees ^^M
be planted >; ft. apart each way, and dwarfs ij or » It. Tta
tatter are now largely grown lor market puipoao, bedaf man
easily supported when carrying heavy ctcfa, [raiting eaibn.
and the fruit being gatbeicd moic euily Icon the dwaif hri
than Irom slaodiid tree*.
The following is a selection of good valictia oi plums, nth
their timet of ripening: —
S. . e. July TijMpaiHitCIati.
nlCairb, Aug- leAerisB ....
>etb . b. Aug. Kliir -
Early Pmlilic . ,
Belle def-ouv^
Belgian Purple .
. On'iCoUcsDrap. . c. ScfS.
ta.e.Aui. Rdoe Claude dcBavayj^ ^
e. Aug. Icknrih Impbatrin h. Oix
b. Sept. UteRiven - - . . jt sj;
^Jiltury PI aw.
Aug. WhiT
Prince EnilebcTl ! . e. Au. Grand Duke
Mitchebon' . . . . b. Sept. Wyntele . .
I>tMa«i.— The FluB la wtjcet ^i'THDW'
oii^n. A widespread diasaa kBownfj||,'^''>f^,
myceliuniiOf which Uves laraillicallyl
passes into the ovary 01 the flor"*
nulformatioB ol the fruit which
curved or flattened, wrinkled dry
the place ol the stone; the hlufdL. .
quently dingy red. The reproductivi
which form a dense layer on the lur
July; they are Mtteier' —•■- -i-
Pl^^l^bUu^ U aGied b^~
cccousfungui triikh loni- '*-'-*- '
itlKdi) uh] Katttnd •
PLUMBAGO— PLUMBING
n- the lavtt have Idln, Tb
cherrLb ihould be nmovrd twn\
the iKi^hbourbodd at plum-trm,
u Ibe various dneue-pndudiii
iniccu And fuoti live aln on lhca<
BKK*. The biaiKbei ui khih-
Ubm itucknt by ncvib (JUn-
(ttoi) ud Ibc brvH of vuiou
motlu. uid HV-flia (chiefly EHt-
Aphidce by >yniieiDj| Etdiii
V. ™ ....^^ ^uu.. .„u. ■ ^"^ removiBg dl nirpliu
ripe Md. *. B,: wiih eieht youagl'ngi
SST^'lblriJSl'' i^m ih^ P1-™B400 (from Ut ftmo-
^iscee. tuM, lud), a name frequently
«. Sulk-celli of the ucL appLied to inphite (f.i.), in
B,FiluK«iolilKinyceliuin ^JuBon to iti nmole letem-
^t« inanenely. i,^„ ^ ,^_ _,,,^ .^ .^
•y. Epjdcnui. populirty cilled " bluk-lcmd."
It KU formerly held In repute
Id medicine, hat It now reguded u having no medjdnal
proficnia of any vaJuc,
FLUMBAM DRAWIKOl Whal we ibould now ^nk of ai
pendl drawings vert in the 17th and rBth ceaturies usualJy
known ti druwings " in plumbago," and there 19 a group of
aitiiU wboae work i« remarkable for their exquisite poitraiu
dnwn with finely pointed pieces of giaphiie and upon vellum.
In lome books of tefeience ibey are grouped u cogravera. and
u nicb Horace Walpole deacriba several of tbem. There ia no
doubl that many of Ihcir fine pencil dratringt were prepared for
the purpose of engraving, but this is not likely to have been
thee
■ewilh al
luted, by Forster for cumple, when the poclrail was not
nquiml lor tbe preparation ol a plate. One of the eacllest of
tbii group of workers wa* SimoD Van de Pass (ligji'-ifit?).
and in all probability bis pencil drawings were either for lepro-
duclion on silver tablets or counters or for engraved plates.
A very few pencil portraits by Abraham Blooteling, the Dutch
engraver, have been preserved, which appear to^have been first
■ketches, from which [^tea were afterwards engraved. They
•re ol exctedingty delicate workmanship, and one In the present
wrltif* collection ii signed and dated. By David Loggan
TiAjriTOo), a pupil of Van de Pass, there also remain a few
portnuta, aa a rule drawn on vellum and eiecuted with the
BQireiBBg tbe intricacies of a lace ruffle 01 tbe curls of a wig
beijlg perfectly rendered. It is evident that these were not
alwaya prepared for engraving, because there is one representing
Charles II., set in a beautiful gold snuff boa, which was given by
tbe king ID Ibe duchess of Portsmouth and now belongs to Ihe
duke ol Richmond, and a similar portrait of Cromwell in the
possession ol Lord Verulam, while several others belong ro Lord
Caledon. and there are no engravings eorre^jonding to these.
On the other hand, a large drawing by Loggan in the writer's
Charles II., is Ihe sketch for the finished
engraving and bean a
wbo is better known to the general csllecli
(■016-1691). He was the pupil of Si
II eflcci
wilb Nanleuil, wboae involved min
triiDDphing over technical difficuliie
■ir impartial' dnHrtogs by him 11
1 from Ihe time he spent
style he closely followed.
«55
Be portraits in the
i-i7") was one of
.Mm of portraiture.
tie is known. Ha
rrtrailure how such
h the roughly cut
of the artists. In
I representing Ihe
■tndled at Welbeck
D the Victoria and
Englishmen should
ber and loo. The
a prolific engraver,
tum, were for the
an those of Robot
0 Whiles, carefully
tobert White there
Hatlbew Hak in
t Welbeck; and by
private collections,
nnyson and others.
US*) '
e's coUecUon. In
Qy added beautiful
s around the por-
lines below them.
I these plumbago
is of the utmost
The chief of his
< possession of the
s known save thai
, and was attached
s in Scotland. At
e chincter as hts,
i*sCecill(jC.i6]o),
ere evidently first
the only signed
lis manner, notably
all, and Isaac and
Is 1 fine drawing in
le Uter men. Hone,
11 plumbago. Other
Thomas WorlidEe
i7Ji>). C. A. WolB-
itS^-irsbi. Johann
■"•'&%T
fltmbiim), DOW a
)I also in tin, linc
856
PLUMPTRE— PLUNKET, BARON
nrams, ibwabd um <iSii-tg9i), sngudi divuic
ud (cbolu, wu boin b LondoD on the filb of Augiai iSii.
A •choUt of Unlveraity College, OitonI, h* grediuted with a
double-Gnt cUa Id liM, lud in the ume year he vu elected
lellow of BmenoK College. He vu oidiined b 1S4;, ud
■hoitl]' ihemrd* ■ppoinlcd duplain, and then profetwr ol
putoral (heelogy, at Kiog'i Colieie, LoodDO. In iB£j he wai
(iven « prebeadil itaU at St Paul'i, and from ia6« to 1874 he
waa a member of the commiltee ippofnted by Convocation
*aa Boyle IctluTct In tS6fr-iS6T (" Chrfit and ChriUeadain "),
ud CriDGeld leriuret on the Septuigini at Otford iS7i'i874.
After auccea&ively holding the livingi of FlucUey and Btickley party
inKcDt, hensiiuunediniSSiasdcanof Well). He died oi
the lat of Februajy 1S91.
UtioD'aa ■'uinibior of ilKp^ya'^Sophocle* (iWj) >nd Ancl^ui
(lflM)..«lci<tlKDmiia™iiiiM«arf^pMt ^ "' '
itBdS).
tifi"1ih'ich'i'>;
a Nim TutamtiU
Lent '
. ,. , _la many theolo^ral woAm
A* Exfeiilien tf llu Epulla u At San CkurdKi
Tit Spina « Prim (1SB4). " Tbe Book of T
■niuMURl in Ihe Speaker'! CommnUry). tbe
d IE. Corinthiani," in Biihon EUic
Id Liji ffBiikep Km [itiBSl.
. to rob, to pillage, eapeciaUy
came mio Engllih uugt dilcdly from Gei
from t, tubitantivF Plandir meaning " hoi
dothts, clothing, &c.), paniculiily with itference lo tbe pHIagini
of the Thirty Yean' War. Thomai May {History nf ' '
Farlianunl, 1647; quoted in the Nik £ii{liiJk Diclisnary} aayi:
" Many Tauna and VUtageg he (Frince Rupert) plundered,
which ii to lay lobh'd, for at that lime But wu the word plunder
uaed in England, being home in Germany." The JVrtff En^itk
DiHionary'i earliat quoUtion ia from the Svtdisk Ixl^iiaaa
(1S3.).
FLUKKET, OUVER (i6i»-i680, Iridi Roman Catholic
divine, waa bom at Loughcrew, Co. Metth. He wu edu-
cated privately and at Rome, whithet be went with F»ther
Scacampi in 164s. From 1657 to i66g he wia professor of
theology at the College of the Propaganda, enjoyed the friend-
ahip of the hislorian, Fallsvidni, and acted aa repreienUIive
ol Iriah ecdesiislical alfaln at Rome. Pope Clement IX.
appointed him to Ihe archbiihopiic of Armagh and primacy of
Inland in July iH<j. and in November he waa conHcraled at
Ghent, reaching Ireland in March i«70. Lord Berkeley of
Stratlon, Ihe viceroy, ahowed him much bindnea and allowed
him to Qtabliab a Jeiuit school m Dublin. Plunket ahowed
amaiing diligence in furlheiing the cauac of hia Church. He
lni70Sbeen . _ _
mont. He wu an anti-jacobin Whig of tbe adod ii Borkc.
not ungracefully filled with a ferveol Iiiah paliiotinB. But he
wu a (incere admira of tbe cgutitutiDDa] lOTCniBMBl <f
Englandaaeaubliahedini6SS;beevai JuMifiol the aKndaKy
it had given \o tbe EitabUahed Churdi, allbon^ be iln«hl
that the time had arrived for fiilending tokratjon to Keaafi
Calhotica and diaaentera. To Iranifer it lo Inland u thta
modified, and under an indepoident legialatorc waa the onlj
refann he foughl. foi hb counliy; be oppoaed the tmion bccanai
be thought it incompatible with thia object.
When Flunket entered Ihe Itiih parliamenl, the Irab Vh«
and Fiit wu (ecling hia way a
accompiian ine union, in ihia be waa aeoxided ably by lot
Cutlereagh, by the panic cauacd by ■ wild ionmclion. and bf
tbe Kceuion of Gnttao fioiD polilici. Wben, bowtin. tk
meaaure wu hraught forward, amoog tlieafalt*! aDdfiaierief
ila adversariea waa Flunket, wbOM poweia aa a grtil otatK
wen now univenally lecogniied. Hia ipeecbs raked Hm
immediately to the front rank of hia party^ and when CfalEaa
r-SS^ "■"*•'■ '■"" •W='fit«'"^
pnCeisian, and b<
iSoj, aiiei Emm
«tbeh
t letuned to tbe pnetkt of Ik
ince a leada of tbe etguily hn. b
ion, be wu itkctcd u one i4 (he
ling up Ibe evidence, ddiveeed a 9ceit if
, which abowt hb chancteriatic iMa if
r thia qxnh be waa eipeaed 1>
much unranited oblocpiy, and :
Cobbett, againat whom he btoug]
damagea. In 1S03. in Filt'a aecond adminiatr
wlicitor-general. and In iSoJ attoiney-gmeim]
he continued in office wben Lord Grenville cai
ito6. Flunket held a aeal hi the Imperial p
thia period, and then made several able apeecba m ._
jpation, and of continuing the wai wilh Fl
t when
:a piofetsiona) lit
bring only f6i in good.
bordly upon him, and In December 1678 h
Popiah Plot," he wu linnight
n Dubti
anchofth
1 arraigned in the King'a Bench,
charged with conspiring to bring a French anny to Cajlingford.
Ke mode ct good defence, but on the abaurdeat of evidence the
Jury convicted him of tnuon, and 01
banged, drawn and quartered at Tybui
PLUHKET. WILLIAM COHTHaKAM PLUNKET,
tbe county of Fermanagh in July 1764.' He wu educa
by hia father, a Preibyterian minlslM of contideiabii . ,_,„_ ,_„ _
and repuuiion, and in 1779 he became 1 student of Trinity 1^, Jt
CoUege, Dublin. He waa conapicuoua u the acknowledged )? i° ■,,
leader of the Historical Sociely, the debating club of Trinity """ """^ ""
College, then full of young men of nmarlubte promise. Having
entered Linioln's Inn in 1784, Flunket wu called to the Iriah
1787. He gradually obtained a considerable practice
parUament u member for Trinity College, and kk
wilh the Gnnville or anti-Gallicu Whiga. Hewu
ledgcd u one of the first nalora. if not the bnt, c4 tbe Bi
Commons. His reverence for the English constitutioB a <
and slate, his steady advocacy of the war with N'apoleoD. ai
his antipathy to anything like democracy made him pe|sls
wilh the Tory parly. In iBii Flunket wu <»Kt mon attsiMy-
general for Ireland, with Lord Welloley u iotd-liRUiait.
One ol his first official acts wu to prosecute for tbe " battk
riot," an attempt on his part 10 put down the Oiasge IicUw
in Ireland. He atnnuoualy opposed the Catholic Asaodaliw.
which about this time, under the g)iidancc oC O'CoBaeS, bags
ita agitation. In iSij he made a poweriul apeech agaaoi k
^uioest o. evpence tne ^^ "" '^'™' 'P«,'*?J' ~ 'f?' "^ ■*« "•'^ <*•»«*■ "*
tbe ist of Tulv he waa " oPPf™"' 'J'""'"''''"*'!'" •>« Power to duck itaeftrtita
■■ ^ ■ etnandpale itself.
■8)7 Plunket wu made nuMer of tbe nib ia ti^at
-~ ■■ '— ' — ' ieakiusy of tbe bar, wbo i^rW
reaigncd in a few dayv Sa
in<
■Thelrii
uiihedbytheiMlliKEorihen
m Irishman u a
if terwardi . he became chief justice .
' s then created a pea of tlie United l^Jw
appointed lord chancellor of Itd^ asd hdf
uiv viii^f, Willi an interval of a few montlis only, anti litu
when he finally mired from public life. He d«d en Iteiik^
January iSm, and mssuoeeded by hia eldest (ob, IheU^irf
Tuam C>79J-i866) u >nd baron. Tlie atb baroa (ilii-i»n)
wu bishop of Mesth and afterwards arcbbisbofi id Dabbml |
ptimale of Ireland, and an active ccdaiaaticaJ italcavwa: "f I
his younger brother David Plunket (b. iSjS), ■
lor Ireland in 1875-1877, and first nvnmiwiiiiii 1 hi 1
Unionist adminiattaiioo ol iSSj-iSgi, wu In >>«j cr
PLUNKETT— PLUTARCH 857
JB Ue PtuBlrl, itb buon (b. 1S64). wu StniaiHt [1908), ud JiKrol £1/1 FrtHtm tflkt Uaiti Slala
(orenmr 01 wew J^eilind from 1(104 10 >5>i>- (1910).
PWliKBIT. IIR HORACB CDHMB (.854- ), IrUh s« Sit Ho«« Pl«rkm. /r<l«d n Ik, No. C^yOMry (Londm
poblicuui, thud ion o{ Ednnl, 16th buon Dunuiiy, wu bom 1904); Kitcri^Oia CamiKiUit oj Itmiry: Dcfarimai afAirittiiiat
on tbo i4lh ol OciohM -354, »nd wu edualed »t Eton ud <^ Tak^tai fvlmlum t.I,aa<ai. tCd. 3J71) (1907).
Univcnily Cott*g«. Oifotd, ol which colkge be b«c»n« hononry nUBALUK (Lai. fiu, /tf»«, many, leras]) a term med
lelloi. in 1909. Ht iprnl ttn jura (i8j(^.SB9) ranehini hi gmeraUy in Ihe k™ of plurality («e bdow), and in philowphy
Mont»iui, U.S.A., where, together with m tuhituiti*] fonune, („ „, ibeoiy which poiiulites mote than one ibsolutdyS-
be •cquiied eqierience thit proved invaliable in the work iin„ be[ng „ principle of being, opposed lo moniim Plunl-
of »gricuHural educition, impiovement »nd development, 10 jjiij tyntaa are bawd on the difficulty o( reconciling with Ifaa
which he devoted himMlf on his return to frtland in 1889, At monjilic principle the principla of vuiely and freewill. Tbe
fint PlunLni resolved to hold hiinself Joof from party poliiia, ^la difficulty which besets any such view is Ihit if the elemeDU
and he set himself to bring together men of ail political views „ absolutely Independent, the cosmos diuppesra and — —
for the promotion of the material ptospctily of the Itish people, irfi ^nf, fjuos; i(, 00 the other hand, there is inleti
Iq 1894 he founded the Itish Agricultural Organization Society, („ ;„ I^tjc's «y>tem), the elements are not ultimate
which accomplished a work of incalculable imporiince by intelligible sense,
inuodudng cooperation among Irish farmen, and by proving PLURAUTT (O. Fr. ptiaaSia, Ule Ul. UvaliSai. plural
10 the latter the benefits obtainable through more economical niimbet), in a general sense, a word denoting more than one-
aad efficient management. But already in 1S91 he had fell tpjXtd particularly 10 the holding of two or more office* by
compelled to abandon his non-polilical allilude, and he entered ,)« same person [called then a ptiaaHa). In ccdeaaatical law,
parliament a* Unionist member for south Dublin (county), plurality or the holding of more than one benefice or preferment
Continuing, however, his policy of eoncilialion, Plunketl sug- was always discountenanced, and is now prohibited in Enghiod
gested in August 189s that a few prorainenl peraonl of various by ,he Pluralities Art 1838, as amended by the PluraUties Act
political opinions should meet to discuss and frame a scheme of ,8;o and (he Pluralities Art* Amendnieat Act iSBj. By the
practical legislation. Theoulcomiofthisproposalwaslheformi- \i,ia act a provision was made that two benefices might be
lion of the " Recex Commillee " with Plunkelt as chairman, tjid together, by diapcnaation of the archbishop on the recom-
which included men of such divergent views as the eari of Mayo, mendation of the bishop, if the churches be within four miles
Mr John Redmond, The O'Conot Don and Mr Thomas Sinclair of „,i other and if the annua] value of one does hot eiceed
■n July i«9* the Recess Committee iaued a report, of which £„ („ Benejice). It was toimerly a practice to evade
nding a beneUce 10 a holder of other
Plunki
in ioreign countiies. This report, and the growing influence benrfcoTuniil an incumhent sboljd'brproiridMrfoc'iir oL-
of Plunketl, who became a member of the Itish Privy Council mendams were abolished by the EcdaiaatiDil Commissioneii
In 1S9;, led to the passing Of an act in 1899 which established a Act i8j6 (6 & 7 Will. IV. c 77, % 18). See also Cod v. Biihtf
depatlmenl of agriculture and technical insttuclion in Iteland, „/ Cnmlry. 1613, Hob. 140 seq., whete much learning oti the
of which the chief secrtlary was lo be president a officio. Plun- mbjecl will be found.
kelt was appointed vice-president, a position which gave him in elections, particularly where there are three or more
control of the departmcnl'i operalioni. It was intended that candidates, and no one candidate receive! an absolute majotily
the vice-president >hould be responsible for the department in „[ ^otes^ ,),( ana ot votes ptjled by tbe firat candidate over
the House of Commons, but at the general election ol 1900 the lecosd is often termed plurality, especially in the United
Plunkett lax his seat. An eiteniively signed memorial, sup- giaio.
ported by the Agricultural Council, prayed that he might not pLUSH (Fr. pityclu), s tewile fabric having a cut nap or pDe
be iwnoved from oflice, and at the government's request he the same as fustian or velvet. Originally the pile of plush
continued to direct the policy ol the department without a seat consisted of mohair or wonted yam, but now silk by itself or
Id parliament. He was created K.C.V.O. in 19O]. with a cotton backing ia used lor jJush, the distinction from
On the accession ot the Liberal party to power in 190*, Sir velvet being found in the longer and less dense pUe of plush.
Horace Plunkelt was requested by Mr Biyce, the new chief Xhj material Is laigdy used for upholstery and fumitura
Koelary, to remain at the head ol the department he had purposes, and i» also much employed in diesa and millinety.
created. But.havingjalintheHouseof CommonsasaUnionist, PLUTARCH <Gr. IlXotriipXoi) (c. *.n. 46-110), Greek blo-
Plunketl had incurred the hostilily of the IVationali^ party, grapher and miscellaneous writer, was bom at Chaeronea in
whose resentment had been further eiciled by the bold sUlcment Boeotia. After having been trained in philosophy at Athens he
of certain unpzlaUble truths in his book. trdoKt in lit Nn travelled and stayed some time at Rome, where he iectuted on pbiio-
Ctnlnry (1904). in which he described the economic condition sophy and undertook the education of Hadrian,' Trajan bestowed
and needs of the country and the nature of the agricultural consular rank upon him, and Hadrian appointed him procurator
Impiovement Khenes he had Inaugurated. A determined of Giiece. He died m hia native town, where he was artboa
eilort was therefore nfade by the Nationalists to drive from ^„g p^est ot the Pythian Apollo. In the Cauotaiim It kit
office the man who had probably done more than any one else Wifi on the loss of hit young daughter, he tells us (1 3] that they
of his geneialion to benefit the Irish people; and in moving a had brought up four sons besida. one of whom was called by the
tmlulion in the House of Commons with this object in 190J. ,aiat of Plutarch's brother, Lampiias. We leam incidentally
■ Nationalist declared that his party " look their stand on the fmn, [his treatise ({ 10) that the writer had been initialed in
principle that the industrial tevival could only go hand in hand ,he secret mysteries of Dionysus, which held that the aoul was
tritb the national movement." TTie government gave way. imperishable. He seems to havs been an indepeodent thinker
ud in the summer of 1907 Sir Horace Plunkett retired from rather than an adherent of any particular school of phQowphjr.
office. Since the year 1900 a grant of about £4000 had been His vast acquaintance with the literature o( hia lime ii every-
madc annually by the Department of Agriculture to the Irish where appateot.
Agricultural Oigaoiialion Sodeiy; but the new vice-president, xhe celebrity of Plutarch, or at least his popularity. Is mainly
Mr T. W. Russell, who had been himself previously a member founded on his lorty-aii ParaUd Lita. He is thought to have
at tbe UnionisI adrainislralion, withdrew in iqo7 this modes! written this work In his later years after his return lo Chaeronea.
mnnnort of ao atsodalioa with which Sir Horace Plunkett His knowledge of Latin and of Roman history he must have
cloaely identified, and of which be continued to be the pmly derived from some years' tesldence in Rome and other
J spirit. In addition to the publication mentioned, 1 There leemi no authority for this statement earlier than the
Hmcc Plunkelt publisbed NMau OMi'fC Ah Iriik middle ages.
fcHo
858 PLUTARCH
o moch oigiged in mriiif (n«l n* talu) idvncim iht
to tuin hii utcDlion '* '""■■ "*'' ■"^ °°' (■"'■V ■ pmauu
■■siw diS.T^lSfi'asS' u^f.. 111. I. SS^'^^r^ "'^?TS
Ihc title ubicb he (ivotbein ia dedicating ricieuuid AhhiJhi ir (00 pnne to pnin, not to Ik impunl
to Sosiui Seaecio— »ppe»r« to li«ve beta the publiation, io T^. ^ ^l* '«''"?• (1 '^K*^'"!^?^
..■^j™ ton 01 ...1,-0. bi.o.pw, 1. „ta uu., S'K£S^":s?;S3*f !!■;
logelher i Greek (md a Ronaa. In the iatroduclion to Ihc
rAcjm be speaks of having liready iuued hii Lycurpa and . . . ZKUiarnital /riM a Frirmi a a nlW
each other in their legislative chuaner Theleii. and Romului i„Hii.™ ia-nrnjcmiocisl");. tbe'iiaiiir "diiiirtii to^iS^t rr^
(K compued u the legeadacy tounden oE gtatca. In the la not i>>* «.^.im h..> •■.. ~»«^.. .^ . .i^^-. 11.4 — i!>.i:
openinf tentence ol the tile oi Aleiander be uyi that " in Ikii
baeli he hu irtitlen (he livcsol Aleianderand Caeur"(Ju!iiu),
and ID hit Dtmailkcnei, whcie he agiia ({ 1) meations hii friend
Sosiiu, he caJIi (he life o( this orator and Cicero the fifth book.'
It may therefore fairly be inferced thai PluUteh's ori^nal idea
wBi Eimply to Kl a Greek warrior, (Uteaman. orator or Icgjibior
side by Kde with aome noLed Roman celebrated for tbe ume
cjualitics, or WDrUng under similar conditions, Nearly all the
lives are in pain; but the uriet concluded wiih single biognphiet
gf Artaunes, Anius (of Sicyon), Galba and Olho. In the lile
of Ant us, not Soiius Senecio, but one PolycralCT, is addressed.
The Liia an work) of ^reit learning and research, long lists
of authorities are given, and they must for this very reason,
as well as from their considerable length, have taken many years
in compilation. It is true that many of the lives, opedaUy of
Romans, do not show such an eitent ol rescanh. But Plutarch
must have had access to a great store of books, and his diligence
as an historian cannot be questioned, if his accuracy is in some
paints impeached. From Ibe historian's point of view the
weakness of (he l^graphies is that their interest is primaply ikint I
ethical. The author's sympathy with Doric characters and even ,
;—.:....: — ;. _.:j„,, |^ jdights to record the eiplwts, J" r "^ i^riv;.,
I of SpaiU* kinga and generals. [5Mkh?^m"
in Herodotus, who, as an Ionian, seemed to him to have fault with by a foe is Hkdy lo be plain irath 1
■-'—■-T»t>foan+.*)L*fc.« ((6). Jealous.
This feeling is the key 10 his apparently unfair and virulent teadi
attack on Herodotus, who, as an Ionian, seemed to him to have
eioggerated the prowess and the foresight of Ifce Athenian
The voluminous and varied writings of Pluurch eiclusive ~'6i''^nimt'ilaiy''Fmili'at Oama, Oa Virlmi aii
of tbe Li-KS are known under the common term Oprra moiolia. three ihoR cuaya, Ike fin- -"
These consist ol.above. si.ty essays, some of them W «d '^^^"f^t*^
. thin dUud . „ _
plea^ that intclligenc*, *ti^''. not mere luck. B tiK n
iy of (bcm rather difficult, some too o .
ness. Their literary value is grcally enhanced by the large
number of citations from lost Greek poems, c^itcially verses of out oiner names tor oappmeu ana mnery. AU Ihne a
the dramatists, among whom Euripides holds by far the first ff™"h^ cilatioas from the pueU. gevenl of dm 1
place. The principal (rcatisea in the Opera m„>alia are the Twger^^. well and cl«xly written, and oot t.
following:— for ill many quoutions. is the CnsodUin miJtttud u A;
On llu Ednalim 0/ Ckilirn (regarded ai spurious by some) (coniidmd ipuriout by BBie) on the early death o( hii " 1
recommends 111 good birth, and •obVicIy in the father; (l) good beloved and relieioui and dutiful Kjn." Equality of nnnd
l«oi«> must be honal and trust wonty; (J) r-^-'
life and fortune must be held secondaiy 10 ■
a good edoealioni Menander([si. TheUielCHnenofinduiine in grief ispiiimdcrt
y.but not to the deathbeingadebt loallaodnot lobereganSd aianevlIlH b-uJ.
jinn olthenlhn ■r»nm- (8) rvfnni.rin , ' B..._._ j_.._._. -._-...,.__,....
!9l ki
Lcluiion of t^ plh^ia?™Vl8r(ii'm™ira%re to be piattiiid^ fWs'd«t?iii'li died U^S'^' ihtliod y H ™ buntf h^"^
^T.aiKl^tK^m
lingiilobeavoided.andi^lyatrelaiiat'ionistabeallowed; Ihedeiulirein Ihemnecategoryairheunliom (lij), TlicbiiM'
rU-conlrol, and not least over the tongue, is lo be learned; 'nta d<aih because it It untimely or piTmatuii hai umlli--'
I youth should be under the eye and advice ol bis aellishneiiiinjl (i l<)).be~deithai iionly meuu ihat oatloaal
themtclvn once young: Tt^) marriasp Is recommended, and urilhoul would beihemou gricvouiol all (| lo! One Kin hai died arir
dlspariiy ol rank; (Ij) above all, a Ealbcr should be an example of may have been ipiied many won latber than have ben ianiA
viriue to a son. 0* many biHnnai: and after aU. to die is but to p.y . dctateo
//« n ysMf Man »(» fi> Rior />«lry It largely made up of Ihegodtwhenlbeyaiktoril (1)8), Eaamplea are .IWugf In "
quotations from Homer and the tragic poelt._ The points ol the and resgnation under «^ '"5""'J? (Ijj'- J^ myi tbe.
falK. tbe praiies of virtue andhcroiam with a mythology depraved "neh a ■» will have a place in it, Tlwauihor haiixKTOwedbai*
andunwonIiyafgad<.>I*»ln ipin *>IA~, gli Otlr >«1 (ill). HuiI i<i«~>i ol Cnntoc.
1^— Pmrpli alMd JIaUk commences ai a dialgcae and enea* ■
Dimmlli. I 1. Plularch's onhocraphy of Roman word) and some Icnjlli at a lectuie. It is lechnical and dilficuri ihiiiMJH
A curious eieample [Dc forlun. Rim. t sj it ViMilii el kanoril, sayi, ihould be taken lor food rather than [or drink. Bd •*•
written OfciwiUl. f. ..1 'OW^PH. The Vol«:i are Ota*^™, ibid. ihould not be indulied In afler hard wotk or mnMl eCst. I> I J
PLUTARCH 8s9
Snuice Inxn CBIh of Iht nin and moon (| lo).
duloguF, the brgindinE and tpi o1 wtich are
Higgntcd (II 91-^1) ihxt the moDr, like the
I reccHn into whkli Ibc Bun'* li^t Aoa not
[ipGanntx of the ^' fuv " ia notniiui but lb*
I Ot d«p ravim.
O* Ikt Lot Vnnoiia a/ Ai i)nr> i> ■ dulofiK ccxiKqimt on •
lunpoteil lEdutc by Epicunii. An obiectioii it laittd to Ihe
ofdinary deatinft of provkSence, Ihat [onc-dcU^ puaiibnient
CDCounga Ibe riniKr and ditappoinu Ibe injutdl. tbc rtpl)' lo
ithkh i> (I 5) ihal the lod aelt maa an eiaiBple to iwiij luily
npciiu»^{| fi)?*Mnnver, he may wiih'lo'iwait^ binb ol
ggbd progeny from erring parentt (| 7}. Aiboihcr fine r^ectku ia
that'ain haa its own punithneot in canting miHry (o the iinner,
and thui (he longer Ihe file Ihe greslcr ia Ihe ihate of muery (1 g).
The enay conclude* with a long itoty about one TheapcHua. and
, .,,, _ .Hayfol bonier On faU (pcobibly ipurioua) diacuHca the law of duuKC aa agaliut
tlirDughDul. but ncilber Ihe wit nor Ihe wiHSom aeenn ol a very high Ilv ovenuling of providence. Thia treatiie eoda aiimpily ; the point
■tandanl. Solon deliveta a apeecb on food being ■ neccuily falhcc o< Ihe arpiment ia that both fate and providenee have Iheir due
■bail ■ pleinirc uflife (| iS), andoneGofivi.a Imlberof the hoil. in Buence m mundane aEain [l9),and that all thinga are coonituted
CDOie* in to niate how he hai iuit fhaiiai handi with Arion, bnnight ior the ben.
acroti tbe ica on the Uck of a dolphbi II iB), which bringi on a dia- On Ike Cniw rf Secrala ia a long eaiay, and, like » many of Ibe
cufaioo about the habits of Ihat creature. Among the apealccnare reit, in the form of a dialogue. The ciperiencei of one TimaiThuiL
Anop,Anachareij,Thalea,Chllo.CleobulutaBdoiieCher»iafcapoet. and hii aupenutural viiiontin the cave of Trophoniui. are lelami
A ihon easiy On SaftnlUia» conuint a good many quotalioni at length ui the Pblonic Kyle (| 11), and Ihe true nature of Ihe
liom the poeis. It opena with tbe wile Rmaik that ignorance about lu^rn ia revealed to bim. They are Ihe aoula of Ihe Juit. who
the gati. nhich makea the obttlnate nun an athei«. alao begeti ttill retain rrgard for human aSain and atiiK tbe good b their
credulity in weak and plianl mindi. The atheiit fcan nothing cSona after virtue (( iS). The dialogue endi with an inlerenuif
becauK he beHeiei nolbing: the lupentitioug man believea there narrative of Ihe eonccalmenl of I^loradaa and Bme of ihe Tbchan
■ re s^t, but Ihat they are unlrienifly to him <{ a}. A man who conipiraton aiainit Ibe Spartana in ihe houae ol Charon.
feara the god* i« never free from fear, whatever he may do or what- On Eiilt ii a fine c»ay. rendered the nxiie interaling ttom itt
ever may bclall him. He eiiendi hii lean beyond hij dealh, and numeroui quotatituit from the poila. induding acveral (mm the
believea in the "gatta ol hell," and iti lirci. in the darkncai, ihe F*«»iijua. Man ia nol a plant il|al growa only in one ioil; he
■tiotti, the infernal judgea. and whal nol ll«). The otheiu doea not belonia 10 heaven rather fhao toeanh, and wbeiever he foa Iher*
Eclleve in Ihe g"-- ■' ■■■ ■■■^" •■- '■■■• — •■■■■ — "■ ■'■ ■■ ■'-' -■■
t(|ii). On the whole, Itill ia a mou inlereHini lawa of virtue and JLUlice (l ;). Then itt
< . •-Bllobimi-" '
la, the iame providem
itry: Apollo 1
On /nrowf ^nWjiiaralherkinfftreatifeon Egyptian aymlioliani, condemned lo I
Interealins chiefly to atudenit of Eeyploloey- It glvcaan eapoulion The Cffntaia
of Ihe srange myiha and lupcrilliloni ol thia ancient lol^r cull, daughter Time
including a lull account of Ihe great anlagonin of Diiris. Typhon. moderate her g
or ihe Egyptiai) Satan. Plmarch ihu< lay< down the Zomailrian Nine booki of Sjmpniaa eatend to a great length, diacuain*
theory olgood and bad sgenciei <f 4;): If naihin|[ can happen inquiriea (rfaA4|iafa) on a vait number ofiubicctt. The general
the nature of evil, aa of good, muit have an origin and principle of ia not unlike the ttyle of Alhcnaiiii.
lis own." Tin Amorm Hon ia a dialogue of aome length, deicribing a con-
On At Cessation 0^ Omits ii a dialogue, diicuaiinj: the reanna venaiioo on the nature of love held at Helicon, pending a quin-
arhy divine intpiration seemed lo be withdrawn from the old teali qirennial fcarl of the Thcapiana, who ipecially worshipped tnat d^ty
of prophetic lore. The leal reason of their decline in popularity along wilh the MuKi. It uamfJyiilualraEed by poetical nuotationa.
ij probably very aimple; when Ihe Creek cities became Roman In | 34 mention ia ttiade of the emperor Veapauan. ll la followed
provincea Ibe faahion of CDnsuliing oraclea fell olT. as uniuited lo by a ahorf treatiie entitled Lvtt Siories, giving a few namtivea of
the more practical influences of Roman thought and Roman politick, aenaalional adventum of loven.
The question is ditcuaaed whether there are such inlemiediale Skorl Styinti UntHiMnrm), dedicated to Trajan, eitend to a
beinia as daemons, who according to f^to communicate the will great length, and are divided into three pans: (i) of kingi and
at Ihe gods 10 men, and Ihe prayers and vowaof men lo Ihe godi. commanden (including many Roman): (i) of Spartana: (3} of
The pouibilily of a plunlity of worMiisenlertained, and oTlhe Spartan women (a ihan iieatiK on S|Brtan in« it ulions being
reatiae On Ike Cirliie] nf W
waler(|j7). The whcde treat lie added.and toiomeof Ihemalaiienumbero
with iimarlti on the eihalations A rather long treatiae On Ik- "- '
of nsmtivet of noble deeda d
and trouble, especially from " .^._. ._
inieieating, and the style is eaay and good.
AniHher kwg and learned — '- "^
in Ihe rather obicun Ii
a the older veSkle of ph uiually fdtlowed by rAn^av-with alternative eipianationa. In the
Lin prow hai liccome the Crsak Qwuiaiu Ihe form of inquiry it more often vlt or rbit. not
■_ rH>w ^ncrally delitenK falkw^ by wtnf- This tnalise is of fieol intereit and irninn-
4k."' DMcredii. too, v: Iriflinft and asmedmea Uw a'naweii are ckarly wmig.
rsc It belter luiicd lo am' respectively to Oeeka and Romans, the Creek itanding fiitt and Ih*
-d to be ambijuous (( 68). Roman tounlerMtt loltowing. Many of the characlert an mytho-
7a (fta E Qj Dcltii i, an inquiry why that letter or tymbol was logical. Ihough Plutarch regards them as historical.
itlen on or in the Delphic temple. Some thought it repieaented On lilt ForlllM of lU Jtomoiii discusses whether, on Ihe whole,
■ nDinhcr five, other) Ihat ii introduced tbe inquiry of oracle- good luck or vatour had more influence in giving the Romani ihe
k«w. yf ioanr|.w wmobedoneiwhileoneollhetpeakeia. Am- supremacy. This ia followed by iwo discourw^ on Ihe ™me
BJU",. decides that It means E . " tbou art," an address 10 Apollo gueillon as applicable lo Ihe lareer of Aleiander ihe Great, and
itamini Ihe predication of eiislencc (( 17). W/uOo Uu AlHinioni *m mm rnnmBi lor War or for WiiJomt
}mlh, Foii^a, J/™-, oiit is a long and curious if somewhat The coneluiian Is (f 7) that il waa not ao much by the fame of iheir
PLUTARCH— PLUTO
Cffita I* B moit UDUdiw dliloaw, In which Circ
m lalkinff pig take part. Od^HCui wiihes Ihat x\\ t1i
that have hem chanfcd by the lomreu mto buti
. WlttOitT Lani Animals ar WbUt Attinudj an Iki Oarrtr Ii
niher Icni dIalofiM on the inlellifencc oi ania, ben. elephant
■pjdera. doga. Ac., oa the one hand, and the crocodile, the dolphii
aiay, much in Utt aK^yit ^ tij\9KoCr;\ Huioty of AiUmati. ^
Ow fllllf^aliltz,
gluttcny^ll ^^Tl
""S'i^ W^
>un UuM '>' al» ■bort : alter divuB
it decide! in [ivour dE the latter, dn
Cold i> ■ phyHctl ipecublina oa tl
the quality inlitbetiial to hoL j
ItaiKtaksi ue rqtUet to inquLries u i
" Why do fi»hLM-iKti roc Id winter nc
doct pourinff oU on the lee produo
vapui by Ot FMI«Df>kri (Hiunaiu
rv,mrwnfl!„m /J th* v^n,^ fjl tK ion>
e and of life.
-.- ,. The Lioa «/ Uw Tn Oralwiiro
Aotiphon to Dinanhua (now coniidervd apuriout) are bioenphi
of nrioua Lenj^hi. compiled, doiibtieas. from materiala now loat-
Two ralherttjnK CHaya, SkoKtd a Han jngait in PaiHie$ vken
lnulnttiVauHf.tnaPreapllJarCincrninitwii^rttiruntt^nri
■re Intenperaed with valuable quotationa. In favour of tl
former view the admininntiooa of Pnkla, of A^enlaua,
-Sdi, Greek phtlonpher,
PLUTARCH, of Alhflu (c. jjo
4uad ol the Neopbtonist school ai
of the Jlh cenluiy, wu the son of Neslorius uid faihel d
Hierius and Aiclepigenia, who were his colleagues io the KbooL
Thcorigin of Ncoplitoiusni in Athens is not known, but Plutarch
and his foUoweis (the " Plaionic Succession ") claim la be the
disciples of lamblichua, and through him of Poiphyry and
Plolinua. Plut«rdi'a main principle was that the study ol
Aiistotle must precede llial of Plato, and that the student should
bf Uu^ to rcaliic piimuily the fuodMnratil ponti oi ■(«•■
he lime «< Alensdet id Apbv-
red bf Syrianm and others ij
Fetched it* greatest hd^ in
Produs, the ablest eipoiienC of this latta-day lyiureliBB.
' Plulaich »B1 versed in all the Iheuigic Iradilioiu of the schoal.
[ and believed hi the possibility d attaining to comisuniaD with
the Deity by the mediiun of the theutgic rite*. Unlike the Alei-
' tndiists utd the eaily Renaissance writen, he maintained
; that the io\d which is bound up in the body by the ties ti imigini-
L tinn and seiuation does not perish with the coiporeal media td
sensation. In psychology, while bdicving that Reason a tie
basis and foundation of all consdousness. he interpooed betwca
, sensation and thought the faculty of Ima^uatioo, iriiich, is
, distinct from both, is the activity of the loui uoder (be stiuBha
of unceasing sensation. In olhct wocda, it provides the nw
material for the operation ol Keftson. Reason is prescnl ia
children as an uupciative poteoiialily, in adults ai worting
upon the data of sensation and imagjnaiion, and, in its port
■ctivily, it is the (nnsccndental or pure inteUigence d Cod.
See Marinni. Vila PncU. 6. is: ZelIer-( Hiilary wf GnA TV-
lepMy. BouUlet. fntabi dt PiMn, iL M7-«£s: WiadAut
Haury t] Pkilmfty [cnns. }. H. TuJta, p. us).
PLOTO UDiobrwr), in Creek mythology, tite god el tk
lower world. Hia oldest name was Hades, Aides oi AUooea,
" the Unseen." He was the son ol Cronus and Rhea, and bntba
of Zeus and Poseidon. Having deposed Croatis, thetvothcnatt
I lots lor the kingdoms ol the heaven, the lea, and the ialsial
> remans. The last, afterwards known aa Hads frm iha
, ruler, fell lo Pluto. Here he ruled with his wife Prtieplne
, over the other powers below and over the dead. Ue b sun
and pitiless, deaf to prayer or flattery, and sacrifice to him ii d
^ noavailjonly the music of Orpheus prevailed upon him 10 lestore
his wife Euiydice. Mis helmet, given him by the Cydofs
after their release from Tartarus, tendered him invtsiUt [Oa
the Tam—or Nebclkappc of German mytbolagy). He is hiltd
and feared by gods and men, who, aliaid to ulta his nsac,
both in daily life and on solemn occasioos make use ol n^
mistic epitliets: Polydectcs (the recdver ol many), aymeua ilhc
Ulustrious), Eubulus (the giver of good counsel). Later, anit^
to his conneiion with Persephone and onder the inflocnce ti
the Eleusinian mysteries, the idea of ha character uodciwtal
became a beneficent god, the beslower ol grain, mioeiih, ud
other blessings produced in the depths ol the earth, la this
I called Pluto, the " giver of wealth " (a nam Uat
I the Attic poets of the jth century), and at acat
oi the centres of his cult he was so worshipped; at Elii alnc be
was Hades, the god of the dead. The plants sacred to hia
were the cypress and narcissus; black victims were soaiEod to
him, not white, like those oBered to the alher gods. Id iiI be
was represented like Zeus and Poseidon; his features are glDOVT,
his hair falls over his forehead; his attributes are a sceptic and
Cerberus; he carries the key of the world below (d. the qilhit
TuX&^np, '* keeper ol the gate "), arid is ImjueDtly in taaptnj
with Persephone. He is aometimes represented as an icd*
cultural god, carrying a amn apiat and a two-pronged iork
Amongst the Romans Hades w** UHuUy called Dii pater (lie
"wealthy lather"] atul Oicus, although the Dame Hau ■>
often used. Oicus. however, was rather the actual slayer, lie
angel of death, whilB Father Dis was the ruler id the dad.
The Etruscan god ol death was rqircaented as a savage eld Bua
with wings and a hammer; at the gladiatocial games of Rmk s
man masked after this fashion removed the corpses fm the
arena. In Romanesquefolk-loreOrcus (possibly English" tv^'
f.i.) has passed into a lorest.dI, a black, hairy, aa»sls«
monster, upon whose house children lost in the wodds aR if*
lo stumble, and who aometimes allows luaudl kiody nd
PLUTOCRACY— PLYMOUTH 86i
''Tifc'r' '^ ■'l"^*" JhT™'- "j^Sril" " FLTMOnTH. ■ nnmldp*! tonnty (i«88, encoded iB«6)
"ihe a°t 'of ligKTiodljfe "Viiit » tS"^ o( Ka^ *°^ pariUmmlmiy borough «ad K^Mrt ct DevouhiA. Entiud,
tiK MfHiy. ^aidM Ihii gloomy region. « Snd in 'i' <=■ W.S.W, of London. Pop, (1910), tl6,l66. It liei it
ige of i)k OJyiiiy (iv. jGi «.) a piciuir ol Elyiium, the head of Plymouth Sound, ■tietchisg weitwud fiom (he
1 »i the end! oj 1^ «rfh, »iim nin ud ""^ f»ll river PI>™ towudi the mouth ol the Tuou, fmrn which it is
liiray™d'ihi iKide of lli™tt«d^»fKr1i«ili "^ »ep»r»ted by Ihe township of Ea« SWotboui* ud the borough
t Ula of the Blue ()j,).' Bui io the oldett Creek "' Dcvonpotl, the two later conjtituting with it the " Three
Lc " houK of Hadn " ns limply the home of the deed. Towdi." The piince of Wales ii lord high Itemrd of the
i ililie. who kd f. din and ihidowy rraenioB of lift borough, which i> divided into 14 warda, under a mayor,
■■H«l«,-inRoKher'.i™t>.Jn-lfXJW»pr:P.Tlltr- M aldermen and 41 couadllorv The pariiamenUiy borouA
hiuit ifyUWofic (iB^j) ; L. Famcll. Ctlti 0/ (*« Grak returmng two memben, 11 not coeileniive with Ibe mmuopal
!.. »ho mirili Kadci ai an ivoluiion (roni Zrui and borough, part ol the lalter being in OjeTivolock (county) divinoa
irt; acco^ing 10 J. E Karfi»n. Lo Chiiieol Rttim of Devon, The WBt« frontnge of Ihe Thm Towni coniiiu
.™' ';jr" ''™*^'-~'"''' '""■ , . , ^ of PlymfluOi Sound, wilh iu inlet., in order from east to west,
ACT (Cr. r^mrvfiHTla, from rXa™, wealth, ,hj Caiwairr, SuHoa Pool, MiU Bay, Stonchouie Pool and the
powerl, government or power curdled by the Hamoaie. The Catwilet and Kamoaa are flanked on the cast
! wealth, power obtained by the mm pOBCinon ud „tjt reipeetively by high ground, on which arc bmlt [o>t»
nee » body or ruling class whoMiniluenaii due only that command the harbour and iu approathti. On the n'eaiera
3HKEY.aEuenon,C»QjMAttiu[if<mo)fciKowJyr, reign o( Henry VIII. and rebuilt by Charia U. The idjacenl
10 the MOSA (q.!.), which takes its name from the Hoe extend) along the Borlbem edge of the Sound, and from ll
Ihe under-parts, passing into blackish grey on the can be obtained a splendid view, cmbraciDg the rugged Sladdon
.ck. The violet-coloured lace, which has no beofd, HdnhtsontheeastnndthewoodedslopesotMountEdgcumbcon
i large bushy whiskers and sunnoucted by a while ^^ ,„,. Xq ,i„ north is seen the town of Plymouth rising up
ihebrowi. The range of the spedca eitends from to the hills known u Mannamead. On the site of an old Trinity
nd Angola to Nyasaland. (Sec Puuatis.) House obelisk landmark Is Smeaton'a lighthouse tower, removed
in Creek mythology, ion of lasion and Demcter, [„„ its original position on the EddyMoue Red in 1&&4. It
icalion of wealth (rkoiroi). According to Arislo- j, now used as a wind-recording station in coooeidon with
131 blinded by Zeus because he distributed hii gif ti the adjoining Meteorological Olwrvaiory. On the Hoe there
ltd 10 merit. At Tbcbes there was a statue of For- lumdj jjie striking Drake statue by Sir Edgar Boehm, and the
; Ihe child Plutus in her arms; at Athens be was Armada Memorial, while at the notlh-eost end is an obeUjk
)rescnledinlhcirmsofPeace;at ThesiMaehe was monument to the memory of troops engaged io the South African
sUnding beside Athens the Worker, Elsewhere War. A monidpal bowling-green recalU a probable eariy
ienicdasiboywiihaiDi-™M>i<a. Hefathcsubject uMottheHoe. Ad jacent to the Otadel, at its louih-wen angle.
■ ciLint comedies of Aristophanes, the Plului. i, the llarine Bi<A)gical Sution, and. further wot, project! the
ni, EAHLS OF, a lilJc first bome-by Charles Promenade Piet. In the Sound is Drake's (formerly St Nichohu'i)
, an illcgitimale son of Ihe Engluh king Charles II. i.l.nrf sow strongly fortified, *[ one time the property ol the
le Pegge, who was created carl in 1675. The title coiporalion, and serving in Stuart tinte* as a plate of Imprison-
nct on hb dcalh in October 1680. In l5Si Thomas „„[ ol attain Plymouth Baptist ministers. Few evidences
ickmjn-Windsor, jlh Banin Wndsor de Slanwell however, otthe antiquity of the lown remiin. Below, and to
■ ■ - ■ ■ l Nasehy, was [he northeast of the Citadel, Is the Barbican with its " May
c Hickman of flower " commemoration atone, a Urge fish-buying trade being
,ter of Thomss dose on the adjacent ciuay, near which is Ihe Custom House,
h Baron Windsor de SUnwell (■396-1640; hiving f^m the Barhion winding itreils lead past the old Gmldhall
e estates of his uncle snd taken Ihe additional name (igoo) which contained the munidpal hlnary, pending its
Ihe abeyant* of Ihe birony of Windsor de Sunwell removal to more commodious quartets in the new museum,
lied in bis favour and he became Ihe jlh baron, opposite lbs tedmical and art schools, situated in the most
-166] he was nominally governor of Jamaica. His northern part of the town. At a short distance west jundi
iher (i679-i;j;) was the ind eari. and the e«iWora the new Guildhall, with the enlarged post office, central poUce
inct "hen Henry, the aih earl, died in December jtjtian, law ojuns ond munidpal buildings in dose proiimity.
ed again out of abeyance, ihe bartraj' of Windsor Opened in 1874, the Gmldhall is built in a bold, raiher eiotic
SS to Hanicl. a daughter of Other Archer, the 6th Early Pointed French style. The tower at Ihe soulh-wesi end
Bjj), and Ihewifeof Robert Henry CUve (1789-1854), Es 190 ft. high, and the building is ornamented with a series of
«n ol Edward Clivc, 1st earl ol Powis. She was coloured windows relating to e\ents in the history ol Plymouth
n iS6g by her grandson. Robert George Windsor- or commemorating men and fsmilia connected wnih the town,
became Ihe i4ih Earoo Windsor. After serving as The Urge hall cont*ins a fine organ. In Ihe mayor's parioui
iencnl in 1801*189) and first commissioner of works ;» a conieoporary- portrait of Sit Frauds Drake ud some
190s, Lord Wbdsot was created eart of Plymouth in Inieiating prints of the lown ol Plymouih.
Near the eastern entrance to Guildhall Square is St Andrews,
loan hlandcn unite the two cocceptioiu: the entrvice the mother church ol Plymouth, erected on the site of a chapel
it-land ia ai the wwlernmoH point of the westenimoM dedicated to the Mrgin. The church is typical of Ihe Devon-
■fnhali^nl.'SSSFnJ^ciSrofTl^'&SX.hcC^ *^^ Perpendicular style of 1430-1510. but, though large, pie-
V?he iXol .te fe^i^rriri^ .0 fK «nts (cw feature. o( artiiUc or archaeological interesL It
of this belief in the falk-loie of Brituny underwent complete restoration hi 1S74. The buiying-gnnmd
:: I., i-j — i>_.,„i. ilyi^clciit.'u. on the north ude has been levelled, and on it erected a stone
d?™! '"^tioo ""n""™^ The church, furnished with one of the finest
dig a' d«p hole in the earth and clo« it with a itone; organs in the west of En^and, contains the tombs of a ion of
(9 in Ihe rear thia none was nmoved and the ihoni Admiral Vernon, of Sir John SkeltoQ- (a former govemor of
ppmed to aicend from the bwer world. In AnaMinot the Citadel), and of Charles ifathews the comedian, as well as
!"!!'„!;'?!;'K "i^"" °r "™"V'lJ?°' '^!!,i!^ ponIonsofthebodi<«ofFrobisher and Drake. Here Katheijre
^ in^a^'r^;^™^ uSniTlll^^l^^th; "f Ar«oo muined thanks for a safe voyage from Spate to
u the Lake AveniHia Italy. Flymouib. Io i&ta a second parish was formed with Charies
PLYMOUTH
anuch-tiiisK} U ill bead, the lul-oimed bdig populariy knorc
M New Cburch, in contndistinctiQD to St AiidxtwB or " Old
Church." TTw New Church ii in intereiting qieciiiKn of
Stuut " debaxd " Gothic ardutcctun. South ol Andnw*
church ii the (i1« of & Fnodioa Friuy with some eoily i ;<h-
oatiuy nmauu. Nui the church ue a few old houis scattered
■looj the crooked little itreeti going down to the w2tef. ITieae
houses dote from Eliabethag timea, but are not of any unusual
intcrexL The CitAdcl (now used aa army headquarters tud
barradtj) ia a fine spedmen
It ia
'i the EDVCTDOr
dignified Jacobean house, once the rtaidence
of Plymouth.
FlyoHiuth ii the leat o( a Roman Catholic hi^iopric founded
in iSji, the cathedral, in W>-n(Iham Street, being completed in
iSsS tbrough the eCorts of Bishop Vsughan, who wu the sccond^
occupant of the see (until 19s')' '^e building is in the Early
Engliih style, and adjoining arc the bishop's house and th(
Prebyterian chur
the rainy Nonco
chapel (George St
ne. In th
in the Three
t places of wonhip a
inity ia the only
<n Drake's Islan.
k Road, t.
lU (Coni
Methodist chapel in the main thoroughfare
of ibe residential suburb of Muttey. unique among Methodist
edifices in the town in respect of iu fine spire. All the principal
religious bodies have pLices for worship or for a&^embly in the
too-n. and the borough has given, in popular speech, the nsroe of
" Pl>Tnouth Brethren " to one body.
In addition, to the, Plymouth Colln(C (for boys), then an several
nie public lecT
alll Hajtley R
Victoria Park, n
Cnek. h v:
^vgnport.
Hie hmulup el Eut Stoodxnv.
having Plynwutfa OD the cbK, it itpar-
Ued from Qevonport on the w^a by tl^
Slonebouse Pool Cndt, wfaidi is ohoI
by ft loU-brJdge and thorob^iiafe known
.locally u the " Half.peimy Cue Bodge."
A manor of the Haunt Edccnc^ famil;,
Eut StonduuBp, is -an nibaa dittiici, in
Itive couBtjr ef Dem,
DevoDport, with wUdi it n
TrpUdn^ ii
•I Elizabellun
Slonebouse are the Roral NanI Hi»
pilil (itSi), the Royd HariuBiiads
(lyqj) in DurafoRl Streri, tad tbe
Royal William VUtualUns Yard (iS^j).
the laat-nanied having; frontafe tm the
Hamoaze, which lepuatet Ibe Dews
from the Cornish poition cd theStOBcbme
The Stanehuafe) of Domeaday Booi
ultimatdy puted into Iba buds of the
Vallttorti, wbOK hamlet of West StlM-
boDse stood on the Ceraish nde of t^
Tunar, (or [to quote Caiew'i Jmol
Sns the ndghbouis' report that m>
the waler'i^ side, then Mood oca 1
towne tailed Wot Mooe home oHil tk
French (1350?) bj be and (wstd vn-
thitw iu"
St George's (1798) fi the dikit d
the three parishes of Stonehooe, and ca
the site of the present church Blood the ciiapel c^ St Geecpi,
in which, during the yt»r> 1M1-16S1, wi
to the Znglish congregation, one
of Huguenots who fled from Frai
Edict of Nooles.
Facing the Sound are Stone RaD and the Winter \lEa. lit
former, occupied by the lords of the manor befon the hg-Wrg
of Mount Edgcumbe House, vaa originally a casleltaled builiEBt
and the Utter was built primarily as an alternative R*i<leLce
for a countess of Mount Edgcumbe. A link with the past is ^
Mill Bridge Ciusenay, over what wai llie " Dead Lake." u*
a road, which, at the head of Stooebouse Creek, is theKcaJ
■ppnuch to t!bc Sioke Damerd portion of DeMMpoct. Bui^i
in isi;, it posesses ft toll-gate house at (rtuch paymrM hca
vehicles is sUll demanded.
It the Rerocatkn of tic
Id additioi
\'ictuallind
abut™c'o"X I^tui
and tbe NanI Hoipiul of 14 tcm.
t sie «ilhia tbe botindsTn a ikauv
he Devonporr Corporatni Eltctrinn
id inn o( tbe Ci — "' "-■■' —
ti9oi),is.io8:U
PLYMOUTH
863
from Richard II. In 1435 sixty-five cargoes were imported,
and in the reign of Elizabeth it rose to be the foremost port in
England. The i8th century saw a great development of trade
with Virginia and the West Indies, resulting in the establishment
of a sugar-refining industry that was maintained until a recent
date.
In 1749 the " town's water " was carried to the Barbican to
supply shipping. The port of Plymouth, as at present constituted,
embraces " the waters of Plymouth Sound and the Hamoaze,
including all bays, creeks, lakes, poob, ponds and rivers as far
as the tide flows within or to the northward of a straight line
drawn, across the entrance of Plymouth Sound from Penlee
Point on the west to the Shagstone on the east." The chief
water area within the limits of the port is the Sound with' its
inlets, the Catwater (200 acres), Sutton Pool, Mill Bay, Stone-
bouse Pool and the Hamoaze. The Soimd itself covers an area,
of 4500 acres and is sheltered from south-west gales by the
breakwater completed in 1841 at a cost of x| million sterling.
It lies 2^ m. south of the Hoe, and is nearly a mile long, 360 ft.
wide at the base and 45 ft. at the top. Its cants bend inwards'
At angles of 120**; at the western end is a lighthouse and at the
eastern extremity is a pyramidal beacon with a cage capable
of accommodating several men*
The town is served by the Great Western and the London ft
South-Westem railways. The former company has a main line
enteringf rom the west through Devonport and going east to Exeter,
having Uartmoor on the west; the latter company has a terminal
station in the eastern quarter of the town, ana its route to Exeter
is by way of the Tamar valley, and the western and northern
moorland districts.
The industries of Plymouth include soap manufacture, prepara-
tion of artificial manure and sulphuric acid and paiper staming.
The water supply, inaug\irated by Drake in 1590, and drawn from
the Dartmoor watershra, is the most important municipal under-
taking. The service of electricity both for lighting and tramway
traction is in the hands of the town, but the gasworks belong to
a private company.
Plymouth, the Suton of Domesday, was afterwards divided
into the town of Sutton Prior, the hamlet of Sutton Valletort
and the tithing of Sutton Ralph, the greater part belonging to
the priory of Plympton. The market, established about 1253,
became in 1311 town property, with the mayor as derk of the
market. In 1 293 the town first returned members to parliament.
In the ;4th century it was frequently the port of embarcation
and of disembarcation in connexion with expeditions to France,
and suffered considerably at the hands of the French. In 14x2
the inhabitants petitioned for a charter, which, after strenuous
opposition from the priors of Plympton, was granted by Henry
VI. in 1439. In the discovery of the New World it played a
part of great importance. Cockeram, a native of the town,
sailed with John Cabot in 1497. Sir John Hawkins and
bis father William were also natives, the former being port
admiral and (in 1571) M.P. From Plymouth in 1577 Drake
set out on his voyage round the world; in 1581 he became
mayor and represented the borough in parliament during
X 592-1 593. Sir Humphrey Gilbert (M.P. 1571) sailed on his
second colom'zing expedition to America in x 583 from the port,
and hither Drake brought the remnant of Raleigh's Virginian
colony. Pl3rmouth supplied seven ships against the Armada, and
it was in the Sound that the En^h- fleet awaited the sighting
of the Spaniards. A stone on a quay at the Barbican records
the fact that this was the last port touched by the Pilgrim
Fathers on their voyage to America.
During the Civil War Plymouth was closely invested by the
Royalists, whose great defeat is commemorated by the monu-
■inent at Freedom Park. It was the only town in the west
that never fell into their hands. It early declared for William
of Orange, in whose reign the neighbouring dockyard was
begun.
AuTHORrriES.— Htrfofiw of Plymouth by Jcwitt and Worth;
Wright's Plymouth with its Surroundings and Story of Plymouth',
Whitfeld, Plymouth and Devonport, in times of War and Peace;
Municipal Records (Plymouth Corporation); worth, "Notes on
Early History of Stonehouse " (Plymouth Instil. Proc.).
(H. G. DB W.)
PLYMOUTH, a township and the county-seat of Plymouth
county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., in the south-eastern part of
the state, on Plymouth. Bay, about 37 m. S.E. of BostoiL Pop.
(X905) xi,xi9; (1910) 12,141. It is served by the New York, New
Haven & Hartford railway, by.inter-urban electric lines and
in summer by steamers to Boston. The harbour is well sheltered
but generally shallow; it has. been considerably improved by
the United States government and also by the state, which
in X909 was making a channel x8 ft. deep and X50 ft. wide from
deep water to one of the township's wharves. The township
has an area of xo7'3 sq. m., is 18 m. long on the water front and
is from 5 to 9 m. wide. Plymouth is a popular resort for visit(»s,
having, in addition to its wealth of historic associations and
a healthy summer climate, thousands of acres of hilly woodland
and numerous lakes and ponds well stocked with fish. Morton
Park contains aco acres of woodland bordering the shores of
Billington Sea (a freshwater lake).
' Few, if any; other places in America contain so many interest-
ing landmarks as Plymouth. The famous Plymouth Rock,-
-a granite boulder on which the Pilgrims are said to have landed
from the shallop of the '' Mayflower," lies on the harbour shore
near the site of the first houses built on Leyden Street, and is
now sheltered by a granite canopy. Rising above the Rock is
Cole's Hill, where during their first winter in America the
Pilgrims buried half their number, levelling the graves and sowing
grain over them in the spring in order to conceal their misfor-
tunes from the Indians. Some human bones found on this hill
when the town waterworks were built in 1855 have been placed
in a chamber in the top of the canopy over the Rock. Burial
Hill (originally called Fort HiH, as it was first used for defensive
purposes) contains the graves of several Pilgrims and of many of
their descendants. The oldest stone bears the date x68i;
many of the stones were made in England, and bear quaint
inscriptions. Here also are a tablet marking the location of
the oldJort (162 1), which was also used as a place of worship,
a tablet showing the site of the watch-tower built in X643, and
a marble obelisk erected in 1825 in memory of Governor William
Bradford. Pilgrim' Hall, a large stone building erected by the
Pilgrim Society (formed in Plymouth in 1820 as the successor
of the Old Colony Qub, founded in 1769) in 1824 and remodelled
in 1880, Is rich in relics of the Pilgrims and of early colonial
times, and contains a portrait of Edward Winslow (the only
extant portrait cf a " Mayflower " passenger), and others of later
worthies, and paintings illustrating the history of the Pilgrims;
the hall library contains many old and valuable books and
manuscripts — including Governor Bradford's Bible, a copy of
Eliot's Indian Bible, and the patent of 1621 from the Council
for New England — and Captain Myles Standish's sword. The
national monument to the Forefathers, designed by Hammatt
BiUings, and dedicated on the ist of August X889, thirty years
after its comer-stone was laid, stands in the northern part of
the town. It is built entirely of granite. On a main pedestal,
45 ft. high, stands a figiire, 36 ft. high, representing the Pilgrim
Faith. From the main pedestal project four buttresses, on
which are seated four monolith figures representing Morality,
Education, Law, and Freedom. Chi the faces of, the buttresses
below the statues are marble alto-reliefs illustratiiig scenes from
the cariy history of the Pilgrims. On high panels between the
buttresses are the names of the passengers of the " Mayflower."
The court-house was built in X820, and was remodelled in x8s7.
From it have been transferred to the fireproof building of Uie
Registry of Deeds many interesting historical documents,
among them the records of the Plymouth colony, the will of
Myles Standish, and the original patent of the 23rd of January
1630 (n.s.).
Modem Plymouth has varied and important manufactures
comprising cordage, woollens, rubber goods, &c In X905 the
total value of the factory products was $it,x 15,7x3, the worsted
goods and cordage constituting about nine-tenths of the whole
product. The cordage works are among the largest in the world,
and consume immense quantities of sisal fibre imported from
Mexico and xnanila from the Philippine Islands; binder-twiike
864
PLYMOUTH— PLYMOUTH BRETHREN
loyil durter of Comiecticut (grutcd in ifitf i), m muUt wfak^
«u Dot leidecl until 17M. (Sec WyoMUC Vallit.) Ib iu
cvlicr history the rrgioa vu ftshcultonL Two brollwn^ Atrjih
lad John Smitb, oii^imOy at Do-by, Cann., Ktilal in
Plymoulh In igo6 uid bctin tbippjns co^ Ibcoce in iloS,
thii vu the brgiDning of the uithtndtr coil tmle in tbc Uniial
Stiles The boiDugh wu Incorponied in 1S66. being then
lepanted from the towiuhip of Plymooth, vhidi hud t popvk-
tioa in iS«a of S36J and in 1900 of 9655.
Sec H. B. Wci«bt') BiOcrical StcUia if FlymemA CPhQadriiihii.
tSli).
PLYNOUTH BRETBRSR, ■ anmnunity tt ChnitiuB ir^
recdved the tuune in iSjo when the Rev. J. N. Duby indocHl
themielvn with him for the ptDmuljnlioa of hs cftuuam.
eliewhere calling thcmselvs BretireH, uid hAkUnc unHu vicvl.
the acctuioa to the nnki of Daiby so incieatod Ibdr numhrit
■nd influence that he il ululUy rcchoned the loDndei of tlf-
noulhim. Duby (bom in Nov. 1800 in Laodaai jmhuiol
at Trinity CoUege, Dublin, in 1S19; died Apdl to, i££i, u
Bonmemonth) waa a curate in Wuilnir 1815-181;, "henhtldt
hina^ coutrained to leave the Anglican eonunmuon; E^anc U
Dublin, he became aaiociated with leveral devnut people vbe
met itfltedly for public vonhip, and called tbermelves " Breth-
ren." Among Ibac were A. N. Gnvea and J. G. Beileil, vho
deterve la tank among the foimden ol the movement. In
iSjO Daiby at Plymouth von over man; peo(de 10 hii way ^
thinking, among them Jamei L. Hanii. a Plymouth deijyoiu.
and the well-kncm Biblical icholai Samuel Ptidcuu Ttefelk*.
The Btethien itarted > periodical, rii Chrvlian Wilmas,
conlinned (lom 1&49 " Tit PrartU Ttainumy. with Bun ai
editor and Daiby a (he moM imponant contdbutof. Doriif
the neit eight yean the piogrot of tbc >ect was lafid. ud
coramuniUes were founded in many of the pdndikal towla it
England.
In i8j8 Darby went to nside in French Switaeriand, and midt
many diidplta. Congt^ations were formed in Gencn, it
Lausanne, where most of the Mcthodi&t aod other discolen
Joined the Brethren, at Vevey and elsewhere in Vaud. f£i
opldais also found their «ay into Fnmcr. Getouny, Gcrnu
SwitKtIand, and Jtajy; but French Switieiland has itnyt
remained the Mnnghold of Plytnouthism on the Ceednnl.
and for hii followers there Darby wrote (vo of hii moat importaH
tracts, U Itiniilirc cimtiitri daia se natarr and Dt U Prtirta
tl ie Vactim d» S. Esprit dans Ve^iu, The rei-olutioa is tbc
canton Viud, bioughl about by Jesuit intrigue rn 184;, bnu^
petwcutioQ to the Brethren in the canton nod in other ^s^
0! French Snil«rl«nd, and Darby's Hie was in great iccpudy
He returned In En^and. and tu> reappeaiance wis lulloRd
by divisiona amon^ the Brethren at home. Tliese diviacia
began ai Plymouili. Benjamin Wills Newton, bead of tte
eomniiaity Ihere, who had been a feOow of Enter ColklE.
Oxford, was accused of departing from the tesiiuc^y of tbt
Brethren by redntrodudng the spuic of deiicalHaL' UufiEe
to detach the congregation from the teacher. Darby bepl a
rival aaembly. The majority ol the Brethren out of P1y=™^
lupported Daihy, but a minority remained with Newtot It*
teparation became wider In 1B47 on the diicovety of isppowd
heretical teaching by Newton. ' In i&iB artother di^-qioa Loei
place. The Bethesdl congi^ation at Bristid. where Cei^
MQUcr was the moM infln-miiiT manba. teceived into ob-
munion levend oi Newlon'i lollowm aiKl Jonified tbeir aclic:
Out of this came the >eptratiiu Into NeMnl Brethien. M h
Mailer, and Eiduiive Brethren <a Datbyitea, who i^nied 10
hold communion witb the toOowen of If ewt^ or UOb-. "O*
Eidusivea, who were the more nmoenot, nffcied htthir
divisions. AnlrishclergymaaiainedSaiaoelO'lUleyOBfhid
adi^ed views similar to thoM ol PeaisaO Smith, who pnacM
a doctrine ol laoctlGcaliaii called " Death to Nmbr " ain
antidote in the lui^naed prevalent * "-"— rilim. and •!>
. Ihcw were repudUtcd Kceded witlt hb liilliiaiii Hi aHi
PLYMPTON ST MARY— PNEUMATIC DESPATCH 865
with Nannao ondercroft, tbc kilchen ud c _-..-.
but thdR ue DO remiiaiol ihc great piioiy church. Al Flymp-
ton Muukc an iJight luini of the uitlc buill by Ricluid de
Redven, iK eul ol Divoa (whence [he viiiint al the nune),
in the time of Henry 1. There are leveril picluresque old tioVAc*
in the town, togelhei irl th ■ guildhall dated 1696, and a grammar
Kboal founded in tAjS, ol which Sii Jnhua Reynoldi'i father
va* muter.
Ftympton (P/iHlsnn) bean tncc* of vay andent uttlemeot,
thecarthvorkion which in the iitb centuiy Richard de Redven
reared his Nornuji castle being probably of Biilish ori^n, while
a Saxon document daled 9114 record* a grant by Edward the
Elder 10 Asser, bishop of Sherborne, of twelve ■naoora in
eidiange for the mooistery of " Plymenlun." According to
the Domoday survey " Flintont " was a royal manor ajMncd
at li hides, and the fact that the canons of Plympton held two
hides apart from these shows the origin of the later division into
the priory parish o( Plympton St Mary and the secular borough
of Plympton Erie. In the ijtb century Plyaiptoa appcan
as a mesne borough tmder the lord^p of the Redvets, earls
a charter from William, the 6Ih earl, of which however nothing
further [s known, and the first charter of which a copy is eitani
was issued by Baldwin de Redvers in 114', granting to the
burgesses o! Plympton the borough, with lain (od markets,
and the Lberties enjoyed by the citiaens of Euter, in considera-
tion of a yearly payment of £14, IS. jd. In r4j7 a charter from
Edward IV. granted to the burgesses an eigbt^days' fair at the
Feast of the Nativity oF St John the Baptist, but at this period
the growing importance of Plymouth was steadily robbing
Plympton of its position as head of the district. In i6oj| in
response to a petition of the burgesses, Elizabeth issued a charier
of incoTporation, instituting a common council to consist of a
mayor and S principal burgesses; a Saturday market, and fain
at the Feasts ol the AsccniioD and the Annundaiion. A code
of by-laws dated itsj mentions a fair on St Luke's Day in
addition to the three above menlfoned. The borough surren-
dered its charier to Charles II. in 1684, tod in 168; received a
Ircsh charter from James II. instituting an additional market
oa Wednesday and a fair on the tst ol August. This charier
was declared invalid in 1(90, but its provisions were reaffirmed
in i6qi, with the addition of an eight-days' fair to begin on the
i4lh of February. The borough, which had returned two
members to parliament since iiqj, was disfranchised by the
Refonn Act of iSji and from this date the municipal privileges
gradually lapsed, and in iSjs were finally abolished.
5cs ViiJena Cnnfy IluUry: DnmUH; William Cotton, 5ihw
AccBunl sf Ui A*anl B^rnfk Tvai ^ Ptyixplini SI Uaarice
(London, iBu); J. Brookiat Rawe, HeUi if Fljmtle* CmlU
(Ptynioulh. tSSo).
FITEDHATIC DESPATCH, the name ^vea to a system of
transport of written despatches through long narrow lubes by the
agency of air pressure. It was introduced in 1853 by J. Latimer
Ckirk. between the Central and Slock Eicbange sUtiona of
the Electric and International Telegraph Company in London.
The stations were connected by a tube it hi. in diameter
and 110 yds. long. Carrien containing batches of telegrams,
and fitting luston-wisc in the tube, were sucked tbraugh it
(in one direction only) by the production of a partial vacunn
at one end. In iSsS C. F. Valley improved the system by using
compressed air to force the anitn in one direction, a partial
vantum bi^ itiU ned to draw them in the other direction.
This ImpTovemBit enables tln^ rsdUling lines of [npe to be
used both for KDdIng and for lecEtviag telegroini between >
central station supplied with pumping machinery and outlying
■tationa not io supplied.
Saliiii Syilim.—1a the bands of K. S. CnHey and R. Sabine
the radial system of pneumatic despatch was in 1B70 bnmght
to greatpcrfectiaa in connexion with the telep«phic depantnent
of the British post office, since that date the total length of
lubes'dfhich arc empkiyed (or telegrams only) has been vny
laigdy iKRuad On 1909 that malaLandoDaiMalkofthoi
PNEUMATIC DESPATCH
4 in ill Uijt «nd «!io in veiy nuny sniller ^^■J*"*"'*'"'' ™'1'''™1 ">
■nu there »re inn»ll»tioiu; Ihac ire coniuntly ™' Hfure.-— /nni
o, u it Iilound more eoinomiul to tmunut local H.P.-lsjt+tmiFiY^'
fcimv-fiE-nviA by tube rather tlua by wire, u skilled telegrapb- tfg uaojum:
lata ire not required, but only tube itlenduilL Ir
only A lin^e tube is necesuiy, but three or four, oi
■re in use in same towns, according to local di
number of office*; >\Kh tube), vfaich are worked either by htad- ming to the dciuity of ihe air column mCFVni b^imu
pumpa (when the tube* ate very short and the traffic intor ■*■— ' '- ■'■- ■ — '• ■■ — '— — "■ -- — — -- •
are used for the purpos
part of a telegraph Enstn
H.P.-(iieT-iiiWl?n^.V'T
the actual bone-power requind is bbA
■luii time for lO lb pietsure is
or " (inct " tubes an chiefly i| En
alio ft number of 3^. tubes in use; those in the large provincial j
towns (Birmingham, Bradford, Cardiff, Edinbur^, Glasgow,
Grimsby, Livenwol, Manchester, Newport, L ' ^' ''
Southamploa and Swansea) are ]| in, in diameter; out
Dublin, Gloucester, Loncslort and Kliliord i)-in. tubes a
employed. There are fifty street tubes la London, varjing in originally used ai
length from 100 to looo yds. (central office 10 Che Housa of a simpler form, known as the "D" boi — >o nai
Parliament}, and also seventy-five house tubes; the pumps from the shape of it*cioii seclion. This boi ii
for the whole ^stem are worked by (our 100 horse-power cast iron, and Is provided with a close-fitlinx. '.
steam-engines. At Cardiff, Edinburgh, Gloucester, Leeds, brass-framed, sliding lid with ■ ^ass pand. Thi* ^''
Lowestoft, Newport, Southampton and Swansea the pumps lid fits air-tight, and closes the boa after a carrier has been
are driven by electric molDn; at Bradford and Grimsby gas- inserted into the mouth at the tube; the Ucicr aues al
engines are used, and at Iililford an oU-cnglQe. one end of the bei and is there betl-mouilied. A Biffij
The tuba are in all casn of lead, the li-in. luba weighing pipe, to which Is connected a " j-wiy " cock, is jaaxd cb IB
SIbper foot mn and being made in lengths of iSfl.; they are the box and allow* communication at will with dlbei ik
fnriflf^ [u j-iiL cast-iran pipes made in lengths oi g ft. " pressure "or" vacuum " main), so that the apparatus beaut
. . availableforejtberiending(bypres*ure)orreceiving(byvact]Bffl)
^aln i> [SS^' • •™'"- Automatic working, by which the air tapply ■
ng and ilMitly automatically turned on on the introduction of the carrier ato
IB heated and a tube am] on closing of the D box, and is cut off 1^01 tb
' ""Ij"^*! carrier arrives, was introduced in 1909.
" ing lubes (over about tooo yd*.) a modificatBa tf
iplcsl lorm is necessary; I
t addition of a " sluice " valve placed at a dBtawc
i- (i.e. rather more than the length of a orris)
ith of the lube. The sluice valve, by mans <d aa
imngcmcnt, is so connected with the sliding Bd
lat the lid camiat be moved to the open posili*
lice vstve has closed the tube, nor cu the ilact
The tubes radiate from the centrd to the branch offites, vjveb, opened unless the sliding lid is closed. The «t.iect 1*
'itz^:^
the central to
the bruuh offios,
two tubes, one
for "inward" and
lulward" traffic
:. At the smaller
inward and tht
: outward traffic la
The "carriers"
are made with gut la-
__^^^_^^ this sluice valve is lo prevent the back rush of sir nhich naikl
m'e other f^"^oirwaM ""traffic'" Ari'I»''amMiS ***• P"™ ""<• "" '"'* "'«" '^ ''^•'^ ^"^ » oP"»l "> "**
' offices both the inward and the outward traffic is outBcarrierimmedialtlyon theaitivalol theUttei;foeahhDnh
aiiriedonthroughonelube. The"carriecs"areinadewithgulla- It' vacuum may be turned off by the j-way cock, yet, o««
percha bodies, covered wilh felt, the front oi the carrier being «''*'««"''! ^"^ "' 'fi^ tube ejuimm.
firovided wilh a buffer or piston formed of several disks of idt "J' P"?",'? }^ ^^^' ""^ "^ *""* ™
which closely fit the tube; the mes^ges ate prevented from get- ""^^ '^-i;!" !^??,
ting out of the carrier by the end being dosed hy an elastic buid, " nv^n
which can be stretched suffidently to allow the message forms i- ■ >. -
tobeiMcrted. The j-in. cuHerj will hold 7s ordinary message "ork^uOnng
form,, the si-in. carriers ,; for™, «id the li-in. arri^o ^ ' "•'■ ""^
lorm). The carriers are propelled In one direction ((rom the
central office) l>y " pressure," and drawn in the opposite direction
cuum being 10 lb
take place in the latter, and the back rush of air into the vi
ut the earner will cauM Ibe
ube. The sluice also prew
e al the farther ei
apparatus] to the detpatcfaing
and 6i lb pii sq. in. respectively, which values give approai- ^ '"^ ' ™T^"' "'''."' '' P?°? "*, '^"Y poi" in ihr
mately the same speed. ^^ " iv yi« ^„^_ ,u3,^ , j^g^^j ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ „ electrical ngoat indiot-
' % . ,. . ^ . ,. - ing its pujage; on the receipt of this signal a second carrier any
^^"S:j'^l?:^toT^.^^iZiif^^''»^'ii:- '-i^'?^«'- .™,.Tr«>gementhasbeen^o«en.i.dy
pnuinutdy by the empirical foniijla ■— »• j ^ superseded by a aignalhng apparatus which by a dock tcowmtei
y-jr actuates an indicating hand and moves the lalLet to " tube clear "
(— oo!7>V pj; a certain definite lime (]o 10 fo seconds) after a carrier has bna
where J-length of tube in yardi. d-diameter of lube in inches, '">«ft«l "i ^' tul"- By "i" arrangement canien can it
P-clF(ctive air.preBuie in pounds per iqmR bch, f-tisnsit despatched DOe after the other al companCivtty short inlervsh
time in seconds. For vacuum the formuU is:— of time, so that several carriers (shunted by distinct intetvah)
, , •QoS'i .jfP may be travelling through the lube simultaneOBsly. It ■
I — iMVis-S-Pi* "3' necessary that the carriera be separaied by a definite iniiinl.
where Pi •effcctivi vacuum in pounds per aiiiian inch. MbetwiK Ibcy lerul to overtake ate aaotiKi >ad >""tht Jwb^
PNEUMATIC GUN 867
in tbc taht. Altbouib Ibc tuntft of & onicr Id ■ lube i> of Iniber; IhciMumd is ctoKd hyx hiased lid KCund byslod.
ciccediiigLy nn ocEuimiiz. it dos occuionall]' Ukc plict, The itaell of the urilrr li 14 io- ^'"t ""^ 7 in. in dUmcln lor
through picks being drivoi into the tube by workiaen executing the fi-in- tube; it is secured by two bcsiing-iings of WDvni
itp^iis to gfts or wsler pipes, but ttie locality of such s stoppage couon fabtic '-i»*pi>*i between metal lings; the rings are nneiwH
h easHy determined by a simple in^Kction along the route oE titer about noo m, of traveL The lubes are worked aC n
the tube. In no Que is tmy special means ol testing for the pressure of 6 lb per sq. in,, and for a distance of 4500 ft.requin
locality from the centnl office found necesiuy. about jo hoisc-ponet, the transit qiecd being 30 m. per hour.
CircxU Syslcm.—pLnalbti method of wotking, eitensivcly In addition to its ux tor postal sad Iclcgnphic puiposes
used in Paris and olbcr conlinenlal cities, is iIm dicuil tyslen, the pneumatic despatch i> employed for tolnnal communiotion
in which stations ate grouped on circular or loop lines, round in offices, hotels, &c, and alio in shops for the transport of
which cairieis tnvd in one diredion only. In one foim of moncyandbillsbetwcen thecasbier'sdeikand thecounlen.
drcuit sy^em — that of Meurs Siemens— a continuous current Refeteukces.-^TV ftyKem ■■ wed in the United KintEdoin is
S-'iEwch^m^ei" ^^ t^uTci;°kS^^^^ '^'^^^^ ihlCtr^KS^'sS'^'^'^S^^tS^
my one of the slaUoos on the line without mtfiTcnng with Ibc by M. bomemp^ anfiitKi a diicuuion of the ifcory of pneunalie
movement of other earners in other pans of the dmut. More tiansoiiauon by tWeaor W. C. Unwin. Reference sbouU also
usually, liowever, the dtcuit system it worked by deipalehing be made to a paper, liy C. Siemeni (Ui*. Fix. lal. Crt, Ent.
»—.-.^ ^ irn.!-! nr nrrim 11 1 n-ljit ivi-l u Inr. inrirm^. thin vol. laiiii.), descnhine the SKioera ciicuit eysttm; and to i>I 7«t-
camen, or tiauis 01 earners, at relatively long intervals, ine pj, by M. A. iT Temani (Pari., 1B81): Ccmral Put Offa
pressure or vscuum which gives mouve po»-er being applied ^'b&oI InilnuliM, vol i., "Poeumalic Tubes": Keinn->
only whUe such trains are on the line. On long circuits means Expitctri- Yau-Bimk {\yii t&UBa). (II. R. K.)
are provided at several tUlions for putting on pnaaurr or PMEDMATIC OOH. Air is a propellant has in tecent yean
vacaiun, so that the action may be limited 10 thai jecuon of the [j,jn applied to guns o! brge calibre, in which its tcmparativtly
Kneoo which ihecBirwnaiettavtlhngatanytime. InAmerica, ,[j ^^^ ^^ proved advantageous when high erplosive*
in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, tuba (Batcbeller o„,uned in thrii shells im employed as projectiles. In i8Sj
system) up 10 8 in. in diameter are in use. The tubes are of jj, ujHord of Ohio uliliied an air pressure of 50a lb per iq.
cast iron made m IJ-ft. lengths snd are carefully bored; they ^_ -^ ^ ,.;„. p^, ^^i succeeded in propelling a projectile
resemble ordinary water pipe. Short bends are made m ,,„ y^ jj^ arrangement was ol the simplest form-*
seamless brass lube carefuUy bent to 1 uniform radius of twelve i,ose with an ordinary cock by which the air was admllted into
times the diameter of ibe tube, the tube being slightly larger ,1,^ p„ behind the projectile. The question was Iben taken
in diameter than the mam tube. The sending apparatus, or „p ^y Capt. E. L. Zalinski (1840-1909) of the United States
timsmilier, B similar to the Siemens switth before described, Artillery, who in 1888 reduced the scKslled " dynimiw gun "
and coossti of two sections of the tube supported m a swinging ^ , practical shape and obtained wcelleqt firing results.
fnme w arranged that either section can be brought into line .^^ principal features ol his system are- (0 An ntremdy in-
flowing. One ol these tube sections maintains the conlinuily (^i, vilve 1> opened snd clo«l by a simple movemeni ol ihe firing
of the main tube, while the other is swung to one side to receive lever, and is capable of sdjustment so that the propelling lorcc,
■ carrier. In despatching, a carrier is
placed in an irmi trough and tben
pushed into the open tube section.
The frame onying the two lube sec-
tions B then swung until the sectioo
containing the carrier is brought into
line with the main tube, when the
carrier Is ssrept along with Ihe current
of air. When the fnine is swinging
fn>m one position to another the air
is prevented from escaping by pbtes
that cover the ends of the tube, and
cylinder and
Ihe Irame, the operation requiring
an instant only. When the con-
trolling levur is pulled and latched the
frame swings, and as the earner Dynamite gun, mounted at Sandy Hook. New
passes out of the apporalus it trips
the livet. and the frame swings back automitlcafly Into jnd consequently (he n
pcsition to receive another carrier. To prevent rarriers from projectile carrying the burning ciut^, ana
contmlliog valve when a carrier is despatched, and keeps it ohjea. and a dry bailery which beconiei active after the ibell has
lacked for a given period of lime, varying from five to fifteen or dived below the surface of the water, and icniies the chaige after
twenty seconds, according to the adjustment of the lock. The del^ =pable ol^lationjFwB^^a^U^jte e^^
carrier is received at the farther end of the tube mto an air being competed untfl the shell has beei fi™i. "ni gun 1. a buih-up
Cusdion formed by closing the end of the tube with a sluice.gale, .mjqih.bon! iLhe, is in. or less in diameter. The fuu-ealibre
•nd allowing the air to flow out into a branch pipe through slots ,hell weijlij louo ft, and carries a burstinj charge of too Ih of
<n rhi, tube kmted about a ft in the tear ol the sluice-gate. blMtlng gelatine, cui imp the formrf cheeiei, fittuig the.ned
not dry g>
ioBtnd is brought to test without injury or shock. The ^^^ rotstion is given'by vanei or fins attached to Ibe body o( the
era are thin steel cylinders closed at Ibe front end by a ,hc\l. Air at 1000 Ih prrsmre i> Hored in tubes ck»e la the gin,
B disk 0* the same material carrying a bufier ol felt and and is supplied from primary rcKrvoos, 10 which it la dmoly
868
.p«d>i
PNEUMATICS— PNEUMATOLYSIS
It of ibouL looo lb. Then b
. _. guoa cpf this dwriplAti (« Ce'I't) have
(or (he prixKtion of N«r York mid Sen Fniicim
■ lUlKllibn {tJn. ihclL (2SO%) Die muimum nui|
Tbe official uiali thowed nmuluble accnncy.
75% oC Ifw pn^KlUa fell in an uca of J«o }<90
gun wu tried u ShoebuiyiKa the uoiniv wai la
GouLd b€ obtAiacd with bowitier tjwib pnqKlled
On ■ccmint of the power of ctplodin^ the aQeQ iin
^lu Kcuiine a lonxdo actnn, a durct fail upon
fequind, ana the tarfeC olfeced u lancdy in cxce
plan. The pin ii. in fad, capabk at repbdnt i]
narine minti vith rconom)'. and vicboul Ilie ET^t ebjeciioa of
iaterferiniE with » watEmy.
The only emplaymeal of tlie dimamile gun aSoal bu beta
in the case of the U.S. gunboat " Veiuviui," canying ihree in
the bows. Theie guns are fixed at aconitant angleof elcvalion,
and the range is regulated by the air valve, training being given
by the helm. Thus mounted on an unstable platfonn, the
on ihore. The " Ve«uviui " >ru employed cluruig.Ih£.SpIoiib-
American War of 1848, when on tcveral nighu in lucceuion
the approached the defence! of Santiago under cover of dark-
neia and discharged three projcctilea. File delivered under
such conditions could not be sufEciently accurate to injure
coast defences; but the (belli buisl well, and made luge cratets.
A small dyiuuniie gun on a Geld-carriige nu uied la the land
opemliODUbove Santiago in the same war.
PHEUKATKS {Gi. ir>A;ia, wind, air), the branch of
physical science concecscd with the properties of gates and
vapours (see G4S). A pneumplic trough is sinip^ a basin COD-
taining water or tome olhei liquid used for collecting gasei.
PHECKATOLTEIS (Gt. n^^, vapour, and Uur, to set free),
In petrology, the discharge of vapours from igneous magmas
id the effects produced by them on rock masses Jn all vol-
ruplions
flby II
n lavat
slaggy dots oj
the crater are so full of gat that when they cool they resemble
■pongy pieces of bread. The lava streams as they flow down
the slopes of the volcano lie covered wi'th white steam douds,
while over the orifice of the crater haoga a canopy of vapour
which is often d*rkened by fine panicles of ash. Most tulhon
ucrlbe volcanic explosions to the liberation of steam from tbe
magma which hdd ft In solution, and the enormous expansive
powers which -Irec water vapour possesses at very high
temperatures.
or these gases the prindpal are water and carbonic and,
but by analysis of the discharget from tbe smaller fuinarolcs,
fat the active crater it generally too hot to be approached during
■n eruption, it bat been ascertained that hydrogen, nitrogen,
hydrochloric add, boron, fluorine, sulphuretted hydrogen
and sulphurous acid are all emitted by volcanoes. A recent
lava dow has been likened to a great fumarole pouring out
volatile substances at every crack b iU slaggy crust. Many
minerals are deposited in these fissures, and among the sub-
Uancet produced in this way are ammonium chloride, ferric
chloride and oiide, copper oiide (tenoHte and cuprite) and
tulphur; by reacting on the minerals of the rock many zeoliles
ind other tecondary products are formed. These processes
have been described as " juvenile " or " pott eruptive," and
it it believed that the amygdalet which occupy the caviiiet of
many porous lavas are not due reaUy to weathering by lur-
face waters percolating in from above, but to the action of the
steam and other gases set free as the lava crystallises. The zeo-
Ules are the prindpal group of minerals which originate in this
way together with chlorite, chalcedony and caldte. The larger
"ul oystal groups
lie, thon
: of gates in convdenble quantity la nutcoriiei, ud, oa-
ng the earth to a great aemlitc, insist that it tbodd on-
gases in solution like the imnller masses ol the lame tiid.
rrs hold it more probable that the water liai percolUfJ
rom the surface, or sedng that many volcsnoes tlud lur
tea tnaisia and by Ihor Unesr diipostioa miy be dis-
•6 along fisturct or Uaes of weakening in ibe mst, Ibcj
le that the water of the sea tnay liave filtered dova evm
pite of the great outward pressure exerted by the ttetiB
uated by contact with the intensely heated nxk. Tk
□dance of chlorides and hydrochloric acid is appealed id
in fivotir of ■ marine origin for the water. A^ian Iks
nay place the fact that at great depths whence active mi-
ascend the rocks are under so great pressuret thai evor
ire is dosed up; in fact in some of tbe deepe*t mina ihc
Dtity of water found in the workings is often eacee<liii|lj
11. Probably there is some truth ia both Ibeorict. bm Ih
hce of probabihty teems to incline in favour ol tbe view
the water la an original and '■™-"'"' part of the migmi
not an introduction from above.
Dng after a lava has cooled down and become rigid the
ces discbai^ng gas in great quantiti^a. Tbb Aalr el
nty it taid to be " soltaUric," and a g^ examjde cf it it
vokano called the Sollilara near Naples. Tlie nmnem
ufriires" of the West Indies are fiuiher in«t.i^-« The
'alent gas is steam with sulphuretted bydiosBi and cai-
ic add. At the Grotto dd Cane in tbe PUc^aeu Flddl
ly) tbe carbonic add rising from fissures in tin botlOB d t
r covers the floor as a heavy layer, and a dog placed in the
riot of tbe cave becomes tlupefied by the narcotic gat; sock
springs have been called "mofelles." AnHud tlm
e is often a deposit of sulphur, produced by oxsdatioa od thr
huretted hydrogen, and the rocks art bleached, softeoid
decomposed. White crusts of alum, various inlph^**^
sulphides such as pyrites, also carboDatei ol soda and other
4, are formed by the action ol tbe acid vapoun 00 Ike
anic rocks. The flnal manifestation of volcanic actrritj
uch a region tnay be the discharge of heated wtteo, wbick
e ascended from the detp-teated magma far below the
ace, and make their appearance as groupa ol hot ^irinit^
c springs persist long alter the volcanoes which give rne
hem have become quite extinct.
ij now believed by a lar^ number of feolcntt aad unef
deposit. Analytei have proved thai ihe itiwDut nxii ulirt
ain dininct-Ihnish.very tmall quantitiea ofibe heavy mmh;
•In cMabliihed beyond doubt thai vnitt of gold. lilvrr, lad.
rci.1
mooly OC
U Stomboat in
;i?£^
Ilr nndrnteoa
pnbuW km
PNEUMONIA 869
Lobu Pliniminua bcgini by the idling up Dt aa iicutc in-
lUmmalafy pnxcs in Ihe alveoli. The changej which take
place ia the lung are chiefly three, (i) Congalian, or tngorge-
ment, the blood-vetsdi beinj; disletided juid the lung moit
, ^ . J _^ — , — I vduiniixous and heavier than nomu], and of dark red colour.
E^'^!?™,i?3L!rTii^,!£flU«£!Jri^^^ II. ut cell* «ill mnuin air. (1) fei H<po(i«li«. » called
na>.r««-lSA'5S^^SS'.^3^ivid»'5^"ytoS^?o;^ !""•> it5 roemblance to livet U»ut In thia Uage thm »
tmufoniutioiu, inbably became h is at ■ hich tempcniun:, pound into Uk au celU of the affected part an exudation con-
not haviog yet conplet^ cookd down. Anund iIk tin-b^^ng sisiEng of amorphoui fibrin together with epithelial ccUa and
niu in grank* then » aunnve nplacetnnt o( ieUpM and biotii* ^ .^j ^y^ yoo^ coipuscles, the whole totming a visdd mail
by quarta, tounnaline and white nicai (the latt-nained olten nch ... .__ ^ , '^,, t. l . , ,l £ ^ u™ .-i,' --j
iilithia). Iothbwaycemintype.o(=l«™frnmte«ep™du«d- which occupies not only the cells hut also the finer breochi. and
auclia*gTeiKn(g^V')andvhorlTack(HcSci10BL>. ]niheiLite«adia- which speedily coagiilales, causing the lung to become prmly
into jchorl^chiB.. The alteration of fclspar into kaolin or chinj. ^f air, Ihcir blood-vessels are pressed upon by the eiudalion,
clay iaal« a pneumatolylit: procHS. and u alien iDund along wilh _ . ^i. 1 k . ._ ..j^T j i,^.<i --.,1 - :« ^^.i-.. Tk-
tin'vBn, or oSier type.il Jne«! depow; pcobably both Buorine ""<> the lung .ubstance, rendered bnllle, sinVs in water The
__i ___t__. .J J !- .L._ . . ;.•. „j„. appearanccofasectioaof the lung IB this Stage has been likened
iS red gianile. It is 10 the character of the exudation,
g largely of coagulnble tbrin, Ihit the term croapoua
r^lwT ia due. (}) Grey Htpaliialien. In this stage the lung still re-
cki very lavouiable 10 itie i^ns iu liver-like consistence, hut its colour !s now grey, not
t ficquency -with which unlike the i^pearance of grey granite. This is due lo the change
-, . J L c- •o' "™«™"«"P^«- liking place in the exudation, which undeigoei resolution by a
anenHvtIv aflecled the andeiiles oT Ihe Hungarian goldlields, ultimalely absotption— so that m a comparatively short penod
s believed to be alw a consequence of the action of pneumatoJytic the air veskles get rid of Ihcjr morbid conteals and resume
ra». The aodfiite. change to dull, toft, greenish im™, and g),^^ nomul function. During resolution the chaBgea in Ihe
JXr?Ktrire'.1S!S,ran3 L^lUT "^nd'^s^c'^nri^- *™<i»" ^' P^^ by a process of autolysis or peptonization
Into lerpenline and other rocks containing nnich ma^neua, Ihecc of the inflSJUmalOTy products by unorganized ferments, absorp-
ii often eileniive "meatisition," Dtthe deposit of uik andsleatiie lion taking place into the lymphatic* and drtulation. Tha
"'■S^&iSda"^S"No^-'™^'°'"* Some of_ the apatite sbsorbed eiudate IS mainly eicreted bv the kidneys, excess o(
PHEOMOHU (Gr. wriOiaur, lung), a lerm used for inflam- chronic Inieratilial'pneumonia is in frequent, lolTovrlng 00 tbe
mation of the lung siibllince. Fonneily the disease was acute variety. The most frequent seal of pneumonia Is tho
divided into three varieliea: (i) Acute Croupous or lobar base or lower lobes, but occasionally the apices an the only
pneumonia; (1) Catarrhal or Broncho-pneumonia; (3) Inter- pmsaffected. The ti^t lungis theniosloftcnaltacked. Pneu-
Btilial or Chronic pneumonia. monia may extend lo Ihe entire lung or it may affect both
1. Acute Crimptia or Lcbar Pneuimmia {Pneumonic Fever) luagj. The death rate of atute lobar pneumonia in the chiel
is now classed as an acule infective disease of the lung, chat- London ho^iitils 1* ao%. With an organism so prevalent
BCtetiied by fever and toiBeima, running a definite courae and „ y}„ pneumomccua it follows that alcoboliam, diabelei and
being the direct reault of n specific miao-organicm or micro- other general diseaiei and inloxicBtions must render the body
organisms. The micrococcus lanceoUtus (pneumococcus, or liable to an attack. Malea are more commonly attacked than
diplococcua pneumoniae) . o( FtSnkel and Weichselbaum is females, and a previous attack seemi to ^ve a qiecial liabihly
present in a huge number oC casei in the bronchial secrclions, to another. The incubation period of pneumonia is unknown;
in the aEected lung and in the blood. This organism Is also n j, probably very short.
plicate or terminate lobar pneumonia, such as pcricartlitis, in by a rigor (or in childien a odd-
endocardilia. peritonitis and empyema. The badHua pneu- opment of (be febrile oondittod, the
moniae of FriedlSnder is also present in a proportion of cases, "'''" ■'-—-^""' •" '— ' ~ ■— —
but is probably not the cause of true lobar pneumonia. Various
other otganisma may be assodaled with these, but they are to , _.
be regarded aa in the nature o( a aecoodaiy Invasion. Labu hai a duil^ fluih. Pain In the aide
pneujnooia may be considered as an acute endemic disease al imooBt of pleurisy be pwnt. as is
; ,i-„.,_ ,u.K k «^-j-«-.. r..H». V-..- i^— « J- rly Bymptom. It is at nrst frequent
temperate dimales, though epidemic forms have been de- _ij'_ii. . ii«i. .™.i. ~.iX^,.i~
icribed. It has a distinct seasonal incidence, being
: the ^bfo
itain. phot-
absorbed exudate is mainly eicreted by the kidncya, excess of
nitrogen being found ia the urine during this period. TWa la
happily the tenhination of Ihe majority of cases of lobar poeil-
"SilTrwk.
monii. One of (he most rematkable phenomena ia the rapidity
olylic vein.
with which the lung tissue dears up, and ila freedom from
i«bSKw
afteracion or from infiltration into the connective tiEiue as fre-
of mineral
does not take pbce, death may occur from extension of the
inmaiolylic action has eontnbuied to the 1™^'"° "' (mm the formation of one or more abscesses or more rardy fn
re b a marked dlslurban
tow and difficult, the n
rued with a little tough ccjourleis
cious'orfroll
ilbreaks . , o* epllhdiura
in the winter and spring. Osier strongly supports the clous or frothy and ligi
itf with granular matter, blood and pui
lia cryituih The micro-otganiuna unally
ccui,Friedlander'sbacJlluarand tDmetiiDcm
reported by W. L. Rodman of Frankfort, KenI
"tlieTeweteMScascsmoneyear: pninnareihepneunwcoccuhFriedHlnder't bacillufcandaometin
ontagion does not seem to be well proved, and it is the influent bacflluk The following are the chief jAyiical m\
persons and si
,, „ _-- , jf other lavoui
dnclIoD of an attack.
olihedi
870 PNEUMONIA
limutiMo^nd iiKTOK ot ihe vocal [remitui; whik oa unilu- hts bowevcr bem coraUBtly found which on be ttid u bt
il°5i7l^™ ^mo^^of £« ™[m^ ta 'S^S^V In ■P*<^=' •» I" lol»' ponuooBU; Ibe inBaaa UcSha. Bkn-
the itaEc ot gtty hepatiniion the pvmiuioii note it ttitrduU and ^ot^^iu citBirhalu, pneumococcm. FricdllDdeT*> htfillil laj
the brraihini! lubuW. bui miKUiioru of rmner qu»Uly iKan vitious itiphylococd hiving been found. JobD Ejt^ in
Sm c^laTn'^dl 'duri^'^""i^i^''"wi ^'"^'''"Pf™' Allbutl's SyHtm 0/ Ittdicint, fives 6j% ol mind iidcclkio b
on Ibt buk or on the nScct^ tidt. The pulie, which 11 Bnt ma Kconduy. It nuy be a Kquence of infectious fevcn, nmla,
full. beoKDH Hull Mid Bft pwlni 10 Ihe interrupiipn w the diphtheria, whooping cough, scariel feveruidwineliiKitjtJmd
pulmonary cuculauon. Oeca«oiially dight liundice i> tnwent, ,.•!„ ■_ ,, -, j_L_^I 1 _ . j ""—-""" ■Ji— ~
Sue pmbiMy Co • nmilar cauK. lie uRne & Kiniy, »^n»; ''™-. ■" ^'»*, " <"™. *. '""l"™' "d "^t" ■ lalal oo-
albununoui, and itt chloride* are diminidwd. In favouiabk ouei, pbcation. The Luge nuijanly of the fatal casei an Ihoae of
however levere, there generally oceun after «ix or eieht dayi & early childhood. In adults it may follow ■■^fl.— »i v'cod-
Elh^ ^K^.'^l^ugh rtS^nSierii Xose U^l^ ^^'" B™ 'ho-p"^o>iii ■1'^ "uy toU^ ^"uon. on the Mill
the phyiical ligTu. the paiient bnuihei more euily, sleep Rtum. ■" Irichea, or the inhalation of foteigti bodies into the Intbta
and convi!e9cence advarura rapidly in the nuiority of inuanca. It is a frequent compUeition of pulmonary tuberculoaiL
In unfavourable ca»i death may take place either from the enenc The following changes take plate io the lung: at firu tk
' d of the crisis, or again fiomtbecliiaM appearance tending to become grey or yeuow. Uoder the
low adynamic form ^Ih delirium and microscope the air vesicles and finer bfYUKhi ate mjnikd with
——'-•- — " juic»" appear- a)is, the result of the mflaranisloTy process, but thne b ■•
unngth, m the fibrinous eiudation such 11 i> pieaent in ctmipoui pneamsDia.
an pleurisy, which ii J" favourable cases resolution talcr* place by litty degenen-
i?_L .*. litta, liquefaction, and absorption of the cells, but 00 ll* othct
hand they may undergo caseous degenerative changes, abyeavrs
developed, in both of which cases Ihc condition passes into <Be
of pulmonary tuberculo>ii. Evidence td previous brooAitis
is usually present in the lung) aflctted with atarrhd i»cb-
monia. In the great majority of instances catatibal pn-
tnonia occurs as an accompaniment or sequd of bronchitis, eilha
ftom the inflammation passing from the finer broDchi 10 the
pulRiooity ail vesicles, or from lu aSetting p
has of Ute imdergoae a which have undergone collapse.
otD J heads: (i) Cencnl
It of special lyraptomii
The game ti
ito-inoculaiiop by Ibe
soups and otbei li^ht forms of nourishment. Stimulants may
be called for, and strychnine and digiialiu ate (he most valu- The treatment of broncho-pneumoi
•ble^ disinfection of the sputum should be systematically At the outset 1 mild purgative is given, and should the lecte-
carried out. Many trials have been majje with antipneurno- tion accumulate in the bronchial tub^ an emetic b mriuL
ctKcic serum, but it has not been shown to have a very Inhalations are useful to relieve the CT>ugh, and drculitoiT
marked effect in cutting short the disease. The polyvalent stimulants such as strychnine are valuable, togctbei with bdi-
aenm ol ROmer has ^ven the best results. Much more favour- donna and oiygen. When orthopnoca and lividity are [mseiit.
able results have been obtained from the use of a vaccine. The with distension of the right heart, venesecIioQ is necessi}.
results of vacdoe treatment obtained by Btxllke in jo cases of The treatment of broncho-pneumonia by serum and ^-acctnd
severe pueumonia and one ease of pneumococcic endocarditis is not so successftil as in Enbar pneumooia, owing to the di&nh^
are encouraging. The vaccine, to produce the best effects, ol ascertaining the precise bacterial infection. The (nsl
should be made from the patient's own pneumococcus, as it is danger of broncho-pneumonia is the subsequent develofAiais
evident there are different strains of pneumococci, the doaes of pulmonary tuberculosis.
3. Ckrooii InlrTititud Paeumaiiii (Cnhosis ot (be La|)
is I Hbroid change in the lung, chiefly aSectinf Ibe fibnai
Lion o[ tne vaccine irom ine paiLcni's own organisms is tne stroma and may be cither local or diSuse. The ghtngn [■»
time (several days) which is required, valuable time being duced in the lung by this disease are marked chiefly by the
thereby lost; but the results ore much more certain than with growth of nucleated fibroid tissue atwind the walls of the tnods
the use of a " stock" vaccine. and vessels, and in the inlervfScuUt septa, which procmb tc
1. Brnnika-Pxainuinia (Calairhal or Lobutar-Pneiunonia or such an eitent as to invade and obliterate the air ccDi. Ibe
CapDIary Bionchitis). An acute form of lobular pneumonia lung, which is at first enlarged, becomes shrunken, dosr ia
has been described, having ell the characters of acute lobar texture aod solid, any unaffected portions being empkjw-
pneumonia except that the ptieumonic patches are dissenunated. matous; the bronchi are dilated, the pleura Ihicketied. and ihc
Thetcrm "broncho-pneumonia" b honever here used to lung substance often deeply (ngmented. especially in the (ik
denote a widespread catarrhal inflammation of the smaller of miners, who are apt to suffer from this disnsc Tlv dtho
bronchi which spreads in places to the alveoli and produces lung is always greatly enlarged and distended from empfajieoa;
consolidation. All forms of broncho-pneumonia depend on the heart becomes hypertrophied, particularly the right vev-
Ihe invasion of the lung by micro-organisms. No one orgajtism tricle; arul there may be marked athenHnatous changes in ikr
PNOM-PENH— POBEDONOSTSEV 871
dood vcadi. Later (he Inns becomB canverted bto k uiiei
A bronchieeutic lavitio. Thij condition is usuiliy paaeal to
t (TutM or len degree in ilinoit il] chnnic diKises oC the luhgt
uul hioDchi, but it ii ipeciiUy ip[ to arise in an extensive fonn
rom pre-eiiiting cstanhil pDciunooia. *od not unltcqucnljjr
DOW Applied (including uil}iraueiS|
■o-caJled "grinder's rot" )'
mic phthisi feee
^r, '^^yi^ •■"•'^ ■■ " >«« '<■' '" "™i" th"t ""« "Ofl" ditt ihdr oripo from
?M^..^iJll^ pn-Roniin juitiquity. Pliny refer, them to Ibe Etniicuu. The
™ of ihT^™ recliibiiing and protecting oi the ripahan Unda irml 00 mpidly
^'^^"^HL^I o*""" Ei^iind!Biu're^'^™d?«iDCt™o«*tlie nii"!ury'ch^«^
wTlli!^ Sl^^. "^ ^™r "^ '.'" 'pieuLlunil colooia. During tlie time of the b»<-
^W^Sm lSiS,;SS'«ih"''!'rJr'" !^h?t.'hJS?n(«,°™'^"th^[J^
i^J^L^'i!^: >» and Umbria and the Alpa aa Gallia
iisS SSf]E"¥S"'£rJi'
J, acciita a ly proper, even in So B-C- Romanixa-
., , . Kcl coiuidnbly, the foundation ol
capila], sin« „ „( naj, 1^ g(„ 00 Murine tbe
if the resident- dinriel a* Car ■> the Pwtui wai xina
lupetior. Pop. about 60,000. conujling ol fambodiuu, An- '■=■, "l-il^ the Trinipadaiiei Rceived
namcK. Chinoe, Malays. Indians «id about 600 Eutopeanl SS^il^ I'^ILJ^ hJ*^,!!.*^
It IS situated on Ihc Mekong about m m. from Hi mouth at o until the fall of the Reg^
bnnch connecting it with the Great Lake (Tonl*-Sap). Its "adq. wai uken from the CelM orlba
po>ition maia it the market for the products of Cambodia. STtRS™ '(MM «'V) ^t^^^l
Laos. Upper Burma and pan of Siam (dried fish, rice, (otton, ST ^ T^l^'-^^ ^-
indigo, cardamoms. &c) The town is Ughtcd by electiidly. identified with it at a eampaiatinly
The palace of the king of Camlwdla occupiFS a large space in
Ibe Cambodian qutnci. The town gets its name from the POACH (probably from Ft. fiKit, bag, or Eng. "poke,"
PnOm. a central hill surmounted by an ancient pagoda. thrust into), to treqMsaod private property in punuit of game
PO (anc. Padu), Cr. Uitm), a river ol northern Italy, and or fish; also, generally, to catch game or fish by mean) or at
the largest in the whole country, with a total length of about limes not pennitted by the law, or in an uruportamanlike
jio ra. direct from the source to the mouth, but. including iis manner (see Gaue Laws). The etymology is rather obicure, but
many windings, of some 417 m. The navigable portion from as used in the independent sense of "poidung" an egg, tJ.
Casate Monfemto to the mouth is jj; m.; the minimum width cooking by breaking into boiling water, the word ippean to
o( this portion 656 ft., and its minimum depth 7 ft. Owing be from the same original.
to the prevalence ol shallows and sandbanks, navigaiion is POBeoOHOSTSEV, COHSTAHTINB PETROVICH (1S17-
diScult. 1997), Russian jurist, state official, and wriur on philosophiol
The Po is the dominating factor in north Italian geography, and liEerary subjecta. Bom in Moscow 10 iSjj, he studied at
north Italy practically consisting of the Fo basin, with the >ur- the School of Law in St Petersburg, and entered the public
rounding slopes of the Alps and Apennines. For a description service as an official in one of the Moscow departments of iho
of its course, and a list ol Its principal Iributnries see ITAIV. senate. From i860 to iM; he was professor of Russian civil
The area o[ its basin, which includes portions ol Swiuerland law in the Moscow University, and instructed the sons of Alcl-
and Austria, is estimated at 16,798 sq. m. ander H. in the theory of law and administration. In 186S
fnlhefirttil m. oiilicoune.down to Reveilo (wen of &1uziol, he became a senator in St Petersburg, in 1871 a member of the
the Po demnda no leu than 5150 (t. or a lall o( n-j: 1000, iomiig council of the empire, and in iSgn chief procurator of the Holy
SjTJSX^nlrr^litL'^V'jr^^^^ «r^^Jve,1^d''n«^"f^^,^rSyhi^op^nEr
"* ' '"J ''■ '" 'b* "emnd. The mean depth from the confluence denounced an an " obscurantist" and an enemy of progress.
-■--■■-<'-■ ■ > .. ', ^ . ' Pobedonostsev mamtauied. though keeping aloof from the
Slavophils, that Occidental institutions were radically bad in
themselves and totally inapplicable to Russia. Parliamentary
cedure, trial by jury, freedom of the press, secular education—
these were among the principal objects of hb aversion. He
■ See G. Mlrinelli. in AUl tnil. •rwrlii ir< H^h —rint. unl v<n.
(It^ltn): and " L'Accnscimenl
1 length ol
the
embankiBeii
iM encceding tea m. Owin
itWhigh
bank., and to the I
firetami
"Ijy^x
"™.
•hich the n
ver bringj down w
!Ki."J
t>ove the 1
rr'l
Ki™ ^r
ounding counlrv.
containing banks
A resul
'ol t'tie ^
Lomtardii
the an
intbeaR=
'during'tbe period
: but duHne
the Defied 1600 K
>'^it
872 POCHARD— POCKET-MOUSE
■objected aH ot Ihtm to a Kvere uulysis in hu Ktfialiimi i/ 1 ^""^ °< vkkh iba nile hu the bud Uack. (la^ed viib bka n
itiuiHjii SIsUiman (Eaglish by R. C. Long, Undon, 1808). *I°^i^' 't^ ?" "™f*l' •! «r» ■"■>«i«l>l«,I™" lie nuim d
tn,.n,l , r,.,,-...™.™ ,- r^..,.l,r™r,.™,.,.- -n,! „ llw leSpeCl 0( nUsllUKI JTOW »« IH IMliy plUS tcnHd. Th«B thC ""
d automaticBllv Tufred DucIl F^ truUUc — black with a mat aod «iut
- '. —Hi.. «™riciiiie«iB.valeBl^.(i«B7i..aiK<'>-«'^-——
id Ibe Red-CRKcd Pochird,
tbe practical "^ '" A™e"cu eqaivaleni F. uttarit, and the ttliile-eynl Pnduid.
'th^oidWorfd, andiK -™"
Mrving Ihe autocratic power, and of loslering amgnj
tbe traditional veneration [or the ritual of the satipi
In the sphere of practical politics he eierciscd t
influence by inspiring and encouraging the Russification policy
of Aleiandei III. (iSSi-iSm), whkb found etpres^ian in an
administriLive Nationalist propag^anda and led to a good deal J
of religious pcneculion. Aftcl the death of Aleiander III. he <
loal much ot bis influence, lor Nicholas II., nbile dinging to \
his lather's Ru$silicalion policy and even extending it to Fin- 1
land, disliked the idea of systemaLic religious persecution, and '
was not wholly averse from Ihe partial enuncipiiion ol the '
Russian Church fmm civil control. During tbe revolutionary
tumuli wbicb foUovcd the disastrous war iriib Japan F „
donDSIstv, being neuly So years of age, retired from public tc
aflairs. Hcdiedon the ajrdof Maidi 1907. T
POCHARD. PociaaD, 01 Pokes." names properly belonging ■
to the male of a species of duck [the female o( which is knows 3
aitbeDunbird),tbeJMj/mnaot Linnaeus, »nd Nyrtta Itrim A
ol later ornithologists— but names very often applied by writers "
in a general way to most of tfie group or sub-family Fidipdiiue^ ^
commonlycalkdDivingorSea-DucksCseeDuCE). ThePochaid ^
in fuU plumage is a very handsome bird, with a coppery-red /t
bead, on Ihe sides ol which sparkle the ruby irides of his eyes,
relieved by the gieyish-blue of the basal b;U( ol bis broad biQ, „ , . , , . ...
and Ihe deep black o( his breast, whUe his back and flanks .fOCKEt. . UBsO bag. particulariy n l»g-Uke mepudt
appear of a light grey, being really ol a dull white closely barred «"^'" '"'™ ">. ".J™^"',,"', " '""^' "^ dothmg- Ai a
bjr fine undXti^g black £n«. The tad-coven, both above >ne«in» "f capaoly " pocltel" Is riow only usedfor hop.^ «
and below are black, tbe quill feathera brawnish-black. and the f*!"^ "^ "■- The word appe«t m Mid. Enj. is^^,u>l
lower surface of a dull white. The Dunbird has the head uid " ^^"^J™ « Norman d.mmul.ve of O. Fr. ptkt. ^»^ m^
neck reddish brown, with ill-defined whitish patches on the JfT' ■ ,, ^ v t^ ^' ".™"."^' ?^
cheeks and chin; the back and upper tail-coverta^ duU brown, d-H*""^/. "^ •^ """Ji P"v«b.al sayinp is a " p.g u. a poke.-
- - - - -i and possibly in the poke-bonnet, the coal-scuttle boaaa
fashionable during the first part ol tbe I9lh century, and w
•rom by tbe female mcmberi of the Salvalion Aimy; ant
, probably Ihe name of the bonoH is connected with " poke."
'. to thrust forward, dig. The origbi of this is obscure. Dsui
has foken, pooh, a dagger; Swedi^ pSk, a slick.
POCKET-OOPHER (U. pouched rat), Ihe naoM of a gmp
, of, chiefly North, American rat-like mdents, characletiid
by Ibe possession of brgc cheek-povcfacs, ibe openugx ^
which are exlemal to the mouth; while Iheir inner suriat
is lined wiib fur. The cheek'teetb. which compRse two pais
of ptemoiars and three of molars in each jaw. are in Ibe fdra
of simple prisms of enamel, which do noi develop roots. The
fore and hind limbs are of apflroiimately equi! length, bat ihe
second and third front-dlws tn greatly erdarged. aod aU ib(
daws are furnished at the base with bristles. The eyes at
_ small, aod the eitemal ears rudimenlary.
epTthir is'derivid from ,hf "h^ '^iSSlf^ ™
the fiesh'water plant, a speciei ot VaUiineria, luually known \j^ ;„ trrra > onu-
as " wild celery," from feeding on which its flesh is believed to adapted
Tbe Pochard and Dunbird in Europe are Iti much request tor J° j"™
Ihe Ubie (as the German name ot Ihe spedes, TafdaiU, tesli- riu?ho
Ges) when they frequent fresh-water; birds killed on Ihe sea- at roots.
cosst are so rank as to be almost worthless. but in tt
Among other species nearly allied to the Pochard that truifent 9 la. in '
the northern hemisphere may be mentioned the St^up-Duck, rufoin t
Fuhpila marile. with in Amaican igpreieniaiive F. affimii. in of the •
andtbi
! rest of the plumage
, eicept the hjwer laiI-«
iverts. which
hard." This
species
abundant in many parts ol Euroi
Asia, a
.nd North America.
1 winter the
larger
;ers, and e
itcnding its migrations
. to Barbaty
id inland to
breed.
TTie Ar
nerican Po.
;hard is slightly hrger,
, has yellow
eyes, and is no
■w regardec
1 as specifically distlnc
but America has a perfi
rctly distinct
though
Ihe celcbtaled canvas
-back duck.
tf. taJl
. much lart
ler bird, with a longer,
. higher and
er bill.
which bos
no blue at the base, .
and, though
Iheplu
mage of 1
l»th. espcci
illy in the females, is very similar,
Ihe ma
le canva.
(back has
a darker head, and the
: blocli lines
are much broken up
and farther
■sundei
r, so that
1 the elTec
>ns a much
lighter
colour.
and from this has arisen the bit
n the first of wl
(See ROBOTuJ
SLiLr , 5"""'^? '"«■ i' ™y .,"''^'™'P:_l'^7""" !^ rocKET-MOnSK, the name ol a Dumber of small jefhoaAc
e^:s:s^.-''nr;^y.fK^V's*n^JtdS':t.th^n: ^^y N"^- ■^™" ^" ^'■^to u- i^z
meaniiiB the bird vc commonly call Spoonbill (o.b.). Liitrf nvei "1*™. »»d CDnatftittiag the geBU* Pmpiaaiia " "
^ihorifai a popular French word nrnifinoK UruiQiaRl, Tbv an Dearly alDcd lo tfa* Ancr' — '—
POCCXDK— PODEBRAD
873
KancasoO-Rat), but differ in having rooted molar teeth. The
typical pocket-mouse P. fasciatus^ which is a native of Mon-
tana, Missouri, and Wyoming, is a sandy-coloured rodent
marked with black lines above and with white beneath, and
measuring about 6 in. in length, this length being equally divided
between the head and body and the tail. (See Rodentia.)
POCOCK, SIR GEORGE (1706-1792), British admiral, son
of Thomas Pocock, chaplain in the navy, was bom on the 6th
of March 1706, and entered the navy under the protection of
his maternal uncle, Captain Streynsham Master (1682-1724),
in the "3upcrbe" in 1718. He became lieutenant in Apiil
1725, commander in 1733, and post-captain in 1738. After
serving in the West Indies he was sent to the East Indies in
1754 as captain of the " Cumberland" (58) with Rear-Admiral
Charles Watson (1714-1757). Watson's squadron co-operated
with Clive in the conquest of BcngaL In 1755 Pocock became
rear-admiral, and was promoted vice-admiral in 1756. On the
ieath of Watson he took the command of the naval forces in
Lhe eastern seas. In 1758 he was joined by Commodore Charles
Steevens (d. 1 761), but the reinforcement only raised the squadron
to seven smsiU line-of-battle ships. War being now in pro-
cess between France and England the French sent a naval
force from their islands in the Indian Ocean into the Bay of
Bengal to the assistance of Pondicherry. To intercept the
irrival of these reinforcements for the enemy now became
Jie object of Pocock. The French force was indeed of less
intrinsic strength than his own. Count D'Ach£ (i700?-i775),
who commanded, had to make up his line by including several
[ndiamen, which were only armed merchant ships. Yet the,
lumber of the French was superior and Pocock was required
3y the practice of his time to fight by the old oihdal fighting
nstructions. He had to bring his ships into action in a line
with the enemy, and to preserve his formation while the en-
gagement lasted. All Pocock's encounters with D'Ach6 were
ndecisive. The first battle, on the 29th of April 1758, failed to
;)revent the Frenchmen from reaching Pondicherry. After a
second and more severe engagement on the 3rd of August,
:he French admiral returned to the Mauritius, and when the
monsoon set in Pocock went round to Bombay. He was back
sarly in spring, but the French admiral did not return to the
Bay of Bengd till September. Again Pocock was unable to
prevent his opponent from reaching Pondicherry, and a well-
sontested battle between them on the loth of September 1759
proved again indecisive. The French government was nearly
iMUikrupt, and D'Ach£ could get no stores for his squadron,
tie was compelled to return to the islands, and the English
prere left in possession of the Coromandel and Malabar coasts.
Pocock went home in 1760, and in 1761 was made Knight of the
Bath and admiraL In 1762 he was appointed to the com-
mand of the naval forces in the combined expedition which took
Havana. The siege, which b^an on the 7th of June» and
asted till the 13th of August, was rendered deadly by the climate.
rhe final victory was largely attributable to the vigorous and
ntelligent aid which Pocock gave to the troops. His share in
:he prize money was no less than £122,697. On his return to
England Pocock is said to have been disappointed because
mother officer. Sir Charles Saunders (17 13-177 5), was chosen
ji preference to himself as a member of the admiralty board,
ind to have resigned in consequence. It is certain that he re-
iigned his commission in 1766. He died on the 3rd of April
[ 79a. His monument is in Westminster Abbey.
POCOCKB, EDWARD (1604-1691), English Orientalist and
biblical scholar, was bom in 1604, the son of a Berkshire dergy-
nan, and received his education at the free school of Thame in
Didordshire and at Corpus Christ! College, Oxford (scholar in
[620, fellow in 1628). The first-fruit of hb studies was an edition
from a Bodleian MS. of the four New Testament epistles (3 Peter,
I and 3 John, Jude) which were not in the old Syriac canon, and
irere not contained in Europeffll editions of the Peshito. This
Nras published at Leiden at the instigation of G. Vosdus in 1630,
ind in the same year Pococke sailed for Aleppo as diaplain to the
Engliab factory. At Aleppo he madie himself a profound ^AxmUc
scholar, and collected many valuable MSS. At this time Wm.
Laud was bishop of London and chancellor of the university of
Oxford, and Pococke became known to him as one who could
help his schemes for enriching the university. Laud founded
an Arabic chair at Oxford, and invited Pococke home to fill it,
and he entered on his duties on the xoth of August 1636; but
next summer he sailed again for Constantinople to prosecute
further studies and collect more books, and remained there for
about three years. When he returned to England Laud was in
the Tower, but had taken the precaution to place the Arabic
chair on a permanent footing. Pococke does not seem to have
been an extreme churchman or to have meddled actively in
politics. His rare scholarship and personal qualities raised him
up influential friends among the opposite party, foremost among
these being John Selden and John Owen. Through their offices
he was even advanced in 1648 to the chair of Hebrew, though as
he could not take the engagement of 1649 he lost the emoluments
of the post soon after, and did not recover them till the Restora-
tion. These cares seriously hampered Pococke in his studies, as
he complains in the preface to his Eutyckius; he seems to have
felt most deeply the attempts to remove him from his parish of
Childrey, a coU^e living which he had accepted in 1643. In
1649 he published the Specimen historiae arabum, a short
account of the origin and manners of the Arabs, taken from
Barhebraeus (Abulfaragius), with notes from a vast number of
MS. sources which are still valuable. This was followed in 1655
by the Porta MosiSt extracts from the Arabic commentary of
Maimonides on the Mishna, with translation and very learned
notes; and in 1656 by the annals of Eutyckius in Arabic and
Latin. He also gave active assistance to Brian Walton's poly-
glot bible, and the preface to the various readings of the Arabic
Pentateuch is from his hand. After the Restoration Pococke's
political and pecimiary troubles were removed, but the reception
of his Magnum opus — a complete edition of the Arabic history of
Barhebraeus {Greg. Ahuljaragii kistoria compendiosa dynasiia-
rum)f which he dedicated to the king in 1663, showed that the new
order of things was not very favourable to profound scholarship.
After this his most important works were a Lexicon keptagloUon
(1669) and English commentaries on Micah (1677), Malachi
(1677), Hosea (1685) and Joel (1691), which are still worth reading.
An Arabic translation of Grotius's De verikUe, which appeared in
1660, may also be mentioned as a proof of Pococke's interest in
the propagation of Christianity in the East. This was an old
plan, which he had talked over with Grotius at Paris on his way
back from Constantinople. Pococke married in 1646, and died in
1691. One of his sons, Edward (1648-1727), published several
contributions to Arabic literatiue — a fragment of Abdallatif's
description of Egypt and the Philosophus autodOactus of Ibn
TufaiL
The theological works of Pococke were collected, in two volumes,
in 1740, with a curious account of hb life and writings by L. Twells.
PODiSRAD, GEORGE OP (1420-147 1), king of Bohemia, was
the son of Victoria of Kunstat and Podj&rad, a Bohemian noble-
man, who was one of the leaders of the " Orphans" or modem
Taborites during the Hiissite wars. George himself as a boy of
fourteen took part in the great battle of Lipan, which marks the
downfall of the more advanced Taborites. Early in life, as one
of the leaders of the Calixtine party, he defeated the Austrian
troops of the German King Albert U., son-in-law and successor
of King Sigismund. He soon became a prominent member of
the national or Calixtine party, and after the death of Ptacek of
Pirkstein its leader. During the minority of T^idislas, son of
Albert, who was bom after his father's death, Bohemia was
divided into fwo parties — the Romanist or Austrian on^ led by
tnridi von Rosoiberg (i403-x4^a)« «Qd the national one, led by
Podlbrad. After vuious attempts at reconciliation, PodCbrad
decided to appeal to the force of arms. He gradually raised an
armed force fai ■ortb-etstem Bohemia, where the«Calixtlne cause
had most adherents and where his ancestral castle was situated.
With this army, consisting of about 9000 men, he marched fn
Z448 from Kutna Hora to Prague, and obtained possession o( the
ca^tal almoit wicfaotit m&iXmot. " OvQ war, fabwevcr, tank*
T V > V
87+
PODESTA— PODIUM
out, but Pod&nd succeeded in defeating the Romanist nobles.
In 1451 the emperor Frederick III., as guardian of the young
king Ladislas, entrusted Pod&rad with the administration of
Bohemia. In the same year a diet assembled at Prague also
conferred on Podibrad the regency. The struggle of the Bohe-
mians against Rome continued uninterruptedly, and the position
of Podibrad became a very difficult one when the young king
Ladislas, who was crowned in 1453, expressed his sympathies
for the Roman Church, though he had recognized the compacts
and the ancient privileges of Bohemia. In 1457 King Ladislas
died suddenly, and public opinion from an early period
accused Podibrad of having poisoned him. 'The Bohemian
historian, Palacky, fifty years ago thoroughly disproved this
accusation, and, though it has recently been revived by German
historians, it must undoubtedly be considered as a calumny.
On the a7th of February 1458 the estates of Bohemia unani-
mously chose Pod£brad as king; even the adherents of the
Austrian party voted for him, not wishing at that moment to
oppose the popular feeling, which demanded the election of a
national sovereign. A year after the accession of Podibrad
Pius II. (Aeneas Sylvius) became pope, and his incessant hostility
proved one of the most serious obstacles to Podibrad's rule.
Though he rejected the demand of the pope, who wished him to
consent to the abolition of the compacts, he endeavoured to
curry favour with the Roman see by punishing severely all the
more advanced opponents of papacy in Bohemia. Pod^rad's
persecution of the newly-founded community of the Bohemian
brethren is certainly a blemish on his career. All PodSbrad's
endeavours to establish peace with Rome proved ineffectual,
and though the death of Pius II. prevented him from carrying
out his planned crusade against Bohemia, his successor was a
scarcely less bitter enemy of the country. Though the rule of
Pod£brad had proved very successful and Bohemia had under it
obtained a degree of prosperity which had been unknown since
the time of Charles IV., the Calixtine king had many enemies
among the Romanist members of the powerful Bohemian nobility.
The malcontent nobles met at Zelena Hora (Grtineberg) on the
38th of November 1465, and concluded an alliance against
the king, bringing forward many — mostly untrue — ^accusations
against him. The confederacy was from its beginning supported
by the Roman see, though Podibr^d after the death of his im-
placable enemy, Pius II., attempted to negotiate with the new
pope, Paul II. These negotiations ended when the pontiff grossly
insulted the envoys of the king of Bohemia. On the ajrd
of December 1466 Paul II. excommunicated Podibrad and
pronounced his deposition as king of Bohemia, forbidding all
Romanists to continue in his allegiance. The emperor Frederick
III., and King Matthias of Hungary, Podibrad's former ally,
joined the insurgent Bohemian nobles. King Matthias conquered
a large part of Moravia, and was crowned in the capital of that
country, Brno(Brilnn), as king of Bohemia on the 3rd of May 1469.
In the following year Podibrad was more successful in his resist-
ance to his many cuemies, but his death on the 32 nd of March
147 1 put a stop to the war. In spite of the misfortunes of the
last years of his reign, Pod^brad's memory has always been
cherished by the Bohemians. He was the only king of Bohemia
who belonged to that nation, and the only one who was not a
Roman Catholic.
Sec H. Markgraf, Vber das Verhdltniss des Kdnigs Gtort von
Podibrad tu Papsi Pius II. (1867); Jordan, Das Kdntgtkum Gcorgs
von Podibrad (1861); A. Bachmann, Ein Jahr bdhtnischer GesckicMe
(1876), and Urkunden . . . zur ocsterreichischen CeschichU . . .
im ZeitalUr Ceorgs von Podibrad (1879); E. W. Kantcr. Die
Ermordung Kdnig Ladislaus (1906) ; Novotrv, Vber den Tod Kdnig
Ladislaws Postumus (1906). All histories ot Bohemia, particularly
that of F. Palacky (18A6-1867). conuin detailed accounts of the
career of King George of PodSbrad.
PODESTA (Lat. polestas, power), the name given during the
later middle ages to a high official in many Italian cities. Podes-
t&s or rectors were first appointed by the emperor Frederick I.
when about 11 58 he began to assert his Imperial rights over
the cities of northern Italy. Their business was to enforce
these rights; from the first they were very unpopular, and their
arbitrary behaviour was a factor in bringing about the
of the Lombard league and the rising against Frederick m
1 167.
Although the emperor's experiment was short-lived podestis
soon became general in northern Italy, making their appearuoe
in most communes about 120a These offidak, however, were
now appointed by the citizens or by their representatives. Th^
exercised the supreme power in the city, both in peace and war,
both in foreign and domestic matters, but they only hdd office
for a period of a year. In order to avoid the intestine strife
so common in Italian dvic life, it soon became the cnstom
to select a stranger to fill this position. Venetians woe in
special request for this purpose during the lath and 13th cen-
turies, probably because at this time, at least, they were kas
concerned than other Italians in the affairs of the mainUnri
Afterwards in a few cases the term of ofiSce was extended to
cover a period of years, or even a lifetime.
During the later part of the xath and the whole of the 13th
century most of the Italian cities were governed by podestis.
Concerning Rome, Gregorovius says that in 1205 "the pope
changed the form of the civic government; the executive power
lying henceforward in the hand of a single senator or podciU,
who, directly or indircaly, was appointed by the popt,** la
Florence soon after xi8o the chief authority was transfeiTed
from the consuls to the podesti, and Milan and other cities
were also ruled by these officials. There were, moreover, podestis
in some of the cities of Provence. Gradually the podestis be-
came more despotic and more corrupt, and sometimes a spedsl
official was appointed to hear complaints against' them; in the
13th century in Florence and some other cities a capitoMa id
popclo was chosen to look after the interests of the lower daaaea.
In other ways also the power of the podestis was reduced; they
were confined more and more to judicial functions until thgr
disappeared early in the i6th century.
The officials who were sent by the Italian republics to ad-
minister the affairs of dependent dties were sometimes csDed
podestis. At the present day the dties of Trent and Trieste fpit
the name of podesti to their chief magistrate.
The example of Italy in the matter of podestis was sometiwfs
followed by dties and republics in northern Europe in the
middle ages, notably by such as had trade rdati<uis with Italy.
The officers thus elected sometimes bore the title of pedesU or
podestai. Thus in East Friesland there were podestis identiol
in name and functions with those of the Italian repubfics;
sometimes each 'province had one, sometimes the fedoal did
elected a podesti-general for the whde country, the term of
office bdng for a limited period or for life (see J. L. Motley, XhAi
Republic^ i. 44, ed. 1903).
Lists of the Italian podestis are given in Stokvis, Mammeli'ldsimrr.
vol. iii. (Ldden. i^). See also W. F. Butler. The Lemkmi
Communes (1906).
PODOORITSA (Croatian, Podgorica), the largest town in Mon-
tenegro; oh the left bank of the river Moracha, and in a fertile
valley which strikes inland for 18 m. from the shores of Lake
Scutari to the mountains of central and eastern Montcnefra
Pop. (1900), about 5500. Spread out on a perfectly flat pbia
Podgoritsa has two distinct parts: the picturesque Turkidt
quarter, with its mosques and ruined ramparts, and the Mo^s-
negrin quarter, built since 1877, and containing a prison and ai
agricultural college. These quarters are separated by the rinr
Ribnitsa, a tributary of the Moracha. A fine old Turkish besip'
crosses the main stream. Podgoritsa receives from the casters
plains and the north-eastern highlands a great quantity of
tobacco, fruit, cereals, honey, silk, livestock and other coaaodi*
ties, which it distributes through Plavnitsa, its port 00 Lata
Scutari, and through Riyeka to Cettigne and Cattaro. Afttf
being captured from Turkey in 1877, Podgoritsa was is iM
recognized as Montenegrin territory by the Treaty of Bafia.
PODIUM (Gr. ir65u>r, diminutive of *ovt, foot),* the vuat il
architecture for a continuous pedestal, or low wall 00 wljd|
columns are carried, consisting of a cornice or oqiping, a dado*
die, and a moulded pUnth. In the Etnwcmaad Komm ttfJH
PODOLIA— POE 875
A, 1 govframcDt of uuih-watcin Rusii, having
an IhE N., Kiev and Khenon on Ihs E. and S., Ben-
[he S.W.. and Galicia (Aiutria) on the W., Irani wlikJi
alcd by tbe Zbrucz, or Kodvocha, a tributary el th«
H hu an arH of 16,119 «)• m„ cilending for fx, n.
: to S.E. on Lha Id! bank of ths DniBtcr. In the
:lion the govcniinenl ii Invcned by two rangn of
lied by Lbe Bug, tamificarions of the Avtatyasli heigh U,
i no'^heic eintd an elevation ol 11S5 tl. Two taige
ich nun]Frou$ iribuiarits, drain the governmeai — the
which fomu its lioundary Hith Beuaiabi* and b
thiooghout ii9 length, and [he Bug, which Oowialnioii
I the former in a higher, lonielinia iwampy, viUey,
rmipted at levenl places by rapidi. The Doieatet i>
ml channel for mde, com, quiits and timber being
from Mogltcv, Kalus, Zhvaneti, Pong and other
river-ports. The rapid amaUer Iiibutaries of the
upply numerom flour-mills wiLh motive power. The
Oil throughout " black earth," and Podolia i> one of
Icrtlle govcmmeou of Russia. Forests cover neatty
ie total area. Marshes occur only beside tbe Bug.
:e is moderate, the average temperature of Ibe year at
being A»i° U*S' in January, 69* in July),
mated population in 1906 was 3,5*3,700. It consists
-iltle Russians, Poles (jj %), and Jews (i j%). There
. a few Armenians, some Germans, and so,ooa Moldav-
rulcbin beinfl the seat of their bishops and a centre of
a. Alter Moscow, Podolia is the most densely in-
ivernment of Russia outside Poland. It is divided
e disEricts, the chief (owns of which are Kamenett-
thc c:ipital, Balta, Bratiliv, Gaisin, Letichev, Utin,
I'Dnicstei, Novayi-Ushitsa, Olgopot, Proskurov,
nd Yampol. The chief occupiiions of the people are
I and gardening. The principal crops are wheal, rye,
y, maiie. hemp, Sal, potatoes, beetroot and tobacco,
famous for its cherries and mulberries, its metoni,
d encumbers. Nearly 67,000 gallons ol wine are
nnually. Large numbera of horses, cattle and sheep
he cattle being famous. Bee-keeping is an important
have an annua) output
valued el £4,000,000. An
le is carried on with Au!
itria. espedaUy through the
and Gusyatin custom-houses, corn, cattle, horses,
1, linseed and hemp seed
being e.poited, in eichimge
1 wares, linen, woollen St
ulls, cotton, glass and *gri-
.plcments. The trade wii
Lh the interior is also carried
iskly. especiaUy at Ihe t
wenty-sii fairs, (he chief of
B.ilta and Yaimolinisy.
PodoUa is traversed by a
lich runs parallel 10 the Dniester, from Lemberg to
d has two branch lines.
10 Kiev (from Zhmerinka)
Lava (from Balta).
—The country has been i
nhabited since Ihe beginning
it hie period. Herodotus
mentions it as the seat of the
-ihim Alaaones and the
Scythian Neuri, who were
MheDaciansandtbeGct
ae. The Romans left traces
e in the WaU of Trajan.
which stretches through the
.tricts of Kamenels, Ushi
tsa and Proskurov. During
migrations many nation
aliiies passed through this
Id Dulebes occupied Ihe Bug, while the Tivertsi and
ippirently all four Slav tribes, were settled on the
These peoples were conquered by the Avars in the
y. Olcg. prince ol Kiev, eilended his rule over this
the Pmiiiif, or " lowlands," which became later 1 part
cipaliiies ol Volhynia. Kiev and Galicia. In Ihe 131b
c PoDliie was plundered by the Mongolii > bondrcd
876
POERIO
soldier in the War of independence, was known to Washington,
and was the friend of Lafayette. His son David Poe was bred
as a lawyer, but deeply offended his family by marrying an actress
of English birth.Mrs Elizabeth Hopkins,n^ Amold,and by himself
going on the stage. In x8ix he and his wife died, leaving three
children — William, Edgar, and a daughter Rosalie — wholly des-
titute. William died young, and R(»alie became mad. Edgar
was adopted by John Allan, a tobacco merchant of Scottish ex-
traction, seemingly at the request of his wife, who was childless.
The boy was indidged in every way, and encouraged to believe
that he would inherit Mr Allan's fortime. Mr Allan, having
come to England in 1815, placed Edgar in a school at Stoke
Newington, kept by a Dr Bransby. In 1820 Mr Allan returned
to Richmond, Virginia, and Edgar was first placed at school in
the town and then sent to the university of Virginia at Char-
lottesville in 1826. Here the effects of a very unwise training
on a temperament of inherited neurotic tendency were soon seen.
He was fond of athletics, and was a strong and ardent swimmer;
but he developed a passion for gambling and drink. His dis-
orders made it necessary to remove him, and he was taken away
by Mr Allan, who refused to pay his debts of honour. He enlisted
on the 26th of May 1827 at Boston, and served for two years in
the United States army. As a soldier his conduct must have
been exemplary, for he was promoted sergeant-major on the xst
of January 1829. It is to be noted that throughout his life,
when under orders, Poe could be a diligent and capable subor-
dinate. In May 1829 Mr Allan secured his discharge from the
army, and in 1 830 obtained a nomination for him to the West Point
military academy. As a student he showed considerable faculty for
mathematics, but his aloofness prevented him from being popular
with his comrades, and he neglected his duty. When court-
martialled he made no answer to the charges, and was expelled on
the 6th of March 183 1. Mr Allan's generosity was now exhausted.
The death of his first wife in 1829 had doubtless removed an
influence favourable to Poe. A second marriage brought him
children, and at his death in 1834 he left his adopted son
nothing. A kst meeting between the two, shortly before Mr
Allan's death, led only to a scene of painful violence.
In 1827 Poe had published his first volume of poetry, Tamer'
lane and other Poems, at Boston. He did not publish under his
name, but as " A Bostonian." In 1831 he published a volume
of Poems under his name at New York. His life immediately
after he left West Point is very obscure, but in 1833 he was living
at Baltimore with his paternal aunt, Mrs Clemm, who was
throughout life his protector, and, in so far as extreme poverty
permitted, his support. In 1833 he won a prize of $100 offered
for the best story by the Baltimore Saturday Visiter. He would
have won the prize for the best poem if the judges had not
thought it wrong to give both rewards to one competitor. The
story, MS. found in a Bottle, is one of the most mediocre of his
tales, but his success gave him an introduction to editors and
publishers, who were attracted by his striking personal appear-
ance and his fine manners, and were also touched by his mani-
fest poverty. From 1833 till his death he was employed on
different magazines at Richmond, New York and Philadelphia.
His famous poem " The Raven " was published first in 1845,
and soon became extraordinarily popular; but Poe only got
£2 for it.
The facts of his life have been the subject of very ill-judged
controversy. The acrimonious tone of the biography by Rufus
Griswold, prefixed to the first collected edition of his works in
1850, gave natural offence, and attempts have been made to show
that the biographer was wrong as to the facts. But it is no real
kindness to Poe's memory to deny the sad truth that he was
subject to chronic alcohoUsm. He was not a boon companion,
and never became callous to his vice. When it seized him he
drank raw spirits, and was disordered by a very little. But when
he was free from the maddening influence of alcohol he was
gentle, wcU-brcd, and a hard worker on the staff of a magazine,
willing and able to write reviews, answer correspondents, pro-
pound riddles or invent and solve cryptograms. His value as a
contributor and sub-editor secured him successive engagements
on the Southern Uterary Messenger of Ridimoiid, on the New
York Quarterly Review, and on Graham's Ma^asimt at Phila-
delphia. It enabled him in 1843 to have a magiaane of his own,
the Stylus, His mania sooner or later broke off aU his ei^age-
ments and ruined his own venture. In 1835 he married bis
cousin, Virginia Clemm, a beautiful girl of foiuteen yean of age.
A false statement as to her age was made at the time of the
marriage. She died after a long decline in 1847. Poe made two
attempts to marry women of fortune — Mrs Wliitman and Mn
Shelton. The first of these engagements was broken off. The
second was terminated by his death in hospital at BahimNt,
Md., on the 7 th of October 1849.
His life and death had many precedents, and will always recar
among Bohemian men of letters and artists. What was indi-
vidual in Poe, and what alone renders him n^morable, was las
narrow but profound and original genius (see Ameucan Lmu-
ture). In the midst of much hack-work and not a few faihres
in his own field he produced a small body of verse, aiKl a hand-
ful of short stories of rare and pecuUar excellence. The poems
express a melancholy sensuous emotion in a penetrating mekxiy
all his own. The stories give form to horrcMr and fear with aa
exquisite exactness of touch, or construct and unravd m>'Aeries
with extreme dexterity. He was a conscientious literaiy onst
who revised and perfected his work with care. His critidsm,
though often commonj^ace and sometinses ill-natured, as vfaea
he attacked LongfeUow for plagiarism, was trenchant and
sagacious at his best.
Bibliography.— nie Life and Letters of Edgar Allan Pee, by J. A
Harrison (New York, 1901} and The Life €f Edga^ Allan Pee (Boatoo.
new cd. 1909). by G. E. Woodberry. are the best btogTaphies. TV
standard cdiiion of his Works is that puUished in ift^l-iSqtSatCki-
cago, in ten volumes, by E. C Stedman and G. E. Woodberry. That
have been many partial re^nts. For Poe's influence ia Fraaa;
which has been great, see C. Baudelaire. Histoirts extraeedimeire
(Paris. 1856); S. Mallarmd, Pohnes d" Edgar Poe (Bnisaeb. 18S8);
and Les Nhrosis, by ArvMe Barine (Paris, 1899). (D. H.)
POERIO, ALESSANDRO (1802-1848), Italian poet and patriot,
was descended from an old Calabrian family, his father, Barot
Giuseppe Poerio, being a distingxiished lawyer of Napks. If
1815 he and his brother Carlo accompanied their father, who bd
been identified with Murat's cause, into exile, and settled at
Florence. In 1818 they were allowed to return to Nsfiks, ud
on the proclamation of the constitution in x8ao the Pocsios vac
among the stoutest defenders of the ne^y-wwi freedom. AQes*
sandro fought as a volunteer, under General GugMdmo I^
against the Austrians in 1821, but when the latter reoca^
Naples and the king abolished the constitution, the famfly «>t
again exiled and settled at Gxatz. Alessandro devoted hisseb'
to study in various German universities, and at Weimar k
became the friend of Goethe. In 1835 the Poerios returned »
Naples, and Alessandro, while practising law with his fatkt.
published a number of lyrics. In 1848 he acoompanied Pepe «
a volunteer to fight the Austrians in northern Italy, and on tbe
recall of the Neapolitan contingent Alessandro followed Pepe !•
Venice and displayed great bravery during the siege. He n>
severely wounded in the fighting round Mestre, and died oa tk
3rd of November 1848. His poetry *' reveals the ideaUsm of a
tender and delicate mind which was diligent in storing ^
sensations and images that for others vrould have been at sMt
the transient impressions of a moment.*' But he couU aks
sound the clarion note of patriotism, as in his stirring poo
// Risorgimento.
His brother Carlo (1803-1867), after returning to KapK
practised as an advocate, and from 1837 to 1848 was frequnily
arrested and imprisoned; but when King Ferdinand, flnoired bf
the demonstration of the a7th of January of the bttcr jest,
promulgated a constitution, he was made minister of cdscuioa
Discovering, however, that the king was acting in b»dlaitk,k
resigned office in April and returned to Naples to take his seat is
parliament, where he led the constitut^nal oppositioa. Ttt
Austrian victory of Novara (March 1849) set the king fff^
dissolve parliament and tramj^e cm the constitution, and oa ike
igth of July 1849 F^>erio was anrested, tried, and coodemBsd ■
POETRY
877
nineteen yean in irons. Chained in pairs, he and other political
prisoners were confined in one small room in the bagno of Nisida,
near the lazaretto. The eloquent exposure (1851) of the horrors
of the Neapolitan dungeons by Gladstone, who emphasized
especially the case of Poerio, awakened the universal indignation
of Europe, but he did not obtain his liberty till 1858. He and
other exiles were than placed on board a ship bound for the United
States, but the son of Settembrini, another of the exiles, who was
on board in disguise, compelled the crew to land them at Cork,
whence Poerio made his way to London. In the following year
he returned to Italy, and in i860 he was elected deputy to the
parliament of Turin, of which he was chosen vice-president in
186 1. He died at Florence on the 28th of April 1867.
See Baldachin!, Delia Vita e dt' tempi di Carlo Poerio (1867);
W. E. Gladstone. Two Utters to Ike Earl of Aberdeen (1851): Carlo
Poerio and the Neapolitan Police (London, 1858); Vannucci, /
Martiri delta libertd ttaliana, vol. iii. (Milan, 1880); Imbriani, Ales-
sandro Poerio a Venetia (Naples, 1884); Del Giudice, / Frateili
Poerio (Turin, 1899): Countess Martinengo Cesaresco, Italian
Characters (London, 1901).
POETRY. In modem criticism the word poetry {i.e. the art
of the poet, Gr. toIi/ti^, maker, from irotctp, to make) is used
sometimes to denote any expression (artistic or other) of imagin-
ative feeling, sometimes to designate a precise literary art,
which ranks as one of the fine arts. As an expression of imagin-
ative feeling, as the movement of an energy, as one of those
great primal human forces which go to the development of the
race, poetry in the wide sense has played as important a part as
science. In some literatures (such as that of England) poetic
energy and in others (such as that of Rome) poetic art is the
dominant quality. It is the same with individual writers.
In classical literature Pindar may perhaps be taken as a type of
the poets of energy; Virgil of the poets of art. With aU his
wealth of poetic art Pindar's mastery over symmetrical methods
never taught him to " sow with the hand," as Corinna declared,
while his poetic energy always impelled him to " sow with the
whole sack." In English poetical literature Elizabeth Barrett
Browning typifies, perhaps, the poets of energy; while Keats
(notwithstanding all his unquestionable inspiration) is mostly
taken as a type of the poets of art. In French literature Hugo,
notwithstanding all his mastery over poetic methods, represents
the poets of energy.
In some writers, and these the very greatest — in Homer,
Aeschylus, Sophocles, Dante, Shakespeare, Milton, and perhaps
Goethe — poetic energy and poetic art are seen in something like
equipoise. It is of poetry as an art, however, that we have
mainly to speak here; and all we have to say upon poetry as an
energy is that the critic who, like Aristotle, takes this wide view
of poetry — the critic who, like him, recognizes the importance of
poetry in its relations to man's other expressions of spiritual
force, claims a place in point of true critical sagacity above that
of a critic who, like Plato, fails to recognize that importance.
And assuredly no philosophy of history can be other than in-
adequate should it ignore the fact that poetry has had as much
effect upon human destiny as that other great human energy by
aid of which, from the discovery of the use of fire to that of the
electric light, the useful arts have been developed*
With regard to poetry as an art, most of the great poems of the
world are dealt with elsewhere in this work, either in connexion
with the names of the writers or with the various literatures to
which they belong; consequently these remarks must be confined
to general principles. Under Verse the detailed questions of
prosody are considered; here we are concerned with the essential
principles which underlie the meaning of poetry as such.
All that can be attempted is to inquire: (i) What is'poetry?
(2) What is the position it takes up in relation to the other arts?
(3) What is its value and degree of expressional power in relation
to these ? and, finally, (4) What varieties of poetic art are the
outcome of the two great kinds of poetic impulse, dramatic
imagination and lyric or egoistic imagination ?
i: WktU is Poetry? — Definitions are for the most part alike
unsatisfactory and treacherotis; but definitions of poetry are
pfoverbially so. Is it possible to lay down invariable prindples
of poetry, such as those famous "invariable principles" of
William Lisle Bowles, which in the earlier part of the century
awoke the admiration of Southey and the wrath
of Byron ? Is it possible for a critic to say of any
metrical phrase, stanza or verse, " This is poetry," or ** This is
not poetry " ? Can he, with anything like the authority with
which the man of science pronounces upon the natural objects
brought before him, pronotmce upon the qualities of a poem ?
These are questions that have engaged the attention of critics
ever since the time of Aristotle. Byron, in his rough and
ready way, answered them in one of those letters to his
publisher John Murray, which, rich as they are in nonsense, are
almost as rich in sense. " So far are principles of poetry from
being invariable," says he, " that they never were nor ever will
be settled. These principles mean nothing more than the
predilections of a particular age, and every age has its own and a
different from its predecessor. It is now Homer and now Virgil;
once Dryden and since Sir Walter Scott; now ComeiUe and now
Racine; now Cribillon and now Voltaire." This is putting the
case very strongly — ^perhaps too strongly. But if we remember
that Sophocles lost the first prize for the Oedipus tyrannus; if we
remember what in Dante's time (owing partly, no doubt, to the
universal ignorance of Greek) were the relative positions of
Homer and Virgil, what in the time of Milton were the relative
positions of Milton himself, of Shakespeare, and of Beaumont and
Fletcher; again, if we remember Jeffrey's famotis classification
of the poets of his day, we shall be driven to pause over Byron's
words before dismissing them. Yet some definition, for the
purpose of this essay, must be here attempted; and, using
the phrase "absolute poetry" as the musical critics use tlw
phrase " absolute music," we may, perhaps, without too great
presumption submit the following:—
AhsdiOe poetry is the concrete and artistic expression of the
human mind in emotional and rhythmical language.
This at least will be granted, that no literary expression can,
properly speaking, be called poetry that is not in a certain deep
sense emotional, whatever may be its subject-matter, concrete
in its method and its diction, rhythmical in movement, and
artistic in form.
That the expression of all real poetry must be concrete in
method and diction is obvious, and yet this dictum would exclude
from the definition much of what is called didactic poetry. With
abstractions the poet has nothing to do, save to take them and
turn them into concretions; for, as artist, he is simply the man
who by instinct embodies in concrete forms that "universal
idea" which Gravina speaks of — that which is essential and
elemental in nature and in man; as poetic artist he is simply
the man who by instinct chooses for his concrete forms metrical
language. And the questions to be asked concerning any work
of art are simply these — Is that which is here embodied really
permanent, universal and elemental? and. Is the concrete form
embodying it really beautiful — acknowledged as beautiful by
the soul of man in its highest moods? Any other question is an
impertinence.
As an example of the absence of concrete form in verse take the
following lines from George Eliot's Spanish Gypsy: —
" Speech is but broken light upon the depth
Of the unspoken; even your loved words
Float in the lar^ meaning of your voice
As something dimmer."
Without discussing the question of blank verse cadence and the
weakness of a line where the main accent falls upon a positive
hiatus, " of the unspoken," we would point out that this powerful
passage shows the spirit of poetry without its concrete form.
The abstract method is substituted for the concrete. Such
an abstract phrase as " the unspoken " belongs entirely to
prose.
As to what is called ratiodnative poetry, it ifiight perhaps be
shown that it does not exist at all. Not by syllogism, but per
solium, must the poet reach in every case his condusions. We
listen to the poet — we allow him to address us in rhythm or in
rhyme— we allow him to sing to us while other men are only
878
allowed to ulk, B0( bKaux be ugtic* more logioUy ihui thty, whnher i[ be id ode by Keui or i tncedr by Sopbodci, it ■
but bccauie he feels more deeply and perh^ia Tnore truly, h a equally a work of an. Th« aitist*a conunaod owt km kiay
for his liitenen to be knowing and ratiodnative; Jt is for him to be shown in the peasant ^ri's power <d ipoDtaiKOinly _
be gnomic and divinely wise, rendering in liinpk vene, in bs ilmtlir ot tisptOm, J^^^
That poetry must be metrical oreveni'hylhmica] in movement, hcc emotions through natuie'a lymbols^ it may be
howevet. is what some have denied. Hen we (ouch at once the ihewn by Keati in Ihal peifect fusion of all poetic elencnu ol
veiy Tool of the tubjccl. The difference between alt literature wbich he oat luch a toaster, in the maaipulatios d[ '"T'T**
and men " word-kneading " is that, while literatim ii alive, beautiful both for loim and colour that thought and wmb «•
word'kneading is without lite. This litetaiy lite, while it it but one blended lovetineu; or it may be shown by So(ibBck*
only bipartite in prDoe, Kerns to be tripartite in poetry; that it to in 1 masltry over what in painting is called csmpcsilion, in ik
lay, while prose requires intellectual lite and emotional life, eietciseol that witeviiionoIIhcBrtist which. laokingbdOnud
poetry teems to require not only intellectual lite and emotional iCter.weslhe thingot beauty 49 a whole, and enablaluBi la gn^
life but rhylbmic life, this lail being (he most imponanl of all the eternal laws of cause and eftecl in art and bend them to kii
aceoiding to many critics, though Aristotle is not among thete. own wiard will. In evety case, indeed, form ti an 1 la mill
Here inileed is (he " fork " bc(ween the old critics and (be new, pan of poMry; and. although George Sand's saying (ha( " L'tn
Unlets the rhythm of any metrical passage is lo vigonmt. to est une forme " applies perhapi more iltictly to (be pbnic irti
natural, and so tree that it seems as though it could live, if need (where the soul is reached partly through mechaBical meanil,
were, by its rhythm alone, has that passage any right to eiist? its application to poetry can hardly be euggented,
and ahould it not, if [he substance is good, be lonhwith demeiri- Owing, however, to the fact that the ward wnir^i (Gut ad
dud and lutncd into prosed Thoreau has affirmed that prose, to designate the poetic artist by Heroclolus) means tuket,
a( its bat, huhlgh quililtea of its own beyond the ken of poetry; Ariilolle seems to have assumed that the itHlispcoaable b«i
to compentate for the sacrifice of these, should not (he metrical of poetry is invention. He appean (o have tluugbt that a poet
gaini al any passage be beyond all cavil? it a poet more on account of the compoaiiion of the actina that
This argument might be preucd lanher still. It might teem on account of the raniposition of hb verses. Indeed he itid is
bold 10 asert that, in many cases, (he mental value of poetry much at this. Of epic poetry he dedareil emphatically tla(
■nay actual y depend upon form and colaur, but would t( not be ;, nrftA„e^^ ir* tm:*a<>nna #itK» htr mm* >pt;n,i>i* m«wb i>
trJr The 'raeoul val« of poetry must be judged by a standard '.' P™"™* J?l SI- ■ , -a^^^^- !J!z,
«« applicable to proKi hutr™ with reiTaio the difltrent by metre superadded, Thu » to widen the defimtsDaoIpgeuy
kinds of poetry, ve mun not tomiwe poetiy wboK mental value so as 10 udude all imaginative hterature, and Ftato secmt la
canii«B in a distinct and logical enunciation of kleaa.tuchai that have given an equally wide meaning to (he vacd irrffnt. (My,
™h::^'!SlJ'f,Ti?^™iv?l.J^'*„rl2S„'r!l^„™i^^ whUeArislotle considered i™l.i™ to be a^ t-ruUtlon .1 the («•
S;r^?l;P,');m"'(.^S a'^ICWSr-^ilSf^Sar''^";^ -i nature, P^to con^dend it to be «. imiu.ion of tbe d«-
Shelley always), or latent in colour, such as thai of Kme ol (he ol man. Anttotle ignored, and Plato abated, ibe imptinin
ltmrrnf» P<ruan poeli. To discuss the question. Which ol these of veltification (though Plato on one occaafon admitted Ibit
^^^'"^ fJte "bS?* m '^iJt d!K^If°w ?Si{t"ihar'™S '"'*'<'"'»' Itn"* rhythm could be called Drillwr ■ubosi
'^™*" poems whose itrength is rhythm, and certain other "Of P»fO-
poems whose strength is colour, whik devoid Pethapt the fiTst cntlc who tacitly tevol(ed againt the iSctaa
Blent of ihought. may be as fruitful <il ihc that subatance.andnol (orm.it iheinditpensable baiisDf poctiy
(00 deep for words u a shaken nriim i watDionyaiutof Halieamassus, whone treatise upon Iheanaigp
^hke?h:^£:.'^'^:i^d^^^ Ell"I^'tri^r ™X'th^ «™^i^t"or(te'-l^ li!
S^v'atWtni!" In Va^™ax^'^ sIiteemhbookoftheOifyiiey.asconiparedwilhthatintbcSerT
S* ''!!5° "^ 'lie. Creek anhileO, ihow, and j of Gygei by Herodotus, was perhaps first enunciated dearty Ik
»h^ "iteVl»« S'tKTrHwin ar^WtS doctrine that poetry is fundamentally a matter of style. "Ot
<d «1W 'strength— make the Bnictun! >pp«i 10 hang over our Aristotelian theory as to invention, however, doBiiniled tl
headi like Ibe cloud pageantry of heaven. But. in boih cues, criticism after as well as before Dionysiut. When Bacca aw
(he eoUd eirenglh is, and iruH be, V?"r.ai the bale. Befoie the to discuS! the iubiett (and illcrwardsl the oiJy diviiu bttnca
ES,^i;'nI?u"" Wffl^"ldi,JiM S^ili^l wh^^s Mi'u™^ "■* P""'"' "^'''' *" P"'"P* ■*'"«" "« followers ol Arinede
i> lowatdi (he »igh(y bmble movement whose ptimary »"<! "™* "' ^lalo as to what poetry should, and what it ibosU
ii (o Bale, or (awards those lighter movements which we not, imitate. Il is curious to ipecuUte at to what wonklkxi
( / : ■ --anddactylic, I ■ ......
Wordswonh n^u not mc inst
..„,.... .. _.., ^linii^JaJrtk WO"'? poetry a „, , , „
ind dactylk verse must suggest, and not state, as even to compart- Imsginalive prose at Plato s t Oris not the in
■■-■- sumasful a (Mir rff/arre as _Shelley;a _';Sensliive Plant" tttong to be Hilled ? By thepoelt thi
considered to be the one indispensable r
iie«niMk"h&"lam"lri^"Miie.tiV'rtmifi(atiml>e»"n^ " regards criticism, even in the lime
harsh, pebbly— becomes so of oece«i.y. Nor ii this all: anapaestic Wevtrley //epds. Iht Qxailaly Itatai muid to
and daciylic vene rauit in Engliih be obiruiively mlliieraiive, them as "poems"; and perhaps even later the tame oU^bt
U w'tuUrf E^llabTJ^^t ^ a"llne^« wh Je ir^^Jn» "''' °^ "™°"' " """««'" "■"*"^ «»d di'^". «n<l " '">■'
^^.^H fhe '™«^ i»^auJ""J^^^blJ^go7eT^nn P^-i^^^^' ^ Thi^^tlfto^f'^^u^ iS". ^"'^ "^ Z
--Dbirusiveajlitciaiion, or an obtrusive uie ol liquids. Now theie peujable requisite of a poem seem) to have beconie atailr
s;S'/Jr,ii7,.*',Ks'..&.''iftTHSS'!'b.rt s..!.... p..b.,.,u»r™.»^'ii<.™.id...,..i..i
suneition by loiind or lymbol, hut I( hli appeal is Ihal of direct 'be contrary direction aa to aay with Hegel {Ataliclit.S. ik/
[«nic and dactylic v™ is a Kiiirct ol weikness such as the true by poetry, yea even more neeestary than a figurative piaiiic«|B
anist .nouio nnu intoieratae. diction." At all events this at least may be taid, that the «vi*«
Using the word "form" In a wider sense iiitl. t tense that between poetical critica is not now betnen AtislotdaHiti
includes" composilion," it can be shown that puclo'.tobeenlitled Baconians; it it at a difterenl kind altogether. While oM p«V
(0 (he name, mutt be artistic in form. Whether a poem be a of ctitio may tiill pechtpt say with Drydea that "a pocth*
Webh IritsH or a iMHtUii improviied by an Italian peasant giri, mikei, at the name tlgDifici," and that " be who OMM Hhi
laskhimidlw)
i.aiupMslieaTUt^anyl^^, been the result had the poets loikiwed thi: ct
" strong for the lAoA
, . , t
IS Shelley-a " Sensitive Plam ■■ tttong to be itilled ? By thepoelt then
S^-™n(tTrE^iiS:™\.S™V"^"i?.SpiS;S?^S-actT^^ co.»idered.ob.theaneindi.pen,,blerequ.s,,e«.p.,
'■-' - •• -I hlTiimlric line, hi, versification becomes rugeod. " regards criticism, even in the lime of the appoi
POETRY
879
that is, invent, has his name for nothing," another gtwxp con-
tends that it is not the invention but the artistic treatment, the
form, which determines whether an imaginative writer is a poet
or a writer of prose — contends, in short, that emotion is the
basb of all true poetic expression, whatever be the subject-
matter, that thoughts must be exprased in an emotional manner
before they can be brought into poetry, and that this emotive
expression demands even yet something dse, viz. style and
form.
Although many critics are now agreed that "L'art est ime
forme," that without metre and without form there can be no
j^l^^^^ poetry, there arc few who would contend that poetry
tot can exist* by virtue of any one of these alone, or
>«*tf even by virtue of all these combined. Quite inde-
pendent of verbal melody, though mostly accompany-
ing it, and quite independent of "composition," there is an
atmosphere floating around the poet through which he sees
everything, an atmosphere which stamps his utterances as
poetry; for instance, among all the versifiers contemporary with
Donne there was none so rugged as he occasionally was, and yet
such songs as " Sweetest love, I do not go for weariness of thee "
prove bow true a poet he was whenever he could master those
technicalities which far inferior poets find comparatively easy.
While rhythm may to a very considerable degree be acquired
(though, of course, the highest riiythmical effects never can),
the power of looking at the world through the atmoq>here that
floats before the poet's eyes is not to be learned and not to be
taught. This atmosphere is what we call poetic imaginaUon,
But first it seems necessary to say a word or two upon that high
temper of the soul which in truly great poetry gives birth to
this poetic imagination.
The " message " of poetry must be more unequivocal, more
thoroughly accentuated, than that of any of the other fine arts.
With regard to modem poetry, indeed, it may almost be said
that if any vrriter's verse embodies a message, true, direct and
pathetic, we cannot stay to inquire too curiousJy about the degree
of artistic perfection with which it is delivered, for Wordsworth's
saying " That which comes from the heart goes to the heart '*
applies very closely indeed to modem poetry. The most truly
passionate poet in Greece was no doubt in a deep sense the most
artistic poet ; but in her case art and passion were one, and that
is why she has been so cruelly misunderstood. The most truly
passionate nature, and perhaps the greatest soul, that in recent
years has expressed itself in English verse is Elizabeth Barrett
Browning; at least it is certain that, with the sin^e exception
of Hood in the " Song of the Shirt," no writer of the 19th century
really touched English hearts with a hand so powerful as hers —
and this notwithstanding violations of poetic form, or defective
rhymes, such as would appal some of the contemporary versifiers
of England and France " who li^ in numbers for the numbers
(and nothing dse] come." The tmth is that in order to produce
poetry the soul must for the time being have reached that sute
of exaltation, that state of freedom from sdf-consdousness,
depicted in the lines: —
" I started once, or seemed to start, in pain.
Resolved on noble things, and strove to speak.
As when a great thought strikes along the brain.
And flushes all the cheek."
Whatsoever may be the poet's " knowledge of his art," into
this mood he must always pass before he can write a truly poetic
line. For, notwithstanding all that may be said upon poetry as
a fine art, it is in the deepest sense of the word an " inspiration."
No man can write a line of genuine poetry without having been
** bom again " (or, as the true rendering of the text says, " bom
from above "); and then the mastery over those highest reaches
of form which are beyond the ken of the mere versifier comes to
him at a result of the change. Hence, with all Mrs Browning's
metrical blemishes, the splendour of her metrical triumphs at
her best.
For what is the deep distinction between poet and proseroan?
A writer may be many thingi besides a poet; he may be a warrior
Kke Acichyias. a man of business Uke Shikeipeiie, a oooitkr
like Chaucer, or a cosmopolitan philosopher like Goethe; but the
moment the poetic mood is upon him all the trappings of the
world with which for years he may perhaps have been clothing
. his soul — the worid's knowingness, iu cynicism, its self-seeking,
its ambition — fall away, and the man becomes an inspired child
again, with ears attuned to nothing but the whispers of those
^>irits from the Golden Age, who, according to Hesiod, haunt
and bless the degenerate earth. What such a man produces may
greatly delight and astonish his readers, yet not so greatly as it
delights and astonishes himself. His passages of pathos draw
tK> tears so deep or so sweet as those that fall from his own
eyes while he writes; his sublime passages overawe no soul so
imperiously as lus own; his humour draws no laughter so rich
or so deep as that stirred within his own breast.
It might almost be said, indeed, that Sincerity and Consdenoe,
the two angels that bring to the poet the wonders of the poetic
dream, bring him also the deepest, truest delight of form. It might
almost be said that by aid of sincerity and conscience the
poet is enabled to see more clearly than other men the eternal
limits of his own art — to see with Sophocles that nothing, not
even poetry itself, is of any worth to man, invested as he is by
the whole army of evil, unless it is in the deepest and highest
sense good, tmless it comes linking us all together by doser bonds
of sympathy and pity, strengthening tis to fight the foes with
whom fate and even Nature, the mother who bore us, sometimes
seem in league — to see with Milton that the high quality of
man's soul which in English is expressed by the word virtue is
greater than even the great poem he prized, greater than all the
rhythms of all the tongues that have been spoken since Babd —
and to see with Shakespeare and with Shelley that the high passion
which in English is called love is lovelier than all art, lovelier
than all the marble Mercuries that "await the chisd of the
sculptor " in all the marble hills.
2. Wkai Potition does Poetry lake up in Rdatum to the other
Arts? — Notwithstanding the labours of Lessing and his followers,
the position accorded by criticism to poetry in p^Hryia
relation to the other arts has never been so uncertain ihiM»m to
and anomalous as in recent years. On the one hand <*• «<*«''
there are critics who, judging from their perpetual ^'^
comi>arison of poems to pictures, daim her as a sort of handmaid
of painting and sculpture. On the other hand the disdples of
Wagner, while professing to do homage to poetry, have claimed
her as the handmaid of music ^^^th regard to the rdations of
poetry to painting and sculpture, it seems necessary to ^ance
for a moment at the saying of Simonides, as recorded by Plutarch,
that poetry is a speaking picture and that painting is a mute
poetry. It appears to have had upon modem criticism as much
influence since the publication of Lessing's Laocoon as it had
before. Perhaps it is in some measure answerable for the
modem vice of exces^ve word-painting. Beyond this one
saying, there is little or nothing in Greek literature to show that
the Greeks recognized between poetry and the plastic and
pictorial arts an affinity doser than that which exists between
poetry and music and dancing. Understanding artistic methods
more profoundly than the modems, and far too profoundly to
suppose that there is any spedal and peculiar affinity between
an art whose medium of expression is marble and an art whose
medium of expression is a growth of oral symbols, the Greeks
seem to have studied poetry not so much in its relation to painting
and sculpture as in its relation to music and dandng. It is
matter of familiar knowledge, for instance, that at the Dionysian
festival it was to the poet as "teacher of the chorus"
(xopo&^daxaXof) that the prize was awarded, even though the
" teacher of the chorus " were Aeschylus himself or Sophocles.
And this recogiution of the relation of poetry to music is
perhaps one of the many causes of the superiority of Greek to
all other poetry in adapting artistic means to artistic ends. In
Greek poetry, even in Homer's description of the shidd of
Achilles, even in the famous description by Sophocles of hb
native woods in the Oedipus eoioneus, such word-painting
as occurs seems, if not inevitable and unconsdous, so alive
with imaginative ieding at to heoome part and pared of the
88o POE
dnmiUc ni lyric movement lUetf. And wheocvef docriptlon
il fo iDtroduced the readei of CRck poctiy need not be toLd
that the acenery itielf risa bdon the liUenei'l Imigiiittion
•rith ■ cleuum of outline and 4 vigour of tslouc luch u
no amount of deluled word puiniinf in the tDoden fubion can
achieve. The pictuie even in the glorioui vciks at the end of
the eighth book of the Iliad iiM9 before out eyes— wrmi actu-
ally to act upon oui bodily aeniei — timply because the poet'i
eagerneu to use the picture fot merely illuttrallog ihe aolera-
Dity and importance of his noiy lends to the piclure that very
authenticity which the work of the modem MonI-paiDi« lacks.
That the true place of poetry lie* between music on the one
hand and piose, oi looacncd Ipcedi, on the other, was, we say,
taken for granted by the one people in whom Che artistic inilinct
was fully developed. No doubt they used the word muiic in a
very wide sense, in a sense that might include several arts. But
It is n suggestive fact that, in' the Creek language, long before
poetic art was called "miking" it was uUed "singing." The
poet was not Twtr^i but ioMt. And as regards the Romans it
is curious to see how every now and then the old idea thai poetry
is singing rather than making will disclose itself. It will be
remembered tor instance bow Tertnce, in the prologue of
Phumia, alludes to poets as musicians. That the andents were
tight in this could well be shown by a history of poetry: muuc
and the lyriol function of the poel began together, but here, as
In other things, the progress of art from the implicit to the ezphdt
has separated the two. Every art has its special function, has a
certain work which it can do better than any one of its sister
" lea of emotion " within the soul has become " curdled into
thoughts," it can be eq>ressed in inarticulate tone. Hence,
among the fine arts, music is specislly adapted for rendering it.
Jt was perhaps a perception of this fact which made the Syrian
Gnostics dehne life In be " moving music" Vplicn this sea of
emotion has "curdled into thoughts," articulate language
Thyihmically arranged — word* tteeped in music and colour, but
at the same time embodying ideas— can do what no mere word-
less music il able to achieve in giving it expression, just as
unihythmical language, language mortisnl [n a foundation ol
logic, that is lo >ay prose, can best eipnss these ideas as soon ai
they have cooled and settled and deaied themselves of emotion
altogether. Yet every art can in »ome degiee invade the domain
ol her sisters, and the nearer ibese sisters »tand lo each other the
more easily and completely can this iuvuion be accomplished.
Prose, for instance, can tomctioie*, as in the case of Plato, do
lome of the work of poetry (however impetfectly, and however
trammelled by heavy conditions) ; and loinetinits poetry, a* in
Pindar's odes and the wave* of the Creek chorus, can do, though
in the same impeifccl way, the work of music
dgar Foe's " CWume." Thepoel"i
properly intoned would produr
Ob thB otho- hai^, muse
Old of Fujliiih that it prodl
cm tiCDch wy far npcai tlu
in the
of Wagner. Yel,
side and loosened ^jeech oi
Ibe other. He
) fundaraeaial diitinrtiDi
ious how we follow the
uLic of his disdples, ■
Inarticulate tone can rut only s
the feriAmd, ir
the Greeks drew a
between melic poetry (poetry w _ . .
that was written to be redted. Il b a pity that, while Bodm
of poetry have understood, or at lent have gives
on to painting and sculpture, ao few have poMeiaed nq
knowledge of music — a fact which make* Daate'* treaiiie Di
mltari duqniv ao important. Dante was a muBciuk. sad
leemi to have had a considerable knowledge of the Rktiu
between musical and metrical taw*. But be did aot, wc think,
oume that these law* ate identical.
If it is indeed possible to establish the identity of noia] isd
melTiad bw*, it can only be done by a purdy identitc inmb-
only be done by a most leaidung iaqniiT bug l3*
■ubile relations that we know must eiist tbim^wot the isinat
between all the laws of undulation. Aod it a cnrioiii lo s-
member that tone of the greatest maslen o( verbal melsdy tan
knowledge of music, while tome have not even shnn i^
! it. All Greek boy* were tiu^t mosic, but wbcike
Pindar's unusual muucal skill was bom of natural insibia nJ
inevitable passion, or came from the accidental cscsnisBcc Ikii
liis father was, as has been alleged, a ausdan, and thai he «
a* a boy elaborately taught musical science by I^sbs al HemnK,
ire have no mean* ol knowing. Nor can we now lean hn nek
if Milton's musical knowledge resulted from a like eKcpiiiail
' environmenl," or from the fact that his tatber was a niiiaciii
Jut when we find that Shelley seems to have bees wiihast ik
teal passion for munc, tltat Rosselti disliked it, am] ila
Coleridge's apprehensioa ol muacal effect* wa* of ilit
ordinary nebulous kind, we most hesitate before accqMisf tk
theory ol Wagner.
The question cannot be puniied here; bat If it sboaU la in-
quiry be found that, although poetry a nore dnaeiy rditcd i*
music than to any of the other arts, yet the power over leM
melody at its very highest is so sll^uSicing to it* puasesics, o ■
the esse of Shelley and Coleridge, that afatolute mask hecoBB
another niunialion ei tW
n of fon
Bi^d
high artistic energy— which is required io otdct ti
With regard lo (be relation of poetry to pme. ColeridfcaD
asserted in convetsstion that the real anlithess al peetiya
not prase but sdence. If be was rigfal the diHeiTDce ia ^^
lies, not between (he poet and the pnae writer, but betwo
liteiary arUst (the nun whose instinct i* to manipulate Isiv
and the man of (acts and of acUoo whose instinct impebk
act, or, if not to act, to inquire. One thing is al lost ce
that prase, however fervid and emotional it may becnae.
always be directed, or seem to be directed, by the leiadlitk.
Or, to vary the metaphor, like a captive balloon it
reaJIy leave the earth.
Indeed, with the liiemturc ol knowledge aa oppc
liletature of power poetry has mthing to do^ Farts hiw ■
place in poetry until they are brou^t iolo rtblioD sill ik
humaiuouL But a mere catalogue o( ships may becDDcpoeid
il il lends lo show the strength and pride and glory of the nmos
who invested Troy; a detailed desciipticn of tbc deiiiiB cpM
a shield, however beautiful Uid poetical in itidf. hconH d
more so If it tends to show the wk^ ai the diriae astiictf asd Ik
invindble tpltudcmr of a beso like AdiiU^ Bnt mete ^
eisctitude oi unitaiion is not for iMeuy but for Vnatned ^''i^
Hence, most of Ibe wHalktl pociiy ol Heaad b tat ~
alL Tbt UuMa wbo jpoke to Ub aboM ** tralh "
lolm
wiEhm
cunol, when actiul wnsihlF objnis uc is be dcpided, compete
ID uy real degrH wjib the plutic am in accuracy ol imitation,
lot the simple ittaoa thai iu media ace not coloun rot loLds
bat tymbolt— uliitniy symbols itbich can be made to indicate,
bot never (o npioduce, colauct and solids. Accuracy o( imiii-
lion ii the first requisite ot ptoce. But the moment language
bu to be governed by the lawsoC metre— the moment the conflict
licgias between the claims ol verbal miuic and the claims ol
o[ outline, mere fidelity ol imitation, such as is within the com-
pass ol piose, have in some degree to b« ucriGced. But, just
u with regard to the relations between poetry and music the
Ina
n the mi
tthal
do by instinct; but some lacrifice
and, with regard to poetry «nd
of Findai), *e can only succeed by ptetting memory into out
•eloie, and then to ima^e tbeii huinonic power b relation to
he waves at present occupying the ear. Counterpoint, tberdore,
1 not to be achieved by the metridst, even though be be Finttar
limsell; but in music this perfect ideal harmony was lor^
hadowed perhaps in the earliest writing. We know ii least
hat as early as the rvth century counterpoint began to show &
Hgorous liFe, uid the study ol it is now a lamiliai branch oi
nd. must be the harmonic bknding ot apparently ,„.^_
ndependent and appatenlly diiconUol notes, among ■"•■*
he arts whose appeal ii through the eat that which can achieve
counterpoint must perhaps ranic as a pure art above Dtie whidk
' ieve it. We are ol course speaking here of metre only.
It ^Kcc to inquire whether the counterpoint of ahsolule
poetry i) the harmony underlying Bi^rentlydiscordantemotiou
aotion produced by a word being more pervstent than the
produced by ajx inarticulate sound. But if poetry (alls
Dusic in rhythmic scope, it is capable of reDdeting emotion
lotion has become disintegrated into thoughts, and here.
It can use the emphasia ol sc
impetilit
ly yield to pic
than I
rngihen the emphasis of sense, an<
more adequate eicpres^on to the k
highest can give. With regard tc
■" - ■ ■ ■ ■ lol thecha
Er'a virit lo
way behind
ble'of'mclody? ""'" m o vine wi ai
I in some degree mvade the dooiain of prose, so
le prose o( Plato — what is called poetical prose —
form ol art. Poetry, the eatlieit form ol lilera-
; final and ideal lorm ol all pure literature; and,
isists that poetry and poeli<3l prose are antago-
remember that Landot's Judgments are mostly
that his hatred ol Plito would be quite
poetical proie. As with Carlyle, there was a lime in his Ule when
Plato had serious thougbts ol becoming a poet. And perhaps,
like Carlyle, having the good seose to see his true function, he
bimsclf desisted from writing, and strictly lotbade other men to
write, in verse. If we consider thiA, and if we consider that
certain of the great English masters of poetic prose of the I7lh
^nlury were as incapable ol writing in metre as their lollowers
Richtec and Carlyle, we shall hardly escape the conclusion on the
one baiui that the laculty of writmg poetty is quite another
faculty thjun that ol producing work in the arts most closely
allied to it, music and prose, but that on the other hand there is
nathing antagonistic between these faculties.
3. Cemparalai Vatut in Eiprasiiniiii Pwcr.— There is one
'superiority that music ' ' " '' .---■--■
based 01
i, his desciipiion ol the island
pbce ol departed souls, comes but a sHo
' poetry in imaginative ondeven rhythmic appeal.
rer, here to do more than touch upon the subject ol the
m ol prose in its relation to the rfaylhm ol poetry; lor in
natter the genius of eadi Individual language has to be
Perhaps it may be said that deeper than all the rhythm ol art
Is that rhythm which art would lain catch, the rhythm ol nature;
the rhythm ol nature is the rhythm ol lile itsell. This
Ihm can be raught by prose as well as by poetry, such prose,
instance, as that ol the English Bible. Certainly the rhythm
itne at its highest, such, lor instance, aa that ol Shakespeare's
„ atest writings, is nothing more and nothing less than tha
metre ol that energy ol the spirit which surges wilhm the bcaom
dI him who speaks, whether he speak in verse or in impassioned
prose. Being rhythm, it is of course governed by law, hut It Is a
law which transcends in subtlety the conscious art of the metridst
and is only caught by the poet In his most inspired moods, a taw
which, being part ol nature's own sanctions, tan of course never
be formulated but only eipfesaed, as it is eipressed bi the melody
dI the bird, in the inscrutable harmony of the entire bird-chorus
ol a thicket, in the whisper of the leaves ol the tree, and in tba
Hng or wail of wind and sea. Now is not this rhythm ol nature
represented by that " sense rhythm " which prose can catch y
well as poetry, that sense rhythm whose finest espresaions are
lo be found in (he Bible, Hebrew and English, and in the biblical
movements of the English Prayer Book, and in the dramatic
prose ol Shakopeare at its best? Whether it is caught by proM
rhythm ol nature ij that it it
translatable. Hamlet's peroration about tuan and Ral^^^t
apostrophe to death are as translatable into other languages as
are the Hebrew psalms, or as is Manu's magnificent pana^e
sbolit the sin^ness of man; —
ngle is each man bom into Ibe woiMi nngle be dies; diifte
^ii*m f h* AvBAi «/ ki< angfi dvcds, and slniW the puniihDient
I his body lie- >;>- - '-"
I nu evu onuTwhcn be £
lie earth, hut hia vinu ' ' '
the a
nebdy, I
music of Aeschylus, ol Pindar, ol Shakcjpean
. Tlie linei
der the sun. While, how
to compel the listener lo 1 . . .
' goal before the writer of poetic prose i* in the very iqiiKirita
; dlTectIoii;itiiUpukeMcafthecoDcrcte£liRa«ndinipu^«Md
882
POETRY
PiBtile
diction o( the poet, but at the same time to avoid the recognized
and expected metrical ban upon which the poet depends. The
moment the prose poet passes from the rhythm of prose to the
rhythm of metre the apparent sincerity of his writing is destroyed.
As compared with sculpture and painting the great infirmity
of poetry, as an " imitation " of nature, is of course that the
medium is always and of necessity words — even when
no words could, in the dramatic situation, have been
spoken. It is not only Homer who is obliged some-
times to forget that passion when at white heat is never voluble,
is scarcely even articulate; the dramatists also are obliged to for-
get that in love and in hate, at their tensest, words seem weak and
foolish when compared with the silent and satisfying triumph and
glory of deeds, such as the plastic arts can render. This becomes
manifest enough when we compare the Niobe group or the Lao-
coon group, or the great dramatic paintings of the modem
world, with even the finest efforts of dramatic poetry, such as the
speech of Andromache to Hector, or the speech of Priam to
Achilles, nay such as even the cries of Cassandra in the Agamem-
non, or the waitings of Lear over the dead Cordelia. Even when
writing the words uttered by Oedipus, as the terrible truth breaks
in upon his soul, Sophocles must have felt that in the holiest
chambers of sorrow and in the highest agonies of suffering reigns
that awful silence which not poetry, but painting sometimes, and
sculpture always, can render. What human soimds could render
the agony of Niobe, or the agony of Laocoon, as we sec them in
the sculptor's rendering? Not articulate speech at all; not
words but wails. It is the same with hate; it is the same with
love. We are not speaking merely of the unpacking of the heart
in which the angry warriors of the Iliad indulge. Even such
subtle writing as that of Aeschylus and Sophocles falls below the
work of the painter. Hate, though voluble perhaps, as Gytaem-
nestra's when hate is at that red-heat glow which the poet can
render, changes in a moment whenever that redness has been
fanned to hatred's own last complexion — whiteness as of iron
at the melting-point — when the heart has grown far too big to
be " unpacked " at all, and even the bitter epigrams of hate's
own rhetoric, though brief as the terrier's snap before he fleshes
his teeth, or as the short snarl of the tigress as she springs before
her cubs in danger, are all too slow and sluggish for a soul to
which language at its tensest has become idle play. But this is
just what cannot be rendered by an art whose medium consists
solely of words.
It is in giving voice, not to emotion at its tensest, but to the
variations of emotion, it is in expressing the countless shifting
movements of the soul from passion to passion, that poetry
shows in spite of all her infirmities her superiority to the plastic
arts. Hamlet and the Agamemnon, the Iliad and the Oedipus
Tyrannus, arc adequate to the entire breadth and depth of man's
soul.
Varieties of Poetic Art. — ^We have now reached the inquiry:
What varieties of poetic art are the outcome of the two kinds of
poetic impulse, dramatic imagination and lyric or egoistic imagin-
ation? It would be impossible here to examine fully the subject
of poetic imagination. In order to do so we should have to enter
upon the vast question of the effect of artistic environment upon
the development of man's poetic imagination; we should have
to inquire how the instinctive methods of each poet and of each
group of poets have been modified and often governed by the
methods characteristic of their ovm time and country. We
should have to inquire, for instance, how far such landscape
as that of Sophocles in the Oedipus Coloneus and such landscape
as that of Wordsworth depends upon difference of individiial
temperament, and how far upon difference of artistic environ-
ment. That, in any thorough and exhaustive disaission of
poetic imagination, the question of artistic environment must
be taken into account, the case of the Iliad is alone suflident
to show. Ages before Phrynichus, ages before an acted drama
was dreamed of, a dramatic poet of the first order arose, and,
though he was obliged to express his splendid dramatic imagina-
tion through epic forms, he expressed it almost as fully as if
he had inherited the method and the stage of Sophocles. And if
Homer never lived at all, then an entire group ol dramatic poets
arose in remote times whose method was epic instead of dramatic
simply because there was then no stage. This, contrasted with
the fact that in a single half-centuzy the tragic art of Greece
arose with Aeschylus, culminated with Sophocles, and decayed
with Euripides, and contrasted also with the fact that in En^butd
at one time, and in Spain at one time, almost the oitire poetic
imagination of the country found expression in the acted drama
alone, is sufficient to show that a poet's artistic methods are
very largely influenced by the artistic environments of ha countiy
and time. So vast a subject as this, however, is beyond our scope,
and we can only point to the familiar instance of the txoubadoors
and the trouv^res and then pass on.
With the trouv&re (the poet of the langut d*oil), the story <x
situation is always the end of which the mu^cal language is
the means; with the troubadour (the poet of the Umgrne d'oc).
the.form is so beloved, the musical language so enthralling, thai,
however beautiful may be the story or situation, it is fdt to
be no more than the means to a more beloved and beautiful
end. But then nature makes her own troubadours and her ova
trouvdres irrespective of fashion and of time — inespecth-e of
langue d'oc and langue d'oil. And, in comparing the troubadoon
with the trouvdrcs, this is what strikes us at once — there are
certain troubadours who by temperament, by original endow-
ment of nature, ought to have been trouv^rcs, and there are
certain trouv^res who by temperament ought to have beea
troubadours. Surrounding conditions alone have made thoa
what they are. There are those whose impulse (though wiita^
in obedience to contemporary fashions lyrics in the Ungue tTec)
is manifestly to narrate, and there are those whose impulK
(though writing in obedience to contemporary fashions /aMutax
in the langue d*oU) is simply to sing. In other words, there are
those who, though writing after the fashion of thdr bntho-
troubadours, are more impressed with the romance and wonder*
fukiess of the human life outside them than with the roouoce
and wonderfulness of their own passions, and who deU^ is
depicting the external worid in any form that may be the popohr
form of their time; and there are those who, tbouj^ writing after
the fashion of their brother-trouv&res, are far more o^opied
with the life within them than with that outer life which iht
taste of their time and country calls upon them to paint— bars
rhythmists who must sing, who translate everything extcnil
as well as internal into verbal melody. Of the former dm
Pierre Vidal, of the latter class the author of Le Lty 4e Foiadd,
may be taken as the respective types.
That the same forces are seen at work in all literatures fcv
students of poetry will deny — thou^ in some poetical grotqis
these forces are no doubt more potent than in others, as, for
instance, with the great parable poets of Persia, ixrsomeof vhtts
there is perpetually apparent a conflict between the domoaaoe
of the Oriental taste for allegory and subtle suggestion, as
expressed in the Zoroastrian definition of poetry — **apptrait
pictures of unapparent realities " — and the opposite yearainf
to represent human life with the freshness and natural fveedcoi
characteristic of Western poetry.
Allowing, however, for all the potency of external influeBce^
we shall not be wrong in saying that of poetic imagination there
are -two distinct kinds — (i) the kind of poetic imagina-
tion seen at its highest in Aeschylus, Sophocles, fgf ^
Shake^)eare and Homer, and- (2) the kind of poetic
imagination seen at its hi^iest in Pindar, Dante sad
Milton, or else in Sappho, Heine and Shelley. The fomr,
being in its highest dramatic exercise unconditioned by the
personal or lyriad impulse of the poet, might perhaps^ csBed
absolute dramatic vision; the latter, bdng more orlesscoodiBaBed
by the personal or lyrical impulse of the poet, might be caSed
f dative dramatic vision. It seems impossible to dassily poeo.
or to classify the different varieties of poetry, without dn^-
ing some such distinction as this, whatever words of dcfinitica
we may choose to adopt.
For the achievement of all pure lyric poetry, such as the «d^
the song, the elegy, the idyU, the sonnet, tJie fft5^mf^^1^ it i*
POETRY
883
evident tliaf ttie imaginAtive force we have called relative vision
will suffice. And if we consider the matter thoroughly, in many
other forms of poetic art — forms which at first sight might seem
to require absolute vision — we shall find nothing but relative
vision at work.
Even in Dante, and even in Milton and Vir^, it might be
difficult to trace Uie working of any other than rdative vision.
And as to the entire body of Asiatic poets it might perhaps be
found (even in view of the Indian drama) that relative vision
suffices to do all their work. Indeed the temper which produces
true drama is, it mi^t almost be said, a growth of the Western
mind. For, unless it be Semitic, as seen in the dramatic narratives
of the Bible, or Chmese, as seen in that remarkable prose story,
The Two Fair Counns, translated by R6musat, absolute vision
seems to have but small place in the literatures of Asia. The
wonderfulness of the world and the romantic possibilities of fate,
or circumstance, or chance— not the wonderfubess of the
character to whom these possibilities befall—are ever present
to the mind of the Asiatic poet. Even in so late a writer as the
poet of the Shah Ndmekf the hero Irij, the hero Zal and the hero
Zohreb are in character the same person, the virtuous young man
who combines the courage of youth with the wisdom and forbear-
ance of age. And, as regards the earlier poets of Asia, it was
not till the shadoiRy demigods and heroes of the Asiatic races
crossed the Caucasus, and breathed a more bracing air, that
they became really individual characters. But among the many
qu^ties of man's mind that were invigorated and rejuvenated
by that great exodus from the dreamy plains of Asia is to be
counted, above all others, his poetic imagination. The mere
•ense of wonder, which had formerly been an all-sufficing source
of pleasure to him, was all-sufficing no longer. The wonderful
adventure must now be connected with a real and interesting
individual character. It was left for the poets of Europe to
show that, g^ven the interesting character, given the Achilles,
the Odysseus, the Helen, the Priam, any adventure happening
to such a character becomes interesting.
What then is this absolute vision, this true dramatic imagina-
tion which can hardly be found in Asia — which even in Europe
cannot be found except in rare cases? Between relative and
absolute vision the difference seems to be this; that the former
only enables the poet, even in its very highest exercise, to make
his own individuality, or else humanity as represented by his own
individuality, live in the imagined situation; the latter enables
him in its highest exercise to make special individual characters
other than the poet's own live in the imagined situation.
" That which exists in nature," says Hegel, " is a something,
purely individual and particular. Art, on the contrary, is essen-
tially destined to manifest the general.*' And no doubt this b
true as regards the plastic arts, and true also as regards literary
art, save in the very highest reaches of pure drama and pure
lyric, when it seems to become art no longer — when it seems to
become the very voice of Nature herself. The cry of Priam
when he puts to his lips the hand that slew his son is not merely
the cry of a bereaved and aged parent; it is the cry of the in-
dividual king of Troy, and expresses above everything else that
most naive, pathetic and winsome character. Put the words
into the mouth of the irascible and passionate Lear and they
would be ehtirely out of keeping.
It may be said then that, while the poet of relative vision,
even in its very highest exercise, can only, when depicting the
Lrrtc.Pr*f external world, deal WitU the general, the poet of
ma^ absolute vision can compete with Nature herself
DfmmsUe juj ^^^1 with both general and particular. If this
si^tfn, jj really so we may perhaps find a basis for a classi-
fication of poetry and of poets. Tltat all poets must be singers
has already been maintained. But singers seem to be divisible
into three classes: first the pure lyrists, each of whom can with
Ills one voice sing only one tunc; secondly the epic poets, save
Homer, the bulk of the narrative poets, and the quasi-dramatists,
^^F^j^^ ^^^m can with his one voice sing several tunes; and
thirdly the trac dramatists, who, having, like the nightingale of
Ooagon, tn^gjy tongues, can sing all tunes.
It is to the first-named of these class(£s that most poets belong.
With regard to the second class, there are not of course many
poets left for it: the first absorbs so many. But, when we come
to consider that among those who, with each his one voice, can
sing many tunes, are Pindar, Firdausi, Jami, Virgil, Dante,
Milton, Spenser, Goethe, Byron, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats,
Schiller, Victor Hugo, the second class is so various that no
generalkation save such a broad one as ours could embrace its
members. And now we come to class three, and must pause.
The third class is necessarily very smalL In it can only be
placed such names as Shakespeare, Aeschylus, Sophocles,
Homer and (hardly) Chaucer.
These three kinds of poets represent three totally different
kinds of poetic activity.
With regard to the first, the ptire lyrists, the impulse is pure
egoism. Many of them have less of even rdative vision at its
highest than the mass of mankind. They are often too much
engaged with the emotions within to have any deep empathy
with the life around them. Of every poet of this class it may
be said that his mind to him " a kingdom is," and that the
smaller the poet the bigger to him is that kingdomu To make
use of a homely image— like the chaffinch whose eyes have been
pricked by the bird-fancier, the pure lyrist is sometimes a warbler
because he is blind. StiU he feels that the Muse loves him
exceedingly. She takes away his eyesight, but she gives him
sweet song. And his song is very sweet, very sad, and very
beautiful; but it is all about the world within his own soul — its
sorrows, joys, fears and aspirations.
With regard to the second class the impulse here is no doubt a
kind of egoism too; yet the poets of this class are all of a different
temper from the pure lyrists. They have a wide imagination;
but it is still relative, still egoistic. They have splendid eyes,
but eyes that never get beyond seeing general, universal
humanity (typified by themselves) in the imagined situation.
Not even to these is it given to break through that law of
centrality by which every " me " feels itself to be the central
" me "—the only " me " of the universe, round which all other
spurious " me's " revolve. This " me " of theirs they can
transmute into many shapes, but they cannot create other
" me's " — nay, for egoism, some of them scarcely would, perhaps,
if they could.
The third class, the true dramatists, whose impulse is the
simple yearning to create akin to that which made " the great
Vishnu yearn to create a world," are " of imagination all com-
pact " — so much so that when at work " the divinity " which
lamblichus speaks of " seizes for the time the soul and guides
it as he will."
The distinction between the pure lyrists and the other two
classes of poets is obvious enough. But the distinction between
the quasi-dramatists and the pure dramatists exmmphM oi
requires a word of explanation before we proceed RebtOvuad
to touch upon the various kinds of poetry that spring ^KjJJ"
from the exercise of relative and absolute vision.
Sometimes, to be sure, the vision of the true dramatists —
the greatest dramatists — will suddenly become narrowed
and obscured, as in that part of the Oedipus tyrannus where
Sophocles makes Oedipus ignorant of what every one in Thebes
must have known, the murder of Laius. And again, finely as
Sophocles has conceived the character of Electra, he makes her,
in her dispiite with Chrysothenus, give expression to sentiments
that, in another play of his own, come far more appropriately
from the lofty duiracter of Antigone in a parallel dispute with
Ismene. And, on the other hand, examples of relative vision
in its furthest reaches can be found in abundance everywhere,
especially in Virgil, Dante, Calderon and Milton. Some of the
tno&i remarkable examples of that high kind of relative vision
which may easily be mistaken for absolute vision may be found
in those great prose epics of the North which Aristotle would
have called poems. Here is one from the Vdlsunga Saga.
While the brothers of Gudrun are about their treacherous
business of murdering Sigurd, her husband, as he lies asleep in
her arms, Brynhild, Sigurd's former love, who in the.frenzy of
88+ POETRY
••lavcntriwdta)iMe*'huIiiitIgitedtlien(tidcnntotIied«(l, of thcvoyonlaoftbenDiinncthuttidMeattanbadtdkK
b«vcn oouidi tbe dumber with Guanu, ba huibud, uid Irom tludi couno. nould hive bunt oat witk:" Amued ucr
liiteni to tbt mil o( hn rin] who ii mtltriai in Sifiud's bbod. ud t2ien would hive followed u doqueot il»jl-™.tjn|| (boat
At the >oiind of Ibat wiil BiyohUd Uughi: — the " unuing " nature of the pbeDomeoa uid Ibeit effect upoa
"TbcB nid Gunnar la her, Thou laugheil nutbcauietby bcvt hiin. But «cientiTdyhuthepoctbec(iiiMHuiilet,Mcaiiipletdi>
woautretivi'icii.trclitmhyieiliiiit'iliiff-aaxiBWimi'' bu "tbe divioily Mued bu toul," tbu ill liBfuici xtsii
Tbli i> ol cdune veiy fine; but, u 4ny two chvuten In that equil]]' weak lot BpiHung the lurbulencB wiihia the ixi at
dtanuUc lituition loi^t have done that dtainatk bu^zicM, the chancier, acd Uainlct extdaima la a aort at nwflitiiiiw
fine a* it ii— n» the ugamln give* ui the geoenl and iwt the irony, " Very tike, very like [ "
pinlcujai — the viiion It work ii not absolute but relative at iti Hamlet, and no other man, who in
veiy highat eierdie. But our examples will be more inlerat- 10 eipreaed himidf. Chirle* Ki^,. _.
[ng il taken Irom P-gii'h poett. In Colcridge'a " Aiident nmaikiupi>nlhiiipeecho(IIamlet; yethetn
Mariner " we find an iznmenM amount of lelalive vtiion of ao and licati it from the general rathei than from tbe f— "™'"
high a kind that at fint it leemi aWilute viiioD. Wben the tide. Iniiance* of ■Isotute viiion in SbakeqKSR crowd npca
andent mariner, in hit narrative to the wedding gueit, reaches ui; but we can find room for only on* othei. In the patliitic
the ilaying of tlie albatroB. be ttopa, he can pnaed no laitber, ipeech ol Otbcllo, Juil before be kOlt nimtcU, be dedara bimelf
and tbe wedding guett eicUlmi: — to be: —
•' God uvi thee, Andeni Mariner, " Ooe not aiOy feoloiu. but, lieiiit wm^
From the Bend! that alMgac tbee lhu> \ Peipleied ui the enrme."
Whylook'.(ihDuiB?;_ ■ With my cnwbow Coniider the maivelloua timtrt of the word -wnu^t." u
1 11.01 UK aiMifMi. .„, ^ coming Iiom a chiracler like Olhello. Wben writing Ihii
But there arc intlanaa of relative vaion-etpeaally ia Oie p„,„(, t^xdallj. when writing this word, the poet h«l become
gmt maiter of absolute vision, Shakapeare-whicb are higher ^ttely the liinple Englith laldin-liero, as tbe Moor really n-ke
atill— so high indeed that not to nlegite them to absolute hadbecomeOtheUo.lookinguponhimtelf " a»i»le«ilyiMloiH."
vision teems at fint tight pedintir. Such an example is the whereai he was " wrought " and " perplexed in tbe exlreme"
ramoui ipeech of Lady Macbeth in the accond act, where ibe ^j, j^ckj which lUmlet would have seen through a a moment.
Myt: — While all other (onmol poetjcart can be vilaliied by itlatiit
„„,.,! v,j^ it,,,lSlv-^"™ •'^■'' ^^"' "• two form (and Ibete the gmtest) in wkki
MyfalberaibeilejAlhaddooet. abaolne viiion is demanded, via. the drama, and in r I
MarvdloMly aubtte as u tbit ipeech, it mil be found, if , y^ta degiee the Creek epic, eipcciaUy tbe Iliad. *i^
analyted, that it eiprestet the general human soul latber than ■ni[, ^ju |^ ,„n more plainly perhaps If we now "^
my one Hiedil human souL Indeed Leigh Hunt recotdj the v„y ^uj definilions and call relative viskm tmiti iarap«tfirw
Caie of a bargeman who, charged with robbing a sleeping ,b»olLle vision iramalK iwupmUiim.
iravellei in his barge, used in hit confession abnoit idniiial very much of the dtamatiit'i work can be, and in tact ii,
words—" Had he not looked hke my lather ai he slept, I should eBccled by egoiitic imaginalion, while liue dramatic imaginatia
have killed «1 weU ai robbed him." Again, the thousand and j, ^^j, ^ji^ ^^^^ p|jj, ^n comparatively me occuiom. Kfl
onecaieiCto be found in every hterature) where a character, onlyfinebutsublimedramaticpoemshavtbeeqwritlen bswenr
overwhelmed by tome ludden surprise or terror aska whether ,]„,„ ,ii, viialiiing power has been entirdy that o( lyricd
the action tolng on is that of a dieatn or oi real life, must all, imagination. We need only initana the Prtmilkau B^mmd d
on severe analysis, be cUsied under relative lather tban under Aochylui, Ihe moat sublime poem in the world. Tbe drunu
absolute vision-even such a fine ipeech, for Instance, as that „( Shelley loo, like those ol Victor Hugo and Calderea. an
where Peridet, on discovering Manna, eiclaims>- informed enliiely by egmitic imagination. In all tbeic nloiiU
" ni^ " "if S7l£""Uv'-*'" ^^* """^ P""" "" <lf="™''" P"*^ ^•iaadt in tbe imagined tituUi*
Did mock Kul looU wiinal '• . _. or at moil he placet there lome typical conceplioo ol muveml
or as that in the third act of THui AnJnmititt, where Titus, hummily. There il not in all Calderoa any sich diipliy d
beholding bis mutilated and ruined daughter, asks:— dramatic Imagination u we get' in that wondoful snch d
"Whenwilllhii fearful iliinibeihave an end?" Priam's in the l«it book ol the //loi, to whidin bave befcin
even here, we say, the humanity rendered ii genera] and not alluded. There ii not in the CaKi such a display (4 druiUic
particular, the vision at work is relative and not absolute. The imagination as we gd in tbe ludden hunt of anger Iron tic
poel, u representing Ihe whole human race, throwing himself spoilt child of godl and men, Achilla (anget which alanm the
Into the imagined situation, gives ui what general humanity hero himself ai much as it alums Priam), wben tbe prattle i^
would have thought, Idt, said or done b that tilualion, not the old man has carried him too fat. It may lecn bcdd to u;
what one patliculiU individual and be aloue nould have that the drama of Goethe is inloimed by egoistic imipnua*
■ bought, Idt. said or done. only — assuredly tbe piiion-sccne in Faml ii unsuipaiud ii
Now what we have called abtolule i^sion operates in a very the literatures of the world. Yd, perhapa, it could be ihovi d
different way. So vividly ii the poet's mere cmtive initinct Ihe paiiion and the pathos o! Cretchen thtou^iout tk eatiie
■t work that Ihe cfn tiaki inlo passivity- becomes insensitive play that it betrays a female cbltacter general and tyjacaltatha
la,all impreisionl giber than those dictated by the vision— by thin individual and paiticutar.
the "divinity" which has "leiied the soul." Shakespeare is Thenilurcoithiiahsolute visSonor truedranaticimaginaliia
full of eomplei. Take the scene in the fint act of Hamlcl a easily seen if we compare the dnnutic work cd wrilen witluu
where Hamlet hears for the fint lime, from Hoialio. that hit absolute vision, luch as Calderon, Goethe, Ben Joosa, Fletcher
lalhei'i ghost haunts the castle. Having by abort sharp and others, with Ihe dranulic work ol Aclcbylus and of Shikt.
questions diciled the salient laclt attending the apparition, ipeare. While of the former group it may be said that each pal
Hamlet layi, " I would I bad been there." To thii Horatio ikilluUy works bis iaiagination, of Aeschylus and Sbaktsf*tn
makes the very commonplace reply, "It would have much it must be said that each in hii highest dramatic mood does wl
amaicd you." Nole the marvellously dramatic reply of Hamlet work, but is worked bf his imagination. Note, lor initaue.
" Very like, very likel Suyed il long?" Suppose that this how the character of Clytaemneslra grows and gkiwi uKdet Ibe
diitoguE.had been atiempled by any other poet than a true hand of Aeschylus. The poel ol tbe Odjitry had diuiscdr
dramatist.-, or by a true draraatiil In any other mood than said that Acgislbus, her paramour, had itiuck ibe blow, bd
hit very highal, Hamlet, on hearing Hoialio's cammonplice Ihe dramatist, having imagined tbe greatest tragic lesule ia
Rmacka upon phenomena which to Hamlet were mote subvettive all poetry, finds il impotuble to let a nuu like A^iiUiBi Msri
■ I Tnndatioa «f Merrii and Magnuaon. ucb a woman in a bomidde M dating «jm1 m nidiimiiimi A*4
POETRY 885
when in thai terrible speech of hen At fuilifta her crime Musei are emniidenl: IhH certainly may give the paaH|e 1
(iHteniibly 10 the outei world, but mlly to hei own conscience), deep dcainatic value it otherwise leenu to laA.
the way in which, by the sheer magnetism of iiKsistible penon- Tbe deepal o( all the distinctiani belwtcn dramatic and epic
ality. she draws our sympathy 10 hcrsdC and her crime ii un- neihodt hu relation, however, to Ihe nature oi the dialogue.
rivalled out of Shake:<peare and not surpassed even there. In Arisiailc failed to point It out, and this is remarkable until we
Ihe Great Drama, in the AtameiKnaii, in Oliilla, in Hamltt, in remember that hia work la but a [ragmcnt ol a great system oi
Uaibak. there is an imagination at work whose laws are ineior- criticism. In epic poetry, and in all poetry that nairalcs,
able, are ineviiible, as the laws by (he operation of which the wheihci the poet be Homer, Chaucer, Tbomas Ihe Rbymei,
planets move around Ihe sun. But in this amy out business Goltlried von Sirasbuig, or Turotdus, the action, of courae,
wilh drama is confined entirely to itj relation! to epic. moved by aid partly of narrative and partly by aid ol dialogue,
Considering how large and on the whole luiw good is the body but in drama the dialogue haa a quality of suggestivencas and
ol modern criticism upon drama, it is surprising how poor is subtle inference which we do not eipcci to End in any other
Eritrntt Ibe modern criticism upon epic. Arisioile, compat- poetic form aave perhaps that of ihc purely dramatic ballad.
Othu ing tragedy wilh epic, gives the palm to tragedy In ancient drama this quality of suggaiiveness and subtle
camff*. jj barii the more perfect art, and nothing can be inlctcnce a seen not only in the dialogue, but in the choral odes,
mote ingenious than the way in which he has marshalled his The third ode of the Afamtmnm is an eiircme cue in point,
reasons. He tells us that tragedy as well as epic Is capable whcre.byakindof^DuUrniKRdrr.lherelationBoI aytaemnealra
oi producing its effect even without action; we can judge of and Acgisihus are darkly alluded to under cover of allusions
it peifecity, uys he, by reading. He goca so far as to tay to Paris and Helen. Of this dramatic subtlety Sophocles is
that, even in reading as well as in reptcsentaiion, tiascdy iiat perhaps the greatest master; and certain critics have lieen ted
an advantage over the e|HC, the advantage of greater deatness to speak as though Irony were heait-lhought of Sophodean
and distinctness of impression. And in some measure this waa drama. But the suggestiveness of Sophocles is pathetic (aa
perhaps true of Greek tragedy, for as Miiller In his Diiwrloliinn rrofessor Lewis Campbell has well pointed out), not ironical,
gn llu Eamtaidti has well said, the ancients always remained This is one reason why drama more than epic seems to satisfy the
and wished to remain conscious that tbe whole was a Dionytian mere intellect of the reader, though this may be coimteibalanced
enicrtainmeat ; the quest of a commonplace didr^ came alter- by the haiflness of mechanical structure which lometimesdisturi)*
wards. And even ol Romantic Drama it may ht said that in tbe reader's imagination in tragedy.
the time of Shakespeare, and indeed down through the i8lb When, lor instance, a dramatist payi ao much attention to
centuiy, it never lost entirely its character of a recitation as well the evolution of the plot as Sophocles does, it is inevitable that
as a drama. It was not till melodrama began to be recogniied his characters should be more or less plot-ridden; they have to
as a legitimate form of dramatic art that the dialogue had to be say and do now and then certain things which they would not
struck from the dramatic action " at full speed " — struck like say and do but lor the exigencies of the plot. Indeed one of
sparks fmm the roadslet's shoes. The truth is. however, that the advantages which epic certainly has over drama is that the
» inquire which is Ihe more Important story can be made to move as rapidly as the poet may desire
" ''* t these mechanical modifications of character.
iranrh of poetry, epic
01
tragnly. Equally idle
would it be
or tbe modem critic
inlic drama
^inedindhowmuchit
by abandoning the choru
Much has been said
0 the scope and the limit
s of epic and
Iramalic poetry. If in
epi
c tbe poet has the powci
' to take the
maginatlon of his audi
t away from the dramaii,
c centre and
how what b going on 1
he other end of the giea
t web of Ihe
•orid, he can do the Si
1 thing in drama by Ihe
choniE. and
[0 the dtamiiii circle ol
ind others from the oul
side world. But, as regards
eiM poetry.
lit right that we should he
ir, as we sometimes do h.
rar, the voice
.i the poet himself as
,rus l»dding us contrast
licture wilh other pictu
res
afar off, in order to enfoi
rce its teach-
> Thisi
Does it not give an air of self-consciousness to poetry? Does
it not disturb Ihe Intensity ol the poetic vision? Yet It has
the sanction of Homer; and who shall dare 10 challenge the
methods of the (Teal (alhet'of epic? An instance occura in
Iliad V. 15S, where.inlhemldst of all thesttessof Aght, thepoct
leaves the dramatic action to tell us what became of the in-
heritance of Phaenops. after his two sons had btcn slain by
Diomedes. Another instance occurs In lil. i43->44. where the
poet, after Helen's pathetic mention of her broiliers, comments
on Ihe causes of their absence, " criticizes life " in the approved
modem way, generalizes upon the impotence of human inlelli-
gtnct — the impotence even of human love— to pierce the dark-
ness in which tbe web of human (ate is woven. Thus she spoke
' 'f^ ''"^ ""'' *"" '*" llfe'giving earth already possessed ^hef
.1 'i Lacedaemon, in thrirdear native land: — but a
:h llie mind aska i
"ied'lv'
itly schemeless and nuMiveleie— o( aatun. but. as
.lu iliii " hard acorn o( thought " (to use tbe
(he Vtlnnia .Sofs of (he bean of a man)
•^tttse, to " beautilul eiceedingly," bul
"■lion "t work is egoistic or lyrical, not
ne vuioR ia relative, not absolute, it doe
"re/Tgth at ita vety highest which w*
'' unfaM indeed we remember that ■
Yet, as has
tureheneUis
an of a pedanlle acbeme, which winild be
ral mind unsophistieated by literary study.
that of a liver, tbe Bow of the other as ihal
toy himed, though the great
ejihibilions of scheme, she doubtkis lus a scheme
does somewhere hide a " bard acorn of thought " oT
of (he universe Is Ihe espanded npression. An
art should have a scheme loo; tiut in such a dilem
: In this matter that (be epk pael, unless he Is cvk
les UBwith any obtnu
■Mni ind Kir-cducaiion in t ccmmt ind viiidlr utink hicm.
inUinCti. hii^niclkct wu too much chiincd by ClJvinbn to f*^
ky of th« Saa'i procUtimcd bipcnomy.
■howt^that once bccin Ur umps with
^ n ■(■»d>>™A«chyI M."otilwMi^
hid ibindoncd ihc motive at \<nM.
jnenl li^p u Viijil had oi hk Ai
Bphic. And aos n cook is phihtJiit
ihstiEht it pnpnijr ■howii h ia ik
ilni fiiure in Vi^m ponrv--* prod
ifi of the OnAiuJ itnia of Hi laiiiL
Bm u developed in the prtvioui booka ihowi haw cniirely Viif iL pan, it olifton iiriporUBrr tlvn c^h
aed that artiKic power ihowp in rhr Odyitey of mAlcinf n itory n ind ca<y abindonmeiii tht ntriodi^
bccane the natural and incvLtable outcome of an arttuic idea. tcicnl at comurtd wiili Hich a pUv ■
In tiM SUM namtk then u the artiiiic mliction ul Viijil, but iJfldJi or Inr.) Notwithuanding ihe iptcndid uRpta d
with even leu SIMnlion to a cintnl thouiht than Vir^l eahibila. Anchvlua, Ihe Iralh •rcnu to be ihat Ihc (lizuity of deYelapiaf i
Firdauil relis (or hii eHecu upon tbc very qualiiiei which poetical naiiativc from a phiknophk: ihovthi i> Orimiai. aed o
aBd'Mitanu1ifici^Sowo(lheti'ory;'Kmu°li^«dihat, iCihc WeaUcn dr^ not in 'viJEai^ epic do w'IS.'mvc" ia inch im
hand and with the Kainata on the other, it miBht throw a light a itory (ram an ido which not oinJy Jami but all the ponbic jimth
upon Ihe way in which an «|hc may beat one and the lame time an a£ Perua ihow.
aimtallDn at the national ballad poenu and tha work oT a lintie In modirn Eniliib poetry ibe motive of ShcDey'i dnnaix
anlKcer. That Firdiuii wa> capable of worlcini from a centre poem P-inna^jMnm^ ia^a nouUe iUuainiion^ofwhat i>
g with a unii-erulisRi , a beM [hat nod
of ill— Shelley cannot (inUi hia bw tkne
time, what bidetd haa been Ihat temper during the whole of the ihall be Ihe final goal of ill— ^Shelley
Mahommedan period, the wbtle temper ol ihe parable poet — [he hundred linei without ahiliing (in ihe cune « nwnnaeiai ma
SIM A'daKJt. with iu diiect appeal in popular aynipathiei. la a a Manichaeiim aa pure aa that ol Uauei himaeU . —
"vWlh'l^S' h^i^ w"vi!ifr. defective power of workint " ""P ™ '*■/ ■™'' '"' "^"* "^ '■>« '^^^
'Ml^-^i^Sf^!^^Sm^S'^t}T^'of%lw^i^^'. . ««* infinite a. iatbeuniverte/''
Certainly be thara it with the writer of Pnrorfijiijijl, who, Kllioa Acnjd.ng to the central thought of the poetn human BitiR.
sol to "^jiBlify the wayi of Cod to man," (otgeti ocia.ionill/ the I,''"p*^JJ^j;f"'^P"J^"^"^'',^ "* 5'^,2?S
chanMaTmnathemn™ ("rheTrdolthea^ondbooHloW ^u7"^„^u''^'^n.II?^ 'iwhen™ """^ ""bJiill^ ^"SS
§«an (ran hdlmd hii'joumey'to'eanMw ihi'lllln of man.— EK'|fu™„''m^^ iS," I'lllliiJS™'"^' '*'™^l'(™* 'gUi^
He inreadt for ftight, and, in Ihe lUTging imolie ''* ■""""" ' ^^ ^^
UpHfted. tpuna iTie ground ; thence many a kague, t^SeaTCL ■
FlMmi™hii iSioi^"^n?5umb doan be dropa Kl^j'lEi
Tea thoaUnl bthonadeep. and to thi, hour ™? •'■'"K
DowB had been (alUog, lud not. by ill chahci. "*• *"7yT.3
The itRHi; icbuR o( aome tumul.uoui cloud, 1"^ •" "™
Kttrliait€:ilKil in niaiion to Ibe old Norw! epic cycle.
"■---' "—.-■■- - — -■— of Luri/n •%, in it
e>alwi»£«(. '
Though Vondcl'i myitery ^y of _ ..
rbetorical iruue than poetical, it did. be^oiul a]
ia pnerally quoted aa the keynote of Satan'a cbarictcr-' ba b^tfi-t^i^
" Better lo teign in hdl Ibam aerve In heaves "— «• •« dta aad
lo have been taken bodily (mm Vondel'i play, and Mihon'a Udk ««n. At
epic thowa a midy of it. While Uarlowe'a majeatic move- i^ OmS^
POETRY 887
4c of lit. Thoiiih not liitcn it Ihc Pojoliti (Mn. But from aiwthcT point of vkoiIw
ihnadi. while tlir hm a doing balllc vith the nukvoltnl [ofcca
riaiH of Lnnidai combed theU' long hair in Ihc lun. The biHiMfl
the iiflitn' in Scandinavian epic is to yiehl lo i» powtf whatao-
cr. whether of earth or heaven or hell — id take a buflct from the
Uatlier bimKlT, and to mam il; to huk DcMlny henell in the
T» crying out lor quarter neilhcr to godt ODrdemona nor Nomi.
ii> it tha true lemnr of pure *' heroic poetry " at it ha> hiiheno
uriibcd on Ihii Mle the Caucaiu*— the temper of the fighter
•o ii invindbla becauK be feck (hat Fata hnxlf falHra when
c hero tH the trae Miain delin — the Cfhlci who fctli that the very
imi thnuelvs imut cringe at lait before the aimpte couiage of
in Handing naked and bare of hope againit all asaulta. whether
hoaven or hell or doom. The pmid hcnxs of the Velimti
ow that the dty prophciiied a lure when, ^ouUkr to ihoukfer.
di and men ihan Mand up to light Die oilirc brood of nigbt and
il. Ktorming the very gates of Auiid,
That Ihi> temper a not the highm from the ctliiral p^nt of
rs
Buddhitm ilmay iccmborbanc.and if monl suatian cauld tupplant
physical force in fpic — if Siddirtha could (aire the place of Achillea
But wc mu9l now give undivided altcnlion to pure eK(riilic
or lyric imagioalion. Thii, ai hia been laM, ia auffideat to
vit^iK all forma <A poetic art uve drama and Ihe ntLr^
Greek epic. It would be impowble lo diicuia t-tfaa-
adequately here the Hebrew poeta, who have pro- **
duccd a lyric so dilferenl in kind from all other lyrja aa lo
Mand in a ciiu by iIkU. Aa il la equal in importance to
the Great Drams of Shakespeare, Aachylui and Sophodea,
we may perhaps be allowed to call il the " Great Lyric."
The Great Lyric rauit be religiaui— it muii, it would leem.
be an outpouring of the soul, not towards man but toward*
Cod, like that of the God-intoiicatnl prophcta and psalmisia
of Scripture. Even the lyric lire of Pindar owes much to the
fact thai he had a childlike belid in the myths lo which to many
rcekpoetiy,
lal •tmegle for life. Alihous'" unconscious grace, which we have called the Greal Lyric.
■>itt wiiTxpuI a ttnieile bctwwn might pcrhi ' - ....
truggle upon apparenlty equal tcrmi-it Hebrew. But, allhough
lat Ihe wartiH ol coijHictmg lonm which ^^ _i,™, i.„„„„ ,
epic hai much real lelalion to the
„ .. ..1 11 the motive of Weitem epic.
And. as [Tgardi Ihe maehinery of epic, there la, we su
deeper ugnlli^ncf than is commonly apprdiended In the I
the Satan orShailan of Ihe Eastern wocid becomes in Voi
those whose language, complet of syntax and alive with self-
conscious inHciions, beipeaki the acicntilic knowingnets of Ihe
iipect, a Western mind, la call the temper of the Great Lyric broadly
n>CKi oecDines m von^^ and " *''"''= " ""^^ ^ "*''■ '* ^"" '" '*'°"» " ' birthright
miiiu>i.Hun..~^ .—.I ■.i.u..,,.!..™ himself thcadmiralion which '" ''"'" descendants of Shem who, yearning always to look
In Eaitem poetry belongs eniiiety lo the auihority of heaven, itiaighl into the face of God and live, could (when the Great
In Ava, saveperhapsanionglhepureArabsofihc desert, underlying Lyric was aung) tet not much else.
vli^^".^?M!:S.'v^ h»?S;'"AirtT.'"™,^"e'A™n.'''H '""'"«'' '™ "' "■« """'^ elements of the Great Lyric,
;r;StatrkX'rTbe^lI;k^P^?he';e;i^?riV:;lol,T^^^^^ unconsciou,™ .nd powe,. «e m, doubt plentiful enough in
suthoriiy— did not begin to show itself till they had moved acron India, the element of grace is tacking lor ihe most part. The
the Caueatus. But what concerns us here is the fad that tho Vedic hymns are bolh nebulous and unemoiianal, as compared
larthcr they moved to the north-west Ihe nKn vipjrpusly [his ^m, Semitic hymns. And as to the Persians, they, it would
temper asserted Itself, theproudetgrtw man in hisaltiludetowatds i...,. .i....^^ .!_.,_ .k. ~i. i. . .i.
Ihe liodnill at la« in the Scandinavian cycle he became Iheir equal "^^^ Jl|^„f^„r ^-^"^ " often, bul Iheuncon-
" n'ici betmn'^lh?' a"?i"dr"o("'?^u''lu 'fei'l '""waril ''"^'"'''"? ""l™ "'"Bs are no! so much " bright with beauty "
tude of the human heroes towardi Odin in Scandinavian poetry, steeped in beauty like the " liger-moth'sdeep damasked wings."
Had Ravana been clothed with a propeily CDnslilutcd aulTiorlly, Now beauty of this kind docs not go to the making of the Great
lad he been a logiliinite god initcad of a demon, the Easltm Lyrfr.
!r^^'.he'^ld"i!SuTd 'ha've"'bin'°t'^r(d"clne «''lea"<rf'"in Tl-™ "«" '""■" ""t T^'fy "hich, being elhnolo^cally
.normous epics. Indeed, the Ravana of Ihe Btmiyaw answer! Semitic, might be su^iosed lo enhibil something at least of the
omrwhat to Ihe Fafnir of the KWm^ja Sya ; and lo pint acainn Hebrew temper— the Arabian, Bul, whatever may be said of
" ".T^'u"?"'"^' aulhwiiy. The vast field of rndiin the oldest Arabic poetry, with ilt deep sense of laic and pain,
Ihan the Hebrew
' poets. It il ml
It ArabiiQ fottly caa
890 POGGENDORFF— POGGIO
like " Maggie Liudec," when llie heanineu uid impulie of FOaOEKDORrF. JOHAHK CHRISTUM (1796-187;), Ccmu
the poet'i mood conquer >U impedimeiiU o[ doae vowels lod ph]^idil, vu bom in Himbutg on the 19th of December ijfii.
rugged oonwnultal combinitiuru. Of Scotlish usg-writen Hit father, a wullhy muiuracturer, having been all but nDBtd
Burns is, ol coune, the had; for the songi of John Skinner, by the French ticge, he had, when only aiileen, to appieitke
the heailial (ong-iniler that haa appeared is Great Britain himself to an apothecary in Hamburg, and *>vn twenlj^n
(not excluding H«rick), are too tew In number to enlille him to began to earn his living as an apothecary's analant at IlicbDC.
be placed boide a poeL lo prolific in heaninesa and melody as Ambition and a strong inclination towards asdentific oirO'
Bums. With regard to Campbell's heartiness, this is quite a led bim 10 throw up his business and remove to Bedin, wfacit
diSerrnt quality from the heartincsi of Bums and Skinnn, be entered the univenily in iS». Here hit abiUtiei woe
and i> in quality English rather than Scottish, though, ng doubt, qwedily lecogniied, and in i8ij he was appointed melecmlocKil
it it of a fine and rare strain, especially in " The Battle of the observer to the Aotdemy of Sciences. Even at thit eiily period
Baltic." Hii songt illustrate an tnGrmity which even the he had conceived the idea of founding a physical and cbemiol
Scottish song-wrilen ihaie with tbe English — t defective tense icieniific journal, and the realiulion of this plan was hastened
of that true song-warfale which we gel in the itomtUi and ritpeiti by the sudden death of L. W. Gilbert, the editor of GSttru
ol the Halian peasanti. A poet may have heartiness in plenty, Annnitn iit Pkyiik, in 1814. Foggcndortf immedialdy pot
hut if he hat that lave of conionantal effects which Donne himsell in communication with the publisher, Bartb lA liiiuic.
displays he will never write a fint-rate song. Here, indeed, with the mull thai he was installed as editor ol ■ scintibc
is the crowning difficulty of song-writing. AneitremesimpUcity joumal, ^mrofni io Pkyiik itnd Clamit, which was to be a
of structureand of diction must be accompanied by an instinctive continuation of Cilbtrts Annalen dd a tornewhat eztewlrd ptu-
appteheniion ol the melodic capabilities of verbal sounds, and PoggendorS was adminbly qualified for the pott. Me bad Ii
of what Samuel Lover, the Irish song-writer, called " singing " eitiaordinaiT memory, well stored with scienllfie kmwlcdie.
words, which is rare in this country, and seems lo belong lo the both modem and historical, a coot and impartial judgmail.asd
Celtic rather than to the Saion ear. " The song-writer," aayl a itmng preference lor facts as against theory of the qiccnltlift
Lover, " mutt framehit song of open vowels with at fewguttuia] kind. He was thug able lo thiow himscU into tbe spirit ef moikfa
or hissing aoundi as patiible, and he mutt beamieniiometimes eiperimeniil tdence. He possessed in abundant ineasarc tW
to taciifiFe grandeur and vigour la the necessity of selecting German virtue of ordetlines in the arrangement of kiDwIr4l
tinging wordi and not reading words." And he exemplifies and in the conduct of busineta. Ftuther he had an "*tf^
the distinction between singing words and reading words by a geniality of manner and much tact in dealing with edol Tlea
line Irom one of Shelley's sonp — qualities soon made Pogp»dor£s Autwien the fornmt ■fkr^'fr
■" The fresh earth in new leaves drat,! joutnal in Europe.
„ . , J .. . L .1 . . J . In the course 01 his fifty-two years' editorship o( the ^aaalia
.." ■^■^[^^ ^T 1 ''J -T ,?""I* Powndorfl could not fail to acquire an unuwial a. "
it" But ciDSenot of vowel sounds IS by no mean, the on y with the labours of modem mer; of science. ^
thing ta be avoided in ioog-wnt.ng. A phrase inay be absolutely joined to what he had gathered by historical re
unt.ng.ble, though the vowels be open enough. J it fa loaded ^u,„j „^j i,e otelully digested «.d gave
with consonants. TTie truth is hat m *)tig.wnting it hqiute i,a BiopatkiickJitaaii^ka H^ndw^Urlmd, a
as important, in a consonantal Unguage like outs, to attend to aaUaiWiiitiiiduilUn conlainingnoticeiollhe 1
the Hinsonan,, aa to the vowel,; and perhaps the fim thing to „, „i.th.m.tici«>^ atltonomctt, physiciMs, uid
avoid in wnling Enghsh songi 11 the frequent recurrence of .he ,„ „j aU ages. Tbis work conlaiot an
j.b,lan^ Bui this appba to aU the bnef and qum.esaentul '^^^^ ^ facts^aluable 10 the tdeniific -.g™^ ™
form, of poetry, such as the sonnet, the elegy, *.x j„.,t„^„. The fimt two volumes were published in iMjiafKi
At to the elegy-a form 0 poe ic art which has more relation ^j, j^,i, , ^^■^ ^„|„^ appeared in iM, «"« '
to the objects of the external world than the song, but less rela- ,gja.,Mj, and a fourth In w. comiiSdown
«.«-, '™ " "™ "™ »"« atomello-its scope seems of the »th centurv.
ith century.
Foggendoiff was a physicitt of high although not o( tkc nrr
highest rank. He wai wanting bi mathematical ability, aid
never displayed in any remarkable degree the still mcve impor-
tant power of scientific gereraLialicui, which, whether acco»-
panied by malhcmttical skill or itot, never lails lomaiktk
highest genius in physical science. He was, however, an aUe
Itid conscientious experimenter, and was very fenite and
iDgeiuout in devising physical apparatus. By far the griaia
and more Important \»tt of his work related 10 electridiy a>il
Diagnetiim. His literary and scientific repulaliau ifndiT
brought him honourable recognition. In iSjo be was rude nT>l
professor, in 18^ Hon. Ph.D. and eilimordinary praf^aoc in the
university of Berlin, and in i8]9 memhet of the Berlin Acad™?
of Sciencea. Many ofleii of oidinary professotship* were muk
to him, but he declined them ill, devoting binaell 10 his duiia
as editor of the Annaltn, and to the pursuit ol bis itieBiit
researches. He died at Berlin on the Mth of January 187J- , .
POaaiO (ijSo-ujfl). Cian Ftanctsco Pos^ Bracmhu,
Italian scholar of the Renaisiuice, ■" *»" '" 'i*° " /™
nuova, a village in lb. territory ol Florence^ "'.^i^rli:^
under John ofRavenna. a,^ Gttelt »«!« •-"'^^^^T^*^
His distinguished abihtl^ ^^yi.«™'^,^;^^^^t^
brought hm- into early ^^^ -'^^.^^^^ SS^^ W. -
though he profited »* J^^^es^^^"^" "C^-^
900
POKER
has the right, in his turn, tfttt p«3ring the extm stake called
for, of raising it further on his own account, and this goes on
until the players who have not dropped out have paid an equal
sum into the pool and no one cares to raise further. Each
player then throws away as many of his five cards as he chooses
and receives from the dealer new ones in their place. In this
supplementary deal no player may accept a faced card, but
receives one in its place after all the other players have been
served. The number of new cards taken by nch one should
be carefully noted by the other players, as it gives a valuable
due to the probable value of his hand. The following list
shows the value of hands, b^inning with the lowest.
I. One Pair (accompanied by three cards of different denomi-
nations). If two players each bold a pair, the higher wins; if
similar pairs («.g. a pair of kings each) tnen the next highest card
wins.
a. Two Pairs.
3. Triplets or Threes of a Kind («.f . three kii^s, accompanied
by two other cards not forming a pair).
4. Straight, a sequence of five cards, not all of the same suit.
Sometimes, but verv rarely, these straights are not admitted.
An ace may either begin or end a straight. For example: ace,
king, queen, knave and 10 is the highest straight; S, 4. 3, 2, and ace
b the lowest. An ace cannot be in the middle. For example, 3, a,
ace, king, queen is not a straight.
5. Ftusk, five cards of the same suit, not m sequence. If two
flushes are held, that containing the highest cara wins; if the
highest cards are nmilar, the next highest wins. 8dc
6. Full, or Full House, meaning three cards ol the same denomina-
tion together with a oair: e.g. three sixes and a pair of fours. If
more than one player nolos a full, the highest triplet wins.
7. Fours, or four cards of the same denomination; e.g. four
queens, which beat four knaves and under.
8. StraigfU Flush, a sequence of five cards all of the same suit;
«.g. knave, 10, 9, 8, 7, of hearts.
9. Royal Flush, the highest possible straight flush; e.g. ace, long,
queen, knave ana 10 of spades.
If no player holds at least one pair, then the hand containing the
highest card wins.
Each player having received the new cards called for, the
betting is opened by the player sitting at the age's left, should
he consider his hand worth it; otherwise he throws down his
cards and is out of the game, and the next player (whom we will
call C) makes the first bet, which may be of any amount up
to the limit, but is usually a small one, with a view to later
developments. The next player, D, either drops out, traUs,
i.e. puts up the amount bet by C (also called seeing knd catting),
or raises C's bet; in other words puts in the amount bet by
C plus as much more (within the limit) as he cares to risk.
This raise on D's part means either that he thinks he holds a
better hand than C, or that he is trying to frighten C out. The
last manoeuvre illustrates the principle of the hl^ff, the most
salient characteristic of the game of Poker. If C, with two
small pairs in the hand, bets half a crown, and D, with a hand of
no value whatever, covers, or sees C's bet and raises it to a sove-
reign, it is very likely that C will throw down his cards rather
than risk a sovereign on his own by no means strong hand.
In this case C has been bluffed by D, who, without even having
to show his cards, wins the pool, although intrinsically his hand
was far inferior to C's. The ability to bluff successfully depends
upon self-command, keen observation, judgment and knowledge
of character, so as to attempt the bluff when the bluffer is sure
that there are no veiy strong hands out against him. Other
wise he will surely be called in his turn, and, having nothing
of value, will lose the pool, besides suffering the ignominy of
throwing away his money for nothing.
Two players with strong hands will often raise each other's
bets repeatedly, until one of them calls the other, upon which
the hands are shown and the stronger wins. The complete
hands of the caller and the called must be shbwn. The common
practice of throwing away unshown, for purposes of concealment,
a losing hand that has called is illegal. No player who is not
called is obliged to show his hand, so that the company^.is often
in doubt whether or not the winner has bluffed. When two
hands are of exactly equal value the pool is divided.
The game is often varied by a player going blind, i.e. raising
the ante before the deal. Another variation is tiraddling the
blind. This is done by the player sitting next tlie ace, who pots
up twice the amount of the blind with the words '* I strsddk."
liiis has the effect of doubling the stake, as every player most
then pay twice the amount of the straddle (instead of the blind)
in order to play. The straddle may be straddled again in its
turn if the aggregate amount does not pass the limiL The
straddle does not cariy with it the privilege of betting last, bat
merely raises the amount of the stake.
The regular Draw-Poker game is usually varied by ^wri^tofiffl
Jack'Pots, which are played once in so many dead^ or when
all have refused to play, or when the player deab who holds the
buch, a marker pUced in the pool with every jack-pot. In a
jack-pot each player puts up an equal stake and receives a hamL
The pot must then be opened by a player bedding a hand of the
value of a pair of knaves (jacks) or better. If no player hotds
so valuable a hand the deal passes and eadi player adds a f*^^
sum to the pot or pooL When the pot is opoaed tlie opener
does so by putUng up any sum he cfaooaes, within the limit,
and his companions must pay in the same amount or ** drop.**
They also possess the ri^t to raise the opener. The new
cards called for are then dealt and the opener starts the betting,
the play proceeding as in the regular game. If Progjtessm
Jach-Pols are played, the minimum value of the opening hand
is raised one degree every deal in which the pot is not opened.
Thus the opening hand must in the first deal be at least a pair
of knaves; but if the pot is not opened the tnitimwin for the
second deal is a pair of queens, for the third a pair of kings, kc
Jack-Pots were introduced about 1870.
Straight Poher, or Bluf, is played without drawing extra
cards. It was the only variety of the game played, although
5a cards are now used instead of 20^ as formerly. The fiat
dealer is provided with a marker called a buck, and having, befofe
dealings put up the antes of all the players, passes the buck to
the next dealer, who must in his turn ante for all iHien he deals.
The rules for betting, raising, &c., are the same as at Dnv*
Poker. The hands, of course, average smaller.
Stud-Poher Is played like Draw-Poker, except that there is
no draw and, in dealing, the first card only is dealt face dovs.
the rest being exposed. Each player in turn looks at his tamed
card and makes his bet or raise. A common variation of StiKi-
Poker consists in stopping the deal after two cards, one face op
and the other face down, have been dealt, and betting 00 those
two cards. A third card Is then dealt and betting again takes
place, the process being rqieated after the fourth and fifth cards
have been dealt, the value of the different hands rha^rng vitk
each added card. A player failing to ** stand " any raise must
retire from that pot.
Whishey-Poher Is also played without a draw. An extra haod.
called the widew, is dealt to the table face down. The first
bettor then examines his hand and has the option of taking op
the widow and phidng his own hand on the table face up in iu
place, or of passing and allowing the following players ia ten
the choice. After an exposed hand has been laki on the table
in place of the widow the next player may either take vp om
card from the new widow replacing it with one from his on
hand, or he may exchange his entire hand for the widow, or ht
may knock on the table. If he knocks every other pla>Tr ia
turn may exchange one card or his whole hand, and the betiifi{
then begins, or there may be an agreement that the best baad
wins from all the rest, or that the poorest hand pays a chip to
the pool.
Technual Terms.
Big Dog. — ^Ace high and nine low; not ttsuaOy played. If pb]i«d
it beau a LitOe Dog.
Btau. — Five court cards; not usually played. If played '<
beats any two pairs.
Bobtau.— Four cards of a flush or straight, the fifth card sot
filling.
Bone. — ^The smallest counter or chifx
Buck. — A marker, to show wbttn a jack-poC is to be played, to.
when it is the holder's deal.
Banii C^^— Card on the bottom of the pack turned op to pirvcst
being seen.
CI(^.-Counters.
CM Fat.— hay eicuK of > winiwr (or Imvini ttw im briar
DrodtBoed. — The discard pile
DkI.— P»ct
Fatten, — Addiii| chipa mnd m JKck-pot after ft failure to open.
Frau Out. — A lamc in frhich a player baving lost a ortaii
agmd apical mkuE ttop playing,
Imiidt 5lmi(fa,— Intermcdiaw Hiaiihl, f.(. 9, }, i, 6
XiJttr.— Hand with no pair and no card above the nine. leldaii
Liult ^f.— Deuce tow and Kven high; nol usually played
When pliy^ it bean a niavhl.
JUilhuf.— SbutBhii br ulunt a caid fnnn the top and one fron
J/ii*iyS.— PolB?^itrihe"iol«r'»dS?t'lirjoter may be caHe.
'")!(«*(? Riu*.— Tliree card, of a fluih.
t table after a call
ntillcd ntKi bai be
in Ibe pi^ at lb
:*, iduatly agreed
in Whiatey-Poker.
\y hand in Ibe dra*. the cha
Huniinaa tmnucby, uil Ii liliultd ntir the wulhem
eUKmil]' ol Ihc peoiniuta of Iitrii.. ll lita at the head of ibe
Bay of Fola, and ppaieuei a safe and commodioua harbour aJinaM
complctdy landlocked. Ad cxtcoaive lyslem of foni£catia(V,
conslrucled on the hiUa, which cnckoe the harbour, defend*
it} entrance, while it alw poncssea a good roadstead in the lar^
chicncl of Fauna. Thii chanDcl Kparaiei the mainland fntai
the Biionian lalanda. which dominate the enlnnc« to the bay.
The harbour has an area of y^t aq. m., and La divided into two
basina by a chain of three unall iaiands. The inner basin ia sub-
divided by the large Olive Inland into the navaJ harbour, lying to
the touth, and the commercial harbour, lying to the north. The
Olive Island is cormetied with the coasi by a chain-bitdge, and
it provided with wharfs and dty tJid floating docks. The town
■ the Olive Island,
Biecly crowned by it
m the 17 th (cntuiy
the alhcdral, dating in
lisori church, completed i.
ine marble fa^de; the Fr
lerequi)
sfor
now by a
le chief bu
ic Builica Mylc, with
of a large
Having in Hand
To make Ibe Kind bekiw.
The.
■ pair
To gel iwo pain Cl-caid draw)
iln4l
1 pair
To get thne of a kind C3-card dnw) . . .
tins
■ pair
To improve either way avenge value . .
tin}
1 pair and 1 odd aid
To impiBve eiiher way liy drawing Iwu cards
tin 7
'P^f
To gel a full band dnwlag one card . . .
iin»
J'.
To get a full hand dranng too earda . . .
' in m
3't
To set (our of kind drawing two card, . . .
1 in ijl
3-s
To improve either way drawing two audi . .
■ in<ll
y.-ndloddcard .
To get a (uU hand by drawing ok card . .
linlj)
3'<andi odd card
To impnm either way by dnwing one card .
I in It)
4«.~gl.l ....
To fill when open .1 o« end only or In middle
4»raiEht . . , .
To fill when open at bolh ends as 3 4 S « -
tins
4 flush
To fill the flush dnwing one card . . . .
tins
4-itnught flush . .
To fill the stnighl flush dnwing one ocd
'in»H
jordftmh . . .
To nuke • flush drawing (wo cards ....
■ in 14
menled by the docks and wharves of the Scoglio OlivL The
artillery liboratoty and the powder magaaine are on ihe Docth
bank of Ihe harbour. Behind the arsenal Uet the suburb of
San Folicarpo, almost eidusively occupied by the naval populfr-
lion and containing large naval barracks and ho^itall. In the
middle of il is a pleasant paiL, with a handsome monument 10
Ihe emperor Maximilian of Mexico, who had been a rear^dmiral
in the Austiian navy. To tbe north, between San Folicarpo
and Ihe town proper, rises the Uonle Zaro, aurmounttd by in
observatory and 1 statue of Admiral TcgctthoS. Pol* haa no
manufacture* outside of its naval Mores,
' ' but il» shipping trade is now considerable,
the exports cotislsiing of fish, limber and
quaru sand used in making Venetian ^IM,
and the imports of manufactured ud
colonial warci. To many people, liowever,
the chief In • - ■ . .. -
Romi
, The
iS-iii, in honour of the emperors Septi-
iu> Sevenis and CaraciUa, which ia 79 fL
' long and 310 ft. wide, ind
high,
Of course these chances are Bmewhit impmved by the (ad that.
In actual play, pin and threes are, on account ofcarcleH shuffling,
apl lo lie togelhet more or lesa.
POLACGrlUXaorlfOai; Slovepe, Pif/), aieapart of Ausliia,
In latria, i6 m. S. of Trieste by rail. Fop. (1900), 4;.o;s. It
it the piindpa] naval liarbour and arsenal of tbe Auatro-
is remarkable as ihe only Ron
theatre of which the outer waus nave
been preserved intict; the Inieiior. bow-
evet, it now oompleidy bare — thouj^ Ibe
inangemenli (or the naumachiae. or nival
contests, can still be tisced. The oldest
Roman relic Is Ihe fine Itiumphal arch ol
the Seigii, in the Corinihian alyk, eiectnl
much later dale is the elegant and ireli-
preaerved temple of Augustus and Roma
erected in the year ig B.C. Among the
other snliqulties are three of ihe old town
gates Ind a fragment of a temple of Diana.
The (ouDdation of Fola is usually canied
back to the mythic period, and iicribed
to the Colchian puisuen of Jason and the
Argouuti. In all probability it was ■ Thtacian cokiny, but
its verifiable bistoiy begins with its cipture by ttie Romans in
17S B.C. It was dcalroyed by Augustus on account of It*
e^Kiussl of the cause of Pompey. but was rebuilt on tbe inter-
cession of his daughter Julia, ind received (according to PUny)
the name of Fietaa JuUl. It became a Roman colony dlbel
902
POLABS— POLAND
under the triumviri or under Octavian, and was mainly tmpor*
unt as a harbour It seems to have attained its greatest
prosperity about the time of the emperor Scptimius Severus
(193-2 1 1 A.O.), when it was an important war harbour and
contained 3S>ooo to 50,000 inhabitants. At a later period
Pola became the capital of the margraves of Istria, and was
captured by the Venetians in 1148. It was several times
captured and plundered by the Genoese, and recaptured by the
Venetians. In 1379 the Genoese, after defeating the Venetians
in a great naval battle off the coast, took and destroyed Pola,
which disappears from history for the next four hundred and
fifty years. It remained under Venetian supremacy down to
1797, and has been permanently united with Austria since 1815
In 1848 a new era began for Pola in its being selected as the
principal naval harbour of Austria.
See Th. Mommsen in Corp. inscr. latin, v. 3 sqq. (Berlin, 188;}),
T. G. Jackson, Daltnatiat the Quamero and lUria, vol. lit.
(Oxford, 1887).
POLABS (Ptf-on, .Laba^Elbt), the Slavs (q.v.) who
dwelt upon the Elbe and eastwards to the Oder Their chief
tribes were the Vagri in Holstein, the Bodriii or Obotritae in
Mecklenburg, the Ljutiti or Wiltzi in western Pomerania, the
Sprevane on the Spree and the GlomaS or Dalemintsi in Saxony.
Except the Lithuanians they were the last Europeans to be
christianized; their chief sanctuary was at Arcona on the Isle
of Rilgen. They were converted and conquered by the 12th
century and systematically germanized. By the X7th century
Slavonic survived only in a tiny patch in the east of Hanover
about Lttchow, where a few words were still understood at the
beginm'ng of the X9th century. The population of the district
still goes by the name of Wends (q.v.). The chief remains of
the langxiage are a paternoster, a few phrases and a short
vocabulary written down by Pastor Chr. Henning {c. 1700), and
the diary of J. Paruns Schultze (d. 1734). These were edited
by A. Hilferding (St Petersburg, 1856), and a grammar was
published there by A. Schleicher (1871). M. Porzezinski and
Fr. Lorentz are the chief later authorities. Polabian agrees
mostly with Polish and KaSube with its nasalized vowels and
highly palatalized consonants. It had, however, long vowels
and a free accent. The renuuns of it are most corrupt, having
been written down when the language was full of Low German
by people who did not know Slavonic.
POLACCA, the Italian name for a three-masted merchant
vessel, formerly common in the eastern waters of the Mediter-
ranean. The masts were of one piece and the sails were square
or lateen-shaped. The name appears in various forms in other
languages, e.g. Fr. pdaque or potacre, Sp. polacra, Du. polaak or
Ger. Polack^ and certainly means Polish, although there b no
explanation to be found for any connexion between Poland and
such a Mediterranean vessel.
POLAND (Polish Pobkay Ger. PoUn), (see Poland, Russian,
below), a cotmtry of Europe which till the end of the i8th century
was a kingdom extending (with Lithuania) over the basins of the
Warta, Vistula, Dwina, Dnieper and upper Dniester, and had
under its dominion, besides the Poles proper and the Baltic
Slavs, the Lithuanians, the White Russians and the Little
Russians or Ruthenlans.
We possess no certain historical data relating to Poland till
the end of the xoth century. It would seem, from a somewhat
obscure passage in the chronicle compiled from older
pSHui. sources by Nestor, a monk of Kiev (d. c. 1x15), that
the progenitors of the Poles, originally established
on the 'Danube, were driven from thence by the Romans to
the still wilder wilderness of central Europe, settling finally
among the virgin forests and impenetrable morasses of the basin
of the upper waters of the Oder and the Vistula. Here the
Lechid, as they called themselves (a name derived from the
mythical patriarch. Lech), seemed to have lived for centuries,
in loosely connected communities, the simple lives of huntsmen,
HeMsmen and tillers of the soil, till the pressure of rapacious
neighbours compelled them to combine for mutual defence.
Of this infant state, the so-called kingdom of the Piasts (from
Piast its supposed founder), we know next to nothing. Its
origin, its territory, iu institutions are so many insohible
riddles. The earliest Polish chroniclers, from Gallus in the early
1 3th century to Janko of Czarnkow * in the X4ih, are of little
help to us. The only facts of importance to be gleaned from
them are that Prince Zicmovit, the great-grandfather of Mieszko
(Mieczyslaw) I. (962-992), wrested from the vast but tottering
Moravian Empire the province of Chrobacyja (extending from
the Carpathians to the Bug), and that Christianity was fint
preached on the Vistula by Greek Orthodox missionary monks.
Mieszko himself was converted by Jordan, the clu^^ain of h»
Bohemian consort, Dobrawa or Bona, and when Jordan became
the first bishop of Posen, the people seem to have followed the
example of their prince But the whole movement was appar-
ently the outcome not of religious conviction, but of political
necessity The Slavonic peoples, whose territories then extended
to the Elbe, and embraced the whole southern shore of the Baltic,
were beginning to recoil before the vigorous impetus of the
Germans in the West, who regarded their pagan xtetghbours in
much the same way as the Spanish Conquistadores regarded the
Aztecs and the Incas. To accept Christianity, at least formally,
was therefore a prudential safeguard on the part of the Slavonians.
This was thoroughly understood by Mieszko's son Boleslaus L
(992-1025), who went a considerable step farther than his father.
Mieszko had been content to be received on almost any terms
into the Christian community, B<rfeslaus aixxied at securing the
independence of the Polish Church as an additioiud
guarantee of the independence of the Polish nation. •• •
It was Boleslaus who made the churc|i at Gnesen
in Great Poland a national shrine by translating thither the
relics of the martyred missionary, St Adalbert of Pngne.
Subsequently he elevated Gnesen into the metropolitan see of
Poland, with jurisdiction over the bishoprics of Cracow, BresUo
and Kolberg, all three of these new sees, it is important to notice,
being in territory conquered by Boleslaus; for hitherto both
Cracow and Breslau had been Bohemian dties, "while Rolbetg was
fpunded to curb the lately subjugated Pomeraniaxis. BoloUus
was also the first Polish prince to bear the royal title, whidi
seems to have been conferred upon him by.
Otto III. in xooo, though as Boleslaus croi
himself king a second time in xo2S, it is evidoit'
that he regarded the validity of his first coronation as aomevhai
doubtful. He was primarily a warrior, whose reign, an almost
uninterrupted warfare, resulted in the formation of a vast king-
dom extending from the Baltic to the Carpathians, and froa
the Elbe to the Bug. But this imposing superstructure rested
on the flimsiest of foundations. In less than twenty yeais
after the death of its founder, it collapsed before a combined
attack of all Poland's enemies, and simultaneously a terrible
pagan reaction swept away the poor remnants of Christianity
and dvilization. For a time Poland proper became a smoking
wilderness, and wild beasts made their lairs in the mined
and desecrated churches. Under Bdeslaus II. (1058-1079)
and Boleslaus III. (1102-X139) some of the kst provioces,
notably Silesia and Pomerania, were recovered and Polaad
was at least able to maintain her independence against the
Germans. Boleslaus HI., moreover, with the aid of St Otto,
bishop of Bamberg, succeeded in converting the heatheo
Pomeranians (1x24-1 128), fuid making head against i^g*"?*™
generally.
The last act of Boleslaus HI. was to divide his territoria
among his sons, whereby Poland was partidoned into 00 fever
than four, and ultimately into as many as eight, r^ittftn^
prindpalities, many of which (Silesia and Great ^'**
Poland, for instance) in process of Ume split '**••*'*
up into still smaller fractions all of them more or kss
bitterly hostile to each other. This partitioDa] period, as
Polish historians generally call it, lasted from 1138 to 130$,
during which Poland lost all poUtical significance, and became
an easy prey to her neighbours. The duke of Little Pbhad,
* Archdeacon of Gneaen 1367: vioe<lia]ioellor of Ptolaad; d
c. 1387.
HISTORY)
POLAND
903
«f«««r
who generally styled himself duke of Poland, or dux toHus
Poloniae, claimed a sort of supremacy among these little states,
a claim materially strengthened by the wealth and growing
importance of his capital, Cracow, especially after Little Poland
had annexed the central principality of Sieradia (Sieradz).
But Masovia to the north, and Great Poland to the north-west,
refused to recognize the supremacy of Little Poland, while
Silesia soon became completely germanized. It was at the
beginning of this period too, between 12 16 and 1224, that
Pomcrania, under an energetic native dynasty, freed herself
from the Polish suzerainty. Nearly a generation
later (1241) the Tatar hordes, under Batu, appeared
for the first time on the confines of Poland. The
Polish princes opposed a valiant but ineffectual resistance; the
towns of Sandomir and Cracow were reduced to ashes, and all
who were able fled to the mountains of Hungary or the forests
of Moravia. Pursuing his way to Silesia, Batu overthrew the
confederated Silesian princes at Liegnitz (April 9), and, after
burning all the Silesian towns, invaded Hungary, where he
routed King Bela IV. on the banks of the Sajo. But this
marked the limit of his triumph. Exhausted and diminished
by the stout and successful opposition of the Moravians at
Olmiitz, the Tatars vanished as suddenly as they had appeared,
leaving a smoking wilderness behind them.
Batu's invasion had an important influence upon the social
and political development of Poland. The only way of filling
Ponfgg up the gaps in the population of the ravaged land
immi- was to invite foreign immigrants of a superior class,
grmmtM. chapmen and handicraftsmen , not only given to peace-
ful pursuits and acctistomed to law and order, but
capable of building and defending strong cities. Such
immigrants could naturally be obtained only from the civilized
west, and on their own terms. Thus it came about that the
middle class element was introduced into Polish society for the
first time. Immediately dependent upon the prince, from whom
they obtained their privileges, the most important of which were
self-government and freedom from taxation, these traders soon
became an important factor in the state, counterpoising, to
some extent, the influence of the gentry, enriching the land by
developing its resources, and promoting civilization by raising
the standard of comfort.
Most of these German citizens in process of time were absorbed
by the Polish population, and became devoted, heart and soul,
TtmKafghu to their adopted country; but these were not the
^JJV only Germans with whom the young Polish state
had now to deal. In the first year of the 13th century,
the Knights of the Sword, one of the numerous orders of crusad-
ing military monks, had been founded in Livonia to " convert "
the pagan Letts, and, in 1 208, the still more powerful Teutonic
order was invited by Duke Conrad of Masovia to settle in
the district of Kulm (roughly corresponding to modem East
Prussia) to protect his territories against the incursions of the
savage Prussians, a race closely akin to the Lithuanians. Conrad
has been loudly blamed by Polish historians for introducing
this foreign, and as it ultimately proved, dangerous element
into Poland. But the unfortunate prince had to choose between
dependence and extermination, for his unaided resources were
powerless against the persistent attacks of the imconquerable
Tb0 Prussians. The Teutonic Order, which had just
T0mtoale been expelled from Hungary by Andrew II., joyfully
Ordtr. accepted this new domicile, and its position in the
north was definitely established by the compact of Kruschwitz
in 1230, whereby it obtained absolute possession of the maritime
district between Pomerania and Courland, and southwards as
far as Thorn. So far were the Poles from anticipating any
danger from the Teutonic Order, that, from 1243 to 1255, they
actually assisted it to overthrow the independent Pomeranian
princes, the most formidable opponents of the Knights in the
earlier years of their existe.ice. A second Tatar raid in 1259,
less dangerous, perhaps, but certainly more ruinous, than the first
invasion — for the principalities of Little Poland and Sandomir
were systcroaticaiiy ravaged for three months— still further
depressed the land, and, at this very time, another enemy
appeared in the east — the Lithuanians.
This interesting people, whose origin is to this day the most
baffling of ethnographical puzzles, originally dwelt amidst the
forests and marshes of the Upper Niemen. Thanks
to the impenetrability of their fastnesses, they
preserved their original savagery longer than any
of their neighbours, and this savagery was coupled with a valour
so tenacious and enterprising as to make them formidable to
all who dwelt near them. The Russians fled at the sight of
them, "like hares before hunters." The Livs and Letts
were as much the prey of the Lithtianians " as shtep are the
prey of wolves." The German chroniclers describe them as
the most terrible of all the barbarians. The Lithuanians first
emerge into the light of history at the time of the settlement
of the Teutonic Order in the North. Rumours of the war of
extermination conducted against their kinsmen, the wild
Prussians, by the Knights, first woke the Lithuanians to a sense
of their own danger, and induced them to abandon their loose
communal system in favour of a monarchical form of govern-
ment, which concentrated the whole power of the state in a
single hand. Fortunately, too, at this crisis of their history,
the Lithuanians were blessed with an altogether exceptional series
of great rulers, who showed themselves fully capable of taking
care of themselves. There was, for instance, Mcndovg (124&-
1263), who submitted to baptism for purely political reasons,
checkmated the Teutonic Knights by adroitly seeking the protec-
tion of the Holy See, and annexed the principality of Plock to
his ever-widening grand duchy, which already included Black
Russia, and formed a huge wedge extending southwards from
Courland, thus separating Poland from Russia. A still greater
prince was Gedymin (1315-1342) who did his utmost to civilize
Lithuania by building towns, introducing foreigners, and
tolerating all religions, though he himself remained a pagan
for political reasons. Gedymin still further extended the
limits of Lithuania by annexing Kiev, Chernigov and other'
old Russian principalities.
At the very time when Lithuania was thus becoming a com-
pact, united, powerful state, Poland seemed literally to be
dropping to pieces. Not even the exhortations of
the popes could make her score of princes unite uff^gff '
for mutual defence against the barbarians who en-
vironed them. For a time it seemed highly probable that Poland
would be completely germanized, like Silesia, or become a part
of the new Bohemian Empire which Wenceslaus II. (crowned
king of Poland in 1300) had inherited from his father, Ottakar II.
From this fate she was saved by the valour of Wladblaus
Lokietek, duke of Great Poland (1306-1333), who reunited
Great and Little Poland, revived the royal dignity in
1320, and saved the kingdom from annihilation by his great
victory over the Teutonic Knights at Plowce in 1332. The
whole reign of Wladislaus I. was indeed an unceasing struggle
against all the forces of anarchy and disintegration; but the
fruits of his labours were richly reaped by his son Casimir III.
the Great (r333-i37o), Poland's first great statesman in the
modem sense of the word, who, by a most skilful system of
matrimonial alliances, reintroduced isolated Poland Cnimirm.
into the European system, and gave the exhausted thtOnat,
country an Inestimably beneficial breathing space 'f^^-on,
of thirty-seven years. A bom ruler, Casimir Introduced a
whole series of administrative and economical reforms. He
was the especial protector of the cities and the peasants,
and, though averse from violent measures, punished aristo-
cratic tyranny with an Iron hand. Casimir's few wars were
waged entirely for profit, not glory. It Is to liim that Poland
owed the Important acquisition of the greater part of Red
Russia, or Galicia, which enabled her to secure her fair share of
the northern and eastern trade. In default of male issue,
Casimir left the Polish throne to his nephew, Louis of Hungary,
who ruled the country (137^-1382) through his mother, Queen
Elizabeth, Wladislaus Lokietek 's daughter. Louis well deserved
the epithet of " great " bestowed upon him by his contemporaries^
904
POLAND
pusroty
i/L
but Poland formed but a small portion of his vast domains,
and Poland's interests were subordinated to the larger demands
of an imperial policy which embraced half Europe within its
orbit
On the de%th of Louis there ensiied an interregnum of two
years marked by fierce dvil wars, instigated by duke Ziemovit
of Masovia, the northernmost province of Poland,
which continued to exist as an independent prind-
paltty alongside of the kingdom of Poland. Ziemo-
Umhrn •€ vit aimed at the Polish crown, proposing to marry
2JUJj^ the infant princess Jadwiga of Hungary, who, as
the daughter of Louis the Great and the grand-
daughter of Wladislaus Lokietek, had an equal right, by
inheritance, to the thrones of Hungary and Poland. By an
agreement with the queen mother of Hungary at Kassa in
13S3, the Poles finally accepted Jadwiga as their queen, and,
on the i8th of February 1386, greatly against her will, the
young princess, already betrothed to William of Austria, was
wedded to Jagiello, grand 'duke of Lithuania, who had been
crowned king of Poland at Cracow, three days previously, under
the title of Wladislaus U.
The union of Poland and Lithuania as separate states under
one king had been brought about by their common fear of the
Teutonic Order. Five years after the death of Gedymin,
Olgierd, the most capable of his seven sons, had been placed upon
the throne of Lithuania by his devoted brother Kiejstut, and
for the next two-and-thirty years (1345-1377) the two princes
still further extended the sway of Lithuania, prindpally at the
expense of Muscovy and the Tatars. Kiejstut ruled the western
portion of the land where the Teutonic Knights were a constant
menace, while Olgierd drove the Tatar hordes out of the south-
eastern steppes, and compelled them to seek a refuge in the
Crimea. During Olgierd's reign the southern boundaries of
Lithuania touched the Black Sea, induding the whole tract of
land between the mouth of the Bug and the mouth of the
Dnieper. Olgierd was succeeded by his son Jagiello as grand
duke in 1377, while Kiejstut was left in possession of Samogitia,
Troki and Grodno; but the Teutonic Order, alarmed at the
growth of Lithuania, succeeded in estranging uncle and nephew,
and Kiejstut was treacherously assassinated by Jagiello's orders,
at Krewo, on the 15th of August 1382. Three weeks later
Jagiello was compelled to cede Samogitia, as far as tKe Dubissa,
to the Knights, and, in the following year they set up against
him Kiejstut's son Witowt. The eyes of Jagiello were now
opened to the fact that the machiavdh'an policy of the Knights
aimed at subjugating Lithuania by dividing it. He at once
made peace with his cousin; restored him his patrimony; and,
to secure Lithuania against the future vengeance of the Knights,
Jagiello made overtures to Poland for the hand of Jadwiga,
and received the Polish crown along with it, as already men-
tioned
Before proceeding to describe the Jagiellonic period of Polish
history, it is necessary to cast a rapid glance at the sodal and
political condition of the country in the preceding Piast period.
The paucity and tadturnity of our sources make it impossible
to give anything like an adequate picture of Old Poland during
Btgiaaian ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ centuries of its existence. A glimpse
otih9PoUsh here and there of the political development of the
Coaathu' country is the utmost that the most diligent scrutiny
can glean from the scanty record of the early chron-
icles. External pressure, here as dsewhere, created a patriotic
military caste, and the subsequent partitional period, when
every little prince had his own separate court, still further
established the growing influence of the szlacktc, or gentry, who
were not backward in claiming and obtaining special privileges
in return for their services. The first authentic pacta conventa
made between the Polish nobility and the Crown dates from
the compact of Kassa (September 17, 1374), when Louis of
Hungary agreed to exempt the stiachta from all taxation,
except two Polish groscben per hide of land, and to compensate
them for the expenses of all military sctvice rendered beyond
the confines of the realm. The clergy recdved their chief
privileges much earlier. It was at the sjrnod of Lccsya,
nearly a century before the compact of Kassa, that the property
of the Church was first safeguarded against the eocnMcfameots
of the state. The benefidal influence of the Church of Poland
in these eariy times was incalculable. To say noUung ci the
labours of the Cisterdans as ocdonists, pioneeis and drarch-
builders, or of the missions of the Dominicans and Frandscau
(the former of whom were introduced into Poland by Ivo,
bishop of Cracow,^ the personal friend of Dominic), the Church
was the one stable and tmifying dement in an age oif centrifugal
particularism. The frequent synods rqvesented the whole
of Poland, and kept alive, as nothing else could, the idea of
national solidarity. The Holy See had also a considerable
share in promoting the political devdopment of the land. In
the 13th century alone no fewer than forty-nine papal legates
visited Poland, and thirty provincial synods were hdd by then
to r^ulate church affairs and promote good govemmenL
Moreover the dergy, to their eternal honour, consistently
protected the lower from the tyraimy of the upper classes.
The growth of the towns was ^wer. During the heroic
Boleslawic period there had been a premature outcrop of dvil
life. As early as the xith century Kruschwitz, OtmHt
the old Polish capital, and Gnesen, the metropolitan y<**
see, were of considerable importance, and pUyed a '****'
leading part in public life. But in the enstiing anardiic period
both dties were utterly ruined, and the centre of pditical
gravity was transferred from Great Poland to Little Pdand,
where Cracow, singulariy favoured by her position, soon became
the capital of the monarchy, and one of the wealthiest dties
in Eiuope. At the end of the X4th century we find all the great
trade ^ds established there, and the doth manufactured at
Cracow was eagerly sought after, from Prague to Great Novgorod.
So wealthy did Cracow become at last that Casimir the Great fdt
it necessary to restrain the luxury of her dtizens by sumptuary
ordinances. Towards the end of the 14th century the Polish
towns even attained some degree of political influence, and tbev
ddcgates sat with the nobles and dergy in the king's coundh,
a right formally conceded to them at Radom in March IJS4.
Even the peasants, who had suffered severdy from the wh<rfaale
establishment of prisoners of war as serfs on the estates of the
nobles, still preserved the rights of personal liberty and free
transit from place to place, whence thdr name of /asp. The
only portion of the community which had no privflcges were the
Jews, first introduced into PoUind by BolesUus the PSoo,
duke of Great Poland, in 1264, when bitter persecuticms had
driven them northwards from the shores of the Adriatic Casimir
the Great extended their liberty of domidle over the iri»le
kingdom (1334)* From the first they were better treated ia
Poland than elsewhere, though frequently exposed to outbreaks
of popular fanaticism.
The transformation of the pagan Lithuanian chieftain Jagidlo
into the catholic king of Poland, Wladislaus II., was an event of
capital importance in the history of eastern Europe.
Its immediate and inevitable consequence was the
formal reception of the Lithuanian nations into the
fold of the Church. What the Teutonic Order had
vainly endeavoured to bring about by fire and sword,
for two centuries, was peacefully accomplished by Jagiello withm
a single generation, the Lithuanians, for the nnost part, williagly
yidding to the argxmnents of a prince of their own blood, who
promptly rewardMl his converts with peculiar and exdusive
privileges. The conversion of Lithuania menaced the very
existence of the Teutonic Knights Originally planted on the
Baltic shore for the express purpose <^ christianizing their
savage ndghbours, these crusading monks had freely expkited
the wealth and the valour of the West, ostensibly in the cause
of religion, really for the purpose of founding a dominkn of
thdr own which, as time went on, lost more and nx>re of its
religious character, and was now little more than a Germu
military forepost, extending from Pomerania to the Niemea
which ddiberatdy exduded the Slavs from the sea and thrived
* Archbishop of Gnesen 1319-iaao. Died at Modeaa xaj»
mSTORY]
POLAND
905
at their expense. The mere instinct of self-preservation had,
at last, drawn the Poks and Lithuanians together against these
ruthless and masterful intruders, and the coronation of Jagiello
at Cracow on the 15th of February 1386, was both a warning
and a challenge to the Knights. But if the Order had now become
a superfluous anachronism, it had still to be disposed of, and
this was no easy task. For if it had failed utterly as a mission
in parlibus, it had succeeded in establishing on the Baltic one
of the strongest military organizations in Europe. In the art
of war the Knights were immeasurably superior to all their
neighbours. The pick of the feudal chivalry composed their
ranks; with all Europe to draw upon, their resources seemed
inexhaustible, and centuries of political experience made them
as formidable in diplomacy a& they were valiant in warfare.
And indeed, for the next twenty years, the Teutonic Order
more than held its own., SkilftiUy taking advantage of the
jealousies of Poland and Lithuania, as they were accentuated
by the personal antagonism of Jagiello and VVitowt (q.v.), with
the latter of whom the Knights more than once contracted
profitable alliances, they even contrived (Treaty of Salin, 1378)
to extend their territory by getting possession of the province of
Samogitia, the original seat of the Lithuanians, where (Mtganism
still persisted, and where their inhuman cnielties finally excited
the horror and indignation of Christian Europe. By this time,
however, the prudent Ja^ello had become convinced that
Lithuania was too strong to be ruled by or from Poland, and
yet not strong enough to stand alone, and by the compact
of Vilna (January 18, 1401, confirmed by the compact of
Radowo, March xo) he surrendered the whole grand duchy
to Witowt, on the understanding that the two states should
have a common policy, and that neither of them should elect
a new prince without the consent of the other. The wisdom of
this arrangement was made manifest in 1410, whenJagieUo
And Witowt combined their forces for the purpose of delivering
Samogitia from the intolerable tyranny of the Knights. The
issue was fought out on the field of Tannenbeig, or Grttnewald
(July 15, X410), when the Knights sustained a crushing defeat,
which shook their political organization to its very foundations.
A few weeks after the victory the towns of Thorn, Elbing,
Braunsberg and Danzig submitted to the Polish king, and all
the Prussian bishops vduntarily offered to render him
homage. But the excessive caution of Jagiello gav^ the
Knights time to recover from the blow; the Pol^ levies proved
unruly and incompetent; Witowt was suddenly recalled to
Lithuania by a Tatar invasion, and thus it came about that,
when peace ^^-as concluded at Thorn, on the zst of February
X4X I, Samogitia (which was to revert to the Order on the death of
Jagidlo and Witowt), Dobrzyn, and a war indemnity of 100,006
marks payable in four instalments, were the best terms Poland
could obtain from the Knights, whose territory practically
remained intact. Jagiello's signal for the attack at the battle
of Grtinewald, " Cracow and Vilna " (the respective capitals
of Pokind and Lithuania) had eloquently demonstrated the
solidarity of the two states. This solidarity was still further
strengthened by the Union of Horodio (October 2, 1413)
which enacted that henceforth Lithuania was to have the
same order of dignitaries^ as Poland, as vrell as a council of
state, or senate, similar to the Polish senate. The power of
the grand-duke was also greatly increased. He was now
declared to be theequal of the Polish king, and his successor could
be elected only by the senates of Poland and Lithuania in con-
junction. The Union of Horodio also established absolute
parity between the nobility of Poland and Lithuam'a, but the
privileges of the latter were made conditional upon their pro-
fession of the Roman CathoUc faith, experience having shown
t hat difference of religion in Lithuania meant difference of politics,
and a tendency Moscow-wards, the majority of the Lithuanian
boyars being of the Greek Orthodox Confession.
* All the chief offices of state were connequently duplicated, e.f.
the ketman widki koronny, i.e. *' grand hetman cri the crown," as
the Poliah commander'in-chief was called, had his counterpart in
Lithuania, who bore the title of widki ketman fittvski, U, ^ grand
' naa of Litfaaaais," and soon.
During the remaindsr ti the idgB of WhuUsIaas IL the
Teutonic Order gave Poland mach trouble, but no serious
anxiety. The trouble was due mainly to the repeated efforts
of the Knights to evade the fulfilment of the obligations of the
Treaty of Thorn. In these endeavours they were materidly
assisted by the emperor Sigismund, who was also king of Hun-
gary. Sigismund, in 1422, even went ao far as to propose a
partition of Polajid between Hungaxy, the empire and the
Silesian princes, a scheme which foundered upon Sigismund's
impccuniosity and the reluctance of the Magyars to injure the
Poles. More than once Wladislaus IL was even obliged to
renew the war against the Knights, and, in 1422, he compelled
them to renotmce all claims upon Samogitia; but the long
struggle, still undedded at his death, was fought mainly with
diplomatic weapons at Rome, where the popes, generally speak-
ing, listened rather to the victorious monarch who had added
an ecclesiastical province to the Church than to the discomfited
and turbulent Knights.
Had Wladislaus U, been as great a warrior as Witowt he
might, perhaps, have subdued the Knights altogether. But
by xiature he was preeminently a diplomatist, and it must in
fairness be admitted that his diplomacy in every direction was
distinctly beneficial to Poland. He successfully thwarted all
the schemes of the emperor Sigismund, by adroitly supporting
the revolutionary party in Bohemia {q.v.). In return Hussite
mercenaries fought on the Polish side at Tannenburg, and
Czech patriots repeatedly offered the crown of Bohemia to.
Wladislaus. The Polish king was always ready enouj^ to
support the Czechs against Sigismund; but the necessity of
justifying his own orthodoxy (which the Knights were for ever.
impugning) at Rome and in the face of Europe prevented him
from accepting the crown <tf 3t Wenceslaus from the hands of
heretics.
Wladislaus 11. died at Lemberg in 1434, at the age of eighty-
three. During his long reign of forty-nine years Poland had
gradually xisen to the lank of a great power, a result due in no
small measure to the insight and sagacity of the first Jagiello,
who sacrificed evexy other consideration to the vital necessity
of welding the central Slavs into a compact and homogeneous
state. The next ten years severely tested the stability of his
great work, but it stood the test triumphantly. Neither a
turbulent minority, nor the neglect of an absentee king; xidther
the revival of separatist tendencies in Lithuania, nor the out-
breaks of aristocratic lawlessness in Poland, could do moxe
than shake the superstructure of the impoung edifice. After
the death at Varna, in X444, of Jagiello's eldest son and successor,
Wladislaus III. (whose history belongs rather to Hungary than to
Poland), another great statesman, in no wise inferior to Wladis-
laus II., completed and consolidated his work. This was
Wladislaus's second son, already grandduke of Lithuania,
who ascended the Polish throne as Casimir IV. in 1447, thus
reuniting Poland and Lithuania under one monarch.
Enormous were the difficulties of Casimir IV. He instinc-
tively recognized not only the vital necessity of the xnaintenanoe
of the union between the two states, but also ^^ caa^^iv
fact that the chief source of danger to the union lay ^Si^n^"
in Lithuania, in those da>'s a xnaelstrom of conflicting
political currents. To begin with, Lithuania was a far less
composite state than Poland. Two-thirds of the grandduchy
consisted of old Russian lands inhabited by men who spoke
the Ruthenian langxiage and professed the Orthodox Greek
religion, while in the xiorth were the Lithuanians i»oper, sexni-
savage and semi-catholic, justly proud of their heroic forefothers
of the hoiise of Gedymin, and very sensitive of the pretensions
of Poland to the provinces of Volhynia and Podolia, the fruits of
Lithuam'an valour. A Lithuanian himself, Casimir strenuously
resisted the attempts of Poland to wrest these provixices from
the grandduchy. Moreover, durixig the earlier years of hb
reign, he was obh'ged to reside for the most paxt in Lithuania,
where his tranquUizing influence was needed. ]ffis supposed
preference far Lithuania was the xcal cause <tf his impc^nilaiity in
Poland, where, to the very end of his rdgn, he was Rfuded
9o6
POLAND
pusronr
with suspicion, and where every effort was made to thwart his
far-seeing and patriotic political combinations, which were
beyond the comprehension of his self-seeking and narrow-
minded contemporaries. This was notably the case as regards
his dealings with the old enemy of his race, the Teutonic
.Order, whose destruction was the chief aim of his ambition.
The Teutonic Order had long since failed as a religious institu-
tion; it was now to show its inadequacy as a political oiganiza^
tion. In the domain of the Knights the gentry, parochial
clergy and townsmen, who, beneath its protection, had attained
to a high d^pree of wealth and civilization, for long remained
without the lightest political influence, though they bore nearly
the whole burden of taxation. In 1414, however, intimidated
by the growing- discontent, which frequently took the form of
armed rebellion, the Knights consented to the establishment
of a diet, which was re-formed on a more aristocratic basb in
143a But the old abuses continuing to multiply, the Prussian
towns and gentry at last took their affairs into their own hands,
and formed a so-called Prussian League, which demanded an
equal share in the government of the coimtry. This league was
excommimicated by the pope, and placed under the ban of
the empire almost simultaneously in 1453, whereupon it placed
itself beneath the protection of its nearest powerful neighbour,
the king of Poland, who (March 6, 1454) issued a manifesto
incorporating all the Prussian provinces with Poknd, but,
at the same time, granting them local autonomy and free
trade.
But provmces are not conquered by manifestoes, and Casimir's
acceptance of the homage of the Prussian League at once
involved him in a war with the desperate Teutonic Knights,
which lasted twelve years, but might easily have been concluded
in a twelvemonth had he only been loyally supported by his
own subjects, for whose benefit he had embarked upon this
great enterprise. But instead of support, Casimir encountered
obstinate obstruction at every point. No patriotic Pole, we
imagine, can read the history of this miserable war without
feeUng heartily ashamed of his coimtrymen. The acquisition
of the Prussian lands was vital to the existence of Poland. It
meant the exdsion of an alien element which fed like a cancer
on the body politic; it meant the recovery, at comparatively
little cost, of the command of the principal rivers of Poland, the
Vistula and the Niemen; it meant the obtaining of a seaboard
with the corollaries of sea-power and world-wide oonmierce.
Yet, except in the bonier province of Great Pohmd, which was
interested commercially, the whole enterprise was regarded
with such indifference that the king, in the very crisis of the
struggle, could only with the utmost difficulty obtain contribu-
tions for war expenses from the half-dozen local diets of Poland,
which extorted from the helplessness of their distracted
and impecunious sovereign fresh privileges for every subsidy
they grudgingly granted* Moreover Casimir's difficidties were
materially increased by the necessity of paying for Czech
mercenaries, the pospolite rusxenUf or Polidi militia, proving
utterly useless at the very beginning of the war. Indeed,
from first to last, the Polish gentry as a body took good care to
pay and fight as little as possible, and Casimir depended for
the most part upon the liberality of the Church and the Prussian
towns, and the valour of the Hussite infantry, 170,000 of whom,
fighting on both sides, are said to have perished. Not till the
victory of Puck (September 17, 1462), one of the, very few
pitched battles in a war of raids, skimushes and sieges, did
fortune Incline decisively to the side of the Poles, who maintained
and improved their advantage till absolute exhaustion compelled
the Knights to accept the mediation of a pa[>al legate, and
the second peace of Thorn (October X4, 1466) concluded a
struggle which had reduced the Prus^an provinces to a wilder-
ness.* By the second peace of Thorn, Poland recovered the
provinces of Pomerelia, Kulm and Michalow, with the bishopric
of Ermeland, numerous cities and fortresses, including Marien-
* 18.000 of their ai/xx) villages were destroyed, 1000 churches
were razed to the ground, and the population was diminished by
more than a quarter of a millioo. *
burg, Elbing, Danzig and Thorn. The territory'of the KaaiMt
was now reduced to Prussia proper, embracing,- roughly wpeak-
ing, the district between the Baltic, the lower Vistula and the
lower Niemen, with KSnigsberg as its capital. Tor this territory
the grand-masters, within nine months of their election, woe
in future to render homage to the Polish king; but, on the other
hand, the king undertook not to make war or engage in any
important enterprise without the consent of the Pruaian i»o>
vince, and vice versa. Thus Prunia was now confederated with
Poland, but she occupied a subordinate position as compared
with Lithuania, inasmuch as the grand-master, tboo^ filling
the first place in the royal council, was still a subject of the
Polish crown. Thus the high hopes entertained by Casimv
at the beginning of the war had not been realized. The final
settlement with the Poles was of the nature of a compromise.
Still the Knights had been driven beyond the Vistula, and Poland
had secured a seaboard; and it was due entirely to the infinite
patience and tenacity of the king that even as much as this was
won at last.
The whole foreign policy of Casimir IV. was more or less
conditioned by the Prussian question, and here also his superior
diplomacy triumphantly assoted itself. At the beginning of
the war both the empire and the pope were against him, but he
neutralized their hostility by allying himself with George of
Podvebrad, whom the Hussites had placed. on the throne of
Bohemia. On the death of George, Casimir's eldest son Wladis>
laus was elected king of Bohemia by the Utraquist party, despite
the determined opposition of Matthias Cbrvinus, king of
Hungary, whose ability and audadty henceforth made Urn
Caslmir's most dangerous rivaL Sure of the support of
the pope, Matthias (q.v.) deliberatdy set about travenof
all the plans of Casimir. He encouraged the Teutonic Onkr
to rebel against Poland; he entertained at hm court anti-
Polish embassies from Moscow; he encouraged the Tatars to
ravage Lithuania; he thwarted Casimir's policy in MoUavia.
The death of the brilliant adventurer at ihenna in 1490 cum
therefore as a distinct relief to Poland, and all danger froa-
the side of Himgary was removed in 1490 when Casimir's §m
Wladlslaus, alr«uly king of Bohemia, was dected kiag of
Hungary also.
It was in the reign of Casimir IV. that Poland first csbm
into direct collision with the Turiss. The Rqm^ic was never,
indeed, the "Buckler of Christendom.** That ^ . __^
glorious epithet belonged of right to Hungary, which tS^riSj
had already borne the brunt of the ttana^ with
the Ottoman power for more than a century. It is true thtt
Wladlslaus n. of Poland had fallen on the fidd of Varna, but
it was as a Magyar king at the head of a Magyar army that the
young monarch met his fate. Poland, indeed, was far less ahle
to cope with the Turks than compact, wealthy Hungary, vhkh
throughout the isth century was one of the most effideat
military monarchies in Europe. The Jagidlos, as a nk,
prudently avoided committing thenudves to any political
system which might irritate the still distant but much-dreaded
Turk, but when their dominions extended so far southwards
as to embrace Mddavia, the observance of & strict neattafity
became exceedingly difficult. Pdand had established a sort
of suzerainty over Moldavia as eariy as the end of the X4th
century; but at best it was a loose and vague ovnlmdihip
which the Hospodars repudiated whenever they were atxoef
enough to do so. The Turks themselves were too mudi occupied
elsewhere to pay much attention to the Dannblan principalities
till the middle of the X5th century. In 1478 Mafaooiet H.
had indeed attempted thdr subjug^itioD, with but indificreat
success; but it was not till 1484 that the Oitomaos hccaae
inconvenient neighbours to Pdand. In that year a TotkiA
fleet captured the stron^udds of KiHa and Akkerman, conmaad*
ing respectivdy the mouths of the Danube axkl I>niester. IVi
aggression seriously threatened the trade of Pioland. and icdooed
Casimir IV. to accede to a general leagoe against the Porta
In X485, after driving the Tiuks out of Moldavia, the PoU
king, at the head of ao^ooo nen, prooeeM to F'jintiff op.thi
HISTORY!
POLAND
907
Pruth, where Bayezid 11., then embarrassed by the Egyptian
war, offered peace, but as no agreement concerning the captured
fortresses could be arrived at, hostilities were suspended by a
truce. During the remainder of his reign the T\irks gave no
trouble.
It was a fortunate thing for Poland that, during the first
century of her ascension to the rank of a great power, political
exigencies compelled her to appropriate almoftt more territory
than her primitive and centrifugal government could properly
assimilate; it was fortunate that throughout this period of
expansion her destinies should, with one brief interval, have
been controlled by a couple of superior statesmen, each of whom
ruled for nearly fifty years. During the fourteen years (1492-
1506) which separate the reigns of Casimir IV. and Sigismund I.
she was not so lucky. The controlling hand of Casimir IV. was
no sooner withdrawn than the unruly elements, ever present
in the Republic, and ultimately the casue of its ruin, at once
burst fortL The first symptom of this lawlessness was the
separation of Poland and Lithuania, the Lithuanians proceeding
to elect Alexander, Casimir's fourth son, as their grand-duke,
without even consulting the Polish senate, in flagrant violation
of the union of Horodlo. The breach, happily, was of no very
long duration. A disastrous war with Ivan III., the first
Muscovite tsar, speedily convinced the Lithuanians that they
were not strong enou^ to stand alone, and in 1499 they
voluntarily renewed the union. Much more dangerous was
the political revolution proceeding simultaneoudy in Poland,
jokuL where John Albert, the third son of Casimir, had
A^ft, been elected king on the death of his father. The
1^2-tSQl, nature of this revolution will be considered in detail
when we come to speak of the growth of the Polish
constitution. Suffice it here to say that it was both anti-
monarchical and anti-democratic, tending, as it did, to place all
political authority in the hands of the sxlachta, or gentry.
The impecunious monarch submitted to the dictation of the
diet in the hope of obtaining sufficient money to prosecute his
ambitious designs. With his elder brother Wladi^us reigning
over Bohemia and Hungary the credit of the Jagiellos in Europe
had never been so great as it was now, and John Albert, bent
upon military glory, eagerly placed himself at the head of what
was to have been a great anti-Turkish league, but ultimately
dwindled down to a raid upon Moldavia which ended in disaster.
The sole advantage which John Albert reaped from his champion-
ship of the Christian cause was the favour of the Curia, and the
ascendancy which that favour gave him over the Teutonic
Knights, whose new grand-master, Albert of Saxony, was reluc*
tanJy compelled to render due homage to the Polish king.
Under Alexander {q.v.)^ who succeeded his brother
tirVM%f[.' ^ ^S^h matters went from bad to worse. Alex-
ander's election cemented, indeed, once for all, the
union between Poland and Lithuania, inasmuch as, on the
eve of it (Oct 3, 1501) the senates of both countries agreed
that, in future, the king of Poland should always be grand-duke
of Lithuania; but this was the sole benefit which the Republic
derived from the reign of Alexander, under whom the Polish
government has been well described as a rudderless ship in a
stormy sea, with nothing but the grace of God between it
and destruction. In Lithuania the increasing pressure of the
Muscovite was the chief danger. Till the accession of Ivan III.
in X462 Muscovy had been a negligible factor in
Poli^ politics. During the earh'er part of the xsth
century, the Lithuanian princes had successfully
contested Muscovite influence even in Pskov and Great Novgorod.
Many Russian historians even maintain that, but for the fact
that Witowt had simultaneously to cope with the Teutonic
Order and the Tatars, that energetic prince would certainly
have extinguished strug^g Muscovy altogether. But since
the death of Witowt (1430) the miliUry efficiency of Lithuania
had sensibly declined; single-handed she was no longer a matdi
for her aodent riva/. Xhis was owing partly to the evils of an
hUgoTcluc goyenuncnt; partly to the weakness Tesulting from
the aatuial Attractjoo 0/ the Orthodox-Greek elcma»t in Xithu-
ania towards Muscovy, especially after the fall of Constantinople,
but chiefly to the adininistrative superiority of the highly cen-
tralized Muscovite government. During the reign of Alex-
ander, who was too poor to maintain any adequate standing
army in Lithuania, the Muscovites and Tatars ravaged the
whole country at will, and were prevented from conquering it
altogether only by their inability to capture the chief fortresses.
In Poland, meanwhile, something very like anarchy prevailed.
Alexander had practically surrendered his authority to an
incapable aristocracy, whose sole idea of ruling was systematically
to oppress and humiliate the lower da^es. In foreign affairs
a policy of drift prevailed which encouraged all the enemies
of the Republic to raise their heads, while the dependent states
of Prussia in the north and Moldavia in the south mede strenuous
efforts to break away from Poland. Fortunately for the integ-
rity of the Polish state the premature death of Alexander in
1506 brought upon the throne his capable brother Sigismund,
the fifth son of Cashnir IV., whose long reign of^^
forty-two years was salutary, and would have been tSSSi
altogether recuperative, had his statesmanship only
been loyally supported by his subjects. Eminently practical
Sigismtmd recognized that the first need of Poland was a stand-
ing army. The miserable collapse of the Polish chivalry during
the Bukovinian campaign of 1497 had convinced every one that
the ruszcnic pospoliU was useless for serious military purposes,
and that Poland, in order to hold her own, must in futiu^e follow
the example of the West, and wage her warfare with trained
mercenaries. But professional soldiers could not be hired
without money, and the difficulty was to persuade the diet to
loose its purse-strings. All that the gentry contributed at
present was two pence (groschen) per hide of land, and this only
for defensive service at home. If the king led the rusMenie
pospoliU abroad he was obliged to pay so much per pike out of
his own pocket, notwithstanding the fact that the heavily
mortgaged crown lands were practically valueless. At the
diet of 15x0 the chancellor and primate, Adam Laski, proposed
an income-tax of 50% at once, and 5% for subsequent years,
payable by both the lay and derical estates. In view of the
fact that Poland was the most defenceless country in Eiuope,
with no natural boundaries, and constantly exposed to attacks
from every quarter, it was not unreasonable to expect even this
patriotic sacrifice from the privileged classes, who held at least
two-thirds of the land by military tenure. Nevertheless, the
diet refused to consider the scheme. In the following year a
more modest proposal was made by the Crown in the shape of
a capitation of six gulden, to be levied on every nobleman at
the beginning of a campaign, for the hiring of mercenaries.
This also was rejected. In 15x3 the king came forward with a
third scheme. He proposed to divide the country into five'
circles, corresponding to the five provinces, each of which was
to undertake to defend the realm in turn should occasion arise.
Moreover, every one who so desired it might pay a conunutation
in lieu of personal service, and the amount so realized was to be
re-used to levy troops. To this the dietines, or local diets, of
Great Poland, and Little Poland, agreed, but at the last moment
the whole project foundered on the question who was the proper
custodian of the new assessment rolls, and the king had to be
content with the renewal of former subsidies, varying from
twelve to fifteen groats per hide of land for three years. Well
might the disappointed monarch exclaim: " It is vain to labour
for the welfare of those who do not care a jot about it them-
selves." Matters improved somewhat in 1537, when the
sslacktOt by a special act, placed the mightiest magnates on the
same level as the humblest squire as regards military service,
and proposed at the same time a more general assessment for
the purpose, the control of the money so realized to be placed
in the hands of the king. In consequence of this law the great
lords were compelled to put forces in the field proportionni to
their enormous fortunes, and Sigismund was able in 1539 to
raise 300 foot and 3300 horse from the province of Podolia alone.
But though the treasury was thus temporarily replenished and
the army increased, the gentry who had beoi so generous at
9o8
POLAND
IHISrORT
the expense of their richer neighbours would hear of no addi-
tional burdens being laid on themselves, and the king only
obtained what he wanted by sacrificing his principles to his
necessiues, and helping the sxlachta to pull down the magnates.
This fatal parsimony had the most serious poUtlcal consequences,
for it crippled the king at every step. Strive and scheme as
be might, his needs were so urgent, his enemies so numerous,
that, though generally successfid in the end, he had always to
be content with compromises, adjustments and semi-victories.
Thus he Was obhged, in 1525, to grant local autonomy to the
province of Prussia instead of annexing it; he was unable to
succour his unfortunate nephew, Louis of Hungary, against the
Turkish peril, he was compelled to submit to the occupation
of one Lithuanian province after the other by the Muscovites,
and look on helplessly while myriads of Tatars penetrated to
the veiy heart of his domains, wasting with fire and sword
everything they could not carry away with them.
Again, it should have been the first duty of the RepubUc
adequately to fortify the dzikie pola, or "savage steppe," as
the vast plain was called which attended from Kiev
to the Black Sea, and some feeble attempts to do so
were at last made. Thus, in the reign of Alexander,
the fugitive serfs whom tyranny or idleness had driven into
this wilderness (they were subsequently known as Kazaki, or
Cossacks, a Tatar word meaning freebooters) were formed into
companies (c. 1504) and placed at the disposal of the frontier
sktroslas, or lord marchers, of Kaniev, Kamenets, Czerkask on
the Don and other places. But these measures proved inade-
quate, and in 1533 the lord marcher, Ostafi Daszkiewicz, the
hero of Kaniev, which he had successfully defended against
a countless host of Turks and Tatars, was consulted by the
diet as to the best way of defending the Ukraine permanently
against such inroads. The veteran expert advised thie populating
and fortifying of the islands of the Dnieper Two thousand
men would suffice, he said, and the Cossacks supplied excellent
military material ready to hand. The diet unanimously
approved of this simple and inexpensive plan; a special com-
mission examined and approved of its details, and it was sub-
mitted to the next diet, which rejected it. So nothing at all
was done ofiBcially, and the defence of the eastern Ukraine was
left to providence. Oddly enough the selfish prudence of Sigis-
mund's rapacious consort, (}ueen Bona, did more for the national
defence than the Polish state could do. Thus, to defend her
immense possessions in Volhynia and Podoh'a, she converted
the castles of Bar and Krzemieniec into first-class fortresses,
and placed the former in the hands of her Silesian steward, who
acquitted himself so manfully of his charge* that " the Tatars
fell away frdm the frontier all the days of Pan Pretficz," and
a large population settled securely beneath the walls of Bar,
henceforth known as " the bastion of Podolia." Nothing,
perhaps, illustrates so forcibly the casual character of the Polish
government in the most vital matters as this single incident.
The most important political event during the reign of Sigis-
mund was the collapse of the andent Hungarian monarchy at
Mohacs in 1526. Poland, as the next neighbour of Hungary,
was more seriously affected than any other European power
by this catastrophe, but her politicians differed as to the best
way of facing it. Immediately after the death of King Louis,
who fell on the field of battle, the emperor Ferdinand and John
Zapolya, voivode of Transylvania, competed for the vacant
crown, and both were elected almost simultaneously. In
Poland 2^poIya's was the popular cause, and he also found
powerful support in the influential and highly gifted Laski family,
as represented by the Polish chancellor and his nephews John
and Hieronymus. Sigismund, on the other hand, favoured
Ferdinand of Austria. Though bound by family ties with both
competitors, he regarded the situation from a purely political
point of view. He argued that the best way to keep the Turk
from Poland was for Austria to incorporate Hungary, in which
case the Austrian dominion would be a strong and permanent
barrier against a Mussulman invasion of Europe. History has
* Pretficz won no fewer than 70 engagements over the Tatais.
more than justified him, and the long duel which ensued between
Ferdinand and Zapolya (see Huncaiy: Hutory) enabled the
Polish monarch to maintain to the end a cautious but (dMervant
neutrality. More than once, indeed, Sigismund was seriously
comproinised by the diplomatic vagaries of Hieronymus Laski.
who entered the service of Zapolya (since 1539 the protig6 of
the sultan), and greatly alarmed both the emperw and the pope
by his disturbing philo-Turk proclivities. It was owing to
Laski's intrigues that the new hospodar of Moldavia, Petryk),
after doing homage, to the Porte, intervened in the struggle as
the foe of both Ferdinand and Sigismund, and besieged the
Grand Hetman of the Crown, Jan Tamowski, ih Obertyn, where,
however, the Moldavians (August aa, 1531) sustained a crash-
ing defeat, and Petrylo was slain. Nevertheless, so anxious vas
Sigismund to avoid a collision with the Turks, that be forbade
the victorious Tamowski to cross the Moldavian frontier, and
sent a letter of explanation to Constantinople. On the death of
John Zapolya, the Austro-Polish alliance was still further
cemented by the marriage of Sigismund's scm and heir, S^
mund Augustus, with the archduchess Elizabeth. In the reign of
Sigismund was ^ected the incorporation of the duchy of Masovia
with the Polish crown, after an independent existence of five
hundred years. In 1526 the male linie of the andent dynattj
became extinct, and on the 36th of August Sigismund recciTed
the homage of the Masovians at Warsaw, the capital of the
duchy and ere long of the whole kingdom. Almost erery
acre of densdy populated Masovia was in the hands of her sturdy,
ultra-conservative squires, in point of culture far below thdr
brethren in Great and Little Poland. The additional rercBae
gained by the Crown from Masovia was at first but Myooo
gulden per annttm.
The four and twenty years of Siglunund n 's reign vas a
critical period of PoUah history. Complications with the
Turk were avoided by the adroit diplomacy of the king, vbfle
the superior disdpline and efficiency of the Polish armies ondcr
the great Tamowski {q.v.) and his pupils overawed the Titan
and extraded the Muscovites, ndther of whom were so tio(d>le-
some as they had been during the last reign. AH the matt
disquieting was the internal condition of the country, doe
mainly to the invasion of Pdand by the Reformation, and the
coinddence of this invasion with an internal revolutioo of a
quasi-democratic character, which aimed at substituting the
rule of the sxlachta for the rule of the senate.
Hitherto the Republic had given the Holy See but littk
anxiety. Hussite influences, in the b^inniitg of the istk
century, had been superficial and transitory. The yi»Mhr
Polish government had employed Hussite mcrces- m^mti
aries, but rejected Htissite propagandists. The ***■■'
edict of Widun (1424), remarkable as the first anti-heretical
decree issued in PoUnd, crushed the new sect in its inhocy-
Lutheranism, moreover, was at first regarded with grave sas-
pidon by the intensely patriotic Polish gentry, because of its
German origin. Neverthdess, the extremdy severe penal edicts
issued during the reign of Sigismund I., thou^ sddon apfdied.
seem to point to the fact that heresy was spreading widely
throughout the country. For a time, therefore, the Protcstasu
had to be cautious in Poland pri:^>er, but they found a sere
refuge in Prussia, where Lutheranism was already the estab-
lished religion, and where the nevdy erected university ef
KSnigsberg became a aenunaiy for Polish ministers ta^
preachers.
While Lutheranism was thus threatening the PoBsh Chuick
from the north, Calvinism had already invaded her froo tbe
w^ Calvinism, indeed, rather recommended itself to the Poks
as being of non-German origin, and Calvin actuaUy dedicated
his Commentary on the Mass to the young krUewia (or cnm
prince) Sigismund Augustus, from whom protestantism, cnos'
eously enough, expected much in the future. Mesivbir
conversion to Calvinism, among tbe higher dasses in Polaad,
became more and more frequenL We hear of crowded Cahiciit
conventides in Little Poland from 1545 onwards, and Calvnisn
continued to spread thnrailurat the kingdom during the btv
HISTORyi
POLAND
909
years of Sigismund I. Another sect, which ultiouttely found
even more favour in Poland than the Calvinists, was that of
the Bohemian Brethren. We first hear of them in Great Poland
in 1548. A royal decree promptly banished them to Prussia,
where they soon increased so rapidly as to be able to hold their
own against the Lutherans. The death of the uncompromising
Sigismund I. came as a great relief to the Protestants, who
entertained high hopes of his son and successor. He was known
to be familiar with the works of the leading reformers; he was
surrounded by Protestant counsellors, and he was actually
married to Barbara, daughter of Prince Nicholas Radziwill,
" Black Radziwill," the all-powerful chief of the Lithuanian
Calvinists. It was not so generally known that Sigismund II.
was by conviction a sincere though not a bigoted Catholic; and
nobody suspected that beneath his diplomatic urbanity lay a
patriotic firmness and statesmanlike qualities of the first order.
Moreover, they ignored the fact that the success of the Protestant
propaganda was due rather to political than to religious causes.
The Polish gentry's jeak>usy of the clerical estate, whose privi-
leges even exceeded their own, was at the bottom of the whde
matter. Any opponent of the established clergy was the natural
ally of the sdachta, and the scandalous state of the Church herself
provided them with a most formidable weapon against her.
It is not too much to say that the condition of the Catholic
Church in Poland was almost as bad as it was in Scotland during
the same period. The bishops were, for the most part, elegant
triflers, as pliant as reeds, with no fixed principles and saturated
with a false humanism. Some of them were notorious evil-
livers. " Pint-pot " Latuski, bishop of Posen, had purchased
his office for 12,000 ducats from Queen Bona; while another
of her creatures, Peter, popularly known as the "wencher,"
was appointed bishop of Przemysl with the promise of the
reversion of the still richer see of Cracow. Moreover, despite
her immense wealth (in the province of Little Poland alone
she owned at this time 26 towns, 83 landed estates and 77a
villages), the Church claimed exemption from all public burdens,
from all political responsibilities, although her prelates continued
to exercise an altogether disproportionate political influence.
Education was shamefully neglected, the masses being left in
almost heathen ignorance — and this, too, at a time when the
upper classes were greedily appropriating the ripe fruits of the
Renaissance and when, to use the words of a contemporary,
there were " more Latinists in Poland than there used to be in
Latium." The university of Cracow, the sole source of know-
ledge in the vast Polish realm, still moved in the vicious circle
of scholastic formularies. The provincial schoob, dependent
upon so decrepit an alma maUr, were suffered to decay. This
criminal neglect of national education brought along with it
its own punishment. The sons of the gentry, denied proper
instruction at home, betook themselves to the nearest univer-
sities across the border, to Goldberg in Silesia, to Wittemberg,
to Leipzig. Here they fell in with the adherents of the new faith,
grave, earnest men who professed to reform the abuses which had
grown up in the Church; and a sense of equity as much as a love
of novelty moved them, on their return home, to propagate
wholesome doctrines and clamour for the reformation of their
own degenerate prelates. Finally the poorer clergy, neglected
by their bishops, and excluded from all preferment, took part
with the sxlachta against their own spiritual rulers and eagerly
devoured and imparted to their flocks, in their own language,
the contents of the religious tracts which reached them by divers
ways from Goldberg and Kdnigsberg. Nothing indeed did so
much to popularize the new doctrines in Poland as this benefidal
revival of the long-neglected vernacular by the reformers.
Such was the situation when Sigismund II. began his reign.
The bishops at once made a high bid for the favour of the new
SQite- kipg by consenting to the coronation of his Calvinist
flMMdf^ consort (Dec. 7. iSSo) and the king five days
''**"*^''* afterwards issued the celebrated edict in which he
pledged his royal word to preserve intact the um'ty of the Church
and to enforce the law of the land against heresy. Encouraged
oy this pleasing symptom of orthodoxy the bishops, instead
of first attempting to put their 'own dilapidated house in order,
at once proceeded to institute prosecutions for heresy against
all and sundry. This at once led to an explosion, and tt the
diet of Piotrkow, X5$a, the silaclUa accepteid a proposition ojf
the king, by way ol compromise, that the jurisdiction of the
clerical courts should be suspended for twelve months, on
condition that the gentry continued to pay tithes as heretofore.
Then began a religious M/er>m, which was gradually prolongel
for ten years, during which time Protestantism in Poland
flourished exceedingly. Presently reformers of.«very shade of
opinion, even those who were tolerated nowhere eJse, poured
into Poland, which speedily became the battle-ground of all the
sects of Europe. Soon the Protestants became numerous enough
to form ecclesiastical districts of their own. The first Calvinist
synod in Poland was held at Pinczow in 1550. The Bohemian
Brethren evangelized Little Poland, but ultimately coalesced
with the Calvinists at the synod of Kozminek (August 1555).
In the diet itself the Protestants were absolutely supreme,
and invariably elected a Calvinist to be their marshal. At the
diet of 1555 they boldly demanded a national synod, absdute
toleration, and the equalization of all the sects except the Anti-
trinitarians. But the king intervened and the existing interim
was indefinitely prolonged. At the diet of Piotricow, x 558-1 559,
the onslaught of the sshchia on the clergy was fiercer than ever,
and they even demanded the exclusion of the bishops from the
senate. The king, however, perceiving a danger to the constitu-
tion in the violence of the sdachta, not only supported the
bishops, but quashed a subsequent reiterated demand for a
national synod. The diet of 1 558-1 559 indicates the high-water
mark of Polish Protestantitoi. From this time forward it began
to subside) very gradually but immistakably. The chief cause
of this subsidence was the division among the reformers them-
selves. From the chaos of creeds resulted a chaos of ideas
on all imaginable subjects, politics included. The Anti-trini-
tarian proved to be the chief dissolvent, and. from 1560 onwards
the relations between the two principal Protestant sects, the
Lutherans and the Calvinists, were fratricidal rather than
fraternal. An auxiliary cause of the decline of Protestantism
was the beginning of a Catholic reaction. The bulk of the popu-^
lation still held persistently, if languidly, to the faith of its
fathers; the new bishops were holy and leanied men, very
unlike the creations of (^een Bona, and the Holy See gave to
the slowly reviving zeal of both clergy and laity the very neces-
sary impetus from without. For Poland, unlike Scotland, was
fortunately, in those days of difficult inter-communicati<m, not
too far off, and it is indiH>utable that in the first instance it was
the papal nuncios, men like Berard of Camerino and Giovanni
Commendone, who reorganized the scattered and faint-hearted
battalions of the Church militant in Poland and led them back
to victory. At the diet of Piotrkow in 1562, indeed, the king's
sore need of subsidies induced him, at the demand of the sdachta^
to abolish altogether the jurisdiction of the ecclesiastical courts
in cases of heresy; but, on the other hand, at the diet of 1564
he accepted from Commendone the Tridentine decrees and issued
an edict banishing all foreign, and especially Aptl-trinitarian,
heretics from the land. At the diet of 1565 Sigismund went
still farther. He rejected a petition for a national ^0
pacificatory synod as unnecessary, inasmuch as the
council of Trent had already settled all religious
questions, and at the same time consoited to the
introduction into Poland of the most formidable adversaries of
the Reformation, the Jesuits. These had already been installed
at Poltusk, and were permitted, after the diet rose, to found
establishments in the dioceses of Posen, Ermeland and Vilna,
which henceforth became centres of a vigorous and victorious
propaganda. Thus the Republic recovered her catholicity and
her internal harmony at the same time.
With rare sagacity Sigismund II. had thus piloted the Republic
through the most difficult internal crisis it had yet encountered.
In purely poUtical matters also both initiative and fulfilment
came entirely from the Crown, and to the last of the Jagiellos
Poland owed the important acguisition of Livonia and the
9IO
POLAND
fHlSTORY
wdding together of her loosely connected component paru into
a single state by the Union of Lublin.
In the middle of the z6th century the ancient order of the
Knights of the Sword, whose territory embraced Esthonia,
Livonia, Courland, Semgallen and the islands of Dagd and Ocscl,
was tottering to its fall. All the Baltic powers were more or less
interested in the apportionment of this vast tract of land, whose
geographical position made it not only the chief commercial
link between east and west, but also the emporium whence the
English, Dutch, Swedes, Danes and Germans obtained their
corn, timber and most of the raw products of Lithuania and
Muscovy. Matters were complicated by the curious political
intricacies of this long-coveted domain, where the grand-master,
the archbishop of Riga, and the estates of Livonia possessed
concurrent and generally conflicting jurisdictions. Poland
and Muscovy as the nearest neighbours of thb moribund state,
which had so long excluded them from the sea, were vitally
concerned in its fate. After an anarchic period of suspense,
lasting from 1546 to 1561, during which Sweden secured
Esthonia, while Ivan the Terrible fearlessly ravaged Livonia,
in the hope of making it valueless to any other potentate,
Sigismund II., to whom both the grand-master and the arch-
bishop had appealed more than once for protection, at length
intervened decisively. Both he and his chancellor, Piotr
Myszkowski (d. 1591), were well aware of the importance of
securing a coast-land which would enable Poland to become a
•naval power. But the diet, with almost incredible short-sighted-
ness, refused to waste a penny on an undertaking which, they
argued, concerned only Lithuania, and it was not as king of
Poland, but as grand-duke of Lithuania, and with purely
Lithuanian, troops, that Sigismund, in 1561, occupied Livonia.
At his camp before Riga the last grand-master, Gotthard von
Ketteler, who had long been at the head of the Polish party in
Livonia, and William of Brandenburg, archbishop of Riga,
gladly placed themselves beneath his protection, and by a subse-
quent convention signed at Vilna (Nov. 28, 1561), Livonia was
incorporated with Lithuania in much the same way as Prussia
had been incorporated with Poland thirty-six years previously.
Ketteler, who had adopted Lutheranism during a visit to Ger-
many id 1553, now professed the Augsburg Confession, and be-
came the first duke of a new Protestant duchy, which he was to
hold as a fief of the Polish crown, with local autonomy and abso-
lute freedom of worship. The southern provinces of the ancient
territory of the Order, Courland and Semgallen, had first been
ceded on the 34th of June 2559 to Lithuania on similar condi-
tions, the matter being finally adjusted by the compact of
March 1562.
The apathy of Poland in such a vital matter as the Livonian
question must have convinced so statesmanlike a prince as
Sigismund II. of the necessity of preventing any possibility of
cleavage in the future between the two halves of his dominions
whose absolute solidarity was essential to their existence as a
great power. To this patriotic design he devoted the remainder
of his life. A personal union, under one monarch, however
close, had proved inadequate. A further step must be taken —
the two independent countries must be transformed into a
single state. The great obstacle in the way of this, the only
true solution of the difiiculty, was the opposition of the Lithu-
anian magnates, who feared to lose the absolute dominancy
they possessed in the grand-duchy if they were merged in the
alachta of the kingdom. But, at the last moment, the dread
of another Muscovite invasion made them more pliable and, at.
a Polish diet held at Warsaw from November 1563 to June 1 564,
which the Lithuanians attended, the question of an absolute
union was hotly debated. When things came to a deadlock
the king tactfully intervened and voluntarily relinquished his
hereditary title to Lithuania, thus placing the two countries
on a constitutional equality and preparing the way for fresh
negotiations in the future. The death, in 1565, of Black
Radziwill, the chief opponent of the union, still further weakened
the Lithuanians, and the negotiations were reopened with more
prospect of success at the diet which met at Lublin on the loth
of January 1569. But even now the Lithuanians vac indis-
posed towards a complete union, and finally they quitted the
diet, leaving two commissioners behind to watch their interests.
Then Sigismund executed his master stroke. Knowing the
sensitiveness of the Lithuanians as regards Volhynia and
Podolia, he suddenly, of his own authority, formally incorporated
both these provinces with the kingdom of Poland, whereupon,
amidst great enthusiasm, the Volhynian and Podolian deputies
took their places on the same benches as their Polish brethren.
The hands of the Lithuanians were forced. Even a complete
union on equal terms was better than mutilated independence.
Accordingly they returned to the diet, and the^
union was unanimously adopted on the ist of Julyj
1569. Henceforth the kingdom of Poland and
grand duchy of Lithuania were to constitute one'
inseparable and indivisible body politic, under one'
sovereign, elected in common, with one diet and one currency.
All dependencies and colonies, including Prtosia and Livtmia,
were to belong to Poland and Lithuania in common. The
retention of the old duality of dignities was the one reminis-
cence of the original separation. No decision, however, could
be come to as to the successor of the childless king, partly
because of the multiplicity of candidates, partly because of
Austrian intrigue, and this, the most momentous question of aD,
was still unsettled when Sigismund II. expired on the 6th o(
July xs7a.
The Jagiellonic period (1386-1572) is tlie history of the con-
solidation and fusion into one homogeneous, political whole
of numerous national elements, more or less akin ckmrndm
ethnologically, but differing immensdy in language, mitk»
religion and, above all, in degrees of civilization.
Out of the ancient Piast kingdom, mutilated by the
loss of Silesia and the Baltic shore, arose a republic
consisting at first of various loosely connected entities, natonOy
centrifu^, but temporarily drawn together by the urgent need
of combination against a superior foe, who threatened them
separately with extinction. Beneath the guidance <A a dynasty of
princes which, curiously enough, was siq>plied by the \aA
civilized portion of this congeries of nationalities, the nasceot
republic gradually grew into a power which subjugated its
former oppressors and, viewed externally, teemed to bear upon
it the promise of empire. It is dangerous to prophet, but aO
the facts and circumstances before us point irresistibly to the
conclusion that had the Jagiellonic dynasty but endmred this
promise of empire might well have been realized. The extra-
ordinary thing about the Jagiellos was the equable persistency
of their genius. Not only were five of the seven great sUtesoeB,
but they were statesmen of the same stamp. We are distvrfaed
by no such sharp contrasts as are to be found among the FIsA'
tagenets, the Vasas and the Bourbons. The Jagidks vcre
all of the same mould and pattern, but the mould was a strong
one and the pattern was good. Their predominant and constant
characteristic is a sober sagacity which instinctively judges
aright and imperturbably realized its inspirations. The JagicOos
were rarely brilliant, but they were always peisptcadoos.
Above all, they alone seem to have had the gift of guiding the
most difficult of nations properly. Two centuries of JagieOoeic
rule made Poland great despite her grave external difficulties.
Had that dynasty been prolonged for another century, there is
every reason to suppose that it would also have deiit satisfac-
torily with Poland's still more dangerous internal difficulties,
and arrested the development of that anarchical constitatioB
which was the ruling factor in the ruin of the Republic
Simultaneously with the transformation into a great power
of the petty principalities which composed ancient PoUod,
another and equally momentous political transformation was
proceeding within the country itself.
The origin of the Polish constitution is to be ton^t b the
wiece or coundls of the Polish princes, daring the partitiocul
period {c. 1 279-1370). The privileges conferred upon the mag*
nates of which these councils were composed, eapedaDy vpea
the magnates of Little Poland, who brousht the Jagidfes te
HISTORY]
POLAND
911
the thione, directed their policy, and grew rich upon their
liberality, revolted the less favoured o/ocAto, or gentry, who,
Tb0PtMli towards the end of the 14th century, combined for
ComMtUm' mutual defence ' in thehr sqmikit or local diets,
''*** of which originally there were five, three in Great
Poland, one in Little Poland and one in Posen-Kalisz.* In
these sejmiki the deputies of the few great towns were also
represented. The Polish towns, notably Cracow, had obtained
their privileges, including freedom from tolls and municipal
government, from the Crown in return for important services,
such as warding off the Tatars, while the cities of German
origin were protected by the Magdeburg law. Casimir the
Great even tried to make municipal government as democratic
as possible by enacting that one half of the town council of
Cracow should be elected from the dvic patriciate, but the
other half from the commonalty.. Louis the Great placed the
burgesses on a level with the gentry by granting to the town
council of Cracow jurisdiction over aU the serfs in the extra-rural
estates of the citizens. From this time forth deputies from the
cities were summoned to the stfmiki on all important occasions,
such, for instance, as the ratification of treaties, a right formally
conceded to them by the sejmik of Radom in 1384. Thus at
this period Poland was a confederation of half a dozen semi-
independent states. The first general assembly of which we
have certain notice is the sjasd voalny which was summoned to
Koszyce in November 1404, to relieve the financial embarrass-
ments of Wladislaus, and granted him an extraordinary subsidy
of twenty groats per hide of land to enable him to purchase
Dobrzyn from the Teutonic Knights. Such subsidies were
generally the price for the confirmation of ancient or tne con-
cession of new privileges. Thus at the diet of Brzeid Kujawski,
in 1425, the xs/acA/a obtained its first habeas corpus act in return
for acknowledging the right of the infant kroUwkz Wladisbus
to his father's throne. The great opportunity of the stlachta
was, of course, the election of a new king, especially the election
of a minor, an event always accompanied and succeeded by
disorders. Thus at the election of the infant Wladislaus III.,
his guardians promised in his name to confirm all the privileges
granted by his father. If, on attaining his majority, the king
refused to ratify these promises, his subjects were ipso facto
absolved from their obedience. This is the first existence of
the mischievous principle de prestanda ohedientia, subsequently
elevated into a statute. It is in this reign, too, that we meet
with the first rokoa, or insurrection of the nobility against the
executive. The extraordinary difficulties of Casimir IV. were
freely exploited by the szlacfUa, who granted that ever impecu-
nious monarch as little as possible, but got full value for every
penny they grudgingly gave. Thus by the Articles of Cerekwica
presented to him by the sejmik or dietine of Great Poland in
1454 on the outbreak of the Teutonic War, he conceded the
principle that no war should in future be begun without the
consent of the local diets. A few months later he was obliged
to grant the Privileges of Nieszawa, which confirmed and
extended the operation of the Articles of Cerekwica. The
sejmiki had thus added to their original privilege of self-taxation
the right to declare war and control the national militia.* This
was a serious political retrogression. A strongly centralized
government had ever been Poland's greatest need, and Casimir
the Great had striven successfully against all centrifugal ten-
dendes. And now, eighty-four years after his death, Poland
was once more split tip into half a dozen loosely federated states
in the hands of country gentlemen too ignorant and prejudiced
to look beyond the boundaries of thdr own provinces. The
only way of saving the Republic from disintegration was to
concentrate all its political factors into a Sijm-walny or general
diet. But to this the magnates and the stlackta were equally
opposed, the former because they feared the rivalry of a national
assembly, the latter because they were of more importance
in their local dieU than they could possibly hope to be in a
I The .Red Russian BCjraik was of later origin, e. 1433.
-^zflJLYIf^ ^ "* frequency of the Tatar inroads, t|ie control of the
iBilim wa» »»-tian»ferred to the Crown in ijoi-
general diet. The first sejm to le^slate for the whole of Poland
was the diet of Piotrkow (1493), summoned by John Albert
to grant him subsidies; but the mandates of its deputies were
limited to twdve months, and its decrees were to have force
for only three years. John Albert's second diet (1496), after
granting subsidies the burden of which fell entirely on the
towns and peasantry, passed a series of statutes benefiting
the nobility at the expense of the other classes. Thus one
statute permitted the sslackta henceforth to export and import
goods duly free, to the great detriment of the towns and the
treasury. Another statute prohibited the btugess^ from holding
landed property and enjoying the privileges attaching thereto.
A third statute disqualified plebeians from being elected to
canonries or bishoprics. A fourth endeavoured to bind the
peasantry more dosdy to the soil by forbidding emigration.
The condition of the serfs was subsequently (1520) still furtlier
deteriorated by the introduction of socage. In a word, this
diet disttirbed the equilibrium of the state by enfeebling and
degrading the middle classes. Nevertheless, so long as the
JagieUo dynasty lasted, the political rights of the dties were
jealously protected by the Crown against the ustupations of the
nobility. Depudes from the towns took part in the declion
of John Albeit (1492)) and the burgesses of Cracow, the most
enlightened economists in the kingdom, supplied Sigismund I.
with his most capable counsdlors during the first twenty years
of his reign ( 1 506-x 5 26) . Again and again the nobility attempted
to exdude the deputies of Cracow from the diet, in ^Mte of
a severe edict issued by Sigismund I. in 1509, Uureatening to
prosecute for treason all persons who dared to infringe the
liberties of the dtizens. During Sigismund's reign, moreover,
the Crown recovered many of the prerogatives of which it had
been deprived during the reign of his feeble predecessor, Alex-
ander, who, to say nothing of the curtailments of the prerogative,
had been forced to accept the statute nikil non (1505) which
gave the sejm and the senate ah equal voice with the Crown
in all executive matters. In the latter years of Sigismund I.
(i 530-1 548) the political influence of the szlackta grew rapidly
at the expense of the executive, and the gentry in diet a^cmbled
succeeded in curtailing the functions of all the great officers
of state. During the reign of Sigismund II. (1548-1572) they
diverted their attention to the abuses of the Church and con-
siderably reduced both her wealth and her privileges. In this
respect both the Crown and the country were with them, so that
their interference,if violent,was on the whole distinctly beneficial
The childless Sigismund II. died suddenly without leaving
any regulations as to the dection of his successor. Fortunately
for Poland the political horizon was absolutely tattf
unclouded. The Turks, still reeling from the shock ngmam,
of Lepanto, could with difficulty hold their own W"-'^*
against the united forces of the pope, Spain and Venice;
while Ivan the Terrible had just concluded a truce with
PoUmd. Domestic affairs, on the other hand, were in an almost
anarchical condition. The Union of Lublin, bardy three
years old, was anything but consolidated, and in Lithuania
it continued to be extremely unpopular. In Poland proper
the sslackta were fiercdy opposed to the magnates; and the
Protestants seemed bent upon still further castigating the clergy.
Worst of all, there existed no recognized authority in the land
to curb and contrpl its jarring centrifugal political elements.
It was nearly two hundred years since the Republic had suffered
from an interregnum, and the precedents of 1382 were obsolete.
The primate, on hearing of the demise of the Crown, at once
invited all the senators of Great Poland to a conference at
Lowicz, but passed over the sslackta altogether. In an instant
the whole Republic was seething like a caldron, and a rival
assembly was simultaneously summoned to Cracow by Jan
Ferlej, the head of the Protestant party. Civil war was happily
averted at the last moment, and a national convention, composed
of senators and deputies from all parts of the country, assembled
at Warsaw, in April 1573, for the purpose of electing a new king..
Five candidates for the throne were already in the field. lithu-i
ania favoured Ivan IV. . In Pobnd the bishops and most of
9ia
POLAND
PUSIORY
Ihe CathoHc magnales were. for an Aottrian archduke, while
the stron^y anti-Gennan sxtachta were inclined to acc^t almost
any can<Udate but a German, so long as he came with a gift
in his hand and was not a Muscovite. In these circumstances it
was an easy task for the adroit and energetic French ambassador,
Jean de Montluc (d. 1579), brother of the famous marshal,
and bishop of Valence, to procure the dection of the Froich
candidate, Henry, duke of Anjou. Well provided with funds, he
speedily bouf^t over many of the leading magnates, and his
popularity rwched its heig^it when he strenuously advocated
the adoption of the mode of election by the gentry en masu
(which the SMlackla proposed to revive), as opposed to the usual
and more orderly " secret election " by a congress of senators
and deputies, sitting with closed doors. The religious difficulty,
meanwhile, had been adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties
by the compact of Warsaw (Jan. 38, 1573), vdiicfa granted
absolute rel^i^us liberty to all non-Cathdic denominations
{iissiienles de rdigyme^ as they now b^an to be called) without
exception, thus exhibiting a far more liberal intention than
the Germans had manifested in the religious peace of Augsburg
eighteen years before. Finally, early in April 1573, the dection
diet assemUed at Warsaw, and on the nth of May, in the midst
of faitrigue, corruption, violence and confusion. Henry of Valois
was elected king of Poland.
The election had, however, been preceded by a corrtdwra
jurum, or reform of the constitution, which resulted in the
Mtmy^t famous "Henrican Articles" which converted
vmMa, aimk Poland from a limited monarchy into a republic
W^isr4, ^th an dective chief magistrate. Henceforward
the king was to have no voice in the choice of his successor.
He was not to use the word haares, not bdng an hereditary
sovereign. He was to marry a wife sdectoi for him by
the senate. He wasndther to seek for a divorce nor give
occasion for one. He was to be neutral in all rdigious
matters. He was not to lead the militia across the border
except with the consent of the sdadUa, and then only for three
months at a time. Every year the senate was to ai^int
uxteen of its number to be in constant attendance upon the
king in rotas of four, which sedecimvirs were to supervise all
his actions. Should the king fail to observe any one of these
artides, the nation was ipso facto absolved from its allegiance.
This constitutional reform was severdy criticized by contem-
porary political experts. Some strongly condemned the dause
justifying renunciation of allegiance, as tending to treason and
anarchy. Others protested against the anomalous and hdplcss
position of the so-called king, who, if he coidd do no harm, was
certainly powerless for good. But such Cassandras prophesied
to heedless ears. The Republic had deliberately cast itsdf upon
the downward grade which was to lead to ruin.
The reign of Heniy of Valob lasted thirteen months. . The
tidings of the death of his brother Charles IX., which reached
him on the X4th of June 1574, determined him to exchange a
thorny for what he hoped would be a flowery throne, and at
midnight on the i8th of June 1574 he literally fled from Poland,
pursued to the frontier by his indignant and bewildered subjects.
Eighteen months later (Dec. 14, 1575), mainly through the
influence of Jan Zamoyski, Stephen B&thory, prince of Transyl-
vania, was elected king of Poland by the szlachia in opposition
to the emperor Maximilian, who had been dected two days
previously by the senate, after disturbances which would have
rent any other state but Poland to pieces.
The glorious career of Stephen B&thory (1575-1586) is dealt
with elsewhere«(see Stephen, King of Poland). His example
su^kui demonstrates the superiority of genius and valour
Baihory, ovter the most difl^cult circumstances. But his
U75-IS86, 'iidgn was too brief to be permanently benefidaL
The Vasa period of Polish history which began with the
election of Sigismund, son of John JU.j king of Sweden, was the
Sdte- epoch of last and lost chances. The collapse of the
mma^m.,, Muscovite tsardom in the east, and the submersion
^"(•??\ .of the German Empire in the west by the Thirty
Yean' ^War^ presented Pdand with an unprecedented oppor-
tunity of consolidating, once fbc all, her liaiif-woii^poiitioii as
the dominating power of central Europe. Everywhere circum-
stances were favourable to her, and in ^oUdewski, Chodldeivkz
and Koniecpolski she possessed thiree of the greatest captains
of that or any other age. With all the means at her disposal
cheerfully placed in the hands of such valiaot and arable
ministers, it would have been no difficult task for the RepubGc
to have wrested the best part of the Baltic littoral item the
Scandinavian powers, and driven the distracted Mnsooviies
beyond the Volga. Permanent greatness and secular security
were within her reach at the commencement of the Vasa period;
how was it, then, that at the end of that period, only fifty
years later, Poland had already sunk irredeemably nito much
the same position as TwHuy occupies now, the positkn of a
moribund state, existing on sufferance simply because none
was yet quite prqMwed to administer the amp de g^dc^ There
is o^y <me answer; the prindpal cause of thb complete and
irretrievable collapse b to be sought for in the folly, egotism
and selfishness of the Polish gentry, whose insane didike of aD
disdpline, induding even the salutary dtsripline of rq;ular
government, converted Poland into scnnething very like a primi-
Uve tribal community at the very time vrhcn every European
statiesman, induding the more enUghtened of the Poles them-
selves, dearly reco^iized that the political future bdonged to
the stnmgly centralized monarchies, whidi were cvcfywhere
rising on the ruins ci feudalism. Of course there were other
contributory causes. The tenadty with which Sigismund m.
dung to his hereditaiy rights to the Swedish Crown invohed
Poland m a quite unnecessary series of wars with Charies DC
and Gustavus Adolphus, when her forces were sovdy needed
elsewhere. The adhesion of the same monarch to tlw League
of the Catholic Reaction certainly added to the diflkulties of
Polish diplomacy, and still further divided the already distxaited
diet, besides alienating from the court the powerful and popdar
chancellor ZamoyskL Yet Sigismund IIL was a far more dear-
sighted statesman than any ci his counsdlocs or amttadktonk
For instance, he was never misled by the successes of the hhe
Demetrius in Muscovy, and wisdy insisted on recoveili^ the
great eastern fortress of Smolensk rather than attesqitioK
the conquest of Moscow. His much-decried allMinf^f ^rith the
emperor at the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War was eminently
sagadous. He percdved at once that it was the only way of
counteracting the restlessness of the sultan's prot^gCs, the
Protestant princes of Transylvania, whose tinHj^pjinf^j hanks,
scarcdy less savage than their allies the Turks and Tatars, veie
a perpetual menace both to Austria and to Poland. HnaBy
he was bent upon reforming the Polish constituticMi by snbstititt-
ing the decision of all matters by a plurality of vota for a
unanimity imposdble to coimt upon.
When we turn to the sdadUa who absolutdy controlled the
diet, we find not the sL'ghtest trace, I will not say of political
foresight — that they never possessed — but of common patriot-
ism, or ordinary public ^>irit. The most urgent natkaal
necessities were powerless to stir thdr hearts or open their
purses. The diets during the rdgn of Sigismund IIL weie
even more niggardly than they had been under the JagRBas»
and on the sin^e occasion when the terrors of an immitMirt
Tatar invasion constrained them to grant extraordinary sd>>
sidics, they saw to it that such sub^ies should rest entirely
on the shoulders of the burgesses (who had in the nM^»tiiB»
been deprived of the franchise) and the already overfooidencd
peasantry. In the very crisis of the Swedish War, the diminutivt
army of the victorious Chodkiewics was left iinpaid, with the
result that the soldiers mutinied, and marched olF en masn.
Both Chodkicwicz and Zolkiewski frequently had to pay the
expenses of their campaigns out of their own podiets, and veie
expected to conquer empires and defend huzMireds of miks of
frontier with armies of 3000 or 4000 men at OMst. When they
retreated before overwhdming odds thr^ wen pobCdy accused
of cowardice and incompetence. The deteimination to h'ont
still further the power of the executive was at the botton d
this fatal parsimony, with the inevitable ooniequeiKt that,
HISTORY]
POLAND
913
ivhile the king and the senate were powerless, every great noble
or lord-marcher was free to do what be chose in bis own domains,
so long as he flattered his " little brothers/' the sdackta. In-
credible as it may seem, the expedition to place the false
Demetrius on the Muscovite throne was a private speculation
of a few Lithuanian magnates, and similar enterprises on the
part of other irresponsible noblemen on the Danube or Dniester
brought upon imhappy Poland retaliatory Tatar raids, which
reduced whole provinces to ashes. Every attempt to improve
matters, by reforming the impossible constitution, stranded on
the opposition of the gentry. Take, for instance, the typical
and highly instructive case of Zebrzydowski's rebellion.
Nicholas Zebrzydowski, a follower of the chancellor Zamoyski,
was one of the wealthiest and most respectable magnates in
Poland. As palatine of Cracow be held one of the highest and
most lucrative dignities in the state, and was equally famous
for his valour, piety and liberality. Disappointed in his hope
of obtaining the great seal on the death of Zamoyski, he at once
conceived that the whole of the nobility had been insulted in
his person, and proceeded to make all government impossible
for the next three years. On the 7th of March 1606 Sigisraund
summoned a diet for the express purpose of introducing the
principle of decision by majority in the diet, whereupon Zebrzy-
dowski summoned a counter-confederation to Stenczyn in
little Poland, whose first act was to open negotiations with the
prince of Transylvania, Stephen Bocskay, with the view of
hiring mercenaries from him for further operations. At a subse-
quent confederation, held at Lublin in June, Zebrzydowski
was reinforced by another great nobleman, Stanislaus Stadnicki,
called the Devil, who " had more crimes on his conscience than
hairs on his head," and was in the habit of cropping the ears
and noses of small squires and chaining his serfs to the walls of
his underground dungeons for months at a time. This champion
of freedom was very eloquent as to the wrongs of the sslachtaf
and proposed that the assembly should proceed in a body to
Warsaw and there formally renounce their allegiance. The
upshot of his oratory was the summoning of a rokost^ or national
insurrection, to Sandomir, which was speedily joined by the
majority of the sslackta aU over the country, who openly pro-
claimed their intention of dethroning the king and chastising
the senate, and sent Stadnicki to Transylvania to obtain the
armed assistance of Stephen Bocskay. Only the clergy, natur-
ally conservative, still clung to the king, and Sigbmund III.,
who was no coward, at once proceeded to Cracow to overawe
the rokostaniCf or insurrectionists, by his proximity, and take
the necessary meastircs for his own protection. By the advice
of his senators he summoned a zja$d, or armed convention, to
WiSlica openly to oppose the insurrection of Sandomir, which
sfozd was to be the first step towards the formation of a general
confederation for the defence of the throne. Civil war seemed
inevitable, when the sxlachia of Red Russia and Sieradz suddenly
rallied to the king, who at once ordered his army to advance,
and after defeating the insurrectionists at Janowiec (in October),
granted them^ a full pardon, on the sole condition that they
should refrain from all such acts of rebellion in future. Despite
their promises, Zebrzydowski and his colleagues a few months
later were again in arms. In the beginning of 1607 they sum-
moned another rokosz to Jcndrzejow, at the very time when the
diet was assembling at Warsaw. The diet authorized the king
to issue a^ proclamation dissolving the rokosz^ and the rokoa
retorted with a manifesto in which an insurrection was declared
to be as much superior to a parliament as a general council was
to a pope. In a second manifesto published at Jeziema, on the
24th of June, the insurrectionists again renoimced their allegiance
to the king. Oddly enough, the diet before dissolving had,
apfMrently in order to meet the rokoa half-way, issued the
famous edict Dg non praeslanda obedientia, whereby, in case of
future malpractices by the king and his subsequent neglect of at
^teh '^'J warnings thcre-anent by the primate and the
^^ But ^^ '^ ^ formally deposed by the next succeeding
was not th^^^ tHi^ was not enough for the insurrectionists.
^ coxitSxr^eni but the actual deposition of the king
that they demanded, and they had their candidate for the throne
ready in the penon of Gabriel Bethlen, the new prince of Tran-
sylvania. But the limits of even Polish comi^cency had at
last been reached, and ^Ikiewski and Cbodkiewicz were sent
against the rebels, whom they routed at Oransk near Guxow,
after a desperate encounter, on the 6th of July 1607. But,
though driven from the field, the agitation simmered all over
the country for nearly two years longer, and was only terminated,
in 1609, by a general amnesty which excluded every prospect of
constitutional reform.
Wladislaus IV., who succeeded his father in 163 a, was the
most popular monarch who ever sat on the Polish throne.
The ttlackid, who had had a " King L<« " in Sigis- iMMb-
mund, were determined that WladisUus should be lamiv.,
" a King Bee who will give us nothing but honey "— "W-w^.
in other words they hoped to wheedle him out of even more than
they had wrested from his predecessor. WUdislaus submitted
to everything. He promised never to declare war or levy
troops without the consent of the tefm, undertook to fill aU
vacancies within a certain time, and released the sdae/Ua fn»n
the payment of income-tax, their one remaining fiscal obligation.
This boundless complacency was due to policy, not weakness.
I1ie second Polish Vasa was a man of genius, fully conscious of
his powers, and determined to use them for the benefit of his
country. The events of the last reign had demonstrated the
incompetence of the Poles to govern themselves. Any ameliora-
tion of the existing anarchy must be extra-parliamentary and
proceed from the throne. But a reforming monarch was
inconceivable unless he possessed the confidence of the nation,
and such confidence, Wladislaus naturally argued, could only
be won by striking and undeniable public services. On these
principles he acted with brilliant results. Within three yean
of his accession he compelled the Muscovites (Treaty of Polyan-
kova. May a8, 1634) to retrocede Smolen^ and the eastern
provinces lost by Sigismund II., overawed the Porte by a military
demonstration in October of the same year, and, by the Thice
of Stumdorf (Sept. xa, 1635), recovered the Prussian provinces
and the Baltic seaboard from Sweden. But these achievements
excited not the gratitude but the susiudon of the stlackia. They
were shrewd enough to guess that the royal tritunph might
prejudice their influence, and for the next five years they
deliberately thwarted the enlightened and far-reaching projects
of the king* for creating a navy and increasing the revenue
without burdening the estates, by a system of tolls levied on
the trade of the Baltic ports (see Wladislaus IV.), even going
so far as to refuse for nine years to refund the expenses of the
Muscovite War, which he had defrayed out of his privy purse.
From sheer weariness and disgust the king refrained from any
intervention in public affairs for nearly ten years, looking on
indifferently while the ever shorter and stormier diets wran^ed
perpetually over questions of preferment and the best way of
dealing with the extreme dissenters, to the utter neglect of public
business. But towards the end of his reign the energy of
Wladislaus revived, and he began to occupy himself with another
scheme for regenerating his country, in its own despite, by means
of the Cossacks. First, however, it is necessary to describe
briefly the origin and previous history of these romantic free-
booters who during the second half of the 17 th century were the
determining factor of Polish and Muscovite politics.
At the beginning of the i6th century the illimitable steppe
of south-eastern Europe, extending from the Dnieper to the
Urals, had no settled population. Hunters and
fishermen frequented its innumerable rivers, return- ^^^^^j^
ing home laden with rich store of fish and pelts,
while rxmaway serfs occasionally settled in small communities
beneath the shelter of the fortresses built, from time to time,
to guard the southern frontiers of Poland and Muscovy.
Obliged, for fear of the Tatars, to go about with arms in their
hands, these settlers gradually grew strong enough to raid thdr
raiders, selling the booty thus acquired to the merchants of
Muscovy and Poland. Moreover, the Turks and Tatars being
the natural enemies of Christendom, a war of extermination
91+
POLAND
misTOKr
against them was regarded by the Cossacks as a sacred duty.
Curiously enough, these champions of orthodoxy borrowed the
name, which has stuck to them ever since, from their " dog-
headed " adversaries. The rank and file of the Tatar soldiery
were known as KoMoki, or Cossacks, a word meaning " free-
booters," and this term came to be applied indiscriminately to all
the free dwellers in the Ukraine, or border-lands. As time went
on the Cossacks multiplied exceedingly. Their daring grew
with their numbers, and at last they came to be a constant
annoyance to all their neighboilrs, both Christian and Mussul-
man, frequently involving Poland in dangerous and unprofitable
wars with the Ottoman Empire. Indeed, it is not too much to
say that, until the days of Sobieski, the Cossacks were invaiiably
the chief cause of the breaches between the Porte and the
Republic. We have seen how carefully the Jagiellos avoided
participating in any of the crusades directed by the Holy See
against the arch-enemies of the Cross. So successful was their
prudential abstention that no regular war occurred between
Turkey and Poland during the two centuries of their sway.
The first actual collisions, the Cecora campaign of 1620 and the
Khotin War of 162 1 (for John Albert's Moldavian raid does not
count), were due to the depredations of the Cossacks upon the
dominions of the sultan by land and sea, and in all subsequent
treaties between the two powers the most essential clause was
always that which bound the Republic to keep its freebooters in
order.
But in the meantime the Cossacks themsdves had become
a semi-independent community. The origin of the Cossack
state is still somewhat obscure, but the germs of it are visible
as early as the beginning of the x6th century. The union of
Lublin, which led to the polonization of Lithuania, was the
immediate occasion of a considerable exodus to the lowlands of
the Dnieper of those serfs who desired to escape from the taxes
of the Polish government and the tyranny of the Polish land-
lords. Stephen B&thory presently converted the pick of them
Into six registered regiments of 1000 each for the defence of the
border. IJltimately the island of Hortica, just below the falls
of the Dnieper, was fixed upon as their headquarters; and on the
numerous islands of that broad river there gradually arose the
famous Cossack community known as the ZaparoAskaya Syeck,
or Settlement behind the Falls, whence the Dnleperian Cossacks
were known, generally, as Zaporotkians, or Backfallsmen.* The
Cossack kosk, or commonwealth, had the privilege of electing
its ketman, or chief, and his chief officers, the starskins. The
kelman, after election, received from the king of Poland direct
the insignia of his office, viz. the bulawa, or b&ton, the buncki^,
or horse-taH standard, and his official seal; but he was respon-
sible for his actions to the kosk alone, and an inquiry into his
conduct was held at the expiration of his term of office in the
obsckaya skkoda, or general assembly. In time of peace his
power was little more than that of the responsible minister of
a constitutional republic; but in time of warfare he was a
dictator, and disobedience to his orders in the field was punish-
able by death.
The Cossacks were supposed to be left alone as much as posuble
by the Polish government so long as they faithfully fulfilled
their chief obligation of guarding the frontiers of the RepubUc
from Tatar raids. But the relations between a community of
freebooters, mostly composed of fugitive serfs and refugees,
and a government of small squires who regarded the Cossacks
as a mere rabble were bound to be difficult at the best of times,
and political and religious differences presently supervened.
The Cossacks, mostly of Lithuanian origin, belonged to the
Orthodox religion, so far as they belongol to any religion at
all, and the Jagiellos bad been very careful to safeguard the
religious liberties of their Lithuanian subjects, e^)ecially as
the Poles themselves were indifferent on the subject. But, at the
beginning of the 17th century, when the current of the Catholic
reaction was running very strongly and the Jesuits, after
subduing the Protestants, began to undermine the position of
the Orthodox Church in Lithuania, a more intolerant spirit
^ Cf. American. Backwoodsmen.
began to prevail. The old Cahrinist nobflity of TitWi««i«;« ^m^
speedily reconverted; a Uniate Church in mnnexion with Rome
was established; Greek Orthodox congregations, if not genaally
persecuted, were at least depressed and straitened; and the
Cossacks began to hate the Pans, or Polish kwds, not merely
as tyrants, but as heretics. Yet all these obstacles to a good
understanding mi^t, perhaps, have been surmounted if oolx
the Polish diet had treated the Cossacks with common faincai
and common sense. In 1619 the Polish government was
obliged to prohibit absolutely the piratical raids of the rtmfiifln
in the Black Sea, where they habitualljr destroyed Turkish
property to the value of millions. At the same time, by the
compact of Rastawica, the sejm undertook to allow the Coasa^
partly as wages, partly as compensation, 40,000 (raised by the
compact of Kurukow to 60,000) pildeH and 170 wagons of
doth per annum. These terms were never kept, deqnte the
earnest remonstrances of the king, and the complaints of the
aggrieved borderers. Paisimcmy prevailed, as umal, over
prudence, and when the Cossacks showed iwimkf fcaKU stgns
of restiveness, the Poles irritated them still further by ordenog
the construction of the strong fortress of Kudak at the confluence
of the Dnieper and the Samara, to overawe the Zaporozhiaa
community. This further act of repression led to two ter-
rible C^oasack risings, in 1635 and 1636, put down <mly iriah
the utmost difficulty, wh^eupon the diet of 1638 deprived
the 0>ssacks of all their ancient privileges, abolished the
dective hetmanship, and substituted for it a commissioa of
Polish noblemen with absolute power, so that the f^mv^
might well dedare that those who luted them were krds
over them.
Such was the condition of affairs in the Ukraine when Wbdii-
laus IV. proposed to make the Cossacks the pivot of his
policy and his domestic reforms. His far-reac^Ing plans
based upon two facts, the absolute devotion of the Zsporodusat
to himself personally, and the knowledge, secretly conveyed
to him by Stanislaus Koniecpolski (f.t.), that the whole of the
Ukraine was in a ferment. He ptfjpo&ed to provoke the Tatais
to a rupture by repudiating the humiliating txibute with vUdi
the Republic had so long and so vainly endeavoured to boy off
their incessant raids. In case of sudi nqpture he meant, at the
head of 100,000 Cossacks, to fall upon the Crimea itsdf , the test
of their power, and exterminate the iriiaftf^^* Hus be caka-
lated would bring about a retaliatory invasion of Pbhuid by
the Turks, which would justify him in taking the field agiinit
them also with all the forces of the Republic In case of socoes
he would be able to impose the will of a victorious king apwt
discredited diet, and reform the constitution on an En^isb or
Swedish modeL Events seemed at first to favour this audadov
q)eculation. Almost simultaneously a dvil war broke oat is
the Crimea and the Porte declared war against the Vcnetiaa
republic, with which Wladislaus at once conduded an lAtaaft
and defensive alliance (1645). He then bade the Cdsnds
prepare their boats for a raid upon th^ Turkish gaUeys, sad
secured the co-operation of the tsar in the Crimean expe£un
by a special treaty. Unfortunatdy, Venice, for her om
safety's sake, insisted on the publication of Wladislans'i asti-
Turkish alliance; the Porte, wdl informed of the course of Po&fc
affairs, remained strictly neutral de^ite the most outngeoo
provocations; and Wladishius, bound by his corooatioa ostk
not to undertake an offensive war, found himself at the mcrqr
of the diet which, full of consternation and rage, fyfr— "*«* tt
Warsaw on the and of May 1647. It is needless to say that tk
Venetian alliance was repudiated and the royal power suB
further reduced. A year later Wladislaus died at ha hostiDf-
box at Merecz, at the very moment when the Icmg-impcndbf
tempest whidi he himself had conjured iq> burst with om-
whelming fury over the toritories d the Republic
llie prime mover of the great rd>dlion of 1648, whid sbeik
the Polish state to its very foundations, was the OMsack BoMo
Chmiehiicki (q.vX who had been initiated in all the pIsM of
Wladislaus IV. and, with good reason, feared to be the lot
victim of the Polish magnstes when the lane's
J
HISTORV)
POLAND
915
unmasked and frustrated. To save himself he hit upon the novd
and terrible expedient of uniting the Tatars and the Cossacks
in a determined onslaught upon the Republic, wh<»e
'•'inward weakness, despite its brave outward show,
he had been quick to discern. On the i8th of April
2648, at the general assembly of the Zaporozhians, he openly
expressed his intention of proceeding against the Poles and was
elected hetman by acclamation; on the 19th of May he annihi-
lated a small detached PoUsh corps on the banks of the river
Zheltndya Vodui, and seven days later overwhelmed the army
of the Polish grand-hctman, massacring 8500 of his 10,000 men
and sending the grand-heiman himself and all his officers in
chains to the Crimea. The immediate consequence of these
victories was the outburst of a kkhpskaya zl<^, or " serfs'
fury." Throughout the Ukraine the gentry were hunted down,
flayed, burnt, blinded and sawn asunder. Every manor-house
and castle was reduced to ashes. Every Uniate or Catholic
priest who could be caught was hung up before his own high
altar, along with a Jew and a hog. The panic-stricken inhabi-
tants fled to the nearest strongholds, and soon the rebels were
swarming over the palatinates of Volhynia and Podolia. Mean-
while the Polish army, 40,000 strong, with 100 guns, was assem-
bling on the frontier. It consisted almost entirely of the noble
militia, and was tricked out with a splendour more befitting
a bridal pageant than a battle array. For Chmielnicki and his
host these splendid cavaliers expressed the utmost c6ntempt.
"This rabble must be chasied with whips, not smitten with
swords," they cried. On the 25njl of September the two armies
encoimtered near Pildawa, and after a stubborn three days'
contest the gallant Polish pageant was scattered to the winds.
The steppe for miles atound was strewn with corpses, and the
Cossacks are said to have reaped 10,000,000 guldens worth of
booty when the fight was over. All Poland now lay at Chihiel-
nicki's feet, and the road to the defenceless capital was open
MtalL before him; but be wasted two precious months in
CMto*v vain before the fortress of Zamoid, and then the
^•^'***' newly elected king of Poland, John Casimir, Wladis-
laus IV.'s brother, privately opened negotiations with the rebel,
officially recognized him by sending him the hidawa and tlie
other insignia of the hetman*s dignity, and promised his " faithful
Zaporozhians " the restoration of all their ancient liberties if
they would break off their alliance with the Tatars and await
the arrival of peace commissioners at PereyaslavL But the
negotiations at Pereyaslavl came to nothing. Chmielnicki's
conditions of peace were so extravagant that the Polish com-
missioners durst not accept them, and in 1649 he again, invaded
Poland with a countless host of Cossacks and Tatars. Again,
however, he made the mistake of attacking a fortress, which
delayed his advance for a month, and gave John Casimir time
to collect an army for the relief of the besieged. By the com-
pact ofZbor6w(Aug ax, 1649) Chmielnicki was recognized as
hetman of the Zaporozhians, whose registered number was now
raised from 6000 1040,000; a general amnesty was also granted,
and it was agreed that all official dignities in the Orthodox palati-
nates of Lithuania should henceforth be held, solely by the
Orthodox gentry. For the next eighteen months Chmielnicki
ruled the Ukraine like a sovereign prince. He made Chigirin,
his native place, the Cossack capital, subdivided the country into
sixteen provinces, and entered into direct relations with foreign
powers. His attempt to carve a principality for his son out of
Moldavia led to the outbreak of a third war between suzerain
and subject in February 1651. But fortune, so long Bohdan's
friend, now deserted him, and at Beresteczko (July x, 1651) the
Cossack chieftain was utterly routed by Stephen Czamiecki.
All hope of an independent Cossackdom was now at an end; yet
it was not Poland but Muscovy which reaped the fruits of
Czanuecki's victory.
, Chmielnicki, by suddenly laying bare the nakedness of the
Polish republic, had opened the eyes of Muscovy to the fact
that her secular enemy was no longer formidable. Three years
liter ha defeat At. Beresteczko, Chmielnicki, finding himself
mable to cope witMi the Poles single-handed, very rductanUy
transferred his allegiance to the tsar, and the same year the
tsar's armies invaded Poland, still bleeding from the all but
mortal wounds inflicted on her by the Cossacks. The war
thus begun, and known in Russian history as the n»Rm9^
Thirteen Years' War, far exceeded even the Thirty aimmaimrmt§
Years' War in grossness and brutah'ty. It resembled '^■'■■*
nothing so much as a hideous scramble of ravening beasts and
obscene fowb for the dismembered limbs of a headless carcase,
for such did Poland seem to all the world before the war was half
over. In the summer of 165 s, moreover, while the Republic
was still reeling beneath the shock of the Muscovite invasion,
Charles X. of Sweden, on the flimsiest of pretexts, i^y^gj^g^
forced a war upon reluctant and inoffensive Poland, CkarHaX.
simply to gratify his greed of martial glory, and •J^T**'*'
before the year was out his forces had occupied the ^^
capital, the coronation city and the best half of the land. King
John Casimir, . betrayed and abandoned by his own subjects,
fled to Silesia, and profiting by the cataclysm which, for the
moment, had swept the Polish state out of existence, the Mus-
covites, unopposed, qxiickly appropriated nearly everything
which was not already occupied by the Swedes. At this crisis
Poland owed her salvation to two events — the formation of a
general league against Sweden, brought about by the appre-
hensive court of Vienna and an almost simultaneous popular
outburst of religious enthusiasm on the part of the Polish people.
The first of these events, to be dated from the alliance between
the emperor Leopold and John Casimir, on the ayth of May 1657,
led to a truce with the tsar and the welcome diversion of all the
Muscovite forces against Swedish Livonia. The second event,
which began with the heroic and successful defence of the
monastery of Czenstochowa by Prior Kordecki against the
Swedes, resulted in the return of the Polish king from exile,
the formation of a national army under Stephen Czamiecki and
the recovery of almost all the lost provinces from the Swedes,
who were driven back headlong to the sea, where with difficulty
they held their own. On the sudden death of Charles X. (Feb.
13, 1660), Poland gladly seized the opportunity of adjusting
all her outstanding differences with Sweden. By the peace
of Oliva (May 3, x666), made under French mediation, John
Casimir ceded Livonia, and renounced all claim to the Swedish
crown. The war with Muscovy was then prosecuted with
renewed energy and extraordinary success. In the autumn of
1661 the Russian commanders were routed at Zeromsk, and
nearly all the eastern provinces were recovered. In 1664 a
peace congress was opened at Durovicha and the prospects of
Poland seemed most brilliant; but at the very moment when
she needed all her armed strength to sustain her diplomacy,
the rebellion of one of her leading magnates, Prince Lubomirsky,
involved her in a dangerous civil war, compelled her to reopen
negotiations with the Muscovites, at Andrussowo, under far
more unfavourable conditions, and after protracted negotiations
practically to accept the Muscovite terms. By the truce of
Andrussowo (Feb. 11, 1667) Poland received backnbt7>w»
from Muscovy Vitebsk, Polotsk and Polish Livonia, •'^■*w
but ceded in perpetuity Smolensk, Syevcrisk, Chemi-***^'**'*
gov and the whole of the eastern bank of the Dnieper, including
the towns of Konotop, Gadyach, Pereyaslavl, Mirgorod, Pdtava
and Izyum. The Cossacks of the Dnieper were henceforth to
be under the joint dominion of the tsar and the king of Poland.
Kiev, the religious metropolis of western Russia, was to remain
in the hands of Muscovy for two years.
The " truce " of Andrussowo proved to be one of the most
permanent peaces in history, and Kiev, though only pledged
for two years, was never again to be separated from the Orthodox
Slavonic state to which it rightly belonged. But for the terrible
and persistent ill-luck of Poland it is doubtful whether the
" truce " of Andrussowo would ever have been signed. The
war which it concluded was to be the last open struggle between
the two powers. Henceforth the influence of Russia over
Poland was steadily to increase, without any struggle at all,
the Republic being already stricken with that creeping paralysis
which ultimately teft her a prey to her neighbours. Muscovy
9i6
POLAND
ffOStOKt
had done with PoUnd as an advenary, and had no longer any
reaaon to fear her ancient enemy.
Poland had, in fact, emerged from the cataclysm of x648~i667
a moribund state, though her not unskilful diplomacy had
enabled her for a time to save appearances. Her territorial
losses, though considerable, were, in the circumstances, not
excessive, and she was still a considerable power in the <^inion
of Eur(^>e. But a fatal change had come over the country
during the age of the Vasas. We have already seen how the
ambition of the oligarchs and the lawlessness of the stiackta had
reduced the executive to impotence, and rendered anything
like rational government impossible. But these demoralizing
and disintegrating influences had been suspended by the religious
revival due to the Catholic reaction and the Jesuit pr(q>aganda,
a revival which reached its height towards the end of the x6th
century. This, on the whole, salutary and edifying move-
ment permeated public life, and produced a series of great
captains who cheerfully sacrificed themselves for their country,
and would have been saints if they had not been heroes. But
this extraordinary religious revival had wellnigh spent itself
by the middle of the zyth century. Its last manifestation was
the successful defence of the monastery of Czenstochowa by
Prior Kordecki against the finest troops in Europe, its last
representative was Stephen Czamiecki, who brought the fugitive
John Casimir back from exile and reinstalled him on his tottering
throne. The succeeding age was an age of unmitigated egoism,
Onwiag in which the old ideals were abandoned and the old
CtenqK/M examples were forgotten. It synchronized with, and
imPeiamd, ^^j partly determined by, the new political system
which was spreading all over Europe, the system of dynastic
diplomatic competition and the unscrupulous employment of
unlimited secret service funds. This system, which dates from
Richelieu and culminated in the reign of Louis XIV., was based
on the secular rivalry of the houses of Bourbon and Habs-
burg, and presently divided all Europe into two hostfle camps.
Louis XIV. is said to have e3q>ended 50,000,000 livres a year for
bribing purposes, the court of Vienna was scarcely less liberal,
and very soon nearly all the monarchs of the Continent and
their ministers were in the pay of one or other of the antagonists.
Poland was no exception to the general rule. Her magnates,
having already got all they could out of their own country,
looked eagerly abroad for fresh El Dorados. Before long most
of them had become the hirelings of France or Austria, and the
value demanded for their wages was, not infrequently, the
betrayal of their own country. To do them justice, the fdaclUa
at first were not only free from the taint of official corruption,
but endeavoured to fight against it. Thus, at the election diet
of 1669, one of the deputies, Pieniaszek, moved that a new and
hitherto unheard-of clause should be inserted in the agenda of
the general confederation, to the effect that every senator and
deputy should solemnly swear not to take bribes, while another
salacic proposed that the ambassadors of foreign Powers should
be excluded permanently from the Polish elective assemblies.
But the flighty and ignorant szlachta not only were incapable
of any sustained political action, but they themselves uncon-
scioudy played into the hands of the enemies of their country
by making the so<allcd liberum veto an integral part of the Polish
constitution. The liberum veto was based on the assumption
of the absolute political equality of every Polish gentleman,
with the inevitable corollary that every measure introduced into
the Polish diet must be adopted unanimously. Consequently,
if any single deputy believed that a measure already approved
of by the rest of the house might be injurious to his constituency,
he had the right to rise and exclaim nU pcxwalam^ " I disap-
prove," when the measure in question fell at once to the ground.
Subsequently this vicious principle was extended still further.
A deputy, by interposing his individual veto, could at any time
dissolve the diet, when all measures previously passed had to be
re-submitted to the consideration of the following diet. The
l^>erum veto seems to have been originally devised to cut short
interminable debates in times of acute crisis, but it was generally
used either by highly placed criminals, anxious to avoid an
inquiry Into their misdeeds,* oi: by makooteBta, desims of
embarrassing the executive. The origin of the Hbenam vtf
is obscure, but it was first efnfdoyed by the dQMity Wladishm
Sidfiski, who dissolved the dkt of z6sa by means of it, and beface
the end ci the 17th century it was used so. frequently and re^-
lesily that all business was frequently brouglit to a standstill.
In later days it became the chief instrument of foreign smhawip
dors for di^lving inconvenient diets, as a deputy could always
be bribed to exercise his veto for a handsome consideratioo.
The Polish crown first became an object of universal coo-
petition in 1573, when Heniy of Valois was elected. In 1S75,
and again in 1587, it was put up for public auction, when the
Hungarian B^ory and the Swede Sigismund respectivdy
gained the prize. But at all three dectioos, thouij^ money and
intrigue were fredy empkiyed, they were not the determimag
factors of the contest. The Polish gentry were still the umpires
as well as the stake-holders; the best candidates generally yob
the day; and the ddeated competitors were driven out of the
country by force of arms if they did not take thdr discomfittuc,
after a hdr fight, like q>ortsmen. But with the
election of Michad Wilniowiecki in 1669 a new era
b^an. In this case a native Pole was fredy diected
by the unanimous vote of his countrymen. Yet a
few weeks later the Pdish commander-in-chid formed
a whole series of con^nrades for the purpose of dethrtming bis
lawful sovereign, and openly placed himadf beneath the protec-
tion of Louis XIV. of France, just as the rebels of the iStli
century placed themsdves under the protectioa of Catherine IL
of Russia. And this rebd was none other than John Sobkski,
at a later day the heroic deliverer of Vienna 1 If heroes oovkl
so debase themsdves, can we wonder if men who were not heroes
lent themsdves to every sort of villainy ? We have come, in
fact, to the age of utter shamdessness, when disai^poiBted
place-hunters openly invdced foreign aid against their ovn
country. Sobieski himself, as John III. (he sue- jbteOL
ceeded Michad in 1674), was to pay the penalty .^*^f^
of his past lawlessness, to the uttermo^ farthing. '^^"'"^
De^ite his brilliant noilitary achievements (see JoaN m^
Kino of Polakd), his reign of twenty-two years wss a
failure. His victories over the Turks were fruitlesa so fir as
Poland was concerned. His belated attempts to rdocm the
constitution only led to oonspirades against his life and crovn,
in which the French faction, which he had been the first to
encourage, took an active part. In his later years Litbuaats
was in a state of chronic revolt, while Poland was htntr^T*
both morally and materially. He died a broken-hearted maa,
prophesying the inevitable ruin of a nation which he himsetf
had done so much to demoralize.
It scarcdy seemed possible for Poland to sank lower than dK
had sunk aJready. Yet an era was now to foUow, compared
with which even the age of Sobieski seemed to be an age of goU.
This was the Saxon period which, with occasional viofeiA
interruptions, was to drag on for nearly seventy years. By the
time it was over Poland was irretrievably doomed. It mIj
remained to be seen how that doom would be accomplished.
On the death of John III. no fewer than eighteen candidates
for the vacant Polish throne presented themsdves. Austria
supported James Sobieski, the ddest son of the late
king, France Francis Louis Prince qf Conti (1664-^
1709), but the successful competitor was Frederick
Augustus, elector of Saxony, who cheerfully renounced
Lutheranism for the coveted crown, aiKl. won the day
because he happened to arrive last of all, with fresh foods,
when the agents of his rivals had spent aU their money. Be
was crowned, as Augustus II., on the 15th of September 1697,
and his first act was to expel from the country the prince of
Conti, the dect of a respectable minority, directed by the
cardind primate Michd Radziejowski (i 645-1 705), wboB
Augustus II. subsequently bought over lor 75,000 tfaakfs.
' Thus the Sapiehas, who had been Irving 00 rapine for ,
dissolved the diet of 1688 by means of the veto of oae of thrir
lings, for fear of an investitatMia into their coodoct.
HISTORY]
POLAND
917
Good luck attended the opening years of the new letgn. In
1699 the long Turkish War, which had been going on ever since
1683, was concluded by the peace of Karlowitz, whereby Podolia,
the Ukraine and the fortress of Kamenets Podolskiy were
retroceded to the Republic by the Ottoman Porte. Immediately
afterwards Augustus was persuaded by the plausible Livonian
exile, Johan Reinhold Patkul, to form a nefarious league with
Frederick of Denmark and Peter of Russia, for the purpose of
despoiling the youthful king of Sweden, Charles XII. (see
Sweden: Hutory). This he did as elector of Saxony, but it was
WmrwUh the unfortunate Polish republic which paid for the
auuteaXtL hazardous speculation of its newly elected king.
•fSwtdta. Throughout the Great Northern War (see Sweden:
History), which wasted northern and central Europe for
twenty years (i 700-17 20), all the beUigerents treated Poland
as if she had no political existence. Swedes,' Saxons and
Russians not only lived upon the country, bu( (Sundered
it ^stematically. The diet was the humble servant of the
conqueror of the moment, and the leading magnates chose
their own sides without the slightest regard for the interests
of their country, the Lithuanians for the. most part supporting
Charles XII., while the Poles divided their allegiance between
gffmimi^ff Augustus and Stanislaus Leszczyfiski, whom Charles
LmMxcMyh^ placed Upon the throne in 1704 and kept there till
*^ 1709. At the end of the war Poland was ruined
materially as well as politically. Augustus attempted to
indemnify himself for his failure to obtain Livonia, his
covenanted share of the Swedish plunder, by offering Frederick
William of Prussia Courland, Polish Prxissia and even part of
Great Poland, provided that he were allowed a free hand in the
disposal of the rest of the country. When Prussia declined this
tempting offer for fear of Russia, Augustus went a step farther
and acttially suggested that " the four ^ eagles " should divide
the banquet between thenu He died, however (Feb. i, 2733)
before he could give effect to this shameless design.
On the death of Augustus II., Stanislaus Leszczyfiski, "who
had, in the meantime, become the father-in-law of Louis XV.,
attempted to regain his throne with the aid of a small French
army corps and 4,000,000 livres from Versailles. Some of the
best men in Poland, including the Czartoryscy, were also in his
favour, and on the 26th of August 1733 he was elected king for
the second time. But there were many malcontents, principally
among the Lithuanians, who solicited the intervention of Russia
in favour of the elector of Saxony, son of the late king, and in
October 1733 a Russian army appeared before Warsaw and
compelled a phantom diet (it consisted of but 15 senators and
AagoMtM 500 of the szlachta) to proclaim Augustus III. From
III., irjj* the end of 2733 till the 30th of June 1734 Stanislaus
'^^' and his partisans were besieged by the Russians in
Danzig, their last refuge, and with the surrender of that for-
tress the cause of Stanislaus was lost. He retired once more
to his little court in Lorraine, with the title of king, leaving
Augustus III. in possession of the kingdom.
Augustus III. was disqualified by constitutional indolence
from taking any active part in affairs. He left everything to
his omnipotent minister, Count Heinrich Briihl, and BrUhl
entrusted the government of Poland to the Czartoryscy, who
liad intimate relations of long standing with the court of Dresden.
The Czartoryscy, who were to dominate Polish politics for
he next half-ceniury, came of an andent Ruthenian stock which
md intermarried with the Jagiellos at an early date, and had
Iwaya been remarkable for their dvic virtues and political
igacity. They had powerfully contributed to the adoption
r the Union of Lublin;, were subsequently received into the
Oman CatboUc Church; and dated the beginning of thdr influ-
^^ "^ /.T*^^ pioper from the time (2674) when Florian
^'h^'^d A^'"^ primate there. Florian's nephews, Fryderyk
'^A^ FvL'v"-^^^^"*» were now the prindpal repreaenUtives
former Ih*'' ^^ *l»cir opponents sarcastically caUed them.
nte Briihi'^^^^ ^^* influence of Augustus's minister and
tThJf * b^^ "become, in his twenty-eighth )rear, vice-
'Thefoi,
'^h
:1e was the White Eagle. U, Poland.
chancellor and subsequently grand chancellor of Lithuania,^
was always the politiod head of the family. His brother and
Augustus, after fighting with great distinction against the Turks
both by land and sea (Prince Eugene decorated him with a
sword of honour for his valour at the siege of Bdgrade), had
returned home to marry Sophia Sieniawska, whose fabulous
dowry won for her husband the sobriquet of "the Family
Croesus." Their sister Constantia had already married Stanislaus
Poniatowski, the father of the future king. Thus wealth,
position, court influence and ability combined gave the Czar-
toryscy a commanding position in Poland, and, to their honour
be it said, they had determined from the first to save the Republic,
whose impending ruin in existing drcumstances they dearly
foresaw, by a radiod constitutional reconstruction which was
to include the abolition of the liberum veto and the formation
of a standing army.
Unfortunately Uie other great families of Potand~werc obstin-
atdy opposed to any reform or, as they called it, any "violation"
of the existing constitution. The Potoccy, whose possessions
in south Poland and the Ukraine covered thousands of square
miles, the RadziwiHowie, who were omnipotent in Lithuam'a
and induded H^lf a dozen millionaires* amongst them, the
Lubomirscy and their fellows, hated the Czartoryscy because
they were too eminent, and successfully obstructed all thdr
weU-meant efforts. The castles of these great lords were the fod
of the social and political life of thdr respective provinces. Here
they lived like little princes, surrounded by thousands of re-
tainers, whom they kept for show alone, making no attempt to
organize and disdpline this excellent military material for the
defence of their defencdess country.. Here congregated hundreds
of the younger szlachta, fresh from their school benches, whence
they brought nothing but a smattering of Latin and a determina^
tion to^make thdr way by absolute subservience to thdr " elder
brethren," the pans. These were the men who, a little later,
at the bidding of their " benefactors," dissolved one inconvenient
diet after another; for it is a significant fact that during the
reigns of the ti^ro Augustuses every diet was dissolved in this way*
by the hireUngs of some great lord or, still worse, of some foreign
potentate. In a word constitutional government had practically
ceased, and Poland had become an ar6na in which contesting
clans strove together for the mastery.
It was against this primitive state of things that the Czar-
toryscy struggled, and struggled in vain. First they attempted
to abolish the liberum veto with the assistance of the Saxon court
where they were supreme, but fear of foreign complications and
the opposition of the Potoccy prevented anything bdng done.
Then they broke with their old friend BrUhl and turned to
Russia. Their chief intermediary was their nephew Stanislaus
Poniatowski, whom they sent, as Saxon mim'ster, to the Russian
court in the suite of the English minister Hanbury Williams,
in 1755. The handsome and insinuating Poniatowski speedily
won the susceptible heart of the grand-duchess Catherine, but
he won nothing else and returned to Poland in 2759 somewhat
discredited. Disappointed in thdr hopes of Russia, the Czar-
toryscy next attempted to form a confederation for the deposi-
tion of Augustus III., but while the strife of factions was still
at its hdght the absentee monarch put an end to the strugg^
by expiring, conveniently, on the 5th of October 1763.
The interregnum occurring on the death of Augustus HI.
befell at a time when all the European powers, exhaustedf by
the Seven Years' War, earnestly desired peace. The position
of Poland was, consequently, much more advantageous than
it had been on every other similar occasion, and if only the
contending factions had been able to agree and unite, the final
catastrophe might, perhaps, even now, have been averted.
The Czartoryscy, of all men, were boun4 by their prindples
and professions to set thdr fellow dtizens an example of fraternal
concord. Yet they rejected with scorn and derision the pacific
overtures of their political opponents, the Potoccy, the Radzi-
wiHowie, and the Braniscy, Prince Michal openly declaring that of
two tyrannies he preferred the tyranny of the Muscovite to the
* Michal Kadmiers Radziwill alone was worth thirty millions,'
920 FOL
KolcitsZKa]. Bill the Etng, uid even Koltanttj, dopairing
of luccBi, now tccdcd to tbc confedentkm; hntilitics were
fuipended; Lbe indiKDaDt officcn Lhrew up iheir cDiiiBiiuioa»;
the rank (nd file wen distributed all over tlie counity; ihe
Erformers Btd abmul; uid (he coostitutum of the jrd of May
nu abolislied by the Tar^widani u *' a daogeroiu novelty."
The Ruasiau then poured Into easLem Poland; the Pnualana,
tl the begijining of i70Jt alarmed lest Catherine should ippn).
prialc the whole Republic, occupied Great Fobud; and a
diminutive, debucd and hFlplcu usembly met m Grodno in
order, in the midst of a Russian army corps," to come to an
Amicable understanding " with the partitioning powen. After
Sttmmaf^- every conceivaUc means of intimidation had been
uu» *r unscrupulously applied for twelve weeks, tbc KCond
Mudi treaty ol partition k«» signed at three o'clock on the
morning of the >]ti] of September 1703. By thii faatnn
tubjtauniii, u the Polish p«ttiot» called it, Russia got all
the eastern provinces of Poland, extending from Livonia to
Moldavia, compiising a quarter of a million of square miles,
while Prussia got Dobrzyn, Kujavia and the greater port of
Great Poland, with Thorn and Daniig. Poland was now reduced
to one-tbird of her original dimensloDi, with a population ol
about three and a half nuUions.
Tilt focus oF Polish nationality was now tTansfemd fnnn
Warsaw, where the Targowicians and their Rusiiaji patrons
r,fc^,.". reigned supreme, to Leipiig. whither the Polish
patriots, KoiciusiVo, KoUontaj and Ignaty Potocki
amoni the number, assembled from oil quarten. From the
national ri^ng, but thfir Ignorance,
enlhusia.
city led them to commit blunder after
blunder
The Erst ol
such blunders was KoSciusiko's mission
to Paris
in January 1
94. He was full of the.idca of a league
ofn^uh
league of sovereigns; but h« was unaware
Jacobins their
iselves were already considering the best
mode 0
detaching P
uisia. Poland's wont enemy, from the
anti-Fie
ch cosUtioo.
With a hypocrisy worthy of the diplo-
macyof
' the tyrants,
the tommiltee of pubUc safety declared
that it could not tupT
K)tl an insurrection en^neered by arislo-
oats, an
d Xoiciutzko
retumed to Ldpiig empty-handed. The
der of the Polish refugees was to allow themselves to be
drawn in
0 a premature
rising by certain Polish oScen in Poland
who, to
prevent the
ncoTwralion of their rcgimeola ia the
army, openly i
evqlied and led their troops from Warsaw
to Crac
w. Kokiuuko himself condemned their hasliness;
but, wh
0 the Russian
grew too
stror^iforhi.
, and early in April he himself appeared
The details of the heroic but useless struggle will be found else-
where (see KoSauszKO, Kolloktaj. Poiocu, Icnaty, Dou-
Biowski). Throughout April the Polish arms were almost
univeisally luecesstul. The Russians were defeated in more
than one pitched battle; Ihrce^juarters ol Ihe ancient territory
was recovered, and Warsaw and Vilna, the cafutals of Poland
and Lithuania respectively, were liberated. Kokiuszko was
appointed dictator, and a aupreme council was established
than made up for by the
of Warsaw against the Rus
Sept. 6); but in the meant
;tbe Poles bad asserted itself,
dimensions, both in the sui
neutraliied the superhuman 1
The d
I Pnissi
1 Uuly ,
alh-blow
the disaster of Micipjowice (Oct. 10), and it
carnage of Priga (Oct. J9I, though the last
did not capitulate till Ihe iSlh of November
of the bitter slr\iggle was with the vanquishi
to the last, had shown themselves chiEdte
government, they had al least died on the
cipired amidst the
Polish anny corps
Yet all tie tf ory
I, and if the Poles,
led K
and St
:esmanship ol the empress o{ Russia finally adjusted a
difficulties. On the s^th of October iTgs Pmau aceeded is
the Austro-Russian partition compact of the ^rd of Janmry,
and. the distribution ol the conquered proviocet TBMta^
was finally regulated on the loth of October 17(16. Kk^w
By the third treaty of pajtitioo Austria had to be "J'*
content wilh Wolem Galida and Southein Masovia; ^
Prussia took Podlachia, and Ihe rvt of Masovia, with Wsrsa*^
and Russia all the rest.
The immediate resiJt of the third putition was an imiDCDse
emigration of the more high-tpiritcd Poles who, daring the next
ten years, louf^ the battles of 'he French Republic aad ct
Napoleon all over Europe, but principally against their on
enemio, the partitioning powen. Tbey woe known as (^
Polish lemons, and were commanded by the bat Polish gencfsh,
e.g. Joseph Poniatowski and DombrowskL Only Eofdusiko
stood aloof. Even when, after the peace of Tilsit, ihe inde-
pendent gnnd-duchy of Warsaw was constnictcd oul of (he
centtal pravinces a[ Prussian Poland, his disirusi of Nai»ln
proved to be invincible. He was amply justified by the ooum
ol events. NapiJeon's anxiety to condlite Russia effrtwiDj
prevented him Irom making Poland Large and strong ezuu^
to be self-supporting. The grand-duchy ol Warsaw origiaillT'
consisted of about 1850 sq. m., to which Wcslem Gshcis'
and Cracow, about goo >q. m. tnoce, were added in 1809.
The grand-duchy was, from first to last, a mere reciviting-givs>j
foe Ihe French emperor. Its army was limited, eo papa, to
jD,Doa men; but in January iSti 6j/>oo, and in Novtaher
the same year 07,000 recruits wen drawn from it. The csa-
stitulion of the htlle state was dictated by Napoleon, and,
subject to the exigendo of war, was on lbe French nvM
Equality before the law, absolute reli^ous toleiuioa and kal
autonomy, were its salient features. The king of Saxnay. b
grandHJuke, look the iniliarive in aJl legislativo mattery bat
the administration was practically conttpUed by the French.
(R-N-B.)
Tki Control Kinfiim, iaiJ-lS6j.—Tbe Graivl I>iichy d
Warsaw perished with the Grand Army in the retreat boa
Moscow In 1G13. The Polish troops had taken a pccoinBt
the mvasion of Russia, and tlieir share in the plundeiig
felt for tb
_ beflHctliettar^amr
and Inlawed the fortunes of Napoleon in igij and 1814. 1^
Russians occupied Wsrsaw on the iSth of Febtuaiy i>i) ud
overran the grand duchy, which thus came into tlieir yumn'tti
by conquest. Some of the Poles omtinued 10 hope ,|^,^j,|
that Alexander would remember his did favour for ^;Waa
them, and would restore their kingdom under lus
own rule. Nor was the tsar unwilling to encsuiage tla
delusion. He himself cherished the deare to Te^>ti^
the kingdom for his own advantage. As early as the 'l"^
January iSij he wrote 10 assure hi '
fidant. Prince Adam Ciortoryski, 1
do now 10 aid In my aucnts, win
forward the lealiiaiion ol their hopes."
Alexander could be carried out
of other powers. They refused u
Saxony by PmsKs, and other n ...
would have enabled him to unite aU P^nd u. -_ ^- --
own band By the final art of the <=™p^ J* ^1.
Viemui, signal on the gth of jy« '^'1; J^^^e xtS^*
divided between PrusKO, Austn* and Rv™*. -^ "= "^
epiion: Cr^JT^ to I^^^p^'S ^^^^
larepubUcen-t^di^inG^j^:^ Xust™ re«i-<
Dpulalionof Siti.^it^ were '"'■ " ^^a ^ijatiiams- uAa"
■osseuion of Gnl J^ mdi ol totion v'taia
I the Ruihenia j^b -Rusia- "^^ "°^
" Whatever the Pi
with' the
lited by the P"^
W3
POLAR REGIONS
951
travened 360 m. of Racier. * Nansen discovered that in that
latitude the inland ice of Greenland has the form of a huge shield
rising rather, rapidly but regularly from the east coast to
nearly 9000 ft./ flat and even in the middle and falling again
regularly toward the western side, completely enveloping the.
land. An important principle acted on for the first time in
Arctic travel on this journey was that of starting from the less
accessible side and pushing straight throu^ with no possibility
of turning back, and thus with no necessity for forming a base
or traversing the s^me route twice over.
Peary spent the winter of 1891-1893 at Inglefield Gulf on
the north-west coast of Greenland, Mrs Peaiy, Dr F. A. Cook,
Eivind Astrup and a coloured servant Matthew Henson being in
his party, and a large number of the Etah Eskimo in the vicinity.
In April 1893 he set out for a journey across the inland ice to the
north-eastward in the hope of reaching the east coast and also
the northern extremity of the land. After getting well up on
the ice-covered plateau a supporting party returned to winter
quarters, while Peary and Astrup, with two companions and
sixteen dogs, entered on the serious part of their work. The
highest part of the inland ice was foimd to be about 5700 ft.,
and as usual after the first part of the descent, towards the north-
east in this case, the surface was broken by numerous dangerous
crevasses, progress amongst which was vexy slow. Great
hardships were experienced from cold, insufficiency of food and
the wearing out of sledges and clothes, but on the 4th of July,
having left the ice and got on bare land in 8 x** 37' N., where musk
oxen and other game were found and flowers were growing, Peary
was rewarded by a glimpse of the sea to the north-eastward, and
named it from the date Independence Bay. He also traced a
channel to the north beyond which lay a new knd largely free
from snow, no doubt the southern part of the island along the
north of which Markham and Lockwood had travelled to their
farthest north. The return journey to Inglefield Gulf was a
wonderful feat of endurance, which was completed on the 4th of
August; the total distance marched on the whole journey out and
home was 1300 m. Peary returned to northern Greenlandin 1893,
having q>ent the whole time between the two expeditions in
writing and lecturing in order to raise funds, for he travelled at
his own charges. He landed on the shore of Inglefield Gulf on
the 3rd of August and wintered there with a party of thir-
teen, including Mrs Peary, and there their daughter was bom.
Astrup was taken ill after starting on the great journey in March
1894, which was to have extended the explorations of the pre-
vious year, and had to return; others were severely frost-bitten,
disease broke out amongst the dogs, and a month after the
start Peary was only 130 m. from his base and had to return.
Peary with two of his party, Hu^ J. Lee and Matthew Henson,
remained at Inglefield Gulf for another winter, and on the
ist of April 1895, with deer and walrus meat in place of pemmi-
can, the supply of which had been lost, set out for Independence
Bay. They reached the ice-free land when their food was
exhausted and fortunately fell in with a herd of musk oxen, the
meat from which made it possible to get back to Inglefield Gulf,
though without adding anything material to the results of
1893. The experience of ice-travel and of Eskimo nature gained
in the four years' almost continuous residence in northern
Greenland were however destined to bear rich fruit.
Dr Nansen, after making an exhaustive study of the winds
&nd currents of the Arctic Sea, and influenced largely by the
NmawoT Occurrence of driftwood on the shores past which the
'^!«Mfc^* ice-Iaden waters flowed southward between Green-
land and Spitsbergen, satisfied himself that there was
He^D^ cfrif t across the polar basin and perhaps across the Pole.
rinciDl^^ an expedition to take advantage of this drift on the
the t ^ ^^^^ S^ided his crossing of Greenland, that of entering
j[/j2e o^^ accessible point and not turning back, thtis having
nnc<j '^t:rcsLt. and making a relief expedition impossible. He
it Ciii^ ^liil>9 the." Fram," which was immensely strong, to
*siij^^^^, «-nd of such a section that if nipped in the ice the
7e^ ^c^^xxa«-sses would pass under her and lift her on to the
^^ j^Jan of the expedition was based on scientific
reasoning, but the methods were totally at variance with those
of .previous explorers. Otto Sverdrup, who had been one of
Nansen's party in crossing Greenland, was captain of the
" Fram," and the party included eleven others, the whole ship's
company of thirteen living together on terms of social equality.
Nansen paid the greatest possible attention to the provisions,
and all the arrangements for the health and happiness of those
on board were carefully thought out. The clothing of the
expedition was as original in design as the ship; instead of having
Ifurs, thick woollen underclothing was adopted, with a light
wind-proof material for the outer dress. The " Fram " left
Christiania in the summer of 1893 and made her way through the
Kapi Sea and along the north coast of Asia until on the aoth of
September she was run into the ice in 77** 30' N., off the New
Siberia Islands, and the great drift oommenc^ • As anticipated,
she rose to the pressure of the ice and was borne on an even
keel high above the water for the whole duration of the drift.
The movement of the ice was irregular, and on the 7th of
November the " Fram ** was back at her starting-point, but on
the whole the movement was north-westward untU the 15th of
November 1895, when the highest latitude of the ship was
attained, 85^ 5 s' N. in 66* 31' E., the meridian of the east of
Novaya Zemlya; then it was westward and finally southward
tmtn the ice was broken by blasting roimd the ship in June in
Bs** N.lat.; and after being afloat, though unable to make much
progress until the middle of July, the " Fram " broke out of
the ice off the north coast of Spitsbergen on the X3th of August
X896. No ship before or since has reached so high a latitude.
In all her drift the "Fram" came in sight of no new land, but
the soundings made through the ice proved that the Arctic Sea
was of great depth, increasing towards the Pole, the greatest
depth exceeding 2000 fathoms. The great mass of water filling
the polar basin was comparatively warm, indicating free circula-
tion with the Atlantic. It was established that the ice formed
off the coast of Asia drifted across the polar basin in a period of
from three to five years, and the hypothesis on the truth of which
Nansen risked his success was abundantly verified by facts. The
ship's company all returned in perfect health. After the second
winter on the " Fram " at a time when the northward movement
of the- drift seemed to be checked, Nansen, accompanied by-
Lieut. Hjalmar Johansen, left the ship in order to explore
the regions towards the Pole by travelling on ski with dog
sledges carrying kayaks. It was obviously hopeless to attempt
to find the drifting ship on their return, and Nansen intended t»
make for Spitsbergen in the hope of meeting one of the tourist
steamers there. A more daring plan was never formed, And it
was justified by success. Leaving the ship on the J4th of March
1895 in 84* N. X02'' E., they made a fairly rapid march
northward, reaching a latitude of 86* 5' N. on the 8th of April,
the nearest approach to the Pole so far achieved. Turning
south-westwards they travelled with much difficulty, sometimes
on the ice, sometimes in kayaks in the open knes of water, incur-
ring great danger from the attacks of bears and walrus, but at
length reaching a group of new islands east of Franz Josef
Land. They travelled westward through this archipdago until
the 28th of August, when they built a small stone hut roofed
with their light silk tent, in which they passed the winter on a
land since called Frederick Jackson Iskmd. There they lived
like Eskimo on bear and walrus meat cooked over a blubber
lamp. The journey southward was resumed in the spring of
X896, and on the Z5th of Jiuie they met Mr F. G. Jadcson, in
whose relief ship, the " Windward," they returned to Norway.
Nansen and Johansen reached Vardd on the 13th of August
1896 full of anxiety for the fate of their old comrades, wheifc
by a coincidence unparalleled in the history of exploration, the
" Fram " was on that very day breaking out of the ice off
Spitsbergen and the original party of thirteen was reunited at:
TromsO the following week and returned together to Christiania.
On this remarkable expedition no life was lost and the 8hx|>
came back undamaged under the skilled guidance of Sverdnq»
with a great harvest of scientific results.
Mr Frederick George Jackson plaxmed an exploring ezpeditioia
9't
POLAR REGIONS
tha of by [uiling on ji rocky isJct oQ the icebound couu Ton
days Uler in (U'^a'S- D'LTrvillc cruised wolward along ■ hifh
ict-bviiH, whicb hi beiieved lo be coDocclEd with lud; fmrn
longitude i ji° E. and he named it the Clarie Coail, A few dayi
Uler he left the Antarctic resioni for the Pacific.
Ai eaily u iSjfi the IToited Slalo Congres had authoriied
■a Americaa Eiploiing Eipeditioo ia Ihe progiainnui ol which
Chatle
eiploial
Wilkei
1 had a
rDDimand the
eaffedilion of &ve vessda In August iJ
dated in that month, tequiicd him
loUox Wcddell'i loule u far as p
wulhetly point reached hy Cook ia the Aatairlic, and (3) to
make an " attempt to peneiiate within the Aniarciic region,
wuthof Van Dienien'iLuid,aiid u farwest as lODgiludetJ* E.,
or to Enderhy L-ind." Th< ships were ia had repair and ill-
adapted for navigation in the ice, and many of the ofhcen were
dot devoted to their chief; but in spite of great diflicullio Wiltcs
fulfilled hii prognmme. Ia following Weddril'a route Wilka
in Much iSjg (aied no better than D'UrvUIe in the previous
year, but the " Flying Fish " of 96 tons under Lieutenant Waller
reached jo° S. Id tos° W., thui nearly reaching Cooli'i poiition
of 1774. The third item of the Antarctic programme waa made
ihe subject of Ihe most ilrecuous endeavour. Wilkei sailed
fn>m Sydney m the " Vincennes " on the iSthof December igjg.
accompanied by the "Peacock" under Lieut. William L,
Hudson, the "Fotpobe" under Lieut. Cadwaladai Ringgold,
and the " Flying Fish " under Lieut. Pinkney. They went
south to the west a! the Balleny Islands, which Ihey did not see.
Ice-pack allowed towards Enderhy Land nearly on the Antarctic
Circle. The weather was bad with fogs, snowstorms and Irequent
gala, and although land was reported (byeach of the visielil
at several paints along the mute, it was nrely seen distinctly and
the officers were not agreed amongst Ihemsrfva in some cases.
Unfortunate conln>veniei have arisen at intervals during liily
10 the reality of Wilkes's discoveris ol land, and as to
Ibeju
ofthecU
route has been sh
■dilionsnoltoeustjbult
on be no doubt
that Wilkes w
w land along the line *
Aii(lieLand.Kem
p Land and End
.by Und are known to E
eveniflhepositio
ns he assigns art
not quite wcurate. Jfo
however, could es
from sighting a dL
idominuouschaii
of high bnd along its cc
without making
landing. It seems no more than due
gallant and muc
•er, who did his best inn
difficult circumsla
nces. to leave the name ol Wilkes I^nd on
""unUki the^°'
et two e.pedil
ions, that tquipped by
It in .Sj9 was
inlended solely for Antai
nly for magnetic survoyi
"" the so
th polar seas.
There were two ships.
" Erebus "ofjjo
Dns,andlhe"T
™" of 340. stoutly built
qicdally strength
ned for navigat
on in the ice. Capiun J.
Clark Ross. R.N.
waiincomnun
d of the "Erebus" and 0
" Terror." A younf i.urgeon, Joseph Dallon Hooker, joined the
Koyal Navy in order to go on theeipedilion, and he lived to take
1 keen interest in every subsequent Antarctic eipedilion down
to that of Captain Scott in 191a. Ross had intended to make
straight for the mcridiun of the Mugnetic Pole, but, finding that
D'UrviUeand Wilkes had llrendy entered on those seas h* deter-
mined to try to make a high latitude farther cast, and leaving
Hobart Town on the nth ol November 1S40 he crossed the
Antarctic Circle on the ist of January 1S41 and entered
Ihe pack ice on the ;th in 174° E. Instead of proving
an impenetrable obstacle, the pack let the two shipa work
through in five days, and they emerged into open sea.
Sailing towards Ihe Magnetic Pole they found a chain ol
from a prominent cspe ICmpb Adare) in 71* S. The conilatal
waa taken formal possession of for Queen Victoria by landing a»
Possession Island, (he mainland being inaccnsible, and the ships
roalinued aoulhward in sight of the coast of Victoria Land, whcee
the leftist mountain wu named Ml Uelboume after the Piioc
Minister, until Ihe twin volcanoes named Erritui and Temi
weresighted in jS" S. on Ihe iSth of January. Froai Cape Croiia.
at the base of the mountains, a line of lofty difls of ice ran east-
wards, the gresl lo-buiier, unlike any object in nature ever teen
before, rising perpendicularly from the water lo the height of
XB or 300 ft. aj>d continuing unbroken for iy> m. Aloog
the barrier Ihe hi^icat latitude of jtf 4' S. w«s attained, and
the farthest point to the cast was 1^7* W., wbeDce Roes turned
to look for a winter harbour in Victoria Land. Being desirous
to winter Dcu- the South Magnetic Pole, Koss did not aplaic
McMurdo Bay between Mt Erebus and the north-running ana,
where, as we now know, a harbour csuld have been fouod, and
aa he could not reach Ihe land elsewhere on nccount of ice
Balleny Islands at a great distance, on the ind of March Ibc
ihips relumed to Hobart. This was the most remaikible
Antarctic voyage for striking diacoveies ever made
In Novemlier 1841 Ihe " Erebus " and " Terror " Rtutned to
entering the ice-pack in about 60* S. and 146° W.. the Idea being
to appToach the great baniel from the eutwird, but by Ihe end
of Ihe year Ihey had just sttugglsl as far as the Aniarciic Circle
and they, together with the pack, were sevetnl tirnes driven far
to the northward by heavy gales [n which Ihe ships weie at the
mercy of the floating tec. During a storm of lerrible aevteiiy
on the iSth of January the rudders of both shipa were smashed.
and Dot until the ist of February did ihey break out of
the pack in fir* 19' S., ijg* W. The harrier wai sighted on
Ihe'iiad and the ahips reached 7S* 10' S. in tCi* 17' W., the
highest latitude attained for 60 years. To the eaSwaid ihe
harrier aurface rose to a ^ mountainous height, but although
Roes believed it to he land, he would only treat it officiaDy
aa '* an appearance ol land," leaving the conhimation of its
discovery as King Edward Land to the next century. No
more work wu done in this quarts; Ihe " Erebus " and
" Terror " turned Ihe edge of the pack to the northward and
on getting into clear water aailed eastward to Cape Hon.
meeting the greatest danger of the wbde cruise on the ny
by colliding with each'eihtr at ui^t while passing bctweea
two icebergs in a gale.
After wintering in Ihe Falkland Islands and making gned
Ihe damage received, Ross nude his third and last attack oa
the southern ice, and for six weeks he cruised amongu the pack
off Joinville Island and Louis Philippe t^nd trying ia vain le
reach the Antarctic Circle. Failing in this attempt he turned 10
follow Weddell's route and skirted Ihe pick eastward in ts* S,
crossing Weddell's track on the 14th of February iSaj. moie
than a degree farlhu south than D'Urville in his allempi
four yean before, but on the edge of an equally impeneireUe
pack. Coasting il eastward to 11° W. the " Enrbus " and
the south, ciossing the dicle on the ill ol March.' Four diyi
lats the p«k was met with again and the ahips were lorted into
it for 17 miles to latitude ji* jo' S. in ■«* S'' W . ninettni
degrees east of Weddell's farthest south. No sign of Und «ii
seen, a deep-sea eounding showed 4=^^ fatnoms with
bottom, and although this wis a tMStake. •« A™=,"r,™ ^
was lats pnved by Dt Bruce xo >>« "^'' '^L-'^^^iii
showed at least that there w*^ ,0 ^»^ " ^^
neighbourhood. t^Af.
obsecvi
Antarctic Circlet.^ J,' V
67* so , mii*^degt-,^^iu^l
Land was Irusu ^
966
POLAR REGIONS
point is of very limited extent. During the drift in the ic^ the
soundings were usually between 200 and 300 fathoms, which,
compared with the great depths to the north, clearly indicated
a continental shelf of considerable breadth, probably connected
with land in the south. The scientific collections were of unique
value and have been worked up and the results published at the
expense of the Belgian government.
The Hamburg America Company's steamer " Valdivia,"
chartered by the German Government for a sdentific voyage
..y^l^y^^ „under the leadership of Professor Carl Chun of Leip-
zig, with Dr Gerhard Schott as oceanographer, left
Cape Town on the 13th of November 1898, and on the 25th was
fortunate in rediscovering Bouvet Island (54" 26' S., 3* 24' E.),
which had been searched for in vain by Cook, Ross, Moore and
many other sailors. Steering south, the " Valdrvia," although
an unprotected steel vessel, followed the edge of the pack from
tt* £. to 58** E., reaching 64** 15' S. in 54** 20' £. on the i6th of
December. At this point a depth of 2541 fathoms was found,
10 that if Enderby Land occupies its assigned position, 102
nautical miles farther south, the sub-oceanic slope must be of
quite unusual steepness. The rocks dredged up contained
specimens of gneiss, granite and schist, and one great block of
red sandstone weighing 5 cwt. was secured, confirming the theory
of the continental nature of the land to the south.
On his return to England in 1895 Mr Borchgrevink made
strenuous efforts to organize an Antarctic expedition under his
own leadership, and in August 1898 he left the
^S^^fggg, Thames on the " Southern Cross," in charge of a
private expedition equipped by Sir George Newnes.
His scientific staff included Lieut. Colbcck, R.N.R.; Mr Louis
Bernaccbi, a trained magnetic observer, and Mr N. Hanson,
biologist. About fifty dogs were taken out, the intention being
to land at Cape Adare and advance towards the magnetic, and
perhaps also towards the geographical pole by sledge. The
" Southern Cross " sighted one of the Balleny Islands on the 14th
of January 1899, and after in vain attempting to get south about
the meridian of 164" £., the ship forced her way eastward and
emerged from the pack (after having been beset for forty-eight
days) in 70" S., 174* E. She reached Cape Adare, and anchored
in Robertson Bay on the 1 7th of February. The land party, con-
sisting of ten men, was established in a house built on the strip of
beach at the base of the steep ascent to the moimtains, and the
ship left on the 2nd of March. Mr Borchgrevink found it impos-
sible to make any land journey of importance and the party qpent
the first year ever passed by man on Antarctic land in making
natural history collections and keeping up meteorological and
magnetic observations. The " Southern Cross " returned to Cape
Adare on the 28th of January 1900, and after taking the winter
party on board — diminished by the death of Mr Hanson — set out
for the south on the 2nd of February. Landings were made on
several islands, on the mainland at the base of Mt Melbourne, and
on the loth of February at the base of Mt Terror, near Cape
Crozier. From this point the ship steamed eastward along the
great ice-barrier to a point in 164® 10' W., where an inlet in the ice
was found and the ship reached her highest latitude, 78** 34' S.,
on the 17 th of February. The edge of the ice was found to be
about 30 m. farther south than it had been when Ross visited it
in 1842. Mr Borchgrevink was able to land on the ice with
sledges and dogs, and advanced southward about 16 m., reach-
ing 78** 50' S. He discovered that plant life existed in the shape
of mosses and lichens in some of the rocky islands, a fact not
previously known.
In the autumn of 1901 three well-equipped expeditions lef^
Europe for Antarctic exploration. The British National Ant-
arctic expedition was organized by a joint committee of the
Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society, and equipped
under the superintendence of Sir Clements Markham. Most of
the cost was borne by the government, the rest mainly by Mr
L. W. Longstaff, who provided £30,000, the Royal Geographical
Society, and Mr A. C. Harmsworlh (af terwar(^s Lord Northdiffe).
A strong wooden ship of about 700 tons register (1700 tons dis-
placement) was built at Dundee, and named the " Discovery."
She was made entirely non-magnetic amidships, so that magnetic
observations might be carried on without interference
from local attraction. The expedition sailed under,
the command of Commander R. F. Scott, R.N., with
Lieut. Albert Armitage, R.N.R., as second in coaunand, Lieuts.
Royds and Bame, R.N., Lieut. Shackleton, R.N.R., and
Engineer-Lieut. Skelton, R.N. The crew of forty men were
almost entirely sailors of the Royal Navy. The scientific ttaf
included Dr Koettlitz, who had shared with Mr Armitage
in the Jackson-Harmsworth arctic expedition; Mr Louis
Bemacchi, who had wintered with Mr Borchgrevink at Cape
Adare; Dr E. A. Wilson, Mr Hodgson, biologist, and Mr
Ferrar, geologist. The " Discovery " sailed from New
Zealand on the 24th of December 1901, met the pack ice
on the Antarctic circle and was through into the open sea
in 175* E. on the 8th of January 1902. She made a quick run
to Cape Crozier and cruised along the great ice barrier, confirming
Borchgrevink's discovery that it lay 30 m. farther south than
in 1842, and at the eastern end of the barrier Scott discovered
and named King Edward Land where Ross had recorded an
"appearance" only. The sea in the neighbourhood had
shoaled to less than 100 fathoms and the ice-barrier in places was
so low that the " Discovery " was able to lie alongside as at a
quay. A captive balloon ascent was made from the barrier but
nothing was seen to the south. Returning to McMurdo Bay the
"Discovery" found that Mts Erebus and Terror were on an
island, the " bay " being really a sound. The ship was secured
in winter quarters in 77* 49' S. 166** E., and a hut erected on
shore. From this base land-exploration in the Antarctic was
initiated, and the history of exploration entered on a new phase.
Although some symptoms of scurvy appeared during the winter
they were checked by change of diet; and with the beginning
of spring sledge journeys yfith dogs were commenced and a
quantity of provisions was laid down in depots to assist the
great journey which Scott had planned to the south. On
the 2nd of November 1902 Captain Scott, with Lkut. E. H.
Shackleton and Dr E. A. Wilson, set out with dog-sledgcs travel-
ling south over the surface of the barrier in sight of a range of nev
mountains running parallel to their track on the west. The
conditions of travelling were unlike those in the Arctic region,
the weather being more inclement and the summer temperature
much lower than in similar hititudes in the north. There were
no bears to menace the safety of the travellers, and no wolves
or foxes to plunder the depots; but on the other hand there was
no game of any sort to be met with, and all food for men and dogs
had to be carried on the sledges. The surface of the ice was often
rough and much crevassed, especially near the western land, snow
blizzards frequently occurred making travelling imposable and
the heavy sledges had at first to be brought forward by rela)*),
making it necessary to march three miles for every mile of sooth-
ing made. The dogs also weakened and had to be killed one by one
to feed the rest. On the 30lh of December they were in 82* 1 7' S.
and Scott determined to try to reach the mountauns to the
west; but on approaching the land he found the ice so much
crevassed and disturbed that the attempt had to be given up.
Great peaks in 83^ S. were named Mt Markham (is>ioo ft.) and
Mt Longstaff (9700 ft.) after the chief promoters of the expedition.
The outward journey of 380 m. had taken 59 days, and was s
splendid achievement, for the conditions to be encountered were
toUlly unknown, and new methods had to be devised as the
necessity arose, yet no previous polar explorer had ever advanced
so far beyond his predecessor as Scott did. The return journey
occupied 34 days and the ship was reached on the 3rd of February
1903, but Shackleton had broken down on the way and he had 10
return by the reUef ship " Morning '* on the 3rd of March. Uoiu
Mulock, R.N., taking his place («i tbc " Discovery.; During t*c
absence of the commander \n \:he «^^ «ouXhein X^;"?*^ j^^s
age and Skelton lud foun^ , ^-^^^^ ^Ue^T^^^f tSe
to the summit of the v,^ ^o^-^T^^ ^^ev t^ched a dii.
gramte summits of the w,^ ttv<^^^^^Vion ci 9000 U. Uuiy
tance of 130 m. from the: ^x ^nA^ *^^*^!i^ Se^^gy oi tb.
shorter journeys were ^^r^^*^,ttai ^"^^^ ^ *^^
.6lf
^eJtai
POLAR REGIONS
1 90S, dragging two ikdga
It they wen able 1
•bub bad
Kred greatly
a>ix«
903, and wa
obvioujly liable
to break 0
in great ic
6th of January
■he '■ Nimro
d " began to
Ironi Ihe ei
reme east oi the
barrier, and
the landing
d on the jrd of
Febniary at
Cape Roydi,
bus, 10 m. north
ot tbe " D
anerj. Tht
tbore party in-
duded tbe
leader and
amongst them
ProItMor T
W. Edgew
nh E
avid, or Syil
ney University;
L[eul. Jam
son Boyd A
da™.
Philin Brockle-
huBl, Ban
Mr Jamej
Murra
, "biolo^t; Mr Raymond E.
Prieillcx. geologist: 0'
t Forbes M
ck»y; Dt Eric
11; Mr Douglas Mgwson, geologist; and Ern«I Joyce
ana rrsnk Wild ol the Royal Navy, wbo hid Uken pan in ihe
" Discovery " expedition- No casually occurred during the
whole duration of the ejipedilipn, special care having been
taken to supply the best provisions, including fresh bread
baked daily and dried milk in unlimited quaoiily, while
abundant artilidal light was sccuied by the use ol icelylcne
gas. A motoTHrar was taken in the hope that it night be used
on Ihe hairier surface, bui this was found impraciicable,
allhaugh il did good work in laying dfpAl!
Another
isslul
s Ihe
Eight of these emr
hardy ciealuies were laken south in the " Nimrod," but four
died in the lir:t monlh afler landing. The others did good
service. Nine Jogs were alio taken, but the eipcrience on the
" Discovery " eipediiion did not lead to much dependence being
placed on Ihem. The " Nimrod " lelt for the north on the iind
and collections which were kepi up to the end. Thedis
ic flora
■ of t:
r lau
s and surveys, the
K first imp.
0 the A
lie eipediiion
each of them
five compani
made the ascent of Ml Erehiu, starting (rom the winLet
iltiiude ol 13,300 ft. on the loih; this ■!» found to be the edge
of an active crater, the abyss within being 90i> ft. deep,
though rarely visible on account o( the steam and vapours
which rose in a huge cloud toooft.afxive the summit.
The second achievement wis the attainment of Ihe South
Magnetic Pole by Trofessor David, with Mr Douglas Ml wson and
Dr Mackay. They left winler-quarten on the 6th of Octobn
supplem
»-[ce. Proctedint ikaf
fuel by leal-meat and blubbo, and on the m of Decemt
reiched the DiygiUki ice barrier in ;j* S., which provel very
diSicull (0 crots. Leaving this ice-tongue on the igth, Ihey
proceeded to iiceod Ihe plaleiu with one sledge, and ran great
^ * ' ■' "of the plateau travElliog beeame
a the i<
. ol Jam
was 90*, and the posilioD »( the magnetic pole was deter-
mined as ;i* as* S., lif Ifi' E., at an altitude of 716a fl.
and 360 m. from the dfpAt of proviiiom left at tlv Drygahki
glaciel. The retiim Journey )o this point wii arcmnplisbed by
iDiced mardta 00 the jid ol February, and neii day the
puty WIS piclied up by the " Nimiod," which was scouting
for (hem ilang the coast.
The third and grcatcflt aduevcneat of this murkaUe ex-
pedition was Shacklelon'i great aoalhem journey. D6pA(t
had been laid out in advance on the barris ice^ and the main
southern puty, consisting of Messrs Shackleton, Adama. Manhall
and Wild, ttirted fiom winter-quanen on Ibe 39th of Ociobei
1908, with the {our pontes and (cau ii-lL sledges; a support-
ing puty ol five men accompanied the naia division for ten
diya. In order to avoid the diilurhed ar>d crrvaioed ice neai
the great south-Tunning mountain range, Shackletoo hept about
40 m. larther to the east than Scott had done- The poaics
enabled rapid progrev to be made, but after passing the fltst
puillel on the lilt ol November, one pony broke down and
had to be shot, Ihe meal being left in a dfpAt lor the return
journey. In spite ol cold weather and frequent high winds,
progress was made at the rate of 15 m. per day, and on Ihe
ifitb of November the farthest south of Ihe " Discovery '
eipedition wit passed, and Mts Maikham and Locgslil
were full in view. New mounlaius continued to ar^Kir
beyond these, and the range changed ila southerly to a south-
easterly trend, 10 thai the path to the Pole led tliniugh Iht
mountains. On the iBlh a secoiKl pony became used up and
WIS shot, and a dfpAt wai lormed with provisions and sidtb
for Ihe return in Si° 3B' S., and progrcis was resumed with
two iledgcs. The surface ol ihe bairier ice formed greil
undulation! of gentle slope. On the 1st of December 1 thin]
pony had to be shgi, in S3* lA' S., and hotseflesh became the
prindpal ailiclc of diet; the remaining pony hauled one sledge,
ihe four men look the other. On the 4th of December the
party left the barrier, pasung over I aone of much dismrhcd
ice, and commenced the ascent of a great glacier (the
Beardmoie glacier) which descended from (he mountiias
between magnilicFiit granite clilTa looo It. high- On iht
7lh, when toiling amongst a maie ot crevuws on the glacin.
judged (his alone mad*
it imposwbk loT
r other of'ihi: ^y was conliBUally lalU
ic sledge haniesi saved lh<
•"hdght d'eiM It.ol c^ecyt-Wn*.
rhind. including allthe '^^'^'
harm re&ilird-
:t, a dfpt" ">
Me" B> "
_ ,..„... 1 wind-p"":
the pbteau surface was (aW^ «"'^'i^n'"i^fl>"^^* '"
la(ilude 8s* ss' S.. and tb^ «U ^W th= e""" "' ^
ifome as regarded the gr<iu.t,A ^''*' "^rietiV loo^ '" * "
over a nearly level surta., " "" auacto- »-"'°;
temperature, intensifi&i ^ ^nlll' "" ,
reduced in (he hope «-ji „ naUicd ano
Three diys later the- . „^ MV«»Aet,
lace, T
o fl.
ptK «
Vp^°"
982
POLITIAN
August the Strong when Charles's projects collapsed. The claims
of Stanislaus were Supported. by France, Spain and Sardinia,
those of the Saxon prince by Russia and the empire, the local
quarrel being made the pretext for the settlement of minor
outstanding claims of the great powers amongst themsdves.
The war was therefore a typical x8th century " war with a
limited object," in which no one but the cabinets and the pro-
fessional armies were concerned. It was fou^^t on two theatres,
the Rhine and Italy. The Rhine campaigns were entirdy
unimportant, and are remembered only for the last appearance
in the field of Prince Eugtoe and Marshal Berwick — ^the latter
was killed at the siege of Philippsburg^-and the baptism of fire
of the young crown prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the
Great. In Italy, however, there were three hard-fought —
though indecisive — ^battles, Parma (June 29, 1734), Luzzara
(Sept. 19, 1734) and Bitonto (May 25, X735)f the first and last
won by the Austrians, the second by the French and their aUies.
In Poland itself, StanhUus, elected king in September 1733, was
soon expelled by a Russian army and was afterwards besieged in
Danzig by the Russians and Saxons (Feb.-June 1733).
POLITIAN (1454-1494). Angelo Ambrogini, known in
literary annals as Angelo Poliziano or Politianua from •his birth-
place, was bom at Montepulciano in Tuscany on the 14th of July
1454. His father, Benedetto, a jurist of good family and dis-
tinguished ability, was murdered by political antagonists for
adopting the cause of Piero de' Medici in Montepulciano; and this
circumstance gave his eldest son, Angelo, a claim on the family of
Medici. At the age of ten the boy came to prosecute his studies
at Florence, where he learned Latin imder Cristoforo Landino,
and Greek under Argyropulos and Andronicos Kallistos. From
Marsilio Ficino he imbibed the rudiments of philosophy. The
precocity of his genius for scholarship and poetry was early
manifested. At thirteen years of age he began to drailate
Latin letters; at seventeen he sent forth essays in Greek versifi-
cation; at eighteen he published an edition of CatuUus. In 1470
he won for himself the title of Homericus juvenis by translating
four books of the Iliad into Latin hexameters. Lorenzo de'
Medici, who was then the autocrat of Florence and the chief
patron of learning in Italy, took Poliziano into his household,
made him the tutor of his children, and secured him a distin-
guished post in the university of Florence. Before he reached
the age of thirty, Poliziano expounded the humanities with
almost unexampl^ lustre even for that epoch of brilliant
professors. Among his pupils could be numbered the chief
students of Europe, the men who were destined to carry to their
homes the spolia opima of Italian culture. Not to mention
Italians, it will suffice to record the names of the German
Reuchlin, the English Grocyn and Linacre, {md the Portuguese
Tessiras.
Poliziano had few advantages of person to recommend him.
He was ungainly in form, with eyes that squinted, and a nose of
disproportionate length. Yet his voice was rich and capable of
fine modulation; his eloquence, ease of utterance and copious
stream of erudition were incomparable. It was the method of
professors at that period to read the Greek and Latin authors
with their class, dictating philological and critical notes, emend-
ing corrupt passages in the received texts, offering elucidations
of the matter, and pouring forth stores of acquired knowledge
regarding the laws, manners, religious and philosophical opinions
of the ancients. Poliziano covered nearly the whole ground of
classical literature during the years of his professorship, and
published the notes of his courses upon Ovid, Suetonius, Statius,
the younger Pliny, Quintilian, and the writers of Augustan
histories. He also imdertook a recension of the text of the
Pandects of Justinian, which formed the subject of one of his
courses; and this recension, though it docs not rank high in the
scale of juristic erudition, gave an impulse to the scholarly
criticism of the Roman code. At the same time he was busy
as a translator from the Greek. His versions of Epictetus,
Herodian, Hippocrates, Galen, Plutarch's Eroticus and Plato's
Charmides delighted contemporaries by a certain limpid fluency
of Latin style and grace of manner which distinguished him also
as an original writer. Of these learned labours the most ant*
versally acc^table to the public of that time were a scries
of disoirsive essays on philology and criticism, first published in
X489 under the title of Miscellanea. They luul an immediate,
a lasting and a wide renown, encouraging the scholars of the next
century and a half to throw their occuional discoveries in the
field of scholarship into a form at once so attractive and so
instructive. Poliziano was not, however, contented with these
simply professorial and scholastic compositiona. Nature had
endk>wed him with literary and poetic gifts of the highest wder.
These he devoted to the conqxisition of Latin and Greek voses*
which count among the best of those produced by men of modern
times in rivalry with ancient autbcns. The Manto, in which he
pronounced a panegyric of Virgil; the Ambra, wlucb contains a
beautiful idylhc sketch of Tusau landscape, and a studied
eulogy of Homer; the RustiaUf wluch celebrated the pleasures
of country life in no frigid or scholastic spirit; and the Nuincia,
which was intended to serve as a general introduction to the
study of ancient and modem poetry — these are the masterpieces
of Poliziano in Latin verse, displaying an authenticity of inspira-
tion, a sincerity of feeling, and a command of metrical resources
which mark them out as original productions of poetic genius
rather than as merely professorial lucubrations. Exception
may be taken to their style, when compared with the best work
of the Augustan or even of the Silver age. But what renders
them always noteworthy to the student of modem humanbtic
literature is that th^ are in no sense imitative or conventional,
but that th^ convey the genuine thoughts and emotions of a
bom poet in Latin diction and in metre moulded to suit the
characteristics of the singer's temperament.
Poliziano was great as a scholar, as a professor, as a critic,
and as a Latin i)oet at an age when the classics were still studkd
with the passion of assimilative curiosity, and not witlhthe sdes-
tific industry of a later period. He was the representative hero
of that age of scholarship in which students drew their ideal ol
life from antiquity and fondly dreanxed that they mi^t so
restore the past as to compete with the classics in producticm and
bequeath a golden age of resuscitated paganism to the modern
world. Yet he was even greater as an Italian poet. Between
Boccaccio and Ariosto, no single poet in the mother tongue
of Italy deserves so high a place as Poliziano. What he might
have achieved in this department of literature had he lived at a
period less preoccupied with humanistic studies, and had he
found a congenial ^here for his activity, can only be guessed.
As it is, we must reckon him as decidedly the foremost and
indubitably the most highly gifted among the Italian poets who
obeyed Lorenzo de' Medici's demand for a resuscitation of the
vulgar literature. Lorenzo led the way himself, and Poliziano
was more a follower in his path than an initiator. Yet what
Poliziano produced, impelled by a courtly wish to satisfy his
patron's whim, proves his own immeasurable superiority as an
artist. His principal Italian works are the stanzas called Is
Ciostraf written upon Giuliano de' Medici's victory in a tourna-
ment; the OrfeOt a lyrical drama performed at Mantua with
musical accompaniment; and a collection of fugitive pieces,
reproducing various forms of Tuscan popular poetry. La
Giostra had no plan, and remained imperfect; but it demoo-
strated thecapacities of the octave stanza for rich, harmonious and
sonorous metrical effect. The Orfeo is a slight piece of work,
thrown off at a heat, yet abounding in unpremeditated lyrical
beauties, and containing in itself the germ both of the pastoral
play and of the opera. The Tuscan songs are distinguished by a
" roseate fluency," an exquisite charm of half romantic, half
humorous abandonment to fancy, which mark them out as
improvisations of genius. It may be added that in aU these
departments of Italian composition Poliziano showed how the
taste and learning of a dassical scholar could be engrafted <a
the stock of the vernacular, and how the highest perfectwn of
artistic form might be attained in Italian without a sacrifice of
native spontaneity and natural flow of language. ^^
It is difficult to comWic in one view the several asp«^
esented to us by thSa^lfnv^ided in«i of Uterary genitts. At
presented
98+
PtaU
POLK, LEOHIDAS (1806-1864), American loldict, mi bom M
Rlldgh, Ngnh Caiolbia, on the lolh ol April 180S, and was a
muiin q1 Janus Knoi Polk, piwidtnl of the Uniled Suto. He
was (ducattd at West Point, but afienraids studied Ittology and
tookordfisin thcPtotatant EixscopolChurchin tSji. IdiSjS
be became tniasionaiy bahop o! the South-Wat, AAaniaa,
Indiin Territory, Louisiaoa, Alabama and Hiasissippi, and in
TS4t he was consecrated bishop of LouiuanL lia wrk ip
the Church was Urgely of an educatlonat kind, and he played a
promineut pan b mavemenu lor tbc esUbUihineat oI lugher
POLK, L.— POLKA
id the
ilioiu in the South. At the outbreak ol the
he resigned his bishopric and, like many oibcr
usters of leligion, enlertd tbc army which was
defend the Coofedeiacy. His rank in ibe hierarchy
tatbei than hb eariy rniUtary education, caused him to be
appointed to the important tank oi major-geneiaL He loni-
Gcd the pan of Colunbui. Kentucky, the foiemosl line oi dtlincc
on the Minisuppi. against which Biigadjei-Gcncia] V. S. Cram
diieded the oSuuve recoimaisuDce ol Behnont in the autumn.
Id the foDowiiig qiiing, the £nt line of deicoce having fallen.
Folk oommaiHlcd a corps al Shiloh in the held aimy csmmandtd
by Albtn Sidney Johnslaa md Beauregard. In October il^:
be *11 pnmutid lieuteuant-genera], and thenceforward ie
cooimuided one of the Ihiee corps of the anny ol Tcr.nesKC
mdet Bragg and alteiwaida ma is charge of the Departrwnt
of Alabama, Misusippl and East Louisiana. He was k]Lle:l in
the fighting in front of Uaiietta, while rHoonoiuing neat P>M
HouBtaia, Geoigia, on tbc 14th ol June 1864.
See Lift, by hia nn W. M. Potk. (i8»).
POLKA (either from the Ciech fiJia, hall, with an aQuiloa
to the short ateps chaiacteristic of the dance, or from the
PoUsh PeOa, feminine of Pdal,. a Pole), a Ii%-cly dance of
Bohemian oiigiii, danctd to music written ia t tiakc ^^ce
Dakce.)
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